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221714	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20Royale%20%28novel%29	Battle Royale (novel)	is the first novel by the Japanese author Koushun Takami. Originally completed in 1996, it was not published until 1999. The story tells of junior high school students who are forced to fight each other to the death in a program run by a fictional, fascist, totalitarian Japanese government known as the Republic of Greater East Asia. The dystopian novel was previously entered into the 1997 Japan Horror Fiction Awards but was eventually rejected in the final round due to concerns over its depictions of students killing each other. Upon publication in 1999, the novel became a surprise bestseller. In 2000, one year after publication, Battle Royale was adapted into a manga series, written by Takami himself, and a feature film. The film was both controversial and successful, becoming one of the year's highest-grossing films as well as prompting condemnation by Japan's National Diet. The film spawned a sequel, and two more brief manga adaptations were also created. Plot Battle Royale takes place in a fictional fascist Japan in the year 1997. The state, known as the , arose after an alternate World War 2 where Japan emerged victorious and a rebellion was put down by the combined military and police forces. The government controls everything, and anything "immoral", such as rock music, is banned, unless it beatifies the government, along with an unnamed dictator with a strong cult of personality able to bend the whims of the populace. The government has established a military program, the , wherein fifty randomly selected classes of third-year junior high school students are kidnapped, dropped into a remote location, and forced to kill one another until only one student of each class remains. Ostensibly, it is to help the government and its military research survival skills and battle readiness – in actuality, it is meant to instill terror and distrust in all of Japan's citizens to curb any attempts at rebellion, by showcasing the government's power and ability to target citizens' families and preying on the fear of being killed by a friend. A group of students from , a junior high school in the fictional Kagawa Prefecture town of Shiroiwa, prepare for a field trip – among them are wannabe rock star Shuya Nanahara, whose father was killed by the regime; Noriko Nakagawa, the demure crush of Shuya's best friend; Shogo Kawada, a quiet, tough young transfer student; and sociopathic prodigy Kazuo Kiriyama. En route, they are gassed – the "field trip" was a ruse for the Program. They awake in a classroom on a small, vacated island, surrounded by troops, and wearing metal collars around their necks. A teacher, psychopathic sadist Kinpatsu Sakamochi, briefs the students: the class has been chosen to participate in the Program. The students are also given a time limit. If twenty-four hours pass without someone being killed, then all of the collars will be detonated simultaneously and there will be no winner. It is mentioned that only 0.5% of Programs end in this fashion. The students are issued survival packs and a random weapon/tool, and sent out onto the island one by one. While most of the students receive guns and knives, some acquire relatively useless items like boomerangs, dartboard darts, or a fork. Hiroki Sugimura finds a radar device that tracks nearby students, and Toshinori Oda receives a bulletproof vest. To make sure the students obey the rules and kill each other, the metal collars around their necks track their positions and will explode if they attempt to remove the collars, or linger in "Forbidden Zones": randomly chosen areas of the map that increase in number over time, re-sculpting and shrinking the battlefield and forcing the students to move around. The collars secretly transmit sound back to the organizers of the game, allowing them to hear the students' conversations, root out escape plans, and log their activities. The students desperately fight amongst each other for survival, with mentally ill bullies Mitsuko Souma and Kiriyama killing many. Shuya takes Noriko under his wing after his best friend is killed, believing that he has a duty to honor his fallen friend by protecting his crush. Shogo – who was in a previous Battle Royale and hopes to put an end to the Program – avoids the fighting, joining with Shuya. Shuya's friend, athlete Shinji Mimura, attempts to hack the system running the Program and bomb the building where Sakamochi and the other personnel overseeing the Program are stationed, but is killed by Kiriyama. Eventually, halfway through the third day, only Shogo, Shuya, Noriko, and Kiriyama remain, with Kiriyama dead set on hunting down the trio. After a frantic car chase, Kiriyama is finally gunned down, but Nanahara and Nakagawa are held at gunpoint by Shogo, who taunts them over being so naive as to trust anyone in the Program. The collars record gunshots and Shuya and Noriko flatlining. Declared the winner by Sakamochi, Shogo is escorted to his transport off the island, surrounded by soldiers. Sakamochi, however, reveals that he knows Nanahara and Nakagawa are alive and that his supposed execution of Noriko and Shuya was a ruse after he found a way to disable their collars, and attempts to kill Shogo. Shogo kills him as a hidden Nanahara and Nakagawa hijack the ship and kill the soldiers on board. As the boat sails towards the mainland, Shogo succumbs to his wounds sustained during the fight with Kiriyama and dies, but not before thanking Shuya and Noriko for being his friends. On the advice of Shogo, Shuya and Noriko escape to the mainland and plan to escape to a democratic America, pursued by the government. Characters Shuya Nanahara – An orphan whose parents were killed for taking part in anti-government activities. Shuya is a self-proclaimed "rock star," listening to and playing rock 'n' roll music in spite of the ban on the genre. After the death of his best friend Yoshitoki Kuninobu, he vows to protect Kuninobu's crush, Noriko Nakagawa, in his stead. Noriko Nakagawa – A quiet, reserved girl who teams up with Nanahara from the beginning and becomes a sort of love interest. She is shot in the leg by a soldier before the Program starts. Shogo Kawada – A transfer student from Kobe that is one year older than the rest of the class and covered in scars. He is a loner and, unbeknownst to his classmates, won the Program the previous year. He teams up with Nanahara and Nakagawa with a plan to escape the island together. Kazuo Kiriyama – The leader of delinquents, who is also the smartest and one of the most athletic students in the class. He's emotionless due to damage suffered in an accident while in utero, leading to a partial lobotomy. He actively takes part in the Program, killing his fellow students remorselessly. Mitsuko Souma – The beautiful leader of a female gang. Having been sexually abused several times as a child, Souma actively takes part in the Program, using her sexuality to kill her male classmates. Kinpatsu Sakamochi – The government official in charge of supervising this year's Program. He is stocky, with long hair reaching his shoulders, and ruthless. Background Origin In the 1990s, Koushun Takami came up with the original story concept for Battle Royale after having a dream. Takami stated in 2009: He came up with the title Battle Royale after discussing his story concept with his friends, who said it sounded like a reimagined pro-wrestling battle royal match. Takami then took an interest in the social aspect of a battle royal match, such as how former enemies work together in order to defeat a stronger foe and particularly how former allies betray each other for their own glory. For the worldbuilding, he was inspired by his upbringing in 1960s Japan, when large groups of revolutionaries fought back against police brutality. His depiction of a totalitarian fascist government was also influenced by his favourite Stephen King novel, The Long Walk (1979), which is about a walking contest organized by a totalitarian government. Publication Takami completed Battle Royale when he stopped working as a journalist in 1996. The story was rejected in the final round of the 1997 , which took place in March 1998, because of its controversial content. Masao Higashi, who took part in the award's preliminary selection committee, later suspected this was due to its backdrop of students killing each other being too reminiscent of the Kobe child murders committed the previous year. Battle Royale was first published in April 1999 by Ohta Publishing. In August 2002, it was released in a revised, two-part bunkobon by Gentosha. Takami describes the characters as possibly all being "kind of alike", being "all the same" despite differing appearances and hobbies, and being static characters. Takami used these descriptions in contrast to the manga adaptation he wrote, with Masayuki Taguchi illustrating, which he believes has a more diverse and well-developed cast. Battle Royale was translated into English by Yuji Oniki and released in North America by Viz Media on February 26, 2003. An expanded edition with a revision of Oniki's translation and an afterword by Takami was published on November 17, 2009 by Haikasoru, a division of Viz Media. This version also included an interview with the director of the book's film adaptation, Kinji Fukasaku. Viz released a new translation by Nathan Collins on April 1, 2014, under the title Battle Royale: Remastered. They also published The Battle Royale Slam Book: Essays on the Cult Classic by Koushun Takami on the same day, which includes essays on the details of the novel and the controversies surrounding it as well as its adaptations written by science-fiction, horror, and thriller authors such as Brian Keene, John Skipp, and Catherynne M. Valente. Adaptations Manga A manga adaptation, written by Takami and illustrated by Masayuki Taguchi, was serialized in Akita Shoten's Young Champion from 2000 to 2005. It was collected into fifteen tankōbon volumes, and published in North America by Tokyopop from 2003 to 2006. A second manga, Battle Royale II: Blitz Royale, ran in Young Champion from 2003 to 2004. Written and illustrated by Hiroshi Tomizawa, it was collected into two tankōbon volumes. In 2011, a two chapter spin-off manga titled Battle Royale: Angels' Border was drawn by Mioko Ohnishi and Youhei Oguma (each drawing one chapter). It focuses on the six girls who holed up in the lighthouse, was published in Young Champion and later combined into one tankōbon volume on January 20, 2012. The single volume was published in North America by Viz Media on June 17, 2014. Feature films Battle Royale was adapted into a 2000 feature film of the same name, directed by Kinji Fukasaku and written by his son Kenta Fukasaku. The film was also controversial and successful, with it being condemned by members of Japan's National Diet on grounds of it being harmful to the youth, yet becoming one of the year's highest-grossing films. It was followed in 2003 by Battle Royale II: Requiem. In June 2006, Variety reported that New Line Cinema, with producers Neal Moritz and Roy Lee, intended to produce a new American film adaptation of Battle Royale. However, New Line never secured remake rights and, following the Virginia Tech shooting in April 2007, Lee stated that prospects for the project had been "seriously shaken." In 2012, Lee stated a remake would no longer be possible due to the release of the film adaptation of The Hunger Games, which has been criticized for its similarities to Battle Royale, stating, "Audiences would see it as just a copy of Games — most of them wouldn't know that Battle Royale came first. It's unfair, but that's reality." However, he stated that he might return to the film in ten years to "develop a Battle Royale movie for the next generation." Theater In 2012, the Sipat Lawin Ensemble and two other college theater groups in the Philippines, made an unofficial loose adaptation of the novel into a live-action performance called Battalia Royale, which had its debut at the Cultural Center of the Philippines. Performances were also held at an abandoned high school in Quezon City. Television On July 26, 2012, the Los Angeles Times reported that The CW Television Network had been in discussions with Hollywood representatives about the possibility of turning Battle Royale into an American television show. According to a spokesperson, the talks were only preliminary, but if a deal could be reached, the network would acquire rights to Koushun Takami's novel, then expand on it for an hourlong dramatic series. Joyce Jun, a Hollywood attorney representing U.S. rights to the title, states that "there is no deal in place." A CW spokesman only confirmed there had been some discussion, declining to comment further. At the Television Critics Association winter press tour on January 13, 2013, CW president Mark Pedowitz stated "At this time, we're not planning to do anything with Battle Royale." He clarified that the reports stemmed from one phone call he made to see if the rights to the book were available and also noted that his interest in the novel predated the 2012 Aurora, Colorado shooting and the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting. Reception Upon publication in 1999, Battle Royale became a best-seller in Japan. The original Japanese novel sold more than 1million copies, before being translated into nearly a dozen languages. The novel was entered into the 1997 Japan Horror Fiction Awards, but was eventually rejected in the final round with no winner that year. All three members of the final round's selection committee that year admitted Battle Royale was the best work, but declined to award it due to its controversial content. Hiroshi Aramata said that while it was the best nominee in terms of "story, structure, and subject matter," he felt it was too much of a Kinpachi-sensei parody and suspected its content would cause problems. Katsuhiko Takahashi felt that although it was the superior work as far as its construction as a novel, giving the award to a story about students killing each other at "this time" would hurt the reputation of the competition. Mariko Hayashi said that while she believed it was the best of the four novels, it was like reading an "unpleasant near-future manga" and "No matter how squarely it might be horror or how interesting it might be, I'm not so sure we should be writing stories like this." In 2001, Kōji Ōnuma wrote , a dissertation that explores the themes of the book. Battle Royale has been critically acclaimed abroad. In Entertainment Weekly, writer Stephen King included it as one of the seven books in his 2005 summer reading list, after it was recommended to him by novelist Kelly Braffet (writer of Josie and Jack). King described Battle Royale as "an insanely entertaining pulp riff that combines Survivor with World Wrestling Entertainment. Or maybe Royale is just insane." He also notes that it has some similarities to his own novel The Long Walk. He concludes the brief review with a "No prob," as "Takami's Springsteen-quoting teenagers are fond of saying." David N. Alderman, writing for the Red Room site, gave Battle Royale a score of 4½ out of 5 stars, stating that the "story itself is brilliant. Touted as being extremely controversial, especially for the time it was released, the book opens up all sorts of doors to conversations and thoughts about psychology, murder, survival, love, loyalty, and moral ground." While noting that those who "cringe at slash and hack" should "steer away from this" since "it is a bit gory," he states that it is "definitely worth the read" and concludes that it has "touches of romance, and definitely some great moral themes to spark off in-depth conversations with others." Complete Review gave the novel a B rating, describing it as "a perfectly fine thriller, with a fun premise, quite well drawn-out." In The Journal of the Lincoln Heights Literary Society, Tom Good praises the novel, concluding that, as "a pulp-fiction horror tale, Battle Royale delivers plenty of thrills, action, suspense and fun." Legacy Since its release, the novel and its film adaptation have had an influence on later works. These include filmmakers such as Quentin Tarantino, most notably his Kill Bill films; the character Gogo Yubari, played by Chiaki Kuriyama, is similar to the character she plays in the Battle Royale film, Takako Chigusa. V.A. Musetto of the New York Post also compared it to The Condemned, which the critic called "a bad rip-off" of Battle Royale as well as The Most Dangerous Game. Critics have also noted the influence of Battle Royale on other later works, such as the 2008 film Kill Theory, the 2009 film The Tournament, and the 2016 film The Belko Experiment, and have noted similarities with the novel and film franchise The Hunger Games. The manga, anime and film franchise Gantz and the 2007 video game The World Ends with You have both been compared to Battle Royale. The 2008 American young adult novel The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins has been accused of being strikingly similar to Battle Royale in terms of the basic plot premise. While Collins maintains that she "had never heard of that book until her book was turned in", Susan Dominus of The New York Times reports that "the parallels are striking enough that Collins's work has been savaged on the blogosphere as a baldfaced ripoff," but argued that "there are enough possible sources for the plot line that the two authors might well have hit on the same basic setup independently." The general consensus in the time since has been one of amicable controversy, especially since the release of The Hunger Games film adaptation. Battle Royale author Takami said he appreciated fans "standing up" for his book, but stated that he thinks "every novel has something to offer," and that if "readers find value in either book, that's all an author can ask for." The 2012 comic Avengers Arena has a similar plot to Battle Royale. Additionally, the cover of its first issue bears a homage to the Battle Royale film poster; featuring the main characters posed in the same manner and a similarly designed logo. The novel and especially its film adaptation have been influential in global popular culture, inspiring numerous works of fiction in a number of different media, particularly in East Asia and the Western world. Since the film's release, the term "battle royale" has been used to refer to a fictional narrative genre and/or mode of entertainment inspired by the film, where a select group of people are instructed to kill each off until there is a triumphant survivor. The "battle royale" phenomenon has become especially popular in the 2010s. A video game genre with the same name became popular in the 2010s, with games such as PlayerUnknown's Battlegrounds, Fortnite Battle Royale, and Apex Legends setting player-count records. Other works focused on the doubt and mistrust among a group of people in a "murder game", such as the Saw film series, The Cube, and games in the Danganronpa series. In 2021, Squid Game creator Hwang Dong-hyuk cited Battle Royale, particularly the manga version, as an inspiration behind the hit Netflix show. See also The Most Dangerous Game, a 1924 short story about a big game hunter who is hunted down by another hunter on an isolated island Lord of the Flies, a 1954 survival novel with a similar settings The Long Walk, a 1979 dystopian novel about contest The Hunger Games, a 2008 dystopian novel with a similar premise References 1999 Japanese novels Battle royale Dystopian novels Japanese horror novels Japanese novels adapted into films Japanese novels adapted into plays Novels set in Kagawa Prefecture Anti-fascist books Obscenity controversies in literature 1999 debut novels Viz Media novels 1999 science fiction novels	[ -0.41793325543403625, -0.029625479131937027, -0.2940029203891754, -0.3584730923175812, -0.018563898280262947, 0.2400217205286026, 0.43381038308143616, -0.45199689269065857, 0.1960015445947647, -0.39284616708755493, -0.5156692862510681, 0.42020124197006226, -0.0018450857605785131, -0.5081474184989929, 0.2727455794811249, 0.5263786911964417, -0.03517960384488106, 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221715	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8%20mm	8 mm	8 mm or 8mm may refer to: Film technology 8 mm film, a photographic cine film format principally intended for domestic use. The term may also refer to later variants: Super 8 mm film Single-8 film 8 mm video format, a type of video recorder and tape that is primarily used in camcorders, including Video 8 and Hi 8 Digital8 video tape format Firearms 8 mm caliber, ammunition with bullet in the 8 mm (.315 in) caliber range 7.92×57mm Mauser "8 mm Mauser cartridge" – a rifle cartridge originating in Germany (though not designed by the Mauser company) Other uses 8mm (band), pop-rock band from Los Angeles, California 8mm (film), about a private detective trying to verify the authenticity of a snuff film	[ 0.5358762145042419, -0.03926801681518555, 0.09125661104917526, 0.01764744706451893, 0.12822741270065308, 0.27171608805656433, -0.2635669410228729, 0.27471446990966797, -0.780180811882019, 0.26550281047821045, -0.37333202362060547, 0.36987194418907166, -0.38228437304496765, 0.3978671729564667, 0.5040006041526794, 0.21127265691757202, 0.503630518913269, 0.21071089804172516, 0.2790980637073517, 0.24769814312458038, 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221720	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct-to-video	Direct-to-video	Direct-to-video or straight-to-video refers to the release of a film, TV series, short or special to the public immediately on home video formats rather than a theatrical release or television broadcast. This distribution strategy was prevalent before the streaming platforms came to dominate the TV and movie distribution markets. Because inferior sequels or prequels of larger-budget films may be released direct-to-video, review references to direct-to-video releases are often pejorative. Direct-to-video release has also become profitable for independent filmmakers and smaller companies. Some direct-to-video genre films (with a high-profile star) can generate well in excess of $50 million revenue worldwide. Reasons for releasing direct to video A production studio may decide not to generally release a TV show or film for several possible reasons: a low budget, a lack of support from a TV network, negative reviews, its controversial nature, that it may appeal to a small niche market, or a simple lack of general public interest. Studios, limited in the annual number of films to which they grant cinematic releases, may choose to pull the completed film from the theaters, or never exhibit it in theaters at all. Studios then generate revenue through video sales and rentals. Direct-to-video films are marketed mostly through colorful box covers, instead of advertising, and are not covered by publications like Leonard Maltin's Movie Guide. Direct-to-video releases have historically carried a stigma of lower technical or artistic quality than theatrical releases. Some films released direct-to-video are films which have been completed but were never released in movie theaters. This delay often occurs when a studio doubts a film's commercial prospects justify a full cinema release, or because its release window has closed. In film industry slang, such films are referred to as having been "vaulted". Like B-movies shown in drive-in theaters in the mid-20th century, direct-to-video films employ both former stars and young actors who may become stars later. Direct-to-video releases can be done for films which cannot be shown theatrically due to controversial content, or because the cost involved in a theatrical release is beyond the releasing company. Animated sequels and feature-length episodes of animated series are also often released in this fashion. The practice of creating and releasing regular fiction specifically for video didn't really take off until 1994 with Disney's The Return of Jafar and Universal's The Land Before Time II: The Great Valley Adventure, neither of which was intended to hit theaters at any point in its production. By 1994 an average of six new direct-to-video films appeared each week. Erotic thrillers and R-rated action films were the two most successful genres. Family films became more important than such genres later in the 1990s, as retailers stocked more copies of blockbuster films instead of more titles. According to the Los Angeles Times: Some horror films that are unsuccessful in theaters, like Witchcraft, begin successful direct-to-video series. Studios may also release sequels or spin-offs to a successful live action film straight to DVD, due to a lack of budget in comparison to the original. Pornography During the Golden Age of Porn in the 1970s, many pornographic films were released in theatres, some of which became some of the highest-grossing films in their release years, and in the pornography industry altogether. Toward the 1980s, porn began to shift to video release, because video allowed the producers to work on extremely low budgets and dispense with some film production elements, like scripts, and the increased privacy and convenience of the format change were preferred by the target market. During the late 1990s and onward, pornographers began releasing content through paysites on the Internet. Physical format releases Direct-to-video films screened theatrically Occasionally, a studio that makes a movie that was prepared as a direct-to-video film will release it theatrically at the last minute due to the success of another film with a similar subject matter or an ultimate studio decision. Batman: Mask of the Phantasm is an example of this. However, despite the movie's critically acclaimed success, its box-office performance was very poor, which has been attributed to its last minute decision to be released theatrically. The film had much better commercial success in its subsequent home video releases. Other times, a direct-to-video movie may get a limited theatrical screening in order to build excitement for the actual release of the video such as was done for 2010's Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths, and Planet Hulk, 2016's Batman: The Killing Joke or 2013's Sharknado. Direct-to-disc or "DVD Premiere" As DVDs gradually replaced VHS videocassettes, the term "direct-to-DVD" replaced "direct-to-video" in some instances. However, the word "video" does not necessarily refer to videocassettes. Many publications continue to use the term "direct-to-video" for DVDs or Blu-rays. Both disc-based release types may also be referred to as "direct-to-disc". A new term sometimes used is "DVD premiere" (DVDP). Such films can cost as little as $20 million, about a third of the average cost of a Hollywood release. According to Variety, American Pie: Band Camp sold a million copies in one week, despite retaining only two actors from the original trilogy. Some direct-to-DVD releases recently have tended to feature actors who were formerly bankable stars. In 2005, salaries for some of these direct-to-DVD actors in the multimillion-dollar range from $2 to $4 million (Jean-Claude Van Damme) and $4.5 to $10 million (Steven Seagal), in some cases exceeding the actors' theatrical rates. Digital releases With the increasing prominence of digital distribution platforms in the 2000s and 2010s, direct-to-digital releases began to emerge alongside, or in lieu of home video. In November 2007, Ed Burns' Purple Violets became the first film to "premiere" exclusively for sale on iTunes Store, being exclusive to the platform for a month. It had premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival in April, where it was reviewed positively, but only received modest distribution offers. At the time, it was not very common for consumers to make digital movie purchases. As part of a push by the service towards original content, the subscription video on demand service Netflix began to acquire feature films for distribution on its service in the 2010s, including the 2013 documentary The Square, and its first feature film in 2015 — Beasts of No Nation. Netflix pursued a simultaneous release strategy for its films, partnering with a distributor for a limited theatrical release (in order to maintain eligibility for awards requiring theatrical release, such as the Academy Awards) simultaneous with their availability to subscribers. As this practice violates the traditional release windows mandated by the cinema industry, major chains have typically declined to screen the films. Since 2018, Netflix has partially backpedaled from this strategy, giving its films a one-month theatrical run before their premiere on the Netflix service. Unique circumstances have also resulted in direct-to-digital releases, sometimes alongside a limited theatrical release; the 2014 film The Interview was released simultaneously on digital and at selected cinemas, after major chains dropped the film due to terrorist threats by a hacking group believed to have ties to North Korea (whose regime is satirized in the film). The group had also leaked confidential data from the internal servers of the film's distributor, Sony Pictures. The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in worldwide closures of cinemas due to economic restrictions and guidance against public gatherings, which prompted direct-to-digital releases for several major films; the Chinese film Lost in Russia was acquired by ByteDance for 630 million yuan (almost 100 million in US dollars) and streamed on its platforms (including TikTok) for free in lieu of a theatrical release, as part of a larger relationship with the company and the film's distributor Huanxi Media. A number of U.S. films were shifted directly to video-on-demand rentals in lieu of a theatrical release, while some have been sold directly to subscription services, including Disney+, HBO Max, Netflix, and Amazon Prime Video. OVA and V-Cinema in Japan OV ("original video") are movies made for direct-to-video release in the Japanese market. OVA ("original video animation") is distinguished from OVM ("original video movies") or V-Cinema, which usually refer to non-animated works. Different production studios may use other labels like "V drama". The OVA market developed in the mid-1980s. The lax restrictions and censorship in comparison to broadcast television appealed to filmmakers, allowing them to include more controversial content, as the films did not need to rely on sponsored advertisements for financial support. The result was animated films with greater sexual, violent, or political content. The market continued to expand during the Japanese asset price bubble and began to decline with the collapse of the bubble in the late 1980s and early 1990s. With the rise of VHS home video and the decline of the Japanese economy in the late 1980s, film studios struggled to recoup investments on big-budget films. Inspired by the success of OVAs, Toei released its first V-Cinema, Crime Hunter, in March 1989. Following Toei's success, other studios began to release a slue of direct-to-video movies. Relaxed censorship in V-Cinema gave way to the premier and rise of expressive auteur directors such as Takashi Miike, Hideo Nakata, Shinji Aoyama, and Kiyoshi Kurosawa. As the release of these titles were outside of usual distribution, studios and directors worked quickly to capitalize on niche markets or upcoming and current trends to increase financial returns. This period of history in Japanese cinema has been described by film journalist Tom Mes as "a far more diverse and vibrant film scene [than previous eras]". By 1995, the V-cinema industry was in decline, but the explosion in quantity and variety of such movies established and cemented genres like J-horror and yakuza films. The success of OVAs and V-Cinema has resulted in less stigma regarding direct-to-video releases in Japan than in western markets. While there are still OVA and V-Cinema releases, the market is considerably smaller than it was in the 1980s and 1990s. "Online Big Movies" in China In the mid-to-late 2010s, low-budget B-movies that are made exclusively for digital streaming became a trend in China; these films are called "Online Big Movies" ("OBM"; 网络大电影 in Chinese, or simply 网大). The word "Big" in the name was meant to be sardonic, as most of these films are often made on a very low budget and featuring mostly unknown cast members and sometimes nonprofessional actors. However, increasingly, the budget for these films have been slowly climbing up, due to the success of these films on digital distribution platforms; the budget for these films can now range from less than 1 million yuan to upwards of 10 or 20 million yuan. Although these "Online Big Movies" rarely features well-known actors, in recent years, many "Online Big Movies" have hired veteran actors from Hong Kong action cinema and Taiwanese cinema to join its cast. These movies are also to be differentiated from films that are made for theatrical release but were later acquired by digital streaming services, in that these "Online Big Movies" are produced by internet companies with the sole intent of digital release. In additional to the digital distribution of these films in China, many of the "Online Big Movies" have also been released on digital platforms outside of China, such as on YouTube. Several YouTube channels, such as Q1Q2 Movie Channel Official and YOUKU MOVIE are popular channels that distributes these "Online Big Movies". See also B movie First run (filmmaking) First-run syndication Home video Television film Video on demand References Further reading Home video Television terminology Film and video technology	[ 1.0913437604904175, -0.14492477476596832, 0.11219608783721924, 0.5757111310958862, -0.13897451758384705, -0.2773069441318512, -0.4416840374469757, 0.5006519556045532, -0.2951219081878662, -0.1099211573600769, -0.860243558883667, 0.3888746201992035, -0.10053607076406479, 0.23667258024215698, 0.1031997874379158, -0.20265227556228638, 0.12949618697166443, 0.23453187942504883, 0.21099212765693665, -0.34018629789352417, -0.5571621656417847, -0.3237849175930023, -0.08323324471712112, -0.3697965145111084, -0.31356626749038696, -0.32851317524909973, 0.25774943828582764, 0.090757355093956, -0.5250664353370667, -0.5729338526725769, 0.5731756687164307, -0.4987333118915558, -0.09875859320163727, -0.027548497542738914, -0.19890286028385162, 0.03729801997542381, -0.35756269097328186, -0.18636611104011536, 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221722	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard%20score	Standard score	In statistics, the standard score is the number of standard deviations by which the value of a raw score (i.e., an observed value or data point) is above or below the mean value of what is being observed or measured. Raw scores above the mean have positive standard scores, while those below the mean have negative standard scores. It is calculated by subtracting the population mean from an individual raw score and then dividing the difference by the population standard deviation. This process of converting a raw score into a standard score is called standardizing or normalizing (however, "normalizing" can refer to many types of ratios; see normalization for more). Standard scores are most commonly called z-scores; the two terms may be used interchangeably, as they are in this article. Other equivalent terms in use include z-values, normal scores, standardized variables and pull in high energy physics. Computing a z-score requires knowledge of the mean and standard deviation of the complete population to which a data point belongs; if one only has a sample of observations from the population, then the analogous computation using the sample mean and sample standard deviation yields the t-statistic. Calculation If the population mean and population standard deviation are known, a raw score x is converted into a standard score by where: μ is the mean of the population, σ is the standard deviation of the population. The absolute value of z represents the distance between that raw score x and the population mean in units of the standard deviation. z is negative when the raw score is below the mean, positive when above. Calculating z using this formula requires use of the population mean and the population standard deviation, not the sample mean or sample deviation. However, knowing the true mean and standard deviation of a population is often an unrealistic expectation, except in cases such as standardized testing, where the entire population is measured. When the population mean and the population standard deviation are unknown, the standard score may be estimated by using the sample mean and sample standard deviation as estimates of the population values. In these cases, the z-score is given by where: is the mean of the sample, S is the standard deviation of the sample. Though it should always be stated, the distinction between use of the population and sample statistics is not made. In either case, the numerator and denominator of the equations have the same units of measure so that the units cancel out through division and z is left as a dimensionless quantity. Applications Z-test The z-score is often used in the z-test in standardized testing – the analog of the Student's t-test for a population whose parameters are known, rather than estimated. As it is very unusual to know the entire population, the t-test is much more widely used. Prediction intervals The standard score can be used in the calculation of prediction intervals. A prediction interval [L,U], consisting of a lower endpoint designated L and an upper endpoint designated U, is an interval such that a future observation X will lie in the interval with high probability , i.e. For the standard score Z of X it gives: By determining the quantile z such that it follows: Process control In process control applications, the Z value provides an assessment of the degree to which a process is operating off-target. Comparison of scores measured on different scales: ACT and SAT When scores are measured on different scales, they may be converted to z-scores to aid comparison. Dietz et al. give the following example comparing student scores on the (old) SAT and ACT high school tests. The table shows the mean and standard deviation for total score on the SAT and ACT. Suppose that student A scored 1800 on the SAT, and student B scored 24 on the ACT. Which student performed better relative to other test-takers? The z-score for student A is The z-score for student B is Because student A has a higher z-score than student B, student A performed better compared to other test-takers than did student B. Percentage of observations below a z-score Continuing the example of ACT and SAT scores, if it can be further assumed that both ACT and SAT scores are normally distributed (which is approximately correct), then the z-scores may be used to calculate the percentage of test-takers who received lower scores than students A and B. Cluster analysis and multidimensional scaling "For some multivariate techniques such as multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis, the concept of distance between the units in the data is often of considerable interest and importance… When the variables in a multivariate data set are on different scales, it makes more sense to calculate the distances after some form of standardization." Principal components analysis In principal components analysis, "Variables measured on different scales or on a common scale with widely differing ranges are often standardized." Relative importance of variables in multiple regression: Standardized regression coefficients Standardization of variables prior to multiple regression analysis is sometimes used as an aid to interpretation. (page 95) state the following. "The standardized regression slope is the slope in the regression equation if X and Y are standardized… Standardization of X and Y is done by subtracting the respective means from each set of observations and dividing by the respective standard deviations… In multiple regression, where several X variables are used, the standardized regression coefficients quantify the relative contribution of each X variable." However, Kutner et al. (p 278) give the following caveat: "… one must be cautious about interpreting any regression coefficients, whether standardized or not. The reason is that when the predictor variables are correlated among themselves, … the regression coefficients are affected by the other predictor variables in the model … The magnitudes of the standardized regression coefficients are affected not only by the presence of correlations among the predictor variables but also by the spacings of the observations on each of these variables. Sometimes these spacings may be quite arbitrary. Hence, it is ordinarily not wise to interpret the magnitudes of standardized regression coefficients as reflecting the comparative importance of the predictor variables." Standardizing in mathematical statistics In mathematical statistics, a random variable X is standardized by subtracting its expected value and dividing the difference by its standard deviation If the random variable under consideration is the sample mean of a random sample of X: then the standardized version is T-score In educational assessment, T-score is a standard score Z shifted and scaled to have a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10. In bone density measurements, the T-score is the standard score of the measurement compared to the population of healthy 30-year-old adults. See also Normalization (statistics) Omega ratio Standard normal deviate References Further reading External links Interactive Flash on the z-scores and the probabilities of the normal curve by Jim Reed Statistical ratios	[ 0.2098197042942047, 0.04173624515533447, 0.0713994950056076, 0.6081106066703796, 0.09869252145290375, -0.011188597418367863, 0.44437718391418457, -0.1261228621006012, 0.03965850546956062, -0.2119167000055313, -0.12056440114974976, 0.494902104139328, 0.1724681407213211, 0.30216357111930847, 0.012620843015611172, 0.47861209511756897, 0.2024095207452774, 0.09476496279239655, 0.24911701679229736, -0.21407586336135864, -0.1732545793056488, 0.2254100888967514, 0.4563917815685272, -0.8431846499443054, 0.24027009308338165, -0.1222400814294815, 0.005242913495749235, 0.14488299190998077, -0.32448506355285645, 0.23450206220149994, 0.024395890533924103, 0.9271399974822998, -0.17099937796592712, 0.0075193773955106735, -0.04493293911218643, 0.011670639738440514, 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221723	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20Ziering	Ian Ziering	Ian Andrew Ziering (; born March 30, 1964) is an American actor and voice actor best known for his role as Steve Sanders on the television series Beverly Hills, 90210, which he played from 1990 to 2000. He is also the voice of Vinnie on Biker Mice from Mars. From 2013 to 2018, he starred as Fin Shepard in the Sharknado film series. In 2019, he played the DC Comics character Blue Devil on the series Swamp Thing. Early life Ian Ziering was born in Newark, New Jersey, the youngest of three boys for Muriel (1925-1998) and Paul M. Ziering (1921-2008), an educator, orchestra leader and saxophonist. He grew up in West Orange, New Jersey and has two older brothers, Jeff and Barry. Ziering is Jewish (his family is from Russia and Austria). He graduated from West Orange High School in 1982, and from William Paterson University in 1988. Career In 1990, Ziering began his portrayal of the character Steve Sanders on the hit series Beverly Hills, 90210. Sanders was a high school student and friend of Brandon Walsh (Jason Priestly), one of the series' other central characters. He is one of only four series regulars to appear on the show for its entire duration of ten seasons until 2000. In 1998, Ziering was cast as the voice of Dr. Niko "Nick" Tatopoulos in Godzilla: The Series, which was a direct follow-up to the 1998 Hollywood Godzilla re-imagining. Ziering replaced Matthew Broderick, who played Nick Tatopolous in the movie. In 2006, Ziering produced, directed and starred in the short film Man vs. Monday, which won the Audience Choice Award at the 2006 Fort Lauderdale International Film Festival. Also in 2006, he won the Best Actor Award at the 2006 Monaco Film Festival for his portrayal of Francis in the independent film Stripped Down. Ziering has also appeared in the television series JAG, What I Like About You, The Doctors as Erich Aldrich and Guiding Light as Cameron Stewart. He also had a role in the videogame Freelancer as the protagonist, Edison Trent. He was a celebrity dancer in 2007 on Season 4 of Dancing with the Stars. His professional dance partner was Cheryl Burke, who won the competition in Season 2 with partner Drew Lachey and Season 3 with partner Emmitt Smith. Ziering made it to the semi-finals, and received a perfect score (three 10s) from the judges for one of his two dances in the round. However, it was not enough to reach the finals: he and Burke were eliminated during the results show the next day on May 15, 2007. In 2016 Burke said the experience of working with Ziering made her want to "slit her wrists". She later apologized, not to Ziering, but for making a thoughtless reference to suicide. Ziering did not comment publicly on Burke's comments beyond re-tweeting a message from a former co-worker that praised him as a great person to be around. On June 18, 2007, Variety reported that Ziering had auditioned the previous week for the opportunity to succeed Bob Barker as host of The Price Is Right. The job ultimately went to Drew Carey. Ziering's ex-wife, Nikki, was a model on the show from 1999 to 2002. In May, 2013, it was announced that Ziering would be performing with Chippendales as a celebrity guest star for four weeks at the Rio All Suite Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas. In 2015, he appeared on Celebrity Apprentice on NBC. In 2018, he competed on Worst Cooks in America: Celebrity Edition. In 2019, he was cast to play the superhero, Blue Devil, on the show Swamp Thing, in the DC Universe streaming service. The show ran for only one season, though it was positively received by critics and audience. Personal life Ziering married Playboy model Nikki Schieler in July 1997. They filed for divorce in February 2002, citing irreconcilable differences. Nikki has said that the separation was contentious, and that she was not given any support or help moving out. On February 3, 2010, Ziering announced his engagement to Erin Ludwig. The couple married at a ceremony in Newport Beach, California, on May 28, 2010. They have two daughters, Mia Loren (born April 25, 2011) and Penna Mae (born April 25, 2013). On October 31, 2019, Ziering announced that the couple had separated. Filmography Film Television Video Games Dancing with the Stars season 4 References External links 1964 births Living people 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American male actors American male soap opera actors American male television actors American male voice actors American people of Austrian-Jewish descent American people of Russian-Jewish descent Jewish American male actors Participants in American reality television series Male actors from Newark, New Jersey People from West Orange, New Jersey West Orange High School (New Jersey) alumni The Apprentice (franchise) contestants William Paterson University alumni 21st-century American Jews	[ -0.36248329281806946, 0.08966978639364243, 0.38958102464675903, -0.15332330763339996, 0.7962189316749573, 0.8704167008399963, -0.06659583002328873, 0.5612710118293762, -0.5104432702064514, -0.290942519903183, 0.06030850112438202, 0.5131009221076965, 0.2527914345264435, -0.08560776710510254, -0.5153487324714661, 0.6181827783584595, 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221724	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental%20justice	Fundamental justice	In Canadian and New Zealand law, fundamental justice is the fairness underlying the administration of justice and its operation. The principles of fundamental justice are specific legal principles that command "significant societal consensus" as "fundamental to the way in which the legal system ought fairly to operate", per R v Malmo-Levine. These principles may stipulate basic procedural rights afforded to anyone facing an adjudicative process or procedure that affects fundamental rights and freedoms, and certain substantive standards related to the rule of law that regulate the actions of the state (e.g., the rule against unclear or vague laws). The degree of protection dictated by these standards and procedural rights vary in accordance with the precise context, involving a contextual analysis of the affected person's interests. In other words, the more a person's rights or interests are adversely affected, the more procedural or substantive protections must be afforded to that person in order to respect the principles of fundamental justice. A legislative or administrative framework that respects the principles of fundamental justice, as such, must be fundamentally fair to the person affected, but does not necessarily have to strike the "right balance" between individual and societal interests in general. The term is used in the Canadian Bill of Rights and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and also the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990. Fundamental justice, although closely associated with, is not to be confused with the concepts of due process, natural justice, and Wednesbury unreasonableness. Canadian Bill of Rights In written law, the term fundamental justice can be traced back at least to 1960, when the Canadian Bill of Rights was brought into force by the Diefenbaker government. Specifically, section 2(e) of the Canadian Bill of Rights stated that everyone has "the right to a fair hearing in accordance with the principles of fundamental justice for the determination of his rights and obligations." According to the legal scholar Walter Tarnopolsky, the wording of the clause sparked some controversy among those drafting the Bill. Some wanted the words "natural justice" in the place of "fundamental justice," as "natural justice" was indeed a more common phrase with judges and authors. "Fundamental justice" was a more obscure alternative with these figures (other such alternatives include "universal justice"). Still, "fundamental justice" was chosen, and in the case Duke v. The Queen (1972), it was ruled that fundamental justice was, for the purposes of this case, merely equivalent to natural justice. The author, Chief Justice Fauteux, did say that he was not trying "to formulate any final definition." Unlike the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which was added to the Constitution of Canada in 1982, the Bill of Rights is not a constitutional instrument but rather an ordinary statute. Still, the Canadian Bill of Rights remains in effect, and its guarantee of the "determination" of one's "rights and obligations" through fundamental justice is not precisely duplicated in the Charter. While the term "fundamental justice" does appear in section 7 of the Charter, this is to limit the rights to life, liberty and security of the person. Hence, in the 1985 Supreme Court of Canada case Singh v. Minister of Employment and Immigration, half of the Court found section 2(e) of the Bill of Rights still has a role to play in Canadian law, and they used it to find in favour of the rights claimants. Justice Jean Beetz, writing for this half of the Court, noted that section 26 of the Charter states that rights outside the Charter are not invalid, and hence the Bill of Rights still has a role to play in Canadian law. Beetz went on to find that in this case, refugees had been denied hearings, and thus their section 2(e) and fundamental justice rights were infringed. (The other half of the Court also found in favour of the claimants, but relied instead on section 7 of the Charter). Later that same year, in MacBain v. Lederman, the Federal Court of Appeal used section 2(e) of the Bill of Rights, and not the Charter, to invalidate parts of the Human Rights Code on the grounds that they could insert bias into a process to determine "rights and obligations." Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms Since the Canadian Bill of Rights was an ordinary statute, it was not until 1982 when the term fundamental justice was first constitutionalized. The phrase was included in section 7 of the new Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which asserted that "Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of the person and the right not to be deprived thereof except in accordance with the principles of fundamental justice." To limit the rights to life, liberty and security of the person, the authors of the Charter specifically chose the term "fundamental justice" over "due process" because they believed the term "fundamental justice" would still be interpreted to mean conventional "natural justice". "Due process" was rejected because in the United States, use of that term in the constitution led to judges expanding its meaning (see Lochner era) in ways the Canadian government felt would be undesirable. As constitutional scholar Peter Hogg points out in his book Constitutional Law of Canada, however, the new wording of section 7 removed the context of the "fair hearing" found in the Canadian Bill of Rights, which meant the definition of fundamental justice was now ambiguous and could still be further developed by Canadian courts. This is indeed what happened; since the 1985 Supreme Court decision Re B.C. Motor Vehicle Act, the meaning of the words "fundamental justice" in section 7 has been greatly expanded and encompasses much more than mere procedural rights. Section 24 The term fundamental justice might have some meaning in Charter case law even outside section 7. In the 2003 Charter case Doucet-Boudreau, some Supreme Court justices wished to narrow the scope of the remedial section 24 by citing fundamental justice. In this case, a lower-court judge, after having found the claimants' section 23 rights were violated, used section 24 to demand that the government, while working to repair the infringement of the right, continue to report to him after his ruling. Some Supreme Court justices felt this was an unconstitutional breach of fundamental justice because the judicial order was not clear enough to the government. However, these justices formed the minority of the panel, and the earlier decision was upheld. Section 24.(1) reads: "Anyone whose rights or freedoms, as guaranteed by this Charter, have been infringed or denied may apply to a court of competent jurisdiction to obtain such remedy as the court considers appropriate and just in the circumstances." A judicial dilemma arises, however, when courts acting under the rule of law fail to guarantee access to justice to applicants seeking review of erroneous lower court decisions. The principles of fundamental justice of which s. 7 [of the Charter] speaks, though not identical to the duty of fairness elucidated in Baker infra, are the same principles underlying that duty. As Professor Hogg has said, "The common law rules [of procedural fairness] are in fact basic tenets of the legal system, and they have evolved in response to the same values and objectives as s. 7." In Singh v. Minister of Employment and Immigration, [1985] 1 S.C.R. 177, at pp. 212–13, Wilson J. recognized that the principles of fundamental justice demand, at a minimum, compliance with the common law requirements of procedural fairness. Section 7 protects substantive as well as procedural rights: Re B.C. Motor Vehicle Act, supra. Insofar as procedural rights are concerned, the common law doctrine summarized in Baker infra, properly recognizes the ingredients of fundamental justice. [ Suresh v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), [2002] 1 S.C.R. 3, para. 113; see also: Baker v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), [1999] 2 S.C.R. 817 ]. Access to justice is therefore a democratic safeguard guaranteed by various Charter prerogatives in line with principles of Fundamental Justice which the courts cannot deny for reasons involving budgetary concerns. In Singh supra, at p. 218, Wilson J. speaking for the three members of the Court who addressed the Charter ...doubted that utilitarian consideration[s] ... [could] constitute a justification for a limitation on the rights set out in the Charter (emphasis added). The reason behind Wilson J.’s scepticism was that the guarantees of the Charter would be illusory if they could be ignored because it was administratively convenient to do so. [ Ref re Remuneration of Judges of the Prov. Court of P.E.I.; Ref re Independence and Impartiality of Judges of the Prov. Court of P.E.I., [1997] 3 S.C.R. 3, para. 281 ]. Notes References Hogg, Peter W. Constitutional Law of Canada. 2003 Student Ed. (Scarborough, Ontario: Thomson Canada Limited, 2003). Tarnopolsky, Walter Surma. The Canadian Bill of Rights. (Toronto: The Carswell Company Limited, 1966). Ho, Lok Sang Public Policy and the Public Interest. 2012. (NY: Routledge, 2012). Ho, Lok Sang 1997. Institutional foundations for a just society, Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics (formerly The Journal of Socio-Economics), Elsevier, vol. 26(6), pages 627–643. External links Complete Decision - Re B.C. 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221725	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%20Cherry	Don Cherry	Donald Stewart Cherry (born February 5, 1934) is a Canadian ice hockey commentator and sports writer. He was previously a professional hockey player and National Hockey League (NHL) head coach. Cherry played one game with the Boston Bruins, and later coached the team for five seasons after concluding a successful playing career in the American Hockey League, leading the team to four division titles and two appearances in the Stanley Cup Finals. From 1986 to 2019, Cherry co-hosted Coach's Corner—a segment aired during CBC's Saturday-night NHL broadcast Hockey Night in Canada, with Ron MacLean. Nicknamed Grapes, he is known for his outspoken manner and opinions, and his flamboyant dress. By the 2018–19 NHL season, Cherry and MacLean had hosted Coach's Corner for 33 seasons. From 1984 to 2019, Cherry hosted Grapeline, a short-form radio segment with fellow sportscaster Brian Williams. He created and starred in the direct-to-video series Don Cherry's Rock'Em Sock'em Hockey from 1989 to 2018. In 2004, Cherry was voted by viewers as the seventh-greatest Canadian of all-time in the CBC miniseries The Greatest Canadian. In March 2010, his life was dramatized in a two-part CBC movie, Keep Your Head Up, Kid: The Don Cherry Story, based on a script written by his son, Timothy Cherry. In March 2012, CBC aired a sequel, The Wrath of Grapes: The Don Cherry Story II. Cherry has sometimes proven controversial for making political comments during Coach's Corner, having faced criticism for remarks regarding Canada's lack of support for the 2003 invasion of Iraq, insinuating that only "Europeans and French guys" wore visors on their helmets, and denying climate change. In November 2019, Cherry was fired by Sportsnet from Hockey Night in Canada for his comments implying that Canadian immigrants benefit from the sacrifices of veterans but do not wear Remembrance Day poppies. Early life and family Cherry was born in Kingston, Ontario to Delmar (Del) and Maude Cherry. His paternal grandfather, Sub/Cst. John T. (Jack) Cherry, was an original member of the North-West Mounted Police (now Royal Canadian Mounted Police), and a Great Lakes ship captain. His maternal grandfather, Richard Palamountain, was a British orphan of Cornish parentage who emigrated to Canada as one of the Home Children. The name Palamountain is a corruption of the Cornish language "pol-mun-tyr" meaning "pool by the mineral land". Palamountain was also a veteran of the Canadian Expeditionary Force. Cherry's father Del was an amateur athlete and worked as an electrician with the Canadian Steamship Lines. On the March 15, 2008 edition of Coach's Corner, Cherry wore the green and gold colours of County Kerry, Ireland. In his segment following the game, he claimed ancestry from that region. Cherry's younger brother, Dick Cherry played hockey at various levels, including two seasons in the National Hockey League with the Philadelphia Flyers. In his first year with the Hershey Bears of the American Hockey League, he met his future wife Rosemarie (Rose) Cherry née Madelyn Martini (born 1935 in Hershey, Pennsylvania). Rose was hugely influential in Don's life—because of Don's minor-league hockey lifestyle, they moved 53 times; they rarely had decent housing or furnishings, and Don was often away playing during major events, such as the birth of their daughter and first child, Cindy Cherry. Six years after Cindy's birth, Rose gave birth to son Tim Cherry. When Tim needed a kidney transplant at age 13, Cindy donated one of hers. The two currently live across the street from each other, around the corner from their father, in Mississauga. Rose died of liver cancer on June 1, 1997 and in honour of her perseverance, Don created Rose Cherry's Home for Kids. Her name has motivated Cherry to always wear a rose on his lapel. Cherry contributed in developing Rose Cherry's Home for Kids which has since been renamed to The Darling Home for Kids, in Milton, Ontario. The Hershey Centre in Mississauga, Ontario, is located on "Rose Cherry Place", a street named for his late wife. In 1999, Don married his second wife, Luba. Playing career Cherry played junior hockey with the Barrie Flyers and the Windsor Spitfires in the Ontario Hockey Association. Cherry won the Memorial Cup while playing defence in Barrie in 1953. He dropped out of high school, and in 1954 he signed with the American Hockey League's (AHL) Hershey Bears. Cherry had a long playing career in professional minor hockey, and in 1955 played his only NHL game when the Boston Bruins called him up during the playoffs. According to Cherry, a baseball injury suffered in the off season kept him from making the NHL, despite his almost 20 years playing in the minor leagues. He retired as a player in 1970, but came out of retirement two years later to play 19 final games with the Rochester Americans. Cherry won the Calder Cup championship (AHL) four times—1960 with the Springfield Indians, and 1965, 1966, 1968 with Rochester. He also won the Lester Patrick Cup, the Western Hockey League Championship, with the Vancouver Canucks in 1969. Career statistics Regular season and playoffs Coaching career After the end of the 1968–69 season, his playing career was essentially over. Cherry struggled for a time as a Cadillac salesman and a construction worker. He worked as a house painter earning $2 per hour. In the middle of the 1971–72 season, Cherry became the coach of the American Hockey League's Rochester Americans and won Coach of the Year. The following year, the title of General Manager was added. In his third season behind the bench, Cherry was voted the AHL's "Coach of the Year". Boston Bruins After his three-year stint in Rochester, he was promoted to the NHL as head coach of the Boston Bruins for the 1974–75 season. The Bruins were coming off a successful run of two Stanley Cups and three first-place finishes, but after Cherry's first season as coach the team would see the exit of superstars Bobby Orr and Phil Esposito. Cherry quickly developed a reputation for being an eccentric, flamboyant coach who strongly encouraged physical play among his players. According to Cherry, he molded the Bruins' playing style after that of his dog, Blue, a feisty bull terrier. While the team had been known for Orr and Esposito who were highly skilled scorers, the 1975–76 Bruins started the season in brief slump in part due to Orr's knee injury that saw him play only ten games, plus Orr would become a free agent at the end of the season. Cherry remade the team with enforcers and grinders which became known as the "lunch-pail gang" (or "lunch pail A.C.") and "the Big Bad Bruins", with Esposito and Carol Vadnais being traded to the New York Rangers for Brad Park and Jean Ratelle, as Esposito disagreed with Cherry's coaching including having a disinclination to backcheck. This approach of "balance over brilliance" rejuvenated the Bruins, in particular the careers of Park and Ratelle, as they continued to be one of the NHL's best teams during the latter half of the 1970s, capturing the Adams division title four straight seasons from 1975–76 through 1978–79, with Cherry winning the Jack Adams Award (NHL coach of the year) for the 1975 season. In the 1977–78 season, Cherry coached the Bruins team to an NHL record of 11 players with 20 goals or more on a single team. The Bruins were able to defeat the rough Philadelphia Flyers twice in the playoffs under Cherry's tenure. The Bruins made the Stanley Cup finals twice, both times losing to their arch-rivals, the Montreal Canadiens, in both 1977 and 1978. The late 1970s Canadiens were one of the most dominant teams in the NHL, with three of their eight regular losses in the 1976–77 season coming at the hands of the Bruins. In the 1979 semi-final playoff series against the Canadiens, Cherry's Bruins pushed the series to the limit but they were undone by a late penalty in the seventh game. Up by a goal with less than three minutes left in the seventh game, the Bruins were called for having too many men on the ice, which he blamed on himself, saying later that "The guy couldn't have heard me yell. I grabbed two other guys trying to go over the boards. That would have made eight on the ice." The Canadiens' Guy Lafleur scored the tying goal on the subsequent power play, and ultimately the Canadiens won the game in overtime. Montreal went on to defeat the New York Rangers for their fourth straight Cup title. Cherry, who had an uneasy relationship with Bruins General Manager Harry Sinden, was fired by the Bruins afterward. Colorado Rockies Cherry went on to coach the Colorado Rockies in the 1979-80 season. Under his tenure, the Rockies adopted the motto "Come to the fights and watch a Rockies game break out!" and the slogan could be seen on billboards all over Denver throughout the season. However, as he later admitted, his outspokenness and feuding with Rockies general manager Ray Miron did not endear Cherry to management. While Cherry did much to motivate the players, goaltending was still the team's weakness as Miron refused to replace Hardy Åström, whom Cherry dubbed "The Swedish Sieve". Cherry recalled one game where his players had taken ten shots on goal without scoring, but Åström then conceded a goal from the opponent's first shot and so was yanked from net. In a late-season game in Chicago, the Blackhawks scored the game-winning goal while Mike McEwen, a favorite of the Rockies owners, was on the ice. When McEwen returned to the bench, Cherry grabbed him by the jersey and shook him. McEwen left the team for several days and did not return until after meeting with Miron and the club owners. Cherry's belief, stated later, was that the owners had promised McEwen that Cherry would be fired after the season. The Rockies finished with a league-worst 19-48-13 record, also the worst single-season mark of Cherry's coaching career. He was fired six weeks after the season ended. Other Cherry agreed to become the new head coach of the Saskatoon Blues, Bill Hunter's proposed relocation of the St. Louis Blues to Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. However, the NHL's Board of Governors rejected the move on May 18, 1983, and the Blues eventually remained in St. Louis. Internationally, Cherry was an assistant coach for Team Canada at the 1976 Canada Cup and was head coach for Canada's team at the 1981 World Championships in Gothenburg, Sweden. Cherry was the part-owner and the former coach of the Ontario Hockey League's Mississauga IceDogs. As owner and general manager, he gained notoriety by refusing to take part in the CHL import draft, and by only playing North American-born players. The IceDogs' first three seasons were difficult ones with the team winning a total of 16 games combined. Cherry took over coaching duties in the fourth season. During Cherry's one season as head coach of the IceDogs, the team managed 11 victories (only a slight improvement) and failed to make the playoffs for the fourth straight year. Cherry drew some criticism for his sudden decision to allow European-born players onto the IceDogs line-up during the one season he coached the team. Head coaching record NHL Minor leagues Broadcasting career After the Colorado Rockies failed to qualify for the 1980 Stanley Cup playoffs, Cherry was hired as a studio analyst for CBC's playoff coverage that spring, working alongside host Dave Hodge. CBC hired him full-time in 1981 as a colour commentator, but he didn't last long in that role due to his tendency to openly cheer for one of the teams playing, especially the Boston Bruins or Toronto Maple Leafs. Instead, Coach's Corner was created, a segment that appeared in the first intermission on Hockey Night in Canada, with Dave Hodge. In 1986, Hodge was replaced by Ron MacLean. For several years he also hosted his own half-hour interview show, Don Cherry's Grapevine, which began on Hamilton's CHCH-TV in the 1980s before moving to TSN. His loud, outspoken nature became notorious, and his shows are described as "game analysis, cultural commentary and playful parrying with host Ron MacLean." Cherry also hosted a syndicated weekly television show called Don Cherry's This Week in Hockey during the 1987–88 NHL season. It featured highlights from the previous week's NHL games. The highlight of each show was when Cherry awarded a Black and Decker cordless drill to the player who levied the "hit of the week" (called the "Drill of the Week" in order to tie into the cordless drill giveaway). Cherry's commentary was usually peppered with catchphrases like "All you kids out there...," unrestrained affection for his favourite players (including Steve Yzerman and Kingston native Doug Gilmour, whom Cherry affectionately referred to as "Dougie" and once kissed on-air in a famous TV gag), and overall political incorrectness. Another trademark was his bull terrier Blue, originally a gift from the Bruins players. Cherry tended to frequently focus on a few pieces of advice that he felt strongly about. Virtually every week on Coach's Corner he spent time exhorting the evils of attempting to block a shot using one's hockey stick (arguing that it often causes deflections while impeding the goalie's view of the puck). Two other perennial favourites were the dangers of touch icing (a rule he blamed for the premature end to Pat Peake's career) and the extremely sensitive rules about crease violation during the early 2000s (since relaxed). He was also critical of the two-minute penalty for firing the puck into the crowd from the defensive zone, introduced since the start of the 2005–06 NHL season. He also praised hockey players who show great toughness. Examples of this included when, in the 1999 playoffs, a Phoenix Coyotes winger crawled off the ice after enduring a bone-shattering slap shot from St. Louis Blues defenceman Al MacInnis so that another could take his place. Usually at the end of the NHL season, his send-off words in recent years were about NHL prospects entering the NHL draft. His position was that unless a player is guaranteed to be selected in the first or second rounds, he should not physically attend the draft, reasoning that some players could be disappointed if they are drafted later than expected, or worse, not at all. Cherry returned to the news in May 2004 amid rumours that CBC would terminate his contract for Hockey Night in Canada. However, he re-signed with the network in July. Branching out from his Hockey Night in Canada duties, Cherry began to release a series of videos called Don Cherry's Rock'Em Sock'em Hockey in 1989. The 15th-anniversary video was released in 2003, with a 'Best Of' released in 2005. For the 2007 Stanley Cup Finals, NBC decided to feature Cherry in its intermission coverage, a rare appearance on American television. He was partnered with Bill Clement and Brett Hull and it did not conflict with his usual role on CBC as he appeared on NBC during the second intermission. In May 2008, ESPN announced that Cherry was joining Barry Melrose as a commentator for the remainder of the 2008 NHL Playoffs. He provided pre-game analysis for the conference finals, pre- and post-game analysis for the Stanley Cup finals, and appeared on ESPNews and ESPN Radio. ESPN also announced that he would donate his fees to the Humane Society. From 1984 to 2019, Cherry co-hosted Don Cherry's Grapeline with Brian Williams, first on CFRB radio in Toronto and its sister stations, moving in 1994 to The FAN 590 and the Sportsnet Radio network. At its peak, the show was carried on over 100 stations across Canada and on several stations in the United States. One of his trademarks was the colourful jackets, shirts, and ties he wore during the "Coach's Corner" segment of Hockey Night in Canada. Cherry was criticized for comments targeting specific ethnicities, such as French Canadians and Europeans, and this led to Cherry's broadcasts being put on a seven-second delay by the CBC, in 2004. Opinions on hockey Cherry is a strong advocate of a tough "Canadian" type of hockey which emphasizes physical play and a code of conduct among the players. He believes that fighting is an integral part of the game as it enforces respect between teams and players, as well as being popular with some members of the public. He has long been a champion of hardworking "journeyman" players, whom he identifies with from his own time spent playing in the minor leagues. Cherry's favourite player of all time is Bobby Orr who he says is the greatest player of all time. Other favourites include Doug Gilmour, Vincent Lecavalier, and Cam Neely. Cherry has criticized many players for what he considers dishonourable conduct, but perhaps none more than Ulf Samuelsson and Matt Cooke, whom he considered to be exceptionally dirty players responsible for many severe injuries. Cherry has strongly criticized the direction taken by the National Hockey League in recent years, reducing fighting in favour of speed and skill. Specific rules that he criticizes include touch-up icing and the instigator rule. He also frequently criticized players for elaborate celebrations after goals. In 2003 Cherry made headlines by criticizing then heavily publicized junior prospect Sidney Crosby for being a "hot dog" because of the way Crosby slid around on his knees after scoring. He also disapproved of a tricky behind-the-net goal the young star pulled off when a game was already out of reach for the team he scored on. He commented on the controversy caused by Alexander Ovechkin's celebration after he scored his 50th goal in 2009. Along similar lines, in 2019 he criticized the Carolina Hurricanes for their on-ice victory celebrations, calling them a "bunch of jerks." The Hurricanes adopted "Bunch of Jerks" as a battle cry, even going as far as projecting it on the ice at PNC Arena before and after games. Cherry is a staunch supporter of women's hockey, and sledge hockey. In 1997, the Canadian women's national ice hockey team paid tribute to the late Rose Cherry. Canadian Hockey chairman Bob MacKinnon thanked Cherry stating "The growing popularity of the women's game in our country owes a great deal to Don and Rose Cherry... Don has been a strong supporter of the female game since the early 1980s and continues to speak out in favour of women's hockey. It's a pleasure for me, as chairman of Canadian Hockey, to be a part of this tribute to Rose Cherry, who was a keen supporter of female hockey herself." Political views Over his career on television, Cherry generated significant controversy about both hockey and politics. In 1989, he referred to Finnish-born Winnipeg Jets assistant coach Alpo Suhonen as "some kind of dog food", triggering the threat of a lawsuit from Jets owner Barry Shenkarow. In 2003, Cherry made comments on his CBC segment in support of the 2003 invasion of Iraq. On March 22, 2003, Cherry criticized Montreal fans for booing the American national anthem before a game earlier in the week. The conversation then turned to the war when Ron MacLean said "everybody wants to know what you think". Cherry berated MacLean about being neutral on the war and strongly criticized the Canadian government for failing to support the U.S. in the war. Cherry appeared on the American radio program The Jim Rome Show the following week, stating, "You have to realize the CBC is government owned [...] You have to say the government was against [the invasion of Iraq] and I'm for it and I'm on a government program. I really thought this could be the end." In January 2004, on the subject of visors, Cherry claimed on Coach's Corner that visor users have less respect for player safety and attempted to illustrate his claim by saying : "Most of the guys that wear them are Europeans and French guys". This statement triggered an investigation by the federal Official Languages Commissioner, and protests by French-Canadians. CBC consequently imposed a seven-second delay on Hockey Night in Canada. Later on, a study was published that proved Cherry to be half-right: while 50% of Europeans and 40% of French-Canadians wore visors, compared to 22% of North Americans born outside of Quebec, players who wear visors committed proportionately fewer high-sticking penalties than players who do not. Cherry returned to the Coach's Corner for the 2005–06 NHL season without the seven-second delay. After appearing in the House of Commons of Canada on November 7, 2006, he formally stated his support for Prime Minister Stephen Harper, whom he called "a grinder and a mucker" by saying "I give a thumbs up to Stephen Harper for sure. He supports the troops and I support the troops." On December 7, 2010, Cherry attended an inaugural meeting of Toronto City Council, where he placed the chain of office around incoming Mayor Rob Ford's neck. Cherry was asked to say a few remarks and he opened by stating "I'm wearing pink for all the pinkos out there that ride bicycles and everything, I thought I’d get it in." He then went on to state that he had "been ripped to shreds by the left-wing pinko newspapers out there" and ended saying "And that's why I say he's gonna be the greatest mayor this city has ever, ever seen, as far as I'm concerned! And put that in your pipe, you left-wing kooks." Left-leaning councillors were critical of Cherry's speech, and the following day some of them wore pink clothing in protest, including Joe Mihevc and Ana Bailão, who wore pink scarves while Janet Davis wore a pink suit jacket. Mihevc said, "We all love Don Cherry and his comments and forcefulness in hockey games, but this is council. It’s a political arena where we make it a habit to reach out, talk to others and achieve consensus. To have that kind of, frankly, belligerence and pushing people aside, to start out this way I think is really unfortunate." Councillor Denzil Minnan-Wong defended Cherry though he stated that it was "A little over the top" and that "You take it for what it is and you shrug it off and move forward." Cherry defended his comments by stating "Well, what can I tell you? Don’t invite me. You don't invite a pit bull. If you want a pit bull, you get a pit bull." Later that month, Cherry was a guest of Rob Ford on a trip to visit Canadian troops in Afghanistan conducted by the Government of Canada, where he attended and spoke at a Christmas dinner event. Cherry is a strong supporter of the Canadian Forces, police officers, and veterans. In 2018, Cherry faced backlash after denying the existence of climate change and referred to people who acknowledge climate change as "cuckaloos." Environment Minister Catherine McKenna responded by saying, "For hockey you can turn to Coach's Corner if you want, for climate change, Canadians turn to scientists." Cherry has expressed similar views in the past such as during a 2008 Hockey Night in Canada broadcast when he called environmental activist David Suzuki a "left-wing kook." Removal from Hockey Night in Canada On November 9, 2019, during Coach's Corner, Cherry made remarks implying that Canadian immigrants benefit from the sacrifices of veterans and do not wear remembrance poppies. He said, "You people that come here... you love our way of life, you love our milk and honey, at least you can pay a couple bucks for a poppy or something like that... These guys paid for your way of life that you enjoy in Canada, these guys paid the biggest price." The distributor of those poppies in Canada, The Royal Canadian Legion, officially denounced those statements saying, "Mr. Cherry’s personal opinion was hurtful, divisive and in no way condoned by the Legion." Sportsnet apologized for the remarks, stating that his comments were discriminatory and offensive, and that they "do not represent our values and what we stand for as a network." His co-host, Ron MacLean, also apologized via Twitter, expressing regret for his actions and for allowing Cherry to make the comments. The NHL subsequently released a statement on Cherry's comments saying "the comments made last night were offensive and contrary to the values we believe in." Cherry later told the Toronto Sun that he would not apologize for his comments, stating, "I have had my say." On November 10th, MacLean appeared on air for the first time following the incident and opened Rogers Hometown Hockey's broadcast with an apology: "Don Cherry made remarks which were hurtful, discriminatory, which were flat out wrong. We at Sportsnet have apologized. It certainly doesn't stand for what Sportsnet or Rogers represents. We know diversity is the strength of the country. We see it in travels with our show (Hometown Hockey) and with Hockey Night in Canada. I owe you an apology, too: that's the big thing I want to emphasize. I sat there, did not catch it, did not respond." The Canadian Broadcast Standards Council (CBSC) stated that its internal systems had been overloaded by a high number of complaints. Two days later, on November 11, Sportsnet president Bart Yabsley announced that Cherry had been fired: "Following further discussions with Don Cherry after Saturday night's broadcast, it has been decided it is the right time for him to immediately step down." Speaking to the Toronto Sun, Cherry commented, "I know what I said and I meant it. Everybody in Canada should wear a poppy to honour our fallen soldiers... I would have liked to continue doing Coach's Corner. The problem is if I have to watch everything I say, it isn't Coach's Corner." He later said that if he had to do it again, he would have said "everybody". On November 16, 2019, MacLean addressed and reflected on the incident during Hockey Night in Canada, the first without Cherry, also announcing the end of Coach's Corner. Former Boston Bruins defenceman Bobby Orr defended Cherry, calling his firing "disgraceful". Colorado Avalanche forward Nazem Kadri said "People maybe took it out of context a little bit. I know Grapes is a great person and am sad to see him go." On November 19, 2019, Cherry released his first installment of Grapevine, this time as a podcast. Accolades On November 14, 2005, Cherry was granted honorary membership of the Police Association of Ontario. Once an aspiring police officer, Cherry has been a longtime supporter of the police services. In his own words, "This is the best thing I've ever had." In June 2007, Cherry was made a Dominion Command Honorary Life Member of the Royal Canadian Legion in recognition of "his longstanding and unswerving support of... Canadians in uniform". In February 2008, Cherry was awarded the Canadian Forces Medallion for Distinguished Service for 'unwavering support to men and women of the Canadian Forces, honouring fallen soldiers on his CBC broadcast during Coach's Corner, a segment of Hockey Night in Canada. In 2004, Cherry ranked at number 7 on the CBC's miniseries The Greatest Canadian. Cherry remarked that he was "a good Canadian", but not the greatest Canadian, and that he was personally rooting for fellow Kingston resident, John A. Macdonald. In 2016, Cherry, along with his Coach's Corner co-host Ron MacLean, received a star on Canada's Walk of Fame. Other ventures In 1992, Cherry lent his voice to the charity song "Rock 'Em Sock 'Em Techno" for Canadian techno group BKS. Acting career As part of his fame, Cherry has also branched out into some acting roles. He was cast as Jake Nelson in the television series Power Play. Nelson was the coach of the Philadelphia team playing against the Hamilton Steelheads in the playoffs during the first season. Also, he and Ron MacLean provided voices for themselves in the animated television series Zeroman, which starred Leslie Nielsen. He also appeared on an episode of Goosebumps called "Don't Go to Sleep!" where he plays a hockey coach. His voice was also used in Disney's animated feature The Wild, as a penguin curling broadcaster. He also appeared alongside the Trailer Park Boys in The Tragically Hip's video "The Darkest One". His voice was also used in the Mickey Mouse episode "Bad Ear Day", as an ice hockey game announcer. In 2008, he also appeared on an episode of Holmes on Homes, the widely popular home improvement show. While not appearing scripted, Cherry apparently lived in the neighbourhood and he is shown speaking with Mike Holmes about the construction business and the ongoing project at his brother-in-law's house. Business and charitable work In 1985, the first of a chain of franchised sports bars/restaurants bearing Cherry's name was opened in Hamilton. Cherry started as a partner in the operation and has more recently licensed his name to the chain without holding a significant ownership stake in the company. "Don Cherry's Sports Grill" has locations in Ontario, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and Labrador, British Columbia, Saskatchewan and Alberta. Cherry, who is an advocate of options for pet owners to keep their pets healthy, has also partnered with companion animal organization Pethealth Inc. to offer Canadians the hockey-inspired CherryBlue Pet Insurance program. Cherry is pictured on cherryblue.ca with his popular bull terrier Blue, for whom the program is named. Cherry created the Don Cherry Pet Rescue Foundation and donates all profits from his Simply Pets snacks line to animal charities. During the 42nd Canadian Parliament, Cherry, typically a supporter of the Conservatives made a video supporting Liberal MP Nathaniel Erskine-Smith's ultimately unsuccessful private member's bill that sought to toughen animal cruelty laws. Cherry has lent his considerable persona to several charitable causes, most significantly, organ donation awareness. See also List of NHL head coaches List of players who played only one game in the NHL References Further reading External links ESPN E-Ticket - The Biggest Mouth in Sports Don Cherry: A Coach, A Commentator, A Controversy - CBC Digital Archives 1934 births Living people Barrie Flyers players Boston Bruins coaches Boston Bruins players Canada men's national ice hockey team coaches Canadian expatriate ice hockey players in the United States Canadian ice hockey coaches Canadian ice hockey defencemen Canadian male voice actors Canadian male film actors Canadian male television actors Canadian people of Cornish descent Canadian people of English descent Canadian people of Irish descent Canadian sportswriters Canadian television sportscasters CBC Television people Colorado Rockies (NHL) coaches Critics of multiculturalism Hershey Bears players Ice hockey people from Ontario Jack Adams Award winners Kitchener Beavers (EPHL) players Mississauga IceDogs coaches National Hockey League broadcasters Rochester Americans coaches Rochester Americans players Spokane Comets players Sportspeople from Kingston, Ontario Springfield Indians players Sudbury Wolves (EPHL) players Trois-Rivières Lions (EPHL) players Tulsa Oilers (1964–1984) players Vancouver Canucks (WHL) players Windsor Spitfires players	[ 0.03722716495394707, 0.18560975790023804, -1.03681480884552, -0.05818556994199753, 0.21555711328983307, 0.032641444355249405, 0.14056849479675293, 0.6911741495132446, -0.2755642533302307, 0.1616748869419098, -0.08813242614269257, 0.5654523968696594, -0.03746529668569565, -0.04845660924911499, -0.5456083416938782, 0.45795589685440063, -0.7052526473999023, 0.3991532325744629, -0.16867521405220032, -0.13641607761383057, -0.17335811257362366, -0.874272882938385, 0.11236822605133057, 0.7254831194877625, -0.2692980170249939, 0.6413044333457947, 0.39305806159973145, -0.2852800488471985, -0.42026737332344055, 0.35495880246162415, -0.6184906363487244, 0.023607410490512848, 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221731	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restraining%20order	Restraining order	A restraining order or protective order, abbreviated PFA, is an order used by a court to protect a person, object, business, company, state, country, establishment, or entity, and the general public, in a situation involving alleged domestic violence, child abuse, assault, harassment, stalking, or sexual assault. In the United States, every state has some form of domestic violence restraining order law, and many states also have specific restraining order laws for stalking and sexual assault. Restraining and personal protection order laws vary from one jurisdiction to another but all establish who can file for an order, what protection or relief a person can get from such an order, and how the order will be enforced. The court will order the adverse party to refrain from certain actions or require compliance with certain provisions. Failure to comply is a violation of the order which can result in the arrest and prosecution of the offender. Violations in some jurisdictions may also constitute criminal or civil contempt of court. Restraining order provisions All protective order statutes permit the court to instruct an alleged abuser to stay a certain distance away from someone, such as their home, workplace or school ("stay away" provisions), and not to contact them. Alleged victims generally may also request the court to order that all contact, whether it be by telephone, notes, mail, fax, email, text, social media, or delivery of flowers, gifts, or drinks be prohibited ("no contact" provisions). Courts can also instruct an alleged abuser to not hurt or threaten someone ("cease abuse" provisions) known as no violent contact orders. The no-violent contact order statutes from the court may allow the alleged abuser to maintain their current living situation with the alleged victim or have contact with them. Some states also allow the court to order the alleged abuser to pay temporary support or continue to make mortgage payments on a home owned by both people ("support" provisions), to award sole use of a home or car owned by both people ("exclusive use" provisions), or to pay for medical costs or property damage caused by the alleged abuser ("restitution" provisions). Some courts might also be able to instruct the alleged abuser to turn over any firearms and ammunition they have ("relinquish firearms" provisions), attend a batterers' treatment program, appear for regular drug tests, or start alcohol or drug abuse counselling. Its issuance is sometimes called a "de facto divorce". Burden of proof and misuse The standard of proof required to obtain a restraining order can vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but it is generally lower than the standard of beyond a reasonable doubt required in criminal trials. Many US states—such as Oregon and Pennsylvania along with many others—use a standard of preponderance of the evidence. Other states use different standards, such as Wisconsin which requires that restraining orders be based on "reasonable grounds". Judges have some incentives to err on the side of granting restraining orders. If a judge should grant a restraining order against someone who might not warrant it, typically the only repercussion is that the defendant might appeal the order. If, on the other hand, the judge denies a restraining order and the plaintiff is killed or injured, sour publicity and an enraged community reaction may harm the jurist's career. Colorado's statute inverts the standard court procedures and due process, providing that after the court issues an ex parte order, the defendant must "appear before the court at a specific time and date and . . . show cause, if any, why said temporary civil protection order should not be made permanent." That is, Colorado courts place the burden of proof on the accused to establish his or her innocence, rather than requiring the accuser to prove his or her case. Hawaii similarly requires the defendant to prove his or her own innocence. The low burden of proof for restraining orders has led to some high-profile cases involving stalkers of celebrities obtaining restraining orders against their targets. For example, in 2005 a New Mexico judge issued a restraining order against New York City-based TV host David Letterman after a woman made claims of abuse and harassment, including allegations that Letterman had spoken to her via coded messages on his TV show. The judge later admitted that he granted the restraining order not on the merits of the case, but because the petitioner had completely filled out the required paperwork. Some attorneys have criticized the use of restraining orders on the theory that parties to a divorce may file such orders to gain tactical advantages, rather than out of a legitimate fear of harm. Liz Mandarano, an attorney who specializes in family and matrimonial law, speculates that divorce attorneys are incentivized to push for restraining orders because such orders force all communications to go through the parties' lawyers and may prolong the legal battle. Some attorneys offer to have restraining orders dropped in exchange for financial concessions in such proceedings. Effectiveness Experts disagree on whether restraining orders are effective in preventing further harassment. A 2010 analysis published in the Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law reviewed 15 U.S. studies of restraining order effectiveness, and concluded that restraining orders "can serve a useful role in threat management". However, a 2002 analysis of 32 U.S. studies found that restraining orders are violated an average of 40 percent of the time and are perceived as being "followed by worse events" almost 21 percent of the time, and concluded that "evidence of [restraining orders'] relative efficacy is lacking", and that they may pose some degree of risk. Other studies have found that restraining orders offer little or no deterrent against future interpersonal violence. A large America-wide telephone survey conducted in 1998 found that, of stalking victims who obtained a restraining order, more than 68 percent reported it being violated by their stalker. Threat management experts are often suspicious of restraining orders, believing they may escalate or enrage stalkers. In his 1997 book The Gift of Fear, American security specialist Gavin de Becker characterized restraining orders as "homework assignments police give to women to prove they're really committed to getting away from their pursuers," and said they "clearly serve police and prosecutors," but "they do not always serve victims". The Independent Women’s Forum decries them as "lulling women into a false sense of security," and in its Family Legal Guide, the American Bar Association warns “a court order might even add to the alleged offender's rage". Castle Rock v. Gonzales, , is a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled, 7–2, that a town and its police department could not be sued under for failing to enforce a restraining order, which had led to the murder of a woman's three children by her estranged husband. Both parties must be informed of the restraining order for it to go into effect. Law enforcement may have trouble serving the order, making the petition unproductive. A study found that some counties had 91 percent of restraining orders non-served. A temporary order of restraint ("ex parte" order) is in effect for two weeks before a court settles the terms of the order, but it is still not in effect until the alleged abuser is served. Gender of parties Although the restrained person and the protected person may be of any gender or sex, restraining orders most commonly protect a woman against a male alleged abuser. A California study found that 72% of restraining orders active in the state at the time protected a woman against a male abuser. The Wisconsin Coalition Against Domestic Violence uses female pronouns to refer to petitioners and male pronouns to refer to abusers due to the fact that most petitioners are women and most abusers are men. Jurisdictions United Kingdom England In English law, a non-molestation order may be granted under Section 42 of the Family Law Act 1996. Non-molestation orders are a type of injunction used to protect an individual from intimidation or harassment. Breaching a non-molestation order is a criminal offence. Under the Domestic Violence Crime and Victims Act 2004, cohabiting same-sex couples are able to seek a non-molestation order. Non-molestation orders sought for protection from domestic violence qualify for legal aid regardless of the applicant's income. United States Federal law requires that all states give "full faith and credit" to every portion of a restraining order issued by any state provided that certain minimum due process requirements are met. Thus a state with very lax standards for issuing a restraining order may enter such a protective order, and every state and federal territory would be required to adhere to every provision. Federal law prohibits any person who is subject to a state protective order from possessing a firearm, provided that the protected party is an intimate partner, meaning a spouse or former spouse, or a person with whom the protected party has had a child. Violating a restraining order is a deportable offense. Some states (e.g. Mississippi) may also call a restraining order a peace bond and are similar to ASBO laws in the UK. Minnesota law provides for an Order for Protection (OFP) and a Harassment Restraining Order (HRO). Many jurisdictions offer a simplified process for filing a civil complaint for unrepresented litigants. For example, in North Carolina, pro se litigants can file a 50B (also called a DVPO, for Domestic Violence Protective Order) complaint with the Clerk of Court. Types In the US, each state has its own restraining order laws, but they tend to be divided into five main types. Not every state will have every type of restraining order on the books. A domestic violence restraining order generally protects only parties deemed to be in some form of "domestic" relationship which may, depending on the statute, include a family, household, intimate, or sexual relationship. A sexual assault restraining order specifically protects a victim of sexual assault regardless of what relationship may or may not exist between petitioner and respondent. If the state has no sexual assault restraining order statute, the victim may still qualify for a domestic violence restraining order if the sexual assault occurred in the context of a domestic relationship or if the statute is written sufficiently broad. In such cases, sexual assault survivors can sometimes qualify for domestic violence restraining orders because any act of sexual intercourse between petitioner and respondent, even during rape, legally establishes the required sexually intimate relationship. Harassment and stalking restraining orders also generally do not require any specific relationship to exist or not exist between the parties, but also may not be available in all states. These types of restraining orders also generally require at least two instances of, respectively, harassment or stalking to qualify. In many cases, one statute may cover more than one type of restraining order. For example, what is called a harassment restraining order in Wisconsin also specifically includes cases of sexual assault and stalking. In California, domestic violence restraining orders are issued under Family Code Section 6200, et. seq. The California Courts have designed domestic violence restraining orders accessible to the public so as to not require a lawyer to obtain or defend against one. Finally, an extreme risk restraining order is a form of USA restraining order, currently in use 13 states. Other forms of restraining order will sometimes order firearms restrictions as a part of a larger injunction intended to protect a specific individual. But with an extreme risk restraining order, the sole focus is on the firearms restrictions. It is sought when household members or police believe a particular individual is at risk to use firearms to harm themselves or others. If a court agrees, the person can have their firearms taken away. This type of restraining order is not intended to protect a specific individual but rather the community at large from someone believed to be a danger for gun violence. It has been cited as a possible tool to help prevent mass shootings such as the Orlando nightclub shooting. Czech Republic A domestic violence restraining order in the Czech Republic may be issued by a police officer or by a court. Any police officer has authority under the Police Act to issue restraining order prohibiting a person from entering common dwelling and nearby areas and from contacting the threatened person. Such restraining order is valid for a period of ten days. In case that the threatened person files for court restraining order, the police restraining order remains valid until court renders decision. A court may issue a domestic violence or stalking restraining order based on application of threatened person for a period of up to one month. This may later be extended if the threatened person files for extension. Extension is possible for necessary period of time, but no more than six months in total. Breaching of restraining order is a separate crime punishable by up to two years of imprisonment. See also Notes References Davis, J.A. (2001, August). Stalking Crimes and Victim Protection, CRC Press, 568 pages. 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221733	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unfinished%20Tales	Unfinished Tales	Unfinished Tales of Númenor and Middle-earth is a collection of stories and essays by J. R. R. Tolkien that were never completed during his lifetime, but were edited by his son Christopher Tolkien and published in 1980. Many of the tales within are retold in The Silmarillion, albeit in modified forms; the work also contains a summary of the events of The Lord of the Rings told from a less personal perspective. Overview Unlike The Silmarillion, also published posthumously (in 1977), for which the narrative fragments were modified to connect into a consistent and coherent work, the Unfinished Tales are presented as Tolkien left them, with little more than names changed (the author having had a confusing habit of trying out different names for a character while writing a draft). Thus some of these are incomplete stories, while others are collections of information about Middle-earth. Each tale is followed by a long series of notes explaining inconsistencies and obscure points. As with The Silmarillion, Christopher Tolkien edited and published Unfinished Tales before he had finished his study of the materials in his father's archive. Unfinished Tales provides more detailed information about characters, events and places mentioned only briefly in The Lord of the Rings. Versions of such tales, including the origins of Gandalf and the other Istari (Wizards), the death of Isildur and the loss of the One Ring in the Gladden Fields, and the founding of the kingdom of Rohan, help expand knowledge about Middle-earth. The commercial success of Unfinished Tales demonstrated that the demand for Tolkien's stories several years after his death was not only still present but growing. Encouraged by the result, Christopher Tolkien embarked upon the more ambitious twelve-volume work entitled The History of Middle-earth which encompasses nearly the entire corpus of his father's writings about Middle-earth. Contents Part One: The First Age "Of Tuor and his Coming to Gondolin" "Narn i Hîn Húrin (The Tale of the Children of Húrin)" Part Two: The Second Age "A Description of the Island of Númenor" "Aldarion and Erendis: The Mariner's Wife" "The Line of Elros: Kings of Númenor" "The History of Galadriel and Celeborn" Part Three: The Third Age "The Disaster of the Gladden Fields" "Cirion and Eorl and the Friendship of Gondor and Rohan" "The Quest of Erebor" "The Hunt for the Ring" "The Battles of the Fords of Isen" Part Four "The Drúedain" "The Istari" "The Palantíri" Reception The scholar Paul H. Kocher, reviewing Unfinished Tales in Mythlore, notes that all the stories are linked to either The Silmarillion, Akallabeth or The Lord of the Rings, and extensively annotated, mainly by Christopher Tolkien. In Kocher's view, the stories contain "some of Tolkien's best writing" (and he summarizes them in some detail), though there is much of interest in the editorial material also. He notes the revised map with the additional placenames used in the tales, and that the book does not address Tolkien's poetry. The independent scholar Douglas C. Kane writes that Christopher Tolkien chose to include not just narrative tales, despite the book's title, but "a taste of some of the descriptive and historical underpinnings of those heretofore uncharted vistas", and that indeed he suggested he might "dive even deeper into the history of his father's legendarium", as he eventually did with his 12-volume The History of Middle-earth. The Tolkien scholar Corey Olsen notes that Christopher Tolkien chose to present the incomplete tales as they were, adding a commentary to help readers grasp how they fitted in to his father's Middle-earth legendarium. Olson comments that the book's commercial success demonstrated the existence of a market for more of Tolkien's writings, opening up a route to publication of the 12-volume The History of Middle-earth. The Christian philosopher Peter Kreeft wrote in Christianity & Literature that many readers had felt disappointed by Unfinished Tales, as some had felt about The Silmarillion. Perry Bramlett adds that the book is not for the reader new to Tolkien, nor even one who has read only The Hobbit "or perhaps some or even all of the Lord of the Rings." He notes Christopher Tolkien's warning that the stories "constitute no whole" and that much of the content "will be found unrewarding" to those without a good knowledge of Lord of the Rings. More positively, he cites David Bratman's comment that much of it is as well-crafted as any of Tolkien's writings, and that readers who found The Silmarillion "a little too high and distant" would welcome it. The science fiction author Warren Dunn, writing in 1993, described the book as engaging, and that every section contained "something of interest", but he cautioned that it required "an intimate knowledge" of The Silmarillion, The Lord of the Rings, and its appendices "for full enjoyment" of the book. He commented that "I really do wish we could have seen the whole history like this, even if it took up twelve volumes to get through the first, second and third ages before the Lord of the Rings!" References 1980 books Middle-earth books Collections of works by J. R. R. 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221734	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eorl	Eorl	Eorl may refer to: Eorl Crabtree (born 1982), an English rugby league player an Anglo-Saxon title of nobility, see Earl See also Cirion and Eorl (or Cirion and Eorl and the Friendship of Gondor and Rohan), one of the Unfinished Tales by J. R. R. 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221737	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political%20history	Political history	Political history is the narrative and survey of political events, ideas, movements, organs of government, voters, parties and leaders. It is closely related to other fields of history, including diplomatic history, constitutional history, social history, people's history, and public history. Political history studies the organization and operation of power in large societies. From approximately the 1960s onwards, the rise of competing subdisciplines, particularly social history and cultural history, led to a decline in the prominence of "traditional" political history, which tended to focus on the activities of political elites. In the two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history rose from 31% to 41%, and the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to 30%. Political world history The political history of the world examines the history of politics and government on a global scale, including international relations. Aspects of political history The first "scientific" political history was written by Leopold von Ranke in Germany in the 19th century. His methodologies profoundly affected the way historians critically examine sources; see historiography for a more complete analysis of the methodology of various approaches to history. An important aspect of political history is the study of ideology as a force for historical change. One author asserts that "political history as a whole cannot exist without the study of ideological differences and their implications." Studies of political history typically centre around a single nation and its political change and development. Some historians identify the growing trend towards narrow specialization in political history during recent decades: "while a college professor in the 1940s sought to identify himself as a "historian", by the 1950s "American historian" was the designation." From the 1970s onwards, new movements challenged traditional approaches to political history. The development of social history shifted the emphasis away from the study of leaders and national decisions, and towards the role of ordinary people, especially outsiders and minorities. Younger scholars shifted to different issues, usually focused on race, class and gender, with little room for elites. After 1990 social history itself began to fade, replaced with postmodern and cultural approaches that rejected grand narrative. United States: The new political history Traditional political history focused on major leaders and had long played a dominant role among academic historians in the United States. These studies accounted for about 25% of the scholarly books and articles written by American historians before 1950, and about 33% into the 1960s, followed by diplomacy. The arrival in the 1960s and 1970s of a new interest in social history led to the emergence of the "new political history" which saw young scholars put much more emphasis on the voters' behavior and motivation, rather than just the politicians. It relied heavily on quantitative methods to integrate social themes, especially regarding ethnicity and religion. The new social science approach was a harbinger of the fading away of interest in Great Men. The eclipse of traditional political approaches during the 1970s was a major shock, though diplomatic history fell even further. It was upstaged by social history, with a race/class/gender model. The number of political articles submitted to the Journal of American History fell by half from 33% to 15%. Patterson argued that contemporary events, especially the Vietnam War and Watergate, alienated younger scholars away from the study of politicians and their deeds. Political history never disappeared, but it never recovered its dominance among scholars, despite its sustained high popularity among the reading public. Some political historians made fun of their own predicament, as when William Leuchtenburg wrote, "the status of the political historians within the profession has sunk to somewhere between that of a faith healer and a chiropractor. Political historians were all right in a way, but you might not want to bring one home to meet the family." Others were more analytical, as when Hugh Davis Graham observed: The ranks of traditional political historians are depleted, their assumptions and methods discredited, along with the Great White Man whose careers they chronicled. Britain Readman (2009) discusses the historiography of British political history in the 20th century. He describes how British political scholarship mostly ignored 20th century history due to temporal proximity to the recent past, the unavailability of primary sources, and the potential for bias. The article explores how transitions in scholarship have allowed for greater interest in 20th century history among scholars, which include less reliance on archival sources, methodological changes in historiography, and the flourishing of new forms of history such as oral history. Germany In the course of the 1960s, however, some German historians (notably Hans-Ulrich Wehler and his cohort) began to rebel against this idea, instead suggesting a "Primacy of Domestic Politics" (Primat der Innenpolitik), in which the insecurities of (in this case German) domestic policy drove the creation of foreign policy. This led to a considerable body of work interpreting the domestic policies of various states and the ways this influenced their conduct of foreign policy. France The French Annales School had already put an emphasis on the role of geography and economics on history, and of the importance of broad, slow cycles rather than the constant apparent movement of the "history of events" of high politics. It downplayed politics and diplomacy. The most important work of the Annales school, Fernand Braudel's The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, contains a traditional Rankean diplomatic history of Philip II's Mediterranean policy, but only as the third and shortest section of a work largely focusing on the broad cycles of history in the longue durée ("long term"). The Annales were broadly influential, leading to a turning away from political history towards an emphasis on broader trends of economic and environmental change. Social history In the 1960s and 1970s, an increasing emphasis on giving a voice to the voiceless and writing the history of the underclasses, whether by using the quantitative statistical methods of social history or the more postmodern assessments of cultural history, also undermined the centrality of politics to the historical discipline. Leff noted how social historians, "disdained political history as elitist, shallow, altogether passe, and irrelevant to the drama of everyday lives." History of political regimes and institutions MaxRange data is a project that defines and shows in detail the political status and development of institutional regimes of all states in the world from 1789. MaxRange also describes the background, development, external sources and major causes behind all political changes. MaxRange is a dataset defining level of democracy and institutional structure (regime-type) on a 100-graded scale where every value represents a unique regimetype. Values are sorted from 1-100 based on level of democracy and political accountability. MaxRange defines the value (regimetype) corresponding to all states and every month from 1789 to 2015 and updating. MaxRange is created and developed by Max Range, and is now associated with the university of Halmstad, Sweden See also Historiography Diplomatic history Social history References Further reading Callaghan, John, et al. eds., Interpreting the Labour Party: Approaches to Labour Politics and History (2003) online; also online free; British Craig, David M. "'High Politics' and the 'New Political History'." Historical Journal (2010): 453-475; British online Elton, G. R. The practice of history (1968), British. French, John D.. "Women in Postrevolutionary Mexico: The Emergence of a New Feminist Political History," Latin American Politics and Society, (2008) 50#2 pp 175–184 Huret, Romain, “All in the Family Again? Political Historians and the Challenge of Social History,” Journal of Policy History, 21 (no. 3, 2009), 239–63. Kowol, Kit. "Renaissance on the Right? New Directions in the History of the Post-War Conservative Party." Twentieth Century British History 27#2 (2016): 290-304. online Pasquino, Gianfranco. "Political History in Italy," Journal of Policy History July 2009, Vol. 21 Issue 3, pp 282–297; discusses political historians such as Silvio Lanaro, Aurelio Lepre, and Nicola Tranfaglia, and studies of Fascism, the Italian Communist party, the role of the Christian Democrats in Italian society, and the development of the Italian parliamentary Republic. excerpt Ranger, Terence. "Nationalist historiography, patriotic history and the history of the nation: the struggle over the past in Zimbabwe." Journal of Southern African Studies 30.2 (2004): 215-234. Readman, Paul. "The State of Twentieth-Century British Political History," Journal of Policy History, July 2009, Vol. 21 Issue 3, pp 219–238 Smith, Anthony D. The nation in history: historiographical debates about ethnicity and nationalism (UP of New England, 2000) Sreedharan, E. A manual of historical research methodology. (Trivandrum, Centre for South Indian Studies, 2007 Sreedharan, E. A textbook of historiography: 500 BC to AD 2000 . (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 2004) In USA Bogue, Allan G. "United States: The 'new' political history." Journal of Contemporary History (1968) 3#1 pp: 5-27. in JSTOR Gillon, Steven M. "The future of political history." Journal of Policy History 9.2 (1997): 240-255, in USA. Graham, Hugh Davis. "The stunted career of policy history: a critique and an agenda." Public Historian 15.2 (1993): 15-37; policy history is a closely related topic online Jacobs, Meg, William J. Novak, and Julian Zelizer, eds. The democratic experiment: New directions in American political history (Princeton UP, 2009). Jensen, Richard J. "Historiography of American Political History" in Jack Greene, ed., Encyclopedia of American Political History (Scribner's, 1984), vol 1. pp 1–25 online Larson, John Lauritz, and Michael A. Morrison, eds. Whither the Early Republic: A Forum on the Future of the Field (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2012). Leuchtenburg, William E. "The Pertinence of Political History: Reflections on the Significance of the State in America," Journal of American History 73, (1986), 585-600. Newman, Richard. "Bringing Politics Back in... to Abolition." Reviews in American History 45.1 (2017): 57-64. Silbey, Joel H. "The State and Practice of American Political History at the Millennium: The Nineteenth Century as a Test Case." Journal of Policy History 11.1 (1999): 1-30. Swirski, Peter. (2011). American Utopia and Social Engineering in Literature, Social Thought, and Political History. New York, Routledge. External links Conference: Rethinking Modern British Studies, 2015, numerous papers and reports on the historiography of British politics. Abstracts of 2015 papers scholarly journal Diplomatic History Documents of Diplomatic History Fletcher School at Tufts International Relations Resources A New Nation Votes: American Elections Returns 1787–1825 French Website of the Comité d'histoire parlementaire et politique (Parliamentary and Political History Committee) and Parlement(s), Revue d'histoire politique, published three times a year. It contains a lot of information about French political history, including about 900 references of scholarly political history studies and a bibliography of parliamentary history. 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221740	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsule	Capsule	Capsule may refer to: Anatomy Articular capsule (joint capsule), an envelope surrounding a synovial joint Bowman's capsule (glomerular capsule), a sac surrounding a glomerulus in a mammalian kidney Glisson's capsule, a fibrous layer covering the external surface of the liver Renal capsule, a tough fibrous layer surrounding the kidney Capsules of the brain External capsule Extreme capsule Internal capsule Medicine Bacterial capsule, a layer that lies outside the cell wall of bacteria Yeast capsule, a layer surrounding some pathogenic yeasts Capsular contracture, the scar tissue naturally forming around breast implants Capsule (pharmacy), a small gelatinous case enclosing a dose of medication Lymph node capsule Other uses Capsule (CRM), a Customer Relationship Management SaaS web application and mobile app Capsule (2016 film), a 2016 British science fiction film with a Project Mercury era fictional astronaut Capsule (band), a Japanese electronic duo Capsule (Ferris wheel), a passenger compartment Capsule (fruit), or seed capsule, a type of dry fruit like the poppy, iris or foxglove Capsule (geometry), a shape consisting of a cylinder capped with hemispheres Capsule hotel, a type of very dense overnight lodging popular in urban Japan Capsule (microphone), the component which converts acoustic energy into an electric signal Capsule (website), an event-sharing social platform The Capsule, a 2012 Greek short film Capsule neural network, a type of artificial neural network Capsule review, short critique Space capsule, a type of crewed spacecraft Time capsule, a cache of items and/or information to be preserved for future times See also Encapsulation (disambiguation)	[ 0.28228428959846497, 0.6394535899162292, -0.16892030835151672, 0.544657826423645, 0.4777885973453522, 0.6777092218399048, 0.017002757638692856, 0.2237289845943451, 0.05881762132048607, -0.4261552095413208, -0.3347025215625763, 0.576202929019928, 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221742	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal%20history	Legal history	Legal history or the history of law is the study of how law has evolved and why it has changed. Legal history is closely connected to the development of civilisations and operates in the wider context of social history. Certain jurists and historians of legal process have seen legal history as the recording of the evolution of laws and the technical explanation of how these laws have evolved with the view of better understanding the origins of various legal concepts; some consider legal history a branch of intellectual history. Twentieth-century historians viewed legal history in a more contextualised manner - more in line with the thinking of social historians. They have looked at legal institutions as complex systems of rules, players and symbols and have seen these elements interact with society to change, adapt, resist or promote certain aspects of civil society. Such legal historians have tended to analyse case histories from the parameters of social-science inquiry, using statistical methods, analysing class distinctions among litigants, petitioners and other players in various legal processes. By analyzing case outcomes, transaction costs, and numbers of settled cases, they have begun an analysis of legal institutions, practices, procedures and briefs that gives a more complex picture of law and society than the study of jurisprudence, case law and civil codes can achieve. Ancient world Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, was based on the concept of Ma'at, and was characterised by tradition, rhetorical speech, social equality and impartiality. By the 22nd century BC, Ur-Nammu, an ancient Sumerian ruler, formulated the first extant law code, consisting of casuistic statements ("if... then..."). Around 1760 BC, King Hammurabi further developed Babylonian law, by codifying and inscribing it in stone. Hammurabi placed several copies of his law code throughout the kingdom of Babylon as stelae, for the entire public to see; this became known as the Codex Hammurabi. The most intact copy of these stelae was discovered in the 19th century by British Assyriologists, and has since been fully transliterated and translated into various languages, including English, German and French. Ancient Greek has no single word for "law" as an abstract concept, retaining instead the distinction between divine law (thémis), human decree (nomos) and custom (díkē). Yet Ancient Greek law contained major constitutional innovations in the development of democracy. Southern Asia Ancient India and China represent distinct traditions of law, and had historically independent schools of legal theory and practice. The Arthashastra, dating from the 400 BC, and the Manusmriti from 100 BCE were influential treatises in India, texts that were considered authoritative legal guidance. Manu's central philosophy was tolerance and pluralism, and was cited across South East Asia. During the Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent, sharia was established by the Muslim sultanates and empires, most notably Mughal Empire's Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, compiled by emperor Aurangzeb and various scholars of Islam. After British colonialism, Hindu tradition, along with Islamic law, was supplanted by the common law when India became part of the British Empire. Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore and Hong Kong also adopted the common law. Eastern Asia The eastern Asia legal tradition reflects a unique blend of secular and religious influences. Japan was the first country to begin modernising its legal system along western lines, by importing bits of the French, but mostly the German Civil Code. This partly reflected Germany's status as a rising power in the late nineteenth century. Similarly, traditional Chinese law gave way to westernisation towards the final years of the Qing dynasty in the form of six private law codes based mainly on the Japanese model of German law. Today Taiwanese law retains the closest affinity to the codifications from that period, because of the split between Chiang Kai-shek's nationalists, who fled there, and Mao Zedong's communists who won control of the mainland in 1949. The current legal infrastructure in the People's Republic of China was heavily influenced by soviet Socialist law, which essentially inflates administrative law at the expense of private law rights. Today, however, because of rapid industrialisation China has been reforming, at least in terms of economic (if not social and political) rights. A new contract code in 1999 represented a turn away from administrative domination. Furthermore, after negotiations lasting fifteen years, in 2001 China joined the World Trade Organization. Yassa of the Mongol Empire Canon law The legal history of the Catholic Church is the history of Catholic canon law, the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West. Canon law originates much later than Roman law but predates the evolution of modern European civil law traditions. The cultural exchange between the secular (Roman/Barbarian) and ecclesiastical (canon) law produced the jus commune and greatly influenced both civil and common law. The history of Latin canon law can be divided into four periods: the jus antiquum, the jus novum, the jus novissimum and the Code of Canon Law. In relation to the Code, history can be divided into the jus vetus (all law before the Code) and the jus novum (the law of the Code, or jus codicis). Eastern canon law developed separately. In the twentieth century, canon law was comprehensively codified. On 27 May 1917, Pope Benedict XV codified the 1917 Code of Canon Law. John XXIII, together with his intention to call the Second Vatican Council, announced his intention to reform canon law, which culminated in the 1983 Code of Canon Law, promulgated by John Paul II on 25 January 1983. John Paul II also brought to a close the long process of codifying the Eastern Catholic canon law common to all 23 sui juris Eastern Catholic Churches on 18 October 1990 by promulgating the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches. Islamic law One of the major legal systems developed during the Middle Ages was Islamic law and jurisprudence. A number of important legal institutions were developed by Islamic jurists during the classical period of Islamic law and jurisprudence. One such institution was the Hawala, an early informal value transfer system, which is mentioned in texts of Islamic jurisprudence as early as the 8th century. Hawala itself later influenced the development of the Aval in French civil law and the Avallo in Italian law. European laws Roman Empire Roman law was heavily influenced by Greek teachings. It forms the bridge to the modern legal world, over the centuries between the rise and decline of the Roman Empire. Roman law, in the days of the Roman republic and Empire, was heavily procedural and there was no professional legal class. Instead a lay person, iudex, was chosen to adjudicate. Precedents were not reported, so any case law that developed was disguised and almost unrecognised. Each case was to be decided afresh from the laws of the state, which mirrors the (theoretical) unimportance of judges' decisions for future cases in civil law systems today. During the 6th century AD in the Eastern Roman Empire, the Emperor Justinian codified and consolidated the laws that had existed in Rome so that what remained was one twentieth of the mass of legal texts from before. This became known as the Corpus Juris Civilis. As one legal historian wrote, "Justinian consciously looked back to the golden age of Roman law and aimed to restore it to the peak it had reached three centuries before." Middle Ages During the Byzantine Empire the Justinian Code was expanded and remained in force until the Empire fell, though it was never officially introduced to the West. Instead, following the fall of the Western Empire and in former Roman countries, the ruling classes relied on the Theodosian Code to govern natives and Germanic customary law for the Germanic incomers - a system known as folk-right - until the two laws blended together. Since the Roman court system had broken down, legal disputes were adjudicated according to Germanic custom by assemblies of learned lawspeakers in rigid ceremonies and in oral proceedings that relied heavily on testimony. After much of the West was consolidated under Charlemagne, law became centralized so as to strengthen the royal court system, and consequently case law, and abolished folk-right. However, once Charlemagne's kingdom definitively splintered, Europe became feudalistic, and law was generally not governed above the county, municipal or lordship level, thereby creating a highly decentralized legal culture that favored the development of customary law founded on localized case law. However, in the 11th century, crusaders, having pillaged the Byzantine Empire, returned with Byzantine legal texts including the Justinian Code, and scholars at the University of Bologna were the first to use them to interpret their own customary laws. Medieval European legal scholars began researching the Roman law and using its concepts and prepared the way for the partial resurrection of Roman law as the modern civil law in a large part of the world. There was, however, a great deal of resistance so that civil law rivaled customary law for much of the late Middle Ages. After the Norman conquest of England, which introduced Norman legal concepts into medieval England, the English King's powerful judges developed a body of precedent that became the common law. In particular, Henry II instituted legal reforms and developed a system of royal courts administered by a small number of judges who lived in Westminster and traveled throughout the kingdom. Henry II also instituted the Assize of Clarendon in 1166, which allowed for jury trials and reduced the number of trials by combat. Louis IX of France also undertook major legal reforms and, inspired by ecclesiastical court procedure, extended Canon-law evidence and inquisitorial-trial systems to the royal courts. Also, judges no longer moved on circuits becoming fixed to their jurisdictions, and jurors were nominated by parties to the legal dispute rather than by the sheriff. In addition, by the 10th century, the Law Merchant, first founded on Scandinavian trade customs, then solidified by the Hanseatic League, took shape so that merchants could trade using familiar standards, rather than the many splintered types of local law. A precursor to modern commercial law, the Law Merchant emphasised the freedom of contract and alienability of property. Modern European law The two main traditions of modern European law are the codified legal systems of most of continental Europe, and the English tradition based on case law. As nationalism grew in the 18th and 19th centuries, lex mercatoria was incorporated into countries' local law under new civil codes. Of these, the French Napoleonic Code and the German Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch became the most influential. As opposed to English common law, which consists of massive tomes of case law, codes in small books are easy to export and for judges to apply. However, today there are signs that civil and common law are converging. European Union law is codified in treaties, but develops through the precedent set down by the European Court of Justice. African law The African law system is based on common law and civilian law. It was based on tribal customs and traditions before colonization took over their original system. The people listened to their elders and used their elders as the people to go to when disputes happened. They didn't keep written records, as their laws were often passed orally. During colonization, authorities in Africa developed an official legal system called the Native Courts. After colonialism, the major faiths that stayed were Buddhism, Hinduism, and Judaism. United States The United States legal system developed primarily out of the English common law system (with the exception of the state of Louisiana, which continued to follow the French civilian system after being admitted to statehood). Some concepts from Spanish law, such as the prior appropriation doctrine and community property, still persist in some US states, particularly those that were part of the Mexican Cession in 1848. Under the doctrine of federalism, each state has its own separate court system, and the ability to legislate within areas not reserved to the federal government. See also Legal biography Association of Young Legal Historians (AYLH) Constitution of the Roman Republic Notes References Sadakat Kadri, The Trial: A History from Socrates to O.J. Simpson, HarperCollins 2005. Kempin, Jr., Frederick G. (1963). Legal History: Law and Social Change. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Further reading The Oxford History of the Laws of England. 13 Vols. Oxford University Press, 2003–. (Six volumes to date: Vol. I (Canon Law and Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction from 597 to the 1640s), vol. II (871–1216), vol. VI (1483–1558), vols. XI–XIII (1820–1914)) The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Legal History. Ed. Stanley N. Katz. 6 Vols. Oxford University Press, 2009. (OUP catalogue. Oxford Reference Online) Potz, Richard: Islam and Islamic Law in European Legal History, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: November 28, 2011. External links The Legal History Project (Resources and interviews) Some legal history materials The Schoyen Collection The Roman Law Library by Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev. CHD Centre for Legal History - Faculty of Law, University of Rennes 1 Centre for Legal History - Edinburgh Law School The European Society for History of Law Collection of Historical Statutory Material - Cornell Law Library Historical Laws of Hong Kong Online - University of Hong Kong Libraries, Digital Initiatives Basic Law Drafting History Online -University of Hong Kong Libraries, Digital Initiatives Jurisprudence Academic disciplines History of science by discipline	[ 0.43484964966773987, 0.1019192785024643, -0.6498282551765442, -0.2565774917602539, 0.4032532274723053, 0.41634601354599, 0.29755541682243347, 0.5883820652961731, -0.2709268629550934, -0.806580126285553, -0.3273196816444397, 0.7719185948371887, 0.12826375663280487, 0.5086028575897217, -0.3786602318286896, 0.1986800879240036, 0.4951753616333008, -0.13835661113262177, 0.41884028911590576, -0.3597555160522461, -0.6444438099861145, 0.4543443024158478, 0.2531464993953705, 0.15963305532932281, 0.380071759223938, 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221746	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debrecen	Debrecen	Debrecen ( , is Hungary's second-largest city, after Budapest, the regional centre of the Northern Great Plain region and the seat of Hajdú-Bihar County. It was the largest Hungarian city in the 18th century and it is one of the Hungarian people's most important cultural centres. Debrecen was also the capital city of Hungary during the revolution in 1848–1849. During the revolution, the dethronement of the Habsburg dynasty was declared in the Reformed Great Church. The city also served as the capital of Hungary by the end of World War II in 1944–1945. It is home of the University of Debrecen. Etymology The city is first documented in 1235, as Debrezun. The name derives from the Turkic word , which means 'live' or 'move' and is also a male given name. Another theory says the name is of Slavic origin and means 'well-esteemed', from Slavic Dьbricinъ or from dobre zliem ("good land"). History The settlement was established after the Hungarian conquest. Debrecen became more important after some of the small villages of the area (Boldogasszonyfalva, Szentlászlófalva) were deserted due to the Mongol invasion of Europe. It experienced rapid development after the middle of the 13th century. In 1361, Louis I of Hungary granted the citizens of Debrecen the right to choose the town's judge and council. This provided some opportunities for self-government for the town. By the early 16th century, Debrecen was an important market town. King Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor, as part of a treaty with Serbian ruler Stefan Lazarević, gave him the opportunity to rule Debrecen in September 1411. A year after Lazarević's death in 1426, his role was taken over by his successor, Đurađ Branković. Between 1450 and 1507, it was a domain of the Hunyadi family. During the Ottoman period, being close to the border and having no castle or city walls, Debrecen often found itself in difficult situations and the town was saved only by the diplomatic skills of its leaders. Sometimes the town was protected by the Ottoman Empire, sometimes by the Catholic European rulers or by Francis II Rákóczi, prince of Transylvania. Debrecen later embraced the Protestant Reformation quite early, earning the monikers "the Calvinist Rome" and "the Geneva of Hungary". At this period the inhabitants of the town were mainly Hungarian Calvinists. Debrecen came under Turkish control as a sanjak between 1558 and 1693 and orderly bounded to the eyalets of Budin (1541–1596), Eğri (1596–1660) and Varat (1660–1693) as "Debreçin". In 1693, Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor elevated Debrecen to free royal town status. In 1715, the Roman Catholic Church returned to Debrecen, and the town gave them a place to build a church, so the Piarist monks could build the St. Ann's Cathedral. By this time the town was an important cultural, commercial and agricultural centre, and many future scholars and poets attended its Protestant College (a predecessor of today's University of Debrecen and also of Debrecen Reformed Theological University). In 1849, Debrecen was the capital of Hungary for a short time when the Hungarian revolutionary government fled there from Pest-Buda (modern-day Budapest). In April 1849, the dethronization of Habsburgs (neglected after the fall of the revolution) and the independence of Hungary was proclaimed here by Lajos Kossuth at the Great (Calvinist) Church (Nagytemplom in Hungarian.) The last battle of the war of independence was also close to Debrecen. The Russians, allied to Habsburgs, defeated the Hungarian army close to the western part of the town. After the war, Debrecen slowly began to prosper again. In 1857, the railway line between Budapest and Debrecen was completed, and Debrecen soon became a railway junction. New schools, hospitals, churches, factories, and mills were built, banks and insurance companies settled in the city. The appearance of the city began to change too: with new, taller buildings, parks and villas, it no longer resembled a provincial town and began to look like a modern city. In 1884, Debrecen became the first Hungarian city to have a steam tramway. After World War I, Hungary lost a considerable portion of its eastern territory to Romania, and Debrecen once again became situated close to the border of the country. It was occupied by the Romanian army for a short time in 1919. Tourism provided a way for the city to begin to prosper again. Many buildings (among them an indoor swimming pool and Hungary's first stadium) were built in the central park, the Nagyerdő ("Big Forest"), providing recreational facilities. The building of the university was completed. Hortobágy, a large pasture owned by the city, became a tourist attraction. During World War II, Debrecen was almost completely destroyed, 70% of the buildings suffered damage, 50% of them were completely destroyed. A major battle involving combined arms, including several hundred tanks (Battle of Debrecen), occurred near the city in October 1944. Debrecen was captured by Soviet troops of the 2nd Ukrainian Front on 20 October. After 1944, the reconstruction began and Debrecen became the capital of Hungary for a short time once again. The citizens began to rebuild their city, trying to restore its pre-war status, but the new, Communist government of Hungary had other plans. The institutions and estates of the city were taken into public ownership, private property was taken away. This forced change of the old system brought new losses to Debrecen; half of its area was annexed to nearby towns, and the city also lost its rights over Hortobágy. In 1952, two new villages – Ebes and Nagyhegyes – were formed from former parts of Debrecen, while in 1981, the nearby village Józsa was annexed to the city. Demographics Languages According to the 2011 census, the total population of Debrecen were 211,320, of whom 209,782 people (99.3%) speak Hungarian. 49,909 (23.6%) also know English, 22,454 (10.6%) German, and 5,416 (2.6%) speak Russian. Ethnic groups According to the 2011 census, there were 177,435 (84.0%) Hungarians, 1,305 (0.6%) Romani, 554 (0.3%) Germans and 504 (0.2%) Romanians in Debrecen. 31,931 people (15.1% of the total population) did not declare their ethnicity. Excluding these people Hungarians made up 98.9% of the total population. In Hungary people can declare more than one ethnicity, so the sum of ethnicities is higher than the total population. Religion According to the 2011 census, there were 52,459 (24.8%) Hungarian Reformed (Calvinist), 23,413 (11.1%) Latin Catholic, 10,762 (5.1%) Greek Catholic, 899 (0.4%) Baptist, 885 (0.4%) Jehovah's Witnesses, and 812 (0.4%) Lutheran in Debrecen. 54,909 people (26.0%) were irreligious, 3,877 (1.8%) atheist, while 59,955 people (28.4%) did not declare their religion. Reformed Church in Debrecen From the 16th century, the Reformation took roots in the city; first Lutheranism, then Calvin's teachings become predominant. From 1551, the Calvinist government of the city banned the moving of Catholics in Debrecen. Catholic churches were taken over by the Calvinist church. In 1552, the Catholic faith vanished from the city until 1715 when they regained a church. Several Calvinist church leaders like Peter Melius Juhasz who translated the Genevan Psalms lived and worked here. In 1567, a synod was formed in the city when the Second Helvetic Confession was adopted. Famous Calvinist colleges and schools were formed. Nickname of Debrecen commonly used in Hungary is the Calvinist Rome or the Geneva of Hungary because of the great percentage of the Calvinist faith in the city as well as the Calvinist church has significant influence in the city and the region. Debrecen is also home to the Reformed Theological University of Debrecen (Debreceni Református Hittudományi Egyetem), founded in 1538 and was the only Calvinist theological institute in the country permitted to function during the communist rule. The Hungarian Reformed Church has about 20 congregations in Debrecen, including the famous Reformed Great Church of Debrecen, which can easily accommodate about 5000 people (with 3000 seats). Jewish community Jews were first allowed to settle in Debrecen in 1814, with an initial population count of 118 men within 4 years. Twenty years later, they were allowed to purchase land and homes. By 1919, they consisted 10% of the population (with over 10,000 community members listed) and owned almost half of the large properties in and around the town. The Hungarian antisemitic laws of 1938 caused many businesses to close, and in 1939 many Jews were enslaved and sent to Ukraine, where many died in minefields. In 1940, the Germans estimated that 12,000 Jews were left in the town. In 1941, Jews of Galician and Polish origin were expelled, reducing the number of Jews to 9142. In 1942, more Jews were drafted into the Hungarian forced labor groups and sent to Ukraine. German forces entered the city on 20 March 1944, (Two and a half weeks before Passover) ordering a Judenrat (Jewish Council) headed by Rabbi Pal (Meir) Weisz, and a Jewish police squad was formed, headed by former army captain Bela Lusztbaum. On 30 March 1944, (a week before Passover) the Jews were ordered to wear the Yellow star of David. Jewish cars were confiscated and phone lines cut. During the Passover week, many Jewish dignitaries were taken to a nearby prison camp, eventually reaching the number of 300 prisoners. A week later all Jewish stores were closed, and a public book-burning of Jewish books was presided over by the antisemitic newspaper editor Mihaly Kalosvari Borska. An order to erect a ghetto was issued on 28 April 1944, in the name of the town mayor Sandor Kolscey, who opposed the act, and was ousted by the Germans. Jews were forced to build the Ghetto walls, finishing it within less than a month on 15 May 1944. On 7 June 1944, all movement in or out of the Ghetto was prohibited and a week later all Debrecen Jews were deported to the nearby Serly brickyards, and stripped of their belongings, joining Jews from other areas. Ten families of prominent Jews, including those of Rabbi Weisz and orthodox chief Rabbi Strasser, along with the heads of the Zionist (non orthodox) movement joined the Kasztner train. (According to some sources, the Strasshoff camps were filled with Jews for negotiations in case the Germans could receive something for releasing these Jews, among them 6841 from Debrecen.) 298 of these Debrecen Jews were shot by the SS in Bavaria, after being told they would reach Theresienstadt. Some young Debrecen Jews escaped the town, led by the high school principal Adoniyahu Billitzer and reached Budapest, joining resistance movements and partisans. Most of the remaining Debrecen Jews were deported to Auschwitz, reaching there on 3 July 1944. Debrecen was occupied by the Soviet Army on 20 October 1944. Some 4,000 Jews of Debrecen and its surroundings survived the war, creating a community of 4,640 in 1946 – the largest in the region. About 400 of those moved to Israel, and many others moved to the west by 1970, with 1,200 Jews left in the town, using two synagogues, one of them established before World War I. Climate Debrecen, typically for its Central European location, has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb). Culture Chiefly thanks to the reformation and the prestigious Calvinist College, founded in 1538, Debrecen has been the intellectual and cultural centre of the surrounding area since the 16th century. Over the centuries, the college was transformed into a university, and its intellectual life developed a sphere of influence between Eger and Oradea (Hu: Nagyvárad, now in Romania). In 1949–1950, several departments of the university were shut down, due to Communist takeover, with many students and teachers being expelled. The University of Debrecen, as it is now called, is still widely recognized work of architecture (mostly thanks to its main building). The university is the largest university in Hungary, has more than 100 departments and is a major research facility in Europe. The university is well known for the cactus research laboratory in the botanic gardens behind the main building. In the second half of the 19th century, the Debrecen press attracted several notable figures to the city. Endre Ady, Gyula Krúdy, and Árpád Tóth all began their journalistic careers in Debrecen. Prominent literary figures from the city have included Magda Szabó, and . One of Hungary's best known poets, Mihály Csokonai Vitéz, was born and lived in the city. The city's theatre, built in 1865, was named in his honour in 1916, but can trace its roots back to the National Theatre Company founded in Debrecen in 1789, which at first gave performances in the carthouse of an inn. Celebrated actress Lujza Blaha is among those to have performed there. Debrecen is home to Tankcsapda, one of Hungary's most successful rock bands. There is also a rock school in the city which offers training and mentoring to young musicians. Classic media in the city include the newspaper Napló, two TV channels, a range of local radio stations and several companies and associations producing media material. Debrecen is the site of an important choral competition, the Béla Bartók International Choir Competition, and is a member city of the European Grand Prix for Choral Singing. Every August the city plays host to a flower festival. Economy The development of Debrecen is mainly financed by agricultural, health and educational enterprises. The city is the main center of shopping centers in Eastern Hungary. The Forum Debrecen is the largest shopping center in the region. Debrecen is one of the most developed cities in Hungary, the regional center of international companies such as National Instruments, IT Services Hungary, BT, Continental, BMW and Healthcare Manufacturers (Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd. and Gedeon Richter Plc.). Location Debrecen is located on the Great Hungarian Plain, east of Budapest. Situated nearby is the Hortobágy National Park. Transport The city used to be somewhat isolated from Budapest, Hungary's main transport hub. However, the completion of the motorway M35 means Budapest can now be reached in under two hours. Debrecen Airport (the second largest in Hungary) has recently undergone modernisation in order to be able to handle more international flights, although almost all flights to and from Hungary still use Budapest's Ferihegy Airport (now called Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport). Cities that can be reached from the Debrecen Airport include Brussels, Eindhoven, London, Malmö, Milan, Tel Aviv, Moscow and Paris. There have also been improvements to some parts of the railway between the capital and Debrecen as part of Hungary's mainly EU-funded National Development Plan for 2004 to 2006. There are many railway stations in Debrecen, the most significant is the main station of Debrecen, in addition other smaller stations exist, these include Debrecen-Csapókert, Debrecen-Kondoros, Debrecen-Szabadságtelep and Tócóvölgy. Debrecen's proximity to Ukraine, Slovakia and Romania enables it to develop as an important trade centre and transport hub for the wider international region. Local transport in the city consists of buses, trolleybuses, and trams. There are 2 tram lines, 5 trolleybus lines, and 60 bus lines. It is provided by the DKV (Debreceni Közlekedési Vállalat, or Transport Company of Debrecen). Nearby towns and villages are linked to the city by Hajdú Volán bus services. Sports The city's most famous association football club is Debreceni VSC which won the Nemzeti Bajnokság I seven times, the last one in 2014. Debreceni VSC also known at international level since they reached the 2009-10 UEFA Champions League group stage and the 2010-11 UEFA Europa League group stage. The club's newly built stadium was opened in 2014, where the club could celebrate their seventh title by winning the 2014-15 Nemzeti Bajnokság I. The stadium is also the occasional home of the Hungary national football team. The team hosted Denmark in 2014 and Lithuania in 2015. The city had other association football clubs competing in the Nemzeti Bajnokság I. One of them was Bocskai FC who could also won the Magyar Kupa once in 1930. The other club from the city was Dózsa MaDISz TE who competed in the 1945-46 Nemzeti Bajnokság I. The city has hosted several international sporting events in recent years, such as the second World Youth Championships in Athletics in July 2001 and the first IAAF World Road Running Championships in October 2006. The 2007 European SC Swimming Championships and World Artistic Gymnastics Championships of 2002 also took place in Debrecen. Most recently, the city hosted the 19th FAI World Hot Air Balloon Championship in October 2010. In 2012, Debrecen hosted the 31st LEN European Swimming Championships. Association football Debreceni VSC (competing in the Nemzeti Bajnokság I) Bocskai FC (defunct) Dózsa MaDISz TE (defunct) Debreceni EAC Main sights City Downtown Reformed Great Church (Nagytemplom) City Park (Nagyerdő) and spa Déri Museum (art collection including paintings of Mihály Munkácsy; also has a collection of Ancient Egyptian artifacts) Flower Carnival of Debrecen held on 20 August every year „Hortobágy” mill Nagyerdei Stadion (the home football stadium of the association football club Debreceni VSC) Ravatalozó (cemetery) Csokonai theatre Politics The current mayor of Debrecen is Dr. László Papp (Fidesz-KDNP). The local Municipal Assembly, elected at the 2019 local government elections, is made up of 33 members (1 Mayor, 23 Individual constituencies MEPs and 9 Compensation List MEPs) divided into this political parties and alliances: List of mayors List of City Mayors from 1990: Notable people Born in Debrecen Emma Adler (1858–1935), writer Lorenzo Alvary (1909–1996), operatic bass Ferenc Barnás (born 1959), novelist Zsolt Baumgartner (born 1981), first Hungarian Formula One driver Mihály Csokonai Vitéz (1773–1805), poet Sari Dienes (1898–1992), artist Mihály Fazekas (1766–1828), writer Mihály Flaskay (born 1982), breaststroke swimmer Nóra Görbe, (born 1956), actress, singer and pop icon Meshulam Gross (1863–1947), Hungarian-American entrepreneur Boglárka Kapás (born 1993), Swimmer, 2019 World Champion - 200 m butterfly, 2016 Olympic bronze Medalist - 800 m freestyle István Kardos (1891-1975), conductor and composer George Karpati (1934–2009), physician, neurologist, surgeon, teacher, author Rivka Keren (born 1946), Israeli writer Miklós Kocsár (born 1933), composer Orsi Kocsis (born 1984), fashion, glamour and art nude model Imre Lakatos (1922–1974), philosopher of mathematics and of science Paul László (1900–1993), architect Gábor Máthé (born 1985), tennis Deaflympics champion Mihály Nagy (born 1937) high school teacher; research teacher; university doctor; mineralogist; meteorite researcher Judah Samet (born 1938), Hungarian-American businessman, speaker, and Holocaust survivor Magda Szabó (1917–2007), writer Borbala Biro (born 1957), biologist and agricultural scientist József Váradi (born 1965), CEO of Wizz Air Chaim Michael Dov Weissmandl (1903–1957), rabbi and Holocaust activist Lived in Debrecen Endre Ady (1877–1919), poet Julia Bathory (1901–2000), glass artist Rudolf Charousek (1873–1812? 1873 until grade 4), World Champion chess master Géza Hofi (1936–2002), stand-up comedian Albert Kardos (1861-1945), literary scholar,.linguist, pedagoge and publicist Andrew Karpati Kennedy, author and literary critic Sándor Petőfi (1823–1849), poet Alfréd Rényi (1921–1970), mathematician Éva Risztov (born 1985), Olympic champion swimmer Moshe Stern (1914–1997), Rabbi and authority on Jewish law Sándor Szalay (physicist) (1909–1987), physicist, founder of ATOMKI Árpád Tóth (1886–1928), poet Twin towns – sister cities Debrecen is twinned with: Brno, Czech Republic Cattolica, Italy Jyväskylä, Finland Klaipėda, Lithuania Limerick County, Ireland Lublin, Poland New Brunswick, United States Oradea, Romania Paderborn, Germany Patras, Greece Rishon LeZion, Israel Saint Petersburg, Russia Setúbal, Portugal Shumen, Bulgaria Syktyvkar, Russia Taitung City, Taiwan Toluca, Mexico Tongliao, China See also Debrecen cuisine Debrecener – a pork sausage References Bibliography External links in Hungarian and English Debrecen Travel Guide Debrecen at funiq.hu County seats in Hungary Populated places in Hajdú-Bihar County Cities with county rights of Hungary Former capitals 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221748	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twentieth%20Century%20%28film%29	Twentieth Century (film)	Twentieth Century is a 1934 American pre-Code screwball comedy film directed by Howard Hawks and starring John Barrymore and Carole Lombard. Much of the film is set on the 20th Century Limited train as it travels from Chicago to New York City. Ben Hecht and Charles MacArthur adapted their 1932 Broadway play of the same name – itself based on the unproduced play Napoleon of Broadway by Charles Bruce Millholland – with uncredited contributions from Gene Fowler and Preston Sturges. Along with Frank Capra's It Happened One Night, also released in 1934 (which coincidentally has the same music over the opening titles), Twentieth Century is considered to be a prototype for the screwball comedy. "Howard Hawks' rapid-fire romantic comedy established the essential ingredients of the screwball – a dizzy dame, a charming, but befuddled, hero, dazzling dialogue, and a dash of slapstick." Its success propelled Lombard into the front ranks of film comediennes. The film was added to the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress in 2011. Plot Ebullient Broadway impresario Oscar Jaffe (John Barrymore) takes an unknown lingerie model named Mildred Plotka (Carole Lombard) and makes her the star of his latest play, despite the grave misgivings of everyone else, including his two long-suffering assistants, accountant Oliver Webb (Walter Connolly) and the consistently tipsy Owen O'Malley (Roscoe Karns). Through intensive training, Oscar transforms his protégée into the actress "Lily Garland", and both she and the play are resounding successes. On opening night, after her triumph, he comes to her dressing room to apologize abjectly for his behavior to her. As planned, she falls into his arms, begging him never to leave her, and they become lovers. Cut to three years later. Their partnership has spawned three more smash hits, and Lily has been recognized as a transcendent talent. As a couple, they are famous—or infamous—for their spectacular battles. Then Lily tries to break off their professional and personal relationship, fed up with Oscar's overpossesiveness and control of every aspect of her life. Oscar talks her out of it, promising to be more trusting and less controlling in the future. Instead, he secretly hires a private detective agency run by McGonigle to watch her every move, even to the point of tapping her telephone. When she finds out, it is the last straw; she leaves for Hollywood and soon becomes a big movie star. Without Lily, Oscar produces flop after flop. After one such disappointment, to avoid being imprisoned for his debts, he is forced to disguise himself to board the luxurious 20th Century Limited express train travelling from Chicago to New York City's Grand Central Terminal. By chance, Lily Garland boards the train at a later stop with her boyfriend George Smith (Ralph Forbes). After prevaricating, Oscar sees a chance to restore his fortunes and salvage his relationship with Lily. Oscar schemes to get her to sign a contract with him. However, Lily wants nothing more to do with him. She is on her way to see Oscar's rival (and former employee), Max Jacobs (Charles Lane), to star in his play. However, Oscar manages to get George to break up with her. Knowing that Lily offers him one last chance at professional success he tells her of his wish for her to play Mary Magdalene in his new play; "sensual, heartless, but beautiful – running the gamut from the gutter, to glory – can you see her Lily? – the little wanton ending up in tears at the foot of the cross. I'm going to have Judas strangle himself with her hair." Then Oliver thinks he has found somebody to finance Oscar's project, fellow passenger Mathew J. Clark (Etienne Girardot), not realizing that Clark is a harmless escapee from a mental asylum. When Oscar is slightly wounded in a scuffle with Clark, he pretends to be dying and gets a distraught Lily to sign his contract. The film ends with their first rehearsal, where Oscar reverts to his usual self, domineering a desperate Lily. Cast John Barrymore as Oscar Jaffe Carole Lombard as Lily Garland formerly Mildred Plotka Walter Connolly as Oliver Webb Roscoe Karns as Owen O'Malley Ralph Forbes as George Smith Charles Lane as Max Jacobs (as Charles Levison) Etienne Girardot as Mathew J. Clark Dale Fuller as Sadie Edgar Kennedy as Oscar McGonigle Billie Seward as Anita Production The genesis of Twentieth Century was Napoleon of Broadway, a play by Charles Bruce Millholland about his experiences in working for the legendary and eccentric Broadway producer David Belasco. His play was not produced, but it became the basis for the Hecht-MacArthur comedy, which lasted for 152 performances on Broadway, beginning on December 29, 1932, and which they later adapted for the big screen. Howard Hawks was not the first choice; Roy Del Ruth and Lewis Milestone had been set to direct before Hawks got the job. Columbia tried to get William Frawley from the Broadway cast, but instead borrowed Roscoe Karns from Paramount. Before Lombard was cast, Columbia boss Harry Cohn negotiated with Eugenie Leontovich, who had played the part on Broadway, and then considered Gloria Swanson and Miriam Hopkins. Other reports say that Cohn also approached Ina Claire, Tallulah Bankhead, Ruth Chatterton, Constance Bennett, Ann Harding, Kay Francis and Joan Crawford. However, Hawks believed that Lombard was a brilliant actress who had yet to be unleashed on film. He convinced a reluctant Columbia to borrow her from Paramount Studios. During Barrymore's initial reading with her, he looked to Hawks with an expression that showed he did not believe in Hawks' intuition. The rest of the production went dryly, with Lombard staggering through one scene after another and playing the same stoic characters that she had been taught to portray. Hawks took her aside and asked her what she was being paid for the film. Lombard told him and Hawks asked her what she would do if a man said "something" about her, coming up with an example from the back of his mind. Lombard said, "I would kick him in the balls." Hawks said, "Well, Barrymore said that, so why don't you kick him?" Of course Barrymore had said nothing of the sort, but the plan worked and after Lombard yelped a few profanities, she continued through the shoot with an unforgettable vigor. For the remainder of her career—until her tragic death in an airplane crash in 1942 at age 33—before beginning a film, Lombard would always send a telegram to Hawks saying, "I'm going to kick him!" Lombard and Barrymore became friends during filming. When Barrymore's career was declining, Lombard raised hell to get him to work on her film True Confession (1937). Preston Sturges was hired to write the screenplay around late November 1933, but was removed from the project a week later because he had not made sufficient progress. Columbia then tried to get Herman Mankiewicz to write it, with Felix Young to produce. Twentieth Century – a title which Columbia considered changing because they feared that many westerners would not be familiar with the name of the train – was in production February 22–March 24, 1934. During the filming, there were some problems with the censors at the Hays Office, who were concerned about the religious angle in the comedy of the film, and requested that it be toned down. Joseph Breen, who ran the Office, worried that "there will be serious difficulty in inducing an anti-Semitic public to accept a [motion picture] play produced by an industry believed to be Jewish in which the Passion Play is used for comedy purposes." The Office ultimately asked that one line be removed, which it was. They also requested that it be made less clear where Oscar jabs Lily with a pin. Twentieth Century was premiered in New York at Radio City Music Hall on May 3, 1934, and went into general release on May 11. Reception In his The New York Times review of Twentieth Century, Mordaunt Hall wrote, "John Barrymore is in fine fettle in Twentieth Century" and "acts with such imagination and zest that he never fails to keep the picture thoroughly alive." All of the principal actors - Lombard ("gives an able portrayal"), Connolly ("excellent") and Karns ("adds bright flashes"), as well as Girardot ("an asset") - were also praised. However, Hall was less enthused about the comedy style, stating, "it seems a pity that they [Hecht and MacArthur] were tempted to stray occasionally too far from the realm of restrained comedy and indulge their fancy for boisterous humor." Twentieth Centurys box office performance was described as "dismal". It was a box office disappointment. Time magazine said "Twentieth Century is good fun, slick, wild and improbable." Rotten Tomatoes rates the film 86% fresh, based on 28 reviews. In December 2011, Twentieth Century was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the United States Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry. In its induction, the Registry said that the "sophisticated farce about the tempestuous romance of an egocentric impresario and the star he creates did not fare well on its release, but has come to be recognized as one of the era's finest film comedies, one that gave John Barrymore his last great film role and Carole Lombard her first." Adaptations On the Twentieth Century In 1978, Cy Coleman (music), Betty Comden and Adolph Green (book and lyrics) created the stage musical, On the Twentieth Century, based on the film, the original Hecht and MacArthur play and the unpublished play by Millholland. It ran on Broadway for 460 performances, and was revived for a special benefit performance in 2005. Its first full-scale Broadway revival began in February 2015, with Peter Gallagher and Kristin Chenoweth in the lead roles. Radio Twentieth Century was presented on Star Playhouse November 22, 1953. The adaptation starred Lilli Palmer and Rex Harrison, who were married in real life. References External links Twentieth Century essay by Michael Schlesinger at National Film Registry 1934 films 1934 romantic comedy films 1930s screwball comedy films American films American black-and-white films American films based on plays American romantic comedy films American screwball comedy films Columbia Pictures films 1930s English-language films Films about actors Films about theatre Films directed by Howard Hawks Films scored by Louis Silvers Films set in Chicago Films set on trains United States National Film Registry films	[ -0.5115127563476562, -0.007540821563452482, -0.28665515780448914, 0.2815292477607727, 0.0257416944950819, 0.17896457016468048, 0.23795118927955627, -0.30216556787490845, -0.6755465269088745, 0.0769970566034317, 0.3202285170555115, 0.4820149838924408, -0.07083684206008911, 0.7944715619087219, 0.3389466404914856, 0.038753658533096313, 0.2576720118522644, 0.0996064767241478, 0.27780723571777344, -0.3584234416484833, -0.8651244640350342, 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221749	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C3%BAl%20Castro	Raúl Castro	Raúl Modesto Castro Ruz (; ; born 3 June 1931) is a Cuban retired politician and general who served as the first secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba, the most senior position in the one-party communist state, from 2011 to 2021, succeeding his brother Fidel Castro. One of the military leaders of the Cuban Revolution, Castro served as the minister of the Armed Forces from 1959 to 2008. His ministerial tenure made him the longest-serving minister of the armed forces. Castro was also a member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of Cuba, the highest decision-making body, from 1965 until 2021. Because of his brother's illness, Castro became the acting president of the Council of State in a temporary transfer of power from 31 July 2006. Castro was officially made president by the National Assembly on 24 February 2008, after his brother, who was still ailing, announced on 19 February 2008 that he would not stand again. He was re-elected president on 24 February 2013. Shortly thereafter, Castro announced that his second term would be his final term, and that he would not seek re-election in 2018. He stepped down from the presidency on 19 April 2018 after his successor, Miguel Díaz-Canel was elected by the National Assembly following parliamentary elections. Castro remained the first secretary of the Communist Party; he was still considered the de facto leader of the country, retaining oversight over the president. Castro announced at the Eighth Congress of the Communist Party of Cuba, which began on 16 April 2021, that he was retiring. His successor, Miguel Díaz-Canel, was voted in on 19 April. Castro was also the head of the constitutional reform commission, and continues to have a seat representing Santiago de Cuba's Segundo Frente municipality in the National Assembly. Early life Raúl Modesto Castro Ruz was born in Birán, Cuba, the legal son of a Spanish immigrant father, Ángel Castro who was 55 at the time of his birth, and a Cuban-born mother of Canarian parentage, Lina Ruz. Raúl is the youngest of three brothers: Ramón, Fidel, and himself. He also has four sisters: Angela, Juanita, Emma, and Agustina. Ángel Castro's first wife, Maria Argota, also raised five legal half-siblings of Raúl: Pedro Emilio, Maria Lidia, Manuel, Antonia, and Georgina. As children, the Castro brothers were expelled from the first school they attended. Like Fidel, Raúl later attended the Jesuit School of Colegio Dolores in Santiago and Belen Jesuit Preparatory School () in Havana. Raúl as an undergraduate studied social sciences. Whereas Fidel excelled as a student, Raúl turned in mostly mediocre performances. Raúl became a committed socialist and joined the Socialist Youth, an affiliate of the Soviet-oriented Cuban Communist Party, Partido Socialista Popular (PSP). The brothers participated actively in sometimes violent student actions. In 1953, Raúl served as a member of the 26th of July Movement group that attacked the Moncada Barracks; he received a 13-year prison sentence and spent 22 months in prison as a result of this action. During his subsequent exile in Mexico, he participated in the preparations for the expedition of the boat Granma to Cuba. Commander in the Cuban Revolution When the Granma landing failed and the 82 expeditionaries were detected by government troops soon after, Raúl was one of only 12 fighters who managed to reach a safe haven in the Sierra Maestra mountains, forming the core of the nascent rebel army (see the Cuban Revolution). As Fidel's brother and trusted right-hand man, and given his proven leadership abilities during and after the Moncada attack, he was given progressively bigger commands. On 27 February 1958 Raúl was made comandante and assigned the mission to cross the old province of Oriente leading a column of guerrillas to open, to the northeast of that territory, the "Frank País Eastern Front". As a result of Raúl's "Eastern Front" operations, he was not involved in the pivotal Operation Verano (which came close to destroying the main body of fighters but ended up a spectacular victory for Fidel), but Raúl's forces remained active and grew over time. On 26 June 1958, Raúl Castro's rebels kidnapped ten Americans and two Canadians from the property of Moa Bay Mining Company (an American company) on the north coast of Oriente Province. The next day rebels took hostage 24 U.S. servicemen on leave from the United States naval base at Guantanamo Bay. This incident brought total kidnapped hostages to 36 (34 U.S. and 2 Canadian citizens). U.S. Ambassador Earl E. T. Smith and his staff determined the kidnappings had the following objectives: Obtain worldwide publicity, regain M-26-7 prestige lost by general strike call failure, force Batista's Air Force to stop bombing rebel holds, and gain public recognition from the U.S. Two tactical objectives the kidnapping achieved for Castro forces can be discerned from contemporaneous reporting in Time: Batista declaring a ceasefire for negotiations, forcing a reduction in Operation Verano air raids; the rebels used the lulls to regroup and fly in arms. The hostage-taking caused significant U.S. backlash, including unfavorable public reaction, and U.S. consideration to re-establishing military support to Batista and deploying U.S. forces to free the hostages. Ultimately, the hostages were released in very small groups, extracting the maximum press attention. After their release, the hostages said they were treated well with some even claiming to support the rebel cause. Regarding the captured Batista government soldiers, Raúl Castro notes in his war diaries: "All three were brought food and told that they would be released and only their weapons would be kept. They had money and watches we needed, but according to our principles, we didn't touch them. In the territories under guerrilla control, it created an autonomous structure by establishing hospitals, schools and several material manufacturing plants. In 1958, he was also at the origin of the M-26 intelligence services. By October 1958, after reinforcement by Fidel, the brothers had about 2,000 fighters and were operating freely throughout Oriente province. In December, while Che Guevara and Camilo Cienfuegos were operating in Santa Clara, Fidel and Raúl's army laid siege to Maffo, capturing it on 30 December. Their victorious army then headed to Santiago de Cuba, capital of Oriente province. In response to the victory by Che Guevara at the Battle of Santa Clara, the U.S.-backed President Fulgencio Batista fled Cuba in the early morning of 1 January 1959. The two Castro brothers with their army arrived on the outskirts of Santiago de Cuba and said their forces would storm the city at 6 P.M. on 1 January if it did not first surrender. The commander (Colonel Rego Rubido) surrendered Santiago de Cuba without a fight. The war was over and Fidel was able to take power in Havana when he arrived on 8 January 1959. Raúl's abilities as a military leader during the revolution are hard to see clearly. Unlike Che Guevara or Cienfuegos, Raúl had no significant victories he could claim credit for on his own. The last operations (which were clearly successful) were conducted with his older brother Fidel present (and in command). After Batista's fall, Raúl had the task of overseeing trials and execution of between 30 and 70 soldiers loyal to deposed president Batista who had been convicted of war crimes. Political career Early political career Raúl Castro Ruz was a member of the national leadership of the Integrated Revolutionary PO Organizations (established July 1961; dissolved March 1962) and of the United Party of the Socialist Revolution of Cuba (established March 1962; dissolved October 1965). He is also credited with helping shoot down a Lockheed U2 and killing Major Rudolf Anderson. He served as a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Cuba and Second Secretary of its Politburo from the Party's formation in October 1965; also as First Vice President of the Cuban Council of State of the National Assembly of People's Power and Council of Ministers when these were established in 1976. He was appointed Minister of the Revolutionary Armed Forces when it was founded in October 1959 and served in that capacity until February 2008. Assumption of presidential duties On 31 July 2006, Fidel Castro's personal secretary, Carlos Valenciaga, announced on state-run television that Fidel Castro would provisionally hand over the duties of First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba (party chief), President of the Council of State of Cuba (head of state), President of the Council of Ministers of Cuba (prime minister), and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces to Raúl Castro while Fidel underwent and recovered from intestinal surgery to repair gastrointestinal bleeding. Many commentators regarded Raúl Castro as a political hardliner who would maintain the Communist Party of Cuba's influence in the country. However, others believed that he was more pragmatic than his older brother and willing to institute some market-oriented economic policies. It was speculated that he favored a variant of the current Chinese and Vietnamese political and economic model for Cuba in the hopes of preserving some elements of the socialist system. Raúl is considered by some to be less charismatic than his brother Fidel Castro, who remained largely out of public view during the transfer-of-duty period. His few public appearances included hosting a gathering of leaders of the Non-Aligned nations in September 2006, and leading the national commemoration of the 50th anniversary of the landing of the boat Granma, which also became Fidel's belated 80th-birthday celebrations. In a speech to university students, Raúl stated that a communist system in Cuba would remain, and that "Fidel is irreplaceable, unless we all replace him together." On 1 May 2007 Raúl presided over the May Day celebrations in Havana. According to Granma the crowd reached over one million participants, with delegations from over 225 organizations and 52 countries. Raúl has a reputation for his businesslike, unanimated delivery of speeches. Communist leader After assuming what was originally announced as a temporary control over the presidency in 2006, on 24 February 2008 Raúl Castro won election as the new President of the Council of State and President of the Council of Ministers during a legislative session held at Cuba's Palace of Conventions in Havana. His administration subsequently announced several economic reforms. In March 2008 the government removed restrictions on the purchase of numerous products not available under Fidel Castro's administration - including DVD-players, computers, rice cookers, and microwaves. In an effort to boost food production, the government allowed private farmers and cooperatives to lease idle state-owned land and moved much of the decision-making process regarding land use from the national level to the municipal level. All death sentences (about 30) were commuted between 2008 and 2010, although none had been executed since 2003. In mid-2008, the government overhauled the salary structure of all state-run companies so that harder-working employees could earn higher wages. In addition, the government removed restrictions against the use of cell phones and investigated the removal of travel restrictions on Cubans. In March 2009, Raúl Castro dismissed some officials. In April 2011, Raúl announced a plan of 300 economic reforms encouraging private initiative, reducing state spending, encouraging foreign investment and agrarian reforms. He also announced a limitation on presidential terms, including his own. On 24 February 2013, Cuba's parliament named Raúl Castro to a new five-year term as president and appointed Miguel Díaz-Canel as his first vice president. Castro announced that day that he would step down from power after his second term as president ended in 2018. In 2018, he was selected as a candidate for the National Assembly of People's Power by the Segundo Frente municipality in Santiago de Cuba, regarded as the cradle of the Cuban Revolution. Miguel Díaz-Canel took over as President of Cuba (President of the Council of State) on 19 April 2018. Raúl Castro remained First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party until he resigned on April 19, 2021. Normalization of relations with the United States Raúl Castro said in a 2008 interview: "The American people are among our closest neighbors. We should respect each other. We have never held anything against the American people. Good relations would be mutually advantageous. Perhaps we cannot solve all of our problems, but we can solve a good many of them." On 10 December 2013, Castro, in a significant move, shook hands with and greeted American President Barack Obama at the Nelson Mandela memorial service in Johannesburg. On 17 December 2014 Castro and Obama made separate announcements to the effect that efforts to normalize relations between the two nations would begin with the re-establishment of embassies in Havana and Washington. Direct diplomatic relations had previously ceased in 1961 after Cuba became closely allied with the USSR. Argentine-born Pope Francis facilitated the rapprochement between the U.S. and Cuba, allowing the Vatican to be used for secret negotiations. Castro and Obama made simultaneous public announcements about the progress toward normalization. On 20 July 2015 Cuba and the United States officially resumed full diplomatic relations with the sections of "Cuban interests" in Washington, D.C., and "U.S. interests" in Havana upgraded to embassies. On 20 March 2016 Obama made a visit to Cuba to meet with Castro - the first visit of a sitting U.S. president to Cuba in 88 years. Speaking in 2017, Castro criticized U.S. President Donald Trump's proposition of the Mexican wall and restrictive trade policy. Castro called Trump's plans egotistical and - for the border - irrational. "You can't contain poverty, catastrophes, and migrants with walls, but with cooperation, understanding, and peace," Castro said. In November 2016 Trump (as U.S. President-elect) targeted Raúl in a tweet, saying, "If Cuba is unwilling to make a better deal for the Cuban people, the Cuban/American people and the U.S. as a whole, I will terminate deal". Castro surprised a top American envoy in September 2017 while discussing sonic attacks on American diplomatic staff. He denied involvement but allowed FBI rare access to investigate the incident that allegedly left 21 people with hearing loss and brain damage. In September 2019 the United States sanctioned Castro and barred him from entering the U.S. due to Cuba's support of the Nicolás Maduro government in Venezuela during the presidential crisis and alleged human-rights abuses caused by the government. Retirement On 16 April 2021, the 8th Congress of the Communist Party of Cuba assembled for a four-day meeting, marking the start of Castro's final transfer of leadership and retirement from politics. Miguel Dias-Canel was elected Castro's successor as First Secretary of the Communist Party on 19 April 2021. Public and personal life Castro married Vilma Espín, a former Massachusetts Institute of Technology chemical engineering student and the daughter of a wealthy lawyer for the Bacardi rum company, on 26 January 1959. Vilma became president of the Cuban Federation of Women. They have three daughters (Déborah, Mariela, and Nilsa) and one son (Alejandro) Castro Espín. Vilma Espín died on 18 June 2007. Alejandro is a Colonel in the Ministry of the Interior, as director of the office of Intelligence Coordination between MININT and MINFAR, with full oversight and access to all of the activities of the Intelligence services. Most foreign analysts consider him to be the "czar" of Cuban Intelligence and Raul's link to maintaining control over MININT, balancing it with his own control of MINFAR. He is widely viewed as Raul's most trusted advisor and is likely being prepared for a future leadership role. Their daughter Mariela Castro currently heads the Cuban National Center for Sex Education, while Déborah is married to Colonel Luis Alberto Rodríguez, head of GAESA, the Armed Forces' economic division. He is widely regarded as one of the most powerful figures in the Cuban Economy due to the Military's hold on most of the lucrative business sectors. Deborah's son, Raul Guillermo, nicknamed El Cangrejo (The Crab) due to a malformed finger, is Raul's current chief bodyguard. In an interview in 2006, following his assumption of presidential duties, Raúl Castro commented on his public profile stating: "I am not used to making frequent appearances in public, except at times when it is required ... I have always been discreet, that is my way, and in passing I will clarify that I am thinking of continuing in that way". In an interview with actor Sean Penn, Castro was described as "warm, open, energetic, and sharp of wit". However, Juan Reynaldo Sanchez, a defected bodyguard for Fidel who knew Raul well, wrote later that his warm public exterior was a carefully maintained façade; In private, he found him to be "rough, curt, almost unpleasant" with a dubious sense of humor. Nevertheless though, Sanchez considered Raul the true "architect" of the Castroist system, despite having a polar opposite personality to Fidel. Whereas Fidel was "charismatic, energetic, visionary but extremely impulsive and totally disorganized", Raul was described as a "natural, methodical, and uncompromising organizer". After a meeting with Pope Francis in Vatican City on 10 May 2015, Castro said that he would conditionally consider returning to the Roman Catholic Church. He said in a televised news conference, "I read all the speeches of the pope, his commentaries, and if the pope continues this way, I will go back to praying and go back to the [Roman Catholic] church. I am not joking." The pope visited Cuba before his September 2015 visit to the United States. Castro said: "I promise to go to all his Masses and with satisfaction," when Pope Francis visited Cuba in 2015. Castro considered Christ a communist stating, "I think that's why they killed Jesus, for being a communist, for doing what Fidel defined as revolution... changing the situation." Castro retired as Communist Party leader on 19 April 2021. In popular culture In the 1969 American film Che!, Castro was played by Paul Bertoya. In the 2002 film Fidel, he was played by Maurice Comte. In the 2008 American biographical film Che, he was played by Rodrigo Santoro. Honours and awards : Hero of the Republic of Cuba Order of Playa Girón Order of Cienfuegos : Dr António Agostinho Neto Order : Order of Friendship : Grand Cross of the National Order of Mali : Order of the National Flag, 1st class : Order of the Cross of Grunwald, 1st class : Order of Friendship Order of the Holy Prince Daniel of Moscow, 1st class (Russian Orthodox Church) : Order of Lenin Order of the October Revolution Jubilee Medal "In Commemoration of the 100th Anniversary of the Birth of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin" : First Class of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise : Grand Cordon of the Order of the Liberator : Gold Star Order References Citations Sources External links Raul Castro Stamps His Mark, Havana Times, 4 March 2009 Who is Raul Castro, Cuba's new leader?, Times Online, 19 February 2008. Biography by CIDOB Foundation (in Spanish) Speech by Raúl Castro on July 26, 2007 (English translation), Escambray Digital, 27 July 2007. "Cuba in transition" in Starbroek News, 19 April 2007 "Regime readies path for Raúl Castro's rise" by Frances Robles, Miami Herald, 14 July 2006. Raul Castro Books BBC Profile: Raul Castro, 24 February 2008 Time Magazine: Castro Family Values: Fidel vs. Raul 17 April 2008 Photographs of Raul Castro, 1964 – Duke University Libraries Digital Collections \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- 1931 births Living people 2000s in Cuba 2010s in Cuba 20th-century Cuban politicians 21st-century Cuban politicians Che Guevara Communist rulers Cuban communists Cuban nationalists Cuban people of Canarian descent Cuban people of Galician descent Cuban revolutionaries Raul First Secretaries of the Communist Party of Cuba Government ministers of Cuba Members of the National Assembly of People's Power People from Mayarí People of the Cuban Revolution Presidents pro tempore of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States Presidents of Cuba Prime Ministers of Cuba Recipients of the National Order of Mali Recipients of the Order of Holy Prince Daniel of Moscow Recipients of the Order of Lenin Recipients of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, 1st class 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221750	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudal%20land%20tenure%20in%20England	Feudal land tenure in England	Under the English feudal system several different forms of land tenure existed, each effectively a contract with differing rights and duties attached thereto. Such tenures could be either free-hold, signifying that they were hereditable or perpetual, or non-free where the tenancy terminated on the tenant's death or at an earlier specified period. High medieval period In England's ancient past large parts of the realm were unoccupied and owned as allodial titles, the land owners simply cooperated with the king out of a mutual interest instead of legal obligation. It wasn't until the Norman conquest when William the Conqueror declared himself to be the sole allodial owner of all of the realm that land tenures changed drastically. In William's kingdom the common exchange and sale of land became restricted and all landholders were made to provide a service to their lord ("no land without a lord"). Norman reforms William stripped the land from those who opposed him and redistributed it between his followers. He introduced a new type of feudalism in which obligation continued to all the way down the hierarchy which was inspired by the military system. Barony and knight-service The tenants-in-chief held their land by the tenure of barony which required the tenant to provide a number of knights for their liege for 40 days per annum, after the served days the liege was either forced to begin paying the knights or dismiss them. However, tenants who held their land the tenure of knight-service were not to pass their lands to the heir automatically but required the lord's approval. The system however proved difficult to sustain as the assessment of knight's fees became impossible to maintain for few properties retained the same wealth and population as they did when they were first enfeoffed leading to a situation where the lord only had provided a marginal number of knights of what he actually could muster. Another issue was the practice of subinfeudation in which the subtenants would alienate the land to tenants of their own, it became unpopular amongst the superior lords and was banned by Edward I in Quia Emptores, as a compensation sale of properties was made legal. Late medieval period Over the course of the late medieval period knight-service came to be replaced by the tenure of scutage in which tenants paid tax according to their knight's fee instead of providing knights. Before the mid-13th century the fiefs hadn't been inheritable due to fear that the heir of the tenant couldn't provide the knight-service, however, due to scutage replacing knight-service, that fear no longer existed; the heirs were allowed to succeeded fiefs in exchange of paying a type of inheritance tax. Tenures Abolition Act 1660 declared that all land was to be held by socage tenure, ending the feudal tenure. References Feudal duties Feudalism in England Real property law English property law Medieval English law Land tenure	[ -0.4167729616165161, -0.30489784479141235, -0.22364838421344757, -0.38347959518432617, -0.5640848875045776, 0.6181354522705078, 0.6416577100753784, 0.0749022364616394, -0.22664736211299896, -0.1554812788963318, -0.27192631363868713, 0.2776983678340912, 0.033393725752830505, 0.3071794807910919, -0.7391155958175659, 1.116202473640442, 0.33172470331192017, 0.4140540659427643, -0.15023210644721985, -0.6116291284561157, -0.19670239090919495, -0.10186535120010376, -0.05378016456961632, 0.4343316853046417, 0.6151469945907593, -0.36481812596321106, 0.5976947546005249, -0.2825869619846344, -0.5385388731956482, -0.47827890515327454, 0.012366432696580887, 0.5099660158157349, 0.163532555103302, -0.37876054644584656, 0.05086337402462959, -0.8167648911476135, -0.17776423692703247, -0.43150246143341064, -0.7894504070281982, -1.0862771272659302, 0.4897903501987457, 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221757	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangaroo%20court	Kangaroo court	A kangaroo court is a court that ignores recognized standards of law or justice, carries little or no official standing in the territory within which it resides, and is typically convened ad hoc. A kangaroo court may ignore due process and come to a predetermined conclusion. The term may also apply to a court held by a legitimate judicial authority which intentionally disregards the court's legal or ethical obligations (compare show trial). A kangaroo court could also develop when the structure and operation of the forum result in an inferior brand of adjudication. A common example of this is when institutional disputants ("repeat players") have excessive and unfair structural advantages over individual disputants ("one-shot players"). Etymology The term kangaroo court is often erroneously believed to have its origin from the courts of Australia's penal colonies. The Oxford English Dictionary cites the first published instance of the term as from an American source, A Stray Yankee in Texas by Philip Paxton, published in 1853. There are, however, earlier instances of the term, including an 1841 article in The Daily Picayune, New Orleans, that quotes another publication, the Concordia Intelligencer, reporting several lynchings instituted "on charges of the Kangaroo court". The Picayune article also asks "What is a kangaroo court?" Some sources suggest that it may have been popularized during the California Gold Rush of 1849 to which many thousands of Australians flocked. In consequence of the Australian miners' presence, it may have come about as a description of the hastily carried-out proceedings used to deal with the issue of claim jumping miners. Ostensibly, the term comes from the notion of justice proceeding "by leaps", like a kangaroo – in other words, "jumping over" (intentionally ignoring) evidence that would be in favour of the defendant. An alternative theory is that as these courts are often convened quickly to deal with an immediate issue, they are called kangaroo courts since they have "jumped up" out of nowhere, like a kangaroo. Another possibility is that the phrase could refer to the pouch of a kangaroo, meaning the court is in someone's pocket. Etymologist Philologos argues that the term arose "because a place named Kangaroo sounded comical to its hearers, just as place names like Kalamazoo, and Booger Hole, and Okefenokee Swamp, strike us as comical." The phrase is popular in the Anglosphere and is still in common use. As informal proceedings in sport The term is sometimes used without any negative connotation. For example, many Major League Baseball and Minor League Baseball teams have a kangaroo court to punish players for errors and other mistakes on the field, as well as for being late for a game or practice, not wearing proper attire to road games, or having a messy locker in the clubhouse. Fines are allotted, and at the end of the year, the money collected is given to charity. The organization may also use the money for a team party at the end of the season. Examples Some examples of adjudication venues described as kangaroo courts are: The Volksgerichtshof (People's Court) of Nazi Germany that convicted people who were suspected of being involved with the failed plot to assassinate Hitler on July 20, 1944. In the late 1930s, Stalin used the state legal apparatus of the USSR to fabricate charges against his political rivals, and to subsequently eliminate any challenge to his absolute rule. The show trials in the Soviet Union resulted in the wrongful conviction of Stalin's former Old Bolshevik revolutionary colleagues. In 1835, a so-called "vigilance committee" in Nashville, Tennessee, United States, ran a show but legally meaningless trial, by which they convicted abolitionist minister Amos Dresser of distribution of abolitionist publications; he repeatedly claimed innocence. He was publicly whipped 20 lashes, after which he left Tennessee as soon as he could do so safely. In August 1979 the People's Revolutionary Tribunal, in Cambodia, tried Pol Pot and his brother Ieng San. After a lengthy trial with a duration of five days, both were sentenced to death in absentia on 19 August 1979. Conclusive evidence showed that the verdicts and the sentencing papers had been prepared in advance of the trial. Relying on this evidence, the United Nations proceeded to de-legitimize the tribunal, stating that it did not comply with standards of international law. During the Romanian Revolution in 1989, President and Communist Party General Secretary Nicolae Ceaușescu and his wife Elena Ceausescu were sentenced to death by a kangaroo court consisting of members of the military: Two military judges, two colonels, and three other officers of lesser ranks. The prosecutor was Dan Voinea; two lawyers represented the defendant. All the members of the court were part of the Romanian People's Army, which had recently switched to the side of the revolutionaries. See also References Further reading 288 pages. External links The Straight Dope: What's the origin of "kangaroo court"? 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221758	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludza	Ludza	Ludza (; , , , Ludza) is a town in the Latgale region of eastern Latvia. Ludza is the oldest city in Latvia. Ludza is the administrative centre of Ludza Municipality that is located nearby the Russian border. The population as of 2020 was 7,667. History After Nikolay Karamzin, Ludza was first mentioned as Лючин in Hypatian Codex dating back to 1173 or 1177. In 1399 the Livonian Order built a stone fortress atop an older Latgalian fortress and used Ludza as an eastern outpost in Livonia. Ludza Castle ruins can be visited nowadays. Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth After the dissolution of the Livonian Order in 1561, Ludza was incorporated to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and became part of Wenden Voivodeship. In January 1626, during the Polish-Swedish War, Ludza was captured without a battle by Sweden due to defeat of the forces of Polish-Lithuanian marshal Jan Stanisław Sapieha. Later it was recaptured by Polish forces. In 1678, Commonwealth's Sejm appointed a special commission in Grodno that had to build Catholic churches in Latgale. Year later, a commission visited Ludza and in 1687, building of the church was completed. In 1736, church was destroyed by fire. Russian Empire After the first partition of Poland in 1772 was taken over by the Russian Empire and added to Vitebsk Governorate. Ludza received town rights in 1777 from Catherine II of Russia. During the first part of the 19th century, most of the population of Ludza were Jews (67% in 1815) and there were 7 synagogues in town. Latvia After signing of the Latvian–Soviet Peace Treaty in 1920, Ludzas apriņķis and Ludza as its administrative centre was incorporated into the Republic of Latvia. During World War II, Ludza was under German occupation from 4 July 1941 until 23 July 1944. It was administered as a part of the Generalbezirk Lettland of Reichskommissariat Ostland. The Jewish population was restricted to a ghetto. From July 1941 until the spring of 1942, hundreds of Jews were murdered in mass executions perpetrated by Einsatzgruppen. After Latvia regained its independence in 1991, Ludza became the administrative centre of Ludza District. On July 1, 2009, due to the introduction of the new administrative division in Latvia it became the centre of Ludza Municipality. Tourism Ludza Museum and Ludza Tourism Information Centre offer excursions around the town. The most visited sights are: Ludza History Museum and open-air exposition Roman Catholic Church Orthodox Church Evangelical Lutheran Church Old Believers' Church Ruins of the medieval Ludza Castle Ludza Craftsmen Centre Several lakes offer fishing and water tourism possibilities. Transport Roads Ludza is located on the main Riga - Moscow road, as a part of European route E22, and only 30 km away from the Latvian-Russian border. Railway Ludza Train Station is a part of the Rēzekne II - Zilupe railway line that was originally built in 1901 as a part of Ventspils - Moscow line. The current station building was built after the World War II. Education The children of Ludza may attend three pre-school educational institutions - "Rūķītis", "Pasaciņa" and "Namiņš". Elementary and secondary education curricula are provided by Ludza Gymnasium and Ludza Secondary School #2, as well as by Ludza Evening Secondary School. Additional out of school activities are offered at: Ludza Music Primary School (music school with integrated primary school) Ludza Art School Ludza Children and Youth Centre Ludza Sport School Demographics As of 2020, the town had a population of 7,667, of which 4,455 (58.1%) were ethnic Latvians, 2,661 (34.7%) were ethnic Russians, 168 (2.1%) were Belarusians, 93 (1.2%) were Ukrainians, 63 (0.8%) were Poles, 24 (0.3%) were Lithuanians, and 187 (2.4%) belonging to other ethnic groups. Notable people Born in Ludza Yakov Kulnev (1763–1812) – major-general, hero of the Patriotic war with Napoleon Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski (1878—1945) – Polish writer and explorer Karol Bohdanowicz (1864–1947) – Polish geologist Leonid Dobychin (1894–1936) – Russian writer Ilya Chashnik (1902–1929) – Russian suprematist painter Twinning and international cooperation Ludza municipality has several cooperation partners abroad. Bad Bodenteich (Germany) Hlybokaye (Belarus) Brest (Belarus) Nevel (Russia) Sebezh (Russia) Novopolotsk (Belarus) See also Ludza Estonians Ludza castle ruins Ludza municipality References External links Ludza Municipality portal Portal of Ludza Craftsmen Centre, LV, ENG, DE, RU The murder of the Jews of Ludza during World War II, at the Yad Vashem website. 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221760	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern%20marsh%20harrier	Eastern marsh harrier	The eastern marsh harrier (Circus spilonotus) is a bird of prey belonging to the marsh harrier group of harriers. It was previously considered to be conspecific with the western marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus) but is now usually classified as a separate species. It has two subspecies: C. s. spilonotus in eastern Asia and C. s. spilothorax (Papuan harrier, perhaps a separate species) in New Guinea. Description It is 48 to 58 cm long with a wingspan of 113 to 137 cm; like most birds of prey, the female is usually larger than the male. The male's plumage is variable; typically the head, breast, back and wing-coverts are blackish with pale streaks. The rest of the wing is grey with black wingtips and a white front edge. The tail is grey, the rump is white and the underparts are mostly white. The female is dark brown with buff streaking on the head and underparts. The rump is often whitish and the tail has dark bars. Young birds are dark brown with buff on the head and a pale patch on the underwing. It is usually silent but has a mewing call which is most often uttered at roost sites. Distribution and habitat Eastern marsh harriers are generally migratory apart from the Papuan harrier which is sedentary. The breeding range covers north-east China, Mongolia and south-east Siberia (as far west as Lake Baikal) with small numbers in northern Japan (Hokkaidō and northern Honshū). There is some overlap with western marsh harrier around Lake Baikal and interbreeding has taken place. The wintering range includes southern China, Taiwan, Korea, southern Japan, northeast India, Bangladesh and Southeast Asia as far south as the Philippines, Borneo and Sumatra. Large numbers of birds migrate along the Chinese coast with thousands passing through sites like Beidaihe during the autumn. Its preferred habitat is open country including marshland, paddy fields and grassland. Diet and reproduction While hunting it flies low over the ground with the wings held in a shallow V-shape. Its prey includes small mammals, birds and frogs. The breeding season begins in April. The nest is made of sticks and built on the ground, usually in a reedbed. Four to seven eggs are laid which are incubated for 33 to 48 days. The young birds fledge after 35 to 40 days. References Mark A. Brazil (1991) The Birds of Japan, Christopher Helm, London Roger Clarke (1995) The Marsh Harrier, Hamlyn, London. John MacKinnon & Karen Phillipps (2000) A Field Guide to the Birds of China. Oxford University Press. Craig Robson (2002) A Field Guide to the Birds of South-East Asia. 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221761	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20American%20Aviation	North American Aviation	North American Aviation (NAA) was a major American aerospace manufacturer that designed and built several notable aircraft and spacecraft. Its products included the T-6 Texan trainer, the P-51 Mustang fighter, the B-25 Mitchell bomber, the F-86 Sabre jet fighter, the X-15 rocket plane, the XB-70, the B-1 Lancer, the Apollo command and service module, the second stage of the Saturn V rocket, and the Space Shuttle orbiter. Through a series of mergers and sales, North American Aviation became part of North American Rockwell, which later became Rockwell International and is now part of Boeing. History Early years Clement Melville Keys founded North American on December 6, 1928, as a holding company that bought and sold interests in various airlines and aviation-related companies. However, the Air Mail Act of 1934 forced the breakup of such holding companies. North American became a manufacturing company, run by James H. "Dutch" Kindelberger, who had been recruited from Douglas Aircraft Company. NAA did retain ownership of Eastern Air Lines until 1938. General Motors Corporation took a controlling interest in NAA and merged it with the General Aviation Manufacturing Corporation in 1933, but retained the name North American Aviation. Kindelberger moved the company's operations from Dundalk, Maryland to Los Angeles, California, which allowed flying year-round, and decided to focus on training aircraft, on the theory that it would be easier than trying to compete with established companies on larger projects. Its first planes were the GA-15 observation plane and the GA-16 trainer, followed by the O-47 and BT-9, also called the GA-16. World War II The BC-1 of 1937 was North American's first combat aircraft; it was based on the GA-16. In 1940, like other manufacturers, North American started gearing up for war, opening factories in Columbus, Ohio, Dallas, Texas, and Kansas City, Kansas. North American ranked eleventh among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. North American's follow-on to the BT-9 was the T-6 Texan trainer, of which 17,000 were built, making it the most widely used trainer ever. The twin-engine B-25 Mitchell bomber achieved fame in the Doolittle Raid and was used in all combat theaters of operation. The P-51 Mustang was initially produced for Britain as an alternative to the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk, which North American had declined to produce under licence. The derivative A-36 Mustang was developed as a ground attack aircraft and dive bomber. This was done, in part, to keep the airframe in production as the US Army Air Corps had not yet decided to purchase the type as a fighter. A suggestion by the RAF that North American switch the P-51's powerplant from its original Allison engine to the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine may have been one of the most significant events in World War II aviation, as it transformed the P-51 into what many consider to be the best American fighter of the war. Post-war years Post-war, North American's employment dropped from a high of 91,000 to 5,000 in 1946. On V-J Day, North American had orders from the U.S. government for 8,000 aircraft. A few months later, that had dropped to 24. Two years later in 1948, General Motors divested NAA as a public company. Nevertheless, NAA continued with new designs, including the T-28 Trojan trainer and attack aircraft, the F-82 Twin Mustang fighter, B-45 Tornado jet bomber, the FJ Fury fighter, AJ Savage, the revolutionary XB-70 Valkyrie Mach-3 strategic bomber, Shrike Commander, and T-39 Sabreliner business jet. The Columbus, Ohio division of North American Aviation was instrumental in the exclusive development and production of the A-5 Vigilante, an advanced high speed bomber that would see significant use as a naval reconnaissance aircraft during the Vietnam War, the OV-10 Bronco, the first aircraft specifically designed for forward air control (FAC), and counter-insurgency (COIN) duties, and the T-2 Buckeye Naval trainer, which would serve from the late 1950s until 2008 and be flown in training by virtually every Naval Aviator and Naval Flight Officer in the US Navy and US Marine Corps for four decades. The Buckeye's name would be an acknowledgment to the state tree of Ohio, as well as the mascot of Ohio State University. The North American F-86 Sabre started out as a redesigned Fury and achieved fame shooting down MiGs in the Korean War. Over 9,000 F-86s were produced. Its successor, the North American F-100 Super Sabre, was also popular. Some 6,656 F-86s were produced in the United States, the most produced postwar military aircraft in the West, as well as another 2,500 elsewhere. To accommodate its Sabre production, North American opened facilities in a former Curtiss-Wright plant in Columbus, Ohio. It also moved into a former Consolidated-Vultee Aircraft plant at Downey, California, and in 1948, built a new plant at Downey. By the end of 1952, North American sales topped $315 million. Employment at the Columbus plant grew from 1,600 in 1950 to 18,000 in 1952. The cancellation of the F-107 and F-108 programs in the late 1950s, as well as the cancellation of the Navaho intercontinental cruise missile program, was a blow to North American from which it never fully recovered. Nuclear development Atomics International was a division of North American Aviation which began as the Atomic Energy Research Department at the Downey plant in 1948. In 1955, the department was renamed Atomics International and engaged principally in the early development of nuclear technology and nuclear reactors for both commercial and government applications. Atomics International was responsible for a number of accomplishments relating to nuclear energy: design, construction and operation of the first nuclear reactor in California (a small aqueous homogeneous reactor located at the NAA Downey plant), the first nuclear reactor to produce power for a commercial power grid in the United States (the Sodium Reactor Experiment located at the Santa Susana Field Laboratory) and the first nuclear reactor launched into outer space by the United States (the SNAP-10A). As overall interest in nuclear power declined, Atomics International transitioned to non-nuclear energy-related projects such as coal gasification and gradually ceased designing and testing nuclear reactors. Atomics International was eventually merged with the Rocketdyne division in 1978. Navigation and guidance, radar, and data systems Autonetics began in 1945 at North American's Technical Research Laboratory, a small unit in the Los Angeles Division's engineering department based in Downey, California. The evolution of the Navaho missile program resulted in the establishment of Autonetics as a separate division of North American Aviation in 1955, first located in Downey, later moving to Anaheim, California in 1963. The division was involved in the development of guidance systems for the Minuteman ballistic missile system. Space program In 1955, the rocket engine operations were spun off into a separate division as Rocketdyne. This division furnished engines for the Redstone, Jupiter, Thor, Delta, and Atlas missiles, and for NASA's Saturn family of launch vehicles. North American designed and built the airframe for the X-15, a rocket-powered aircraft that first flew in 1959. In 1959, North American built the first of several Little Joe boosters used to test the launch escape system for the Project Mercury spacecraft. In 1960, the new CEO Lee Atwood decided to focus on the space program, and the company became the prime contractor for the Apollo command and service module, a larger Little Joe II rocket to test Apollo's launch escape system, and the S-II second stage of the Saturn V. Merger and acquisition The fatal Apollo 1 fire in January 1967 was partly blamed on the company. In September, it merged with Rockwell-Standard, and the merged company became known as North American Rockwell. Within two years the new company was studying concepts for the Space Shuttle, and won the orbiter contract in 1972. In 1973, the company changed its name again to Rockwell International and named its aircraft division North American Aircraft Operations. Rockwell International's defense and space divisions (including the North American Aviation divisions Autonetics and Rocketdyne) were sold to Boeing in December 1996. Initially called Boeing North American, these groups were integrated with Boeing's Defense division. Rocketdyne was eventually sold by Boeing to UTC Pratt & Whitney in 2005. UTC later sold Rocketdyne to Aerojet (GenCorp) in 2013. Products Aircraft Crewed spacecraft Apollo command and service module North American DC-3 Skylab Rescue Space Shuttle Missiles and rockets AGM-28 Hound Dog AGM-64 Hornet RTV-A-3 NATIV SM-64 Navaho S-II second stage of the Saturn V launch vehicle Little Joe (rocket) Little Joe II Unmanned aerial vehicles North American MQM-42 Redhead-Roadrunner Projects North American NA-116 (four-engined long range bomber project only) North American NA-148 (commercial transport project only) North American NA-237 (fighter bomber project only) North American NA-323 (project only for VFX F-14 program) North American NA-365 (carrier on board delivery - project only) North American NA-400 (naval strike attack project for USN) North American NA-420 (V/STOL Support aircraft project for USN) North American XF-108 Rapier See also Norris J. Nelson, Los Angeles City Council member, commenting on 1941 North American strike References Footnotes Notes Bibliography Borth, Christy. Masters of Mass Production. Indianapolis, Indiana: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1945. Fletcher, David and Doug MacPhail. Harvard! The North American Trainers in Canada. Dundas, Ontario, Canada: DCF Flying Books,1990. . Hagedorn, Dan. North American NA-16/AT-6/SNJ. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 1997. Herman, Arthur. Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II. New York: Random House, 2012. . Parker, Dana T. Building Victory: Aircraft Manufacturing in the Los Angeles Area in World War II. Cypress, California: Dana T. Parker Books, 2013. . Pattillo, Donald M. Pushing the Envelope: The American Aircraft Industry. Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, 1998. Peck, Merton J. and Frederic M. Scherer. The Weapons Acquisition Process: An Economic Analysis. Boston: Harvard Business School, 1962. Further reading External links Boeing.com: North American Aviation history Aerospace Legacy Foundation AeroWeb: List of NAA aircraft ACME, NAA history: documents and photographs archive. Autonetics division Bright, Charles D., The Jet Makers: The Aerospace Industry From 1945 to 1972, Lawrence, Kansas: The Regents Press of Kansas, 1978. Defense companies of the United States Defunct aircraft manufacturers of the United States Manufacturing companies based in Los Angeles Technology companies based in Greater Los Angeles Companies based in Los Angeles County, California Inglewood, California American companies established in 1928 Manufacturing companies established in 1928 Technology companies established in 1928 1928 establishments in California 1967 disestablishments in California Defunct companies based in Greater Los Angeles Boeing mergers and acquisitions Eastern Air Lines Former General Motors subsidiaries Rocketdyne History of Southern California History of the San Fernando Valley	[ 0.39308539032936096, 0.6670354604721069, -0.3119198977947235, -0.08916592597961426, 0.008881394751369953, 0.13665983080863953, -0.4082845151424408, 0.31063929200172424, 0.03174256533384323, -0.0029175360687077045, -0.23111017048358917, 0.1330121010541916, -0.39195767045021057, 0.6956143975257874, -0.37629008293151855, 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221762	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swamp%20harrier	Swamp harrier	The swamp harrier (Circus approximans), also known as the Australasian marsh harrier, Australasian harrier or swamp-hawk, is a large, slim bird of prey widely distributed across Australasia. In New Zealand it is also known as the harrier hawk, hawk, or by the Māori name . Its arrival in New Zealand happened within the last 700 years, replacing the larger extinct New Zealand endemic species Eyles's harrier. The swamp harrier belongs to the sub-family Circinae and genus Circus, which are represented worldwide, except Antarctica. The sub-family and genus are derived from the characteristic behavior of circling flight during courtship and hawking. Description The swamp harrier is largely dark brown, becoming lighter with age, and has a distinct white rump. It hunts by flying slowly, low to the ground, on upswept wings. The body length is , and the wingspan is . The recorded weights of adults range from . Females are significantly larger than the males. In New Zealand, 54 males averaged and 66 females averaged . Going on mean weights and linear measurements, the swamp harrier may be by a slight margin the largest extant species of harrier but it is only marginally larger than some other species, like the marsh harriers and the Reunion harrier. Distribution and habitat The swamp harrier is widespread through Australasia and many islands in the south-west Pacific region, including much of Australia (except the arid region), New Zealand (where it is common in open country), Fiji, Vanuatu, New Caledonia and as stragglers on some subantarctic islands. It is usually found in wetlands and well-watered open country. The harrier only became established in New Zealand within the last few hundred years, after lowland forests were extensively cleared by the first Polynesian settlers; it is absent from the fossil record. It has benefited from European settlement, and is now very common, especially in open farmland. Behaviour Common enemies of harriers are Australian magpies, masked lapwings which dive bomb and European starlings which mob individuals. They have been known to kill young kārearea and have also been heavily blamed and persecuted for killing chickens, pheasants and ducklings. Swamp harriers are the only bird of prey used for falconry in New Zealand; quarry is usually pukeko and young rabbits. Diet The swamp harrier mainly feeds on ground birds and waterbirds, rabbits and other small mammals, reptiles, frogs, and fish. During the winter months harriers feed to a large extent on carrion, including roadkill, frequently falling victim to vehicles themselves. Breeding This species nests on the ground, often in wetlands, on a mound in reeds or other dense vegetation. In some districts they nest in fields of oats or barley. The clutch size may range from two to seven, but is usually three or four. The incubation period is 31 to 34 days, and is carried out by the female alone. Chicks are fed by both parents, are fully feathered by 28 days and fledging about 45 days after hatching. See also Kārearea, or New Zealand falcon Notes References BirdLife International (2006). Species factsheet: Circus approximans. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 4/12/2006 Marchant, S.; & Higgins, P. J. (eds.). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 2: Raptors to Lapwings. Oxford University Press: Melbourne. . External links Wingspan Birds of Prey Trust - The national centre for the conservation, education and advocacy of birds of prey in New Zealand. 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221765	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geronimo	Geronimo	Geronimo (, , ; June 16, 1829 – February 17, 1909) was a prominent leader and medicine man from the Bedonkohe band of the Apache people. From 1850 to 1886, Geronimo joined with members of three other Chiricahua Apache bandsthe Tchihende, the Tsokanende and the Nednhito carry out numerous raids, as well as fight against Mexican and U.S. military campaigns in the northern Mexico states of Chihuahua and Sonora and in the southwestern American territories of New Mexico and Arizona. Geronimo's raids and related combat actions were a part of the prolonged period of the Apache–United States conflict, which started with American settlement in Apache lands following the end of the war with Mexico in 1848. Reservation life was confining to the free-moving Apache people, and they resented restrictions on their customary way of life. Geronimo led breakouts from the reservations in attempts to return his people to their previous nomadic lifestyle. During Geronimo's final period of conflict from 1876 to 1886, he surrendered three times and eventually accepted life on the Apache reservations. While well-known, Geronimo was not a chief of the Chiricahua or the Bedonkohe band. However, since he was a superb leader in raiding and warfare, he frequently led large numbers of men beyond his own following. At any one time, he would be in command of about 30 to 50 Apaches. In 1886, after an intense pursuit in northern Mexico by American forces that followed Geronimo's third 1885 reservation breakout, Geronimo surrendered for the last time to Lt. Charles Bare Gatewood. Geronimo and 27 other Apaches were later sent to join the rest of the Chiricahua tribe, which had been previously exiled to Florida. While holding him as a prisoner, the United States capitalized on Geronimo’s fame among non-Indians by displaying him at various fairs and exhibitions, which provided Geronimo in turn with the opportunity to make some money by selling merchandise. In 1898, for example, Geronimo was exhibited at the Trans-Mississippi and International Exhibition in Omaha, Nebraska; seven years later, the Indian Office provided Geronimo for the inaugural parade for President Theodore Roosevelt. He died at the Fort Sill hospital in 1909, as a prisoner of war, and was buried at the Fort Sill Indian Agency Cemetery, among the graves of relatives and other Apache prisoners of war. Background Apache is the collective term for several culturally related groups of Native Americans resident in the Southwest United States. The current division of Apachean groups includes the Western Apache, Chiricahua, Mescalero, Jicarilla, Lipan and Plains Apache (formerly Kiowa-Apache). During the decades of Apache-Mexican and Apache-United States conflict, raiding had become embedded in the Apache way of life, used not only for strategic purposes but also as an economic enterprise. Speaking of the start of the Spanish/Mexican Apache conflict, Debo states, "Thus the Apaches were driven into the mountains and raiding the settled communities became a way of life for them, an economic enterprise as legitimate as gathering berries or hunting deer..." and often there was overlap between raids for economic need and warfare. Raids ranged from stealing livestock and other plunder, to the capture and/or killing of victims, sometimes by torture. Mexicans and Americans responded with retaliatory attacks against the Apache which were no less violent and were very seldom limited to identified individual adult enemies, much like the Apache raids. The raiding and retaliation fed the fires of a virulent revenge warfare that reverberated back and forth between Apaches and Mexicans and later, Apaches and Americans. From 1850 to 1886, Geronimo, as well as other Apache leaders, conducted attacks, but Geronimo was driven by a desire to take revenge for the murder of his family by Mexican soldiers and accumulated a record of brutality during this time that was unmatched by any of his contemporaries. His fighting ability extending over 30 years forms a major characteristic of his persona. Within Geronimo's own Chiricahua tribe, many had mixed feelings about him. While respected as a skilled and effective leader of raids or warfare, he emerges as not very likable, and he was not widely popular among the other Apaches. This was primarily because he refused to give in to American government demands, causing some Apaches to fear the American response. Nevertheless, the Apache people stood in awe of Geronimo's "powers", which he demonstrated to them on a series of occasions. These powers indicated to other Apaches that Geronimo had supernatural gifts that he could use for good or ill. In eyewitness accounts by other Apaches, Geronimo was able to become aware of distant events as they happened, and he was able to anticipate future events. He also demonstrated powers to heal other Apaches. Early life Geronimo was born to the Bedonkohe band of the Apache near Turkey Creek, a tributary of the Gila River in the modern-day state of New Mexico, then part of Mexico, though the Apache disputed Mexico's claim. His grandfather, Mahko, had been chief of the Bedonkohe Apache. He had three brothers and four sisters. His parents raised him according to Apache traditions. After the death of his father, his mother took him to live with the Tchihende and he grew up with them. Geronimo married a woman named Alope, from the Nedni-Chiricahua band of Apache, when he was 17; they had three children. She was the first of nine wives. On March 5, 1858, a company of 400 Mexican soldiers from Sonora led by Colonel José María Carrasco attacked Geronimo's camp outside Janos (Kas-Ki-Yeh in Apache) while the men were in town trading. Among those killed were his wife, children and mother. The loss of his family led Geronimo to hate all Mexicans for the rest of his life; he and his followers would frequently attack and kill any group of Mexicans that they encountered. Recalling that at the time his band was at peace with the Mexicans, Geronimo remembered the incident as follows: Late one afternoon when returning from town we were met by a few women and children who told us that Mexican troops from some other town had attacked our camp, killed all the warriors of the guard, captured all our ponies, secured our arms, destroyed our supplies, and killed many of our women and children. Quickly we separated, concealing ourselves as best we could until nightfall, when we assembled at our appointed place of rendezvous – a thicket by the river. Silently we stole in one by one, sentinels were placed, and when all were counted, I found that my aged mother, my young wife, and my three small children were among the slain. Geronimo's chief, Mangas Coloradas (Spanish for "red sleeves"), sent him to Cochise's band for help in his revenge against the Mexicans. It was during this incident that the name Geronimo came about. This appellation stemmed from a battle in which, ignoring a deadly hail of bullets, he repeatedly attacked Mexican soldiers with a knife. The origin of the name is a source of controversy with historians, some writing that it was appeals by the soldiers to Saint Jerome ("Jerónimo!") for help. Debo repeats this, speculating also an alternative unlikely in terms of phonetics, that it may have been "as close as they [Mexican soldiers] could come to the choking sounds that composed his name." Religion Geronimo was raised with the traditional religion of the Bedonkohe. When questioned about his opinions concerning life after death, he wrote in his 1905 autobiography: As to the future state, the teachings of our tribe were not specific, that is, we had no definite idea of our relations and surroundings in after life. We believed that there is a life after this one, but no one ever told me as to what part of man lived after death ... We held that the discharge of one's duty would make his future life more pleasant, but whether that future life was worse than this life or better, we did not know, and no one was able to tell us. We hoped that in the future life, family and tribal relations would be resumed. In a way we believed this, but we did not know it. In his later years Geronimo endorsed Christianity, and stated: Since my life as a prisoner has begun, I have heard the teachings of the white man's religion, and in many respects believe it to be better than the religion of my fathers ... Believing that in a wise way it is good to go to church, and that associating with Christians would improve my character, I have adopted the Christian religion. I believe that the church has helped me much during the short time I have been a member. I am not ashamed to be a Christian, and I am glad to know that the President of the United States is a Christian, for without the help of the Almighty I do not think he could rightly judge in ruling so many people. I have advised all of my people who are not Christians, to study that religion, because it seems to me the best religion in enabling one to live right. He joined the Dutch Reformed Church in 1903, but four years later was expelled for gambling. To the end of his life, he seemed to harbor ambivalent religious feelings, telling the Christian missionaries at a summer camp meeting in 1908 that he wanted to start over, while at the same time telling his tribesmen that he held to the old Apache religion. Life after the massacre at Kas-Ki-Yeh The first Apache raids on Sonora and Chihuahua took place in the late 17th century. To counter the early Apache raids on Spanish settlements, presidios were established at Janos (1685) in Chihuahua and at Fronteras (1690) in what is now northeastern Sonora, then Opata country. In 1835, Mexico had placed a bounty on Apache scalps. Two years later, Mangas Coloradas became principal chief and war leader and began a series of raids against the Mexicans. Apache raids on Mexican villages were so numerous and brutal that no area was safe. Between 1820 and 1835 alone, some 5000 Mexicans died in Apache raids, and 100 settlements were destroyed. Later, as a leader, Geronimo was notorious for urging raids and war on Mexican Provinces and American locations in the southwest. Early in his life, Geronimo became invested in the continuing and relentless cycle of revenge warfare between the Apaches and Mexicans. On March 5, 1851, when Geronimo was in his 20s, a force of Mexican militia from Sonora under Colonel Jose Maria Carrasco attacked and surprised an Apache camp outside of Janos, Chihuahua, slaughtering the inhabitants, including Geronimo's family. Col. Carrasco claimed he had followed the Apaches to Janos, Chihuahua, after they had conducted a raid in Sonora, taken livestock and other plunder and badly defeated Mexican militia. Geronimo was absent at the time of the attack on the Apache camp, but when he returned he found that his mother, wife, and his three children were among the dead. In retaliation, Geronimo joined in an extended series of attacks against the Mexicans. This event left Geronimo with a personal hatred for Mexicans, and he often killed them indiscriminately. Throughout Geronimo's adult life his antipathy toward, suspicion of and dislike for Mexicans was demonstrably greater than for Americans. Attacks and counter-attacks were common. In December 1860, 30 miners began a surprise attack on an encampment of Bedonkohes Apaches on the west bank of the Mimbres River of modern New Mexico. According to historian Edwin R. Sweeney, the miners "... killed four Indians, wounded others, and captured thirteen women and children." Attacks by the Apache again followed, with raids against U.S. citizens and property. According to National Geographic, "the governor of Sonora claimed in 1886 that in the last five months of Geronimo's wild career, his band of 16 warriors slaughtered some 500 to 600 Mexicans." Massacre at Casas Grandes In 1873 the Mexicans once again attacked the Apache. After months of fighting in the mountains, the Apaches and Mexicans decided on a peace treaty at Casas Grandes, Chihuahua, Mexico. After terms were agreed, the Mexican troops gave mezcal to the Apaches and, while they were intoxicated, they attacked and killed 20 Apaches and captured some. The Apache were forced to retreat into the mountains once again. Though outnumbered, Geronimo fought against both Mexican and United States troops and became famous for his daring exploits and numerous escapes from incarceration from 1858 to 1886. One such escape, as legend has it, took place in the Robledo Mountains of southwest New Mexico. The legend states that Geronimo and his followers entered a cave, and the U.S. soldiers waited outside the entrance for him, but he never came out. Later, it was heard that Geronimo was spotted outside, nearby. The second entrance through which he escaped has yet to be found, and the cave is still called Geronimo's Cave, even though no reference to this event or this cave has been found in the historic or oral record. Moreover, there are many stories of this type with other caves referenced that state that Geronimo or other Apaches entered to escape troops, but were not seen exiting. These stories are in all likelihood apocryphal. After about a year, some trouble arose between them and the Indians, and I took the war path as a warrior, not as a chief. I had not been wronged, but some of my people had been, and I fought with my tribe; for the soldiers and not the Indians were at fault. At the end of his military career, he led a small band of 38 men, women and children. They evaded thousands of Mexican and American troops for more than a year, making him the most famous Native American of the time and earning him the title of the "worst Indian who ever lived" among white settlers. According to James L. Haley, "About two weeks after the escape there was a report of a family massacred near Silver City; one girl was taken alive and hanged from a meat hook jammed under the base of her skull." His band was one of the last major forces of independent Native American warriors who refused to accept the United States occupation of the American West. Geronimo Campaign The Apache–United States conflict was itself a direct outgrowth of the much older Apache–Mexican conflict which had been ongoing in the same general area since the beginning of Mexican/Spanish settlement during the 1600s. On May 17, 1885, a number of Apache including Nana, Mangus (son of Mangas Coloradas), Chihuahua, Naiche, Geronimo, and their followers fled the San Carlos Reservation in Arizona after a show of force against the reservation's commanding officer Britton Davis. The people, who had lived as semi-nomads for generations, disliked the restrictive reservation system. Department of Arizona General George Crook dispatched two columns of troops into Mexico, the first commanded by Captain Emmet Crawford and the second by Captain Wirt Davis. Each was composed of a troop of cavalry (usually about forty men) and about 100 Apache scouts. They pursued the Apache through the summer and autumn through Mexican Chihuahua and back across the border into the United States. The Apache continually raided settlements, murdering other innocent Native Americans and civilians and stealing horses. While Apaches were shielded from the violence of warfare on the reservation, disability and death from diseases like malaria were much more prevalent. On the other hand, rations were provided by the government, though at times the corruption of Indian agents caused rationing to become perilously scarce. Rebelling against reservation life, other Apache leaders had led their bands in "breakouts" from the reservations. On three occasions – April or August 1878; September 1881; and May 1885 – Geronimo led his band of followers in "breakouts" from the reservation to return to their former nomadic life associated with raiding and warfare. Following each breakout, Geronimo and his band would flee across Arizona and New Mexico to Mexico, killing and plundering as they went, and establish a new base in the rugged and remote Sierra Madre Occidental Mountains. In Mexico, they were insulated from pursuit by U.S. armed forces. The Apache knew the rough terrain of the Sierras intimately, which helped them elude pursuit and protected them from attack. The Sierra Madre mountains lie on the border between the Mexican states of Sonora and Chihuahua, which allowed the Apache access to raid and plunder the small villages, haciendas, wagon trains, worker camps and travelers in both states. From Mexico, Apache bands also staged surprise raids back into the United States, often seeking to replenish their supply of guns and ammunition. Utley refers to a specific raid in March 1883, in which Geronimo's people split up with Geronimo and Chihuahua raiding in the Sonora River valley to collect livestock and provisions, while Chatto and Bonito raided through southern Arizona to gather weapons and cartridges. In these raids into the United States, the Apaches moved swiftly and attacked isolated ranches, wagon trains, prospectors and travelers. They often killed all the persons they encountered, as in March 1883, in order to avoid detection and pursuit as long as possible before they slipped back over the border into Mexico. The "breakouts" and the subsequent resumption of Apache raiding and warfare caused the Mexican Army and militia, as well as United States forces to pursue and attempt to kill or apprehend off-reservation "renegade" Apache bands, including Geronimo's, wherever they could be found. Because the Mexican army and militia units of Sonora and Chihuahua were unable to suppress the several Chiricahua bands based in the Sierra Madre mountains, in 1883 Mexico allowed the United States to send troops into Mexico to continue their pursuit of Geronimo's band and the bands of other Apache leaders. The United States Army operating under the command of General George Crook successfully utilized scout/combat units recruited from among the Apache people and led by American officers. These Apache units proved effective in finding the mountain strongholds of the Apache bands, and killing or capturing them. It was highly unsettling for Geronimo's band to realize their own tribesmen had helped find their hiding places. Over time this persistent pursuit by both Mexican and American forces discouraged Geronimo and other similar Apache leaders, and caused a steady and irreplaceable attrition of the members of their bands, which taken all together eroded their will to resist and led to their ultimate capitulation. Crook was under increased pressure from the government in Washington. He launched a second expedition into Mexico and on January 9, 1886, Crawford located Geronimo and his band. His Indian scouts attacked the next morning and captured the Apache's herd of horses and their camp equipment. The Apaches were demoralized and agreed to negotiate for surrender. Before the negotiations could be concluded, Mexican troops arrived and mistook the Apache scouts for the enemy Apache. The Mexican government had accused the scouts of taking advantage of their position to conduct theft, robbery, and murder in Mexico. They attacked and killed Captain Crawford. Lt. Maus, the senior officer, met with Geronimo, who agreed to meet with General Crook. Geronimo named as the meeting place the Cañon de los Embudos (Canyon of the Funnels), in the Sierra Madre Mountains about from Fort Bowie and about south of the international border, near the Sonora/Chihuahua border. During the three days of negotiations, photographer C. S. Fly took about 15 exposures of the Apache on glass negatives. One of the pictures of Geronimo with two of his sons standing alongside was made at Geronimo's request. Fly's images are the only existing photographs of Geronimo's surrender. His photos of Geronimo and the other free Apaches, taken on March 25 and 26, are the only known photographs taken of an American Indian while still at war with the United States. Among the Indians was a white boy Jimmy McKinn, also photographed by Fly, who had been abducted from his ranch in New Mexico in September 1885. Geronimo, camped on the Mexican side of the border, agreed to Crook's surrender terms. That night, a soldier who sold them whiskey said that his band would be murdered as soon as they crossed the border. Geronimo, Nachite, and 39 of his followers slipped away during the night. Crook exchanged a series of heated telegrams with General Philip Sheridan defending his men's actions, until on April 1, 1886, when he sent a telegram asking Sheridan to relieve him of command, which Sheridan was all too willing to do. Sheridan replaced Crook with General Nelson A. Miles. In 1886, General Miles selected Captain Henry Lawton to command B Troop, 4th Cavalry, at Fort Huachuca, and First Lieutenant Charles B. Gatewood, to lead the expedition that brought Geronimo and his followers back to the reservation system for a final time. Lawton was given orders to head up actions south of the U.S.–Mexico boundary, where it was thought that Geronimo and a small band of his followers would take refuge from U.S. authorities. Lawton was to pursue, subdue, and return Geronimo, dead or alive, to the United States. Lawton's official report dated September 9, 1886, sums up the actions of his unit and gives credit to a number of his troopers for their efforts. Geronimo gave Gatewood credit for his decision to surrender as Gatewood was well known to Geronimo, spoke some Apache, and was familiar with and honored their traditions and values. He acknowledged Lawton's tenacity for wearing the Apaches down with constant pursuit. Geronimo and his followers had little or no time to rest or stay in one place. Completely worn out, the little band of Apaches returned to the U.S. with Lawton and officially surrendered to General Miles on September 4, 1886, at Skeleton Canyon, Arizona. When Geronimo surrendered, he had in his possession a Winchester Model 1876 lever-action rifle with a silver-washed barrel and receiver, bearing Serial Number 109450. It is on display at the United States Military Academy, West Point, New York. Additionally, he had a Colt Single Action Army revolver with a nickel finish and ivory stocks bearing the serial number 89524, and a Sheffield Bowie knife with a dagger type blade and a stag handle made by George Wostenholm in an elaborate silver-studded holster and cartridge belt. The revolver, rig, and knife are on display at the Fort Sill museum. The debate remains as to whether Geronimo surrendered unconditionally. He repeatedly insisted in his memoirs that his people who surrendered had been misled, and that his surrender as a war prisoner in front of uncontested witnesses (especially General Stanley) was conditional. General Oliver O. Howard, chief of US Army Division of the Pacific, said on his part that Geronimo's surrender was accepted as that of a dangerous outlaw without condition. Howard's account was contested in front of the US Senate. Prisoner of war Geronimo and other Apaches, including the Apache scouts who had helped the army track him down, were sent as prisoners to Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas. The Army held them there for about six weeks before they were sent to Fort Pickens, in Pensacola, Florida, and his family was sent to Fort Marion (the Castillo de San Marcos in St. Augustine, Florida). This prompt action prevented the Arizona civil authorities from intervening to arrest and try Geronimo for the death of the many Americans who had been killed during the previous decades of raiding. "In that alien climate," the Washington Post reported, "the Apache died 'like flies at frost time.' Businessmen there soon had the idea to have Geronimo serve as a tourist attraction, and hundreds of visitors daily were let into the fort to lay eyes on the 'bloodthirsty' Indian in his cell." While the POWs were in Florida, the government relocated hundreds of their children from their Arizona reservation to the Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Pennsylvania. More than a third of the students quickly perished from tuberculosis, "died as though smitten with the plague", the Post reported. The Chiricahuas remained at Fort Pickens in Florida until 1888 when they were relocated to Mt. Vernon Barracks in Alabama, where they were reunited with their families. After 1/4 of the population died of tuberculosis, the Chiricahuas, including Geronimo, were relocated to Fort Sill, Oklahoma, in 1894; they built villages scattered around the post based on kindred groups. Geronimo, like other Apaches, was given a plot of land on which he took up farming activities. On the train ride to Fort Sill, many tourists wanted a memento of Geronimo, so they paid 25 cents for a button that he cut off his shirt or a hat he took off his head. As the train would pull into depots along the way, Geronimo would buy more buttons to sew on and more hats to sell. In 1898 Geronimo was part of a Chiricahua delegation from Fort Sill to the Trans-Mississippi International Exposition in Omaha, Nebraska. Previous newspaper accounts of the Apache Wars had impressed the public with Geronimo's name and exploits, and in Omaha he became a major attraction. The Omaha Exposition gave Geronimo celebrity status, and for the rest of his life he was in demand as an attraction in fairs large and small. The two largest were the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo, New York, in 1901, and the St. Louis World’s Fair in 1904. Under Army guard, Geronimo dressed in traditional clothing and posed for photographs and sold his crafts. After the fair, Pawnee Bill’s Wild West Show brokered an agreement with the government to have Geronimo join the show, again under Army guard. The Indians in Pawnee Bill’s show were depicted as "lying, thieving, treacherous, murderous" monsters who had killed hundreds of men, women and children and would think nothing of taking a scalp from any member of the audience, given the chance. Visitors came to see how the "savage" had been "tamed", and they paid Geronimo to take a button from the coat of the vicious Apache "chief". (Geronimo was not a chief.) The shows put a good deal of money in his pockets and allowed him to travel, though never without government guards. In President Theodore Roosevelt's 1905 Inaugural Parade Geronimo rode horseback down Pennsylvania Avenue with five real Indian chiefs, who wore full headgear and painted faces. The intent, one newspaper stated, was to show Americans "that they have buried the hatchet forever." They created a sensation and brought the crowds along the parade route to their feet. Later that same week Geronimo met with the President and made a request for the Chiricahuas at Fort Sill to be relieved of their status as prisoners of war, and allowed to return to their homeland in Arizona. President Roosevelt refused, referring to the continuing animosity in Arizona for the deaths of civilian men, women, and children associated with Geronimo's raids during the prolonged Apache Wars. Through an interpreter, Roosevelt told Geronimo that the Indian had a "bad heart". "You killed many of my people; you burned villages…and were not good Indians." The president would have to wait a while "and see how you and your people act" on their reservation. In 1905, Geronimo agreed to tell his story to S. M. Barrett, Superintendent of Education in Lawton, Oklahoma. Barrett had to appeal to President Roosevelt to gain permission to publish the book. Geronimo came to each interview knowing exactly what he wanted to say. He refused to answer questions or alter his narrative. He expressed himself in Spanish. Barrett did not seem to take many liberties with Geronimo's story as translated into English by Asa Daklugie. Frederick Turner re-edited this autobiography by removing some of Barrett's footnotes and writing an introduction for the non-Apache readers. Turner notes the book is in the style of an Apache reciting part of his oral history. When I was at first asked to attend the St. Louis World's Fair I did not wish to go. Later, when I was told that I would receive good attention and protection, and that the President of the United States said that it would be all right, I consented ... Every Sunday the President of the Fair sent for me to go to a wild west show. I took part in the roping contests before the audience. There were many other Indian tribes there, and strange people of whom I had never heard ... I am glad I went to the Fair. I saw many interesting things and learned much of the white people. They are a very kind and peaceful people. During all the time I was at the Fair no one tried to harm me in any way. Had this been among the Mexicans I am sure I should have been compelled to defend myself often. Later that year, the Indian Office took him to Texas, where he shot a buffalo in a roundup staged by 101 Ranch Real Wild West for the National Editorial Association. Geronimo was escorted to the event by soldiers, as he was still a prisoner. The teachers who witnessed the staged buffalo hunt were unaware that Geronimo’s people were not buffalo hunters. Family Geronimo married Chee-hash-kish, and they had two children, Chappo and Dohn-say. Then he took another wife, Nana-tha-thtith, with whom he had one child. He later had a wife named Zi-yeh at the same time as another wife, She-gha, one named Shtsha-she and later a wife named Ih-tedda. Geronimo's ninth and last wife was Azul. The great-great-grandson of Geronimo, Harlyn Geronimo taught Apache language lessons at Mescalero Apache Reservation until his death in 2020. Death In February 1909, Geronimo was thrown from his horse while riding home, and had to lie in the cold all night until a friend found him extremely ill. He died of pneumonia on February 17, 1909, as a prisoner of the United States at Fort Sill, Oklahoma. On his deathbed, he confessed to his nephew that he regretted his decision to surrender. His last words were reported to be said to his nephew, "I should have never surrendered. I should have fought until I was the last man alive." He was buried at Fort Sill, Oklahoma in the Beef Creek Apache Cemetery. Alleged theft of Geronimo's skull Six members of the Yale secret society Skull and Bones, including Prescott Bush, served as Army volunteers at Fort Sill during World War I. In 1986, former San Carlos Apache chairman Ned Anderson received an anonymous letter with a photograph and a copy of a log book claiming that Skull and Bones held the skull. He met with Skull and Bones officials about the rumor. The group's attorney, Endicott P. Davidson, denied that the group held the skull, and said that the 1918 ledger saying otherwise was a hoax. The group offered Anderson a glass case containing what appeared to be the skull of a child, but Anderson refused it. In 2006, Marc Wortman discovered a 1918 letter from Skull & Bones member Winter Mead to F. Trubee Davison that claimed the theft: The second "tomb" refers to the building of Yale University's Skull and Bones society. But Mead was not at Fort Sill, and Cameron University history professor David H. Miller notes that Geronimo's grave was unmarked at the time. The revelation led Harlyn Geronimo of Mescalero, New Mexico, to write to President George W. Bush (the grandson of Prescott Bush) requesting his help in returning the remains: In 2009, Ramsey Clark filed a lawsuit on behalf of people claiming descent from Geronimo, against several parties, including Robert Gates and Skull and Bones, asking for the return of Geronimo's bones. An article in The New York Times states that Clark "acknowledged he had no hard proof that the story was true." Investigators, including Bush family biographer Kitty Kelley and the pseudonymous Cecil Adams, say the story is untrue. A military spokesman from Fort Sill told Adams, "There is no evidence to indicate the bones are anywhere but in the grave site." Jeff Houser, chairman of the Fort Sill Apache tribe of Oklahoma, calls the story a hoax. In 1928, the Army covered Geronimo's grave with concrete and provided a stone monument, making any possible examination of remains difficult. Military usage Paratroopers Inspired by the film Geronimo (1939), U.S. Army paratroopers testing the practice of parachuting from planes began a tradition of shouting "Geronimo!" to show they had no fear of jumping out of an airplane. Other Native American-based traditions were also adopted in WWII, such as "Mohawk" haircuts, face paint, and sporting spears on their unit patches. Code name The United States military used the code name "Geronimo" for the raid that killed al-Qaida terrorist Osama bin Laden in 2011, but its use outraged some American Indians. It was subsequently reported to be named or renamed "Operation Neptune Spear". Harlyn Geronimo, known to be Geronimo's great-grandson, said to the Senate Commission on Indian Affairs: Commemorations Three towns in the U.S. are named after Geronimo: one each in Arizona, Oklahoma, and Texas. Also named after him was the SS Geronimo, a WWII Liberty ship. In the USPS serial "Legends of the West", a 29¢ postage stamp showing Geronimo was issued on October 18, 1994. In popular culture Music Geronimo is a track recorded by Les Elgart and his Orchestra on their Sophisticated Swing album (Columbia CL-536; 1953). In 1972, Michael Martin Murphey's song Geronimo's Cadillac was inspired by Walter Ferguson's photo of Geronimo sitting in a luxury Locomobile. The song hit number 37 on the Billboard Hot 100, and it was later covered by Cher and Hoyt Axton. The German duo Modern Talking released a different song with the same title (but with a less explicit lyrical connection to Geronimo) in 1986. In 2014, the indie pop band Sheppard released Geronimo, which reached number one on the Australian Singles Chart in April that year. Film Geronimo has been featured in many western movies; for example, in John Ford's Stagecoach (1939), it is Geronimo's band that chase the stagecoach across Monument Valley. There are four films in which he is the title character. In Geronimo! (also 1939), directed by Paul Sloane, he is played by Chief Thundercloud but only in a supporting role as the film is essentially about the US Army's attempts to capture him. However, in the similarly-titled Geronimo! (1962), directed by Arnold Laven, Geronimo as played by Chuck Connors is the main character. In 1993, two films about Geronimo were released with a few days of each other. Geronimo: An American Legend is about his arrest and he is played by Native American actor Wes Studi. The biopic Geronimo has a wider scope and he is played by another Native American actor, Joseph Runningfox. Television and radio On June 29, 1938, a fictionalized Geronimo appeared in a radio episode of The Lone Ranger, titled "Three Against Geronimo". In the episode, Tonto acts as a spy to discover Geronimo's plan to take Fort Custer under a false flag of peace. Tonto strips Geronimo of his concealed knife before the Lone Ranger and a cavalryman named Peterson lure Geronimo's troops into the emptied fort one at a time. The episode proclaims this as Geronimo's final defeat. Geronimo was the title of episode 21 of the ABC western series, Tombstone Territory. The episode was first broadcast on March 5, 1958 with John Doucette playing the part of Geronimo. In the TV series Cheers, actor Nicholas Colasanto had hung a picture of Geronimo in his dressing room. After his death, it was placed on the wall in the bar of the Cheers production set in his memory. Near the end of the final episode of the programme in 1993, eight years after Colasanto's death, bar owner Sam Malone (Ted Danson) walks over to the picture and straightens it. In the TV series "Stories of the Century" the episode "Geronimo" was aired on February 14, 1954. References Bibliography Further reading Bigelow, John Lt. On the Bloody Trail of Geronimo New York: Tower Books, 1958. Brown, Dee. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1970. Carter, Forrest. "Watch for Me on the Mountain". Delta. 1990. – Originally entitled "Cry Geronimo". Davis, Britton. "The Truth about Geronimo" New Haven: Yale University Press, 1929. Faulk, Odie B. The Geronimo Campaign. Oxford University Press: New York, 1969. Killblane, Richard E. "Arizona Tiger Hunt", Wild West, December 1993. Killblane, Richard E. "Geronimo's Final Surrender", Wild West, February 1994. Opler, Morris E. & French, David H. Myths and tales of the Chiricahua Apache Indians. [1941] Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994. Reilly, Edward. "Geronimo: The Warrior", Public Domain Review, 2011. External links Biography of Geronimo hosted by the Indigenous People Portal Geronimo at Indians.org Adams, Guy. Who Was Geronimo, and Why is There Controversy Over His Remains?, The Independent, June 23, 2009 Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture – Geronimo (Apache leader) Germonimo: The Warrior article by Edward Rielly on the personal tragedy which underpinned Geronimo's warrior life. 1829 births 1909 deaths 19th-century Native Americans 20th-century Native Americans Apache Wars Apache people Chiricahua Converts to Protestantism from pagan religions Deaths from pneumonia in Oklahoma History of Mexico Native American Christians Native American leaders Native American people of the Indian Wars Native Americans imprisoned at Fort Marion People from Graham County, Arizona People from New Mexico People of the American Old West Reformed Church in America members	[ -0.3565678000450134, 0.9240608215332031, -0.6361770629882812, 0.1715105026960373, -0.17946207523345947, 0.1179504245519638, 1.506279706954956, -0.21515768766403198, 0.27548331022262573, -0.22057875990867615, 0.04019657149910927, 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221769	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian%20hobby	Eurasian hobby	The Eurasian hobby (Falco subbuteo) or just simply hobby, is a small, slim falcon. It belongs to a rather close-knit group of similar falcons often considered a subgenus Hypotriorchis. Taxonomy and systematics The first formal description of the Eurasian hobby was by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the present binomial name Falco subbuteo. The genus name falco derives from Late Latin falx, falcis, a sickle, referring to the claws of the bird. The species name subbuteo is from Latin sub, "near to" and buteo, "buzzard". The species' English name comes from Old French hobé or hobet. It became the trademark for the Subbuteo games company after its creator, who was an ornithologist, was refused permission to register "Hobby". Currently two subspecies are recognized: F. s. subbuteo: the nominate race is resident in Africa, Europe and Central and East Asia, winters in Central and South Africa and South Asia F. s. streichi: described by Hartert and Neumann in 1907, is smaller in size and is found further east of F. s. subbuteos distribution range Description Adults are slate-grey above with a dark crown and two short black moustachial stripes. The throat is unstreaked white, thighs and undertail coverts are unstreaked rufous and rest of the underparts are whitish with black streaks. Close views enable the red "trousers" and vent to be seen. Sexes are similar. Juveniles are generally much browner, with scaled upper parts and streaked buffy thighs and undertail coverts. The hobby has a distinct first-summer plumage. This falcon is in length with a wingspan of and a weight of . Distribution and status This species breeds across the Palearctic realm. It is a long-distance migrant, wintering in Africa and Asia. Behaviour and ecology It is a bird of open country such as farmland, marshes, taiga and savannah. They are widespread in lowlands with scattered small woods. It is an elegant bird of prey, appearing sickle-like in flight with its long pointed wings and square tail, often resembling a swift when gliding with folded wings. It is fast and powerful in flight and will take large insects, such as dragonflies, which it transfers from talons to beak and eats while soaring slowly in circles. It also captures small bats and small birds in flight. Its speed and aerobatic skills enable it to take swallows and even swifts on the wing, and barn swallows or house martins have a characteristic "hobby" alarm call. It is known to harass swallows while they are roosting and dispersing from roosts. When not breeding, it is crepuscular, hawking principally in the mornings and evenings. While on migration, they may move in small groups. Hobbies nest in old nests of crows and other birds. The tree selected is most often one in a hedge or on the extreme edge of a spinney, from where the bird can observe intruders from a considerable distance. It lays 2–4 eggs. Incubation is said to take 28 days and both parents share in this duty, though the female does the greater part. It is a very bold and courageous bird and was used in falconry, trained to hawk birds like quails, larks, hoopoes, drongos, etc. References External links Eurasian Hobby or Hobby Falcon species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds Ageing and sexing (PDF; 5.7 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze Eurasian hobby Birds of prey of Eurasia Birds of Africa Eurasian hobby Eurasian hobby	[ 0.19947826862335205, -0.4912346303462982, -0.3656279146671295, 0.22431407868862152, 0.27521994709968567, 0.0030860386323183775, -0.19202807545661926, 0.6206477880477905, -0.3871847689151764, -0.05106210336089134, -0.29123327136039734, 0.24488401412963867, 0.030118972063064575, -0.016291044652462006, -0.7238287329673767, 0.7110734581947327, 0.4931808412075043, 0.37171995639801025, -0.23531953990459442, -0.8936448097229004, -0.557414174079895, -0.6561470627784729, 0.0676901787519455, -0.29315248131752014, -0.03022899106144905, 0.015439092181622982, 0.5559870600700378, 0.048820849508047104, 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221773	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20migration	Human migration	Human migration is the movement of people from one place to another with intentions of settling, permanently or temporarily, at a new location (geographic region). The movement often occurs over long distances and from one country to another, but internal migration (within a single country) is also possible; indeed, this is the dominant form of human migration globally. Migration is often associated with better human capital at both individual and household level, and with better access to migration networks, facilitating a possible second move. Age is also important for both work and non-work migration. People may migrate as individuals, in family units or in large groups. There are four major forms of migration: invasion, conquest, colonization and emigration/immigration. Persons moving from their home due to forced displacement (such as a natural disaster or civil disturbance) may be described as displaced persons or, if remaining in the home country, internally-displaced persons. A person who seeks refuge in another country can, if the reason for leaving the home country is political, religious, or another form of persecution, make a formal application to that country where refuge is sought and is then usually described as an asylum seeker. If this application is successful, this person's legal status becomes refugee. In contemporary times, migration governance has become closely associated with state sovereignty. States retain the power of deciding on the entry and stay of non-nationals because migration directly affects some of the defining elements of a State. Definition Depending on the goal and reason for relocation, people who migrate can be divided into three categories: migrants, refugees, and asylum seekers. Each category is defined broadly as the mixed circumstances that motivate a person to change their location. As such, migrants are traditionally described as persons who change the country of their residence for general reasons and purposes. These purposes may include the search for better job opportunities or healthcare needs. This term is the most generally defined one as anyone changing their geographic location permanently can be considered a migrant. Contrastly, refugees is not defined and described as persons who do not willingly relocate. The reasons for the refugees’ migration usually involve war actions within the country or other forms of oppression, coming either from the government or non-governmental sources. Refugees are usually associated with people who must unwillingly relocate as fast as possible; hence, such migrants will likely relocate undocumented. Asylum seekers are associated with persons who also leave their country unwillingly, yet, who also do not do so under oppressing circumstances such as war or death threats. The motivation to leave the country for asylum seekers might involve an unstable economic or political situation or high rates of crime. Thus, asylum seekers relocate predominantly to escape the degradation of the quality of their lives. Nomadic movements usually are not regarded as migrations, as the movement is generally seasonal, there is no intention to settle in the new place, and only a few people have retained this form of lifestyle in modern times. Temporary movement for travel, tourism, pilgrimages, or the commute is also not regarded as migration, in the absence of an intention to live and settle in the visited places. Migration patterns and related numbers There exist many statistical estimates of worldwide migration patterns. The World Bank has published three editions of its Migration and Remittances Factbook, beginning in 2008, with a second edition appearing in 2011 and a third in 2016. The International Organisation for Migration (IOM) has published ten editions of the World Migration Report since 1999. The United Nations Statistics Division also keeps a database on worldwide migration. Recent advances in research on migration via the Internet promise better understanding of migration patterns and migration motives. Structurally, there is substantial South-South and North-North migration; in 2013, 38% of all migrants had migrated from developing countries to other developing countries, while 23% had migrated from high-income OECD countries to other high-income countries. The United Nations Population Fund says that "while the North has experienced a higher absolute increase in the migrant stock since 2000 (32 million) compared to the South (25 million), the South recorded a higher growth rate. Between 2000 and 2013, the average annual rate of change of the migrant population in developing regions (2.3%) slightly exceeded that of the developed regions (2.1%)." Substantial internal migration can also take place within a country, either seasonal human migration (mainly related to agriculture and tourism to urban places), or shifts of the population into cities (urbanisation) or out of cities (suburbanisation). However, studies of worldwide migration patterns tend to limit their scope to international migration. Almost half of these migrants are women, one of the most significant migrant-pattern changes in the last half-century. Women migrate alone or with their family members and community. Even though female migration is largely viewed as an association rather than independent migration, emerging studies argue complex and manifold reasons for this. As of 2019, the top ten immigration destinations were: United States Germany Saudi Arabia Russian Federation United Kingdom United Arab Emirates France Canada Australia Italy In the same year, the top countries of origin were: India Mexico China Russian Federation Syrian Arab Republic Bangladesh Pakistan Philippines Afghanistan Indonesia Besides these rankings, according to absolute numbers of migrants, the Migration and Remittances Factbook also gives statistics for top immigration destination countries and top emigration origin countries according to percentage of the population; the countries that appear at the top of those rankings are entirely different than the ones in the above rankings and tend to be much smaller countries. As of 2013, the top 15 migration corridors (accounting for at least 2 million migrants each) were: Mexico–United States Russian Federation–Ukraine Bangladesh–India Ukraine–Russian Federation Kazakhstan–Russian Federation China–United States Russian Federation–Kazakhstan Afghanistan–Pakistan Afghanistan–Iran China–Hong Kong India–United Arab Emirates West Bank and Gaza–Jordan India–United States India–Saudi Arabia Philippines–United States Economic impacts of human migration World economy The impacts of human migration on the world economy has been largely positive. In 2015, migrants, who constituted 3.3% of the world population, contributed 9.4% of global GDP. According to the Centre for Global Development, opening all borders could add $78 trillion to the world GDP. Remittances Remittances (funds transferred by migrant workers to their home country) form a substantial part of the economy of some countries. The top ten remittance recipients in 2018. In addition to economic impacts, migrants also make substantial contributions in sociocultural and civic-political life. Sociocultural contributions occur in the following areas of societies: food/cuisine, sport, music, art/culture, ideas and beliefs; civic-political contributions relate to participation in civic duties in the context of accepted authority of the State. It is in recognition of the importance of these remittances that the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 10 targets to substantially reduce the transaction costs of migrants remittances to less than 3% by 2030. Voluntary and forced migration Migration is usually divided into voluntary migration and forced migration. The distinction between involuntary (fleeing political conflict or natural disaster) and voluntary migration (economic or labour migration) is difficult to make and partially subjective, as the motivators for migration are often correlated. The World Bank estimated that, as of 2010, 16.3 million or 7.6% of migrants qualified as refugees. This number grew to 19.5 million by 2014 (comprising approximately 7.9% of the total number of migrants, based on the figure recorded in 2013). At levels of roughly 3 percent the share of migrants among the world population has remained remarkably constant over the last 5 decades. Voluntary migration Voluntary migration is based on the initiative and the free will of the person and is influenced by a combination of factors: economic, political and social: either in the migrants` country of origin (determinant factors or "push factors") or in the country of destination (attraction factors or "pull factors"). "Push-pull factors" are the reasons that push or attract people to a particular place. "Push" factors are the negative aspects of the country of origin, often decisive in people's choice to emigrate. The "pull" factors are the positive aspects of a different country that encourages people to emigrate to seek a better life. For example, the government of Armenia periodically gives incentives to people who will migrate to live in villages close to the border with Azerbaijan. This is an implementation of a push strategy, and the reason people don't want to live near the border is security concerns given tensions and hostility because of Azerbaijan. Although the push-pull factors are opposed, both are sides of the same coin, being equally important. Although specific to forced migration, any other harmful factor can be considered a "push factor" or determinant/trigger factor, such examples being: poor quality of life, lack of jobs, excessive pollution, hunger, drought or natural disasters. Such conditions represent decisive reasons for voluntary migration, the population preferring to migrate in order to prevent financially unfavorable situations or even emotional and physical suffering. Forced migration There exist contested definitions of forced migration. However, the editors of a leading scientific journal on the subject, the Forced Migration Review, offer the following definition: Forced migration refers to the movements of refugees and internally displaced people (displaced by conflict) as well as people displaced by natural or environmental disasters, chemical or nuclear disasters, famine, or development projects. These different causes of migration leave people with one choice, to move to a new environment. Immigrants leave their beloved homes to seek a life in camps, spontaneous settlement, and countries of asylum. By the end of 2018, there were an estimated 67.2 million forced migrants globally—25.9 million refugees displaced from their countries, and 41.3 million internally displaced persons that had been displaced within their countries for different reasons. Contemporary labor migration theories Overview Numerous causes impel migrants to move to another country. For instance, globalization has increased the demand for workers in order to sustain national economies. Thus one category of economic migrants - generally from impoverished developing countries - migrates to obtain sufficient income for survival. Such migrants often send some of their income homes to family members in the form of economic remittances, which have become an economic staple in a number of developing countries. People may also move or are forced to move as a result of conflict, of human-rights violations, of violence, or to escape persecution. In 2013 it was estimated that around 51.2 million people fell into this category. Other reasons people may move include to gain access to opportunities and services or to escape extreme weather. This type of movement, usually from rural to urban areas, may be classed as internal migration. Sociology-cultural and ego-historical factors also play a major role. In North Africa, for example, emigrating to Europe counts as a sign of social prestige. Moreover, many countries were former colonies. This means that many have relatives who live legally in the (former) colonial metro pole and who often provide important help for immigrants arriving in that metropole. Relatives may help with job research and with accommodation. The geographical proximity of Africa to Europe and the long historical ties between Northern and Southern Mediterranean countries also prompt many to migrate. Whether a person decides to move to another country depends on the relative skill premier of the source and host countries. One is speaking of positive selection when the host country shows a higher skill premium than the source country. On the other hand, negative selection occurs when the source country displays a lower skill premium. The relative skill premia define migrants selectivity. Age heaping techniques display one method to measure the relative skill premium of a country. A number of theories attempt to explain the international flow of capital and people from one country to another. Contemporary research contributions in the field of migration Recent academic output on migration comprises mainly journal articles. The long-term trend shows a gradual increase in academic publishing on migration, which is likely to be related to the general expansion of academic literature production, and the increased prominence of migration research. Migration and its research have further changed with the revolution in information and communication technologies. Neoclassical economic theory This migration theory states that the main reason for labour migration is wage difference between two geographic locations. These wage differences are usually linked to geographic labour demand and supply. It can be said that areas with a shortage of labour but an excess of capital have a high relative wage while areas with a high labour supply and a dearth of capital have a low relative wage. Labour tends to flow from low-wage areas to high-wage areas. Often, with this flow of labour comes changes in the sending and the receiving country. Neoclassical economic theory best describes transnational migration because it is not confined by international immigration laws and similar governmental regulations. Dual labor market theory Dual labour market theory states that pull factors in more developed countries mainly cause migration. This theory assumes that the labour markets in these developed countries consist of two segments: the primary market, which requires high-skilled labour, and the secondary market, which is very labour-intensive, requiring low-skilled workers. This theory assumes that migration from less developed countries into more developed countries results from a pull created by a need for labour in the developed countries in their secondary market. Migrant workers are needed to fill the lowest rung of the labour market because the native labourers do not want to do these jobs as they present a lack of mobility. This creates a need for migrant workers. Furthermore, the initial dearth in available labour pushes wages up, making migration even more enticing. New economics of labor migration This theory states that migration flows and patterns can't be explained solely at the level of individual workers and their economic incentives but that wider social entities must also be considered. One such social entity is the household. Migration can be viewed as a result of risk aversion from a household that has insufficient income. In this case, the household needs extra capital that can be achieved through remittances sent back by family members who participate in migrant labour abroad. These remittances can also have a broader effect on the economy of the sending country as a whole as they bring in capital. Recent research has examined a decline in US interstate migration from 1991 to 2011, theorising that the reduced interstate migration is due to a decline in the geographic specificity of occupations and an increase in workers’ ability to learn about other locations before moving there, through both information technology and inexpensive travel. Other researchers find that the location-specific nature of housing is more important than moving costs in determining labour reallocation. Relative deprivation theory Relative deprivation theory states that awareness of the income difference between neighbours or other households in the migrant-sending community is essential in migration. The incentive to migrate is a lot higher in areas with a high level of economic inequality. In the short run, remittances may increase inequality, but in the long run, they may decrease it. There are two stages of migration for workers: first, they invest in human capital formation, and then they try to capitalise on their investments. In this way, successful migrants may use their new capital to provide better schooling for their children and better homes for their families. Successful high-skilled emigrants may serve as an example for neighbours and potential migrants who hope to achieve that level of success. World systems theory World-systems theory looks at migration from a global perspective. It explains that interaction between different societies can be an important factor in social change. Trade with one country, which causes an economic decline in another, may create incentive to migrate to a country with a more vibrant economy. It can be argued that even after decolonisation, the economic dependence of former colonies remains on mother countries. However, this view of international trade is controversial, and some argue that free trade can reduce migration between developing and developed countries. It can be argued that the developed countries import labour-intensive goods, which causes an increase in the employment of unskilled workers in the less developed countries, decreasing the outflow of migrant workers. Exporting capital-intensive goods from rich countries to developing countries also equalises income and employment conditions, thus slowing migration. In either direction, this theory can be used to explain migration between countries that are geographically far apart. Osmosis theory Based on the history of human migration, Djelti (2017a) studies the evolution of its natural determinants. According to him, human migration is divided into two main types: simple and complicated. The simple migration is divided, in its turn, into diffusion, stabilisation and concentration periods. During these periods, water availability, adequate climate, security and population density represent the natural determinants of human migration. The complicated migration is characterised by the speedy evolution and the emergence of new sub-determinants, notably earning, unemployment, networks, and migration policies. Osmosis theory (Djelti, 2017b) explains analogically human migration by the biophysical phenomenon of osmosis. In this respect, the countries are represented by animal cells, the borders by the semipermeable membranes and the humans by ions of water. According to the theory, according to the osmosis phenomenon, humans migrate from countries with less migration pressure to countries with high migration pressure. To measure the latter, the natural determinants of human migration replace the variables of the second principle of thermodynamics used to measure the osmotic pressure. Social-scientific theories Sociology A number of social scientists have examined immigration from a sociological perspective, paying particular attention to how immigration affects and is affected by, matters of race and ethnicity, as well as social structure. They have produced three main sociological perspectives: symbolic interactionism, which aims to understand migration via face-to-face interactions on a micro-level social conflict theory, which examines migration through the prism of competition for power and resources structural functionalism (based on the ideas of Émile Durkheim), which examines the role of migration in fulfilling certain functions within each society, such as the decrease of despair and aimlessness and the consolidation of social networks More recently, as attention has shifted away from countries of destination, sociologists have attempted to understand how transnationalism allows us to understand the interplay between migrants, their countries of destination, and their countries of origins. In this framework, work on social remittances by Peggy Levitt and others has led to a stronger conceptualisation of how migrants affect socio-political processes in their countries of origin. Much work also takes place in the field of integration of migrants into destination-societies. Political science Political scientists have put forth a number of theoretical frameworks relating to migration, offering different perspectives on processes of security, citizenship, and international relations. The political importance of diasporas has also become a growing field of interest, as scholars examine questions of diaspora activism, state-diaspora relations, out-of-country voting processes, and states' soft power strategies. In this field, the majority of work has focused on immigration politics, viewing migration from the perspective of the country of destination. With regard to emigration processes, political scientists have expanded on Albert Hirschman's framework on '"voice" vs. "exit" to discuss how emigration affects the politics within countries of origin. Notable institutions University of Oxford London School of Economics University of Copenhagen University of Amsterdam City University New York Balsillie School of International Affairs Historical theories Ravenstein Certain laws of social science have been proposed to describe human migration. The following was a standard list after Ernst Georg Ravenstein's proposal in the 1880s: every migration flow generates a return or counter migration. the majority of migrants move a short distance. migrants who move longer distances tend to choose big-city destinations. urban residents are often less migratory than inhabitants of rural areas. families are less likely to make international moves than young adults. most migrants are adults. large towns grow by migration rather than natural increase. migration stage by stage (step migration). urban, rural difference. migration and technology. economic condition. Lee Lee's laws divide factors causing migrations into two groups of factors: push and pull factors. Push factors are things that are unfavourable about the area that one lives in, and pull factors are things that attract one to another area. Push factors: Not enough jobs Few opportunities Inadequate conditions Desertification Famine or drought Political fear of persecution Slavery or forced labour Poor medical care Loss of wealth Natural disasters Death threats Desire for more political or religious freedom Pollution Poor housing Landlord/tenant issues Bullying Mentality Discrimination Poor chances of marrying Condemned housing (radon gas, etc.) War Radiation Disease Pull factors: Job opportunities Better living conditions The feeling of having more political or religious freedom Enjoyment Education Better medical care Attractive climates Security Family links Industry Better chances of marrying Climate cycles The modern field of climate history suggests that the successive waves of Eurasian nomadic movement throughout history have had their origins in climatic cycles, which have expanded or contracted pastureland in Central Asia, especially Mongolia and to its west the Altai. People were displaced from their home ground by other tribes trying to find land that essential flocks could graze, each group pushing the next further to the south and west, into the highlands of Anatolia, the Pannonian Plain, into Mesopotamia, or southwards, into the rich pastures of China. Bogumil Terminski uses the term "migratory domino effect" to describe this process in the context of Sea People invasion. Food, sex, security The theory is that migration occurs because individuals search for food, sex and security outside their usual habitation; Idyorough (2008) believes that towns and cities are a creation of the human struggle to obtain food, sex and security. To produce food, security and reproduction, human beings must, out of necessity, move out of their usual habitation and enter into indispensable social relationships that are cooperative or antagonistic. Human beings also develop the tools and equipment to interact with nature to produce the desired food and security. The improved relationship (cooperative relationships) among human beings and improved technology further conditioned by the push and pull factors all interact together to cause or bring about migration and higher concentration of individuals into towns and cities. The higher the technology of production of food and security and the higher the cooperative relationship among human beings in the production of food and security and the reproduction of the human species, the higher would be the push and pull factors in the migration and concentration of human beings in towns and cities. Countryside, towns and cities do not just exist, but they do so to meet the basic human needs of food, security and the reproduction of the human species. Therefore, migration occurs because individuals search for food, sex and security outside their usual habitation. Social services in the towns and cities are provided to meet these basic needs for human survival and pleasure. Other models Zipf's inverse distance law (1956) Gravity model of migration and the friction of distance Radiation law for human mobility Buffer theory Stouffer's theory of intervening opportunities (1940) Zelinsky's Mobility Transition Model (1971) Bauder's regulation of labour markets (2006): "suggests that the international migration of workers is necessary for the survival of industrialised economies...[It] turns the conventional view of international migration on its head: it investigates how migration regulates labour markets, rather than labour markets shaping migration flows." Migration governance By their very nature, international migration and displacement are transnational issues concerning the origin and destination States and States through which migrants may travel (often referred to as “transit” States) or in which they are hosted following displacement across national borders. And yet, somewhat paradoxically, the majority of migration governance has historically remained with individual states. Their policies and regulations on migration are typically made at the national level. For the most part, migration governance has been closely associated with State sovereignty. States retain the power of deciding on the entry and stay of non-nationals because migration directly affects some of the defining elements of a State. Bilateral and multilateral arrangements are features of migration governance. There are several global arrangements in the form of international treaties in which States have reached an agreement on the application of human rights and the related responsibilities of States in specific areas. The 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (Refugee Convention) are two significant examples notable for being widely ratified. Other migration conventions have not been so broadly accepted, such as the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, which still has no traditional countries of destination among its States parties. Beyond this, there have been numerous multilateral and global initiatives, dialogues and processes on migration over several decades. The Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (Global Compact for Migration) is another milestone, as the first internationally negotiated statement of objectives for migration governance striking a balance between migrants’ rights and the principle of States’ sovereignty over their territory. Although it is not legally binding, the Global Compact for Migration was adopted by consensus in December 2018 at a United Nations conference in which more than 150 United Nations Member States participated and, later that same month, in the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA), by a vote among the Member States of 152 to 5 (with 12 abstentions). See also Colonization Demographics of the world Diaspora Early human migrations Environmental migrant Existential migration Expatriate Feminisation of migration Genographic Project Geographic mobility Globalization Humanitarian crisis Illegal immigration Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time Immigration to Europe List of diasporas Jewish diaspora Migrant literature Migration in China Most recent common ancestor Offshoring People flow Political demography Queer migration Refugee roulette Religion and human migration Replacement migration Separation barrier Settler colonialism Snowbird (person) Space colonization Timeline of maritime migration and exploration References Sources Books Anderson, Vivienne. and Johnson, Henry. (eds) Migration, Education and Translation: Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives on Human Mobility and Cultural Encounters in Education Settings. New York: Routledge, 2020. Bauder, Harald. Labour Movement: How Migration Regulates Labour Markets, New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. Behdad, Ali. A Forgetful Nation: On Immigration and Cultural Density in the United States, Duke UP, 2005. Chaichian, Mohammad. Empires and Walls: Globalisation, Migration, and Colonial Control, Leiden: Brill, 2014. Jared Diamond, Guns, germs and steel. A short history of everybody for the last 13'000 years, 1997. De La Torre, Miguel A., Trails of Terror: Testimonies on the Current Immigration Debate, Orbis Books, 2009. Fell, Peter and Hayes, Debra. What are they doing here? A critical guide to asylum and immigration, Birmingham (UK): Venture Press, 2007. Hanlon, Bernadette and Vicino, Thomas J. Global Migration: The Basics, New York and London: Routledge, 2014. Hoerder, Dirk. Cultures in Contact. World Migrations in the Second Millennium, Duke University Press, 2002 Idyorough, Alamveabee E. "Sociological Analysis of Social Change in Contemporary Africa", Makurdi: Aboki Publishers, 2015. Kleiner-Liebau, Désirée. Migration and the Construction of National Identity in Spain, Madrid / Frankfurt, Iberoamericana / Vervuert, Ediciones de Iberoamericana, 2009. . Knörr, Jacqueline. Women and Migration. Anthropological Perspectives, Frankfurt & New York: Campus Verlag & St. Martin's Press, 2000. Knörr, Jacqueline. Childhood and Migration. From Experience to Agency, Bielefeld: Transcript, 2005. Manning, Patrick. Migration in World History, New York and London: Routledge, 2005. Migration for Employment, Paris: OECD Publications, 2004. OECD International Migration Outlook 2007, Paris: OECD Publications, 2007. Pécoud, Antoine and Paul de Guchteneire (Eds): Migration without Borders, Essays on the Free Movements of People (Berghahn Books, 2007) Abdelmalek Sayad. The Suffering of the Immigrant, Preface by Pierre Bourdieu, Polity Press, 2004. Stalker, Peter. No-Nonsense Guide to International Migration, New Internationalist, second edition, 2008. The Philosophy of Evolution (A.K. Purohit, ed.), Yash Publishing House, Bikaner, 2010. . Journals International Migration Review Migration Letters International Migration Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies Review of Economics of the Household Websites International Organization for Migration's World Migration Report 2020 OECD International Migration Outlook 2007 (subscription service) Migration Policy Centre Films El Inmigrante, Directors: David Eckenrode, John Sheedy, John Eckenrode. 2005. 90 min. (U.S./Mexico) Further reading IOM World Migration Report, see http://www.iom.int/wmr/ Miller, Mark & Castles, Stephen (1993). The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World. Guilford Press. White, Micheal (Ed.) (2016). International Handbook of Migration and Population Distribution. Springer. External links 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article iom.int International Organisation for Migration CIA World Factbook, up-to-date statistics on net immigration by country Western Sahara and Migration Migration with special reference to Sahul and Austronesia Stalker's Guide to International Migration, a comprehensive interactive guide to modern migration issues, with maps and statistics Integration: Building Inclusive Societies (IBIS), a UN Alliance of Civilisations online community on good practices of integration of migrants across the world Migrations in history The importance of migrants in the modern world Mass migration as a travel business Migration, refugees and displacement (UNDP), provides background and statistics on human migration. Return migration between 1850 and 1950 by Dr. Sarah Oberbichler Newseye projet (https://newseye.eu) Anthropology Demographic economics Demography Genetic genealogy Migration	[ -0.0035910860169678926, 0.21009798347949982, -0.3598678708076477, 0.09691967070102692, 0.4841800034046173, 0.8338145017623901, 0.574100136756897, 0.7128599286079407, -0.5073451995849609, -0.9070960283279419, -0.5377578139305115, -0.33952271938323975, -0.7546495199203491, 0.6639856100082397, -0.38799241185188293, -0.008260753937065601, -0.20921477675437927, -0.05193797126412392, -0.27763262391090393, -0.035647135227918625, -0.35026654601097107, 0.10612200945615768, 0.21624469757080078, 0.054531533271074295, 0.4590371549129486, -0.627914547920227, 0.14263303577899933, -0.11034239828586578, -0.17579765617847443, -0.1700441688299179, -0.15158480405807495, 0.5388217568397522, -0.17503643035888672, -0.25895094871520996, -0.2684307098388672, -0.24061201512813568, -0.18713657557964325, -0.35170143842697144, 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221783	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Toronto%20Faculty%20of%20Law	University of Toronto Faculty of Law	The University of Toronto Faculty of Law (U of T Law, UToronto Law) is the law school of the University of Toronto. The Faculty's admissions process is the most selective of law schools in Canada and is one of the most selective in North America. The Faculty has consistently been ranked as the top law school for Common Law in Canada by Maclean's since it began to publish law school rankings. The Faculty offers the JD, LLM, SJD, MSL, and GPLLM degrees in law. Among its alumni are a Canadian Prime Minister, three Chiefs of Staff to the Prime Minister, two Premiers of Ontario, two Mayors of Toronto, and fourteen Justices of the Supreme Court of Canada, including three of the nine currently-sitting Justices (Russell Brown, Michael J. Moldaver, and Sheilah Martin). A number of deans at North American law schools—Columbia Law School, Toronto Faculty of Law, Queen's Faculty of Law, and Alberta Faculty of Law—are University of Toronto Law graduates. The current Dean of the Faculty of Law (as of January 1, 2021) is Jutta Brunnée, an international and environmental law scholar. History The University of Toronto Faculty of Law was established as a teaching faculty in 1887 pursuant to the University Federation Act, which was proclaimed into force in 1889. An earlier faculty of law had existed at King's College between 1843 and 1854, but was abolished by an Act of Parliament in 1853. The Faculty of Law was officially opened in 1889, with two part-time professors appointed at its inauguration - William Proudfoot and David Mills. The Faculty awarded LL.B. degrees to graduates of its program. However, the Law Society of Upper Canada at the time refused to accept the University of Toronto Faculty of Law as an accredited law school, preferring instead to maintain control over the profession by establishing its own school, the Osgoode Hall Law School. Thus, students who graduated from the Faculty were still required to complete a full three-year articling term and complete courses at Osgoode Hall in order to join the legal profession. As a result, the Faculty's enrollment numbers in the early years were relatively low. It was not until 1949 that the Faculty adopted its current form. In the 1940s, the Faculty played the leading role in making legal education in Ontario into a modern academic degree course, rather than an apprenticeship. In 1949, Cecil ("Caesar") Wright assumed the deanship of the Faculty of Law. He first had to resign his post as Dean of Osgoode Hall Law School, the seat of the Law Society of Upper Canada, rejecting the Law Society's apprenticeship model of legal education in favour of the University of Toronto's vision of a full-time legal education, hinging on the professional bachelor of laws degree and embedded within a university. Wright brought with him his colleagues John Willis and Bora Laskin, the latter of whom would go on to become Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Canada. Despite the Faculty of Law's academic program, the Law Society of Upper Canada refused to recognize it as a degree-granting institution for the purposes of accreditation. In the early 1950s, law students and their supporters petitioned the Law Society, and in 1953, a group of 50 student protesters marched on Osgoode Hall demanding formal recognition for the Faculty of Law. Finally, in 1958, after years of negotiation and discord, the Law Society began to give credit to graduates of the law school seeking admission to the Ontario bar. Reputation and admissions The University of Toronto Faculty of Law has consistently been rated as the top law school in Canada. The Faculty has held the number one spot in Maclean's law school rankings since it began to evaluate law schools in 2007. In 2011, the school was ranked 13th globally by the QS World University Rankings in the subject of law, along with a few select schools from US, UK, and Australia. In 2018, the Times Higher Education ranked the Faculty the 10th best law school in the world. In 2022, the Times Higher Education ranked the Faculty the 16th best law school in the world. The Faculty of Law has high admission criteria with an acceptance rate of 13.5% and a yield rate of 70.1%. The Faculty features a 98% yield rate in the province of Ontario, representing about half of the country of Canada's English-language common-law population. The median undergraduate GPA of students accepted into the J.D. program is 3.88, and the median Law School Admission Test (LSAT) score is 168. Location and buildings The Faculty of Law lies at the geographic centre of the University of Toronto in the downtown Toronto area. It is located at the corner of Queen's Park Crescent and Hoskin Avenue, south of the Royal Ontario Museum and slightly north of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario. Falconer Hall Falconer Hall is home to the faculty's graduate program, including offices and common rooms for graduate students, and four seminar rooms. The building was originally constructed for Edward Rogers Wood as a family home and named Wymilwood. It was temporary home of York University from September 1960 to fall of 1961. Flavelle House Flavelle House contains a conference centre, the Rowell Room student lounge, and staff offices. The building was constructed in 1902 as the private residence of Joseph Flavelle, and it was given to the University of Toronto upon his death in 1939. It backs onto Philosopher's Walk, which can be seen from many of the south and west-facing rooms. Jackman Law Building In 2011, the Faculty of Law launched a campaign to raise money for the renovation and expansion of Flavelle House, with a goal of raising $53 million. The new building is named the Jackman Law Building in honour of Henry N.R. "Hal" Jackman, who donated $11 million to the faculty's building campaign in 2012, the largest single gift the faculty has ever received. The new Faculty of Law building includes the conjoined Flavelle House, Laskin Pavilion, and Jackman Crescent, with the Queen's Park Forum connecting them all. It is located at 78 Queen's Park facing onto the Legislative Building on Queen's Park and has a view of downtown Toronto's skyline. Construction on the new building began in the summer of 2013 and was completed and ready for occupancy in mid-2016. The structure can be seen both from the corner of Queen's Park and from Hoskin Street. The Faculty of Law building is situated across from Trinity College, Toronto, separated by Philosopher's Walk, formerly Taddle Creek. Its location was formerly home to Toronto's Industrial Age Millionaire's Row, with many of the buildings, previously serving as mansions, donated to the University of Toronto in the intervening century. It is next to the Faculty of Music and just south of the Royal Ontario Museum, formerly part of the University of Toronto. The Jackman Law Building includes the faculty's principal classrooms, faculty offices, student services offices, faculty and student common rooms, the Rosalie Silberman Abella Moot Court, as well as the Bora Laskin Law Library. The Jackman Law Building was designed as a joint venture between B+H Architects and Hariri Pontariri Architects. Faculty members The Faculty of Law has over 50 full-time faculty members, and about 640 undergraduate and graduate students. Its "Distinguished Visitors" program brings short-term visiting professors from the world's leading law schools to teach at the school each year. Past visiting professors have included: Zhenmin Wang, Dean of the Faculty of Law at Tsinghua University; Aharon Barak, former President of the Supreme Court of Israel; and David M. Malone, former Permanent Representative of Canada to the United Nations. Among the permanent faculty members are many who are regarded as the leading scholars in their fields and who have also written many standard textbooks used by most students across Canada. These include Stephen Waddams (Contract Law), Ernest Weinrib (Tort Law), Kent Roach (Criminal Law), Hamish Stewart (Evidence Law), Larissa Katz (Property Law), Mohammad Fadel and Anver Emon (Islamic Law), Trudo Lemmons (Health Law), Edward Iacobucci (Competition Law), Anthony Duggan and Anita Anand (Business Law), Ayelet Shachar (Immigration Law), Martin Friedland (Legal History), Arthur Ripstein (Legal Philosophy), Benjamin Alarie (Tax Law), Carol Rogerson (Family Law), and Michael Trebilcock (Law and Economics), among many others. Gord Kirke has taught in the Bachelor of Laws and Master of Laws programs since 1985. Academic programs The faculty offers five degrees in law, with several combined degree programmes with other University of Toronto faculties. JD program The Juris Doctor or JD degree is the faculty's undergraduate level of a professional law degree, with about 200 students in every class and 600 in total. Students require an undergraduate degree prior to admission and must take the LSAT. In 2001, the Faculty of Law became the first law school in Canada to offer the Juris Doctor (JD) designation rather than the Bachelor of Laws (LLB). It followed many law schools in the United States, which had phased out the LLB over the 20th Century. The JD designation is intended to reflect the fact that the vast majority of the school's graduates enter the law school with at least one university degree. (In fact, approximately one quarter enter with one or more graduate degrees.) The JD designation does not, however, reflect significant changes in the law school's curriculum. The move to the JD was controversial at the time it was announced, though it has now gained wide acceptance and has been emulated by almost all Canadian law schools. Graduates of the faculty's JD programme are academically qualified to teach law at most law schools in North America, though an extensive record of legal publications is usually an additional prerequisite for tenure-track employment. Despite its name, holders of the JD are not legally entitled to use the prefix Doctor, unlike other professional doctorates (e.g., MD, PharmD, DDS) offered by the university. Combined JD programs In addition to the regular JD program, the faculty offers the most combined law degrees in Canada. Students concurrently pursue their JD with a second degree from another faculty at the university. These include the JD/MBA (business) with the Rotman School of Management, JD/MGA (international organizations) and JD/MPP (government) with the Munk School of Global Affairs and Public Policy, JD/MSW (social work) with the Factor-Inwentash Faculty of Social Work, and the JD/MA and JD/Ph.D. (arts and science) with the Faculty of Arts and Science, among others. While about one-fifth of the class currently is enrolled in a combined program, the most popular is the JD/MBA with an enrollment of over 20 students per year, making up over 10% of the overall JD class. Its combined JD/MBA program is the largest in Canada and possibly the world with students pursuing careers in business law, corporate leadership, consulting and investment banking. LLM program The Master of Laws (LLM) is a one-year degree that can be taken in either a thesis-intensive format or a coursework-only format. The Faculty offers concentrations in the area of Business Law, Criminal Law, Legal Theory, and Health Law, Ethics and Policy within the LLM degree program. Each year there are about 50 LLM students, with admission being restricted to students with outstanding academic performance in their first law degree (i.e., JD or LLB). GPLLM program The Global Professional Master of Laws (GPLLM) is a 12-month executive-style master of laws offered during evenings and weekends and taught by a combination of law and business faculty. The Faculty offers concentrations in the area of Business Law, Canadian Law in a Global Context, Innovation, Law and Technology, and Law of Leadership. Each year there are about 80 GPLLM students. Prior legal education is not required for admission, and the degree is designed for working professionals in occupations closely aligned with the law but not legal in nature. MSL program The Master of Studies in Law (MSL) is a very small program designed for established academics and scholars who work and write in a discipline related to law, and wish to acquire a knowledge of the law in order to add a legal dimension to scholarship in their own discipline. SJD program The Doctor of Juridical Science (SJD) is a research doctorate degree aimed at aspiring scholars. The SJD program provides an opportunity for outstanding law graduates to pursue original academic research at the highest level in a focused area of law. The programme includes graduate legal coursework and a 90,000 – 100,000 word dissertation that makes an original contribution to legal scholarship. Eligible candidates generally hold a Bachelor of Laws (LLB) or Juris Doctor (JD) and a Master of Laws (LLM) from recognized universities with an excellent academic record and have demonstrated, through substantive writing, their ability to engage in and generate high-level thought and quality research. While common in the United States, the University of Toronto is the only university in Canada to offer the SJD as its terminal law degree. All other Canadian universities offer a Ph.D. in law, while the University of Ottawa grants a Doctor of Laws (LL.D) as its terminal degree. Under Ontario law, holders of the SJD are entitled to use the prefix "Doctor" with their name. Legal clinics and internships The Faculty of Law offers its students internship programs in pro bono work and international human rights law, and supports a range of legal clinics staffed by students as well as practitioners. Tuition and financial aid Total tuition and other fees for entering Juris Doctor (JD) students as of 2020-21 are $34,633.51. The Faculty of Law has, by far, the highest tuition fees of any law school in Canada. It also has a financial aid program, which 48% of students qualified for in 2015-2016, with the average first-year student who qualified for aid receiving a $9,132 bursary. All students who have eligible unmet need, according to the financial aid policy, receive assistance in the form of bursaries and Faculty interest payments on private loans during the three years of law school. The Faculty's financial aid program uses a "deemed parental contribution" as part of determining a student's unmet need. There is no deemed parental contribution below an income threshold that is around the average Canadian household income. The deemed parental contribution phases out for students above the age of 30. The Faculty of Law is the only law school in Canada with a back-end debt relief program for graduates who choose to pursue low income employment. The "back end debt relief program" is targeted to relieve debt with respect to financial aid/interest-free loans that are recognized by the faculty; most third-party debt (lines of credit; credit cards; mortgage debt) is not recognized and is not eligible for faculty support. Grading system The JD program uses a modified honours-pass-fail grading system, announced in 2011–2012 and implemented in 2012–2013. It followed on Harvard Law School's and Stanford Law School's implementation announced in 2008-2009 and 2007-2008, respectively, of a modified pass-fail system first brought in place by Yale Law School decades before in the 1960s. The grades awarded are High Honours (HH), Honours (H), Pass with Merit (P), Low Pass (LP) and Fail (F). Toronto along with Harvard, Stanford, and Yale as well as UC Berkeley which has also had a similar system for decades, are the only law schools that use modified pass-fail systems in North America. Students beginning law school prior to 2012 are grand-parented and continue to be graded under a modified letter grade system. Students hoping to graduate with 'distinction,' indicating they finished in the top 10% of their class, can expect to require a mix of High Honours (HH) and Honours (H) grades. Cheating scandal In 2001, 30 U of T law students were caught misrepresenting their grades in order to secure competitive positions at Canada's leading law firms, known collectively by the metonym of Bay Street – the street in downtown Toronto where most are located. Many of these students were suspended from the law school for a year as a result of their actions. Student organizations Students manage a wide range of organizations and activities at the Faculty of Law. Activities include free legal clinics such as Downtown Legal Services, mooting, law journals, and interest oriented clubs. The umbrella organization for JD students at the Faculty of Law is the Students' Law Society. The umbrella organization for graduate students is the Graduate Students' Law Society. The student societies act as student governments, providing funding to student organizations and advocating on behalf of students to the faculty and administration. The four student-run law journals at the Faculty are: University of Toronto Faculty of Law Review Journal of International Law and International Relations Journal of Law and Equality Indigenous Law Journal Post-graduation employment The Faculty has the highest employment rate and average starting salaries for legal graduates in the country, taking the largest proportion of positions at Bay Street Seven Sisters firms in Canada every year. Over 95% of the school's JD graduates secure legal employment (as articling law students in Canada or licensed lawyers in jurisdictions where there is no apprenticeship such as the US) before graduation, the highest in the country. Notable alumni Justices of the Supreme Court of Canada Bora Laskin (1936) - Chief Justice of Canada (1973–1984) John C. Major (1957) - Puisne Justice of Supreme Court of Canada (1992–2005), Commissioner for the Air India Inquiry John Sopinka (1958) - Puisne Justice of the Supreme Court, (1988–1997) Ian Binnie (1965) - Puisne Justice of Supreme Court of Canada, (1998–2011) Louis LeBel (LLM 1966) - Puisne Justice of Supreme Court of Canada, (2000–2014) Rosalie Silberman Abella (1970) - Puisne Justice of Supreme Court of Canada (2004–Present) Michael J. Moldaver (1971) - Puisne Justice of Supreme Court of Canada (2011–Present) Russell Brown (2003) - Puisne Justice of Supreme Court of Canada (2015–Present) Sheilah Martin (2017) - Puisne Justice of Supreme Court of Canada (2017–Present) Politicians Alfred Apps (1985) - President, Liberal Party of Canada (2009–20120 Jerry Grafstein (1954) - Senator (1984–2010) Karl Jaffary (1962) - Vice-President of the New Democratic Party (1969–1973), Toronto city alderman (1969–1974), and noted urban reformist. John Sewell (1964) - Mayor of Toronto (1978–1980), columnist Paul Martin (1964) - Prime Minister of Canada (2003–2006) Bill Graham (1964) - former Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister of Defence, and interim Leader of the Opposition David Kilgour (1966) - democracy activist and former MP (who represented both the Progressive Conservative and Liberal parties) David Peterson (1967) - Premier of Ontario (1985–1990) Bob Rae (1977) - Premier of Ontario (1990–1995), Member of Parliament (1978–1982, 2008–present), Liberal Party of Canada foreign affairs critic David Miller (1984) - Mayor of Toronto (2003–2010) Tony Clement (1986) - Progressive Conservative MPP (1995–2003), Conservative Party MP (since 2006), and President of the Treasury Board (since 2011) Lawyers John A. Tory (1952) - son of Torys LLP founder John S. D. Tory Alan Borovoy (1956) - general counsel for the Canadian Civil Liberties Association (1968–2009) Clayton Ruby (1969) - criminal lawyer Kenneth Radnoff, QC (1963) - civil litigator, co-founder of Low Murchison Radnoff LLP Scholars Martin Friedland (1958) - professor of criminal law, author Stephen Waddams (1967) - professor and noted private law theorist Robert Prichard (1975) - Dean of the Faculty of Law (1984–1990), President of the University of Toronto (1990–2000) Ronald J. Daniels (1986) - Dean of the Faculty of Law (1995–2005), Provost and Vice President, Academic of the University of Pennsylvania, and current President of Johns Hopkins University Kent Roach (1987) - professor and specialist in criminal and constitutional law Timothy Endicott (1988) - Dean of the Faculty of Law, University of Oxford (2007-2015), Professor of Legal Philosophy in the University of Oxford Benjamin Alarie (2002) - professor of law Ernest Weinrib - professor of law Other Herbert Solway, QC (1955) - Chair of the Toronto Blue Jays Hal Jackman (1956) - Lieutenant Governor of Ontario (1991–1997), Chancellor of the University of Toronto (1997–2002) Allan Leibel (1970) - Canadian Olympic Sailor George Strathy (1974) - Chief Justice of Ontario (2014 - present) Stephen Stohn (1977) - television producer (Degrassi franchise) David Shore (1982) - television writer (House) Nigel S. Wright (1988) - businessman, chief of staff for Prime Minister Stephen Harper Guy Giorno (1989) - chief of staff for Premier of Ontario Mike Harris, chief of staff for Prime Minister Stephen Harper Ed Morgan (1984) - Judge and former professor Ralph Simmonds (1976), law lecturer at the University of Windsor, then McGill University, and then justice of the Supreme Court of Western Australia Garth Drabinsky (1973), Theatre Mogul, Co-Founder of Cineplex Theatres Melissa Kluger (2001), publisher and founder of Precedent magazine. 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221785	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han%20Xiangzi	Han Xiangzi	Han Xiangzi, courtesy name Qingfu or Beizhu, is a Chinese mythological figure and one of the Eight Immortals in the Taoist pantheon. He studied Taoist magical arts under the tutelage of Lü Dongbin, another of the Eight Immortals. Han Xiangzi is often depicted carrying a dizi (Chinese flute), so he is also regarded as the patron deity of flutists. He is also believed to be the composer of the Taoist musical piece Tian Hua Yin (). Historical identity It is not known if Han Xiangzi existed historically. However, he is believed to be Han Xiang, a grandnephew of Han Yu, a prominent politician, poet and Confucian scholar who lived in the Tang dynasty. There are at least three different accounts about Han Xiang and Han Yu's grandnephew. Han Yu once dedicated three poems to his grandnephew, Han Xiang, whose courtesy name was "Qingfu". The three poems are Zuo Qian Zhi Languan Shi Zhisun Xiang (), and the two-part poem Su Zeng Jiang Kou Shi Zhisun Xiang (). In 819, during the reign of Emperor Xianzong of Tang, the emperor arranged a grand ceremony for an alleged Buddhist relic to be escorted to the imperial palace in Chang'an and encouraged the people to worship the relic and donate to Buddhist monasteries. Han Yu wrote a memorial to Emperor Xianzong to advise him against doing so, and drew on the example of Emperor Wu of Liang and Hou Jing to caution the emperor. Emperor Xianzong was furious and wanted to execute Han Yu, but eventually pardoned him, demoted him, and sent him out of Chang'an to serve as the Prefect of Chao Prefecture (潮州; present-day Chaozhou, Guangdong). Along the way, Han Yu passed by Lan Pass (; in present-day Lantian County, Xi'an, Shaanxi), where Han Xiang came to join him on his journey. Han Yu wrote the poem Zuo Qian Zhi Languan Shi Zhisun Xiang and dedicated it to Han Xiang. The historical text New Book of Tang mentioned that Han Yu had a grandnephew, Han Xiang, whose courtesy name was "Beizhu". Han Xiang served as a da li cheng (), an official in the Ministry of Justice, under the Tang government. In the miscellany Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang, Han Yu had an unnamed grandnephew who lived in the Huai River region. He instructed his grandnephew to study Confucian classics in a school, but his grandnephew showed no interest in his studies and bullied his classmates. Han Yu then arranged for his grandnephew to study in a Buddhist school, but the abbot complained that he was defiant and reckless. Han Yu then brought his grandnephew home and scolded him for not spending his time productively. However, his grandnephew claimed that he had the special ability to change the colour of peony flowers, and demonstrated it in front of him. Han Yu was greatly surprised. His grandnephew then returned to the Huai River region and led the rest of his life as a simple commoner. Legends According to 17th Century novel Han Xianzi Quanzhuan (The Story of Han Xiangzi: The Alchemical Adventures of a Daoist Immortal), Han Xiangzi was a son of Han Hui, the elder brother of Han Yu (a famous statesman and poet from Tang Dynasty). After the death of Han Hui and his wife, Xiangzi was raised in Han Yu’s household, as if he was Han Yu’s son. Han Yu had great expectations of his nephew unfortunately the later had no intention of entering government service. Instead he liked to cultivate himself according to Taoism doctrine. Han Yu then married his nephew to Lin Luying, the daughter of scholar Lin, in hope that Xiangzi would forget his pursuit on Taoism and have more interest in worldly matter. However Han Xiangzi never impregnated his wife and several years later he ran from home to join Lü Dongbin and Zhongli Quan. As Han Xiangzi successfully becoming immortal, he returned to earth to deliver his uncle, his aunt and his wife (so they could become immortals too). After several failed attempts to break Han Yu’s Confucian obstinacy, Xiangzi finally delivered him after saving his uncle’s life from a snowstorm at Languan (Blue Pass). Later he did the same to his aunt and wife. There are similar story of Han Xiangzi’s origin in other accounts such as The Eight Immortals Depart and Travel to the East () and "The Eight Immortals Achieving the Tao" ( Baxian Dedao). However, the Dongyouji’s and Baxian Dedao’s version are shorter and didn’t mention Han Xiangzi’s marriage. Han Xiangzi’s Prophecy This story was recorded in both Xiyouji (Journey to the West) and Han Xianzi Quanzhuan. It was said that after achieving his immortality Han Xiangzi went to his uncle’s birthday. Han Yu once again tried to convince his nephew to abandon his pursuit of Taoism. In response, Xiangzi said that their paths were different. Before leaving, Xiangzi put some earth in a flower-pot and forthwith there came forth a bouquet of perfect peonies. On the petals of these flowers, written in gold, were two verses: “Clouds shroud Qin Peak, where is my abode? Snow is piled on Languan (Blue Pass), and my horse will not push on” Many years later Emperor Xianzong of Tang was offended by Han Yu's criticism of Buddhism. Thus he was demoted from his position in government and banished to Chaozhou. On his way to Chaozhou, Han Yu's journey was blocked due to heavy snowfall on Languan (Blue Pass). At this point he remembered his nephew’s prophecy and cried. Suddenly Han Xiangzi appeared before him, swept away the snow and opened a road for him. Realizing his past mistakes, Han Yu finally converted to Taoism. Han Xiangzi and the Dragon Girl (Longnu) The love story between Han Xiangzi and Dragon Girl (Longnu) is a famous folktale in China and has been adapted to many television series as well as opera. It was said that one day Han Xiangzi visited the East Sea and played his flute on the shore. The 7th daughter of the Dragon King was curious to the beautiful melody and emerged from the sea. She transformed herself into a silver eel, then danced in front of the immortal boy. Upon realizing that Han Xiangzi had noticed her, the Dragon Girl transformed herself into her true shape and thus they became lovers. One day an old woman appeared in front of Han Xiangzi. She informed him that the Dragon King had locked away her daughter at the bottom of the ocean, because he forbade her relationship with Xiangzi. The old lady then took a magical golden bamboo (or Azure Deep Sea jade in another version ) from her bag and handed it over to Xiangzi. Actually this was a memento from the Dragon Girl for him. With a broken heart, Han Xiangzi turned the golden bamboo into a magical flute and carried it wherever he went. The Dragon Girl has appeared in several of the television series depicting the Eight Immortals, such as: Dongyouji-Legend of the Eight Immortals (portrayed by Yvonne Lim), Eight Avatar (portrayed by Jia Qing) and Penglai Baxian (portrayed by Li Qian) Modern depictions In the television show Jackie Chan Adventures, Han Xiangzi was shown to be the Immortal who sealed away Hsi Wu, The Sky Demon. Han Xiangzi also appeared in tv series adaption of Eight Immortals: Dongyouji (Legend of Eight Immortals), played by Jerry Chang. Eight avatar, played by Roger Kwok. Penglai Baxian, played by Xu Haiqiao References Duan, Chengshi. Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang (Youyang Zazu). Ouyang, Xiu and Song, Qi. New Book of Tang (Xin Tang Shu). 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221786	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang%20Guolao	Zhang Guolao	Zhang Guo, better known as Zhang Guolao, is a Chinese mythological figure and one of the Eight Immortals in the Taoist pantheon. Among the Eight Immortals, Zhang Guolao, Zhongli Quan and Lü Yan were real historical figures. His existence is said to have begun around the middle or end of the 7th century, and ended approximately in the middle of the 8th. The epithet "Lao" added at the end of his name means "old". Life Zhang was a Taoist fangshi (translated as "occultist-alchemist") who lived as a hermit on Zhongtiao Mountain (; southeast of present-day Yongji, Shanxi) in Hengzhou () during the Tang dynasty. By the time Wu Zetian came to power, he claimed to be several hundred years old. A strong believer in the magic of necromancy, he also declared that he was a Grand Minister to the mythical Emperor Yao in his previous life. Zhang also had a love for wine and winemaking. He was known to make liquor from herbs and shrubs as a hobby. Other members of the Eight Immortals drank his wine, which they believed to have healing or medicinal properties. He was also known to be a master of qigong and could go without food for days, surviving on only a few sips of wine. Zhang was the most eccentric of the Eight Immortals, seen clearly in the style of Chinese martial arts dedicated to his memory. The style includes moves such as delivering a kick during a backflip or bending so far back that your shoulders touch the ground. He was known to be quite entertaining, often making himself invisible, drinking water from the petals of poisonous flowers, snatching birds in flight from the sky, as well as wilting flowers simply by pointing in their direction. Depiction in art and culture Zhang appears frequently in Chinese paintings and sculpture, either with the Eight Immortals or alone, and, like the other immortals, can be seen in many different common artistic mediums and everyday objects. He may be depicted standing or seated, but is typically shown riding his white mule, usually seated facing backwards. His emblem is a fish drum, which is a tube-shaped bamboo drum with two iron rods or mallets that he carries with him, or carrying a phoenix feather or a peach, representing immortality. Since he represents old age, in the Taoist fengshui tradition, a picture or statue of him can be placed in the home or bedroom of an elderly person to help bring them a long life and a good, natural death. A picture of him on his mule offering a descendant to a newly wed couple can also be found in Taoist nuptial chapels. Legends Zhang was known for wandering between the Fen River and Qin territories during his lifetime and was known to travel at least a thousand li per day on a white donkey or mule. When his journey was finished, he folded his mule up and placed it in his pocket or a small box. When he wished to use the mule again, he poured water on it from his mouth and the mule regained its form. The Tang dynasty emperors Taizong and Gaozong often invited Zhang to their imperial courts, but he always declined these invitations. Once, when asked by Wu Zetian, he finally agreed to leave his hermitage. As he reached the gate of the Temple of the Jealous Woman, he died suddenly. His body was seen decomposing and being consumed by worms, but he was later seen, alive and well, on Zhongtiao Mountain in Hengzhou. In 735, during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang dynasty, Zhang was called to Luoyang, where he was elected as the chief of the Imperial Academy, with the honorable title "Very Perspicacious Teacher". At this time, the Taoist Ye Fashan was highly favoured in the imperial court, thanks to his skill in necromancy. When asked who Zhang Guolao was, Ye replied, "I know, but if I were to tell your Majesty, I should fall dead at your feet, so I dare not speak unless your Majesty will promise that you will go barefooted and bareheaded to ask Zhang to forgive you, in which case I should immediately revive." Having been promised by Emperor Xuanzong, Ye Fashan then said: "Zhang Guolao is a white spiritual bat which came out of primeval chaos." Zhang was believed by some to be able to transform himself into a bat, another symbol of permanence. After giving this information, Ye immediately dropped dead at the emperor's feet. Emperor Xuanzong, with bald head and feet, went to Zhang as he had promised. After the emperor begged Zhang for forgiveness for his indiscretion, Zhang then sprinkled water on Ye's face and he revived. Soon after, between 742 and 746, Zhang fell ill and returned to die on Zhongtiao Mountain in Hengzhou. When his apprentices opened his tomb, they found it empty. See also Chinese alcoholic beverages Notes References Reprinted as Health gods Magic gods Eight Immortals	[ -0.005916443653404713, 0.5902454257011414, -0.5231276154518127, -0.2752123773097992, -0.0395658053457737, 0.6373172402381897, 0.3295375406742096, 0.11388302594423294, -0.12114265561103821, 0.051127590239048004, -0.5194998979568481, 0.15253815054893494, -0.2834899127483368, -0.06104413792490959, -0.15727023780345917, -0.032243892550468445, 0.6842584013938904, 0.012329746037721634, -0.25702258944511414, -0.12562398612499237, -0.1482476443052292, -0.07366832345724106, 0.2655143439769745, -0.34881308674812317, -0.0418240986764431, 0.21745231747627258, -0.20262375473976135, 0.06950897723436356, 0.037260208278894424, -0.08483817428350449, -0.19317582249641418, 0.902928352355957, 0.005034100264310837, -0.12064410746097565, -0.39850857853889465, 0.11933010816574097, -0.2723519802093506, 0.2091480940580368, -0.02256494201719761, 0.12368034571409225, 0.28364449739456177, 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221788	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Kerr	Steve Kerr	Stephen Douglas Kerr (born September 27, 1965) is an American professional basketball coach and former player who is the head coach of the Golden State Warriors of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He is an eight-time NBA champion, having won five titles as a player (three with the Chicago Bulls and two with the San Antonio Spurs) as well as three with the Warriors as a head coach. Kerr is the only NBA player to win four straight NBA titles after 1969. Kerr has the highest career three-point field goal percentage (45.4%) in NBA history for any player with at least 250 three-pointers made. He also held the NBA record for the highest three-point percentage in a season at 52.4% until the record was broken by Kyle Korver in 2010. In 2004, Kerr became a minority owner of the Phoenix Suns, part of the group led by Robert Sarver that purchased the team in 2004. In June 2007, the Phoenix Suns named Kerr the team's president of basketball operations and general manager and was one of the majority owner, Sarver's trusted basketball advisors. Kerr announced he was leaving the position in June 2010, but retained his minority share until 2014. Afterward, Kerr returned as a color commentator for NBA on TNT until 2014, when he pursued a career in coaching. In May 2014, Kerr received his first head coaching job with the Golden State Warriors. Under his leadership, the franchise entered the most successful period in its history, reaching five consecutive NBA Finals and winning three championships in 2015, 2017, and 2018. The 2015–16 Warriors won an unprecedented 73 games, breaking the record for the most wins in an NBA season, previously held by Kerr's 1995–96 Chicago Bulls. As part of USA Basketball in international play, Kerr won the 1986 FIBA World Championship as a player, and a gold medal in the 2020 Summer Olympics as an assistant coach of the men's team. Early life Kerr was born in Beirut, Lebanon to Malcolm H. Kerr, an American academic who specialized in the Middle East, and his wife, Ann (Zwicker). He has three siblings. His grandfather, Stanley Kerr, volunteered with the Near East Relief after the Armenian genocide and rescued women and orphans in Aleppo and Marash before eventually settling in Beirut. Kerr spent much of his childhood in Lebanon and other Middle Eastern countries. While in Beirut in the summer of 1983, he met a number of US Marines who were later killed in the Beirut barracks bombings. Kerr attended Cairo American College in Egypt, the American Community School in Beirut, Lebanon, and Palisades High School (now Palisades Charter High School) in Los Angeles, graduating in 1983. Malcolm Kerr was killed by members of the Shia Lebanese militia called Islamic Jihad on the morning of January 18, 1984 at the age of 52 while he was serving as president of the American University of Beirut. He was shot twice in the back of his head, by gunmen using suppressed handguns, in the hallway outside his office. Kerr was 18 years old at the time, and a college freshman; regarding his father's death, he has said: "Before my father was killed, my life was impenetrable. Bad things happened to other people." The Kerr family sued the Iranian government under the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996. While warming up with the Arizona Wildcats for a game at arch-rival Arizona State in 1988, Kerr had to deal with many ASU Sun Devil fans in the crowd chanting "PLO" and "Where’s your father?" Though tearful, Kerr led the Wildcats to victory, scoring 20 points in the first half, making all six of his three-point attempts. The athletic director of Arizona State, Charles Harris, sent a letter of apology to Kerr a few days later. Kerr graduated from the University of Arizona in 1988 with a Bachelor of General Studies, with emphasis on history, sociology and English. College career Minimally recruited out of high school, Kerr played basketball for the University of Arizona from 1983 to 1988. In the summer of 1986, Kerr was named to the USA Basketball team that competed in the FIBA World Championship in Spain. The team was the last American Men's Senior Team composed strictly of amateur players to capture a gold medal. He blew out his knee in the tournament, usually a career-ending injury, forcing him to miss an entire season (1986–87) at Arizona. He helped the Wildcats reach the Final Four of the NCAA Division I basketball tournament in 1988 along with fellow All-American teammate Sean Elliott. Kerr also set an NCAA record for 3-point percentage in a season (114–199, 57.3%). Professional career Phoenix Suns (1988–1989) Kerr was selected by the Phoenix Suns in the second round of the 1988 NBA draft. Cleveland Cavaliers (1989–1992) Kerr was traded to the Cleveland Cavaliers in 1989. He spent over three seasons (1989–1992) there. Orlando Magic (1992–1993) Kerr spent part of the 1992–93 season with the Orlando Magic. Chicago Bulls (1993–1999) In 1993, Kerr signed with the Chicago Bulls. The Bulls made the playoffs in the 1993–94 and 1994–95 seasons, but without Michael Jordan's presence for all of 1994 and much of 1995, the team could not advance to the Finals. However, with Jordan back full-time for the 1995–96 season, the Bulls set a then-NBA record of 72–10 and defeated the Seattle SuperSonics in the 1996 NBA Finals. Kerr played a major part in the Bulls' championship victory in the 1997 NBA Finals against the Utah Jazz. In the final seconds of Game 6 with the score tied at 86, he took a pass from Jordan and hit the title-winner. The Bulls won, earning the franchise's fifth title. Kerr also won the 3-Point Shootout at the 1997 All-Star Game. In the last minute of Game 2 of the 1998 NBA Finals against Utah, Kerr missed a 3-pointer, grabbed his own rebound and made a pass to Jordan who made a crucial three-point play, putting them in the lead for good. The play helped Chicago win the game and tie the series at 1. The Bulls won the series in six games. San Antonio Spurs (1999–2001) In January 1999, Kerr was acquired by the San Antonio Spurs in a sign-and-trade deal with the Bulls, whereby Chuck Person and a first-round pick in the 2000 NBA draft was sent to Chicago. The Spurs reached 1999 NBA Finals and won their first NBA Championship with a 4–1 series victory over the New York Knicks. Kerr became the second player to win four straight NBA titles without being a part of the 1960s Boston Celtics dynasty, the other being Frank Saul, who won four straight with Rochester and Minneapolis from 1951 to 1954. Kerr and Saul were the only two players in NBA history to have won two championships with two different teams in consecutive seasons until Patrick McCaw achieved the same feat in 2019 and Danny Green in 2020. Portland Trail Blazers (2001–2002) Kerr was traded to the Portland Trail Blazers alongside Derek Anderson on July 24, 2001, in a deal that brought Steve Smith to the Spurs. He would remain in Portland for the 2001–02 season, playing in 65 games. Return to San Antonio (2002–2003) On August 2, 2002, Kerr was traded back to San Antonio along with Erick Barkley and a 2003 second-round pick. In return, the Trail Blazers received Charles Smith, Amal McCaskill, and Antonio Daniels. Kerr played in nearly every game (75) the following year, which was his final season in the league. In Game Six of the 2003 Western Conference Finals against the Dallas Mavericks, Kerr made four second-half three-pointers that helped eliminate Dallas. The Spurs eventually won the NBA championship by beating the New Jersey Nets in the 2003 NBA Finals, 4–2. Retirement Kerr announced his retirement after the 2003 NBA Finals. During his NBA career, he played 910 regular season games. He retired as the league's all-time leader in single-season three-point shooting percentage (.524 in 1994–95) and career three-point shooting percentage (.454). Kerr won a total of five NBA championships as a player. Broadcaster and commentator In 2003, Kerr became a broadcast analyst for Turner Network Television (TNT), offering commentary alongside analyst Marv Albert. During his tenure, he performed a segment sponsored by Coors Light called Steve's Refreshing Thoughts in which he brought up interesting facts in NBA history. This segment continued through sponsorship and became known as Steve Wonders, sponsored by Sprint. In the same time period, Kerr also contributed to Yahoo! as an NBA commentator. He has provided his voice for the in-game commentary of EA Sports video games NBA Live 06, NBA Live 07, NBA Live 08, NBA Live 09 and NBA Live 10 with Albert. He has also provided his voice as a color analyst for NBA 2K12, NBA 2K13, NBA 2K14 and NBA 2K15. He remained a commentator in NBA 2K15 despite becoming the Golden State Warriors coach for the 2014–15 season several months prior to the game's release. Kerr's commentary also appears during All-Star play in the seventh gen port of NBA 2K16. Kerr left broadcasting in 2007 to become general manager for the Phoenix Suns, but it was confirmed on June 28, 2010 that he would return as an NBA analyst for TNT starting with the 2010–11 NBA season. Since 2011, Kerr has also called the NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship on Turner Sports and CBS, teaming up with lead broadcasters Jim Nantz and Clark Kellogg for the First Four and Final Four games, and with Albert in other rounds. Kerr was a regular contributor to the website Grantland from 2011 until it closed in 2015. Executive career Phoenix Suns (2004–2010) On April 15, 2004, Kerr was announced as a member of a potential group of buyers that would acquire his old team, the Phoenix Suns, from Jerry Colangelo for $300 million. He became part of Suns management, acting as a consultant. During the 2006 NBA All-Star Weekend, he was a member of the San Antonio team that won the Shooting Stars Competition. On June 2, 2007, Kerr announced that he would become the general manager of the Phoenix Suns beginning with the 2007–2008 season. In 2008, the Suns traded forward Shawn Marion and guard Marcus Banks to the Miami Heat in exchange for Shaquille O'Neal. The Suns were eliminated by the San Antonio Spurs in five games in the first round of the playoffs. On December 10, 2008, Kerr continued to remake the Suns roster by trading Boris Diaw, Raja Bell, and Sean Singletary to the Charlotte Bobcats in exchange for Jason Richardson, Jared Dudley, and the Bobcats' 2010 second-round draft pick, which was used to draft Gani Lawal of Georgia Tech. On June 25, 2009, Kerr traded O'Neal to the Cleveland Cavaliers for Ben Wallace, Sasha Pavlovic, a future second-round draft pick and cash. On May 5, 2010, the Suns wore their "Noche Latina" Los Suns jerseys in Game 2 against the Spurs to be united against the controversial Arizona immigration law. Kerr himself compared the law to Nazi Germany. On June 15, 2010, Kerr stepped down as president and general manager of the Suns. He continued to own a one percent share of the Suns' organization until 2014. Coaching career Golden State Warriors (2014–present) On May 14, 2014, Kerr reached an agreement to become the head coach for the Golden State Warriors, succeeding Mark Jackson. Kerr coached in the 2014 Summer League for the Warriors. During the 2014–15 season, the team's offense employed elements of the triangle offense from his playing days in Chicago under Phil Jackson, the spacing and pace of Gregg Popovich in San Antonio, and the uptempo principles Mike D'Antoni and later Alvin Gentry used in Phoenix when Kerr was the GM. After the Warriors beat the Houston Rockets to win their 14th consecutive game, Kerr became the first coach to start his career with a 19–2 record. This beat out Al Cervi and his 18–2 start with the Syracuse Nationals. On December 10, 2014, Kerr became the first NBA rookie head coach to win 21 of his first 23 games. He was named the head coach of the Western Conference team for the 2015 NBA All-Star Game after Golden State had the best record in the conference. On April 4, the Warriors beat the Dallas Mavericks 123–110 to clinch home-court advantage throughout the playoffs, and Kerr got his 63rd win of the season to become the highest winning rookie head coach in NBA history, passing Tom Thibodeau and his 62 wins with the Chicago Bulls in the 2010–11 season. In the NBA Coach of the Year voting, Kerr was runner-up to Mike Budenholzer. The Warriors ultimately finished with one of the best regular seasons in NBA history, and the greatest in the team's 69-year history. Golden State ended with an overall record of 67–15, becoming the 10th team to win 67 or more games in a single season. It was the first time the Warriors had ever won as many as 60 games in a season; their previous high was 59 in the 1975–76 season. The Warriors also ended with a 39–2 home record, which is tied for the second-best home record in NBA history. The Warriors were first in defensive efficiency for the season and second in offensive efficiency, barely missing the mark that the Julius Erving–led Sixers achieved by being first in both offensive and defensive efficiency. They became the first team in NBA history to have two win streaks over 15 at home (18 and 19). In the opening round of the playoffs against the New Orleans Pelicans, Kerr led the Warriors to their first four-game playoff sweep since the 1975 NBA Finals. Afterwards, the team surpassed the Memphis Grizzlies (4–2, in the second round). Down 2–1 in the series, Kerr made an unconventional adjustment in Game 4 to leave the Grizzlies' Tony Allen open and have his defender, center Andrew Bogut, guard the interior. His strategy was lauded after Allen, Memphis' best wing defender but a poor jump-shooter, was benched and limited to 16 minutes after missing wide open shots. The Warriors then defeated the Houston Rockets (4–1, in the Western Conference Finals), making the NBA Finals for the first time in 40 years. The Warriors faced the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Finals. Kerr and rival coach David Blatt were both in their first season as NBA head coaches, and this was the first time a pair of rookie head coaches faced each other in the NBA Finals since the NBA's first year of existence, in 1947 with Eddie Gottlieb of the Philadelphia Warriors and Harold Olsen of the Chicago Stags competing. After the Warriors went down 2–1 to Cleveland, Kerr started swingman Andre Iguodala in place of Bogut, jump-starting their stagnant offense for a 103–82 road win that evened the series. It was Iguodala's first start of the season, and the small unit came to be known as the Death Lineup. After the game, Kerr admitted to lying to the press in response to pregame questions about potential changes to his starting lineup. The Warriors went on to win the championship in six games, defeating the Cavaliers, 4–2, in the series, to give Kerr his sixth championship and first as a head coach. After the first two days of the defending champion Warriors' training camp, Kerr took an indefinite leave of absence to rehabilitate his back, which had caused problems since the 2015 NBA Finals. Around this time, assistant coach Luke Walton assumed Kerr's coaching duties. Kerr missed all of 2015 and most of January 2016, although technically the NBA credited Walton's win-loss record to Kerr. Kerr said "I think it's ridiculous", when asked about getting all of Walton's wins. On January 22, 2016, Kerr returned to coaching after missing 43 games, but warned he might need to miss games occasionally if there was a recurrence of the headaches and pain related to the spinal fluid leak that sidelined him. The Warriors went 39–4 with interim coach Luke Walton. The Warriors went 34-5 after Kerr returned to coaching. Golden State broke the 1995–96 Chicago Bulls 72–10 record by winning 73 games. Kerr became the first person in NBA history to be a part of 70-win teams as a player and head coach. He was named 2015–16 NBA Coach of the Year. Kerr would lead the Warriors to the 2016 NBA Finals where they would again face the Cleveland Cavaliers. The Warriors lost in seven games. On November 20, 2016, the NBA announced that Kerr had been fined $25,000 for public criticism of officiating during a radio interview with KNBR 680 on November 17. Kerr missed time during the 2017 playoffs due to recurring back issues. Associate head coach Mike Brown has acted as acting head coach during periods of Kerr's absence, and Brown continued head coaching into the playoffs leading the Warriors to a 12–0 record in the postseason. Kerr returned for the 2017 NBA Finals where he led the Warriors to victory over the Cleveland Cavaliers in five games. The Warriors finished the playoffs with a 16–1 record, the best postseason winning percentage in NBA history. Kerr is the fourth coach in NBA history to win two championships in his first three seasons of coaching. Kerr won his third championship as a head coach when the Warriors defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in the 2018 NBA Finals in four games to give Kerr his eighth championship of his career. Mainly on the strength of his first five seasons, Kerr is already third on the Warriors' all-time wins list behind Al Attles and Don Nelson. He also became the first head coach in NBA history to have led his team towards 67 or more wins in three consecutive seasons. Personal life Kerr married Margot Brennan, his college sweetheart, in 1990. They have three children: Nick, Maddy and Matthew. Kerr is a keen soccer fan and an avid supporter of Liverpool F.C. Political views Since the conclusion of the 2016 U.S. presidential election, Kerr has been critical of Donald Trump. In an interview following the election, Kerr voiced the opinion that Trump's rise to power was based on insults against women and minorities. He compared Trump's campaign performances and the crude responses of his supporters to The Jerry Springer Show. He made clear his "disgust" with Trump's disrespectful public discourse and has been disappointed with his leadership in the country. Kerr has been a strong supporter of gun control, expressing concern with the government's response to school shootings. He has voiced support for the Black Lives Matter movements across the United States, praising the efforts of peaceful protests and hopes that more people will take action to stand up to systemic racial injustice to black people. On October 27, 2020, Kerr endorsed Joe Biden for President in that year's upcoming election in an ad made by The Lincoln Project. In the ad, he announced many of his views; "stand[ing] for truth over lies", "categorically reject[ing] white supremacy", and "believe[ing] a presidency should be transparent" were among them. Career statistics NBA Regular season \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Phoenix \| 26 \|\| 0 \|\| 6.0 \|\| .435 \|\| .471 \|\| .667 \|\| .7 \|\| .9 \|\| .3 \|\| .0 \|\| 2.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Cleveland \| 78 \|\| 5 \|\| 21.3 \|\| .444 \|\| style="background:#CFECEC;"\|.507* \|\| .863 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 3.2 \|\| .6 \|\| .1 \|\| 6.7 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Cleveland \| 57 \|\| 4 \|\| 15.9 \|\| .444 \|\| .452 \|\| .849 \|\| .6 \|\| 2.3 \|\| .5 \|\| .1 \|\| 4.8 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Cleveland \| 48 \|\| 20 \|\| 17.6 \|\| .511 \|\| .432 \|\| .833 \|\| 1.6 \|\| 2.3 \|\| .6 \|\| .2 \|\| 6.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Cleveland \| 5 \|\| 0 \|\| 8.2 \|\| .500 \|\| .000 \|\| 1.000 \|\| 1.4 \|\| 2.2 \|\| .4 \|\| .0 \|\| 2.4 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Orlando \| 47 \|\| 0 \|\| 9.4 \|\| .429 \|\| .250 \|\| .909 \|\| .8 \|\| 1.3 \|\| .2 \|\| .0 \|\| 2.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Chicago \| 82 \|\| 0 \|\| 24.8 \|\| .497 \|\| .419 \|\| .856 \|\| 1.6 \|\| 2.6 \|\| .9 \|\| .0 \|\| 8.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Chicago \| 82 \|\| 0 \|\| 22.4 \|\| .527 \|\| style="background:#CFECEC;"\|.524* \|\| .778 \|\| 1.5 \|\| 1.8 \|\| .5 \|\| .0 \|\| 8.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Chicago \| 82 \|\| 0 \|\| 23.4 \|\| .506 \|\| .515 \|\| .929 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 2.3 \|\| .8 \|\| .0 \|\| 8.4 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Chicago \| 82 \|\| 0 \|\| 22.7 \|\| .533 \|\| .464 \|\| .806 \|\| 1.6 \|\| 2.1 \|\| .8 \|\| .0 \|\| 8.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Chicago \| 50 \|\| 0 \|\| 22.4 \|\| .454 \|\| .438 \|\| .918 \|\| 1.5 \|\| 1.9 \|\| .5 \|\| .1 \|\| 7.5 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 44 \|\| 0 \|\| 16.7 \|\| .391 \|\| .313 \|\| .886 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 1.1 \|\| .5 \|\| .1 \|\| 4.4 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 32 \|\| 0 \|\| 8.4 \|\| .432 \|\| .516 \|\| .818 \|\| .6 \|\| .4 \|\| .1 \|\| .0 \|\| 2.8 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 55 \|\| 1 \|\| 11.8 \|\| .421 \|\| .429 \|\| .933 \|\| .6 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .3 \|\| .0 \|\| 3.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|Portland \| 65 \|\| 0 \|\| 11.9 \|\| .470 \|\| .394 \|\| .975 \|\| .9 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .2 \|\| .0 \|\| 4.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 75 \|\| 0 \|\| 12.7 \|\| .430 \|\| .395 \|\| .882 \|\| .8 \|\| .9 \|\| .4 \|\| .0 \|\| 4.0 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 910 \|\| 30 \|\| 17.8 \|\| .479 \|\| style="background:#E0CEF2;"\|.454 \|\| .864 \|\| 1.2 \|\| 1.8 \|\| .5 \|\| .1 \|\| 6.0 Playoffs \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1990 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Cleveland \| 5 \|\| 0 \|\| 14.6 \|\| .286 \|\| .000 \|\| \|\| 1.2 \|\| 2.0 \|\| .8 \|\| .0 \|\| 1.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1992 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Cleveland \| 12 \|\| 3 \|\| 12.4 \|\| .439 \|\| .273 \|\| 1.000 \|\| .5 \|\| .8 \|\| .4 \|\| .0 \|\| 3.7 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1994 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Chicago \| 10 \|\| 0 \|\| 18.6 \|\| .361 \|\| .375 \|\| 1.000 \|\| 1.4 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .7 \|\| .0 \|\| 3.5 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1995 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Chicago \| 10 \|\| 0 \|\| 19.3 \|\| .475 \|\| .421 \|\| 1.000 \|\| .6 \|\| 1.5 \|\| .1 \|\| .0 \|\| 5.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\|1996 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Chicago \| 18 \|\| 0 \|\| 19.8 \|\| .448 \|\| .321 \|\| .871 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 1.7 \|\| .8 \|\| .0 \|\| 6.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\|1997 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Chicago \| 19 \|\| 0 \|\| 17.9 \|\| .429 \|\| .381 \|\| .929 \|\| .9 \|\| 1.1 \|\| .9 \|\| .1 \|\| 5.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\|1998 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Chicago \| 21 \|\| 0 \|\| 19.8 \|\| .434 \|\| .463 \|\| .818 \|\| .8 \|\| 1.7 \|\| .3 \|\| .0 \|\| 4.9 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\|1999 \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 11 \|\| 0 \|\| 8.8 \|\| .267 \|\| .231 \|\| .833 \|\| .8 \|\| .7 \|\| .2 \|\| .0 \|\| 2.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2001 \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 9 \|\| 0 \|\| 11.2 \|\| .480 \|\| .333 \|\| .500 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .7 \|\| .4 \|\| .1 \|\| 3.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2002 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Portland \| 3 \|\| 0 \|\| 13.0 \|\| .429 \|\| .250 \|\| 1.000 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 1.7 \|\| .3 \|\| .0 \|\| 6.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\|2003 \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 10 \|\| 0 \|\| 4.6 \|\| .636 \|\| .833 \|\| .750 \|\| .3 \|\| .6 \|\| .1 \|\| .0 \|\| 2.2 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 128 \|\| 3 \|\| 15.6 \|\| .426 \|\| .370 \|\| .876 \|\| .9 \|\| 1.2 \|\| .5 \|\| .0 \|\| 4.3 College \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1983–84 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Arizona \| 28 \|\| \|\| 22.6 \|\| .516 \|\| \|\| .692 \|\| 1.2 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 0.3 \|\| 0.0 \|\| 7.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1984–85 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Arizona \| 31 \|\| \|\| 33.4 \|\| .568 \|\| \|\| .803 \|\| 2.4 \|\| 4.0 \|\| 0.6 \|\| 0.1 \|\| 10.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1985–86 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Arizona \| 32 \|\| \|\| 38.4 \|\| .540 \|\| \|\| .899 \|\| 3.2 \|\| 4.2 \|\| 1.6 \|\| 0.0 \|\| 14.4 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1986–87 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Arizona \| align="center" colspan=11\|Redshirted—Did not play \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1987–88 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Arizona \| 38 \|\| \|\| 32.6 \|\| .559 \|\| .573 \|\| .824 \|\| 2.0 \|\| 3.9 \|\| 1.2 \|\| 0.1 \|\| 12.6 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 129 \|\| \|\| 32.1 \|\| .548 \|\| .573 \|\| .815 \|\| 2.2 \|\| 3.4 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 0.1 \|\| 11.2 Head coaching record \|- style="background:#fde910;" \| style="text-align:left;"\|Golden State \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| 82 \|\| 67 \|\| 15 \|\| \|\| 1st in Pacific \|\| 21 \|\| 16 \|\| 5 \|\| \| style="text-align:center;"\|Won NBA Championship \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|Golden State \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| 82 \|\| style="background:#E0CEF2;\|73 \|\| 9 \|\| \|\| 1st in Pacific \|\| 24 \|\| 15 \|\| 9 \|\| \| style="text-align:center;"\|Lost in NBA Finals \|- style="background:#fde910;" \| style="text-align:left;"\|Golden State \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| 82 \|\| 67 \|\| 15 \|\| \|\| 1st in Pacific \|\| 17 \|\| 16 \|\| 1 \|\| style="background:#EOCEF2;\| \| style="text-align:center;"\|Won NBA Championship \|- style="background:#fde910;" \| style="text-align:left;"\|Golden State \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| 82 \|\| 58 \|\| 24 \|\| \|\| 1st in Pacific \|\| 21 \|\| 16 \|\| 5 \|\| \| style="text-align:center;"\|Won NBA Championship \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|Golden State \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| 82 \|\| 57 \|\| 25 \|\| \|\| 1st in Pacific \|\| 22 \|\| 14 \|\| 8 \|\| \| style="text-align:center;"\|Lost in NBA Finals \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|Golden State \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| 65 \|\| 15 \|\| 50 \|\| \|\| 5th in Pacific \|\| — \|\| — \|\| — \|\| — \| style="text-align:center;"\|Missed playoffs \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|Golden State \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| 72 \|\| 39 \|\| 33 \|\| \|\| 4th in Pacific \|\| — \|\| — \|\| — \|\| — \| style="text-align:center;"\|Missed playoffs \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \|\| 547 \|\| 376 \|\| 171 \|\| \|\| \|\| 105 \|\| 77 \|\| 28 \|\| \|\| See also List of NBA players with most championships References External links 1965 births Living people 1986 FIBA World Championship players All-American college men's basketball players American men's basketball coaches American men's basketball players Arizona Wildcats men's basketball players Basketball coaches from California Basketball players at the 1988 NCAA Division I Men's Final Four Basketball players from Los Angeles Chicago Bulls players Cleveland Cavaliers players College basketball announcers in the United States Competitors at the 1986 Goodwill Games FIBA World Championship-winning players Golden State Warriors head coaches National Basketball Association broadcasters National Basketball Association championship-winning head coaches National Basketball Association general managers Orlando Magic players Sportspeople from Beirut Phoenix Suns draft picks Phoenix Suns executives Phoenix Suns players Point guards Portland Trail Blazers players San Antonio Spurs players Shooting guards United States 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221789	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhongli%20Quan	Zhongli Quan	Zhongli Quan, courtesy name Jidao, is a Chinese mythological figure and one of the Eight Immortals in the Taoist pantheon. He is also known as Han Zhongli because he was said to have been born in the Han dynasty. In legend, he wields a large fan which can resurrect the dead and transform stones into silver or gold. Life Zhongli was born in Yanjing. According to legend, bright beams of light filled the labour room during his birth. After he was born, he did not stop crying until seven full days had passed. He was destined for greatness from the day he was born by showing features such as a broad forehead, thick ears, long eyebrows, deep eyes, red nose, square mouth, high cheeks, and scarlet lips. Stories depict that either seven days or seven years later, he began to speak, and the first sentence he uttered was, "my feet have wandered in the purple palace of the [immortals], my name is recorded in the capital of the jade emperor." Later Taoists celebrate his birthday on the fifteenth day of the fourth month of the Chinese calendar. Following his father's example, he became a member of the court, advancing to be general of one of the armies of the Han dynasty. During his time as a general, his army fought against Tibet. In his last battle he was beaten by the Tibetans, forcing him to flee into the mountainous areas surrounding him. There he came across an old man who led him to a spiritual sanctuary where he was welcomed in and told that he could stay as long as was needed. There he learned the ways of the immortal rituals and extensive amounts of alchemy. After three hard days of teaching, he was dismissed and told to use his newfound powers to serve his people. When he turned back to talk to the man, he and his home had vanished. Using his power of alchemy and his magical fan, he created silver and gold coins from stones and saved people from poverty and famine. There are two stories that depict how he became one of the immortals. In the first, it was in his continuous use of the immortal powers and his magical fan that eventually caused his descent into the shimmering cloud of the immortals. In the second, he was meditating near a wall of his hermitage when all of a sudden it collapsed. Behind the wall was a jade vessel that took him as an immortal to the shimmering cloud. In Taoism, he is known as "Zhengyang Zushi" (), literally "True-Yang Ancestor-Master". He is also called "Master of the Cloud-Chamber" () in accounts describing his encounter with Lü Dongbin before achieving immortality. Depiction Usually depicted with his chest and belly bare and holding a fan made of feathers or horse hair, Zhongli is often set apart from the other immortals in pictures by wisps of hair on his temples and a beard down to his navel. He is known for his pleasing disposition, and is often painted or drawn drinking wine. Modern depiction In the television show Jackie Chan Adventures, Zhongli was shown to be the Immortal who sealed away Xiao Fung, The Wind Demon. See also References Health gods Eight Immortals	[ -0.001760532963089645, 0.23363225162029266, -0.6481648683547974, -0.252607524394989, -0.3191220462322235, 0.5183073878288269, 0.034516412764787674, 0.08202223479747772, 0.00031748448964208364, -0.20367780327796936, -0.5509945154190063, 0.390531450510025, -0.1654834896326065, 0.20180392265319824, -0.2770494222640991, -0.25329652428627014, 0.8584859371185303, 0.06497260183095932, -0.4130559265613556, -0.1546173393726349, -0.30114907026290894, -0.42932063341140747, 0.08071873337030411, -0.1177758276462555, -0.07822483032941818, 0.2885761559009552, -0.16681928932666779, 0.23351137340068817, 0.17417052388191223, -0.06401943415403366, -0.43179577589035034, 1.0177972316741943, -0.19325381517410278, -0.06580901145935059, -0.049071818590164185, 0.2577839493751526, -0.469689279794693, -0.0009593644645065069, -0.32622215151786804, -0.27080801129341125, 0.18717719614505768, 0.15691745281219482, -0.1872413158416748, 0.7219290137290955, 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221790	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGill%20University%20Faculty%20of%20Law	McGill University Faculty of Law	The Faculty of Law is one of the professional graduate schools of McGill University in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. It is the oldest law school in Canada, and continually ranks among the best law schools in the world. The faculty is known for its holistic approach though highly selective and competitive process for admission. Only 180 candidates are admitted for any given academic year and the acceptance rate is generally at 11%. McGill Faculty of Law has consistently ranked as the top law school for civil law, a top law school for common law, the most number of Supreme Court clerkships of any law school in Canada, and consistently outranks Europe, Asia, and Latin America's top civil law schools. Notable alumni include Prime Ministers John Abbott and Sir Wilfrid Laurier, thirteen Justices of the Supreme Court (Including the most recent appointments, Mahmud Jamal and Nicholas Kasirer), as well as numerous Members of Parliament. Three members of the current Cabinet of Canada are graduates of the Faculty: Catherine McKenna, David Lametti, and Marc Miller. Academics Bachelor of Civil Law and Juris Doctor program The McGill Faculty of Law offers a combined Bachelor of Civil Law (BCL) and Juris Doctor (JD) program. The BCL/JD program emphasizes a transsystemic and polyjural approach that integrates common law and civil law, sometimes within a single class. More recently, the Faculty has incorporated Indigenous law into its curriculum in response to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission's recommendations for Canadian law schools. In 2016, the Faculty reviewed its curriculum and added Integration Week: an introductory week of group work and lectures for first-year students. They also added two Focus Weeks—one in fall and one in winter—that allow students to take intensive one-week courses. The duration of BCL/JD program is somewhat flexible: the program can be completed in 3, 3.5, or 4 years. Students who opt for a minor, major, or honours program generally require 4 years to complete their degree. Majors are offered in International Human Rights and Development and in Commercial Negotiation and Dispute Resolution. The Faculty of Law, in collaboration with the Desautels Faculty of Management and the Faculty of Art's School of Social Work, offers joint programs that combine the BCL/JD program with either a Master of Business Administration (MBA) or a Master of Social Work (MSW). A joint program takes 4 to 5 years to complete. The Faculty of Law’s Admissions Office has an acceptance rate of 12.8%. Master of Laws (LLM) The Faculty offers four LLM programs for students: one general LLM program, and three specialized LLM programs in Air and Space Law, Environment, and Bioethics. Except for the LLM Bioethics program, all programs have thesis and non-thesis options. The non-thesis Master’s of Law option prioritizes course work and can be completed in twelve months. The thesis option prioritizes research; it can be completed in sixteen to twenty-four months. Student in the LLM Bioethics program write a thesis. Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) The Faculty offers three DCL programs in General Law, Comparative Law, and Air and Space Law. Students generally complete the DCL program in 3 to 4 years. Graduate Certificates The Faculty offers graduate certificates in Comparative Law and in Air and Space Law. Graduate certificates are awarded upon completing a set number of credits. Certificates are based on coursework, and no thesis is required. History The Faculty of Law was officially created in 1853, after a petition signed by young men studying law in Montreal was made to McGill in 1848. With the incoming class of 1969, the Faculty added a stand-alone common law degree, suitable to the practice of law in other Canadian provinces, which could be taken individually or jointly with the traditional Civil Law curriculum. The joint degree was then referred to as the National Programme, and taught common law and civil law in separate courses, but combined their study in a year-long introductory "Foundations" course and in some upper-year seminars. In 1951, McGill inaugurated its first post-graduate law program with the creation of its Institute of Air & Space Law. The Institute was founded by John Cobb Cooper, who had served as a senior official in Pan American World Airways, and the International Air Transport Association. Canada's only United Nations organ, the International Civil Aviation Organization, is also headquartered in Montreal. With the incoming class of 1999, the Faculty eliminated its civil, common, and national programs, and replaced them with a single program, which includes some mandatory first-year courses and some upper-year courses which integrate both common and civil law. This joint and bilingual degree, which all students must take, is now referred to as the transsystemic program. This program underwent slight revisions during a curriculum renewal unrolled in 2016. Under the newly revised program, criminal and property law are taught differently; incoming students also undergo two "integration weeks" (one in the fall and winter). The Transsystemic program was created under the direction of former Dean Stephen Toope, whereby every student graduates with degrees in both civil law and common law. This means that, from the first year, courses now explore civil and common law concepts in close comparison. Students analyse and critically evaluate the two traditions, their histories, and their social, political, and cultural contexts. Undergraduate students may participate in international exchange programs, and in the International Courts and Tribunals Program, which in 2006 received a Scotiabank-AUCC Award for Excellence in Internationalization. Since 1976, the Faculty of Law's Institute of Air and Space Law, has annually published the first and only bilingual journal in the field of air and space law, the Annals of Air and Space Law. Other Faculty of Law bilingual publications include the McGill Law Journal and the McGill Journal of Sustainable Development Law. The Buildings Old Chancellor Day Hall and New Chancellor Day Hall are the names of two joined building at McGill University’s downtown campus that house the Faculty of Law. Old Chancellor Day Hall was designed by noted architect Bruce Price for businessman James Ross. New Chancellor Day Hall was completed in 1967 by architecture firm Bland, Lemoyne, Edwards, and Shine. The Old and New Chancellor Day buildings are connected by an underground passage and by an atrium, which also connects to the Nahum Gelber Law Library. Today, Old Chancellor Day Hall is used for administrative and faculty offices. New Chancellor Day Hall includes all classrooms, a moot court room, student spaces, law student services, and administrative and faculty offices. Old Chancellor Day Hall In 1892, Canadian civil engineer, businessman, and philanthropist James Ross hired architect Bruce Price (whose other masterworks included Windsor Station and Château Frontenac) to design a château-style mansion in Montreal's Golden Square Mile, on Peel Street. Built largely of yellow sandstone from New Brunswick, the James Ross House was one of the most expensive private homes built in Canada during the nineteenth century. The house was a social centre for the Golden Square Mile. His son John Kenneth Leveson Ross, a noted bon vivant and sportsman, inherited both the house and the Ross fortune. In the 1919, J.K.L. Ross hired architects Trowbridge and Livingstone to undertake $600,000 of renovations that affected every room in the house. The renovation included adding a private bathroom to each bedroom, covering up a skylight, and putting in windows to create a library/reading room in what is now the Common Room. John Ross declared bankruptcy in 1928, and the James Ross House was sold at auction in 1929 for a mere $51,000. The mansion was subsequently purchased by J.W. McConnell in 1948 as a gift to McGill University. While the University may have initially planned to use it for a student residence, the Faculty of Law officially moved into the mansion in a ceremony attended by many members of the judiciary and the Montreal Bar on February 9, 1950. At the ceremony, McGill’s Chancellor, Orville S. Tyndale, declared on behalf of the Board of Governors that the mansion would be named Chancellor Day Hall in honour of McGill’s first Chancellor, Charles Dewey Day. The opening ceremony was held in the students’ handsomely furnished common room, a gift from Maurice Pollack. On July 9, 2014, Old Chancellor Day Hall closed for 14 months for renovations to upgrade the building’s heating, electrical systems, plumbing, windows, and more. Thirty-four staff and faculty members were relocated to New Chancellor Day Hall and to temporary offices on McGill College Avenue. In December 2017, representatives of the Clan Ross Association of Canada and members of the Faculty of Law unveiled a plaque commemorating James Ross. The plaque is located near the main entrance. New Chancellor Day Hall New Chancellor Day Hall was built in 1967 to address the Faculty of Law’s growing program and increased enrolment. A six-storey precast concrete tower designed by architectural firm Bland, Lemoyne, Edwards, and Shine was erected just west of Chancellor Day Hall and connected to it by a corridor, at the cost of $1.825 million. This extension was named New Chancellor Day Hall and blended with the adjacent Stewart Biological Sciences Building. New Chancellor Day Hall included additional classrooms, study spaces, and a moot court. Prior to the construction of the Gelber Law Library, the top floors of New Chancellor Day Hall housed the library. The building was inaugurated on January 21, 1967. During the bilingual ceremony, the Faculty of Law awarded seven honorary degree, including degrees to Chief Justice Robert Taschereau of Canada, Chief Justice Earl Warren of the United States, and Lord Denning of Great Britain. Following the inauguration of the Gelber Law Library in 1998, the empty floors of New Chancellor Day that had previously been used as the library were used by McGill University to house various small research units attached to different faculties. In 2005, all student services at the Faculty of Law were consolidated on the fourth floor of New Chancellor Day Hall. From 2008 to 2009, New Chancellor Day Hall underwent major renovations. The project overhauled the third, fifth, and sixth floors. New architectural features included adding a massive skylight above a staircase between the fifth and sixth floors, piercing windows on the sixth floor, and creating partially frosted glass partitions between offices to allow natural light inside interior offices. The third floor is devoted to student spaces – accommodating a multimedia classroom with movable walls and a seminar room. The third floor is also home to multiple student clubs, student-run law journals, and the graduate students’ lounge. The fifth and sixth floors feature a conference room, and house some of the Faculty’s research units, as well as offices for professors, staff, graduate students, and visiting scholars. Nahum Gelber Law Library The Nahum Gelber Law Library is one of the 13 branches of the McGill University Library and houses over 220 000 volumes of statutes, regulations, law reports, treatises, books, journals and other legal material. Designed by Dan Hanganu, the Nahum Gelber Law Library was inaugurated September 1998. The building was designed to link to New and Old Chancellor Day Halls via a two-level atrium for socializing and studying. The Gelber Library is home to the Wainwright Collection, which was established in 1958 with the acquisition of several hundred volumes dedicated to the history of French law. The collection is primarily composed of early French jurists on general civil law before the Codification of 1804 and was the personal library of French legal historian François Olivier-Martin. Over the years, the Wainwright fund has allowed the Library to expand the collection beyond the classic vision of civil law, centred on France, to reflect the global influence of civil law across languages and continents. Today, the collection consists of 800 works comprising 1200 volumes and is conserved in controlled atmospheric conditions in the Peter M. Laing Room, located on the second floor of the Gelber Law Library. Reputation Graduates of the Faculty consistently account for one quarter of Canada's Supreme Court clerkships, more than any law school in Canada. One of the small number of elite law schools internationally that may submit International Court of Justice (ICJ) clerkship applications, it also consistently places graduates at the ICJ, and has a better placement record than any other Canadian law school. Its flagship law review, the McGill Law Journal, is the most cited law faculty review by Canada's Supreme Court, and was ranked the best overall student-run law journal in the world outside of the United States. It also publishes the Canadian Guide to Uniform Legal Citation, the standard reference work for almost all Canadian law reviews, Canadian law schools, and courts. The McGill University Faculty of Law has consistently placed as the top ranking law school in Canada and has the highest acceptance requirements. The alumni from McGill University's law school consist of a diverse group of distinguished leaders on a global scale. It has historically placed in the top ~20 law schools globally on multiple ranking systems. It was recently ranked the 22nd best law school worldwide in the 2019 QS World Ranking. It was ranked the 16th best law school in the world in the 2021 Times Higher Education World Rankings, marking consistent showings for McGill in the top 20 worldwide in the ranking. In 2022, the Times Higher Education ranked the Faculty the 17th best law school in the world. Controversies In 2018, the Faculty, along with the McGill Office for Students with Disabilities, were sued by a blind law student who alleged that he was systematically denied access to accommodation measures. His lawsuit was covered by local and national media outlets. Notable people Current faculty members Adelle Blackett, holder of the Canada Research Chair in Transnational Labour Law and Development, former member of the International Labour Organization. Allison Christians, holder of the H. Heward Stikeman Chair in Tax Law. François Crépeau, former director of the Centre for Human Rights and Legal Pluralism, holder of the Hans and Tamar Oppenheimer Chair in Public International Law, and former United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights of Migrants. Armand de Mestral, Jean Monnet Chair in the Law of International Economic Integration. Mugambi Jouet, expert on criminal justice. Robert Leckey, dean and holder of the Samuel Gale Chair. Stephen Allan Scott, professor emeritus and leading scholar on the Canadian Constitution. Stephen A. Smith, scholar of contractual and remedial law. Colleen Sheppard, professor and expert in human rights and discrimination Daniel Weinstock, holder of the Katharine A. Pearson Chair in Civil Society and Public Policy Peer Zumbansen, Business law professor, co-founder of the German Law Journal Past faculty members Payam Akhavan, former UN prosecutor at The Hague. F.H. Buckley (LLB 1974), Foundation Professor at George Mason University School of Law Irwin Cotler (BCL 1961, LLD 2019), human rights lawyer, former MP for Mount Royal and former Canadian Minister of Justice Julius Grey (BCL 1971), Quebec human rights lawyer Ralph Simmonds Justice of the Supreme Court of Western Australia John Cobb Cooper (LLD 1952), founded the Institute of Air & Space Law at McGill University Paul-André Crépeau, responsible for drafting the new Civil Code of Quebec James Mallory – for many years Canada's leading constitutional scholar Christophe-Alphonse Geoffrion, Canadian lawyer, professor, and Canadian cabinet member Charles Joseph Doherty (BCL 1876, Hon. LLD 1913) – Minister of Justice and Attorney General, 1911–1921 H. Patrick Glenn, comparative legal scholar and author of "Legal Traditions of the World". Patrick Healy (BCL 1981), judge at the Quebec Court of Appeal. John Peters Humphrey (BCL 1929, LLB 1976), founding Director of the United Nations Human Rights division and principal drafter of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights Daniel Jutras, former Dean of McGill Law and current Recteur of Université de Montréal David Johnston (LLD 2000), fourteenth Principal and Vice-Chancellor of McGill University, and former Governor General of Canada Nicholas Kasirer (BCL 1985, LLB 1985), scholar of civil law, comparative law, and law and language, Dean of the faculty 2004-2009, Supreme Court of Canada judge Donald James Johnston (BCL 1958, LLD 2003), 4th Secretary General of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and Attorney General of Canada from 1984 to 1988. David Lametti (BCL 1989, LLB 1989), MP for LaSalle—Émard—Verdun, Canadian Minister of Justice, and former Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of International Trade Richard Lehun (BCL/LLB 2005, DCL 2007) German-Canadian inter-disciplinary visual artist, professor of fiduciary law and justice theory W. C. J. Meredith, special federal prosecutor at the trial of Fred Rose, for whom the Meredith Memorial Lectures are named Roderick A. Macdonald, Dean of the faculty (1984-1989) influential law reformer, scholar, teacher, mentor and Founding President of the Law Commission of Canada Yves-Marie Morissette, civil and comparative law scholar, Quebec Court of Appeal judge. Margaret Somerville, ethicist and former Samuel Gale Professor of Law. William Tetley, maritime law scholar, Quebec MNA for Notre-Dame-de-Grâce and Cabinet Minister. Stephen Toope (BCL 1983, LLB 1983, LLD 2017), international law scholar, vice-chancellor of Cambridge University and former President of the University of British Columbia. Robert Stanley Weir (BCL 1880, DCL 1897), Quebec judge, considered one of the leading experts of the day on Quebec's municipal civil law Alumni Justices of the Supreme Court Douglas Abbott (BCL 1918), puisne justice of the Supreme Court of Canada — appointed to the Court in 1954, previously Minister of National Defence and Minister of Finance Louis-Philippe de Grandpré (BCL 1938), puisne justice of the Supreme Court of Canada — appointed to the Court in 1974, formerly president of the Canadian Bar Association Marie Deschamps (LLM 1983), puisne justice of the Supreme Court of Canada — appointed to the Court in 2002, previously a Judge on the Quebec Court of Appeal Morris Fish (BCL 1962), puisne justice of the Supreme Court of Canada — appointed to the Court in 2003, previously a Judge on the Quebec Court of Appeal Clément Gascon (BCL 1981), puisne justice of the Supreme Court of Canada — appointed to the Court in 2014, previously a Judge on the Quebec Court of Appeal Désiré Girouard (BCL 1860), puisne justice of the Supreme Court of Canada — appointed to the Court in 1895, previously member of Parliament Charles D. Gonthier (BCL 1951), puisne justice of the Supreme Court of Canada — appointed to the Court in 1989, previously a Judge on the Quebec Court of Appeal Mahmud Jamal (BCL’93, LLB’93), puisne justice of the Supreme Court of Canada — appointed to the Court in 2021, previously a Judge on the Court of Appeal for Ontario Nicholas Kasirer (BCL 1985, LLB 1985), puisne justice of the Supreme Court of Canada — appointed to the Court in 2019, previously a Judge on the Quebec Court of Appeal Gerald Le Dain (BCL 1949), puisne justice of the Supreme Court of Canada — appointed to the Court in 1984, previously a Judge on the Federal Court of Appeal Sheilah L. Martin (BCL 1981, LLB 1981), puisne justice of the Supreme Court of Canada — appointed to the Court in 2017, previously judge of the Court of Appeal of Alberta Pierre-Basile Mignault (BCL 1878), puisne justice of the Supreme Court of Canada — appointed to the Court in 1918, previously President of the Bar of Montreal Thibaudeau Rinfret (BCL 1900), Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Canada — appointed to the Court in 1924, previously a Judge on the Superior Court of Quebec Jurists and legal professionals Jean-Louis Baudouin (BCL 1958, LLD 2007). Harry Batshaw (BCL 1924), justice for the Quebec Superior Court Alanna Devine (BCL/LLB 2006), former director of Animal Advocacy at the Montreal branch of the Canadian Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals John Gomery (BCL 1956), former judge of the Quebec Superior Court. Benjamin J. Greenberg (BA’54, BCL’57), judge for the Quebec Superior Court Julius Grey (BCL 1971), Quebec human rights lawyer Michelle Hanlon (LLM 2017), founder and president of For All Moonkind, president of the National Space Society, co-director of the Center for Air and Space Law at the University of Mississippi School of Law Chile Eboe-Osuji (LLM 1991), Nigerian judge of the International Criminal Court, The Hague and former President of the International Criminal Court Alison Harvison-Young (BCL 1983, LLB 1983), family law expert and judge of the Court of Appeal for Ontario, former Dean of Queen's University Faculty of Law James K. Hugessen (BCL 1957) judge currently serving on the Federal Court of Canada Mahmud Jamal (BCL/LLB 1993), former judge on the Court of Appeal for Ontario; now a judge of the Supreme Court of Canada Glenn Joyal (BCL 1986), Chief Justice of the Court of Queen's Bench of Manitoba Richard Lehun (BCL/LLB 2005, DCL 2007) German-Canadian inter-disciplinary visual artist, professor of fiduciary law and justice theory Allan Lutfy (BCL 1968) Justice and former Chief Justice of the Federal Court of Canada Edward Stuart McDougall, judge on the International Military Tribunal for the Far East. Siobhán Phelan (LLM 1994), judge of the High Court of Ireland George Springate, former CFL player for the Grey-cup winning Montreal Alouettes, politician, and Citizenship Judge Max M. Teitelbaum (BCL 1957), puisne justice of the Federal Court of Canada. Richard Warman (LLM 2004), renowned Canadian human rights lawyer Political figures John Abbott (BCL 1854), 3rd Prime Minister of Canada. Warren Allmand (BCL 1952) – served variously as Solicitor General, Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, and Minister of Consumer and Corporate Affairs between 1972 and 1979. Will Amos (BCL/LLB 2004), Liberal politician, MP for the riding of Pontiac. W. David Angus (BCL 1962), former Canadian senator. Rachel Bendayan (BA’02, BCL/LLB’06) – Member of Parliament for Outremont Albert Joseph Brown (BCL 1886) – Senator for Wellington, 1932–1938 Barry Campbell (BCL 1971) – lawyer, lobbyist and former politician Jérôme Choquette (BCL 1946) – prominent lawyer and Quebec politician Brooke Claxton (BCL 1946) – Minister of Health, 1943–1946; Minister of National Defence, 1946–1954. John Joseph Curran (LLB 1862) – first Solicitor General of Canada. Henry Joseph Cloran (BCL 1883) – Senator for Victoria, Quebec, 1903–1928. Thomas D'Arcy McGee (BCL 1861), Member of Parliament, Minister of agriculture, immigration and statistics, and Father of Canadian Confederation. Charles Dewey Day Chancellor of McGill University 1864-1884, political figure in Canada East. Charles Drury (BCL 1936) – Minister of Finance, Defence, Public Works, Industry, President of the Treasury Board Ken Dryden (LLB 1973), cabinet minister, MP for York Centre, and Hockey Hall of Fame member, six-time Stanley Cup Winner Brian Gallant (LLM 2011), former Premier of New Brunswick. Yoine Goldstein (BCL 1958), former Canadian senator. Stanley Hartt (BCL 1963), lawyer, businessman and chief of staff to Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney Arnold Heeney (BCL 1927) – ambassador to the United States and NATO. Véronique Hivon (BCL 1994, LLB 1994), member of the National Assembly of Quebec for Joliette. Balarama Holness (JD/BCL 2021), rights activist, former Canadian Football League (CFL) player, candidate for mayor in the 2021 Montreal municipal elections Anthony Housefather (BCL 1993, LLB 1993), Liberal politician, MP for the riding of Mount Royal. John Peters Humphrey (BCom’25, BA’27, BCL’29, PhD’45, LLD’76), first director of the UN’s Human Rights Division, principal author of the first draft of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Samuel William Jacobs (BCL 1893) – Member of Parliament for George-Étienne Cartier, Quebec. Marie-Claire Kirkland-Casgrain (BCL’50, LLD’97), first woman to become a member of the National Assembly of Quebec, lawyer and judge. Adrian Knatchbull-Hugessen (BCL 1914), Canadian lawyer and senator. Rodolphe Laflamme (BCL 1856, DCL 1873), 5th Attorney General of Canada David Lametti (BCL 1989, LLB 1989), Liberal politician, MP for the riding of LaSalle—Émard—Verdun, Canadian Minister of Justice, and former Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of International Trade. Sir Wilfrid Laurier (BCL 1866), 7th Prime Minister of Canada. Joël Lightbound (BCL/LLB 2011), Liberal politician, MP for the riding of Louis-Hébert. Hillel Neuer (BCL 1997, LLB 1997), international lawyer, writer, and executive director of UN Watch. Alan Macnaughton (BCL 1927) – former Member of Parliament and Speaker of the House of Commons. Joni Madraiwiwi (LLM 1989) – former acting president and vice-president of the Republic of Fiji and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Nauru Catherine McKenna (LLB 1999), Liberal politician, MP for the riding of Ottawa Centre, and Minister of Infrastructure and Communities. Marc Miller (BCL/LLB 2001) Lawyer and MP for the Liberal current Canadian Minister of Indigenous Services. Frederick Debartzch Monk (BCL 1877) – Minister of Public Works, 1911–1912 Thomas Mulcair (BCL 1976, LLB 1977), former leader of the NDP of the Official Opposition, MP for Outremont, former Quebec MNA for Chomedy and Minister of Environment. Joe Oliver (BCL 1964), former MP for Eglinton—Lawrence, Minister of Finance and Minister of Natural Resources. Narcisse Pérodeau (BCL 1876), a Quebec politician and the 14th Lieutenant Governor of Quebec. Jim Peterson (DCL 1970) – Minister of International Trade, 2003–2006. Sydney David Pierce (BCL 1925, LLD 1956) – Olympic hurdler and ambassador to Brazil, Belgium, Luxembourg, Mexico, and the OECD. Lazarus Phillips (BCL 1918), Canadian lawyer and Senator. John Rankin (LLM 1984) – current Governor-General of Bermuda Greg Rickford (BCL/LLB 2005) – Minister of Natural Resources, 2014–2015. Alexander Cameron Rutherford (BCL 1881), first premier of Alberta, founder of the University of Alberta. Larry W. Smith (BCL 1976), former Canadian senator, nine season running back for Montreal Alouettes and 8th commissioner of the CFL. Francis R. Scott (BCL 1927, LLD 1967), constitutional rights lawyer, civil libertarian, poet, founder of the first social democratic party and the NDP Kathleen Weil (BCL 1982, LLB 1982), member of the National Assembly of Quebec for Notre-Dame-de-Grâce. William Alexander Weir (BCL 1881), Quebec judge and politician Nick Whalen (LLB 2011), Lawyer and former MP for the Liberal Other Alumni David P. O'Brien (BCL 1965), Canadian businessman, currently as chairman of Royal Bank of Canada Peter Blaikie (BCL 1965), Quebec lawyer, politician, co-founder of Heenan Blaikie Lionel Chetwynd (BCL 1967), British-American screenwriter, director and producer Eleanor Clitheroe (LLM 1978), former president and CEO of Hydro One Leonard Cohen, prominent singer-songwriter (who only did a year of Law before dropping out) Chuck Comeau, the drummer for Simple Plan (studied law but ultimately dropped out) James Creighton (BCL 1880) "father of organized hockey" Mary Dawson (BCL 1963), civil servant, former Conflict of Interest and Ethics Commissioner of Canada. James de Beaujeu Domville (BCL 1957) theatrical producer and administrator, former commissioner of National Film Board of Canada (NFB) Dennis Draper (dropped out before completing his studies), Brigadier-General, Chief Constable of the Toronto Police Department from 1928 to 1946 Yves Fortier (BCL 1958, LLD 2005), Canadian Ambassador to the United Nations and President of the United Nations Security Council. Michael Goldbloom (BCL 1978, LLB 1979), Principal and Vice-Chancellor of Bishop's University in Lennoxville, Quebec; former publisher of the Toronto Star Shaul Gordon (BCL/JD 2019, LLM 2021), award-winning competitive fencer, Olympic athlete (Tokyo 2020) Charles Goren (BCL 1922), American bridge player and best-selling writer A. Jean de Grandpré (BCL 1943), first chairman and CEO of BCE Inc. Roy Heenan (BCL 1960, LLD 2008), Labour lawyer, academic, and co-founder of Heenan Blaikie Tasha Kheiriddin (BCL/LLB 1993), conservative television media personality, public policy analyst and commentator Hubert Lacroix (BCL 1976), former CEO and President of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation David Lawee (BCL 1993), tech executive, founder of Google Capital Anthony Lemke (BCL/LLB) television and film actor, lawyer and entrepreneur Annie MacDonald Langstaff (BCL 1914), the first woman to earn a law degree in Quebec, a legal activist, supporter of women's suffrage and an early woman aviator. David Ross McCord (BCL 1867) lawyer, philanthropist, founder of the McCord Museum Hilmi M. Zawati (LLB 1978, MA 1986, PhD 1994, LLM 1997, DCL 2010), International Criminal Law Jurist, and Chair of Centre for International Accountability and Justice (CIAJ) Don Meehan (LLB 1975), founder of Newport Sports agency, which represents several hockey players in the NHL. Mayo Moran (LLB 1990), Dean of University of Toronto Faculty of Law 2006-2014, first female dean. Pierre Péladeau (BCL 1950), founder of Canadian media company Quebecor Inc. Richard Pound (BCL 1962, LLD 2009), Canadian swimming champion, lawyer and prominent spokesman for ethics in sport. Jennifer Stoddart (BCL 1980, LLD 2015), civil servant, sixth Privacy Commissioner of Canada Frank Shoofey (BA 1961, BCL 1964), prominent criminal lawyer. Paulos Tesfagiorgis (LLM), Eritrean human rights activist Stephen Toope (BCL 1983, LLB 1983, LLD 2017), renowned international legal scholar, vice-chancellor of Cambridge University and former President of the University of British Columbia. Christopher Waters (LLM 1998, DCL 2002), Dean of University of Windsor Faculty of Law 2006-Present Robert Stanley Weir (BCL 1880, DCL 1897), Quebec judge and poet most famous for writing the English lyrics to "O Canada", the national anthem of Canada Mortimer Zuckerman (BCL 1961), Canadian-American billionaire media magnate, co-founder, executive chairman and former CEO of Boston Properties Deans of the Faculty The study of law at McGill began in 1844 when William Badgley was appointed lecturer in law within the Faculty of Arts. While informal classes began earlier, the Faculty of Law was officially established at McGill in 1853, with William Badgley appointed its first dean. Over the years, the following people have served the Faculty of Law as deans. 1853-1855 William Badgley, DCL 1870 1855-1876 Sir John Abbott, BCL 1854, DCL 1867 1876-1881 William W.H. Kerr, BCL 1872 (Acting Dean) 1881-1888 William W.H. Kerr, BCL 1872 1888-1896 Norman W. Trenholme, BCL 1865, DCL 1887 1896-1897 Leonidas Davidson, BCL 1864 1897-1914 Frederick Parker Walton, LLD 1915 1914-1915 Charles Peers Davidson, BCL 1863, DCL 1875, LLD 1912 (Acting Dean) 1915-1921 Robert Warden Lee, DCL 1877 1921-1923 Robert A.E. Greenshields, BCL 1885, LLD 1929 (Acting Dean) 1923-1928 Robert A.E. Greenshields, BCL 1885, LLD 1929 1928-1936 Percy Ellwood Corbett, DCL 1961 1936-1946 C. Stuart Lemesurier, BCL 1912 1946 John P. Humphrey, BCL 1929, PhD 1945, LLD 1976 (Dean Designate) 1946-1949 C. Stuart Lemesurier, BCL 1912 1949 Gérald Fauteux, LLD 1955 1950 A. Sydney Bruneau, BCL 1917 1950-1960 William C.J. Meredith 1960-1961 Maxwell Cohen, LLD 1994 (Acting Dean) 1961-1964 F.R. Scott, BCL 1927, LLD 1967 1964-1969 Maxwell Cohen, LLD 1994 1969-1974 John W. Durnford, BCL 1952 1974-1979 John E.C. Brierley, BCL 1959 1979-1980 William Foster (Acting Dean) 1980-1984 John E.C. Brierley, BCL 1959 1984-1989 Roderick A. Macdonald 1989-1994 The Hon. Yves-Marie Morissette 1994-1999 Stephen Toope, BCL 1983, LLB 1983, LLD 2017 1999-2003 Peter Leuprecht 2003-2009 The Hon. Nicholas Kasirer, BCL 1985, LLB 1985 2009 Shauna Van Praagh (Acting Dean) 2009-2010 Daniel Jutras (Acting Dean) 2010-2016 Daniel Jutras 2016- Robert Leckey, BCL 2002, LLB 2002 Student Life Law Student Association The overarching student organization is the Law Student’s Association (LSA): an elected group of law students who represent the student body. The LSA was created in 1912 and incorporated in 1992. The executives and representatives of the LSA are elected by McGill’s law students. During the school year, the LSA hosts a weekly coffeehouse on Thursday evenings designed to encourage students to network and socialize over food and drink. The coffeehouse tradition was started in 1989 by David Lametti when he was part of the LSA. Some coffeehouse events are sponsored by law firms for networking with students, while others are hosted by student associations and clubs. Christie Bike Ride The Dugald Christie Memorial Community Bike Ride, also called the Christie Bike Ride, is an annual charity fundraiser organized by McGill Law students. Funds are distributed to local organizations that increase access to justice, especially for marginalized communities. Past recipients of the funds include Project Genesis, Head and Hands, and the Native Women’s Shelter of Montreal. The Christie Bike Ride was started in 2009 in honour of alumnus Dugald Christie. Christie was a Vancouver-based lawyer that championed access to justice for low-income communities. He was killed while cycling from Vancouver to Ottawa to raise awareness about access to justice. Journals McGill Law Journal The McGill Law Journal (MLJ) was founded by Gerald Le Dain and Jacques-Yvan Morin in 1952. The MLJ publishes four volumes a year on general law topics. The MLJ is frequently cited by the Supreme Court of Canada and is the most cited student-run law journal by the Court. The McGill Law Journal also publishes the Canadian Guide to Uniform Legal Citation. The original Guide was published in 1986 and was intended to standardize Canadian legal citations. Today, the Guide is used by most Canadian legal journals. The McGill Law Journal regularly hosts office hours to assist McGill students using the Canadian Guide to Uniform Legal Citation. McGill Journal of Sustainable Development Law The McGill Journal of Sustainable Development Law (MJSDL) was established in 2004 and focuses on sustainable development and environmental law and policy. It is peer-reviewed and published bi-annually. McGill Journal of Law and Health The McGill Journal of Law and Health (MJLH) was established in 2007. It is a peer-reviewed, open-access journal and is published annually. The MJLH focuses on health law and has been cited four times by the Supreme Court of Canada. Most recently, an article from the journal was cited in the Reference Re Assisted Human Reproduction Act. McGill Journal of Dispute Resolution The McGill Journal of Dispute Resolution (MJDR) is a bilingual peer-reviewed academic journal dedicated to scholarship in the fields of arbitration, mediation, facilitation, negotiation and other forms of alternative dispute resolution. The McGill Journal of Dispute Resolution was first published in 2015. Legal Information Clinic at McGill The Legal Information Clinic at McGill is a non-profit legal information clinic for McGill students and the Montreal community. The Legal Information Clinic is a separate entity from McGill but is run by McGill law students. Originally founded in 1973 by then-law student Michael Bergman, the Clinic works on more than 2,000 cases a year. The Clinic also provides a student advocacy service for McGill students accused of disciplinary offences or looking to resolve disputes with McGill University. Quid Novi Quid Novi, also known colloquially as the Quid, is the Faculty of Law’s student-run newspaper. Since the publication of its first edition in March 1981, Quid Novi has been a forum for both students and faculty to share news and opinions on both legal and non-legal matters. Quid Novi is published on a weekly basis during the academic year. L.E.X. Outreach Program The Faculty of Law of McGill University founded the Law-Éducation-Connexion Outreach Program, also called the L.E.X. Outreach Program, in 2006. The program has law student volunteers deliver presentations at local schools and answer student questions. The program targets youth in communities that are traditionally underrepresented in the legal field and schools that have high dropout rates, with the goal of encouraging an interest in post-secondary education and legal studies. In 2009, the program was expanded following a donation from the Beaverbrook Canadian Foundation. See also List of law schools in Canada McGill Law Journal McGill Journal of Sustainable Development Law Canadian Guide to Uniform Legal Citation References Hobbins, A. J. "Designating the Dean of Law: Attempts to Control the Nature of Legal Education at McGill University by the Montreal Corporate and Professional Elite, 1946–1950". Dalhousie Law Journal. XXVII (2004), pp. 163–202. Pilarczyk, Ian C. " 'A Noble Roster': One Hundred and Fifty Years of Law at McGill" McGill University, 1999, ‘A Noble Roster’ \| Ian C. 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221794	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security%20for%20costs	Security for costs	Security for costs is a common law legal concept of application only in costs jurisdictions, and is an order sought from a court in litigation. The general rule in costs jurisdiction is that "costs follow the event". In other words, the loser in legal proceedings must pay the legal costs of the successful party. Where a defendant has a reasonable apprehension that its legal costs will not be paid for by the plaintiff if the defendant is successful, the defendant can apply to the court for an order that the plaintiff provide security for costs. Furthermore, the amount that is ordered by the Judge is in direct correlation to the strength or weakness of the plaintiff's case brought herewith. The weaker the probability of the plaintiff prevailing, the higher the security order. Typically a claimant will be outside the jurisdiction of the court: the law of security for costs recognises that orders of the court relating to payment of a party's legal costs can be very difficult to enforce in non-common law jurisdictions, and so will order security to be provided. Security can also be ordered where a plaintiff is insolvent, or prone to vexatious litigation. Security is usually provided in the form of a bank cheque paid into the court, or held in a trust account operated jointly by both the plaintiff's and defendant's lawyers. If the defendant is successful, the money can be applied against the costs order. If the claimant is successful, the security is returned to the claimant. There are conditions that need to be satisfied for the court to grant security of costs. The first condition is if it is satisfied, having regard to all the circumstances of the case, that it is just to make such an order. 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221796	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deng%20Yingchao	Deng Yingchao	Deng Yingchao (; 4 February 1904 – 11 July 1992) was the Chairwoman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference from 1983 to 1988, a member of the Chinese Communist Party, and the wife of the first Chinese Premier, Zhou Enlai. Early life With ancestry in Guangshan County (), Henan, she was born Deng Wenshu () in Nanning, Guangxi. Growing up in a poverty-stricken family, her father died when she was at a young age and her single mother taught and practiced medicine. Deng studied at Beiyang Women's Normal School. Deng participated as a team leader in the May Fourth Movement, where she met Zhou Enlai in 1919. They married on 8 August 1925 in Guangzhou. Deng joined the Communist Youth League of China (CYL) in 1924 and became a member of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in 1925. After the White Terror massacres in 1927, Deng worked underground in Shanghai for five years. Chinese Civil War Deng was one of the few women to survive the Long March. However, during the Long March she developed pulmonary tuberculosis. After the victory of the Anti-Japanese War, Deng Yingchao, as the only female representative of the Chinese Communist Party, attended the first Political Consultative Conference in Chongqing . In 1946, she was elected as a council member of the International Democratic Women's Federation. In March 1947, she has served as a member of the Rear Working Committee of the CPC Central Committee and acting secretary of the Women's Committee of the CPC Central Committee. In June 1949, she was elected as a member of the Preparatory Committee of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference and became a member of the drafting group of the " Common Program ". Later, entrusted by Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, she personally went to Shanghai and invited Soong Ching Ling to Beijing to participate in the preparation of the Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China. People's Republic of China When the People's Republic of China was founded, Deng Yingchao was elected to the National Women's first to the third vice chairman, honorary chairman of the Fourth; Chinese People's Conseil national children's vice chairman. Since the Eighth National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party, Deng Yingchao has been a member of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, but has never held a government position. It was not until the death of her husband Zhou Enlai in 1976 that she returned to the political arena of the Communist Party. In December of that year, at the third meeting of the Standing Committee of the Fourth National People's Congress , she was added as the vice chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress. In March 1978, after being re-elected as the vice chairman of the Standing Committee of the Fifth National People’s Congress, Deng Yingchao served as the second secretary of the newly restored CPC Central Commission for Disciplinary Inspection at the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party that year. Co-opted as a member of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee. Soon thereafter, Deng Yingchao used her early contacts and contacts with the Kuomintang, as well as her network and reputation in the United Front work, to fully take charge of the work of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party in Taiwan, and concurrently served as the leader of the newly established " Leading Group of the Central Committee for Taiwan Work ". In 1982, she served as Honorary Chairwoman of the Chinese People's Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries. From June 1983 to March 1988, she served as Chairwoman of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference. In September 1985, Deng Yingchao voluntarily applied for resignation as a member of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party; and in April 1988, after the expiration of the term of the chairman of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, she resigned and recuperated. In 1987, she served as Honorary Chairwoman of China Population Welfare Foundation. On the same year, when party hard-liners ousted the party's General Secretary, Hu Yaobang, in a campaign against "bourgeois liberalism," it published a 25-year-old speech by Deng. In June 1989, during the Tiananmen Square protests, she supported the leadership's decision to violently suppress the protests. In October 1990, she resigned as honorary president of the Chinese Nursing Association, due to poor health. In 1991 she served as Honorary Chairwoman of China Society for People's Friendships Studies. Personal life Deng and Zhou had no children of their own. However, they adopted several orphans of "revolutionary martyrs", including Li Peng, who later became the Premier of the People's Republic of China. She promoted the abolition of foot binding imposed on women. Death and legacy After retiring, Deng Yingchao's body gradually weakened; especially in 1990, she was admitted to the hospital five times because of colds and pneumonia; in August 1991, she began to suffer from renal failure and became unconscious for several times. At 6:55 am on July 11, 1992, Deng Yingchao died in Beijing Hospital at the age of 88. After cremation, her ashes were scattered in the same place where Zhou Enlai's ashes had been scattered. The official Party evaluation of her is "a great proletarian revolutionary, politician, famous social activist, staunch Marxist, outstanding leader of the party and the country, pioneer of the Chinese women's movement, and highly respected chairman of the Sixth CPPCC"。 There is a memorial hall dedicated to her and her husband in Tianjin (). References External links Deng Yingchao: a painting and a b/w photo Exterior of the Memorial Hall Zhou Enlai family Women leaders of China Chinese Communist Party politicians from Guangxi 1904 births 1992 deaths People's Republic of China politicians from Guangxi Chairpersons of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference People from Nanning Spouses of national leaders 20th-century women politicians Members of the 12th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party Members of the 11th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party Vice Chairpersons of the National People's Congress All-China Women's Federation people	[ -0.38092532753944397, 0.2416381537914276, -0.47971785068511963, -0.4386437237262726, -0.44721806049346924, 0.6742785573005676, -0.5698864459991455, -0.16046962141990662, -0.35294878482818604, 0.16682583093643188, 0.01908252201974392, -0.1850307136774063, 0.16823354363441467, 0.24490052461624146, -0.6419549584388733, -0.2584216892719269, 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221797	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index%20of%20psychology%20articles	Index of psychology articles	Psychology (from psykhē "breath, spirit, soul"; and , -logia "study of") is an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of human mental functions and behavior. Occasionally, in addition or opposition to employing the scientific method, it also relies on symbolic interpretation and critical analysis, although these traditions have tended to be less pronounced than in other social sciences, such as sociology. Psychologists study phenomena such as perception, cognition, emotion, personality, behavior, and interpersonal relationships. Some, especially depth psychologists, also study the unconscious mind. Articles related to psychology (excluding psychologists – see list of psychologists) include: 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z See also Psychology-related Outline of psychology List of counseling topics Psychology journals List of important publications in psychology List of psychology topic lists List of thinking-related topic lists General reference List of reference pages List of topic lists References Psychology articles	[ 0.19125241041183472, 0.6108368635177612, -0.008030150085687637, 0.4322815239429474, -0.28957599401474, 0.08285443484783173, 0.4451698362827301, -0.26566463708877563, -0.18385978043079376, -0.2193140834569931, -0.2761290669441223, 0.1606191247701645, -0.416853129863739, 0.2132481187582016, -0.4572893977165222, 0.5210756063461304, 0.20657022297382355, 0.0633029043674469, -0.057463936507701874, -0.42008674144744873, -0.14463810622692108, 0.2026379108428955, 0.2643844187259674, -0.3450068235397339, 0.40991923213005066, 0.10277547687292099, 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221798	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Zoological%20Park%20%28United%20States%29	National Zoological Park (United States)	The National Zoological Park, commonly known as the National Zoo, is one of the oldest zoos in the United States. It is part of the Smithsonian Institution and does not charge admission. Founded in 1889, its mission is to "provide engaging experiences with animals and create and share knowledge to save wildlife and habitats". The National Zoo has two campuses. The first is a urban park located at Rock Creek Park in Northwest Washington, D.C., 20 minutes from the National Mall by MetroRail. The other campus is the Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute (SCBI; formerly known as the Conservation and Research Center) in Front Royal, Virginia. On this land, there are 180 species of trees, 850 species of woody shrubs and herbaceous plants, 40 species of grasses, and 36 different species of bamboo. The SCBI is a non-public facility devoted to training wildlife professionals in conservation biology and to propagating rare species through natural means and assisted reproduction. The National Zoo is accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA). The two facilities host about 2,700 animals of 390 different species. About one-fifth of them are endangered or threatened. Most species are on exhibit at the Rock Creek Park campus. The best-known residents are the giant pandas, but the zoo is also home to birds, great apes, big cats, Asian elephants, insects, amphibians, reptiles, aquatic animals, small mammals and many more. The SCBI facility houses between 30 and 40 endangered species at any given time depending on research needs and recommendations from the zoo and the conservation community. The zoo was one of the first to establish a scientific research program. Because it is a part of the Smithsonian Institution, the National Zoo receives federal appropriations for operating expenses. A new master plan for the park was introduced in 2008 to upgrade the park's exhibits and layout. The National Zoo is open every day of the year except for December 25 (Christmas Day), though it was closed for a long period during the COVID-19 pandemic. The zoo reopened following this on May 21, 2021. History The zoo first started as the National Museum's Department of Living Animals in 1886. By an act of Congress on March 2, 1889, for "the advancement of science and the instruction and recreation of the people", the National Zoo was created. In 1890, it became a part of the Smithsonian Institution. Three well-known individuals drew up plans for the zoo: Samuel Langley, third Secretary of the Smithsonian; William Temple Hornaday, noted conservationist and head of the Smithsonian's vertebrate division; and Frederick Law Olmsted, the premier landscape architect of his day. William T. Hornaday was the park's first director and curator of all 185 animals when the park was first opened and took office on May 6, 1889. Together, they designed a new zoo to exhibit animals for the public and to serve as a refuge for wildlife, such as bison and beaver, which were rapidly vanishing from North America. For the first 50 years, the National Zoo, like most zoos around the world, focused on exhibiting one or two representative exotic animal species. The number of many species in the wild began to decline drastically because of human activities. In 1899, the Kansas frontiersman Charles "Buffalo" Jones captured a bighorn sheep for the zoo. The fate of animals and plants became a pressing concern. Many of these species were favorite zoo animals, such as elephants and tigers; hence the staff began to concentrate on the long-term management and conservation of entire species. Several exotic animals were donated by former US presidents; often they were acquired as gifts from foreign dignitaries. Notable among them are Billy the pygmy hippopotamus who is the common ancestor to almost all pygmy hippos in American zoos and Rebecca the raccoon, one of many exotic presidential pets of Calvin Coolidge and First Lady Grace. In the mid-1950s, the zoo hired its first full-time permanent veterinarian, reflecting a priority placed on professional health care for the animals. In 1958, Friends of the National Zoo (FONZ) was founded. The citizen group's first accomplishment was to persuade Congress to fund the zoo's budget entirely through the Smithsonian; previously, the zoo's budget was divided between appropriations for the Smithsonian and the District of Columbia. Congressional funding placed the zoo on a firmer financial base, allowing for a period of growth and improvement. In 2006, Congress approved an additional $14.6 million for renovations in both facilities. FONZ incorporated as a nonprofit organization and turned its attention to developing education and volunteer programs, supporting these efforts from its operation of concessions at the zoo, and expanding community support for the zoo through a growing membership which annually raises between $4 million and $8 million for the zoo. In the early 1960s, the zoo turned its attention to breeding and studying threatened and endangered species. Although some zoo animals had been breeding and raising young, it was not understood why some species did so successfully while others did not. In 1965, the zoo created the zoological research division to study the reproduction, behavior, and ecology of zoo species, and to learn how best to meet the needs of the animals. In 1975, the zoo established the Conservation and Research Center (CRC). In 2010, the complex was renamed the Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute (SCBI), a title also used as an umbrella term for the scientific endeavors that take place on both campuses. On in the Virginia countryside, rare species, such as Mongolian wild horses, scimitar-horned oryx, maned wolves, cranes, and others live and breed in spacious surroundings. SCBI's modern efforts emphasize reproductive physiology, analysis of habitat and species relationships, genetics, husbandry and the training of conservation scientists. The zoo's last hippopotamus, Happy, was transferred to Milwaukee County Zoo in 2009 to make space for Elephant Trails. During the COVID-19 pandemic during 2020–21, the zoo was closed for several months as a precautionary effort. Modern status Expanding knowledge about the needs of zoo animals and commitment to their well-being has changed the look of the National Zoo. Today, animals live in natural groupings rather than individually. Rare and endangered species, such as golden lion tamarins, Sumatran tigers, and sarus cranes, breed and raise their young – showing the success of the zoo's conservation and research programs. The zoo's research team studies animals both in the wild and at the zoo. Its research encompasses reproductive biology, conservation biology, biodiversity monitoring, veterinary medicine, nutrition, behavior, ecology, and bird migration. The National Zoo has developed public-education programs to help students, teachers and families explore the intricacies of the animal world. The zoo also designed specialized programs to train wildlife professionals from around the world and to form a network to provide crucial support for international conservation. The National Zoo is at the forefront of the use of web technology and programming to expand its programs to an international virtual audience. The National Zoo has been the home to giant pandas since Ling-Ling and Hsing-Hsing arrived at the zoo in 1972. Since 2000, Mei Xiang and Tian Tian also lived there. On July 9, 2005, Mei Xiang gave birth to Tai Shan, who went to China in February 2010. On August 23, 2013, Mei Xiang gave birth to Bao Bao, who went to China in February 2017; upon her arrival she began participating in the species breeding program. On August 22, 2015, Mei Xiang gave birth to Bei Bei, who said farewell to The National Zoo in November 2019. Due to an agreement with the China Wildlife Conservation Association, all giant panda born in the zoo, must relocate to China upon turning 4 years old. Plans for the future include modernizing the zoo's aging facilities and expanding its education, research and conservation efforts in Washington, Virginia and in the wild. As part of a 10-year renewal program, Asia Trail – a series of habitats for seven Asian species including sloth bears, red pandas, and clouded leopards – was created. Elephant Trails, opened in 2013, provides a new home for the zoo's Asian elephants. Kids' Farm exhibit, opened in 2004, was slated for closure in 2011 but is to remain open for another 10 years following a donation to the exhibit. The zoo, which is supported by tax revenues and open to everyone, attracts 2 million visitors per year, according to the Washington Post in 2005. The National Zoo has a Federal Law Enforcement Agency deployed on its grounds: the National Zoological Park Police (NZPP), which consists of full-time Law Enforcement Officers. The NZPP is an agency that has been recognized by the United States Congress and is one of five original police agencies within the District of Columbia with full police powers. They work very closely with the Metropolitan Police Department, the United States Park Police, Department of State, Capital Police, Federal Bureau of Investigation, and the Department of Defense. The agency is considered the first line of defense in the event of any crisis. Dennis W. Kelly was named director of the zoo on February 15, 2010, overseeing both campuses. Kelly succeeded John Berry, who was the National Zoo director for three years until February 2009, when he resigned to become the director of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management under the Obama Administration. Steven Monfort, the zoo's associate director for conservation and science, served as the acting director between February 2009 and February 2010. Kelly retired as the zoo's director in November 2017, and Steven Monfort was named acting director. In November, 2021, Brandie Smith was appointed director. Smith is the second woman to serve as director in the zoo's 132-year history. Exhibits David M. Rubenstein Giant Panda Habitat The zoo's Giant Panda Habitat features three outdoor areas with animal enrichment, as well as an indoor area with a rocky outcrop, a waterfall, and viewing areas. The zoo's pandas, named Mei Xiang and Tian Tian, are on loan from the China Wildlife Conservation Association, and will live at the zoo until 2023. They are the focus of a research, conservation, and breeding program that aims to preserve the species. The pandas live at the David M. Rubenstein Giant Panda Habitat, a state-of-the-art indoor and outdoor exhibit. The exhibit is designed to replicate the rocky, lush terrain of the pandas' natural habitat. Mei Xiang and Tian Tian have successfully had four surviving cubs together, all by artificial insemination. The first was a male cub, named Tai Shan in 2005. Tai Shan currently lives at the Bifengxia Panda Base in Sichuan, China, taking part in Bifengxia's breeding program. On September 16, 2012, Mei Xiang gave birth to another cub, but the cub died six days after its birth. On August 23, 2013, Mei Xiang gave birth to two cubs; one, a female named Bao Bao, survived, while the other was stillborn. Mei delivered two cubs in August 2015; one died a few days later. The surviving male was given the name Bei Bei on September 25, 2015, and was on public exhibit in January 2016. Bei Bei traveled to China in November 2019. On August 21, 2020, at 6:35, Mei Xiang gave birth to a single male cub, and became the oldest giant panda to give birth in the US at 22 years old. On November 23, he was named Xiao Qi Ji by popular vote which translates to "Little Miracle" in English. Asia Trail A group of Asia-themed exhibits opened in 2006. Along with the giant pandas, the area also displays sloth bears, fishing cats, red pandas, a clouded leopard, Asian small-clawed otters, and Asian elephants. Next to the pandas is an exhibit formerly for a Japanese giant salamander, which is now home to several Northern snakeheads. Elephant Trails In spring 2008, the National Zoo began construction on Elephant Trails, a new home for its Asian elephants. The first part of the $52 million project opened in September 2010, expanding the zoo's former elephant area with a barn, two new yards (one with a pool), and a quarter-mile (400 m) walkway through woods, a total of of outdoor space, bringing the total size of Elephant Trails to 2 acres (0.81 ha). Elephant Trails: A Campaign to Save Asian Elephants is a comprehensive breeding, education, and scientific research program. It is designed to help scientists care for elephants in zoos and save them in the wild. The Elephant House was closed to the public from September 14, 2009, until late March 2013 for construction of the second phase of Elephant Trails. This includes the Elephant Community Center, an indoor exhibit with many interpretive signs and graphics. The five Asian elephants that live in Elephant Trails are one bull named Spike and four cows named Bozie, Kamala, Swarna and Maharani. Lemur Island Lemur Island is a moated island that is home to a group of ring-tailed lemurs and black-and-white ruffed lemurs. Uncle Beazley, a fiberglass Triceratops that Louis Paul Jonas created for the DinoLand pavilion at the 1964 New York World's Fair, can now be seen near the island. The life-size statue, which had been located on the National Mall near the National Museum of Natural History until 1994, is named for a dinosaur in the 1956 children's book, The Enormous Egg, by Oliver Butterworth and in the book's 1968 television movie adaptation, in which the statue appeared. The Small Mammal House The majority of the zoo's smaller mammal species live in the Small Mammal House. The species on display include golden lion tamarins, golden-headed lion tamarins, pale-headed saki monkeys, Geoffroy's marmosets, red ruffed lemurs, black-footed ferrets, dwarf mongooses, meerkats, brush-tailed bettongs, striped skunks, La Plata three-banded armadillos, screaming hairy armadillos, sand cats, fennec foxes, naked mole-rats, southern tamanduas, rock hyraxes and several others. A sister pair of white-nosed coatis and a male, female pair of black howler monkeys can be found behind the building. Despite not being mammals, a pair of Von der Decken's hornbills and a green aracari can be found in the building. The American Trail The American Trail exhibit houses a variety of species found in the Americas. These include California sea lions, grey seals, harbor seals, North American beavers, North American river otters, maned wolves, bald eagles, common ravens and brown pelicans. After facing severe threats, the majority of American Trail species have rebounded thanks to conservation efforts. Many of the residents of American Trail have been listed as endangered. All of plants in the animal enclosures on American Trail exhibit are native to North America. The exhibit also features a cafe called Seal Rock Cafe, which offers dishes crafted from local, seasonal, and sustainable ingredients. Menu items include Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) certified shrimp and Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) certified fish. The American Trail was recently renovated and reopened in late summer 2012. The Great Ape House The Great Ape House is separated into two sets of enclosures. One houses seven orangutans (two males named Kiko and Kyle; four females named Lucy, Batang, Iris and Bonnie; and a male infant named Redd, born in 2016). The other houses five western lowland gorillas (one male named Baraka; three females named Mandara, Kibibi and Calaya; and a male infant named Moke, born in 2018). The orangutans are allowed access to the Think Tank (see below) by travelling along the "O-Line", a series of high cables supported by metal towers that enable the orangutans to move between the two buildings. Kyle, Batang and Redd are Bornean orangutans while Kiko, Lucy, Iris and Bonnie are all hybrid orangutans. Think Tank Think Tank is an area designed to educate visitors about how animals think and learn about their surroundings. Think Tank features several interactive displays that teach visitors how zoologists conduct their studies. The zoo's orangutans (which are sometimes used in keeper demonstrations) are allowed to move from the Great Ape House to Think Tank, and the building includes suitable enclosures for the apes should they choose to stay there. Other animals kept and studied in Think Tank include land hermit crabs and Allen's swamp monkeys. The zoo once had a population of Celebes crested macaques living in Think Tank. Gibbon Ridge Gibbon Ridge is an enclosure housing two siamangs (a male named Bradley and a female named Ronnie). Great Cats on Lion and Tiger Hill Great Cats is separated into three enclosures. The zoo rotates 6 lions (three lions named Luke, Shaka and Jumbe as well as three lionesses named Shera, Amahle and Nababiep) and 3 tigers (a Sumatran tigress named Damai and two Siberian tigers, a male named Metis and a female named Nikita) between the three exhibits. The Cheetah Conservation Station This is an outdoor exhibit designed to mimic the African savanna and educate visitors about cheetahs and what is being done to preserve them in the wild. The main part of the Cheetah Conservation Station consists of two enclosures separated by a fence. One enclosure houses the cheetahs, while the other houses the Grévy's zebra. Other animals on display in the area include scimitar-horned oryxes, dama gazelles, Rüppell's vultures, sitatunga, red river hogs, ostriches, Abyssinian ground hornbills and lesser kudu. The Invertebrate Exhibit This exhibit housed the zoo's collection of invertebrates. It was closed to the public on June 22, 2014, due to inadequate funding. The zoo has mentioned they eventually want to build a hall of biodiversity which will include invertebrates. The zoo's Bird House is currently under renovation and once complete some invertebrates (such as Horseshoe crabs) will be included. Amazonia This South America-themed walk-through exhibit contains animal and plant species native to the Amazon basin. Animals on display include multiple species of freshwater stingrays, oscars, silver arowanas, Yellow-spotted Amazon river turtles, arapaimas, black pacus, white-eared titi monkeys, emperor tamarins, a Southern two-toed sloth, sunbitterns, red-crested cardinals, yellow-rumped caciques and many more. The Amazonia science gallery is located on the lower level. Here visitors can learn about the zoo's efforts to protect species around the globe. Some of the species on display include Panamanian golden frogs, African clawed frogs, aquatic caecilians, barred tiger salamanders, grey tree frogs and many species of poison frogs. Located within the science gallery is the Coral lab. Many corals are on display along with clownfish, anemones, peacock mantis shrimp, warty frogfish and other species. The Electric Fishes Demonstration Lab features a five-foot-long electric eel. Bluntnose knifefish, elephant-nose knifefish and black ghost knifefish are also featured. The Reptile Discovery Center The zoo's reptile and amphibian house exhibits seventy species of reptiles and amphibians. These include Aldabra tortoises, radiated tortoises, spider tortoises, Cuban crocodiles, a gharial, a Philippine crocodile, Eastern indigo snakes, Gaboon vipers, gila monsters, green anacondas, green tree pythons, Timor pythons, king cobras, northern copperheads, hellbenders, eastern red-backed salamanders, long-tailed salamanders, alligator snapping turtles and many more. Behind the building are exhibits for a Komodo dragon, a crocodile monitor, Chinese alligators and a false gharial. In the front of the building is an exhibit for an American alligator named Wally. The Bird House the Bird House is closed and scheduled to open in spring 2022. It will focus on the biological phenomenon of migration in the eastern hemisphere and display native songbirds, shorebirds, and waterfowl. Three distinct habitats will be featured in the new birdhouse, each focusing on a different habitat that is crucial to the bird's annual migrations. The habitats are Delaware Bay, Prairie Pothole, and Costa Rican Coffee Farm. The exhibits surround the exterior of the bird house will still display kori bustards, cranes, cassowaries, greater rheas, peacocks, king vultures, and American flamingos. The Kids' Farm The Kids' Farm is aimed primarily at children and housing domesticated livestock. Animals kept in the Kids' Farm include alpacas, Java green peafowl, hens, long-crowing chickens, miniature Mediterranean donkeys, Hereford and Holstein cows, and Nigerian dwarf, Anglo-Nubian and San Clemente Island goats. In 2019, the zoo announced plans to close The Kids' Farm due to budgetary constraints. However, a $1.4 million donation from State Farm Insurance allowed the exhibit to remain open. American Bison Exhibit The zoo opened a new American Bison Exhibit on August 30, 2014, as part of their 125th-anniversary celebration. The exhibit features two female bison, named Lucy and Gally, that were transported to the zoo in 2020 from the American Prairie in northeastern Montana. Other animals Other animals in the zoo's collection include spectacled bears (near the Amazonia exhibit), North American porcupines (near the Great Cats exhibit), black-tailed prairie dogs (near the Great Cats exhibit), common peafowls (also near the Great Cats exhibit), and Patagonian maras (near American Trail). Notable animals Smokey Bear One of the most famous animals to have spent much of his life at the zoo was Smokey Bear, the "living symbol" of the cartoon icon created as part of a campaign to prevent forest fires. A black bear cub rescued from a fire, he lived at the zoo from 1950 until his death in 1976. During his time at the zoo, he had millions of visitors and an abundance of personal mail addressed to him – up to 13,000 letters a week – such that the U.S. Post Office designated a special zip code for correspondence addressed to him. During his time at the zoo, he was "married" to Goldie Bear, with the hope that one of his offspring would continue to hold the title of Smokey Bear. When the pair produced no offspring, an orphaned bear cub was added to their cage. It was named "Little Smokey", with the announcement that the bear couple had "adopted" the new cub. In 1975, an official ceremony was held to recognize the retirement of Smokey Bear and the new title of "Smokey Bear II" for Little Smokey. Upon the death of the original Smokey Bear, The Washington Post printed an obituary, recognizing him as a "New Mexico native" who had resided in Washington, D.C. for many years, working for the government. Giant pandas Coming off the heels of President Richard Nixon's historic 1972 visit to China, the Chinese government donated two giant pandas, Ling-Ling (female) and Hsing-Hsing (male), to the official United States delegation. First Lady Pat Nixon donated the pandas to the zoo, where she welcomed them in an April 1972 ceremony. The first giant pandas in America, Ling-Ling and Hsing-Hsing were among the most popular animals at the zoo. Ling-Ling died in 1992 and Hsing-Hsing in 1999. Although Ling Ling and Hsing Hsing had five cubs between 1983 and 1989, all died as infants. A new pair of pandas, female Mei Xiang ("Beautiful Fragrance") and male Tian Tian ("More and More"), arrived on loan from the Chinese government in late 2000. The zoo paid an estimated 10 million dollars for the 10-year loan. On July 9, 2005, a male panda cub was born at the zoo. It was the first surviving panda birth at the zoo and the product of artificial insemination by the zoo's reproductive research team. The cub was named Tai Shan ("Peaceful Mountain") on October 17, 100 days after his birth; the panda went without a name for its first hundred days, in observance of a Chinese custom. Tai Shan is property of the Chinese government and was scheduled to be sent to China after his second birthday, although that deadline was extended in 2007 by two years. Tai Shan left Washington, D.C., on February 4, 2010, and was taken to the Ya'an Bifengxia Panda Base, part of the Wolong nature reserve's panda conservation center. On September 16, 2012, Mei Xiang gave birth to another cub, believed by zoo officials to have been a female, which died after about a week. Initial results from a necropsy (animal autopsy) revealed the abnormal presence of fluid in the abdomen and also discoloration of the liver (hepatic) tissue of unknown etiology; the cub had managed to nurse before death because milk was found in its system. Zoo officials said that, while upsetting, they (and, by extension, the public) can hope to learn more about giant panda breeding, reproduction, and health as a result, and will work closely and cooperatively with their Chinese colleagues during the inquiry. In January 2011, Dennis Kelly, director of the National Zoo, and Zang Chunlin, secretary general of the China Wildlife Conservation Association, signed a new Giant Panda Cooperative Research and Breeding Agreement, extending the zoo's giant panda program for five more years, further cementing the two countries' commitment to the conservation of the species. The agreement, effective through December 5, 2015, stipulates that the zoo will conduct research in the areas of breeding and cub behavior. A new agreement was put in place December 7, 2015 and is in effect until December 7, 2020. Mei Xiang gave birth in August 2015 to two live cubs; the smaller one died a few days later (keepers had to care for it after Mei decided to focus on the larger cub). Sperm from both Tian Tian and another male giant panda based in a China preserve was used. It was determined on August 28, 2015 that both cubs were male and sired by Tian Tian. The larger, surviving cub was named Bei Bei ("precious treasure") on September 25, 2015. In celebration of a state visit, the name was selected by First Lady of the United States, Michelle Obama, and First Lady of the People's Republic of China, Peng Liyuan. Bao Bao was healthy at that time, eating bamboo and special fruitsicle treats, having been separated from Mei at 18 months of age. She celebrated her second birthday in August 2015, shortly after the cubs were born. Her contract extended to August 2017. Bao Bao left the National Zoo on February 22, 2017, for the Dujiangyan base of the China Panda Conservation and Research Center. In March 2020 shortly after the National Zoo closed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Mei Xiang was artificially inseminated using only frozen sperm to avoid too much close contact. In August 2020, the National Zoo announced that Mei Xiang was pregnant. A few days after announcing that they had detected fetal tissue, the zoo tweeted a short video of an ultrasound showing a panda fetus. On August 21, Mei Xiang gave birth to a live male cub named Xiao Qi Ji, making her the oldest panda in the United States to give birth, at 22 years old. This meant the first success for this type of procedure. Special programs and events In partnership with Friends of the National Zoo (FONZ), a non-profit organization, the zoo holds annual fund raisers (ZooFari, Guppy Gala, and Boo at the Zoo) and free events (Sunset Serenades, Fiesta Musical). Proceeds support animal care, conservation science, education and sustainability at the National Zoo. Woo at the Zoo – A Valentine's Day (February 14) talk by some of the zoo's animal experts discussing animal dating, mating, and reproductive habits. All proceeds benefit the zoo's animal care program. Earth Day: Party for the Planet – Celebrating Earth Day at the National Zoo. Guests can learn simple daily actions they can take to enjoy a more environmentally friendly lifestyle. Easter Monday – Easter Monday has been a Washington-area multicultural tradition for many years. There is a variety of family activities, entertainment and special opportunities to learn more about the animals. Admission is free, and this event traditionally welcomes thousands of area families. The celebration began in response to the inability of African Americans to participate in the annual Easter Egg Roll held at the White House, until the Dwight Eisenhower presidency. Zoofari – A casual evening of gourmet foods, fine wines, entertainment and dancing under the stars. Each year, thousands of attendees enjoy delicacies prepared by master chefs from 100 of the D.C. area's finest restaurants. All proceeds benefit the zoo's animal care program. Snore and Roar – A FONZ program that allows individuals and families to spend the night at the zoo, in sleeping bags inside tents. A late-night flashlight tour of the zoo and a two-hour exploration of an animal house or exhibit area led by a zoo keeper are part of the experience. Snore and Roar dates are offered between June and September each year. Brew at the Zoo – Guests can sample beer from a variety of microbreweries at the zoo. All proceeds benefit the zoo's animal care program. ZooFiesta – FONZ celebrates Hispanic Heritage Month with an annual fiesta at the National Zoo. Animal demonstrations, Hispanic and Latino music, costumed dancers, traditional crafts and Latin American foods are offered. Rock-N-Roar – An event featuring live music, food and drink, and viewings of lion and tiger enrichment. Autumn Conservation Festival at Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute (SCBI) – Visitors can talk with scientists one-on-one and learn about their research, and the tools and technology they use to understand animals and their environments. Guests can get behind-the-scenes looks at some of the SCBI's endangered animals. Boo at the Zoo – Families with children ages 2 to 12 trick-or-treat at the zoo and receive special treats from more than 40 treat stations. There are animal encounters, keeper talks and festive decorations. All proceeds benefit the zoo's animal care program. Zoolights – The National Zoo's annual winter celebration. Guests can walk through the zoo when it is covered with thousands of sparkling environmentally-friendly lights and animated exhibits, attend special keeper talks and enjoy live entertainment. Friends of the National Zoo Friends of the National Zoo (FONZ), a non-profit, working in partnership with the National Zoological Park providing support to wildlife conservation programs at the zoo and around the world since 1958. Starting with Park Operations (guest services, retail and more), Education/Volunteer Services, as well as Membership Services. Every area of FONZ works to raise money for the zoo, with $5 Zoo Guidebooks, rentals, souvenir purchases and memberships, with each being a tax write off. FONZ memberships offer free parking, discounts at the zoo's stores and restaurants, ride tickets, and a subscription to the Wild.Life., a magazine with the latest zoo news, research and photos. FONZ has 60,000 members including about 30,000 families, largely in the Washington metropolitan area, and more than 1,000 volunteers. FONZ also offers weekend birthdays to members and seasonal day-camps through Education/Volunteer services, and a residential nature camp is offered at SCBI in Front Royal. On February 4, 2021, the National Zoo announced that it was ending its 63 year old partnership with FONZ. Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute The Smithsonian established its Conservation Biology Institute (SCBI) in 2010 to serve as an umbrella for its global effort to conserve species and train future generations of conservationists. Headquartered in Front Royal, Virginia, the facility was previously known as the National Zoo's Conservation and Research Center. The SCBI facilitates and promotes research programs based at Front Royal, at the National Zoo in Washington and at field research and training sites around the world. Its efforts support one of the four main goals of the Smithsonian's new strategic plan, which advances "understanding and sustaining a biodiverse planet." Conservation biology is a field of science based on the premise that the conservation of biological diversity is important and benefits current and future human societies. The Institute consists of six centers: Conservation Ecology Center (CEC): focuses on recovering and sustaining at-risk wildlife species and their supporting ecosystems in key marine and terrestrial regions throughout the globe. Migratory Bird Center: studies neotropical songbirds and wetland birds, the role of disease in bird population declines, and the environmental challenges facing urban and suburban birds. They also train professionals in environmental coffee certification throughout Latin America. Center for Species Survival (CSS): researches issues in reproductive physiology, endocrinology, cryobiology, embryo biology, animal behavior, wildlife toxicology and assisted reproduction. They strive to create knowledge that ensures self-sustaining populations in zoos and in the wild. Center for Conservation and Evolutionary Genetics (CCEG): works to understand and conserve biodiversity through genetic research, specializing in the genetic management of wild and captive animal populations, non-invasive and ancient DNA analyses, systematics, disease diagnosis and dynamics, genetic services to the zoo community, and application of genetic methods to animal behavior and ecology. Center for Conservation Education and Sustainability (CBES): teaches conservation principles and practices, finding ways to help scientists, managers, companies and industries become more environmentally responsible. Center for Wildlife Health and Husbandry Sciences: provides for the mental and physical well-being of every animal at the zoo through the complex endeavor of animal care. Incidents In March 1995, a homeless and mentally ill mother of three, Margaret Davis King, climbed into the lion's protected habitat and was discovered mauled to death early one Saturday morning. In 2002, the zoo's head veterinarian at the time, Dr. Suzan Murray, was accused of altering medical records. Murray responded that the software used "was not designed as a legal document, but rather as a user-friendly way of maintaining and sharing important information." The American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) specifically states "Without the express permission of the practice owner, it is unethical for a veterinarian to remove, copy, or use the medical records or any part of any record." In January 2003, red pandas died after eating rat poison that had been buried in their yard by a pest control contractor. The incident led the city of Washington, D.C. to seek to fine the zoo over its claim of federally granted immunity. In July 2003, a predator entered an exhibit and killed a bald eagle. Zoo officials later stated that the animal was likely killed by a red fox. In 2005, a three-year-old Sulawesi macaque named Ripley died in the Think Tank when two keepers closed a hydraulic door without realizing the monkey was in the doorway. In January 2005, the National Academy of Sciences released its final report on a two-year investigation into animal care and management at the National Zoo. The committee found that most animals were well cared-for, and there was little to question regarding large mammal deaths from 1999 to 2003. Their evaluation suggested "that the publicized animal deaths were not indicative of a wider, undiscovered problem with animal care". The problems at the zoo, which culminated with Director Lucy Spelman's resignation, included facility and budget shortcomings, although the animal care problems were prominently highlighted. The zoo added a new head pathologist and other veterinarians. In January 2006, the National Zoo euthanized an Asian elephant named Toni. The elephant had been suffering from arthritis and poor body conditions. Animal rights groups alleged that inadequate care led to her death. In December 2006, a clouded leopard escaped from its exhibit at the Asia Trails due to faulty fencing. See also Perry Lions – the lion statues on the Taft Bridge Lisa Marie Stevens - Managed the giant panda program from 1987 to 2011 Sara Hallager - Curator of birds References External links National Zoological Park on zooinstitutes.com 1889 establishments in Washington, D.C. Buildings of the United States government in Washington, D.C. Rock Creek and Potomac Parkway Smithsonian Institution Zoos in Washington, D.C. 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221800	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yang	Yang	Yang may refer to: Yang, in yin and yang, one half of the two symbolic polarities in Chinese philosophy Korean yang, former unit of currency of Korea from 1892 to 1902 YANG, a data modeling language for the NETCONF network configuration protocol Geography Yang County, in Shaanxi, China Yangzhou (ancient China), also known as Yang Prefecture Yang (state), ancient Chinese state Yang, Iran, a village in Razavi Khorasan Province Yang River (disambiguation) People Yang, one of the names for the Karen people in the Thai language Yang di-Pertuan Agong, the constitutional monarch of Malaysia Yang (surname), Chinese surname Yang (Korean surname) Fictional characters Cristina Yang, on the TV show Grey's Anatomy Yang, from the show Yin Yang Yo! Yang, Experiment 502 in Lilo and Stitch: The Series Yang Fang Leiden, from Final Fantasy IV Yang Lee, in the Street Fighter III series of videogames Mr. Yang, the Yin Yang serial killer in an episode of Psych Yang Wen-li, from Legend of the Galactic Heroes Yang Xiao Long, a character from the RWBY animated series See also Yang-style t'ai chi ch'uan, a Chinese martial art named after the Yang family	[ 0.09793327748775482, 0.338830828666687, 0.06848655641078949, -0.03146972134709358, -0.16032560169696808, 1.0211011171340942, 0.2398384064435959, 0.37638232111930847, -0.3299652338027954, -0.5169282555580139, -0.32606127858161926, -0.5701020359992981, -0.279966801404953, 0.4690650403499603, -0.1744348406791687, 0.08922909200191498, 0.23020397126674652, 0.6713423132896423, -0.2861995995044708, -0.07729704678058624, -0.43701106309890747, 0.00018696747429203242, 0.251413494348526, -0.18735380470752716, 0.3456471562385559, 0.08612704277038574, 0.34256047010421753, -0.20429997146129608, 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221801	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydnam%20Poyntz	Sydnam Poyntz	Colonel General Sydnam Poyntz, also Sydenham Poynts, (bap. 3 November 1607) was an English soldier who served in the Thirty Years' War and the English Civil War. After continental military service, he returned to England in 1644 and became an officer in the Parliamentary army. He became commander-in-chief of Parliament's Northern Association and governor of York. He commanded the victorious Parliamentary force in the battle of Rowton Heath on 24 September 1645. The Presbyterians Parliamentary party thought him to be likely to oppose the New Model Army, but in 1647 he was sent by his soldiers a prisoner to Thomas Fairfax. He fought for London against the New Model Army in 1647, and on the collapse of his cause he fled to Holland. He accompanied Lord Willoughby to the West Indies in 1650, and probably settled in Virginia. Biography Poyntz was the fourth son of John Poyntz of Reigate, Surrey, and Anne Skinner, was baptised on 3 November 1607. Poyntz was originally apprenticed to a London tradesman, but, being ill-treated by his master, he took service as a mercenary soldier in Holland, and in the Thirty Years' War. Poyntz wrote a paper called Relation on his military service abroad between 1625 and 1636, and it gives some idea of what he did although D.N. Farr his biographer in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography warns that it is "fitfully accurate". and relates that he: In 1631 Poyntz fought for John George of Saxony at the Battle of Breitenfeld. He changed sides and fought as a captain in Wallenstein's army in the service of Emperor Ferdinand II at the Battle of Lützen in 1632. He remained in the Imperial army and the following year he campaigned in Silesia and was present at the Battle of Nordlingen in 1634. He left the army and Germany after the Peace of Prague in 1636. His time in Germany was lucrative and he bought an estate probably in the vicinity of Schorndorf. He returned to England that year and wrote his Relation, but when he failed to find employment as a soldier in England, it is likely that he returned to the continent to find further employment in the Thirty Years' War. He may have risen to the rank of sergeant-major, and may have been knighted on the battle-field. Poyntz returned to England no later than 1644, and on 27 May 1645 was ordered by the House of Commons to have the command of a regiment of horse and a regiment of foot in the army raised by the seven associated northern counties. He was also appointed commander-in-chief of the forces of the northern association, with the title of colonel-general, and, on 19 August, governor of York. On taking command, Poyntz found his troops mutinous for want of pay, and at the siege of Skipton was more in danger from his own men than from the enemy. He was ordered after Battle of Naseby (14 June 1645) to follow King Charles I movements, and succeeded in forcing him to an engagement at Rowton Heath, near Chester, on 24 September. Charles lost about eight hundred men killed and wounded and fifteen hundred prisoners. The House of Commons voted Poyntz a reward of £500. He next captured Shelford House and Wiverton Hall in Nottinghamshire, and then laid siege to Newark. He was still besieging Newark when Charles I took refuge in the camp of the Scottish army there, of which Poyntz at once informed the Speaker William Lenthall. At the request of Charles I the commander of the Newark garrison Lord Belasyse agreed terms and surrendered Newark on 8 May to Poyntz. In February 1646 Poyntz published a vindication of himself, in which he included an account of his earlier life as well as of his recent services (The Vindication of Colonel-General Poyntz against the false and malicious slanders secretly cast forth against him , 1645–1646, 4to). Parliament, however, was so satisfied with his conduct that he was voted £300 a year, and it was decided that his regiment of horse should be one of four to be retained at the general disbanding of the army. The Presbyterian leaders relied upon Poyntz and his troops to oppose the Independents of the New Model Army, but the soldiers of the northern association entered into communication with those of Lord General Thomas Fairfax's New Model Army, and, in spite of the orders of their commander, held meetings and elected agitators. Poyntz was seized by the agitators on 8 July 1647 and sent a prisoner to Fairfax's headquarters, charged with endeavouring to embroil the kingdom in a new war. He was released by Fairfax on parole; but the latter, who now became commander-in-chief of all the land forces in the service of Parliament, appointed Colonel John Lambert to take command in the north. At the end of July 1647 an open breach took place between the Parliament in London and the New Model Army. The common council chose Major-general Edward Massey to command the forces of the city, and Poyntz, who was also given a command, actively assisted in enlisting "reformadoes". On 2 August Poyntz and other officers dispersed a body of citizens who brought to the common council a petition "praying that some means might be used for a composure". According to the newspapers, they hacked and hewed many of the petitioners with their swords and "mortally wounded divers". On the collapse of the resistance of London, Poyntz fled to Holland, publishing, in conjunction with Massey, a declaration "showing the true grounds and reasons that induced them to depart from the city, and for a while from the kingdom". "Finding", said they, "all things so uncertain, and nothing answering to what was promised or expected, we held it safer wisdom to withdraw to our own friends". On 14 May 1648 Poyntz wrote to the Speaker of the House of Commons from Amsterdam, begging that he might at least receive the two months' pay voted to his forces when they were disbanded. "When I peruse the letters which I have formerly received from both houses of parliament, with all their great promises and engagements to me, never to forget the great services which I have done them … it would almost make a man desperate to see how I am deserted and slighted in place of the great rewards which the honourable houses were pleased to promise me". Receiving no answer to this or previous appeals, Poyntz in 1650 accompanied Lord Willoughby to the West Indies, and there became governor of the Leeward Islands, establishing himself on Saint Kitts. When Willoughby surrendered Barbados to the Parliamentary fleet under Sir George Ayscue, Poyntz found Saint Kitts untenable, and retired to Virginia. The articles between Willoughby and Ayscue contain a clause permitting Poyntz to go to Antigua along with other gentlemen having estates there. Some authorities have stated that in 1661 he was again appointed governor of Antigua, and held the post until superseded by Lord Willoughby in 1663, but no trace of his tenure of office appears among the colonial state papers. It is added that he then retired to Virginia, but this is not known for sure, and he may have remained in Virginia, dying there at some unknown date. Works Poyntz was the author of the following pamphlets: The Vindication (1645/6). The Vindication of Colonel-general Poyntz against the Slanders cast forth against him by the Army; with the barbarous manner of the Adjutator's surprisal of him at York, 4to, 1648 [no place]. The British Museum Catalogue also gives a list of letters by Poyntz, which were printed in pamphlet form between 1645 and 1647. Some unprinted letters by Poyntz are to be found among the Tanner MSS. in the Bodleian Library, and among the manuscripts of the Duke of Portland. Family In about 1633 Poyntz married firstly a rich German merchant's daughter who died in childbirth before 1635. In 1635 Poyntz married another German, Anne Eleanora de Court Stephanus de Cary in Würtemberg. Anne and their child was killed by French troops returning from Italy probably while passing through his estate near Schorndorf. It is possible that he married his third wife while living abroad because in a letter to Speaker of the House of Commons, William Lenthall, in 1647 she mentions that "stranger in your kingdom" and signed her name as Elisabeth. 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221812	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim%20Duncan	Tim Duncan	Timothy Theodore Duncan (born April 25, 1976) is an American former professional basketball player and coach. Nicknamed "the Big Fundamental", he is widely regarded as the greatest power forward of all time and one of the greatest players in NBA history. He spent his entire 19-year playing career with the San Antonio Spurs. He was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 2020 and named to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team in 2021. Duncan started out as an aspiring swimmer and only began playing basketball in ninth grade, when Hurricane Hugo destroyed the only available Olympic-sized pool in his homeland of Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. In high school, he played basketball for St. Dunstan's Episcopal. In college, Duncan played for the Wake Forest Demon Deacons, and in his senior year, he received the John Wooden Award and was named the Naismith College Player of the Year and the USBWA College Player of the Year. After graduating from college, Duncan was the NBA Rookie of the Year after being selected by San Antonio with the first overall pick in the 1997 NBA draft. He primarily played the power forward position and also played center throughout his career. He is a five-time NBA champion, a two-time NBA MVP, a three-time NBA Finals MVP, a 15-time NBA All-Star, and the only player to be selected to both the All-NBA and All-Defensive Teams for 13 consecutive seasons. Off the court, Duncan created the Tim Duncan Foundation to raise health awareness and fund education and youth sports programs. Early life Tim Duncan was born and raised in Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. He is the son of Ione, a professional midwife, and William Duncan, a mason. He has two older sisters, Cheryl and Tricia, and an older brother, Scott, who became a film director and cinematographer. Cheryl was a champion swimmer before she became a nurse, and Tricia swam for the U.S. Virgin Islands at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. In school, Duncan was a bright pupil and dreamt of becoming an Olympic-level swimmer like Tricia. His parents were very supportive, and Duncan excelled at swimming, becoming a teenage standout in the 50-, 100-, and 400-meter freestyle and aiming to go to the 1992 Olympic Games as a member of the United States Team. In 1989, after Hurricane Hugo destroyed the island's only Olympic-sized swimming pool, Duncan was forced to swim in the ocean instead, and his fear of sharks ruined his enthusiasm for the sport. He was dealt another emotional blow when his mother died of breast cancer one day before his 14th birthday. On her deathbed, she made Duncan and his sisters promise that they would graduate from college, going a long way in explaining Duncan's later refusal to leave college early for the NBA. Duncan never swam competitively again, but his brother-in-law inspired him to turn to basketball. Initially, Duncan had difficulties adapting to the game he thought would help relieve his pain and frustration. St. Croix Country Day School athletic director Nancy Pomroy has said, "[Duncan] was so huge. So big and tall, but he was awfully awkward at the time." He overcame his awkwardness to become a standout for the St. Dunstan's Episcopal High School, averaging 25 points per game as a senior. His play attracted the attention of several universities. Wake Forest University basketball coach Dave Odom, in particular, grew interested in Duncan after the 16 year old allegedly played NBA star Alonzo Mourning to a draw in a 5-on-5 pick-up game. Odom was searching for a tall, physical player to play near the basket. Given the weak level of basketball in the Virgin Islands, Odom was wary about Duncan at first, especially after first meeting him and thinking him inattentive; Duncan stared blankly at Odom for most of the conversation. But after the first talk, Odom understood that this was just Duncan's demeanor and discovered that he was not only a talented athlete but also a quick learner. Eventually, despite scholarship offers by the University of Hartford, the University of Delaware, and Providence College, Duncan joined Odom's Wake Forest Demon Deacons. College career In the year before Duncan's arrival at Wake Forest University, the Demon Deacons reached the Sweet 16, but then lost leading scorer Rodney Rogers, who entered the 1993 NBA draft. In the 1993–94 NCAA season, Coach Dave Odom was considering redshirting Duncan, but was forced to play him after fellow freshman big man Makhtar N'Diaye violated NCAA rules and eventually transferred to Michigan. Duncan struggled with early transition problems and was even held scoreless in his first college game, but as the year progressed, he and teammate Randolph Childress led the Deacons to a 20–11 win–loss record. Duncan's style of play was simple yet effective, combining an array of low-post moves, mid-range bank shots, and tough defense. He was chosen to represent the U.S. in the 1994 Goodwill Games. Meanwhile, Duncan worked towards a degree in psychology and also took classes in anthropology and Chinese literature. Despite his heavy focus on basketball, Wake Forest psychology department chairperson Deborah Best said, "Tim [...] was one of my more intellectual students. [...] Other than his height, I couldn't tell him from any other student at Wake Forest." Duncan also established his reputation as a stoic player, to the extent that opposing fans taunted him as "Mr. Spock", the prototype of a logical, detached character from Star Trek. In the 1994–95 NCAA season, the sophomore was soon called one of the best prospects among the eligible for the NBA, along with peers Joe Smith, Rasheed Wallace, and Jerry Stackhouse. Los Angeles Lakers general manager Jerry West suggested that Duncan might become the top pick in the 1995 NBA draft if he went early; however, Duncan said that he had no intention of going pro before graduation, despite the NBA's plan to add a rookie salary cap in 1996. Though it meant passing up a large amount of money, Duncan was loath to deviate from his determination to stay in school. In that season, he led the Demon Deacons into the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) championship game against the Rasheed Wallace-led North Carolina Tar Heels. During that game, Duncan neutralized the threat of Wallace, while Childress sealed the win with a jump shot with four seconds left in overtime. In the NCAA Tournament, the Demon Deacons reached the Sweet 16. Playing against Oklahoma State, Duncan scored 12 points to go with 22 rebounds and eight blocks, outplaying Bryant Reeves, but Wake Forest still lost, 71–66. Duncan ended the season averaging 16.8 points and 12.5 rebounds per game, was named Defensive Player of the Year, and became the third-best shot-blocker in NCAA history with 3.98 blocks per game. He was also voted All-ACC First Team, a feat he would repeat in each of his two remaining years at Wake Forest. During the 1995–96 NCAA season, the Wake Forest team lost Childress, who graduated the previous season and entered the NBA. In Childress's absence, Duncan led the team to a 12–4 record for their ACC season, and a 26–6 record overall. The Demon Deacons won the ACC Finals again, but in the Sweet 16, Duncan came down with the flu, and his team missed the Final Four. His season averages of 19.1 points and 12.3 rebounds per game led to another ACC Defensive Player of the Year award and his first ACC Player of the Year award. Although the Wake Forest star was now rumored to be entering the 1996 NBA draft, he stayed in college. In the 1996–97 NCAA season, new Demon Deacon and future NBA player Loren Woods eased the pressure on Duncan close to the basket. The 1996–97 team won their first 13 games, but then came a slump, and they failed to win a third ACC title. On January 12, 1997, Duncan scored 26 points and 14 rebounds in an 81–69 win against Duke. On January 24, 1997, Duncan scored 16 points, 15 rebounds and 5 blocks in a 65–62 victory over Clemson. Later, during the NCAA tournament, Stanford University, led by future NBA point guard Brevin Knight, eliminated Wake Forest with a 72–66 win. Duncan finished his senior season with career high averages of 20.8 points, 14.7 rebounds and 3.2 assists per game while shooting .606 from the field and winning the Defensive Player of the Year for a third straight season. He earned first-team All-American honors for the second time and was a unanimous pick for both the Oscar Robertson Trophy and Naismith College Player of the Year. Duncan was first in the 1996–97 NCAA Division I in rebounding, tenth in blocked shots (3.3 bpg), and 28th in scoring (20.8 ppg). He was voted ACC Player of the Year again and, based on the votes of sportscasters and newswriters, won the 1997 John Wooden Award as the NCAA's best overall male player. In contrast to contemporary prep-to-pro players like Kevin Garnett, Jermaine O'Neal, Tracy McGrady, and Kobe Bryant, Duncan stayed in college for a full four years. During that period, he was a two-time ACC Player of the Year and a three-time NABC Defensive Player of the Year. The center also made the All-ACC Tournament between 1995 and 1997 and the All-ACC First Team between 1995 and 1997. In 1996, he led the ACC in scoring, rebounding, field goal percentage, and blocked shots, becoming the first player in conference history to lead all four of those categories. That same year, he was also named Most Valuable Player of the ACC Tournament. Overall, Duncan led his team to a 97–31 win–loss record and finished his college career as the all-time leading rebounder in NCAA history in the post-1973 era (a mark later surpassed by Kenneth Faried). Duncan left college as the all-time leading shot-blocker in ACC history with 481 blocks—at the time second in NCAA annals behind Colgate's Adonal Foyle—and third on the ACC career rebounding list with 1,570 rebounds. In college, Duncan co-authored a chapter in the social psychology book Aversive Interpersonal Behaviors. After earning his college degree, Duncan entered the 1997 NBA draft. In 2009, Duncan was inducted into the Wake Forest Sports Hall of Fame. Professional career San Antonio Spurs (1997–2016) "Twin Towers" (1997–2003) In the 1997 NBA draft, the San Antonio Spurs drafted Duncan with the first draft pick. The Spurs were coming off an injury-riddled 1996–97 season; their best player, David Robinson—himself a number one draft pick in 1987—was sidelined for most of the year, and they finished with a 20–62 win–loss record. In the 1997–98 season, Duncan and Robinson became known as the "Twin Towers". The duo earned a reputation for their exceptional defense close to the basket. From the beginning, Duncan established himself as a quality player: In his second road game, he grabbed 22 rebounds against opposing Chicago Bulls Hall of Fame power forward Dennis Rodman, a multiple rebounding champion and NBA Defensive Player of the Year. Duncan was voted to the 1998 NBA All-Star Game by coaches. Later, when Duncan played against opposing Houston Rockets Hall of Fame power forward Charles Barkley, Barkley was so impressed he said: "I have seen the future and he wears number 21." In his rookie season, Duncan lived up to expectations of being the number one draft pick, starting in all 82 regular season games, averaging 21.1 points, 11.9 rebounds, 2.7 assists and 2.5 blocks per game, and earning All-NBA First Team honors. His defensive contributions ensured that he was elected to the NBA All-Defensive Second Team and was also named NBA Rookie of the Year, having won the NBA Rookie of the Month award every single month that season. Spurs coach Gregg Popovich lauded Duncan's mental toughness, stating his rookie's "demeanor was singularly remarkable", Duncan always "put things into perspective" and never got "too upbeat or too depressed." Center Robinson was equally impressed with Duncan: "He's the real thing. I'm proud of his attitude and effort. He gives all the extra effort and work and wants to become a better player." The Spurs qualified for the 1998 NBA playoffs as the fifth seed, but Duncan had a bad first half in his first playoff game against the Phoenix Suns, causing Suns coach Danny Ainge to play Duncan with less defensive pressure. The rookie capitalized on this by finishing Game 1 with 32 points and 10 rebounds and replicating the performance in Game 2, contributing to a 3–1 victory over the Suns. However, the Spurs lost in the second round to the eventual Western Conference Champions Utah Jazz. During the lockout-shortened 1998–99 season, the Spurs started with a lackluster 6–8 record and Popovich came under fire from the press. However, Duncan and Robinson stood behind their coach and finished the season with a 31–5 run. The sophomore averaged 21.7 points, 11.4 rebounds, 2.4 assists and 2.5 blocks in the regular season, making both the All-NBA and All-Defense First Teams. In the 1999 NBA playoffs, the Spurs defeated the Minnesota Timberwolves 3–1, swept the Los Angeles Lakers and the Portland Trail Blazers 4–0, and defeated the Cinderella-story New York Knicks 4–1 in the Finals. In this series, a large contingent of Virgin Islanders flew over to support their local hero, and were not disappointed. In the first two games, the "Twin Towers" outscored their Knicks counterparts Chris Dudley/Larry Johnson with 41 points, 26 rebounds, and nine blocks versus five points, 12 rebounds, and zero blocks. After a Game 3 loss in which Duncan was held scoreless in the third quarter and committed three turnovers in the last quarter, Duncan bounced back with 28 points and 18 rebounds in a Game 4 win, and in Game 5, the Spurs protected a 78–77 lead seconds from the end with the ball in the Knicks' possession. Double teamed by Duncan and Robinson, Knicks swingman Latrell Sprewell missed a last-second desperation shot, and after closing out the series with a strong 31-point and 9-rebound showing in Game 5, Duncan was named Finals MVP, bringing San Antonio their first-ever NBA championship. Sports Illustrated journalist and retired NBA player Alex English added: "Duncan came up big each time they went to him with that sweet turnaround jumper off the glass. He was the man tonight [in Game 5]." And Popovich later said to losing coach Jeff Van Gundy: "I've got Tim [Duncan] and you don't. That's the difference." In the 1999–2000 season, Duncan further cemented his reputation. He averaged 23.2 points, 12.4 rebounds, 3.2 assists and 2.2 blocks per game, earning another pair of All-NBA and All-Defense First Team nods. However, the Spurs had a disappointing postseason. Duncan injured his meniscus shortly before the end of the regular season and was unable to play in even one postseason game. Consequently, the Spurs were eliminated in the first round of the 2000 NBA playoffs, losing 3–1 to the Phoenix Suns. In the next season, Duncan averaged 22.2 points, 12.2 rebounds, 3.0 assists, and 2.3 blocks per game. He was again named to the All-NBA and All-Defensive First Teams. In the 2001 NBA playoffs, the Spurs eliminated the Timberwolves 3–1, defeated the Dallas Mavericks 4–1, but then bowed out against the Lakers (led by superstars Shaquille O'Neal and Kobe Bryant) in four straight games. Sports Illustrated described the series as a "[m]erciless mismatch", and Duncan was criticized as "silent when the Spurs need him most". On the back of two consecutive playoff disappointments, Duncan improved statistically in the 2001–02 season. He averaged career highs in scoring (25.5 points per game, including a league-leading 764 field goals and 560 attempted free throws) and rebounding (12.7 boards per game, and his accumulated 1,042 boards again led the league), and also averaged 3.7 assists and 2.5 blocks per game, both career highs. Coupled with another pair of All-NBA and All-Defensive First Team nods, he was named the league's Most Valuable Player, joining teammate David Robinson as one of only two Spurs players in history to have earned the honor. On the other hand, Duncan's team struggled with the fact that the aging Robinson was no longer able to sustain his level of performance, and backup center-forward Malik Rose had to step in more often. In the 2002 NBA playoffs, the Spurs were again outmatched by the Lakers. Up against star center O'Neal once more, the Spurs were defeated 4–1 by the eventual champions. Duncan, who managed 34 points and a franchise-high 25 rebounds in Game 5, stated his frustration: "I thought we really had a chance at this series. The Lakers proved to be more than we could handle. Again, we had a (heck) of a run at it. We had opportunities to win games and make it a different series, but that's just the way the ball rolls sometimes." Nevertheless, NBA.com praised Duncan as "phenomenal" and criticized his supporting cast. In the 2002–03 season, the Spurs began play at the SBC Center on November 1 by defeating the Toronto Raptors 91–72. In that game, Duncan recorded 22 points, 15 rebounds and 3 blocks for the Spurs. He averaged 23.3 points, a career-high 12.9 rebounds, 3.9 assists and 2.9 blocks per game, and earned All-NBA and All-Defensive First Team recognition, resulting in his second NBA Most Valuable Player Award. At age 37, Robinson had announced that the season would be his last; his playing time was cut by coach Popovich to save his energy for the playoffs. The Spurs qualified easily for the playoffs, concluding the regular season as the Western Conference's number one seed with a 60–22 record. In the Western Conference Semifinals against the Lakers, Duncan dominated forward Robert Horry and closed out the series in style; Duncan finished Game 6 with 37 points and 16 rebounds. The Spurs made it to the finals, and defeated the New Jersey Nets 88–77 in Game 6 to win another NBA championship. Helped by an inspired Robinson, Duncan almost recorded a quadruple double in the final game, and was named the NBA Finals MVP. Following this successful Spurs campaign, Robinson and Duncan were named Sports Illustrateds 2003 "Sportsmen of the Year". Leader of the Spurs (2003–2007) On July 16, 2003, Duncan signed a seven-year, $122 million contract with the Spurs. Before the 2003–04 season began, the Spurs lost their perennial captain David Robinson to retirement. Embracing the lone team leader role, Duncan led a reformed Spurs team which included Slovenian center Rasho Nesterović, defensive stalwart Bruce Bowen, Argentinian shooting guard Manu Ginóbili and young French point guard Tony Parker. Coming off the bench were clutch shooting power forward Robert Horry, versatile Hedo Türkoğlu and veterans Malik Rose and Kevin Willis. In retrospect, Robinson commented that at first, Duncan was reluctant to step into the void, still needing some time to truly develop his leadership skills. Statistically though, Duncan remained strong; after another convincing season with averages of 22.3 points, 12.4 rebounds, 3.1 assists and 2.7 blocks, he led the Spurs into the Western Conference Semifinals. There, they met the Los Angeles Lakers again, split the series 2–2, and in Game 5, Duncan made a toughly defended jump shot which put the Spurs ahead by one point with 0.4 seconds left to play. Despite the little time remaining, Lakers point guard Derek Fisher hit a buzzer beater, giving his team the win. In the end, the Spurs lost the series 4–2, and Duncan attributed the strong Lakers defense as one of the reasons for the loss. Duncan and his Spurs looked to re-assert themselves in the next 2004–05 season. Despite their new captain's slight statistical slump (20.3 points, 11.1 rebounds, 2.7 assists, 2.6 blocks per game), the Spurs won the second seed for the 2005 NBA playoffs by winning 59 games. In the first round, the Spurs eliminated the Denver Nuggets four games to one, and met the Seattle SuperSonics in the semi-finals. After splitting the first four games, Duncan led his team to two decisive victories, setting up a meeting with the Phoenix Suns, known for their up-tempo basketball. The Spurs managed to beat the Suns at their own game, defeating them 4–1 and earning a spot in the 2005 NBA Finals against the Detroit Pistons. In the Finals, Duncan was pitted against Detroit's defensively strong frontcourt anchored by multiple NBA Defensive Player of the Year Ben Wallace. After two convincing Game 1 and 2 wins for the Spurs, the Pistons double teamed Duncan and forced him to play further from the basket. Detroit won the next two games and the series was eventually tied at 3–3, but Duncan was instrumental in Game 7, recording 25 points and 11 rebounds as the Spurs defeated the Pistons. NBA.com reported that "with his unique multidimensional talent, Duncan depleted and dissected the Pistons... He was the fulcrum of virtually every key play down the stretch", and coach Popovich added: "[Duncan's] complete game is so sound, so fundamental, so unnoticed at times, because if he didn't score, people think, 'Well, he didn't do anything'. But he was incredible and he was the force that got it done for us." Pistons center Ben Wallace remarked: "He put his team on his shoulders and carried them to a championship. That's what the great players do." Duncan won his third NBA Finals MVP Award, joining Michael Jordan, Shaquille O'Neal, and Magic Johnson as the only players in NBA history to win it three times. During the 2005–06 season, Duncan suffered from plantar fasciitis for most of the season, which was at least partly responsible for his sinking output (18.6 points, 11.0 rebounds, 3.2 assists and 2.0 blocks per game), and also for his failure to make the All-NBA First Team after eight consecutive appearances. The big man came back strong in the 2006 NBA playoffs against the Dallas Mavericks, where he outscored rival power forward Dirk Nowitzki 32.2 to 27.1 points, with neither Nowitzki nor Mavericks center Erick Dampier able to stop Duncan with their man-to-man defense. But after splitting the first six games, Duncan became the tragic hero of his team in Game 7. Despite scoring 39 points in regulation time and fouling out both Dampier and Keith Van Horn, Duncan only made one of seven field goal attempts in overtime against Mavericks reserve center DeSagana Diop, and the Spurs lost Game 7. The following season, however, was another championship year for Duncan and the Spurs. Duncan averaged 20.0 points, 10.6 rebounds, 3.4 assists and 2.4 blocks per game in the regular season, and was selected as a Western Conference starter for the 2007 NBA All-Star Game, his ninth appearance in the event. In the playoffs, he led the Spurs to a 4–1 series win over the Denver Nuggets in the opening round of the 2007 NBA Playoffs, a 4–2 win over the Phoenix Suns in the second round, and a 4–1 win against the Utah Jazz in the Western Conference Finals, setting up a meeting with the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Finals. There, the Spurs swept the Cavaliers 4–0, earning Duncan his and San Antonio's fourth ever championship. Duncan proclaimed that that championship was "the best" of his four championships; however, he also acknowledged he played "sub-par" and thus received only one vote for NBA Finals MVP from a panel of ten. His colleagues were more appreciative of Duncan; among others, ex-teammate David Robinson referred to the Spurs titles as the "Tim Duncan era", and lauded his leadership. Coach Popovich also praised Duncan: "Tim is the common denominator. He's [had] a different cast around him [in] '99, '03 and '05. He's welcomed them all. [...] But he is that easy to play with, and his skills are so fundamentally sound that other people can fit in." Then-NBA commissioner David Stern added: "[Duncan] is a player for the ages. I'm a tennis fan, and Pete Sampras is one of the greats. OK, he wasn't Andre Agassi or John McEnroe. He just happens to be one of the greatest players of all time. You take great players as you find them." Playoff disappointments (2007–2013) During the 2008 NBA All-Star Weekend, Duncan was a member of the San Antonio team that won the Shooting Stars Competition. For the season, he played 78 games and posted his typical 20/10 numbers, San Antonio concluded the 2007–08 regular season with a 56–26 record, finishing behind the Lakers and New Orleans Hornets in the Western Conference and setting up themselves for a first-round contest against the Suns. The Suns—defeated by the Spurs in three of the past four seasons of playoffs—were out for revenge and featured a new player in four-time NBA champion Shaquille O'Neal. In Game 1, Duncan set the tone with a 40-point game and a rare three-pointer that sent the game into double overtime. The trio of Duncan, Ginóbili and Parker continued playing to form for the remainder of the series, and the Spurs eliminated the Suns in five games. In the first game of the next round against the Chris Paul-led Hornets, San Antonio was badly defeated 101–82 as Duncan played one of the worst playoff games in his career, recording only 5 points and 3 rebounds. The Spurs dropped the next game as well, but recovered in Games 3 and 4, with Duncan putting up a team-high 22 point/15 rebound/4 block performance in the game that tied the series. Duncan then recorded 20 points and 15 rebounds in Game 6, and the Spurs relied on their experience to seal the series in Game 7. However, arch-rivals Los Angeles Lakers defeated San Antonio in five games in the Conference Finals, and the Spurs once again failed to capture back-to-back NBA championships. Duncan started the 2008–09 season with strong showings in points and rebounds per game. However, by mid-season, his performance declined and he was subsequently diagnosed with chronic knee tendinosis. Despite Duncan having problems with his knee and the team losing the services of shooting guard Ginóbili for most of the season, San Antonio qualified for the playoffs as the third seed with a 54–28 record. Coupled with an aging supporting cast (Bowen, Michael Finley and Kurt Thomas were all in their late 30s), however, the Spurs were only considered fringe contenders for the championship. As it turned out, Duncan and Parker were not enough to help the Spurs avoid a 4–1 defeat by Dallas, and the Spurs were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs for the first time since 2000. With the Spurs looking to provide a more solid supporting cast in the 2009–10 season, they acquired Richard Jefferson, Theo Ratliff, Antonio McDyess, DeJuan Blair, and Keith Bogans. The team got off to a 5–6 start, but a series of double-double performances by Duncan gave them a 9–6 record by the end of November. Duncan was subsequently named the Western Conference Player of the Week for the last week of November. Even at 34 years of age, he remained a constant 20–10 threat, being only one of three players in the league at the mid-season to average at least 20 points and 10 rebounds a game. On January 21, 2010, Duncan was named as the starting forward for the West for the 2010 NBA All-Star Game. After securing yet another 50-win season, the Spurs qualified for the playoffs as the seventh seed, and defeated Dallas 4–2 in the first round, only to lose 4–0 to Phoenix in the next round. Eleven games into the 2010–11 season, Duncan became the Spurs' all-time leader in points scored and games played. Along the way, the Spurs compiled a 12-game winning streak to go 13–2 after 15 games. On November 30, 2010, Duncan recorded his third career triple-double against the Golden State Warriors. 12 days later, in a game against the Portland Trail Blazers, Duncan became the 94th player in NBA history to play 1,000 games. Through his 1,000th game, the Spurs have been 707–293; only Scottie Pippen (715–285) had a better record with his team through his first 1,000 games. The Spurs were 29–4 after 33 games—one of the ten best starts in NBA history–and led the league at 35–6 halfway through the season. Although Duncan produced career lows in points and rebounds per game, the Spurs ended the regular season as the first seed in the West for the 2011 NBA playoffs, and were second in the league (to Chicago). Despite finishing with a 61–21 record, however, the Spurs could not avoid being upset in the first round, 4–2, by the eighth-seeded Memphis Grizzlies. The Spurs again finished the 2011–12 season as the number one seed in the West—it was a lockout-shortened 66-game season—tying with the Chicago Bulls for a league-best 50–16 record. Prior to a game against the Philadelphia 76ers on March 24, 2012, head coach Gregg Popovich decided to give Duncan a night off by listing him on the official scorecard as "DNP-OLD", poking fun at his 36-year-old body. Overall, Duncan's numbers remained at par with the previous season. The triumvirate of Duncan-Parker-Ginóbili entered the 2012 NBA playoffs well-rested and healthy, and the Spurs swept the Utah Jazz and the Los Angeles Clippers 4–0 in the first two rounds. On May 31, 2012, in the third game of the Western Conference Finals against the Oklahoma City Thunder, Duncan set the record for most career blocks in playoffs history, surpassing Kareem Abdul-Jabbar. The Spurs' playoff run came to an end when the Thunder defeated them 4–2. On July 11, 2012, Duncan agreed to re-sign with the Spurs. Helped by a supporting cast comprising Danny Green, Tiago Splitter, Gary Neal and Kawhi Leonard that had been maturing steadily over the last two seasons, Duncan and the Spurs would again make the playoffs with a 58–24 regular season record. Duncan also returned to the All-Star line-up and was named to the All-NBA First Team. He finished the regular season with 23,785 career points, which broke George Gervin's record for most points in a Spurs uniform (23,602). In the playoffs, the Spurs swept the Los Angeles Lakers, beat Golden State in six games and defeated the Memphis Grizzlies in the Western Conference Finals in a 4–0 sweep to reach the NBA Finals. In Game 2 of the Western Conference Finals, Duncan recorded his 500th playoff block, becoming the first player in NBA history to reach that milestone, although the NBA did not track blocks prior to the 1973–74 season. The Spurs met defending NBA champions Miami Heat in the NBA Finals in a tightly contested series. Miami had home court advantage, but San Antonio took the first game and headed into game 6 with a 3–2 lead. In that game, Duncan scored 25 points in the first half, his biggest haul in a half of an NBA Finals game. However, the Spurs lost the game in overtime, and then lost the deciding seventh game. Fifth championship (2013–2014) On December 2, 2013, Duncan became the oldest player to record a 20–20 game in NBA history, finishing with 23 points, 21 rebounds, and the game-winning jump shot against the Atlanta Hawks. The Spurs went on to conclude the 2013–14 regular season with a league-best 62 wins. The Spurs defeated Dallas in seven games in the first round of the playoffs, Portland in five games in the conference semifinals, and Oklahoma City in six games, where game 6 went into overtime, as the Spurs won, 112–107. They set up a Finals rematch against the Miami Heat, which they won, 4–1, setting a record margin for a win in the NBA Finals, for games 3 and 4. Along the way, the Duncan-Ginóbili-Parker trio broke the record for most wins in NBA playoffs history. After winning the Finals in five games, Duncan joined John Salley as the only players to win a championship in three different decades. Chasing his fourth Finals MVP award in 2014, he failed to then-22-year-old Kawhi Leonard. Late career (2014–2016) On June 23, 2014, Duncan exercised his $10.3 million player option for the 2014–15 season. On November 14, 2014, Duncan scored his 25,000th point in the first half of the Spurs' 93–80 win over the Los Angeles Lakers, becoming the 19th player in NBA history to reach the milestone. On February 19, 2015, he passed Alex English to move into 16th place on the NBA's all-time scoring list with 30 points against the Los Angeles Clippers. On March 4, he recorded six rebounds against the Sacramento Kings, breaking his tie with Nate Thurmond for ninth in career rebounding. Two days later, he recorded three blocks against the Denver Nuggets to surpass Patrick Ewing for sixth overall in career blocks. On April 12, he played his 1,330th career game against the Phoenix Suns, which passed Moses Malone for 11th all-time. He also scored 22 points and passed Kevin Garnett to move into 14th place on the NBA's all-time scoring list. The Spurs finished sixth in the Western Conference after 82 games and faced the Los Angeles Clippers in the first round of the playoffs. Their quest for back-to-back championships was ended May 2 as they lost to the Clippers in seven games. Duncan was later named to the All-Defensive second team on May 20 for the seventh time in his career. On July 9, 2015, Duncan re-signed with the Spurs to a two-year deal. On November 2, 2015, in a win over the New York Knicks, Duncan recorded 16 points, 10 rebounds and six assists in his NBA-record 954th victory with one team, surpassing John Stockton's 953 wins with the Utah Jazz. On November 11, he pulled down the 14,716th rebound of his career against the Portland Trail Blazers to pass Robert Parish for seventh place on the NBA's all-time rebounding list. On November 14, in a win over the Philadelphia 76ers, Duncan had five blocked shots to become the Spurs' franchise leader with 2,955 blocks, surpassing former teammate David Robinson's career total of 2,954. Duncan also moved into fifth all-time on the NBA's blocks list. After missing the Spurs' last three games of December due to rest and right knee soreness, Duncan returned to action on January 2, 2016 against the Houston Rockets. In his return game, Duncan was held scoreless for the first time in his 19-year career; giving him the most consecutive games with at least one point, at 1,359. Four days later, Duncan scored a then-season high 18 points in a 123–98 win over the Utah Jazz, helping the Spurs extend its franchise-record home winning streak to 30 straight regular season games dating to 2014–15. On February 10, he returned to the starting lineup after missing eight games with a sore knee. On February 27, in a win over the Houston Rockets, he became the fifth player in NBA history to reach 3,000 blocks. In addition, with six rebounds in the game, Duncan reached 14,971 for his career, surpassing Karl Malone (14,968) for sixth place in league history. On March 10, Duncan became the sixth player in league history with 15,000 rebounds, completing the feat midway through the first quarter of the Spurs' 109–101 win over the Chicago Bulls. On March 19, he came off the bench for only the third time in his career to counter the smaller lineup of the Golden State Warriors. With a win over the Warriors, the Spurs recorded their 35th straight home win of the season and their 44th straight at home dating to 2014–15, tied for the second-longest streak in NBA history with the 1995–96 Chicago Bulls. On April 5, in a win over the Utah Jazz, he became the third player with 1,000 victories in the regular season, following Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and Robert Parish. Duncan extended his mark as the NBA's career leader in victories with one team. On April 8, he scored a season-high 21 points in a losing effort to the Denver Nuggets. Having already locked up second seed in the West with a franchise-best record (65–13 prior to Nuggets game), all four of Duncan's starting teammates were rested. The Spurs went on to lose to the Oklahoma City Thunder in the second round of the playoffs. On June 28, 2016, Duncan opted into his $5.6 million contract for the 2016–17 season. However, on July 11, 2016, he announced his retirement from the NBA after 19 seasons with San Antonio. In September 2016, coach Gregg Popovich indicated that Duncan would have a coaching role with the team in the 2016–17 season. On December 18, 2016, the Spurs retired Duncan's No. 21 jersey in a postgame ceremony, making him the eighth Spur in franchise history to have his jersey retired. National team career In 1998, Duncan was selected as one of the last two players for the United States national team for the World Basketball Championship. However, this team was later replaced with CBA and college players because of the NBA lockout. Duncan's first chance at playing for the national team came in 1999 when he was called up to the Olympic Qualifying Team. He averaged 12.7 ppg, 9.1 rpg and 2.4 bpg and led the team to a 10–0 finish en route to a qualifying berth for the 2000 Sydney Olympics, but a knee injury forced him to stay out of the Olympic Games themselves. In 2003, Duncan was also a member of the USA team that recorded ten wins and qualified for the 2004 Summer Olympics. He started all the games he played in and averaged team bests of 15.6 ppg, 8.0 rpg, 1.56 bpg, while shooting 60.7 percent from the field. At the Olympics itself, the team lost three games on its way to a bronze medal. The record represented more losses in a single year than in the 68 previous years combined. It was also the first time since NBA players became eligible that the U.S. men's basketball team returned home without gold medals at the Olympics. After the tournament, Duncan commented, "I am about 95 percent sure my FIBA career is over. I'll try not to share my experiences with anyone." In total, Duncan was a member of five USA Basketball teams and played in 40 games. Player profile Standing at and weighing , Duncan was a power forward who could also play center. With a double-double career average in points and rebounds, he was considered one of the most consistent players in the NBA throughout his career. Regarded as one of the league's best interior defenders, Duncan also ranked consistently as one of the top scorers, rebounders and shot-blockers in the league. At the end of his final season in 2015–16, he was ranked first in regular season point-rebound double-doubles among active players, while he led the charts in postseason point-rebound double-doubles (158 as of 2013–14). His main weakness for much of his career was his free throw shooting, with a career average of less than 70%. Apart from his impressive statistics, Duncan has gained a reputation as a clutch player, as evidenced by his three NBA Finals MVP awards and his playoff career averages being higher than his regular season statistics. Eleven-time NBA champion Bill Russell further compliments Duncan on his passing ability, and rates him as one of the most efficient players of his generation, a view shared by 19-time NBA All-Star Kareem Abdul-Jabbar. Because of his versatility and success, basketball experts widely consider Duncan to be the greatest power forward in NBA history, while coach Popovich and teammates Parker and Ginóbili have also credited much of San Antonio's success to him. Duncan's detractors, however, label him as "boring" because of his simple but effective style of play (thus earning him the nickname "The Big Fundamental"). Following his first championship ring in 1999, Sports Illustrated described him as a "quiet, boring MVP", a characterization which persists today. Duncan himself commented on his "boring" image, stating: "If you show excitement, then you also may show disappointment or frustration. If your opponent picks up on this frustration, you are at a disadvantage." Sports journalist Kevin Kernan commented on his ability to relax and stay focused, stating that having a degree in psychology, Duncan often not only outplays, but out-psychs his opponents. Duncan has also stated that he especially likes his bank shot, saying: "It is just easy for me. It just feels good." Additionally, Duncan's close and longstanding relationship with Spurs coach Gregg Popovich has been described as "the greatest love story in sports". Honors During his basketball career, Duncan received a number of individual and team honors, including being a two-time MVP (2002, 2003), five-time NBA champion (1999, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2014), and three-time NBA Finals MVP (1999, 2003, 2005). As a college player, he was honored by the House of Representatives, named the ACC Male Athlete of the Year, won the John R. Wooden Award and Adolph Rupp Trophy, and was selected as the Naismith College Player of the Year in addition to player of the year honors from the United States Basketball Writers Association (USBWA), National Association of Basketball Coaches (NABC) and Sporting News (all 1997). In 2002, Duncan was named to the ACC 50th Anniversary men's basketball team honoring the 50 greatest players in ACC history. In his debut year in the NBA (1998), he was voted Rookie of the Year and elected into the All-Rookie Team. He has been named to 15 NBA All-Star Teams (1997–98; 1999–2000 to 2010–11; 2012–13 and 2014–15), 15 All-NBA Teams (1997–98 to 2009–10, 2012–13, 2014–15; ten First Team nominations), and 15 All-Defensive Teams (1997–98 to 2009–10; 2012–13, 2014–15; eight First Team nominations). With these impressive performances, Duncan is one of only four players to receive All-NBA First Team honors in each of his first eight seasons (1998–2005), along with Hall-of-Famers Bob Pettit (ten seasons), Larry Bird (nine seasons), and Oscar Robertson (nine seasons), and is the only player in NBA history to receive All-NBA and All-Defensive honors in his first 13 seasons (1997–98 to 2009–10). Duncan was also named by the Association for Professional Basketball Research as one of the "100 Greatest Professional Basketball Players of the 20th Century", and is the youngest player on that list. In the 2001–02 season, he won the IBM Player Award and the Sporting News (TSN) MVP Award, becoming the third player to ever win the NBA MVP, IBM Player and TSN Player Awards in the same season. On February 18, 2006, he was named one of the Next 10 Greatest Players on the tenth anniversary of the release of the NBA's 50th Anniversary All-Time Team by the TNT broadcasting crew. In 2009, Duncan was ranked 8th by Slam magazine in their list of the top 50 NBA players of all time, while Sports Illustrated named him its NBA Player of the Decade. On April 4, 2020, it was announced that Duncan would be inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame on August 29. He was named to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team in 2021. Coaching career San Antonio Spurs (2019–2020) On July 22, 2019, the San Antonio Spurs announced that Duncan was named an assistant coach. He made his debut as acting head coach on March 3, 2020, leading the Spurs to a 104–103 comeback win over the Charlotte Hornets, which Popovich missed due to personal reasons. On November 12, 2020, Duncan stepped down as assistant coach of the Spurs. Career statistics NBA Regular season \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| style="background:#cfecec;"\|82* \|\| style="background:#cfecec;"\|82* \|\| 39.1 \|\| .549 \|\| .000 \|\| .662 \|\| 11.9 \|\| 2.7 \|\| .7 \|\| 2.5 \|\| 21.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\|† \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| style="background:#cfecec;"\|50* \|\| style="background:#cfecec;"\|50* \|\| 39.3 \|\| .495 \|\| .143 \|\| .690 \|\| 11.4 \|\| 2.4 \|\| .9 \|\| 2.5 \|\| 21.7 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 74 \|\| 74 \|\| 38.9 \|\| .490 \|\| .091 \|\| .761 \|\| 12.4 \|\| 3.2 \|\| .9 \|\| 2.2 \|\| 23.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 82 \|\| style="background:#cfecec;"\|82* \|\| 38.7 \|\| .499 \|\| .259 \|\| .618 \|\| 12.2 \|\| 3.0 \|\| .9 \|\| 2.3 \|\| 22.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 82 \|\| 82 \|\| 40.6 \|\| .508 \|\| .100 \|\| .799 \|\| 12.7 \|\| 3.7 \|\| .7 \|\| 2.5 \|\| 25.5 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\|† \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 81 \|\| 81 \|\| 39.3 \|\| .513 \|\| .273 \|\| .710 \|\| 12.9 \|\| 3.9 \|\| .7 \|\| 2.9 \|\| 23.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 69 \|\| 68 \|\| 36.6 \|\| .501 \|\| .167 \|\| .599 \|\| 12.4 \|\| 3.1 \|\| .9 \|\| 2.7 \|\| 22.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\|† \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 66 \|\| 66 \|\| 33.4 \|\| .496 \|\| .333 \|\| .670 \|\| 11.1 \|\| 2.7 \|\| .7 \|\| 2.6 \|\| 20.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 80 \|\| 80 \|\| 34.8 \|\| .484 \|\| .400 \|\| .629 \|\| 11.0 \|\| 3.2 \|\| .9 \|\| 2.0 \|\| 18.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\|† \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 80 \|\| 80 \|\| 34.1 \|\| .546 \|\| .111 \|\| .637 \|\| 10.6 \|\| 3.4 \|\| .8 \|\| 2.4 \|\| 20.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 78 \|\| 78 \|\| 34.0 \|\| .497 \|\| .000 \|\| .730 \|\| 11.3 \|\| 2.8 \|\| .7 \|\| 1.9 \|\| 19.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 75 \|\| 75 \|\| 33.6 \|\| .504 \|\| .000 \|\| .692 \|\| 10.7 \|\| 3.5 \|\| .5 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 19.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 78 \|\| 77 \|\| 31.3 \|\| .519 \|\| .182 \|\| .725 \|\| 10.1 \|\| 3.2 \|\| .6 \|\| 1.5 \|\| 17.9 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 76 \|\| 76 \|\| 28.3 \|\| .500 \|\| .000 \|\| .716 \|\| 8.9 \|\| 2.7 \|\| .7 \|\| 1.9 \|\| 13.4 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 58 \|\| 58 \|\| 28.2 \|\| .492 \|\| .000 \|\| .695 \|\| 9.0 \|\| 2.3 \|\| .7 \|\| 1.5 \|\| 15.4 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 69 \|\| 69 \|\| 30.1 \|\| .502 \|\| .286 \|\| .817 \|\| 9.9 \|\| 2.7 \|\| .7 \|\| 2.7 \|\| 17.8 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\|† \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 74 \|\| 74 \|\| 29.2 \|\| .490 \|\| .000 \|\| .731 \|\| 9.7 \|\| 3.0 \|\| .6 \|\| 1.9 \|\| 15.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 77 \|\| 77 \|\| 28.9 \|\| .512 \|\| .286 \|\| .740 \|\| 9.1 \|\| 3.0 \|\| .8 \|\| 2.0 \|\| 13.9 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 61 \|\| 60 \|\| 25.2 \|\| .488 \|\| .000 \|\| .702 \|\| 7.3 \|\| 2.7 \|\| .8 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 8.6 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 1,392 \|\| 1,389 \|\| 34.0 \|\| .506 \|\| .179 \|\| .696 \|\| 10.8 \|\| 3.0 \|\| .7 \|\| 2.2 \|\| 19.0 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|All-Star \| 14 \|\| 12 \|\| 21.1 \|\| .549 \|\| .250 \|\| .765 \|\| 9.1 \|\| 2.1 \|\| .9 \|\| .6 \|\| 9.9 Playoffs \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1998 \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 9 \|\| 9 \|\| 41.6 \|\| .521 \|\| .000 \|\| .667 \|\| 9.0 \|\| 1.9 \|\| .6 \|\| 2.6 \|\| 20.7 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\|1999† \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 17 \|\| 17 \|\| 43.1 \|\| .511 \|\| .000 \|\| .748 \|\| 11.5 \|\| 2.8 \|\| .8 \|\| 2.6 \|\| 23.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2001 \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 13 \|\| 13 \|\| 40.5 \|\| .488 \|\| 1.000 \|\| .639 \|\| 14.5 \|\| 3.8 \|\| 1.1 \|\| 2.7 \|\| 24.4 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2002 \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 9 \|\| 9 \|\| 42.2 \|\| .453 \|\| .333 \|\| .822 \|\| 14.4 \|\| 5.0 \|\| .7 \|\| 4.3 \|\| 27.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\|2003† \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 24 \|\| 24 \|\| 42.5 \|\| .529 \|\| .000 \|\| .677 \|\| 15.4 \|\| 5.3 \|\| .6 \|\| 3.3 \|\| 24.7 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2004 \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 10 \|\| 10 \|\| 40.5 \|\| .522 \|\| .000 \|\| .632 \|\| 11.3 \|\| 3.2 \|\| .8 \|\| 2.0 \|\| 22.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\|2005† \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 23 \|\| 23 \|\| 37.8 \|\| .464 \|\| .200 \|\| .717 \|\| 12.4 \|\| 2.7 \|\| .3 \|\| 2.3 \|\| 23.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2006 \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 13 \|\| 13 \|\| 37.9 \|\| .573 \|\| .000 \|\| .718 \|\| 10.5 \|\| 3.3 \|\| .8 \|\| 1.9 \|\| 25.8 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\|2007† \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 20 \|\| 20 \|\| 36.8 \|\| .521 \|\| \|\| .644 \|\| 11.5 \|\| 3.3 \|\| .7 \|\| 3.1 \|\| 22.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2008 \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 17 \|\| 17 \|\| 39.2 \|\| .449 \|\| .200 \|\| .626 \|\| 14.5 \|\| 3.3 \|\| .9 \|\| 2.1 \|\| 20.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2009 \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 5 \|\| 5 \|\| 32.8 \|\| .532 \|\| \|\| .607 \|\| 8.0 \|\| 3.2 \|\| .6 \|\| 1.2 \|\| 19.8 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2010 \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 10 \|\| 10 \|\| 37.3 \|\| .520 \|\| .500 \|\| .478 \|\| 9.9 \|\| 2.6 \|\| .8 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 19.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2011 \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 6 \|\| 6 \|\| 35.3 \|\| .478 \|\| \|\| .625 \|\| 10.5 \|\| 2.7 \|\| .5 \|\| 2.5 \|\| 12.7 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2012 \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 14 \|\| 14 \|\| 33.1 \|\| .495 \|\| .000 \|\| .707 \|\| 9.4 \|\| 2.8 \|\| .7 \|\| 2.1 \|\| 17.4 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2013 \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 21 \|\| 21 \|\| 35.0 \|\| .470 \|\| .000 \|\| .806 \|\| 10.2 \|\| 1.9 \|\| .9 \|\| 1.6 \|\| 18.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\|2014† \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 23 \|\| 23 \|\| 32.7 \|\| .523 \|\| .000 \|\| .760 \|\| 9.1 \|\| 1.9 \|\| .3 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 16.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2015 \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 7 \|\| 7 \|\| 35.7 \|\| .589 \|\| .000 \|\| .559 \|\| 11.1 \|\| 3.3 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 1.4 \|\| 17.9 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|2016 \| style="text-align:left;"\|San Antonio \| 10 \|\| 10 \|\| 21.8 \|\| .423 \|\| \|\| .714 \|\| 4.8 \|\| 1.4 \|\| .2 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 5.9 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 251 \|\| 251 \|\| 37.3 \|\| .501 \|\| .143 \|\| .689 \|\| 11.4 \|\| 3.0 \|\| .7 \|\| 2.3 \|\| 20.6 College \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1993–94 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Wake Forest \| 33 \|\| 32 \|\| 30.2 \|\| .545 \|\| 1.000 \|\| .745 \|\| 9.6 \|\| .9 \|\| .4 \|\| 3.8 \|\| 9.8 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1994–95 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Wake Forest \| 32 \|\| 32 \|\| 36.5 \|\| .591 \|\| .429 \|\| .742 \|\| 12.5 \|\| 2.1 \|\| .4 \|\| 4.2 \|\| 16.8 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1995–96 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Wake Forest \| 32 \|\| 32 \|\| 37.2 \|\| .555 \|\| .304 \|\| .687 \|\| 12.3 \|\| 2.9 \|\| .7 \|\| 3.8 \|\| 19.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\|1996–97 \| style="text-align:left;"\|Wake Forest \| 31 \|\| 31 \|\| 36.7 \|\| .608 \|\| .273 \|\| .636 \|\| 14.7 \|\| 3.2 \|\| .7 \|\| 3.3 \|\| 20.8 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"\|Career \| 128 \|\| 127 \|\| 35.1 \|\| .577 \|\| .321 \|\| .689 \|\| 12.3 \|\| 2.3 \|\| .5 \|\| 3.8 \|\| 16.5 Business ventures In 2013, Duncan opened the vehicle customization BlackJack Speed Shop in San Antonio, located near the San Antonio Spurs practice facility. In August 2017, BlackJack Speed Shop, in partnership with The Tim Duncan Foundation, organized urgently needed supplies for victims of Hurricane Harvey. Personal life Duncan married Amy Sherrill in July 2001, and had two children before their divorce in August 2013. In 2017, Duncan and his girlfriend welcomed their first child. In 2001, Duncan established the Tim Duncan Foundation to fund programs involving health awareness and research, education, and youth sports and recreation in San Antonio, Winston-Salem, and the United States Virgin Islands. The foundation's major events have included the Tim Duncan Bowling for Dollar$ Charity Bowl-A-Thon and the Slam Duncan Charity Golf Classic. Between 2001 and 2002, the foundation raised more than $350,000 for breast and prostate cancer research. In those two years, Duncan was named by Sporting News as one of the "Good Guys" in sports. Duncan has also supported the Children's Bereavement Center, the Children's Center of San Antonio and the Cancer Therapy and Research Center. Duncan cites his late mother as his main inspiration. Among other things, she taught him and his sisters the nursery rhyme "Good, Better, Best. Never let it rest/Until your Good is Better, and your Better is your Best", which he adopted as his personal motto. On and off the court, he believes that the three most important values are dedication, teamwork and camaraderie. The Spurs captain has also stated that he chose No. 21 for his jersey because that was his brother-in-law's college number, since he was Duncan's main basketball inspiration, and cites Hall-of-Fame Los Angeles Lakers point guard Magic Johnson as his childhood idol. Duncan was honored with the Virgin Islands Medal of Honor, the highest award bestowed by the Virgin Islands territorial government, and has been celebrated in several "Tim Duncan Day" ceremonies. In 2000, Legislature of the Virgin Islands President Vargrave Richards said, "He is a quiet giant. His laid-back attitude is the embodiment of the people of St. Croix, doing things without fanfare and hoopla." Duncan enjoys Renaissance fairs and the fantasy role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons. In 2015, Duncan sued his former investment advisor, claiming over $20 million in losses. In September 2016, a federal grand jury indicted the adviser on two counts of wire fraud related to the case. In April 2017, the adviser pled guilty to wire fraud in the case; in June 2018, he reached a settlement and received $7.5 million. In March 2020, Duncan offered to pay for airline tickets for college students in the U.S. Virgin Islands to travel home during the COVID-19 pandemic. See also List of oldest and youngest National Basketball Association players List of National Basketball Association career blocks leaders List of National Basketball Association career rebounding leaders List of National Basketball Association franchise career scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association career scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association career turnovers leaders List of National Basketball Association career free throw scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association career minutes played leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff rebounding leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff blocks leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff turnovers leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff free throw scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association seasons played leaders List of NBA players who have spent their entire career with one franchise List of NCAA Division I men's basketball players with 2,000 points and 1,000 rebounds List of NCAA Division I men's basketball season rebounding leaders List of NCAA Division I men's basketball career rebounding leaders List of NCAA Division I men's basketball career blocks leaders References Further reading External links 1976 births Living people 20th-century African-American sportspeople 21st-century African-American sportspeople African-American basketball players All-American college men's basketball players American men's basketball players American philanthropists Basketball players at the 2004 Summer Olympics Basketball players from San Antonio Centers (basketball) Competitors at the 1994 Goodwill Games Goodwill Games medalists in basketball Medalists at the 1995 Summer Universiade Medalists at the 2004 Summer Olympics Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees National Basketball Association All-Stars National Basketball Association players with retired numbers Olympic bronze medalists for the United States in basketball People from Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands Power forwards (basketball) San Antonio Spurs assistant coaches San Antonio Spurs draft picks San Antonio Spurs players United States men's national basketball team players United States Virgin Islands men's basketball players Universiade gold medalists for the United States Universiade medalists in basketball Wake Forest Demon Deacons men's basketball players	[ -0.504096508026123, 0.2843796908855438, -0.024457525461912155, -0.2515685260295868, 0.9170710444450378, 0.32910796999931335, 0.7340265512466431, -0.26724478602409363, -0.5363941788673401, 0.02807348035275936, 0.32977473735809326, 0.38116639852523804, -0.3215329349040985, 0.011896968819200993, 0.04566601663827896, 0.23580770194530487, 0.23226219415664673, -0.16599050164222717, 0.2875840961933136, -0.05815749242901802, -0.405015230178833, -0.3978334367275238, 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221814	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yin	Yin	Yin may refer to: the dark force in the yin and yang from traditional Chinese philosophy and medicine Yīn (surname) (), a Chinese surname Yǐn (surname) (), a Chinese surname Shang dynasty, also known as the Yin dynasty Yinxu or Yin, the Shang dynasty capital now in ruins Yin (Five Dynasties period), a short-lived kingdom during China's Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period Yin Mountains, a mountain range in Inner Mongolia and Hebei province in China Yin (, yǐn), an office of early China sometimes equivalent to prime minister and sometimes to governor Prime minister (Chu State), known in Chinese as Lingyin.	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221824	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20rock%20albums	List of rock albums	This is a list of rock albums that are particularly notable or influential. It has been derived by compiling lists published by professional sources. Each album has appeared in at least two notable lists describing the most influential rock and roll albums. The numbers following each entry describe the sources, which are listed at the article's key, which assigns each source a number. All the lists are self-described as rock and roll (or rock or rock music or other variants, though not more specific substyles like hard rock), though some artists would more commonly be described as reggae, blues, calypso, jazz, soul, country, funk, heavy metal or hip hop. Many of the lists are ranked, but this is not taken into account—all albums on a list are included with the same cross-reference number, whether they are ranked #1 or #100 on that particular list. A AC/DC - Back In Black (14, 19) Aerosmith - Rocks (8, 14, 16) Aerosmith - Toys in the Attic (14, 16, 19) B The Band - The Band (3, 5, 8, 9, 14, 15) The Band - Music from Big Pink (1, 3, 5, 17) The Beach Boys - Pet Sounds (1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18) Beastie Boys - Paul's Boutique (2, 6, 8, 13, 14, 16) The Beatles - Abbey Road (1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 12, 13) The Beatles - A Hard Day's Night (9, 12) The Beatles - Revolver (1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18) The Beatles - Rubber Soul (1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 13, 17) The Beatles - Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10, 12, 17, 18) The Beatles - The White Album (1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 13, 16, 18) Beck - Odelay (6, 8, 14, 16) Big Brother and the Holding Company - Cheap Thrills (9, 12, 14) Blondie - Parallel Lines (8, 13) Boston - Boston (6, 16) David Bowie - Hunky Dory (1, 2, 8, 13, 14) David Bowie - Low (1, 8, 13) David Bowie - The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars (1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, 16, 18) Jackson Browne - Late for the Sky (8, 10) Jackson Browne - Running on Empty (10, 17) James Brown - Live at the Apollo (3, 6, 14, 16) Jeff Buckley - Grace (1, 2, 13, 17) Buffalo Springfield - Buffalo Springfield Again (3, 8) The Byrds - Sweetheart of the Rodeo (3) The Byrds - Mr. Tambourine Man (9, 17) C Ray Charles - Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music (2, 8) The Cars - The Cars (8, 14, 21) Eric Clapton - 461 Ocean Boulevard (6, 12, 16) The Clash - London Calling Joe Cocker - Mad Dogs and Englishmen (1, 17) Leonard Cohen - Songs of Leonard Cohen (17, 18) Sam Cooke - The Man and His Music (3, 8) Alice Cooper - Hey Stoopid Alice Cooper - Love It to Death Alice Cooper - School's Out Elvis Costello - Armed Forces (13) Elvis Costello - My Aim Is True (2, 3, 8, 13, 17) Elvis Costello - This Year's Model (1, 5, 6, 16, 18) David Crosby - If I Could Only Remember My Name (10) Sheryl Crow - C'mon, C'mon (1, 3, 5, 7, 8) Sheryl Crow - The Globe Sessions (1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 10) Sheryl Crow - Sheryl Crow (1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 13) D Miles Davis - Bitches Brew (2) Deep Purple - In Rock (1, 9, 12) Deep Purple - Machine Head (1, 12) Deep Purple - Made in Japan (10, 17) Derek and the Dominos - Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs (2, 4, 8, 9, 13, 15) Bo Diddley - Bo Diddley/Go Bo Diddley (5, 8) Bo Diddley - Bo Diddley's Beach Party (4) Dire Straits - Dire Straits (1, 10, 17) The Doors - The Doors (1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 16, 17, 18) The Doors - L.A. Woman (1, 10) The Doors - Morrison Hotel (1,4) Nick Drake - Bryter Layter (3, 13) Bob Dylan - Blonde on Blonde (1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18) Bob Dylan - Blood on the Tracks (2, 3, 8, 13, 18) Bob Dylan - Bringing It All Back Home (2, 3, 8, 9) Bob Dylan - Highway 61 Revisited (1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 12, 13) Bob Dylan & The Band - The Basement Tapes (5, 8, 9) E The Eagles - Desperado (10) The Eagles - Hotel California (1, 2, 8, 12, 17) Brian Eno - Another Green World (8) F Fleetwood Mac - Rumours (2, 6, 8, 12, 13, 16, 17) The Flying Burrito Brothers - The Gilded Palace of Sin (8, 17) Aretha Franklin - I Never Loved a Man the Way I Love You (2, 4, 8, 9, 13) Aretha Franklin - Lady Soul (2, 8, 14) G Peter Gabriel - So (2, 17) Marvin Gaye - What's Going On (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 16) Genesis - Selling England by the Pound (6, 10, 16, 17) Grateful Dead - American Beauty (6, 13, 16) Grateful Dead - Live/Dead (8, 9, 10, 17) Al Green - Call Me (2, 4) Guns N' Roses - Appetite for Destruction (2, 8, 17) H PJ Harvey - To Bring You My Love (13, 18) PJ Harvey - Dry (8, 17) John Hiatt - Bring the Family (3, 10) Lauryn Hill - The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill (2, 13) Hole - Live Through This (8, 13, 17) Buddy Holly - The "Chirping" Crickets (8, 14) Buddy Holly - 20 Golden Greats (8, 14) Hot Tuna - Hot Tuna (10) Hüsker Dü - Zen Arcade (8, 17) J Jane's Addiction - Nothing's Shocking (8, 17) Jefferson Airplane - Surrealistic Pillow (8, 9, 13) Jethro Tull - Aqualung (1, 12, 17) Jethro Tull - Stand Up (9, 12) The Jimi Hendrix Experience - Axis: Bold as Love (2, 8) The Jimi Hendrix Experience - Electric Ladyland (1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10, 12, 17, 18) The Jimi Hendrix Experience - Are You Experienced (1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 14, 16, 18) Billy Joel - The Stranger (5, 14, 16) Billy Joel - 52nd Street (5, 14) Elton John - Goodbye Yellow Brick Road (1) Janis Joplin - Pearl (1, 17) Joy Division - Closer (1, 8, 13) K B.B. King - Live at the Regal (4, 9) King Crimson - In the Court of the Crimson King (10, 17) The Kinks - Greatest Hits! (4, 5, 8) The Kinks - Something Else by The Kinks (8, 14) The Kinks - The Kinks Are the Village Green Preservation Society (1, 18) L Led Zeppelin - Led Zeppelin (2, 12) Led Zeppelin - Led Zeppelin II (1, 2, 8, 9, 10, 12) Led Zeppelin - Led Zeppelin III (15, 16, 18, 20, 28, 30) Led Zeppelin - Led Zeppelin IV (1, 6, 8, 9, 12, 16, 17) Led Zeppelin - Houses of the Holy (11, 16, 20, 24, 25, 26, 30, 31) Led Zeppelin - Physical Graffiti (1, 2, 7, 10, 12, 14) Led Zeppelin - Presence (15, 16, 17, 18, 20) Led Zeppelin - In Through the Out Door John Lennon - Imagine (1, 8, 17) John Lennon - Plastic Ono Band (3, 4, 8, 14) Linkin Park - Hybrid Theory Love - Forever Changes (12, 13, 18) Lynyrd Skynyrd - (pronounced 'lĕh-'nérd 'skin-'nérd) (2, 12) M Massive Attack - Blue Lines (7, 8, 12, 13, 15, 17) John Mayall - Blues Breakers with Eric Clapton (1, 8, 9) Paul McCartney & Wings - Band on the Run (1, 12) Metallica - Master of Puppets (6, 8, 16, 17) Metallica - The Black Album (1) The Minutemen - Double Nickels on the Dime (8, 13) Joni Mitchell - Blue (2, 7, 8, 13, 14, 17) Joni Mitchell - Court and Spark (3, 9) The Modern Lovers - The Modern Lovers (13, 18) Van Morrison - Astral Weeks (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 13, 14, 16, 18) Van Morrison - Moondance (2, 3, 8, 9, 12, 13, 17) My Bloody Valentine - Loveless (2, 8, 13) N New York Dolls - New York Dolls (8, 13) Randy Newman - 12 Songs (3, 8, 9, 15) Randy Newman - Good Old Boys (12) Nirvana - Nevermind (1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18) O Oasis - (What's the Story) Morning Glory? (8, 14, 16, 18) Sinéad O'Connor - I Do Not Want What I Haven't Got (3, 8, 13) P Pavement - Slanted and Enchanted (8, 14, 18) Pavement - Crooked Rain, Crooked Rain (8, 14) Pearl Jam - Ten (2, 8, 10, 17) Pere Ubu - The Modern Dance (8, 11) Liz Phair - Exile in Guyville (2, 8, 13) Pink Floyd - The Piper at the Gates of Dawn (1967) (8, 9, 14, 21) Pink Floyd - The Dark Side of the Moon (1973) (1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18) Pink Floyd - Wish You Were Here (1975) (1, 12, 14) Pink Floyd - The Wall (1979) (1, 2, 5,) Pixies - Doolittle (1, 15, 17) Pixies - Surfer Rosa (8, 13) The Police - Synchronicity (2, 6, 13, 16) Elvis Presley - Elvis (1, 3, 5) Elvis Presley - Elvis' Golden Records (6, 8) Elvis Presley - The Sun Sessions (2, 3, 7, 8, 18) The Pretenders - Pretenders (2, 3, 4, 8, 10, 13) Prince - 1999 (2, 3) Prince - Sign o' the Times (2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 14, 17, 18) Prince & the Revolution - Purple Rain (2, 3, 6, 8, 13, 16) Q Queen - A Night at the Opera (17,19) R R.E.M. - Automatic for the People (14, 17, 18) R.E.M. - Murmur (2, 6, 8, 13, 16) R.E.M. - Out of Time (1) Radiohead - Kid A (1, 8, 9, 12) Radiohead - OK Computer (1, 2, 13, 14, 17) Radiohead - The Bends (2, 3, 4, 8, 12) Bonnie Raitt - Nick of Time (8, 17) Ramones - Ramones (1, 2, 8, 13, 17) Ramones - Rocket to Russia (1, 14) Red Hot Chili Peppers - Blood Sugar Sex Magik (17) Otis Redding - Otis Blue: Otis Redding Sings Soul (2, 9, 14) Lou Reed - New York (3, 17) Lou Reed - Transformer (1, 18) The Replacements - Let It Be (2, 8, 13) The Replacements - Tim (2, 8, 13, 14) The Rolling Stones - Aftermath (3, 8, 14, 16) The Rolling Stones - Beggars Banquet (1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 12) The Rolling Stones - Exile on Main St. (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17) The Rolling Stones - Let It Bleed (2, 8, 10, 13, 18) The Rolling Stones - Get Yer Ya-Ya's Out! The Rolling Stones in Concert (1, 9, 18) The Rolling Stones - Some Girls (8) The Rolling Stones - Sticky Fingers (1, 2, 8, 12, 13, 18) Roxy Music - For Your Pleasure (1, 13, 18) S Santana - Abraxas (1, 2, 12, 17) Sex Pistols - Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols (1, 2, 3, 6, 16, 17, 18) Paul Simon - Graceland (2, 3, 13, 17) Simon & Garfunkel - Bookends (2, 3, 9, 13, 14) Simon & Garfunkel - Bridge over Troubled Water (1, 2, 17) Sly & the Family Stone - Greatest Hits (3, 8, 9) Sly & the Family Stone - Stand! (2, 14) Sly & the Family Stone - There's a Riot Goin' On (3, 4, 8) The Smashing Pumpkins - Siamese Dream (6, 8, 16) Patti Smith - Horses (2, 6, 8, 13, 14, 17, 18) The Smiths - The Queen Is Dead (1, 10, 13, 14, 18) Sonic Youth - Daydream Nation (1, 8, 13, 17) The Specials - The Specials (6, 10, 16) Dusty Springfield - Dusty in Memphis (2, 4, 8, 12, 13) Bruce Springsteen - Born to Run (1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 10, 12, 13, 16, 17) Bruce Springsteen - Born in the U.S.A. (3, 8, 12) Bruce Springsteen - Darkness on the Edge of Town (2, 13, 14) Bruce Springsteen - Nebraska (3, 4, 12, 18) Steely Dan - Aja (5, 14, 16, 18) Rod Stewart - Every Picture Tells a Story (1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 14) The Stone Roses - The Stone Roses (8, 13) The Stooges - Fun House (8, 13, 14, 17, 18) T T. Rex - Electric Warrior (1, 14, 18) Talking Heads - Remain in Light (2, 3, 8, 10, 13, 14, 17) Talking Heads - Stop Making Sense (6, 16) James Taylor - Sweet Baby James (2, 8, 17) Television - Marquee Moon (2, 10, 13, 17) The Temptations - Anthology (4, 9) Richard & Linda Thompson - Shoot Out the Lights (3, 4, 15) Tina Turner - Private Dancer (2, 4) U U2 - Achtung Baby (2, 8, 14, 18) U2 - The Joshua Tree (2, 3, 5, 8, 10, 17) U2 - The Unforgettable Fire (6, 12, 16) V Van Halen - Van Halen (6, 14, 16, 19) Various Artists (mostly by Jimmy Cliff) - The Harder They Come (8, 9) Various Artists (mostly by The Bee Gees) - Saturday Night Fever (2, 6, 8, 16) The Velvet Underground - The Velvet Underground (1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 16, 17, 18) The Velvet Underground - The Velvet Underground & Nico (1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18) The Velvet Underground - White Light/White Heat (10, 13) W The Wailers - Burnin' (8, 17) The Wailers - Catch a Fire (4, 13, 14) Tom Waits - Rain Dogs (10, 13) The Who - My Generation (9, 18) The Who - Tommy (1, 2, 8, 9, 17) The Who - Quadrophenia (14, 19, 20) The Who - Who's Next (1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16) Stevie Wonder - Innervisions (2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 13, 14, 16) Stevie Wonder - Songs in the Key of Life (2, 7, 12, 13) Stevie Wonder - Talking Book (8, 9, 12) X X (US) - Los Angeles (8, 13) Y Yes - Fragile (2,6) Neil Young - After the Gold Rush (1, 8, 13, 17) Neil Young - Harvest (1, 6, 7, 12, 16) Neil Young - Rust Never Sleeps (3, 8, 10, 18) Neil Young - Tonight's the Night (4, 8, 14) Z Frank Zappa - Apostrophe (6, 16) Frank Zappa - Hot Rats (9) Frank Zappa/Mothers of Invention - Freak Out! (8, 17) Frank Zappa/Mothers of Invention - We're Only in It for the Money (9, 12) The Zombies - Odessey and Oracle (13, 18) References Alternative Melbourne - The Top 100 Rock/Pop Albums - 1 VH1's 100 Greatest Albums of Rock and Roll - 2 Bill Shapiro's Top 100 Rock Compact Discs - 3 Jimmy Guterman's 100 Best Rock and Roll Records of All Time - 4 All Music - Rock & Roll (Top Albums) - 5 Illinois Entertainer's 50 Great Albums (A Rock Time Capsule) - 6 Dagbladet's 25 Best Rock and Pop Albums of the Century - 7 Rolling Stone's 200: The Essential Rock Collection - 8 Charlie Gillett and Simon Frith's 100 Essential Rock Albums, published in Rock File 3 by Panther (1975) - 9 Italian e-zine Viceversa - 10 Rockweb Top 100 - 12 The Larry Page - 13 Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time - 14 AudioEnz (New Zealand) Top Ten - 15 AcclaimedMusic.net - 16 The Jam (Italy) - 17 The All-TIME 100 Albums - 18 IGN: Top 25 Classic Rock Albums - 19 IGN: Top 14 Greatest Rock Operas/Concept Albums Of All Time - 20 Rolling Stone's 100 Greatest Debut Albums of All Time - 21 Rock and roll	[ 0.040884360671043396, 0.7258059978485107, -0.8409364819526672, -0.03792625293135643, -0.47099927067756653, -0.23450611531734467, 0.3524017035961151, 0.3688417375087738, -0.35622161626815796, -0.23866155743598938, -0.24139145016670227, 0.7193888425827026, 0.034303829073905945, 0.28324687480926514, 0.1851499080657959, 0.56385338306427, -0.23583869636058807, 0.41215378046035767, -0.1420748084783554, -0.6670235991477966, 0.35099563002586365, 0.3269224166870117, 0.44577276706695557, -0.5674477219581604, 0.32532164454460144, 0.015707505866885185, -0.11478348076343536, -0.1683971881866455, -0.5918947458267212, 0.08297619968652725, -0.0188722163438797, 0.5485432744026184, 0.1803412288427353, 0.26289406418800354, -0.15555204451084137, -0.15801265835762024, 0.44274261593818665, -0.3380787968635559, 0.05914993956685066, -0.8024244904518127, 0.46117889881134033, -0.6645091772079468, 0.6242032647132874, 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221832	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costs%20in%20English%20law	Costs in English law	In English civil litigation, costs are the lawyers' fees and disbursements of the parties. In the absence of any order or directive regarding costs, each party is liable to pay their own solicitors' costs and disbursements such as a barrister's fees; in case of dispute, the court has jurisdiction to assess and determine the proper amount. In legal aid cases, a similar assessment will determine the costs which the solicitors will be paid from the Legal Aid Fund. In most courts and tribunals, generally after a final judgment has been given, and possibly after any interim application, the judge has the power to order any party (and in exceptional cases even a third party, or any of the lawyers personally) to pay some or all of other parties' costs. The law of costs defines how such allocation is to take place. Even when a successful party obtains an order for costs against an opponent, it is usual that he may nevertheless still have to pay his solicitors a balance between the costs recoverable from the opponent and the total chargeable by his solicitor; and if the loser is unable to pay, then the order for costs may be worthless, and the successful party will remain fully liable to their own solicitors. Costs "follow the event" The law of costs in England and Wales is typical of common law jurisdictions, save that of the United States. In the small fraction of cases that do not settle and instead proceed to a judgment, generally costs "follow the event" so that the successful party is entitled to seek an order that the unsuccessful party pay his or her costs. Should a case settle, then the parties can seek to agree costs, with the general rule that the losing party pays costs. Costs orders The order that a judge gives as to costs determines who will be the paying and who the receiving party. The amount of costs remains to be determined by assessment if not agreed. Common costs orders, other than on the Small Claims Track, include the following: Interim costs As a general rule, after judgment has been handed down, the court "will" order one party to make an advance payment towards the other side's costs. This will be done even before the costs claim has been finalised. The amount that will be ordered is based upon the parties' disclosed costs estimates, and will take into account the percentage of costs that have been ordered to be paid; any order for Indemnity Basis costs, if relevant, and any costs that are due to the paying party. Wasted costs These are defined as "costs incurred by a party— (a) as a result of any improper, unreasonable or negligent act or omission on the part of any legal or other representative or any employee of such a representative; or (b) which, in the light of any such act or omission occurring after they were incurred, the court considers it is unreasonable to expect that party to pay" These costs will include the situation in which a party has incurred unnecessarily due to the other side's conduct. For example, if a court hearing is postponed due to one party not turning up at court. As a result, the other party had to pay a brief fee for a barrister, for a hearing that ultimately did not take place. Other instances includes failure to follow practice directions, and in some cases, acting in an unnecessarily belligerent manner. In Hong Kong (and many other Common Law jurisdiction), during the pre-Civil Justice Reforms era, 'macho', 'tough' and 'aggressive' litigators may be prized by lay-clients. However, with the implementation of the Civil Justice Reforms (CJR), 'macho', 'tough' and 'aggressive' litigators may end up causing more harm to their clients. Willingness to reconcile and compromise is, therefore, the new king in Hong Kong's new litigation landscape where the laws requires legal practitioners to advice their clients the importance of settlement negotiations. This was illustrated by the Patrick Wang Ho Yin cost order. Security for costs Security for costs is a common law legal concept of application only in costs jurisdictions, and is an order sought from a court in litigation. The general rule in costs jurisdiction is that "costs follow the event". In other words, the loser in legal proceedings must pay the legal costs of the successful party. Where a defendant has a reasonable apprehension that its legal costs will not be paid for by the claimant if the defendant is successful, the defendant can apply to the court for an order that the claimant provide security for costs. Furthermore, the amount that is ordered by the judge is in direct correlation to the strength or weakness of the claimant's case brought herewith. The weaker the probability of the claimant prevailing, the higher the security order. Typically a claimant will be outside the jurisdiction of the court: the law of security for costs recognises that orders of the court relating to payment of a party's legal costs can be very difficult to enforce in non-common law jurisdictions, and so will order security to be provided. Security can also be ordered where a claimant is insolvent, or prone to vexatious litigation. Security is usually provided in the form of a bank cheque paid into the court, or held in a trust account operated jointly by both the claimant's and defendant's lawyers. If the defendant is successful, the money can be applied against the costs order. If the claimant is successful, the security is returned to the claimant. Comparison with other countries The law of costs is often known as the English rule. The situation contrasts with that in the U.S. where legal fees may be sought only if the parties agree by contract before the litigation, or if some special act or statute allows the successful party to seek such fees, the American rule. Federal district court and Court of Appeals judges award costs to the prevailing party under Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. Generally, state court judges have no common law right to award such fees against the losing party. It has been suggested that the American rule contributes to making the U.S. a litigious society. Individuals have little to lose beyond filing fees and a retainer to start a lawsuit, and they are not at risk of having to pay their opponent's fees if they lose. Conversely, the English rule has been criticised. Critics point out that it potentially hinders access to justice by increasing the risks of litigation—both by setting up the risk of having to pay both parties' full costs in the event of losing, and by creating incentives for parties to sink increasing resources into their cases to win the action and avoid paying fees, thereby increasing the overall cost-risk of litigation. This strategy cannot succeed under the American rule. The German costs rule, which allows for fixed recoverable costs, avoids this unfortunate consequence of full-fees recovery. Hong Kong generally follows the English Rule. What can be claimed? Recoverable costs are limited to: Fees and charges of the solicitor (attorney), which may be hourly, daily or an agreed sum; Disbursements, including barristers'/counsels' fees; Witness allowances (conduct money), including fees paid to expert witnesses; Some professional fees for non-witnesses; VAT (where chargeable); Lawyers' "success fees" allowable by the court under a valid conditional fee agreement (CFA); and After-the-event insurance premium. The indemnity principle The indemnity principle, a term unrelated to the concept of indemnity costs, stipulates that a paying party cannot be ordered to pay more than the receiving party has already agreed to pay his solicitor, the retainer. Illustrated in the case authority of Wang Ho Yin Patrick v Fu Chun Lung & Ors. [2018] HKDC 301 whilst indemnity costs will be awarded where the opposition is found to have : made an unmeritorious application; or taking out a summons maliciously; or failing to achieve advantageous outcome; or caused wasted costs; It was also established in this case that a separate indemnity cost order can also be imposed against a litigant (whom was a solicitor himself in this case) for failing to act courteously/ and work with his opposing solicitor. In this case, indemnity was ordered where it was found: "all costs wasted as a result of the unnecessary separate compiling of Bundle C (Correspondence Bundle) by the Defendant’s Solicitors be borne by the Plaintiff’s Solicitors personally on an indemnity basis, such costs to be taxed if not agreed, with certificate for counsel." Exceptions The principle causes anomalies for pro bono representation where, because the lawyers have agreed to represent the party for no cost, they cannot subsequently ask the court for a costs award when they win. However, since 2008 s. 194 Legal Services Act 2007 allows the court to order a party who loses against pro bono representation to make an appropriate charitable donation in lieu of costs. There are also specific exceptions to the principle for: In-house lawyers; Conditional fee agreements; Legal aid; and Litigants in person. Exceptions The rule that "costs follow the event" is observed on the Multi- and Fast Tracks. However, the judge has considerable discretion to apply or disapply these rules if the result would otherwise be unjust. The paying party can appeal against the costs order by the usual routes of appeal. Small claims track If a case is allocated to the Small Claims Track, only specific limited costs such as fixed court fees are usually awarded. Fast-track trials On the Fast Track, the actual costs of the trial, as opposed to preparatory work, are fixed. Fixed costs and fees There are also fixed costs for road traffic accident (RTA) claims that settle before they are issued; and in certain cases brought by HM Revenue & Customs. In addition, where both the current CPR 48 and old CPR 45 apply, there are fixed success fees in personal injury claims arising from RTAs; injuries at work; and industrial disease claims. These range from 12.5% in RTAs to 100%, in each type of case, if a trial occurs. Costs limits In certain Fast-Track or Multi-Track cases, a successful party's costs claim will be limited. These include cases that are conducted in the Patents County Court or in claims under the Aarhus Convention. Formal offers to settle The court will take account of the conduct of the parties and may vary the usual costs order in the event of misguided or dishonest behaviour. In particular, the claimant is expected to give the defendant an opportunity to settle, and the parties are expected to exchange essential information and details before starting a claim. The court will especially be aware of any formal offers to settle made under Part 36 of the Civil Procedure Rules. Such offers are withheld from the judge during the trial but, during assessment of costs, the judge will compare them with the final damages awarded. Acceptance of offers If a Part 36 offer is accepted, or if the claimant discontinues, the unsuccessful party is usually liable for both parties' costs to that date. Rejection of offers If offers are rejected, and the case goes to trial, then one of the following situations can apply. If the defendant rejected the claimant's Part 36 offer to settle, then: If the claimant is awarded a sum that is "at least as advantageous" as that offer, then the claimant is entitled to each of the following: Indemnity Basis costs (defined in a separate section further below) from the date the offer expires; Punitive interest, up to 10% above base rate, on the whole or part of any sum awarded, for some or all of the time at issue; and An "additional amount" of up to £75,000 (only if the Part 36 offer dates from 1 April 2013). If there is a judgment for the claimant that is less than the offer, then the general rules apply: the claimant is entitled to standard-basis costs plus interest. If there is a judgment for the defendant that is less than the offer, then the general rules apply: the defendant is entitled to standard-basis costs plus interest. If the Claimant rejected the defendant's offer to settle, then: If the Claimant failed 'to obtain a judgment that is more advantageous' than that offer at trial, then the defendant is entitled to, from the date that the offer expired: Standard Basis costs; Interest on the costs. If there is a judgment for the claimant that exceeds the offer, then the general rules apply: the claimant is entitled to Standard Basis costs plus interest. The unsuccessful party is generally also liable for both parties' costs up to the date that the Part 36 offer expires, on the Standard Basis, plus interest. Discontinued claims If the claimant discontinues, they are usually liable for both parties' costs to the date of discontinuance, on the Standard Basis. Qualified one-way costs-shifting In personal injury or fatal accident cases since 1 April 2013, there is a further exception to the costs-shifting rules known as "Qualified One-Way Costs-Shifting". If this applies then orders for costs against the claimant can normally only be enforced by a defendant if they total doesn't exceed the amount of damages and costs which a Defendant has to pay out. However, it can be enforced in full without the court's permission if the claim was struck-out because: (a) the claimant has disclosed no reasonable grounds for bringing the proceedings; (b) the proceedings are an abuse of the court’s process; or (c) the conduct of – (i) the claimant; or (ii) a person acting on the claimant’s behalf and with the claimant’s knowledge of such conduct, is likely to obstruct the just disposal of the proceedings. The court's permission to enforce in full is required if the claim was found at trial to be "fundamentally dishonest". If the claim was discontinued, the court can order a hearing to determine whether it was "fundamentally dishonest" to bring it. Other situations Other exceptions to the general rules include: Applications to extend time limits, usually paid by the applicant; Amendments to statements of case, usually paid by the amending party, including the costs of the other side's resulting amendments; and Failure to respond to a notice to admit where the receiving party will usually pay the costs of proving the facts alleged. Who can claim costs? As a general rule, the losing party pays the costs of the winning party, but the court can order otherwise. In-house lawyers The rule also covers in-house corporate legal teams that conduct litigation and have rights of audience. They can claim the remuneration and expenses of the lawyers involved at the rates that external solicitors could claim, even though their fees would be paid as part of the company's overheads. Litigants in person Litigants in person will be awarded a fixed hourly rate of £19 per hour, unless they can prove that they have incurred a financial loss in conducting the action. Practitioners (when suing or sued) have sometimes been observed to abuse existing rules where they would purport to have had their own firm act for them (even though the arrangement is essentially the same as an act in person). The problem being of course is that they can essentially profit when conducting their own litigation. This has resulted in solicitor-litigants being observed to lack sincerity when negotiating for a settlement (hoping that the litigation will continue on for longer and thus resulting in more fees for themselves) as illustrated in the case of Patrick Wang Ho Yin. In that case, Mr. Justice Andrew Li observed "...I agree that there was "some" evidence to suggest that P [Patrick Wang Ho Yin], in his capacity as the handling solicitor, might not have been very sincere or genuine in his attempts to negotiate for the settlement... I find, P, by issuing the Summons even before proper negotiations with D1 had taken place, had conducted the matter in an oppressive manner. For example, before the parties even concluded their first round of negotiations on some matters which could only be described as "a trivial" in late June 2017, P in his email dated 26 June 2017 to D1's former solicitors, stated that "our client’s sincerity for amicable solutions between the parties has already been exhausted … we hereby reserve out client’s rights to apply for the direction of the court and commence civil proceedings for contempt of court, if any" (emphasis added)." The costs awarded to a litigant in person cannot exceed two-thirds of what could be claimed by a professional lawyer. Assessment of costs Reasonableness All claims for costs must be "reasonably incurred" or "reasonable in amount". if costs are specified as being paid as part of a contract, they are presumed to be reasonable, unless the contract says otherwise. Reasonableness is assessed against "all the circumstances" and in particular the "seven pillars of wisdom": Conduct of the parties: Before as well as during proceedings; Efforts made to resolve the dispute; Value of the property at issue; Importance of the matter to the parties; Complexity, difficulty or novelty of the case; Skill, effort, specialised knowledge or responsibility required; Time spent on the case; Geographical location where the work was done. Basis of costs assessment There are two basic ways in which the court will assess a claim for costs: the Standard Basis and the Indemnity Basis. However, in each situation, the claim must be reasonable. The manner in that they are assessed goes a long way in determining the overall percentage that will be allowed. Standard Basis Costs awarded on the Standard Basis must be "proportionate to the matters in issue". Any doubt as to the costs is resolved in favour of the paying party. Indemnity Basis Costs awarded on the Indemnity Basis need not be "proportionate". Any doubt as to the costs is resolved in favour of the receiving party. As a whole, an award for costs on the Indemnity Basis is much more favourable to the receiving party than an award of the Standard Basis. For example, in the case of Patrick Wang Ho Yin, Mr. Wang was ordered to pay $375,000 for a half-day hearing after the Court has found it reasonable to impose liability on an indemnity basis. In this case, the Court has found that Mr. Wang's belligerent conduct has caused the parties to have incurred costs of which could have been avoidable. Proportionality In considering whether or not a party's claim for costs is "proportionate", the court has to apply one of two different tests. The old test This applies where work is done before 1 April 2013, or to the whole of the costs in "cases commenced", i.e. if proceedings are issued, before 1 April 2013. In these situations, the court should have regard to the seven pillars of wisdom. The court should adopt a two-stage approach: Compare the total costs claimed against the total benefits gained by the successful party: If the total costs are proportionate to the total benefits: a) Perform an item by item test of reasonableness; — if they are not proportionate: b) Perform an item by item test of necessity. The new test If the work was done since 1 April 2013, and relates to a case that either does not involve court proceedings, or was issued since 1 April 2013, then a different test applies. In these situations, the court will hold that costs "are proportionate if they bear a reasonable relationship to – (a) the sums in issue in the proceedings; (b) the value of any non-monetary relief in issue in the proceedings; (c) the complexity of the litigation; (d) any additional work generated by the conduct of the paying party; and (e) any wider factors involved in the proceedings, such as reputation or public importance". In addition, the "necessity" of the costs is not relevant. Costs estimates In cases issued before 1 April 2013, parties have to give estimates of their likely costs should the case reach a trial. They are used to give each side and the Court an idea of what the likely costs burden would be. These are submitted at the allocation and listing stage, and at any time that the Court orders them. A party that has costs awarded in their favour will not be limited to their estimate, but if the costs claimed exceed the estimate by 20% they will need to provide reasons. If the paying party has shown that they relied on the estimated, the Court can use the estimate as evidence that the claim is disproportionate. Costs budgets If a case is issued since 1 April 2013, and is allocated to the Multi-track, the parties can be forced to submit a budget for their costs, which the court can then approve. They do not apply to proceedings in the Admiralty; Chancery Division; or Commercial Court; or to cases in the Mercantile Court or Technology & Construction Court where damages exceed £10 million. Impact and effect The rules relating to costs budgets are more stringent than those relating to estimates. All parties must file a budget, unless they are a litigant in person. If a party does not file a budget, it "will be treated" as only budgeting for the costs of any appropriate court fees. The costs of preparing a budget can be claimed, up to a maximum of £1,000 or 1% of the budget's total, whichever is greater. If the Court approves or the parties agree a Costs Budget a Costs Management Order is usually made. Where the parties become aware that their costs are likely to exceed the amount of the Costs Management Order they should apply to the court to vary where "significant developments" warrant that application. Should a party exceed its budget, their costs will be limited to their last approved budget on assessment unless there is a "good reason". It has been held that "good reasons" include the fact that the costs were otherwise "reasonable and proportionate"; and where there was a simple "tick-box" error. Costs exceeding the budget have been disallowed where a party has not applied to have its budget increased during the proceedings. If the court has not been able to approve a party's budget, for example, due to the case settling before it was able to do so, then different rules apply. However, these rules are similar to those relating to estimates: if a party's costs claim exceeds its budget by 20%, then the difference must be explained. The paying party must also show how they have relied on the estimate. If the court agrees with the paying party, it can limit the costs to the budget; and if it disagrees with the receiving party it can use the difference as evidence the costs are "unreasonable or disproportionate". However, should a party ultimately be awarded costs on the Indemnity Basis, then the budget is not relevant in relation to those costs. The rules relating to costs budgets will be amended as of 1 October 2020 so that, in addition to the test of significant developments, the court may vary the budget if one party is acting oppressively by causing the other party to incur costs. Those same changes introduce a new form Precedent T which must be served and filed to explain the significant developments in the case. Inter partes costs Where a party is awarded costs against another they are known as inter partes costs or between party costs. Such costs are usually assessed on the standard basis. The successful party may not be awarded the entirety of their legal costs, as the costs incurred will be assessed by an officer of the court. This can be done in one of two ways. Summary assessment The simplified procedure is known as summary assessment under which the court will consider a schedule of the costs incurred which will usually be no more than two pages long and is often only a single page. This is the usual method on the Fast Track, for hearings lasting no longer than a single day, for certain appeal hearings and for the costs of the paying party in detailed assessment hearings. However, summary assessment is not permitted for claims: On behalf of children or mental patients; or Funded by the Legal Services Commission; — or where: Paying party can raise substantial grounds; or Costs have been agreed by the parties. Detailed assessment For more complex cases a process, formerly called a taxation of costs, now known as detailed assessment, is used. It is unrelated to "tax" in the sense of a method of raising government revenue. The successful party must file with the court (unless the other party fails to respond to the notice of assessment) a detailed breakdown of the costs and disbursements incurred, known as a bill of costs which sets out the successful party's claim. The bill is usually prepared by a law costs draftsman, whose skill is often as essential to the successful recovery of costs as the skill of a solicitor or barrister is essential to success on the principal issues of the litigation. An officer of the court, costs judge or district judge will then assess the reasonableness of the costs (unless the potential paying party failed to respond to the notice of assessment) with reference to a statutory schedule of limits of entitlements of costs, together with legal precedents, unless the costs can be agreed between the parties. The level of reduction can mean that the bill is reduced in some instances substantially, but in most cases at least 80% of the costs originally sought will be allowed. A court order for costs is enforceable as a debt against the unsuccessful party. Either party can appeal against a detailed assessment, to a costs judge or district judge of the High Court if the assessment was made by a court officer, or by the usual routes of appeal if the assessment was made by a judge. Provisional assessment If a bill of costs of under £75,000 is sent for a detailed assessment since 1 April 2013, it will at first be assessed via a new "provisional assessment" procedure (unless the potential paying party failed to respond to the notice of assessment). This involves an assessment by the Judge on paper, without the parties being present, and the costs of it are limited to £1,500. If either party disagrees with the outcome they can apply for an oral hearing, but unless they beat the provisional figure by 20%, they will be liable for the costs of the hearing. Solicitor/own client costs The other type of costs, aside from inter partes costs, is called solicitor-client costs and are usually assessed on the indemnity basis. However, costs are presumed to be reasonably incurred and reasonable in amount if the client gave their express or implied approval, but are presumed to be unreasonably incurred if the client was not told they would be recovered from the other side and if they are unusual. Unless instructed under a damages-based agreement, lawyers in England and Wales are not permitted to work for a share of damages awarded as this would amount to champerty. A client who is unhappy with a lawyer's invoice for services can apply to the court for an order or invoke a statutory procedure whereby the costs are assessed for their reasonableness by an officer of the court, for example a judge. This is also a detailed assessment. If the client does not pay the lawyer, the lawyer has a cause of action if the client does not elect to arbitrate the bill. There is a statutory time limit on applying for such a procedure, of a year. The frequent result is that the lawyer's invoice is decreased. If the bill is reduced by one fifth or more the solicitor will pay for the process of assessment, but otherwise the client will pay. The client can alternatively apply to the Law Society for a remuneration certificate in respect of costs arising from other than litigation. Specific types of funding Any case can be funded by a standard retainer agreement, i.e. where the solicitor agrees to act and the client pays as the case carries on. There are also other ways in which a case can be funded, as long as certain requirements are met. Conditional fee agreements (CFAs) These are commonly referred to as "no win, no fee" agreements. Under this type of agreement, the solicitor and/or barrister agrees not to charge the client unless the case succeeds. If the client does win their case, then the solicitor and/or barrister is entitled to claim a percentage bonus (a "success fee") on top of their usual fees. To be valid, the CFA agreement must comply with certain requirements. All CFAs must: Be in writing Not relate to proceedings that cannot be the subject of an enforceable conditional fee agreement Comply with any requirements prescribed by the Lord Chancellor However, what can be claimed under it, and other additional requirements that may have to be met for the CFA to be valid, depend upon the date of the CFA. CFAs dated from 1 April 2000 to 31 October 2005 If the CFA was entered into between these dates, the Conditional Fee Agreements Regulations 2000 must also be complied with. The main requirement is that before entering into the CFA the solicitor must advise the client, amongst other things, as to its effect; of alternative funding methods; and whether he has any interest in nay particular insurance policy. If these regulations are not complied with, the CFA will not be valid. If they are complied with, it will be valid and a success fee can be claimed from the other side, as long as they are informed of its existence. CFAs dated from 1 November 2005 to 31 March 2013 Only the requirements of s. 58 Courts and Legal Services Act 1990 need to be complied with. If so, then it will be valid and a success fee can be claimed from the other side, as long as they are informed of its existence. CFAs dated from 1 April 2013 If a CFA is entered into from this date then, unless the claim is for defamation; breach of privacy; diffuse mesothelioma, or is in a set of insolvency proceedings, a success fee cannot be claimed from the other side. It can still be claimed from the client, but in personal injury claims is subject to a 25% limit of the client's damages. The solicitors' or barrister's normal fees can still be claimed from the other side. Collective conditional fee agreements (CCFAs) A CCFA is CFA that covers numerous people, for example, members of a trade union, in relation to different claims, which could occur at different times. The rules relating to CFAs generally apply to CCFAs, but, in relation to success fees, the following rules apply to CCFAs: If the CCFA dates from 1 April 2013, then a success fee cannot be recovered from the other side; If the CCFA pre-dates 1 April 2013, then a success fee can only be recovered from the other side if work was done before 1 April 2013 Insurance policies Most litigants will have the benefit of some form of insurance will cover both their legal costs, and those of the other side. However, both types will be subject to an upper limit on the amount of costs covered. Before-the-event (BTE) policies This kind of insurance policy before-the-event (BTE) against paying the other party's legal costs as part of their domestic or automobile insurance policies (although many are unaware of it). The premium for this type of policy cannot be claimed from the other side. After-the-event (ATE) policies If a litigation does not have a BTE policy, they can purchase after-the-event (ATE) legal expenses insurance at the start of litigation. If the policy was taken out before 1 April 2013, the premium can be claimed from the other side as part of a normal claim for costs. However, if it was taken out since 1 April 2013, it can only be recovered if it was taken out to cover the costs of an expert's report in a claim for clinical negligence. Damages-based agreements (DBAs) These are a type of contingency fee, i.e. the solicitor and barrister agree to take a percentage of the client's damages if the claim succeeds. They generally have to comply with the Damages-Based Agreements Regulations 2013, and there is a maximum percentage that can be claimed varies depending on the type of claim and the level of court that the DBA relates to. The solicitors' disbursements can also be claimed. Employment claims If a DBA pre-dates 1 April 2013, then the Damages-Based Agreements Regulations 2010 apply. If not, then the 2013 Regulations apply. However, there is no significant difference between the two sets, because in both situations, the solicitors and barristers' fees are limited to 35% of the client's damages. In addition, before entering into the DBA, the client must be given information relating to funding, mediation, and when the fee becomes payable. Non-employment claims Different rules apply to non-employment cases funded by a DBA: specifically, the client does not have to be provided the information needed in employment cases, and the percentage fee varies. First-instance cases If the DBA is entered into in a personal injury claim, then up to 25% of the client's damages plus Counsel's fees can be claimed. In other cases, up to 50% of the client's damages, including Counsel's fees can be claimed. Appeals If the DBA relates to an appeal, then up to 100% of the client's damages can be charged as the fee. Costs against other parties Costs in third-party claims Sometimes a defendant brings a claim, for a contribution or an indemnity towards damages, against a third party. For example, a diner claims against a restaurant for a dose of food poisoning and the restaurant claims against their supplier of shellfish. Again, "costs follow the event". If the restaurant successfully defends the claim, they pay the supplier's costs and recover the same amount from the unsuccessful claimant. This can cause injustice when the unsuccessful claimant is insolvent and the successful defendant is still liable for third-party costs. The courts will only rarely allow a "cut through" of the third-party's costs to the claimant but the interests of justice prevail. Costs against non-parties The courts have a wide discretion in awarding costs, and non-parties are not immune, unless they are a BTE insurer. This is particularly relevant in cases of champerty and maintenance. Criminal proceedings If a defendant is found to be innocent of a crime, then they are also entitled to claim their incurred legal costs, but the costs are payable out of money raised through taxes. A bill of costs is submitted in the normal way, but the costs are assessed by the National Taxing Team in a manner similar to a claim for costs in a civil case. Costs assessed in this way do not require a formal detailed assessment, but any amount awarded can be appealed in the usual way. Proceedings commenced before October 2012 If a prosecution started before October 2012, then the costs will be assessed with no general restrictions on what can be claimed. Proceedings commenced since October 2012 If a prosecution has started since 1 October 2012, then the amount that can be claimed is much lower. Effectively, the costs are limited to legal aid rates. 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221838	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destination%20Unknown	Destination Unknown	Destination Unknown may refer to: Destination Unknown (1933 film), an American pre-Code drama film Destination Unknown (1942 film), an American film directed by Ray Taylor Destination Unknown (novel), a 1954 novel by Agatha Christie Destination Unknown, 2001 album by Mest Destination Unknown (Ron Sexsmith album), 2005 Destination Unknown (Vibe Tribe album), 2009 "Destination Unknown" (song), a 1982 song by Missing Persons "Destination Unknown", 2003 song by Crystal Waters and Alex Gaudino "Destination Unknown," 1986 song by Electric Light Orchestra from 2007 re-release of the album Balance of Power "Destination Unknown," 1986 song by Marietta from the Top Gun soundtrack "Destination Unknown," 1984 song by Pseudo Echo from the album Autumnal Park	[ -0.3014054000377655, 0.135222926735878, -0.6411053538322449, 0.3888571560382843, 0.5583475232124329, 0.17734995484352112, 0.3352500796318054, -0.07969222962856293, 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221839	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalagmite	Stalagmite	A stalagmite (, ; from the Greek , from , "dropping, trickling") is a type of rock formation that rises from the floor of a cave due to the accumulation of material deposited on the floor from ceiling drippings. Stalagmites are typically composed of calcium carbonate, but may consist of lava, mud, peat, pitch, sand, sinter and amberat (crystallized urine of pack rats). The corresponding formation hanging down from the ceiling of a cave is a stalactite. Mnemonics have been developed for which word refers to which type of formation; one is that stalactite has a C for "ceiling", and stalagmite has a G for "ground". Formation and type Limestone stalagmites The most common stalagmites are speleothems, which usually form in limestone caves. Stalagmite formation occurs only under certain pH conditions within the cavern. They form through deposition of calcium carbonate and other minerals, which is precipitated from mineralized water solutions. Limestone is the chief form of calcium carbonate rock, which is dissolved by water that contains carbon dioxide, forming a calcium bicarbonate solution in caverns. The partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the water must be greater than the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the cave chamber for conventional stalagmite growth. If stalactites – the ceiling formations – grow long enough to connect with stalagmites on the floor, they form a column. Stalagmites should normally not be touched, since the rock buildup is formed by minerals precipitating out of the water solution onto the existing surface; skin oils can alter the surface tension where the mineral water clings or flows, thus affecting the growth of the formation. Oils and dirt (mud, clay) from human contact can also stain the formation and change its color permanently. Lava stalagmites Another type of stalagmite is formed in lava tubes while molten and fluid lava is still active inside. Their mineralogical composition, close to that of siliceous minerals commonly found in basalt, e.g., obsidian, the main constituent of volcanic glass, is obviously different. Their mechanism of formation/crystallization is also notably different from that of limestone stalagmites () but the common point is that it remains driven by gravity. Drops of molten lava (siliceous material, ) solidify onto the floor of the already emptied lava tube when the lava temperature sufficiently decrease after the passage and the complete purge of the main lava flow. Essentially, it is still the gravity deposition of material onto the floor of a cave (or a void). However at the difference from calcareous stalagmites, the transport of siliceous material occurs in the molten state and not dissolved in aqueous solution and degassing does not play any significant role. With lava stalagmites, their formation also happens very quickly in only a matter of hours, days, or weeks, whereas limestone stalagmites may take up to thousands or hundred thousands of years. A key difference with lava stalagmites is that once the molten lava has ceased flowing, so too will the stalagmites cease to grow. This means that if the lava stalagmites were to be broken it would never grow back. Stalagmites in lava tubes are rarer than their stalactite counterparts because during their formation the dripping molten material most often falls onto still-moving lava flow which absorbs or carries the material away. The generic term "lavacicle" has been applied to lava stalactites and stalagmites indiscriminately, and evolved from the word "icicle". Ice stalagmites A common stalagmite found seasonally or year round in many caves is the ice stalagmite, commonly referred to as icicles, especially in above-ground contexts. Water seepage from the surface will penetrate into a cave and if temperatures are below freezing temperature, the water will collect on the floor into stalagmites. Deposition may also occur directly from the freezing of water vapor. Similar to lava stalagmites, ice stalagmites form very quickly within hours or days. Unlike lava stalagmites however, they may grow back as long as water and temperatures are suitable. Ice stalagmites are more common than their stalactite counterparts because warmer air rises to the ceilings of caves and may raise temperatures to above freezing. Ice stalactites may also form corresponding stalagmites below them, and given time, may grow together to form an ice column. Concrete derived stalagmites Stalactites and stalagmites can also form on concrete ceilings and floors, although they form much more rapidly there than in the natural cave environment. The secondary deposits derived from concrete are the result of concrete degradation, where calcium ions are leached out of the concrete in solution and redeposited on the underside of a concrete structure to form stalactites and stalagmites. Calcium carbonate deposition as a stalagmite occurs when the solution carries the calcium laden leachate solution to the ground under the concrete structure. Carbon dioxide is absorbed into the alkaline leachate solution, which facilitates the chemical reactions to deposit calcium carbonate as a stalagmite. These stalagmites rarely grow taller than a few centimetres. Secondary deposits, which create stalagmites, stalactites, flowstone etc., outside the natural cave environment, are referred to as "calthemites". These concrete derived secondary deposits cannot be referred to as "speleothems" due to the definition of the word. Records The largest known stalagmite in the world exceeds in height and is in Sơn Đoòng Cave, Vietnam. In the Zagros Mountains of south Iran, approximately from the ancient city of Bishapur, in the Shapur cave on the fourth of five terraces stands the 3rd-century colossal statue of Shapur I, second ruler of the Sassanid Empire. The statue, carved from one stalagmite, is nearly high. Photo gallery References External links The Virtual Cave: Stalagmites Speleothems	[ 0.4707418978214264, 0.35016679763793945, -0.5450968146324158, -0.02041824907064438, 0.2307198941707611, 0.24633044004440308, 0.7677106261253357, 0.3199270963668823, -0.46367064118385315, 0.012454596348106861, -1.0658217668533325, -0.14896243810653687, -0.42031383514404297, 0.624321699142456, -0.2665667235851288, 0.052772652357816696, 0.43543002009391785, -0.024364903569221497, 0.09518931806087494, 0.5197802782058716, -0.004737353418022394, 0.06474583595991135, 0.48380616307258606, -0.28646335005760193, 0.5268059372901917, -0.3684808909893036, -0.09210424870252609, 0.07480528950691223, 0.3327271044254303, -0.12192924320697784, -0.16484424471855164, 0.6110689640045166, 0.015916861593723297, -0.8118042349815369, -0.07274854183197021, 0.2513725757598877, 0.2081145942211151, -0.2716248333454132, -0.8564772009849548, -1.2646211385726929, 0.44563332200050354, 0.08400869369506836, 0.5810685157775879, 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221840	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crooked%20House	Crooked House	Crooked House is a work of detective fiction by Agatha Christie first published in the US by Dodd, Mead and Company in March 1949 and in the UK by the Collins Crime Club on 23 May of the same year. The action takes place in and near London in the autumn of 1947. Christie said the titles of this novel and Ordeal by Innocence were her favourites amongst her own works. Title meaning The title refers to a nursery rhyme ("There Was a Crooked Man"), a common theme of the author. Narrator Charles's fiancée Sophia says it refers not to dishonesty, but rather "we hadn't been able to grow up independent. . .twisted and twining", meaning unhealthily interdependent on the intensely strong personality of the family patriarch, Aristide Leonides. Plot introduction Three generations of the Leonides family live together under wealthy patriarch Aristide. His first wife Marcia died; her sister Edith has cared for the household since then. His second wife is the indolent Brenda, decades his junior, suspected of having a clandestine love affair with Laurence, the grandchildren's tutor. After Aristide is poisoned by his own eye medicine (eserine), his granddaughter Sophia tells narrator and fiancé Charles Hayward that they cannot marry until the killer is apprehended. Charles's father, "The Old Man", is Assistant Commissioner of Scotland Yard, so Charles investigates from the inside along with assigned detective Chief Inspector Taverner. Plot summary Towards the end of the Second World War, Charles Hayward is in Cairo and falls in love with Sophia Leonides, a smart, successful Englishwoman who works for the Foreign Office. They put off getting engaged until the end of the war when they will be reunited in England. Hayward returns home and reads a death notice in The Times: Sophia's grandfather, the wealthy entrepreneur Aristide Leonides, has died, aged 85. Due to the war, the whole family has been living with him in a sumptuous but ill-proportioned house called "Three Gables", the crooked house of the title. The autopsy reveals that Leonides was poisoned with his own eserine-based eye medicine via an insulin injection. Sophia tells Charles that she can't marry him until the matter is cleared up. The obvious suspects are Brenda Leonides, Aristide's much younger second wife, and Laurence Brown, a conscientious objector who has been living in the house as private tutor to Sophia's younger brother and sister, Eustace and Josephine. They are rumoured to have been carrying on an illicit love affair under old Leonides's nose. The family members hope these two prove to be the murderers because they despise Brenda as a gold digger and also hope to escape the scandal that a different outcome would bring. Charles agrees to help his father, an assistant commissioner of Scotland Yard, to investigate the crime. He becomes a house guest at Three Gables, hoping that someone might reveal a clue at an unguarded moment. All the family members had motive and opportunity, none has an alibi; and each of them knew that Aristide's eye medicine was poisonous as he had told all the family after being asked by Josephine. According to the will, they all stand to gain a healthy bequest from the old man's estate. The servants do not get bequests but would lose their (increasing) annual wages or bonuses, so are not suspects. Aside from this, the family members have little in common. Edith de Haviland, Aristide's unmarried sister-in-law, is a brusque woman in her 70s who came to stay with him after his first wife's death to supervise his children's upbringing. Roger, the eldest son and Aristide's favourite, is a failure as a businessman. He has steered the catering business bestowed to him by his father to the brink of bankruptcy and he longs to live a simple life somewhere far away. Roger's wife Clemency, a scientist with austere and unsentimental tastes, has never been able to enjoy the wealth offered by her husband's family. Roger's younger brother, Philip, has suffered under his father's preference for Roger, and retreated into a distant world of books and bygone historical epochs, spending all his waking hours in the library. Philip's wife Magda is an only moderately successful actress to whom everything, even a family murder, is a stage show in which she wants to play a leading part. Sixteen-year-old Eustace has polio. He is handsome and intelligent, yet embittered by his disability. His twelve-year-old sister Josephine, on the other hand, is ugly, precociously intelligent, and obsessed with detective stories. She spies continually on the rest of the household, letting everyone know that she is writing down her observations in a secret notebook. Leonides had secretly personally rewritten (to the surprise of his lawyer Mr Gaitskill) his will to leave everything to Philip's daughter Sophia. He believed that she alone had the strength of character to assume his place as the head of the family. Josephine, who had been bragging that she knows the killer's identity, is found lying unconscious in the yard from a blow to the head from a marble doorstop. Charles discovers a cache of incriminating love letters from Brenda to Laurence, and the two are arrested. While they are in custody, the children's nanny dies after drinking a digitalis-laced cup of cocoa that had apparently been intended for Josephine. The family realises that the killer is still among them. Charles, afraid for Josephine's life, tries in vain to induce her to disclose the murderer's name. Edith de Haviland invites Josephine to come out with her in the car for an ice cream soda. The car drives over a cliff and both are killed. Back at Three Gables, Charles finds two letters from Miss de Haviland. One is a suicide note for Chief Inspector Taverner taking responsibility, although not explicitly confessing, to the murders of Aristide and Nanny. The second letter, intended for Sophia and Charles only, reveals the truth of the matter: Josephine was the murderer. As proof, de Haviland has enclosed the child's secret notebook, the first line of which reads "Today I killed grandfather." Josephine killed her grandfather because he wouldn't pay for her ballet lessons; she then revelled in all the attention she received afterwards and planned her own assault with the marble doorstop as a way of diverting attention. She poisoned Nanny for encouraging Magda to send her to Switzerland, and also because Nanny called her a "silly little girl". She also included threats against Magda if her mother seriously considered sending her away. Miss de Haviland had discovered Josephine's notebook hidden in a dog kennel, and committed the murder-suicide car crash as she did not want Josephine to suffer in a prison or asylum if and when the police learned she was the murderer. Characters Charles Hayward, fiancé to Sophia Leonides, narrator Sophia Leonides, daughter of Magda and Philip Leonides, granddaughter of Aristide Brenda Leonides, spoiled much younger widow of Aristide Leonides, married at 24 and now aged 34 years Magda West, a flamboyant stage actress Edith de Haviland, Sophia's elderly spinster great-aunt, sister of Aristide Leonides' first wife, Marcia de Haviland Roger Leonides, son of Aristide Leonides Clemency Leonides, his wife, a scientist Philip Leonides, Magda's husband and Roger's brother Laurence Brown, tutor to Josephine and Eustace; in love with Brenda. Aged about 30 Josephine Leonides, Magda's 12-year-old daughter Eustace Leonides, Magda's 16-year-old son; brother of Sophia and Josephine Janet Rowe, nanny to the Leonides children Chief Inspector Taverner, Scotland Yard inspector assigned "The Old Man", Sir Arthur Hayward, Assistant Commissioner of Scotland Yard, father of Charles Hayward Aristide Leonides, the man who was murdered; born in Smyrna, Turkey, he arrived in London in 1884 when he was 24 Mr Gaitskill, his family (but not always business) solicitor for 43½ years Reception Maurice Richardson, in the 29 May 1949 issue of The Observer, gave a positive review in comparison to his opinion of Taken at the Flood the previous year: "Her forty-ninth book and one of her best seven. Poisoning of aged iniquitous anglicised Levantine millionaire. Nicely characterised family of suspects. Delicious red herrings. Infinite suspense and shocking surprise finish make up for slight looseness of texture." An unnamed reviewer in the Toronto Daily Star of 12 March 1949 wrote: "Chief Inspector Taverner of Scotland Yard was as brilliant as usual but barking up the wrong tree – as Agatha Christie demonstrates in a surprise ending which introduces a novel idea in murder mystery." Robert Barnard: "'Pure pleasure' was how the author described the writing of this, which was long planned, and remained one of her favourites. As the title implies, this is a family murder – and a very odd family indeed. The solution, one of the classic ones, was anticipated (but much less effectively) in Margery Allingham's 'prentice work The White Cottage Mystery." In the "Binge!" article of Entertainment Weekly Issue #1343-44 (26 December 2014–3 January 2015), the writers picked Crooked House as an "EW favorite" on the list of the "Nine Great Christie Novels". Film, TV or theatrical adaptations The novel was adapted for BBC Radio 4 in four weekly 30-minute episodes which began broadcasting on 29 February 2008. It starred Rory Kinnear (Charles Hayward), Anna Maxwell Martin (Sophia Leonides), and Phil Davis (Chief Insp. Taverner). The radio play was dramatised by Joy Wilkinson and directed by Sam Hoyle. It was subsequently issued on CD. This version removed the character of Eustace. In 2011, US filmmaker Neil La Bute announced that he would be directing a feature film version, for 2012, of the novel with a script by Julian Fellowes. On 15 May 2011, Gemma Arterton, Matthew Goode, Gabriel Byrne and Dame Julie Andrews were announced to lead the cast. In a report issued on 10 June 2012, Sony Pictures Worldwide Acquisitions acquired all rights in the US, Canada and internationally for the film, which could help secure it a lucrative release, though the cast and creative team had changed. The film, directed by Gilles Paquet-Brenner and starring Christina Hendricks, Gillian Anderson, Max Irons, Glenn Close, Julian Sands, Terence Stamp, Stefanie Martini and Christian McKay, was released digitally on 21 November 2017 and first broadcast on Channel 5 on 17 December 2017. On 22 December 2017, it received a modest (16 theatres) theatrical release in the U.S. via Vertical Entertainment. In the film Sir Arthur Hayward is dead and Chief Inspector Tavener is in charge of the case. Publication history 1949, Dodd Mead and Company (New York), March 1949, Hardback, 211 pp 1949, Collins Crime Club (London), 23 May 1949, Hardback, 192 pp 1951, Pocket Books (New York), Paperback, (Pocket #753), 200 pp 1953, Penguin Books, Paperback, (Penguin #925), 191 pp 1959, Fontana Books (Imprint of HarperCollins), Paperback, 191 pp 1967, Greenway collected works (William Collins), Hardcover, 223 pp 1967, Greenway collected works (Dodd Mead), Hardcover, 223 pp 1978 Omniprose collected works with Passenger to Frankfurt, Hardcover, 472 pp, 1991, Ulverscroft Large-print Edition, Hardcover, A condensed version of the novel was first published in the US in Cosmopolitan magazine in the issue for October 1948 (Volume 125, Number 4) with an illustration by Grushkin. In the UK the novel was first serialised in the weekly magazine John Bull in seven abridged instalments from 23 April (Volume 85, Number 2234) to 4 June 1949 (Volume 85, Number 2240) with illustrations by Alfred Sindall. References External links Crooked House at the official Agatha Christie website 1949 British novels Fiction set in 1947 Novels by Agatha Christie Works originally published in Cosmopolitan (magazine) Novels first published in serial form Dodd, Mead & Co. books British novels adapted into films Novels set in the 1940s Novels set in London	[ -0.19065561890602112, 0.443082332611084, 0.07848727703094482, -0.2461727410554886, 0.41523924469947815, 0.5876866579055786, 0.7375662922859192, -0.3674088716506958, -0.6195940971374512, 0.40278002619743347, 0.328235387802124, 0.09747151285409927, -0.35659655928611755, 0.4295433759689331, -0.10478150844573975, -0.1031540036201477, 0.7994080781936646, 0.48282331228256226, -0.13463106751441956, -0.28357377648353577, -0.054050203412771225, -0.2015993893146515, 0.2361600697040558, -0.5164385437965393, -0.41007402539253235, 0.294111967086792, 0.40083184838294983, -0.13238228857517242, -0.17082081735134125, -0.17279328405857086, 0.6005970239639282, 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221841	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong%20Kong%20Basic%20Law	Hong Kong Basic Law	The Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China is a national law of China that serves as the de facto constitution of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR). Comprising nine chapters, 160 articles and three annexes, the Basic Law was enacted under the Constitution of China as a result of the Sino-British Joint Declaration. The Basic Law was adopted by the National People's Congress on 4 April 1990 and came into effect on 1 July 1997 when Hong Kong was transferred from the United Kingdom to China. It replaced Hong Kong's colonial constitution of the Letters Patent and the Royal Instructions. Drafted on the basis of the Joint Declaration, the Basic Law lays out the basic policies of China on Hong Kong, including the "one country, two systems" principle, such that the socialist governance and economic system then practised in mainland China would not be extended to Hong Kong. Instead, Hong Kong would continue its capitalist system and way of life until 2047. The Basic Law also sets out the sources of law, the relationship between Hong Kong and the Central Government (State Council), the fundamental rights and duties of Hong Kong residents and the branches of local government. History Shortly after the Sino–British Joint Declaration was signed, the National People's Congress set up the Basic Law Drafting Committee (BLDC) in 1985, setting the basis of the transfer of sovereignty in Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to China. The committee was responsible for writing the draft Basic Law. In June 1985, the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC) approved the membership of the BLDC, which consisted of 36 members from China and 23 members from Hong Kong, chaired by Chinese diplomat Ji Pengfei. Twelve of the 23 members from Hong Kong were connected to the city's business and industrial sectors. A Basic Law Consultative Committee (BLCC) consisting of Hong Kong community leaders was also established in 1985 to collect views in Hong Kong on the draft law. Similar to the BLDC, the BLCC was also dominated by business and professional elites. The first draft was published in April 1988 followed by a five-month public consultation. The second draft was published in February 1989, and the subsequent consultation period ended in October 1989. The Basic Law was promulgated on 4 April 1990 by the National People's Congress, together with the designs for the Regional Flag and Regional Emblem of the HKSAR. On 4 June 1989, the BLDC's only two members representing the nascent pro-democracy camp, Martin Lee and Szeto Wah, declared that they would suspend their participation after the military crackdown of the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. In September 1989, Lee announced that he would return to the BLDC after being urged to do so by many in Hong Kong. However, in October, Beijing expelled Lee and Szeto from the BLDC as "subversives". Lee and Szeto had voiced support for student activists in Beijing and had led the Hong Kong Alliance in Support of Patriotic Democratic Movements in China, an organisation instrumental in assisting political dissidents leave China after the military crackdown on 4 June. Basic principles The basic principles of Hong Kong's governance under Chinese sovereignty mirror those in the Sino-British Joint Declaration, and most of them are set out in the first chapter of the Basic Law. The NPCSC has identified Articles 1 and 12 as the fundamental provisions of the Basic Law. Article 1 declares Hong Kong as a part of the People's Republic of China, but it maintains legal and political systems distinct from those in mainland China until 2047. Hong Kong has a high degree of autonomy and maintains its own executive, legislative and judicial branches. Judicial power includes the power of final adjudication, which replaces the colonial judicial recourse of appealing to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom with appeals to the Court of Final Appeal. The Hong Kong national security law incorporated into Annex III of the Basic Law overrides incompatible local ordinances and allows mainland Chinese courts to preside over cases that involve certain national security crimes. Article 5 requires that the socialist system and policies to not be practised in Hong Kong and the capitalist system and way of life before the handover remain for 50 years after the handover, or 2047. The common law, rules of equity, ordinances, subsidiary legislation and customary law that govern certain land rights in the New Territories that were in force before the handover are maintained, except for any that contravene the Basic Law and subject to any amendment by the legislature. Article 12 declares that Hong Kong enjoys a high degree of autonomy and comes directly under the Central People's Government. Private ownership of property is also a right protected in Hong Kong. Although the Basic Law was drafted to give effect to "One Country, Two Systems", on 10 June 2014 Beijing released a policy report asserting its authority over Hong Kong that started a conflict between "one country" and "two systems" by stating that the interests of China ("one country") should prevail over Hong Kong's constitutional autonomy ("two systems"). This ignited criticism from many people in Hong Kong, who said that the Communist leadership was undermining the Basic Law Article 8, in that it was reneging on its pledges to abide by the policy that allows for a democratic, autonomous Hong Kong under Beijing's rule. Autonomy under Chinese sovereignty The Basic Law guarantees Hong Kong a high degree of autonomy under Chinese rule, but foreign affairs and defence remains the purview of the Central People's Government. Central government agencies in Hong Kong Four agencies of the central government operate in Hong Kong. The Office of the Commissioner of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was established under Article 13 of the Basic Law and began operating after the handover. The Liaison Office of the Central People's Government replaced in 2000 the Hong Kong branch of Xinhua News Agency, which served as the de facto diplomatic mission of China to Hong Kong since 1947. The Hong Kong Garrison of the People's Liberation Army began operating after the handover. The Office for Safeguarding National Security was established in June 2020 under the Hong Kong National Security Law. Article 22 states that "no department of the Central People's Government and no province, autonomous region, or municipality directly under the Central Government may interfere in the affairs which the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region administers on its own in accordance with this Law". In April 2020, the provision sparked a debate after the Liaison Office and the Hong Kong and Macao Affairs Office criticised pro-democratic legislators for delaying the election of the chairperson of the Legislative Council House Committee. Pro-democratic legislators said the offices violated Article 22 by commenting on the election of a chairperson in the local legislature. In response, the Liaison Office said both itself and the Hong Kong and Macao Affairs Office are not subject to Article 22 because they were authorised by central authorities to specialize in handling Hong Kong affairs and not what are commonly meant by "departments under the Central People’s Government". On the website of the State Council of China, a.k.a. the Central People's Government, the Hong Kong and Macao Affairs Office (国务院港澳事务办公室) and Xinhua News Agency (新华通讯社), whose Hong Kong branch was predecessor to the Liaison Office, are listed among institutions separate from the constituent departments of the State Council (国务院组成部门). Zhang Xiaoming has also said the Office of the National Security Commissioner is not subject to the restrictions in Article 22. Effect of national laws Except the Basic Law and the Constitution, national laws are not enforced in Hong Kong unless they are listed in Annex III and applied by local promulgation or legislation. When national laws are enacted locally by the Legislative Council, the local version adapts to the context of Hong Kong for the national law to have full effect. The NPCSC has the power to amend legislation included in Annex III after consulting its Basic Law committee and the Hong Kong government. Laws in Annex III must be those related to foreign affairs, national defence or matters not within Hong Kong's autonomy. As of June 2020, Annex III includes laws on the designation of capital, national flag and anthem, territorial claims, nationality, diplomatic privileges and immunity, garrisoning of the People's Liberation Army and crimes involving national security. In May 2020, the National People's Congress announced that the NPCSC would enact a national security law tailored for Hong Kong in response to the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests. The law was added to Annex III and promulgated without being passed in the Legislative Council. National laws can be applied if they only affect an area in Hong Kong. In 2018, the Hong Kong West Kowloon station of the Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong Express Rail Link was completed to include a section where mainland Chinese officials are allowed to exercise Chinese laws, an arrangement that intended to reduce the time needed for immigration. The effectiveness of Chinese law inside Hong Kong territory was challenged in the same year in the Court of First Instance. The court ruled that the Basic Law is a flexible constitution and as such can be interpreted for the needs of economic integration; the arrangement of having mainland Chinese laws in Hong Kong for the purposes of customs, immigration and quarantine does not contravene the "one country, two systems" principle. National security law Article 23 requires Hong Kong to enact local national security laws that prohibit treason, secession, sedition, subversion against the central government, theft of state secrets and foreign organisations from conducting political activities in Hong Kong. In 2003, the Hong Kong government tabled the National Security (Legislative Provisions) Bill 2003, which triggered widespread protest. The proposed legislation gave more power to the police, such as not requiring a search warrant to search the home of a suspected terrorist. After the demonstrations and the withdrawal by the Liberal Party of their support for the bill, the government shelved the bill indefinitely. Fundamental rights and duties The rights of Hong Kong residents are guaranteed by chapter 3 of the Basic Law. Article 39 also applies provisions of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), and international labour conventions that was in force in Hong Kong before the handover. While the most parts of the ICCPR is ratified as the Hong Kong Bill of Rights Ordinance in largely identical language, no equivalent legislation was made to implement the ICESCR. Civil rights Hong Kong residents are equal before the law. Hong Kong residents have, among other things, freedom of speech, freedom of the press and of publication; freedom of association, freedom of assembly, freedom of procession, of demonstration, of communication, of movement, of conscience, of religious belief, and of marriage; and the right and freedom to form and join trade unions, and to strike. The freedom of the person of Hong Kong residents shall be inviolable. No Hong Kong resident can be arbitrarily or unlawfully arrested, detained or imprisoned. Arbitrary or unlawful search of the body of any resident, deprivation or restriction of the freedom of the person are also prohibited. Torture of any resident and arbitrary or unlawful deprivation of the life of any resident shall be prohibited. In late 2015, five staff members of a bookshop selling books and magazines banned in mainland China disappeared (see Causeway Bay Books disappearances). At least two of them disappeared while in mainland China, one while in Thailand. One member was last seen in Hong Kong, eventually reappearing in Shenzhen, across the Chinese border, without the necessary travel documents. While reaction to the October disappearances was muted, as unexplained disappearances and lengthy extrajudicial detentions are known to occur in mainland China, the unprecedented disappearance of a person from Hong Kong, and the bizarre events surrounding it, shocked the city and crystallised international concern over the possible abduction of Hong Kong citizens by Chinese public security bureau officials and their likely rendition, in violation of several articles of the Basic Law and the one country, two systems principle. The widespread suspicion that they were under detention in mainland China was later confirmed with apparently scripted video "confessions" and assurances by the men that they were remaining in China of their own accord. In June 2016, one of the five, Lam Wing-kee, revealed in a dramatic press conference that he and the others had been held without due process and that Lee Po had indeed been illegally abducted from Hong Kong, all by a shadowy 'Central Investigation Team' ("中央專案組" or "中央調查組"). Article 95 provides for mutual judicial assistance between Hong Kong and the PRC; however, serious stumbling blocks, such as capital punishment stand in the way of a formal understanding of extradition. Additionally, HKSAR authorities have ruled that Articles 6 and 7 of the PRC Criminal Code does not give Hong Kong sole jurisdiction in criminal matters, particularly when a crime is committed across provincial or SAR borders. The current status quo is that Hong Kong will ask for the return of Hong Kong residents who have committed crimes in Hong Kong and are arrested in the mainland. A mainlander who commits a crime in Hong Kong and flees back to the mainland, however, will be tried in the mainland. In cases of concurrent jurisdiction, the Central Government has demanded that the trial be held in the mainland. Prominent authorities, such as Albert Chen, a professor, and Gladys Li, chairman of justice of the Hong Kong section of the International Commission of Jurists, feel that this situation has serious ramifications for judicial independence in Hong Kong. Political rights Permanent residents of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region have the right to vote and stand for election in accordance with the Basic Law. Provisions of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights as applied to Hong Kong when the Basic Law came into effect were allowed to remain in force. Article 45 stipulates that the Chief Executive shall be selected by election or through local consultations and be appointed by the Central People's Government, with the ultimate aim of selection by universal suffrage upon nomination by a representative committee under democratic procedures." However, Hong Kong has yet to implement universal suffrage for the elections, because the Basic Law states that the electoral method are subject to the "actual situation" of Hong Kong and "the principle of gradual and orderly progress". Whether the 2007 Chief Executive election and the 2008 Legislative Council elections could be performed by universal suffrage was determined on 26 April 2004, when the NPCSC ruled out the possibility as it deemed Hong Kong not mature enough for such elections. In 2014, the 31 August Decision by the NPCSC stated that starting from 2017, the selection of the Chief Executive may be implemented by universal suffrage upon nomination of candidates by a broadly representative committee and subject to appointment by the Central People's Government. It went on to state that such a person must love the country and love Hong Kong and that safeguards for this purpose should be provided for by the specific method of universal suffrage, without specifying what the safeguards were to be. The reform proposal encompassing this and other changes was rejected by the Legislative Council on June 18, 2015, after an ill-timed walk-out by many pro-establishment legislators. Political structure The courts of Hong Kong are given the power to review acts of the executive or legislature and declare them invalid if they are inconsistent with the Basic Law. The Chief Executive of Hong Kong can be selected by election or through consultations held locally and be appointed by the Central People's Government. The term of the Chief Executive after their predecessor resigns was a question that emerged after Tung Chee-hwa resigned on 10 March 2005. The legal community and the pro-democracy camp said the term of the new Chief Executive should be five years, according to Article 46. However, the Hong Kong government, some Beijing figures and the pro-Beijing camp said that it should be the remaining term of the original Chief Executive, by a technicality in the Chinese version of the Basic Law, introducing the remaining term concept. The Hong Kong government sought an interpretation from the NPCSC on 6 April 2005. The NPCSC ruled on 27 April 2005 that the Annex I of the Basic Law requires that if any Chief Executive should resign on or before 2007, the new Chief Executive should serve out the remainder of his predecessor's term. Hong Kong residents who favour autonomy view the "interpretation" from the Standing Committee as an intrusion into the Hong Kong legal system by the central government in violation of the spirit of the One Country, Two Systems policy, compromising the rule of law. The Basic Law also guarantees the welfare and benefits of civil servants. According to the Article 100 of the Basic Law, the civil servants may remain in employment with pay, allowances, benefits and conditions of service no less favourable than before the handover. Article 107 stated the SAR Government should follow the principle of keeping the expenditure within the limits of revenues in drawing up its budget. Whether pay-cuts for civil servants and having a deficit budget are allowed under the Basic Law had been raised. During the economic downturn after 1997, there was a growing fiscal deficit (and, in 2007/08 a record surplus). The government imposed a pay-cut on the Civil Service during the economic downturn, and then sharply increased salaries during the recovery. External affairs The Basic Law provides the Hong Kong government limited power to engage in international affairs. Under the name "Hong Kong, China", the Hong Kong government can enter into bilateral agreements with non-Chinese regions and international organisations related to certain fields, including commerce, trade, communications, culture, tourism and sports. As members of a Chinese delegation, government representatives can also engage in diplomatic negotiations and participate in international organisations and conferences that directly affect Hong Kong. Interpretation The Basic Law can be interpreted by Hong Kong courts in the course of adjudication and by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC). As of 7 November 2016, the NPCSC has interpreted the Basic Law on five occasions: Interpretation regarding Articles 22(4) and 24(2)(3) of the Basic Law, adopted on 26 June 1999 with relations to the right of abode; Interpretation regarding Annex I(7) and Annex II(III) to the Basic Law, adopted on on April 6, 2004 over the procedure of amending the electoral methods of the Chief Executive and Legislative Council; Interpretation regarding the Second Paragraph in Article 53, adopted on April 27, 2005 regarding the term of office of a new Chief Executive succeeding a resigned predecessor; Interpretation regarding the First Paragraph of Article 13 and Article 19 of the Basic Law, adopted on August 26, 2011 before the Court of Final Appeal hands down its judgment on Democratic Republic of Congo v FG Hemisphere Associates LLC ; and Interpretation of Article 104 of the Basic Law , adopted on 7 November 2016), regarding the requirements of lawful oaths and affirmations surrounding the oath-taking controversy over newly elected LegCo members. Of the five interpretations to date, only one interpretation was sought by the Court of Final Appeal (CFA). The interpretation was requested in the 2011 case of Democratic Republic of Congo v FG Hemisphere Associates LLC and it concerned the jurisdiction of Hong Kong courts over acts of state, among other matters. The Government of Hong Kong sought two NPCSC interpretations on Basic Law provisions regarding the right of abode and the term of office of a new Chief Executive after his predecessor has resigned before the end of his term, in 1999 and 2005 respectively. The NPCSC had also interpreted the Basic Law twice on its own initiative, without being requested by any branch of government in Hong Kong. The first of the two occurred in 2004, and concerned the amendment of the Chief Executive and the Legislative Council election methods for 2007 and 2008 respectively. The second was issued in November 2016 on the substantive requirements of lawful oaths and affirmations as stipulated in Article 104 of the Basic Law. As interpretations by the NPCSC are not retroactive, an interpretation on the Basic Law does not affect cases that have already been adjudicated. Legal principles The basic principles for interpreting the Basic Law are described in Article 158 and case law. According to Article 158(1), the NPCSC has the power of final interpretation. This is consistent with the NPCSC's general power to interpret Chinese national laws as provided by Article 67(4) of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China. As a national law, the Basic Law was drafted in Chinese, and its Chinese version takes precedence over the official English version when discrepancies arise. Before interpreting the Basic Law, the NPCSC must consult its subcommittee, the Committee for the Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Hong Kong courts may also interpret the Basic Law when adjudicating cases, when the provisions addressed are within Hong Kong's autonomy. Hong Kong courts can also interpret provisions on matters the Central People's Government is responsible for or those related to the relationship between the Central government and Hong Kong, provided that the case is being heard by the CFA, that the interpretation will affect the judgments of the case, and that the CFA has sought a binding NPCSC interpretation on the matter. To decide whether an NPCSC interpretation should be sought, the CFA applies a two-stage approach based on Article 158(3) formulated in Ng Ka Ling v Director of Immigration. The first stage concerns the "classification condition", which is satisfied if the provision to be interpreted concerns either affairs within the responsibility of the Central People's Government or the relationship between the Central Authorities and Hong Kong. Provisions satisfying the classification condition are "excluded provisions", suggesting that they cannot be interpreted by the CFA. When the court needs to refer to an excluded provision to construe a non-excluded provision, the CFA is not required to request an NPCSC interpretation on the excluded provision. Instead, the CFA applies the "predominant test", in which the court asks which provision is predominantly the one needed to be interpreted in the present adjudication. The second test concerns whether the "necessity condition" is satisfied. The condition is satisfied when the court needs the excluded provision to be interpreted and that the interpretation will affect the judgment on the case. Hong Kong courts use the purposive approach to interpret the Basic Law. Since Hong Kong's legal system is separate from that of mainland China, its courts are bound to adopt the common law approach to interpretation. The courts construe the Basic Law's language to consider the provisions' context and purpose by finding its legislative intent; the legislator's intent alone is not considered the legislative intent. Ambiguities are resolved by accounting for the principles and purposes stated in the Chinese Constitution and other materials. Yet, the courts treat the Basic Law as a "living instrument" that adapts to changing needs and circumstances. While Hong Kong courts account for the historical context of the Basic Law, they also consider "new social, political and historical realities". Disputes from interpretation The interpretation of the Basic Law by the Hong Kong courts and the NPCSC is politically contentious. Albert Chen has described NPCSC interpretations as the "major cause of constitutional controversies" since the handover. The constitutional powers of the Hong Kong judiciary was first contested in HKSAR v Ma Wai Kwan, which was decided by the Court of Appeal 28 days after the handover. The applicants argued the Provisional Legislative Council established unilaterally before the handover was unlawful, and the laws it enacted were void. The court dismissed this argument. Among other reasons, the court held that as a local court it had no power to review an act of a sovereign authority. The court reasoned that since Article 19 of the Basic Law did not expand its judicial powers and it had no power to review the validity of a sovereign act under colonial rule, it did not hold such power after the handover. While Justice Gerald Nazareth agreed with the majority decision, he questioned whether the constitutional order of China and that of the United Kingdom were analogous. He also noted the Chinese constitution was not reviewed in detail during the trial. Johannes Chan commented that the lack of judicial review power to review acts of Parliament reflected parliamentary supremacy, a doctrine borne out of unwritten constitutional systems. Since China has a written constitution and the Basic Law describes the relationship between Hong Kong and the central government unlike the colonial Letters Patent and the Royal Instructions, Chan questioned whether parliamentary supremacy fully applies in Hong Kong after 1997. In the Ng Ka Ling case, the CFA tried to assert it has powers to review acts of the National People's Congress (NPC) or the NPCSC to determine whether they are consistent with the Basic Law. The Hong Kong government later sought an interpretation of Articles 22 and 24 from the NPCSC to avoid a potential influx of over a million mainland Chinese migrants (according to government estimates) into Hong Kong. This has triggered a debate on judicial independence in Hong Kong. Amendment Article 159 sets out the amendment process, and gives the National People's Congress the sole power to amend it. Amendments can be proposed by either the NPCSC, the State Council, or Hong Kong. For Hong Kong to propose amendments, the amendments first need the support of two-thirds of the Hong Kong Legislative Council, two-thirds of the deputies representing Hong Kong in the National People's Congress, and the approval of Hong Kong's Chief Executive. All proposals needs to be reviewed by the Committee for the Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, and no amendments can "contravene the established basic policies of the People's Republic of China regarding Hong Kong". It might be argued that interpretations of the Basic Law by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress are effectively “amendments” to the Basic Law. The Hong Kong Court has nonetheless found NPCSC interpretations to have "supplementary” legislative effects in a manner consistent with Chinese jurisprudence. Similarly, the NPCSC's interpretive power could be used to modify a nearly unrestricted range of local laws without recourse by either the HKSAR courts or Government. Annexes I and II According to Annexes I and II of the Basic Law adopted in April 1990, amendments could be made to the methods for selecting the Chief Executive and forming the Legislative Council for the terms subsequent to the year 2007 with the endorsement of a two-thirds majority of all the members of the Legislative Council and the consent of the Chief Executive. Amendments should then be reported to the NPCSC for approval or for the record. In the NPCSC interpretation to the Basic Law adopted on April 6, 2004, the NPCSC stipulated the “five steps” of initiating political reform under Annexes I and II of the Basic Law: the Chief Executive submit a report on whether there is a need to amend the methods for selecting the CE for forming LegCo the Chairman of NPCSC; the NPCSC make a decision approving or vetoing amendments to electoral methods of the CE or LegCo; the HKSAR Government submit a motion concerning amendments of Annexes I and II to LegCo; LegCo approve of the motion concerning amendments with a two-thirds majority of all the members, and the CE give formal assent; and the NPCSC approve and file for record amendments to Annexes I and II. Under the NPCSC's 2021 amendment of Annexes I and II, the NPCSC now exercises the power to amend Annexes I and II of the Basic Law. The “five steps” of initiating political reform by the HKSAR were no longer in force. See also Macau Basic Law Judicial review Hong Kong Royal Instructions and Hong Kong Letters Patent Hong Kong Basic Law Article 69 References External links Hong Kong Government website on the Basic Law Full text of the Basic Law Basic Law Drafting History Online -University of Hong Kong Libraries, Digital Initiatives 1990 in law Laws of China Hong Kong law	[ 0.8255249857902527, 0.5147532820701599, -0.05196963623166084, -0.46945637464523315, 0.3025243878364563, -0.3533101975917816, -0.04480462893843651, 0.01799880340695381, 0.2702682316303253, -0.2515553832054138, -0.5672382712364197, 0.5931100249290466, 0.12937460839748383, -0.5019145607948303, -0.2843972444534302, 0.22803986072540283, 0.9072100520133972, 0.5990810990333557, -0.16896937787532806, -0.6225163340568542, -0.29524385929107666, -0.18704161047935486, -0.08472000807523727, 0.5464289784431458, 0.2087264209985733, 0.22961199283599854, 0.6238958239555359, 0.38540157675743103, -0.6398637294769287, -0.27490729093551636, 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221842	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom%20of%20Sedang	Kingdom of Sedang	The Kingdom of Sedang (; Vietnamese: Vương quốc Xơ Đăng; sometimes referred to in English as the Kingdom of the Sedang) was an ephemeral political entity established in the latter part of the 19th century by a French adventurer, Charles-Marie David de Mayréna, in part of what is present-day Vietnam. Mayréna, a former French government official with a dubious history that allegedly involved embezzlement, was in 1888 the owner of a plantation in French Indochina. When the King of Siam began claiming territories near those held by the French, Mayréna convinced the nervous colonial administrator to have him lead an expedition into the interior in order to negotiate treaties with local tribes. However, upon his arrival, he instead convinced the tribesmen to form a local kingdom under his rule. To justify this, he argued that the tribes involved were not subjects or vassals of the emperor of Annam (modern Vietnam), and hence had a right to independent statehood. The Kingdom of Sedang, as he named it, incorporated the Bahnar, Rengao, and Sedang tribes. Mayréna was elected King by the chiefs of these tribes, established his capital at Kon Gung (also called Pelei Agna, "Great City"), and assumed the regnal name of Marie the First, King of the Sedang, on 3 June 1888. He subsequently offered to cede his kingdom to the French Third Republic in exchange for monopoly trade rights and hinted that the Prussians were interested if the French were not. When the French government failed to respond positively, Mayréna approached the British in Hong Kong. When he was rebuffed there he traveled to Belgium, where in 1889 a financier offered to provide him with arms and money in exchange for the kingdom's mineral rights. Mayréna's return to Sedang was thwarted by the French Navy, who blockaded Vietnamese ports and seized his arms as contraband at Singapore. During his travels to Southeast Asia and Europe, Mayréna awarded dozens of noble titles, orders of chivalry, and assorted medals and paraphernalia to his supporters. He also created a series of postage stamps that are the main tangible legacy of the kingdom. Mayréna (who had earlier converted to Islam and married several local women) died under mysterious circumstances (various reports claim by poisoning, snakebite or losing a duel) on 11 November 1890 at Tioman, Malaya. External links The Imperial Collection - A site documenting the history and stamps issued by Sedang. See also Xo Dang people Micronations Former kingdoms Former monarchies of Asia Former unrecognized countries Former countries in Vietnamese history States and territories established in 1888 1888 establishments in Asia States and territories disestablished in 1890 1890 disestablishments in Asia Former monarchies of Europe	[ -0.2960249185562134, -0.0009167570970021188, 0.10334483534097672, 0.15182067453861237, 0.13784238696098328, 0.5971082448959351, -0.0725223645567894, 0.3265869617462158, -0.28403833508491516, 0.3084816634654999, -0.09896955639123917, 0.42599043250083923, 0.11619775742292404, 0.40092840790748596, -0.5740953683853149, 0.2899765074253082, 0.9971354603767395, 0.28426384925842285, 0.42171764373779297, -0.2594629228115082, -0.25573569536209106, -0.05045008286833763, -0.14874416589736938, 0.014774871058762074, 0.45750540494918823, -0.18813952803611755, 0.5291367173194885, 0.3782908320426941, 0.4676230251789093, -0.3720097243785858, -0.22365620732307434, 0.6153925061225891, 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221847	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinglet	Kinglet	A kinglet or crest is a small bird in the family Regulidae. Species in this family were formerly classified with the Old World warblers. "Regulidae" is derived from the Latin word regulus for "petty king" or prince, and refers to the coloured crowns of adult birds. This family has representatives in North America and Eurasia. There are six species in this family; one, the Madeira firecrest, Regulus madeirensis, was only recently split from common firecrest as a separate species. One species, the ruby-crowned kinglet, differs sufficiently in its voice and plumage to be afforded its own genus, Corthylio. Description Kinglets are among the smallest of all passerines, ranging in size from and weighing ; the sexes are the same size. They have medium-length wings and tails, and small needle-like bills. The plumage is overall grey-green, offset by pale wingbars, and the tail tip is incised. Five species have a single stiff feather covering the nostrils, but in the ruby-crowned kinglet this is replaced by several short, stiff bristles. Most kinglets have distinctive head markings, and the males possess a colourful crown patch. In the females, the crown is duller and yellower. The long feathers forming the central crown stripe can be erected; they are inconspicuous most of the time, but are used in courtship and territorial displays when the raised crest is very striking. There are two species of different genera in North America with largely overlapping distributions, and two in Eurasia that also have a considerable shared range. In each continent, one species (goldcrest in Eurasia and golden-crowned kinglet in North America) is a conifer specialist; these have deeply grooved pads on their feet for perching on conifer twigs and a long hind toe and claw for clinging vertically. The two generalists, ruby-crowned kinglet and common firecrest, hunt more in flight and have smoother soles, shorter hind claws and a longer tail. Taxonomy The kinglets are a small group of birds sometimes included in the Old World warblers but frequently given family status, especially as recent research showed that, despite superficial similarities, the crests are phylogenetically remote from the warblers. The name of the family derives from the Latin regulus, a diminutive of rex, "a king", and refer to the characteristic orange or yellow crests of adult kinglets (aside from the red crest of Corthylio). The kinglets were allocated to the warbler genus Sylvia by English naturalist John Latham in 1790, but moved to their current genus by French zoologist Georges Cuvier in 1800. Most members of the genus Regulus are similar in size and colour pattern. The exception is the ruby-crowned kinglet, the largest species, which has a strongly red crest and no black crown stripes. It has distinctive vocalisations, and is different enough from the Old World kinglets and the other American species, the golden-crowned kinglet, to be assigned to a separate genus, Corthylio. Species in taxonomic order Genus Corthylio: Ruby-crowned kinglet (C. calendula) Genus Regulus: Common firecrest (R. ignicapilla) Madeira firecrest (R. madeirensis) Golden-crowned kinglet (R. satrapa) Flamecrest (R. goodfellowi) Goldcrest (R. regulus) Distribution and habitat Kinglets are birds of the Nearctic and Palearctic realms, with representatives in temperate North America, Europe and Asia, northernmost Africa, Macaronesia and the Himalayas. They are adapted to conifer forests, although there is a certain amount of adaptability and most species will use other habitats, particularly during migration. In Macaronesia, they are adapted to laurisilva and tree heaths. Behaviour Diet and feeding The tiny size and rapid metabolism of kinglets means that they must constantly forage in order to provide their energy needs. They will continue feeding even when nest building. Kinglets prevented from feeding may lose a third of their body weight in twenty minutes and may starve to death in an hour. Kinglets are insectivores, preferentially feeding on prey such as aphids and springtails that have soft cuticles. Prey is generally gleaned from the branches and leaves of trees, although in some circumstances prey may be taken on the wing or from the leaf litter on the ground. Life cycle Kinglet nests are small, very neat cups, almost spherical in shape, made of moss and lichen held together with spiderwebs and hung from twigs near the end of a high branch of a conifer. They are lined with hair and feathers, and a few feathers are placed over the opening. These characteristics provide good insulation against the cold environment. The female lays 7 to 12 eggs, which are white or pale buff, some having fine dark brown spots. Because the nest is small, they are stacked in layers. The female incubates; she pushes her legs (which are well supplied with blood vessels, hence warm) down among the eggs. A unique feature of kinglets is the "size hierarchy" among eggs, with early-laid eggs being smaller than later ones. Eggs hatch asynchronously after 15 to 17 days. The young stay in the nest for 19 to 24 days. After being fed, nestlings make their way down to the bottom of the nest, pushing their still-hungry siblings up to be fed in their turn (but also to be cold). Kinglets are the most fecund and shortest-living of all altricial birds, and probably the shortest-lived apart from a few smaller galliform species. Adult mortality for the goldcrest is estimated at over 80 percent per year and the maximum lifespan is only six years. 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221850	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9%20Luis%20Tejada%20Sorzano	José Luis Tejada Sorzano	José Luis Tejada Sorzano (12 January 1882 – 4 October 1938) was a Bolivian lawyer, economist, and politician who served as the 34th president of Bolivia from 1934 to 1936. The last president to be a member of the Liberal Party, Tejada Sorzano previously served as the 23rd vice president of Bolivia from 1931 to 1934. Early life José Luis Tejada Sorzano was born on 12 January 1882 in La Paz to Napoleón Tejada Guzman and Josefa Ruiz de Sorzano Mendoza. He completed primary studies at the San Calixto Jesuit School. Football career An avid athlete, in late 1901 Tejada Sorzano was among a group of students who launched an initiative which led to the formation of the Bolivian Rangers Club of La Paz football team. The initial team roster was composed entirely of local members and consisted of fifteen players: Humberto Cuenca, Manuel Estrada, Lizandro Villanueva, David Medeiros, Carlos Farfán, Víctor de la Peña, José Luis Tejada Sorzano, Miguel Larrabure, Carlos Bustillos, Max de la Vega, Óscar Núñez del Prado, Miguel Solares, Augusto Cusicanqui, Luis Maidana and Julio Zuazu Cuenca. On 20 December 1903, Tejada Sorzano as President of the Bolivian Rangers participated in a match against La Paz FBC. The Rangers won 2–0 for which they were awarded a diploma by El Comercio de Bolivia newspaper. A few years later, he and some of his former team members participated in another student initiative which formed the historical Thunder Football Club in La Paz. In September 1905, the Thunders were chosen by the La Paz prefecture to represent the department in the first interdepartmental football match in Bolivian history against Oruro Royal. The game served to commemorate the inauguration and construction of the Oruro-Viacha railway. Tejada Sorzano studied law at the Higher University of San Andrés, graduating in 1904. As a university student, he became a member of the Palabras Libres (Free Words) literary cenacle. The group, which included Alcides Arguedas, Armando Chirveches, Abel Alarcón, Fabián Vaca Chávez, Benigno Lara, Roberto Zapata, Walter Méndez, and Rosendo Echazú, was established in May 1905 in La Paz where it published a triweekly column of stories, essays, poems, and political analysis in the newspaper El Diario. Along with Lara and Zapata, Tejada Sorzano focused his writings on such social concerns of the time as women's rights, alcoholism, and pongueaje, the forced labor practiced on the indigenous peoples. The group ended its publication in March 1906, largely as a result of the dispersal of its members due to crack downs by the reigning Liberal government. Political career Despite the repression of Palabras Libres by the government, Tejada Sorzano was nevertheless a lifelong member of the Liberal Party and worked to modernize liberal ideas and criticized the excesses of the mining oligarchy at the expense of civilian sectors. A lawyer by profession, he was active in politics from a very young age, and was elected as a deputy to the National Congress in 1914. On 21 March 1919, President José Gutiérrez Guerra appointed him Minister of Finance, a position he served in until October of that year. 1931 general election In 1931, the military called for new elections following the resignation of Hernando Siles Reyes. The Liberal and Genuine Republican parties which represented the opposition agreed to form a unified coalition, presenting Daniel Salamanca as the Genuine Republican presidential candidate and José Luis Tejada Sorzano as his Liberal running mate. The pair won 100% of the vote in an uncontested election and took office on 5 March 1931. Vice president (1931–1934) By Supreme Decree of 17 June 1932, President Salamanca established the Bolivian Olympic Committee. Vice President Tejada Sorzano was appointed as the entity's first president though the outbreak of the Chaco War postponed the new institution's activities. A relatively hands-off vice president, the portly Tejada deferred to Salamanca in all matters, and distinguished himself very little in his own right during his term as vice president. He seems to have been "second-fiddle" even on intra-party matters, as the true leader of the Liberals was the septuagenarian, twice-elected former President Ismael Montes (who died only in 1933). Things changed considerably, however, when President Salamanca was suddenly deposed by the Bolivian military on 27 November 1934, as a result of long-festering differences with the High Command regarding the conduct of the war. For a variety of reasons, the army decided to maintain democratic appearances and deferred taking power itself, at least for the time being, and Tejada became president after Salamanca was forced to resign. It can safely be argued that the military acquiesced to the assumption of Tejada to the presidency with the understanding that the latter would be far more malleable and agreeable to the wishes of the High Command than Salamanca had been. This indeed proved to be the case. President (1934–1936) With Tejada's assumption of the presidency, the Liberals returned to power for the first time in 14 years. Almost immediately, Tejada engineered in the Congress the extension of his term by one year in order to see through the end of the war, whose cause had been rather disastrous to Bolivia. A spate of relatively small successes (mostly of a defensive nature) toward the end of the conflict did not prevent Paraguay from maintaining control of much of the disputed region at the time that agreement on a ceasefire was finally reached in June 1935. However, the Bolivian military and most political leaders concluded that no better terms could be achieved given the circumstances or in the conceivable future. Eventually, a final peace treaty would grant most of the Chaco to Paraguay, reducing Bolivia's territory considerably. Despite his best intentions, Tejada seems to have been disdained by the Bolivian military leaders from the very beginning. He was considered part of the political elites that, as they saw it, got Bolivia into the war with their irresponsible demagoguery (for example, Salamanca's insistence that Bolivia "stand firm in the Chaco" and his orders to build more forts in the disputed region, in direct competition with Paraguay) and then refused to provide the needed material support to win the conflict. They apparently had no explanation as to why Paraguay, which was even poorer and smaller than Bolivia and thus supplied even less adequately, still managed to prevail in the field of battle simply with better tactics and superior leadership. In any case, at this point two competing myths emerged as to why Bolivia had lost: one, advocated by important civilian political elites (but not President Tejada), placed all the blame on the personalistic, undisciplined Bolivian commanders, ever-eager to increase their own individual ambitions and even willing to overthrow the President of the Republic (as indeed happened in 1934) rather to expend all its energy in the conduct of the war. The alternative myth, emanating from the defeated armed forces themselves (who had to explain the debacle somehow), held that it was the politicians who had "sold out" the simple, honor-bound soldiers by leading them precipitously to war and then not suitably equipping them to win it. Of the two, the latter myth seemed more acceptable to the populace, and generalized anger began to be displaced toward Tejada. At the same time, Tejada was still confronting crippling economic difficulties (made even worse by the long war). Furthermore, he was facing a looming crisis over the controversial role of the U.S.-based Standard Oil Corporation during the conflict. At the very least, Standard had refused to help Bolivia in its direst hour during the war, and at worst it was guilty of illegal activities contrary to the wishes and interests of the Bolivian government. Unable to make headway on either problem, Tejada provided the malcontent younger officers of the Bolivian military just the excuse they needed to overthrow the Constitutional order and install themselves in power. This would also allow them to continue to "cleanse" the image of the Bolivian armed forces and further propagate the myth that the war had been lost by politicians rather than by the men in uniform. It was thus that Tejada was finally removed from office in a coup d'état which was led by Major Germán Busch and which installed as de facto President of Bolivia Colonel David Toro on 22 May 1936. Death Forced into exile, Tejada died in Arica, Chile, only 2 years later, on 4 October 1938. In popular culture Tejada appears as the 1936 leader for Bolivia in the videogame Hearts of Iron IV, however he anachronistically leads the Quintanilla Government (QG) rather than the Liberal Party. Publications See also Cabinet of José Luis Tejada Sorzano References Footnotes Bibliography Further reading 1882 births 1938 deaths 20th-century Bolivian lawyers 20th-century Bolivian politicians Bolivian economists Bolivian expatriates in Chile Bolivian footballers Bolivian lawyers Bolivian male writers Bolivian people of Spanish descent Bolivian Roman Catholics Footballers from La Paz Government ministers of Bolivia Higher University of San Andrés alumni Leaders ousted by a coup Leaders who took power by coup Liberal Party (Bolivia) politicians Members of the Bolivian Chamber of Deputies Members of the Senate of Bolivia Finance ministers of Bolivia People from La Paz People of the Chaco War Presidents of Bolivia Presidents of the Bolivian Chamber of Deputies Presidents of the Senate of Bolivia Vice presidents of Bolivia Writers from La Paz Association footballers not categorized by position	[ -0.25152063369750977, 0.23393039405345917, -0.5747548937797546, 0.253898561000824, 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221854	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilatus%20%28mountain%29	Pilatus (mountain)	Pilatus, also often referred to as Mount Pilatus, is a mountain massif overlooking Lucerne in Central Switzerland. It is composed of several peaks, of which the highest () is named Tomlishorn. Geography and transport The whole mountain range stretches at least from the Lopper just opposite from Stansstad to the east as far as at least to the Mittaggüpfi () and the Risetestock () to the west on the border between LU and OW. The highest peak, Tomlishorn (), and the other peaks, such as Widderfeld () even further west than the Tomlishorn on the border between LU and OW, Matthorn () to the south, the Klimsenhorn () to the north (UW), and Rosegg () and Windegg () to the east, both on the border of UW and OW, should only be approached with appropriate Alpine hiking equipment. Jurisdiction over the massif is divided between the cantons of Obwalden (OW), Nidwalden (NW), and Lucerne (LU). The main peaks are right on the border between Obwalden and Nidwalden. The top can be reached with the Pilatus Railway, the world's steepest cogwheel railway, from Alpnachstad, operating from May to November (depending on snow conditions) and the whole year with the aerial panorama gondolas and aerial cableways from Kriens. Tomlishorn is located about to the southeast of the top cable car and cog railway station. Two other peaks, closer to the stations are called Esel (Donkey, ), which lies just east over the railway station, the one on the west side is called Oberhaupt (Head-Leader, ). During the summer, the "Golden Round Trip" — a popular route for tourists — involves taking a boat from Lucerne across Lake Lucerne to Alpnachstad, going up on the cogwheel railway, coming down on the aerial cableways and panorama gondolas, and taking a bus back to Lucerne. The cable car at Kriens can be reached by the Number 1 bus that leaves from Lucerne central train station. It is then a short 10 minute walk to the cable car, following the Pilatus signs. History A few different local legends about the origin of the name exist. One claims that Pilatus was named so because Pontius Pilate was buried there. However, a similar legend is told of Monte Vettore in Italy. Another is that the mountain looks like the belly of a large man, Pilate, lying on his back and was thus named for him. The name may also be derived from "pileatus," meaning "cloud-topped." A medieval legend had dragons with healing powers living on the mountain. A chronicle from 1619 reads: 'as I was contemplating the serene sky by night, I saw a very bright dragon with flapping wings go from a cave in a great rock in the mount called Pilatus toward another cave, known as Flue, on the opposite side of the lake'. This legend was the inspiration for Steven Reineke's famous concert band piece, Pilatus: Mountain of Dragons. Numbered amongst those who have reached its summit are Conrad Gessner, Theodore Roosevelt, Arthur Schopenhauer (1804), Queen Victoria and Julia Ward Howe (1867). The cog railway opened in 1889. The mountain has fortified radar (part of the Swiss FLORAKO system) and weather stations on the Oberhaupt summit, not open to the public view and used all year round. Weather In literature In The Chalet School Does It Again. (1955) Elinor Brent-Dyer retells the Pilate burial place legend. Mount Pilatus plays a pivotal role in the conclusion of Brad Thor's fiction novel Lions of Lucerne. See also List of mountains of Switzerland List of most isolated mountains of Switzerland List of mountains of Switzerland accessible by public transport List of mountains of Switzerland named after people References External links www.pilatus.ch Two-thousanders of Switzerland Mountains of the Alps Mountains of Obwalden Mountains of Nidwalden Tourist attractions in Switzerland Cable cars in Switzerland Tourist attractions in Nidwalden Nidwalden–Obwalden border Emmental Alps Mountains of Switzerland Pontius Pilate	[ -0.1434171348810196, 0.430258572101593, -0.015609572641551495, -0.4321209490299225, 0.49324119091033936, 0.8055298924446106, 0.7360931038856506, 0.5052957534790039, -0.42454513907432556, -0.3616534471511841, 0.18771791458129883, 0.06915391236543655, -0.7027207016944885, 0.3686758279800415, -0.32904985547065735, -0.10281837731599808, 0.908482551574707, 0.17251987755298615, -0.1455317884683609, -0.6607587933540344, 0.5756554007530212, -0.11680947244167328, 0.28792375326156616, 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221855	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Cumberland%20%28dramatist%29	Richard Cumberland (dramatist)	Richard Cumberland (19 February 1731/2 – 7 May 1811) was an English dramatist and civil servant. In 1771 his hit play The West Indian was first staged. During the American War of Independence he acted as a secret negotiator with Spain in an effort to secure a peace agreement between the two nations. He also edited a short-lived critical journal called The London Review (1809). His plays are often remembered for their sympathetic depiction of characters generally considered to be on the margins of society. Early life and education Richard Cumberland was born in the master's lodge of Trinity College, Cambridge on 19 February 1731/2. His father was a clergyman, Doctor Denison Cumberland, who became successively Bishop of Clonfert and Bishop of Kilmore, and through him his great-grandfather was Richard Cumberland, the philosopher and bishop of Peterborough. His mother was Johanna Bentley, youngest daughter of Joanna Bernard and the classical scholar Richard Bentley, longtime master at Trinity College. She was featured as the heroine of John Byrom's popular eclogue, Cohn and Phoebe. Cumberland's youngest sister Mary became recognized later as the poet Mary Alcock. A great-great grandfather was Oliver St John, the statesman. Cumberland was educated at the grammar school in Bury St Edmunds. He later related how, when the headmaster Arthur Kinsman told Bentley he would make his grandson an equally good scholar, Bentley retorted: "Pshaw, Arthur, how can that be, when I have forgot more than thou ever knewest?" In 1744 Cumberland was moved to the prestigious Westminster School, under Doctor Nicholl as headmaster. Among his contemporaries at Westminster were Warren Hastings, George Colman, Charles Churchill and William Cowper. At the age of fourteen, Cumberland went to Trinity College, Cambridge, where in 1750 he took his degree as tenth wrangler. In his beginning writing, he was influenced by Edmund Spenser; his first dramatic effort was modeled after William Mason's Elfrida and called Caractacus. Political and diplomatic career He had begun to read for his fellowship at Trinity when the Earl of Halifax who had been made President of the Board of Trade in the Duke of Newcastle's government offered him the post of private secretary. Cumberland's family persuaded him to accept, and he returned to the post after his election as fellow. It left him time for literary pursuits, which included a poem in blank verse about India. Cumberland resigned his fellowship when he married his cousin Elizabeth Ridge in 1759, after having been appointed through Lord Halifax as "crown-agent for Nova Scotia." In 1761 Cumberland accompanied his patron Lord Halifax to Ireland. Halifax who had been appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland and Cumberland the post as Ulster secretary. He was offered a baronetcy, which he declined. When in 1762 Halifax became Northern Secretary, Cumberland applied for the post of under-secretary, but could only obtain the less prestigious clerkship of reports at the Board of Trade under Lord Hillsborough. When Lord George Germain in 1775 acceded to office, Cumberland was appointed secretary to the Board of Trade and Plantations, a post he held till Edmund Burke's reforms abolished it in 1782. Mission to Madrid In 1780, he was sent on a confidential mission to Spain to negotiate a separate peace treaty during the American War of Independence in an effort to weaken the anti-British coalition. Although he was well received by King Charles III of Spain and his minister, the Count of Floridablanca, the question of which nation would hold sway over Gibraltar prevented resolution. Recalled by the government in 1781, Cumberland was refused repayment of his expenses, although his advance was insufficient. He was £4500 out-of-pocket and never recovered his money. Soon after this, Cumberland lost his office in Burke's reforms, and retired on an allowance of less than half-pay. In 1785 he wrote a defence of his former superior, Character of the late Lord Viscount Sackville. He took up residence at Tunbridge Wells; but during his last years he mostly lived in London, where he died. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, after a short oration by his friend Dean Vincent. Writing career Cumberland wrote much but has been remembered most for his plays and memoirs. The existence of his memoirs is largely due to his friend, the critic Richard Sharp, (Conversation Sharp) who together with Samuel Rogers and Sir James Burges (Sir James Lamb, 1st Baronet) gave considerable support to the endeavour. The collection of essays and other pieces entitled The Observer (1785), afterwards republished with a translation of The Clouds, was included among The British Essayists. He is said to have joined Sir James Bland Burges in an epic, the Exodiad (1807), and in a novel, John de Lancaster. Besides these he wrote the Letter to the Bishop of Oxford in vindication of his grandfather Bentley (1767); another to Richard Watson, Bishop of Llandaff, on his proposal for equalizing the revenues of the Established Church (1783); a Character of Lord Sackville (1785), whom in his Memoirs he vindicates from the stigma of cowardice; and an anonymous pamphlet, Curtius rescued from the Gulf, against the redoubtable Dr Parr. He was the author of a version of 50 of the Psalms of David; of a tract on the evidences of Christianity; and of other religious pieces in prose and verse, the former including "as many sermons as would make a large volume, some of which have been delivered from the pulpits." Lastly, he edited a short-lived critical journal called The London Review (1809), intended to be a rival to the Quarterly, with signed articles. His plays, published and unpublished, totalled fifty-four. About 35 of these are ordinary plays, to which have been added four operas and a farce; about half are comedies. His favourite mode was the "sentimental comedy," which combines domestic plots, rhetorical enforcement of moral precepts, and comic humour. He weaves his plays out of "homely stuff, right British drugget," and eschews "the vile Gallic stage"; he borrowed from the style of sentimental fiction of Samuel Richardson, Henry Fielding and Laurence Sterne. His favourite theme is virtue in distress or danger, but assured of its reward in the fifth act; his most constant characters are men of feeling and young ladies who are either prudes or coquettes. Cumberland's comic talents lay in the invention of characters taken from the "outskirts of the empire," and intended to vindicate the good elements of the Scots, Irish and colonials from English prejudice. The plays are highly patriotic and adhere to conventional morality. If Cumberland's dialogue lacks brilliance and his characters reality, the construction of the plots is generally skilful, due to Cumberland's insight into the secrets of theatrical effect. Though Cumberland's sentimentality is often wearisome, his morality is generally sound; that if he was without the genius requisite for elevating the national drama, he did his best to keep it pure and sweet; and that if he borrowed much, he borrowed only the best aspects of other dramatists' work. His first play was a tragedy, The Banishment of Cicero, published in 1761 after David Garrick rejected it; this was followed in 1765 by a musical drama, The Summer's Tale, subsequently compressed into an afterpiece Amelia (1768). Cumberland first essayed sentimental comedy in The Brothers (1769). This play is inspired by Henry Fielding's Tom Jones; its comic characters are the jolly old tar Captain Ironsides, and the henpecked husband Sir Benjamin Dove, whose progress to self-assertion is genuinely comic. Horace Walpole said, that it acted well, but read ill, though he could distinguish in it "strokes of Mr Bentley." The epilogue paid a compliment to Garrick, who helped the production of Cumberland's second comedy The West-Indian (1771). Its hero, who probably owes much to the suggestion of Garrick, is a young scapegrace fresh from the tropics, "with rum and sugar enough belonging to him to make all the water in the Thames into punch,"—a libertine with generous instincts, which prevail in the end. This early example of the modern drama was favourably received; Boden translated it into German, and Goethe acted in it at the Weimar court. The Fashionable Lover (1772) is a sentimental comedy, as is The Choleric Man (1774), founded on the Adelphi of Terence. Cumberland published his memoirs in 1806–07. George Romney, whose talent Cumberland encouraged, painted his portrait, which is in the National Portrait Gallery. Among his later comedies were: Calypso (1779) The Natural Son (1785), in which Major O'Flaherty who had already figured in The West-Indian, makes his reappearance The Country Attorney (1787) The Impostors (1789), a comedy of intrigue The School for Widows (1789) The Armourer (1793), originally Richard II but rewritten as The Armourer to pass censorship The Box-Lobby Challenge (1794), a protracted farce The Jew (1794), a drama, highly effective when the great German actor Theodor Döring played "Sheva" The Wheel of Fortune (1795), in which John Philip Kemble found a celebrated part in the misanthropist Penruddock, who cannot forget but learns to forgive (a character declared by August von Kotzebue to have been stolen from his Menschenhass und Reue), while Richard Suett played the comic lawyer Timothy Weazel First Love (1795) The Last of the Family (1797) The Village Fete (1797) False Impressions (1797) A Word for Nature (1798) The Sailor's Daughter (1804) Hint to Husbands (1806), which, unlike the, rest, is in blank verse. The other works printed during his lifetime include: The Note of Hand (1774), a farce The Princess of Parma (1778) Songs for a musical comedy, The Widow of Delphi (1780) The Battle of Hastings (1778), a tragedy The Carmelite (1784), a romantic domestic drama in blank verse, in the style of John Home's Douglas, furnishing some effective scenes for Sarah Siddons and John Kemble as mother and son The Mysterious Husband (1783), a prose domestic drama The Days of Yore (1796), a drama The Clouds (1797) Joanna of Mondfaucon (1800) The Jew of Mogadore (1808) His posthumously printed plays (published in 2 vols. in 1813) include: The Walloons (comedy, acted in 1782) The Passive Husband (comedy, acted as A Word for Nature, 1798) The Eccentric Lover (comedy, acted 1798) Lovers' Resolutions (comedy, once acted in 1802) Confession, a quasi-historic drama Don Pedro (drama, acted 1796) Alcanor (tragedy, acted as The Arab, 1785) Torrendal (tragedy) The Sibyl, or The Elder Brutus (afterwards amalgamated with other plays on the subject into a very successful tragedy for Edmund Kean by Payne) Tiberius in Capreae (tragedy) The False Demetrius (tragedy on a theme which attracted Schiller) Adaptations Aristophanes' Clouds (1798) William Shakespeare's Timon of Athens (1771) Philip Massinger's The Bondman and The Duke of Milan (both 1779). Novels Arundel (1789) Henry (1795) - was printed in Ballantyne's Novelists' Library (1821), John de Lancaster (1809) References Sources Critical Examination of Cumberland's works (1812) and a memoir of the author based on his autobiography, with some criticism, by William Mudford, appeared in 1812. George Paston's Little Memoirs of the Eighteenth Century (1901) includes an account of Cumberland. Hermann Theodor Hettner assessed Cumberland's position in the history of the English drama in Litteraturgesch. d. 18. Jahrhunderts (2nd ed., 1865), i. 520. 1732 births 1811 deaths Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Burials at Westminster Abbey English dramatists and playwrights English male dramatists and playwrights People from Cambridge	[ -0.2550678551197052, 0.22278505563735962, -0.5792333483695984, -0.5387237668037415, 0.26983070373535156, 1.0413684844970703, 0.70311439037323, -0.030474519357085228, -0.22019803524017334, -0.39478999376296997, -0.16767388582229614, 0.3608952462673187, -0.34896594285964966, -0.07292824983596802, -0.1797282099723816, 0.6575369834899902, -0.0790524110198021, -0.4189700782299042, -0.3361290395259857, -0.45924314856529236, -0.4115109145641327, -0.11492827534675598, 0.4816454350948334, -0.03283212333917618, -0.08469828218221664, 0.03492337837815285, 0.19210292398929596, -0.4415602684020996, 0.05801855027675629, -0.09994642436504364, -0.023775385692715645, 0.6322495341300964, 0.29462501406669617, -0.281412810087204, -0.870031476020813, -0.10159066319465637, 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221857	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-British%20Joint%20Declaration	Sino-British Joint Declaration	The Sino-British Joint Declaration is a treaty between the governments of the United Kingdom and China signed in 1984 setting the conditions in which Hong Kong was transferred to Chinese control and for the governance of the territory after 1 July 1997. Hong Kong had been a colony of the British Empire since 1842 after the First Opium War and its territory was expanded on two occasions; first in 1860 with the addition of Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island, and again in 1898 when Britain obtained a 99-year lease for the New Territories. The date of the handover in 1997 marked the end of this lease. The Chinese government declared in the treaty its basic policies for governing Hong Kong after the transfer. A special administrative region would be established in the territory that would be self-governing with a high degree of autonomy, except in foreign affairs and defence. Hong Kong would maintain its existing governing and economic systems separate from that of mainland China under the principle of "one country, two systems". This blueprint would be elaborated on in the Hong Kong Basic Law (the post-handover regional constitution) and the central government's policies for the territory were to remain unchanged for a period of 50 years after 1997. China has stated since 2014 that it considers the treaty to be spent with no further legal effect, while the United Kingdom maintains that the document remains binding in operation. Following China's 2020 imposition of national security legislation on Hong Kong and a 2021 National People's Congress decision to approve a rework of local election laws that reduces the number of regional legislature seats elected by the public, the UK has declared China as being in a "state of ongoing non-compliance" with the Joint Declaration. Background Phases of colonial expansion Hong Kong became a British colony in 1842 after the Qing dynasty's defeat in the First Opium War. The territory initially consisted only of Hong Kong Island and was expanded to include Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island in 1860 after another Qing loss in the Second Opium War. After this addition, the British government resisted calls by colonial officials and merchants for further expansion into China, deciding to cease territorial acquisitions in the area. However, as Germany, Japan, and Russia coerced China into granting concessions in the late 1890s, Britain considered another expansion of Hong Kong to bolster the colony's defence against attack from these other great powers. When France obtained a lease for Guangzhouwan, only 210 miles away from Hong Kong, Britain entered into negotiations with the Qing to acquire the New Territories as a compensatory concession. The British negotiator considered the 99-year lease term to be sufficiently suggestive that the ceded area would be a permanent cession, which was granted rent-free. Potential lease renegotiations Hong Kong Governor Frederick Lugard first proposed renegotiating the lease as a formal cession in 1909 in return for restoring Weihaiwei to China. Although the Colonial and Foreign Offices considered this, the plan was never brought to the Chinese government before Weihaiwei was transferred to the Republic of China in 1930. Alternate plans that involved offering China a substantial loan and settling land disputes on the Burmese border were suggested, but these ideas similarly did not progress past discussion. The start of the Second World War and ensuing Japanese occupation of Hong Kong stifled further debate on obtaining a cession. The British government initially prepared for the possibility of having to relinquish Hong Kong after the war, but moved towards retaining the colony over the course of the conflict. Hong Kong returned to British control in 1945. In the immediate post-war period, the Nationalist government continued this dialogue with the British about the future of Hong Kong, which included discussions of a full retrocession and proposals of turning the colony into an international city. However, communist victory in the Chinese Civil War made a transfer of Hong Kong to the Nationalists an increasingly unlikely scenario, and the status quo was maintained. Coexistence with the People's Republic Although communist troops marched up to the border with Hong Kong, they did not try to forcefully take the colony. Initial engagement between the colonial and new Chinese authorities were largely friendly and cooperative. While it was clear that the long-term goal of the communists was to absorb the territory, they chose to take no action on the issue in the near-term. The Chinese were content with the political status of the colony for the time being so long as no efforts were made to introduce democratic development in the territory; they were simply hostile to the idea of a potentially independent Hong Kong. In 1972, China successfully petitioned the United Nations to remove Hong Kong from its list of Non-Self-Governing Territories, and declared that the colony was a "Chinese territory under British administration". The United Kingdom did not raise any objections to this and the local population did not think the move was significant, but the implication of this change was that China alone would determine the territory's future, excluding the people of Hong Kong. Post-war Hong Kong experienced rapid economic growth through the 1950s as it industrialised into a manufacturing-based export economy. This development continued through the following decades bolstered by a strong trading network, robust banking and financial systems, and an educated and growing workforce supplemented by continuing immigration from mainland China. As the Cultural Revolution embroiled mainland China beginning in 1966, local communists in Hong Kong started a series of demonstrations against colonial rule that escalated into the 1967 Hong Kong riots. However, the disturbances never gained local support and the subsequent restoration of public order conversely resulted in the colonial government achieving increased popularity among the territory's residents. By the late 1970s, Hong Kong had become one of the largest trading ports and financial centers in the world. Approaching deadline Local investors began expressing their concern in the mid-1970s over the long-term viability of continued real estate investment. The colonial government could not legally grant new land leases in the New Territories past 1997 and needed to resolve the uncertainty with the Chinese government. During an official visit to Beijing in March 1979, Governor Murray MacLehose raised the issue with Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping. MacLehose suggested setting aside the 1997 date for land leases and replacing those contracts with ones that were valid for as long as British administration continued in the colony. Deng rejected this suggestion, but he informed the governor that while sovereignty over Hong Kong belonged to China, the territory held a special status that would continue to be respected. MacLehose informed the public that further investment would be safe. Market reaction was optimistic; stock valuations rose and further investment in real estate boosted the value of Hong Kong's land to the highest in the world. Just before the start of formal negotiations with China over Hong Kong, Parliament enacted a major reform of British nationality law – the British Nationality Act 1981. Prior to the passage of this Act, all citizens of the British Empire (including Hongkongers) held a common nationality. Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKCs) previously had the unrestricted right to enter and live in the UK until 1962, although non-white immigration was systemically discouraged. Immigration from the colonies and other Commonwealth countries was gradually restricted by Parliament from 1962 to 1971 amid decolonisation, when British subjects originating from outside of the British Islands first had immigration controls imposed on them when entering the UK. The 1981 Act reclassified CUKCs into different nationality groups based on their ancestry and birthplace, and the vast majority of British subjects in Hong Kong became British Dependent Territories citizens (BDTCs) with right of abode only in Hong Kong. Only those reclassified as British citizens held an automatic right to live in the United Kingdom. Negotiations Formal negotiations began in September 1982 with the arrival of British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and Hong Kong Governor Edward Youde in Beijing to meet with Chinese Premier Zhao Ziyang and paramount leader Deng Xiaoping. In the initial phase of negotiations from October 1982 to June 1983, the main point of contention was the issue of sovereignty. The goals of the Chinese government were made clear from the beginning of the process. China would resume both sovereignty and administration over Hong Kong in 1997. It would do this by force if necessary, but preferred to keep the territory's socioeconomic climate stable to maximize the economic benefits it could reap from the transfer. Its proposed plan was to establish a special administrative region in the territory that would be governed by local residents and to maintain the existing structures of government and economy in place for as long as 50 years. Constitutional arrangements had already been made to implement this plan and the Chinese would not accept anything less than a full reversion of Hong Kong. Sovereignty after 1997 During her first visit to Beijing, Thatcher asserted the continuing validity of British treaty rights for the sovereignty of Hong Kong. The British began negotiations believing that they could secure an extension of the New Territories lease while retaining sovereignty of the ceded areas. Although the UK had just successfully defended its hold on the Falkland Islands in a war against Argentina, Hong Kong's proximity to mainland China made a military defence of the territory impossible. Thatcher later recounted that Deng had told her directly "I could walk in and take the whole lot this afternoon," to which she replied, "There is nothing I could do to stop you, but the eyes of the world would now know what China is like." The Chinese pushed back against the assertion of sovereignty rights and insisted that it was not bound by the 19th-century unequal treaties that ceded Hong Kong to the UK. Even if the two sides had agreed on the binding nature of the Treaty of Nanking and Convention of Peking, the vast majority of the colony's land still would have reverted to China at the conclusion of the New Territories lease. Because most of the territory's industry was developed there, separating the leased area and returning only that part of the colony to China was economically and logistically infeasible. Negotiations were stalled until Britain conceded that it would relinquish sovereignty over the entire territory. British attempt to extend administration In the second phase of negotiations, the British attempted to negotiate an extension of their administration in Hong Kong past 1997 in exchange for their acknowledgement of Chinese sovereignty. This was again soundly rejected by the Chinese as unacceptable. The continued stalled state of negotiations precipitated a drop in investor confidence, causing a sharp decline in local property values that culminated with the crash of the Hong Kong dollar's value on Black Saturday in September 1983. The talks were entirely conducted without meaningful input from the people of Hong Kong. Early in the process, British officials had used the analogy of a "three-legged stool" to describe a scenario where Hong Kong was party to the negotiations with Britain and China. The Chinese government dismissed this idea, claiming that it already represented the interests of the people of Hong Kong. Local residents were apprehensive about the prospect of being handed over to Chinese rule and overwhelmingly preferred that Hong Kong remain a British territory; contemporary opinion polls show that 85 per cent of residents favoured this option. The Foreign Office rejected holding a general referendum on the future of the colony due to vehement opposition from the Chinese and because it assumed that educating the public on the complexity of the issue would be too difficult. Although the Unofficial Members of the Executive and Legislative Councils had repeatedly petitioned the British negotiators to insist on continued administration for as long as possible, they were ultimately unsuccessful. By November 1983, the British accepted that they would have no further authority over Hong Kong after 1997. Nationality and the Joint Liaison Group Negotiations in 1984 centred on nationality and the role of the Joint Liaison Group. British negotiators and Hong Kong Executive Council members wanted to ensure the continued status of Hongkongers as British Dependent Territories citizens (BDTCs) after the transfer of sovereignty, but the Chinese would not allow this and even demanded that further granting of BDTC status be halted immediately. Although there were debates in the British Parliament on granting all residents British Overseas citizenship that could be transferred to children for up to two generations after 1997, this was not implemented and the Joint Declaration instead provided for a new status to be created. The Chinese initially wanted the Joint Liaison Group to act as an oversight committee during the transition period of administering Hong Kong up to the handover date. At the insistence of Governor Youde and Executive Council members, the group was limited in its scope to be strictly advisory. A bilateral working group was created in June 1984 to draft the text of the treaty and its annexes. This was completed in three months, and on 26 September 1984, a draft copy of the Joint Declaration was initialed by British Ambassador to China Richard Evans and Chinese Vice Foreign Minister Zhou Nan. The final version was signed on 19 December 1984 by Prime Minister Thatcher and Premier Zhao in the Great Hall of the People in Beijing; the treaty came into force when instruments of ratification were exchanged on 27 May 1985 and was registered at the United Nations by both governments on 12 June 1985. Content The Joint Declaration consists of its main text, Annex I elaborating the Chinese government's basic policies for Hong Kong, Annex II concerning plans for the Sino–British Joint Liaison Group, Annex III explaining protections for land leases granted by the colonial government, and two memoranda from each party describing transitional nationality arrangements for local residents. Main text In the main text of the treaty, the Chinese government declared its intention to resume the exercise of its sovereignty over the entire area of Hong Kong (including the ceded areas of Hong Kong Island and Kowloon Peninsula, as well as the leased New Territories) on 1 July 1997 and the British government agreed to transfer control of the territory on that date. China stated its basic policies for administering the returned area; it would establish a special administrative region that would be autonomous in governing local affairs. The economic, social, governing, and legal systems would remain basically unchanged from as they existed under colonial administration. Hong Kong would remain a separate customs territory with free flow of capital. Civil and property rights would remain protected after the transfer of sovereignty. During the transition period from the date the treaty came into force until 30 June 1997, the United Kingdom would continue to be responsible for administering Hong Kong with the objective of maintaining its economic prosperity and social stability. Annex I: Chinese basic policies for Hong Kong The first annex of the treaty elaborates on the Chinese government's basic policies for Hong Kong. There are 14 policies listed in Annex I, providing a framework under which the post-handover government would be established. This part of the Joint Declaration provides for economic and administrative continuity through the transfer of sovereignty. Executive, legislative, and judicial powers would be devolved by the central government to the special administrative region, which is given a "high degree of autonomy" in exercising those powers in all areas except for defence and diplomatic affairs. The region retains the ability to maintain separate economic and cultural relations with foreign nations. Socialism as practised in mainland China would not be extended to Hong Kong and the territory's capitalist economy and the civil liberties of its residents (such as freedom of speech, assembly, and religion) would be protected and remain unchanged for 50 years. The territory would be allowed to maintain its separate financial markets; the Hong Kong dollar remains the regional currency. In the areas of civil aviation and maritime shipping, Hong Kong would continue as a separate entity from the mainland. Education and the maintenance of public order would be the regional government's responsibility. Right of abode in Hong Kong and immigration matters remain separate from mainland China, and the region could issue its own passports. All of these policies would be further detailed in the Hong Kong Basic Law, which would stipulate the framework in which the new special administrative region would function. Annex II: Sino-British Joint Liaison Group The second annex of the treaty provided for the establishment of the Sino-British Joint Liaison Group, consisting of diplomats from both governments, to facilitate ongoing dialogue for the implementation of the Joint Declaration and a smooth transfer of government. This group was strictly intended to be a channel of close communication for both parties and did not have authority to supervise or participate in the administration of the territory. The Joint Liaison Group was given two specific objectives during the period between its establishment and the transfer of sovereignty. In the first half of this period, it would consider actions necessary to maintain Hong Kong's status as a separate customs territory and ensure continuity of its international rights and obligations. During the second half leading up to the handover, the Liaison Group would consider actions needed to ensure a successful transition in 1997 and assist the incoming regional government in developing relations and agreements with other countries and international organisations for economic and cultural purposes. The mandate for this group ended on 1 January 2000. Annex III: Land leases The third annex of the treaty dealt with the validity of land leases granted by the colonial Hong Kong government. All existing land lease contracts continue to be recognised by the post-handover SAR government. All leases without options of renewal that expired before 30 June 1997 could be extended for periods lasting no later than 30 June 2047. New leases granted by the colonial government after the treaty came into force could last no longer than the 2047 date and were subject to a 50-hectare annual aggregate limit on the total amount of land the government could contract out for purposes other than for housing. A Land Commission consisting of an equal number of representatives from the British and Chinese governments was established to oversee the implementation of this annex until the transfer of sovereignty in 1997. Memoranda on nationality The memoranda attached to the end of the treaty contains transitional nationality arrangements for local residents, which included a stipulation that a new nationality would be created for Hongkongers that did not confer right of abode in the United Kingdom. The Hong Kong Act 1985 created the British National (Overseas) status to fulfil this requirement. All British Dependent Territories citizens (BDTCs) connected with Hong Kong who did not have a connection with a remaining British Dependent Territory would lose that status on the day of the transfer in 1997. Ethnic Chinese Hongkongers became Chinese nationals and could only retain British nationality if they had registered as BN(O)s before the handover. Although they were permitted to use British passports for international travel after the transfer, ethnic Chinese BN(O)s were explicitly restricted from accessing British consular protection within the Hong Kong SAR or any other part of Chinese territory. Residents who were not ethnically Chinese, had not registered as BN(O)s, and would have been stateless on that date automatically became British Overseas citizens. Post-agreement Contemporary reactions The signing of the Joint Declaration caused some controversy in Britain because UK's Conservative Party Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher was agreeing with the China's Communist government represented by Deng Xiaoping. In the White Paper that contained the Joint Declaration, it was declared by Her Majesty's Government that "the alternative to acceptance of the present agreement is to have no agreement", a statement meant as a rebuttal to criticisms that the declaration had made too many concessions to China, and hinting at China's significant leverage during the negotiations. Some political analysts thought that there was an urgency to make an agreement because there were fears that without a treaty the economy in Hong Kong would collapse in the 1980s. Concerns about land ownership in the leased New Territories also added to the problem. Although discussions on the future of Hong Kong had started in the late 1970s, the final timing of the Joint Declaration was more affected by property and economic factors rather than geopolitical necessities. Initial period after 1997 transfer After signing of the declaration, the Sino–British Joint Liaison Group was set up according to the Annex II of the declaration. The transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong (referred to as the "return" or "handover" by the Chinese and British press respectively) occurred as scheduled on 1 July 1997. Since the return just a few things changed, such as the flag of Hong Kong and the Prince of Wales Building being renamed the People's Liberation Army Building. Post boxes were repainted green, as per the practice in China. Street names have remained unchanged and the Royal Hong Kong Yacht Club has kept its "Royal" prefix, although the Hong Kong Jockey Club and other institutions have given up this title. After the Asian financial crisis in 1997 the Hong Kong measures were taken with the full co-operation of the Central Chinese government. This did not mean that the Chinese government dictated what to do and therefore still followed the points of the declaration. Despite this autonomy, the government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region sometimes sought interference from the Central Chinese government. For example, in 1999 the government of the HKSAR asked China's State Council to seek an interpretation by the National People's Congress Standing Committee on a provision in the Basic Law. The original decision reached by the Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal was seen as problematic by the HKSAR government as it would have allowed up to 1.6 million mainland immigrants to enter Hong Kong. The Chinese authorities obliged and the Hong Kong court's judgment was overturned, stopping the potential immigration. Pressures from the mainland government were also apparent, for example in 2000, after the election of pro-independence candidate Chen Shui-bian as Taiwan's president, a senior mainland official in Hong Kong warned journalists not to report the news. Another senior official advised businessmen not to do business with pro-independence Taiwanese. With this and other changes, ten years after the return, in 2007, The Guardian wrote that on the one hand, "nothing has changed since the handover to China 10 years ago", but this was in comparison to the situation before the last governor Chris Patten had introduced democratic reforms three years before the handover. A chance for democracy had been lost as Hong Kong had just begun to develop three vital elements for a western-style democracy (the rule of law, official accountability and a political class outside the one-party system) but the Sino–British deal had prevented any of these changes to continue according to Jonathan Fenby of The Guardian. Wu Bangguo, the chairman of the National People's Congress Standing Committee stated in a conference in Beijing 2007, that "Hong Kong had considerable autonomy only because the central government had chosen to authorize that autonomy". Dispute over treaty's continued binding status The Chinese and Hong Kong governments have stated since 2014 that they consider the Joint Declaration to have ceased any legal effect after the transfer of sovereignty, and that the central government's basic policies as elaborated in the document were a unilateral statement not actually binding. These statements are directly contradicted by the 50-year period of unchanged policies in Hong Kong that the central government committed to as part of the Joint Declaration. Former LegCo president and Standing Committee member Rita Fan has asserted that Britain's supervisory responsibility over the Joint Declaration's implementation lapsed when the Sino-British Joint Liaison Group disbanded in 2000. The United Kingdom, United States, and G7 maintain that the Joint Declaration remains valid and in force. The Foreign Office has labelled the Causeway Bay Books disappearances in 2015, enactment of the Hong Kong national security law in 2020, disqualification of opposition Legislative Council candidates in 2020, and electoral reform in 2021 as serious breaches of the treaty. Since 2021, the UK has considered China to be in a "state of ongoing non-compliance" with the Joint Declaration. China disregards accusations of Joint Declaration breaches as foreign interference and neocolonist tampering, and considers Hong Kong matters to be part of its internal affairs. Chinese foreign ministry spokespersons have repeatedly stated that the United Kingdom lacks supervisory authority over Hong Kong following the handover in 1997 and that the treaty is a historical document with no extant binding authority. The central government's primary regional agency, the Hong Kong Liaison Office, declared in April 2020 that it was exempt from Basic Law restrictions on mainland government interference in local affairs. Following China's imposition of national security legislation on Hong Kong in 2020, the UK extended residence rights and created a new path to citizenship for Hong Kong residents with British National (Overseas) status. The Chinese government derided this change as "gross interference" and subsequently withdrew recognition of BN(O) passports as valid travel documents in 2021. The United States enacted the Hong Kong Autonomy Act in response to the national security law, and imposed economic sanctions on 34 individuals that the US State and Treasury Departments determined to have materially contributed to Joint Declaration breaches. The list of sanctioned persons includes Chief Executive Carrie Lam, principal officials of the Hong Kong government, and members of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress. See also Joint Declaration on the Question of Macau References Citations Sources Publications News articles Legislation and treaty law Further reading Mark, Chi-kwan (May 2015). "To 'educate' Deng Xiaoping in capitalism: Thatcher's visit to China and the future of Hong Kong in 1982". Cold War History 17.2: 1–20. . Tang, James T. H. (May 1994). "From empire defence to imperial retreat: Britain's postwar China policy and the decolonization of Hong Kong". Modern Asian Studies 28.02: 317–337. . 1984 in China 1984 in Hong Kong 1984 in the United Kingdom British Hong Kong China–United Kingdom relations Cold War treaties December 1984 events in Asia History of Hong Kong Politics of Hong Kong Treaties concluded in 1984 Treaties entered into force in 1985 Treaties extended to British Hong Kong Treaties involving territorial changes Treaties of the People's Republic of China Treaties of the United Kingdom	[ 0.2736709713935852, 0.42529112100601196, 0.23565055429935455, -0.8564885854721069, -0.24685285985469818, -0.47992268204689026, -0.2762551009654999, 0.4150744378566742, 0.18457426130771637, 0.3118506371974945, -0.7234136462211609, -0.28693610429763794, 0.2147412747144699, 0.3701433837413788, -0.5064641237258911, -0.018669061362743378, 0.4705451726913452, 0.02067927084863186, -0.25740477442741394, -0.11297513544559479, 0.4024852216243744, 0.22273719310760498, -0.1785793900489807, 0.7309450507164001, 0.07046317309141159, 0.22549885511398315, 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221858	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashes%20of%20Time	Ashes of Time	Ashes of Time (Chinese: 東邪西毒) is a 1994 Hong Kong film written and directed by Wong Kar-wai, and inspired by characters from Jin Yong's novel The Legend of the Condor Heroes. Background The film's story is a prequel to the novel The Legend of the Condor Heroes as it imagines the older characters when they were younger. It focuses on the main antagonist (Ouyang Feng) and humanizes him into a protagonist while retaining his despicable qualities. Feng, known as the Western Venom, crosses paths with the other powerful wuxia masters. Their backstories depict with great liberty and sometimes completely subvert the intended meaning from the novel. During the film's long-delayed production, Wong produced a parody of the same novel with the same cast titled The Eagle Shooting Heroes. Because it received limited box office success, the parallels Ashes of Time drew between modern ideas of dystopia imposed on a wuxia film have led critics to cite it as one of Wong Kar-wai's most under-appreciated works. Due to the original prints being lost, Wong re-edited and re-scored the film in 2008 for future theater, DVD and Blu-ray releases under the title Ashes of Time Redux. The film was reduced from 100 to 93 minutes. Both the original and Redux versions can still be found on Asian markets, while only the Redux version is available to western markets. Several criticisms of the Redux version have been noted, such as poor image quality and color mastering from the source material, cropping and removal of portions of the bottom image, poor English translations, and the re-scoring. Cast Leslie Cheung as Ouyang Feng, the Western Venom Tony Leung Ka-fai as Huang Yaoshi, the Eastern Heretic Brigitte Lin as Murong Yang / Murong Yin / Dugu Qiubai Tony Leung Chiu-Wai as Blind Swordsman Carina Lau as Peach Blossom, Blind Swordsman's wife Charlie Yeung as Girl with mule Jacky Cheung as Hong Qigong, the Northern Beggar Maggie Cheung as Ouyang Feng's sister-in-law Li Bai as Hong Qigong's wife Siu Tak-fu Collin Chou as Swordsman Lau Shun Summary The film follows the main antagonist Ouyang Feng, from the novel The Legend of the Condor Heroes, when he is a young man crossing paths with other important characters. The movie humanizes Feng and depicts the events that lead to his descent into villainy. It sometimes completely subverts the intended meaning of the novel, as in Feng's copulation with his sister-in-law, which is depicted as sinister and taboo in the book but is shown as true love in the film; the longing for her serves as a common theme that echoes throughout the movie. Plot Set in ancient China, the film consists of five short stories each featuring a main character from the novel; with the young Ouyang Feng serving as narrator and the common link. Opening The story begins with Ouyang Feng – known as the Western Venom due to his mercilessness and hailing from the western province – effortlessly toying with and disposing of a group of henchmen. He narrates that he is venomous because he is enraged with jealousy. The story flashes back to a time when Feng is younger and working as a broker for assassins in a remote, desert region. He eagerly waits for his friend Huang, who visits him once a year around this time. Act I – Huang Yaoshi (Eastern Heretic) Huang Yaoshi (Eastern Heretic) kills a band of bandits to take one of their horses because his has died. He arrives at Feng's and presents to him a bottle of wine called Drunken Alive, Perish in Dreams that was given to him by a close friend, who claims the wine can wipe a person's memory and allows that person to live a new life; he proceeds to drink the wine while Feng declines. That night, Huang begins to lose his memory, hurriedly leaves and chases after a shadowy woman who had awoken him in his sleep. She may have been a fragment of his dream. Huang arrives at a shallow river. A woman (Cherry Blossom) is standing in the river and tending to her horse. Huang seemingly still retains memory of her, looks smugly at her while she steals glances at him. Neither one speaks. In the next scene, Huang drinks with the Blind Swordsman inside an establishment. Huang asks how they know each other. The Blind Swordsman tells him they used to be best friends but Huang stole the former's wife. As he is leaving, the Blind Swordsman narrates that he would have killed Huang if he is not losing his sight and can still see at night. Huang witnesses a group of men threatening Murong Yang. Huang interjects and stops Yang from drawing his sword but ends up inadvertently getting cut. Huang retreats outside, leans on a wall, and sees blood coming from his lower abdomen. Inside, Yang is laughing hysterically. Feng narrates that when Huang was young he was charming and rebellious - qualities that attracted many women and he has broken every one of their hearts. Act II – Murong Yang / Murong Yin (Dugu Qiubai) Yang arrives at Feng's looking to hire an assassin to kill Huang - angry that Huang had broken his sister's heart. Later, Yang's sister, Yin, arrives at Feng's and attempts to call off the assassination - claiming Huang is madly in love with her. It is revealed that Yang and Yin are the same person; with the female Yin playing dress up as Yang. In a flashback, after rounds of drinking, Huang tells Yang that if the latter has a sister he will marry her. Yang, already infatuated with Huang, tells him he will present Yin to him. Yin arrives at the rendezvous, dressed as her natural sex, but Huang was a no-show. The event sends her into a rage and she seeks to have Huang killed but she is torn on killing the person who broke her heart and at the same time madly in love with. After a night of conversation with Feng where she fades in and out of character between Yang and Yin, she abandons the idea of killing Huang. That night, Feng dreams that someone is caressing him. The camera pans to Yin sneaking into Feng's bedroom - the person she envisions caressing is Huang while Feng dreams he is being touched by his ex-lover. Feng says that he has never seen Yin again after that night. Feng narrates that people who have been deeply hurt in love sometimes invent strange narratives to protect their broken hearts. No one has seen Yang or Yin since, but shortly after her disappearance, a strange and powerful swordsman named Dugu Qiubai (who likes to practice her swordplay with her own reflection) appears on the stage. The film then shows Dugu Qiubai as Yang and Yin interchangeably. Act III – Blind Swordsman The Blind Swordsman approaches Feng for a job to help pay for his journey back home to see the cherry blossom. Feng offers him the job of protecting the villages from the band of bandits seeking revenge for the comrades that Huang killed earlier in the film. The Girl with a Mule solicits Feng's help in hiring an assassin to exact revenge on a group of imperial guards who killed her younger brother. She is a poor peasant who can only offer an old mule and a basket of eggs as payment. Feng coldly brushes her off and implies she should offer her body as compensation, a suggestion that disgusts her. Undeterred, she sits outside Feng's front gate hoping to solicit assassins who come to work with Feng. While observing her through his balcony, Feng laments that from this vantage point, she reminds him of his ex-lover. Feng notes that The Blind Swordsman has a very orderly and rigid daily routine, but he knows that even though the later lights a candle at night, he cannot see in the dark. During the course of fighting the bandits, the sky becomes overcast, and as a result the Blind Swordsman is unable to see and is killed in battle. Act IV – Hong Qigong (Northern Beggar) Feng comes across an exhausted and dirty young man (Hong Qigong) who has run out of food and money. He offers him food, shelter, and a job to work as an assassin. Hong begrudgingly accepts. Hong's first job is to kill the bandits, who are returning to cause havoc after being impeded and suffering casualties in the battle with the Blind Swordsman. Hong successfully disposes of the bandits and receives compensation from Feng. Feng notes that Hong is a man with integrity and will not stay in this profession for long. Hong's wife appears at Feng's looking for her husband. Hong angrily ushers her away to return home; instead, she stands outside and waits for him. Hong tells Feng that he cannot take her along while he is getting his hands dirty fighting and killing for a living, and notes that every wuxia master he knows rides alone. Feng replies that there are always exceptions and tells Hong he once had a woman waiting for him but she ended up marrying his brother. Hong accepts an egg from the Girl with a Mule and kills the imperial guards to exact revenge for her brother. During the battle he suffers serious injuries, including losing a finger, and is nursed back to health by his wife. While Hong is still in critical condition, the Girl with a Mule begs Feng to hire a doctor to tend to Hong. Feng refuses, citing the costliness of a doctor visit and suggests again that she sells her body to raise money. A bedridden Hong relieves the Girl with a Mule from any responsibility to him by saying she owes him nothing since he has already accepted her egg as compensation. Feng berates a bedridden Hong and asks if nearly dying for an egg was worth it. Hong smiles back and says using his wuxia for good instead of greed makes him feel alive; the cold and calculating Feng would never understand how good that feels. Feng leaves Hong's bedside speechless. After Hong returns to health, he and his wife embark on their journey together and leave Feng. While watching them disappear over the horizon, Feng thinks of his own shattered love life and feels a great sense of jealousy. Feng notes that Hong purposely heads north against the northerly wind. The caption narrates that Hong later becomes the leader of the Beggars Sect, becomes the Northern Beggar, and later engages in a fierce duel with Feng. Act V – Ouyang Feng (Western Venom) Feng pays a visit to the Blind Swordsman's hometown to see the cherry blossom and is surprised to learn that the place has no cherry blossom. Cherry Blossom turns out to be the name of the Blind Swordsman's wife, who breaks down crying after she learns from Feng that her husband has been killed in battle. In a flashback, Feng tracks down his lover the day before she is to be married to his brother and offers to take her away with him. She steadfastly refuses, telling him that he is too late. Feng, not wanting to attend the marriage ceremony, leaves that night and never returns. Feng receives a note from his family that his lover (now his sister-in-law) died almost two years ago. Feng figures that the wine Druken Alive, Perish in Dreams that Huang brought to him early in the film is a gift from her. In a flashback, Huang is sitting and talking with Feng's lover in her beach-side hut. He narrates that he is in love with her but she only loves Feng. She sends him to visit Feng every year to gather his news for her; secretly, she hopes that he would reveal to Feng her whereabouts. After he tells her he will never disclose her location because he made a promise to her, she breaks down sobbing. She laments that she always thought she was the winner in love but she now realizes that she is the loser. Huang narrates that he likes cherry blossom because he gets to see her every year during the season. She dies of illness soon after their last meeting and on her deathbed she gives Huang the Drunken Alive, Perish in Dreams to deliver to Feng. In the present, Huang has lost a lot of his memory. One of the few things he remembers is that he likes cherry blossom and he proceeds to become a hermit, residing on an island filled with cherry blossom and acquiring the nickname Eastern Heretic. Feng waits for Huang's visit even though deep down he knows Huang will not come now that she is gone. After two days of waiting, Feng drinks the remaining bottle of Drunken Alive, Perish in Dreams; but instead of making him forget his past the wine makes his memory for her stronger. He narrates that the more a person wants to forget, the more he remembers; and deciphers that coaxing him to drink the wine is her method to make him never forget her. Feng burns down his dwelling and returns to his hometown. The caption says he later becomes the leader of his clan and acquires the nickname Western Venom. Ending The film ends with brief appearances by the surviving main characters, and references scenes from the novel. It implies that the henchmen killed by Feng in the beginning of the film belong to the Beggars Sect led by Hong. Hong sets a trap to corner Feng, but Feng is unfazed and smiles manically at Hong. Hong and Feng then engage in a battle. The film then pans to an older Feng in grey beard and hair, fighting and disposing of his enemies. Soundtrack The music was composed by Frankie Chan and Roel A. García, and produced by Rock Records in Hong Kong and Taiwan. It was released in 1994. The redux version features additional cello solos by Yo-Yo Ma. Reception Critical response When the film opened in Hong Kong it received mixed reviews. Critics found it so elliptical that it was almost impossible to make out any semblance of a plot, something very rare in a wuxia film. In The New York Times, Lawrence Van Gelder also gave Ashes of Time a mixed review: The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 78% of critics have given Ashes of Time Redux a positive review based on 87 reviews, with an average rating of 6.80/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "Wong Kar Wai's redux, with a few slight changes from his 1994 classic, is a feast for the eyes, if a little difficult to follow." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 69 out of 100 based on 20 critic reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Awards and nominations 1995 Hong Kong Film Awards Won: Best Art Direction (William Chang) Won: Best Cinematography (Christopher Doyle) Won: Best Costume and Make-up Design (William Chang) Nominated: Best Picture Nominated: Best Director (Wong Kar-wai) Nominated: Best Action Choreography (Sammo Hung) Nominated: Best Film Editing (Patrick Tam, Kai Kit-wai) Nominated: Best Original Score (Frankie Chan) Nominated: Best Screenplay (Wong Kar-wai) 1994 Golden Horse Awards Won: Best Cinematography (Christopher Doyle) Won: Best Editing (Patrick Tam, Kai Kit-wai) 1995 Hong Kong Film Critics Society Awards Won: Best Film Won: Best Director (Wong Kar-wai) Won: Best Actor (Leslie Cheung) Won: Best Screenplay (Wong Kar-wai) 1994 Venice Film Festival Nominated: Golden Lion (Wong Kar-Wai) Won: Best Cinematography (Christopher Doyle) 1997 Fant-Asia Film Festival Won: Best Asian Film – Third Place Box office Ashes of Time grossed HK$9,023,583 during its Hong Kong run. References External links 1994 films 1990s adventure drama films 1994 martial arts films 1994 drama films Hong Kong films Hong Kong New Wave films Hong Kong drama films Hong Kong martial arts films Wuxia films Films based on Chinese novels Films based on The Legend of the Condor Heroes Films directed by Wong Kar-wai Films set in 12th-century Song dynasty	[ -0.31392642855644226, 0.48397520184516907, -0.6502505540847778, 0.17836879193782806, 0.40775686502456665, -0.016425050795078278, -0.08805307745933533, -0.29510727524757385, 0.3437168300151825, -0.16124427318572998, -0.1546546220779419, 0.09145716577768326, 0.3074982464313507, 0.5429710149765015, 0.2506346106529236, -0.4121497571468353, 0.11594700068235397, 0.261980801820755, -0.43704724311828613, -0.2669370174407959, -0.23443421721458435, 0.23909369111061096, 0.36364075541496277, -0.3040817379951477, -0.08459556847810745, 0.35432523488998413, -0.5519181489944458, 0.2734750509262085, 0.4608045220375061, 0.08788846433162689, 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221859	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20Lange	Christian Lange	Christian Lange may refer to: Christian Lous Lange (1869–1938), Norwegian historian, teacher, and political scientist Christian C. A. Lange (1810–1861), Norwegian historian and archivist Christian Lange (politician) (born 1967), German politician	[ 0.22068166732788086, 0.650391161441803, 0.053710050880908966, -0.24860070645809174, -0.4680953323841095, 0.9023390412330627, 1.016849398612976, -0.06978034973144531, -0.3437734842300415, -0.716321587562561, -0.12412453442811966, 0.10599535703659058, 0.1249813586473465, 0.3031001091003418, -0.35099679231643677, 0.04050308093428612, -0.3129076063632965, 0.3787921369075775, -0.6837545037269592, -0.2745828926563263, -0.5759614109992981, -0.15474338829517365, 0.40844887495040894, -0.23005828261375427, 0.07623354345560074, -0.23869769275188446, 0.6914864778518677, 0.23221559822559357, 0.42235323786735535, 0.6687349677085876, 0.23883453011512756, 0.33825740218162537, 0.5023766756057739, -0.2578330934047699, -0.7900779843330383, -0.06646499782800674, -0.19492001831531525, -0.12012982368469238, 0.3639088273048401, 0.19031588733196259, 0.48590272665023804, 0.011738847009837627, 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221860	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Leung	Tony Leung	Tony Leung may refer to: Tony Leung Chiu-wai (born 1962), Hong Kong actor known as "Little Tony" Tony Leung Ka-fai (born 1958), Hong Kong actor known as "Big Tony" See also Antony Leung (born 1952), Hong Kong businessman	[ -0.23879319429397583, -0.04615151882171631, 0.16258931159973145, -0.32460522651672363, -0.3274231553077698, 0.05420083925127983, -0.3406202793121338, 0.17364467680454254, -0.42237114906311035, 0.13987880945205688, -0.5649821758270264, 0.22007513046264648, -0.03349815309047699, -0.28149527311325073, -0.10432736575603485, 0.3843706250190735, 0.5731733441352844, 0.3015592098236084, -0.9999922513961792, -0.12622494995594025, -0.4795752763748169, 0.10083796828985214, 0.3739793598651886, -0.20073501765727997, -0.010851148515939713, 0.3108476996421814, -0.23039329051971436, 0.04115245118737221, 0.18239037692546844, 0.11971364915370941, -0.052216365933418274, -0.08481822907924652, 0.5382758378982544, 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221861	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann%20Theodor%20Hettner	Hermann Theodor Hettner	Hermann Julius Theodor Hettner (March 12, 1821 – May 29, 1882), was a German literary historian and museum director. He was born at Leisersdorf (Uniejowice), near Goldberg (Złotoryja), in Silesia. At the universities of Berlin, Halle and Heidelberg he concentrated on the study of philosophy, but in 1843 turned his attention to aesthetics, art and literature. In order to progress with these studies, he spent three years in Italy, and, on his return, published a Vorschule zur bildenden Kunst der Alten (1848) and an essay on Die neapolitanischen Malerschulen. He became Privatdozent for aesthetics and the history of art at Heidelberg in 1847 where he associated he became acquainted with the philosopher Ludwig Feuerbach , the Dutch scientist Jacob Moleschott and the Swiss poet Gottfried Keller. While at Heidelberg, Hettner married Marie von Stockmar, daughter of statesman Christian Friedrich, Baron Stockmar. From this marriage, three children emerged, including the German archaeologist . After the publication of his volume Die romantische Schule in ihrem Zusammenhang mit Goethe und Schiller (1850), Hettner accepted a call as professor to the University of Jena where he lectured on the history of both art and literature. There he produced the book Das moderne Drama (1852). This work, which was shaped by correspondence with Keller, was greatly influential on major 19th-century Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen who read it shortly after its publication during a trip to Copenhagen and Dresden. Hettner's argument for the psychological treatment of character being most important as a model for contemporary plays was one of the formative experiences in Ibsen's career. In 1855 Hettner was appointed director of the royal collections of antiquities and the museum of plaster casts at Dresden, to which posts were subsequently added that of director of the historical museum and a professorship at the Royal Saxon Polytechnic. He remained there until his death. Hettner's chief work is his Literaturgeschichte des achtzehnten Jahrhunderts ("Literary History of the 18th century"), which appeared in three parts, devoted respectively to English, French and German literature, between 1856 and 1870. The series was regarded as "comprehensive and discriminating", with the third part being republished in multiple editions until 1961. Although to some extent influenced by the political and literary theories of the Hegelian school, which, since Hettner's day have fallen into discredit, and at times losing sight of the main issues of literary development over questions of social evolution, this work is one of the most highly regarded histories of 18th century German literature. Hettner's other works include Griechische Reiseskizzen ("Greek Travel Sketches") (1853), Italienische Studien (1879) and several works descriptive of the Dresden art collections. His Kleine Schriften were collected and published in 1884. Works Vorschule zur bildenden Kunst der Alten (1848) Die romantische Schule in ihrem inneren zusammenhange mit Göthe und Schiller (1850) Das moderne Drama: Aesthetische Untersuchungen (1852) Griechische Reiseskizzen (1853) Robinson und die Robinsonaden (1854) Die Bildwerke der Königlichen Antikensammlung zu Dresden (1856) Literaturgeschichte des achtzehnten Jahrhunderts (1856 to 1870) Part 1 – Geschichte der englischen Literatur von der Wiederherstellung des Königthums bis in die zweite Hälfte des achtzehnten Jahrhunderts, 1660-1770 (1856) Part 2 – Geschichte der französischen Literatur im achtzehnten Jahrhundert (1860) Part 3 – Geschichte der deutschen Literatur im achtzehnten Jahrhundert, Buch 1 (1862) Part 3 – Geschichte der deutschen Literatur im achtzehnten Jahrhundert, Buch 2 (1864) Part 3 – Geschichte der deutschen Literatur im achtzehnten Jahrhundert, Buch 3 (1869/70) 2 vo. Part 3 – Goethe und Schiller: Separatabdruch aus H. Hettner’s Literaturgeschichte des achtzehnten Jahrhunderts (1870) 2 vo. Italienische Studien: zur Geschichte der Renaissance (1879) Kleine Schriftenl (1884) References which in turn cites: A. Stern, Hermann Hettner, ein Lebensbild (1885) H. Spitzer, H. Hettners kunstphilosophische Anfänge und Literaturästhetik (1903) German art historians 1821 births 1882 deaths Humboldt University of Berlin alumni University of Halle alumni Heidelberg University alumni University of Jena faculty German male non-fiction writers People from Złotoryja County	[ -0.3042445480823517, 0.552756130695343, -0.43550992012023926, 0.029336566105484962, -0.08675629645586014, 0.7435521483421326, 1.1115940809249878, -0.07144765555858612, -0.16098538041114807, -0.5600152015686035, -0.24029001593589783, -0.3089841306209564, 0.1706840544939041, 0.6930174231529236, -0.05007299408316612, 0.023237721994519234, -0.142855703830719, -0.21161743998527527, -0.6957510113716125, -0.13611845672130585, -0.23727062344551086, -0.010309992358088493, 0.4460124373435974, -0.2732347846031189, -0.1572297364473343, -0.45732206106185913, 0.06431269645690918, -0.38559794425964355, -0.07484731078147888, 0.22165656089782715, -0.06329689174890518, 0.6095327138900757, -0.014948557130992413, 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221863	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter-Parliamentary%20Union	Inter-Parliamentary Union	The Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU; , UIP) is an international organization of national parliaments. Its primary purpose is to promote democratic governance, accountability, and cooperation among its members; other initiatives include advancing gender parity among legislatures, empowering youth participation in politics, and sustainable development. The organization was established in 1889 as the Inter-Parliamentary Congress. Its founders were statesmen Frédéric Passy of France and William Randal Cremer of the United Kingdom, who sought to create the first permanent forum for political multilateral negotiations. Initially, IPU membership was reserved for individual parliamentarians, but has since transformed to include the legislatures of sovereign states. As of 2020, the national parliaments of 179 countries are members of the IPU, while 13 regional parliamentary assemblies are associate members. The IPU facilitates the development of international law and institutions, including the Permanent Court of Arbitration, the League of Nations, and the United Nations. It also sponsors and takes part in international conferences and forums, and has permanent observer status at the United Nations General Assembly. Consequently, eight individuals associated with the organization are Nobel Peace Prize laureates. History The organisation's initial objective was the arbitration of conflicts. The IPU played an important part in setting up the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague. Over time, its mission has evolved towards the promotion of democracy and inter-parliamentary dialogue. The IPU has worked for establishment of institutions at the inter-governmental level, including the United Nations, an organization with which it cooperates and with which it has permanent observer status. The headquarters of the union have been moved several times since its inception. Locations: 1892–1911: Bern (Switzerland) 1911–1914: Brussels (Belgium) 1914–1920: Oslo (Norway) 1921–present: Geneva (Switzerland) Eight leading personalities of the IPU have received Nobel Peace Prizes: 1901: Frédéric Passy (France) 1902: Charles Albert Gobat (Switzerland) 1903: Randal Cremer (United Kingdom) 1908: Fredrik Bajer (Denmark) 1909: Auguste Marie François Beernaert (Belgium) 1913: Henri La Fontaine (Belgium) 1921: Christian Lange (Norway) 1927: Ferdinand Buisson (France) Members and organization Members Regional parliamentary assemblies may be admitted by the Governing Council as Associate Members Every Parliament constituted in conformity with the laws of a sovereign State whose population it represents and on whose territory it functions may request affiliation to the Inter-Parliamentary Union. The decision to admit or readmit a Parliament shall be taken by the Governing Council. It is the duty of the Members of the IPU to submit the resolutions of the IPU within their respective Parliament, in the most appropriate form; to communicate them to the Government; to stimulate their implementation and to inform the IPU Secretariat, as often and fully as possible, particularly in its annual reports, as to the steps taken and the results obtained. Associate Members The participating parliamentary assemblies other than national parliaments are the following: Organs The organs of the Inter-Parliamentary Union are: Assembly. Meeting biannually, the Assembly is composed of parliamentarians designated as delegates by the Members. The Assembly is assisted in its work by Standing Committees, whose number and terms of reference are determined by the Governing Council; Standing Committees shall normally prepare reports and draft resolutions for the Assembly. No one delegate may record more than ten votes. Governing Council. The Governing Council normally holds two sessions a year. The Governing Council is composed of three representatives from each Member. The term of office of a member of the Governing Council lasts from one Assembly to the next and all the members of the Governing Council must be sitting members of Parliament. The Governing Council elects the President of the Inter-Parliamentary Union for a period of three years. It also elects the members of the Executive Committee and appoints the Secretary General of the Union. Executive Committee. The Executive Committee is composed of the President of the Inter-Parliamentary Union, 15 members belonging to different Parliaments (elected by the Governing Council; not less than 12 are elected from among the members of the Governing Council) and the President of the Coordinating Committee of the Meeting of Women Parliamentarians. The fifteen elected seats are assigned to the geopolitical groups. Only parliamentarians from States where women have both the right to vote and the right to stand for election are eligible to the Executive Committee. The Executive Committee is the administrative organ of the Inter-Parliamentary Union. The current President is Gabriela Cuevas Barron of Mexico, who was elected to a three-year mandate in October 2017 at the 201st session of the Governing Council of the IPU in Geneva. Secretariat. The Secretariat constitutes the totality of the staff of the organisation under the direction of the Secretary General, currently Martin Chungong of Cameroon. The Association of Secretaries General of Parliaments is a consultative body of the Inter-Parliamentary Union. Conferences The IPU Assembly (formerly known as the Inter-Parliamentary Conference) is the principal statutory body that expresses the views of the Inter-Parliamentary Union on political issues. Presidents Amendments to the Statutes Any proposal to amend the Statutes shall be submitted in writing to the Secretariat of the Union at least three months before the meeting of the Assembly. The Secretariat will immediately communicate all such proposals to the Members of the Union. The consideration of such proposed amendments shall be automatically placed on the agenda of the Assembly. Any sub-amendments shall be submitted in writing to the Secretariat of the Union at least six weeks before the meeting of the Assembly. The Secretariat will immediately communicate all such sub-amendments to the Members of the Union. After hearing the opinion of the Governing Council, expressed through a simple majority vote, the Assembly shall decide on such proposals by a two-thirds majority vote. The IPU and the United Nations The IPU marked the 50th anniversary of the United Nations, in 1995, by holding a special session in the General Assembly Hall before the start of the session, where they planned for closer cooperation with the United Nations. The General Assembly Resolution passed during that session requested the Secretary-General to put this into action. An agreement was signed between the IPU and the Secretary-General on 24 July 1996 and subsequently ratified by a General Assembly Resolution, where the United Nations recognizes IPU as the world organization of parliaments. Pursuant to this resolution, the Secretary-General submitted a report which was noted with appreciation by the General Assembly, who requested further strengthening of cooperation and another report. This report detailed the measures that had been taken, including opening a liaison office in New York, and cooperation on issues such land-mines and the promotion of representative democracy. Following an entire morning of debate the General Assembly passed a resolution which simply stated that it "looks forward to continued close cooperation". The following year (1999) the Secretary-General reported on an increased number of areas of cooperation, the issue was debated for an entire afternoon (interrupted by a minute of silence held for tribute to Vazgen Sargsyan, the Prime Minister of Armenia who had just at that time been killed by gunmen), and passed a resolution requesting the IPU be allowed to address the Millennium General Assembly directly. Following another report, and another half-day debate, the General Assembly welcomed the IPU declaration entitled "The Parliamentary vision for international cooperation at the dawn of the third millennium" and called for the Secretary-General to explore new and further ways in which the relationship could be strengthened. On 19 November 2002 the IPU was granted observer status to the General Assembly. In the Resolution 59/19, Cooperation between the United Nations and the Inter-Parliamentary Union, the UN General Assembly takes note of the recommendations in regard to engaging parliamentarians more systematically in the work of the United Nations. The final declaration of the Second World Conference of Speakers of Parliament, hosted at United Nations headquarters, took place in September 2005, was entitled Bridging the democracy gap in international relations: A stronger role for parliament. In the Resolution adopted by the UN General Assembly, 61/6, Cooperation between the United Nations and the Inter-Parliamentary Union, on 27 November 2006, it calls for the further development of the annual parliamentary hearing at the United Nations and other specialized parliamentary meetings in the context of major United Nations meetings as joint United Nations-Inter-Parliamentary Union events. Every year during the fall session of the General Assembly the IPU organises a Parliamentary Hearing. A resolution on cooperation between the United Nations and the IPU allowed for circulation of official IPU documents in the General Assembly. UN and the IPU cooperate closely in various fields, in particular peace and security, economic and social development, international law, human rights, and democracy and gender issues, but IPU has not obtained the status of UN General Assembly subsidiary organ. Fourth World Conference of Speakers of Parliament The fourth world conference on UN 70th anniversary marked by Ban Ki-Moon as "UN70" was organised in September 2015 where Speakers of all IPU(Inter-Parliamentary Union) member parliaments and of non-member parliaments were invited from across the world. The theme was on peace, democracy, and development. United Nations reports, resolutions, and agreements Resolution of the United Nations: Cooperation between the United Nations and the Inter-Parliamentary Union, 27 November 2006. Report of the United Nations Secretary-General: Cooperation between the United Nations and regional and other organizations, 16 August 2006. Resolution of the United Nations General Assembly: Cooperation between the United Nations and the Inter-Parliamentary Union, 8 November 2004. Report of the United Nations Secretary-General: Cooperation between the United Nations and the Inter-Parliamentary Union (see Part 5 of the Annex), 1 September 2004. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly: Cooperation between the United Nations and the Inter-Parliamentary Union, 21 November 2002. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly: Observer status for the Inter-Parliamentary Union in the General Assembly, 19 November 2002. Report of the United Nations Secretary-General: Cooperation between the United Nations and the Inter-Parliamentary Union, 3 September 2002. Cooperation Agreement between the United Nations and the Inter-Parliamentary Union of 1996. See also Inter-parliamentary institution e-democracy Global democracy Third World Conference of Speakers of Parliament International Day of Democracy Internationalism (politics) List of peace activists Millennium Development Goals Supranational union Sustainable Development Goals United Nations Democracy Fund United Nations Parliamentary Assembly United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) Notes References External links Cooperation with the United Nations at official website The Inter-Parliamentary Union (1968) Parliaments Across Frontiers: A Short History of the Inter-Parliamentary Union (1976) Elections Parliamentary assemblies United Nations General Assembly observers Organizations established in 1889 Organisations based in Geneva 1889 establishments in Switzerland Peace organizations	[ 0.322217732667923, -0.1505952775478363, 0.17569668591022491, -0.010165179148316383, -0.404127836227417, 0.21809981763362885, 0.08220898360013962, 0.5524487495422363, 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221871	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9%20Gr%C3%A9try	André Grétry	André Ernest Modeste Grétry (; baptised 11 February 1741; died 24 September 1813) was a composer from the Prince-Bishopric of Liège (present-day Belgium), who worked from 1767 onwards in France and took French nationality. He is most famous for his opéras comiques. Biography He was born at Liège, his father being a poor musician. He was a choirboy at the church of St. Denis (Liège). In 1753 he became a pupil of Jean-Pantaléon Leclerc and later of the organist at St-Pierre de Liège, Nicolas Rennekin, for keyboard and composition and of Henri Moreau, music master at the collegiate church of St. Paul. But of greater importance was the practical tuition he received by attending the performance of an Italian opera company. Here he heard the operas of Baldassarre Galuppi, Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, and other masters; and the desire of completing his own studies in Italy was the immediate result. To find the necessary means he composed in 1759 a mass which he dedicated to the canons of the Liège Cathedral, and it was at the expense of Canon Hurley that he went to Italy in March 1759. In Rome he went to the Collège de Liège. Here Grétry resided for five years, studiously employed in completing his musical education under Giovanni Battista Casali. His proficiency in harmony and counterpoint was, however, according to his own confession, at all times very moderate. His first great success was achieved by La vendemmiatrice, an Italian intermezzo or operetta, composed for the Aliberti theatre in Rome and received with universal applause. It is said that the study of the score of one of Pierre-Alexandre Monsigny's operas, lent to him by a secretary of the French embassy in Rome, decided Grétry to devote himself to French comic opera. On New Year's Day 1767 he accordingly left Rome, and after a short stay at Geneva (where he made the acquaintance of Voltaire, and produced another operetta) went to Paris. There for two years he had to contend with the difficulties attendant on poverty and obscurity. He was, however, not without friends, and by the intercession of Count Gustaf Philip Creutz, the Swedish ambassador, Grétry obtained a libretto from Jean-François Marmontel, which he set to music in less than six weeks, and which, on its performance in August 1768, met with unparalleled success. The name of the opera was Le Huron. Two others, Lucile and Le tableau parlant, soon followed, and thenceforth Grétry's position as the leading composer of comic opera was safely established. Altogether he composed some fifty operas. His masterpieces are Zémire et Azor and Richard Coeur-de-lion—the first produced in 1771, the second in 1784. The latter in an indirect way became connected with a great historic event. In it occurs the celebrated romance, O Richard, O mon Roi, l'univers t'abandonne, which was sung at the banquet – "fatal as that of Thyestes," remarks Carlyle – given by the bodyguard to the officers of the Versailles garrison on 3 October 1789. La Marseillaise not long afterwards became the reply of the people to the expression of loyalty borrowed from Grétry's opera. Richard Cœur de Lion was translated and adapted for the English stage by John Burgoyne. Grétry was the first to write for the "tuba curva", an instrument that existed from Roman times as the cornu. He used the tuba curva in music that he composed for the funeral of Voltaire. His opera-ballet La caravane du Caire, with modest turquerie exoticism in harp and triangle accompaniment, is a rescue adventure along the lines of Die Entführung aus dem Serail; premiered at Fontainebleau in 1783, it remained in the French repertory for fifty years. Grétry also made use of the mandolin in his compositions. Philip J. Bone speculated that Grétry was exposed to the instrument while in Italy, and said "he makes use of it upon various occasions, in this instance with a telling and marked impression." This instance was the seranade While all are sleeping from Grétry's opera L'amant jaloux. Bone called the serenade "a delicate accompaniment for two mandolins". The composer himself was influenced by the great events he witnessed, and the titles of some of his operas, such as La rosière républicaine and La fête de la raison, sufficiently indicate the epoch to which they belong; but they are mere pièces de circonstance, and the republican enthusiasm displayed is not genuine. Little more successful was Grétry in his dealings with classical subjects. His genuine power lay in the delineation of character and in the expression of tender and typically French sentiment. The structure of his concerted pieces on the other hand is frequently flimsy, and his instrumentation so feeble that the orchestral parts of some of his works had to be rewritten by other composers, in order to make them acceptable to modern audiences. During the Revolution Grétry lost much of his property, but the successive governments of France vied in favouring the composer, regardless of political differences. From the old court he received distinctions and rewards of all kinds; the republic made him an inspector of the conservatoire; Napoleon granted him the cross of the legion of honour and a pension. Grétry took students in opera composition, including his daughter Lucile and Caroline Wuiet. He died at the Hermitage in Montmorency, formerly the house of Rousseau. Fifteen years after his death Grétry's heart was transferred to his birthplace, permission having been obtained after a protracted lawsuit. In 1842 a large bronze statue of the composer was set up at Liège. His heart remains in it, while his body is buried in Paris at the Père Lachaise Cemetery. During his life, a commemorative statue was made of him by Jean-Baptiste Stouf. It was commissioned in 1804 by Hippolyte, comte de Livry, and placed in the Opéra Comique in 1809. It is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Grétry was married to the painter Jeanne-Marie Grandon. Operas Notes References Endnotes: See Michel Brenet, Vie de Grétry (Paris, 1884) Joach. le Breton, Notice historique sur la vie et les ouvrages de Grétry (Paris, 1814) A Grétry (his nephew), Grétry en famille (Paris, 1814) Felix van Hulst, Grétry (Liège, 1842) L. D. S. Notice biographique sur Grétry (Brussels, 1869) David Charlton, Grétry and the Growth of Opéra-Comique (Cambridge, 1986) Jean-Marc Warszawski, "André Grétry" External links 1741 births 1813 deaths Prince-Bishopric of Liège musicians Belgian classical composers 18th-century French composers Belgian male classical composers Classical-period composers French opera composers Male opera composers Directors of the Conservatoire de Paris Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery French male classical composers French ballet composers 19th-century French male musicians	[ -0.5396198630332947, 0.508004903793335, -0.42436665296554565, -0.0481829009950161, -0.06482997536659241, 0.9236478209495544, 0.2853184938430786, -0.3744961619377136, -0.5141049027442932, -0.8774539828300476, 0.0004426144587341696, 0.06727943569421768, -0.19949322938919067, 0.0798269733786583, -0.22952647507190704, 0.40225136280059814, 0.4182172119617462, -0.4730572998523712, -0.6320797801017761, -0.34957531094551086, 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221875	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois%20Marmontel	Jean-François Marmontel	Jean-François Marmontel (11 July 1723 – 31 December 1799) was a French historian, writer and a member of the Encyclopédistes movement. Biography He was born of poor parents at Bort, Limousin (today in Corrèze). After studying with the Jesuits at Mauriac, Cantal, he taught in their colleges at Clermont-Ferrand and Toulouse; and in 1745, acting on the advice of Voltaire, he set out for Paris to try for literary success. From 1748 to 1753 he wrote a succession of tragedies: Denys le Tyran (1748); Aristomene (1749); Cleopâtre (1750); Heraclides (1752); Egyptus (1753). These literary works, though only moderately successful on the stage, secured Marmontel's introduction into literary and fashionable circles. He wrote a series of articles for the Encyclopédie evincing considerable critical power and insight, which in their collected form, under the title Eléments de Littérature, still rank among the French classics. He also wrote several comic operas, the two best of which probably are Sylvain (1770) and Zémire et Azore (1771). In the Gluck–Piccinni controversy he was an eager partisan of Piccinni with whom he collaborated in Roland (Piccinni) (1778) and Atys (1779), both using Jean Baptiste Lully's libretto by Quinault as basis, Didon (1783) and Penelope (1785). In 1758 he gained the patronage of Madame de Pompadour, who obtained for him a place as a civil servant, and the management of the official journal Le Mercure, in which he had already begun the famous series of Contes moraux. The merit of these tales lies partly in the delicate finish of the style, but mainly in the graphic and charming pictures of French society under King Louis XV. The author was elected to the Académie française in 1763. In 1767 he published Bélisaire, now remarkable in part because of a chapter on religious toleration which incurred the censure of the Sorbonne and the archbishop of Paris. Marmontel retorted in Les Incas, ou la destruction de l'empire du Perou (1777) by tracing the cruelties in Spanish America to the religious fanaticism of the invaders. He was appointed historiographer of France (1771), secretary to the Academy (1783), and professor of history in the Lycée (1786). As a historiographer, Marmontel wrote a history of the regency (1788). Reduced to poverty by the French Revolution, Marmontel retired during the Reign of Terror to Evreux, and soon afterwards to a cottage at Abloville (near Saint-Aubin-sur-Gaillon) in the département of Eure. There he wrote Memoires d'un père (4 vols., 1804), including a picturesque review of his life, a literary history of two important reigns, a great gallery of portraits extending from the venerable Jean Baptiste Massillon, whom more than half a century previously he had seen at Clermont, to Honoré Mirabeau. The book was nominally written for the instruction of his children. It contains an exquisite picture of his own childhood in the Limousin; its value for the literary historian is great. Marmontel lived for some time under the roof of Madame Geoffrin, and was present at her famous dinners given to artists; he was welcomed into most of the houses where the encyclopaedists met, and was a contributor to the Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. He thus had at his command the best material for his portraits, and made good use of his opportunities. After a short stay in Paris when elected in 1797 to the Conseil des Anciens, he died at Abloville. He was a member of the Masonic lodge Les Neuf Sœurs. John Ruskin named him as one of the three people in history who were the most influential for him. In his autobiography, John Stuart Mill credits Memoires d'un père with curing him of depression. Works Theatre Marmontel published many opera librettos and mostly operas comiques librettos, a genre in which he excelled but could not compete with Charles-Simon Favart. 1748: Denys le tyran, tragedy, 5 February 1749: Aristomène, tragedy, 30 April 1750: Cléopâtre, tragédie, 20 May 1751: La Guirlande, acte de ballet, music by Jean-Philippe Rameau 1751: Acante et Céphise, pastorale héroïque in three acts, music by Jean-Philippe Rameau 1752: Les Héraclides, tragedy, 24 May 1753: Égyptus, tragedy 1753: Lisis et Délie, pastorale héroïque in 1 act, music by Jean-Philippe Rameau 1753: Les sibarites, acte de ballet, music by Jean-Philippe Rameau 1761: Hercule mourant, tragédie lyrique, music by Antoine Dauvergne 1762: Annette et Lubin 1766: La Bergère des Alpes 1768: Le Huron, opera comique, music by André Grétry 1769: Lucile, opéra comique, music by André Grétry 1770: Sylvain, opéra comique, music by André Grétry 1771: L'amie de la maison, opéra comique, music by André Grétry 1771: Zémire et Azor, opéra comique, music by André Grétry 1773: Céphale et Procris, ballet héroïque, music by André Grétry 1775: La Fausse magie, opéra comique, music by André Grétry 1783: Didon, opera, music by Niccolò Piccinni 1785: Pénélope, opéra comique, music by Niccolò Piccinni 1788: Démophoon, music by Luigi Cherubini. Poetry Polymnie, satire en 11 chants 1751: L’établissement de l’École militaire, 1752: Vers sur la convalescence du Dauphin, 1753: La naissance du duc d’Aquitaine, 1760: Épître aux poètes, 1820: La Neuvaine de Cythère, (licencious poem) Novels 1755–1759: Contes moraux, 1767: Bélisaire,<ref>Ce livre interdit a directement fait l'objet d'une critique Examen du Bélisaire de M. Marmontel</ref> Reprinted in 1787 by the Bibliothèque amusante. (see the two paintings by Jacques Louis David Bélisaire demandant l'aumône) 1777: Les Incas, ou la destruction de l'empire du Perou1792: Nouveaux contes moraux Essays 1763: Poétique française, 3 parts: a work in which Racine and Boileau are strongly attacked. 1777: Essai sur les révolutions de la musique en France, 1785: De l’Autorité de l’usage sur la langue, 1787: Éléments de littérature. Modern edition at Desjonquères, presented, established and annotated by Sophie Le Ménahèze, 2005. 1788: Mémoire sur la régence du duc d’Orléans1792: Apologie de l’Académie française. Varia 1746: L'Observateur littéraire : literary journal established with Jean-Grégoire Bauvin (or Beauvin) ; « Cette feuille, écrira-t-il, n'étant ni la critique infidèle et injuste des bons ouvrages, ni la satire amère et mordante des bons auteurs, elle eut peu de débit.» . The title was revived by abbé de La Porte in 1758. 1712–1714: The Rape of the Lock by Alexander Pope, translated into verse La boucle de cheveux enlevée, 1746. Edition bilingue moderne chez Rivages poche, 2010, 142 pages () 1759: édition remaniée de Venceslas by Rotrou, 1766: La Pharsale de Lucain, translated into prose, 1775: édition des Chefs d’œuvres dramatiques de Mairet, Du Ryer et Rotrou, with a Commentaire, 1800: Mémoires d’un père pour servir à l’instruction de ses enfants, 1806: Leçons d’un père à ses enfants sur la langue française''. Notes References External links Marmontel on Wikisource 1723 births 1799 deaths People from Corrèze 18th-century French male writers 18th-century French dramatists and playwrights 18th-century French novelists 18th-century French poets 18th-century French journalists French opera librettists French literary critics 18th-century French historians French fantasy writers Members of the Académie Française Les Neuf Sœurs Contributors to the Encyclopédie (1751–1772) French historiographers Prisoners of the Bastille 18th-century French memoirists	[ -0.45713678002357483, 0.6071506142616272, -0.8145590424537659, -0.15911827981472015, 0.3479791581630707, 0.5865943431854248, 0.7026050090789795, 0.16099143028259277, -0.3179198205471039, -0.7169744968414307, -0.21473006904125214, 0.6099957823753357, 0.1511753648519516, 0.14264334738254547, 0.03642244264483452, 0.09146742522716522, 0.07188045978546143, -0.5149213671684265, -0.2893598973751068, -0.09870213270187378, -0.6475659608840942, 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221883	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Hoppner	John Hoppner	John Hoppner (4 April 175823 January 1810) was an English portrait painter, much influenced by Reynolds, who achieved fame as a brilliant colourist. Early life Hoppner was born in Whitechapel, London, the son of German parents – his mother was one of the German attendants at the royal palace. King George showed a fatherly interest and patronage of the young boy that gave rise to rumours, quite unfounded, that he may have been his illegitimate son. Hoppner became a chorister at the royal chapel, but, showing strong inclination for art, in 1775 he entered the Royal Academy. In 1778 he took a silver medal for drawing from life, and in 1782 the Academy's highest award, the gold medal for historical painting, his subject being King Lear. Career Hoppner first exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1780. His earliest love was for landscape, but necessity obliged him to turn to the more lucrative business of portrait painting. At once successful, he had throughout life the most fashionable and wealthy sitters, and was the greatest rival to the growing attraction of Thomas Lawrence. He rarely attempted ideal subjects, though a Sleeping Venus, Belisarius, Jupiter and Io, a Bacchante and Cupid and Psyche are recorded among his works. The Prince of Wales visited him especially often, and many of his finest portraits were hung in the state apartments at St James's Palace, notably those of the prince himself, the Duke and Duchess of York, Lord Rodney and Lord Nelson. His other sitters included Sir Walter Scott, the Duke of Wellington, Henry Bartle Frere and Sir George Beaumont. According to the 1911 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica: Competent judges have deemed his most successful works to be his portraits of women and children... He was confessedly an imitator of Reynolds. When first painted, his works were much admired for the brilliancy and harmony of their colouring, but the injury due to destructive mediums and lapse of time which many of them suffered caused a great depreciation in his reputation. The appearance, however, of some of his pictures in good condition has shown that his fame as a brilliant colourist was well-founded. His drawing is faulty, but his touch has qualities of breadth and freedom that give to his paintings a faint reflection of the charm of Reynolds. In 1803 he published A Series of Portraits of Ladies, engraved after his paintings by Charles Wilkin, and in 1805 a volume of translations of Eastern tales into English verse. Unusually Hoppner painted the background and perhaps more of a full-length portrait of Charlotte, Countess Talbot by Thomas Gainsborough in 1788, the year in which Gainsborough died. It is now in the Dunedin Public Art Gallery. Personal life Hoppner was a man of great social power, and had the knowledge and accomplishments of a man of the world. He married Phoebe Wright, the daughter of American-born sculptor Patience Wright. They had five children, although little is known about the youngest: Catherine Hampden Hoppner (1784–1828), Magistrate, East India Company Richard Belgrave Hoppner (1786–1872), British Consul general, Venice, and friend of Byron (ref: Oxford DNB, entry on RBH in entry on John Hoppner) Wilson (sometimes known as William) Lascelles Hoppner (1788-?), artist Henry Parkyns Hoppner (1795–1833), officer of the Royal Navy, Arctic explorer, draughtsman/artist youngest unknown Hoppner Death In his later years Hoppner suffered from a chronic disease of the liver. He died on 23 January 1810. Gallery References Further reading Hoppner, John. Oriental Tales (London: J. Hatchard, 1805). Cole, Timothy. Old English Masters (New York : The Century Co., 1902) p. 91 ff. Skipton, H. P. K. John Hoppner (Methuen & Co, 1905) McKay, William & Roberts, William. John Hoppner (John Lane, The Bodley Head, 1909) Wilson, John, John Hoppner entry in Oxford DNB. External links John Hoppner on ArtCyclopedia Profile on Royal Academy of Arts Collections The Sackville children (1796 painting) Portrait of William Locke (1783 painting) Portrait of Anne, Lady Grenville (Christie's) 1758 births 1810 deaths People from Whitechapel Painters from London 18th-century English painters English male painters 19th-century English painters English people of German descent English portrait painters Royal Academicians	[ -0.13813956081867218, -0.09682215750217438, -0.4432205855846405, -0.2502126693725586, 0.6170099973678589, 1.0302661657333374, 0.36367955803871155, 0.04040125012397766, -0.8177935481071472, -0.1400461196899414, -0.3478223383426666, 0.08064161986112595, -0.13248097896575928, -0.08293987065553665, 0.15726332366466522, 0.010400517843663692, -0.18188795447349548, 0.31573474407196045, -0.3748956620693207, -0.3441980183124542, 0.04325241595506668, -1.043616533279419, 0.12480124831199646, -0.5865853428840637, -0.37000128626823425, -0.4261171817779541, 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221886	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gui-Jean-Baptiste%20Target	Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target	Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target (17 December 1733 – 9 September 1806) was a French lawyer and politician. Biography Born in Paris, Target was the son of a lawyer, and was himself a lawyer to the Parlement of Paris. He acquired a great reputation as a lawyer, less by practice in the courts than in a consultative capacity, and served the ancien régime as member of a committee to revise the civil and criminal laws of the kingdom. He strenuously opposed the "parlement Maupeou", devised by Chancellor Maupeou to replace the old judiciary bodies in 1771, refusing to plead before it, an act that earned him the sobriquet of the "Virgin of the palace". He was counsel for Louis René Edouard, cardinal de Rohan in the "affair of the diamond necklace". In 1785, he was elected to the Académie française. He contributed to the development of the Edict of Tolerance signed at Versailles by Louis XVI in 1787. French Revolution In 1789, he was returned as one of the deputies of the Third Estate in Paris to the Estates-General, and he was instrumental in writing up the cahiers de doléances of Paris. He went on to support revolutionary measures such as the union of the orders, the suspensive veto, the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, the last of which he was one of the principal authors. He was one of many deputies named to the Constitutional Committee in September 1789, to replace those conservative members who resigned. He presided over the National Constituent Assembly 18 January - 2 February 1790. His excessive obesity, which made him the butt of the Royalist jokes, prevented his practising at the bar for some years before 1789. When Louis XVI invited him to undertake his defence, he excused himself on this ground. In 1792, he published some constitutional observations in extenuation of the king's actions, which, in the circumstances of the time, would have taken some courage. From Thermidor to Empire Target took no part in public affairs during the Reign of Terror. Under the Directory he was made a member of the Institut de France in 1796 and of the Court of Cassation in 1798. He lived to collaborate in the earlier stages of the new criminal code. Works Among his writings may be mentioned a paper on the grain trade (1776) and a Mémoire sur l'état des Protestants en France (1787), in which he pleaded for the restoration of civil rights to Protestants. References Attribution The Britannica gives the following references: Victor du Bled, "Les avocats et l'Académie française", in the Grand Revue (vol. ii. 1899). H. Moulin, Le Palais a l'Académie: Target et son fauteuil (Paris, 1884). P. Boulloche, Un avocat au 18ième siècle (Paris, 1893). 1733 births 1807 deaths Members of the Académie Française People of the French Revolution Court of Cassation (France) judges Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery 19th-century French judges	[ -0.20350807905197144, 0.23701676726341248, -0.4938247799873352, 0.5182303786277771, -0.28929659724235535, 1.1262869834899902, 0.40803390741348267, -0.04924476519227028, -0.3220875859260559, -0.9599680304527283, 0.13472673296928406, 0.8323373794555664, -0.1900995820760727, -0.2870163321495056, -0.1252252608537674, -0.15371082723140717, -0.09342138469219208, -0.6718360185623169, -0.5840117931365967, -0.22599267959594727, -0.21769438683986664, 0.0013321033911779523, 0.27687376737594604, 0.09425050765275955, -0.3995693027973175, 0.36580348014831543, 0.41182830929756165, 0.7181857824325562, 0.6028192043304443, 0.17358669638633728, 0.007499655243009329, 0.7391536831855774, 0.210580512881279, -0.44089484214782715, -0.5974096059799194, 0.37497228384017944, 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221889	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal%20de%20Rohan	Cardinal de Rohan	Louis René Édouard de Rohan known as Cardinal de Rohan (25 September 1734 – 16 February 1803), prince de Rohan-Guéméné, was a French bishop of Strasbourg, politician, cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church, and cadet of the Rohan family (which traced its origin to the kings of Brittany). His parents were Hercule Mériadec, Prince of Guéméné and Louise Gabrielle Julie de Rohan. He was born in Paris. Members of the Rohan family had filled the office of Bishop of Strasbourg since 1704, which made them princes of the Holy Roman Empire and the compeers rather of the German prince-bishops than of the French ecclesiastics. Louis de Rohan was destined for this high office from birth. Soon after taking orders, in 1760, he was nominated coadjutor to his uncle, Louis Constantin de Rohan-Rochefort, who then held the bishopric, and he was also appointed titular bishop of Canopus, Egypt. But he preferred the elegant life and the gaiety of Paris to his clerical duties, and had also an ambition to make a figure in politics. In 1761 he was elected to seat 36 of the Académie française. Louis de Rohan was a member of the palace cabal opposed to the Austrian alliance. This party was headed by the Duc d'Aiguillon who, in 1771, sent Rohan on a special embassy to find out what was being done in Vienna with regard to the partition of Poland. Rohan arrived at Vienna in January 1772, and made a great spectacle of himself with his lavish entertainments. Empress Maria Theresa was hostile to his intrigues; not only did he attempt to thwart her alliance with France, but as a vicar of the Church, he made little secret of his venal lifestyle. On the death of Louis XV in 1774, Rohan was recalled from Vienna, and coldly received in Paris; but his family's influence was too great for him to be neglected; in 1777 he was made Grand Almoner of France, and in 1778, abbot of St. Vaast. In 1778, he was made a cardinal on the nomination of Stanislaus Poniatowski (the king of Poland). In 1779, Louis de Rohan succeeded his uncle, Constantine de Rohan-Rochefort, as bishop of Strasbourg, though he spent much of his career working in Paris, as he preferred a fashionable life to his clerical duties; also in 1779, he became abbot of Noirmoutiers and Chaise-Dieu. Despite his enhanced status, the Cardinal was poorly received at court, having made himself an enemy of Queen Marie Antoinette, the daughter of Empress Maria Theresa, whose disapproval he had earned in Vienna. Wishing to redeem himself in the eyes of the Queen, he fell into the hands of a gang of thieves, the comtesse de Lamotte, and others, perhaps including the notorious Cagliostro, whose actions form part of the "affair of the diamond necklace". Rohan was led to believe that his attentions to the Queen were welcomed, and that she approved his arrangements for her to purchase the infamous necklace. When the swindle was discovered, the Cardinal was arrested and implicated in the theft, though he was later found to have been an innocent dupe. At the trial in 1786 before the parlement of Paris his acquittal was received with popular enthusiasm, and regarded as a victory over the royal court at Versailles and, in particular, the Queen. He was deprived of his office as grand almoner and exiled to his abbey of Chaise-Dieu, where he was accompanied by his secretary, Louis Ramond de Carbonnières. The following year, he traveled to the thermal spas of the Pyrenees, spending the summer and the autumn in Barèges, where Ramond began his geological investigations. Rohan was soon allowed to return to Strasbourg, and his popularity was shown by his election in 1789 to the Estates-General by the clergy of the bailliages of Haguenau and Wissembourg. He, at first, declined to sit, but when the Estates-General became the National Assembly, it insisted on validating his election. However, in January 1791, as a prince of the church, he refused to take the oath to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, and went to Ettenheim, in the German part of his diocese. In exile, he spent what wealth remained to him in providing for the poor clergy of his diocese who had been obliged to leave France. On 29 November 1801, he resigned his nominal office as Bishop of Strasbourg and went back to Ettenheim, where he died on 17 February 1803. Depiction in media His role in the affair of the diamond necklace scandal is depicted in a 2001 American historical drama film, The Affair of the Necklace, directed by Charles Shyer, in which he was played by Jonathan Pryce, and in the anime Rose of Versailles. Rohan is portrayed by Barnett Parker in the film Marie Antoinette (1938). The character plays a key role, particularly in scenes following the entr'acte (intermission). References The Britannica gives as references the Mémoires of his secretary, the abbé Georgel, of the Baroness d'Oberkirch, of Beugnot, and of Madame Campan. 1734 births 1803 deaths 18th-century French cardinals Bishops of Strasbourg French untitled nobility Lycée Louis-le-Grand alumni Clergy from Paris People of the French Revolution Expelled members of the Académie Française Louis Rene Edouard de Rohan Cardinals created by Pope Pius VI Prisoners of the Bastille	[ -0.3291566073894501, 0.08534702658653259, -0.1766994744539261, 0.4883805215358734, -0.6609139442443848, 0.5843008756637573, 0.7630771994590759, -0.0864666998386383, -0.5334451198577881, -0.41889405250549316, -0.23160448670387268, 0.9383504390716553, -0.43089523911476135, 0.16352248191833496, 0.2916594445705414, -0.004155382048338652, 0.3688984811306, -0.3906219005584717, -0.5257698893547058, -0.9561096429824829, -0.18561023473739624, 0.1734652817249298, 0.4032192528247833, 0.15864913165569305, 0.42372727394104004, 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221899	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yowie%20%28disambiguation%29	Yowie (disambiguation)	The Yowie is a creature from Australian folklore. Yowie may also refer to: Yowie (band), experimental math rock trio from St. Louis, Missouri Yowie (chocolate), confectionery from the Cadbury-Schweppes company See also Yowie Bay, New South Wales, a suburb of Sydney, Australia Yaoi, a form of slash fiction	[ 0.4499615430831909, 0.37192124128341675, -0.8168666958808899, -0.04219996556639671, -0.40620240569114685, 0.34001442790031433, 1.1311578750610352, 0.21471327543258667, -0.2998911142349243, 0.10512338578701019, -0.05733655020594597, 0.43589267134666443, -0.5671924352645874, 0.7080383896827698, -0.19253171980381012, 0.2567000389099121, 0.2596706449985504, 0.5852587819099426, 0.13642404973506927, -0.1501135379076004, -0.3913394510746002, -0.5310438275337219, 0.028718503192067146, -0.41388392448425293, 0.04410621523857117, 0.3760376274585724, 0.7780701518058777, 0.5095662474632263, -0.3218977153301239, -0.2196643054485321, -0.1850983202457428, 0.4865656793117523, -0.04648160934448242, -0.38996317982673645, -0.17569275200366974, 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221901	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg%20Curnoe	Greg Curnoe	Greg Curnoe (19 November 1936 – 14 November 1992) was a Canadian painter known for his concentration on subjects associated with regionalism and London, Ontario. Curnoe is part of the Canadian art movement labeled London Regionalism. He was the driving force behind a regionalist sensibility that, beginning in the 1960s, made London, Ontario, an important centre for artistic production in Canada. While his oeuvre chronicled his own daily experience in a variety of media, it was grounded in twentieth-century art movements, especially Dada, with its emphasis on nihilism and anarchism, Canadian politics, and popular culture. He is remembered for brightly coloured works that often incorporate text to support his strong Canadian patriotism, sometimes expressed as anti-Americanism, as well as his activism in support of Canadian artists. Early life Gregory Richard Curnoe was born on 19 November 1936, at Victoria Hospital in London, Ontario. He grew up with his parents, Nellie Olive (née Porter) and Gordon Charles Curnoe; his brother, Glen (born 1939); and his sister, Lynda (born 1943), in a house built for the family by his grandfather. For most of his life, Curnoe lived within five kilometres of this home in Southwestern Ontario, a peninsula surrounded by water and the United States. Curnoe attended H. B. Beal Secondary School (1954–56) and the Doon School of Art (1956) before attending the Ontario College of Art (1957–60), where he failed his final year. Career Returning to London, Ontario, Curnoe began to work in the studio. He found meaning in popular culture and his own cultural roots that addressed the disillusion he felt with established culture after leaving art school. He founded Region magazine in 1961 and Region Gallery in 1962. He co-founded the Canadian noise band the Nihilist Spasm Band in 1965. In 1968, Jack Chambers with the aid of Kim Ondaatje, Tony Urquhart, Curnoe and John Boyle, founded Canadian Artists' Representation to serve as a union for artists in Canada. Curnoe co-founded the Forest City Gallery, an artist-run centre, in 1973. He represented Canada at the Venice Biennale in 1976 and was the subject of a retrospective exhibition at the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts in 1981, which subsequently toured across Canada. Curnoe was an avid cyclist, and his handbuilt Mariposa bicycles were a frequent subject of his work. While on a club ride with the London Centennial Wheelers, Curnoe was killed by a distracted driver in a pickup truck that plowed into the group of 12 cyclists on Highway 2, just outside Delaware, Ontario. He was killed and six others were seriously injured and taken to hospital. The driver was charged with four-counts of dangerous driving causing bodily harm, and one-count of dangerous driving causing death. The driver was eventually acquitted of all charges on 13 January 1994. See also Dorothy Haines Hoover References Further reading Rodger, Judith. Greg Curnoe: Life & Work. Toronto: Art Canada Institute, 2016. 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221902	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Bewick	Thomas Bewick	Thomas Bewick (c. 11 August 17538 November 1828) was an English wood-engraver and natural history author. Early in his career he took on all kinds of work such as engraving cutlery, making the wood blocks for advertisements, and illustrating children's books. He gradually turned to illustrating, writing and publishing his own books, gaining an adult audience for the fine illustrations in A History of Quadrupeds. His career began when he was apprenticed to engraver Ralph Beilby in Newcastle upon Tyne. He became a partner in the business and eventually took it over. Apprentices whom Bewick trained include John Anderson, Luke Clennell, and William Harvey, who in their turn became well known as painters and engravers. Bewick is best known for his A History of British Birds, which is admired today mainly for its wood engravings, especially the small, sharply observed, and often humorous vignettes known as tail-pieces. The book was the forerunner of all modern field guides. He notably illustrated editions of Aesop's Fables throughout his life. He is credited with popularising a technical innovation in the printing of illustrations using wood. He adopted metal-engraving tools to cut hard boxwood across the grain, producing printing blocks that could be integrated with metal type, but were much more durable than traditional woodcuts. The result was high-quality illustration at a low price. Life Bewick was born at Cherryburn, a house in the village of Mickley, Northumberland, near Newcastle upon Tyne on 10 or 11 August 1753, although his birthday was always celebrated on the 12th. His parents were tenant farmers: his father John had been married before his union with Jane, and was in his forties when Thomas, the eldest of eight, was born. John rented a small colliery at Mickley Bank, which employed perhaps six men. Bewick attended school in the nearby village of Ovingham. Bewick did not flourish at schoolwork, but at a very early age showed a talent for drawing. He had no lessons in art. At the age of 14 he was apprenticed to Ralph Beilby, an engraver in Newcastle, where he learnt how to engrave on wood and metal, for example marking jewellery and cutlery with family names and coats of arms. In Beilby's workshop Bewick engraved a series of diagrams on wood for Charles Hutton, illustrating a treatise on measurement. He seems thereafter to have devoted himself entirely to engraving on wood, and in 1775 he received a prize from the Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce for a wood engraving of the "Huntsman and the Old Hound" from Select Fables by the late Mr Gay, which he was illustrating. In 1776 Bewick became a partner in Beilby's workshop. The joint business prospered, becoming Newcastle's leading engraving service with an enviable reputation for high-quality work and good service. In September 1776 he went to London for eight months, finding the city rude, deceitful and cruel, and much disliking the unfairness of extreme wealth and poverty side by side. He returned to his beloved Newcastle as soon as he could, but his time in the capital gave him a wider reputation, business experience, and an awareness of new movements in art. In 1786, when he was financially secure, he married Isabella Elliott from Ovingham; she had been a friend when they were children. They had four children, Robert, Jane, Isabella, and Elizabeth; the daughters worked on their father's memoir after his death. At that period in his life he was described by the Newcastle artist Thomas Sword Good as "a man of athletic make, nearly 6 feet high and proportionally stout. He possessed great personal courage and in his younger years was not slow to repay an insult with personal chastisement. On one occasion, being assaulted by two pitmen on returning from a visit to Cherryburn, he resolutely turned upon the aggressors, and as he said, 'paid them both well'." Bewick was also noted as having a strong moral sense and was an early campaigner for fair treatment of animals. He objected to the docking of horses' tails, the mistreatment of performing animals such as bears, and cruelty to dogs. Above all, he thought war utterly pointless. All these themes recur in his engravings, which echo Hogarth's attention to moral themes. For example, he shows wounded soldiers with wooden legs, back from the wars, and animals with a gallows in the background. Bewick had at least 30 pupils who worked for him and Beilby as apprentices, the first of which was his younger brother John. Several gained distinction as engravers, including John Anderson, Luke Clennell, Charlton Nesbit, William Harvey, Robert Johnson, and his son and later partner Robert Elliot Bewick. The partners published their History of Quadrupeds in 1790, intended for children but reaching an adult readership, and its success encouraged them to consider a more serious work of natural history. In preparation for this Bewick spent several years engraving the wood blocks for Land Birds, the first volume of A History of British Birds. Given his detailed knowledge of the birds of Northumberland, Bewick prepared the illustrations, so Beilby was given the task of assembling the text, which he struggled to do. Bewick ended up writing most of the text, which led to a dispute over authorship; Bewick refused to have Beilby named as the author, and in the end only Bewick's name appeared on the title-page, along with a paragraph of explanation at the end of the preface. The book was an immediate success when published—by Beilby and Bewick themselves—in 1797. Just prior to its publication, Bewick published an anthology in 1795 on the study of character in the Kings and Queens of England. Given the success of the 1797 publication of his bird illustrations, Bewick started work at once on the second volume, Water Birds, but the disagreement over authorship led to a final split with Beilby. Bewick was unable to control his feelings and resolve issues quietly, so the partnership ended, turbulently and expensively, leaving Bewick with his own workshop. Bewick had to pay £20, equivalent to about £20,000 in 2011, in lawyer's fees, and more than £21 for Beilby's share of the workshop equipment. With the assistance of his apprentices Bewick brought out the second volume, Water Birds, in 1804, as the sole author. He found the task of managing the printers continually troublesome, but the book met with as much success as the first volume. In April 1827, the American naturalist and bird painter John James Audubon came to Britain to find a suitable printer for his enormous Birds of America. Bewick, still lively at age 74, showed him the woodcut he was working on, a dog afraid of tree stumps that seem in the dark to be devilish figures, and gave Audubon a copy of his Quadrupeds for his children. Bewick was fond of the music of Northumberland, and of the Northumbrian smallpipes in particular. He especially wanted to promote the Northumbrian smallpipes, and to support the piper John Peacock, so he encouraged Peacock to teach pupils to become masters of this kind of music. One of these pupils was Thomas's son, Robert, whose surviving manuscript tunebooks give a picture of a piper's repertoire in the 1820s. Bewick's last wood engraving, Waiting for Death, was of an old bony workhorse, standing forlorn by a tree stump, which he had seen and sketched as an apprentice; the work echoes William Hogarth's last work, The Bathos, which shows the fallen artist by a broken column. He died after a few days' illness on 8 November 1828, at his home. He was buried in Ovingham churchyard, beside his wife Isabella, who had died two years earlier, and not far from his parents and his brother John. Work Technique Bewick's art is considered the pinnacle of his medium, now called wood engraving. This is due both to his skill and to the method, which unlike the wood cut technique of his predecessors, carves against the grain, in hard box wood, using fine tools normally favoured by metal engravers. Boxwood cut across the end-grain is hard enough for fine engraving, allowing greater detail than in normal woodcutting. This been the dominant method used since Bewick's time. In addition, since a wood engraving is inked on the face, it requires only low pressure to print an image, so the blocks last for many thousands of prints, and importantly can be assembled into a page of metal type for ordinary printing in a single run. In contrast, a copper plate engraving is inked in the engraved grooves, the face being wiped clean of ink before printing, so much higher pressure is required, and images must be printed separately from the text, at far greater expense. Bewick made use of his close observation of nature, his remarkable visual memory, and his sharp eyesight to create accurate and extremely small details in his wood engravings, which proved to be both a strength and a weakness. If properly printed and closely examined, his prints could be seen to convey subtle clues to the character of his natural subjects, with humour and feeling. This was achieved by carefully varying the depth of the engraved grooves to provide actual greys, not only black and white, as well as the pattern of the marks to provide texture. But this subtlety of engraving created a serious technical difficulty for his printers; they needed to ink his blocks with just the right amount of ink, mixed so as to be of exactly the right thickness, and to press the block to the paper slowly and carefully, to obtain a result that would satisfy Bewick. Not surprisingly, this made printing slow and expensive. It also created a problem for Bewick's readers; if they lacked his excellent eyesight, they needed a magnifying glass to study his prints, especially the miniature tail-pieces. But the effect was transformative, and wood engraving became the main method of illustrating books for a century. The quality of Bewick's engravings attracted a far wider readership to his books than he had expected: his Fables and Quadrupeds were at the outset intended for children. Bewick ran his workshop collaboratively, developing the skills of his apprentices, so while he did not complete every task for every illustration himself, he was always closely involved, as John Rayner explains: Major works Works using his wood engraving technique, for which he became well known, include the engravings for Oliver Goldsmith's Traveller and The Deserted Village, for Thomas Parnell's Hermit, and for William Somervile's Chase. But "the best known of all Bewick's prints" is said by The Bewick Society to be The Chillingham Bull, executed by Bewick on an exceptionally large woodblock for Marmaduke Tunstall, a gentleman who owned an estate at Wycliffe in the North Riding of Yorkshire. Tail-pieces The tail- or tale-pieces, a Bewick speciality, are small engravings chosen to fill gaps such as those at the ends of the species articles in British Birds, each bird's description beginning on a new page. The images are full of life and movement, often with a moral, sometimes with humour, always with sympathy and precise observation, so the images tell a tale as well as being at the tail ends of articles. For example, the runaway cart, at the end of "The Sparrow-Hawk", fills what would otherwise be a 5 cm (2 in) high gap. Hugh Dixon explains: Bookplates The workshop of Beilby, Bewick, and son produced many ephemeral materials such as letterhead stationery, shop advertisement cards, and other business materials. Of these ephemeral productions, "bookplates have survived the best". Bewick's bookplates were illustrations made from engravings, containing the name or initials of the book's owner. Aesop's Fables The various editions of Aesop's Fables illustrated by Bewick span almost his entire creative life. The first was created for the Newcastle bookseller Thomas Saint during his apprentice years, an edition of Robert Dodsley's Select Fables published in 1776. With his brother John he later contributed to a three-volume edition for the same publisher in 1784, reusing some pictures from the 1776 edition. Bewick went on to produce a third edition of the fables. While convalescing from a dangerous illness in 1812, he turned his attention to a long-cherished venture, a large three-volume edition of The Fables of Aesop and Others, eventually published in 1818. The work is divided into three sections: the first has some of Dodsley's fables prefaced by a short prose moral; the second has "Fables with Reflections", in which each story is followed by a prose and a verse moral and then a lengthy prose reflection; the third, "Fables in Verse", includes fables from other sources in poems by several unnamed authors. Engravings were initially designed on the wood by Bewick and then cut by his apprentices under close supervision, refined where necessary by himself. This edition used a method that Bewick had pioneered, "white-line" engraving, a dark-to-light technique in which the lines to remain white are cut out of the woodblock. A General History of Quadrupeds A General History of Quadrupeds appeared in 1790. It deals with 260 mammals from across the world, including animals from "Adive" to "Zorilla". It is particularly thorough on some of the domestic animals: the first entry describes the horse. Beilby and Bewick had difficulty deciding what to include, and especially on how to organise the entries. They had hoped to arrange the animals systematically, but they found that the rival systems of Linnaeus, Buffon and John Ray conflicted, and in Linnaeus's case at least changed with every edition of his work. They decided to put useful animals first "which so materially contribute to the strength, the wealth, and the happiness of this kingdom". The book's coverage is erratic, a direct result of the sources that Bewick consulted: his own knowledge of British animals, the available scholarly sources, combined with George Culley's 1786 Observations on Livestock and the antique John Caius's 1576 On English Dogs. Bewick had to hand the Swedish naturalist Anders Sparrman's account of his visit to the Cape of Good Hope on Cook's expedition of 1772 to 1776, and animals from the Southern Cape figure largely in the book. It was an energetic muddle, but it was at once greeted with enthusiasm by the British public. They liked the combination of vigorous woodcuts, simple and accurate descriptions, and all kinds of exotic animals alongside things they knew. A History of British Birds A History of British Birds, Bewick's great achievement and with which his name is inseparably associated, was published in two volumes: History and Description of Land Birds in 1797 and History and Description of Water Birds in 1804, with a supplement in 1821. The Birds is specifically British, but is the forerunner of all modern field guides. Bewick was helped by his intimate knowledge of the habits of animals acquired during his frequent excursions into the country. He also recounts information passed to him by acquaintances and local gentry, and that obtained in natural history works of his time, including those by Thomas Pennant and Gilbert White, as well as the translation of Buffon's Histoire naturelle. Many of the illustrations that have most frequently been reproduced in other books and as decorations are the small tailpieces that Bewick had placed at the bottoms of the pages of the original. The worlds depicted are so small that a magnifying glass is necessary to examine their detail; each scene, as Adrian Searle writes, "is a small and often comic revelation", each tiny image giving "enormous pleasure"; Bewick "was as inventive as he was observant, as funny and bleak as he was exacting and faithful to the things he saw around him." Bewick's biographer, Jenny Uglow, writes that Bewick sometimes used his fingerprint as a form of signature, (accompanied by the words "Thomas Bewick his mark"), as well as engraving it in one of his tail-pieces as if it had clouded the tiny image of a rustic scene with a cottage by mistake. Uglow notes one critic's suggestion that Bewick may have meant we are looking at the scene through a playfully smudged window, as well as drawing our attention to Bewick, the maker. Adrian Searle, writing in The Guardian, describes the tiny work as "A visual equivalent to the sorts of authorial gags Laurence Sterne played in Tristram Shandy, it is a marvellous, timeless, magical joke." Tributes and portraits Poetical tributes came to Bewick even during his lifetime. William Wordsworth began his anecdotal poem "The Two Thieves", composed in 1798, with the line "O now that the genius of Bewick were mine", in which case he would give up writing, he declared. In 1823, Bewick's friend the Reverend J. F. M. Dovaston dedicated a sonnet to him with the lines Xylographer I name thee, Bewick, taughtBy thy wood-Art, that from rock, flood, and treeHome to our hearths, all lively, light and freeIn suited scene each living thing has broughtAs life elastic, animate with thought. Four years after his death, his sixteen-year-old admirer Charlotte Brontë wrote a poem of 20 quatrains titled "Lines on the celebrated Bewick" which describe the various scenes she comes across while leafing through the books illustrated by him. Later still, the poet Alfred Tennyson left his own tribute on the flyleaf of a copy of Bewick's History of British Birds found in Lord Ravenscroft's library: A gate and field half ploughed, A solitary cow, A child with a broken slate, And a titmarsh in the bough. But where, alack, is Bewick To tell the meaning now? Each in their own way is making the same point, that Bewick's work is more than mere illustration. Its liveliness and truth to experience appeals to the imagination of the reader and calls forth an individual response that goes beyond the text. As noted towards the end of the article on him in the Dictionary of National Biography, there are numerous portraits of Bewick, beginning with that by Newcastle painter George Gray (1758–1819), from about 1780 and long owned by Bewick's family, that is now in the Laing Art Gallery. Several are by James Ramsay, including the one at the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne, in which he sits holding spectacles, one in middle-age, held by the Natural History Society of Northumbria, and one in old age in the National Portrait Gallery. Bewick also appears among the figures on the left in Ramsay's "The Lost Child" (1823), where he is standing next to Ramsay and his wife in the street leading up to St Nicholas' Church. John Henry Frederick Bacon was to draw on this small figure to create his 1852 print of Bewick, in which he has been transferred from the urban to a rural setting, with the city and the Tyne in the background. Other portraits include one by William Nicholson dating from 1814 in which Bewick sits with a pencil in his hand and a dog beside his chair; the one at his birthplace; and the full-length seated portrait of 1827 by Thomas Sword Good (see above). Another painting by Sword in the National Portrait Gallery is now no longer thought to be of Bewick. An unsigned painting supposedly of him in the Yale Center for British Art is equally dubious. A marble portrait bust of Bewick was commissioned from Edward Hodges Baily in 1825 by the Literary and Philosophical Society, of which there are several copies beside the one still at the Society itself. According to Jenny Uglow, his recent biographer, when he came to sit for the sculptor, he "stoutly refused to be portrayed in a toga. Instead he wore his ordinary coat and waistcoat with neckcloth and ruffled shirt, and even asked for some of his smallpox scars to be shown." Baily was so taken with him that he presented Bewick with a plaster model of the finished bust. A bronze copy now rests in a niche of the building that replaced his workshop in the churchyard of Saint Nicholas (see above) and still another is at the British Museum. There is also a full-length statue of him at the top left of the former chemist's shop designed by M.V.Treleaven at 45 Northumberland Street in the city. Legacy Bewick's fame, already nationwide across Britain for his Birds, grew during the nineteenth century. In 1830, William Yarrell named Bewick's swan in his honour and Bewick's son Robert engraved the bird for later editions of British Birds. Bewick's wren also took his name. The critic John Ruskin compared the subtlety of his drawing to that of Holbein, J. M. W. Turner, and Paolo Veronese writing that the way Bewick had engraved the feathers of his birds was "the most masterly thing ever done in woodcutting". His fame faded as illustration became more widespread and more mechanical, but twentieth-century artists such as Gwen Raverat (née Darwin) continued to admire his skill, and work by artists such as Paul Nash and Eric Ravilious has been described as reminiscent of Bewick. Hugh Dixon, reflecting on Bewick and the landscape of North-East England, wrote that Thomas Bewick Primary School, in West Denton in Newcastle upon Tyne, is named after him. Bewick's works are held in collections including the British Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum. Newcastle's City Library has a collection of works and associated items based on the Pease Bequest which was made to the city by John William Pease in 1901. Bewick is also memorialised around Newcastle and Gateshead. Streets are named after him, and plaques mark his former homes and workshops. Bibliography The 1784 edition of Fables of Aesop and others The 1818 edition of the fables; there is also an online fable by fable facsimile Volume 1: Containing the History and Description of Land Birds Volume 2: Containing the History and Description of Water Birds Bewick, Thomas (1862). A Memoir of Thomas Bewick. Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts. --- (1975). Iain Bain (editor). Oxford University Press. References Notes Citations Sources Further reading Online publications of books about and illustrated by Bewick Bain, Iain (rev. edn. 1989). The Workshop of Thomas Bewick. Mickley, Stockspield: Thomas Bewick Birthplace Trust Croal, Thomson David (1882). Life and Works of Thomas Bewick. The Art Journal Office, London. First published 1862. Hall, Marshall (2005). The Artists of Northumbria. Art Dictionaries Ltd. . Holmes, June (2006). The Many Faces of Bewick. Natural History Society of Northumbria Transactions. Robinson, Robert (1887). Thomas Bewick, His Life and Times. Printed for Robert Robinson, Newcastle. Uglow, Jenny (2006). Nature's Engraver: The Life of Thomas Bewick Weekley, Montague (1953). Thomas Bewick. Oxford University Press. External links The Bewick Society, which also has a useful bibliography and lists of resources Bewick at the Newcastle Collection Laing Art Gallery (Tyne and Wear Museums): Thomas Bewick University of Manchester: George Johnson Wood-Engraving Collection Bookplates by Thomas Bewick in the University of Delaware Library's William Augustus Brewer Bookplate Collection A selection of high-resolution scans of pages from Bewick's books, featuring woodcut illustrations from the Linda Hall Library 1753 births 1828 deaths British illustrators English wood engravers English illustrators People from Mickley, Northumberland British bird artists Natural history illustrators 18th-century English artists 19th-century English artists	[ -0.1865275651216507, 0.3778683841228485, -0.49278318881988525, -0.542417049407959, -0.5540050268173218, 0.659512460231781, 0.7492989897727966, 0.3300485610961914, -0.2883334159851074, -0.19082018733024597, 0.06815483421087265, -0.21327728033065796, -0.401614785194397, 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221903	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground%20tit	Ground tit	The ground tit, Tibetan ground-tit or Hume's ground-tit (Pseudopodoces humilis) is a bird of the Tibetan plateau north of the Himalayas. The peculiar appearance confused ornithologists in the past who called it as Hume's groundpecker and still later as Hume's ground jay or Tibetan ground jay assuming that it belonged to the family Corvidae that includes the crows and jays. Although morphologically confusing, the species has since been identified using molecular sequence comparisons as being a member of the tit family (Paridae) and is the only species in the genus Pseudopodoces. It is found in the Tibetan Plateau of China, India, Nepal & Bhutan. Description Pseudopodoces is somewhat similar in appearance to the unrelated ground jays (Podoces) but much smaller – about the size of a house sparrow (Passer domesticus) – and lacks any conspicuous markings. More strongly however, it resembles a wheatear (Oenanthe) in habitus, but lacks black feathers and has a strong and slightly downcurved bill resembling that of a chough (Pyrrhocorax) in shape (though not in colour). Its soft, lax body plumage is extremely cryptic in its natural habitat. The underside is a greyish-fawn in colour, with a tawny hue. The upper parts are mostly a darker fawn-brown, with the central rectrices and the primary remiges a little darker still; the head is colored like the underside, with a darker cap and light nape patch, somewhat reminiscent of some tits and chickadees, especially those from the genera Parus sensu stricto and Periparus. The bill, legs and feet are black. Males and females look alike. The voice is described as a plaintive whistling, cheep-cheep-cheep-cheep and it also has a two syllable finch-like call. Systematics The ground tit was traditionally considered a relative of the ground jays (Podoces), based on its voice and habits. Its autapomorphies have certainly puzzled 20th century ornithologists, but due to its remote range and nondescript appearance, it was little studied and not suspected to be anything but an aberrant ground jay for more than 100 years after its description by Hume. In 1978 and 1989 however, two studies of its anatomy determined that – although at that time unassignable to any family due to its peculiar adaptations, it appeared that it was not a corvid but a more advanced songbird of the infraorder today known as Passerida. From 2003 onwards, osteological, mtDNA and nDNA sequence and other biochemical data has firmly allied it with the tits and chickadees (Paridae). In fact, genetic evidence suggests that it is a closer relative of the great tit and its relatives in the genus Parus sensu stricto than the chickadees and their relatives of the genus Poecile. Ecology It occurs across the Tibetan Plateau of China and the neighboring areas of western Sichuan and Gansu. The Tibetan ground-tit inhabits open alpine steppe and sometimes more arid regions with small scattered shrubs, rarely if ever occurring lower than 3,000 meters above sea level. It is not found anywhere where dense vegetation (especially trees) predominates. The flight of this bird is not strong and it flies low over the ground preferring to run or jump out of the way if approached which it does very quickly. It moves on the ground in unpredictable hops and bounces which can be quite long – jumps of three times the bird's length are achieved without assistance by the wings – rather than striding or running like Podoces ground jays. Observers have compared the sight of a Tibetan ground-tit moving along to a small greyish-brown rubber ball. It obtains food on the ground, eating a wide range of arthropod prey, often obtained by probing yak (Bos grunniens) dung and turning it over to flush the prey out. It also peers into rock crevices and into holes in the ground in its search for food. Individuals have been observed to poke mud in and near puddles like hoopoes (Upupa epops); in general the bill is extensively used for digging, much like the similarly-shaped one of the red-billed chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax). If chased by a bird of prey or other predator, it will bolt straight down the nearest hole like a rodent until the danger has passed. They are frequently found near colonies of pikas (Ochotona). Though the birds and the mammals probably benefit from each other's vigilance, their association is probably less due to a strong mutualism but rather because both prefer habitat with similar ground cover and soil. The nest is rather unusual for that of a passerine, being built inside a burrow which the birds excavate themselves. It is usually dug horizontally into a bank or wall of earth, and can reach a depth of 1.8 meters. The nest is placed at the end of this in a small chamber and consists usually just of bit of wool placed onto a grass base. The 4–6 eggs are pure white and the young stay with their parents for some time after fledging; half-grown young are still fed by their parents on occasion as late as August. Cooperative breeding occurs in this species, with monogamous pairs frequently having at least one male helper who are yearlings which remain on the natal territory. This behaviour is thought to occur as a result of there being a shortage of males in the population. The ground tit is not a migratory bird but may descend to lower altitudes in valleys during the winter. In addition to digging nesting burrows, ground-tits frequently dig roosting burrows to use during the coldest months. Footnotes References del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew & Christie, D. (eds.) (2007): Handbook of Birds of the World (Vol. 12: Picathartes to Tits and Chickadees). Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. 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221904	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Somervile	William Somervile	William Somervile or Somerville (2 September 167517 July 1742) was an English poet who wrote in many genres and is especially remembered for "The Chace", in which he pioneered an early English georgic. Life Somervile, the eldest son of a long established country family, was born in Staffordshire in 1677. He was a descendant of Roger de Somerville, of an English branch of the Somerville Family. William raised at the family seat of Edstone, near Wootton Wawen in Warwickshire. He was educated at Winchester College and at New College, Oxford, and then studied law at the Middle Temple. After his father's death in 1705 he lived on his estate and devoted himself to the field sports which were eventually to supply the subjects of his best-known poems. Among his friends and neighbours were the poets William Shenstone, Richard Jago and George Lyttelton, 1st Baron Lyttelton. Later he was a correspondent of Allan Ramsay and they exchanged poems. But Somervile's convivial hospitality strained his small personal income and plunged him into debt. Eventually he took to drinking heavily and died on 17 July 1742 at the age of 66. After his death he was buried in the church at Wootton Wawen and his estate passed to James Lord Somerville under an arrangement in which Lord Somerville had lent him money to pay his debts. Following Somervile's death, William Shenstone paid him a tribute in a letter which hints at the strained relations with his friends in later life: Poetry Somervile's publications were The Two Springs (1725), a fable; Occasional Poems (1727); The Chace ("The Chase") (1735); Hobbinol, or the Rural Games (1740), a burlesque poem describing the Cotswold Games; and Field Sports (1742), a poem on hawking. The poems continued to be republished for the best part of a century after they first appeared but, The Chace apart, criticism of them was generally guarded. For Samuel Johnson, "Somervile has tried many modes of poetry; and though perhaps he has not in any reached such excellence as to raise much envy, it may commonly be said at least, that "he writes very well for a gentleman"... His subjects are commonly such as require no great depth of thought or energy of expression. His fables are generally stale and therefore excite no curiosity." In the eyes of John Aikin, a little later, "He is strictly and almost solely a descriptive poet…Little occurs in his writings that indicates a mind inspired by that exalted enthusiasm which denotes the genius of superior rank. His versification is generally correct and well varied, and evidently flows from a nice and practiced ear… His Chase is probably the best performance upon that topic which any country has produced. But by the time of The Cambridge History of English Literature (1913), the attitude is plainly dismissive: "Much of his verse is poor doggerel in the form of fables and tales, dull and coarse after the usual manner of such productions". Such a judgment might certainly be applied to a performance like "The Fortune Hunter", in which La Fontaine's fable of The Man who Runs after Fortune (VII.12) is expanded into five cantos that ramble over sixty pages. Other fables have a more subtle agenda, however. Though they may be Aesopic at base, often the original storyline is modified so as to make a contemporary statement. The situation of the ancient fable of the lion, the boar and the vultures has been given the modern context of bear-baiting in which the dog and bear contestants suddenly gain an insight into how their virtues are being exploited in ways that harm rather than benefit themselves. Again, the story of The Trumpeter Taken Captive takes place against a background of contemporary Anglo-French military rivalry and is directed against those who stir up war, from which they profit without taking part. Both fables were written at a time when Robert Walpole was commanding popular support for a pacific foreign policy and accord with the spirit of the time. The fashion for fable-writing was at its height when Somervile produced his. Though there is some novelty in his approach, his discursive talent was better suited to The Chace, the work for which he is best remembered. That poem was also only the period's third georgic poem on an English subject, having been preceded by Cyder (1708) by John Philips and Rural Sports (1713) by John Gay. It consists of four cantos, the first of which introduces the subject and covers the management of hounds. The second canto deals with hare hunting and the third with fox hunting, while the fourth covers otter hunting and the breeding and care of hounds. The poem passed through many editions, some of the later including the two poems on country pursuits that followed it. Among the illustrators of the poem have been Thomas Bewick (1796); Thomas Stothard (1800); John Scott (engravings based on paintings by John Nott Sartorius, 1804); and Hugh Thomson (1896). Images for Somervile's sporting poetry References External links William Somervile at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA) Biography by John Aiken, Select Works of the British Poets (1820) The Poems of William Somervile Google ebook The Chase by William Somervile - Fifty Words for Snow The Chase and Field Sports, by William Somervile, Esq. Includes a sketch of the author's life by Edward Topham The Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets, Vol. II by Samuel Johnson Includes a biography of Somervile. 1675 births 1742 deaths People from Worcestershire People educated at Winchester College Alumni of New College, Oxford English male poets	[ -0.15858326852321625, 0.12679922580718994, -0.19844599068164825, -0.7619394063949585, 0.15389032661914825, 0.7254316210746765, 0.5355076789855957, -0.08665052056312561, -0.3260009288787842, -0.07609129697084427, 0.14355142414569855, -0.20573335886001587, -0.2917950451374054, 0.18964698910713196, -0.20379726588726044, 0.46092909574508667, 0.10486973077058792, -0.4873279631137848, -0.16228444874286652, -0.4626755118370056, -0.3208896517753601, -0.04727323725819588, 0.35053110122680664, -0.2586243450641632, 0.26557478308677673, 0.10476125031709671, 0.25955894589424133, -0.40682026743888855, 0.05521990358829498, -0.03339428827166557, 0.2418668270111084, 0.5984072089195251, 0.6517603993415833, 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221906	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20Law%20of%20Peace	Great Law of Peace	Among the Haudenosaunee (the "Six Nations," comprising the Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora peoples) the Great Law of Peace (Mohawk: Kaianere’kó:wa) is the oral constitution of the Iroquois Confederacy. The law was written on wampum belts, conceived by Dekanawidah, known as the Great Peacemaker, and his spokesman Hiawatha. The original five member nations ratified this constitution near modern-day Victor, New York, with the sixth nation (the Tuscarora) being added in 1722. The laws were first recorded and transmitted not in written language, but by means of wampum symbols that conveyed meaning. In a later era it was translated into English and various other accounts exist. The Great Law of Peace is presented as part of a narrative noting laws and ceremonies to be performed at prescribed times. The laws called a constitution are divided into 117 articles. The united Iroquois nations are symbolized by an eastern white pine tree, called the Tree of Peace. Each nation or tribe plays a delineated role in the conduct of government. The Iroquois claim the events date back to the late 12th century (around 1190), while some western scholars suggest a later date of 1451 AD. Narrative, constitution, and ceremony The narratives of the Great Law exist in the languages of the member nations, so spelling and usages vary. William N. Fenton observed that it came to serve a purpose as a social organization inside and among the nations, a constitution of the Iroquois Confederacy or League, ceremonies to be observed, and a binding history of peoples. Fenton also observed some nine common points focusing more simply on the narrative story line, though Christopher Vecsey identified 22 points shared across some two dozen versions of the narrative or parts of the narrative both direct and indirect: Narrative The Migration and Separation of the People (pre-history of the area) The Birth and Growth of Deganawida The Journey to the Mohawks, the Situation, and the Mission Explained The Mother of Nations Accepts Deganawida's Message The Cannibal Converts The Prophets Prove Their Power Tadadaho the Wizard Prevents Peace Hiawatha's Relatives Are Killed Hiawatha Mourns and Quits Onondaga Hiawatha Invents Wampum Hiawatha Gives the Mohawks Lessons in Protocol Deganawida Consoles Hiawatha Scouts Travel to Tadadaho Deganawida and Hiawatha Join Oneidas, Cayugas, and Senecas to Mohawks The Nations March to Tadadaho, Singing the Peace Hymn Deganawida and Hiawatha Transform Tadadaho Constitution of the Confederacy and social order of the member peoples Deganawida and Hiawatha Establish Iroquois Unity and Law Deganawida and Hiawatha Establish League Chiefs and Council Polity The Confederacy Takes Symbolic Images The League Declares Its Sovereignty (the Constitutional laws of the Confederacy) Ceremony The Condolence Maintains the Confederacy (a sequence of ceremonies for grieving over a deceased chief and appointing a new one) Deganawida Departs Barbara Mann has gathered versions featuring conflicting but harmonized elements (who does what varies, but what happens is more consistent than not), or stories that tell distinct elements not shared in other versions, into a narrative she includes in the Encyclopedia of the Haudenosaunee published in 2000. Published accounts Cayuga An untranslated version has been posted by the Smithsonian Institution. Another is mentioned being presented to Michael Foster. Mohawk There are several Mohawk versions that made it into print and several of those were printed more than once. Horatio Hale published one in 1883 he traced somewhat earlier which was reprinted by William N. Fenton, following Arthur Caswell Parker, in 1968. J. N. B. Hewitt published one in 1928 based on a much earlier fragment. Joseph Brant and John Norton commented on details of the narrative as early as 1801 and published since. Dayodekane, better known as Seth Newhouse, arranged for some versions that were published differently near 1900 - first from 1885 included in a book by Paul A. W. Wallace in 1948, and a second version published in 1910 by Arthur C. Parker. Fenton discusses Newhouse' contributions in a paper in 1949. Wallace also published a separate book without stating his source in 1946 called The Iroquois book of Life - White Roots of Peace, which was later revised and extended with endorsements by Iroqouis chiefs and Iroquoian historian John Mohawk in 1986 and 1994. Oneida Oneida versions have been noted in various places. One from New York, has been echoed/summarized by the Milwaukee Public Museum. Another has been published by the Oneida Nation of Wisconsin in two sections. Another account is also reported. Paula Underwood, an oral historian who traces her history to an Oneida ancestor, was also related to Benjamin Franklin. Her familial oral history describing Shenandoah's close relationship and collaboration with Benjamin Franklin on the writing of the US Constitution was published in 1997. Onondaga Parts of Horatio Hale's work The Iroquois Book of Rites is said to have Onondaga sources. J. N. B. Hewitt recorded Chief John Buck and included his presentation in 1892. John Arthur Gibson shared several versions that have gathered notable awareness among scholars like Fenton and others. His first version was in 1899. Gibson then participated in a collective version with many Chiefs from the Six Nations of the Grand River Reserve in 1900 which was reprinted a number of times: first in 1910/1, and then included in another work. A final version was offered to Alexander Goldenweiser but wasn't finished translated and published until 1992 by Hanni Woodbury. Seneca Newspaper editor William Walker Canfield published a book The Legends of the Iroquois in 1902 based on found notes he was given purporting to be written from comments of Cornplanter reportedly to an employee of the surveyor company Holland Land Company, perhaps John Adlum, known friend of Cornplanter. It is the primary source of the mention of a solar eclipse. Another Seneca version was given by Deloe B. Kittle to Parker and was published in 1923. Tuscarora The Tuscarora joined the Iroquois Confederacy in 1722. There is a version of the Great Law of Peace attributed by Wallace "Mad Bear" Anderson of the Tuscarora published in 1987. However, there is a claim this was borrowed. Influence on the United States Constitution Some historians, including Donald Grinde of the University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, have claimed that the democratic ideals of the Kaianere’kó:wa provided a significant inspiration to Benjamin Franklin, James Madison and other framers of the U.S. Constitution. They contend that the federal structure of the U.S. constitution was influenced by the living example of the Iroquois confederation, as were notions of individual liberty and the separation of powers. Grinde, Bruce Johansen and others also identify Native American symbols and imagery that were adopted by the nascent United States, including the American bald eagle and a bundle of arrows. Their thesis argues the U.S. constitution was the synthesis of various forms of political organization familiar to the founders, including the Iroquois confederation. Franklin circulated copies of the proceedings of the 1744 Treaty of Lancaster among his fellow colonists; at the close of this document, the Six Nations leaders offer to impart instruction in their democratic methods of government to the English. Franklin's Albany Plan is also believed to have been influenced by his understanding of Iroquois government. John Rutledge of South Carolina, delegate to the Constitutional Convention, is said to have read lengthy tracts of Six Nations law to the other framers, beginning with the words "We, the people, to form a union, to establish peace, equity, and order..." In October 1988, the U.S. Congress passed Concurrent Resolution 331 to recognize the influence of the Iroquois Constitution upon the American Constitution and Bill of Rights. The extent of the influence of Six Nations law on the U.S. Constitution is disputed by other scholars. Haudenosaunee historian Elisabeth J. Tooker has pointed to several differences between the two forms of government, notably that all decisions were made by a consensus of male chiefs who gained their position through a combination of blood descent and selection by female relatives, that representation was on the basis of the number of clans in the group rather than the size or population of the clans, that the topics discussed were decided by a single tribe. Tooker concluded there is little resemblance between the two documents, or reason to believe the Six Nations had a meaningful influence on the American Constitution, and that it is unclear how much impact Canasatego's statement at Lancaster actually had on the representatives of the colonies. Stanford University historian Jack N. Rakove argued against any Six Nations influence, pointing to lack of evidence in U.S. constitutional debate records, and examples of European antecedents for democratic institutions. Journalist Charles C. Mann has noted other differences between The Great Law of Peace and the original U.S. Constitution, including the original Constitution's allowing denial of suffrage to women, and majority rule rather than consensus. Mann argues that the early colonists' interaction with Native Americans and their understanding of Iroquois government did influence the development of colonial society and culture and the Suffragette movement, but stated that "the Constitution as originally enacted was not at all like the Great Law." In 'Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior' political anthropologist Christopher Boehm considers the U.S. Constitution to be a counter dominance strategy that allows citizens to dominate their leader rather than the other way around. He also concludes that the Founding Fathers borrowed wisely from the Iroquois tribal government in forming the Constitution having recently been dominated by a foreign king. Example articles §37: There shall be one war chief from each nation, and their duties shall be to carry messages for their chiefs, and to take up arms in case of emergency. They shall not participate in the proceedings of the Council of the League, but shall watch its progress and in case of an erroneous action by a chief, they shall receive the complaints of the people and convey the warnings of the women to him. The people who wish to convey messages to the chiefs of the League shall do so through the war chief of their nation. It shall always be his duty to lay the cases, questions, and propositions of the people before the council of the League. §58: Any Chief or other person who submit to Laws of a foreign people are alienated and forfeit all claim in the Five Nations. §101: It shall be the duty of the appointed managers of the Thanksgiving festivals to do all that is needful for carrying out the duties of the occasions. The recognized festivals of Thanksgiving shall be the Midwinter Thanksgiving, the Maple or Sugar-Making Thanksgiving, the Raspberry Thanksgiving, the Strawberry Thanksgiving, the Corn Planting Thanksgiving, the Corn Hoeing Thanksgiving, The Little Festival of Green Corn, the Great Festival of Ripe Corn, and the Complete Thanksgiving for the Harvest. Each nation's festivals shall be held in their Longhouses. §107: A certain sign shall be known to all the people of the Five Nations which shall denote that the owner or occupant of a house is absent. A stick or pole in a slanting or leaning position shall indicate this and be the sign. Every person not entitled to enter the house by right of living within upon seeing such a sign shall not enter the house by day or by night, but shall keep as far away as his business will permit. Notes References Mann, Charles C. 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. Further reading What is the Great Law of Peace? External links The Iroquois Confederacy: Our Forgotten National Heritage (Interview w/ Dr. Donald Grinde Jr.) The Law Ganienkeh Territory Council Fire, Onkwehonwe people Exemplar of Liberty: Native America and the Evolution of Democracy by Donald Grinde & Bruce Johansen - see esp. 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221907	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20Sam%20Houston	Fort Sam Houston	Fort Sam Houston is a U.S. Army post in San Antonio, Texas. Known colloquially as "Fort Sam," it is named for the U.S. Senator from Texas, U.S. Representative from Tennessee, Tennessee and Texas Governor, and first President of the Republic of Texas, Sam Houston. The installation's missions include serving as the command headquarters for the United States Army North (formerly the Fifth United States Army), United States Army South, the Army Medical Command (MEDCOM) headquarters, the Army Medical Department (AMEDD) Center and School, the Fifth Recruiting Brigade, Navy Regional Recruiting, the San Antonio Military Entrance and Processing Station, and the Medical Education and Training Campus (METC). On October 1, 2010, Fort Sam Houston joined Lackland Air Force Base and Randolph Air Force Base to create Joint Base San Antonio, under Air Force administration. Hosted units U. S. Department of Defense (DoD) Elements Medical Education and Training Campus (METC) United States Military Entrance Processing Command (USMEPCOM) Elements MEPS San Antonio U. S. Army Elements U.S. Army North (ARNORTH) Elements HQ, U.S. Army North (Fifth US Army) 323rd Army Band U. S. Army Installation Management Command (IMCOM) Elements HQ, U.S. Army IMCOMIMCOM West Mission Training ComplexU. S. Army Medical Command (MEDCOM) ElementsHQ, U.S. Army MEDCOM U.S. Army Veterinary Command (VETCOM) U.S. Army Dental Command (DENCOM) Southern Regional Medical Command (SRMC) Brooke Army Medical Center (BAMC) Troop Command, Brooke Army Medical Center, HHC & companies A–D Warrior Transition Battalion, Brooke Army Medical Center U.S. Army Institute of Surgical Research (ISR) U.S. Army Medical Department Center and School Health Readiness Center of Excellence (AMEDDC&S HRCoE) Academy of Health Sciences 32nd Medical Brigade 187th Medical Battalion, HHD & companies A–D 232rd Medical Battalion, HHD & companies A–H 264th Medical Battalion, HHD & companies A–F Training Support Company (TSC) U.S. Army Medical Department Student Detachment Non-Commissioned Officer Academy Defense Medical Readiness Training Institute (DMRTI) US Army Medical Information and Technology Center (USAMITC)U.S. Army South (ARSOUTH) ElementsHQ, U.S. Army South (Sixth US Army) U.S. Army Forces Command (FORSCOM) Elements5501st US Army Hospital 418th Medical Logistics Company 591st Medical Logistics Company 470th Blood Detachment 79th Ordnance Battalion (Explosive Ordnance Disposal)U.S. Army Recruiting Command (USAREC) ElementsU.S. Army Fifth Recruiting Brigade 5th Brigade, U.S. Army Cadet CommandArmy Contracting Command Elements410th Contracting Support BrigadeMission and Installation Contracting Command412th Contracting Support BrigadeU.S. Army Criminal Investigation Command6th Region CID Ft. Sam Houston 25th Military Police DetachmentU.S. Army Intelligence and Security Command (INSCOM) Elements470th Military Intelligence Brigade, HHC & companies A–BU.S. Army Network Enterprise & Technology Command106th Signal BrigadeU.S. Army Environmental CommandU. S. Air Force Elements'HQ, 502nd Air Base Wing 502nd Mission Support Group (replaced the garrison command) Camp Bullis Senior Command United States Army North is the senior command and responsible for all Army activities on Fort Sam Houston, but not for the post itself. Commanded by Lt. Gen. John R. Evans Jr., Army North's primary missions are land-based Homeland Defense, Defense Support of Civil Authorities and Theater Security Cooperation with the Bahamas, Canada and Mexico. Because Fort Sam Houston is part of Joint Base San Antonio, the installation commander is the commander of the 502d Air Base Wing. Military Medicine Fort Sam Houston is known as the "Home of Army Medicine" and "Home of the Combat Medic." At the end of World War II, the Army decided to make Fort Sam Houston the principal medical training facility. In conjunction with this decision came the determination to develop Brooke General Hospital into one of the Army's premier medical centers. This combined the capabilities of Wilford Hall Medical Center located at nearby Lackland Air Force Base to create the largest medical treatment facility and teaching hospital in the Department of Defense. Construction associated with this transition increased the square footage of the hospital by 50%, including a much larger, variable capacity emergency department, additional surgical suites and recovery facilities, as well as teaching facilities and bed space. Despite the installation transitioning to Air Force control, the command and control of the facility will remain with the Army. The command and other key positions will rotate between the Army and Air Force. Staffing consist of members of both services, as well as a large number of civilians. As of 2011, Fort Sam Houston is the largest and most important military medical training facility in the world. Military Medical Training is provided by numerous elements, including METC, AMEDD Center and School, Brooke Army Medical Center, US Army Institute of Surgical Research, The Center for Battlefield Health and Trauma, Defense Medical Readiness Training Institute, as well as many smaller organizations. Known as the brain trust for the Army Medical Department, the Army Medical Department Center and School annually trains more than 25,000 students attending 170 officer, NCO and enlisted courses in 14 medical specialties. The command maintains several academic affiliations for bachelor's and master's degree programs with major universities such as Baylor University, University of Texas Health Science Centers at Houston and San Antonio, and University of Nebraska. As a result of the Base Realignment and Closure Commission (BRAC) 2005 recommendations, all military medical training has been consolidated at Fort Sam Houston. This consolidation concluded with the opening of the Military Education and Training Campus (METC) in 2011. The Navy moved its medical training from San Diego, California; Great Lakes, Illinois; and Portsmouth, Virginia. The Air Force moved its medical training from Sheppard Air Force Base in Wichita Falls, Texas. This increased the average student load and required additional support staff. The expansion in training has required construction approaching one billion dollars, a windfall of federal investment in Texas. Historic buildings Construction at Fort Sam Houston began in the middle 1870s under the supervision of the military commander of the Department of Texas, Major General Edward Ord, a West Point-trained army engineer. Today, as one of the Army's oldest installations, and with more than 900 buildings in its historic districts, Fort Sam Houston boasts one of the largest collection of historic military post structures. The significant contributions of Fort Sam Houston to the United States were recognized in 1975 when the post was designated as a National Historic Landmark. The Sundry Civil Service Bill of 3 March 1873, included a $100,000 allotment for a new army post in San Antonio, on 93 acres of land deeded by the city on Government Hill. Edward Braden Construction Co. won the contract to build the post on 7 June 1876, for $83,900. Included on the Quadrangle was a combination 87 foot watch tower and 6,400 gallon water tank designed by General Montgomery C. Meigs, based on one he had seen in Europe, and which he called "his work of art". On 19 Feb. 1877, the new train station on Austin Street opened, connecting San Antonio to Galveston. The quartermasters soon moved their depot supplies from the Alamo to the Quadrangle, and the headquarters of the "Post at San Antonio" moved in on 22 Dec. 1879. In 1880, fifteen officers' quarters were designed by architect Alfred Giles, west of the Quadrangle, and bordering a parade ground. This included the Commanding General's home, constructed in 1881, now known as the Pershing House, and first occupied by Brig. Gen. Christopher Augur. Between 1885 and 1893, 60 additional buildings were built on 43 acres, Upper post or Infantry Post, purchased by the army east of the Quadrangle, including the 1893 Band Barracks overlooking another parade ground. The hospital, now known as Sam Houston House, was built in 1886. The post was formally named Fort Sam Houston on September 11, 1890. The Fort Sam Houston Quadrangle, built by George Henry Griebel, is the oldest structure at Fort Sam Houston. It was originally a supply depot. During that time, it housed the Apache war chief Geronimo and warriors captured with him, while the Federal government decided whether to treat them as prisoners of war or common criminals. Legend has it that the deer in the Quadrangle were there because Geronimo refused to eat food he did not hunt. The deer pre-date Geronimo in the Quadrangle. It is unknown why the deer (and peacocks/penhens) were introduced into the confined courtyard of the Quadrangle. The Quadrangle is now an office complex housing the commanding general and staff of U.S. Army North as well as the Fort Sam Houston Museum. The base has maintained the historical integrity of the post's different sections, which represent different eras of construction, and reflect various Army concepts in planning and design. Careful preservation of these areas allows the post to live with its history, surrounded by the traditions established when the first soldier arrived here in 1845. The Gift Chapel was dedicated by President William Taft on 17–18 Oct. 1909. During World War II space at the fort was made available for up to 1,000 German POWs. This took place on 15 Sept. 1942 while POW camps could be built. Notable postings Several famous figures have served at the fort, including Arthur MacArthur Jr., Leonard Wood, Benjamin Foulois, Frederick Funston, and John J. Pershing. Maj. Gen. John Wilson Ruckman, Commander of the Southern Department, was based at Fort Sam just after the Houston Riot of 1917. Brig. Gen. Billy Mitchell was posted there after being demoted to colonel for disobeying orders. Dwight D. Eisenhower was posted to Fort Sam Houston twice during his career, as was Walter Krueger. During Eisenhower's first posting from 1915 to 1917, he met and married Mamie Doud. He was posted at the fort when the attack on Pearl Harbor occurred in 1941. Their first home is one of the buildings preserved as an historic monument. Gen. Wainwright took command of the Fourth United States Army here in 1946. Community connections Throughout its existence, a close and harmonious relationship has prevailed between Fort Sam Houston and the City of San Antonio. The two have grown and matured together. The city often has been called the "mother-in-law of the Army" because so many soldiers including Dwight D. Eisenhower, met their future spouses there. After the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, in 2003 the Army decided to close New Braunfels Avenue to through traffic. Until the 2003 closure, New Braunfels had been a major north–south thoroughfare used by soldiers and San Antonio citizens alike; this had the result of closing many businesses near the north and south entrances from New Braunfels Avenue. More than 27,000 military and civilian personnel work at the post, with an annual payroll and operating budget of $1.9 billion. Local purchases made by installation activities total almost $105 million annually. Funding for construction projects on post average $30 million annually. Fort Sam Houston has also initiated public–private partnerships to renovate and adaptively reuse significant historic buildings. In June 2006, the San Antonio Express-News'' reported that Fort Sam Houston received utility disconnection notices due to budget constraints. Fort Sam Houston is one of three military facilities in Texas (all in the San Antonio area) to have its own school district, the Fort Sam Houston Independent School District. The United States Postal Service operates the Fort Sam Houston Post Office at 1804 Stanley Road. See also Russell W. Volckmann Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery United States Army Medical Department Museum Dodd Army Airfield United States Army Medical Department Captains Career Course List of World War II prisoner-of-war camps in the United States Thomas Quinton Donaldson Jr. References External links Fort Sam Houston Museum Illustrated postcards depicting Fort Sam Houston at the University of Houston Digital Library Fort Sam Houston, Texas, United States of America 1876 establishments in Texas Buildings and structures in San Antonio Sam Houston Sam Houston Historic American Engineering Record in Texas Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Texas Military in San Antonio Military installations in Texas Military headquarters in the United States National Historic Landmarks in Texas National Register of Historic Places in San Antonio Sam Houston United States Army medical installations	[ -0.2264162302017212, 0.6304405331611633, 0.05954323709011078, -0.24376831948757172, 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221908	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritheism	Tritheism	Tritheism (from Greek τριθεΐα, "three divinity") is a nontrinitarian Christian heresy in which the unity of the Trinity and thus monotheism are denied. It represents more a "possible deviation" than any actual school of thought positing three separate deities. It was usually "little more than a hostile label" applied to those who emphasized the individuality of each hypostasis or divine person—Father, Son and Holy Spirit—over the unity of the Trinity as a whole. The accusation was especially popular between the 3rd and 7th centuries AD. In the history of Christianity, various theologians have been accused of lapsing into tritheism. Among the earliest were the monophysites John Philoponos (died c. 570) and his followers, such as Eugenios and Konon of Tarsos. They taught that the common nature of the Trinity is an abstraction, so that while the three persons are consubstantial they are distinct in their properties. Their view was an attempt to reconcile Aristotle with Christianity. This view, which was defended by Patriarch Peter III of Antioch, was condemned as tritheism at a synod in Alexandria in 616. It was again condemned as tritheism at the third council of Constantinople in 680–81. In Late Antiquity, several heretical movements criticized Orthodoxy as equivalent to tritheism. The Sabellians, Monarchians and Pneumatomachoi labelled their opponents tritheists. Jews and Muslims frequently criticized Trinitarianism as merely dressed-up tritheism (see Islamic view of the Trinity). Groups accused by the orthodox of tritheism include the Anomoeans and Nestorians. In the Middle Ages, the scholastic Roscelin was accused of tritheism. He was an extreme nominalist who saw the three divine persons as separately existing. He was condemned as a tritheist at the synod of Soissons in or about 1092. The realist scholastic Gilbert de la Porrée erred in the opposite direction, by distinguishing between three divine beings and the essence of God (making a quaternity rather than a trinity), and was accused of tritheism. He was condemned at the council of Reims in 1148. Gilbert's ideas influenced Joachim of Fiore and the Fourth Lateran Council (1215) tried to clarify the issue by confirming the numerical unity of the Trinity. In modern times, the Austrian Catholic Anton Günther, in an effort to refute Hegelian pantheism, declared three divine persons to be three absolute and distinct realities bound together only by their shared origin. List of Christians accused of tritheism The following tritheistic tendencies have been condemned as heretical by mainstream theology. Those who are usually meant by the name were a section of the Monophysites, who had great influence in the second half of the sixth century, but have left no traces save a few scanty notices in John of Ephesus, Photius, Leontius etc. Their founder is said to be a certain John Ascunages, head of a Sophist school at Antioch. The principal writer was John Philoponus, the great Aristotelian commentator; the leaders were two bishops, Conon of Tarsus and Eugenius of Seleucia in Isauria, who were deposed by their comprovincials and took refuge at Constantinople where they found a powerful convert and protector in Athanasius the Monk, a grandson of the Empress Theodora. Philoponus dedicated to him a book on the Trinity. The old philosopher pleaded his infirmities when he was summoned by the Emperor Justinian to the Court to give an account of his teaching. But Conon and Eugenius had to dispute in the reign of Justin II (565-78) in the presence of the Catholic patriarch John Scholasticus (565-77), with two champions of the moderate Monophysite party, Stephen and Paul, the latter afterward Patriarch of Antioch. The Tritheist bishops refused to anathematize Philoponus, and brought proofs that he agreed with Severus and Theodosius. They were banished to Palestine, and Philoponus wrote a book against John Scholasticus, who had given his verdict in favour of his adversaries. But he developed a theory of his own as to the Resurrection (see Eutychianism) on account of which Conon and Eugenius wrote a treatise against him in collaboration with Themistus, the founder of the Agnoctae, in which they declared his views to be altogether unchristian. These two bishops and a deprived bishop named Theonas proceeded to consecrate bishops for their sect, which they established in Corinth and Athens, Rome, Northern Africa and the Western Patriarchate, while in the east agents traveled through Syria and Cilicia, Isauria and Cappadocia, converting whole districts and ordaining priests and deacons in cities villages and monasteries. Eugenius died in Pamphylia; Conon returned to Constantinople. Leontius assures that the Aristotelianism of Philoponus made him teach that there are in the Holy Trinity three partial substances (merikai ousiai, ikikai theotetes, idiai physeis) and one common. The genesis of the doctrine has been explained (for the first time) under MONOPHYSITES, where an account of Philoponus's writings and those of Stephen Gobarus, another member of the sect, will be found. John Philoponus, an Aristotelian and monophysite in Alexandria about the middle of the sixth century, was charged with tritheism because he saw in the Trinity as separated three natures, substances and deities, according to the number of divine persons. He sought to justify this view by the Aristotelian categories of genus, species and individuum. In the Middle Ages, Roscellin of Compiegne, the founder of Nominalism, argued like Philoponus that unless the Three Persons are tres res (3 objects), the whole Trinity must have been incarnate. He was condemned of the heresy of tritheism at the 1092-1093 Council of Soissons presided over by Renaud du Bellay, archbishop of Rheims. Attempting to appeal to the authority of Lanfranc and Anselm, Roscellin prompted Anselm to write Cur Deus Homo and other treatments of the divine nature refuting his treatment. Roscellin publicly recanted and, after exile in England and Italy, reconciled himself to the church, but returned to a form of his earlier reasoning. Among Catholic writers, Pierre Faydit, who was expelled from the Oratory at Paris in 1671 for disobedience and died in 1709, practiced a form of tritheism in his Eclaireissements sur la doctrine et Phistoire ecclésiastiqes des deux premiers siecles (Paris, 1696), in which he tried to make out that the earliest Fathers were Tritheists. He was replied to by the Premonstratensian Abbot Louis-Charles Hugo (Apologie du système des Saints Pères sur la Trinité, Luxemburg, 1699). A prominent ideologue of Russian Old Believers and a writer, Avvakum (died 1682) was accused by official Orthodox Church and by fellow Old Believers of tritheism, based on some passages in his letters. A Catholic canon of Trier named Oembs, influenced by the doctrines of the "Enlightenment", similarly attributed to the Fathers his own view of three similar natures in the Trinity, calling the numerical unity of God an invention of the Scholastics. His book Opuscula de Deo Uno et Trino (Mainz, 1789), was condemned by Pius VII in a Brief of 14 July 1804. The Bohemian Jesuit philosopher Anton Günther was also accused of tritheism, leading to his work ending up on the Index librorum. Among Protestants, Heinrich Nicolai (d. 1660), a professor at Danzig and at Elbing (not to be confounded with the founder of Familia Caritatis), is cited. The best known in the Anglican Church is William Sherlock, Dean of St. Paul's, whose Vindication of the Doctrine of the Holy and ever Blessed Trinity (London, 1690) against the Socinians, maintaining that with the exception of a mutual consciousness of each other, which no created spirits can have, the three divine persons are "three distinct infinite minds" or "three intelligent beings.", was attacked by Robert South in Animadversions on Dr. Sherlock's Vindication (1693). Sherlock's work is said to have made William Manning a Socinian and Thomas Emlyn an Arian, and the dispute was ridiculed in a skit entitled "The Battle Royal", attributed to William Pittis (1694?), which was translated into Latin at Cambridge. Joseph Bingham, author of the "Antiquities", preached at Oxford in 1695 a sermon which was considered to represent the Fathers as tritheists, and it was condemned by the Hebdomadal Council as falsa, impia et haeretica, the scholar being driven from Oxford. Though members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints would probably not self-identify as tritheist, some critics of Mormonism claim that it is tritheistic or polytheistic because it teaches that the Godhead is a council of three distinct deities perfectly one in purpose, unity and mission, but nevertheless separate and distinct beings. Some have suggested that the Seventh-day Adventist Church has embraced a tritheistic view of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as it does not see their singularity as a Godhead consisting in one being but rather as three separate beings in a single group. See also Triple deity Triple Goddess (Neopaganism) References Conceptions of God Theism	[ 0.5802276730537415, 0.480380117893219, -0.808860719203949, -0.09345410019159317, -0.5461434125900269, 0.5432655215263367, 0.8846427798271179, -0.07733384519815445, 0.10917220264673233, -0.11498045921325684, -0.24784234166145325, 0.6668190956115723, -0.5833982229232788, 0.7938532829284668, -0.19645406305789948, 0.47962668538093567, 0.6211739778518677, 0.3854828476905823, -0.38764095306396484, -0.1174888163805008, -0.30039283633232117, -0.16333912312984467, 0.3248104453086853, -0.3319633901119232, 0.413451224565506, 0.023897908627986908, 0.38330259919166565, 0.00004196916415821761, 0.13557292520999908, 0.1261478066444397, 0.5274103283882141, 0.692691445350647, -0.12464930862188339, -0.48161810636520386, 0.26715919375419617, 0.3605165481567383, 0.2948518991470337, -0.325025349855423, -0.09988639503717422, -0.6774671673774719, 0.5956222414970398, -0.493213415145874, 0.5398495197296143, 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221909	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COBRA%20%28art%20movement%29	COBRA (art movement)	COBRA (or CoBrA) was a European avant-garde movement active from 1948 to 1951. The name was coined in 1948 by Christian Dotremont from the initials of the members' home countries' capital cities: Copenhagen (Co), Brussels (Br), Amsterdam (A). History During the time of occupation of World War II, the Netherlands had been disconnected from the art world beyond its borders. COBRA was formed shortly thereafter. This international movement of artists who worked experimentally evolved from the criticisms of Western society and a common desire to break away from existing art movements, including "detested" naturalism and "sterile" abstraction. Experimentation was the symbol of an unfettered freedom, which, according to Constant, was ultimately embodied by children and the expressions of children. COBRA was formed by Karel Appel, Constant, Corneille, Christian Dotremont, Asger Jorn, and Joseph Noiret on 8 November 1948 in the Café Notre-Dame, Paris, with the signing of a manifesto, "La cause était entendue" ("The Case Was Settled"), drawn up by Dotremont. Formed with a unifying doctrine of complete freedom of colour and form, as well as antipathy towards Surrealism, the artists also shared an interest in Marxism as well as modernism. Their working method was based on spontaneity and experiment, and they drew their inspiration in particular from children’s drawings, from primitive art forms and from the work of Paul Klee and Joan Miró. Coming together as an amalgamation of the Dutch group Reflex, the Danish group Høst and the Belgian Revolutionary Surrealist Group, the group only lasted a few years but managed to achieve a number of objectives in that time: the periodical Cobra, a series of collaborations between various members called Peintures-Mot and two large-scale exhibitions. The first of these was held at the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam, November 1949, the other at the Palais des Beaux-Arts in Liège in 1951. The group is notable for having a Black artist member, Ernest Mancoba, who was married to Sonja Ferlov a Danish sculptor who was one of a few active women in the movement. In November 1949 the group officially changed its name to Internationale des Artistes Expérimentaux with membership having spread across Europe and the United States, although this name has never stuck. The movement was officially disbanded in 1951, but many of its members remained close, with Dotremont in particular continuing collaborations with many of the leading members of the group. The primary focus of the group consisted of semi-abstract paintings with brilliant color, violent brushwork, and distorted human figures inspired by primitive and folk art and similar to American action painting. Cobra was a milestone in the development of Tachisme and European abstract expressionism. Cobra was perhaps the last avant-garde movement of the twentieth century. According to Nathalie Aubert the group only lasted officially for three years (1948 to 1951). After that period each artist in the group developed their own individual paths. Manifesto The manifesto, entitled, "La cause était entendue" (The Case Was Settled) was written by CoBrA member Christian Dotremont and signed by all founding members in Paris in 1948. It was directly speaking to their experience attending the Centre International de Documentation sur l’Art d’Avant-garde in which they felt the atmosphere was sterile and authoritarian. It was a statement of working collaboratively in an organic mode of experimentation in order to develop their work separate from the current place of the avant-garde movement. The name of the manifesto was also a play on words from an earlier document signed by Belgian and French Revolutionary Surrealists in July 1947, entitled "La cause est entendue" (The Case Is Settled). Method The European artists were different from their American counterparts (the Abstract expressionists) for they preferred the process over the product and introduced primitive, mythical, and folkloric elements along with a decorative input from their children and graffiti. One of the new approaches that united the COBRA artists was their unrestrained use of strong colors, along with violent handwritings and figuration which can be either frightening or humorous. Their art was alive with subhuman figures in order to mirror the terror and weakness of our time unlike the dehumanized art of Abstraction. This spontaneous method was a rejection of Renaissance art, specialization, and ‘civilized art’, they preferred ‘uncivilized’ forms of expression which created an interplay between the conscious and the unconscious instead of the Surrealist interest in the unconscious alone. The childlike in their method meant a pleasure in painting, in the materials, forms, and finally the picture itself; this aesthetic notion was called ‘desire unbound’. The Dutch Artists in particular within Cobra (Corneille, Appel, Constant) were interested in Children's art.“We Wanted to start again like a child” Karel Appel insisted. As part of the Western Left, they were built upon the fusion of Art and Life through experiment in order to unite form and expression. CoBrA exhibitions They exhibited mainly in Holland, but also Paris and other countries in Europe. Stedelijk Museum exhibition The first major exhibition was held at the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam in November 1949 under the title "International Experimental Art". Else Alfelt, one of a few women involved in the movement, participated in this first exhibition. The museum's director and curator Willem Sandberg was interested in bringing experimentalism and abstraction to The Netherlands, and had also been an active member of the Dutch Resistance during the war. He was deeply involved with the CoBrA group and maintained direct contacts between the artists and the Stedelijk Museum. The architect Aldo van Eyck, who would later become known for his architecture of playgrounds as cultural critique, was asked to do the interior design of the exhibition. The close relationship between Van Eyck and the artists from the CoBrA, who also drew their inspiration in particular from children's drawings, makes it probable that much of Eyck's early inspiration for the playgrounds may have derived from CoBrA. The Stedelijk Museum exhibition gave rise to furious criticism from press and the public. A critic from Het Vrije Volk (Free People) wrote, “Geklad, geklets en geklodder in het Stedelijk Museum” (“Smirch, twaddle and mess in the SMA"). The CoBrA artists are considered scribblers and con artists. Newspapers spoke of offensive art and provocation on the part of the artists, and one evening for experimental poetry at the Stedelijk was the occasion for a public brawl. Exhibition in Liège The last CoBrA exhibit was located in Liège, Belgium, in 1951. Shortly after this exhibit, the group dissolved. The show was organised by Pierre Alechinsky, an artist from Belgium. The Dutch architect, Van Eyck designed the exhibition layout, just as he had for the 1949 CoBrA exhibition in Stedelijk. The innovations of this exhibit were that the composition for the wall was in a grid formation. In addition, the sculptures, which were featured in this show were on coal beds from the Liège area itself. This show was not specific to only CoBrA artists, and also, major artists of the CoBrA movement were not in this exhibit due to the existing conflict within the group that eventually led to the collapse of CoBrA shortly after in the same year. Group shows WestKunst (Cologne, 1981) Paris-Paris (Paris, 1981) Aftermath (London, 1981) Two Survey shows (Hamburg, 1982; Paris and the French provinces also 1982) The Spirit of Cobra (Fort Lauderdale, 2013) Participants Karel Appel (1921–2006) Pierre Alechinsky (born 1927) Else Alfelt (1910–1974) Jean-Michel Atlan (1913–1960) Ejler Bille (1910–2004) Pol Bury (1922–2005) Jacques Calonne (1930–2022) Hugo Claus (1929–2008) Corneille (1922–2010) Jacques Doucet (1924–1994) Lotti van der Gaag (1923–1999) William Gear (1915–1997) Stephen Gilbert (1910–2007) Svavar Guðnason (1909–1988) Henry Heerup (1907–1993) Edouard Jaguer (1924–2006) Asger Jorn (1914–1973) Lucebert (1924–1994) Ernest Mancoba (1904–2002) Sonja Ferlov Mancoba (1911–1984) Jørgen Nash (1920–2004) Jan Nieuwenhuys (1922–1986) Erik Ortvad (1917–2008) Pieter Ouborg (1893–1956) Carl-Henning Pedersen (1913–2007) Bert Schierbeek (1918–1996) Max Walter Svanberg (1912–1994) Dora Tuynman (1926–1979) Uno Vallman (1913–2004) Serge Vandercam (1924–2005) Related artists Notable artists who had contact with, and/or were influenced by COBRA: Peter Nieuwendijk Enrico Baj Jerome Bech James E. Brewton Jacqueline de Jong Koos de Bruin Freddy Flores Knistoff Herbert Gentry Robert Jacobsen Bengt Lindström Jean Messagier Vali Myers John Olsen Gina Pellón (1926–2014) Dana Schutz Shinkichi Tajiri Alasdair Taylor Louis Van Lint Maurice Wyckaert (1923–1996) Criticism Alison M. Gingeras praises Cobra as being a "...wonderfully messy, cacophonous, and multi-tentacled," entity. Ernest Mancoba (1904–2002), of South Africa, claimed to be one of the only black artists of Cobra. In his own words, Mancoba, a clear supporter of the Cobra movement, criticizes the views of his fellow artists regarding himself: "The embarrassment that my presence caused to the point of making me, in their eyes, some sort of 'Invisible Man' or merely the consort of a European woman artist—was understandable, as before me there had never been to my knowledge any black man taking part in the visual arts 'avant garde' of the Western World." Legacy There is a Cobra Museum in Amstelveen, Netherlands, displaying works by Karel Appel and other international avant-garde artists. The NSU Art Museum in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, is known for its large assemblage of works of CoBrA art. The museum displays works by Karel Appel, Pierre Alechinsky, and Asger Jorn, the movement's leading exponents. Auctioneers Bruun Rasmussen held an auction of COBRA artists on April 3, 2006 in Copenhagen. It set records for the highest price for an Asger Jorn painting (6.4 million DKK for Tristesse Blanche) and for the highest amount raised in a single auction in Denmark (30 million DKK in total). See also School of Paris Notes External links Didrichsenmuseum.fi Museum Jorn, Silkeborg Art Informel and Tachisme Modern art European artist groups and collectives Art movements School of Paris 1940s neologisms Acronyms	[ 0.28482115268707275, -0.14527499675750732, -0.2047647386789322, -0.23667091131210327, -0.5885528922080994, 0.0745331272482872, 0.1892375946044922, 0.13925527036190033, -0.3723975121974945, 0.002169964136555791, -0.35735246539115906, 0.3636089861392975, -0.11189310997724533, 0.23229920864105225, -0.45456719398498535, -0.29783105850219727, 0.21384750306606293, -0.03606146201491356, -0.17217719554901123, 0.09568721801042557, -0.3734174072742462, -0.2976115047931671, 0.21846289932727814, -0.4141939878463745, -0.42444828152656555, -0.23394545912742615, 0.34619763493537903, 0.0703180655837059, 0.3949962854385376, 0.19894716143608093, 0.06455335021018982, 0.40866658091545105, -0.14917460083961487, -0.44271278381347656, -0.2915954887866974, 0.02187870442867279, 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221910	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mensuration	Mensuration	Mensuration may refer to: Measurement Theory of measurement Mensuration (mathematics), a branch of mathematics that deals with measurement of various parameters of geometric figures and many more Forest mensuration, a branch of forestry that deals with measurements of forest stand Mensural notation of music Mensuration canon, a musical composition wherein the main melody is accompanied by one or more imitations of that melody in other voices	[ -0.04052709415555, 0.37888583540916443, -0.14258414506912231, 0.12787529826164246, -0.2722759246826172, 0.23893523216247559, 0.4573840796947479, -0.49033689498901367, -0.5164191126823425, -0.6224207282066345, -0.4393830895423889, 0.3298780918121338, 0.062289074063301086, 0.07366928458213806, -0.27106013894081116, 1.05460524559021, 0.8071545958518982, 0.002783951349556446, -0.41750597953796387, -0.15783575177192688, -0.3344498574733734, 0.31689590215682983, 0.22081376612186432, 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221912	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand%20Marc%2C%20comte%20de%20Montmorin	Armand Marc, comte de Montmorin	Armand Marc, Count of Montmorin de Saint Herem (13 October 17452 September 1792) was a French statesman. He was Minister of Foreign Affairs and the Navy under Louis XVI. Biography He belonged to a junior branch of a noble family of Auvergne. He was gentleman-in-waiting to Louis XVI when dauphin, and was subsequently appointed ambassador to Madrid. From Madrid he was suddenly summoned to the governorship of Brittany, and in 1787 was appointed by the king to succeed Vergennes in the ministry of foreign affairs. Montmorin was a devoted admirer of Jacques Necker, whose influence at court he helped maintain. He retired when Necker was dismissed on 12 July 1789, but on Necker's recall after the storming of the Bastille again resumed his office, which he continued to hold till October 1791. Honoré Mirabeau had approached him as early as December 1788, with a plan for the policy to be pursued by the court towards the new states general; but Montmorin, offended by Mirabeau's attacks on Necker and by his Histoire secrete de la cour de Berlin, refused to see him. With the progress of the French Revolution, however, this attitude changed. The comte de la Marck was trying to bring Mirabeau into touch with the court, and for this purpose it was important to secure the assistance of Montmorin. The two men were soon on the closest terms. While Montmorin continued as minister in name, Mirabeau became so in fact. Montmorin did not dare to come to a decision without consulting Mirabeau, but neither Mirabeau nor La Marck were under any illusions as to his character. Mirabeau complained bitterly that Montmorin was "slack" (flasque) and a "poltroon" (gavache). La Marck thought that Montmorin's feebleness was occasionally useful in restraining Mirabeau's impetuosity. The death of Mirabeau in April 1791 was a severe blow to Montmorin, the difficulty of whose position was enormously increased after the flight of the royal family to Varennes, to which he was not privy. He was forced to resign office, but still continued to advise Louis, and was one of the inner circle of the king's friends, called by the revolutionists "the Austrian Committee." In June 1792 his papers were seized at the foreign office, without anything incriminating being discovered; in July he was denounced, and after 10 August was proscribed. He took refuge in the house of a washerwoman, but was discovered, taken before the Legislative Assembly, and imprisoned in the Prison de l'Abbaye, where he perished in the September massacres. His relative, Louis Victor Henri, marquis de Montmorin de Saint Herem, head of the senior branch of the family, also perished in the massacre. Sources Agénor Bardoux, Pauline de Montmorin, comtesse de Beaumont: Etudes sur la fin du XVIIIieme siècle (Paris, 1884), for a defence of Montmorin's policy; A. de Bacourt, , 1789–1791 (3 vols., Paris, 1851), contains many letters of Montmorin; "Correspondence of the Comte de Moustier with the Comte de Montmorin," in the Amer. Hist. Rev., vol. viii. (1902–1903). References 1745 births 1792 deaths Counts of Montmorin de Saint Herem Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain Ambassadors of France to Spain People killed in the French Revolution 18th-century French diplomats	[ -0.41372156143188477, 0.3854432702064514, -0.13901035487651825, 0.4097881615161896, -0.2524600327014923, 0.577404797077179, 0.5816871523857117, 0.09317728877067566, -0.46399930119514465, -0.8031383752822876, -0.1789959967136383, 0.78326416015625, 0.0814778283238411, 0.383628785610199, 0.28200721740722656, 0.05064147710800171, 0.0033240020275115967, -0.12640412151813507, -0.46863579750061035, -0.58234041929245, -0.32551273703575134, 0.05140501260757446, 0.22234462201595306, 0.1795913726091385, -0.5746692419052124, 0.4569183886051178, 0.2394360452890396, 0.440845251083374, 0.50423663854599, -0.06434667855501175, 0.029796428978443146, 0.5203023552894592, 0.11160806566476822, -0.5506864786148071, -0.822799026966095, 0.23472827672958374, 0.08817539364099503, -0.6871618628501892, 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221917	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language%20code	Language code	A language code is a code that assigns letters or numbers as identifiers or classifiers for languages. These codes may be used to organize library collections or presentations of data, to choose the correct localizations and translations in computing, and as a shorthand designation for longer forms of language names. Difficulties of classification Language code schemes attempt to classify the complex world of human languages, dialects, and variants. Most schemes make some compromises between being general and being complete enough to support specific dialects. For example, most people in Central America and South America speak Spanish. Spanish spoken in Mexico will be slightly different from Spanish spoken in Peru. Different regions of Mexico will have slightly different dialects and accents of Spanish. A language code scheme might group these all as "Spanish" for choosing a keyboard layout, most as "Spanish" for general usage, or separate each dialect to allow region-specific idioms. Common schemes Some common language code schemes include: See also Accept-Language Codes for constructed languages Country code Flag icons for languages List of ISO 639-1 codes - codes for common languages List of ISO 639-2 codes - expanded 3 character code list of all languages coded by ISO Locale (computer software) References External links List of usual language codes and its variants Language Tags in HTML and XML Language Identifiers in the Markup Context Identifiers Internationalization and localization	[ 0.19579634070396423, 0.5083745718002319, -0.3545830249786377, 0.14658306539058685, -0.10225436091423035, 0.2029472142457962, 0.3811515271663666, 0.2918483316898346, -0.1097286194562912, -0.6217039823532104, -0.45552000403404236, 0.030806897208094597, -0.22031237185001373, 0.11498130857944489, 0.15375757217407227, 0.0982728973031044, 0.2559960186481476, 0.6161206960678101, 0.01825554668903351, -0.01805991120636463, -0.5880345702171326, 0.34057390689849854, -0.17426708340644836, 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221919	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Cita%20Prefecture	Ōita Prefecture	is a prefecture of Japan located on the island of Kyūshū. Ōita Prefecture has a population of 1,136,245 (1 June 2019) and has a geographic area of 6,340 km2 (2,448 sq mi). Ōita Prefecture borders Fukuoka Prefecture to the northwest, Kumamoto Prefecture to the southwest, and Miyazaki Prefecture to the south. Ōita is capital and largest city of Ōita Prefecture, with other major cities including Beppu, Nakatsu, and Saiki. Ōita Prefecture is located in the northeast of Kyūshū on the Bungo Channel, connecting the Pacific Ocean and Seto Inland Sea, across from Ehime Prefecture on the island of Shikoku. Ōita Prefecture is famous for its hot springs and is a popular tourist destination in Japan for its onsens and ryokans, particularly in and around the city of Beppu. History Around the 6th century Kyushu consisted of four regions: Tsukushi Province, Hi Province, Kumaso Province and Toyo Province. Toyo Province was later divided into two regions, upper and lower Toyo Province, called Bungo Province and Buzen Province. After the Meiji Restoration, districts from Bungo and Buzen provinces were combined to form Ōita Prefecture. These provinces were divided among many local daimyōs and thus a large castle town never formed in Ōita. From this time that whole area became known as "Toyo-no-kuni", which means "Land of Abundance". The origins of the name Ōita are documented in a report from the early 8th century called the . According to the document, when Emperor Keikō visited the Kyushu region, stopping first in Toyo-no-kuni, he exclaimed that 'This is a vast land, indeed. It shall be known as Okita-Kuni!' Okita-Kuni, meaning "Land of the Great Fields", later came to be written as "Ōita". Present day interpretations based on Ōita's topography state that Oita's name comes from "Okita", meaning "many fields", rather than "vast" or "great" field, because of Ōita's complex terrain. In the Edo period (1603–1867) the town of Hita was the government seat for the entire domain of Kyushu, which was directly controlled by the national government or shōgun at that time. The region became well known for the money-lending industry based out of Hita. Merchants in Hita's Mameda and Kuma districts worked with the national government to create this money-lending industry known as Hita-kin. Notable people Ōtomo Sōrin (1530–1587): The Otomo family ruled over the Funai Domain, which is present day Ōita City, in the 16th century. Funai was a very internationalized city which engaged in trade and exchange with other nations. Sōrin, the 21st leader of the Ōtomo clan, embraced Western culture enthusiastically and invited the missionary Francis Xavier to the city to promote Christianity. Sōrin dreamed of creating a Christian nation; he was baptized and given the name "Don Francisco". Sōrin died in Tsukumi. Miura Baien (September 1, 1723 – April 9, 1789): A scholar originally known as Susumu but called Baien after the name of his private school where he educated many scholars. Miura developed his own system of logic and wrote many works including his three famous words, , , and . He also worked in a hospital and had a good knowledge of astronomy. He hand made an astronomical globe that was passed down through many generations. He spent his entire life in Tominaga Village which is the present day area of Aki Town in Kunisaki City. Miura Baien is considered one of Ōita's three sages along with Hoashi Banri and Hirose Tansō. : Miura Baien's pupil who expanded his academic ability into many fields including Confucianism, natural sciences, medicine and language. He taught himself Dutch to reference scientific publications for his eight-volume work Kyuritsu, which was considered the top work of Western natural science in Japan at that time. In 1832 he was made Minister for the Feudal Lord to fix the financial problems of the Hiji clan. Banri Hoashi is considered one of Ōita's three sages along with Miura Baien and Hirose Tansō. : A Confucian scholar, poet and educator from a money-lending family in Hita. Ōita's current governor Katsusada Hirose is a descendant of Tansō Hirose. In Edo period Japan, education was limited to samurai families and the rich. However, Hirose Tansō opened a school called meaning "all are welcome" and admitted students regardless of social status, age, or education level. The school's methodology of a "self-administered work-study policy" is said to have had great influence on the modern day education system in Japan. Former Prime Minister Kiyoura Keigo was educated here, with other students who went on to become influential scholars, artists and politicians. The school's remains were designated a historical site in 1932 and are a couple blocks from the original Hirose family house, where the Hirose Museum is. There, Tansō Hirose and other family members’ works are on display, with other original Hirose artifacts, hina dolls, tea ceremony utensils and more. Both are in Mameda Town, about a 10-minute walk from Hita Station. Tansō Hirose is considered one of the Oita's three sages along with Miura Baien and Hoashi Banri. An asteroid called 10009 Hirosetanso discovered by the University of Tokyo in 1977 was named after Tansō Hirose. Fukuzawa Yukichi (1834–1901): Founded Japan's oldest institute of higher education, Keio University in Tokyo. Fukuzawa Yukichi grew up in the Nakatsu domain and is pictured on the 10,000 yen bill. He was influential in Japan's education system by promoting independence and self-reliance of the Japanese people at his classes as Keio-Gijuku University, known as present day Keio University, originally a school for Western studies. The university now educates in a range of fields and produces influential and prominent alumni. Hiroshi Nagahama (born 1970): Veteran anime industry luminary who began his career in 1990 with Madhouse Studio as an animator and went on to direct Mushishi, Detroit Metal City, The Flowers of Evil and The Reflection, as well as serving as art director of Revolutionary Girl Utena. Yamamoto Tatsuo, once governor of the Bank of Japan from 1898 to 1903, was from here. Shrines and temples Sasamuta-jinja and Yusuhara Hachiman-gū are the chief Shinto shrines (ichinomiya) in the prefecture. Geography Ōita Prefecture is on the north-eastern section of the island of Kyūshū. It is from east to west, and from north to south, with a total area of 6,340.71 square kilometers. Surrounded by the Suo Channel and Honshū Island to the north, the Iyo Channel and Shikoku Island to the east, it is bordered by Miyazaki Prefecture to the south, and Fukuoka Prefecture and Kumamoto Prefecture to the west. It is divided between north and south by a major tectonic line running from Usuki City in Ōita Prefecture to Yatsushiro City in Kumamoto Prefecture, which is to the west of Ōita. There are several other tectonic lines running from east to west through the prefecture. The northern part of the prefecture features granite and metamorphic rocks, while the southern area features limestone, which is the foundation for the Tsukumi cement industry, and several limestone caves. The Kirishima Range is a volcanic belt that runs vertically through the prefecture and contributes to the many hot spring sources that make the region a popular tourist attraction, and makes Ōita the prefecture with the largest number of hot springs in the whole country. Mountain ranges include Mount Yufu, Mount Tsurumi, Mount Sobo, Mount Katamuki, and Mount Kujū (which is called the "roof of Kyushu"). These mountain ranges contribute to the fact that 70% of Oita is covered by forests, and the rivers and streams that flow from these ranges give the prefecture rich water sources. The prefecture's major water sources are Yamakuni River, Yakkan River, Ōita River, Ōno and Banjō River, and Beppu Bay and the Bungo Channel. Mount Kujū (九重山) is surrounded by highlands called the Kujū Highlands and the Handa Highlands. There are open plains throughout the prefecture with Nakatsu Plain in the north, Oita Plain in the center, and Saiki Plain in the south. The inland areas consist of basin valleys in Hita, Kusu, Yufuin and Taketa, which were formed by lava buildup in combination with river erosion. Ōita has a coastline that has shoals in the north, Beppu Bay in the center, and a jagged or sawtooth "rias coastline" in the south. Sea cliffs, caves, and sedimentary rock formations that can be found in Saiki City's Yakata Island are considered very rare outside of coral reef areas. Ōita's coastal waters contribute to a prosperous fishing industry. As of April 1, 2014, 28% of the total land area of the prefecture was designated as Natural Parks, namely the Aso Kujū and Setonaikai National Parks; the Nippō Kaigan, Sobo-Katamuki, and Yaba-Hita-Hikosan Quasi-National Parks; and the Bungo Suidō, Jinkakuji Serikawa, Kunisaki Hantō, Sobo Katamuki, and Tsue Sankei Prefectural Natural Parks. Current municipalities Currently, the prefecture has 14 cities, 3 districts, 3 towns, and one village. From 2005 to 2006, all municipalities but Beppu, Tsukumi, Himeshima, Hiji, and all towns in Kusu District, were merged, and the total municipalities went down from 58 on December 31, 2004, to 18 after the creation of the city of Kunisaki by merging with 4 towns from Higashikunisaki District on March 31, 2006. As a result, the prefecture became the one with the fewest municipalities within Kyūshū, and the fourth fewest in Japan. However, Ōita Prefecture now has the fewest towns (3) and fewest towns and villages combined (4) in all of Japan. Mergers and dissolutions If the district dissolved, then the link will be in place. Hayami District: Yamaga, Hiji Higashikunisaki District: Aki, Kunimi, Kunisaki, Musashi, Himeshima Ōno District: Notsu, Asaji, Chitose, Inukai, Kiyokawa, Mie, Ogata, Ōno Ōita District: Notsuharu, Hasama, Shōnai, Yufuin Kitaamabe District: Saganoseki Shimoge District: Hon'yabakei, Sankō, Yabakei, Yamakuni Minamiamabe District: Honjō, Kamae, Kamiura, Naokawa, Tsurumi, Ume, Yayoi, Yonōzu Hita District: Amagase, Kamitsue, Maetsue, Nakatsue, Ōyama Usa District: Ajimu, Innai Nishikunisaki District: Kakaji, Matama, Ōta Naoiri District: Kujū, Naoiri, Ogi Economy Ōita Prefecture's industrial activity is centered on agricultural products. Fishery products and manufactured goods rank second and third respectively in terms of Ōita's industrial activity. Ōita is Japan's number one producer of the following products: Kabosu limes: Ōita Prefecture is Japan's number one producer of kabosu, a citrus fruit that is similar to a lime. Kabosu are available year-round but peak season for taste and quality is from August to October. Kabosu are rich in vitamin C and contain beneficial acids, such as citric acid. Kabosu have been produced in the Taketa and Usuki areas for many years. Dried shiitake mushrooms: Ōita is the largest producer of dried shiitake mushrooms in Japan, and the cultivation of shiitake mushrooms is said to have originated in Ōita. Ōita's dried shiitake rank number one in Japan in production quantity and quality. Shiitake are said to be beneficial in the prevention of high blood pressure and arterial sclerosis. Saffron: Saffron has been cultivated in Ōita since the late 19th century, and Ōita's Taketa area produces 80% of Japan's total amount of saffron, making Ōita the top producer of saffron. The quality of Ōita saffron has gained international acclaim as active component levels are several times higher than foreign saffron. Saffron is said to have many benefits including circulation enhancement and is used as a food coloring and natural medicine. Galingale: Ōita is Japan's top producer of , a kind of rush plant, a grass with a distinctive triangular profile, belonging to the family Cyperaceae. It is grown in Kunisaki Peninsula of Ōita Prefecture and is used in the production of Ryukyu-style tatami mats, as it is dust and moisture absorbent and has a pleasant scent. Madake bamboo: The madake variety of bamboo makes up 60% of Japan's cultivated bamboo, and Ōita is Japan's top producer. It is the most popular variety of bamboo used in handiwork and traditional crafts since it is very flexible and pressure resistant. Ōita ranks number one in Japan (and second in the world next to America's Yellowstone National Park) for the amount of hot-spring output and geothermal power. Ōita also ranks number one in Japan for the amount of limestone production. Other industries Seki-aji and seki-saba are mackerels that are well-known seafood products of Ōita. Ōita has gained nationwide recognition for their promotion of "The Oita Brand", labeling local products with the prefectural name. Key Ōita Brand products are as follows: Agricultural products: tomatoes, leeks, strawberries, scallions, kabosu limes, greenhouse tangerines, , roses, chrysanthemums, pears (Hita City, Shonai Town in Yufu City and Kokonoe town in Kusu are all production regions for Japanese pears. Oita pears are shipped nationwide, with large distribution quantities throughout Kyushu), and Bungo beef (the Kujū highlands are a perfect feeding ground for cattle and cattle farmers in Oita are involved in breeding and shipping cattle. Bungo beef is a well known local product.). Forest products: Dried shiitake mushrooms and Oita-style seasoned timber (Oita is one of the leading production centers for Japanese cedar, ranking second in Japan for amount of lumber reserves and number of cedars produced. Oita cedar producers use a special method for drying the wood which combines benefits of natural and artificial drying to produce cedar that has cracks and retains its natural scent and color.) Marine products: cultured flatfish, cultured yellow jack, cultured yellowtail, cultured loach, pearl, cultured kuruma prawn, natural kuruma prawn (kuruma ebi), cuttlefish, hairtail, butterfish, blue crab, conger eel, clam, and Japanese mitten crab. Economic development of Ōita was greatly aided by the One Village One Product movement of long-time governor Morihiko Hiramatsu. This movement has gained international attention and increased international exchange activities between Oita and overseas cities and countries. The following companies operate factories in Oita: Toshiba Corporation, Nippon Steel Corporation, Canon Inc., Texas Instruments Inc., Sony, Daihatsu Motor Co. Ltd., Showa Denko K.K., Kawasumi Laboratories Inc. (川澄化学工業株式会社), CKK, Asahi Kasei Medical Co. Ltd.（旭メディカル）, NEC Corporation, Matsushita Electric Industrial Co., Sumitomo Chemical Co. Ltd, Mitsui E&S Corporation. Demographics As of October 1, 2008, Ōita's total population was 1,201,715. Broken down into age groups, it was determined that 13.3% of the population was between the age of newborn and 14 years old, while 60.6% of the population was between the ages of 15 years and 64 years old, and 25.8% of the population was 65 years old or older. In 2008, there were 11,034 non-Japanese residents registered in Ōita, that was up 1,684 people from the previous year. As of December 2009, Ōita was ranked as having the highest number of foreign students relative to population in Japan. Oita has 339.8 foreign students per 100,000 people in the prefecture, where Tokyo, now ranking second has 329.4 foreign students per 100,000 people in the city. This is contributed to the fact that Ritsumeikan Asia-Pacific University (APU) in Beppu accepts many foreign students. As of November 1, 2009, there were 4,160 foreign students in Ōita total, from 101 different countries and territories, with the majority being from Asia (e.g. China and South Korea). Culture Oita is in the northeast corner of the island of Kyushu. Its coastal areas, farmland, highland, and mountains lend to a mix of different farming and fishing culture. There are many festivals throughout the year to pray for healthy harvests and abundant crops. As of May 2006, 146 cultural assets in Ōita were designated by the national government (Agency for Cultural Affairs), four of which are designated as National Treasures. Additionally, the prefecture itself has designated almost 700 traditions, properties, landmarks etc. as cultural assets. National treasures Fuki-ji Temple: The only wooden structure in Kyushu to remain intact since the Heian period (794–1192). Fukiji Temple is in Bungo-Takada. The Main Building of Usa Shrine: A building which is said to be a prototype for hachiman style architecture located in Usa City. Peacock Buddhist Altar Fitting: This is a Buddhist altar fitting called Kujaku Monkei with engraved peacocks and an inscription dated 1209. The information on it tells of the relationship between Usa Shrine and its branch shrine Mirokuji. Usuki Stone Buddhas: Approximately 60 cliff carvings of Buddha that were crafted between the Heian period (794–1192) and the Kamakura period (1185–1333) are the only rock carvings of their kind to have received a "National Treasure" designation. They are in Usuki City. Below are some of Oita's cultural traditions that are designated by the Agency for Cultural Affairs as Important Intangible Cultural Properties: Shujo Onie Fire Festival: An event held to pray for national security, health, and longevity on the first day of the Chinese New Year at temples of Tendai Buddhist denomination in the Kunisaki Peninsula area. The three temples that continue to hold this event are the Tennenji-temple (Bungotakata City), Iwatoji-temple (Kunisaki Town) and Jobutsuji-temple (Kunisaki Town). Koyo Shrine Puppet Show: This is a puppet show also known as "Kitabaru Puppet Show" which uses kugutsu puppets that perform dance and sumo wrestling matches. Oita's Hachiman Kohyo Shrine is in Nakatsu City. Hita's Gion Festival: A festival held in Hita City in July with parade floats that are up to 12 meters high. Although the festival only takes place once a year, the magnificent floats are on display year-round at the Gion Festival Float Museum in Kuma Town, Hita City. Yoshihiro Gaku Traditional Performing Art: Dance performed along with traditional song and music in Musashi Town in Kunisaki Peninsula Manufacturing Process of Sulfur "Flowers" at Myoban Hot Spring: Thatched huts at Myoban Hot Spring are used to produce yu-no-hana or sulfur “flowers” which are crystals that develop naturally on the ground around the springs. The manufacturing and collection process of the sulfur flowers has remained largely unchanged since the Edo period and thus the manufacturing process itself is designated as an ethno-cultural asset. The crystals are used as the main component of bath salts sold in Myoban, which are a popular souvenir that is used to help heal skin conditions. Dance Kagura is a sacred dance performed at festivals and celebrations throughout the prefecture. Shonai kagura is a festive dance that has been practiced for over 200 years and is representative of Oita Prefecture. Another kagura, the Ondake-style Kagura, was nationally designated as an "Important Intangible Folk Cultural Property" in 2007. There is also traditional song and music known as "gaku" that is performed in the Kunisaki Peninsula Area and is accompanied by characteristic dances such as the Yoshihirogaku in Musashi Town. Dancers wear grass skirts and dance with a drum tied to their front and a flag tied to their backs to pray to the Buddhist God Amida Buddha. In the Ono district there are 80 groups of Shishimai or dancers who perform a lion dance with roots based on the Ondake-style dance. Crafts Onta Pottery is the name of a type of stoneware pottery made for everyday usage – typically called 'mingei' (folk art or craft) in Japanese. The community is situated in the Hiko mountain range, about 17 kilometres from the centre of Hita City, and is said to have been established in 1705 to make large wares – lidded jars for pickled vegetables and fruit, water crocks, ash burners, and pouring vessels with small spouts – for local farmhouses. At the time potters were themselves farmers, who produced pots during the 'off season' in agriculture. These they fired in a cooperative kiln (kyōdō noborigama). Onta pottery is now produced full-time by ten families in Sarayama, five of whom continue to share and fire an eight chambered climbing kiln. The other five households fire independent climbing kilns of four or five chambers, which they fire approximately six times a year. The potters use clays that they dig locally and obtain natural materials (notably, wood ash, rice straw ash, feldspar, iron oxide and, occasionally, copper) with which to mix their glazes. Sarayama is famous for the 'karausu' clay pounders lining its two streams and powered by the water therein. The fact that the clay pounders prepare only enough clay for two people to work with full-time at the wheel has determined both household structure and the number of houses able to take up pottery in Sarayama. For anything other than small pots, potters use a kick wheel on which to throw their wares, which they decorate typically with hakeme and tobiganna slipware decoration techniques. In April 1995, the Agency for Cultural Affairs announced the designation of Onta Pottery as an "Important Intangible Cultural Property" in 1995. This designation is for the actual techniques used in making the pottery and not the actual pots themselves. Precisely because the designation is for the process rather than the product, it is regarded as an "intangible" property and is the only stoneware pottery-making process so designated in Japan. Bamboo Crafts were started in the late 14th century to create baskets for travelling goods salesmen. During the Edo period (1600–1868) Beppu thrived as a tourist town and bamboo baskets and goods were used in the daily lives of the local people for everything from cooking to washing in order to meet the demands of the thriving tourist population. The bamboo items soon became a souvenir that tourists purchased to take home and this solidified making Beppu a center for Bamboo crafts production. In 1903 a training center for bamboo workers was established and present-day visitors to Beppu can enjoy learning about the history of bamboo, and hands-on classes at the Beppu City Traditional Bamboo Crafts Center. Festivals using bamboo shoots as candle holders are carried out yearly in the autumn in Usuki, Taketa, and Hita Cities. Religion Kunisaki peninsula has been called "Buddha's Village" and many buddhist statues and temples remain. Mankoji Temple which was founded in 1352 is a place for practicing zen meditation. Architecture The Agency for Cultural Affairs also designates certain areas for preservation as Groups of Traditional Buildings. The merchant quarter of Hita, Mameda Town, is one of 83 districts (as of April 1, 2009) throughout the country designated as "Important Preservation Districts for Groups of Traditional Buildings". Old samurai residences throughout the prefecture are points of architectural interest. Nioza Historical Road in Usuki is also lined with buildings dating back to the 16th century and also in Usuki the Inaba-Family Villa is a former samurai residence open to the public. Arata Isozaki is a world-renowned architect who is from Oita. The former Oita Prefectural Library (now Oita Art Plaza) won an award for architectural design in 1967. Other works of his can be found throughout the prefecture including B-con Plaza in Beppu, Bungo-No-Kuni Information Library, the Audio-Visual Center in Oita City, and Yufu Train Station. Music The Martha Argerich music festival "Argerich's Meeting Point in Beppu" is an annual event held in Beppu City. Martha Argerich is the General Director of the festival and the event is supported by a large number of volunteers. It takes place over 10 days and includes recitals and also lessons. This international event welcomes music lovers from all over the world to Beppu. Arts The Oita-Asian Sculpture Exhibition (see external link below) is a biennial event that takes place in Asaji Town in Bungo-Ono City. This exhibition is carried out to commemorate Oita sculptor Asakura Fumio, and to encourage rising artists throughout Asia. Applicants are accepted from within Japan and from several Asian countries. Exhibition winners are given generous prizes and their works are kept on display at the Asakura Fumio Memorial Museum in Bungo-Ono City. Sports The sports teams listed below are based in Oita. Football (soccer) Oita Trinita Basketball Oita Heat Devils (Beppu) Volleyball Oita Miyoshi Weisse Adler (Ōita city) Futsal Vasagey Oita The Oita International Wheelchair Marathon (see external link below) is a yearly event held in October. This international race gathers wheelchair athletes from all over the world to participate in full and half-marathon racing. It was started in 1981 to commemorate the International Year of Disabled Persons. Tourism Ōita Prefecture is famous for its hot springs, particularly those in and around the city of Beppu, known as the 'hells', or jigoku. Many of the 'hells' are of tourist interest only and cannot be used as onsen (notably the Blood Pond Hell (reddish water) and the Oniyama Hell). The city's ryokans and public onsen are amply supplied by the same volcanic source. When Chiba University and Tokyo's Institute for Sustainable Energy Policies compiled a list of prefectures meeting demands for reusable energy, Oita ranked number one with a 25.2% rate of self-sufficiency through the use of geothermal energy and hot spring heat. Visitors particularly relish the effects of burial in steaming hot volcanic sands. Beppu offers a wide range of cultural experiences, from an annual international music festival, to the unabashed Hihokan Sex Museum, which nevertheless must follow the law and suspend a glass plate above ancient art with frosted areas censoring the overlarge genital depictions. The elaborate public aquarium "Umi-tamago" on the shoreline outside Beppu features basketballing sea otters, performing archer fish, and puzzle-solving octopuses, along with more naturalistic displays of freshwater and marine fish from around the world. Near the marine park, Mount Takasaki Monkey Park rises steeply from the shoreline. Two distinct troupes of wild macaque monkeys make regular visits to the feeding grounds here, which were initially established to entice the monkeys away from raiding the region's fruit crops, a behaviour that brought them into conflict with farmers. The wild macaques ignore the small crowds that gather at these feeding sessions, and may be observed at close quarters. Beppu is a busy passenger port with regular ferry links through the inland sea to Osaka and several other destinations. Other attractions of Ōita Prefecture include the Sanrio theme park Harmonyland. Ōita's Mt. Hachimen was home to the popular music festival, Concert on the Rock. This annual charity event saw over 30 international acts performing over a June weekend for the pleasure of Japan's music lovers. The natural surroundings make it one of the most picturesque rock festivals in the world. The event has since been discontinued. To help support the local economy and for players to visit quake hit areas and find out how things are going, The creators of Pokémon Go held an event that spawned the Pokémon Snorlax or known in Japan as Kabigon. The event went from March 4 to 13. A US spokeswoman said that the game event would provide many opportunities for players to come and see the sights. The event follows a similar event that spawned Lapras in the Miyagi Prefecture last November in areas that were severely damaged by the 2011 earthquake. The event also took place in the Kyushu Prefecture. Media Oita Broadcasting System (OBS) Television Oita System (TOS) Oita Asahi Broadcasting (OAB) Transport Roads Expressway and Toll Road Ōita Expressway Higashi Kyushu Expressway Usa Beppu Road Hinode Bypass Naka Kyushu Road National Highway National Highway 10 National Highway 57 National Highway 197 National Highway 210 (Kurume-Hita-Oita) National Highway 211 (Hita-Iizuka-Kitakyushu) National Highway 212 (Nakatsu-Hita-Aso) National Highway 213 National Highway 217 National Highway 326 National Highway 386 (Hita-Asakura-Chikushino) National Highway 387 National Highway 388 National Highway 442 National Highway 496 National Highway 500 National Highway 502 Railroads JR Kyushu Nippō Main Line Kyūdai Line Hōhi Line Hitahikosan Line Airports Oita Airport Ports Beppu Port, ferry route to Osaka, Hiroshima and Yawatahama Oita Port, ferry route to Kobe Saiki Port, ferry route to Sukumo Notes References Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; . Oita Prefectural Government Public Relations Division. (2006). Guide-O Oita Prefecture Guide Book. Saiki Printing Co. 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221923	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starling	Starling	Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine birds in the family Sturnidae. The name "Sturnidae" comes from the Latin word for starling, sturnus. Many Asian species, particularly the larger ones, are called mynas, and many African species are known as glossy starlings because of their iridescent plumage. Starlings are native to Europe, Asia and Africa, as well as northern Australia and the islands of the tropical Pacific. Several European and Asian species have been introduced to these areas as well as North America, Hawaii and New Zealand, where they generally compete for habitats with native birds and are considered to be invasive species. The starling species familiar to most people in Europe and North America is the common starling, and throughout much of Asia and the Pacific, the common myna is indeed common. Starlings have strong feet, their flight is strong and direct, and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country, and they eat insects and fruit. Several species live around human habitation and are effectively omnivores. Many species search for prey such as grubs by "open-bill probing", that is, forcefully opening the bill after inserting it into a crevice, thus expanding the hole and exposing the prey; this behaviour is referred to by the German verb zirkeln (pronounced ). Plumage of many species is typically dark with a metallic sheen. Most species nest in holes and lay blue or white eggs. Starlings have diverse and complex vocalizations and have been known to embed sounds from their surroundings into their own calls, including car alarms and human speech patterns. The birds can recognize particular individuals by their calls and are the subject of research into the evolution of human language. Description Starlings are medium-sized passerines. The shortest-bodied species is Kenrick's starling (Poeoptera kenricki), at , but the lightest-weight species is Abbott's starling (Poeoptera femoralis), which is . The largest starling, going on standard measurements and perhaps weight, is the Nias hill myna (Gracula robusta). This species can measure up to and, in domestication they can weigh up to . Rivaling the prior species in bulk if not dimensions, the mynas of the genus Mino are also large, especially the yellow-faced (M. dumontii) and long-tailed mynas (M. kreffti). The longest species in the family is the white-necked myna (Streptocitta albicollis), which can measure up to , although around 60% in this magpie-like species is comprised by its very long tail. There is less sexual dimorphism in plumage, however, with only 25 species showing such differences between the two sexes. The plumage of the starling is often brightly coloured due to iridescence; this colour is derived from the structure of the feathers, not from any pigment. Some species of Asian starling have crests or erectile feathers on the crest. Other ornamentation includes elongated tail feathers and brightly coloured bare areas on the face. These colours can be derived from pigments, or, as in the Bali starling, structural colour, caused by light scattering off parallel collagen fibers. The irises of many species are red and yellow, although those of younger birds are much darker. Distribution, habitat and movements Starlings inhabit a wide range of habitats from the Arctic Circle to the Equator. In fact, the only habitat they do not typically occupy is the driest sandy deserts. The family is naturally absent from the Americas and from large parts of Australia but is present over the majority of Europe, Africa, and Asia. The genus Aplonis has also spread widely across the islands of the Pacific reaching Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia (in addition one species in the genus Mino has reached the Solomon Islands). It is also a species of this genus that is the only starling found in northern Australia. Asian species are most common in evergreen forests; 39 species found in Asia are predominantly forest birds as opposed to 24 found in more open or human modified environments. In contrast to this, African species are more likely to be found in open woodlands and savannah; 33 species are open area specialists compared to 13 true forest species. The high diversity of species found in Asia and Africa is not matched by Europe, which has one widespread (and very common) species and two more restricted species. The European starling is both highly widespread and extremely catholic in its habitat, occupying most types of open habitat. Like many other starling species, it has also adapted readily to human-modified habitat, including farmland, orchards, plantations, and urban areas. Some species of starling are migratory, either entirely, like the Shelley's starling, which breeds in Ethiopia and Somaliland and migrates to Kenya, Tanzania and Somalia, or the white-shouldered starling, which is migratory in part of its range but is resident in others. The European starling was purposefully introduced to North America in the 1870s through the 1890s by multiple acclimatisation societies, organizations dedicated to introducing European flora and fauna into North America for cultural and economic reasons. A persistent story alleges that Eugene Schieffelin, chairman of the American Acclimatization Society, decided all birds mentioned by William Shakespeare should be in North America, leading to the introduction of the starling to the U.S.; however, this claim is more fiction than fact. While Schieffelin and other members of the society did release starlings in Central Park in 1890, the birds had already been in the U.S. since at least the mid-1870s, and Schieffelin was not inspired to do so by Shakespeare's works. Behaviour The starlings are generally a highly social family. Most species associate in flocks of varying sizes throughout the year. Murmuration describes the flocking of starlings, including the swarm behaviour of their large flight formations. These flocks may include other species of starlings and sometimes species from other families. This sociality is particularly evident in their roosting behaviour; in the non-breeding season some roosts can number in the thousands of birds. Mimic Starlings imitate a variety of avian species and have a repertoire of about 15–20 distinct imitations. They also imitate a few sounds other than those of wild birds. The calls of abundant species or calls that are simple in frequency structure and show little amplitude modulation are preferentially imitated. There are local dialects of mimicked sounds. Diet and feeding The diets of the starlings are usually dominated by fruits and insects. Many species are important dispersers of seeds in continents Asia and Africa, for example white sandalwood, Indian Banyan. In addition to trees they are also important dispersers of parasitic mistletoes. In South Africa, the red-winged starling is an important disperser of the introduced Acacia cyclops. Starlings have been observed feeding on fermenting over-ripe fruit, which led to the speculation that they might become intoxicated by the alcohol. Laboratory experiments on European starlings have found that they have disposal enzymes that allow them to break down alcohol very quickly. In addition to consuming fruits, many starlings will also consume nectar. The extent to which starlings are important pollinators is unknown, but at least some are, such as the slender-billed starling of alpine East Africa, which pollinates giant lobelias. Systematics The starling family Sturnidae was introduced (as Sturnidia) by the French polymath Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1815. The starlings belong to the superfamily Muscicapoidea, together with thrushes, flycatchers and chats, as well as dippers, which are quite distant relatives, and Mimidae (thrashers and mockingbirds). The latter are apparently the Sturnidae's closest living relatives, replace them in the Americas, and have a rather similar but more solitary lifestyle. They are morphologically quite similar too—a partly albinistic specimen of a mimid, mislabelled as to suggest an Old World origin, was for many decades believed to represent an extinct starling (see Rodrigues starling for details). The oxpeckers are sometimes placed here as a subfamily, but the weight of evidence has shifted towards granting them full family status as a more basal member of the Sturnidae-Mimidae group, derived from an early expansion into Africa. Usually the starlings are considered a family, as is done here. Sibley & Monroe included the mimids in the family and demoted the starlings to tribe rank, as Sturnini. This treatment was used by Zuccon et al. However, the grouping of Sibley & Monroe is overly coarse due to methodological drawbacks of their DNA-DNA hybridization technique and most of their proposed revisions of taxonomic rank have not been accepted (see for example Ciconiiformes). The all-inclusive Sturnidae grouping conveys little information about biogeography, and obscures the evolutionary distinctness of the three lineages. Establishing a valid name for the clade consisting of Sibley/Monroe's "pan-Sturnidae" would nonetheless be desirable to contrast them with the other major lineages of Muscicapoidea. Starlings probably originated in the general area of East Asia, perhaps towards the southwestern Pacific, as evidenced by the number of plesiomorphic lineages to occur there. Expansion into Africa appears to have occurred later, as most derived forms are found there. An alternative scenario would be African origin for the entire "sturnoid" group, with the oxpeckers representing an ancient relict and the mimids arriving in South America. This is contradicted by the North American distribution of the most basal Mimidae. As the fossil record is limited to quite Recent forms, the proposed Early Miocene (about 25–20 mya) divergence dates for the "sturnoids" lineages must be considered extremely tentative. Given the overall evidence for the origin of most Passeri families in the first half of the Miocene, it appears to be not too far off the mark however. As of 2007, recent studies identified two major clades of this family, corresponding to the generally drab, often striped, largish "atypical mynas" and other mainly Asian-Pacific lineages, and the often smaller, sometimes highly apomorphic taxa which are most common in Africa and the Palearctic, usually have metallic coloration, and in a number of species also bright carotinoid plumage colors on the underside. Inside this latter group, there is a clade consisting of species which, again, are usually not too brightly colored, and which consists of the "typical" myna-Sturnus assemblage. The Philippine creepers, a single genus of three species of treecreeper-like birds appear to be highly apomorphic members of the more initial radiation of the Sturnidae. While this may seem odd at first glance, their placement has always been contentious. In addition, biogeography virtually rules out a close relationship of Philippine creepers and treecreepers, as neither the latter nor their close relatives seem to have ever reached Wallacea, let alone the Philippines. Nonetheless, their inclusion in the Sturnidae is not entirely final and eventually, they may remain a separate family. Genus sequence follows traditional treatments. This is apparently not entirely correct, with Scissirostrum closer to Aplonis than to Gracula for example, and Acridotheres among the most advanced genera. Too few taxa have yet been studied as regards their relationships, however, and thus a change in the sequence has to wait on further studies. As of 2009, the review by Lovette & Rubenstein (2008) is the most recent work on the phylogeny of the group. This taxonomy is also based on the order of the IOC. Oriental-Australasian clade Genus Aplonis—Pacific starlings (c. 20 living species, 4–5 recently extinct) Genus Mino Yellow-faced myna, Mino dumontii Golden myna, Mino anais Long-tailed myna, Mino kreffti Genus Basilornis Sulawesi myna, Basilornis celebensis Helmeted myna, Basilornis galeatus Long-crested myna, Basilornis corythaix Genus Goodfellowia—Apo myna Genus Sarcops—Coleto Genus Streptocitta White-necked myna, Streptocitta albicollis Bare-eyed myna, Streptocitta albertinae Genus Enodes—fiery-browed myna Genus Scissirostrum—finch-billed myna Genus Ampeliceps—golden-crested myna Genus Gracula—hill mynas (five to six species) Genus Acridotheres—typical mynas (10 species) Genus Spodiopsar (2 species) Genus Gracupica— 4 species Genus Agropsar (sometimes included in Sturnus or Sturnia) (2 species) Genus Sturnia (sometimes included in Sturnus) White-shouldered starling, Sturnia sinensis Chestnut-tailed starling, Sturnia malabarica White-headed starling, Sturnia erythropygia Malabar starling, Sturnia blythii Brahminy starling, Sturnia pagodarum Genus Sturnornis—white-faced starling Genus Leucopsar—Bali myna Genus Fregilupus—Réunion starling (extinct, 1850s) Genus Necropsar—Rodrigues starling (extinct, late 18th century?) Afrotropical-Palearctic clade Genus Pastor— rosy starling Genus Sturnus—typical starlings (2 species) Common starling, Sturnus vulgaris Spotless starling, Sturnus unicolor Genus Creatophora—wattled starling Genus Notopholia -black-bellied starling Genus Hylopsar (2 species) Genus Lamprotornis—typical glossy-starlings (20 species; monophyly requires confirmation) Cape starling, Lamprotornis nitens Greater blue-eared starling, Lamprotornis chalybaeus Lesser blue-eared starling, Lamprotornis chloropterus Miombo blue-eared starling, Lamprotornis elisabeth Bronze-tailed starling, Lamprotornis chalcurus Splendid starling, Lamprotornis splendidus Principe starling, Lamprotornis ornatus Emerald starling, Lamprotornis iris Purple starling, Lamprotornis purpureus Rüppell's starling, Lamprotornis purpuroptera Long-tailed glossy starling, Lamprotornis caudatus Golden-breasted starling, Lamprotornis regius Meves's starling, Lamprotornis mevesii Burchell's starling, Lamprotornis australis Sharp-tailed starling, Lamprotornis acuticaudus Superb starling, Lamprotornis superbus Hildebrandt's starling, Lamprotornis hildebrandti Shelley's starling, Lamprotornis shelleyi Chestnut-bellied starling, Lamprotornis pulcher Ashy starling, Lamprotornis unicolor White-crowned starling (Lamprotornis albicapillus) Fischer's starling (Lamprotornis fischeri) Pied starling (Lamprotornis bicolor) Genus Hartlaubius - Madagascar starling Genus Cinnyricinclus—violet-backed starling Genus Onychognathus Red-winged starling, Onychognathus morio Slender-billed starling, Onychognathus tenuirostris Chestnut-winged starling, Onychognathus fulgidus Waller's starling, Onychognathus walleri Somali starling, Onychognathus blythii Socotra starling, Onychognathus frater Tristram's starling, Onychognathus tristramii Pale-winged starling, Onychognathus nabouroup Bristle-crowned starling, Onychognathus salvadorii White-billed starling, Onychognathus albirostris Neumann's starling, Onychognathus neumanni Genus Poeoptera (formerly Pholia, sometimes included in Cinnyricinclus) (5 species) Genus Saroglossa - spot-winged starling Genus Grafisia—white-collared starling Genus Speculipastor—magpie starling Genus Neocichla—babbling starling Rhabdornis clade Genus Rhabdornis—Philippine creepers (four species) Unresolved The extinct Mascarene starlings were formerly of uncertain relationships, but are now thought to belong to the Oriental-Australasian clade, being allied with the Bali myna. However, while the two more recent species (Fregipilus and Necropsar) have been classified, the prehistoric Cryptopsar has not. Genus Cryptopsar—Mauritius starling (extinct, prehistoric?) 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221926	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myna	Myna	The myna (; also spelled mynah) is a bird of the starling family (Sturnidae). This is a group of passerine birds which are native to southern Asia, especially India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Several species have been introduced to areas like North America, Australia, South Africa, Fiji and New Zealand, especially the common myna which is often regarded as an invasive species. It is often known as "Selarang" and "Teck Meng" in Malay and Chinese respectively in Singapore, due to their high population there. Mynas are not a natural group; instead, the term myna is used for any starling in the Indian subcontinent, regardless of their relationships. This range was colonized twice during the evolution of starlings, first by rather ancestral starlings related to the coleto and Aplonis lineages, and millions of years later by birds related to the common starling and wattled starling's ancestors. These two groups of mynas can be distinguished in the more terrestrial adaptions of the latter, which usually also have less glossy plumage except on the heads and longer tails. The Bali myna, which is critically endangered and nearly extinct in the wild, is highly distinctive. Some mynas are considered talking birds, for their ability to reproduce sounds, including human speech, when in captivity. Myna is derived from the Hindi language mainā which itself is derived from Sanskrit madanā. Characteristics Mynas are medium-sized passerines with strong feet. Their flight is strong and direct, and they are gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country, and they eat insects and fruit. Plumage is typically dark, often brown, although some species have yellow head ornaments. Most species nest in holes. Some species have become well known for their imitative skills; the common hill myna is one of these. Species The following are species of mynas. The coleto and the two Saroglossa starlings are included because of their position in the taxonomic list. Jungle and hill mynas Yellow-faced myna, Mino dumontii Golden myna, Mino anais Long-tailed myna, Mino kreffti Sulawesi myna, Basilornis celebensis Helmeted myna, Basilornis galeatus Long-crested myna, Basilornis corythaix Apo myna, Basilornis miranda White-necked myna, Streptocitta albicollis Bare-eyed myna, Streptocitta albertinae Fiery-browed myna, Enodes erythrophris Finch-billed myna, Scissirostrum dubium Golden-crested myna, Ampeliceps coronatus Common hill myna, Gracula religiosa Southern hill myna, Gracula indica Enggano hill myna, Gracula enganensis Nias hill myna, Gracula robusta Sri Lanka hill myna, Gracula ptilogenys "True" mynas Great myna, Acridotheres grandis Crested myna, Acridotheres cristatellus Javan myna, Acridotheres javanicus Pale-bellied myna, Acridotheres cinereus Jungle myna, Acridotheres fuscus Collared myna, Acridotheres albocinctus Bank myna, Acridotheres ginginianus Common myna, Acridotheres tristis Bali myna, Leucopsar rothschildi "Gracupica" mynas Indian pied myna, Gracupica contra Siamese pied myna, Gracupica floweri Javan pied myna, Gracupica jalla The following species are often included in the Acridotheres mynas: Vinous-breasted starling, Acridotheres burmannicus Black-winged starling, Sturnus melanopterus Red-billed starling, Sturnus sericeus White-cheeked starling, Sturnus cineraceus References Sources External links Myna videos on the Internet Bird Collection Recording of a Myna bird in Yogyakarta, Indonesia Sturnidae Bird common names	[ -0.476316899061203, -0.011644658632576466, -0.8479823470115662, -0.2718352973461151, 0.2039547711610794, 0.6152713894844055, 0.45731377601623535, 0.3045773208141327, -0.6964048743247986, -0.44162535667419434, 0.041432593017816544, 0.3718474209308624, -0.23118840157985687, 0.14113090932369232, -0.4087827801704407, 0.06332235783338547, 0.6309409141540527, -0.01985570788383484, 0.34393224120140076, -0.39700770378112793, -0.5271487236022949, -0.33970385789871216, 0.5492475032806396, 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221927	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20Penman	Ian Penman	Ian Penman (born 1959) is a British writer, music journalist and critic. He began his career as a writer for the NME in 1977, later contributing to various publications including Uncut, Sight & Sound, The Wire, The Face, and The Guardian. He is the author of Vital Signs: Music, Movies, and Other Manias (1998, Serpent's Tail). Biography Penman was born in Wiltshire, UK in 1959. He spent much of his childhood abroad in the Middle East and Africa, returning to Norfolk in 1970. Skipping higher education, Penman began writing for prominent British music magazine, the New Musical Express, in the autumn of 1977. Much of Penman's writing reflected his involvement in the nascent post-punk scene developing in London in the late 1970s. Along with fellow NME writers such as Paul Morley and Barney Hoskyns, Penman soon developed an innovative style of music criticism dense with allusions to critical theory, philosophy, and other art mediums, and often experimental in its prose. With their increasingly esoteric writing standing in contrast to the magazine's more accessible competitors, such as Melody Maker, the NME soon began to alienate its readership; it is estimated that within several years, the magazine suffered the loss of half its circulation, in large part due to the new direction of Penman and his colleagues. Penman continued writing intermittently for the NME until 1985, when the magazine began moving in an increasingly commercial direction. He began freelance work for various outlets, including The Face, Arena, the Sunday Times, The Independent, and the New Statesman. In the 1990s, he contributed to The Wire. In 1998, Penman published a compilation of his work entitled Vital Signs: Music, Movies, and Other Mania on Serpent's Tail to positive reviews. Julia Kenna reviewed the book for Rolling Stone, commenting, Full of contradictions and witty one-liners, Penman uses language as an art form, playing with puns, synonyms, repetition, and punctuation for added effect... Two decades of politics, music and pop culture with a whip-smart wit and wisdom that draws you in and doesn’t let go. Penman contributed the text to the catalogue of photographer Robert Frank's exhibition Storylines (Tate Modern. 2004). In recent years, Penman has continued contributing to various publications, such as The Wire, City Journal and the London Review of Books, and is working on a book about Britain in the 1970s. Influence Penman's influence on subsequent music journalism, primarily in the UK, has been significant. He has been cited as an influence by range of writers and theorists, including Simon Reynolds, Kodwo Eshun, and Mark Fisher. In addition, artists such as Simon Raymonde of Cocteau Twins have cited Penman's writing as an inspiration. Books Vital Signs: Music, Movies, and Other Manias. (1998, Serpent's Tail). It Gets Me Home, This Curving Track (2019, Fitzcarraldo Editions) References External links Ian Penman's Blogspot Ian Penman chronology in Rock's Backpages Ian Penman on Diamanda Galás Announcement of It Gets Me Home, This Curving Track 1959 births British music critics Living people NME writers The Wire writers Writers from Wiltshire	[ 0.4849573075771332, 0.8372499346733093, -0.7013677358627319, -1.0125802755355835, 0.19237346947193146, 0.5127162337303162, -0.03906319662928581, -0.20198845863342285, 0.050372738391160965, 0.09792083501815796, -0.2588934302330017, 1.1911892890930176, -0.03533739596605301, 0.15640924870967865, -0.04600147157907486, 0.467010498046875, -0.4196608066558838, -0.546901285648346, -0.1455129086971283, -0.29933419823646545, -0.2988910675048828, -0.07658471912145615, 0.018769031390547752, 0.5720794796943665, -0.3702031373977661, 0.4914996027946472, 0.048142772167921066, -0.5071439743041992, 0.1545477956533432, -0.1891537755727768, -0.10739629715681076, 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221929	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS%20Tampa	MS Tampa	MS Tampa may refer to the following ships: , a diesel-powered ship in round-the-world cargo service for the American Pioneer Line; commissioned as USS Orvetta (IX-157) for the United States Navy during World War II , a Norwegian cargo ship built in 1984; involved in the Tampa affair in 2001 Ship names	[ -0.4376760721206665, -0.6665358543395996, 0.31357377767562866, 0.030180111527442932, 0.08575785905122757, 0.5881510972976685, -0.09411228448152542, 0.4677197337150574, -0.48448309302330017, 0.19704243540763855, 0.12423737347126007, 0.6990177631378174, -0.27841994166374207, 0.7319651246070862, 0.0784786269068718, 0.5559815168380737, 0.37570104002952576, 0.5401192307472229, -0.3037736117839813, -0.21425239741802216, -0.3197389245033264, -0.18307334184646606, 1.0117226839065552, -0.1180393397808075, -0.06653517484664917, -0.3975992798805237, -0.47928759455680847, 0.23906590044498444, 0.01835963875055313, 0.8417471051216125, 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221931	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxpecker	Oxpecker	The oxpeckers are two species of bird which make up the family Buphagidae. The oxpeckers were formerly usually treated as a subfamily, Buphaginae, within the starling family, Sturnidae, but molecular phylogenetic studies have consistently shown that they form a separate lineage that is basal to the sister clades containing the Sturnidae and the Mimidae (mockingbirds, thrashers, and allies). Oxpeckers are endemic to the savanna of Sub-Saharan Africa. Both the English and scientific names arise from their habit of perching on large mammals (both wild and domesticated) such as cattle, zebras, impalas, hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, and giraffes, eating ticks, small insects, botfly larvae, and other parasites, as well as the animals' blood. The behaviour of oxpeckers towards large mammals was previously thought to be an example of mutualism, though recent research suggests the relationship is parasitic in nature. The swahili name for the red-billed oxpecker is Askari wa kifaru (the rhino's guard). Taxonomy The genus Buphagus was introduced in 1760 by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson with the yellow-billed oxpecker as the type species. The name combines the Ancient Greek words bous "ox" and - "eating". According to the more recent studies of Muscicapoidea phylogeny, the oxpeckers are an ancient line related to Mimidae (mockingbirds and thrashers) and starlings but not particularly close to either. Considering the known biogeography of these groups, the most plausible explanation seems that the oxpecker lineage originated in Eastern or Southeastern Asia like the other two. This would make the two species of Buphagus something like living fossils, and demonstrates that such remnants of past evolution can possess striking and unique autapomorphic adaptations. The genus contains two species: Distribution and habitat The oxpeckers are endemic to sub-Saharan Africa, where they occur in most open habitats. They are absent from the driest deserts and the rainforests. Their distribution is restricted by the presence of their preferred prey, specific species of ticks, and the animal hosts of those ticks. The two species of oxpecker are sympatric over much of East Africa and may even occur on the same host animal. The nature of the interactions between the two species is unknown. Behaviour Diet and feeding Oxpeckers graze exclusively on the bodies of large mammals. Certain species are seemingly preferred, whereas others, like the Lichtenstein's hartebeest or topi are generally avoided. Smaller antelope such as lechwe, duikers and reedbuck are also avoided; the smallest regularly used species is the impala, probably because of the heavy tick load and social nature of that species. In many parts of their range they now feed on cattle, but avoid camels. They feed on ectoparasites, particularly ticks, as well as insects infesting wounds and the flesh and blood of some wounds as well. They are sometimes classified as parasites, because they open wounds on the animals' backs. Oxpecker/mammal interactions are the subject of some debate and ongoing research. They were originally thought to be an example of mutualism, but recent evidence suggests that oxpeckers may be parasites instead. Oxpeckers do eat ticks, but often the ticks have already fed on the ungulate host, and no statistically significant link has been shown between oxpecker presence and reduced ectoparasite load. Oxpeckers have been observed to open new wounds and enhance existing ones in order to drink the blood of their perches. Oxpeckers also feed on the earwax and dandruff of mammals; less is known about the possible benefits of this to the mammal, but it is suspected that this is also a parasitic behaviour. Some oxpeckers' hosts are intolerant of their presence. Elephants and some antelope will actively dislodge the oxpeckers when they land. Other species tolerate oxpeckers while they search for ticks on their faces, which one author says "appears ... to be an uncomfortable and invasive process. Breeding The breeding season of the oxpeckers, in at least one location, is linked to the rainy season, which affects the activity of their mammalian hosts and the tick loads of those hosts. Both courtship and copulation occur on their hosts as well. They nest in holes, usually in trees but sometimes in other types of cavity, including holes in walls. The nests are lined with grasses and often with hair plucked from their hosts and even livestock such as sheep which are not usually used. The typical clutch is between two and three eggs, but the red-billed oxpecker may lay up to five eggs. Roosting Red-billed oxpeckers have been known to roost in reeds and trees. Studies of large savanna herbivores using cameras at night have shown that both species of oxpecker (but more often in yellow-billed oxpecker) may also roost on the bodies of herbivores, hanging under the insides of the thighs of giraffe and on top of impala and buffalo. 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221932	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasture	Pasture	Pasture (from the Latin pastus, past participle of pascere, "to feed") is land used for grazing. Pasture lands in the narrow sense are enclosed tracts of farmland, grazed by domesticated livestock, such as horses, cattle, sheep, or swine. The vegetation of tended pasture, forage, consists mainly of grasses, with an interspersion of legumes and other forbs (non-grass herbaceous plants). Pasture is typically grazed throughout the summer, in contrast to meadow which is ungrazed or used for grazing only after being mown to make hay for animal fodder. Pasture in a wider sense additionally includes rangelands, other unenclosed pastoral systems, and land types used by wild animals for grazing or browsing. Pasture lands in the narrow sense are distinguished from rangelands by being managed through more intensive agricultural practices of seeding, irrigation, and the use of fertilizers, while rangelands grow primarily native vegetation, managed with extensive practices like controlled burning and regulated intensity of grazing. Soil type, minimum annual temperature, and rainfall are important factors in pasture management. Sheepwalk is an area of grassland where sheep can roam freely. The productivity of sheepwalk is measured by the number of sheep per area. This is dependent, among other things, on the underlying rock. Sheepwalk is also the name of townlands in County Roscommon, Ireland, and County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland. Unlike factory farming, which entails in its most intensive form entirely trough-feeding, managed or unmanaged pasture is the main food source for ruminants. Pasture feeding dominates livestock farming where the land makes crop sowing or harvesting (or both) difficult, such as in arid or mountainous regions, where types of camel, goat, antelope, yak and other ruminants live which are well suited to the more hostile terrain and very rarely factory-farmed. In more humid regions, pasture grazing is managed across a large global area for free range and organic farming. Certain types of pasture suit the diet, evolution and metabolism of particular animals, and their fertilising and tending of the land may over generations result in the pasture combined with the ruminants in question being integral to a particular ecosystem. Examples of pasture habitats Grassland Heathland Machair Maquis Moorland Potrero (landform) Prairie Rangeland Rough pasture Savanna Steppe Wood pasture Veld See also Transhumance Notes Livestock Agricultural land Grasslands	[ 0.09762581437826157, -0.11663562804460526, -0.5511086583137512, 0.021067241206765175, 0.1083480641245842, 0.4492878019809723, 0.008896947838366032, 0.3401365578174591, 0.012755515985190868, -0.644274115562439, -0.6635724902153015, 0.5601442456245422, 0.2739068269729614, 0.39167338609695435, -0.8761066198348999, 0.6809899806976318, 0.27877214550971985, 0.37703296542167664, 0.30819106101989746, -0.18484273552894592, 0.08109436184167862, -0.32252246141433716, -0.1687297374010086, 0.28969430923461914, 0.3806059658527374, -0.3091147243976593, 0.36132773756980896, 0.3185267448425293, 0.21385397017002106, 0.041486095637083054, -0.25530895590782166, 0.2749370336532593, 0.00665799668058753, -0.10480277985334396, -0.13591060042381287, -0.322837769985199, 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221935	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaughan	Vaughan	Vaughan () (2021 population 323,103) is a city in Ontario, Canada. It is located in the Regional Municipality of York, just north of Toronto. Vaughan was the fastest-growing municipality in Canada between 1996 and 2006 with its population increasing by 80.2% during this time period and having nearly doubled in population since 1991. It is the fifth-largest city in the Greater Toronto Area, and the 17th-largest city in Canada. Toponymy The township was named after Benjamin Vaughan, a British commissioner who signed a peace treaty with the United States in 1783. History In the late pre-contact period, the Huron-Wendat people populated what is today Vaughan. The Skandatut ancestral Wendat village overlooked the east branch of the Humber River (Pine Valley Drive) and was once home to approximately 2000 Huron in the sixteenth century. The site is close to a Huron ossuary (mass grave) uncovered in Kleinburg in 1970, and one kilometre north of the Seed-Barker Huron site. The first European to pass through Vaughan was the French explorer Étienne Brûlé, who traversed the Humber Trail in 1615. However, it was not until the townships were created in 1792 that Vaughan began to see European settlements, as it was considered to be extremely remote and the lack of roads through the region made travel difficult. Despite the hardships of pioneer life, settlers came to Vaughan in considerable numbers. The population grew from 19 men, 5 women, and 30 children in 1800 to 4,300 in 1840. The first people to arrive were mainly Pennsylvania Germans, with a smaller number of families of English descent and a group of French Royalists. This migration from the United States was by 1814 superseded by immigrants from Britain. While many of their predecessors had been agriculturalists, the newer immigrants proved to be highly skilled tradespeople, which would prove useful for a growing community. Around the facilities established by this group were a number of hamlets, the oldest of which was Thornhill, where a saw-mill was erected in 1801, a grist mill in 1815, and had a population of 300 by 1836. Other such enclaves included Kleinburg, Coleraine, Rupertville(Maple), Richmond Hill, Teston, Claireville, Pine Grove, Carrville, Patterson, Burlington, Concord, Edgeley, Fisherville, Elder's Mills, Elgin Mills, Jefferson, Nashville, Purpleville, Richvale, Sherwood, Langstaff, Vellore, and Burwick (Woodbridge). In 1846, the Township was primarily agricultural but had a population of 4,300. There were six grist mills and 25 saw mills. By 1935, there were 4,873 residents. However, World War II sparked an influx of immigration, and by 1960, the population stood at 15,957. The ethnocultural composition of the area began to change with the arrival of different groups such as Italians, Jews and Eastern Europeans. Incorporated in 1850 as Vaughan Township, a municipal government was established. Vaughan Road was a historic road constructed in 1850 that linked Vaughan Township with Toronto. It incorporated parts of present-day Dufferin Street north of Eglinton Avenue in Toronto, though all that remains of it today is the separate alignment farther south, running through the eastern half of the former City of York. In 1971, the new regional government of York Region was established, acquiring policing and welfare services from the communities it served; simultaneously, the township merged with the Village of Woodbridge to form the Town of Vaughan. In 1991, it changed its legal status to City of Vaughan. Two F2 tornadoes tore through the city of Vaughan during the Southern Ontario Tornado Outbreak on August 20, 2009. Premier Dalton McGuinty and Mayor Linda Jackson toured the destruction the next day and reported 200 homes in critical shape and as many as 600 additional homes likely to be demolished. The tornadoes also ripped up trees, flipped cars, and left thousands of people without electricity. Vaughan declared a state of emergency because of the widespread damage. No deaths were reported from the tornadoes, but one man who was injured in the storms suffered a heart attack the following morning. North American telephone customers placing calls to Vaughan may not recognize the charge details on their billings. Although Vaughan has been a single municipality since 1971, the local incumbent local exchange carrier, Bell Canada, splits the city into three historical rate centres–Kleinburg, Maple and Woodbridge. Part of the Thornhill rate centre extends into Vaughan. Indeed, Vaughan does not even appear in the telephone book. Mayor and councillors Vaughan is governed by a nine-member council comprising a mayor, three regional councillors, and five local councillors. The mayor, elected at large, is the head of the council and a representative on York Region Council. The three regional councillors are also elected at large, and serve on both the city council and York Regional Council. Five local councillors are also elected, one from each of Vaughan's five wards, to represent those wards on Vaughan Council. City councillors meet at Vaughan City Hall, located in Maple. The city's City Hall was opened on September 25, 2011, and is named in memory of late Mayor Lorna Jackson. The new Civic Centre is one of the first in Canada to conform to a LEED Gold Standard, the second highest environmental classification available. Vaughan is the first municipality in Ontario to have a Youth City Councillor. The youth city councillor is appointed as a non-voting member of Council every six months to represent the youth of Vaughan. Vaughan council originally rejected the proposal of a youth councillor but, after the Vaughan Youth Cabinet amended its proposal, Council accepted the recommendation. After serving as mayor for nine years, Lorna Jackson saw the Town of Vaughan become incorporated as the City of Vaughan. Following the death of Mayor Lorna Jackson in 2002, Michael Di Biase was appointed mayor by Vaughan council by virtue of his position as one of two regional councillors representing Vaughan, Joyce Frustaglio was the other regional councillor. Gino Rosati, a Vaughan local councillor, was subsequently appointed by Vaughan Council to fill Di Biase's position as regional councillor and a by-election was held to fill Rosati's local councillor's position which was won by Linda Jackson, the daughter of Mayor Jackson. Di Biase first became involved in the city's politics in 1985, when he was elected as a local councillor in 1985. Di Biase retained the mayorship in the 2003 municipal election, defeating challenger Robert Craig. In the municipal election on November 13, 2006, Di Biase was narrowly defeated by Linda Jackson, who was sworn in as mayor on December 4, 2006. On June 18, 2008, an audit of Jackson's 2006 campaign finances found that the politician exceeded her legal spending limit of $120,419 by at least $12,356, or 10 per cent. The auditors, LECG Canada Ltd., say that amount could almost double if what they believed to be unreported contributions in kind at various election events but couldn't prove are later verified. They also found other apparent contraventions of the Canada Elections Act, including at least five instances where associated companies made donations that exceeded the normal $750 donation limit per company. On June 24, 2008, Vaughan Council voted unanimously to hire a special prosecutor to consider laying charges against Mayor Linda Jackson under the Municipal Elections Act in reaction to the auditors' report. Council hired Timothy Wilkin, "an expert in municipal law" to decide what if any charges are to be laid. If Jackson is charged and found guilty, she would face punishments ranging from fines to removal from office. Subsequently, an audit was conducted on former Mayor Di Biase's 2006 election campaign funds. This exposed 27 contraventions under the Elections Act, along with a $155,000 anonymous cash payment made to his lawyer to cover his legal fees. Di Biase has refused to disclose who made this payment. On 25 October 2010, longtime MP Maurizio Bevilacqua was elected mayor and he assumed office in December 2010. Geography Vaughan is bounded by Caledon and Brampton to the west, King and Richmond Hill to the north, Markham and Richmond Hill to the east, and Toronto — in the dissolved cities of Etobicoke and North York, to the south. Communities and identity The city is made up of nearly a dozen historic communities. Likely as a result of the municipality being established when it was still largely a rural area with scattered settlements, most residents (and even non-residents) identify more with the larger communities than they do with the city as a whole and have greatly expanded their areas, and the City officially designates five in the urban area as major communities, with all of the built-up areas of the city considered as being within one of them. This includes corporations such as Bell Canada, which uses the original community rate centres and lists them separately in the phone book, resulting in local calling areas being different throughout the city. Woodbridge: North/South - Major Mackenzie/Steeles, East/West - Hwy 400/Hwy 50 Maple: North/South - King Vaughan Line/Rutherford, East/West - Bathurst/Hwy 400 Thornhill: North/South - Hwys. 7 and 407 (Major Mackenzie for the area west of Bathurst)/Steeles, East/West - Yonge/Dufferin Concord: North/South - Rutherford/Steeles, East/West - Dufferin/Hwy 400 Kleinburg: North/South - King Vaughan Line/Major Mackenzie, East/West - Hwy 400/Hwy 50 Vaughan Metropolitan Centre The Vaughan Metropolitan Centre is a new 179 hectare (442 acre) central business district under development around the intersection of Highway 7 and Jane Street, at the site of the former hamlet of Edgeley. When the Township of Vaughan officially became a town in 1971, it was made up four historic communities (Maple, Kleinburg, Thornhill, and Woodbridge) large enough to have their own village or town centres. Vaughan committed to building a new business and commercial core distinct from all of them. This commitment became policy in 1998 when Official Plan Amendment 500 called for the Vaughan Corporate Centre, as it was then branded, to become a focal point for business activity and major commercial development. It is served by the Vaughan Metropolitan Centre subway station, which is the northwestern terminus of Line 1 Yonge–University of the Toronto subway system. It is also a major transit hub for York Region Transit (YRT), as well as Viva and Züm bus rapid transit services. Koreantown North Vaughan section of Thornhill is home to northern boundary of Toronto's Koreantown North. Along with neighbouring Markham, Korean businesses flank Yonge from Steeles to as far north to Centre St./Thornhill Summit Dr. (but some can also be found in Richmond Hill up to Elgin Mills Rd.) Climate Vaughan like much of the Greater Toronto Area features a continental climate Dfb and has four distinct seasons. Services Health care Vaughan was the largest city in Canada without a hospital until the 2021 opening of Cortellucci Vaughan Hospital on Major Mackenzie Drive north of Canada's Wonderland. Its planning began in 2007. The provincial government of Ontario approved construction of the hospital in July 2011, and a tender for bids to construct it was issued in 2014 or 2015. Land preparation for construction began in the summer of 2014. Construction on the grounds began in October 2016. The expected date of completion was late 2020. It is part of a regional hospital system with a "single governance, administration and medical staff" managed by Mackenzie Health. The hospital officially opened on 6 June 2021. Fire services Transportation Vaughan offers a complex transportation infrastructure, which includes highways, public transit, regional roads, municipality-funded roads, and train services. Demographics The 2021 Census recorded a population of 323,103, an increase of 5.5% from 2016. Median age as of 2016 was 40.2, lower than the Ontario median age of 41.3. Vaughan is known as having some of the highest concentrations of Southern European Canadians (notably Italians), Eastern Europeans (chiefly Russians) and Jewish people in Ontario, while those who are of British and/or Irish origin form a much smaller proportion than in many other Southern Ontario cities. Visible minorities make up 35.4% of the population. Vaughan has small but growing Chinese, Hispanic, Jamaican, Indian and Vietnamese populations. According to the 2016 Census, English is the mother tongue of 45.2% of the residents of Vaughan. Italian is the mother tongue for 12.3% of the population, followed by Russian (6.8%) and Spanish (2.4%). Each of Punjabi, Tagalog (Filipino), Hebrew, Persian, Mandarin, Urdu, Cantonese, and Vietnamese has a percentage ranging from 1.5% to 2.9%, signifying Vaughan's high linguistic diversity. As of 2011, 60.62% of the city's population adheres to Christianity, mostly Catholicism (46.23%). Those who practice non-Christian religions adhere to, in order of size, Judaism (15.28%), Islam (4.92%), Hinduism (4.50%), and Buddhism (2.52%). Those who do not have a religious affiliation account for 10.04% of the population. Crime The total crime against persons in 2017 was 619.43 per 100,000 population, with 1.49 per 100,000 being violations causing death. Organized crime also has a notable presence in Vaughan. Notable incidents include mob shootings outside the Terrace Banquet Hall in July 2013 resulting in two deaths, one of which was mobster Salvatore Calautti and the Regina Sports Café in April 2014 resulting in the death of Carmine Verduci, as well as the Woodbridge Cafe shooting at Islington Avenue and Highway 7 in June 2015. Three killings in March 2017; on March 14, a 28-year-old Vaughan woman was shot as she sat in a car parked outside of a lighting business on Caster Avenue, on March 23, a shooting of a 26-year-old Ajax man at Jane Street and Highway 7, and on March 30, a private social club shooting near Martin Grove Road and Highway 7. In April 2017, Mayor Maurizio Bevilacqua spoke after the third March murder, stating people "should not live in fear". On July 18, 2019, the York Regional Police announced the largest organized crime bust in Ontario, part of an 18-month long operation called Project Sindicato that was also coordinated with the Italian State Police. York Regional Police had arrested 15 people in Canada and seized $35 million worth of homes, sports cars and cash in a major trans-Atlantic probe targeting the most prominent wing of the 'Ndrangheta in Canada (the Siderno Group), allegedly headed by Angelo Figliomeni of Vaughan. On July 14 and 15, approximately 500 officers raided 48 homes and businesses across the GTA, seizing 27 homes worth $24 million, 23 cars, including five Ferraris, and $2 million in cash and jewelry. The charges laid included tax evasion, money laundering, defrauding the government and participating in a criminal organization. The investigation was motivated by a series of violent incidents in Vaughan in 2017 according to CBC News, "including an attempted murder, drive-by shootings and arsons". The charges laid included tax evasion, money laundering, defrauding the government and participating in a criminal organization. Culture Attractions Baitul Islam Mosque, headquarters of the Canadian Ahmadiyya Muslim community Boyd Conservation Area, park located east of Islington Avenue, south of Rutherford Road. Canada's Wonderland, Canada's largest amusement park, located on the east side of Highway 400 between Rutherford Road and Major Mackenzie Drive. Kortright Centre for Conservation, located between Rutherford Road and Major Mackenzie Drive east of Islington Avenue. McMichael Canadian Art Collection, located in Kleinburg. Vaughan Mills, a large shopping mall opened in 2004, which includes Legoland Discovery Centre Reptilia Zoo, a 25,000 sq ft Reptile Zoo and Education Centre located near Vaughan Mills and Canada's Wonderland J. E. H. MacDonald House Sports Vaughan is home to many amateur sports teams for a variety of sports, with an organization running a league for each of the four major sports. There are also rep and select levels of these sports where the Vaughan Rangers, Vaughan Panthers, and Vaughan Kings represent the city in youth hockey, the Vaughan Vikings represent the city in baseball, the Vaughan Rebels represent the city in football, and the Vaughan Panthers represent the city in basketball. Vaughan also has a high softball following, with the Vaughan Vikings and Woodbridge Warriors offering house league and rep opportunities, as well as and adult World Series Slo Pitch league. The city also hosts the Vaughan Flames, a youth organization exclusively for woman's hockey. The name also belonged to the former CWHL hockey team that folded in 2010. Additionally, the Vaughan Vipers formerly played in the Ontario Provincial Junior A Hockey League. In 2012, the Vipers were decommissioned and withdrew from their league. The city is also home to numerous golf and country clubs. These include The National Golf Club of Canada, one of Canada's highest ranking golf clubs. Soccer Vaughan SC, Woodbridge SC and Kleinburg Nobleton SC offer house league and rep programs for youth soccer, as players for Vaughan Azzurri Woodbridge Strikers KNSC Lions respectively. These team names are also used for the city's two League1 Ontario teams. Additionally, Vaughan is home to the Ontario Soccer Association, the largest sports organization in Canada. The OSA has over 400,000 registered players, and runs leagues across the entire province. Vaughan is also home to the Canadian Soccer Hall of Fame and Museum. Vaughan is also home to the semi-professional York Region Shooters from the Canadian Soccer League. Prior to 2018, Vaughan also played home to Toronto FC II, the United Soccer League affiliate team for Toronto FC. Because the stadium's expansion to include more seating fell through, the team announced it would be moving to play in BMO Field/Lamport Stadium for the 2018 season. Media Print Vaughan's weekly newspaper the Vaughan Citizen was first published in 2001 and has a circulation of roughly 59,000. The neighbourhood of Thornhill has its own weekly paper, the Thornhill Liberal. From 1878 to 2000 Vaughan's news was covered by The Liberal published in Richmond Hill. Lo Specchio is an Italian-language newspaper published in Vaughan since 1984. City Life is a Vaughan-specific lifestyle magazine published bi-monthly by Dolce Publishing since 2003. Film Kleinburg was once home to the Cinespace Film Studios, a centre for television and motion picture production. The popular children's TV show The Forest Rangers, starring Gordon Pinsent, was filmed here between 1963 and 1965. In 2006, the movie The Sentinel was filmed at the McMichael Art Gallery. More recently, Vaughan City Hall has served as a film location, when it was used as the new Red Center (the Rachel and Leah Center) in season 2 of Hulu's The Handmaid's Tale. It also served as the United Federation of Planets building and Office of the President in the season 1 finale of Star Trek: Discovery. Education York University in North York, Ontario lies on the Toronto side of the Toronto-Vaughan border. It is a major comprehensive university, with more than 43,000 students enrolled through 10 different faculties. There are also a number of elementary and high schools in Vaughan, which operate under the York Region District School Board, the York Catholic District School Board, Conseil scolaire catholique MonAvenir (French-language Catholic schools) and Conseil scolaire Viamonde (French-language public schools). There is also a Waldorf school, the Toronto Waldorf School, which offers early childhood, elementary and accredited high school programs. The American private Catholic Niagara University runs a branch campus in Vaughan, its first university in the city. The Ontario branch of Niagara University opened a 12,000 square foot facility at Expo City in downtown Vaughan. This campus will offer Master of Science in Education and Bachelor of Professional Studies in Education programs. Economy Within the Greater Toronto Area, Vaughan is the third-largest employment center, after Toronto and Mississauga. With a real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of $20.6 billion in 2018, it is the largest contributor (35%) to York Region's economy. In 2018, the city was home to 12,105 businesses employing more than 222,000 people. Between 2008 and 2018, Vaughan's average annual employment growth was 3.2% and its business growth was 2.9%, exceeding provincial and national rates. Manufacturing continues to dominate the local economy, accounting for 22% of total employment, followed by Construction (13%), Retail Trade (12%), Wholesale Trade (10%) and Transportation and Warehousing (6%). Small businesses with fewer than 20 employees account for 81% of all business establishments. In 2018, the Accommodation and Food Services industry accounted for $295 million of Vaughan's real gross domestic product. Vaughan currently has 12 hotels and four motels with a total of 1,845 rooms. Development applications have been submitted that have the potential to add another 1,200 rooms to current supply in the coming years. Major tourism operators include Canada's Wonderland, Vaughan Mills, the McMichael Canadian Art Collection, the Kortright Centre for Conservation, LEGOLAND Discovery Centre, Reptilia, the mainstreet and village cores of Kleinburg, Thornhill, and Woodbridge. Construction activity, as measured by value of building permits, has exceeded the $1 billion mark in eight of the last ten years. As of 2018, the largest employers in Vaughan are: Canada's Wonderland United Parcel Service (UPS) Canada Canadian National Railway KPMG Bondfield Construction Ganz NPL Canada Ltd. Condrain Company Ltd. Ozz Electric Rollstamp Manufacturing Vaughan is home to 184 Canadian or regional headquarters, including: Adidas Canada GFL Environmental Recipe Unlimited St. Joseph Communications Toys "R" Us Yum! Brands Archaeology The Seed-Barker archaeological site is a 16th-century Iroquois village on the Humber River in Vaughan. It has been used as a summer school field trip site since 1976 by the Boyd archaeological field summer school for high school students. The school is sponsored by the York Region district school board in co-operation with the Royal Ontario Museum and the Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA). In 1895, a local farmer began finding Iroquoian artifacts in the area. In 1895, Roland Orr recognized the classic ecological features favoured by the Iroquoian people for their villages: floodplains along a river, an easily defensible plateau and nearby forests. The Iroquois used the floodplains to plant maize, beans and squash, known as the three sisters. In the 1950s, University of Toronto professor Norman Emerson and the students excavated artifacts from the Seed-Baker site. Since 1975, more than a million artifacts were discovered and nineteen longhouses were excavated revealing that the village was occupied by the Iroquois from c. 1500 - 1550 AD. Notable people Order of Vaughan In 2016, to celebrate the city's 25th anniversary, Mayor Bevilacqua introduced the Order of Vaughan. This award is meant to be the highest honour bestowed by the city. Initially, 25 recipients were given the award as a reflection of the anniversary; however, the city announced in 2017 that up to ten new individuals would receive the award each year thereafter. The award is meant to recognize people in the categories of: accessibility, arts and entertainment, athletics, business, education, environment and spirituality, equity and diversity, health and wellness, media and communications, not-for-profit, philanthropy, public service, and science and technology. Twin cities Sora, Italy (1992) Ramla, Israel (1993) Sanjō, Japan (1993) Yangzhou, China (1995) Baguio, Philippines (1997) Delia, Italy (1998) Lanciano, Italy (2002) See also List of townships in Ontario List of settlements in the Greater Toronto Area References External links Cities in Ontario Lower-tier municipalities in Ontario Populated places established in 1792	[ -0.3231164515018463, 0.2716599404811859, 0.22996965050697327, 0.16360992193222046, -0.22632108628749847, 0.7057712078094482, 0.6571347713470459, 0.31400448083877563, -0.4089117646217346, -0.724547266960144, -0.18674980103969574, -0.22197626531124115, 0.14463123679161072, -0.06688374280929565, 0.037389323115348816, 0.828514575958252, -0.2718411684036255, 0.01894490420818329, 0.2799365520477295, -0.6657125353813171, -0.0423232801258564, -0.04329116269946098, 0.22149799764156342, 0.5515767931938171, -0.10105764120817184, 0.17071455717086792, 0.42444801330566406, -0.18938668072223663, -0.11928650736808777, 0.3015322983264923, 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221939	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20tuberculosis%20cases	List of tuberculosis cases	Notable people who had, or are believed to have had tuberculosis, also known as consumption. Writers and poets Maksim Bahdanovič Manuel Bandeira, Brazilian poet, had tuberculosis in 1904 and expressed the effects of the disease in his life in many of his poems Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer Vissarion Belinsky, Russian literary critic Edward Bellamy (1850–1898), fiction writer remembered for his book Looking Backward, died from tuberculosis Sukanta Bhattacharya, Bengali poet Jonas Biliūnas Rachel Bluwstein Anne and Emily Brontë and other members of the Brontë family of writers, poets and painters were struck by tuberculosis. Anne, their brother Branwell, and Emily all died of it within two years of each other. Charlotte Brontë's death in 1855 was stated at the time as having been due to tuberculosis, but there is some controversy over this today. Clarissa Brooks, poet, died of tuberculosis in 1927 Charles Brockden Brown Charles Farrar Browne Elizabeth Barrett Browning, poet, died of tuberculosis in 1861 Jean de Brunhoff Charles Bukowski (1920–1994), American author and poet, contracted tuberculosis in 1988; he recovered, losing 60 lbs. He died of leukemia. Robert Burns Albert Camus, French writer, playwright, activist, and absurdist philosopher, suffered from tuberculosis. He was forced to drop out of school (University of Algiers) due to severe attacks of tuberculosis. However, his death was caused by a car accident. Gaius Valerius Catullus (ca. 84 BC – ca. 54 BC), Roman poet Anton Chekhov (1860–1904), Russian short-story writer, playwright and physician; died from tuberculosis Tristan Corbière Stephen Crane Gilles Deleuze (1925–1995) René Daumal Nikolay Dobrolyubov Laura Don (1852–1886), actress-manager, playwright and artist Paul Laurence Dunbar Paul Éluard Friedrich Robert Faehlmann Maxim Gorky Guido Gozzano (1883-1916), Italian poet Dashiell Hammett (1894–1961), American author and creator of the "hard boiled" detective novel (notably, Sam Spade in The Maltese Falcon), contracted tuberculosis during World War I Saima Harmaja, Finnish poet and writer Jaroslav Hašek Robert A. Heinlein, American author Miguel Hernandez Washington Irving Takuboku Ishikawa Panait Istrati Helen Hunt Jackson Alfred Jarry Samuel Johnson Franz Kafka (1883–1924), German-language novelist best known for his novel The Trial, died from tuberculosis Uuno Kailas, Finnish composer Andreas Karkavitsas, Greek writer John Keats (1795–1821), English Romantic poet; he and his brother Tom were taken by tuberculosis Dragotin Kette Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (1813–1855), Danish philosopher Charles Kingsley Kostas Krystallis, Greek poet Vincas Kudirka (1858–1899), Lithuanian poet and physician; died from tuberculosis Jules Laforgue (1860–1887), French-Uruguayan poet Sidney Lanier D. H. Lawrence Lu Xun Betty MacDonald Jari Mäenpää, Finnish musician Katherine Mansfield William Somerset Maugham Guy de Maupassant Sara Haardt Mencken Molière Josip Murn Aleksandrov Novalis, German author and philosopher Jessie Fremont O'Donnell (1860–1897), writer Eugene O'Neill George Orwell (1903–1950), British author of Nineteen Eighty-Four, Animal Farm and Homage to Catalonia, first suffered tuberculosis in the early 30s and died from it in 1950, at the age of 46. Nineteen Eighty-Four was written during his final illness. Walker Percy Kristjan Jaak Peterson (1801–1822), Estonian poet, the founder of modern Estonian poetry; died from tuberculosis, lived only to age 21 Petar Petrović Njegoš Najveći srpski pisac Andrei Platonov Maria Polydouri, Greek poet and novelist Alexander Pope Eleanor Anne Porden Katherine Anne Porter Llewelyn Powys Winthrop Mackworth Praed Sholem Rabinovich Branko Radičević Michael Raffetto John Reed Edmond Rostand Jean-Jacques Rousseau John Ruskin Albert Samain Kaarlo Sarkia (1902–1945), Finnish poet Friedrich Schiller Sir Walter Scott Masaoka Shiki (1867–1902), Japanese poet famous for revitalizing the haiku, died after a long struggle with tuberculosis Emily Shore, diarist Juliusz Słowacki Hristo Smirnenski Tobias Smollett Laurence Sterne Robert Louis Stevenson (1850–1894), Neo-romantic Scottish essayist, novelist and poet, is thought to have suffered from tuberculosis during much of his life. He spent the winter of 1887–1888 recuperating from a presumed bout of tuberculosis at Dr. E.L. Trudeau's Adirondack Cottage Sanitarium in Saranac Lake, New York. Alan Sillitoe Edith Södergran (1892–1923), Finnish poet Anton Hansen Tammsaare (1878–1940), Estonian writer; suffered from tuberculosis after 1911 Dylan Thomas Francis Thompson Henry David Thoreau Voltaire Lesya Ukrainka Chick Webb Jessamyn West, American author, contracted tuberculosis in 1932 and recovered Thomas Wolfe (1900–1938), American author, died of tuberculosis of the brain. His 1929 novel, Look Homeward, Angel, makes several references to the problem of consumption, though Wolfe's condition appeared rather suddenly in 1937. Jiří Wolker Simone Weil, French philosopher Walt Whitman (1819–1892) Autopsy "consumption of the right lung, general miliary tuberculosis" Agha Ahmad Ali (1839-1873), Bengali academic, scholar of Persian and Urdu poet Artists and actors Ioannis Altamouras (1852–1878), Greek painter Frédéric Bartholdi (1834–1904), French sculptor, creator of the Statue of Liberty Marie Bashkirtseff (1858–1884), Russian-born, French-educated painter and diarist, died from tuberculosis at the age of 26 Aubrey Beardsley (1872–1898), English illustrator and author Anita Berber (1899–1928) German dancer and actress Harry Clarke (1889–1931), Irish stained glass artist and book illustrator Colin Clive (1900–1937), British stage and screen actor Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863), French Romantic painter Paul Gauguin (1848–1903), French painter Théodore Géricault (1791–1824), French Romantic painter, died at age 32. Boris Kustodiev (1878–1927), Russian painter and stage designer Vivien Leigh (1913–1967), British actress Amedeo Modigliani (1884–1920), Italian modernist painter Tim Moore (1887–1958), American actor of stage, screen and television Robert Natus (1890–1950), Estonian architect; suffered from tuberculosis after 1948 Kārlis Padegs (1911–1940), Latvian painter José Pancetti (1902–1958), Brazilian modernist painter William Ranney (1813–1857), 19th-century American painter Slava Raškaj (1877–1906), Croatian painter Andrei Ryabushkin (1861–1904), Russian painter Elizabeth Siddal (1829–1862), English artists' model, poet and artist Peter Purves Smith (1912–1949), Australian modernist artist, died during a lung operation Virginia Frances Sterret (1900–1931), American artist and illustrator Composers Luigi Boccherini, Italian cellist and composer, died in 1805 of pulmonary tuberculosis Alfredo Catalani Frédéric Chopin (1810–1849), died of consumption at age 39 (see the discussion for details). Historical records indicate episodes of hemoptysis during performances. Stephen Foster Hermann Goetz Louis Joseph Ferdinand Herold Joseph Martin Kraus Niccolò Paganini Jimmy Palao (1879–1925), jazz musician, died of tuberculosis at age 45 Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (1710–1736), died of tuberculosis at age 26 Henry Purcell Johann Hermann Schein Igor Stravinsky Karol Szymanowski (1882-1937), died of TB at age 54 Carl Maria von Weber Religious figures David Brainerd (1718–1747), left a diary that reflects his reliance upon God's faithfulness amidst his battle with consumption. The diary was historically very influential, particularly to the modern Christian missionary movement. John Calvin, leader of the Protestant Reformation Saint Maria Faustina Kowalska, the Roman Catholic Religious Sister and mystic from Poland, the proponent of devotion to the Divine Mercy, suffered greatly from tuberculosis and succumbed to it on 5 October 1938. Cardinal Richelieu of France, died from tuberculosis in 1642 Saint Thérèse de Lisieux (1873–1897), died of tuberculosis Saint Bernadette Soubirous, the visionary of Lourdes Saint Gemma Galgani, suffered from 'tuberculosis of the spine with aggravated curvature' Richard Wurmbrand, Protestant minister Nachman of Breslov (1772–1810), Hasidic rabbi and religious teacher Muktanand Swami (1758–1830), saint of the Swaminarayan Sampraday. Leaders and politicians Elizabeth of Austria (1436–1505), a study of her bones indicated that she probably had tuberculosis at a young age Simón Bolívar, the liberator of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru, died in 1830 of tuberculosis Charles IX of France Mahmud II, 30th Ottoman sultan Abdulmejid I, 31st Ottoman sultan John C. Calhoun Yasuhito, Prince Chichibu Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–1859), French political philosopher James Monroe Andrew Jackson Muhammed Ali Jinnah Andres Larka (1878–1942), Estonian military commander and politician; suffered from tuberculosis after 1924 Sir Wilfrid Laurier Henry VII of England Louis XIII of France Louis XVII of France Peshwa Madhavrao I Nelson Mandela, South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, politician and philanthropist. He got tuberculosis exacerbated by the dank conditions in his cell Andreas Vokos Miaoulis, Greek admiral and politician Napoleon II of France Petar II Petrović Njegoš (1813-1851), was a Prince-Bishop (vladika) of Montenegro, poet and philosopher whose works are widely considered some of the most important in Serbian/Montenegrin literature. Manuel L. Quezon John Aaron Rawlins Chandler Abram Hatch Dmitri Pavlovitch Romanov Eleanor Roosevelt Haym Salomon, major financier of the American side during the American Revolutionary War Okita Soji (1842/1844–1868), young and famous captain of the Shinsengumi, died from tuberculosis. He was rumored to have discovered his disease when he coughed blood and fainted during the Ikedaya Affair. Alexander Stephens Sudirman, Commander of Indonesia's armed forces during its National Revolution John Young Pedro I of Brazil (Pedro IV of Portugal) Henry B Bolster Desmond Tutu, had tuberculosis as a child Charles Hamilton Houston, NAACP lawyer known as "The Man Who Killed Jim Crow" Others Niels Abel, mathematician Renée Adorée Simonetta Vespucci Malcolm Allison, footballer and manager Princess Amelia, at age 27; youngest child of King George III Anandi Gopal Joshi, first Indian woman to obtain a degree in Western medicine Beulah Annan Samuel Arnold Georgiana Drew Barrymore, actress, succumbed aged 36 Frédéric Bastiat Alexander Graham Bell Sarah Bernhardt Jimmy Blanton, jazz bassist Louis Braille James Burke Rico Carty, baseball player Anders Celsius Cheng Man-ch'ing, T'ai chi ch'uan master Charlie Christian, jazz guitarist; pioneer of the electric guitar William Kingdon Clifford, mathematician and philosopher George Coulthard, Australian cricketer and Australian rules footballer Reuben Crandall, 19th-century physician, caught disease while in jail awaiting trial; he was acquitted Gotthold Eisenstein, mathematician W. C. Fields George Formby, Sr., music hall comedian and singer (d. 1921) Augustin-Jean Fresnel Brenda Fricker Andrés Gómez Jay Gould, American railroad magnate and financier of the Gilded Age (1880s) Emmett Hardy Alex Hill, jazz pianist Richard Brinsley Hinds (1811–1846), British naval surgeon, botanist and malacologist, diagnosed with phthisis in 1845 John Henry "Doc" Holliday, famous gambler and gunslinger, suffered from tuberculosis until his death in 1887 Antonia Navarro Huezo, at age 21; first woman in Central America to graduate from university John Ives Archie Jackson, Australian cricketer Wang Jin, former President of the Hubei Archaeological Association, died of Thoracic Spinal Tuberculosis at age 93 Tom Jones, Welsh singing legend, spent about a year recovering from TB in his parents' basement around the age of 12 Adrian Joss George Katona, founder of behavioural macro-economics Immanuel Kant Freddie Keppard Dan Kolov, Bulgarian wrestler René Laennec, French physician; inventor of the stethoscope Vivien Leigh (1913–1967), British actress of stage and screen, died from complications of tuberculosis Edward Baker Lincoln, son of Abraham Lincoln and Mary Ann Todd Lincoln Lin Huiyin (1904–1955), Chinese architect Annie Lewis (c. 1869–1896), musical comedy actress Thomas "Tad" Daniel Lincoln (1853–1871), youngest child of Abraham Lincoln and Mary Todd Lincoln, died of TB in Chicago, Illinois, at age 18 John Lynch (c.1832–1866), Irish nationalist Dick Martin, comedian; lost a lung due to tuberculosis as a teenager Asif Maharramov, national hero of Azerbaijan Christy Mathewson (1880–1925), major league baseball pitcher; developed tuberculosis as a consequence of being accidentally gassed during a training exercise while serving in the U.S. Army Chemical Service during World War I. Zee Leander H. McNelly Dmitri Mendeleev, creator of the first version of the periodic table of elements. Friedrich Miescher, Swiss biochemist, noted for discovery of nucleic acids in cell nucleus (1844–1895) James "Bubber" Miley, jazz trumpeter Ismail Mohammed Joseph Mohr Arthur Morgan, fictional former gunslinger and member of the Van Der Linde gang (1863-1899); Main protagonist in Rockstar game Red Dead Redemption 2 Barry Morse N!xau Anne Neville (queen consort of Richard III) (unproven) Florence Nightingale Arthur Nixon, President Nixon's brother Harold Nixon, President Nixon's brother Mabel Normand Red Schoendienst, baseball player and manager Okita Soji (1844–1868), samurai Jane Pierce, United States first lady Etti Plesch Joseph Mary Plunkett Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe (wife of Edgar Allan Poe) Herman Potočnik Gavrilo Princip George Lohmann, English cricketer Srinivasa Ramanujan, mathematician; uncertain: believed for many years to have died from tuberculosis but now suspected the cause may have been hepatic amoebiasis Gustav Roch, mathematician Jimmie Rodgers (1897–1933), country music singer, sang about the woes of tuberculosis in the song T.B. Blues (co-written with Raymond E. Hall) and ultimately died of the disease days after a New York City recording session. Bernhard Riemann, mathematician Erwin Schrödinger Baruch Spinoza Shanawdithit, believed to have been the last surviving member of the Beothuk people of Newfoundland, died from tuberculosis in 1829. Takasugi Shinsaku (1839–1867), samurai Anna Sissak-Bardizbanian, reporter Ringo Starr §, musician/former drummer of The Beatles, survived having tuberculosis at age 11 Edward Livingston Trudeau, American physician who established the Adirondack Cottage Sanitorium for treatment of tuberculosis Tulasa Thapa, kidnapped Nepali girl, died of tuberculosis in 1995 Prince Paul von Thurn und Taxis (1843–1879), former aide-de-camp of King Ludwig II Adrianus Turnebus Georges Vezina Félix Vicq-d'Azyr, French anatomist Lev Vygotsky Rube Waddell William Winchester (son of Oliver Winchester, husband of Sarah Winchester) Link Wray Eugene Wigner Ho Chi Minh Edvard Munch, Norwegian painter Edward VI (1537–1553), died of tuberculosis at age 15 during his short reign as King of England Cat Stevens (now Yusuf Islam) §, British singer-songwriter Christiaan Van Vuuren Mary Tudor, Queen of France (Daughter of Henry VII of England, third wife of Louis XII of France) Madeleine of Valois (Daughter of Francis I of France, first wife of James V of Scotland References Rothman, Sheila M. (1994). Living in the Shadow of Death: Tuberculosis and the Social Experience of Illness in American History. 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221940	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richmond%20Hill%2C%20Ontario	Richmond Hill, Ontario	Richmond Hill (2021 population: 202,022) is a city in south-central York Region, Ontario, Canada. Part of the Greater Toronto Area, it is the York Region's third most populous municipality and the 27th most populous municipality in Canada. Richmond Hill is situated between the cities of Markham and Vaughan, north of Thornhill, and south of Aurora. Richmond Hill has seen significant population growth since the 1990s. It became a city in 2019 after being a town since 1957. The city is home to the David Dunlap Observatory telescope, the largest telescope in Canada. History The village of Richmond Hill was incorporated by a bylaw of the York County Council on June 18, 1872, coming into effect January 1, 1873. In September 1956, the Ontario Municipal Board approved its elevation to Town status, effective January 1, 1957. The Regional Municipality of York was established by Bill 102 An Act to Establish the Regional Municipality of York of the provincial parliament, passed on June 26, 1970, and coming into force on January 1, 1971. The act expanded Richmond Hill's borders, annexing parts of Whitchurch Township, Markham Township, Vaughan Township and King Township into Richmond Hill, expanding the area covered from to and the population from a little over 19,000 to some 34,000. Historically the town was bounded along a narrow strip along Yonge Street from Lots 48 to 46 (about Crosby Avenue down to Major Mackenzie Drive), as far east as Church Street and slightly west of Mill Pond (excluding Lot 46 where it ended just north of Arnold Crescent or eastern end of today's Don Head Park). The town grew to encompass the communities of Gormley, Dollar, Langstaff, Carrville, Headford, Elgin Mills, Jefferson, Bond Lake, Temperanceville, Lake Wilcox, Oak Ridges and Richvale. While Richmond Hill was a prosperous, well developed town, many of the outlying areas annexed were far more rural, with dirt roads, no water mains or sewers and no streetlights, and the time needed to bring municipal services up in these areas, combined with residual unequal tax assessments caused considerable conflict in the municipal politics. Policing was taken over by the York Regional Police, but fire protection remained with Richmond Hill, whose firefighting force quickly grew. Having hired its first full-time employee in 1967, it had fourteen full-time employees by 1971. Yonge Street through Richmond Hill expanded from two lanes to four in 1971, relieving congestion on what was known as "Ontario's worst stretch of highway". The Richmond Hill Dynes Jewellers softball team was the 1972 Softball World Champions. The Royal Canadian Air Farce was recorded at the Curtain Club Theatre in Richmond Hill for its first 5 seasons on radio, beginning in 1973. The Air Farce returned for an anniversary recording in the 1990s. Also in 1973 was the centennial of the town's incorporation as a village, and the town set up a number of celebratory activities, including a beard growing contest, commissioning a centennial song, a parade, a street dance and the unveiling of a historic plaque honouring the town's founding in front of the municipal offices. June 27 was officially declared Russell Lynett Day, named after the town's clerk, only the third in its existence. 1973 also saw the sale of the last of the original rose-growing greenhouses in Richmond Hill. Development had led to increasing property taxes and the H.J. Mills greenhouses relocated to Bayview Avenue and Elgin Mill Road. The site of the greenhouses was developed as a subdivision. The fast-growing town set aside significant areas for parks, with five new parks dedicated in 1973, and two more in 1974. The Richmond Hill Historical Society was founded in 1973. The society was dedicated to preserving the history of Richmond Hill and raising awareness of the town's history. Their first action was to restore a 150-year-old house, known as the Burr House. As the 1970s went on, the population growth of Richmond Hill remained large. In 1976, home prices in Richmond Hill were among the highest in Canada. By this time, the town council was split over whether to keep expanding rapidly. The deadlock over a fifty-five house subdivision named Springmills Estate led to one councillor saying that it was not the reform council it was dubbed, but a "deformed council". Other housing projects faced similar problems as councillors debated many things, including the need for affordable housing and the encroachment of homes into the farmland and the Oak Ridges Moraine. GO train service was extended to Richmond Hill in 1978, officially opened on April 29, 1978 by Bill Davis. Growth in Richmond Hill slowed towards the end of the 1970s, with M.L. McConaghy Public School closing in 1979 due to dropping enrolment. At the same time, Richmond Hill began to make official plans for future land development. The first official plan concerned a industrial park at Leslie Street and Highway 7 named Beaver Creek. A commercial area within the park spread into the hamlet of Dollar. The plan was rejected, however, by the Ontario Municipal Board, and Richmond Hill was the first municipality in Ontario to have its official plan rejected outright by the board. The whole affair was subject to much controversy in the community, although the town council eventually declined to appeal the decision. When the new council convened in 1980, led by new mayor Al Duffy, the town remained without a development plan. The council hired civic planner Peter Walker to produce a new official plan. By September 1981, the new plan was drafted, with limited development of northern Richmond Hill, industrial development centred in the south-east part of town and commercial centres remaining along Yonge Street. The plan was approved in July 1982 by the Ontario Municipal Board. A clash over the use of the land in Langstaff, known as the Langstaff Jail Farm erupted in 1982 between Richmond Hill and Toronto, which owned the land. The plot of land had been acquired by Toronto in 1911, and was unused in 1982. Toronto's plans for development clashed with those of Richmond Hill over the balance of industry and residential development, with Richmond Hill favouring more industrial development. The rose business left Richmond Hill in June 1982, with the closure of H.J. Mills florists. Mills died in 1980, leaving the company to his son, but the poor economic conditions, combined with increasing property taxes in the growing city made the business unprofitable. A 1984 contest organised by The Liberal had readers submit entries for a new town slogan. The town council chose three of the submissions which residents then voted on, and "A little north, a little nicer" became Richmond Hill's new town slogan. Richmond Hill's growth continued during the 1990s, fuelled in significant part by immigration, with many businesses opened on Highway 7 around Leslie Street serving the new Chinese Community that formed there. In the early 90s, Statistics Canada named Richmond Hill as Canada's fastest-growing community. On March 25, 2019, the Richmond Hill Council passed a motion to change the title of Richmond Hill from 'town' to 'city'. Politics The city's motto is (French for "Like the rose, I flourish"), reflecting either the motto of the Duke of Richmond, or the fact that the city was a centre of rose-growing in the early 20th century. At that time, it was known as the "Rose Capital" of Canada. A more recent motto for Richmond Hill is A little north, a little nicer. Richmond Hill is the only municipal Canadian government to have light pollution laws in place, due to the presence of the David Dunlap Observatory. In June 2013, the city's council passed a bylaw to ban the number 4 from new street numbers because it is considered to be bad luck in some Asian cultures. Governance The city is governed by the Richmond Hill City Council, which operates on a Mayor-Council system with six Ward Councillors and two Regional Councillors, plus the Mayor. The council serves a four-year term, after which a new council is elected by qualified electors in Richmond Hill. The council derives its authority primarily from the Municipal Act, 2001 and the amendments of the Municipal Law Amendment Act, 2006. Richmond Hill is a Lower-tier municipality and has the roles and responsibilities of that position. The municipality has a wide purview relating to the interests of the municipality and its residents to develop and maintain policies, practices and procedures through the issuing of bylaws relating to highways, transportation systems apart from highways, waste management, public utilities, culture, parks, recreation and heritage, drainage and flood control, parking, animals, economic development and the licensing of business. The city is also responsible for maintaining its finances in order to provide relevant services and for maintaining an official plan to guide development. Elections Elections for municipal offices are held every four years in conjunction with other municipal elections in Ontario. Elected positions include mayor, regional and local councillors and ward councillors (for six different wards) on the Richmond Hill City Council, as well as trustees for the York Region District School Board, the York Catholic District School Board and for Conseilleres (school trustees) for the Conseil scolaire de district du Centre-Sud-Ouest and Conseil scolaire de district catholique Centre-Sud. The mayor and regional and local councillors also serve on York Regional Council. Culture Arts The Richmond Hill Public Library system has four library branches. The Richmond Hill Centre for the Performing Arts offers theatre productions, concerts, comedy, and other shows in a multi-purpose space that includes a 631-seat auditorium. The Richmond Hill Philharmonic Orchestra, founded in 2008, offers a variety of concerts throughout the year at the Richmond Hill Centre for the Performing Arts. Housed in a restored cottage from the 1840s, the Richmond Hill Heritage Centre offers an exhibit of local history and has a number of educational programs. Recreation Richmond Hill has 167 parks, of which most are small urban parks, and of undeveloped natural area for recreation. The largest such park is Richmond Green Sports Centre and Park which includes several baseball diamonds, two ice skating rinks, a 300-person amphitheatre and a skateboard park. The city also has a total of six public swimming pools, including an indoor wave pool. Each summer, the city features a concert series entitled "Concerts in the Park", each having a specific theme, such as children's music and "The Beach Boys" and are held at Mill Pond Park, with some Sunday concerts at Richmond Green Park. The city is also home to the Richmond Hill Country Club, Summit Golf and Country Club, and the Bloomington Downs Golf Course. Richmond Hill was awarded the National Communities in Bloom award in 2003, with a special mention about the city's floral displays. In September 2009, Alias Grace Park was opened to honour Margaret Atwood's novel's depiction of the city in Upper Canada prior to John A. Macdonald becoming Prime Minister. Sport clubs Richmond Hill Curling Club Demographics The 2021 Census recorded a population of 202,022, an increase of 3.6% from 2016. Median age as of 2016 was 42.4, slightly higher than the Ontario median age of 41.3. In 2016, Visible minorities made up 60.0% of the population. According to 2016 Census data, English is the mother tongue of 36.3% of the residents of Richmond Hill. Native speakers of Cantonese make up 11.6% of the city's population, closely trailed by those of Mandarin (11.1%) and Persian (9.8%). Following are Russian (5.0%), Italian (3.2%), and Korean (2.2%). As of 2011, 50.0% of the city's population adheres to Christianity, mostly Catholicism (25.5%). Those who practise non-Christian religions adhere to, in order of size, Islam (11.5%), Judaism (5.5%), Buddhism (2.8%) and Hinduism (2.4%). Those who do not have a religious affiliation account for 26.4% of the population. Economy According to the city's website as of 2011, Richmond Hill is an affluent community with more than 52% of families reporting incomes of greater than $70,000 and over 31% of households reporting incomes greater than $100,000. The average household income in Richmond Hill is $100,900 which is 34% higher than the Canadian average and 26% higher than the provincial average. Based on the 2006 Census, 42.62% of families in the City of Richmond Hill earned $100,000 and over. The employment rate of the city is 66.36% with the most prevalent occupations being in the business, finance and administration and management sectors. The 2006 Census showed that the unemployment rate is very low at 3.77%, compared with the 7.4% unemployment rate across Canada during the time of the Census. The 1990s and 2000s were periods of strong economic growth for Richmond Hill; In 1999 industrial, commercial and institutional growth was valued at $88.9 million, up from $67.9 million in 1998. The economic growth of 1999 won the city's economic development department three provincial awards from the Economic Developers Council of Ontario. The border between Richmond Hill and Markham is a rapidly growing area for information technology and high-tech industry with over 1,000 such businesses located along their border in 2000. Most businesses in Richmond Hill are small businesses, with more than half of all employers in the city having four workers or less. The city is home to the corporate headquarters of Acklands Grainger Inc., Compugen Inc., Compuware, DMC Mining Services, Lexmark, Rogers Communications, BMW Canada, Science & Medicine Canada, and Staples. Education The York Region District School Board operates 27 public elementary schools in Richmond Hill, as well as 5 secondary schools: Alexander Mackenzie High School, Bayview Secondary School, Langstaff Secondary School, Richmond Green Secondary School and Richmond Hill High School. Students in schools in the York Region District School Board have scored above the provincial average on the Assessment of Reading, Writing and Mathematics, Primary Division (Grades 1–3) and Junior Division (Grades 4–6) since their introduction in 2002. The board's students in academic math streams have performed above the provincial average on the Grade 9 Assessment of Mathematics every year since its inception in 2002, while those in applied math streams were below the provincial average in 2002–2005, and above the provincial average from 2005–2007. The York Catholic District School Board operates 13 Catholic elementary schools in Richmond Hill. It also operates two Catholic secondary schools, St. Theresa of Lisieux Catholic High School and Our Lady Queen of the World Catholic Academy. There are also four private primary schools located in Richmond Hill and five private secondary schools, including Holy Trinity School, Richmond Hill Christian Academy, Discovery Academy, Toronto Montessori Schools, and Richmond Hill Montessori & Private Elementary School. Post-secondary education services are provided to the residents of Richmond Hill by several post-secondary educational institutions in Toronto, some of which have satellite campuses in nearby communities. Former Governor General Michaëlle Jean was a guest at the opening ceremony of a school named after her, in 2008, the Michaëlle Jean Public School. Communities Carrville Dollar Gormley Lake Wilcox Langstaff Temperanceville Other neighbourhoods Oak Ridges Oak Ridges is an unincorporated community to the north of Richmond Hill's downtown and south of Aurora. Historically, it had a post office from 1851 to the 1930s. Oak Ridges was annexed by Richmond Hill in 1971. It is largely residential, with most commercial development located along Yonge Street. The city developed around Lake Wilcox, the largest lake in the area and a community within Oak Ridges, and has continued to expand slowly since its annexation. In the 1990s, Oak Ridges experienced moderate growth, which has spurred environmental action and anti-development movements by numerous organizations. Population has grown significantly as a result of development initiatives along Bayview Avenue. The Oak Ridges Community Centre was built and completed in June 2012 to accommodate community demand. Bayview North Bayview North is a residential area along Bayview Avenue from Elgin Mills Road East to Major Mackenzie Drive. Western branch of the Rouge River runs through as well as Beaver Creek. Bayview Secondary School is located within Bayview North. Doncrest Doncrest is a small residential area along and east of Yonge Street just north of Highway 7. The area is located on crest of the Don River tributary German Mills Creek. Chinese businesses located along Highway 7 from Bayview Avenue are located here and ties with those around East Beaver Creek area. Elgin Mills Elgin Mills is an area around Yonge Street from Gamble Road to Elgin Mills Road. A business park, Elgin Mills Business Park is located in the southeast. Overall a residential area served by Upper Canada Place and Elgin Mills Square at Yonge and Elgin Mills Road. Yonge-Bernard Terminal is a York Region Transit hub. The historic community once had a steam grist mill, toll booth and inn at the corners of Elgin Mills Road and Yonge Street. The community existing prior to the establishment of a post office in 1900 and home to Newton Tannery before 1870 but business dwindled and reverted in the late 20th century as a residential suburb of Richmond Hill. Headford Headford was established as a postal village in 1856 and home to Methodist Church that opened in 1850. A brief oil fever in the 1860s but the area declined by the early 20th century. Headford once had saw (F. Eckhardt farm) and grist (John Burr farm) mills along Beaver Creek. Headford is now mainly a business park area bounded by Major Mackenzie Drive, Leslie Street, Highway 404 and 16th Avenue. Hillsview Hillsview is home to David Dunlap Observatory with residential homes now surrounding the observatory where it once were farms. Beverley Acres is a smaller residential area within Hillsville at southwest corner of Yonge Street and Major Mackenzie Drive. Mill Pond Mill Pond is a park located in the mid-region of Richmond Hill that is surrounded by heritage homes. The pond once powered a sawmill located here in the 1800s. Richvale Richvale is two residential areas in the southwest end of Richmond Hill divided by Carrville Road and bounded by Yonge Street and Bathurst Street: North Richvale-Yongehurst - area north of Carrville Road South Richvale - area south of Carrville Road Hillcrest Mall is the main commercial hub of the communities. Richmond Hill Golf Club is located in the south end. Historically the area had several saw mills next to ponds along the Don River but now have disappeared and filled in. Yonge Street The old downtown Richmond Hill (also known as the historic Village of Richmond Hill) is considered the strip of Yonge Street between Major Mackenzie in the south and Richmond Heights in the north. The new theatre was opened in 2009 and provides a modern venue for live performances. Bayview Hill Bayview Hill is a subdivision located on the northeast side of Bayview Avenue and 16th Avenue. Built in the early 1990s, the subdivision contains large expansive homes. East Beaver Creek (Beaver Creek) Richmond Hill's current commercial hub is located near Leslie Street and Ontario Highway 7, where it borders Markham's AMD headquarters. Built in the early to mid-1990s, the area is serviced by Highway 404, York Region Transit, and Buttonville Airport. The current City Hall was moved to that location in 1994. Southern Richmond Hill is home to the city's industrial and business region housing most of the city's hotels, as well as the main commercial area of the city's Chinese community. The northern part of city is considered to be Old Richmond Hill as it is a historical area. Central Richmond Hill is a very commercial area, housing multiple malls, plazas and entertainment buildings, such as theatres and restaurants. The northernmost part of the city is mostly farm land, though it is slowly being developed. During the 1990s, Chinese immigrants primarily from Hong Kong moved to Richmond Hill, where they set up businesses and shops catering to the community. Many shops and restaurants were established in suburban-style shopping malls and plazas, such as Times Square, along a stretch of Highway 7 between Bayview Avenue and Leslie Street. Jefferson Historic Jefferson is named for Jonathan Jefferson who settled in Lot 59 and established a store and post office in 1840. Jefferson is a newly developed neighbourhood, with housing begin to occupy in 2007. Jefferson Side Road is a major thoroughfare in the neighbourhood. Jefferson includes a large area, roughly bounded by Gamble Road in the south, Bathurst Street in the west and Bayview Avenue in the east. The community includes a residential subdivision namely Jefferson Forest, located in the southeast portion of the community. Tower Hill is a smaller area in the south end of Jefferson and served by Tower Hill Road. Windham Windham was an early settlement along Yonge Street north of Elgin Mills to Jefferson Side Road. Named for the British Secretary of War William Windham, the area was settled in 1798-1799 by French emigres These royalist lead by Joseph-Geneviève, Comte de Puisaye did not stay long and many would end up leaving the area. By 1814 most of these settlers had left. Henri Quetton de St. George, French-born son of Laurent Quetton St. George (1771-1821), whom acquired land here in 1798, built his estate, Glen Lonely (burned down 1908), around 1847 and is now part of Lake St. George Conservation Area. St. George's family either died or left Canada for France and was the only member to remain in the area. He died in 1896 and is buried at Temperanceville United Church. The Windham name would disappear after 1860s as Jefferson and Oak Ridges succeeded as new settlements. French Royalist Park in Jefferson is the only reminder of the French settlers. Transportation Road networks The city of Richmond Hill is well serviced in terms of transportation facilities for a community of its size. The eastern border of the city is Highway 404, a major highway that leads directly into the core of the City of Toronto via the Don Valley Parkway (DVP). Highway 404 also intersects with Highway 401 in North York, which is one of the most traversed highways on the planet and is the principal east–west route in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA). The city's southern border is defined by the former Highway 7 and a parallel toll expressway, Highway 407. The latter is a toll route and was designed as a bypass for the 401. The combined effect of these highways ensures that Richmond Hill is well integrated into Ontario's road network and has easy access for all road vehicles. The ease of accessing the city is threatened by increasing traffic due to growth in the region, as the resulting commutes diminish the usefulness of the road network. Public transit Public transit within the city of Richmond Hill is on buses co-ordinated by York Region Transit (YRT). In September 2005, YRT unveiled a new rapid transit initiative entitled VIVA which provides enhanced bus service on major routes using vehicles capable of speeding up traffic lights to lessen the time they idle. Viva Blue, Viva Purple, Viva Orange, and Viva Pink have stops in Richmond Hill. In addition, YRT operates several feeder routes on secondary streets in the city. Commuter train service is provided to the city by GO Transit on the Richmond Hill line with four stations in the city, Bloomington Station, Gormley Station, Richmond Hill Station and Langstaff Station. Langstaff Station is near the new Richmond Hill Centre Terminal of York Region Transit at Highway 7 and Yonge Street, and is connected to it by a pedestrian bridge opened in March 2008. The Richmond Hill Centre Terminal is complete with enclosed heating areas, payphones, and credit card/debit card ticket purchasing machines. Owing to its proximity to Toronto, there are plans to extend the TTC subway system to the intersection of Yonge and Highway 7. The project is in its preliminary planning, design and engineering (PDE) phase, with funding from the federal and provincial governments. Other transportation Richmond Hill is minimally serviced by other modes of transportation. Its landlocked situation inhibits any water transportation and it lacks an airport of its own, though it does border on Markham's Buttonville Airport. The closest international airport is Pearson International Airport. Geography and climate Richmond Hill is bounded by Bloomington Rd. (Aurora town limit) to the north, York Regional Road 7 (Vaughan city limit west of Yonge St., Markham city limit east of Yonge St.) to the south, Bathurst St. (Vaughan city limit) to the west, and Ontario Highway 404 (Markham city limit) to the east. Its southern limit is about 4 kilometres (3 miles) north of the Toronto city limit, Steeles Avenue, and approximately 20 kilometres (12 miles) north of the downtown core of Toronto. The city extends 14 kilometres (9 miles) north–south and 7 kilometres (3.5 miles) east–west. The predominant feature of the city's geography, as its name suggests, is its elevation above surrounding regions. Thousands of years ago during the last ice-age, glaciers moving in a southerly direction amassed a considerable amount of earth in front of them which they carried forward as they grew. Gradually, as the temperature increased the growth of the glaciers lessened and eventually they began to recede to what is now the polar ice cap. The earth that had been collected by the glacier's movement was left in place and the elevated region that remained comprises modern day Richmond Hill. The city itself is at a much greater elevation than other communities within the Greater Toronto Area (GTA) and with the exclusion of areas closely alongside its borders, the constituent of York region with the greatest height above sea level. The uneven melting of the glacier that formed the city has led to an extremely varied geography within the city's own borders, leading to such features as kettle lakes, minor tributaries and most notably the Oak Ridges Moraine. Kettle lakes are the result of glacier water getting caught in water-tight depressions in the land and are sustained by only rainfall in the immediate area. The City of Richmond Hill has many of these water bodies and its three largest in order of decreasing size are Lake Wilcox, Bond Lake and Philips Lake. The kettle lakes are predominantly confined to the northern fringes of the city. Being elevated above the surrounding region, precipitation in the city tends to flow outwards via the multitude of streams and rivers that flow through the city. Principally water flow is in one of two directions, south to Lake Ontario or north to Lake Simcoe where they join up with larger tributaries that feed into the water bodies. Of note are the Rouge, Humber, and Don rivers, which receive some of their flow from sources in the city. Perhaps the most important geographical feature of the City of Richmond Hill is the Oak Ridges Moraine. The moraine is a further elevated region of loose soil which comprises a significant portion (roughly the northern third) of the land area of the city. Its porous nature allows the collection and natural filtering of waters that flow through it which are then fed into multiple underground aquifers. While the city receives its water from the City of Toronto, these aquifers are an important source for those with their own wells in addition to surrounding communities. The ability of the soil to hold so much water means that despite Richmond Hill's comparatively high elevation, it has a very high water table which poses some problems to construction. The moraine is also host to a staggering amount of biodiversity and in recent years there has been a considerable amount of pressure applied to government to shield the area from development. Consequently, a considerable portion of Richmond Hill is subject to the Ontario Government's Greenbelt legislation. Landmarks Hillcrest Mall, a large and popular shopping mall located on the northwest corner of Yonge Street and Carrville Road. It has 135 shops, services, and restaurants. The Emerald Isle Motel on Yonge Street is known to display conservative rhymes and provocative quotes on their sign. These quotes usually relate to current events. The film Man of the Year, starring Robin Williams, was filmed at the motel in late 2005. This motel also was featured in the film The Wrong Guy. The David Dunlap Observatory is home to the largest reflecting telescope in Canada. The telescope was the second largest in the world upon its construction in 1935. The observatory was a research facility of the University of Toronto. The original Canadian burger chain Harvey's restaurant was opened in Richmond Hill in 1959 at the corner of Yonge Street and Observatory Lane. It was demolished in February 2012 and was replaced by the Xpression condominiums. The City of Richmond Hill Municipal Office Building, at 225 East Beaver Creek Road. The building serves as the seat of government of the municipality. Most of the city departments are located there, and all public Council and Committee Meetings are also held in this building. Richmond Hill United Church, with a prominent three-tier steeple, dates back to 1880. The Richmond Hill Centre for the Performing Arts, located in downtown Richmond Hill. Media Richmond Hill Liberal, Richmond Hill's newspaper CFMJ AM 640 (AM 640 Talk Radio) Notable people Affiliated cities and municipalities Richmond Hill is sister cities with Lakeland, Florida, and twinned with Netanya, Israel and Shijiazhuang, China. 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221952	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Gilpin	John Gilpin	John Gilpin (18th century) was featured as the subject in a well-known comic ballad of 1782 by William Cowper, entitled The Diverting History of John Gilpin. Cowper had heard the story from his friend Lady Austen. Gilpin was said to be a wealthy draper from Cheapside in London, who owned land at Olney, Buckinghamshire, near where Cowper lived. It is likely that he was a Mr Beyer, a linen draper of the Cheapside corner of Paternoster Row. The poem tells how Gilpin and his wife and children became separated during a journey to the Bell Inn, Edmonton, after Gilpin loses control of his horse, and is carried ten miles farther to the town of Ware. A number of sites commemorate the exploits of John Gilpin, most notably Gilpin's Gallop, a street in the village of Stanstead St Margarets. This was said to have been on the original route taken by the horse and his unfortunate rider. John Gilpin's Ghost was a ballad (1795) by John Thelwall. The John Gilpin clipper of 1852 was also named after him. A sculpture by Angela Godfrey, which was inspired by Cowper's poem about Gilpin now sits in Fore Street, Edmonton, London. References External links Bartleby.com – the poem in full Folkplay.info – the poem in full 18th-century English businesspeople People from the City of London Year of birth missing Year of death missing	[ -0.5907795429229736, 0.39637187123298645, -0.01950666308403015, -0.06941520422697067, 0.03159816563129425, 1.0117107629776, 0.852550745010376, 0.3241899609565735, -0.8373099565505981, 0.11453311145305634, 0.10675160586833954, -0.01838807947933674, -0.43831580877304077, 0.33039531111717224, -0.4686568081378937, 0.48445838689804077, -0.13137120008468628, 0.34887003898620605, -0.21163976192474365, -0.5850672721862793, -0.05428975075483322, -0.5294951796531677, -0.0716341882944107, -1.0421111583709717, 0.6244077682495117, 0.3619571626186371, 0.15354903042316437, -0.22453458607196808, -0.06508242338895798, 0.610144853591919, -0.1493453085422516, 0.4479198455810547, 0.9263078570365906, -0.05524156987667084, -0.012226802296936512, -0.718511164188385, -0.08403334766626358, -0.6173810362815857, 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221953	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yp%C3%A4j%C3%A4	Ypäjä	Ypäjä is a municipality located in the countryside of South-Western Finland. It belongs to the province of Southern Finland and the region of Tavastia Proper. The municipality has a population of () and covers an area of of which is water. The population density is . The municipality is unilingually Finnish. The main population centre of Ypäjä is a small village situated on the river Loimijoki, between the towns of Forssa (23 km to the east from Ypäjä) and Loimaa (15 km to the west). Although officially part of the Forssa region, Ypäjä is often also considered to belong to the Loimaa region as it has traditionally been influenced by both towns. Besides Loimaa, its direct neighbours are Jokioinen, Humppila, Somero and Koski Tl. The distances from Ypäjä to the three major cities in southern Finland are relatively short: to Turku, to Tampere, and to the capital Helsinki. Ypäjä is probably best known for horses; the municipality e.g. has an Equine College and hosts an annual international riding competition called Finnderby. Ypäjä's coat of arms is designed by Aukusti Tuhka. References External links Municipality of Ypäjä – Official website Equine College Ypäjä Municipalities of Kanta-Häme Populated places established in 1876 1876 establishments in Finland	[ 0.2858588695526123, 0.1802491843700409, -0.29130300879478455, -0.007431053556501865, 0.18505220115184784, 0.4362776279449463, 0.9360914826393127, 0.18535080552101135, -0.1695040911436081, -0.2351953387260437, 0.058306556195020676, -0.06699967384338379, -0.4216056764125824, 0.24901463091373444, -0.7864468693733215, -0.00004484320743358694, 0.14785435795783997, 0.5960662961006165, 0.4156004786491394, -0.40329116582870483, 0.08307839184999466, -0.000038324131310218945, 0.4628073573112488, 0.5868481397628784, 0.36733078956604004, -0.23775207996368408, 0.23238195478916168, 0.8852746486663818, 0.6023642420768738, 0.0427778922021389, -0.6654295325279236, 0.28363388776779175, 0.045285385102033615, -0.4282238185405731, 0.0837845429778099, 0.5103885531425476, -0.033819619566202164, -0.2494635283946991, 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221954	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9%20Cecilio%20del%20Valle	José Cecilio del Valle	José Cecilio Díaz del Valle (November 22, 1780 – March 2, 1834) was a philosopher, politician, lawyer, and journalist and one of the most important figures in Central America during the transition from colonial government to independence, displaying a wide-ranging expertise in public administration management. Valle nicknamed 'The Wise' was also, one of Central America's founding fathers. Personal life Early years José Cecilio del Valle was born on November 22, 1780, in the village of Choluteca, located near the Choluteca River. This village belonged to the former province of Tegucigalpa (now Honduras), during the Spanish domination. He was the legitimate son of Jose Antonio del Valle and Gertrudis Díaz del Valle. Both members of the most distinguished Spanish families of the Kingdom of Guatemala. who, therefore, have obtained the main political and military jobs. Their wealth consisted mainly of valuable estates of livestock. But that wasn't enough to provide their favorite son with a good education. Tegucigalpa lacked good schools, the only ones available were supported by private donations. Given this situation, Jose Antonio del Valle had to move his family to Guatemala City, where he hoped young Jose would be better formed. Jose Cecilio was only 9 years old when he arrived in Guatemala. Education In Guatemala City he attended the University of San Carlos where he earned a bachelor's degree in 1794. Then in 1799 he earned a degree in civil and canonical law and a licentiate degree in law in 1803. His mentor was Father José Antonio Liendo y Goycochea. Politics In 1821 he was elected mayor of Guatemala City, position he held until June (1821). The same year Central America became independent from Spanish rule. Jose del Valle was the one who wrote the Act of Independence of Central America. Up to this date, there is a controversy in relation to this document because del Valle did not sign it. Most historians however, agreed that he was not supposed to sign such document. In 1822 Central America became part of the short lived Mexican Empire under Agustin de Iturbide. Valle was elected a 'Guatemalan Representative' before the Mexican Congress. On August 27, 1822. Valle was imprisoned along with other representatives on charges of conspiring against the Mexicans. After months in prison (February 1823), he was released and appointed Foreign Minister for the Mexican Government. The same year Central America gained its independence from Mexico. In January 1824 he returned to Guatemala where was part of the second triumvirate that governed the Provinces of Central America. In 1825 José del Valle ran for president of the Federal Republic of Central America against Manuel José Arce. Apparently won the election after he obtained more votes. But Congress had a different interpretation. The candidates went to second round and Arce was declared winner. Following his defeat, Valle retired from politics and devoted himself to writing. In 1830 President Francisco Morazán offered him to be ambassador to France, and or the Vice presidency. He declined both and instead went on to become Director of the Economic Society and Director of San Carlos University's Fine Arts department. Correspondence Jeremy Bentham and Valle corresponded. Before his death, Bentham sent a lock of his hair to Valle. Death In 1834 he defeated incumbent Francisco Morazán in the general election but never took over the presidency. He died on the road that leads from the farm "La Concepción" to Guatemala City, on March 2, 1834. Where he was supposed to be treated for an illness. The government decreed three days of mourning after his death. His death was marked by national mourning and bells tolling throughout the Republic, as he was one of the few prominent figures respected by Liberals and Conservatives alike. Legacy The Honduran Government awards a medal for distinguished service named "Orden Civil José Cecilio del Valle", and there is a University named after him in Tegucigalpa. The November 22 is holiday because of his Birthday. Honduras has featured Valle on its 100 Lempira banknote since 1951. A later family member of Jose Cecilo was Jorge Del Valle Zamora and was ambassador of Honduras to Mexico in the 20th century. See also History of Central America Further reading Jonathan Harris, 'An English utilitarian looks at Spanish American independence: Jeremy Bentham's Rid Yourselves of Ultramaria', The Americas 53 (1996), 217-33 John Lynch, The Spanish American Revolutions 1808-1826 (New York: W.W. Norton, 1986, 2nd ed.) Miriam Williford, Jeremy Bentham on Spanish America (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1980) References External links José Cecilio del Valle: político de la Independencia, Universidad Francisco Marroquin JOSE CECILIO DEL VALLE (Biography Spanish) 1780 births 1834 deaths Honduran politicians Mayors of Guatemala City Mexican Secretaries of Foreign Affairs Heads of state of the Federal Republic of Central America People from Choluteca Department Central American independence activists Conservatism in Guatemala Elected officials who died without taking their seats	[ -0.28517648577690125, 0.16810986399650574, -0.3475736677646637, 0.740746796131134, -0.2455383986234665, 0.44687673449516296, 0.1584094613790512, 0.8116304278373718, -0.29755309224128723, -0.32978561520576477, 0.17122983932495117, 1.0114010572433472, 0.1658712923526764, 0.17872300744056702, -0.24298983812332153, 0.10096386820077896, 0.3590691089630127, 0.06710149347782135, -0.49917855858802795, 0.23859372735023499, 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221956	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Somerville	William Somerville	William Somerville may refer to: William Somervile (1675–1742), English poet, also written as William Somerville William Somerville (cricketer) (born 1984), New Zealand cricketer William Somerville (physician) (1771–1860), Scottish physician William E. Somerville (1869–1950), Scottish aircraft engineer William Lyon Somerville (1886–1965), Canadian architect William Lorne Northmore Somerville (1921–2009), Canadian lawyer William Somerville, 1st Baron Athlumney (1802–1873), Anglo-Irish politician William C. Somerville (1790–1826), American plantation owner, author, historian and diplomat William Somerville, 2nd Lord Somerville (died 1456), member of the Scottish Parliament William Somerville (priest), Archdeacon of Armagh Sir William Somerville (agriculturalist) (1860-1932), British agriculturalist	[ -0.052629854530096054, 0.35967713594436646, -0.2505994737148285, -0.6154520511627197, 0.29334497451782227, 1.1049911975860596, 0.6637287735939026, -0.02482655644416809, -0.11159814149141312, -0.6074451804161072, -0.29030880331993103, -0.10179940611124039, -0.28250595927238464, 0.6150822043418884, -0.137791708111763, 0.6990463137626648, 0.08562036603689194, 0.06376513093709946, -0.3435726463794708, -0.3185330927371979, -0.1990862637758255, -0.14935846626758575, 0.5345554351806641, -0.12025084346532822, 0.1685168445110321, 0.2044650912284851, 0.3281060457229614, -0.4126685857772827, -0.07213220745325089, 0.3567869961261749, 0.25388333201408386, 0.405108243227005, 0.8592923879623413, 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221962	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synoptic%20Gospels	Synoptic Gospels	The gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke are referred to as the synoptic Gospels because they include many of the same stories, often in a similar sequence and in similar or sometimes identical wording. They stand in contrast to John, whose content is largely distinct. The term synoptic (; ) comes via Latin from the Greek , synopsis, i.e. "(a) seeing all together, synopsis"; the sense of the word in English, the one specifically applied to these three gospels, of "giving an account of the events from the same point of view or under the same general aspect" is a modern one. This strong parallelism among the three gospels in content, arrangement, and specific language is widely attributed to literary interdependence. The question of the precise nature of their literary relationship—the synoptic problem—has been a topic of lively debate for centuries and has been described as "the most fascinating literary enigma of all time". While no conclusive solution has been found yet, the longstanding majority view favors Marcan priority, in which both Matthew and Luke have made direct use of the Gospel of Mark as a source, and further holds that Matthew and Luke also drew from an additional hypothetical document, called Q. Structure Common features Broadly speaking, the synoptic gospels are similar to John: all are composed in Koine Greek, have a similar length, and were completed within a century of Jesus' death. They also differ from non-canonical sources, such as the Gospel of Thomas, in that they belong to the ancient genre of biography, collecting not only Jesus' teachings, but recounting in an orderly way his origins, his ministry and miracles, and his passion and resurrection. In content and in wording, though, the synoptics diverge widely from John but have a great deal in common with each other. Though each gospel includes some unique material, the majority of Mark and roughly half of Matthew and Luke coincide in content, in much the same sequence, often nearly verbatim. This common material is termed the triple tradition. The triple tradition The triple tradition, the material included by all three synoptic gospels, includes many stories and teachings: The triple tradition's pericopae (passages) tend to be arranged in much the same order in all three gospels. This stands in contrast to the material found in only two of the gospels, which is much more variable in order. The classification of text as belonging to the triple tradition (or for that matter, double tradition) is not always definitive, depending rather on the degree of similarity demanded. Matthew and Mark report the cursing of the fig tree, a single incident, despite some substantial differences of wording and content. In Luke, the only parable of the barren fig tree, is in a different point of the narrative. Some would say that Luke has extensively adapted an element of the triple tradition, while others would regard it as a distinct pericope. Example An illustrative example of the three texts in parallel is the healing of the leper: More than half the wording in this passage is identical. Each gospel includes words absent in the other two and omits something included by the other two. Relation to Mark The triple tradition itself constitutes a complete gospel quite similar to the shortest gospel, Mark. Mark, unlike Matthew and Luke, adds little to the triple tradition. Pericopae unique to Mark are scarce, notably two healings involving saliva and the naked runaway. Mark's additions within the triple tradition tend to be explanatory elaborations (e.g., "the stone was rolled back, ) or Aramaisms (e.g., "Talitha kum!"). The pericopae Mark shares with only Luke are also quite few: the Capernaum exorcism and departure from Capernaum, the strange exorcist, and the widow's mites. A greater number, but still not many, are shared with only Matthew, most notably the so-called "Great Omission" from Luke of . Most scholars take these observations as a strong clue to the literary relationship among the synoptics and Mark's special place in that relationship. The hypothesis favored by most experts is Marcan priority, whereby Mark was composed first, and Matthew and Luke each used Mark, incorporating much of it, with adaptations, into their own gospels. A leading alternative hypothesis is Marcan posteriority, with Mark having been formed primarily by extracting what Matthew and Luke shared in common. The double tradition An extensive set of material—some two hundred verses, or roughly half the length of the triple tradition—are the pericopae shared between Matthew and Luke, but absent in Mark. This is termed the double tradition. Parables and other sayings predominate in the double tradition, but also included are narrative elements: Unlike triple-tradition material, double-tradition material is structured differently in the two gospels. Matthew's lengthy Sermon on the Mount, for example, is paralleled by Luke's shorter Sermon on the Plain, with the remainder of its content scattered throughout Luke. This is consistent with the general pattern of Matthew collecting sayings into large blocks, while Luke does the opposite and intersperses them with narrative. Besides the double tradition proper, Matthew and Luke often agree against Mark within the triple tradition to varying extents, sometimes including several additional verses, sometimes differing by a single word. These are termed the major and minor agreements (the distinction is imprecise). One example is in the passion narrative, where Mark has simply, "Prophesy!" while Matthew and Luke both add, "Who is it that struck you?" The double tradition's origin, with its major and minor agreements, is a key facet of the synoptic problem. The simplest hypothesis is Luke relied on Matthew's work or vice versa. But many experts, on various grounds, maintain that neither Matthew nor Luke used the other's work. If this is the case, they must have drawn from some common source, distinct from Mark, that provided the double-tradition material and overlapped with Mark's content where major agreements occur. This hypothetical document is termed Q, for the German Quelle, meaning "source". Special Matthew and Special Luke Matthew and Luke contain a large amount of material found in no other gospel. These materials are sometimes called Special Matthew or M and Special Luke or L. Both Special Matthew and Special Luke include distinct opening infancy narratives and post-resurrection conclusions (with Luke continuing the story in his second book Acts). In between, Special Matthew includes mostly parables, while Special Luke includes both parables and healings. Special Luke is notable for containing a greater concentration of Semitisms than any other gospel material. Luke gives some indication of how he composed his gospel in his prologue: Since many have undertaken to set down an orderly account of the events that have been fulfilled among us, just as they were handed on to us by those who from the beginning were eyewitnesses and servants of the word, I too decided, after investigating everything carefully from the very first, to write an orderly account for you, most excellent Theophilus, so that you may know the truth concerning the things about which you have been instructed. Synoptic problem The "synoptic problem" is the question of the specific literary relationship among the three synoptic gospels—that is, the question as to the source or sources upon which each synoptic gospel depended when it was written. The texts of the three synoptic gospels often agree very closely in wording and order, both in quotations and in narration. Most scholars ascribe this to documentary dependence, direct or indirect, meaning the close agreements among synoptic gospels are due to one gospel's drawing from the text of another, or from some written source that another gospel also drew from. Controversies The synoptic problem hinges on several interrelated points of controversy: Priority: Which gospel was written first? (If one text draws from another, the source must have been composed first.) Successive dependence: Did each of the synoptic gospels draw from each of its predecessors? (If not, the frequent agreements between the two independent gospels against the third must originate elsewhere.) Lost written sources: Did any of the gospels draw from some earlier document which has not been preserved (e.g., the hypothetical "Q", or from earlier editions of other gospels)? Oral sources: To what extent did each evangelist or literary collaborator draw from personal knowledge, eyewitness accounts, liturgy, or other oral traditions to produce an original written account? Translation: Jesus and others quoted in the gospels spoke primarily in Aramaic, but the gospels themselves in their oldest available form are each written in Koine Greek. Who performed the translations, and at what point? Redaction: How and why did those who put the gospels into their final form expand, abridge, alter, or rearrange their sources? Some theories try to explain the relation of the synoptic gospels to John; to non-canonical gospels such as Thomas, Peter, and Egerton; to the Didache; and to lost documents such as the Hebrew logia mentioned by Papias, the Jewish–Christian gospels, and the Gospel of Marcion. History Ancient sources virtually unanimously ascribe the synoptic gospels to the apostle Matthew, to Peter's interpreter Mark, and to Paul's companion Luke—hence their respective canonical names. The ancient authors, however, did not agree on which order the Gospels had been written. For example, Clement of Alexandria held that Matthew wrote first, Luke wrote second and Mark wrote third; on the other hand, Origen argued that Matthew wrote first, Mark wrote second and Luke wrote third; finally, Tertullian states that John and Matthew were published first and that Mark and Luke came later. A remark by Augustine of Hippo at the beginning of the fifth century presents the gospels as composed in their canonical order (Matthew, Mark, Luke, John), with each evangelist thoughtfully building upon and supplementing the work of his predecessors—the Augustinian hypothesis (Matthew–Mark). This view (when any model of dependence was considered at all) seldom came into question until the late eighteenth century, when Johann Jakob Griesbach published in 1776 a synopsis of the synoptic gospels. Instead of harmonizing them, he displayed their texts side by side, making both similarities and divergences apparent. Griesbach, noticing the special place of Mark in the synopsis, hypothesized Marcan posteriority and advanced (as Henry Owen had a few years earlier) the two-gospel hypothesis (Matthew–Luke). In the nineteenth century, researchers applied the tools of literary criticism to the synoptic problem in earnest, especially in German scholarship. Early work revolved around a hypothetical proto-gospel (Ur-Gospel), possibly in Aramaic, underlying the synoptics. From this line of inquiry, however, a consensus emerged that Mark itself served as the principal source for the other two gospels—Marcan priority. In a theory first proposed by Christian Hermann Weisse in 1838, the double tradition was explained by Matthew and Luke independently using two sources—thus, the two-source (Mark–Q) theory—which supplemented Mark with another hypothetical source consisting mostly of sayings. This additional source was at first seen as the logia (sayings) spoken of by Papias and thus called "Λ", but later it became more generally known as "Q", from the German Quelle, meaning source. This two-source theory eventually won wide acceptance and was seldom questioned until the late twentieth century; most scholars simply took this new orthodoxy for granted and directed their efforts toward Q itself, and this is largely the case. The theory is also well known in a more elaborate form set forth by Burnett Hillman Streeter in 1924, which additionally hypothesized written sources "M" and "L" (for "Special Matthew" and "Special Luke" respectively)—hence the influential four-document hypothesis. This exemplifies the prevailing scholarship of the time, which saw the canonical gospels as late products, dating from well into the second century, composed by unsophisticated cut-and-paste redactors out of a progression of written sources, and derived in turn from oral traditions and from folklore that had evolved in various communities. More recently, however, as this view has gradually fallen into disfavor, so too has the centrality of documentary interdependence and hypothetical documentary sources as an explanation for all aspects of the synoptic problem. In recent decades, weaknesses of the two-source theory have been more widely recognized, and debate has reignited. Many have independently argued that Luke did make some use of Matthew after all—the Common Sayings Source. British scholars went further and dispensed with Q entirely, ascribing the double tradition to Luke's direct use of Matthew—the Farrer hypothesis of 1955. New attention is also being given to the Wilke hypothesis of 1838 which, like Farrer, dispenses with Q but ascribes the double tradition to Matthew's direct use of Luke. Meanwhile, the Augustinian hypothesis has also made a comeback, especially in American scholarship. The Jerusalem school hypothesis has also attracted fresh advocates, as has the Independence hypothesis, which denies documentary relationships altogether. On this collapse of consensus, Wenham observed: "I found myself in the Synoptic Problem Seminar of the Society for New Testament Studies, whose members were in disagreement over every aspect of the subject. When this international group disbanded in 1982 they had sadly to confess that after twelve years' work they had not reached a common mind on a single issue." More recently, Andris Abakuks applied a statistical time series approach to the Greek texts to determine the relative likelihood of these proposals. Models without Q fit reasonably well. Matthew and Luke were statistically dependent on their borrowings from Mark. This suggests at least one of Matthew and Luke had access to the other's work. The most likely synoptic gospel to be the last was Luke. The least likely was Mark. While this weighs against the Griesbach proposal and favors the Farrer, he does not claim any proposals are ruled out. Conclusions No definitive solution to the Synoptic Problem has been found yet. The Two-source hypothesis, which was dominant throughout the 20th century, still enjoys the support of most New Testament scholars; however, it has come under substantial attack in recent years by a number of biblical scholars, who have attempted to relaunch the Augustinian hypothesis, the Griesbach hypothesis and the Farrer hypothesis. In particular, the existence of the Q source has received harsh criticism in the first two decades of the 21st century: scholars such as Mark Goodacre and Brant Pitre have pointed out that no manuscript of Q has ever been found, nor is any reference to Q ever made in the writings of the Church Fathers (or any ancient writings, in fact). This has prompted E. P. Sanders and Margaret Davies to write that the Two-sources hypothesis, while still dominant, "is least satisfactory" and Joseph Fitzmyer to state that the Synoptic Problem is "practically insoluble". Theories Nearly every conceivable theory has been advanced as a solution to the synoptic problem. The most notable theories include: See also Aramaic primacy Authorship of the Gospels Biblical criticism Gospel harmony List of Gospels List of key episodes in the Canonical Gospels Source criticism Notes References External links Catholic Encyclopedia: Synoptics Hypotyposeis: Synoptic Problem Website Synoptic Problem: Bibliography of the main studies in English TextExcavation: The Synoptic Project Synoptic Gospels Primer NT Gateway: Synoptic Problem Web Sites The Synoptic Problem and its Solution Matthew Conflator (Wilke) Hypothesis Synoptic Hypotheses and Authors Canonical Gospels Christian terminology Texts in Koine Greek Biblical criticism	[ 0.12128476798534393, 0.5928894281387329, -0.6543536186218262, -0.2881787121295929, -0.15702186524868011, 0.8890360593795776, 0.6222004890441895, 0.7179534435272217, -0.31920984387397766, -0.9890927672386169, -0.6681967377662659, -0.019281495362520218, -0.613432765007019, 0.06734610348939896, 0.04642534255981445, 0.09998640418052673, 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221968	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getting%20There%20%28film%29	Getting There (film)	Getting There is a 2002 direct-to-video film starring Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen. Plot Taylor Hunter (Ashley Olsen) and Kylie Hunter (Mary-Kate Olsen) are celebrating their 16th birthday and are licensed to drive. They plan a trip to Salt Lake City, Utah with their friends for the 2002 Winter Olympics. When they stop at a local restaurant on the way, their car is stolen and next they board the wrong plane to San Diego. Determined to make it to Utah in time for the Olympics, the teenagers take a coach from LA to Vegas, but get separated at a gas station. Kylie and half of the gang makes it to Vegas, where they end up taking part in a Vegas wedding, whilst Taylor and the other half of the gang are stranded in a one horse town. While trying to get ahold of her sister, Taylor meets Charly, a girl her age with a pick-up truck who offers to give her and her friends a ride to Vegas, but her truck breaks down. Charly reveals that she, who seemed like a humble farm girl, actually lives in a mansion and owns a private jet. Her dad offers to fly all of the teens to Salt Lake City. Taylor and Kylie arrive in Utah too late for the Olympics. Taylor is upset because she would have liked to see her favourite Athlete, Alex Reisher, compete. Nonetheless, the friends decide to have fun by holding their own Olympics. Taylor meets a young man and they end up spending the day skiing together, but she never sees his face. It is not until a month later when the girls get their car back, and Taylor sees her picture in the paper, that she realizes she spent the day skiing with her Olympic crush Alex Reisher. Cast Mary-Kate Olsen as Kylie Hunter Ashley Olsen as Taylor Hunter Billy Aaron Brown as Danny Heather Lindell as Jenn Jeff D'Agostino as Joshua / Toast Talon Ellithorpe as Sam Holly Towne as Lyndi Alexandra Picatto as Charly Janet Gunn as Pam Hunter William Bumiller as Gary Hunter Jason Benesh as Alexander Ricki Lopez as Juan Shelley Malil as Raj Marcus Smythe as Mr. Simms Cheyenne Wilbur as Male Proctor Deborah Hinderstein as Female Instructor James Kiriyama Lem as Male Instructor Chene Lawson as Ticket Clerk Tracy Arbuckle as Diane Sterling Rice as Young Female Tourst Jeff Thomas Johnson as Waiter in Ski Lodge Filming Details The film was produced by Dualstar and Tapestry Films and distributed by Warner Bros. Getting There was filmed in Santa Barbara, California; Salt Lake City, Utah; Las Vegas, Nevada and New Mexico. References External links 2002 direct-to-video films 2002 films American direct-to-video films English-language films 2002 comedy films Warner Bros. direct-to-video films American comedy films Films about twin sisters Films about the 2002 Winter Olympics American films Twins in fiction	[ -0.24040444195270538, -0.3627925515174866, -0.10267574340105057, 0.1995910108089447, 0.2637038826942444, 0.10873978585004807, 0.8203009366989136, 0.21691644191741943, -0.49127814173698425, 0.4186655580997467, 0.2470698207616806, 0.031049460172653198, 0.19861634075641632, -0.05081646889448166, 0.31717604398727417, -0.2578612267971039, 0.22225028276443481, 0.5593628287315369, 0.2879941463470459, -0.28935572504997253, -0.5603957772254944, -0.30946090817451477, 0.3393784761428833, -0.2197597324848175, 0.03998555243015289, -0.0710691437125206, -0.2564202845096588, 0.0720602422952652, -0.05851828679442406, 0.018864978104829788, 0.3040984272956848, -0.28248459100723267, 0.3448092043399811, 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221970	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah%20Siddons	Sarah Siddons	Sarah Siddons (née Kemble; 5 July 1755 – 8 June 1831) was a Welsh actress, the best-known tragedienne of the 18th century. Contemporaneous critic William Hazlitt dubbed Siddons as "tragedy personified". She was the elder sister of John Philip Kemble, Charles Kemble, Stephen Kemble, Ann Hatton, and Elizabeth Whitlock, and the aunt of Fanny Kemble. She was most famous for her portrayal of the Shakespearean character, Lady Macbeth, a character she made her own, as well as for fainting at the sight of the Elgin Marbles in London. The Sarah Siddons Society, founded in 1952, continues to present the Sarah Siddons Award annually in Chicago to a distinguished actress. Background The 18th-century marked the 'emergence of a recognisably modern celebrity culture' and Siddons was at the heart of it. Portraits depicted actresses in aristocratic dress, the recently industrialised newspapers spread actresses' names and images and gossip about their private lives spread through the public. Though few people had actually seen Siddons perform, her name had been circulated to such an extent that when it was announced 'the crowd behaved as if they knew her already'. Actresses playing and acting like aristocrats decreased the difference in the public's eyes between actresses and aristocrats and many earned large amounts of money. Despite this giving actresses a larger amount of control, women were still viewed as 'extreme representations of femininity - they were good or bad, comic or tragic, prostitutes or virgins, mistresses or mothers'. Their on-stage roles and personal biographies blurred - leading to many actresses using these extreme representations of femininity to create a persona that could be viewed both on and off stage. Biography Early life Siddons was born Sarah Kemble in Brecon, Brecknockshire, Wales, the eldest daughter of Roger Kemble, a Roman Catholic, and Sarah "Sally" Ward, a Protestant. Sarah and her sisters were raised in their mother's faith and her brothers were raised in their father's faith. Roger Kemble was the manager of a touring theatre company, the Warwickshire Company of Comedians. Although the theatre company included most members of the Kemble family, Siddons' parents initially disapproved of her choice of profession. At that time, acting was only beginning to become a respectable profession for a woman. From 1770 until her marriage in 1773, Siddons served as a lady's maid and later as companion to Lady Mary Bertie Greatheed at Guy's Cliffe near Warwick. Lady Greatheed was the daughter of the Duke of Ancaster; her son, Bertie Greatheed, was a dramatist who continued the family's friendship with Siddons. Early career: Before success in London In 1774, Siddons won her first success as Belvidera in Thomas Otway's Venice Preserv'd. This brought her to the attention of David Garrick, who sent his deputy to see her as Calista in Nicholas Rowe's Fair Penitent, the result being that she was engaged to appear at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane. Owing to inexperience as well as other circumstances, her first appearances as Portia and in other parts were not well received and she received a note from the manager of Drury Lane stating that her services would not be required. She was, in her own words, "banished from Drury Lane as a worthless candidate for fame and fortune". After she was released from Drury Lane, Siddons was immediately engaged by Richard Yates, manager of the Theatre Royal Birmingham. During the summer of 1776, John Henderson would see Siddons perform. He was immediately struck with her excellence, and pronounced that she would never be surpassed. He did more than this; he wrote directly to Palmer, manager of the Theatre Royal Bath, to advise an engagement of her without delay. Due to there being no available roles for Siddons at the time of Henderson's letter, Palmer could not immediately attend to his advice. In 1777, she went on "the circuit" in the provinces. For the next six years she worked in provincial companies, in particular York and Bath. Her first appearance at Bath's Old Orchard Street Theatre was in autumn 1778 at a salary of £3 per week (, or approximately $). This amount grew as her performances became better known, and as she began to appear in Bristol at the Theatre Royal, King Street (which now houses the Bristol Old Vic), also run by John Palmer. Siddons lived with her husband and children in a Georgian house at 33 The Paragon in Bath, until her final performance there in May 1782. To say farewell to Bristol and Bath, Siddons presented her famous 'three reasons' speech. In a speech of her own writing, Siddons literally presented her three children as her three reasons for leaving. She said 'These are the moles that bear me from your side; / Where I was rooted - where I could have died. / Stand forth, ye elves, and plead your mother's cause' The presentation of her own motherhood was something she used throughout her career, notably when she performed her next Drury Lane appearance, on 10 October 1782, which could not have been more different from her debut performances. She was an immediate sensation playing the title role in Garrick's adaptation of a play by Thomas Southerne, Isabella, or, The Fatal Marriage. So good was she that "Her pathetic embodiment of domestic woe created a sensation, flooding the audience with tears and exciting critics to hyperbolic praise.” Mid-career: Notable roles Siddons continued to act in the provinces, appearing at The Theatre, Leeds, in 1786 and consistently brought a thorough understanding to each of her roles. It was through her portrayals of Lady Macbeth and Isabella, particularly, that Siddons offered a new way of approaching character. Siddons has been credited for inventing and promoting textual accuracy above the theatrical traditions of her time: "Siddons was unique for making herself familiar with the entire script, sitting offstage in order to hear the full play, and paying careful attention to her scene partners and to textual clues that could aid performance." Her most famous role was that of Lady Macbeth, which she first performed on 2 February 1785. She spellbound her audience through the grandeur of her emotions as she expressed Lady Macbeth's murderous passions. Rather than portraying Lady Macbeth as a murderous evil queen, Siddons depicted her with a strong sense of maternity and a delicate femininity. As she noted in her own "Remarks to the character of Lady Macbeth", Siddons found an unearthed fragility in this role. "She read, in the 'I have given suck' soliloquy, a 'tender allusion [to] the maternal mother yearning for her babe'; it is therefore in Lady Macbeth that Siddons found the highest and best scope for her acting abilities. She was tall and had a striking figure, brilliant beauty, powerfully expressive eyes, and solemn dignity of demeanour which enabled her to claim the character as her own. After Lady Macbeth she played Desdemona, Rosalind, Ophelia, and Volumnia, all with great success; but it was as Queen Catherine in Henry VIII that she discovered a part almost as well adapted to her acting powers as that of Lady Macbeth. She once told Samuel Johnson that Catherine was her favourite role, as it was the most natural. The role of Hamlet Sarah Siddons played the role of Hamlet multiple times over three decades. By the early nineteenth century, “Hamlet had become arguably Shakespeare's most iconic character”. Her choice to tackle this role was fascinating as cross gendered roles were “generally more difficult and demanding than a breeches role”. The performer would need to sustain the illusion for the whole duration of the play as opposed to a breeches role which is much more brief and gained comedic success from the character's poor delivery at representing the opposite sex. Far from a one-off curiosity, "Siddons played Hamlet repeatedly, if sporadically, for three decades, always in the provinces and never in London, until she reached the age of fifty". Sarah Siddons first played Hamlet in Worcester in 1775 and then in Manchester opposite her brother John Philip Kemble as Laertes March 1777. At the Bristol theatre, she played Hamlet in 1781. She went on to repeat the role in Liverpool. In Dublin, she played Hamlet during the season of 1802-03 and once more in 1805. She proposed that last performance to her friend and fellow actor William Galindo as a revival of their successful 1802 performance, with herself as Hamlet and Galindo as Laertes. This 1805 revival production made enough of an impression to be caricatured in The Dublin Satirist five years later in 1810. Celebrity status Celebrity persona and the "Female Star" It was the beginning of twenty years in which she became the undisputed Queen of Drury Lane. Her celebrity status was called "mythical" and "monumental", and by the mid-1780s Siddons had established herself as a cultural icon. Yet her iconography and the fashioning of her celebrity differed greatly in comparison to her female counterparts. Siddons, according to Laura Engel, invented a new category of femininity for actresses: the "Female Star". By "cleverly blurring the distinction between the characters she played on stage with representations of herself offstage (as much portraiture of the period invokes)" Siddons was able to present a duality to her admirers. At once she would project both the "divine and the ordinary, domestic and authoritative, fantastic and real". She avoided claims of sexual licentiousness, and the only damage to her career was faced toward its end, when caricatures and satirical prints emerged detailing the physical decline and stoutness of her body. Shearer West, in an analysis of the collapse of Siddons' private and public personas, wrote that Siddons' brother, actor-manager John Philip Kemble "substantially rewrote passages in some of the plays in order to temper any indelicacy [and] transcend sexual indiscretions" that could harm her reputation of feminine propriety. Siddons had a unique ability to control her own celebrity persona and “manipulate her public image through a variety of visual materials" Some scholars believe that although Siddons’ fame and success appeared effortless, it was in fact “a highly constructed process”. This left her successful, yet fatigued as she was "always aware of the ultimate power of her audiences to approve of her or destroy her" In being aware of her position in the public eye, Siddons "carefully selected the roles in which she appeared and assiduously cultivated her domestic image". She would only choose roles which could aid her popularity and protect her image. By cleverly blurring the distinction between the characters she played on stage with her presentation offstage, Siddons combined her maternal persona with depictions of British femininity. This allowed her to avoid the same reproach and scandal as other actresses of the time. For example, Siddons used her role of Isabella, a sacrificing mother, to frame her “rise to stardom in terms of her maternal roles on stage and off stage”. In performing these domestic moments with the result of public triumph, Siddons was able to reiterate the characteristics that made her such a popular celebrity and icon; “her devotion to her family and her humble, behind-the-scenes existence”. Siddons’ role off stage, then, appears to be that of the ordinary wife and mother and this was crucial in a time when women were expected to stay at home, rather than provide for their family. Overall, her choice of roles and carefully constructed persona meant Siddons was able to live out the entirety of her career with little-to-no public scandal. Acting power Theatre biographer Henry Barton Baker wrote: On the night of 2 May 1797, Sarah Siddons's character of Agnes in George Lillo's Fatal Curiosity suggested murder with "an expression in her face that made the flesh of the spectator creep." In the audience was Henry Crabb Robinson, whose respiration grew difficult. Robinson went into a fit of hysterics and was nearly ejected from the theatre. This 'Siddons Fever' was a common occurrence with Richards even suggesting it was part of the amusement: 'The theatrical vogue for the audience to shriek whatever the heroine did originated with Sarah. The ‘Siddons fever’, which ‘raised the price of salts and hartshorn’, often included fits of fainting, hysterics and physical paroxysms as part of the enjoyment.' Siddons occasionally gave public readings of plays, and the Scottish poet/playwright Joanna Baillie recorded her thoughts of several performances given in 1813. Despite her reservations about Siddon's "frequent bursts of voice beyond what natural passion warranted," Baillie wrote to Sir Walter Scott, "take it all in all was fine & powerful acting; and when it has ceased we of this generation can never look to see the like again." Portrait as The Tragic Muse Commissioned and completed in 1784, Sir Joshua Reynolds' portrait, Sarah Siddons as The Tragic Muse, is characterized by Reynolds' inspiration, contextualisation of the Muse, and distinctive brush work and paint palette. This portrait, as Heather McPherson writes, became the known depiction of tragedy, infused with contemporary ideas about acting and representation of the passions in Siddons' melancholy expression and deportment. Mary Hamilton's correspondence with her fiancé illuminated its seamless transition from "the artist's studio to the theatrical stage", practical venues that interlocked in the eighteenth century and formed a large part in creating the very idea of celebrity. The interest in the portrait was so great that William Smith's house was transformed into a quasi-public gallery following his acquisition of the painting. William Hamilton's Mrs Siddons and Her Son, in The Tragedy of Isabella gained much traction due to the mutually beneficial relationship between painter and actress. Hamilton had sold his painting for £150 before it was exhibited at the Royal Academy, though kept the painting there for over a week and placed advertisements in at least three leading newspapers inviting the public to view it. A contemporary biographer recalled 'carriages thronged to the artist's door; and, if every fine lady who stepped out of them did not actually weep before the painting, they had all of them, at least their white handkerchiefs ready for that demonstration of sensibility' Late career and retirement: Physical decline As noted in Campbell's biography, Siddons returned to the role some six years later, and in 1802 she left Drury Lane for its rival establishment, Covent Garden. It was there, on 29 June 1812, after 57 performances that season, that she gave what was credited as perhaps the most extraordinary farewell performance in theatre history. The audience refused to allow Macbeth to continue after the end of the sleepwalking scene. Eventually, after tumultuous applause from the pit, the curtain reopened and Siddons was discovered sitting in her own clothes and character – whereupon she made an emotional farewell speech to the audience. Some records stated that her farewell lasted eight minutes, others suggested ten, all indicating that she was visibly distraught. Siddons formally retired from the stage in 1812, but reappeared on special occasions. An 1816 request by Princess Charlotte of Wales to see Lady Macbeth brought Siddons out of retirement. Much older, Siddons was visibly weak, overweight, and was considered by some a "grotesque effigy of her former self." William Hazlitt, in his later accounts, stated that her performances lacked the grandeur they had shown in 1785: the "machinery of her voice is slow, there is too long a pause between each sentence [and the] sleeping scene was more laboured and less natural". As a result, according to Lisa Freeman, Siddons' "iconic status came into conflict with the aesthetic of authenticity that she cultivated". Her last appearance was on 9 June 1819 as Lady Randolph in John Home's play Douglas. Marriage and children In 1773, at the age of 18, she married William Siddons, an actor. After 30 years, the marriage became strained and informally ended with their separation in 1804. William died in 1808. Sarah Siddons gave birth to seven children, five of whom she outlived: Henry Siddons (1774–1815), an actor and theatre manager in Edinburgh Sarah Martha (Sally) Siddons (1775–1803) Maria Siddons (1779–1798) Frances Emilia Siddons (b. 1781), died in infancy Elizabeth Ann Siddons (1782–1788), died in childhood George John Siddons (1785–1848), a Customs official in India Cecilia Siddons (1794–1868), who married George Combe in 1833 and lived in Edinburgh Siddons regularly performed on stage while visibly pregnant, which often elicited sympathy for her character. As Lady Macbeth, her pregnancy not only provided "a further reminder of the domestic life of both the actress and the character", adding a maternal aspect to her portrayal, but also created "a new level of tension in the play not present if the couple is perceived as barren." Legacy Death and burial Sarah Siddons died in 1831 in London. She was interred in Saint Mary's Cemetery at Paddington Green. The churchyard was converted into a public park (St Mary's Gardens) in 1881, and most stones were cleared at that time. Siddons' gravestone was one of the few to be preserved, and it remains in good condition beneath a wrought iron canopy, despite some erosion and the modern addition of a protective cage. 5000 people attended her funeral. Newspapers mourned her death, publishing long obituaries. One said: 'This lady, who, at no very distant period, was not less eminent for the splendour of her mental endowments, than for the towering majesty of her person and demeanour, paid the great debt of nature on Wednesday morning, at nine o'clock.' She was described as a goddess, a royal, majestic. The extent of her celebrity reaches forward to today. In popular culture American director Joseph L. Mankiewicz used the 1784 portrait by Reynolds extensively in his film All About Eve, winner of the 1950 Academy Award for Best Picture. The portrait is seen at the top of an entrance staircase in Margo Channing's apartment, appearing throughout a party scene, and emphasized by a close-up with which the scene ends. Mankiewicz also invented the (then) fictitious Sarah Siddons Society for the film, along with its award, a statuette modelled upon the Reynolds painting. The film opens with a close-up of the statuette, and ends with a character holding it. Actress Bette Davis, who played Margo Channing in the film, posed as Siddons in a 1957 re-creation of the Reynolds portrait staged as part of the Pageant of the Masters. In April 2010, BBC Radio 4's Woman's Hour Drama presented Sarah Siddons: Life in Five Sittings, a radio drama by David Pownall about the long relationship between Siddons and artist Thomas Lawrence, in five 15-minute parts. Sarah Siddons Award When the film All About Eve was released in 1950, the "Sarah Siddons Award for Distinguished Achievement" depicted in its opening scene was a purely fictitious award. However, in 1952, a small group of distinguished Chicago theatergoers formed the Sarah Siddons Society, and began to give a genuine award by that name. The now-prestigious Sarah Siddons Award is presented annually in Chicago, with a trophy modelled on the statuette of Siddons awarded in the film. Past honorees include Bette Davis and Celeste Holm, who were previously the cast of All About Eve. Portraits and statues Siddons sat for numerous artists, and her portraits include many that depict her in costume portraying a theatrical role. Sir Thomas Lawrence first painted Siddons at Bath in 1782, and produced at least fourteen portraits of her over the next 22 years. The last of these, an 1804 full-length portrait, is on display at Tate Britain. Sir Joshua Reynolds painted his famous portrait, Mrs. Siddons as the Tragic Muse, in 1784. He told her that he had signed it on the hem of her dress because he had "resolved to go down to posterity on the hem of your garment." It now hangs at The Huntington in San Marino, California. A 1785 portrait by Thomas Gainsborough is displayed in London's National Gallery. A portrait of Siddons is displayed in the church hall of St Mary on Paddington Green, near Siddons' grave in the former churchyard (now St Mary's Gardens). Also on Paddington Green, a statue of Siddons overlooks the Harrow Road. A statue of Siddons by sculptor Thomas Campbell stands in the chapel of St Andrew in Westminster Abbey. The statue holds a scroll, and the inscription reads: "Sarah Siddons. Born at Brecon July 5, 1755. Died in London June 8, 1831." A bust by James Smith, created in 1813 was placed in the Green Room at Drury Lane Theatre and contemporary adverts described it as the only bust "taken from life" Other memorials Siddons Tower, a folly tower erected on the water's edge at Rostellan near Cork Harbour in Ireland, was named in Siddons' honour by Murrough O'Brien, Lord Inchiquin, after he had entertained the actress at Rostellan House. Siddons Lane, a small street in Marylebone near the site of a house in which she once lived, was named after her. Siddons' birthplace, an inn in Brecon, Wales, is now known as The Sarah Siddons Inn. In 1755, when Siddons was born in lodgings on an upper floor, it was a tavern called The Shoulder of Mutton. The Old House (Sarah Siddons House) in Lower Lydbrook, Gloucestershire is reputedly her childhood home. In 1923, London's Metropolitan Railway brought into service an electric locomotive named Sarah Siddons, No. 12. The locomotive remained in service along with others like it on the London Underground Metropolitan line until 1961. Painted a maroon colour, she is now the only one of the original twenty locomotives to remain preserved in working order. In 1961, the Sarah Siddons Comprehensive School (later the Sarah Siddons Girls’ School) opened in North Wharf Road, Paddington. It was officially opened the following year by the actress Dame Peggy Ashcroft. Women's achievement was celebrated in the girls-only secondary school, with houses named after famous English women. In 1980, it became part of the North Westminster Community School, then in 2006 it was closed before the site was sold for residential development. In 2019, a ‘Remembering Sarah Siddons Comprehensive School’ Facebook group had more than 540 members. In 2020, a memorial plaque was unveiled at the site of her first professional appearance, in Worcester. See also Kemble family References Further reading External links Sarah Siddons Society British Shakespearean actresses 18th-century English actresses 18th-century Welsh actresses English stage actresses 19th-century British actresses British stage actresses 1755 births 1831 deaths People from Brecon Kemble family	[ -0.590671956539154, 0.17335090041160583, -0.9090901613235474, -0.9393070340156555, 0.6079004406929016, 0.8911556601524353, 0.9719683527946472, 0.10827312618494034, -0.6459798216819763, 0.3542845547199249, 0.2926514148712158, 0.41987094283103943, 0.37460216879844666, 0.2761073708534241, -0.13029256463050842, 0.41051003336906433, 0.4170372486114502, -0.09937630593776703, 0.34057003259658813, -0.7284778952598572, -0.4791059195995331, -0.19948317110538483, 0.3094336688518524, 0.11970549821853638, -0.40693265199661255, -0.351814866065979, 0.0038788968231528997, -0.04321853816509247, 0.6102381348609924, -0.41285595297813416, 0.33023780584335327, 0.476240336894989, 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221971	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorvald%20Stoltenberg	Thorvald Stoltenberg	Thorvald Stoltenberg (8 July 1931 – 13 July 2018) was a Norwegian politician and diplomat. He served as Minister of Defence from 1979 to 1981 and Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1987 to 1989 and again from 1990 to 1993 in two Labour governments. From 1989 to 1990 he served as the Norwegian ambassador to the UN. In 1990, he became the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees but served only one year before he rejoined the Norwegian government. In 1992, Stoltenberg, together with nine Baltic Ministers of Foreign Affairs and an EU commissioner, founded the Council of the Baltic Sea States (CBSS) and the EuroFaculty. In 1993 appointed Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General for the former Yugoslavia and UN Co-Chairman of the Steering Committee of the International Conference on the former Yugoslavia. Thorvald Stoltenberg was also the UN witness at the signing of Erdut Agreement. In 2003 he was appointed chairman of the board of International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (International IDEA). Between 1999 and 2008 he was President of the Norwegian Red Cross, the only president to serve three terms. He was also a member of the Trilateral Commission, and held a seat on their executive committee. At the local level, Stoltenberg was elected to the Oslo City Council in 2015. Stoltenberg was born in Oslo. Youth In his youth Stoltenberg became heavily involved in the organization of Hungarian refugees fleeing the invading Soviet Army in 1956. In one particular situation, evacuating refugees by boat in the middle of the night, he jumped into the strong currents, risking his own life to save one of the boats. One of the other rescuers, future famous American journalist Barry Farber called this the greatest act of courage he has ever seen in his life. Stoltenberg himself kept the story a secret, until Farber in December 2006 revealed it on the Norwegian talk-show Først & sist. Special Representative of the Secretary-General (SRSG) In "May 1993, the UN's co-chair at the International Conference on the former Yugoslavia, Th. Stoltenberg was appointed Special Representative of the Secretary-General (SRSG). As such, he acted as head of the UN mission in the former Yugoslavia and served as the first point of contact for the Department of Peacekeeping Operations in New York. All contacts between UNPROFOR in Zagreb and the UN in New York had to run via his office (...) Mr Stoltenberg was responsible for the coordination of all UNPROFOR operations, which also entailed assessments of the political implications of operational decisions as well as the actions of the conflicting parties. In practice, this combination of tasks was impossible to juggle. A serious conflict is said to have occurred between Thorvald Stoltenberg and General Wahlgren's successor, General J. Cot of France". Cot disagreed with Stoltenberg about the latter's role as SRSG, and at the end of 1993 the two tasks were again split up. Stoltenberg stayed on as co-chair of the peace negotiations in Geneva on behalf of the UN, and on 1 January 1994 the Japanese diplomat Y. Akashi was appointed SRSG responsible for all UNPROFOR operations in the former Yugoslavia. It was he who negotiated with the authorities of the conflicting parties. Political views Lobbying for changes in drug policy In 2010, Stoltenberg has led a commission whose primary purpose was to recommend changes in Norwegian drug policy to improve the situation of hard drug addicts. The question of heroin prescription was one of the most controversial topics evaluated by the commission set up by Bjarne Håkon Hanssen. The commission concluded in June 2010 that Norway should start trials with heroin prescription, in addition to making several other changes to its drug policy. He also joined an international campaign for a less punitive drug policy, the Global Commission on Drug Policy, consisting of, among others, former Latin American leaders. Sanctions against Israel In 2010, together with 25 other elder statesmen, Stoltenberg sent a letter to EU leaders and the heads of government of the EU countries, demanding sanctions against Israel for its violations of international law. His co-signatories included Javier Solana, Felipe González, Romano Prodi, Lionel Jospin and Mary Robinson. Private life He married Karin Heiberg (1931–2012) in 1957. Their son, Jens Stoltenberg (born 1959), followed him into politics and served as Prime Minister of Norway from 2000 to 2001 and from 2005 to 2013, and is the current NATO Secretary-General. They also had two daughters, Camilla (born 1958), a medical researcher and administrator, and Nini (1963–2014) whose heroin addiction has been much publicized. Stoltenberg died on 13 July 2018 at the age of 87 after a short illness. References External links Family Genealogy (vestraat.net) \|- \|- \|- \|- 1931 births 2018 deaths Ambassadors of Norway to Denmark Foreign Ministers of Norway Labour Party (Norway) politicians Norwegian state secretaries Politicians from Oslo Permanent Representatives of Norway to the United Nations Presidents of the Norwegian Red Cross Thorvald Israeli–Palestinian peace process United Nations High Commissioners for Refugees Spouses of Norwegian politicians Norwegian officials of the United Nations Defence ministers of Norway Diplomats from Oslo	[ -0.21607600152492523, 0.5462864637374878, -0.16052190959453583, 0.0025941666681319475, -0.36529451608657837, 0.7913916110992432, 1.0430538654327393, 0.05331610515713692, -0.35135746002197266, 0.11606496572494507, 0.014869465492665768, 0.5627549290657043, -0.1069491058588028, 0.21154890954494476, 0.39639416337013245, -0.5594601035118103, -0.04599720984697342, 0.36339059472084045, -1.0236868858337402, 0.07584084570407867, -0.4774531424045563, 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221972	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Topeka	USS Topeka	USS Topeka, named after the state capital Topeka, Kansas, may be any one of these United States Navy ships: , a gunboat bought in England 1898, originally built as Diogenes by Howaldtswerke in Kiel and in periodic use until 1929. , a light cruiser of World War II, recommissioned in 1960 as the guided missile cruiser CLG-8, with service in the Vietnam War before decommissioning in 1969. , a nuclear attack submarine, commissioned in 1989 and still on active service. 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221976	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CH	CH	CH, Ch, cH, or ch may refer to: Arts and entertainment Television channel (sometimes abbreviated as "ch." for television and cable stations) Chaos;Head, a video game CollegeHumor, a comedy website E!, a defunct Canadian television system that went by the name CH from 2001 to 2007 Businesses Bemidji Airlines (IATA code CH) Carolina Herrera, a fashion designer based in New York Columbia Helicopters, an aircraft manufacturing and operator company based in Aurora, Oregon, United States In language Ch (digraph), considered a single letter in several Latin-alphabet languages Chamorro language: ISO 639 alpha-2 language code (ch) Science and technology Chemistry The methylidyne radical (a carbyne); CH• (or •CH), CH3• (or ⫶CH) The methylidyne group ≡CH The methine group (methanylylidene, methylylidene) =CH− Mathematics and computing Chomsky hierarchy, in computer science, a containment hierarchy of classes of formal grammars Continuum hypothesis, in set theory Hyperbolic cosine, in mathematics, a hyperbolic function, ch(x) = cosh(x) Curry–Howard correspondence, the relationship between computer programs and mathematical proofs CH register, the high byte of an X86 16-bit CX register Ch (computer programming), a cross-platform C/C++ interpreter Contraction hierarchies, in computer science, a speed-up technique for finding shortest paths in a graph Medicine Cluster headache Cholesterol Congenital hypothyroidism, a condition of thyroid hormone deficiency present at birth Cerebellar hypoplasia, characterized by reduced cerebellar volume Cerebellar hypoplasia (non-human) French catheter scale, a scale for medical catheters, also abbreviated as Fr Military technology Cargo helicopter (U.S. military helicopter alpha-numeric prefix) Chain Home, a World War II radar array Heavy cruiser (U.S. Navy ship code CH, standing for "Cruiser, Heavy") In other sciences Clay of high plasticity (USCS soil type CH) Cassini-Huygens Places Confoederatio Helvetica, the formal name for Switzerland, Latin in origin ISO country code for Switzerland .ch, the Internet country code top-level domain for Switzerland CH postcode area; the Chester postcode area in the UK Chihuahua (state), the State of Chihuahua, Mexico Conservation Halton, in Ontario, Canada China (FIPS and NATO country code CH) Other uses Chain (length), a unit of linear measure in the Imperial system Championship (dog), a dog qualifying for a championship at a conformation show, prefixed "Ch." Christ's Hospital, Horsham, West Sussex Companion of Honour, a British and Commonwealth honour Chaudhary, an honorific used in the Indian and Pakistani Punjab regions Metres above the Sea (Switzerland), an elevation reference system The logo for the Montreal Canadiens ice hockey team	[ 0.5821487307548523, 0.21904578804969788, 0.15359312295913696, 0.5133799910545349, -0.279483824968338, -0.213748499751091, -0.1645156443119049, 0.6662464737892151, -0.058720264583826065, -0.29204219579696655, -0.911931574344635, 0.1024039164185524, 0.10109175741672516, 0.2906906306743622, -0.08716479688882828, 0.13217654824256897, 0.43563175201416016, 0.2018388956785202, -0.38425204157829285, -0.40067535638809204, -0.2580008804798126, 0.12941573560237885, -0.002405413892120123, -0.2712192237377167, 0.03660716861486435, -0.0021197341848164797, -0.3700233995914459, -0.20461826026439667, -0.3327925503253937, 0.3937546908855438, 0.2420782744884491, 0.0840991958975792, 0.5597197413444519, 0.03524334728717804, 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221983	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Topeka%20%28CL-67%29	USS Topeka (CL-67)	USS Topeka (CL-67), a light cruiser in service with the United States Navy from 1944 to 1949. From 1957 to 1960, she was converted to a guided missile cruiser and redesignated CLG-8. The cruiser served again from 1960 to 1969 and was finally scrapped in 1975. Construction and commissioning She was laid down on 21 April 1943 by the Bethlehem Steel Company yard located at Quincy, Massachusetts, launched on 19 August 1944, sponsored by Mrs. Frank J. Warren, and commissioned at the Boston Navy Yard on 23 December 1944, Captain Thomas L. Wattles in command. Service history 1940s After shakedown in the West Indies and post-shakedown repairs, Topeka departed Boston on 10 April 1945 for duty with the Pacific Fleet. The following day she joined , and steamed via Culebra Island and Guantánamo Bay to the Panama Canal. They transited the canal on 19 April and reported for duty on the 20th. The next day, Topeka and her steaming mate headed for Pearl Harbor, where they arrived on 2 May. Following almost three weeks of gunnery exercises in the Hawaiian Islands, the cruiser sailed west from Pearl Harbor as the flagship of Cruiser Division 18. She entered Ulithi in the Western Carolines on 1 June and, after three days in the anchorage, put to sea with , Oklahoma City, , and to rendezvous with Task Force 38. On her first cruise with the fast carriers, she screened them against enemy air attack while their planes made three raids against targets in the enemy's home islands and the Ryukyu Islands. On 8 June, TF 38 aircraft hit Kanoya on Kyūshū, the home of Japanese naval aviation. The next day, they struck Okino Daito in the Ryukyus, located a little over 200 miles west of Okinawa. The third and final strike of her first combat cruise came on 10 June and provided the cruiser with her initial opportunity to join the fray. While TG 38.1 aircraft bombed and strafed the airfield on Minami Daito, the ships in the screen, Topeka among them, moved in and took the other installations under fire. At the conclusion of that action, Topeka moved off with the rest of TG 38.1 bound for San Pedro Bay, Leyte. After spending the latter half of June at Leyte for relaxation and replenishment, the light cruiser returned to sea on 1 July with TF 38 for the final six-week carrier sweep of the Japanese home islands. The task force made a fueling rendezvous on the 8th and then began a run-in toward Tokyo which the American planes bombed on 10 July. Next, the ships moved north to Honshū and Hokkaidō for a two-day antishipping sweep of the area around Hakodate and Muroran. They retired from the area for another fueling rendezvous on the 16th, but returned to the vicinity of southern Honshū and resumed the aerial blitz of Tokyo on the 17th–18th. On the night of the latter date, Topeka had another opportunity to strike the enemy directly when she joined , , Oklahoma City, and the destroyers of DesRon 62 in an antishipping sweep of the entrance to Sagami Nada near the sea approaches to Tokyo. During that sweep, she fired her guns at Japanese installations located on Nojima Zaki, the point of land which marks the eastern terminus of the entrance into Sagami Nada. Completing another replenishment retirement from 19 to 23 July, the task force resumed its air raids on central Japan with two extensive forays against shipping in the Inland Sea on the 24th and 28th, respectively. A typhoon at the end of July forced the task force to take evasive action and postpone further air operations until the second week in August. At that time, Topeka steamed north with TF 38 while the carriers moved into position to send sortie after sortie against heavy concentrations of enemy aircraft on northern Honshū. Those raids, launched on 9–10 August, proved eminently successful, wiping out what was later learned to be the transportation for 2,000 shock troops being assembled for a one-way, suicide mission to destroy the B-29 Superfortress bases on Tinian. The carrier planes paid return visits to Tokyo on the 12th–13th and were taking off to repeat those attacks when a message arrived on the 15th, telling of Japan's capitulation. Topeka patrolled Japanese waters until mid-September, at which time she entered Tokyo Bay. She remained there until 1 October, the day she began her homeward voyage to the United States. The cruiser stopped briefly at Okinawa on the 4th to embark 529 veterans and resumed her eastern progress on the 5th. On 19 October, she arrived in Portland, Oregon, and disembarked her passengers. Ten days later, she steamed south to San Pedro, Los Angeles, for overhaul. On 3 January 1946, the warship put to sea to return to the Far East. She reached Yokosuka on the 24th and began duty supporting American occupation forces in Japan, China, and in the Central Pacific islands. During that tour of duty, which lasted until the following fall, she called at Sasebo, Japan, Tsingtao and Shanghai in China; Manila in the Philippines; and Guam in the Mariana Islands. The cruiser returned to San Pedro on 20 November. Following an overhaul and operations along the west coast, she headed back to the Orient on 22 September 1947. Upon her arrival at Yokosuka, Japan, on 10 October, she became a unit of TF 71. Operating from bases at Shanghai and Tsingtao. the warship patrolled the north China coast while civil war raged on shore between Nationalist and communist factions. She concluded that duty early in March and entered Nagasaki, Japan, on the 8th. Following visits to Sasebo and Kure, Topeka sailed for the United States on 25 April and arrived in Long Beach, California, on 7 May. Later that month, she moved to Pearl Harbor for a four-month overhaul at the completion of which she returned to the west coast. Late in October, the warship resumed local operations out of Long Beach and out of San Diego. She remained so occupied until February 1949. On 25 February, she arrived in San Francisco to prepare for inactivation. Topeka was decommissioned there on 18 June 1949, and berthed with the local group of the Pacific Reserve Fleet. 1950s Early in 1957, Topeka was towed from San Francisco to the New York Naval Shipyard, which she entered on 15 April to begin conversion to a guided missile light cruiser. On 23 May, she was officially redesignated CLG-8. During the almost three years it took to convert her, the cruiser was extensively modified. She retained only half her original gun battery, losing her two after 6 inch triple turrets and her three after 5 inch double mounts. The removal of these guns made room for the installation of her twin Terrier surface-to-air missile launcher and related ancillary equipment. 1960s On 26 March 1960, Topeka was recommissioned, Captain Frank L. Pinny, Jr., in command. In July, she made the passage from New York to the west coast. From August to October, the refurbished cruiser conducted shakedown training in the southern California operating area and then reported for duty at her home port, Long Beach. During the ensuing three years, Topeka alternated two peacetime deployments to the western Pacific with repair periods and local operations on the west coast. Her two tours in the Orient were characterized by visits to such places as Hong Kong, the Philippines, Okinawa, and a number of ports in Japan as well as exercises with other ships of the 7th Fleet and of Allied navies. When not deployed to the Far East, she conducted training operations, upkeep, and repairs. In March 1964, she embarked upon her third deployment to the western Pacific since being recommissioned. That deployment began routinely enough with fleet exercises in May and calls at Japanese, Taiwanese, Malaysian, and Philippine ports. However, in August, North Vietnamese torpedo-boats attacked on the 2nd and then returned to attack Maddox and . This action, known as the Gulf of Tonkin incident, gave the remaining part of Topekas deployment a more wartime character. Topeka cruised the waters of the Gulf of Tonkin while American involvement in the Vietnam War began to gather momentum. It was more than a year, though, before she steamed into war in earnest. Late in October, she started for home and reentered Long Beach near the end of the second week of November. For the next 12 months, she viewed the developing war from afar-operating out of west coast ports, undergoing repairs and modifications, and conducting exercises with the 1st Fleet. On 29 November 1965, however, she headed back to the western Pacific for the first deployment during which her primary mission was to support the American and South Vietnamese forces fighting the communists. On that tour of duty, she served as the flagship for the Commander Cruiser-Destroyer Group, 7th Fleet. In that capacity the ship operated in the South China Sea and in the Gulf of Tonkin providing naval gunfire support for the troops ashore and supporting carrier air operations by conducting search and rescue missions for downed aircrews. She punctuated tours of duty in the combat zone with port visits to Yokosuka, Japan, Hong Kong, and the Philippine ports of Manila, Davao City, and Subic Bay. Her six-month deployment ended on 28 May 1966, when Topeka reentered Long Beach. Five months of normal west coast operations followed. On 31 October, the guided missile cruiser entered the Hunters Point Naval Shipyard in San Francisco for an overhaul during which her weapons systems were updated, and her engineering plant was overhauled. On 13 March 1967, she completed the yard overhaul and began sea trials and, later refresher training. She finished those evolutions early in June and resumed local operations. On 1 August, the warship put to sea from Long Beach for her first deployment to the Mediterranean Sea. She stopped at Norfolk, Virginia, on 12–13 August to embark the Commander, Cruiser-Destroyer Flotilla 12, and his staff and then sailed for Palma de Majorca on the 14th. On the 20th, Topeka joined the 6th Fleet and, on the 22nd, relieved as flagship for TG 60.2. During her five months with the 6th Fleet, she ranged the length of the "middle sea." In late September and early October, the warship participated in NATO exercise Eager Beaver, conducted in the eastern end of the Mediterranean. In mid-October, she conducted operations in the Ionian and Tyrrhenian Seas on her way back to the western end. In January 1968, she concluded her first tour of duty in the Mediterranean with another NATO exercise, this one an amphibious operation. On the 12th, she was relieved by at Rota, Spain. The cruiser then headed back to the United States. After stops at Puerto Rico and in the Panama Canal Zone, Topeka reentered Long Beach on 29 January. On 2 February, the warship began a five-week availability at the Long Beach Naval Shipyard. The guided missile cruiser departed Long Beach again on 15 March, bound for her new home port, Mayport, Florida. After arriving at her destination on 21 March, Topeka remained in port for upkeep until 6 May, when she returned to sea for refresher training at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba. Returning to Mayport on the 26th, the ship began preparations for another deployment to the Mediterranean, the last deployment of her career. Topeka departed Mayport on 29 June and, after gunnery exercises at Culebra Island near Puerto Rico, she headed across the Atlantic. On 9 July, she relieved Columbus at Málaga, Spain, and began 6th Fleet operations. The warship's final deployment proved to be routine in nature. She visited ports all along the Mediterranean littoral and conducted operations in all portions of the middle sea from the Aegean and Ionian Seas in the east to the French Riviera ports in the west. Spain, Italy, Greece, Turkey, and France, as well as the islands of Malta, Crete, and Majorca, provided her with interesting ports of call. Topeka concluded her assignment with the 6th Fleet on 9 December at Rota when she was relieved once again by Columbus. That same day, she headed for Mayport, arriving 10 days later. On 30 January 1969, Topeka steamed out of Mayport and proceeded north for inactivation. After a stop at Yorktown, Virginia, to off-load her ordnance, she arrived in Boston on 5 February. There, she completed inactivation preparations; and, on 5 June, Topeka was placed out of commission. The warship was towed to Philadelphia and was berthed with the reserve fleet group there. On 1 December 1973, her name was struck from the Naval Vessel Register, and on 20 March 1975 she was sold to the Southern Scrap Material Company, Ltd., for scrapping. Awards Topeka was awarded two battle stars for her World War II service and three battle stars for her Vietnam service. References External links USS Topeka Assoc. 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221984	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QC	QC	QC may refer to: Queen's Counsel, a type of lawyer in Commonwealth countries Quality control, the process of meeting products and services to consumer expectations Places Quebec, a Canadian province Quebec City, capital of the Province of Quebec, Canada Quezon City, Philippines Quad Cities, a group of four cities on the Mississippi river, US The QC, a nickname for Charlotte, North Carolina Arts, entertainment, and media Quake Champions, a first-person shooter video game Quality Control Music, an Atlanta-based record label Questionable Content, a web-comic by Jeph Jacques Education QualiEd College, a school in Hong Kong Queen's College (disambiguation), several institutions Science and technology Computing QuakeC, a scripting language in the computer game Quake by ID Software Quantum computing, a type of computation Quantum cryptography, a variety of cryptography employing quantum mechanics or quantum computers Quartz Composer, a node-based visual programming language Quick Charge, a technology for managing power delivered over USB Other uses in science and technology ATCvet code QC, a section of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System for veterinary medicinal products Quantum cascade, a technique used in a quantum cascade laser Quantum chemistry, quantum mechanical methods in chemistry Other uses Quebec Central Railway, a former railway in Canada QuietComfort, a product line of Bose headphones Quota Count system, a limit on night-time aircraft noise See also Queen City (disambiguation), several populated places	[ 0.483302503824234, 0.2762438952922821, -0.25833389163017273, 0.4052172899246216, -0.23096127808094025, -0.14757932722568512, 0.3945561647415161, 0.28963997960090637, -0.09829087555408478, -0.08899471163749695, -0.2540888488292694, 0.3190498948097229, 0.19432345032691956, 0.2908231317996979, 0.10636237263679504, 0.6961643099784851, 0.34229961037635803, 0.2271723747253418, -0.08411822468042374, 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221985	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stewart%20Home	Stewart Home	Kevin Llewellyn Callan (born 24 March 1962), better known as Stewart Home, is an English artist, filmmaker, writer, pamphleteer, art historian, and activist. He is best known for his novels such as the non-narrative 69 Things to Do with a Dead Princess (2002), his re-imagining of the 1960s in Tainted Love (2005), and earlier parodistic pulp fictions Pure Mania, Red London, No Pity, Cunt, and Defiant Pose that pastiche the work of 1970s British skinhead pulp novel writer Richard Allen and combine it with pornography, political agit-prop, and historical references to punk rock and avant-garde art. Life and work Home was born in South London. His mother, Julia Callan-Thompson, was a model who was associated with the radical arts scene in Notting Hill Gate. In the 1980s and 1990s, he exhibited art and also wrote a number of non-fiction pamphlets, magazines, and books, and edited anthologies. They chiefly reflected the politics of the radical left, punk culture, the occult, the history and influence of the Situationists – of whom he is a severe critic – and other radical left-wing 20th century anti-art avant-garde movements. In Home's earlier work, the focus of these reflections was often Neoism, a subcultural network of which he had been a member, and from which he derived various splinter projects. Typical characteristics of his activism in the 1980s and 1990s included use of group identities (such as Monty Cantsin) and collective monikers (e.g. "Karen Eliot"); overt employment of plagiarism; pranks and publicity stunts. 1970s As a youth Home was drawn first to music and bohemianism, and then to radicalism. He attended meetings of many different leftist groups including several organised by the Trotskyist Socialist Youth League and even two editorial meetings of Anarchy Magazine. He refused to join any of these organisations and later repudiated them as reactionary, instead professing autonomous communist political positions after going to London Workers Group. In the late seventies Home produced his first punk (music) fanzines including early issues of "Down in the Street" which had run to seven numbers by the time he stopped publishing it in 1980. At the end of the seventies Home also made his first public appearances as a musician most notably as bassist with revolutionary ska band The Molotovs. The latter group mixed covers of classic reggae numbers like 'Johnny Too Bad' with original tunes such as "Notting Hill Carnival" (about rioting) and 'Don't Envy The Boss' (the juvenile irony of the chorus ran to: "don't envy the boss, I know he's got a lot, but he really really earned the money to pay for his yacht”). 1980s From 1982 to 1984, Home operated as a one-person-movement "Generation Positive", and having already founded a punk band called White Colours (named after an experimental novel by R. D. Reeve) in 1980, he started a new group with the same name in 1982. He also published an art fanzine SMILE, the name of which was a play on the Mail Art zines FILE and VILE (which in turn parodied the graphic design of LIFE magazine). The concept was that many other bands in the world should call themselves White Colours, and many other underground periodicals should call themselves SMILE, too. Home's early SMILE magazines mostly contained art manifestos for the "Generation Positive", which in their rhetoric resembled those of 1920s Berlin Dadaist manifestos. In April 1984, Home got in touch with the originally American subcultural artistic network of Neoism, and participated in the eighth Neoist Apartment Festival in London. Since Neoism operated with multiple identities, too, and called upon all its participants to adopt the name Monty Cantsin, Home decided to give up the "Generation Positive" in favor of Neoism, and make SMILE and White Colours part of Neoism as well. According to Florian Cramer (who didn't come into contact with Neoism until the late eighties) one year later, Home took a sleep-deprivation prank played with him at a Neoist Festival in Italy as the reason to declare his split from Neoism; Home insists he decided to break with Neoism before going to Italy. Shortly before, a conflict between him and Neoism founder Istvan Kantor had escalated and led to their alienation. Home's SMILE no 8, which appeared in 1985, reflected the split with Neoism by proposing a "Praxis" movement to replace Neoism, with Karen Eliot as its new multiple name. This and the following three SMILE issues otherwise featured an eclectic mixture of manifesto-style writing, political reflections on radical left-wing anti-art movements from the Lettrist International, the Situationists, Fluxus, Mail Art, individuals such as Gustav Metzger and Henry Flynt, and short parodistic skinhead pulp prose in the style of his then unwritten early novels. Many texts included in Home's SMILE issues plagiarised other, especially Situationist, writing, simply replacing terms like "spectacle" with "glamour". At the same time Home was involved in a series of collective installations including "Ruins of Glamour" (Chisenhale Studios, London 1986), "Desire in Ruins" (Transmission Gallery, Glasgow 1987), "Refuse" (Galleriet Läderfabriken, Malmö 1988) and "Anon" (33 Arts Centre, Luton 1989) which generated serious art world interest and art publication reviews and even coverage in British newspapers such as "The Observer" and "Independent". Those Home worked closely with on these shows included Hannah Vowles and Glyn Banks (collectively known as Art in Ruins), Ed Baxter and Stefan Szczelkun. Following on from this and drawing on 1980s American appropriation art, Home's concept of plagiarism soon developed into a proposed movement and a series of "Festivals of Plagiarism" in 1988 and 1989, which themselves plagiarised the Neoist apartment festivals and 1960s Fluxus festivals. Home combined the plagiarism campaign with a call for an Art Strike between 1990 and 1993. Unlike earlier art-strike proposals such as that of Gustav Metzger in the 1970s, it was not intended as an opportunity for artists to seize control of the means of distributing their own work, but rather as an exercise in propaganda and psychic warfare aimed at smashing the entire art world rather than just the gallery system. The Art Strike campaign caused something of a rumpus in the contemporary London art world (Home got to talk about the Art Strike at venues such as the Institute of Contemporary Art and Victoria and Albert Museum, as well as on national BBC Radio arts programmes and London area television arts programmes), but was more seriously discussed in subcultural art networks, especially in Mail Art. Consequently, mail artists made up a reasonable proportion of the participants at the Festivals of Plagiarism, and Mail Art publications disseminated the Art Strike campaign. To what extent Home actually participated in the Art Strike remains disputed, since two of his books, completed allegedly before 1990, appeared during the period of the strike. In the 1980s Home was also a regular contributor to the anarcho-punk/cultural magazine VAGUE. 1990s In 1993 Home officially resurfaced, having meanwhile gained an influence and reputation in American counter-culture comparable to writers like Hakim Bey and Kathy Acker. Aside from reassessments of his earlier engagement with Neoism, the Situationists, punk, and the plagiarism and Art Strike campaigns, and, as his source of income, the continued parodistic pulp-novel writing, Home's style had undergone some significant changes. While his late 1980s pamphleteering could be viewed as an, albeit subtly humorous, project to collect and fuse radical energies from aesthetically uncompromising extreme left-wing fringes of art and politics, Home reinvented himself in the 1990s as a cynical satirist and jester. In the post-Art Strike years, he had for the first time publicly occupied himself with hermeticism and the occult. The Neoist Alliance, his third one-person-movement after The Generation Positive and Praxis, served simultaneously as a tactical reappropriation of the Neoism label for self-promotional purposes, and as a corporate identity for pamphlets that satirically advocated a combination of artistic avant-garde, the occult, and politics into an "avant-bard". Meanwhile, Home continued to be courted by the London art world, and in the mid-nineties in particular he was championed by the young and very fashionable artist-curator Matthew Higgs (who at that time was also playing a significant role in propelling future Turner Prize winners Jeremy Deller and Martin Creed into the public eye). Higgs included Home in group shows he curated – such as "Imprint 93" at City Racing (London June–July 95), "Multiple Choice" at Cubitt Gallery (London March–April 96) and "A to Z" at Approach Gallery (London 1998) – as well issuing a pamphlet and later a badge by Home as part of his prestigious edition of Imprint 93 multiples. At this time uber curator Hans Ulrich Obrist also included Home in his survey of young British art "Life/Live" Musée d’art Moderne de la Ville de Paris (October 96- January 97, subsequently toured). In the mid-nineties Home was also appearing regularly as a live artist at "Disobey" events organised by Paul Smith and featuring music from the likes of techno acts Panasonic and Aphex Twin. 2000s Aware of the marked decline in countercultural activities throughout the urban centres in which he operated, Home shifted gear in this area of his work in the new millennium, upping his level of Internet activities; web work had been only a minor part of his repertoire in the 1990s. Aside from running his own website, Home is a dedicated blogger and had six separate MySpace profiles (as well as having active accounts with other social networking sites such as Twitter, YouTube, Flickr and Facebook). However, given Home's extrovert personality, he maintains a taste for live appearances and in 2007 began performing ventriloquism in public. This activity was preceded by Internet ventriloquism using two MySpace profiles as Mister Trippy and a ventriloquist doll called Tessie (who often claimed to be pregnant and became very angry when Home suggested dolls can't become pregnant). Home's novels in this period no longer incorporated subcultural elements and instead focused on issues of form and aesthetics: 69 Things to Do with a Dead Princess contains capsule reviews of dozens of obscure books as well as elaborate descriptions of stone circles, while in Down and Out in Shoreditch & Hoxton every paragraph is exactly 100 words long. At times in this period Home's film making also became radically non-representational, and rarely required any original cinematography whatsoever; for example his 2002 fiftieth anniversary English language colour re-make of Guy Debord's "Screams in Favour of De Sade", and 2004 "Eclipse & Re-Emergence of the Oedipus Complex", the latter consists solely of still photographs of his mother with a narration scripted by Home but delivered by Australian actress Alice Parkinson. This tendency towards abstraction was already evident in some of Home's work of the 1990s, particularly sound pieces such as the cut up radio play "Divvy", but in the 2000s it became increasingly central to his output. This ran parallel to Home's increasing acceptance by various sections of the high brow art world, evidenced for example by the fact that in 2006 he produced an exhibition entitled "Hallucination Generation" at the prestigious Arnolfini in Bristol, won a major Arts Council/BBC commission "London Art Tripping" and he was editor of the Semina series for art book publisher Book Works in London (2007–2010); as well as being writer-in-residence at the Tate Modern in London (2007/08). However, Home combines these activities with a critique of the institution of art. Neoist Alliance The Neoist Alliance was a moniker used by Home between 1994 and 1999 for his mock-occult psychogeographical activities. According to Home, the alliance was an occult order with himself as the magus and only member. The manifesto called for "debasement in the arts" and in a parodic manner plagiarized a 1930s British fascist pamphlet on cultural politics. Alliance activities mainly consisted of the publication of a newsletter "Re-action" which appeared in ten issues. In 1993, the Neoist Alliance staged a prank against a concert by composer Karlheinz Stockhausen in Brighton by announcing its intention to levitate the concert hall by magical means during the concert. This was an homage to the 1965 anti-art picketing of a Stockhausen concert in New York by Fluxus members Henry Flynt and George Maciunas. Alliance activities ran parallel and were closely related to those of the revived London Psychogeographical Association and the Italian-based Luther Blissett project. Despite its name, the Neoist Alliance had no affiliation with the international Neoist network which had been active since 1980. Stewart Home had previously become a member and activist of that network in 1984, but renounced it one year later and subsequently worked under the collective monikers of "Praxis", later "plagiarism" and the Art Strike movement. Books Home's first books, which appeared between 1988 and 1995, are essentially an outgrowth and elaboration of his earlier SMILE writings, though without their fragmentary-aphoristic character and eclectic mix of genres. The Assault on Culture, written when Home was twenty-five, is an underground art history sketching Home's ultimately personal history of ideas and influences in post-World War II fringe radical art and political currents, and including – for the first time in a book – a tactically manipulated history of post-war culture to make it conclude with Neoism (and which it is sometimes claimed includes character assassinations of individual Neoists) that was continued in the later book Neoism, Plagiarism and Praxis. Despite its highly personal perspective and agenda, The Assault on Culture: Utopian currents from Lettrisme to Class War (Aporia Press and Unpopular Books, London, 1988) is considered a useful art-history work, providing an introduction to a range of cultural currents which had, at that time at least, been under-documented. The work has, however, been highly criticised for deficiencies in its view of utopian currents, including its personal biases, by such writers as Bob Black. Like Home's other publications of that time, it played an influential part in renewing interest in the Situationist International. Pure Mania, Home's first novel from 1989, took the recipe of the Richard Allen parodies from SMILE and turned them into a recipe for much of his subsequent novel writing of the 1990s (there are exceptions such as the non-linear "Come Before Christ & Murder Love"). The book Neoist Manifestos/The Art Strike Papers featured, on its first part, abridged versions of Home's manifesto-style writings from SMILE, and a compilation of writings and reactions regarding the Art Strike from various authors and sources, mainly Mail Art publications. His 1995 novel Slow Death fictionalises and ridicules this process of the historification of Neoism (including the planting of archives at the National Art Library in the Victoria and Albert Museum; this recently became reality when Home sold the V&A his own archive documenting twenty years of his art and underground activities including those involving Neoism) as if to give his own game away but, typically with Home, as soon as one agenda has, apparently, been exposed, whether Home's own or one at large, the game moves on so that he constantly forces readers into a position of 'Should I believe any of this?'. With the publication of his novel 69 Things to Do with a Dead Princess (Canongate, Edinburgh 2002), Home finally got the British literary press sitting up and taking serious notice of him, ironically for a book which carries his most acidic condemnations of the literary establishment. Home's skinhead looks and attitude on official photographs of the mid-nineties are merely publicity poses, and recently he has been much more inclined to appear nude in publicity material (this started after Home consented to appear in a nude celebrity feature for a Finnish newspaper in 2004); and this nudity is something that offends just as much as Home's earlier faked 'hard man' looks. Repression in Russia Alex Kervey of T-ough Press, publishers of the Russian edition of Come Before Christ and Murder Love has reported repression of the book as "pornography and insulting Christian values". Kervey says this is happening in the context of a campaign run by such far-right groups as the National Bolsheviks against Home, which has included arson attacks against T-ough Press alongside state censorship. Bibliography Novels Pure Mania (Polygon, Edinburgh 1989. Finnish translation Like, Helsinki 1994. German translation Nautilus, Hamburg 1994). Defiant Pose (Peter Owen, London 1991. Finnish translation Like, Helsinki 1995. German translation, Nautilus, Hamburg 1995). Some of the action of this novel takes place on the Samuda Estate Red London (AK Press, London & Edinburgh 1994, ; Finnish translation Like, Helsinki 1995). Slow Death (Serpent's Tail, London 1996. Finnish translation Like, Helsinki 1996) Blow Job (Serpent's Tail, London 1997. Finnish translation, Like, Helsinki 1996. Greek translation Oxys Publishing, Athens 1999. German translation, Nautilus, Hamburg, 2001). Come Before Christ and Murder Love (Serpent's Tail, London 1997). Cunt (Do-Not Press, London 1999) Whips & Furs: My Life as a bon-vivant, gambler & love rat by Jesus H. Christ (Attack! Books, London 2000). 69 Things to Do with a Dead Princess (Canongate, Edinburgh, 2002) Down and Out in Shoreditch and Hoxton (Do-Not Press, London 2004). Tainted Love (Virgin Books, London 2005). Memphis Underground (Snowbooks, London 2007). Blood Rites of the Bourgeoisie (BookWorks, London 2010). Mandy, Charlie & Mary-Jane (Penny-Ante Editions, 2013). The 9 Lives of Ray The Cat Jones (Test Centre, 2014). She's My Witch (London Books, 2020). Stories No Pity (AK Press, London & Edinburgh 1993, ; Finnish translation Like, Helsinki 1997). Poetry SEND CA$H (Morbid Books, London 2018). Non-fiction The Assault on Culture: Utopian currents from Lettrisme to Class War (Aporia Press and Unpopular Books, London, 1988) (New edition AK Press, Edinburgh 1991. Polish translation, Wydawnictwo Signum, Warsaw 1993. Italian translation AAA edizioni, Bertiolo 1996. Portuguese translation, Conrad Livros, Brazil 1999. Spanish translation, Virus Editorial, 2002. Russian translation, Asebeia, 2020). Neoist Manifestos (AK Press, Edinburgh 1991). Cranked up Really High: Genre Theory And Punk Rock (Codex, Hove 1995, new edition 1997. Italian translation Castelvecchi, Rome 1996) (an 'inside account' of the history of punk rock). Conspiracies, Cover-Ups and Diversions: A Collection of Lies, Hoaxes and Hidden Truths (Sabotage Editions, London 1995). Green Apocalypse (a critique of the magazine and organisation Green Anarchist) with Luther Blissett (Unpopular Books, London 1995). Analecta (Sabotage Editions, London 1996). Neoism, Plagiarism and Praxis (AK Press, London, Edinburgh 1995. Italian translation Costa & Nolan Genoa 1997). The House of Nine Squares: Letters On Neoism, Psychogeography And Epistemological Trepidation, with Florian Cramer (Invisible Books London 1997). Disputations on Art, Anarchy and Assholism (Sabotage Editions, London 1997). Out-Takes (Sabotage Editions, London 1998). Confusion Incorporated: A Collection Of Lies, Hoaxes & Hidden Truths (Codex, Hove 1999). Repetitions: A Collection of Proletarian Pleasures Ranging from Rodent Worship to Ethical Relativism Appended with a Critique of Unicursal Reason (Sabotage Editions, London 1999). Anamorphosis: Stewart Home, Searchlight and the plot to destroy civilization (Sabotage Editions, London 2000). Jean Baudrillard and the Psychogeography of Nudism (Sabotage Editions, London 2001). Fasting on SPAM and Other Non-aligned Diets for Our Electronic Age (Sabotage Editions, London 2002). The Intelligent Person's Guide to Changing a Lightbulb (Sabotage Editions, London 2005). The Correct Way to Boil Water (Sabotage Editions, London 2005). The Easy Way to Falsify Your Credit Rating (Sabotage Editions, London 2005). Re-Enter The Dragon: Genre Theory, Brucesploitation & the Sleazy Joys of Lowbrow Cinema (Ledatape Organisation, Melbourne 2018). As editor Festival of Plagiarism Ed., (Sabotage Editions, London, 1989) Art Strike Handbook Ed., (Sabotage Editions, London, 1989) What is Situationism? A Reader Ed., (AK Press Edinburgh and San Francisco, 1996) . Mind Invaders: A Reader in Psychic Warfare, Cultural Sabotage And Semiotic Terrorism Ed. (Serpent's Tail London, 1997). Suspect Device: Hard-Edged Fiction (Serpent's Tail, London 1998). Spoken word and releases Comes in Your Face (Sabotage, London 1998). Cyber-Sadism Live! (Sabotage, London 1998). Pure Mania (King Mob, London 1998). Marx, Christ & Satan United in Struggle (Molotov Records 1999). Proletarian Post-Modernism (Test Centre 2013). Funded Internet projects NATURAL SELECTION (1998 organised by Graham Harwood & Matt Fuller, funded by the Arts Council). TORK RADIO (1998 organised by Cambridge Junction, funded with lottery money). Exhibitions Humanity in Ruins, Central Space (London, February/March 1988). Vermeer II, workfortheeyetodo (London July to September 1996). Becoming (M)other, Artspace (London December 2004 to January 2005). In Transition Russia, NCCA (Moscow, November/December 2008). Hallucination Generation: High Modernism in a Tripped Out World, Arnolfini (Bristol April to May 2006). Again, A Time Machine at White Columns (New York October/November 2011). Part of Again, A Time Machine: a Book Works touring exhibition in six parts, SPACE (London April to May 2012). Tilt, Building F (London November 2013). The Age of Anti-Ageing, The Function Room (London October/November 2014). Re-Enter The Dragon, Queens Park Railway Club (Glasgow, April 2016). Dual Flying Kicks, 5 Years (London, June 2018). Selected film and videos Ut Pictura Poesis (1997, 35 mm, part of project organised by Cambridge Junction with Arts Council funding). 'Screams in Favour of De Sade''' (2002 60 mins).Has The Litigation Already Started? (2002 70 mins).The Golem (2002 84 mins).Eclipse & Re-Emergence of the Oedipus Complex (2004 41 mins).Oxum: Goddess of Love (2007 30 mins).Re-Enter The Dragon'' (2016 41 mins). Numerous videos including promos for books COME BEFORE CHRIST & MURDER LOVE (1997), RED LONDON (1994) & NO PITY (1993). See also Anti-art Art manifesto 3:AM Magazine References External links Stewart Home Society 3:AM Magazine interview (2002) Face feature (2000) Stewart Home on Diffusion.org.uk – Freely downloadable eBooks authored by Stewart Home Historians of anarchism 1962 births Living people Psychogeographers Punk writers English art critics 20th-century English novelists 21st-century English novelists English contemporary artists English art historians English male novelists 20th-century English male writers 21st-century English male writers English male non-fiction writers Alumni of Kingston University	[ 0.5104795098304749, 0.22602926194667816, -0.20771369338035583, -0.6409157514572144, 0.1803448349237442, 0.6156314611434937, 0.09130251407623291, -0.4424678385257721, -0.006016390398144722, 0.32593241333961487, -0.9866192936897278, 0.044343817979097366, 0.024405086413025856, 0.31949928402900696, 0.10910209268331528, 0.3432061970233917, -0.4584970474243164, -0.34631937742233276, 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221987	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evil%20Empire%20%28album%29	Evil Empire (album)	Evil Empire is the second studio album by American rock band Rage Against the Machine, released on April 16, 1996, by Epic Records. Its title refers to a term used in the early 1980s by President Ronald Reagan and many American conservatives to describe the former Soviet Union. Evil Empire debuted at number 1 on the US Billboard 200, and the song "Tire Me" won a 1996 Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance; "Bulls on Parade" and "People of the Sun" were nominated for Grammys for Best Hard Rock Performance. The album was certified 3x platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America on May 24, 2000. Background According to MTV News, "The title 'Evil Empire' is taken from what Rage Against The Machine see as Ronald Reagan's slander of the Soviet Union in the eighties, which the band feels could just as easily apply to the United States." Before the May 27, 1996, performance of "Without a Face" that is featured on the band's 1998 Live & Rare album, Zack de la Rocha said: "It seems as if soon as the... the wall in Germany fell, that the US government was busy building another one on the border between the US and Mexico. Since 1986, as a result of a lot of the hate talk and hysteria that the government of the United States has been speaking, 1,500 bodies have been found on the border. We wrote this song in response to it." "Year of tha Boomerang" had previously been included in the film Higher Learning, though its title was written as "Year of the Boomerang" on the packaging of the film's soundtrack, as well as that of the song's promotional single. Packaging The cover of the album features an altered version of a painting of the 1940s–1950s comic book hero Crimebuster done by Mel Ramos, with the emblem on the boy's costume changed from a "c" to a lowercase "e", the caption "Crime Buster" changed to the album's title, and the color of the star in the background changed. Additional artwork for the album was created by Barbara Kruger, some of which appears in the video for "Bulls on Parade". The album's CD booklet includes a picture of a pile of various political and philosophical books, which include: A People's History of the United States by Howard Zinn Capital, Volume I by Karl Marx A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man by James Joyce The Anarchist Cookbook by William Powell Guerrilla Warfare by Che Guevara Revolutionary Suicide by Huey P. Newton Soul on Ice by Eldridge Cleaver The Wretched of the Earth by Frantz Fanon Darkness at Noon by Arthur Koestler Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky Live from Death Row by Mumia Abu-Jamal Johnny Got His Gun by Dalton Trumbo Now and After: The ABC of Communist Anarchism by Alexander Berkman The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck Rules for Radicals by Saul D. Alinsky Soledad Brother: The Prison Letters of George Jackson by George Jackson Walden and Resistance to Civil Government by Henry David Thoreau Invisible Man by Ralph Ellison Another Country by James Baldwin Promotion In 1995, the band sent a free 7″ record to everyone who signed up for the fan club promoted in the liner notes of their debut. Doubling as an apology to those who had received nothing and a promotion for the upcoming album, it came in a plain cardboard-colored fold-out with a black-and-white American flag on the cover alongside the band's name and "Evil Empire" in capital letters. On the back cover was a UPC with marker scribble on the barcode. The A-side was a reissue of the Evening Session-version of "Bombtrack" first broadcast on June 7, 1993 (listed as "Bombtrack (Live on the BBC)"), and the B-side was a then-unreleased cover of N.W.A's "Fuck tha Police" that was recorded live on August 13, 1995, at a benefit concert for Mumia Abu-Jamal at the Capitol Ballroom in Washington, D.C. As with the band's debut, five singles were released in total. Reception Rolling Stone said that "This music isn't supposed to be fun," and continued: "Rage Against the Machine have jacked up the sociopolitical siege mentality in their metallic hip-hop to such a dogmatic degree – and honed their sound to such maniacally shrill perfection – that the band and the roaring joys of its harangue 'n' roll seem virtually sexless." Track listing Personnel Rage Against the Machine Zack de la Rocha – vocals Tom Morello – guitars Tim Commerford (credited as "Tim Bob") – bass Brad Wilk – drums Technical Brendan O'Brien – production Rage Against the Machine – co-production Andy Wallace – mixing Nick DiDia – engineering, recording Caram Costanzo – engineering Clay Harper – assistant engineering Dave Rat – recording ("Down Rodeo" vocals) Paul Kosky – recording ("Down Rodeo" vocals) Bob Ludwig – mastering Artwork and design Rage Against the Machine – art direction Aimée Macauley – art direction Lisa Johnson – photography Recording locations Cole Rehearsal Studios, Los Angeles, CA – recording Kiss Music Recording Studios, Melbourne, Australia – recording ("Down Rodeo" vocals) The Enterprise – mixing Gateway Mastering Studios – mastering Charts Year-end charts Certifications Awards 1997 Grammy Award – Best Metal Performance for "Tire Me" See also Ronald Reagan in music References External links 1996 albums Albums produced 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221998	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiomersal	Thiomersal	Thiomersal (INN), or thimerosal (USAN, JAN), is an organomercury compound. It is a well-established antiseptic and antifungal agent. The pharmaceutical corporation Eli Lilly and Company gave thiomersal, sodium ethyl mercuri thiosalicylate, the trade name Merthiolate. It has been used as a preservative in vaccines, immunoglobulin preparations, skin test antigens, antivenins, ophthalmic and nasal products, and tattoo inks. In spite of the scientific consensus that fears about its safety are unsubstantiated, its use as a vaccine preservative was called into question by anti-vaccination groups, and it was phased out from routine childhood vaccines in the United States, the European Union, and a few other countries in response to popular fears. History Morris Kharasch, a chemist then at the University of Maryland filed a patent application for thiomersal in 1927; Eli Lilly later marketed the compound under the trade name Merthiolate. In vitro tests conducted by Lilly investigators H. M. Powell and W. A. Jamieson found that it was forty to fifty times as effective as phenol against Staphylococcus aureus. It was used to kill bacteria and prevent contamination in antiseptic ointments, creams, jellies, and sprays used by consumers and in hospitals, including nasal sprays, eye drops, contact lens solutions, immunoglobulins, and vaccines. Thiomersal was used as a preservative (bactericide) so that multidose vials of vaccines could be used instead of single-dose vials, which are more expensive. By 1938, Lilly's assistant director of research listed thiomersal as one of the five most important drugs ever developed by the company. Structure Thiomersal features mercury(II) with a coordination number 2, i.e. two ligands are attached to Hg, the thiolate and the ethyl group. The carboxylate group confers solubility in water. Like other two-coordinate Hg(II) compounds, the coordination geometry of Hg is linear, with a 180° S-Hg-C angle. Typically, organomercury thiolate compounds are prepared from organomercury chlorides. Uses Thiomersal's main use is as an antiseptic and antifungal agent, due to the oligodynamic effect. In multidose injectable drug delivery systems, it prevents serious adverse effects such as the Staphylococcus infection that, in one 1928 incident, killed 12 of 21 children vaccinated with a diphtheria vaccine that lacked a preservative. Unlike other vaccine preservatives used at the time, thiomersal does not reduce the potency of the vaccines that it protects. Bacteriostatics such as thiomersal are not needed in single-dose injectables. In the United States, countries in the European Union, and a few other affluent countries, thiomersal is no longer used as a preservative in routine childhood vaccination schedules. In the U.S., the only exceptions among vaccines routinely recommended for children are some formulations of the inactivated influenza vaccine for children older than two years. Several vaccines that are not routinely recommended for young children do contain thiomersal, including DT (diphtheria and tetanus), Td (tetanus and diphtheria), and TT (tetanus toxoid); other vaccines may contain a trace of thiomersal from steps in manufacture. The multi-dose versions of the influenza vaccines Fluvirin and Fluzone can contain up to 25 micrograms of mercury per dose from thiomersal. Also, four rarely used treatments for pit viper, coral snake, and black widow venom still contain thiomersal. Outside North America and Europe, many vaccines contain thiomersal; the World Health Organization has concluded that there is no evidence of toxicity from thiomersal in vaccines and no reason on safety grounds to change to more expensive single-dose administration. The United Nations Environment Program backed away from an earlier proposal of putting thiomersal, when used as a component in vaccines, on the list of banned compounds, in its campaign to reduce exposure to mercury worldwide. Citing that eliminating the preservative in multi-dose vaccines, primarily used in developing countries, would lead to high cost and a requirement for refrigeration which the developing countries can ill afford, the UN's final decision at the Minamata Convention on Mercury in 2013 was to exclude thiomersal from the treaty. Toxicology General toxicity Thiomersal is very toxic by inhalation, ingestion, and in contact with skin (EC hazard symbol T+), with a danger of cumulative effects. It is also very toxic to aquatic organisms and may cause long-term adverse effects in aquatic environments (EC hazard symbol N). In the body, it is metabolized or degraded to ethylmercury (C2H5Hg+) and thiosalicylate. Cases have been reported of severe mercury poisoning by accidental exposure or attempted suicide, with some fatalities. Animal experiments suggest that thiomersal rapidly dissociates to release ethylmercury after injection; that the disposition patterns of mercury are similar to those after exposure to equivalent doses of ethylmercury chloride; and that the central nervous system and the kidneys are targets, with lack of motor coordination being a common sign. Similar signs and symptoms have been observed in accidental human poisonings. The mechanisms of toxic action are unknown. Fecal excretion accounts for most of the elimination from the body. Ethylmercury clears from blood with a half-life of about 18 days in adults by breakdown into other chemicals, including inorganic mercury. Ethylmercury is eliminated from the brain in about 14 days in infant monkeys. Risk assessment for effects on the nervous system have been made by extrapolating from dose-response relationships for methylmercury. Methylmercury and ethylmercury distribute to all body tissues, crossing the blood–brain barrier and the placental barrier, and ethylmercury also moves freely throughout the body. Concerns based on extrapolations from methylmercury caused thiomersal to be removed from U.S. childhood vaccines, starting in 1999. Since then, it has been found that ethylmercury is eliminated from the body and the brain significantly faster than methylmercury, so the late-1990s risk assessments turned out to be overly conservative. Though inorganic mercury metabolized from ethylmercury has a much longer half-life in the brain, at least 120 days, it appears to be much less toxic than the inorganic mercury produced from mercury vapor, for reasons not yet understood. As an allergen Thiomersal is used in patch testing for people who have dermatitis, conjunctivitis, and other potentially allergic reactions. A 2007 study in Norway found that 1.9% of adults had a positive patch test reaction to thiomersal; a higher prevalence of contact allergy (up to 6.6%) was observed in German populations. Thiomersal-sensitive individuals can receive intramuscular rather than subcutaneous immunization, though there have been no large sample sized studies regarding this matter to date. In real-world practice on vaccination of adult populations, contact allergy does not seem to elicit clinical reaction. Thiomersal allergy has decreased in Denmark, probably because of its exclusion from vaccines there. In a recent study of Polish children and adolescents with chronic/recurrent eczema, positive reactions to thiomersal were found in 11.7% of children (7–8 y.o.) and 37.6% of adolescents (16–17 y.o.). This difference in the sensitization rates can be explained by changing exposure patterns: The adolescents have received six thiomersal-preserved vaccines during their life course, with the last immunization taking place 2–3 years before the mentioned study, younger children received only four thiomersal-preserved vaccines, with the last one applied five years before the study, while further immunizations were performed with new thiomersal-free vaccines. Disproven autism hypothesis Following a review of mercury-containing food and drugs mandated in 1999, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the American Academy of Pediatrics asked vaccine manufacturers to remove thiomersal from vaccines as a purely precautionary measure, and it was rapidly phased out of most U.S. and European vaccines. Many parents saw the action to remove thiomersal—in the setting of a perceived increasing rate of autism as well as increasing number of vaccines in the childhood vaccination schedule—as indicating that the preservative was the cause of autism. The scientific consensus is that there is no evidence supporting these claims, and the rate of autism continues to climb despite elimination of thiomersal from routine childhood vaccines. Major scientific and medical bodies such as the Institute of Medicine and World Health Organization, as well as governmental agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration and the CDC reject any role for thiomersal in autism or other neurodevelopmental disorders. This controversy has caused harm due to parents attempting to treat their autistic children with unproven and possibly dangerous treatments, discouraging parents from vaccinating their children due to fears about thiomersal toxicity, and diverting resources away from research into more promising areas for the cause of autism. Thousands of lawsuits have been filed in a U.S. federal court to seek damages from alleged toxicity from vaccines, including those purportedly caused by thiomersal. See also , a silver containing antimicrobial , a related antimicrobial Phenylmercuric nitrate - an organomercury compound with powerful antiseptic and antifungal effects References Thiolates Eli Lilly and Company brands Organomercury compounds Excipients Organic sodium salts Benzoates	[ -0.169234499335289, 0.3035036623477936, 0.05511878430843353, -0.5170257687568665, -0.7213970422744751, -0.2526634633541107, 0.3474642038345337, -0.06038828194141388, -0.07659236341714859, 0.4016648828983307, -0.7049002647399902, 0.9145013093948364, -0.05174325034022331, 0.48208901286125183, -0.07211395353078842, 0.49176278710365295, 0.8876575827598572, 0.7689408659934998, 0.20133095979690552, -0.6394529342651367, -0.029012862592935562, -0.3836060166358948, 0.059710513800382614, -0.44996967911720276, 0.5791075825691223, 0.24045270681381226, -0.05131164565682411, 0.04474728927016258, -0.0066340044140815735, -0.266177773475647, -0.2505705654621124, 1.1100465059280396, 0.2641317844390869, 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221999	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Slovenian%20artists	List of Slovenian artists	This article is a list of Slovenian artists and architects A France Ahčin (1919-1989) - sculptor Zvest Apollonio (1935–2009) - painter and graphic artist. Anton Ažbe (1862–1905) - painter. C Jože Ciuha (1924–2015) - painter, graphic artist and illustrator. Č Anton Čebej (1722–1774) - painter Avgust Černigoj (1898–1985) - painter. D Julia Doria - illustrator, painter, writer F Max Fabiani (1865–1962) - architect. G Ivan Grohar (1867–1911) - painter. Herman Gvardjančič (b. 1943) - painter. J Stane Jagodič (b. 1943) - painter, graphic artist, montager and illustrator. Božidar Jakac (1899–1989) - painter, graphic artist and illustrator. Rihard Jakopič (1869–1943) - painter. Matija Jama (1872–1947) - painter. K Boris Kobe (1905–1981) - architect and painter. Ivana Kobilca (1861–1926) - painter. Tone Kralj (1900–1975) - painter. Juta Krulc (1913–2015) - landscape architect and artist. L Lojze Logar (1944–2014) - painter and graphic artist. M Adriana Maraž (1931–2015) - painter and graphic artist. France Mihelič (1907–1998) - painter and graphic artist. Pino Mlakar (1907–2006) - ballet dancer and choreographer. Marko Modic (b. 1958) - photographer, painter and visual artist. Miki Muster (1925–2018) - illustrator. Marko Mušič (b. 1941) - architect. Zoran Mušič (1909-2005) - painter. P Slavko Pengov (1908–1966) - painter. Veno Pilon (1896–1970) - painter. Štefan Planinc (b. 1925) - painter, graphic artist and illustrator. Jože Plečnik (1872–1957) - architect. Marjetica Potrč (b. 1953) - architect and visual artist. Marij Pregelj (1913–1967) - painter and illustrator. R Edo Ravnikar (1907–1993) - architect. Rocc (b. 1979) - opera stage director, scenographer, dramaturge and performance artist. Miránda Rúmina (?–) - multimedia, painter, writer. Janez Ravnik (1929–) - painter and sculptor. S Jakob Savinšek (1922–1961) - sculptor. Maksim Sedej (1909–1974) - painter. Savin Sever (1927–2003) - architect. Matej Sternen (1870–1949) - painter. Š Henrika Šantel (1874–1940) - painter. Ive Šubic (1922–1989) - painter. Vladimir Šubic (1894–1946) - architect. T Jožef Tominc (1790–1866) - painter. U Joseph Urbania (1877-1943) - sculptor. V Ivan Vurnik (1884–1971) - architect and town planner See also List of painters List of sculptors Slovenia list of people by nationality list of people by occupation List of Slovenian artists Artists Slovenian	[ 0.4319108724594116, 0.7313765287399292, -0.2660011351108551, -0.5172243714332581, -0.48399579524993896, 1.0935205221176147, 0.34631022810935974, 0.625176191329956, -1.2275279760360718, -0.7625240087509155, 0.02946559339761734, -0.22042396664619446, -0.3497568964958191, 0.37617960572242737, -0.1676308810710907, 0.6258302330970764, 0.5100886821746826, 0.570658266544342, -0.719158411026001, -0.24343018233776093, 0.42441293597221375, -0.2555695176124573, 0.3898937404155731, -0.5386817455291748, -0.23214082419872284, -0.2943194806575775, 0.38718581199645996, 0.08113259077072144, 0.43851906061172485, 0.1623675376176834, -0.18717341125011444, 0.6278862953186035, 0.43086954951286316, 0.16175682842731476, -0.48259276151657104, -0.0031861199531704187, 0.14631642401218414, 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222004	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%27s%20four-square%20identity	Euler's four-square identity	In mathematics, Euler's four-square identity says that the product of two numbers, each of which is a sum of four squares, is itself a sum of four squares. Algebraic identity For any pair of quadruples from a commutative ring, the following expressions are equal: Euler wrote about this identity in a letter dated May 4, 1748 to Goldbach (but he used a different sign convention from the above). It can be verified with elementary algebra. The identity was used by Lagrange to prove his four square theorem. More specifically, it implies that it is sufficient to prove the theorem for prime numbers, after which the more general theorem follows. The sign convention used above corresponds to the signs obtained by multiplying two quaternions. Other sign conventions can be obtained by changing any to , and/or any to . If the and are real numbers, the identity expresses the fact that the absolute value of the product of two quaternions is equal to the product of their absolute values, in the same way that the Brahmagupta–Fibonacci two-square identity does for complex numbers. This property is the definitive feature of composition algebras. Hurwitz's theorem states that an identity of form, where the are bilinear functions of the and is possible only for n = 1, 2, 4, or 8. Proof of the identity using quaternions Comment: The proof of Euler's four-square identity is by simple algebraic evaluation. Quaternions derive from the four-square identity, which can be written as the product of two inner products of 4-dimensional vectors, yielding again an inner product of 4-dimensional vectors: (a·a)(b·b) = (ab)·(ab). This defines the quaternion multiplication rule a*b, which simply reflects Euler's identity, as well as the whole bunch of quaternion math! Quaternions are, so to say, the "square root" of the four-square identity. But let the proof go on: Let and be a pair of quaternions. Their quaternion conjugates are and . Then and . The product of these two is , where is a real number, so it can commute with the quaternion , yielding . No parentheses are necessary above, because quaternions associate. The conjugate of a product is equal to the commuted product of the conjugates of the product's factors, so where is the Hamilton product of and : Then and (If where is the scalar part and is the vector part, then so ) Pfister's identity Pfister found another square identity for any even power: If the are just rational functions of one set of variables, so that each has a denominator, then it is possible for all . Thus, another four-square identity is as follows: where and are given by Incidentally, the following identity is also true: See also Brahmagupta–Fibonacci identity (sums of two squares) Degen's eight-square identity Pfister's sixteen-square identity Latin square References External links A Collection of Algebraic Identities Lettre CXV from Euler to Goldbach Elementary algebra Elementary number theory Mathematical identities Squares in number theory Leonhard Euler	[ -0.5352683663368225, 0.055769793689250946, -0.04213988780975342, -0.20568221807479858, -0.6325722932815552, 0.21743512153625488, 0.027223680168390274, -0.45412933826446533, -0.2118488997220993, -0.4172018766403198, -0.6319848299026489, 0.007195145823061466, -0.6827942728996277, 0.22697776556015015, 0.003484247950837016, 0.3671985864639282, 0.6247959733009338, 0.4706057906150818, -0.5201647281646729, -0.7474506497383118, 0.43757200241088867, 0.42712852358818054, 0.22353915870189667, -0.3313041627407074, 0.21925009787082672, 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