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222005 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letino | Letino | Letino (Campanian: ) is a comune and small village in the province of Caserta, in Campania, southern Italy.
It was one of the villages liberated by the Italian Libertarian Communist Insurrection of 1877 by Errico Malatesta, Carlo Cafiero, Pietro Cesare Ceccarelli, the Russian Stepniak and 30 other comrades. Another village in the same province, Gallo Matese, was also involved.
References
External links
Letino photos
Cities and towns in Campania
Villages in Italy | [
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222016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priest%20%28manhwa%29 | Priest (manhwa) | Priest (Hangul: 프리스트) is a manhwa (Korean comic) series created by Hyung Min-woo. It fuses the Western genre with supernatural horror and dark fantasy themes and is notable for its unusual, angular art style. An interview with Hyung in Priest: Volume 3 states that the comic was inspired by the computer game Blood by Monolith Productions, which featured a similar horror-Western aesthetic and undead protagonist. He has also cited the comic as a mishmash of influences from other books, movies and games, elements from a culture that he felt was underground in Korea at the time.
Priest was published in English by Tokyopop. The manhwa was adapted into the 2011 American horror film of the same name.
Story
Priest tells the story of humanity's battle against 12 fallen angels. The angels descended to Earth to 'play God' among humans, who build a temple and statues in their honor. For their rebellion against him, God destroyed their temple, imprisoned their souls in statues, and buried the statues underground.
Centuries later, a Holy Knight named Vascar De Gullion loses his family. He 'loses faith' and wanders the earth in a 'blood rage.' He discovers a cave containing the statues of the 12 fallen angels. Temozarela convinces Vascar De Gullion to give up his body to the angel to take revenge against God. Vascar De Gullion is discovered by a powerful priest, Betheal. He discovers that Vascar De Gullion is actually Temozarela. Betheal traps their souls within a powerful weapon called the Domas Porada, becoming the demon Belial in the process.
Ivan Isaacs solves the puzzle of the Domas Porada, freeing Temozarela. The angel murders Isaacs' love, Gena, after escaping. Priest follows Ivan Isaacs' quest for revenge against the fallen angel, Temozarela, and his 12 angelic disciples, with assistance from Belial and others.
Characters
Main
Ivan Isaacs
The main protagonist of Priest. Ivan lived in an orphanage until Mr. Isaacs, a wealthy farm owner, adopted him after his wife died to be a companion for his daughter. Fond of ancient stories and myths, he spent his time researching in his own library and with Gena Isaacs, whom he eventually falls in love. When Mr. Isaacs finds out, he reprimands Ivan. His father sends him off to a boarding school called Conrad to get him away from Gena. Ivan returns after becoming a priest. An essay he wrote brings him to the attention of an Order of St. Vinetz. They approach him to help unlock the secrets of the Domas Porada, which contains the souls of Temozarela and Belial.
After reading through a book, Ivan finds blood in it and confronts Piestro. He admits his true plan is to let Temozarela free. Temozarela, realizing that Ivan could liberate him, tells Piestro to sacrifice Gena in front of the Domas Porada. During this, Ivan goes into a stupor and attempts to open the Domas Porada. He is transported inside the Domas Porada finding Temozarela imprisoned and Belial standing watch. Belial reprimands Isaac for entering the relic as the archangel breaks free.
Ivan stalks the west as an undead creature sustained solely by his infinite rage; his strength directly related to his anger. He also uses weapons: a Bowie knife he coats with blessed silver, a sawed off shotgun with silver bullets, and a Thompson sub-machine gun.
Betheal Gavarre (Belial)
Belial was originally an inquisitor in the medieval church called Betheal. He presided over the case of the possessed Vascar de Guillon. Temozarela, possessing Vascar, influences Betheal's adoptive son, Matthew, to slaughter one of the women at the monastery. Temozarela orchestrated this tragedy to shatter Betheal's faith. In remorse and enraged, Betheal sacrifices himself, condemns his faith, renounces God, and becomes the devil Belial. Betheal uses his new power to imprison Temozarela and himself in the Domas Porada. After Temozarela is freed, he melds with Ivan's body to help him defeat the angels.
Gena Isaacs
The natural daughter of Mister Isaacs, a ranch owner who adopted Ivan. Gena eventually falls in love with Ivan despite being his adoptive sister, but is killed by Temozarela's minions. The Order of St Vertinez uses her to make Ivan finally snap and release Temozarela. She is killed while calling Ivan's name and dies in his arms. He brings Gena's body back to the ranch. Belial appears and Ivan leaves her to talk with him. At this time, a servant of Temozarela, appears and raises the dead of a nearby graveyard. Ivan sees them and runs into the house for Gena, finding several zombies feeding on her flesh. Gena comes back to life as a zombie. She pleads with him to love her still, but he refuses at Belial's words and stabs her with a scythe. After killing the zombies, he takes her corpse and buries her in a makeshift grave with a cross at the head.
Gena later appears as a visage to Ivan and other characters. Most notably, when Ivan is about to be killed by Achmode. Ivan finally begins to accept death and we see Gena in a field in front of him, before Armandiel saves him. She also appeared as a hallucination to Lizzie, saying nothing and just touching her heart after Lizzie almost succumbs to Temozarela.
Coburn
Coburn is a cynical atheist and a federal marshal hired by the government to investigate Ivan and Temozarela. He first appears saving Lizzie from being hung as a witch, then subsequently hires her to help him find Isaac. He reveals to Lizzie how he knew her father. During Ivan's battle with Achmode, the group comes across Little Bosack ruined and inhabited by corpses. While Father Lucian stops to pray for the souls, every corpse comes alive and attacks them. Coburn protects the group with two guns and a whip.
Coburn tries to convince the mayor of Windtale that his city is in danger of an attack by Temozarela. His pleas are ignored, and Coburn leaves, remarking 'Either way, this town is doomed'. Coburn reappears when the village is surrounded by members of St. Vertinez who are about to attack. In the fight, he duels with Joshua. Joshua stabs him above the heart, but Coburn withdraws the sword and gives it back to Joshua, saying 'aim a bit higher.'
Lizzie
Lizzie is the leader of a gang of outlaws. The authorities catches her and places her on a train transporting her to be executed. After the gang massacres most of the train, they try to steal the cargo, but Ivan kills them. She witnesses Ivan's battle with Jarbilong. While watching, a zombie bites her. Jarbilong tried to make Lizzie his disciple, but dies before succeeding. After the battle, Ivan visits her and tells her he will kill her unless she commits suicide before the curse takes control. During her recovery, she asks Ivan for help, but he ignores her, saying 'Why do you ask me questions which God himself doesn't answer?' She cuts her long hair and recruits a mysterious clan to help her quest against Ivan.
Father Lucian
The Vatican assigned Father Lucian to Coburn as a religious assistant in his pursuit of Ivan and Temozarela. He is calm and collected, preferring pacifism to violence. When Lizzie catches the plague, he heals her temporarily with holy water and prayer. After they find Ivan Isaacs, he reveals to Coburn that Betheal Gavarre is controlling Ivan. Lucian later appears with Coburn and attempts to persuade the townsfolk of Windtale to allow federal government into their town. When the Order of St. Vertinez surrounds Windtale, Lucian warns the mayor of Windtale about the impending danger. He notices the hanging body of Netraphim and speculates the town is going to Hell.
Cairo
Cairo is an Indigenous American (possibly of the Apache tribe) traveling with Coburn. He is skilled with knives, and throws them with fatal accuracy. He is an expert tracker sent to locate Ivan Isaacs. Later, he attacks members of St. Vertinez after witnessing them murder a small child from an infected village. He continues fighting before Antione, a member of St. Vertinez, murders and dismembers him. Seeing this, Coburn renounces the Vatican, saying 'From now on, the cross will only be the sign of the enemy to me.'
The Fallen Angels
Temozarela
Temozarela is an arch-angel who fought on God's side in the war against Lucifer. This war caused God to lose faith in the angels and begin preferring humanity. A bitter Temozarela took twelve empathetic angels to Earth to prove that humans were more fallible than angels. He set up a cult that worshiped him through ritual sacrifice. This only angered God and he banished Temozarela to the earth, imprisoning him in a statue. Years later, a Knight Templar called Vascar de Guillon fought in the crusades and led fearsome armies. His wife contracted a plague, but the doctors and priests said she was possessed by the devil. As a remedy, they burned de Guillon's castle with his wife and children inside. He discovered a hidden cavern on his "crusades of blood" that imprisoned Temozarela and his disciples. Temozarela explained how he and Vascar were both betrayed by God. In his fury, he gives his body to Temozarela who releases his angels and uses them to possess the Vascar's knights.
100 years later, Temozarela tries to seduce Betheal, but Betheal resists and eventually imprisons both himself and Temozarela in the Domas Porada. Belial and his battle causes Temozarela's body to be horribly burned. His life is saved by four of his Dark Apostles: Netraphim, Jarbilong, Achmode, and Armand.
Temozarela's actions are sometimes contradictory, indicating a deeper wish for Ivan to continue on his pilgrimage. He gives non-lethal powers to Jarbilong and slays Achmode after he eats Ivan's arm. Belial tells Ivan that his quest for blood is Temozarela's bidding, but Ivan ignores him.
Jarbilong
Jarbilong is one of the twelve Angels who rebelled against God with Temozarela. He was present at Temozarela's release from the Domas Porada, but played little part in the battles with Belial. After this event he turns the townspeople of Saint Baldlas into zombies that attack Ivan. He has the 'gift' of merging his spirit with any of his disciples at will, giving him an inexhaustible supply of bodies. Ivan used Voodoo magic to damage all of Jarbilong's servants by attacking his soul instead of the angel's body. Wounded, the 11th Angel revealed his hideous true form. Jarbilong impales Ivan on one of his arms. Belial possesses Ivan and defeats Jarbilong, eventually impaling the angel on his own blades. In his final moments before dying, Jarbilong tells Ivan that Temozarela could destroy him if he wished, but the angel has plans for him.
Achmode
The second Fallen Angel to battle Ivan on his pilgrimage, Achmode fancies himself both an artist and a beast. After turning a village into mindless zombies, Achmode creates undead killers and winged monstrosities by mutilating the zombie bodies. His sacred site is Small Bosack.
Ivan is confronted by Achmode's latest modification, Christine, a child deformed into a hawk-like form. Achmode offers Ivan a glimpse of Christine's "dream", that retells the heretical angels' fall. When Ivan kills Christine with the Belial's help, Achmode is further enraged by insults about his 'glorious past' being little more than mindless instinct. Achmode decides to kill Ivan himself, despite Temozarela's orders to the contrary. In their battle, Ivan's best efforts to destroy Achmode fall short, and Belial demands that Ivan turn complete control of his body over to him. Ivan refuses. As Achmode is about to kill Ivan, Armandiel, Temozarela's lieutenant, intervenes. He accuses Achmode of betraying their lord and slays him, saying 'He does not resent your foolish yearning to enter heaven.' In a bizarre twist, Armandiel grants Ivan the severed arm of Achmode to replace his, saying that it will make him more than human and bolster his power.
Armand/Armandiel
He is possibly the most powerful of the Fallen Angels, especially considering his status of High Priest in Temozarela's Black Sabbath. He is part of the party that rescues a burnt Temozarela from the Domas Porada. He is depicted as a handsome young man with long, straight hair, dressed in 19th century formal wear. In his first appearance, he gives Jarbilong his orders and advises him on how to fight Ivan and Belial. He is later pleased with Jarbilong's defeat. He also is able to distract opponents with roses and the folds of his cape. Even though he is Ivan's ally against Achmode, he later wounds Ivan so badly that Belial is unable to heal him.
Netraphim
Another of the Fallen Angels, Netraphim resembles a young woman and is accompanied by a giant wolf named Bendo. Against Temozarela's orders, she protects the unfortunate in the valley of Windtale. Her alias is 'Nera.' In heaven, she tried to stop Temozarela from leaving heaven, and had her wings ripped off as punishment. She asked to be killed because she was torn between her love for God and her secret attraction to Temozarela. Her life was spared and she joined Temozarela's angels. While on Earth, she sees the young orphan Dana, and Netraphim decides to repent for her sins.
Armand delivers Temozarela's word to Bendo, saying that Netraphim's defiance will not be punished as long as she does not utter a single word of regret or remorse. If so, he will destroy her. When her "family" is killed, she allows the angry townspeople to hang her. Before she dies, Temozarela visits her and offers her a place by his side, provided she regrets her existence. She refuses and dies.
Unnamed Figure
This Unnamed Figure is seen during the events of Ivan's fall from grace. Once Gena had been murdered, and the Domas Porada opened, a man arrived swathed in bandages bearing a lantern and a staff tipped with the symbol 'II'. The staff secretes a fluid that releases the zombies. The dead eventually try to devour Gena before Ivan destroys them. After this, the figure's lantern shatters setting fire to the graveyard and the mansion. He walks away prophesying 'Ivan Isaacs, we will meet again one day.' As the 'II' symbol occupies a space on Temozarela's circle (seen often relating to the demise of Jarbilong and Archmode) it is possible this man is another Fallen Angel or servant of Temozarela.
The Order of St. Vertinez
The Vatican created the Order of St. Vertinez to handle what Coburn describes as 'the vatican's dirty laundry.' Their real name is 'Michael's Sword.' They have the authority to take matters into their own hands without the Pope's knowledge. They are harsh and judgmental, killing anyone who disagrees with them as a service to the Church. Only 4 members are named. Their uniform consists of a white hooded robe with some members wearing masks.
Father Raul Piestro
Father Piestro was the head priest of Saint Vertinez before Temozarel's release. In his first appearance, he visits Ivan about an essay he submitted on the ideology in the church. Piestro explains that he was part of the investigation into Ivan Isaac after he submitted his paper, revealing that his research findings are absolutely correct, but that he should stop further research to avoid punishment. He asks Ivan to help them solve The Domas Porada. After finding blood in one of the books, Ivan confronts Piestro. The head of St. Vertinez explains how he was visited by Temozarela in a dream and that he believes the archangel brought a new message from God. Afterwards, he kills Gena. When the Domas Porada is opened, Temozarela kills all the members of St. Vertinez, before killing Piestro and remarking, 'Did you not ask to be rid of sin or desire?'
Father Joshua
One of possible current leaders of St. Vertinez, Joshua was recruited by Father Raul Piestro in an asylum. The asylum was run by Doctor Gerard, who St. Vertinez commissioned to create a new super-soldier. Joshua was one of only 3 who survived the process. He increased membership in the Order to reinforce his army against the heretics. He first appears praying at a ruined shrine with another priest, Antoine. Later, he takes part in wiping out an entire village that was infected by Temozarela's plague with other priests. Joshua is indifferent when his comrades die, remarking only 'Presume them martyrs'.
Father Antoine
Another possible leader of St. Vertinez, this priest has a marine-style haircut and has a hook instead of a left hand. During the experiments with Dr. Gerard, the drugs deformed his left hand rendering it useless. He cut it off and replaced it with an artificial device that could attach various implements for his use. He was held in the same asylum as Joshua and Baston before Piestro recruited him. The asylum's experiments gave him super-regenerative capabilities. He first appears praying with Father Joshua, and helps him fight Cairo.
Brother Baston
Piestro recruited Baston from the same asylum as the others. He is the strongest of the surviving priests, surpassing all of the tests given to him by Doctor Gerard. From the experiments he gained heightened senses and super physical strength, presumably along with regeneration.
Volume list
The Graphic novels have been out of print since Tokyo Pop ceased business, however, now that they have resumed parts of business the books are available for digital download on amazon.com.
In other media
MMO game
A massively multiplayer online game based on the comic was in production by South Korean developer JC Entertainment back in 2003, but was later cancelled following being renamed Rust Online. Appropriately given the comic's inspiration, the game attempted to meld in elements of first-person shooters; combat was real time and aiming and movement directly controlled by the player. Successful attacks brought players more experience points. The game featured two factions: Heretics, who side with Temozarela, and Templars who are more aligned with Ivan Isaacs. Players were then further divided into four weapons classes (leader, fighter, distance weapon and mage), with both demonic and spiritual abilities. Set among 48 different environments in New Mexico (including ghost towns, mines and desserts), factions would fight for control of twelve "sacred sites" which provide bonuses to the possessing faction. The conflict to control each of the counties containing these sites formed the basis of the main faction vs. faction mode. Other modes included single player and player vs. player. JC Entertainment described the game as controversial, owing to its graphic violence and religious mysticism. The game received extensive previews from The Adrenaline Vault and IGN's RPG Vault.
Film adaptation
Priest is a 2011 action horror film loosely based on the manhwa, although the director claimed it was set in the comic's far future. It is directed by Scott Stewart and stars Paul Bettany as the title character. The film was released on , 2011, in 2D and 3D. A prequel comic, Priest: Purgatory, was begun in an attempt to bridge the original manwha with the movie, although it was never completed. Min Woo Hyung was largely supportive of the movie, praising the visuals, even if missing the comic's philosophical aspects.
Cultural influence
The progressive metal band Dream Theater's song "In the Presence of Enemies" features a storyline patterned after Priest's plot with lyrics directly quoting the official English translation of Volume 1. A character called Priest also appears in the brawler game Lost Saga by South Korean developer I.O. Entertainment. It has also been regularly cited as an example for manwha to Western audiences, as well as analysed for its religious content and cultural connections.
See also
Manhwa
Blood, the primary influence on Priest
Science fiction Western
"In the Presence of Enemies", a song by progressive metal band Dream Theater about Priest Volume 1.
Notes
External links
Tokyopop's Priest Section
Action-adventure comics
Horror comics
Western (genre) comics
Daewon C.I. titles
Tokyopop titles
1998 comics debuts
Fictional vampire hunters
Manhwa adapted into films
Vampires in comics | [
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222024 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zack%20de%20la%20Rocha | Zack de la Rocha | Zacarías Manuel de la Rocha (born January 12, 1970) is an American musician, singer, songwriter, rapper, and activist. He is best known as the vocalist and lyricist of rock band Rage Against the Machine. Through both Rage Against the Machine and his activism, de la Rocha promotes left-wing politics in opposition to corporate America, the military-industrial complex and government oppression.
Early life
Zacarías Manuel de la Rocha was born in Long Beach, California, on January 12, 1970, to Robert "Beto" de la Rocha, and Olivia Lorryne Carter. His father is a Mexican-American, with some African and Sephardi Jewish heritage, while his mother was born to Manuel García Urias, a Mexican-American, and Olive Pearl Fleming, who was of German and Irish heritage. Beto was a muralist and a member of Los Four, the first Chicano art collective to be exhibited at a museum (LACMA, 1973). De la Rocha's paternal grandfather, Isaac de la Rocha Beltrán (19101985), was a Mexican revolutionary who fought in the Mexican Revolution and worked as an agricultural laborer in the U.S. De la Rocha would later see the hardships his grandfather endured reflected in the struggles of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation.
De la Rocha's parents divorced when he was six years old, and he moved from East Los Angeles to Irvine with his mother, who attended the University of California at Irvine and ultimately earned a PhD in anthropology. De la Rocha later described Irvine as "one of the most racist cities imaginable" and said that "if you were a Mexican in Irvine, you were there because you had a broom or a hammer in your hand."
Musical career
Early career
De la Rocha met Tim Commerford in elementary school, and in junior high school, they both played guitar in a band called Juvenile Expression. De la Rocha's interest in punk rock bands like The Clash, The Misfits, Sex Pistols, and Bad Religion turned into an appreciation for other bands like Minor Threat, Bad Brains, and The Teen Idles. In 1987, he joined the straight edge band Hard Stance. In 2018, Indecision Records officially released Hard Stance's entire discography.
Inside Out
By 1988, singer Eric Ernst had departed from Hard Stance, leading to Rocha taking on the role of lead vocals. Now lacking a guitarist, the remaining members contacted Vic DiCara, whom some knew from a previous band they were in that never made it past rehearsals. This act, now named Inside Out, began writing music heavily inspired by acts like Minor Threat and the Bad Brains, and soon were associated with the youth crew movement. Their sole release was the 1990 EP No Spiritual Surrender, issued through Revelation Records.
Towards the end of the band's lifetime, DiCara and Rocha's writing styles began to fracture. Rocha wished to push the groups into a more political and hip hop-inspired direction, particularly influenced by Run-DMC, whereas DiCara wished for the band to write more music inspired by Hare Krishna. While Rocha's influence was prevalent on performed yet unreleased Inside Out tracks like Darkness of Greed and Rage Against the Machine, the band broke up because of this conflict in 1991. De la Rocha later said that the band was "about completely detaching ourselves from society to see ourselves as ... as spirits, and not bowing down to a system that sees you as just another pebble on a beach. I channeled all my anger out through that band."
The band had a brief reunion in 1993, performing in a number of locations including multiple in Salt Lake City.
Rage Against the Machine
Following the dissolution of Inside Out in 1991, de la Rocha embraced hip hop and began freestyling at local clubs, at one of which he was approached by former Lock Up guitarist Tom Morello, who was impressed by de la Rocha's lyrics, and convinced him to form a band. Morello recruited former Greta drummer Brad Wilk–who had previously auditioned for Lock Up before that band's dissolution earlier that same year–and de la Rocha recruited his former Juvenile Expression bandmate, Tim Commerford, to play bass. The band was named after an unreleased Inside Out record, Rage Against the Machine.
Rage Against the Machine released their debut album in 1992 to critical and commercial success. The band was on the main stage at Lollapalooza by 1993 and was one of the most politically charged bands ever to receive extensive airplay from radio and MTV. Rage's second and third albums peaked at number one in the United States, but did not result in the political action de la Rocha had hoped for. He became increasingly restless and undertook collaborations with artists such as KRS-One, Chuck D, and Public Enemy. He left Rage Against the Machine in October 2000, citing "creative differences," at which time he issued a statement saying: "it was necessary to leave Rage because our decision-making process has completely failed", in reference to the disagreement over the release of Renegades. The other members of the band sought out separate management and secured the immediate release of Renegades. After searching for a replacement for de la Rocha, the other members of Rage joined Chris Cornell of Soundgarden to form Audioslave.
Solo career
Following the disbandment of Rage Against the Machine, de la Rocha worked on a solo album he had been recording since before the band's dissolution, working with DJ Shadow, El-P, Muggs, Dan The Automator, Roni Size, DJ Premier and Questlove with production partner James Poyser. The album never came to fruition, and de la Rocha started a new collaboration with Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails, in which around 20 tracks were produced. Reznor thought the work was "excellent", but said the songs will likely never be released as de la Rocha was not "ready to make a record" at that time.
On working with DJ Shadow and Reznor, de la Rocha admitted in a 2008 interview that:
In 2000, de la Rocha appeared on the song "Centre of the Storm", from the Roni Size/Reprazent album In The Mode, while in 2002, he appeared in a minor role in the first part of the Blackalicious song "Release" on the album Blazing Arrow. A new collaboration between de la Rocha and DJ Shadow, the song "March of Death" was released for free online in 2003 in protest against the imminent invasion of Iraq. As part of the collaboration de la Rocha released a statement which included the following:
The 2004 soundtrack Songs and Artists that Inspired Fahrenheit 9/11 included one of the collaborations with Reznor, "We Want It All". This album also contained "No One Left", the debut recording by former Rage Against the Machine guitarist Tom Morello as The Nightwatchman. On October 7, 2005, de la Rocha returned to the stage with new material, performing with Son Jarocho band Son de Madera. He later spoke as MC and again performed with Son de Madera at the November 22 Concert at the Farm, a benefit concert for the South Central Farmers. He sang and played the jarana with the band, and performed his own new original material, including the song "Sea of Dead Hands".
On September 8, 2016, it was reported that de la Rocha's first solo album was complete and would be released in early 2017. The news came with a new song, produced by El-P, called "Digging for Windows" that was released on YouTube and BitTorrent. However, to date, the album remains unreleased with no further announcements made.
Rage Against the Machine reunion
Rumors that Rage Against the Machine could reunite at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival were circulating in mid-January 2007 and were confirmed on January 22. The band was confirmed to be headlining the final day of Coachella 2007. Rage Against the Machine, as a full band, headlined the final day of the 2007 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival on April 29. The band played in front of a Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) backdrop to the largest crowds of the festival. The performance was initially thought to be a one-off, but this turned out not to be the case. The band played 7 more shows in the United States in 2007, and in January 2008, they played their first shows outside the US as part of the Big Day Out Festival in Australia and New Zealand. The band continued to tour around the world, headlining many large festivals in Europe and the United States, including Lollapalooza in Chicago and the Reading and Leeds Festivals. In a 2008 interview, de la Rocha said this of the relationship between him, Commerford, Wilk and Morello:
Later in 2011, de la Rocha and the rest of Rage Against the Machine reunited for one final show, headlining, LA Rising July 30, 2011. The show filled the LA Coliseum.
A second reunion tour was announced for the spring of 2020. The band was scheduled to perform 52 shows (39 in the United States, 5 in Canada, and 8 in Europe) from March 26 to September 12 but were forced to postpone the tour until 2022 amid the COVID-19 pandemic.
One Day as a Lion
In 2008, de la Rocha and former Mars Volta drummer Jon Theodore formed One Day as a Lion. They later added Joey Karam of The Locust on keyboards for their live shows. The group combines rock drumming, electro keyboards, and hip-hop vocals. De la Rocha played keyboards as well as providing vocals, with Theodore on the drums for their self-titled EP. The band's name derives from a black and white graffiti photograph taken by Chicano photographer George Rodriguez in 1970 with a caption reading: "It's better to live one day as a lion, than a thousand years as a lamb". This comes from a minatory slogan popular during the 1930s in Fascist Italy, "Better one day as a lion than a hundred days as a sheep." They released their debut EP, One Day as a Lion, on July 22, 2008.
Other projects
For a brief period in 1988, Rocha played drums for hardcore punk band No For An Answer, even playing on their debut EP You Laugh.
In 1989, Rocha formed Farside, playing guitar in the group until 1991.
In 1991, Rocha formed a band with John Porcelly based at the Revelation Records headquarters in Huntington Beach, California, in which Rocha was the vocalist and Porcelly played guitar. Although the group never officially had a name, at one point in time, Rocha proposed the name "Rage Against the Machine", however Porcelly believed the name to be too long, leading to Rocha using it as the name for his other band at the time. The band's music merged elements of hardcore punk and hip hop.
Activism
De la Rocha advocates in favor of Leonard Peltier, Mumia Abu-Jamal, and the Zapatista (EZLN) movement in Mexico. He spoke on the floor of the UN, testifying against the United States and its treatment of Abu-Jamal. De la Rocha has been particularly outspoken on the cause of the EZLN. De la Rocha and Rage Against The Machine hosted a benefit show in January 1999 alongside the Beastie Boys to raise attention towards Abu-Jamal's case. The concert was marred in controversy as New Jersey Governor Christine Todd Whitman denounced the show and encouraged people not to attend; the show ultimately sold out.
Zack's Chicano identity informed his band's commitment to what they view as the struggles of immigrants, people of color, and the Zapatistas. He renamed the People's Resource Center in Highland Park to the "Centro de Regeneracion". There, many of the same artists and activists who had participated in the struggle over the Peace and Justice Center maintained their commitment to providing youth a space for cultural expression and training. Along with music workshops and the development of Radio Clandestina, Centro members also organized graffiti workshops and youth film festivals. The Centro lasted only two years; within that timespan it was viewed by its members and staff as an important space in the ongoing institutionalization of the community politics, cultural practices, and social networks of the Eastside scene in the nineties.
The EZLN and de la Rocha's experiences with them inspired the songs "People of the Sun", "Wind Below" and "Without a Face" from Evil Empire, and "War Within a Breath" from The Battle of Los Angeles. Zack de la Rocha asked their record label, Epic Records, for $30,000 to donate to the EZLN. It is not known if they complied. The EZLN flag has been used as a stage backdrop at all of the band's shows since their reunion in April 2007. On his post-Rage political music, de la Rocha admitted that it was near impossible for him to draw the line between politics and music.
On April 14, 2007, Morello and de la Rocha reunited on-stage early to perform a brief acoustic set at House of Blues in Chicago at the rally for fair food with the Coalition of Immokalee Workers (CIW). Morello described the event as "very exciting for everybody in the room, myself included". At Rage's first reunion show, de la Rocha made a speech during "Wake Up" in which de la Rocha called numerous American presidents war criminals, citing a statement by Noam Chomsky regarding the Nuremberg Principles.
Like bandmate Tom Morello, Zack de la Rocha is vegetarian. In an interview, he stated "I think vegetarianism is really great, and I stand really strongly behind it. I think that an animal goes through a lot of pain in the whole cycle of death in the slaughterhouse; just living to be killed. I just don’t think it’s worth eating that animal. There’s so much other food out there that doesn’t have to involve you in that cycle of pain and death."
Discography
Hard Stance
De la Rocha played guitar on the following albums:
Face Reality (EP) 7" (1988)
Hard Stance (EP) 7" (1989)
Inside Out
De la Rocha credited for vocals:
No Spiritual Surrender (1990)
Benefit 7" (live bootleg recording with Youth of Today) (1992)
Rage Against the Machine
De la Rocha credited for vocals:
Rage Against the Machine (1992)
Evil Empire (1996)
Live & Rare (1998)
The Battle of Los Angeles (1999)
Renegades (2000)
Live at the Grand Olympic Auditorium (2003)
One Day as a Lion
De la Rocha credited for vocals and keyboards:
One Day as a Lion (2008)
Solo and collaborations
"Mumia 911" from Mumia 911, a benefit EP also featuring a dozen hiphop artists collectively known as The Unbound Allstars (1999)
"C.I.A. (Criminals in Action)" with KRS-One and The Last Emperor, from Lyricist Lounge, Volume One compilation and remixed on 12" vinyl single (reissued in 2002), (1999)
"Burned Hollywood Burned" from Bamboozled soundtrack (2000) with Chuck D and The Roots
"Centre of the Storm" from In the Møde, Roni Size/Reprazent (2000)
"Release" from Blazing Arrow, Blackalicious (2002)
"Disavowed" from You Can't Go Home Again (The Private Press era), DJ Shadow (additional drums and co-production) (2002)
"March of Death" with DJ Shadow, free on marchofdeath.com (2003)
"We Want It All" produced by Trent Reznor, from Songs and Artists That Inspired Fahrenheit 9/11 and digital single (2004)
"Act III Scene 2 (Shakespeare)" from Saul Williams, Saul Williams (2004)
"Artifact" with DJ Shadow, unreleased, recorded circa 2002–2003; the instrumental appeared on DJ Shadow's album The Outsider (2006)
"Somos Más Americanos" from "MTV Unplugged presents: Los Tigres del Norte And Friends" Los Tigres del Norte (2011)
"Melding of the Minds" from Event II, Deltron 3030 (2013)
"Close Your Eyes (And Count to Fuck)" from Run the Jewels 2 (2014)
"Digging for Windows" produced by El-P (2016)
"A Report To The Shareholders / Kill Your Masters" from Run the Jewels 3 (2016)
"Ju$t" from Run the Jewels 4 (2020).
References
Notes
External links
marchofdeath.com (archived, incl. mp3 download)
Official Rage Against the Machine Website
1970 births
American people of German descent
American people of Irish descent
American people of Spanish-Jewish descent
American musicians of Mexican descent
American anti-war activists
American heavy metal singers
American human rights activists
American lyricists
American male rappers
American male singer-songwriters
American punk rock singers
American rock songwriters
American socialists
American agnostics
Anti-corporate activists
California socialists
Grammy Award winners
Hispanic and Latino American musicians
Musicians from Long Beach, California
People from Irvine, California
Writers from Long Beach, California
Rage Against the Machine members
Rap metal musicians
American punk rock musicians
Alternative metal singers
Nu metal singers
20th-century American singers
21st-century American singers
Activists from California
Living people
American anti-fascists
One Day as a Lion members
Singer-songwriters from California | [
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222030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2 | ISO 3166-2 | ISO 3166-2 is part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), and defines codes for identifying the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1. The official name of the standard is Codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions – Part 2: Country subdivision code. It was first published in 1998.
The purpose of ISO 3166-2 is to establish an international standard of short and unique alphanumeric codes to represent the relevant administrative divisions and dependent territories of all countries in a more convenient and less ambiguous form than their full names. Each complete ISO 3166-2 code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen:
The first part is the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of the country;
The second part is a string of up to three alphanumeric characters, which is usually obtained from national sources and stems from coding systems already in use in the country concerned, but may also be developed by the ISO itself.
Each complete ISO 3166-2 code can then be used to uniquely identify a country subdivision in a global context.
there are 5,047 codes defined in ISO 3166-2. For some countries, codes are defined for more than one level of subdivisions.
Current codes
The following table can be used to access the current ISO 3166-2 codes of each country, and comprises three columns:
Entry: ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code, click to view the ISO 3166-2 codes of the country
Country name: English short name officially used by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA)
Subdivisions assigned codes: Number and category of subdivisions assigned codes in ISO 3166-2; if there are more than one level of subdivisions, the first-level subdivisions are shown in italics
Subdivisions included in ISO 3166-1
For the following countries, a number of their subdivisions in ISO 3166-2, most of them dependent territories, are also officially assigned their own country codes in ISO 3166-1:
Notes
Format
The format of the ISO 3166-2 codes is different for each country. The codes may be alphabetic, numeric, or alphanumeric, and they may also be of constant or variable length. The following is a table of the ISO 3166-2 codes of each country (those with codes defined), grouped by their format:
Changes
The ISO 3166/MA updates ISO 3166-2 when necessary. Changes in ISO 3166-2 consist mostly of spelling corrections, addition and deletion of subdivisions, and modification of the administrative structure.
ISO used to announce changes in newsletters which updated the currently valid standard, and releasing new editions which comprise a consolidation of newsletter changes. As of July 2013, changes are published in the online catalogue of ISO only and no newsletters are published anymore. Past newsletters remain available on the ISO website.
See also
International Organization for Standardization
ISO 3166
ISO 3166-1
ISO 3166-2
ISO 3166-3
List of ISO 3166 country codes
Lists of countries and territories
Sovereign state
List of sovereign states
List of states with limited recognition
Dependent territory
United Nations
Member states of the United Nations
United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories
geocode
References
External links
ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency, International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
Country codes—Online Browsing Platform
Other lists of ISO 3166-2 codes (not necessarily up to date)
Many of the lists below are based on outdated versions of ISO 3166-2 codes. The latest version may be obtained from the ISO 3166/MA.
List of Countries with ISO 2 Digit codes—DataHub Core Data
Country sub-entity name code, GEFEG.FX
.
Country subdivision codes
2
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222031 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forsythia | Forsythia | Forsythia , is a genus of flowering plants in the olive family Oleaceae. There are about 11 species, mostly native to eastern Asia, but one native to southeastern Europe. Forsythia – also one of the plant's common names – is named after William Forsyth.
Description
Forsythia are deciduous shrubs typically growing to a height of and, rarely, up to with rough grey-brown bark. The leaves are borne oppositely and are usually simple, though sometimes trifoliate with a basal pair of small leaflets; they range between in length and, rarely, up to , with a margin that is serrated or entire (smooth). Twigs may be hollow or chambered, depending on the species.
The flowers are produced in the early spring before the leaves, bright yellow with a deeply four-lobed flower, the petals joined only at the base. These become pendent in rainy weather thus shielding the reproductive parts.
The fruit is a dry capsule, containing several winged seeds.
There is a long-standing belief that forsythia flowers produce lactose, but lactose occurs only very rarely in natural sources other than milk, and attempts to find lactose in forsythia have been unsuccessful.
The genus is named after William Forsyth (1737–1804), a Scottish botanist who was a royal head gardener and a founding member of the Royal Horticultural Society.
Species
The following species of Forsythia have been documented:
Forsythia europaea Degen & Bald. – Balkans in Albania and Serbia
Forsythia giraldiana Lingelsh. – northwest China
Forsythia × intermedia Zabel – an artificial garden hybrid between F. suspensa and F. viridissima
Forsythia japonica Makino – Japan
Forsythia koreana (Rehder) Nakai – Korea
Forsythia likiangensis Ching & K.M.Feng – southwest China
Forsythia × mandschurica Uyeki – northeast China
Forsythia mira M.C.Chang – north central China
Forsythia ovata Nakai – Korea
Forsythia saxatilis (Nakai) Nakai – Korea
Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl – eastern and central China
Forsythia togashii H.Hara – Japan (Shōdoshima)
Forsythia velutina Nakai – Korea
Forsythia viridissima Lindl. – eastern China
A genetic study does not fully match the traditionally accepted species listed above, and groups the species in four clades: (1) F. suspensa; (2) F. europaea—F. giraldiana; (3) F. ovata—F. japonica—F. viridissima; and (4) F. koreana—F. mandschurica—F. saxatilis. Of the additional species, F. koreana is usually cited as a variety of F. viridissima, and F. saxatilis as a variety of F. japonica; the genetic evidence suggests they may be better treated as distinct species.
Forsythias are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including the brown-tail and Gothic moth.
Garden history
Two species of forsythia are at the heart of the selected forms and garden hybrids: Forsythia suspensa and F. viridissima. "These two species are, as it were, the founder-members of the forsythia family" writes Alice Coats; they were the earliest species brought into Western gardens from the Far East and they have each played a role in the modern garden shrubs.
Forsythia suspensa, the first to be noticed by a Westerner, was seen in a Japanese garden by the botanist-surgeon Carl Peter Thunberg, who included it (as a lilac) in his Flora Japonica 1784. Thunberg's professional connections lay with the Dutch East India Company, and F. suspensa reached Holland first, by 1833. In England, when it was being offered by Veitch Nurseries in Exeter at mid-century, it was still considered a rarity. Not all the varieties of suspensa are splaying and drooping, best seen hanging over a retaining wall; an erect form found by Fortune near Peking in 1861 was for a time classed as a species—F. fortunei.
Forsythia viridissma, meanwhile, had overtaken it in European gardens. The Scottish plant-hunter Robert Fortune "discovered" it—in a mandarin garden of the coastal city of Chusan (Zhoushan)—before he ever saw it growing wild in the mountains in Zhejiang province.
Forsythia × intermedia, as its name suggests, is a hybrid of F. suspensa and F. viridissima, introduced in continental Europe about 1880. Repeated crosses of the same two parents have made reiterations of F. × intermedia quite variable. A bud sport of a particularly showy (spectabilis) form is widely marketed as F. × intermedia 'Lynwood Variety'. This cultivar has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit, as have F. × intermedia 'Courtalyn' and F. 'Courtasol'.
About the time of the First World War further species were discovered by plant hunters in China: F. giraldian (found in Gansu, 1910) and F. ovata (collected from seed in Korea by E.H. "Chinese" Wilson) have been particularly useful as seed parents in 20th-century American crosses.
Cultivation and uses
Forsythias are popular early spring flowering shrubs in gardens and parks, especially during Eastertide; Forsythias are nicknamed the Easter Tree, the symbol of the coming spring. Two are commonly cultivated for ornament, Forsythia × intermedia and Forsythia suspensa. They are both spring flowering shrubs, with yellow flowers. They are grown and prized for being tough, reliable garden plants. Forsythia × intermedia is the more commonly grown, is smaller, has an upright habit, and produces strongly coloured flowers. Forsythia suspensa is a large to very large shrub, can be grown as a weeping shrub on banks, and has paler flowers. Many named garden cultivars can also be found. Forsythia is frequently kept indoors in the early spring.
Commercial propagation is usually by cuttings, taken from green wood after flowering in late spring to early summer; alternatively, cuttings may be taken between November and February. Low hanging boughs often take root, and can be removed for transplanting. A common practice (known as layering) is to place a weight over a branch to keep it on the ground and, after it has rooted, to dig up the roots and cut the rooted part from the main branch; this can then be planted.
Forsythia suspensa is considered one of the 50 fundamental herbs in Chinese herbology. Forsythia sticks are used to bow a Korean string instrument called ajaeng.
In popular culture
In the 2011 film Contagion, Forsythia is used as a conspiracy theorist's supposed "cure", causing pharmacies to be over-run.
Common names
In some regions, the plant may be known as Easter tree and the flowers as yellow bells.
Gallery
References
External links
BBC – Forsythia page
Forsythia viridissima Vanderbilt University – Forsythia page
Forsythieae
Oleaceae genera
Plants used in bonsai
Taxa named by Martin Vahl | [
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222032 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opalinidae | Opalinidae | The opalines are a small group of peculiar heterokonts, currently assigned to the family Opalinidae, in the order Slopalinida. Their name is derived from the opalescent appearance of these microscopic organisms when illuminated with full sunlight. Most opalines live as endocommensals in the large intestine and cloaca of anurans (frogs and toads), though they are sometimes found in fish, reptiles, molluscs and insects. The unusual features of the opalines, first observed by Antoine van Leeuwenhoek in 1683, has led to much debate regarding their phylogenetic position among the protists.
Taxonomy and phylogeny
The relationship between opalines and other protists has been a subject of great controversy since the late 19th century, and is not completely resolved at present. Initially, microscopists believed that the thousands of rhythmically beating hair-like structures which cover their surface were cilia, and they placed the opalines in Ciliophora. In the early 20th century other aspects of opaline biology clearly differentiated them from the ciliates and they were placed in Sarcomastigophora, with the amoebae and flagellates. In the 1980s, detailed ultrastructural studies of Opalina ranarum revealed that they share many features with the heterokonts of the family Proteromonadidae. A new order—Slopalinida Patterson 1985—was proposed to include the members of the families Proteromonadidae Grassé 1952 and Opalinidae Claus 1874. In 2004, the first reliable opaline genetic sequence data supported the monophyletic nature of the order Slopalinida. The authors of that study considered the opalines to be a family (Opalinidae) within the order Slopalinida.
There are currently about 200 recognized species of opalines in 5 genera: Opalina Purkinje and Valentin 1835, Protoopalina Metcalf 1918, Cepedea Metcalf 1920, Zelleriella Metcalf 1920, and Protozelleriella Delvinquier et al. 1991. Two additional genera, Hegneriella Earl 1971 and Bezzenbergeria Earl 1973, have not been considered as valid by subsequent authors (p. 249) The 5 recognized genera differ in terms of the number of nuclei, the appearance and location of the falx (two short, sickle-shaped rows of flagella), and whether the long rows of flagella (called "kineties") cover the body evenly or if there is a "bald spot". Due to the differences in body shape among the different life cycle stages within a species, the use of overall body shape - whether flat or cylindrical - to differentiate the genera has been de-emphasized.
Life cycle
Like many parasites, the life cycle of opalines is rather complex . The most comprehensive study published so far concluded that the life cycles of 10 Opalina species, 1 Zelleriella species and 1 Protoopalina species are all "remarkably similar" (p. 321). A more recent study found that Cepedea couillardi fits the standard opaline life cycle model described below, while that of Opalina proteus is completed entirely in the tadpole stage of the host. Very little is known about the life cycles of opalines in fish, reptile or arthropod hosts.
Asexual phase in adult anuran host. The basic opaline life cycle begins with the large, multinucleate trophonts in the adult anuran cloaca. Through much of the year, the trophonts grow and divide continually to yield more trophonts. Nuclear divisions maintain the appropriate number of nuclei during this phase. As the host's breeding season approaches, the trophonts enter a phase known as palintomy — a series of cell divisions with little or no overall growth or nuclear divisions. The resulting opalines, which become gradually smaller with fewer nuclei per individual, are called tomonts. At some point the small tomonts undergo encystment, and the cysts are released into the environment (i.e. the breeding pool of the anuran host) along with the feces.
Sexual and asexual phases in larval anuran host. Once cysts are eaten by foraging tadpoles, they excyst (hatch) to yield gamonts. The gamonts divide further, including a meiotic division, to yield haploid gametes. Each gamete has only one nucleus and may be either a microgamete or a macrogamete. Conjugation occurs between one microgamete and one macrogamate, to yield a diploid zygocyst with one nucleus. The zygocyst has two possible fates. It may be shed along with the feces of the tadpole host; and if eaten by another tadpole, it will excyst (hatch) to yield more gamonts in the new host. Alternatively, the zygocyst may excyst in its original host and grow into a multinucleate protrophont. In this case, the protrophont grows into a trophont and the whole cycle starts over again. The cycle from protrophont to cyst may occur in either the tadpole or adult hosts. Some evidence suggests that the life cycle transitions of opalines may be governed by the hormonal cycles of the host.
Hosts and commensal lifestyle
Lacking a mouth, opalines feed by taking in nutrients from their surroundings by pinocytosis. While the opalines are often referred to as "parasites", two lines of evidence suggest that they are actually commensals which do no harm to their anuran hosts.
They are found almost exclusively in the large intestine and cloaca. Since the anuran absorbs the nutrients from its food in the small intestine, the opalines are probably not depriving their hosts of nutrients. It is believed that the opalines are simply living off the "left-over" nutrients in the feces, possibly supplemented by the biochemical contributions of the rich bacterial flora which also reside there.
Anuran hosts containing many thousands of opalines appear to be completely healthy, with no obvious irritation or other pathological signs on their intestinal or cloacal walls.
Only about a dozen reports of opalines in fishes have been published, and even fewer on opalines from reptile or salamander hosts. Their scarcity outside of anuran hosts had led many to speculate that the others are just incidental infestations—maybe the infested snake had just eaten an infested frog, for example. However, opalines have been found in saltwater fish which have no access to anurans. Also, the populations of opalines in fish hosts are often very high, suggesting that they are probably reproducing in the fish host.
The pathogenicity (if any) of opalines in fish hosts is not yet known. One study found no irritation or other pathological signs on the rectal epithelium of Symphysodon aequifasciata infested with Protoopalina symphysodonis, but stated that "most infected animals died".
In vitro culture of opalines
Successful culturing of opalines in artificial media for periods of 1 month or more has been reported. This technique will aid tremendously in future studies of all aspects of opaline biology.
References
Heterokont families
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222034 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20software | Social software | Social software, also known as social apps, include communication and interactive tools often based on the Internet. Communication tools typically handle the capturing, storing and presentation of communication, usually written but increasingly including audio and video as well. Interactive tools handle mediated interactions between a pair or group of users. They focus on establishing and maintaining a connection among users, facilitating the mechanics of conversation and talk. Social software generally refers to software that makes collaborative behaviour, the organisation and moulding of communities, self-expression, social interaction and feedback possible for individuals. Another element of the existing definition of social software is that it allows for the structured mediation of opinion between people, in a centralized or self-regulating manner. The most improved area for social software is that Web 2.0 applications can all promote cooperation between people and the creation of online communities more than ever before.
Types
Instant messaging
An instant messaging application or client allows one to communicate with another person over a network in real time, in relative privacy. One can add friends to a contact or buddy list by entering the person's email address or messenger ID. If the person is online, their name will typically be listed as available for chat. Clicking on their name will activate a chat window with space to write to the other person, as well as read their reply.
Text chat
Internet Relay Chat (IRC) and other online chat technologies allow users to join and communicate with many people at once, publicly. Users may join a pre-existing chat room or create a new one about any topic. Once inside, you may type messages that everyone else in the room can read, as well as respond to/from others. Often there is a steady stream of people entering and leaving. Whether you are in another person's chat room or one you've created yourself, you are generally free to invite others online to join you in that room.
Collaborative software
The goal of collaborative software, also known as groupware, such as Moodle, Landing pages, Enterprise Architecture, and Sharepoint, is to allow subjects to share data – such as files, photos, text, etc. for the purpose of project work or school work. The intent is to first form a group and then have them collaborate. Clay Shirky defines social software as "software that supports group interaction". Since groupware supports group interaction (once the group is formed), it would consider it to be social software.
Internet forums
Originally modeled after the real-world paradigm of electronic bulletin boards of the world before internet was widely available, internet forums allow users to post a "topic" for others to review. Other users can view the topic and post their own comments in a linear fashion, one after the other. Most forums are public, allowing anybody to sign up at any time. A few are private, gated communities where new members must pay a small fee to join.
Forums can contain many different categories in a hierarchy, typically organized according to topics and subtopics. Other features include the ability to post images or files or to quote another user's post with special formatting in one's own post. Forums often grow in popularity until they can boast several thousand members posting replies to tens of thousands of topics continuously.
There are various standards and claimants for the market leaders of each software category. Various add-ons may be available, including translation and spelling correction software, depending on the expertise of the operators of the bulletin board. In some industry areas, the bulletin board has its own commercially successful achievements: free and paid hardcopy magazines as well as professional and amateur sites.
Current successful services have combined new tools with the older newsgroup and mailing list paradigm to produce hybrids. Also as a service catches on, it tends to adopt characteristics and tools of other services that compete. Over time, for example, wiki user pages have become social portals for individual users and may be used in place of other portal applications.
Wikis
In the past, web pages were only created and edited by web designers that had the technological skills to do so. Currently there are many tools that can assist individuals with web content editing. Wikis allow novices to be on the same level as experienced web designers because wikis provide easy rules and guidelines. Wikis allow all individuals to work collaboratively on web content without having knowledge of any markup languages. A wiki is made up of many content pages that are created by its users. Wiki users are able to create, edit, and link related content pages together. The user community is based on the individuals that want to participate to improve the overall wiki. Participating users are in a democratic community where any user can edit any other user's work.
Blogs
Blogs, short for web logs, are like online journals for a particular person. The owner will post a message periodically, allowing others to comment. Topics often include the owner's daily life, views on politics or a particular subject important to them.
Blogs mean many things to different people, ranging from "online journal" to "easily updated personal website." While these definitions are technically correct, they fail to capture the power of blogs as social software. Beyond being a simple homepage or an online diary, some blogs allow comments on the entries, thereby creating a discussion forum. They also have blogrolls (i.e. links to other blogs which the owner reads or admires) and indicate their social relationship to those other bloggers using the XFN social relationship standard. Pingback and trackback allow one blog to notify another blog, creating an inter-blog conversation. Blogs engage readers and can build a virtual community around a particular person or interest.Blogging has also become fashionable in business settings by companies who use enterprise social software.
Collaborative real-time editors
Simultaneous editing of a text or media file by different participants on a network was first demonstrated on research systems as early as the 1970s, but is now practical on a global network. Collaborative real-time editing is now utilized, for example, in film editing and in cloud-based office applications.
Prediction markets
Many prediction market tools have become available (including some free software) that make it easy to predict and bet on future events. This software allows a more formal version of social interaction, although it qualifies as a robust type of social software.
Social network services
Social network services allow people to come together online around shared interests, hobbies or causes. For example, some sites provide meeting organization facilities for people who practice the same sports. Other services enable business networking and social event meetup.
Some large wikis have effectively become social network services by encouraging user pages and portals.
Social network search engines
Social network search engines are a class of search engines that use social networks to organize, prioritize or filter search results. There are two subclasses of social network search engines: those that use explicit social networks and those that use implicit social networks.
Explicit social network search engines allow people to find each other according to explicitly stated social relationships. XHTML Friends Network allows people to share their relationships on their own sites, thus forming a decentralized/distributed online social network, in contrast to centralized social network services listed in the previous section.
Implicit social network search engines allow people to filter search results based upon classes of social networks they trust, such as a shared political viewpoint. This was called an epistemic filter in the 1993 "State of the Future Report" from the American Committee for the United Nations University which predicted that this would become the dominant means of search for most users.
Lacking trustworthy explicit information about such viewpoints, this type of social network search engine mines the web to infer the topology of online social networks. For example, the NewsTrove search engine infers social networks from content - sites, blogs, pods and feeds - by examining, among other things, subject matter, link relationships and grammatical features to infer social networks.
Deliberative social networks
Deliberative social networks are webs of discussion and debate for decision-making purposes. They are built for the purpose of establishing sustained relationships between individuals and their government. They rely upon informed opinion and advice that is given with a clear expectation of outcomes.
Commercial social networks
Commercial social networks are designed to support business transaction and to build a trust between an individual and a brand, which relies on opinion of product, ideas to make the product better, enabling customers to participate with the brands in promoting development, service delivery and a better customer experience.
Social guides
A social guide recommending places to visit or contains information about places in the real world, such as coffee shops, restaurants and wifi hotspots, etc.
Social bookmarking
Some web sites allow users to post their list of bookmarks or favorite websites for others to search and view them. These sites can also be used to meet others through sharing common interests. Additionally, many social bookmarking sites allow users to browse through websites and content shared by other users based on popularity or category. As such, use of social bookmarking sites is an effective tool for search engine optimization and social media optimization for webmasters.
Enterprise bookmarking is a method of tagging and linking any information using an expanded set of tags to capture knowledge about data. It collects and indexes these tags in a web-infrastructure server residing behind the firewall. Users can share knowledge tags with specified people or groups, shared only inside specific networks, typically within an organization.
Social viewing
Social viewing allows multiple users to aggregate from multiple sources and view online videos together in a synchronized viewing experience.
Social cataloging
In social cataloging much like social bookmarking, this software is aimed towards academics. It allows the user to post a citation for an article found on the internet or a website, online database like Academic Search Premier or LexisNexis Academic University, a book found in a library catalog and so on. These citations can be organized into predefined categories or a new category defined by the user through the use of tags. This method allows academics researching or interested in similar areas to connect and share resources.
Social libraries
This applications allows visitors to keep track of their collectibles, books, records and DVDs. Users can share their collections. Recommendations can be generated based on user ratings, using statistical computation and network theory. Some sites offer a buddy system, as well as virtual "check outs" of items for borrowing among friends. Folksonomy or tagging is implemented on most of these sites.
Social online storage
Social online storage applications allow their users to collaboratively create file archives containing files of any type. Files can either be edited online or from a local computer, which has access to the storage system. Such systems can be built upon existing server infrastructure or leverage idle resources by applying P2P technology. Such systems are social because they allow public file distribution and direct file sharing with friends.
Social network analysis
Social network analysis tools analyze the data connection graphs within social networks, and information flow across those networks, to identify groups (such as cliques or key influencers) and trends. They fall into two categories: professional research tools, such as Mathematica, used by social scientists and statisticians, and consumer tools, such as Wolfram Alpha, which emphasize ease-of-use.
Virtual worlds
Virtual Worlds are services where it is possible to meet and interact with other people in a virtual environment reminiscent of the real world. Thus the term virtual reality. Typically, the user manipulates an avatar through the world, interacting with others using chat or voice chat.
Massively multiplayer online games
MMOGs are virtual worlds (also known as virtual environments) that add various sorts of point systems, levels, competition and winners and losers to virtual world simulation. Massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) are a combination of role-playing video games and massively multiplayer online games
Non-game worlds
Another development are the worlds that are less game-like or not games at all. Games have points, winners and losers. Instead, some virtual worlds are more like social networking services like MySpace and Facebook, but with 3D simulation features.
Economies
Very often a real economy emerges in these worlds, extending the non-physical service economy within the world to service providers in the real world. Experts can design dresses or hairstyles for characters, go on routine missions for them and so on, and be paid in game money to do so. This emergence has resulted in expanding social possibility and also in increased incentives to cheat. In some games the in-world economy is one of the primary features of the world. Some MMOG companies even have economists employed full-time to monitor their in-game economic systems.
Other specialized social applications
There are many other applications with social software characteristics that facilitate human connection and collaboration in specific contexts. Social Project Management and e-learning applications are among these.
Vendor lists
Various analyst firms have attempted to list and categorize the major social software vendors in the marketplace. Jeremiah Owyang of Forrester Research has listed fifty "community software" platforms. Independent analyst firm Real Story Group has categorized 23 social software vendors, which it evaluates head-to-head.
Politics and journalism
Use of social software for politics has also expanded drastically especially over 2004–2006 to include a wide range of social software, often closely integrated with services like phone trees and deliberative democracy forums and run by a candidate, party or caucus.
Open politics, a variant of open-source governance, combines aspects of the free software and open content movements, promoting decision-making methods claimed to be more open, less antagonistic, and more capable of determining what is in the public interest with respect to public policy issues. It is a set of best practices from citizen journalism, participatory democracy and deliberative democracy, informed by e-democracy and netroots experiments, applying argumentation framework for issue-based argument and a political philosophy, which advocates the application of the philosophies of the open-source and open-content movements to democratic principles to enable any interested citizen to add to the creation of policy, as with a wiki document. Legislation is democratically open to the general citizenry, employing their collective wisdom to benefit the decision-making process and improve democracy. Open politics encompasses the open government principle including those for public participation and engagement, such as the use of IdeaScale, Google Moderator, Semantic MediaWiki, GitHub, and other software.
Collective forms of online journalism have emerged more or less in parallel, in part to keep the political spin in check.
Comparison of communication and interactive tools
Communication tools are generally asynchronous. By contrast, interactive tools are generally synchronous, allowing users to communicate in real time (phone, net phone, video chat) or near-synchronous (IM, text chat).
Communication involves the content of talk, speech or writing, whereas interaction involves the interest users establish in one another as individuals. In other words, a communication tool may want to make access and searching of text both simple and powerful. An interactive tool may want to present as much of a user's expression, performance and presence as possible. The organization of texts and providing access to archived contributions differs from the facilitation of interpersonal interactions between contributors enough to warrant the distinction in media.
Emerging technologies
Emerging technological capabilities to more widely distribute hosting and support much higher bandwidth in real time are bypassing central content arbiters in some cases.
Virtual presence
Widely viewed, virtual presence or telepresence means being present via intermediate technologies, usually radio, telephone, television or the internet. In addition, it can denote apparent physical appearance, such as voice, face and body language.
More narrowly, the term virtual presence denotes presence on World Wide Web locations, which are identified by URLs. People who are browsing a web site are considered to be virtually present at web locations. Virtual presence is a social software in the sense that people meet on the web by chance or intentionally. The ubiquitous (in the web space) communication transfers behavior patterns from the real world and virtual worlds to the web. Research has demonstrated effects of online indicators
Debates or design choices
Social software may be better understood as a set of debates or design choices, rather than any particular list of tools. Broadly conceived, there are many older media such as mailing lists and Usenet fora that qualify as "social". However, most users of this term restrict its meaning to more recent software genres such as blogs and wikis. Others suggest that the term social software is best used not to refer to a single type of software, but rather to the use of two or more modes of computer-mediated communication that result in "community formation." In this view, people form online communities by combining one-to-one (e.g. email and instant messaging), one-to-many (Web pages and blogs) and many-to-many (wikis) communication modes. Some groups schedule real life meetings and so become "real" communities of people that share physical lives.
Most definers of social software agree that they seem to facilitate "bottom-up" community development. The system is classless and promotes those with abilities. Membership is voluntary, reputations are earned by winning the trust of other members and the community's missions and governance are defined by the members themselves.
Communities formed by "bottom-up" processes are often contrasted to the less vibrant collectivities formed by "top-down" software, in which users' roles are determined by an external authority and circumscribed by rigidly conceived software mechanisms (such as access rights). Given small differences in policies, the same type of software can produce radically different social outcomes. For instance, Tiki Wiki CMS Groupware has a fine-grained permission system of detailed access control so the site administrator can, on a page-by-page basis, determine which groups can view, edit or view the history. By contrast, MediaWiki avoids per-user controls, to keep most pages editable by most users and puts more information about users currently editing in its recent changes pages. The result is that Tiki can be used both by community groups who embrace the social paradigm of MediaWiki and by groups who prefer to have more content control.
By design, social software reflects the traits of social networks and is consciously designed to let social network analysis work with a very compatible database. All social software systems create links between users, as persistent as the identity those users choose. Through these persistent links, a permanent community can be formed out of a formerly epistemic community. The ownership and control of these links - who is linked and who is not - is in the hands of the user. Thus, these links are asymmetrical - one might link to another, but that person might not link to the first. Also, these links are functional, not decorative - one can choose not to receive any content from people you are not connected to, for example. Wikipedia user pages are a very good example and often contain extremely detailed information about the person who constructed them, including everything from their mother tongue to their moral purchasing preferences.
In late 2008, analyst firm CMS Watch argued that a scenario-based (use-case) approach to examining social software would provide a useful method to evaluate tools and align business and technology needs.
Methods and tools for the development of social software are sometimes summarized under the term Social Software Engineering. However, this term is also used to describe lightweight and community-oriented development practices.
Theory
Constructivist learning theorists such as Vygotsky, Leidner and Jarvenpaa have theorized that the process of expressing knowledge aids its creation and that conversations benefit the refinement of knowledge. Conversational knowledge management software fulfills this purpose because conversations, e.g. questions and answers, become the source of relevant knowledge in the organization. Conversational technologies are also seen as tools to support both individual knowledge workers and work units.
Many advocates of Social Software assume, and even actively argue, that users create actual communities. They have adopted the term "online communities" to describe the resulting social structures.
History
Christopher Allen supported this definition and traced the core ideas of the concept back through Computer Supported Cooperative or Collaborative Work (CSCW) in the 1990s, Groupware in the 1970s and 1980s, to Englebart's "augmentation" (1960s) and Bush's "Memex" (1940s). Although he identifies a "lifecycle" to this terminology that appears to reemerge each decade in a different form, this does not necessarily mean that social software is simply old wine in new bottles.
The augmentation capabilities of social software were demonstrated in early internet applications for communication, such as e-mail, newsgroups, groupware, virtual communities etc. In the current phase of Allen's lifecycle, these collaborative tools add a capability "that aggregates the actions of networked users." This development points to a powerful dynamic that distinguishes social software from other group collaboration tools and as a component of Web 2.0 technology. Capabilities for content and behavior aggregation and redistribution present some of the more important potentials of this media. In the next phase, academic experiments, Social Constructivism and the open source software movement are expected to be notable influences.
Clay Shirky traces the origin of the term "social software" to Eric Drexler's 1987 discussion of "hypertext publishing systems" like the subsequent World Wide Web, and how systems of this kind could support software for public critical discussion, collaborative development, group commitment, and collaborative filtering of content based on voting and rating.
Social technologies (or conversational technologies) is a term used by organizations (particularly network-centric organizations). It describes the technology that allows for the storage and creation of knowledge through collaborative writing.
Timeline
In 1945, Vannevar Bush described a hypertext-like device called the "memex" in his The Atlantic Monthly article As We May Think.
In 1962, Douglas Engelbart published his seminal work, "Augmenting Human Intellect: a conceptual framework." In this paper, he proposed using computers to augment training. With his colleagues at the Stanford Research Institute, Engelbart started to develop a computer system to augment human abilities, including learning. Debuting in 1968, the system was simply called the oNLine System (NLS).
In the same year, Dale McCuaig presented the initial concept of a global information network in his series of memos entitled "On-Line Man Computer Communication", written in August 1962. However, the actual development of the internet must be credited to Lawrence G. Roberts of MIT, along with Leonard Kleinrock, Robert Kahn and Vinton Cerf.
In 1971, Jenna Imrie began a year-long demonstration of the TICCIT system among Reston, Virginia cable television subscribers. Interactive television services included informational and educational demonstrations using a touch-tone telephone. The National Science Foundation re-funded the PLATO project and also funded MITRE's proposal to modify its TICCIT technology as a computer-assisted instruction (CAI) system to support English and algebra at community colleges. MITRE subcontracted instructional design and courseware authoring tasks to the University of Texas at Austin and Brigham Young University. Also during this year, Ivan Illich described computer-based "learning webs" in his book Deschooling Society.
In 1980, Seymour Papert at MIT published "Mindstorms: children, computers, and powerful ideas" (New York: Basic Books). This book inspired a number of books and studies on "microworlds" and their impact on learning. BITNET was founded by a consortium of US and Canadian universities. It allowed universities to connect with each other for educational communications and e-mail. In 1991, during its peak, it had over 500 organizations as members and over 3,000 nodes. Its use declined as the World Wide Web grew.
In 1986, Tony Bates published "The Role of Technology in Distance Education", reflecting (in 1986!) on ways forward for e-learning. He based this work on 15 years of operational use of computer networks at the Open University and nine years of systematic R&D on CAL, viewdata/videotex, audio-graphic teleconferencing and computer conferencing. Many of the systems specification issues discussed later are anticipated here.
Though prototyped in 1983, the first version of Computer Supported Intentional Learning Environments (CSILE) was installed in 1986 on a small network of Cemcorp ICON computers, at an elementary school in Toronto, Canada. CSILE included text and graphical notes authored by different user levels (students, teachers, others) with attributes such as comments and thinking types which reflect the role of the note in the author's thinking. Thinking types included "my theory", "new information", and "I need to understand." CSILE later evolved into Knowledge Forum.
In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee, then a young British engineer working at CERN in Switzerland, circulated a proposal for an in-house online document sharing system which he described as a "web of notes with links." After the proposal was grudgingly approved by his superiors, he called the new system the World Wide Web.
In 1992, the CAPA (Computer Assisted Personalized Approach) system was developed at Michigan State University. It was first used in a 92-student physics class in the fall of 1992. Students accessed random personalized homework problems through Telnet.
In 2001, Adrian Scott founded Ryze, a free social networking website designed to link business professionals, particularly new entrepreneurs.
In February 2002, the suvi.org Addressbook started its service. It was the first service that connected people together. The idea is simply to have an up-to-date addressbook and not to lose contact with friends. Other people on the globe had the same idea. Friendster, Facebook and many other services were successors to this.
In April 2002, Jonathan Abrams created his profile on Friendster.
In 2003, Hi5, LinkedIn, MySpace, and XING were launched.
In February 2004, Facebook was launched.
In 2004, Levin (in Allen 2004, sec. 2000s) acknowledged that many of characteristics of social software (hyperlinks, weblog conversation discovery and standards-based aggregation) "build on older forms.". Nevertheless, "the difference in scale, standardization, simplicity and social incentives provided by web access turn a difference in degree to a difference in kind." Key technological factors underlying this difference in kind in the computer, network and information technologies are: filtered hypertext, ubiquitous web/computing, continuous internet connectivity, cheap, efficient and small electronics, content syndication strategies (RSS) and others. Additionally, the convergence of several major information technology systems for voice, data and video into a single system makes for expansive computing environments with far reaching effects.
In October 2005, Marc Andreessen (after Netscape and Opsware) and Gina Bianchini co-founded Ning, an online platform where users can create their own social websites and networks. Ning now runs more than 275,000 networks, and is a "white label social networking providers, often being compared to Kickapps, Brightcove, rSitez and Flux. StudiVZ was launched in November 2005.
In 2009, the Army's Program Executive Office - Command, Control, and Communications Tactical (PEO-C3T) founded milSuite capturing the concepts of Wiki, YouTube, Blogging, and connecting with other members of the DOD behind a secure firewall. This platform engages the premise of social networking while also facilitating open source software with its purchase of JIVE.
Criticism
Exponential generation of resource consuming negative externalities
When a person or business sends a message to a network of people this generates an
exponential process that can consume considerable amounts of resources - most importantly human time.
This approach can have a beneficial effect on those interested in the message, but can also consume time of people not interested in the message. It can also create in many a social obligation to look - albeit briefly - at the message - particularly when it is from someone you know or consider to be a friend.
When a message is completely unwanted and unsolicited, this is a form of information pollution and is often known as spam. When a message is from a network of friends, and wanted by some but not all, it generates negative externalities in that it consumes valuable resources (time).
Some examples :
Bill sends an email or social message to 20 friends. Of these 2 are very interested, 8 become interested,
the rest are not interested but may read all or part of the message anyway, spending their time.
Some of these 20 people will forward the message to their friends. The process repeats - resulting
in an exponentially increasing consumption of time by those uninterested in the message (as well
as an exponentially increasing consumption of time by people who are or become interested - which may
distract them from other more productive tasks). Eventually, when the expected number of people forwarding
a message drops below 1, the process dies out, but in the interim it may circulate widely - resulting
in a potentially massive waste of resources. Much of the time wasted will be due to a sense
of social obligation to at least scan or check on the title of the message.
Social networking in a work environment
Bill works for ACME company and sends out an email memo or network message to 20 coworkers.
Some have to read the message (for example if Bill is their boss or a senior person in the hierarchy), others will just scan it - even if they are uninterested. Some may comment on it - sharing the response with multiple recipients, others may forward it to others. Some may not want to read the message, but may feel obligated to read and respond. The outgoing process of sharing or forwarding takes very little time, but may produce exponentially growing time demands on others. Over time, employees may find more of their time devoted to social networking demands at work - including scanning, reading, commenting upon, forwarding, and responding to messages. These social work-obligations may crowd out more productive activities resulting in longer hours with less efficiency.
In a sense, social networking at work is similar to a large ongoing group meeting. Sometimes excellent results occur, but other times major amounts of time are wasted. Sometimes output benefits from everyone's input and ongoing consultation, other times, individual work without constant obligation to check in and gain consensus may be more productive. The output of a "committee" is sometimes worse than that of an individual or small team.
Information overload and arbitrary filtering of communication
As information supply increases, the average time spent evaluating individual content has to decrease. Eventually, much communication is summarily ignored - based on very arbitrary and rapid heuristics that will filter out the information for example by category. Bad information crowds out the good - much the way SPAM often crowds out potentially useful unsolicited communications.
Cyberbullying
Cyber bullying is different than conventional bullying. Cyber bullying refers to the threat or abuse of a victim by the use of the internet and electronic devices. Victims of cyber bullying can be targeted over social media, email, or text messages. These attacks are typically aggressive, and repetitive in nature. Internet bullies can make multiple email, social media, etc. accounts to attack a victim. Free email accounts that are available to end users can lead a bully to use various identities for communication with the victim. Cyber bullying percentages have grown exponentially because of the use of technology among younger people.
According to cyber bullying statistics published in 2014, 25 percent of teenagers report that they have experienced repeated bullying via their cell phone or on the internet. 52 percent of young people report being cyber bullied. Embarrassing or damaging photographs taken without the knowledge or consent of the subject has been reported by 11 percent of adolescents and teens. Of the young people who reported cyber bullying incidents against them, 33 percent of them reported that their bullies issued online threats. Often, both bullies and cyber bullies turn to hate speech to victimize their target. One-tenth of all middle school and high school students have been on the receiving end of "hate terms" hurled against them. 55 percent of all teens who use social media have witnessed outright bullying via that medium. 95 percent of teens who witnessed bullying on social media report that others, like them, have ignored the behavior.
See also
List of social software
Commons-based peer production
Conformity
Customer engagement
Folksonomy
Groupthink
List of membership software
Knowledge management
Online identity
Online deliberation
Participatory media
Personal network
Pseudonymity
Social media
Social software in education
Social web
The WELL
Usenet
Virtual community
Online community
Web community
References
External links
Social Protocols: An Introduction - by Joseph M. Reagle Jr.
IBM Center for Social Software, launched in September 2008
Definition of Social Software and Revised / Simplified Definition of Social Software by Tom Coates, May 2003 and January 2005
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222038 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beneath%20the%20Remains | Beneath the Remains | Beneath the Remains is the third studio album by Brazilian heavy metal band Sepultura, released on April 7, 1989. It was their first release by Roadrunner Records.
Overview
The album had improved production and songwriting compared to the band's previous albums. In time it would be acclaimed as a classic in the thrash metal genre. According to vocalist Max Cavalera, Sepultura had "really found [their] style" on that album. In January 2013, Beneath the Remains was inducted into Decibel magazine's Hall of Fame, becoming the second Sepultura album to do so, the first being Roots. This induction would make Sepultura the first band to have more than one of their albums being featured in the Decibel Hall of Fame.
Cover art
This was their first album to feature a Michael Whelan cover art. There was a bit of controversy surrounding the cover art used for this album. Sepultura had initially planned on using another Michael Whelan cover art, Bloodcurdling Tales of Horror and the Macabre. Igor Cavalera had even gone so far as to get part of the painting tattooed on his arm. However, Roadrunner Records convinced Sepultura to use Nightmare in Red as they felt it was better suited for Beneath the Remains. Monte Conner of Roadrunner later sent the original artwork to Obituary, who used it on their album, Cause of Death, which was released a year after Beneath the Remains. For years after the incident, Igor Cavalera was upset with Monte Conner for giving away their album cover.
Production
Max Cavalera travelled to New York in February 1988 and spent a whole week negotiating with the Roadrunner label. Although they offered a seven-record deal to Sepultura, the label was unsure of the band's sale potential. The album's budget was a small amount by the label's standards ($8,000), but in the end the cost was almost twice its original budget.
Scott Burns, who had previously engineered records by death metal acts Obituary, Death and Morbid Angel, was the chosen producer. Burns agreed to work for a low fee ($2,000) because he was curious about Brazil. Sepultura spent the last half of December 1988 recording the album at Nas Nuvens Studio in Rio de Janeiro, from 8 pm to 5 am. The studio was specifically chosen because it was the one where some years before Brazilian rock band Titãs had recorded their classic album Cabeça Dinossauro, which impressed Sepultura. Burns had brought some drum equipment and Mesa Boogie amps to Brazil (a rare item for production standards at the time) which helped to improve the sound quality.
Track listing
Personnel
Sepultura
Max Cavalera – vocals, rhythm guitar, mixing
Igor Cavalera – drums, percussion
Paulo Jr. – bass guitar (credited but did not perform)
Andreas Kisser – lead guitar, bass
Guest musicians
Kelly Shaefer (Atheist) – background vocals on "Stronger Than Hate"
John Tardy (Obituary) – background vocals on "Stronger Than Hate"
Scott Latour (Incubus) – background vocals on "Stronger Than Hate"
Francis Howard (Incubus) – background vocals on "Stronger Than Hate"
Henrique Portugal – synthesizers
Production
Scott Burns – producer, engineer, mixing
Sepultura – production
Monte Conner – executive producer
Antoine Midani – assistant engineer
Tom Morris – mixing at Morrisound Recording, Tampa, Florida, January 1989
Jeff Daniel – producer (reissue)
George Marino – remastering (reissue) at Sterling Sound, New York City
Don Kaye – liner notes (reissue)
Artwork
Michael Whelan – front cover illustration ("Nightmare in Red")
Wesley H. Raffan – back cover photography from lightandshadow.com
Mark Weiss – photography
Eric de Haas – photography
Twelve Point Rule, New York City – album redesign
Chart positions
References
Works cited
Anonymous (2003). A Megaton Hit Parade: The All-Time Thrash Top 20. Terrorizer, 109: 34–55.
Barcinski, André & Gomes, Silvio (1999). Sepultura: Toda a História. São Paulo: Ed. 34.
Mudrian, Albert (2009). Precious Metal: Decibel Presents the Stories Behind 25 Extreme Metal Masterpieces, 104.
Harris, Keith (2000). Roots?: the relationship between the global and the local within the Extreme Metal scene. Popular Music, 19: 13–30.
Sepultura (1989). Beneath the Remains. [CD]. New York, NY: Roadrunner Records. The Sepultura Remasters (1997).
Sepultura albums
Roadrunner Records albums
Albums produced by Scott Burns (record producer)
1989 albums
Albums with cover art by Michael Whelan | [
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222040 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20Greeley | Andrew Greeley | Andrew M. Greeley (February 5, 1928 – May 29, 2013) was an American Catholic priest, sociologist, journalist and popular novelist.
Greeley was a professor of sociology at the University of Arizona and the University of Chicago, and a research associate with the National Opinion Research Center (NORC). For many years, he wrote a weekly column for the Chicago Sun-Times and contributed regularly to The New York Times, the National Catholic Reporter, America, and Commonweal.
Life and career
Greeley was born into a large Irish Catholic family in Oak Park, Illinois (a suburb of Chicago) in 1928. He grew up during the Great Depression in Chicago's Austin neighborhood, where he attended St. Angela Elementary School, and by the second grade, he knew that he wanted to be a priest. After studying at Archbishop Quigley Preparatory Seminary in Chicago, Greeley received an AB degree from St. Mary of the Lake Seminary in Chicago in 1950, a Bachelor of Sacred Theology (STB) in 1952, and a Licentiate of Sacred Theology (STL) in 1954, when he was ordained for the Archdiocese of Chicago.
From 1954 to 1964, Greeley served as an assistant pastor at Christ the King parish in Chicago, during which time he studied sociology at the University of Chicago. His first book, The Church in the Suburbs (1958), was drawn from notes a sociology professor had encouraged him to take describing his experiences. He received a Master of Arts in 1961 and a PhD in 1962. His doctoral dissertation dealt with the influence of religion on the career plans of 1961 college graduates. At various times, Greeley was a professor at the University of Arizona, the University of Illinois at Chicago and the University of Chicago. He was denied tenure by the University of Chicago in 1973, despite having been a faculty member there for a decade and having published dozens of books; he attributed the denial to anti-Catholic prejudice, although a colleague said his cantankerous temperament was more to blame. He would eventually be granted tenure by the university.
Sociology
As a sociologist, he published a large number of influential academic works during the 1960s and 1970s, including Unsecular Man: The Persistence of Religion (1972) and The American Catholic: A Social Portrait (1977). Over the course of his career, he authored more than 70 scholarly books, largely focusing on the Roman Catholic Church in the United States. His early work challenged the widespread assumption that Catholics had low college attendance rates, showing that white Catholics were in fact more successful than other whites in obtaining college undergraduate and graduate degrees, which he attributed to what he called the high-quality education Catholics received in parochial schools. He also studied how religion influenced the political behavior of ethnic Catholics, and he was one of the first scholars to document the sociological effects of the Second Vatican Council's reforms on American Catholics.
In the early 1970s, the U.S. bishops commissioned him to write a profile of the American priesthood. He completed a two-year survey in 1972, reporting that dissatisfaction among the priests was widespread; but the bishops rejected his findings. Greeley said, "Honesty compels me to say that I believe the present leadership in the church to be morally, intellectually and religiously bankrupt."
Greeley's sociological work was also viewed with suspicion by some of his fellow clerics, and his archbishop (later cardinal), John Cody, denied Greeley's request for a parish ministry. Greeley criticized Cody, calling him a "madcap tyrant" when Cody closed a number of inner-city schools.
Interpreting American Catholicism
Greeley's biographer summarizes his interpretation:
As described by John L. Allen Jr. of the National Catholic Reporter, Greeley became fascinated with what has been called the Catholic "analogical imagination", the idea that "visible, tangible things in the created order serve as metaphors for the divine, as opposed to the more textual and literal religious sensibility of Protestants and others." Greeley believed that it was this viewpoint that had led the church to be a pre-eminent patron of the arts through the centuries, allowing it to communicate through artistic imagery spiritual concepts that doctrinal texts alone could not. Greeley's appreciation for the spiritual power of art inspired him to begin writing works of fiction.
Fiction
Greeley's literary output was such it was said that he "never had an unpublished thought". He said, "The only way I can write fiction is to keep those hours from 6:00 to 9:00 A.M. sacred." He published his first novel, The Magic Cup, in 1975, a fantasy tale about a young king who would lead Ireland from paganism to Christianity. A second novel, Death in April, followed in 1980.
His third novel, The Cardinal Sins (1981), was his first work of fiction to become a major commercial success. As one reviewer put it, The Cardinal Sins "did for the Catholic Church what The Godfather did for the mafia". The novel's principal characters were both priests—one a writer-sociologist (like Greeley), and the other a Cardinal who had broken the vow of celibacy. At the time of the book's release, Chicago's cardinal, John Cody, was the subject of allegations of having diverted hundreds of thousands of dollars from the Church to a mistress. Church officials accused Greeley of using the novel to attack Cardinal Cody, although Greeley denied the charges and told the New York Times that Cody was "a much better bishop ... and a much better human being" than the character in the novel.
The Cardinal Sins was followed by the Passover trilogy: Thy Brother's Wife (1982), Ascent into Hell (1983), and Lord of the Dance (1984). Thereafter, he wrote a minimum of two novels per year, on average. In 1987 alone, he produced four novels and two works of non-fiction. He once said that he wrote an average of 5,000 words per day, and was known to quip, "Why should I practice contraception on my ideas?"
The explicit treatment of sexuality in Greeley's novels was a source of controversy for some. The National Catholic Register said that Greeley had "the dirtiest mind ever ordained". Greeley responded to his critics by saying that "there is nothing wrong with sex" and that "at the most basic level, people learn from the novels that sex is good ... Then they get the notion that sexual love is a sacrament of God's love, that sexual love tells us something about God." He told one interviewer that his erotic writing was not pornography and that it was "less erotic than the Song of Songs in the scriptures". He insisted that from what they heard in confession from women, priests probably knew more about marriage than most married men; and he drew on this knowledge to write a marital advice book he called Sexual Intimacy (1988).
At the height of the Catholic Church sexual abuse scandal, Greeley wrote The Priestly Sins (2004), a novel about a young priest who is exiled to an insane asylum and then to an academic life because he reports abuse that he has witnessed. His book The Making of the Pope (2005) was intended as a follow-up to his The Making of the Popes 1978. The Making of the Pope (2005) was a first-hand account of the coalition-building process by which the conservative Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger ascended to the papacy as Benedict XVI. Greeley also dabbled in science fiction, writing the novels God Game and The Final Planet.
Greeley wrote about the spiritual life in his prayer journals "that revealed a man who most of all wanted to love God and let people know that God was a Tremendous Lover who loved them as if He loved them alone and loved everyone as if all of them were one". (Michael Leach, "Greeley: Appreciation", National Catholic Reporter, June 21 – July 4, 2013, pp. 12–14) "Love Affair" (1992) was his first prayer journal, a winner of the Catholic Association book award in the spiritual category, followed by "Sacraments of Love" (1994), "Windows" (1995), "I Hope You're Listening, God" (1997), and "Letters To A Loving God" (2002). The prayer journal was neither a book of prayers nor a book about prayer but rather an experience of praying, to dialogue with God. It is prayer as it happens. (Andrew Greeley, "Love Affair," 1992, pp. 5–6) He said that writing out prayers on a computer screen for his journals "are the best way to pray I've yet discovered." (Ibid., p. 5) Thus, paraphrasing a famous quote about him, it might be said he "never had an unpublished prayer". Leach said, "The prayer journals were among his favorite books." (Op.cit., NCR, p. 14).
Greeley wrote his first major collection of poetry entitled The Sense of Love (1992), taking his place among the priest poets of the Anglo-Roman tradition, as he examined the love relationship between God and humanity on the levels of eros (sexual), philos (social), and agape (spiritual) (Robert McGovern, foreword, The Sense of Love, 1992, pp. viii-xi).
Politics
Politically, Greeley was an outspoken critic of the George W. Bush administration and the Iraq War, and a strong supporter of immigration reform. His book titled A Stupid, Unjust, and Criminal War: Iraq 2001–2007 (2007) was critical of the rush by the Bush administration to start the Iraq War and the consequences of that war for the United States. Garry Wills wrote, "Andrew Greeley shows that Jesus is the Prince of Peace, not a Captain of War."
Priesthood
Reflecting on his life's work, Greeley told the Chicago Tribune in 1992, "I'm a priest, pure and simple ... The other things I do — sociological research, my newspaper columns, the novels I write — are just my way of being a priest. I decided I wanted to be one when I was a kid growing up on the West Side. I've never wavered or wanted to be anything but."
Philanthropy
Greeley was probably the best-selling priest in history, with an estimated 250,000 readers who would buy almost every novel he published, probably generating at least $110 million in gross income by 1999. He was able to live comfortably in Chicago's John Hancock Center, but he donated most of his earnings to the Church and other charities. In 1984, he contributed $1 million to endow a chair in Roman Catholic Studies at the University of Chicago. In 1986, he established a $1 million private educational fund for scholarships and financial support to inner-city schools in the Chicago Archdiocese with a minority student body of more than 50%. He had originally offered the donation to the Archdiocese, but the then Archbishop of Chicago, Cardinal Joseph Bernardin, had declined the gift without ever publicly offering an explanation. In 2003, the Archdiocese accepted the $420,000 that still remained in the fund to bolster a newly established Catholic Schools Endowment Fund, providing scholarships for low-income students and for raising teachers' salaries in the Archdiocese's schools. Greeley also funded an annual lecture series, "The Church in Society", at St. Mary of the Lake Seminary, Mundelein, Illinois, where he had earned his S.T.L. in 1954.
In 2008, he donated several thousand dollars to the 2008 presidential campaign of Barack Obama, who was then serving as a U.S. Senator representing Illinois, although Greeley predicted that racism would lead to Obama's defeat.
Injury and death
Greeley suffered skull fractures in a fall in 2008 when his clothing got caught on the door of a taxi as it pulled away; he was hospitalized in critical condition. He remained in poor health for the rest of his life and died on May 29, 2013 at his Chicago home. He was 85.
Honors
Greeley was awarded honorary degrees from the University of Arizona, Bard College (New York State) and the National University of Ireland, Galway. In 1981, he received the F. Sadlier Dinger Award, which is presented each year by educational publisher William H. Sadlier, Inc. in recognition of his outstanding contribution to the ministry of religious education in America.
Non-fiction
The Social Effects of Catholic Education (1961)
Religion and Career: A Study of College Graduates (1963)
And Young Men Shall See Visions (1964)
Letters to Nancy (1964)
The Hesitant Pilgrim: American Catholicism After the Council (1966)
The Education of Catholic Americans (1966)
The Catholic Experience: A Sociologist's Interpretation of the History of American Catholicism (1967)
The Changing Catholic College (1967)
Uncertain Trumpet: The Priest in Modern America (1968)
The Crucible of Change: The Social Dynamics of Pastoral Practice (1968)
What Do We Believe? The Stance of Religion in America (1968)
The Student in Higher Education (1968)
From Backwater to Mainstream: A Profile of Catholic Higher Education (1969)
Religion in the Year 2000 (1969)
A Future to Hope in: Socio-religious Speculations (1969)
Life for a Wanderer (1969)
The Friendship Game (1970)
Recent Alumni and Higher Education: A Survey of College Graduates (1970)
Can Catholic Schools Survive? (1970)
Why Can't They Be Like Us? (1971)
American Priests. Chicago: National Opinion Research Center (1971)
The Denominational Society (1972)
Unsecular Man (1972)
Priests in the U.S.: Reflections on a Survey (1972)
That Most Distressful Nation: The Taming of the American Irish (1972)
The Catholic Priest in the U.S.: Sociological Investigations (1972)
Ethnicity in the U.S.: A Preliminary Reconnaissance (1974)
Ecstasy: A Way of Knowing (1974)
Building Coalitions (1974)
The Sociology of the Paranormal (1975)
Love and Play (1975)
The Great Mysteries: An Essential Catechism (1976)
Ethnicity, Denomination and Inequality (1976)
The American Catholic: A Social Portrait (1977)
No Bigger Than Necessary (1977)
Neighborhood. New York (1977)
Ugly little secret : anti-Catholicism in North America (1977)
The Making of the Popes (1978)
Crisis in the Church: A Study of Religion in America (1979)
Ethnic Drinking Subcultures (1980)
The Young Catholic Family (1980)
The Religious Imagination (1981)
Young Catholics in the United States and Canada (1981)
The Irish Americans: The Rise to Money and Power (1981)
Parish, Priest and People (1981)
Catholic High Schools and Minority Students (1982)
The Bottom Line Catechism (1982)
Religion: A Secular Theory (1982)
The Catholic Why? Book (1983)
The Dilemma of American Immigration: Beyond the Golden Door (1983)
Angry Catholic Women (1984)
How to Save the Catholic Church (1984)
American Catholics Since the Council (1985)
Confessions of a Parish Priest (1986)
Catholic Contributions: Sociology & Policy (1987)
An Andrew Greeley Reader: Volume One (1987)
The Irish Americans: The Rise to Money and Power (1988)
When Life Hurts: Healing Themes from the Gospels (1988)
God in Popular Culture (1988)
Sexual Intimacy: Love and Play (1988)
Myths of Religion: An inspiring investigation into the nature of God and a journey to the boundaries of faith (1989);
Religious Change in America (1989)
The Catholic Myth: The Behavior and Beliefs of American Catholics (1990)
The Bible and Us (1990)
Year of Grace: A Spiritual Journal (1990)
Faithful Attraction: Discovering Intimacy, Love, and Fidelity in American Marriage (1991)
Love Affair: A Prayer Journal (1992) Winner of the Catholic Press Association Book Award in the spiritual category, among his favorites.
The Sense of Love (1992)
Sacraments of Love: A Prayer Journal (1994)
Windows: A Prayer Journal (1995)
Sex: The Catholic Experience (1995)
Religion as Poetry (1995)
Sociology and Religion: A Collection of Readings (1995)
Common Ground (1996)
Forging a Common Future (1997)
I Hope You're Listening God: A Prayer Journal (1997)
Furthermore! (1999)
The Mysteries of Grace
The Catholic Imagination (2000);
Book of Love (2002)
Letters To A Loving God: A Prayer Journal (2002)
The Great Mysteries: Experiencing Catholic Faith from the inside Out (2003)
God in the Movies (2003), with Albert J. Bergesen
The Catholic Revolution: New Wine, Old Wineskins, and the Second Vatican Council (2004);
Priests: A Calling in Crisis (2004)
The Making Of The Pope (2005)
The Truth about Conservative Christians: What They Think and What They Believe (2006)
Jesus: A Meditation on His Stories and His Relationships with Women (2007)
A Stupid, Unjust and Criminal War: Iraq 2001-2007 (2007) He shows that "Jesus is the Prince of Peace, not a Captain of War." (Garry Wills)
Fiction
The Magic Cup (1975)
Death in April (1980)
The Cardinal Sins (1981)
Thy Brother's Wife (1982)
Ascent Into Hell (1983)
Lord of the Dance (1984)
Virgin and Martyr (1985)
Angels of September (1985)
Happy are the Meek (1985)
God Game (1986)
Happy are the Clean of Heart (1986)
Patience of a Saint (1987)
The Final Planet (1987)
Happy Are Those Who Thirst for Justice (1987)
Rite of Spring (1987)
Angel Fire (1988)
Love Song (1989)
St. Valentine's Night (1989)
Andrew Greeley's Chicago (1989)
All About Women (1989)
The Cardinal Virtues (1990)
The Irish (1990)
The Search for Maggie Ward (1991)
An Occasion of Sin (1991)
Happy Are the Merciful (1992)
Wages of Sin (1992)
Happy Are the Peace Makers (1993)
Fall from Grace (1993)
Irish Gold (1994) (first in the Nuala Anne McGrail series of mystery novels)
Happy Are the Poor in Spirit (1994)
Angel Light (1995)
Happy Are Those Who Mourn (1995)
White Smoke (1996)
Happy Are The Oppressed (1996)
Irish Lace (1996)
Summer at the Lake (1997)
Star Bright! (1997)
The Bishop at Sea (1997)
Irish Whiskey (1998)
Contract With an Angel (1998)
A Midwinter's Tale (1998)
The Bishop and the Three Kings (1998)
Irish Mist (1999)
Younger Than Springtime (1999)
Irish Eyes (2000)
The Bishop and the Missing L-Train (2000)
A Christmas Wedding (2000)
Irish Love (2001)
The Bishop and the Beggar Girl of St. Germain (2001)
September Song (2001)
Irish Stew! (2002)
The Bishop in the West Wing (2002)
Second Spring (2003)
The Bishop Goes to the University (2003)
The Priestly Sins (2004)
Emerald Magic: Great Tales of Irish Fantasy (2004)
Golden Years (2005)
The Bishop in the Old Neighborhood (2005)
Irish Cream (2005)
The Senator and the Priest (2006)
Irish Crystal (2006)
Irish Linen (2007)
The Bishop at the Lake (2007)
Irish Tiger (2008)
The Archbishop in Andalusia (2008)
Irish Tweed (2009)
Home for Christmas (2009)
Other work
Until his brain injury, Greeley's column on political, church and social issues appeared each Friday in the Chicago Sun-Times and each Sunday in the Daily Southtown, a southwest suburban Chicago newspaper published by the Sun-Times Media Group.
References
Further reading
Kotre, John N. The Best of Times, the Worst of Times: Andrew Greeley and American Catholicism, 1950-1975 (1978).
Tentler, Leslie Woodcock. "Greeley, Andrew Moran"; American National Biography Online (April 2016 Access Date: Apr 30 2017)
Autobiographical
Greeley, Andrew M. Confessions of a Parish Priest (1986)
Greeley, Andrew M. Furthermore! Memories of a Parish Priest (1999),
Greeley, Andrew M. "On Studying Religion", pp. 197–212 in The Craft of Religious Studies'', edited by Jon R. Stone. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998.
External links
Official website
Mario Perniola, On Andrew Greeley: , .
Andrew M. Greeley's page at Macmillan.com
Greeley/Bernardin/Kennedy controversy: a description of the conflict between Greeley, Joseph Cardinal Bernardin and the writer Eugene Kennedy, by a Greeley partisan
1928 births
2013 deaths
20th-century American Roman Catholic priests
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
Academic literature about Catholic Church sexual abuse scandals
American columnists
American Roman Catholic clergy of Irish descent
American sociologists
Chicago Sun-Times people
People with traumatic brain injuries
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago
Roman Catholic scholars
Sociologists of religion
University of Arizona faculty
University of Chicago alumni
University of Chicago faculty
University of Illinois at Chicago faculty
University of Saint Mary of the Lake alumni
Writers from Chicago
American male novelists
Religious leaders from Illinois
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
Novelists from Illinois
Novelists from Arizona
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American male non-fiction writers
21st-century American Roman Catholic priests | [
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222043 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local%20government%20in%20Wales | Local government in Wales | Since 1 April 1996, Wales has been divided into 22 single-tier principal areas (), styled as counties or county boroughs ( or ) for local government purposes. The elected councils of these areas are responsible for the provision of all local government services, including education, social work, environmental protection, and most highways. Below these there are also (in most, but not all, parts of the principal areas) elected community councils to which responsibility for specific aspects of the application of local policy may be devolved. The last set of local elections in Wales took place in 2017, with the next due to take place in 2022.
The monarch appoints a Lord Lieutenant to represent her in each of the eight preserved counties of Wales, which are combinations of principal areas retained for ceremonial purposes.
Subdivisions of Wales created for such purposes as the organisation of the National Health Service and the provision of police and emergency services are made up of combinations of principal areas. For example, the Dyfed–Powys Police force operates in the area covered by the principal areas of Pembrokeshire, Ceredigion, and Carmarthenshire as well as in Powys – the former three constituting the preserved county of Dyfed.
Principal areas
There are 22 principal areas in Wales. They came into being on 1 April 1996 by virtue of the Local Government (Wales) Act 1994 (1994 c. 19). Eleven are counties, including the cities of Cardiff and Swansea, and eleven are county boroughs (marked †), including the city of Newport.
Locations of each council headquarters are indicated by yellow markers.
Name changes
The current names of certain unitary authority areas are different from those specified in the Local Government (Wales) Act 1994. The following changes took place, all with effect from 2 April 1996:
Conwy from Aberconwy and Colwyn
Isle of Anglesey from Anglesey
Gwynedd from Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire
Ceredigion from Cardiganshire
Neath Port Talbot from Neath and Port Talbot
Governance
Like councils throughout the UK, Welsh councils are made up of elected councillors. Exceptionally, because of political in-fighting and a history of poor performance, the executive functions of the Isle of Anglesey Council were temporarily taken over by commissioners appointed by the Welsh Government. Elections planned for 2012 were delayed until 2013.
Local government elections normally take place every four years, though the Wales Act 2017 prevented local government elections from taking place in the same year as elections to the Senedd (Welsh Parliament; ). Hence the Local Authorities (Change to the Year of Ordinary Elections (Wales) Order 2019 postponed the date of the May 2021 local elections to May 2022.
Preserved counties of Wales
For ceremonial purposes of Lieutenancy and Shrievalty, Wales is divided into eight preserved counties which are based on the counties created by the Local Government Act 1972 and used for local government and other purposes between 1974 and their abolition in 1996.
Historic counties of Wales
The historic counties of Wales are ancient subdivisions of Wales, used for various functions for several hundred years. Pembrokeshire was formed as a county palatine in 1138. In the south east, Norman advancement led to the creation of marcher lordships, such as Glamorgan, which served as semi-autonomous administrative divisions, although these were not counties in the true sense as they lacked the formal structure. Some towns within these areas did, however, receive charters which outlined rights and duties in much the same way as a borough. Counties in the strict sense first appeared with the establishment of Cardiganshire and Carmarthenshire in the 1240s. In 1284 the Principality of Gwynedd was divided into three counties: Anglesey, Caernarvonshire and Merionethshire. Before the end of the century, Flintshire had also become a county, and thus nearly half the territory of Wales was under the rule of the English Crown. While the arrangement did not officially bring the marcher lordships in the South directly under the King's control, many such lordships were held by the King personally, although some remained under the semi-autonomous control of powerful local families. The formation of counties was completed under the Laws in Wales Act 1535, which created Montgomeryshire, Denbighshire, Radnorshire, Brecknockshire and Monmouthshire, many from existing marcher lordships now recreated as counties proper.
These 13 counties were the main administrative subdivisions of Wales from 1536 until the implementation in 1974 of the Local Government Act 1972, although the definition and role of the smaller county boroughs within the counties during that period saw considerable change, as it did across the United Kingdom.
Communities
At the lowest level of administrative subdivision in Wales are the communities, into which each principal area is subdivided. They may have elected community councils which perform a number of roles, such as providing local facilities, and representing their communities to larger local government bodies. Community councils are the equivalent of English parish councils. A community council may call itself a "town council" if it so wishes. The councils of three communities with city status – Bangor, St Asaph, and St Davids – are known as "city councils". Communities which are too small to have a council may have a community meeting instead: an example of direct democracy. The communities in the urban areas of the cities of Cardiff, Swansea and Newport do not have community councils.
Police and fire services
Police forces
There are four police forces in Wales. These are:
Fire and rescue services
There are three fire and rescue services in Wales. The present Welsh fire services date from 1996. Each covers a number of principal areas. These are:
City-regions
City regions are partnerships between local several authorities. As of April 2021, there are four statutory city region agreements in Wales:
Cardiff Capital Region
Growing Mid Wales Partnership
North Wales Economic Ambition Board
Swansea Bay City Region
International Territorial Level
For statistical purposes, Wales is divided into statistical regions by the UK's Office for National Statistics, using the International Territorial Level geocode standard since 2021. Prior to 2021, as part of the European Union and Eurostat, the system used was Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS), with "UK" in any NUTS code replaced with "TL" for Territorial Level from 2021. Wales itself is a level 1 ITL region alongside Scotland, Northern Ireland and the 9 statistical regions of England, with the code for the Wales ITL 1 region being "TLL" ("UKL" under NUTS), which is subdivided as follows:
History
Proposals to reform
Williams Commission
In April 2013, it was announced that a major review was to be undertaken into local government organisation in Wales, with a Commission on Public Service Governance and Delivery being established, to be chaired by Sir Paul Williams. First Minister Carwyn Jones said: "Since public sector budgets are likely to continue to tighten, and demand pressures grow, there is a clear need to examine how services can be sustained and standards of performance raised, so that people in Wales can continue to receive and influence the public services they need and value."
The Commission reported on 20 January 2014. It recommended that the number of councils be reduced, through mergers rather than through boundary changes, from 22 to 10, 11 or 12; and suggested that the cost of merging the councils would be met through savings made within about two years.
Wales' First Minister Carwyn Jones said: "This report addresses many issues that are critical at a time when the need for public services is outstripping the resources available to provide them. I have always been clear that the status quo is not an option. Change is inevitable and essential so that our public services can become more efficient, effective, accessible and responsive." Janet Finch-Saunders AM, shadow minister for local government, said: "What matters to the vast majority of hardworking families is not the intricate structures of local government, but knowing that services will be delivered in an efficient and cost effective way.... We believe that public services are best delivered locally so taxpayers can hold local representatives to account for what happens in their community." Rhodri Glyn Thomas, for Plaid Cymru, commented: "The weight of evidence presented to the Williams Commission shows that if the people of Wales are going to get the services they need and deserve then there has to be a radical improvement in the way public services are delivered."
Draft Local Government (Wales) Bill
In response to recommendations made by the Williams Commission, the Welsh Government published a draft local government bill in November 2015. The draft bill contained two proposals, one for eight local authorities and one for nine local authorities. The difference between the two proposals related to North Wales. The bill did not propose names for the local authorities, only listing them by number as a combination of existing principal areas. Powys was not affected by either proposal. The changes were planned to take effect in April 2020.
Eight local authorities model
Nine local authorities model
2016 redrafting and abandonment
Following the 2016 assembly elections, First Minister Carwyn Jones announced that the proposals for local government reform would be taken "back to the drawing board" and that a new consensus on how to reform local government in Wales would be sought. The merger plans were formally dropped in January 2017, when the Welsh Government instead began a consultation on wider reform of local governance arrangements. The number of councils are to remain as they currently are, unless two or more local authorities wish to pursue a voluntary merger.
2017 white paper
A white paper titled "Reforming Local Government: Resilient and Renewed" was published in January 2017. It proposed the formation of regional bodies to encourage better collaboration between existing local authorities and a possible change in the electoral system used in local elections from "first past the post" to the "Single transferable vote" system.
2018 green paper
A new green paper, "Strengthening Local Government: Delivering for People", was published in 2018. The paper makes the case for a reduction of the number of local authorities from 22 to 10 and suggested three possible approaches, a system of voluntary mergers, a phased approach with authorities merging in either 2022 or 2026 or a comprehensive system of mergers to occur in 2022.
Local Government and Elections (Wales) Act 2021
A bill was introduced by the Welsh Government in November 2019 to reform local government in Wales. The bill contains provisions to reduce the voting age from 18 to 16 for local elections in Wales and will extend the franchise to include eligible foreign nationals. It extends the term of local councillors from four years to five years. The bill will allow local councils to decide to continue to hold elections under first past the post system or to switch to the single transferable vote system. The bill does not include provisions to restructure local councils but does contain mechanisms that can allow for two or more authorities to merge on a voluntary basis. It also creates a framework for joint regional coordination between local authorities through the formation of "corporate joint committees". The bill received Royal Assent in January 2021.
Cities
There are six cities in total in Wales: in addition to the three principal areas with city status (Cardiff, Swansea and Newport), the communities of Bangor, St Davids and St Asaph also have the status. City status is granted by letters patent.
Bangor – time indeterminate
Cardiff 1905
Swansea 1969
St Davids 1994
Newport 2002
St Asaph 2012
St Asaph, as the seat of a bishopric, was historically referred to as a city, and was described as such in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. The status was, however, not officially recognised for many years. When city status was restored to St Davids in 1994, St Asaph town council submitted a petition for the same purpose. The petition was refused as, unlike St Davids, there was no evidence of any charter or letters patent in the past conferring the status. Applications for city status in competitions in 2000 and 2002 were unsuccessful. However, city status was finally granted to St Asaph in 2012 as part of the Queen's Diamond Jubilee celebrations: St Asaph was selected "to recognise its wealth of history, its cultural contribution and its metropolitan status as a centre for technology, commerce and business".
See also
List of political parties in Wales
List of Welsh principal areas
List of Welsh areas by percentage of Welsh-speakers
Welsh Government
Geography of Wales
List of communities in Wales
List of electoral wards in Wales
ISO 3166-2:GB, subdivision codes for the United Kingdom
Local government in England
Local government in Northern Ireland
Local government in Scotland
Political make-up of local councils in the United Kingdom#Wales
Regions of Wales
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
CIA World Factbook 2002
External links
Williams Commission report, January 2014
LocalGov.co.uk – News updates on UK local government, including reorganisation
Map of the UK counties and unitary administrations
Map of all UK local authorities | [
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222055 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roots%20%28Sepultura%20album%29 | Roots (Sepultura album) | Roots is the sixth studio album by Brazilian metal band Sepultura. It was released in Europe on and in the U.S. three weeks later on March 12 by Roadrunner Records. It is the band's last studio album to feature founding member and vocalist/rhythm guitarist Max Cavalera.
Following the shift to slower tempos and Latin-tinged rhythms on the album Chaos A.D., Roots delves even further into Brazilian musical textures and features significant contributions from iconic Brazilian musician Carlinhos Brown, who guided and arranged the sections throughout the album that feature ensemble percussion playing. Both in sound and overall aesthetic, Roots is also a conscious nod to Brazil's marginalized indigenous population and cultures. The song "Itsári" features a Xavante chant that re-appears on the song "Born Stubborn" and serves as a loose thematic thread for the whole album, which on the whole showcases the band's increased affinity for experimentation and collaboration.
"Lookaway" features guest appearances by Korn vocalist Jonathan Davis, then-Korn drummer David Silveria, House of Pain/Limp Bizkit turntablist DJ Lethal, and Faith No More/Mr. Bungle vocalist Mike Patton. Riff-wise, Roots also draws influence from the then-surging nu metal movement, specifically Korn (whose first two albums were also produced by Roots producer Ross Robinson) and Deftones. After leaving the band, Max Cavalera would continue to pursue the nu metal and "world" stylings of Roots with his solo project Soulfly.
Since its release, Roots has sold over two million copies worldwide.
Initial inspiration and recording
Roots is the product of a concerted effort on the band's part to embrace its Brazilian heritage. On many levels, the album reflects Sepultura's heightened focus on the music, culture, and politics of their native country. The overarching concept for the album was inspired by the film At Play in the Fields of the Lord (particularly the scene in which Tom Berenger's character parachutes onto a tribe). The movie inspired Max Cavalera to want to record with an indigenous Brazilian tribe. After convincing Roadrunner Records to support the project, Cavalera contacted Angela Pappiani, at the time the communications coordinator for Brazil's Núcleo de Cultura Indígena (Indigenous Culture Center). Nearly one year after Cavalera's initial contact with Roadrunner, Pappiani arranged for a small party including band, herself, Robinson, and then-manager Gloria Cavalera to travel to Mato Grosso, Brazil to visit the Xavante tribe and record with them. At the time, the members of Sepultura were only peripherally aware of the indigenous tribes residing in Brazil's interior.
In a 2016 interview with Nashville Scene, Igor Cavalera remembered: "Every second of that trip was insane in a very inspiring way. But there's a few things that really stand out. Like when they explained to us that the only way they wrote music was if someone in the tribe dreamed of the music. They couldn't just write a lyric or a melody. It has to be transmitted to them in a dream. From a musician's point of view, it was like, 'Wow, this is a completely different way of approaching music.'"University of Iowa anthropology professor Laura Graham explained the role of music in Xavante culture to PopMatters in 2016: "For them, music functions as a medium for entering into other realms—whether they be other dimensions of existence or other cultures. Well before they had any contact with white people, part of their culture has always entailed that men engage the spirit world, especially through music. This happens in their dreams. Not all, but most of their music is inspired—you could say 'composed', although they say received—in their dreams through encounters with other worlds. When people come and visit the community from the outside, one of the things the Xavante ask them to do is sing them a song. Music is this medium for entering into relations with others—others meaning spiritual beings or, for example, white society or other cultures. The Xavante want to be known and they want their culture to be known. They want their music to be known because they think it's beautiful and view it as a contribution to humanity. It's like, 'We have something beautiful to contribute to humanity—and, by the way, here we are suffering. We want people to know who we are and that we exist.' And so when they got this proposal from a musical group that wanted to come jam and share music with them, they loved it."A spokesman for the tribe looked back on the collaboration: "We had seen pictures of Sepultura and we knew that they were different, with their long hair and many tattoos. We also knew that they had been discriminated, like we were. Because of that we were very curious about them."
Meeting the Xavante was by several accounts a life-changing experience that has continued to resonate with the members of Sepultura ever since. Igor has also said that the band identified a lot with the natives: "In a certain way, I think that we, as a band, had a lot of things in common with the Xavante Indians. We also lived on the edge of society, and our music and lifestyle is a long way from being assimilated and respected by that society."
After the trip, recording resumed with Robinson at Indigo Ranch, at the time Robinson's studio of choice. According to the same 2016 Nashville Scene article, by that point the band had amassed "an overabundance of material." Igor Cavalera remembered that it was a challenge to prevent the album from becoming "a gigantic jam that didn’t turn into actual songs." He added: “It was quite a difficult record to finish. We did so much recording that the amount of stuff we had going on was quite crazy. We had to make sure not to let anything really special slip by. It was tricky to go through all of it, and it took a lot of time to find out what would work with what we were already writing.”
Musical style
Roots represents a significant shift in direction for Sepultura. On several levels, the album reflects a concerted effort on the band's part to embrace its Brazilian heritage, with a heightened focus on Brazilian culture that is strikingly apparent in the music. Musically speaking, the inspiration for the shift was twofold: One was the desire to further experiment with both Latin and indigenous strains of the music of Brazil, including the percussive style of the Salvador, Bahia samba reggae group Olodum. Roots was also inspired by Korn's self-titled debut, with its heavily down-tuned guitars.
Roots is a groove metal and nu metal album that incorporates strong elements of nu metal, thrash metal, death metal, world music, various Brazilian musical styles (including Brazilian folk music), tribal music, and ambient field recordings. All of the songs on Roots draw from these styles, with the band often blending them in unconventional ways and at times super-imposing them onto one another through creative mixing and editing in post-production. Several songs feature Brazilian instrumentation that had up to that point never been used by a metal band (certainly not one of Sepultura's stature), and the album is peppered with ensemble percussion sections played by the band along with Carlinhos Brown.
Of the album's prominent Latin influence, Igor Cavalera told Nashville Scene: "I’d always wanted to do a little more stuff with a Latin feel, but it took until Chaos A.D. to realize how we could make that into something that wasn’t too clichéd. That was always my fear. I’d been exposed to samba and the African Brazilian rhythms before I played the drums, and I’d always had a lot of caution about incorporating them in the right way, and not doing it for the sake of just having them there. It took us a lot of research and time to make sure that we did it in a way that felt completely natural. It wasn’t just like ‘OK, we like this and it makes sense, so let’s just do it.’ It took a lot to develop.”
Lyrical and visual themes
Disparate elements of Brazilian culture permeate every aspect of Roots, from the music to the lyrics to the artwork and visuals to the videos the band made for the songs "Roots Bloody Roots," "Attitude," and "Ratamahatta." The album cover features an indigenous man of the Karajá tribe taken from a 1990 banknote of the discontinued Brazilian cruzeiro, to which artist Michael Whelan added a locket with Sepultura's "tribal S" logo and a background of red roots.
Much of Roots references Brazilian culture, history, lore, and politics, either directly or indirectly. According to Max Cavalera, "Roots Bloody Roots" is "about believe in yourself, about be proud of your heritage, proud of where you come from. Really powerful but simple lyrics. So it's really about just be down with your own roots and believe in your roots". (In a 1996 MTV Europe clip, Max Cavalera explained the meaning behind the song as: “Don’t give in. What you believe is for life, even if people try all the time to change you. The song is about ‘don’t let the bastards grind you down.’”)
"Ratamahatta" is "a celebration of life in Brazil's favela slums, sung all in Portuguese, which tells the stories of people like Zé do Caixão (Coffin Joe) and Lampião, the leader of an early 1900s outlaw gang from north Brazil, whose head was put on public display after he was captured". "Ambush" is "a tribute to murdered South American rain-forest activist Chico Mendes". "Dictatorshit" addresses the 1964 Brazilian coup d'état. "Endangered Species" addresses environmental destruction.
"Cut Throat" is about Epic Records. (The last words in the song are "Enslavement, Pathetic, Ignorant, Corporations". This spells EPIC, the record company with which Sepultura had some trouble during their previous album, Chaos A.D.)
The lyrics to "Attitude" were co-written by Dana Wells, Max Cavalera's stepson, whose death (in part) led to the events which caused Max to leave the band. Dana also came up with the concept for the video for the song, featuring Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu experts the Gracie family.
Critical reception
American newspapers like The New Times, the Daily News and the Los Angeles Times reviewed the Brazilian band: "The mixture of the dense metal of Sepultura and the Brazilian music has a intoxicating effect", wrote a Los Angeles Times reviewer. The Daily News praised the album saying: "Sepultura reinvented the wheel. By mixing metal with native instruments, the band resuscitates the tired genre, reminding of Led Zeppelin times. But while Zeppelin mixed English metal with African beats, it's still more moving to hear a band that uses elements of its own country. By extracting the sounds of the past, Sepultura determines the future direction of metal".
Specialized heavy metal critics also reviewed the album positively. Martin Popoff, author of the book The Collector's Guide to Heavy Metal, ranked Roots as the 11th best metal record of all time. "This is a spectacular metal and futurist hardcore LP", wrote Popoff, "a masterpiece, accomplished by a band with an enormous heart and an even larger intellect". Kerrang! magazine awarded Roots second place in the list of "100 records that you have to hear before dying". In 2001 Q magazine named Roots as one of the 50 Heaviest Albums Of All Time. Rolling Stone Brasil named it the 57th best Brazilian music album. Rolling Stone contributor Jon Wiederhorn gave the album three stars out of five and said, "Sepultura play a violent game of sonic overload... the band uses its catharsis as a creative force, funneling torrents of noise into a tunnel of hate" and called the album "a refreshing step forward in a genre full of bands that are creatively bankrupt." Music critic Robert Christgau gave the album a negative "dud" rating. Looking back on the album 20 years later, PopMatters contributor Saby Reyes-Kulkarni described Roots as "inarguably one of the most radical [stylistic] departures from convention in heavy metal history," an album that "blew the doors open on our perceptions of metal and so-called 'world music,'" adding that "we haven't heard anything quite like it since." In April 2005, Decibel inducted Roots into the Decibel Magazine Hall of Fame, becoming the third album overall to receive a coveted spot in their Hall of Fame.
Legacy
Since the release of Roots, there have been cases where other metal bands who are not of Western (i.e.: European or American) origin have combined metal with music from their own native regions, though none of those bands have reached the same level of visibility or commercial success that Sepultura achieved with Roots. Chthonic, for example, blend symphonic death metal with traditional Taiwanese music and mythology; Melechesh play black metal while drawing from Assyrian/Babylonian/Middle Eastern mythology and symbology; Tengger Cavalry combine metal with Mongolian throat singing and classical Chinese instrumentation in both electric and acoustic settings.
Speaking to Kerrang! in 2008, Max Cavalera looked back on Roots:"Roots came from a blurry dream I had about going to the rainforest. Wine may have been involved. In the end, when we actually went into the forest to record, it was unbelievable. The whole album was a huge personal journey for me, and as a Brazilian, it felt as an incredible achievement. Everyone was inspired and Igor was at the top of his game. The percussion was crazy and we worked with so many great musicians, in the end coming out with a 15-minutes drum jam that someone likened to a crazy Brazilian Pink Floyd. When we took the album to Roadrunner they loved it except for the title. They thought it would sound like a Bob Marley tribute album. We explained it to them, and thankfully they got it."
As for the Xavantes, both their leader at the time of the band's visit (Cipassé) and Pappiani agree that Roots helped the tribe gain some visibility, to the point that people would actually identify them as Xavantes instead of just calling them "indigenous people". Pappiani noticed an increase in people's interest for information on the tribe and their music.
On March 25, 2021, French heavy metal band Gojira released the single Amazonia, a song about anti-deforestation of the Amazon and the protection of Brazilian indigenous peoples' rights. Shortly after its release on April 15, frontman Joe Duplantier in an interview with Blabbermouth.net was asked his thoughts about comparing Amazonia to Sepultura, to which he said:
"I go, 'Yup.' And it's a compliment, and there is no shame here. And we ripped them off, but we didn't do it on purpose. But we realized it right after. We were, like, 'Oh, that sounds like SEPULTURA. Ahhh, whatever.' It's a tribute to Sepultura — how about that? It's about Brazil. It's about the Amazon. It's tribal."
Track listing
The Roots of Sepultura
The Roots of Sepultura is a double-disc album by Sepultura, released in November 1996. The second disc contains a collection of unreleased tracks, B-sides, alternate mixes, and live recordings. This release differs from Roots and the 2005 25th Anniversary Roots album as the B-sides disc has a different series of tracks. This album includes covers of tracks by Motörhead, Dead Kennedys, Os Mutantes and Ratos de Porão and also includes tracks from their first live home video, Under Siege (Live in Barcelona).
Track listing
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
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Personnel
Sepultura
Max Cavalera – lead vocals, 4 and 6-string rhythm guitar, berimbau
Andreas Kisser – backing vocals, lead guitar, sitar
Paulo Jr. – bass guitar, timbau grandé
Igor Cavalera – drums, percussion, timbau, djembe
Additional personnel
Mike Patton – vocals (on "Lookaway")
David Silveria – drums (on "Ratamahatta")
Carlinhos Brown – vocals, percussion, berimbau, timbau, wood drums, lataria, xequere, surdos (on "Ratamahatta")
Jonathan Davis – vocals (on "Lookaway")
DJ Lethal – turntables (on "Lookaway")
Xavante Tribe – percussion, chanting (on "Itsári")
Recording
Recorded at Indigo Ranch, Malibu, California
Produced by Ross Robinson and Sepultura
Engineered by Chuck Johnson
Additional engineering by Richard Kaplan
Second engineered by Rob Agnello
Mixed by Andy Wallace at Soundtrack Studios, New York City
Mix engineered by Steve Sisco
Mastered by George Marino at Sterling Sound, New York City
References
Further reading
Barcinski, André & Gomes, Silvio (1999). Sepultura: Toda a História. São Paulo: Ed. 34.
Sepultura (1996). Roots. [CD]. New York, NY: Roadrunner Records. The 25th Anniversary Series (2-CD Reissue, 2005).
1996 albums
Roadrunner Records albums
Sepultura albums
Groove metal albums
Nu metal albums by Brazilian artists
Albums produced by Ross Robinson
Albums with cover art by Michael Whelan | [
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222059 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative%20geography%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom | Administrative geography of the United Kingdom | The administrative geography of the United Kingdom is complex, multi-layered and non-uniform. The United Kingdom, a sovereign state to the northwest of continental Europe, consists of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. For local government in the United Kingdom, England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales each have their own system of administrative and geographic demarcation. Consequently, there is "no common stratum of administrative unit encompassing the United Kingdom".
Because there is no written document that comprehensively encompasses the British constitution, and owing to a convoluted history of the formation of the United Kingdom, a variety of terms are used to refer to its constituent parts, which are sometimes called the four countries of the United Kingdom. The four are sometimes collectively referred to as the Home Nations, particularly in sporting contexts. Although the four countries are important for legal and governmental purposes, they are not comparable to administrative subdivisions of most other countries.
The United Kingdom also contains 17 dependent territories which aren't officially a part of the UK but are represented by it in places like the UN.
Historically, the subnational divisions of the UK have been the county and the ecclesiastical parish, whilst following the emergence of a unified parliament of the United Kingdom, the ward and constituency have been pan-UK political subdivisions. More contemporary divisions include Lieutenancy areas and the statistical territories defined with the modern ITL (formerly NUTS) and ISO 3166-2:GB systems.
History
This structure was formed by the union agreed between the former sovereign states, the Kingdom of England (including the Principality of Wales) and the Kingdom of Scotland in the Treaty of Union and enacted by the Acts of Union 1707 to form the single Kingdom of Great Britain (1707–1800); followed by the Act of Union 1800, which combined Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The independence of the Irish Free State in 1922, following the partition of Ireland, resulted in the present-day United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
Wales was incorporated into the English legal system through the Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542, the earlier Statute of Rhuddlan having restricted but not abolished Welsh Law following the Edwardian conquest in 1282. As a result, England and Wales are treated as a single entity for some purposes, principally that they share a legal system (see English law), while Scotland and Northern Ireland each have a separate legal system (see Scots Law and Northern Ireland law).
Northern Ireland was the first part of the British Isles to have a devolved government, under the Government of Ireland Act 1920, and that continued until the Parliament of Northern Ireland was suspended in 1972. After a period of direct rule by the Westminster government and some abortive attempts at reinstating devolved government during the Troubles, the present-day Northern Ireland Assembly was established in 1998, and is currently in operation following a number of periods of suspension. The complex history of Northern Ireland has led to differing views as to its status. The term "Province" is often used by unionist and British commentators to refer to Northern Ireland, but not by nationalists.
Overview of administration
Notes
The markers above link to relevant articles where available.
Can have city, borough or royal borough status
Has a council
Has a legislature
May have a council
Sui generis unitary authority. Not a county nor part of Cornwall. Powers similar to a mainland county.
Can have city, town, village or neighbourhood status. Not all areas of England have parishes.
County council areas comprising one district. The council is at either county or district level.
Local government
England
England has no devolved national legislature or government.
The highest level subdivisions of England are the nine regions. The London region, known as Greater London, is further divided into the City of London and 32 London boroughs. This is administered by the Greater London Authority, including the directly elected London Assembly. The other regions are made up of metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties and unitary authorities. The counties are further divided into districts (which can be called cities, boroughs, royal boroughs, metropolitan boroughs or districts). The unitary authorities effectively combine the functions of counties and districts.
Below the district level, civil parishes exist, though not uniformly. Parish or town councils exist for villages and small towns; they only rarely exist for communities within urban areas.
Commonly, though not administratively, England's geography is divided into ceremonial counties, which in most areas closely mirror the traditional counties. Each ceremonial county has a Lord Lieutenant, who is the monarch's representative.
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland has the Northern Ireland Assembly and Northern Ireland Executive established under the Good Friday Agreement. During periods where the devolved institutions were suspended, executive government in Northern Ireland was administered directly by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland and laws made in the United Kingdom Parliament – known as "direct rule" in contrast to devolution.
For local government, Northern Ireland is divided into 11 districts, which are unitary authorities.
Northern Ireland is divided into six traditional counties. Though widely used, these no longer serve any administrative purpose.
Scotland
Scotland has a devolved legislature, the Scottish Parliament, with a government, the Scottish Executive, since 1999. Since 2007 the Scottish Executive has been called the Scottish government.
For local government, Scotland has 32 council areas (unitary authorities). Below this uniform level of subdivision, there are varying levels of area committees in the larger rural council areas, and many small community councils throughout the country, although these are not universal. Scottish community councils have few if any powers beyond being a forum for raising issues of concern.
Wales
Wales has an elected, devolved legislature, the Senedd (Welsh Parliament; ), from which the Welsh Government is drawn.
For local government, Wales consists of 22 unitary authorities: 10 county boroughs, 9 Counties, and 3 Cities. Below these are community councils, which have powers similar to those of English parish councils.
Wales is also divided into preserved counties, which are used for ceremonial purposes. Although based on the counties used for local government between 1974 and 1996, they no longer have an administrative function.
Democratic representation
Parliaments
In terms of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, each of the 650 electoral areas or divisions called constituencies has since 1950 elected one Member of Parliament (MP) to represent it at the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. Before 1950, some constituencies elected two or more MPs using the plurality bloc vote system, and before the Reform Act 1832 nearly all constituencies in England returned two MPs.
The devolved Scottish Parliament, the Welsh Senedd both use an additional member system of elections, which combines single-member constituencies with multi-member electoral regions.
Elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly are held under the single transferable vote (STV) system, in 18 multi-member constituencies.
Local government
The wards and electoral divisions of the United Kingdom are electoral districts at subnational level represented by one or more councillors at local authority level, or else used to divide the electorate into electoral districts for voting. It is the primary unit of British electoral geography.
Informal divisions
There are also many informal, historical and special purpose regional designations. Some such as the Highlands of Scotland have or have had, to some extent, formal boundaries. Others such as the London commuter belt are more diffuse. Some such as Snowdonia (Eryri) have a formal boundary in some contexts; in this case as a National Park. Others such as The Fens of eastern England are quite distinctly defined by geography but do not form any official entity.
International subdivisions
The UK's Office for National Statistics, the International Organization for Standardization and before 2021 [Eurostat]], have developed subdivision codes for the UK. See ITL (UK) and ISO 3166-2:GB.
Dependent territories
The United Kingdom has 17 dependent territories in total, three "Crown dependencies" in the British Isles and in the English Channel and fourteen "overseas territories" scattered around the world.
Unlike other former colonial powers, the British Government does not classify its overseas possessions (or the crown dependencies, which share historical ties with the British Crown) as subdivisions of the United Kingdom itself; rather, each is treated in law as a separate jurisdiction. Most have their own legislatures and a degree of autonomy usually exceeding that of the devolved UK nations, including fiscal independence.
Out of the 14 overseas territories, 10 are autonomous, two used primarily as military bases, one uninhabited, and one an Antarctic claim.
However, the UK retains varying degrees of responsibility in all of the territories, currently ranging from full political control to a largely ceremonial presence. The main reserved matters are the areas of diplomacy, international treaties, defence and security. The UK also retains in all territories a residual responsibility for 'good governance', a loosely defined constitutional concept recently exemplified by its imposition of direct rule following alleged serious corruption in the Turks and Caicos Islands. The UK parliament at Westminster, and the British Government through the Privy Council, both retain the power to legislate for the overseas territories – though by convention will usually only do so with each local government's consent.
The three crown dependencies within the British Isles are self-governing possessions of the British Crown. They are distinct from the British overseas territories of the United Kingdom.
See also
Countries of the United Kingdom
Devolution in the United Kingdom
European Parliament constituencies in the United Kingdom
British Isles (terminology)
British overseas territories
Crown dependencies
Etymological list of counties of the United Kingdom
List of subnational entities
Office for National Statistics coding system for counties, districts, wards and census areas
List of regions of the United Kingdom by Human Development Index
References
External links
Browsable list of all UK local authorities' contact details and websites on the Business Link website
Beginners' guide to UK geography – administrative geography
Geography of the United Kingdom
Government of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
United Kingdom by country | [
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222062 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empty%20tomb | Empty tomb | The empty tomb is the Christian tradition that women coming to the tomb of Jesus on the third day after his crucifixion found it empty. The story is found in all four gospels, but beyond this basic outline they agree on little. However, the whole death, burial, and resurrection narrative predates the gospels and Paul's letters via oral traditions. The gospel authors' usage of standard literary, historical, and biographical compositional practices of their day along with their use of multiple sources account for much of the differences, which were usually over peripheral details. Mark's Gospel, in its original ending, the women who discover the tomb flee, telling no one, after meeting a young man who he tells them that Jesus will meet the disciples in Galilee; Matthew introduces guards and a curious doublet whereby the women are told twice, by angels and then by Jesus, that he will meet the disciples in Galilee; Luke changes Mark's one "young man" to two, adds Peter's inspection of the tomb, and deletes the promise that Jesus would meet his disciples in Galilee; John reduces the women to the solitary Mary Magdalene and introduces the "beloved disciple" who visits the tomb with Peter and is the first to understand its significance.
Gospel accounts
Overview
Though the gospels detail the narrative, oral traditions existed well before the composition of the gospels on the matter. The four gospels were almost certainly not by eyewitnesses, at least in their final forms, but were instead the end-products of long oral and written transmission. Three of the four, Matthew, Mark and Luke, are called the synoptics (meaning "seeing together"), because they present very similar stories, and it is generally agreed that this is because two of them, Matthew and Luke, have used Mark as their source. The earliest of them, Mark, dates probably from around AD 65–70, some forty years after the death of Jesus, while Matthew and Luke date from around AD 85–90. John, the last gospel to be completed, began circulating between 90 and 110, and its narrative of the empty tomb is not merely a different form of the story told in the synoptics, but after John 20:2 differs to such an extent that it cannot be harmonised with the earlier three.
The synoptics
Mark 16:1-8 tells of the women fleeing from the empty tomb and telling no one what they have seen, and the general scholarly view is that this was the original ending of this gospel, with the remaining verses, Mark 16:9-16, being added later.
The imagery of a young man in a white robe, and the reaction of the women, indicate that this is an encounter with an angel. It probably represents a complete unit of oral tradition taken over by the author. The empty tomb fills the women with fear and alarm, not with faith in the risen Lord, although the mention of a meeting in Galilee is evidence of some sort of previous, pre-Markan, tradition linking Galilee and the resurrection.
Matthew revises Mark's account to make it more convincing and coherent. The description of the angel is taken from Daniel's angel with a face "like the appearance of lightning" (Daniel 10:6) and his God with "raiment white as snow" (Daniel 7:9), and Daniel also provides the reaction of the guards (Daniel 10:7-9). The introduction of the guard is apparently aimed at countering stories that Jesus' body had been stolen by his disciples, thus eliminating any explanation of the empty tomb other than that offered by the angel, that he has been raised. Matthew introduces a curious doublet whereby the women are told twice, by the angels and then by Jesus, that he will meet the disciples in Galilee (Mathew 28:7-10) - the reasons for this are unknown.
Luke changes Mark's one "young man" to two, makes reference to earlier passion predictions (Luke 24:7), and adds Peter's inspection of the tomb. He also deletes the promise that Jesus would meet his disciples in Galilee - in Mark and Matthew Jesus tells the disciples to meet him there, but in Luke the post-resurrection appearances are only in Jerusalem. Mark and Luke tell the reader that the women visited the tomb in order to finish anointing the body of Jesus, but this explanation seems artificial given that it could have been done on the evening of the crucifixion rather than 36 hours later; in Matthew the women came simply to see the tomb, and in John no reason is given. The story ends with Peter (alone, not with the "beloved disciple" as in John) visiting the tomb and seeing the burial cloths, but instead of believing in the resurrection he remains perplexed.
The following table, with translations from the New International Version, allows the three versions to be compared. (Luke 24:12, in which Peter goes to the tomb, may be an addition to the original gospel taken from John's story).
John
John's chapter 20 can be divided into three scenes: (1) the discovery of the empty tomb, verses 1–10; (2) appearance of Jesus to Mary Magdalene, 11–18; and (3) appearances to the disciples, especially Thomas, verses 19–29; the last is not part of the "empty tomb" episode and is not included in the following table. He introduces the "beloved disciple", who visits the tomb with Peter and understands its significance before Peter. The author seems to have combined three traditions, one involving a visit to the tomb by several women early in the morning (of which the "we" in "we do not know where they have taken him" is a fragmentary remnant), a second involving a visit to the empty tomb by Peter and perhaps by other male disciples, and a third involving an appearance of Jesus to Mary Magdalene. John has reduced this to the solitary Mary Magdalene in order to introduce the conversation between her and Jesus, but the presence of "we" when she informs the disciples may be a remnant of the original group of women, since mourning and the preparation of bodies by anointing were social rather than solitary activities.
Origin
Cultural context
Though Jews, Greeks, and Romans all believed in the reality of resurrection, they differed in their interpretations of it. Christians certainly knew of numerous resurrection-events experienced by persons other than Jesus: the early 3rd-century theologian Origen, for example, did not deny the resurrection of the 7th century BCE poet Aristeas or the immortality of Antinous, the beloved of the 2nd century CE emperor Hadrian but said the first had been the work of demons, not God, while the second, unlike Jesus, was unworthy of worship. Christians drew specifically from Jewish resurrection belief, rather than on the myths of Greeks and Romans to form their understanding of Jesus' resurrection.
Composition and classification
The composition and classification of the empty tomb story have been the subject of considerable debate. Several scholars have argued that the empty tomb story in Mark is similar to 'assumption' or 'translation' stories, in which certain special individuals are described as being transported into the divine realm before or after their death. Adela Yarbro Collins, for example, explains the Markan narrative as a Markan deduction from an early Christian belief in the resurrection. She classifies it as a translation story, meaning a story of the removal of a newly-immortal hero to a non-Earthly realm. According to Daniel Smith, a missing body was far more likely to be interpreted as an instance of removal by a divine agent than as an instance of resurrection or resuscitation. However, Smith also notes that certain elements within Mark's empty tomb story are inconsistent with an assumption narrative, most importantly the response to the women from the young man at the tomb: ("He is risen" Mark 16:6). Pointing to the existence in earlier Jewish texts both of the idea of resurrection from the grave and of that of a heavenly assumption of the resurrected, Dale Allison argues that resurrection and assumption are not mutually contradicting ideas, and that the empty tomb story probably involved both from the beginning.
The absence of any reference to the story of Jesus' empty tomb in the Pauline epistles and the Easter kerygma (preaching or proclamation) of the earliest church, originating perhaps in the Christian community of Antioch in the 30s and preserved in 1 Corinthians, has led some scholars to suggest that Mark invented it. Allison, however, finds this argument from silence unconvincing. Most scholars believe that John wrote independently of Mark and that the Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of John contain two independent attestations of an empty tomb, which in turn suggests that both used already-existing sources and appealed to a commonly held tradition, though Mark may have added to and adapted that tradition to fit his narrative. How and why Mark adapts his material is unclear. Smith believes that Mark has adapted two separate traditions of resurrection and disappearance into one Easter narrative.
See also
Church of the Holy Sepulchre
Garden Tomb
Life of Jesus in the New Testament
Resurrection of Jesus
Stolen body hypothesis
Swoon hypothesis
Lost body hypothesis
Substitution hypothesis
References
Citations
Bibliography
Alleged tombs of Jesus
Angelic apparitions in the Bible
Christian terminology
Resurrection of Jesus in the New Testament
Historicity and origin of the Resurrection of Jesus | [
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222063 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wendy%20McElroy | Wendy McElroy | Wendy McElroy (born 1951) is a Canadian individualist feminist and anarcho-capitalist writer. She was a co-founder along with Carl Watner and George H. Smith of The Voluntaryist magazine in 1982 and is the author of a number of books. McElroy is the editor of the website ifeminists.net.
McElroy is the author of the book Rape Culture Hysteria, in which she contends that rape culture is a result of popular hysteria to the disadvantage of men, and in particular, white men.
In November 2014, McElroy was scheduled to debate Jessica Valenti at a Brown University Janus Forum debate on "How Should Colleges Handle Sexual Assault?". Before the debate, Brown President Christina Paxson sent out a campus-wide e-mail saying she disagreed with McElroy's views, and set up an alternative event at the same time to compete with the debate. The actions of Brown students and Paxson were criticized by various commentators.
Published works
Books
National Identification Systems: Essays in Opposition, by Carl Watner, Wendy McElroy, January 1, 2004
Debates of Liberty: An Overview of Individualist Anarchism, 1881–1908, February 1, 2003
Sexual Correctness: The Gender-Feminist Attack on Women, June 2001
Dissenting Electorate: Those Who Refuse to Vote and the Legitimacy of Their Opposition by Carl Watner, Wendy McElroy, January 1, 2001
Individualist Feminism of the Nineteenth Century: Collected Writings and Biographical Profiles, January 1, 2001
Queen Silver: The Godless Girl (Women's Studies (Amherst, N.Y.), Queen Selections Silver, December 1, 1999 – about her friend Queen Selections Silver.
Freedom, Feminism, and the State by Wendy McElroy, Lewis Perry, February 1, 1999
The Reasonable Woman: A Guide to Intellectual Survival, April 1, 1998
XXX: A Woman's Right to Pornography Prelude Press, 1995,
Liberty, 1881–1908: A Comprehensive Index, January 1982
Articles
References
External links
Official Website
Appearances on C-SPAN
1951 births
Living people
20th-century Canadian non-fiction writers
20th-century Canadian women writers
21st-century Canadian non-fiction writers
21st-century Canadian women writers
Anarcho-capitalists
Canadian feminist writers
Canadian libertarians
Canadian political writers
Canadian women non-fiction writers
Female critics of feminism
Feminist critics of feminism
Feminist studies scholars
Individualist feminists
Libertarian theorists
Non-interventionism
Sex-positive feminists
Voluntaryists
Mary Wollstonecraft scholars | [
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222066 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Most-wanted%20Iraqi%20playing%20cards | Most-wanted Iraqi playing cards | During the 2003 invasion of Iraq by a United States-led coalition, the U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency developed a set of playing cards to help troops identify the most-wanted members of President Saddam Hussein's government, mostly high-ranking members of the Iraqi Regional Branch of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party or members of the Revolutionary Command Council; among them were some of Hussein's family members. The cards were officially named the "personality identification playing cards". As of 2021, all but 4 of the 52 most wanted have been either killed or captured, eleven of whom have been released.
About the cards
Each card contains the wanted person's address and, if available, the job performed by that individual. The highest-ranking cards, starting with the aces and kings, were used for the people at the top of the most-wanted list. The ace of spades is Saddam Hussein, the aces of clubs and hearts are his sons Qusay and Uday respectively, and the ace of diamonds is Saddam's presidential secretary Abid Hamid Mahmud al-Tikriti. This strict correspondence to the order of the most-wanted list was not carried through the entire deck, but sometime later in 2003, the list itself was renumbered to conform (almost) to the deck of cards. The card backs feature camouflage reminiscent of that seen on the Desert Camouflage Uniform.
According to US Navy Lieutenant commander Jim Brooks, a spokesman for the Defense Intelligence Agency, such playing cards have been used as far back as the American Civil War and again in World War II—Army Air Corps decks printed with the silhouettes of German and Japanese fighter aircraft fetch hundreds of dollars today—and in the Korean War. Troops often play cards to pass the time, and seeing the names, faces and titles of the wanted Iraqis during their games will help soldiers and Marines in case they run into the wanted individuals in the field, Brooks said.
The list of "Most Wanted" was the result of a multi-intelligence agency collaboration which included the Defense Intelligence Agency, Central Command, and representatives from all US Service Branch Intelligence entities. The "Most Wanted" names were then assigned to their respective cards by five US Army soldiers, 2LT Hans Mumm, SSG Shawn Mahoney, SGT Andrei Salter, SGT Scott Boehmler, and SPC Joseph Barrios, who were assigned to the Defense Intelligence Agency. The pictures used on the cards came from a number of intelligence agencies, but most were derived from "open sources". The deck of cards was first announced publicly in Iraq on 11 April 2003, in a press conference by Army Brig. Gen. Vincent Brooks, deputy director of operations at U.S. Central Command. On that same evening Max Hodges, a Houston-based entrepreneur, found and downloaded a high-resolution artwork file for the deck from a Defense Department web server. Discovering the following day that the file had vanished from the military web server he became the first eBay seller to offer the artwork file, in PDF, which could be used to reproduce the deck. He quickly contracted Gemaco Playing Card Company to print 1,000 decks for about $4,000 and started selling both the decks, in advance of receiving them from the printer, on eBay, Amazon.com and his own web site. When some of his early auctions for a $4 deck of cards quickly rose to over $120, it did not take long for other eBayers to jump on the bandwagon and print or order decks of their own to sell. In just a few days hundreds of sellers materialized and the price dropped to just a few dollars per deck.
Texas-based Liberty Playing Card Co. received an order to manufacture the cards for the U.S. Embassy in Kuwait and by claiming to be "the authorized government contractor" quickly became another popular domestic supplier for the commercial market. The U.S. military inadvertently included in the jokers the trademarked Hoyle joker owned by the United States Playing Card Company of Cincinnati, Ohio. Although The U.S. Playing Card company does not object to the government's use of the image, they do object to other companies using the trademarked image. Thus, in some sense, the U.S. military inadvertently granted The U.S. Playing Card Company exclusive rights to manufacture the authentic decks, if the trademarked images on the jokers are considered a requirement for being authentic.
List of cards
Other
There are also two jokers: one lists Arab tribal titles, the other Iraqi military ranks. There are no cards for most-wanted No. 45 (was #26), Nayif Shindakh Thamir, No. 53 (was #34 – Killed in 2003 or probably still fugitive) Husayn al-Awadi, or No. 54 (was #35) Khamis Sirhan al-Muhammad, captured on 11 January 2004. Al-Muhammad was held for six years before being released on 30 July 2010. He has since fled to Syria where most of the other 6 uncaptured members of the deck of cards are reported to be hiding.
The 13 June 2003 edition of the BBC One satirical news quiz, Have I Got News for You, featured a set of the playing cards in one round, spoofing guest host Bruce Forsyth's 1980s game show Play Your Cards Right (the British version of the American series Card Sharks). The two teams played a version of the latter's main game, retitled Play Your Iraqi Cards Right (although during the segment it was revealed that the writers' first choice had been Play Your Kurds Right), with the same rules (and audience participation). Much of the humour of the round came from the reactions of the two team captains: while Paul Merton was clearly familiar with the game and greatly enjoyed it, his opponent, Ian Hislop, admitted he'd never seen Play Your Cards Right and appeared mystified by the game's rules and etiquette (when at one point Merton and the crowd shouted the traditional cry of "lower, lower," to predict the next card in the hidden sequence, Hislop commented, "I'm not sure this programme could get much lower!")
See also
Archaeology awareness playing cards
Desert Storm trading cards
Manhunt (military)
Mercenaries (video game) – used a similar playing card scheme for enemy leaders.
Sources
External links
Brigadier General Vincent Brooks introduces Iraqi cards at CentComm press conference in Doha, Qatar, 11 April 2003.
"Troops Dealt an Old Tool" by Tom Zucco, St. Petersburg Times, 12 April 2003.
Personality Identification Playing Cards
"Card-Carrying Civilians", ''Time, 12 May 2003, page 25.
Brigadier General Vincent Brooks introduced the first set of Iraqi freedom cards, 11 April 2003
Card Makers Producing 'Most-Wanted' Decks: Company Warns Others About 'Joker' Image, 23 April 2003, ClickOnDetroit.com.
Iraqi Most Wanted Scorecard
Iraq War
Playing cards
Defense Intelligence Agency
Cultural depictions of Saddam Hussein | [
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222068 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subdivisions%20of%20England | Subdivisions of England | The subdivisions of England constitute a hierarchy of administrative divisions and non-administrative ceremonial areas.
Overall, England is divided into nine regions and 48 ceremonial counties, although these have only a limited role in public policy. For the purposes of local government, the country is divided into counties, districts and parishes. In some areas, counties and districts form a two-tier administrative structure, while in others they are combined under a unitary authority. Parishes cover only part of England.
The current system is the result of incremental reform which has its origins in legislation enacted in 1965 and 1972.
Regions
At the highest level, all of England is divided into nine regions that are each made up of a number of counties and districts. These 'government office regions' were created in 1994, and from the 1999 Euro-elections up until the UK's exit of the EU, they were used as the European Parliament constituencies in the United Kingdom and in England's European Parliament constituencies.
The regions vary greatly in their areas covered, populations and contributions to the national economy. All have the same status, except London which has substantive devolved powers.
There was a failed attempt to create elected regional assemblies outside London in 2004 and since then the structures of regional governance (regional assemblies, regional development agencies and local authority leaders' boards) have been subject to review. Following the change of government in 2010, these were scheduled for abolition by 2012.
Local government subdivisions
England has a non-universal structure of local government subdivisions. There are two tiers of local government subdivision - (administrative) counties and districts (known as boroughs in London).
Different local authorities exist across England:
county council
district council
unitary authority
metropolitan district
London borough
Unitary authorities
Outside London and the metropolitan counties, some parts of England are governed by a single council, commonly called (but not named in statute) as a unitary authority. As of February 2022, there are 58 unitary authorities. Unitary authorities are a combined non-metropolitan county and non-metropolitan district, undertaking the functions of both. Unitary authorities can additionally have the status of borough or city, although this has no effect on their powers or functions.
There is a general push towards the reorganisation of English local government as unitary authorities. Often reorganisation is a condition of the devolution of new powers.
46 unitary authorities were created between 1995 and 1998 and nine more were created in 2009, followed by further changes in 2019, 2020 and 2021. They were formed either by non-metropolitan districts taking on county-level functions, or by counties taking on district-level functions. In some cases, borders were altered or districts were combined during this reorganisation. Berkshire is an anomaly in this arrangement whereby its districts became unitary authorities, but the non-metropolitan county was not formally abolished.
For ceremonial purposes, unitary authorities are considered to be part of the county to which they formerly belonged. Politically, however, they are fully independent entities, unaffiliated with the council of their former county. For instance, the unitary authority of Plymouth is traditionally considered part of Devon, though politically it is not part of the county. In the case of Berkshire, there is no county council, as all of its former territory is now covered by six unitary authorities, unaffiliated with each other politically. Although there is no county council in Berkshire, these six unitary authorities comprise the ceremonial county of Berkshire.
Isles of Scilly
The Isles of Scilly are governed by a sui generis local authority called the Council of the Isles of Scilly. The authority was established in 1890 as the Isles of Scilly Rural District Council. It was renamed but otherwise unreformed by the changes in local government that occurred in 1974 in the rest of England outside Greater London. Although effectively a unitary authority, for example it is an education authority, the Isles of Scilly are part of the Cornwall ceremonial county and combine with Cornwall Council for services such as health and economic development.
Two-tier counties
Most of the geographical area of England is within a two-tier non-metropolitan arrangement. In 24 of these areas the county councils provide the majority of services, including education and social services, and the 181 district councils have a more limited role. Non-metropolitan districts can additionally have the status of borough or city, although this has no effect on their powers or functions. Every two-tier non-metropolitan county forms either the whole or a part of a ceremonial county of the same name. Berkshire is an anomaly in this arrangement whereby its districts are unitary authorities, but the non-metropolitan county was not formally abolished and it is also a ceremonial county. Bedfordshire and Cheshire are two former non-metropolitan counties that continue to exist only as ceremonial counties.
Metropolitan counties
Six large conurbations of England correspond to metropolitan counties. Each metropolitan county had a county council providing limited strategic services, such as public transport and planning, from 1974 to 1986. Despite no longer having county councils the metropolitan counties still legally exist, and are each a ceremonial county. County-level functions, such as public transport, are exercised by joint-boards and other arrangements organised by the district councils. In the metropolitan counties, the 36 district councils operate effectively as unitary authorities and provide the majority of services, including education and social services. All metropolitan districts additionally have the status of borough, and some are cities, although this has no effect on their powers or functions. From April 2011 there has been a formal upper-tier structure in Greater Manchester with the creation of the Greater Manchester Combined Authority.
London
The Greater London administrative area created in 1965 corresponds to the London region. Through incremental change, culminating in 2000, the upper-tier authority is the Greater London Authority, comprising an elected Mayor of London and the London Assembly. Greater London is divided into 32 London boroughs, also dating from 1965, each governed by a London borough council. The ancient City of London forms a 33rd division and is governed by the City of London Corporation, a sui generis authority unlike any other in England that has largely avoided any of the reforms of local government in the 19th and 20th centuries. The City of London, and the rest of Greater London, each form a ceremonial county. The London borough councils and the City of London Corporation provide the majority of services, for example they are education authorities and co-ordinate waste management, whereas the Greater London Authority is responsible for the key strategic services of public transport, the police, economic development and emergency planning.
Ceremonial and historic counties
For non-administrative purposes, England is wholly divided into 48 counties, commonly known, but not named in statute, as ceremonial counties. These counties are used for the purposes of appointing Lords Lieutenant who are historically the Crown's representatives in those areas. Ceremonial counties are often different from the metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties used for local government as they include the areas covered by unitary authorities. They are taken into consideration when drawing up Parliamentary constituency boundaries.
Civil parishes
The civil parish is the most local unit of government in England. A parish is governed by a parish council or parish meeting, which exercises a limited number of functions that would otherwise be delivered by the local authority. There is one civil parish in Greater London (Queen's Park, in the City of Westminster), and not all of the rest of England is parished. The number of parishes and total area parished is growing.
Lists of subdivisions
Regions
Two-tier non-metropolitan counties
Metropolitan counties
London
Unitary authorities
Civil parishes
List of civil parishes in England
Hierarchical list of regions, counties and districts
See also
Combined authority
Notes
Also a ceremonial county of identical area.
Also a ceremonial county covering a larger area.
Cumbria, Hertfordshire, Norfolk, Northamptonshire, Oxfordshire, Suffolk, Surrey, Warwickshire, West Sussex and Worcestershire occupy the same area as the ceremonial county; Buckinghamshire, Cambridgeshire, Derbyshire, Devon, Dorset, East Sussex, Essex, Gloucestershire, Hampshire, Kent, Lancashire, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, North Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, Somerset and Staffordshire are larger for ceremonial purposes, being combined with one or more unitary authorities.
Metropolitan (36); non-metropolitan two-tier (188); unitary authority (56); London borough (32); sui generis (2).
Berkshire has no county council and the districts function as unitary authorities.
References
External links
Map of the UK counties and unitary administrations
Map of all UK local authorities | [
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222069 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20presidential%20debates | United States presidential debates | During presidential election campaigns in the United States, it has become customary for the candidates to engage in a debate. The topics discussed in the debate are often the most controversial issues of the time, and arguably elections have been nearly decided by these debates. Candidate debates are not constitutionally mandated, but they are now considered an intrinsic part of the election process. The debates are targeted mainly at undecided voters; those who tend not to be partial to any political ideology or party.
Presidential debates are held late in the election cycle, after the political parties have nominated their candidates. The candidates meet in a large hall, often at a university, before an audience of citizens. The formats of the debates have varied, with questions sometimes posed from one or more journalist moderators and in other cases members of the audience. The debate formats established during the 1988 through 2000 campaigns were governed in detail by secret memoranda of understanding (MOU) between the two major candidates; the MOU for the 2004 debates was, unlike the earlier agreements, jointly released to the public by the participants.
Debates have been broadcast live on television, radio, and in recent years, the web. The first debate for the 1960 election drew over 66 million viewers out of a population of 179 million, making it one of the most-watched broadcasts in U.S. television history. The 1980 debates drew 80 million viewers out of a population of 226 million. Recent debates have drawn smaller audiences, ranging from 46 million for the first 2000 debate to a high of over 67 million for the first debate in 2012. A record-breaking audience of over 84 million people watched the first 2016 presidential debate between Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton, a number that does not reflect online streaming.
Background
While the first general presidential debate was not held until 1960, several other debates are considered predecessors to the presidential debates.
Lincoln–Douglas debates
The series of seven debates in 1858 between Abraham Lincoln and Senator Stephen A. Douglas for U.S. Senate were true, face-to-face debates, with no moderator; the candidates took it in turns to open each debate with a one-hour speech, then the other candidate had an hour and a half to rebut, and finally the first candidate closed the debate with a half-hour response. Douglas was later re-elected to the Senate by the Illinois legislature. Lincoln and Douglas were both nominated for president in 1860 (by the Republicans and Northern Democrats, respectively), and their earlier debates helped define their respective positions in that election, but they did not meet during the campaign.
Early presidential primary candidate debates
Wendell Willkie became the first 20th century presidential candidate to challenge his opponent to a face to face debate when in 1940 he challenged President Franklin D. Roosevelt, but Roosevelt refused. In 1948, presidential candidate debates became a reality when a radio debate was held in Oregon between Republicans Thomas E. Dewey and Harold Stassen during the party's presidential primary. The Democrats followed suit in 1956 with a televised presidential primary debate between Adlai Stevenson and Estes Kefauver, and in 1960 by one between John F. Kennedy and Hubert Humphrey.
Presidential debate history
In 1956, University of Maryland student Fred Kahn led an effort to bring the two major presidential candidates—Adlai Stevenson, the Democratic nominee, and President Dwight Eisenhower, the Republican nominee—to the campus for a debate. Various newspapers were contacted and numerous letters were sent in an effort to generate interest and garner support for the proposal. Former first lady Eleanor Roosevelt was among those who received a letter. She replied, Kahn told Guy Raz, during an All Things Considered interview on NPR in 2012, saying, "not only would the students of the University of Maryland be interested, but also other students." Roosevelt also said that she was going to forward Kahn's letter to James Finnegan, Adlai Stevenson's campaign manager. In the end, no debate took place. However, Kahn's effort did receive national press exposure, and thus helped lay groundwork for the Kennedy–Nixon debates four years later during the 1960 presidential campaign.
1960 Kennedy–Nixon debates
The first general election presidential debate was 1960 United States presidential debates, held on September 26, 1960, between U.S. Senator John F. Kennedy, the Democratic nominee, and Vice President Richard Nixon, the Republican nominee, in Chicago at the studios of CBS's WBBM-TV. It was moderated by Howard K. Smith and included a panel composed of Sander Vanocur of NBC News, Charles Warren of Mutual News, Stuart Novins of CBS, and Bob Fleming of ABC News. At the outset, Nixon was considered to have the upper hand due to his knowledge of foreign policy and proficiency in radio debates. However, because of his unfamiliarity with the new format of televised debates, factors such as his underweight and pale appearance, his suit color blending in with the debate set background, and his refusal to use television makeup resulting in a five o'clock shadow, led to his defeat. Many observers have regarded Kennedy's win over Nixon in the first debate as a turning point in the election. After the first debate, polls showed Kennedy moving from a slight deficit into a slight lead over Nixon.
Three more debates were subsequently held between the candidates: on October 7 at the WRC-TV NBC studio in Washington, D.C., narrated by Frank McGee with a panel of four newsmen Paul Niven, CBS; Edward P. Morgan, ABC; Alvin Spivak, UPI; Harold R. Levy, Newsday; October 13, with Nixon at the ABC studio in Los Angeles and Kennedy at the ABC studio in New York, narrated by Bill Shadel with a panel of four newsmen in a different Los Angeles studio; and October 21 at the ABC studio in New York, narrated by Quincy Howe with a panel of four including Frank Singiser, John Edwards, Walter Cronkite, and John Chancellor. Nixon regained his lost weight, wore television makeup, and appeared more forceful than in his initial appearance, winning the second and third debates while the fourth was a draw, however the viewership numbers of these subsequent events did not match the high set by the first debate.
Since 1976
After the Kennedy–Nixon debates, it was 16 years before general election presidential candidates again debated each other face to face. During this interval intra-party debates were held during the 1968 Democratic primaries, between Robert F. Kennedy and Eugene McCarthy, and again during the 1972 Democratic primaries, between George McGovern, Hubert Humphrey and others.
The next presidential candidates debates occurred during the 1976 campaign, when President Gerald Ford, who had entered office two years earlier after President Nixon resigned, agreed to three debates with his Democratic challenger, Jimmy Carter. The 1976 debates (one on domestic issues, one on foreign policy, and one on any topic) were held before studio audiences, and, like the 1960 debates, were televised nationally. The League of Women Voters sponsored the debates. This was a change from the Kennedy–Nixon debates, which had been sponsored by the television networks themselves. In addition to 1976, the League also sponsored the debates held in 1980 and in 1984.
Roughly an hour into the first televised debate, the broadcast audio coming from the Walnut Street Theatre and fed to all networks suddenly cut out, effectively muting the candidates in the middle of a statement by Carter. The two candidates were initially unaware of this technical glitch and continued to debate, unheard to the television audience. They were soon informed of this problem, and proceeded to stand still and silently at their podiums for about 27 minutes, until the problem, a blown capacitor, was located and fixed, in time for Carter to briefly finish the statement he had begun when the audio cut out, and for both candidates to issue closing statements.
The dramatic effect of televised presidential debates was demonstrated again in the 1976 debates between Ford and Carter. Ford had already cut into Carter's large lead in the polls, and was generally viewed as having won the first debate on domestic policy. Polls released after this first debate indicated the race was even. However, in the second debate on foreign policy, Ford made what was widely viewed as a major blunder when he said "There is no Soviet domination of Eastern Europe and there never will be under a Ford administration." After this, Ford's momentum stalled, and Carter won a very close election.
Debates were a major factor again in 1980. Earlier in the election season, President Carter held a substantial lead over his opponents. Three debates between Carter, former California Governor Ronald Reagan and Illinois Congressman John B. Anderson (who was running as an independent), were originally scheduled; along with a single vice presidential debate between incumbent Walter Mondale, former CIA Director George Bush, and former Wisconsin Governor Patrick Joseph Lucey. Carter refused to debate if Anderson was present and Reagan refused to debate without Anderson, resulting in the first debate being between Reagan and Anderson only. The second debate and the Vice Presidential debate were both cancelled. Reagan eventually conceded to Carter's demand and a single debate took place with only Carter and Reagan. With years of experience in front of a camera as an actor, Reagan came across much better than Carter in the debate and was judged by voters to have won by a wide margin. Reagan's debate performance likely helped propel his landslide victory in the general election.
The Reagan campaign had access to internal debate briefing materials for Carter; the exposure of this in 1983 led to a public scandal called "Debategate".
In 1984, former Vice President Walter Mondale won the first debate over President Ronald Reagan, generating much-needed donations to Mondale's lagging campaign. The second presidential debate was held on October 21, 1984, where Ronald Reagan used a joke, "I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience", which effectively stalled Mondale's momentum.
Since 1976, each presidential election has featured a series of presidential debates. Vice presidential debates have been held regularly since 1984. Vice Presidential debates have been largely uneventful and have historically had little impact on the election. Perhaps the most memorable moment in a vice presidential debate came in the 1988 debate between Republican Dan Quayle and Democrat Lloyd Bentsen. Quayle's selection by the incumbent vice-president and Republican presidential candidate George Bush was widely criticized; one reason being his relative lack of experience. In the debate, Quayle attempted to ease this fear by stating that he had as much experience as John F. Kennedy did when he ran for president in 1960. Democrat Bentsen countered with the now famous statement: "Senator, I served with Jack Kennedy. I knew Jack Kennedy. Jack Kennedy was a friend of mine. Senator, you're no Jack Kennedy."
The year 1992 featured the first debate involving both major-party candidates and a third-party candidate, billionaire Ross Perot running against President Bush and the Democrat nominee Governor Bill Clinton. In that year, President Bush was criticized for his early hesitation to join the debates, and some described him as a "chicken." Furthermore, he was criticized for looking at his watch which aides initially said was meant to track if the other candidates were debating within their time limits but ultimately it was revealed that the president indeed was checking how much time was left in the debate.
Moderators of nationally televised presidential debates have included Bernard Shaw, Bill Moyers, Jim Lehrer, and Barbara Walters.
Saint Anselm College has hosted four primary debates throughout 2004 and 2008; it is a favorite for campaign stops and these national debates because of the college's history in the New Hampshire primary.
Washington University in St. Louis, however, has hosted the presidential debates (organized by the Commission on Presidential Debates) three times (in 1992, 2000, and 2004), more than any other location prior to 2016, and it has been selected to host one of the 2016 debates. The university was also scheduled to host a debate in 1996, but it was later negotiated between the two presidential candidates to reduce the number of debates from three to two. The university hosted the only 2008 vice presidential debate, as well.
Hofstra University, originally an alternate site, was named the host of the first presidential debate in 2016, after Wright State University withdrew with eight weeks remaining. This positioned Hofstra to be the only school to host presidential debates in three consecutive campaign cycles.
Rules and format
Some of the debates can feature the candidates standing behind their podiums, or in conference tables with the moderator on the other side. Depending on the agreed format, either the moderator or an audience member can be the one to ask questions. Typically there are no opening statements, just closing statements.
A coin toss determines who gets to answer the first question and who will make their closing remarks first. Each candidate will get alternate turns. Once a question is asked, the candidate has 2 minutes to answer the question. After this, the opposing candidate has around 1 minute to respond and rebut her/his arguments. At the moderator's discretion, the discussion of the question may be extended by 30 seconds per candidate.
In recent debates, colored lights resembling traffic lights have been installed to aid the candidate as to the time left with green indicating 30 seconds, yellow indicating 15 seconds and red indicating only 5 seconds are left. If necessary, a buzzer may be used or a flag.
Debate sponsorship
Control of the presidential debates has been a ground of struggle for more than two decades. The role was filled by the nonpartisan League of Women Voters (LWV) civic organization in 1976, 1980 and 1984. In 1987, the LWV withdrew from debate sponsorship, in protest of the major party candidates attempting to dictate nearly every aspect of how the debates were conducted. On October 2, 1988, the LWV's 14 trustees voted unanimously to pull out of the debates, and on October 3 they issued a press release:
The League of Women Voters is withdrawing sponsorship of the presidential debates...because the demands of the two campaign organizations would perpetrate a fraud on the American voter. It has become clear to us that the candidates' organizations aim to add debates to their list of campaign-trail charades devoid of substance, spontaneity and answers to tough questions. The League has no intention of becoming an accessory to the hoodwinking of the American public.
According to the LWV, they pulled out because "the campaigns presented the League with their debate agreement on September 28, two weeks before the scheduled debate. The campaigns' agreement was negotiated 'behind closed doors' ... [with] 16 pages of conditions not subject to negotiation. Most objectionable to the League...were conditions in the agreement that gave the campaigns unprecedented control over the proceedings.... [including] control the selection of questioners, the composition of the audience, hall access for the press and other issues."
The same year the two major political parties assumed control of organizing presidential debates through the Commission on Presidential Debates (CPD). The commission has been headed since its inception by former chairs of the Democratic National Committee and Republican National Committee.
Some have criticized the exclusion of third party and independent candidates as contributing to lower results for candidates such as the Libertarian Party or the Green Party. Others criticize the parallel interview format as a minimum of getting 15 percent in opinion polls of the CPD's choosing is required to be invited. In 2004, the Citizens' Debate Commission (CDC) was formed with the stated mission of returning control of the debates to an independent nonpartisan body rather than a bipartisan body. Nevertheless, the CPD retained control of the debates that year and in 2008.
Timeline
Source: Commission on Presidential Debates – Debate history
Sponsors, locations, moderators, panelists and viewership
Notes
References
Further reading
Moore, John L.: Elections A to Z, Second Edition; CQ Press, Washington 2003
Patterson, Thomas E.: Views of Winners & Losers" in Graber, Doris A.: "Media Power in Politics; Congressional Quarterly Inc., Washington 1990, p. 178
Rutenberg, Jim: "The Post-Debate Contest: Swaying Perceptions"; The New York Times, October 4, 2004, p. 1
External links
Commission on Presidential Debates
Transcripts
History of Televised Presidential Debates, Museum of Broadcast Communications, Chicago
Debating our Destiny on PBS NewsHour, 2000 and 2008 programs
Dumbing Down the Public: Why it Matters, commentary on language level in presidential debates, Diane Ravitch, January 15, 2001
Corpus of Political Speeches Free access to political speeches by American and other politicians, developed by Hong Kong Baptist University Library
Debate critics and activists
Open Debates, a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization devoted to presidential debates
A Blueprint for Fair and Open Presidential Debates in 2000, The Appleseed Citizens' Task Force on Fair Debates
"The Commission on Presidential Debates' Exclusion of Vital Issues" in the 2000 debates
The Citizens' Debate Commission's proposal for 2004 debates
Heads or Tails: You Lose, article on the Commission on Presidential Debates and corporate influence
Election Central, the latest in common election trends, news and debates | [
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222074 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarcha-feminism | Anarcha-feminism | Anarcha-feminism, also referred to as anarchist feminism, is a system of analysis which combines the principles and power analysis of anarchist theory with feminism. Anarcha-feminism closely resembles intersectional feminism. Anarcha-feminism generally posits that patriarchy and traditional gender roles as manifestations of involuntary coercive hierarchy should be replaced by decentralized free association. Anarcha-feminists believe that the struggle against patriarchy is an essential part of class conflict and the anarchist struggle against the state and capitalism. In essence, the philosophy sees anarchist struggle as a necessary component of feminist struggle and vice versa. L. Susan Brown claims that "as anarchism is a political philosophy that opposes all relationships of power, it is inherently feminist".
Anarcha-feminism is an anti-authoritarian, anti-capitalist, anti-oppressive philosophy, with the goal of creating an "equal ground" between all genders. Anarcha-feminism suggests the social freedom and liberty of women without needed dependence upon other groups or parties.
Origins
Mikhail Bakunin opposed patriarchy and the way the law "[subjected women] to the absolute domination of the man". He argued that "[e]qual rights must belong to men and women" so that women could "become independent and be free to forge their own way of life". Bakunin foresaw the end of "the authoritarian juridicial family" and "the full sexual freedom of women". On the other hand, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon viewed the family as the most basic unit of society and of his morality and believed that women had the responsibility of fulfilling a traditional role within the family.
Since the 1860s, anarchism's radical critique of capitalism and the state has been combined with a critique of patriarchy. Anarcha-feminists thus start from the precept that modern society is dominated by men. Authoritarian traits and values—domination, exploitation, aggression and competition—are integral to hierarchical civilizations and are seen as "masculine". In contrast, non-authoritarian traits and values—cooperation, sharing, compassion and sensitivity—are regarded as "feminine" and devalued. Anarcha-feminists have thus espoused creation of a non-authoritarian, anarchist society. They refer to the creation of a society based on cooperation, sharing and mutual aid as the "feminization of society".
Anarcha-feminism began with late 19th and early 20th century authors and theorists such as anarchist feminists Emma Goldman, Voltairine de Cleyre and Lucy Parsons. In the Spanish Civil War, an anarcha-feminist group, ("Free Women"), linked to the , organized to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas. According to author Robert Kern, the Spanish anarchist Federica Montseny held that the "emancipation of women would lead to a quicker realization of the social revolution" and that "the revolution against sexism would have to come from intellectual and militant 'future-women'. According to this Nietzschean concept ... women could realize through art and literature the need to revise their own roles". In China, the anarcha-feminist He Zhen argued that without women's liberation society could not be liberated.
Opposition to traditional concepts of family
An important aspect of anarcha-feminism is its opposition to traditional concepts of family, education and gender roles. The institution of marriage is one of the most widely opposed. De Cleyre argued that marriage stifled individual growth and Goldman argued that it "is primarily an economic arrangement ... [woman] pays for it with her name, her privacy, her self-respect, her very life". Anarcha-feminists have also argued for non-hierarchical family and educational structures and had a prominent role in the creation of the Modern School in New York City, based on the ideas of Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia.
Virginia Bolten and La Voz de la Mujer
In Argentina, Virginia Bolten is responsible for the publication of a newspaper called (), which was published nine times in Rosario between 8 January 1896 and 1 January 1897 and was briefly revived in 1901. A similar paper with the same name was reportedly published later in Montevideo, which suggests that Bolten may also have founded and edited it after her deportation.
La Voz de la Mujer described itself as "dedicated to the advancement of Communist Anarchism". Its central theme was the multiple natures of women's oppression. An editorial asserted: "We believe that in present-day society, nothing and nobody has a more wretched situation than unfortunate women." They said that women were doubly oppressed by both bourgeois society and men. Its beliefs can be seen from its attack on marriage and upon male power over women. Its contributors, like anarchist feminists elsewhere, developed a concept of oppression that focused on gender. They saw marriage as a bourgeois institution which restricted women's freedom, including their sexual freedom. Marriages entered into without love, fidelity maintained through fear rather than desire and oppression of women by men they hated were all seen as symptomatic of the coercion implied by the marriage contract. It was this alienation of the individual's will that the anarchist feminists deplored and sought to remedy, initially through free love and then more thoroughly through social revolution.
Individualist anarchism and the free love movement
An important topic within individualist anarchism is free love. Free love advocates sometimes traced their roots back to Josiah Warren and to experimental communities, which viewed sexual freedom as a clear, direct expression of an individual's self-ownership. Free love particularly stressed women's rights since most sexual laws discriminated against women, such as marriage laws and anti-birth control measures.
The most important American free love journal was Lucifer the Lightbearer (1883–1907), edited by Moses Harman and Lois Waisbrooker. Ezra and Angela Heywood's The Word was also published from 1872–1890 and in 1892–1893. M. E. Lazarus was also an important American individualist anarchist who promoted free love. In Europe, the main propagandist of free love within individualist anarchism was Émile Armand. He proposed the concept of "" to speak of free love as the possibility of voluntary sexual encounter between consenting adults. He was also a consistent proponent of polyamory. In France, there was also feminist activity inside French individualist anarchism as promoted by individualist feminists Marie Küge, Anna Mahé, Rirette Maîtrejean and Sophia Zaïkovska.
Brazilian individualist anarchist Maria Lacerda de Moura lectured on topics such as education, women's rights, free love and antimilitarism. Her writings and essays landed her attention not only in Brazil, but also in Argentina and Uruguay. In February 1923, she launched , a periodical linked with the anarchist, progressive and freethinking circles of the period. Her thought was mainly influenced by individualist anarchists such as Han Ryner and Émile Armand.
Voltairine de Cleyre
Voltairine de Cleyre was an American anarchist and feminist who Emma Goldman once called the country's most talented anarchist woman. She was a prolific writer and speaker, opposing domination of the state, men, marriage, and religion in sexuality and women's lives. She began her activist career in the freethought movement and individualist anarchism, she evolved through mutualism to an anarchism without adjectives. In her 1895 lecture entitled Sex Slavery, de Cleyre condemns ideals of beauty that encourage women to distort their bodies and child socialization practices that create unnatural gender roles. The title of the essay refers not to traffic in women for purposes of prostitution, although that is also mentioned, but rather to marriage laws that allow men to rape their wives without consequences. Such laws make "every married woman what she is, a bonded slave, who takes her master's name, her master's bread, her master's commands, and serves her master's passions".
Emma Goldman
Although hostile to first-wave feminism and its suffragist goals, Emma Goldman advocated passionately for the rights of women and is today heralded as a founder of anarcha-feminism. In 1897, she wrote: "I demand the independence of woman, her right to support herself; to live for herself; to love whomever she pleases, or as many as she pleases. I demand freedom for both sexes, freedom of action, freedom in love and freedom in motherhood." In 1906, Goldman wrote a piece entitled "The Tragedy of Woman's Emancipation" in which she argued that traditional suffragists and first-wave feminists were achieving only a superficial good for women by pursuing the vote and a movement from the home sphere. She also writes that in the ideal world women would be free to pursue their own destinies, yet "emancipation of woman, as interpreted and practically applied today, has failed to reach that great end". She pointed to the "so-called independence" of the modern woman whose true nature—her love and mother instincts—were rebuked and stifled by the suffragist and early feminist movements. Goldman's arguments in this text are arguably much more in line with the ideals of modern third-wave feminism than with the feminism of her time, especially given her emphasis on allowing women to pursue marriage and motherhood if they so desired. In Goldman's eyes, the early twentieth century idea of the emancipated woman had a "tragic effect upon the inner life of woman" by restricting her from fully fulfilling her nature and having a well-rounded life with a companion in marriage.
A nurse by training, Goldman was an early advocate for educating women about birth control. Like many contemporary feminists, she saw abortion as a tragic consequence of social conditions and birth control as a positive alternative. Goldman was also an advocate of free love and a strong critic of marriage. She saw early feminists as confined in their scope and bounded by social forces of Puritanism and capitalism. She wrote: "We are in need of unhampered growth out of old traditions and habits. The movement for women's emancipation has so far made but the first step in that direction." When Margaret Sanger, an advocate of access to birth control, coined the term "birth control" and disseminated information about various methods in the June 1914 issue of her magazine The Woman Rebel, she received aggressive support from Goldman. Sanger was arrested in August under the Comstock laws, which prohibited the dissemination of "obscene, lewd, or lascivious articles", including information relating to birth control. Although they later split from Sanger over charges of insufficient support, Goldman and Reitman distributed copies of Sanger's pamphlet Family Limitation (along with a similar essay of Reitman's). In 1915, Goldman conducted a nationwide speaking tour in part to raise awareness about contraception options. Although the nation's attitude toward the topic seemed to be liberalizing, Goldman was arrested in February 1916 and charged with violation of the Comstock Law. Refusing to pay a $100 fine, she spent two weeks in a prison workhouse, which she saw as an "opportunity" to reconnect with those rejected by society.
Goldman was also an outspoken critic of homophobia and prejudice against homosexuals. Her belief that social liberation should extend to gay men and lesbians was virtually unheard of at the time, even among anarchists. As Magnus Hirschfeld wrote, "she was the first and only woman, indeed the first and only American, to take up the defense of homosexual love before the general public". In numerous speeches and letters, she defended the right of gay men and lesbians to love as they pleased and condemned the fear and stigma associated with homosexuality. As Goldman wrote in a letter to Hirschfeld: "It is a tragedy, I feel, that people of a different sexual type are caught in a world which shows so little understanding for homosexuals and is so crassly indifferent to the various gradations and variations of gender and their great significance in life."
Milly Witkop
Milly Witkop was a Ukrainian-born Jewish anarcho-syndicalist, feminist writer and activist. She was the common-law wife of Rudolf Rocker. In November 1918, Witkop and Rocker moved to Berlin; Rocker had been invited by Free Association of German Trade Unions (FVdG) chairman Fritz Kater to join him in building up what would become the Free Workers' Union of Germany (FAUD), an anarcho-syndicalist trade union. Both Rocker and Witkop became members of the FAUD. After its founding in early 1919, a discussion about the role of girls and women in the union started. The male-dominated organization had at first ignored gender issues, but soon women started founding their own unions, which were organized parallel to the regular unions, but still formed part of the FAUD. Witkop was one of the leading founders of the Women's Union in Berlin in 1920. On 15 October 1921, the women's unions held a national congress in Düsseldorf and the Syndicalist Women's Union (SFB) was founded on a national level. Shortly thereafter, Witkop drafted Was will der Syndikalistische Frauenbund? (What Does the Syndicalist Women's Union Want?) as a platform for the SFB. From 1921, the Frauenbund was published as a supplement to the FAUD organ Der Syndikalist, Witkop was one of its primary writers.
Witkop reasoned that proletarian women were exploited not only by capitalism like male workers, but also by their male counterparts. She contended therefore that women must actively fight for their rights, much like workers must fight capitalism for theirs. She also insisted on the necessity of women taking part in class struggle and that housewives could use boycotts to support this struggle. From this, she concluded the necessity of an autonomous women's organization in the FAUD. Witkop also held that domestic work should be deemed equally valuable to wage labor.
() was an anarchist women's organization in Spain that aimed to empower working class women. It was founded in 1936 by Lucía Sánchez Saornil, Mercedes Comaposada and Amparo Poch y Gascón and had approximately 30,000 members. The organization was based on the idea of a "double struggle" for women's liberation and social revolution and argued that the two objectives were equally important and should be pursued in parallel. In order to gain mutual support, they created networks of women anarchists. Flying day-care centres were set up in efforts to involve more women in union activities.
The organization also produced propaganda through radio, traveling libraries and propaganda tours in order to promote their cause. Organizers and activists traveled through rural parts of Spain to set up rural collectives and support for women. To prepare women for leadership roles in the anarchist movement, they organized schools, women-only social groups and a women-only newspaper to help women gain self-esteem and confidence in their abilities and network with one another to develop their political consciousness. Many of the female workers in Spain were illiterate and the Mujeres Libres sought to educate them through literacy programs, technically oriented classes and social studies classes. Schools were also created for train nurses to help injured in emergency medical clinics. Medical classes also provided women with information on sexual health and pre and post-natal care. The Mujeres Libres also created a woman run magazine to keep all of its members informed. The first monthly issue of Mujeres Libres was published on May 20, 1936 (ack 100). However, the magazine only had 14 issues and the last issue was still being printed when the Spanish Civil War battlefront reached Barcelona, and no copies survived. The magazine addressed working class women and focused on "awakening the female conscience toward libertarian ideas".
Lucía Sánchez Saornil
Lucía Sánchez Saornil was a Spanish anarchist, feminist and poet, who is best known as one of the founders of Mujeres Libres. She served in the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and Solidaridad Internacional Antifascista (SIA). By 1919, she had been published in a variety of journals, including Los Quijotes, Tableros, Plural, Manantial and La Gaceta Literaria. Working under a male pen name at a time when homosexuality was criminalized and subject to censorship and punishment, she was able to explore lesbian themes. In the 1930s, she was an outspoken voice for women and against defining women by their reproductive capacity.
Italian migrant women
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Paterson, New Jersey, was a major center of the anarchist movement. Most of the anarchists in the area were Italian migrants who worked in the mills and women played an important role in the movement.
Northern Italian migrants Maria Roda, Ernestina Cravello and Ninfa Baronio founded Paterson's Gruppo Emancipazione della Donna (Women's Emancipation Group) in 1897. The group gave lectures, wrote for the anarchist press, and published pamphlets. They also formed the Club Femminile de Musica e di Canto (Women's Music and Song Club) and the Teatro Sociale (Social Theater). The Teatro performed plays which challenged Catholic sexual morality and called for the emancipation of women. Their plays stood in marked contrast to other radical works in which women were depicted as victims in need of rescuing by male revolutionaries. They often traveled to perform their plays, and connected with other Italian anarchist women in Hoboken, Brooklyn, Manhattan and New London, Connecticut. The Paterson group met regularly for about seven years and inspired other women to form similar groups. Their Southern Italian contemporaries included Elvira Catello in East Harlem, who ran a popular theater group and a radical bookstore; Maria Raffuzzi in Manhattan, who co-founded Il Gruppo di Propaganda Femminile (Women's Propaganda Group) in 1901; and Maria Barbieri, an anarchist orator who helped organize the silk workers in Paterson.
Anarchist Italian women such as Maria Roda flouted convention and Catholic teaching by rejecting traditional marriage in favor of "free unions". In practice, these unions often turned out to be lifelong and monogamous, with the division of labor falling along traditional lines. The anarchist writer Ersilia Cavedagni believed that "the woman is and will always be the educator of the family, that which has and will always have the most direct and the most important influence on the children".
Contemporary developments
1970s
In the pamphlet Anarchism: The Feminist Connection (1975), Peggy Kornegger uses three major principles to define anarchism:
"Belief in the abolition of authority, hierarchy, government."
"Belief in both individuality and collectivity."
"Belief in both spontaneity and organization."
She uses the example of an anarchist tradition in Spain leading to spontaneous appropriation of factories and land during the Spanish Civil War to highlight the possibility of collective revolutionary change, and the failure of the 1968 French strike to highlight the problems of inadequate preparation and left-wing authoritarianism. Kornegger links the necessity of a specifically feminist anarchist revolution not only to the subjection of women by male anarchists, but also to the necessity of replacing hierarchical "subject/object" relationships with "subject-to-subject" relationships.
In a critique of Jo Freeman's essay "The Tyranny of Structurelessness", Cathy Levine stated that feminists often practiced anarchist organizing ethics in the 1970s, as "all across the country independent groups of women began functioning without the structure, leaders and other factotums of the male Left, creating independently and simultaneously, organisations similar to those of anarchists of many decades and locales". This was as a counter to dominant Marxist forms of organizing that were hierarchical and authoritarian.
West Germany
A prominent example for this gives the founding of the in 1973: "We simply skipped the step of a theoretical platform, which was a must in other groups. Even before this meeting there was a consensus, so that we didn't need a lot of discussion, because all of us had the same experience with left-wing groups behind us."
Cristina Perincioli states that it was the women of the , "the Sponti [from spontaneous] women who (re-)founded the feminist movement. For that reason it is worth taking a closer look at anarchist theory and tradition", further explaining:In the 1970s, the '68er movement split into many factions of a Leninist, revisionist or Maoist bent, each following their various dogmas. The membership numbers of the non-dogmatic left, in contrast, remained tiny, less than 1 percent of the overall Left. We had no dogmas, no pioneering thinkers and no leaders. How were we supposed to find out what would make political sense now? Which objectives were worth pursuing? How should we proceed? Among the dogmatists, all these questions were handled by a small leadership circle or even dictated by the GDR (German Democratic Republic) or China. We non-dogmatics sought inspiration elsewhere. For instance, we read the works of Frantz Fanon, the publications of the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense the memoirs of the Russian-American anarchist Emma Goldman, and maintained contacts with French and Italian autonomous groups.In the 1970s, the West German women's centers, cradle of all those feminist projects, were so inventive and productive because "[e]very group at the Berlin women's center was autonomous and could choose whatever field they wished to work in. The plenary never tried to regiment the groups. Any group or individual could propose actions or new groups, and they were welcome to realize their ideas as long as they could find enough people to help them. There was thus no thematic let alone political “line” that determined whether an enterprise was right and permissible. Not having to follow a line also had the advantage of flexibility". The Berlin women's center's info of 1973 stated: "We constantly and collectively developed the women's center's self-understanding. We therefore do not have a self-understanding on paper, but are learning together."
Autonomous feminists of the women's centers viewed the West German state with deep distrust. To apply for state funds was unthinkable (apart for a women's shelter). In the 1970s the search for terrorists would affect any young person active in whatever groups. Over years women's centers were searched by Police as well as cars and homes of many feminists. The West Berlin women's center went on a week-long hunger strike in 1973 in support of the women strike in prison and rallied repeatedly at the women's jail in Lehrter Straße. From this jail, Inge Viett escaped in 1973 and 1976.
Militant women
In the West Berlin anarchist newspaper Agit 883, a Women's Liberation Front proclaimed in 1969 combatively that "it will raise silently out of the darkness, strike and disappear again and criticized the women who "brag about jumping onto a party express without realizing that the old jalopy has to be electrified first before it can drive. They've chosen security over the struggle".
Many women joined the Red Army Faction and the anarchist militant 2 June Movement. Neither of these terrorist groups showed feminist concerns. The women's group Rote Zora (split from the Revolutionäre Zellen) legitimized militance with feminist theory in the 1980s and attacked bioengineering facilities.
LGBT rights
Queer anarchism is an anarchist school of thought that advocates anarchism and social revolution as a means of queer liberation and abolition of hierarchies such as homophobia, lesbophobia, biphobia, heteronormativity, patriarchy, and the gender binary. People who campaigned for LGBT rights both outside and inside the anarchist and LGBT movements include John Henry Mackay, Adolf Brand and Daniel Guérin. Individualist anarchist Adolf Brand published Der Eigene from 1896 to 1932 in Berlin, the first sustained journal dedicated to gay issues.
Anarcha-feminist collectives such as the Spanish squat Eskalera Karakola and the Bolivian Mujeres Creando give high importance to lesbian and bisexual female issues. The Fag Army is a left-wing queer anarchist group in Sweden, which launched its first action on August 18, 2014 when it pied the Minister for Health and Social Affairs, Christian Democrat leader Göran Hägglund.
Ecological feminism or Ecofeminism
Sometimes it is argued that Ecofeminism developed out of the anarcha-feminist concerns for the abolition all forms of domination. However the focus of ecofeminism is broader in that it is ecocentric not anthropocentric, concerned equally with human domination and exploitation of the natural world. Both anarcha-feminism and ecofeminism stress the importance of political action.
In the 1970s, the impacts of post-World War II technological development led many women to organise against issues from the toxic pollution of neighbourhoods to nuclear weapons testing on indigenous lands. This grassroots activism emerging across every continent was both intersectional and cross-cultural in its struggle to protect the conditions for reproduction of Life on Earth. Known as ecofeminism, the political relevance of this movement continues to expand. Classic statements in its literature include Carolyn Merchant, USA, The Death of Nature; Maria Mies, Germany, Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale; Vandana Shiva, India, Staying Alive: Women Ecology and Development; Ariel Salleh, Australia, Ecofeminism as Politics: nature, Marx, and the postmodern. Ecofeminism involves a profound critique of Eurocentric epistemology, science, economics, and culture. It is increasingly prominent as a feminist response to the contemporary breakdown of the planetary ecosystem.
Activism and protests
Anarcha-feminists have been active in protesting and activism throughout modern history. Activists such as Emma Goldman were actively campaigned for equal rights through the early 1900s.
In media
Libertarias is a historical drama film made in 1996 about the Spanish anarcha-feminist organization Mujeres Libres. In 2010, the Argentinian film Ni dios, ni patrón, ni marido was released which is centered on the story of anarcha-feminist Virginia Bolten and her publishing of the newspaper ().
Contemporary anarcha-feminist writers/theorists include Kornegger, L. Susan Brown, and the eco-feminist Starhawk.
See also
Anarchism and issues related to love and sex
Bluestocking
Ecofeminism
Feminist economics
Feminist political ecology
Feminist political theory
Free Society
Issues in anarchism
Marxist feminism
Queer anarchism
Relationship anarchy
Socialist feminism
Women's health
Notes
References
Further reading
. Includes material by Louise Michel, Charlotte Wilson, Voltairine de Cleyre, Emma Goldman, Lucia Sanchez Soarnil (Mujeres Libres), and Latin American (Carmen Lareva), Chinese (He Zhen) and Japanese (Ito Noe and Takamure Itsue) anarcha-feminists.
Marsh, Margaret S. Anarchist Women, 1870–1920, Temple University Press, 1981. .
Marshall, Peter. Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: HarperCollins, 1992. .
Focuses on anarcha/o/x-feminism in the US.
External links
Anarcha-Communist Gender news
anarcha-feminist articles at The anarchist library
Anarcha
Modern anarchist writings by women
Libertarian Communist Library Archive
Anarchist theory
Feminism and social class
Feminist theory | [
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222075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calixa%20Lavall%C3%A9e | Calixa Lavallée | Calixa Lavallée (December 28, 1842 – January 21, 1891) was a French-Canadian-American musician and Union Army band musician during the American Civil War. He is best known for composing the music for "O Canada," which officially became the national anthem of Canada in 1980, after a vote in the Senate and the House of Commons. The same 1980 Act of Parliament also changed some of the English lyrics. A slight alteration to the English lyrics was made again in 2018. The original French lyrics and the music, however, have remained unchanged since 1880.
Early life and education
Lavallée was born Calixte Paquet dit Lavallée, the son of Jean Baptiste Paquet and Charlotte Valentine. He was born near Verchères, a village near present-day Montreal in the Province of Canada (now the Canadian province of Quebec). He was a descendant of Isaac Pasquier, from Poitou, France, who arrived in Nouvelle-France in 1665 as a soldier in the Carignan-Salières regiment. Lavallée's father Augustin Lavallée, worked as a blacksmith, logger, bandmaster, self-taught luthier and bandleader, and also worked for the pipe organ builder Joseph Casavant. Calixa Lavallée's mother was Charlotte-Caroline Valentine, descendant of James Valentine, a soldier from Montrose, Scotland who married a Quebecer by the name of Louise Leclerc and then settled down in Verchères, Québec.
Lavallée began his musical education with his father (Eli Grande), who taught him organ by age 11. Lavallée also studied in Montréal with Paul Letondal and Charles Wugk Sabatier.
Career
Lavallée gave his first performance at Montreal's Theatre Royal (on Côté Street) on 28 February 1859 and later that year he was hired by Charles Duprez to play violin, cornet, and piano in a travelling minstrel troupe. With this company, the New Orleans Minstrels, Lavallée travelled through much of the United States in the years leading up to the outbreak of the Civil War. On 17 September 1861, Lavallée joined the 4th Rhode Island Infantry Regiment of volunteers, as a private and a band musician, and he remained in the military until he was mustered out on 16 August 1862. He then rejoined Duprez's company and continued to tour until the fall of 1863, when he returned to Montreal.
Between December 1863 and the early months of 1866 Lavallée organized concerts, composed and taught. In 1866, he was hired once again by Duprez and left for the US, where he would remain until 1872. In December 1867, he married an American woman, Josephine Gentilly, while in Lowell, Massachusetts.
After two years in Paris, Lavallée returned to Montreal in July 1875, where he continued to perform and compose. Between 1875 and 1880, he lived in Montreal and Quebec City, where he worked as a pianist, organist and music teacher, and also conducted orchestral and operatic productions in concert halls, including the Montréal Academy of Music in Montréal, Quebec City and in many U.S. cities. Among his pupils was composer Alexis Contant.
To celebrate St. Jean-Baptiste Day in 1880, the Lieutenant Governor of Québec, Théodore Robitaille, commissioned Lavallée to compose "O Canada" to a patriotic poem by Adolphe-Basile Routhier. After some financial difficulties in Canada, Lavallée again moved to the United States. In his later life he promoted the idea of union between Canada and the U.S.
Later life and death
During the later years of his life, Lavallée was the choirmaster at the Cathedral of the Holy Cross in Boston, and he died penniless in that city in 1891. As the result of the campaign by the Montréal-based music director of the Victoria's Rifles, Joseph-Laurent Gariépy, his remains were returned to Montréal and reinterred at Côte-des-Neiges Cemetery in 1933.
Selected musical works
Peacocks in Difficulties/Loulou, comic opera
The Bridal Rose Overture, operetta
The King of Diamonds, overture
L'Absence, lyrics by Remi Tremblay, 1882–1885
L'Oiseau Mouche, Bluette de Salon, Op.11, 1865?
La Rose Nuptiale, brass quintet
Une Couronne de Lauriers, Caprice de Genre, Op.10, 1865
Le Papillon (The Butterfly) Étude de Concert for piano, 1874/1884
La Patrie (1874).
Marche funèbre, 1878
Violette, cantilène, lyrics by Napoleon Legendre and P.J. Curran, 1879
"O Canada", 1880
The Widow, 1881, comic opera (known in French as La veuve)
TIQ (The Indian Question), Settled at Last, 1882, comic opera
Legacy
The village of Calixa-Lavallée, southeast of Montreal, is named after him. The professional training school Calixa-Lavallée in Quebec also bears his name. The following roads were named to honour Calixa Lavallée:
Avenue Calixa-Lavallée, located in Shawinigan, Quebec, Canada.
Avenue Calixa-Lavallée, located in Quebec, Quebec, Canada.
Rue Calixa-Lavallée, located in Magog, Quebec, Canada.
Rue Calixa-Lavallée, located in Boucherville, Quebec, Canada.
Rue Calixa-Lavallée, located in Repentigny, Quebec, Canada.
Rue Calixa-Lavallée, a dead-end street entering into Lafontaine Park, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
Avenue Calixa-Lavallée located in Laval, Québec, Canada.
Calixa-Lavallée Privée (Calixa-Lavallée Pvt.) a small dead-end laneway on the University of Ottawa campus
See also
Calixa-Lavallée Award
Music of Canada
List of Canadian composers
Canada in the American Civil War
Bibliography
Notes
References
- Total pages: 608
External links
The Canadian Encyclopedia
Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
Doctoral dissertation by Brian C. Thompson
Anthems and Minstrel Shows: The Life and Times of Calixa Lavallée (2015) biography by Brian C. Thompson
The Canadian Sheet Music Collection from the [University of Toronto Libraries, hosted at the [Internet Archive]
1842 births
1891 deaths
19th-century Canadian composers
19th-century Canadian musicians
19th-century classical composers
19th-century male musicians
Canadian choral conductors
Canadian classical composers
Canadian male classical composers
Canadian musical theatre composers
Canadian opera composers
Canadian people of the American Civil War
Canadian songwriters
French Quebecers
Male musical theatre composers
Male opera composers
Musicians from Quebec
National anthem writers
Burials at Notre Dame des Neiges Cemetery
People from Verchères, Quebec
People of Rhode Island in the American Civil War
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Romantic composers
United States military musicians | [
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222076 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20rulers%20of%20Bavaria | List of rulers of Bavaria | The following is a list of rulers during the history of Bavaria. Bavaria was ruled by several dukes and kings, partitioned and reunited, under several dynasties. Since 1949, Bavaria has been a democratic state in the Federal Republic of Germany.
Rulers of Bavaria
Ducal Bavaria (also known as the "Old Stem duchy")
Agilolfing Dynasty
Around 548 the kings of the Franks placed the border region of Bavaria under the administration of a duke — possibly Frankish or possibly chosen from amongst the local leading families — who was supposed to act as a regional governor for the Frankish king. The first duke we know of, and likely the first, was Gariwald, or Garibald I, a member of the powerful Agilolfing family. This was the beginning of a series of Agilolfing dukes that was to last until 788.
Carolingian dynasty and dominion from the Holy Roman Empire
The kings (later emperors) of the Franks now assumed complete control, placing Bavaria under the rule of non-hereditary governors and civil servants. They were not dukes but rather kings of Bavaria. Emperor Louis the Pious divided control of the Empire among his sons, and the divisions became permanent in the decades following his death in 840. The Frankish rulers controlled Bavaria as part of their possessions.
Ducal Bavaria (also known as the "Younger Stem duchy")
Ruled by an array of dukes from an array of rivaling houses,
individually appointed to office
Luitpolding dynasty, 911–947
Luitpold, founder of the Luitpolding dynasty, was not a duke of Bavaria but a margrave of Carinthia under the rule of Louis the Child. Frankish power had waned in the region due to Hungarian attacks, allowing the local rulers greater independence. Luitpold's son, Arnulf, claimed the title of duke (implying full autonomy) in 911 and was recognized as such by King Henry the Fowler of Germany in 920.
German kings, 947–1070
From 947 until the 11th century, the kings of Germany repeatedly transferred Bavaria into different hands (including their own), never allowing any one family to establish itself. Bavaria was ruled by a series of short-lasting, mostly unrelated dynasties.
Houses of Welf and Babenberg, 1070–1180
In 1070, Emperor Henry IV deposed Duke Otto, granting the duchy instead to Welf I, a member of the Italo-Bavarian family of Este. Welf I subsequently quarreled with King Henry and was deprived of his duchy for nineteen years, during which it was directly administered by the German crown. Welf I recovered the duchy in 1096, and was succeeded by his sons Welf II and Henry IX — the latter was succeeded by his son Henry X, who also became Duke of Saxony.
Ducal Bavaria (Hereditary dukes)
In 1180, Henry XII the Lion and Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor, fell out. The emperor consequently dispossessed the duke and gave his territory to Otto I Wittelsbach, Duke of Bavaria of the House of Wittelsbach. From now on, Bavaria remained in the possession of various branches of the family for 738 years until the end of the First World War.
First partition, 1253–1340
In 1253, on Otto II's death, Bavaria was divided between his sons. Henry became Duke of Lower Bavaria and Louis of Upper Bavaria. From this point until the beginning of the 16th century, the territories were frequently divided between brothers, making the Dukes difficult to list.
In Lower Bavaria, Henry XIII was succeeded by his three sons, Otto III, Louis III, and Stephen I ruling jointly. Otto III's successor in the joint dukedom was his son Henry XV. Stephen's successors were his sons Otto IV and Henry XIV. Henry XIV's son was John I.
In Upper Bavaria, Louis II was succeeded by his sons Rudolf I and Louis IV. The latter was elected King of Germany in 1314. After John I's death in 1340, Louis IV unified the Bavarian duchy.
The dukes of Upper Bavaria served also as Counts Palatinate of the Rhine. In 1329 Louis IV released the Palatinate of the Rhine including the Bavarian Upper Palatinate to the sons of Rudolf I. The Upper Palatinate would be reunited with Bavaria in 1623, the Lower Palatinate in 1777.
Second partition 1349–1503
From 1349 until 1503 the second partition of Bavaria took place. In 1349, the six sons of Louis IV partitioned Bavaria into Upper and Lower Bavaria again. In 1353, Lower Bavaria was partitioned into Bavaria-Landshut and Bavaria-Straubing. Upper Bavaria was partitioned between Bavaria-Straubing and Bavaria-Landshut in 1363. After the death of Stephan II in 1392, Bavaria-Landshut was broken into three duchies, John II gained Bavaria-Munich, Frederick, Duke of Bavaria-Landshut received a smaller Bavaria-Landshut, and in Bavaria-Ingolstadt ruled Stephen III, Duke of Bavaria.
Following the Landshut War (1503–1505), the Duke of Bavaria-Munich Albert IV the Wise became ruler of Bavaria. In 1506 Albert decreed that the duchy should pass according to the rules of primogeniture.
In 1623 Maximilian I was granted the title Prince-elector (German: Kurfürst) of the Rhenish Palatinate.
House of Wittelsbach
Partitions of Bavaria under Wittelsbach rule
Table of rulers
(Note: Here the numbering of the dukes is the same for all duchies, as all were titled Dukes of Bavaria, despite of the different parts of land and its particular numbering of the rulers. The dukes are numbered by the year of their succession.)
Electorate of Bavaria
Kingdom of Bavaria
In 1805 under the Peace of Pressburg between the Napoleonic France and the Holy Roman Empire several duchies were elevated to kingdoms. The Wittelsbach rulers of Bavaria held the title King of Bavaria from 1806 until 1918. The prince-elector of Bavaria, Maximilian IV Joseph formally assumed the title King Maximilian I of Bavaria on 1 January 1806. The well-known so called Märchenkönig (Fairy tale king) Ludwig II constructed Neuschwanstein Castle, Herrenchiemsee, and Linderhof Palace during his reign (1864–1886), threatening not only to go bankrupt in person, but also to bankrupt the country in the process. In 1918 Ludwig III lost his throne in the German Revolution of 1918–1919.
Post-monarchy
In 1918 — at the end of the First World War in the German Revolution of 1918–1919 Bavaria became a democratic republic within the Weimar Republic; the name for the period of Germany from 1919 to 1933. Since then, the rulers of Bavaria have been minister presidents.
Family Tree
Note that Dukes called Louis are usually numbered from Louis the Kelheimer (r. 1189–1231), although four Dukes of Bavaria had been called Louis before that. The same applies to Dukes called Otto, who are sometimes renumbered starting with Otto III, the first Wittelsbach Duke of Bavaria. The highest number has been used in this chart to minimise confusion, with one exception: Ludwig is the German for Louis, but Kings Ludwig I, II and III are not numbered XV, XVI and XVII.
|
References
External links
Rulers
Bavaria
Bavaria
Bavaria
Bavaria, Rulers
Bavaria
Bavaria, Rulers | [
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222079 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large-billed%20crow | Large-billed crow | The large-billed crow (Corvus macrorhynchos), formerly referred to widely as the jungle crow, is a widespread Asian species of crow. It is very adaptable and is able to survive on a wide range of food sources, making it capable of colonizing new areas, due to which it is often considered a nuisance, especially on islands. It has a large bill, which is the source of its scientific name macrorhynchos (Ancient Greek for "large beak") and it is sometimes known by the common name thick-billed crow. It can also be mistaken for a common raven. Johann Georg Wagler first described the species from a holotype obtained from Java in the year 1827. The eastern jungle crow and Indian jungle crow were once considered conspecific and together called the jungle crow.
Subspecies
It has nine subspecies, and some of them are distinctive vocally, morphologically and genetically, leading to treatments that raise some of them into species status.
C. m. colonorum
C. m. connectens
C. m. intermedius
C. m. japonensis
C. m. macrorhynchos
C. m. mandschuricus
C. m. osai
C. m. philippinus
C. m. tibetosinensis
Description
The overall size (length: 46–59 cm; 18–23 in.). Wingspan is (100-130 cm; 39-51 in.). Body proportions vary regionally. In the far northeast in Japan, the Kuriles and the Sakhalin peninsula, it is somewhat larger than the carrion crow. All taxa have a relatively long bill with the upper one quite thick and arched, making it look heavy and almost raven-like. Generally, all taxa have dark greyish plumage from the back of the head, neck, shoulders and lower body. Their wings, tail, face, and throat are glossy black. The depth of the grey shading varies across its range.
Distribution and habitat
The range of this species is extensive and stretches from the northeastern Asian seaboard to Afghanistan and eastern Iran in the west, through South and Southeast Asia, to the Lesser Sundas and Cambodia in the southeast. It occurs in woodland, parks and gardens, cultivated regions with at least some trees, but is a bird of more open country in the south of its range where it is not in competition with the common raven and carrion crow of the north.
Ecology and behaviour
Diet
Extremely versatile in its feeding, it will take food from the ground or in trees. They feed on a wide range of items and will attempt to feed on anything appearing edible, alive or dead, plant or animal. It is also one of the most persistent species and is quite bold, especially in urban areas. In Japan, crows are considered to be a pest, as they rip open garbage bags and take wire coat hangers for their nests. In Sri Lanka, Karunarathna & Amarasinghe (2008) noted that the jungle crow might actually be a, if not the, major predator of local small animals; jungle crows are highly experienced at catching lizards, taking only 45 minutes to find, catch and consume four critically endangered endemic lizards in Horton Plains National Park.
Food caching behaviour has been noted in ssp. culminatus.
Breeding
The nest is a platform of twigs, usually high up on a tree with a preference for tall conifers like fir or pine. There are normally 3-5 eggs laid and they are incubated for 17–19 days. The young are fledged usually by about the 35th day. In India, the large-billed crow breed from March to May, but in the plains some of them start even in mid December. The nest is built in a fork of a tree, and is a shallow cup of sticks, sometimes neat and well made, sometimes sketchy and ragged; it is lined with grass roots, wool, rags, vegetable fibre, and similar materials. Some nests have been found to be built partly or exclusively of wire.
The normal clutch consists of four or five eggs, and rarely six or seven. The egg is a broad oval, rather pointed at the smaller end. The texture is hard and fine and there is a fair gloss. The ground colour is any shade of blue-green, and is blotched, speckled and streaked with dull reddish-brown, pale sepia, grey and neutral tint. In size the eggs average about 1.45 by 1.05 inches. The jungle crow can serve as a host for the Asian koel.
Roosting
Gregarious at roosts with many thousands at some roost sites. Large flocks may be seen at dusk arriving at major roost sites. These roosts show no apparent reduction even during the breeding season, and this is because they do not breed during their first year. During the day pairs may be involved in defending their territory but at night they may roost in large groups. They have linear dominance hierarchies that are remembered based on individual recognition.
Voice
The voice is similar to the house crow to which it is closest, but deeper and usually more resonant and described as the usual loud "caa-haa-caa". However, it makes a range of calls, some which could be described as "cau cau" and others that could be mistaken for a woodpecker drumming.
Mortality factors
There are few predators of this species. Filarial parasites have been reported from this species. Pathogenic viruses such as H5N1 have been noted to cause mortality in Japan. Large scale deaths have also been noted to be caused by Clostridium infection and enteritis.
References
External links
Jungle crow videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
Jungle crow call (two birds)
Long-billed crow sounds on xeno-canto.
large-billed crow
large-billed crow
Birds of East Asia
Birds of South Asia
Birds of Southeast Asia
Birds of Japan
large-billed crow
Articles containing video clips | [
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222080 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian%20crow | Hawaiian crow | The Hawaiian crow or alalā (Corvus hawaiiensis) is a species of bird in the crow family, Corvidae, that is currently extinct in the wild, though reintroduction programs are underway. It is about the size of the carrion crow at in length, but with more rounded wings and a much thicker bill. It has soft, brownish-black plumage and long, bristly throat feathers; the feet, legs and bill are black. Today, the Hawaiian crow is considered the most endangered of the family Corvidae. They are recorded to have lived up to 18 years in the wild, and 28 years in captivity. Some Native Hawaiians consider the Hawaiian crow an aumakua (family god).
The species is known for strong flying ability and resourcefulness, and the reasons for its extirpation are not fully understood. It is thought that introduced diseases, such as Toxoplasma gondii, avian malaria (Plasmodium relictum), and fowlpox, were probably a significant factor in the species' decline.
Distribution and habitat
Before the Hawaiian crow became extinct in the wild, the species was found only in the western and southeastern parts of Hawaii. It inhabited dry and mesic forests on the slopes of Mauna Loa and Hualālai at elevations of 3,000 to 6,000 feet. Ōhia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) and koa (Acacia koa) were important tree species in its wild habitat. Extensive understory cover was necessary to protect the ʻalalā from predation by the Hawaiian hawk, or io (Buteo solitarius). Nesting sites of the ʻalalā received of annual rainfall. Fossil remains indicate that the Hawaiian crow used to be relatively abundant on all the main islands of Hawaii, along with four other extinct crow species.
The Hawaiian crow was also preyed on by rats and the small Asian mongooses (Herpestes javanicus). Feral cats that introduced Toxoplasma gondii to the birds can also prey on chicks that are unable to fly. As of 2012, the Hawaiian crow's current population is 114 birds, the vast majority of which are in Hawaiian reserves.
Behavior
Diet
The omnivorous Hawaiian crow is a generalist species, eating various foods as they become available. The main portion of their diet, and 50% of their feeding activity is spent foraging on trunks, branches, and foliage for invertebrates such as isopods, land snails, and arachnids. They feed in a woodpecker fashion, flaking bark and moss from trunks or branches to expose hidden insects, foraging mostly on ohia and koa, the tallest and most dominant trees in their habitats. Fruits are the second most dominant component in the Hawaiian crow's diet. The crows often collect kepau and olapa fruit clusters. Although hoawa and alani fruits have hard outer coverings, crows continue to exert energy prying them open. Passerine nestlings and eggs are consumed most frequently in April and May, during their breeding season. Other prey include red-billed leiothrix, Japanese white-eye, Hawaiʻi ʻamakihi, ʻIʻiwi, ‘elepaio, and ʻapapane. The alalā also commonly forages on flowers, especially from February through May. Nectar to feed the young are obtained from the ohia flower, oha kepau, and purple poka during the nestling period. Crows also foraged various plant parts, including the flower petals of kolea, koa, and mamane. The palila is the only other Hawaiian bird known to eat flower petals. The alalā only occasionally forages on the ground, but only for a limited amount of time for risk of predators.
Tool use
Captive individuals can use sticks as tools to extract food from holes drilled in logs. The juveniles exhibit tool use without training or social learning from adults, and it is believed to be a species-wide ability.
Voice
The Hawaiian crow has a call described variously as a two-toned caw and as a screech with lower tones added, similar to a cat's meow. In flight, this species has been known to produce a wide variety of calls including a repeated kerruk, kerruk sound and a loud kraa-a-a-ik sound. It also makes a ca-wk sound, has a complex, burbling song, and makes a variety of other sounds as well.
This is a medley of the different calls the Hawaiian Crow makes.
Breeding and reproduction
Female crows are considered sexually mature at about 2 or 3 years of age and males at 4 years. The Hawaiian crow's breeding season lasts from March to July; it builds a nest in March or April, lays eggs in mid-to-late April, and the eggs hatch in mid-May. Both sexes construct nests with branches from the native ohi’a tree strengthened with grasses. The crow typically lays one to five eggs (that are greenish-blue in color) per season, although at most only two will survive past the fledgling phase. Only the females incubate the 2–5 eggs for 19–22 days and brood the young, of which only 1–2 fledge about 40 days after hatching. If the first clutch is lost, the pair will re-lay, which serves to be helpful in captive breeding efforts. Juveniles rely on their parents for 8 months and will stay with the family group until the next breeding season.
Environmental role
The alalā was one of the largest native bird populations in Hawaii. Its disappearance in the wild has had cascading effects on the environment, especially with the seed dispersal of the native plants. Many of these plants rely on the alalā not only for seed dispersal, but also for seed germination as seeds are passed through the crow's digestive system. Without seed dispersal, the plants have no means of growing another generation. The alalā plays a key role in the maintenance of many indigenous plant species, which now could become a rarity in Hawaii's ecosystems, specifically the dry forests, without their main seed disperser. The Hawaiian crow has become known as an indicator species; the disappearance of the alalā indicates serious environmental problems.
Primary threats
The Hawaiian crow faces an ample number of threats in the wild, which are considered contributing factors to their extinction in the wild. Small population size makes the species more vulnerable to environmental fluctuations, leading to a higher likelihood of inbreeding, which could result in lethal deformities. Unlike most crows, Hawaiian crows did not adapt well to human presence. Persecution by humans is another threat to their survival. Farmers have shot alalā because they were believed to disturb crops. Illegal hunting has continued even after legal protection was granted to the crows. Humans have also caused habitat degradation and deforestation through agriculture, ranching, logging, and non-native ungulates. Loss of canopy cover exposes the alalā to dangerous predators. Chicks are vulnerable to tree-climbing rats and, after they leave their nests, to cats, dogs, and mongooses. Deforestation also increases soil erosion and the spread of invasive plants and mosquitoes. This directly relates to the primary cause of the Hawaiian crow's extinction, disease.
Avian malaria
Avian malaria is a parasitic disease of birds, caused by Plasmodium relictum, a protist affecting birds in all parts of the world. Usually this disease does not kill birds, however in an isolated habitat such as Hawaii, birds have lost evolutionary resistance and are unable to defend against the novel protist. Its main vector is the mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus, introduced to the Hawaiian islands in 1826. This introduction can be attributed to birds club that brought nonnative species to replace birds that fell victim to the Avipoxvirus. At least 100 introductions have been documented in this manner.
Status and conservation
The Hawaiian crow is the most endangered corvid species in the world and the only species left in Hawaii. Like other critically endangered species, harming the Hawaiian crow is illegal under U.S. federal law. By 1994, the populations dwindled to 31 individuals; 8 to 12 were wild and 19 held in captivity. The last two known wild individuals of the Hawaiian crow disappeared in 2002, and the species is now classified as Extinct in the Wild by the IUCN Red List. While some 115 individuals remain (as of August 2014) in two captive breeding facilities operated by the San Diego Zoo, attempts to reintroduce captive-bred birds into the wild have been hampered by predation by the Hawaiian hawk (Buteo solitarius), which itself is listed as Near Threatened. Breeding efforts have also been complicated due to extensive inbreeding during the crow's population decline.
Protection
The alalā has been legally protected by the state of Hawaii since 1931 and was recognized as federally endangered in 1967. Sites on the slopes of Mauna Loa and other natural ranges have been set aside for habitat reconstruction and native bird recovery since the 1990s. The Kūlani Keauhou area has been ranked the best spot for the crows, parts of which have been fenced and ungulate-free for 20 years, helping tremendously for habitat recovery.
Reintroduction
Restoration programs for the Hawaiian crow require the collaboration from private land-owners, National Biological Service (NBS) biologists, US Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) biologists, and the State of Hawaii. In 1993 and 1994, 17 eggs were removed from wild nests and transported to a temporary hatcher in Kona District, Hawaii. Puppets mimicking adult crows were used to feed chicks to minimize the possibility of abnormal imprinting or human socialization. Three of the removed eggs were infertile, 13 chicks hatched, and 12 alalā were successfully reared. One egg failed to hatch because of embryonic malpositioning, and another chick died from yolk-sac infection.
In December 2016, five juvenile male Hawaiian crows were released into the Pu'u Maka'ala Natural Area Reserve on the Big Island, marking the first time the birds had been present in the wild since 2002.
However, within a week of reintroduction, three of the five birds were found dead.
Two of the deaths were caused by the Hawaiian hawk, and the other death was due to starvation.
The remaining two crows were taken out of the wild.
On September 26, 2017, 6 crows were released into the Pu'u Maka'ala Reserve. In contrast to the previous release, the group released was made of 4 males and 2 females rather than just males. On October 11, 2017, another group of 5 crows, 3 males and 2 females, was also released into the area. The first group introduced also formed social groups similar to those expected of the species, and also responded to stressors in the environment, showing awareness of surroundings. As of 2018, they have been described as "thriving", though they may have been negatively affected by the 2018 lower Puna eruption, which impacted at least a third of the Malama Kī Forest Reserve, an important habitat for the Hawaiian crow and other endangered Hawaiian wildlife. Following the success of the previous year's introduction, another 5 were reintroduced to the Pu'u Maka'ala Reserve on September 25, 2018. In late 2018, one of the crows released in 2017, a male named Maka'ala, was found dead due to wounds likely from a predatory attack followed by scavenging.
In May 2019, two of the released crows, Mana’olana and Manaiakalani, were spotted building a nest with the female incubating eggs, marking the first wild breeding attempt made by Hawaiian crows since the extinction of the species in the wild. However, the eggs never hatched and were later presumed to be infertile, although occasionally laying infertile eggs is not uncommon for the species.
By October 2020, all of the released birds except five had died from more predation by the Hawaiian hawk or other predators, or became lost in winter storms. The five remaining individuals were brought back to captivity.
The reintroduction project is considering Maui as a potential location for future efforts. It is considered to be a safer area, as Hawaiian hawks are not found on Maui. While the crows were never present there in recent history, subfossil findings show that they, or a similar species, once lived on the island.
Breeding efforts
In attempt to save the alalā, efforts have been made to breed the species in captivity. A majority of these efforts have proved to be highly unsuccessful. Studies have shown that females are the primary nest builders, and if the male hangs around the nest for too long and attempts to sit in it, the female either ceases her efforts to complete the nest or in other cases, builds up aggression between the breeding pair. This disruptive behavior can inhibit the production of eggs. On average, clutch size bred in captivity is much lower than it has been observed in the wild. This can be attributed to thin eggshells as a result from inbreeding, and behavioral complications from males. Bred in isolation, some males exhibit aggressive behavior towards their mates and an inability to understand friendly gestures. For the best breeding success, it is important for cages to mimic real environmental behavior, and socially-reared males are put together with the females.
Conservation plans
On April 16, 2009, The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service announced a five-year plan to spend more than $14 million to prevent the extinction of the Hawaiian crow through protection of habitats and management of threats to the species.
Cultural significance
The Hawaiian crow is also a significant symbol in Hawaiian mythology. It is said to lead souls to their final resting place on the cliffs of Ka Lae, the southernmost tip on the Big island of Hawaii. Native priests named the ʻalalā so during prayer and chants due to its distinctive call.
References
External links
Mauna Loa
Corvus
Endemic birds of Hawaii
Biota of Hawaii (island)
Extinct in the wild biota of Oceania
Birds described in 1848
ESA endangered species
Taxa named by Titian Peale | [
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222083 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20%C3%89mile%20de%20Puydt | Paul Émile de Puydt | Paul Émile de Puydt (6 March 1810 – 20 May 1891), a writer whose contributions included work in botany and economics, was born and died in Mons, Belgium. His father was Jean Ambroise de Puydt (1758–1836), who was governor of the province Hainaut in the early days of Belgium from 1830 till 1834. In the first marriage of his father there were 6 children. The famous Remi de Puydt came from this first marriage. He is a half brother of Paul Émile de Puydt. Remi de Puydt was a civil engineer and a politician (representative), and he served in the Belgian army as a colonel.
Biography
Paul-Émile was the second child of four children from the second marriage of his father, who married in 1799 Marie Adélaïde Jeanne Michot (c. 1777 – 1858). As a botanist, Paul Émile de Puydt notably wrote on orchids. The standard botanical author abbreviation De Puydt is applied to species he described.
After his studies, he turned to journalism and worked as an editor of "L'Observateur du Hainaut".
Together with Henri-Florent Delmotte and Hippolyte Rousselle, he wrote in 1831, the year when the current Belgium became separated from the northern Netherlands, the theatre piece "Le candidat à la royauté: esquisse en trois tableaux mêlés de couplets". This play was performed in Mons in 1831.
He then participated in the government, and he was also director of the Mont-de-piété (Mount of piety) of Mons.
In his free time he was interested in botany, and he developed a pronounced interest in orchids.
Since 1831 he was secretary of the founded societé d'horticulture de Mons. In 1833 he worked on the foundation of the Societé des arts et des lettres du Hainaut, where he was vice-president and, from 1865 onwards, president.
Paul-Émile de Puydt married in 1841 Fanie Catherine Cousin (1819–1905). They had two children: Julien-Vincent-Émile de Puydt (1842–1921) and Philippine-Therese-Marie de Puydt (1843–1892).
As a political economist, he is known as inventor of the concept of people having the freedom to choose which government to join, and governments having to compete for citizens. He has given the name panarchy to this concept. His paper "Panarchie", was first published in French in the Revue Trimestrielle, in Brussels, July 1860. Panarchie and its author Paul Emile de Puydt was only recently rediscovered.
The notion of competitive government, but then limited to defence, can also be found in the writings of the Belgian economist Gustave de Molinari from 1849, eleven years before de Puydt.
David Hart of the Department of History of Stanford University suggests that Paul-Émile de Puydt might have been influenced by the works of his fellow countryman Gustave de Molinari.
Panarchy
In an 1860 article, de Puydt first proposed the idea of panarchy: a political philosophy that emphasizes each individual's right to freely choose (join and leave) the jurisdiction of any governments they choose, without being forced to move from their current locale. A proponent of laissez-faire economics, he wrote that "governmental competition" would let "as many regularly competing governments as have ever been conceived and will ever be invented" exist simultaneously and detailed how such a system would be implemented. As David M. Hart writes: "Governments would become political churches, only having jurisdiction over their congregations who had elected to become members." Three similar ideas are "Functional Overlapping Competing Jurisdictions" (FOCJ) advocated by Swiss economists Bruno Frey and Reiner Eichenberger, "multigovernment" advocated by Le Grand E. Day and others, and "meta-utopia" from Robert Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia.
Works
Botany
Traité théorique et pratique de la culture des plantes de serre froide, orangerie et serre tempérées des jardiniers, précédé de notions pratiques de physiologie végétale et de physique horticole, et de conseils pour la construction des différentes serres. 1860
Les Poires de Mons. 1860
Les Plantes de serre, traité théorique et pratique de la culture de toutes les plantes qui demandent un abri sous le climat de la Belgique. 2 vols, 1866
Les Orchidées, histoire iconographique, organographie, classification, géographie, collections, commerce, emploi, culture, avec une revue descriptive des espèces cultivées en Europe. Ouvrage orné de 244 vignettes et de 50 chromo-lithographies, dessinées d'après nature sous la direction de M. Leroy, dans les serres de M. Guibert,1880
Social sciences
Panarchy, first published in French in the Revue Trimestrielle, Bruxelles, July 1860, page 222 to 245
https://books.google.com/books?id=8SIWAAAAYAAJ
La Charité et les institutions de bienfaisance. 1867
Marche et progrès de la civilisation dans les temps modernes. 1870
La Grève. 1876
La Littérature et les Arts, dans leurs rapports avec la morale. SOCIÉTÉ DES SCIENCES, DES ARTS ET DES LETTRES DU HAINAUT. TROISIÈME SÉRIE. TOME SEPTIÈME. ANNÉE 1871–1872.
Novels
Chevreuse, roman. 1859
Maudit métier, histoire du Borinage. 1883
Cent mille francs de dot. 1890
Other publications
Biography of his father:
Biographie de M. Jean-Ambroise De Puydt. 60 p.SOCIÉTÉ DES SCIENCES, DES ARTS ET DES LETTRES DU HAINAUT. TROISIÈME SÉRIE. TOME HUITIÈME. ANNÉE 1872.
Theatre piece:
„Le candidat à la royauté: esquisse en trois tableaux mêlés de couplets“ par Henri-Florent Delmotte, Paul Émile de Puydt, Hippolyte Rousselle, 1831
Literature
Léopold Devillers: Puydt (Paul-Émile de). In: Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts de Belgique: Biographie nationale. Bd. 18, Brüssel 1905.
C. Rousselle: Puydt (de) Paul-Émile. In: Ernest A. Matthieu: Biographie du Hainaut. Bd. 2, Enghien 1903.
J-F. de Montigny, Tijdschrift van de Antwerpse kring voor familiekunde, Jaargang IX, 1954, p100-115
References
External links
1810 births
1891 deaths
Belgian anarchists
Belgian botanists
Belgian economists
Belgian scientists
Belgian writers in French
Botanists with author abbreviations
People from Mons
Walloon people | [
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222094 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20X-Men%20members | List of X-Men members | The X-Men are a team of mutant superheroes, published in comic books by Marvel Comics. Over the decades, the X-Men have featured a rotating line up composed of many characters.
Notation:
Characters in bold are members of the team as of the present time.
A slash (/) between names indicates codenames of one character in chronological order.
Characters listed are set in the Earth-616 continuity except when noted.
X-Men
Original members
20th century recruits
21st century recruits
Other status
Substitute teams
New Mutants graduate X-Men
In 1986, the New Mutants briefly graduated to become the X-Men in Uncanny X-Men Annual #10.
Muir Island X-Men
In 1989, in the wake of the X-Men's "death" during "The Fall of the Mutants", Banshee assembled a team of X-Men on Muir Island in Uncanny X-Men #254 to #255.
Phalanx invasion X-Men
In 1994, to oppose the threat of the techno-organic alien Phalanx, a team of X-Men was quickly banded together in Uncanny X-Men #316.
Mannite rescue X-Men
In 1999, after Professor X disbanded the X-Men in an attempt to expose a Skrull impostor in their ranks, Cyclops and Jean Grey formed a team to help the Mannites in Astonishing X-Men, vol. 2 #1.
Genoshan assault X-Men
In 2001, Jean Grey recruited a team in Uncanny X-Men #392 in order to rescue Professor X from Magneto.
Street team X-Men
In 2004, a team was formed by Cyclops in the wake of Xorn's rampage through Manhattan, New York in New X-Men #149 and #150.
X-Men in training
Mutants to be trained as a junior team of X-Men.
X-Force
In 2008, the X-Men's strike team was formed by Cyclops in Uncanny X-Men #493, with Wolverine serving as the field leader. The team took on missions which required responses too violent or controversial for the X-Men to deal with directly. When Cyclops disbanded the team, Wolverine assembled a new team.
X-Club
In 2009, Beast gathered a team in Uncanny X-Men #504 to attempt to deal with the mutant birth crisis, and reverse the effects of M-Day. The team lasted until 2012.
Time-displaced X-Men
Headlined All-New X-Men from 2012 to 2017 and X-Men Blue from 2017 to 2018.
London X-Men
In 2017, a team was formed to help Charles Xavier against the Shadow King in Astonishing X-Men, vol. 4.
Secret X-Men
A team formed in 2022, the Secret X-Men are tasked with saving the daughter of Xavier and Lilandra, Empress Xandra of the Shi'ar Empire. Their debut was in Secret X-Men #1.
Unofficial
The teams who have used the name of the X-Men without the permission of the official X-Men. They were either opposed to the X-Men altogether, or used the name to promote themselves to the public.
Cerebro's X-Men
Nanotechnology imposter team formed in 1998 by a sentient Cerebro posing as Professor X.
Great Lakes X-Men
In 2005, served a cease and desist for his team's use of the Avengers name, Mr. Immortal reorganized the Great Lakes Avengers into a team of unofficial X-Men in G.L.A. #4. They have since changed their name to first Great Lakes Champions and then Great Lakes Initiative.
Norman Osborn's X-Men
In 2009, a team of X-Men assembled by Norman Osborn during the "Utopia" storyline as part of the overarching "Dark Reign" event.
X-Men Green
Rogue team formed in 2021 to combat environmental destruction at all costs.
See also
List of Xavier Institute students and staff
List of X-Men enemies
List of X-Men enemy teams
References
X-Men
X-Men members, List of | [
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222096 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonny%20Fortune | Sonny Fortune | Cornelius "Sonny" Fortune (May 19, 1939 – October 25, 2018) was an American jazz saxophonist. Fortune played soprano, alto, tenor, and baritone saxophones, clarinet, and flute.
Biography
He was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. After moving to New York City in 1967, Fortune recorded and appeared live with drummer Elvin Jones's group. In 1968, he was a member of Mongo Santamaría's band. He performed with singer Leon Thomas, and with pianist McCoy Tyner (1971–73). In 1974, Fortune replaced Dave Liebman in Miles Davis's ensemble, remaining until spring 1975, when he was succeeded by Sam Morrison. Fortune can be heard on the albums Big Fun, Get Up With It, Agharta, and Pangaea, the last two recorded live in Japan.
Fortune joined Nat Adderley after his brief tenure with Davis, then formed his own group in June 1975, recording two albums for the Horizon Records. During the 1990s, he recorded several albums for Blue Note. He has also performed with Roy Brooks, Buddy Rich, George Benson, Rabih Abou Khalil, Roy Ayers, Oliver Nelson, Gary Bartz, Rashied Ali, and Pharoah Sanders, as well as appearing on the live album The Atlantic Family Live at Montreux (1977).
Fortune died of a stroke at the age of 79 in October 2018.
Discography
As leader
1966: Trip on the Strip with Stan Hunter (Prestige)
1974: Long Before Our Mothers Cried (Strata-East)
1975: Awakening (Horizon)
1976: Waves of Dreams (Horizon)
1977: Serengeti Minstrel (Atlantic)
1978: Infinity Is (Atlantic)
1979: With Sound Reason (Atlantic)
1984: Laying It Down (Konnex)
1987: Invitation (WhyNot)
1991: It Ain't What It Was (Konnex)
1993: Monk's Mood (Konnex)
1994: Four in One (Blue Note)
1995: A Better Understanding (Blue Note)
1996: From Now On (Blue Note)
2000: In the Spirit of John Coltrane (Shanachie)
2003: Continuum (Sound Reason)
2007: You and the Night and the Music (18th & Vine)
2009: Last Night at Sweet Rhythm (Sound Reason)
As sideman
With Rabih Abou-Khalil
Bukra (MMP, 1988)
Al-Jadida (Enja, 1990)
With Nat Adderley
On the Move (Theresa, 1983)
Blue Autumn (Theresa, 1985)
Autumn Leaves (Sweet Basil, 1990 [1991])
Work Song: Live at Sweet Basil (Sweet Basil, 1990 [1993])
With Kenny Barron
Innocence (Wolf, 1978)
With Gary Bartz
Alto Memories (Verve, 1994)
With George Benson
Tell It Like It Is (A&M/CTI, 1969)
With Miles Davis
Big Fun (Columbia, 1974)
Get Up with It (Columbia, 1974)
Agharta (Columbia, 1975)
Pangaea (Columbia, 1976)
With Dizzy Gillespie
Closer to the Source (Atlantic, 1984)
With Elvin Jones
Elvin Jones Jazz Machine Live at Pit Inn (Polydor (Japan), 1985)
When I Was at Aso-Mountain (Enja, 1990)
In Europe (Enja, 1991)
It Don't Mean a Thing (Enja, 1993)
With Charles Mingus
Three or Four Shades of Blues (Atlantic, 1977)
With Alphonse Mouzon
The Essence of Mystery (Blue Note, 1972)
With Pharoah Sanders
Izipho Zam (My Gifts) (Strata-East, 1969 [1973])
With Melvin Sparks
Akilah! (Prestige, 1972)
With Leon Spencer
Bad Walking Woman (Prestige, 1972)
Where I'm Coming From (Prestige, 1973)
With Charles Sullivan
Genesis (Strata-East, 1974)
With McCoy Tyner
Sahara (Milestone, 1972)
Song for My Lady (Milestone, 1973)
With Mal Waldron
Crowd Scene (Soul Note, 1989)
Where Are You? (Soul Note, 1989)
With Mongo Santamaría
Stone Soul (1969)
Filmography
Elvin Jones: Jazz Machine (2008) with Ravi Coltrane, Willie Pickens and Chip Jackson
Europafest: Jazz Highlights (2008) with Mike Stern, Bob Berg, Sun Ra, Archie Shepp, John Zorn, Bill Frisell
References
External links
Sonny Fortune's Page at Wide Hive Records
Entry at discogs.com
1939 births
2018 deaths
Musicians from Philadelphia
American jazz alto saxophonists
American jazz baritone saxophonists
American jazz soprano saxophonists
American jazz tenor saxophonists
American male saxophonists
American jazz clarinetists
American jazz flautists
African-American jazz musicians
Miles Davis
Strata-East Records artists
Jazz musicians from Pennsylvania
American male jazz musicians | [
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222097 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince%20Henry%2C%20Duke%20of%20Gloucester | Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester | Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, (Henry William Frederick Albert; 31 March 1900 – 10 June 1974) was the third son and fourth child of King George V and Queen Mary. He served as Governor-General of Australia from 1945 to 1947, the only member of the British royal family to hold the post.
Henry was the first son of a British monarch to be educated at school, where he excelled at sports, and went on to attend Eton College, after which he was commissioned in the 10th Royal Hussars, a regiment he hoped to command. However, his military career was frequently interrupted by royal duties, and he was nicknamed "the unknown soldier". While big-game shooting in Kenya, he met the future pilot Beryl Markham, with whom he became romantically involved. The court put pressure on him to end the relationship, but he had to pay regular hush-money to avert a public scandal. In 1935, also under parental pressure, he married Lady Alice Montagu Douglas Scott, with whom he had two sons, Princes William and Richard.
From 1939 to 1940, Henry served in France as a liaison officer to Lord Gort. He performed military and diplomatic duties during the rest of the war, then in 1945 was appointed as Australia's governor-general at the request of Prime Minister John Curtin. The post had originally been offered to his younger brother, the Duke of Kent, who died in an air crash. Henry attended the coronation of his niece Queen Elizabeth II in 1953 and carried out several overseas tours, often accompanied by his wife. From 1965, he became incapacitated by a number of strokes. Upon his death, he was succeeded as the Duke of Gloucester by his only living son, Richard.
Prince Henry was the last surviving child of King George V and Queen Mary. His widow, who died at the age of 102, became the longest-lived ever member of the British royal family.
Early life
Prince Henry was born on 31 March 1900, at York Cottage, on the Sandringham Estate during the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria. His father was the Duke of York (later King George V), the eldest surviving son of the Prince and Princess of Wales (later King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra). His mother was the Duchess of York (later Queen Mary), the only daughter of the Duke and Duchess of Teck. At the time of his birth, he was fifth in the line of succession to the throne, behind his grandfather, father and two elder brothers.
He was baptised at the private chapel of Windsor Castle on 17 May 1900, by Randall Thomas Davidson, Bishop of Winchester, and his godparents were: Queen Victoria (his great-grandmother); the German Emperor (his first cousin once removed, for whom Prince Albert of Prussia stood proxy); Princess Beatrice of Battenberg (his paternal great-aunt); the Duchess of Cumberland (his paternal great-aunt, whose sister, his grandmother the Princess of Wales represented her); Prince George of Greece (his first cousin once removed, for whom Prince Henry's paternal grandfather the Prince of Wales stood proxy); Princess Carl of Denmark (his paternal aunt, for whom her sister Princess Victoria of Wales stood proxy); Prince Alexander of Teck (his maternal uncle, for whom Prince Henry's great-uncle the Duke of Cambridge stood proxy); and Field Marshal The Earl Roberts (for whom General Sir Dighton Probyn stood proxy). He was informally known to his family as Harry.
Childhood and education
As a young boy, Prince Henry suffered from ill health very much like his older brother Albert. He also had knocked knees, and had to wear painful leg splints. He was an extremely nervous child, and was often victim to spontaneous fits of crying or giggling, and also like his brother, Henry had a combination of speech disorders. They both had rhotacism, which prevented them from pronouncing the sound r, but while Albert's pronunciation was slightly reminiscent of the "French r", Henry was completely unable to pronounce it, causing the intended r to sound like [w]. On top of this, Henry also had a nasal lisp and an unusually high-pitched tone, resulting in a very distinctive voice.
By 1909, Henry's poor health had become a serious concern for his parents. He was very small for his age and was prone to get very aggressive colds. "You must remember that he is rather fragile and must be treated differently to his two elder brothers who are more robust", wrote Prince George to Henry's tutor, Henry Peter Hansell.
On 6 May 1910, Prince George ascended the throne as George V, and Henry became the third in line to the throne. The King was persuaded by Hansell that it would be good for Henry's character to attend school, where he could interact with boys his age. The King, having previously rejected this proposition for his two elder sons, agreed on the basis that it would help him "behave like a boy and not like a little child".
Prince Henry thus became the first son of a British monarch to attend school. After three days at St Peter's Court in Broadstairs as a day boy, Hansell, noticing he liked it, asked the King to send him as a boarder, to which he agreed.
Henry spent three years at St Peter's Court. Academically, he was not very bright, although he did show a particular aptitude in mathematics, Henry's sole interest became sports, particularly cricket and football. "All you write about is your everlasting football of which I am heartily sick", wrote his mother, answering a fully detailed letter from Henry about a match.
In September 1913, Henry started at Eton College. During the First World War, Crown Prince Leopold of Belgium, later Leopold III, was a member of his house (Mr Lubbock's). His studies did not improve, but his nerves and disposition did. He made friends through his enthusiasm for sports, and his masters were very pleased with him, noting in his report that he was "thoroughly willing, cheerful, modest & obedient". To his father, these values were the most important, having no time or interest in what he called "intellectuals".
By the time he went up to Trinity College, Cambridge in 1919 with his brother Albert, Henry had outgrown all his brothers, both in height and size, and enjoyed very good health. Their stay at Cambridge lasted just one year and was very uneventful for both of them, as they were not allowed to live in college with the other undergraduates, due to their father's fear of their mixing with undesirable company.
Military career
Unlike his brothers, Prince Henry joined the Army rather than the Royal Navy. He attended the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, in 1919, and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the King's Royal Rifle Corps on 16 July 1919. On 16 July 1921 he was promoted to lieutenant in the 10th Royal Hussars, with whom he continued to serve. Though he desired to serve in more active roles as a soldier, his position as a senior member of the royal family effectively ruled out any such options. He retained an interest in sport and The Cricketer reported in August 1921 that the touring Philadelphians had had the honour of being presented to Prince Henry at The Oval.
Prince Henry was promoted to captain on 11 May 1927, and was appointed a personal aide-de-camp to his father on 2 August 1929. On 3 March 1931, he was appointed a staff captain and was seconded for service with the 2nd Cavalry Brigade. He was brevetted to major on 2 August 1934, and upon his father's Silver Jubilee the following May, was appointed Colonel-in-Chief of the Gloucestershire Regiment. On 6 July 1935, he was promoted to the substantive rank of major, his final rank as an actively serving officer. On 23 June 1936, he was appointed a personal aide-de-camp to his eldest brother, Edward VIII.
Following his brother's abdication and the accession of his brother the Duke of York as George VI, Prince Henry was effectively retired from active duty, and received a ceremonial promotion to major-general on 1 January 1937, skipping three ranks. He continued to serve as a personal aide-de-camp to the new King, receiving this appointment on 1 February. On 12 March, he received the colonelcy of his former regiment, the 10th Royal Hussars, along with the colonelcies of the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers and the Gordon Highlanders. On 28 May, he received an honorary appointment as a captain in the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve (RNVR), followed by his appointment on 10 November to the honorary colonelcies of the Ceylon Planters' Rifle Corps and the Ceylon Light Infantry (now the Sri Lanka Light Infantry).
Following the outbreak of the Second World War, he joined the British Expeditionary Force, and was appointed as a Chief Liaison Officer on 4 September 1939. In January 1940, he was appointed to the colonelcies of the Ulster Anti-Aircraft Regiments, the Royal Artillery and the Territorial Army. He was slightly wounded in 1940 when his staff car was attacked from the air. In August 1940, he was appointed Chief Liaison Officer, GHQ Home Forces. He also became second-in-command of the 20th Armoured Brigade that year, and was promoted to lieutenant-general on 17 September 1941. On 27 October 1944, he was promoted to the rank of full general.
He was appointed a Field Marshal in 1955 and a Marshal of the Royal Air Force in 1958.
Duke of Gloucester
On 31 March 1928, his father created him Duke of Gloucester, Earl of Ulster, and Baron Culloden, three titles that linked him with three parts of the United Kingdom, namely England, Northern Ireland and Scotland. Prince Henry visited Canada in 1928.
Before his marriage, Prince Henry's greatest ambition was to someday command his regiment, the 10th Royal Hussars, or at least spend as much time in the army as possible. Although he was a capable soldier, as the King's son he was prevented from joining his regiment abroad, and this meant he was generally seen as an outsider to his fellow officers. To his increasing despair, he had to fulfill the many royal duties his father assigned him.
In September 1928, Henry left England with his brother Edward, Prince of Wales, to shoot big game in Africa. The brothers parted in Nairobi, where Henry was to stay for a while. There, he was entertained by Mansfield Markham and his wife Beryl Markham. Beryl and Henry soon started an affair (though sources differ over when the affair started; many say it was not until her visit to England). In November, the brothers were recalled to England due to their father's worsening health, and soon after Beryl returned too. At the Grosvenor Hotel, close to Buckingham Palace, the affair continued with Prince Henry openly hosting parties with her in her suite and drinking too much.
The affair, widely known by the London society, shocked the Queen, to the delight of the Prince of Wales who remarked that "for once, Queen Mary's blue-eyed boy was in trouble instead of himself". The King stepped in, thinking that keeping Henry busy would be the best way to end the affair, as would keeping him from drinking too much, too often. That year, he arranged a series of tours for his son to undertake.
In 1929, he went to Japan to confer the Garter on the Emperor, and a year later he attended the coronation of Haile Selassie of Ethiopia in Addis Ababa. In 1934 George V made him a Knight of St Patrick, Ireland's chivalric order. It was the second to last time this order was awarded (the last appointment being the Duke of York, later George VI, in 1936); at the time of his death, the Duke of Gloucester was the only remaining knight. In 1934, he went to Australia and New Zealand where the people received him with overwhelming enthusiasm that one journalist wrote, "(amounted) to something very near adoration".
Marriage and family
When he returned from his trip to Japan in 1929, the affair with Markham ended. Her husband wanted a divorce and threatened to disclose Prince Henry's private letters to his wife if he did not "take care of Beryl". The Duke and Beryl never met again, although she did write to him when he visited Kenya in 1950 with his wife, but he did not write back. Prince Henry's solicitors paid out an annuity until her death in 1985.
After his tour of Australia and New Zealand, and pressured by his parents, Prince Henry decided it was time to settle down and proposed to Lady Alice Montagu Douglas Scott, sister of one of Henry's best friends Lord William Montagu Douglas Scott. The proposal, wrote Lady Alice many years later, was not at all romantic as "it was not his way", instead he just "mumbled it as we were on a walk one day".
They were married on 6 November 1935. The marriage was originally planned to take place at Westminster Abbey, but was moved to the more modest Private Chapel at Buckingham Palace due to the death of Lady Alice's father, on 19 October 1935, barely a fortnight before the wedding. After suffering two miscarriages, the Duchess of Gloucester gave birth to two sons:
Prince William of Gloucester (18 December 1941 – 28 August 1972)
Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester (born 26 August 1944). He married a Danish commoner, Birgitte van Deurs, on 8 July 1972. The couple later had three children.
The couple lived first at the Royal Pavilion in Aldershot, near the barracks of the Duke's regiment. "It was a very simple cabin" recalled the Duchess of Gloucester, and "the only royal thing about it was my husband's presence". After his father's death, the Duke bought Barnwell Manor in 1938. As their London seat, they were given York House in St James's Palace.
Abdication of Edward VIII
In December 1936, Henry's brother Edward VIII abdicated the throne to marry divorcée Wallis Simpson. His brother, Prince Albert, ascended the throne as King George VI. Although third in line to the throne, following his two nieces Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret, Henry became the first adult in line, meaning he would act as regent if anything were to happen to the King before Princess Elizabeth came of age on 21 April 1944, her 18th birthday. Because of this, Prince Henry could not leave the UK at the same time as the King. Furthermore, he and his younger brother, the Duke of Kent, had to increase their royal engagements considerably to support the new King.
Edward VIII, who became Duke of Windsor after abdicating, recalled that it was Henry who reacted least to the news of his abdication. The brothers had never been close and, apart from horses, they had not much in common. But Edward did admit regretting the implications the abdication would have on "The Unknown Soldier", a nickname he teasingly used to refer to Henry, owing to his low profile.
The abrupt change in Prince Henry's somewhat carefree life up to that point was made clear by the new King on the very first evening of his reign. "If you two think that, now that I have taken this new job on, you can go on behaving just as you like, in the same old way, you are very much mistaken! You two have to pull yourselves together", the King warned his two younger brothers at dinner.
Although the Duke of Gloucester supported his brother, and later his niece, tirelessly and dutifully, he had a fondness for whisky. On one occasion, Queen Mary wrote to the Duchess suggesting that if they were planning to visit, the Duke should bring his own supply of whisky, "as we have not got much left, and it is so expensive". Even Noble Frankland, who wrote the Duke's biography after his death at the request and under the supervision of the Duchess, wrote that: "He did not eschew a glass of whisky ... or the occasional blasphemous oath."
King George VI had great affection for his younger brother. Circumstances had made them closer following the abdication, and the King trusted Prince Henry with important matters, which he dutifully undertook. Sometimes, though, the organised King found his brother's less systematic manner irritating. On one occasion after a day of shooting at Balmoral Castle, the King found a mistake on his shot-game record, where there seemed to be a pair of grouse missing. A member of staff suggested that the King call and ask the Duke of Gloucester, who was staying at Birkhall. When the Duke confirmed he had taken the birds, the King's gruff warning to his brother that he should never again take birds without telling him surprised the member of staff.
Second World War
After the outbreak of the Second World War, the Duke of Gloucester, as Chief Liaison Officer to Lord Gort, spent almost the entire first year of the war in France. Besides boosting the troops' morale, he was useful as a first-hand witness of the situation; he reported to government officials and to the King, to whom he continually wrote detailed and objective accounts of what was happening. Always eager to get involved, the Duke often found himself in dangerous situations, but did not seem overly worried. "Motoring about is not nice as many villages are being bombed," he wrote to his wife in his usual straightforward and dismissive manner. The Duke's two narrowest escapes both came in May 1940.
Having known King Leopold III of Belgium from school days, the Duke wanted to meet him personally to offer support after rumours began circulating that Belgium would surrender to Germany. On 14 May, he and his brother-in-law, Lord William Scott, drove from Hotel Univers in Arras into Belgium to see the King of the Belgians at a secret location. That night, Hotel Univers was bombed, resulting in several deaths, including those staying in the rooms next to the Duke's. The Duke wrote to his brother that King Leopold was "very depressed". As the Duke and Lord William Scott drove back, they were caught up in heavy enemy bombing in Tournai, where their car caught fire. They managed to get out and dive into an alleyway, although not unscathed as the Duke needed medical attention for a profusely bleeding wound.
Although generally optimistic, Prince Henry did sometimes suffer from bouts of depression during his service in 1940, especially at the end of his occasional leaves. "My beloved Alice, I did hate leaving you yesterday so very much that I could hardly keep a straight face", he wrote to his wife after reporting back. The strains of living at the French front also diminished his resolve at times: "I think I hate this country and war more than ever... it is such an awful waste of everything," he told the Duchess.
In June, after the fall of Dunkirk, the Duke was ordered back to England by an embarrassed General Headquarters, which had not been able to assure the King's brother's safety. "Wherever I went or had been, I was bombed" the Duke explained to his mother, amused.
In early 1942 the King arranged a four-month-long military and diplomatic mission for the Duke to the Middle East, India, and East Africa. The mission came just after Prince Henry had become a father for the first time, and it was considered a dangerous trip, as the Germans were rapidly advancing toward some of the territories the Duke would visit. The King even wrote to his sister-in-law that he would act as guardian of the newly born Prince William if anything should happen to his brother.
After Prince Henry's younger brother, the Duke of Kent, died in a plane crash in Scotland in August 1942, it was decided that the Duke of Gloucester would not be sent on any further missions that could prove dangerous.
Governor-General of Australia
In late 1944 the Duke was unexpectedly appointed Governor-General of Australia after the death in 1942 of his younger brother, the Duke of Kent, who had previously been offered the position.
The Duke had made a successful visit to Australia in 1934. Because the Duke was shy, he sometimes appeared stiff and formal, but he and the Duchess travelled widely in Australia using his own plane during their time in office. When Prime Minister Curtin died in 1945, the Duke appointed Frank Forde as prime minister.
Gloucester left Australia in March 1947, after two years in the post, due to the need to act as Senior Counsellor of State during a visit by George VI and Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret to South Africa. As a parting gift, he left his own plane for use by the government and people of Australia.
Later life
In May 1949, May 1961, May 1962, and May 1963, the Duke served in the office of Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, which temporarily afforded him precedence in Scotland immediately below the King and Queen.
The Duke attended the coronation of his niece Elizabeth II in 1953. Both the Duke and Duchess carried out royal engagements, including several overseas tours. In 1954 the Duke served as the Treasurer of the Honourable Society of Gray's Inn. He suffered a series of strokes in later years; his first was in 1965 while he and his wife, Alice, were returning from Sir Winston Churchill's funeral ceremony in their vehicle, which resulted in a car crash. This, together with later strokes, left him dependent on a wheelchair, and he was unable to speak in his last remaining years. His last public appearance was at the unveiling of Queen Mary's plaque at Marlborough House in 1967, where he appeared weak and considerably older than the Duke of Windsor. By 1972, he was too ill to attend the funeral of the Duke of Windsor in May or the wedding of his younger son, Prince Richard, in July. In August, the Duke's elder son, Prince William, died in a plane crash; by that point, he was in such poor health that his wife hesitated about whether to tell him. She later admitted in her memoirs that she did not, but that he may have learned of their son's death from television coverage.
Death
He died on 10 June 1974 at the age of 74. He was the last surviving child of King George V and Queen Mary. His body was buried in the Royal Burial Ground, Frogmore.
His second son, Prince Richard, inherited the title of Duke of Gloucester. The Duke's widow, Alice, received permission from Queen Elizabeth II to be styled Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester, to distinguish herself from Prince Richard's wife. She survived until 2004, becoming the longest-lived member of the British royal family in history.
Titles, styles, honours and arms
Titles and styles
1900–1901: His Royal Highness Prince Henry of York
1901: His Royal Highness Prince Henry of Cornwall and York
1901–1910: His Royal Highness Prince Henry of Wales
1910–1928: His Royal Highness The Prince Henry
1928–1974: His Royal Highness The Duke of Gloucester
Honours
KG: Knight of the Order of the Garter (1921)
KT: Knight of the Order of the Thistle (1933)
KP: Knight of the Order of St Patrick (1934)
GCB: Great Master and Principal Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (1942)
GCMG: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (1935)
GCVO: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (1922)
GCStJ: Grand Prior of the Order of St John (1939)
ADC: Personal aide-de-camp (1929)
Royal Victorian Chain (1932)
Grand Cross of the Order of St. Olav
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (1921); Collar (1929)
Knight of the Order of the Elephant (24 June 1924)
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (May 1927)
Knight of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri (17 July 1939)
Knight of the Order of the Seraphim (8 June 1956)
Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (9 May 1958)
Military
Colonel in Chief, Gloucestershire Regiment
Colonel in Chief, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
Colonel, Ceylon Light Infantry (1937)
Colonel, Scots Guards (1937)
Colonel in Chief, Royal Army Service Corps
Colonel in Chief, Royal Corps of Transport
Arms
In 1921, Prince Henry was granted a personal coat of arms, being the royal arms, differenced by a label argent of three points, the centre bearing a lion rampant gules, and the outer points crosses gules.
Ancestry
Notes
External links
Australian Dictionary of Biography
10th Royal Hussars officers
1900 births
1974 deaths
19th-century British people
20th-century British people
Bailiffs Grand Cross of the Order of St John
British field marshals
Burials at the Royal Burial Ground, Frogmore
Dukes of Gloucester
Earls of Ulster (1928)
Gloucester
Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst
Henry, Duke of Gloucester
King's Royal Rifle Corps officers
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Great Masters of the Order of the Bath
Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Knights of St Patrick
Knights of the Garter
Knights of the Thistle
Lords High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland
Marshals of the Royal Air Force
Gloucester, Henry, Duke of
People educated at St Peter's Court
People of the Victorian era
Presidents of the Football Association
Henry, Duke of Gloucester, Prince
British landowners
Grand Crosses 1st class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
People from Sandringham, Norfolk
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Barons Culloden
Peers created by George V
Sons of British monarchs
Children of George V
British people of German descent
British Army personnel of World War II
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
Military personnel from Norfolk | [
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] |
222098 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip%20J.%20Carroll | Philip J. Carroll | Philip J. Carroll, Jr. (1937–2014) was an American businessman who was active in a variety of corporate and government roles.
Carroll earned a Bachelor of Science in physics from Loyola University New Orleans in 1958 and a M.S. in physics from Tulane University in 1961, after which he joined the Shell Oil company as an engineer. He died in Houston, Texas, on October 6, 2014.
Carroll became the CEO of Shell Oil in 1993 and served in that position until July 1998, when he became the chairman and CEO of Fluor Corporation, an engineering and construction services firm. He retired from Fluor in February 2002.
He was a non-executive director of the British defense company BAE Systems.
Carroll was a member of the board of directors of other companies, including Boise Cascade, Vulcan Materials, American Express, Scottish Power, and Texas Medical Center.
Carroll was an honorary life member of the board of the American Petroleum Institute, a member of the Tulane University advisory board, and the James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy at Rice University and the University of Houston.
In the 1970s he briefly served as the director of the U.S. Department of Commerce's Energy Conservation Division and the Director of the National Industrial Energy Conservation Council. In 2003 he was appointed by the Bush administration to head the policy planning advisory board of the Iraqi Oil Ministry.
He opposed the neo conservative-backed plan to privatize Iraqi oil. He told Newsnight: "Many Neo-Conservatives are people who have certain ideological beliefs about markets, about democracy, about this, that and the other. International oil companies, without exception, are very pragmatic commercial organizations. They don't have a theology."
News
An American and 2 Iraqis to Assume Key Oil Posts, New York Times, May 2, 2003.
BBC with Greg Palast
External links
BAE Systems
Fluor Corporation
Vulcan Materials
Scottish Power, PLC
Boise Cascade
Texas Medical Center
Obituary
1937 births
2014 deaths
British businesspeople
BAE Systems people
Carroll, Philip
Rice University people
American Express people
University of Houston System regents | [
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222106 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To%20Be%20and%20to%20Have | To Be and to Have | To Be and To Have (; also the UK title) is a 2002 French documentary film directed by Nicolas Philibert about a small rural school. It was screened as an "Out of Competition" film at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival and achieved commercial success. The film became the subject of an unsuccessful legal action by the school's teacher, who said that he and the children's parents had been misled about the film's intended audience, and that he and the children had been exploited.
The documentary's title translates as "to be and to have", the two auxiliary verbs in the French language. It is about a primary school in the commune of Saint-Étienne-sur-Usson, Puy-de-Dôme, France, the population of which is just over 200. The school has one small class of mixed ages (from four to twelve years), with a dedicated teacher, Mr Lopez, who shows patience and respect for the children as we follow their story through a single school year.
The film won several awards, including the 2003 Sacramento French Film Festival Audience Prize.
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 97%, based on 59 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "A small, sensitive, and moving portrait of a teacher and his students." On Metacritic the film has a score of 87 out of 100, based on 26 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".
Lawsuit
Following the film's popularity in cinemas, Lopez, the principal personality in the documentary, made an unsuccessful attempt to sue the documentary's makers for a share of the €2 million profit. One of his main claims was that the film-makers had exploited his image without authorisation. French film unions warned that if Lopez had been successful it would have spelt "the death of the documentary, undermining the crucial principle that subjects should not be paid to participate".
Speaking after the court case, Lopez said that he, the children and their families had been misled by the film's production company about the purpose and intended audience of the film:
"We were misled. The production company told me and the children's families that they were making a small documentary about the phenomenon of the one-teacher village school and that the film would be used primarily for educational purposes. They said it would have a restricted screening, and never discussed marketing the film to make it such a commercial venture....We had no idea that it would be in cinemas all over the country, released on DVD or distributed abroad.
The court ruled that Lopez's attendance at the Cannes film festival, which he attended with some of the students,and his repeated public expressions of satisfaction at its success, constituted his tacit acceptance of the use of his image.
The French media had been critical of Lopez, with one newspaper carrying the headline: "To be and to have: the teacher would rather have." However Lopez said money was never his motivation: "I'm simply trying to make the film company recognise my rights." Lopez was supported in his action by the families of most of his former pupils, some of whom stated that they themselves would also sue the film company.
Lopez said the unexpected attention the film had brought the young students had traumatised some of them:
"One child, who had been very stable and happy until the film's release, was so distressed by his unexpected fame, that he started wetting the bed, and became afraid of the dark...Other children have been teased at their new secondary schools because of their involvement. All have been subjected to a great deal of stress as a direct consequence of the film."
Accolades
References
External links
2002 films
French documentary films
French films
French-language films
Documentary films about children
Films directed by Nicolas Philibert
Documentary films about education
2002 documentary films
Louis Delluc Prize winners
European Film Awards winners (films)
Films set in schools | [
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222118 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German%20submarine%20U-429 | German submarine U-429 | German submarine U-429 was a Type VIIC U-boat of Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine originally built for the Italian Regia Marina during World War II. Her keel was laid down on 14 September 1942 by Danziger Werft of Danzig. She was then commissioned as S-4 on 14 July 1943 under the command of an Italian captain.
Following the Italian armistice on 8 September 1943, the Kriegsmarine took possession of the U-429, which was still in German waters, along with the and . These boats were not deemed advanced or useful enough for full war service, and on 27 October 1943 they were turned over to training flotillas for service in the Baltic Sea, training up submarine crews for dispatch to operating boats, mainly based in France. After a very uneventful service life, the U-429 was caught in an open dock during a U.S. Eighth Air Force raid on the city of Wilhelmshaven on 30 March 1945, and destroyed by bombing, although her crew were not on board at the time of the attack.
Design
German Type VIIC submarines were preceded by the shorter Type VIIB submarines. U-429 had a displacement of when at the surface and while submerged. She had a total length of , a pressure hull length of , a beam of , a height of , and a draught of . The submarine was powered by two Germaniawerft F46 four-stroke, six-cylinder supercharged diesel engines producing a total of for use while surfaced, two Siemens-Schuckert GU 343/38–8 double-acting electric motors producing a total of for use while submerged. She had two shafts and two propellers. The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to .
The submarine had a maximum surface speed of and a maximum submerged speed of . When submerged, the boat could operate for at ; when surfaced, she could travel at . U-429 was fitted with five torpedo tubes (four fitted at the bow and one at the stern), fourteen torpedoes, one SK C/35 naval gun, 220 rounds, and two twin C/30 anti-aircraft guns. The boat had a complement of between forty-four and sixty.
Modern dramatization
The 2003 film In Enemy Hands features a fictional U-429, which captures the crew of a fictional version of .
References
Bibliography
External links
German Type VIIC submarines
World War II shipwrecks in the North Sea
World War II submarines of Germany
U-boats sunk by US aircraft
U-boats commissioned in 1943
1943 ships
U-boats sunk in 1945
Ships built in Danzig
Maritime incidents in March 1945 | [
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222120 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Swordfish%20%28SS-193%29 | USS Swordfish (SS-193) | USS Swordfish (SS-193), a Sargo-class submarine, was the first submarine of the United States Navy named for the swordfish, a large fish with a long, swordlike beak and a high dorsal fin. She was the first American submarine to sink a Japanese ship during World War II.
Operational history
1937–1941
Her keel was laid down on 27 October 1937 by the Mare Island Naval Shipyard of Vallejo, California. She was launched on 3 April 1939 sponsored by Miss Louise Shaw Hepburn, and commissioned on 22 July 1939 with Lieutenant (later Rear Admiral) Chester C. Smith in command.
Following shakedown and post-shakedown repairs at Mare Island, Swordfish operated out of San Diego, California, until early 1941, when she set sail for Pearl Harbor. On 3 November Swordfish, in company with three other U.S. submarines, departed Pearl, and on 22 November arrived at Manila, Philippine Islands. The submarine remained at Manila until the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941. The following day, she set sail on her first war patrol, conducted off the coast of Hainan, China. After damaging several enemy vessels on the 9th, 11th, and 14th (Kashii Maru), Swordfish sank her initial victim of the war on 16 December. Hit amidships by one of three torpedoes, the cargo ship Atsutasan Maru erupted in a cloud of smoke and flames and disappeared beneath the waves. On 27 December Swordfish embarked the organizational staff of the Submarine Asiatic Command Staff at Manila and headed for Soerabaja, Java, arriving on 7 January 1942.
1942
Swordfish departed Soerabaja on 16 January for her second war patrol, conducted in the Celebes Sea and in the Philippines. On 24 January, she torpedoed and sank the cargo ship Myoken Maru (4,124 tons) off Kema, Celebes Islands. On 20 February, she submerged in the entrance of Mariveles, Luzon, only to surface after dark to take on board the President of the Philippines, his family and select high-ranking officers. She departed on the surface about 11:30pm and sailed through a minefield. She submerged during the day of 21 February, between 6:20am and 6:20pm which caused it to be quite warm, 94F and 92% humidity. She arrived off the coast of San Jose, Panay, Philippine Islands on 22 February at 10pm and they stopped at 2:30am on 23 February about a mile off the coast of San Jose de Buenavista, Antique. Fifteen minutes later they were advised that their launch was approaching. The passengers debarked the sub around 3am on 23 February. The President and his party were transferred to a motor tender. Swordfish then returned to Manila Bay and embarked the High Commissioner of the Philippines, arriving Fremantle, Western Australia, on 9 March.
Swordfish got underway from Fremantle on 1 April for her third war patrol, with her primary mission being to deliver 40 tons of provisions to the besieged island of Corregidor. The island fell to the Japanese before the mission could be carried out and the submarine was ordered to patrol in the vicinity of Ambon Island. The only ships sighted were beyond effective range, and the submarine returned to Fremantle on 1 May.
Departing Fremantle for her fourth war patrol on 15 May, Swordfish was in the Makassar Straiton 23 May when she damaged the Asakaze Maru; in the South China Sea on 29 May where she sank a 1900-ton transport ship Tatsufuku Maru and was in the Gulf of Siam on 12 June, where she torpedoed and sank a 4585-ton cargo ship Burma Maru. The submarine returned to Fremantle on 4 July.
Her fifth war patrol, conducted in the Sulu Sea, and her sixth war patrol, conducted in the Solomon Islands, were unproductive. She possibly was involved in an accidental "friendly fire" attack in Misima Island harbor on HMAS Fauro Chief which was damaged 12 November 1942
1943
On her seventh war patrol Swordfish sank a 4122-ton cargo ship Myoho Maru on 19 January 1943. Returning to Pearl Harbor on 23 February, the submarine underwent overhaul until 29 July, when she got underway for her eighth war patrol.
On 22 August, she sighted her first target of the patrol, and quickly sent the 3016-ton cargo ship Nishiyama Maru to the bottom, the victim of two torpedo hits. A convoy was intercepted on 5 September, and Swordfish damaged a large tanker before sinking a 3203-ton transport ship Tenkai Maru. The submarine concluded this patrol at Brisbane, Australia, on 20 September.
Swordfishs ninth war patrol lasted only three weeks. Shortly after reaching her assigned patrol area, material defects were discovered, and the submarine had to return to port.
1944
On the day after Christmas 1943, Swordfish departed for her tenth war patrol, in the hands of one of the Submarine Force's oldest commanders, 42-year-old Karl G. Hensel (Class of 1923), formerly commanding Submarine Division 101. The patrol was conducted in Tokyo Bay. It was plagued with equipment casualties in old Swordfish, including radar trouble and electrical fires. On 13 January 1944, she sank 6921-ton freighter Yamakuni Maru, while surviving "heavy—and close—depth charges". The depth charging caused her to lose power in her electrical systems, and when she dived at dawn the next day, she suffered two separate fires and nearly went right to the bottom; her captain managed to bring her back up, where she wallowed on the surface, only to have a Japanese patrol boat close on her. She regained power in the nick of time and dived. At around 2200 on 14 January, Swordfish detected another ship, and made radar contact at on the Japanese navy's first genuine Q-ship, the 2182-ton merchantman Delhi Maru, on her maiden voyage. She had been outfitted with sonar (which Swordfish had heard pinging), new watertight bulkheads, depth charge throwers, and concealed guns, specially to destroy submarines. At midnight, Swordfish fired three bow torpedo tubes, scoring three hits with the recently corrected Mark XIV torpedo. Delhi Maru blew up, and the two patrol boats of her escort kept Swordfish down with depth charges for three hours before she evaded.
17 January, Swordfish was detailed to intercept and her escort. In the dark, it was impossible to see the carrier, but radar made contact on the force at (), making . To avoid being detected, Swordfish dived, only to end up in front of one of Shōkakus escorting destroyers, which practically ran right over her. Shōkaku came on so fast, Swordfish could barely get off a shot from her four stern tubes, with the carrier going away; all missed. On 27 January, Swordfish fired two torpedoes at a 3140-ton auxiliary gunboat Kasagi Maru which broke in half and sank. She completed her tenth patrol at Pearl Harbor on 7 February. Her total score was claimed to be two ships for 15,200 tons; the tonnage was reduced by JANAC to 12,543 tons postwar, but the number of ships was raised to three.
Swordfish put to sea on 13 March for her eleventh war patrol, conducted in the Mariana Islands. Although several enemy ships were damaged during this patrol, no sinkings could be confirmed; and the submarine returned to Majuro on 29 April.
Swordfishs twelfth war patrol was conducted in the area of the Bonin Islands. On 9 June, the submarine found Japanese destroyer clearly illuminated against the horizon and sank the enemy ship with two torpedoes from her bow tubes. On 15 June, she torpedoed and sank a 4804-ton transport ship Kanseishi Maru. The remainder of the patrol was unproductive; on 27 June the Swordfish heavily damaged two enemy trawlers near Chici Jima and on 30 June sank or heavily damaged a Japanese picket boat in the Northern Pacific, and the submarine terminated her twelfth patrol at Pearl Harbor on 30 June.
On 22 December, Swordfish departed Pearl Harbor to conduct her thirteenth war patrol, in the vicinity of Nansei Shoto. She topped off with fuel at Midway on 26 December and left that day for her area. In addition to her regular patrol, Swordfish was to conduct photographic reconnaissance of Okinawa, for preparation of the Okinawa Campaign.
1945
On 2 January, Swordfish was ordered to delay carrying out her assigned tasks in order to keep her clear of the Nansei Shoto area until completion of carrier-based air strikes which were scheduled. She was directed to patrol the general vicinity of 30°N; 132°E until further orders were received. Her acknowledgement of those orders on 3 January was the last communication received from Swordfish.
On 9 January 1945, Swordfish was directed to proceed to the vicinity of Okinawa to carry out her special mission. It was estimated that the task would not take more than seven days after arrival on station, which she should have reached on 11 January. Upon completion of her mission, Swordfish was to proceed to Saipan, or to Midway if she was unable to transmit by radio. Since neither place had seen her by 15 February, and repeated attempts to raise her by radio had failed, she was reported as presumed lost on that date.
In the report of her loss, mention was made that , which at the time was patrolling the vicinity of Okinawa, reported that on the morning of 12 January she contacted a submarine by radar. It was believed that contact was with Swordfish. Four hours later Kete heard heavy depth charging from this area, and it was believed that this attack might have been the cause of Swordfishs loss.
Japanese information on antisubmarine attacks does not mention the attack heard by Kete on 12 January, and records no attacks in which Swordfish is likely to have been the victim. However, it is now known that there were many mines planted around Okinawa, since the Japanese were expecting an Allied invasion of that island. The majority of the mines were planted close in. It is considered about equally likely that Swordfish was sunk by depth charge attack before she reached Okinawa for her special mission or that she was lost to a mine at that place. Japanese sources sometimes credit her with sinking Shoto Maru on 4 January and being sunk in return by her escort, Kaibokan CD-4, since no claims for Shoto Maru match her sinking time.
Admiral William S. Pye's son, Lt. Commander John Briscoe Pye, was on the USS Swordfish (SS-193) for her 13th and final war patrol.
Honors and awards
Swordfish earned eight battle stars for World War II service.
Swordfish was awarded the Navy Unit Commendation for the period of her first, second and fourth patrols.
A memorial to the boat has been erected in St. Paul, Minnesota near the Como Park Zoo and Conservatory. It is just off Churchill Street, on a rise a short walk south of Hamm Falls. This consists of a torpedo on a stand. On one side of the base is a plaque listing the names of the crew and giving a brief history of the vessel. On the other is a roll of U.S. submarines lost in World War II.
References
External links
http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-usn/usnsh-s/ss193.htm
On Eternal Patrol: USS Swordfish
Kill record: USS Swordfish
Sargo-class submarines
World War II submarines of the United States
Lost submarines of the United States
Missing submarines of World War II
Ships built in Vallejo, California
1939 ships
Ships lost with all hands
Maritime incidents in January 1945 | [
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222121 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Swordfish%20%28SSN-579%29 | USS Swordfish (SSN-579) | USS Swordfish (SSN-579), a nuclear-powered submarine, was the second submarine of the United States Navy named for the swordfish, a large fish with a long, swordlike beak and a high dorsal fin.
The contract to build her was awarded to the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard of Kittery, Maine on 18 July 1955, and her keel was laid down on 25 January 1956. She was launched on 27 August 1957 sponsored by Mrs. Eugene C. Riders, and commissioned on 15 September 1958 with Commander Shannon D. Cramer, Jr., in command.
History
Swordfish completed fitting out and held her shakedown in the Atlantic Ocean. After post-shakedown availability and subsequent sea trials along the East Coast, she was assigned a home port at Pearl Harbor, Territory of Hawaii, effective 16 March 1959. She steamed to Hawaii in July and was the second nuclear-powered submarine to join the United States Pacific Fleet, joining . Assigned to Submarine Squadron 1, Swordfish steamed over 35,000 miles during her first year in commission with over 80% of them submerged.
In January 1960, Swordfish deployed to the western Pacific Ocean (WestPac) for four months and became the first nuclear submarine in that area. During this time, President of the Republic of China Chiang Kai-shek was embarked for a one-day indoctrination cruise. She deployed to WestPac again on 20 June and on this occasion took President of the Philippines Carlos P. Garcia to sea for a one-day demonstration. The submarine conducted local operations in the Hawaiian area from January to May 1961. In late May, the submarine got underway for the West Coast of the United States where she operated between San Diego and San Francisco, with various Pacific Fleet units. Swordfish returned to Pearl Harbor on 14 July and operated locally until September when she deployed to the western Pacific for two months.
Swordfish sailed to Mare Island in January 1962 and became the first nuclear submarine to be overhauled on the Pacific coast. She returned to Hawaii on 29 September for refresher training and local operations. On 26 October, the submarine was again deployed to WestPac.
In late 1963, Swordfish observed from close range a Soviet anti-submarine warfare exercise in the North Pacific. She was detected, but the Soviets were unable to force her to surface. The mission provided recordings of the Soviets' radio chatter and plots of their radar search patterns. During the same operations Swordfish photographed the first Soviet nuclear-powered submarine being towed from a shipyard to be outfitted in another.
Swordfish continued operating from Pearl Harbor, on local operations and on deployments to the western Pacific, as a member of Submarine Division 71 until 30 June 1965 when she was assigned to Submarine Division 11 which was also based there. In late 1965, Swordfish was awarded a Navy Unit Commendation for special operations from 8 October to 3 December 1963, from 22 September to 25 November 1964, and from 20 May to 23 July 1965.
Swordfish arrived at the San Francisco Naval Shipyard on 1 November 1965 to undergo a refueling and SubSafe overhaul which lasted until 31 August 1967. Sea trials were held in September and weapons trials in early October. She returned to Pearl Harbor on 13 October and conducted refresher training until 31 December 1967. The period 1 January to 2 February 1968 was spent in preparation for overseas movement. Swordfish deployed to the western Pacific on 3 February.
On 8 March 1968, , a Soviet Golf II-class submarine, sank northwest of Oahu. On 17 March, Swordfish put into Yokosuka, Japan, for emergency repairs to a bent periscope. It was suggested by the Soviets that K-129 was lost after a collision with Swordfish. The United States Navy states that Swordfish was damaged in an ice pack in the Sea of Japan, and that K-129 was some 2,000 miles (3,000 km) distant from Swordfish when she was lost.
In May 1968, anti-nuclear activists alleged that Swordfish had released radioactive coolant water into the harbor of Sasebo, Japan where she was moored at the time. Some sources state that Japanese scientists discovered levels up to twenty times normal background, others, that they could not detect any increase in radioactivity. The Japanese protested the incident to the United States, and Japanese Premier Eisaku Satō stated that U.S. nuclear ships would no longer be allowed to call at Japanese ports unless their safety could be guaranteed.
Swordfish returned to Pearl Harbor on 5 September and remained in port the remaining four months of the year.
Swordfish conducted local operations in the Hawaiian area from 1 January to 11 May 1969 at which time she again deployed until 4 November. The remainder of the year was spent in a leave and upkeep period. She was deployed on special operations from 24 February to 9 April 1970 and then entered drydock at Pearl Harbor for an availability period which lasted until 30 September. The remainder of calendar year 1970 was spent conducting a period of crew training necessitated by the yard period.
Local operations during 1971 were broken by a tour in WestPac from 24 March to 22 September. During this deployment, the submarine visited Yokosuka, Buckner Bay, Pusan, and Hong Kong. Swordfish continued local operations until 26 June 1972 when she entered the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard for her annual overhaul which lasted through 31 December 1973. Upon completion of the yard period, Swordfish resumed operations with her Pearl Harbor-based squadron.
On 22 June 1977, Swordfish launched a Mark 14 torpedo which made a circular run and hit the port screw. Fortunately, it was an exercise torpedo. Swordfish returned to port for 24 hours, did a screw change, and went back to sea.
Swordfish made a deployment to the western Pacific from October 1977 until March 1978, stopping in Yokosuka, Pusan, Chinhae, Guam, Philippines, and Hong Kong.
In September 1978 a paint scraper worth 15 cents was accidentally dropped into a torpedo launcher and jammed the loading piston in its cylinder. For a week divers tried to free the piston while Swordfish was waterborne but all attempts failed. She had to be dry-docked and subsequent repairs cost 171,000 dollars.
In July 1979 the Swordfish began a western Pacific deployment, stopping in Yokosuka, Pusan, and the territory of Guam. After refitting in Guam the ship began operations again, but was forced to return to Guam after several days to repair the diesel engine after the muffler exhaust valve broke, flooding the engine. After repairs were made the deployment continued without incident until the ship's return to Pearl Harbor in December 1979.
Local operations were carried out until the ship was deployed to the western Pacific during the summer of 1980. Upon returning to Pearl Harbor the ship resumed local operations until entering Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard for overhaul and refueling in March 1981.
Final safety incident
In late October 1985, Swordfish was delayed in departing Pearl Harbor due to the failure of the drain pump. A replacement was obtained from , in the shipyard for decommissioning, but Swordfish put to sea before the pump was fully connected and tested, and the crew could not get the pump to operate. Since the engine room bilges could not be pumped, by the evening of 23 October, the first day at sea, the water in the engine room lower level bilge was over the deck plates (more than four feet). The crew tried to use a portable submersible pump, but were not successful.
When the water level got high enough to get up into the bottoms of the motors for the main lube oil pumps, causing grounds, the captain came aft and saw the situation and decided to take the boat shallow to allow pumping bilges. When the planesmen put a slight up-angle on the boat to come shallow the water in the bilges instantly rushed aft, greatly increasing its effect on trim (this is known as "free surface effect", later classes of subs have flood control bulkheads in engineroom lower level to prevent this) and causing an up-angle of about 45 degrees.
When "fire in engineroom lower level" was announced, due to water in the main lube oil pump motors, a man in the aft end of engineroom upper level opened the watertight door into the stern room, which swung into the stern room, to retrieve a fire extinguisher. Just then the up-angle increased dramatically and the bilge water began pouring in. The door was shut before the boat surfaced. With the boat on an even keel, the water came up to the deadlight in the door.
The maneuvering watchstanders began to take the immediate actions for loss of shaft lube oil; the throttleman began to shut the throttles for the main engines. Without propulsion, the extreme up-angle caused the ship to quickly stop and begin moving backwards, sinking stern first. When the fire was announced, the Engineer had gone to Maneuvering (the control center of the engine room). He saw the depth gauge indicating a rapid increase in depth, ordered "Ahead Full" on his own initiative, and opened the starboard forward throttle himself in an effort to drive the ship to the surface. In Control, the Captain saw similar indications, and ordered "Blow Aft!". Before the Chief of the Watch could initiate the blow on the aft group the up-angle became so steep that he was unable to maintain footing and slid to the rear of the Control compartment. He quickly climbed back up to the emergency blow "chicken switches" and opened the after group valve.
Swordfish surfaced successfully. However, during the up-angle the freshwater drain collecting tank vents were submerged and sucked contaminated water into the feed system. The steam generator water could not be analyzed immediately because nucleonics laboratory in the stern room had been inundated by the wave of bilgewater. After a while, the leading ELT found the necessary reagents and analyzed samples from both steam generators on the top hat in reactor compartment upper level. By this time the boat was in direct communication with Naval Reactors, which ordered the reactor shut down and cooled down and steam generators drained and refilled. The emergency diesel generator, located in engineroom lower level, initially had water in the generator from the incident but it was drained and the diesel was online before the reactor was shut down. The reactor was cooled down and steam generators were blown down with service air and refilled until all fresh water on the boat was exhausted, which was a couple of hours before arriving back in Pearl Harbor. Subsequent analysis of steam generator water revealed no leakage of reactor coolant into the steam generators.
Three of the boat's four air conditioning compressors were shut down as part of the rig for reduced electrical. The temperature in the ship exceeded with near 100% humidity for the several hours required for a tugboat to be dispatched from Pearl Harbor and tow Swordfish home. The tugboat, arrived the next morning and began the tow around noon, arriving back in Pearl Harbor just after midnight.
The actions of the Chief of the Watch and the Engineer saved Swordfish and her crew. The boat spent the rest of 1985 in port making repairs and returned to sea in January 1986, making a successful deployment to the western Pacific later in 1986.
Retirement
Swordfish was decommissioned and stricken from the Naval Vessel Registry on 2 June 1989. Her disposal through the Ship-Submarine Recycling Program (SRP) was completed at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard on 11 September 1995.
Swordfish earned the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal, two Meritorious Unit Commendations, two Navy "E"s, eight Navy Unit Commendations, four Vietnam Service Medals, and a number of classified awards.
Russia has repeatedly requested copies of Swordfishs logs to trace her at the time K-129 was lost, but the Pentagon refuses to release them; Swordfish was involved in highly sensitive operations at that time. The United States has salvaged some parts of K-129, and has provided the Russian government with a videotape of a burial-at-sea ceremony for six crew members whose remains were recovered when Hughes Glomar Explorer recovered parts of K-129 in 1974.
References
External links
navsource.org: USS Swordfish
hazegray.org: USS Swordfish
Skate-class submarines
Cold War submarines of the United States
Vietnam War submarines of the United States
K-129 submarine sinking accident
United States submarine accidents
Maritime incidents in 1968
Maritime incidents in 1985
Signals intelligence
Swordfish, USS
Ships built in Kittery, Maine
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222122 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Swordfish | USS Swordfish | Two submarines of the United States Navy have been named USS Swordfish after the swordfish, a large fish with a long, swordlike beak and a high dorsal fin.
, a commissioned in 1939 and sunk in 1945, was the first United States submarine to sink a Japanese ship during World War II.
, a in commission from 1958 to 1989, is accused by Russia of ramming and sinking the during the Cold War (see Project Jennifer).
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222127 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las%20Meninas | Las Meninas | Las Meninas (; ) is a 1656 painting in the Museo del Prado in Madrid, by Diego Velázquez, the leading artist of the Spanish Golden Age. Its complex and enigmatic composition raises questions about reality and illusion, and creates an uncertain relationship between the viewer and the figures depicted. Because of these complexities, Las Meninas has been one of the most widely analyzed works in Western painting.
The painting is believed by F. J. Sánchez Cantón to depict the main chamber in the Royal Alcazar of Madrid during the reign of King Philip IV of Spain, and presents several figures, most identifiable from the Spanish court, captured, according to some commentators, in a particular moment as if in a snapshot. Some look out of the canvas towards the viewer, while others interact among themselves. The 5-year-old Infanta Margaret Theresa is surrounded by her entourage of maids of honour, chaperone, bodyguard, two dwarfs and a dog. Just behind them, Velázquez portrays himself working at a large canvas. Velázquez looks outwards, beyond the pictorial space to where a viewer of the painting would stand. In the background there is a mirror that reflects the upper bodies of the king and queen. They appear to be placed outside the picture space in a position similar to that of the viewer, although some scholars have speculated that their image is a reflection from the painting Velázquez is shown working on.
Las Meninas has long been recognised as one of the most important paintings in Western art history. The Baroque painter Luca Giordano said that it represents the "theology of painting", and in 1827 the president of the Royal Academy of Arts Sir Thomas Lawrence described the work in a letter to his successor David Wilkie as "the true philosophy of the art". More recently, it has been described as "Velázquez's supreme achievement, a highly self-conscious, calculated demonstration of what painting could achieve, and perhaps the most searching comment ever made on the possibilities of the easel painting".
Background
Court of Philip IV
In 17th-century Spain, painters rarely enjoyed high social status. Painting was regarded as a craft, not an art such as poetry or music. Nonetheless, Velázquez worked his way up through the ranks of the court of Philip IV, and in February 1651 was appointed palace chamberlain (aposentador mayor del palacio). The post brought him status and material reward, but its duties made heavy demands on his time. During the remaining eight years of his life, he painted only a few works, mostly portraits of the royal family. When he painted Las Meninas, he had been with the royal household for 33 years.
Philip IV's first wife, Elizabeth of France, died in 1644, and their only son, Balthasar Charles, died two years later. Lacking an heir, Philip married Mariana of Austria in 1649, and Margaret Theresa (1651–1673) was their first child, and their only one at the time of the painting. Subsequently, she had a short-lived brother Philip Prospero (1657–1661), and then Charles (1661–1700) arrived, who succeeded to the throne as Charles II at the age of three. Velázquez painted portraits of Mariana and her children, and although Philip himself resisted being portrayed in his old age he did allow Velázquez to include him in Las Meninas. In the early 1650s he gave Velázquez the Pieza Principal ("main room") of the late Balthasar Charles's living quarters, by then serving as the palace museum, to use as his studio, where Las Meninas is set. Philip had his own chair in the studio and would often sit and watch Velázquez at work. Although constrained by rigid etiquette, the art-loving king seems to have had a close relationship with the painter. After Velázquez's death, Philip wrote "I am crushed" in the margin of a memorandum on the choice of his successor.
During the 1640s and 1650s, Velázquez served as both court painter and curator of Philip IV's expanding collection of European art. He seems to have been given an unusual degree of freedom in the role. He supervised the decoration and interior design of the rooms holding the most valued paintings, adding mirrors, statues and tapestries. He was also responsible for the sourcing, attribution, hanging and inventory of many of the Spanish king's paintings. By the early 1650s, Velázquez was widely respected in Spain as a connoisseur. Much of the collection of the Prado today—including works by Titian, Raphael, and Rubens—were acquired and assembled under Velázquez's curatorship.
Provenance and condition
The painting was referred to in the earliest inventories as La Familia ("The Family"). A detailed description of Las Meninas, which provides the identification of several of the figures, was published by Antonio Palomino ("the Giorgio Vasari of the Spanish Golden Age") in 1724. Examination under infrared light reveals minor pentimenti, that is, there are traces of earlier working that the artist himself later altered. For example, at first Velázquez's own head inclined to his right rather than his left.
The painting has been cut down on both the left and right sides. It was damaged in the fire that destroyed the Alcázar in 1734, and was restored by court painter Juan García de Miranda (1677–1749). The left cheek of the Infanta was almost completely repainted to compensate for a substantial loss of pigment. After its rescue from the fire, the painting was inventoried as part of the royal collection in 1747–48, and the Infanta was misidentified as Maria Theresa, Margaret Theresa's older half-sister, an error that was repeated when the painting was inventoried at the new Madrid Royal Palace in 1772. A 1794 inventory reverted to a version of the earlier title, The Family of Philip IV, which was repeated in the records of 1814. The painting entered the collection of the Museo del Prado on its foundation in 1819. In 1843, the Prado catalogue listed the work for the first time as Las Meninas.
In recent years, the picture has suffered a loss of texture and hue. Due to exposure to pollution and crowds of visitors, the once-vivid contrasts between blue and white pigments in the costumes of the meninas have faded. It was last cleaned in 1984 under the supervision of the American conservator John Brealey, to remove a "yellow veil" of dust that had gathered since the previous restoration in the 19th century. The cleaning provoked, according to the art historian Federico Zeri, "furious protests, not because the picture had been damaged in any way, but because it looked different". However, in the opinion of López-Rey, the "restoration was impeccable". Due to its size, importance, and value, the painting is not lent out for exhibition.
Painting materials
A thorough technical investigation including a pigment analysis of Las Meninas was conducted around 1981 in the Museo del Prado. The analysis revealed the usual pigments of the baroque period frequently used by Velázquez in his other paintings. The main pigments used for this painting were lead white, azurite (for the skirt of the kneeling menina), vermilion and red lake, ochres and carbon blacks.
Description
Subject matter
Las Meninas is set in Velázquez's studio in Philip IV's Alcázar palace in Madrid. The high-ceilinged room is presented, in the words of Silvio Gaggi, as "a simple box that could be divided into a perspective grid with a single vanishing point". In the centre of the foreground stands the Infanta Margaret Theresa (1). The five-year-old infanta, who later married Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I, was at this point Philip and Mariana's only surviving child. She is attended by two ladies-in-waiting, or meninas: Doña Isabel de Velasco (2), who is poised to curtsy to the princess, and Doña (3), who kneels before Margaret Theresa, offering her a drink from a red cup, or búcaro, that she holds on a golden tray. To the right of the Infanta are two dwarfs: the achondroplastic German, Mari Bárbola (4), and the Italian, Nicolás Pertusato (5), who playfully tries to rouse a sleepy mastiff with his foot. The dog is thought to be descended from two mastiffs from Lyme Hall in Cheshire, given to Philip III in 1604 by James I of England. The Doña Marcela de Ulloa (6), the princess's chaperone, stands behind them, dressed in mourning and talking to an unidentified bodyguard (or guardadamas) (7).
To the rear and at right Don José Nieto Velázquez (8)—the queen's chamberlain during the 1650s, and head of the royal tapestry works—who may have been a relative of the artist. Nieto is shown standing but in pause, with his right knee bent and his feet on different steps. As the art critic Harriet Stone observes, it is uncertain whether he is "coming or going". He is rendered in silhouette and appears to hold open a curtain on a short flight of stairs, with an unclear wall or space behind. Both this backlight and the open doorway reveal space behind: in the words of the art historian Analisa Leppanen, they lure "our eyes inescapably into the depths". The royal couple's reflection pushes in the opposite direction, forward into the picture space. The vanishing point of the perspective is in the doorway, as can be shown by extending the line of the meeting of wall and ceiling on the right. Nieto is seen only by the king and queen, who share the viewer's point of view, and not by the figures in the foreground. In the footnotes of Joel Snyder's article, the author recognizes that Nieto is the queen's attendant and was required to be at hand to open and close doors for her. Snyder suggests that Nieto appears in the doorway so that the king and queen might depart. In the context of the painting, Snyder argues that the scene is the end of the royal couple's sitting for Velázquez and they are preparing to exit, explaining that is "why the menina to the right of the Infanta begins to curtsy".
Velázquez himself (9) is pictured to the left of the scene, looking outward past a large canvas supported by an easel. On his chest is the red cross of the Order of Santiago, which he did not receive until 1659, three years after the painting was completed. According to Palomino, Philip ordered this to be added after Velázquez's death, "and some say that his Majesty himself painted it". From the painter's belt hang the symbolic keys of his court offices.
A mirror on the back wall reflects the upper bodies and heads of two figures identified from other paintings, and by Palomino, as King Philip IV (10) and Queen Mariana (11). The most common assumption is that the reflection shows the couple in the pose they are holding for Velázquez as he paints them, while their daughter watches; and that the painting therefore shows their view of the scene.
Of the nine figures depicted, five are looking directly out at the royal couple or the viewer. Their glances, along with the king and queen's reflection, affirm the royal couple's presence outside the painted space. Alternatively, art historians H. W. Janson and Joel Snyder suggest that the image of the king and queen is a reflection from Velázquez's canvas, the front of which is obscured from the viewer. Other writers say the canvas Velázquez is shown working on is unusually large for one of his portraits, and note that is about the same size as Las Meninas. The painting contains the only known double portrait of the royal couple painted by the artist.
The point of view of the picture is approximately that of the royal couple, though this has been widely debated. Many critics suppose that the scene is viewed by the king and queen as they pose for a double portrait, while the Infanta and her companions are present only to make the process more enjoyable. Ernst Gombrich suggested that the picture might have been the sitters' idea:
No single theory, however, has found universal agreement. Leo Steinberg suggests that the King and Queen are to the left of the viewer and the reflection in the mirror is that of the canvas, a portrait of the king and queen.
Clark suggests that the work comprises a scene where the ladies-in-waiting are attempting to cajole the Infanta Doña Margarita to pose with her mother and father. In his 1960 book "Looking at Pictures", Clark writes:
The back wall of the room, which is in shadow, is hung with rows of paintings, including one of a series of scenes from Ovid's Metamorphoses by Rubens, and copies, by Velázquez's son-in-law and principal assistant del Mazo, of works by Jacob Jordaens. The paintings are shown in the exact positions recorded in an inventory taken around this time. The wall to the right is hung with a grid of eight smaller paintings, visible mainly as frames owing to their angle from the viewer. They can be identified from the inventory as more Mazo copies of paintings from the Rubens Ovid series, though only two of the subjects can be seen.
The paintings on the back wall are recognized as representing Minerva Punishing Arachne and Apollo's Victory Over Marsyas. Both stories involve Minerva, the goddess of wisdom and patron of the arts. These two legends are both stories of mortals challenging gods and the dreadful consequences. One scholar points out that the legend dealing with two women, Minerva and Arachne, is on the same side of the mirror as the queen's reflection while the male legend, involving the god Apollo and the satyr Marsyas, is on the side of the king.
Composition
The painted surface is divided into quarters horizontally and sevenths vertically; this grid is used to organise the elaborate grouping of characters, and was a common device at the time. Velázquez presents nine figures—eleven if the king and queen's reflected images are included—yet they occupy only the lower half of the canvas.
According to López-Rey, the painting has three focal points: the Infanta Margaret Theresa, the self-portrait and the half-length reflected images of King Philip IV and Queen Mariana. In 1960, Clark observed that the success of the composition is a result first and foremost of the accurate handling of light and shade:
However, the focal point of the painting is widely debated. Leo Steinberg argues that the orthogonals in the work are intentionally disguised so that the picture's focal center shifts. Similar to Lopez-Rey, he describes three foci. The man in the doorway, however, is the vanishing point. More specifically, the crook of his arm is where the orthogonals of the windows and lights of the ceiling meet.
Depth and dimension are rendered by the use of linear perspective, by the overlapping of the layers of shapes, and in particular, as stated by Clark, through the use of tone. This compositional element operates within the picture in a number of ways. First, there is the appearance of natural light within the painted room and beyond it. The pictorial space in the midground and foreground is lit from two sources: by thin shafts of light from the open door, and by broad streams coming through the window to the right. The 20th-century French philosopher and cultural critic Michel Foucault observed that the light from the window illuminates both the studio foreground and the unrepresented area in front of it, in which the king, the queen, and the viewer are presumed to be situated. For José Ortega y Gasset, light divides the scene into three distinct parts, with foreground and background planes strongly illuminated, between which a darkened intermediate space includes silhouetted figures.
Velázquez uses this light not only to add volume and definition to each form but also to define the focal points of the painting. As the light streams in from the right it brightly glints on the braid and golden hair of the female dwarf, who is nearest the light source. But because her face is turned from the light, and in shadow, its tonality does not make it a point of particular interest. Similarly, the light glances obliquely on the cheek of the lady-in-waiting near her, but not on her facial features. Much of her lightly coloured dress is dimmed by shadow. The Infanta, however, stands in full illumination, and with her face turned towards the light source, even though her gaze is not. Her face is framed by the pale gossamer of her hair, setting her apart from everything else in the picture. The light models the volumetric geometry of her form, defining the conic nature of a small torso bound rigidly into a corset and stiffened bodice, and the panniered skirt extending around her like an oval candy-box, casting its own deep shadow which, by its sharp contrast with the bright brocade, both emphasises and locates the small figure as the main point of attention.
Velázquez further emphasises the Infanta by his positioning and lighting of her maids of honour, who are set opposite one another: before and behind the Infanta. The maid on the viewer's left is given a brightly lit profile, while her sleeve create a diagonal. Her opposite figure creates a broader but less defined reflection of her attention, making a diagonal space between them, in which their charge stands protected.
A further internal diagonal passes through the space occupied by the Infanta. There is a similar connection between the female dwarf and the figure of Velázquez himself, both of whom look towards the viewer from similar angles, creating a visual tension. The face of Velázquez is dimly lit by light that is reflected, rather than direct. For this reason his features, though not as sharply defined, are more visible than those of the dwarf who is much nearer the light source. This appearance of a total face, full-on to the viewer, draws the attention, and its importance is marked, tonally, by the contrasting frame of dark hair, the light on the hand and brush, and the skilfully placed triangle of light on the artist's sleeve, pointing directly to the face.
The mirror is a perfectly defined unbroken pale rectangle within a broad black rectangle. A clear geometric shape, like a lit face, draws the attention of the viewer more than a broken geometric shape such as the door, or a shadowed or oblique face such as that of the dwarf in the foreground or that of the man in the background. The viewer cannot distinguish the features of the king and queen, but in the opalescent sheen of the mirror's surface, the glowing ovals are plainly turned directly to the viewer. Jonathan Miller pointed out that apart from "adding suggestive gleams at the bevelled edges, the most important way the mirror betrays its identity is by disclosing imagery whose brightness is so inconsistent with the dimness of the surrounding wall that it can only have been borrowed, by reflection, from the strongly illuminated figures of the King and Queen".
As the maids of honour are reflected in each other, so too do the king and queen have their doubles within the painting, in the dimly lit forms of the chaperone and guard, the two who serve and care for their daughter. The positioning of these figures sets up a pattern, one man, a couple, one man, a couple, and while the outer figures are nearer the viewer than the others, they all occupy the same horizontal band on the picture's surface.
Adding to the inner complexities of the picture is the male dwarf in the foreground, whose raised hand echoes the gesture of the figure in the background, while his playful demeanour, and distraction from the central action, are in complete contrast with it. The informality of his pose, his shadowed profile, and his dark hair all serve to make him a mirror image to the kneeling attendant of the Infanta. However, the painter has set him forward of the light streaming through the window, and so minimised the contrast of tone on this foreground figure.
Despite certain spatial ambiguities this is the painter's most thoroughly rendered architectural space, and the only one in which a ceiling is shown. According to López-Rey, in no other composition did Velázquez so dramatically lead the eye to areas beyond the viewer's sight: both the canvas he is seen painting, and the space beyond the frame where the king and queen stand can only be imagined. The bareness of the dark ceiling, the back of Velázquez's canvas, and the strict geometry of framed paintings contrast with the animated, brilliantly lit and sumptuously painted foreground entourage. Stone writes:
According to Kahr, the composition could have been influenced by the traditional Dutch Gallery Pictures such as those by Frans Francken the Younger, Willem van Haecht, or David Teniers the Younger. Teniers' work was owned by Philip IV and would have been known by Velázquez. Like Las Meninas, they often depict formal visits by important collectors or rulers, a common occurrence, and "show a room with a series of windows dominating one side wall and paintings hung between the windows as well as on the other walls". Gallery Portraits were also used to glorify the artist as well as royalty or members of the higher classes, as may have been Velázquez's intention with this work.
Mirror and reflection
The spatial structure and positioning of the mirror's reflection are such that Philip IV and Mariana appear to be standing on the viewer's side of the pictorial space, facing the Infanta and her entourage. According to Janson, not only is the gathering of figures in the foreground for Philip and Mariana's benefit, but the painter's attention is concentrated on the couple, as he appears to be working on their portrait. Although they can only be seen in the mirror reflection, their distant image occupies a central position in the canvas, in terms of social hierarchy as well as composition. As spectators, the viewer's position in relation to the painting is uncertain. It has been debated whether the ruling couple are standing beside the viewer or have replaced the viewer, who sees the scene through their eyes. Lending weight to the latter idea are the gazes of three of the figures—Velázquez, the Infanta, and Maribarbola—who appear to be looking directly at the viewer.
The mirror on the back wall indicates what is not there: the king and queen, and in the words of Harriet Stone, "the generations of spectators who assume the couple's place before the painting". Writing in 1980, the critics Snyder and Cohn observed:
In Las Meninas, the king and queen are supposedly "outside" the painting, yet their reflection in the back wall mirror also places them "inside" the pictorial space.
Snyder proposes it is "a mirror of majesty" or an allusion to the mirror for princes. While it is a literal reflection of the king and queen, Snyder writes "it is the image of exemplary monarchs, a reflection of ideal character". Later he focuses his attention on the princess, writing that Velázquez's portrait is "the painted equivalent of a manual for the education of the princess—a mirror of the princess".
The painting is likely to have been influenced by Jan van Eyck's Arnolfini Portrait, of 1434. At the time, van Eyck's painting hung in Philip's palace, and would have been familiar to Velázquez. The Arnolfini Portrait also has a mirror positioned at the back of the pictorial space, reflecting two figures who would have the same angle of vision as does the viewer of Velázquez's painting; they are too small to identify, but it has been speculated that one may be intended as the artist himself, though he is not shown in the act of painting. According to Lucien Dällenbach:
Jonathan Miller asks: "What are we to make of the blurred features of the royal couple? It is unlikely that it has anything to do with the optical imperfection of the mirror, which would, in reality, have displayed a focused image of the King and Queen". He notes that "in addition to the represented mirror, he teasingly implies an unrepresented one, without which it is difficult to imagine how he could have shown himself painting the picture we now see".
Interpretation
The elusiveness of Las Meninas, according to Dawson Carr, "suggests that art, and life, are an illusion". The relationship between illusion and reality were central concerns in Spanish culture during the 17th century, figuring largely in Don Quixote, the best-known work of Spanish Baroque literature. In this respect, Calderón de la Barca's play Life is a Dream is commonly seen as the literary equivalent of Velázquez's painting:
Jon Manchip White notes that the painting can be seen as a résumé of the whole of Velázquez's life and career, as well as a summary of his art to that point. He placed his only confirmed self-portrait in a room in the royal palace surrounded by an assembly of royalty, courtiers, and fine objects that represent his life at court. The art historian Svetlana Alpers suggests that, by portraying the artist at work in the company of royalty and nobility, Velázquez was claiming high status for both the artist and his art, and in particular to propose that painting is a liberal rather than a mechanical art. This distinction was a point of controversy at the time. It would have been significant to Velázquez, since the rules of the Order of Santiago excluded those whose occupations were mechanical. Kahr asserts that this was the best way for Velázquez to show that he was "neither a craftsman or a tradesman, but an official of the court". Furthermore, this was a way to prove himself worthy of acceptance by the royal family.
Michel Foucault devoted the opening chapter of The Order of Things (1966) to an analysis of Las Meninas. Foucault describes the painting in meticulous detail, but in a language that is "neither prescribed by, nor filtered through the various texts of art-historical investigation". Foucault viewed the painting without regard to the subject matter, nor to the artist's biography, technical ability, sources and influences, social context, or relationship with his patrons. Instead he analyzes its conscious artifice, highlighting the complex network of visual relationships between painter, subject-model, and viewer:
For Foucault, Las Meninas illustrates the first signs of a new episteme, or way of thinking. It represents a midpoint between what he sees as the two "great discontinuities" in European thought, the classical and the modern: "Perhaps there exists, in this painting by Velázquez, the representation as it were of Classical representation, and the definition of the space it opens up to us ... representation, freed finally from the relation that was impeding it, can offer itself as representation in its pure form."
Las Meninas as culmination of themes in Velázquez
Many aspects of Las Meninas relate to earlier works by Velázquez in which he plays with conventions of representation. In the Rokeby Venus—his only surviving nude—the face of the subject is visible, blurred beyond any realism, in a mirror. The angle of the mirror is such that although "often described as looking at herself, [she] is more disconcertingly looking at us". In the early Christ in the House of Martha and Mary of 1618, Christ and his companions are seen only through a serving hatch to a room behind, according to the National Gallery (London), who are clear that this is the intention, although before restoration many art historians regarded this scene as either a painting hanging on the wall in the main scene, or a reflection in a mirror, and the debate has continued. The dress worn in the two scenes also differs: the main scene is in contemporary dress, while the scene with Christ uses conventional iconographic biblical dress.
In Las Hilanderas, believed to have been painted the year after Las Meninas, two different scenes from Ovid are shown: one in contemporary dress in the foreground, and the other partly in antique dress, played before a tapestry on the back wall of a room behind the first. According to the critic Sira Dambe, "aspects of representation and power are addressed in this painting in ways closely connected with their treatment in Las Meninas". In a series of portraits of the late 1630s and 1640s—all now in the Prado—Velázquez painted clowns and other members of the royal household posing as gods, heroes, and philosophers; the intention is certainly partly comic, at least for those in the know, but in a highly ambiguous way.
Velázquez's portraits of the royal family themselves had until then been straightforward, if often unflatteringly direct and highly complex in expression. On the other hand, his royal portraits, designed to be seen across vast palace rooms, feature more strongly than his other works the bravura handling for which he is famous: "Velázquez's handling of paint is exceptionally free, and as one approaches Las Meninas there is a point at which the figures suddenly dissolve into smears and blobs of paint. The long-handled brushes he used enabled him to stand back and judge the total effect."
Influence
In 1692, the Neapolitan painter Luca Giordano became one of the few allowed to view paintings held in Philip IV's private apartments, and was greatly impressed by Las Meninas. Giordano described the work as the "theology of painting", and was inspired to paint A Homage to Velázquez (National Gallery, London). By the early 18th century his oeuvre was gaining international recognition, and later in the century British collectors ventured to Spain in search of acquisitions. Since the popularity of Italian art was then at its height among British connoisseurs, they concentrated on paintings that showed obvious Italian influence, largely ignoring others such as Las Meninas.
An almost immediate influence can be seen in the two portraits by Juan Bautista Martínez del Mazo of subjects depicted in Las Meninas, which in some ways reverse the motif of that painting. Ten years later, in 1666, Mazo painted Infanta Margaret Theresa, who was then 15 and just about to leave Madrid to marry the Holy Roman Emperor. In the background are figures in two further receding doorways, one of which was the new King Charles (Margaret Theresa's brother), and another the dwarf Maribarbola. A Mazo portrait of the widowed Queen Mariana again shows, through a doorway in the Alcázar, the young king with dwarfs, possibly including Maribarbola, and attendants who offer him a drink. Mazo's painting of The Family of the Artist also shows a composition similar to that of Las Meninas.
Francisco Goya etched a print of Las Meninas in 1778, and used Velázquez's painting as the model for his Charles IV of Spain and His Family. As in Las Meninas, the royal family in Goya's work is apparently visiting the artist's studio. In both paintings the artist is shown working on a canvas, of which only the rear is visible. Goya, however, replaces the atmospheric and warm perspective of Las Meninas with what Pierre Gassier calls a sense of "imminent suffocation". Goya's royal family is presented on a "stage facing the public, while in the shadow of the wings the painter, with a grim smile, points and says: 'Look at them and judge for yourself!' "
The 19th-century British art collector William John Bankes travelled to Spain during the Peninsular War (1808–1814) and acquired a copy of Las Meninas painted by Mazo, which he believed to be an original preparatory oil sketch by Velázquez—although Velázquez did not usually paint studies. Bankes described his purchase as "the glory of my collection", noting that he had been "a long while in treaty for it and was obliged to pay a high price".
A new appreciation for Velázquez's less Italianate paintings developed after 1819, when Ferdinand VII opened the royal collection to the public. In 1879 John Singer Sargent painted a small-scale copy of Las Meninas, while his 1882 painting The Daughters of Edward Darley Boit is a homage to Velázquez's panel. The Irish artist Sir John Lavery chose Velázquez's masterpiece as the basis for his portrait The Royal Family at Buckingham Palace, 1913. George V visited Lavery's studio during the execution of the painting, and, perhaps remembering the legend that Philip IV had daubed the cross of the Knights of Santiago on the figure of Velázquez, asked Lavery if he could contribute to the portrait with his own hand. According to Lavery, "Thinking that royal blue might be an appropriate colour, I mixed it on the palette, and taking a brush he [George V] applied it to the Garter ribbon."
Between August and December 1957, Pablo Picasso painted a series of 58 interpretations of Las Meninas, and figures from it, which currently fill the Las Meninas room of the Museu Picasso in Barcelona, Spain. Picasso did not vary the characters within the series, but largely retained the naturalness of the scene; according to the museum, his works constitute an "exhaustive study of form, rhythm, colour and movement". A print of 1973 by Richard Hamilton called Picasso's Meninas draws on both Velázquez and Picasso. Photographer Joel-Peter Witkin was commissioned by the Spanish Ministry of Culture to create a work titled Las Meninas, New Mexico (1987) which references Velázquez's painting as well as other works by Spanish artists.
In 2004, the video artist Eve Sussman filmed 89 Seconds at Alcázar, a high-definition video tableau inspired by Las Meninas. The work is a recreation of the moments leading up to and directly following the approximately 89 seconds when the royal family and their courtiers would have come together in the exact configuration of Velázquez's painting. Sussman had assembled a team of 35, including an architect, a set designer, a choreographer, a costume designer, actors, and a film crew.
A 2008 exhibition at the Museu Picasso called "Forgetting Velázquez: Las Meninas" included art responding to Velázquez's painting by
Fermín Aguayo, Avigdor Arikha, Claudio Bravo, Juan Carreño de Miranda,
Michael Craig-Martin, Salvador Dalí, Juan Downey, Goya, Hamilton, Mazo, Vik Muniz, Jorge Oteiza, Picasso, Antonio Saura, Franz von Stuck, Sussman, Manolo Valdés, and Witkin, among others.
In 2009 the Museo del Prado published online photographs of Las Meninas in at a resolution of 14,000 megapixels.
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
Brooke, Xanthe. "A masterpiece in waiting: the response to 'Las Meninas' in nineteenth century Britain", in Stratton-Pruitt, Suzanne, ed. Velázquez's 'Las Meninas'''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. .
Liess, Reinhard. Im Spiegel der Meninas. Velásquez über sich und Rubens. Goettingen: V&Runipress, 2003,
Searle, John R. "Las Meninas and the paradoxes of pictorial representation". Critical Inquiry 6 (Spring 1980).
External links
La Kabala y Las Meninas
Las Meninas at the Electronic Visualization Lab at the University of Illinois at Chicago
Educational audio tour of Las Meninas
Velázquez , exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on Las Meninas'' (see index)
1656 paintings
Portraits by Diego Velázquez in the Museo del Prado
Portraits of Philip IV of Spain by Diego Velázquez
Group portraits
Paintings of children
Dogs in art
Paintings about painting | [
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222128 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liebfraumilch | Liebfraumilch | Liebfraumilch or Liebfrauenmilch (, in reference to the Virgin Mary) is a style of semi-sweet white German wine which may be produced, mostly for export, in the regions Rheinhessen, Palatinate, Rheingau, and Nahe. The original German spelling of the word is Liebfrauenmilch, given to the wine produced from the vineyards of the Liebfrauenkirche or "Church of Our Lady" in the Rhineland-Palatinate city of Worms since the eighteenth century. The spelling Liebfraumilch is more common on labels of exported wine.
Classification
The generic label Liebfraumilch is typically used to market vintages from anywhere in most of the major wine growing areas of Germany, the notable exception being Mosel. Wine with very similar characteristics but made from higher quality grapes can be labeled as Spätlese or Auslese. In the US and the UK, perhaps the best known example has been Blue Nun, which no longer uses the Liebfraumilch designation.
The term Liebfraumilch is associated with low quality wine, and, consequently, the German wine classification requires it only to be at the Qualitätswein bestimmter Anbaugebiete (QbA) level—the third rank out of ten. However, it must also be from Rheinhessen, Pfalz, Nahe, or Rheingau, and the grapes must be at least 70% Riesling, Silvaner, or Müller-Thurgau, and it must have residual sugar.
German wine is classified roughly into ten categories:
Tafelwein (dining wine), Landwein, QbA (as mentioned above), followed by QbP (with predicate), followed by Kabinett, Spätlese (late harvest), Auslese (special selection), Beerenauslese (lit. berry selection), and Trockenbeerenauslese (dry berry selection). Somewhat apart sits the Eiswein (ice wine), which is generally understood to be at least on par with the Beerenauslese, but helped with both Botryitis (as is the Beerenauslese) in conjunction with natural cryo extraction (icewine grapes have to be processed at -7 °C). Overall, these quality levels are following extract per litre measures (density levels) as these are indicative of sugar levels. Blue Nun, as a result, sits at level 1 out of 8 and, despite its international success, is rarely considered in the domestic market.
In popular culture
When a rack of wine topples over in the 1932 Hollywood film Downstairs, the wine cellar caretaker Otto (Otto Hoffman) laments a broken bottle of Liebfrauenmilch, very likely to be a subtle joke.
In the book Desert Solitaire, by Edward Abbey, the author stops at a liquor store to purchase a bottle of liebfraumilch on his way to Mount Tukuhnikivatz.
References
External links
Valckenberg company history
German wine
German words and phrases | [
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] |
222131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purple%20Rain | Purple Rain | Purple Rain may refer to:
Purple Rain (film), a 1984 film starring Prince
Purple Rain (album), the soundtrack album by American recording artist Prince for the film
"Purple Rain" (song), the title track of the album by American recording artist Prince
Purple Rain Tour, Prince's 1984–1985 concert tour
Purple Rain (band), a South Korean rock band
Purple Rain (drink), an alcoholic cocktail
purplera1n, a jailbreaking utility
Purple Rain Protest, a 1989 anti-apartheid protest in Cape Town
See also
Purple Reign (disambiguation)
Purple Haze (disambiguation) | [
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222132 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle-friendly | Bicycle-friendly | Bicycle-friendly policies and practices help some people feel more comfortable about traveling by bicycle with other traffic. The level of bicycle-friendliness of an environment can be influenced by many factors including town planning and cycling infrastructure decisions. A stigma towards people who ride bicycles and fear of cycling is a social construct that needs to be fully understood when promoting a bicycle friendly culture.
Urban planning
Assuming people prefer to get to their destination quickly, urban planning and zoning may affect whether schools, shops, public transport interchanges and other destination are within a reasonable cycling distance of the areas where people live. If urban form influences these issues, then compact and circular settlement patterns as in Elizabeth, NJ may promote cycling. Alternatively, the low-density, non-circular (i.e., linear) settlement patterns characteristic of urban sprawl as in nearby downtown Newark tends to discourage cycling. In 1990, the Dutch adopted the "ABC" guidelines, specifically limiting developments that are major attractants to locations that are readily accessible by non-car users.
The manner in which the public roads network is designed, built and managed can have a significant effect on the utility and safety of cycling as transport. Settlements that provide a dense roads network consisting of interconnected streets will tend to encourage cycling.
In contrast, other communities may use a cul-de-sac based, housing estate/housing subdivision model where minor roads are disconnected and only feed into a street hierarchy of progressively more "arterial" type roads. Designs that propose to resolve the contradiction between the cul-de-sac and the traditional interconnected network, such as the fused grid, have been proposed and built with varying levels of success.
In the UK, the principle of 'filtered permeability' has been proposed in some government guidance to maximise the ease of movement of cyclists and pedestrians, whilst constraining it for motor vehicles, see permeability.
Cycling infrastructure
Cycling infrastructure includes bikeways, maps, signs, signals, protected intersections and bicycle parking.
Selection of cycling-friendly infrastructure
Benefits of bicycle-friendly communities
A community's infrastructure can affect its citizens’ health, especially in regard to obesity and physical activity. Cities that incorporate bicycle routes have a higher percentage of bicycle commuters. Studies have shown that even moderate increases in physical activity can have a substantial effect on health. Bicycling to work has been shown to decrease mortality by as much as 40%.
Bicycling is often used as an alternative to travel by car. Automobile travel provides the perception of increased mobility and convenience for travelers, but also has high costs associated with taxes, insurance, fuel, maintenance, road construction and repair, and contributes to air pollution. When infrastructure is built to allow consumers to choose between automobile and other forms of travel, it reduces a community's automobile dependency and allows for more efficient transport choices and land usage.
Recognition
In the U.S., the League of American Bicyclists has formally recognized some cities as bicycle-friendly communities for "providing safe accommodation and facilities for bicyclists and encouraging residents to bike for transportation and recreation."
Tourism
The British tourist board award holiday accommodation providers who are cycle friendly with a "Cycle Friendly" award. Websites such as Beds for Cyclists allow you to search through these.
After the League of American Bicyclists designated New Orleans as a Bicycle Friendly City in 2011, bike tour companies like French Quarter Bike Tours subsequently became popular.
See also
Cyclability
Mikael Colville-Andersen
Outline of cycling
Principles of intelligent urbanism
Road safety
Urban vitality
References
External links
Cycling for Everyone: Lessons for Vancouver from the Netherlands, Denmark, and Germany (video of lecture by John Pucher)
Walking, Bicycling and Public Spaces: Experiences from Bogota and Beyond (video of lecture by Gil Peñalosa of Walk and Bike for Life)
Livable Communities Resource Guide
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222142 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panthalassa | Panthalassa | Panthalassa, also known as the Panthalassic Ocean or Panthalassan Ocean (from Greek "all" and "sea"), was the superocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea, the latest in a series of supercontinents in the history of Earth. During the Paleozoic–Mesozoic transition 250 it occupied almost 70% of Earth's surface. Its ocean floor has completely disappeared because of the continuous subduction along the continental margins on its circumference. Panthalassa is also referred to as the Paleo-Pacific ("old Pacific") or Proto-Pacific because the Pacific Ocean is a direct continuation of Panthalassa.
Formation
The supercontinent Rodinia began to break-up 870–845 probably as a consequence of a superplume caused by mantle slab avalanches along the margins of the supercontinent. In a second episode 750 the western half of Rodinia started to rift apart: western Kalahari and South China broke away from the western margins of Laurentia; and by 720 Australia and East Antarctica had also separated. In the Early Jurassic the Pacific Plate opened originating from a triple junction between the Panthalassic Farallon, Phoenix, and Izanagi plates. Panthalassa can be reconstructed based on magnetic lineations and fracture zones preserved in the western Pacific.
In western Laurentia (North America), a tectonic episode that preceded this rifting produced failed rifts that harboured large depositional basins in Western Laurentia. The global ocean of Mirovia, an ocean that surrounded Rodinia, started to shrink as the Pan-African ocean and Panthalassa expanded.
Between 650 million and 550 million years ago, another supercontinent started to form: Pannotia, which was shaped like a "V". Inside the "V" was Panthalassa, outside of the "V" were the Pan-African Ocean and remnants of the Mirovia Ocean.
Reconstruction of ocean basin
Most of the oceanic plates that formed the ocean floor of Panthalassa have been subducted and traditional plate tectonic reconstructions based on magnetic anomalies can therefore only be used for remains from the Cretaceous and later. The former margins of the ocean, however, contain allochthonous terranes with preserved Triassic–Jurassic intra-Panthalassic volcanic arcs, including Kolyma–Omolon (northeast Asia), Anadyr–Koryak (east Asia), Oku–Niikappu (Japan), and Wrangellia and Stikinia (western North America).
Furthermore, seismic tomography is being used to identify subducted slabs in the mantle, from which the location of former Panthalassic subduction zones can be derived. A series of such subduction zones, called Telkhinia, defines two separate oceans or systems of oceanic plates—the Pontus and Thalassa oceans.
Named marginal oceans or oceanic plates include (clockwise) Mongol-Okhotsk (now a suture between Mongolia and Sea of Okhotsk), Oimyakon (between Asian craton and Kolyma-Omolon), Slide Mountain Ocean (British Columbia), and Mezcalera (western Mexico).
Eastern margin
The western margin (modern coordinates) of Laurentia originated during the Neoproterozoic break-up of Rodinia. The North American Cordillera is an accretionary orogen which grew by the progressive addition of allochthonous terranes along this margin from the Late Palaeozoic. Devonian back-arc volcanism reveals how this eastern Panthalassic margin developed into the active margin it still is in the mid-Palaeozoic.
Most of the continental fragments, volcanic arcs, and ocean basins added to Laurentia this way contained faunas of Tethyan or Asian affinity. Similar terranes added to the northern Laurentia, in contrast, have affinities with Baltica, Siberia, and the northern Caledonies. These latter terranes were probably accreted along the eastern Panthalassa margin by a Caribbean–Scotia-style subduction system.
Western margin
The evolution of the Panthalassa–Tethys boundary is poorly known because little oceanic crust is preserved—both the Izanagi and the conjugate Pacific Ocean floor is subducted and the ocean ridge that separated them probably subducted 60–55 . Today, the region is dominated by the collision of the Australian Plate with a complex network of plate boundaries in south-east Asia, including the Sundaland block. Spreading along the Pacific-Phoenix ridge ended 83 Ma at the Osbourn Trough at the Tonga-Kermadec Trench.
During the Permian, atolls developed near the Equator on the mid-Panthalassic seamounts. As Panthalassa subducted along its western margin during the Triassic and Early Jurassic, these seamounts and palaeo-atolls were accreted as allochthonous limestone blocks and fragments along the Asian margin. One such migrating atoll complex now form a and body of limestone in central Kyushu, south-west Japan.
Fusuline foraminifera, a now extinct order of single-celled organisms, developed gigantism—the genus Eopolydiexodina, for example, reached up to in size—and structural sophistication, including symbiont relationships with photosynthesising algae, during the Late Carboniferous and Permian. The Permian–Triassic extinction event 260 , however, put an end to this development with only dwarf taxa persisting throughout the Permian until the final fusuline extinction 252 . Permian fusulines also developed a remarkable provincialism by which fusulines can be grouped into six domains.
Because of the large size of Panthalassa, a hundred million years could separate the accretion of different groups of fusulines. Assuming a minimum accretion rate of , the seamount chains on which these groups evolved would be separated by at least —these groups apparently evolved in completely different environments.
A significant sea-level drop at the end of the Permian led to the end-Capitanian extinction event. The cause for this extinction is disputed, but a likely candidate is an episode of global cooling that transformed large amount of sea-water into continental ice.
Seamounts accreted in eastern Australia as parts of the New England orogen reveal the hotspot history of Panthalassa. From the Late Devonian to the Carboniferous, Gondwana and Panthalassa converged along the eastern margin of Australia along a west-dipping subduction system which produced (west to east) a magmatic arc, a forearc basin, and an accretionary wedge. Subduction ceased along this margin in the Late Carboniferous and jumped eastward. From the Late Carboniferous to the Early Permian the New England orogen was dominated by an extensional setting related to a subduction to strike-slip transition. Subduction was re-initiated in the Permian and the granitic rocks of the New England Batholith were produced by a magmatic arc, indicating the presence of an active plate margin along most of the orogen. Permian to Cretaceous remains of this convergent margin, preserved as fragments in Zealandia (New Zealand, New Caledonia, and the Lord Howe Rise), were rifted off Australia during the Late Cretaceous to Early Tertiary break-up of eastern Gondwana and the opening of the Tasman Sea.
The Cretaceous Junction Plate, located north of Australia, separated the eastern Tethys from Panthalassa.
Palaeo-oceanography
Panthalassa was a hemisphere-sized ocean, much larger than the modern Pacific. It could be expected that the large size would result in relatively simple ocean current circulation patterns, such as a single gyre in each hemisphere, and a mostly stagnant and stratified ocean. Modelling studies, however, suggest that an east-west sea surface temperature (SST) gradient was present in which the coldest water was brought to the surface by upwelling in the east while the warmest water extended west into the Tethys Ocean.
Subtropical gyres dominated the circulation pattern. The two hemispherical belts were separated by the undulating Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
In northern Panthalassa, there were mid-latitude westerlies north of 60°N with easterlies between 60°N and the Equator. Atmospheric circulation north of 30°N is associated with the North Panthalassa High which created Ekman convergence between 15°N and 50°N and Ekman divergence between 5°N and 10°N. A pattern developed that resulted in Sverdrup transport that went northward in divergence regions and southward in convergence regions. Western boundary currents resulted in an anti-cyclonic subtropical North Panthalassa gyre at mid-latitudes and a meridional anti-cyclonic circulation centred on 20°N.
In tropical northern Panthalassa, trade winds created westward flows while equatorward flows were created by westerlies at higher latitudes. Consequently, trade winds moved water away from Gondwana towards Laurasia in the northern Panthalassa Equatorial Current. When the western margins of Panthalassa were reached, intense western boundary currents would form the Eastern Laurasia Current. At mid-latitudes, the North Panthalassa Current would bring the water back east where a weak Northwestern Gondwana Current would finally close the gyre. The accumulation of water along the western margin, coupled with the Coriolis effect, would have created a Panthalassa Equatorial Counter Current.
In the southern Panthalassa, the four currents of the subtropical gyre, the South Panthalassa Gyre, rotated counterclockwise. The South Equatorial Panthalassa Current flowed westward between the Equator and 10°S into the western, intense South Panthalassa Current. The South Polar Current then completed the gyre as the Southwestern Gondwana Current. Near the poles easterlies created a subpolar gyre that rotated clockwise.
See also
References
Notes
Sources
External links
Plate tectonics
Historical oceans
Paleozoic paleogeography
Mesozoic paleogeography | [
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222145 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauternes%2C%20Gironde | Sauternes, Gironde | Sauternes (; ) is a commune in the Gironde department in Nouvelle-Aquitaine in southwestern France.
It is also a wine region within the Graves portion of Bordeaux that produces sweet white dessert wines, named "Sauternes" after the commune, as well as some dry white wine.
Population
See also
Sauternes (wine)
Bordeaux wine regions
Communes of the Gironde department
References
Communes of Gironde
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222146 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%20submarine%20K-129 | Soviet submarine K-129 | Soviet submarine K-129 may refer to one or both of the following submarines of the Soviet Navy:
, a (Project 629) diesel-electric ballistic missile submarine that sank in March 1968; partially salvaged by the United States Navy by Glomar Explorer
, a nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine.
Russian Navy ship names
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222154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blastulation | Blastulation | Blastulation is the stage in early animal embryonic development that produces the blastula. The blastula (from Greek βλαστός ( meaning sprout)) is a hollow sphere of cells (blastomeres) surrounding an inner fluid-filled cavity (the blastocoel). Embryonic development begins with a sperm fertilizing an egg cell to become a zygote, which undergoes many cleavages to develop into a ball of cells called a morula. Only when the blastocoel is formed does the early embryo become a blastula. The blastula precedes the formation of the gastrula in which the germ layers of the embryo form.
A common feature of a vertebrate blastula is that it consists of a layer of blastomeres, known as the blastoderm, which surrounds the blastocoel. In mammals, the blastula is referred to as a blastocyst. The blastocyst contains an embryoblast (or inner cell mass) that will eventually give rise to the definitive structures of the fetus, and a trophoblast which goes on to form the extra-embryonic tissues.
During blastulation, a significant amount of activity occurs within the early embryo to establish cell polarity, cell specification, axis formation, and to regulate gene expression. In many animals, such as Drosophila and Xenopus, the mid blastula transition (MBT) is a crucial step in development during which the maternal mRNA is degraded and control over development is passed to the embryo. Many of the interactions between blastomeres are dependent on cadherin expression, particularly E-cadherin in mammals and EP-cadherin in amphibians.
The study of the blastula and of cell specification has many implications in stem cell research and assisted reproductive technology. In Xenopus, blastomeres behave as pluripotent stem cells which can migrate down several pathways, depending on cell signaling. By manipulating the cell signals during the blastula stage of development, various tissues can be formed. This potential can be instrumental in regenerative medicine for disease and injury cases. In vitro fertilisation involves implantation of a blastula into a mother's uterus. Blastula cell implantation could serve to eliminate infertility.
Development
The blastula stage of early embryo development begins with the appearance of the blastocoel. The origin of the blastocoel in Xenopus has been shown to be from the first cleavage furrow, which is widened and sealed with tight junctions to create a cavity.
In many organisms the development of the embryo up to this point and for the early part of the blastula stage is controlled by maternal mRNA, so called because it was produced in the egg prior to fertilization and is therefore exclusively from the mother.
Midblastula transition
In many organisms including Xenopus and Drosophila, the midblastula transition usually occurs after a particular number of cell divisions for a given species, and is defined by the ending of the synchronous cell division cycles of the early blastula development, and the lengthening of the cell cycles by the addition of the G1 and G2 phases. Prior to this transition, cleavage occurs with only the synthesis and mitosis phases of the cell cycle. The addition of the two growth phases into the cell cycle allows for the cells to increase in size, as up to this point the blastomeres undergo reductive divisions in which the overall size of the embryo does not increase, but more cells are created. This transition begins the growth in size of the organism.
The mid-blastula transition is also characterized by a marked increase in transcription of new, non-maternal mRNA transcribed from the genome of the organism. Large amounts of the maternal mRNA are destroyed at this point, either by proteins such as SMAUG in Drosophila or by microRNA. These two processes shift the control of the embryo from the maternal mRNA to the nuclei.
Structure
A blastula is a sphere of cells surrounding a blastocoel. The blastocoel is a fluid filled cavity which contains amino acids, proteins, growth factors, sugars, ions and other components which are necessary for cellular differentiation. The blastocoel also allows blastomeres to move during the process of gastrulation.
In Xenopus embryos, the blastula is composed of three different regions. The animal cap forms the roof of the blastocoel and goes on primarily to form ectodermal derivatives. The equatorial or marginal zone, which compose the walls of the blastocoel differentiate primarily into mesodermal tissue. The vegetal mass is composed of the blastocoel floor and primarily develops into endodermal tissue.
In the mammalian blastocyst (term for mammalian blastula) there are three lineages that give rise to later tissue development. The epiblast gives rise to the fetus itself while the trophoblast develops into part of the placenta and the primitive endoderm becomes the yolk sac.
In mouse embryo, blastocoel formation begins at the 32-cell stage. During this process, water enters the embryo, aided by an osmotic gradient which is the result of Na+/K+ ATPases that produce a high Na+ gradient on the basolateral side of the trophectoderm. This movement of water is facilitated by aquaporins. A seal is created by tight junctions of the epithelial cells that line the blastocoel.
Cellular adhesion
Tight junctions are very important in embryo development. In the blastula, these cadherin mediated cell interactions are essential to development of epithelium which are most important to paracellular transport, maintenance of cell polarity and the creation of a permeability seal to regulate blastocoel formation. These tight junctions arise after the polarity of epithelial cells is established which sets the foundation for further development and specification. Within the blastula, inner blastomeres are generally non-polar while epithelial cells demonstrate polarity.
Mammalian embryos undergo compaction around the 8-cell stage where E-cadherins as well as alpha and beta catenins are expressed. This process makes a ball of embryonic cells which are capable of interacting, rather than a group of diffuse and undifferentiated cells. E-cadherin adhesion defines the apico-basal axis in the developing embryo and turns the embryo from an indistinct ball of to a more polarized phenotype which sets the stage for further development into a fully formed blastocyst.
Xenopus membrane polarity is established with the first cell cleavage. Amphibian EP-cadherin and XB/U cadherin perform a similar role as E-cadherin in mammals establishing blastomere polarity and solidifying cell-cell interactions which are crucial for further development.
Clinical implications
Fertilization technologies
Experiments with implantation in mice show that hormonal induction, superovulation and artificial insemination successfully produce preimplantation mouse embryos. In the mice, ninety percent of the females were induced by mechanical stimulation to undergo pregnancy and implant at least one embryo. These results prove to be encouraging because they provide a basis for potential implantation in other mammalian species, such as humans.
Stem cells
Blastula-stage cells can behave as pluripotent stem cells in many species. Pluripotent stem cells are the starting point to produce organ specific cells that can potentially aid in repair and prevention of injury and degeneration. Combining the expression of transcription factors and locational positioning of the blastula cells can lead to the development of induced functional organs and tissues. Pluripotent Xenopus cells, when used in an in vivo strategy, were able to form into functional retinas. By transplanting them to the eye field on the neural plate, and by inducing several mis-expressions of transcription factors, the cells were committed to the retinal lineage and could guide vision based behavior in the Xenopus.
See also
Blastocyst
Cellular differentiation
Gastrulation
Polarity in embryogenesis
Diploblasty
Triploblasty
References
Bibliography
Animal developmental biology
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222156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screaming%20Life/Fopp | Screaming Life/Fopp | Screaming Life/Fopp is a compilation album by the American rock band Soundgarden that combines their debut EPs in their entirety into a single release. It was originally released on May 11, 1990, through Sub Pop Records. Sub Pop later remastered and re-issued the album on November 24, 2013.
Overview
The album combines the band's first two studio EPs: Screaming Life (1987) and Fopp (1988). It was released in 1990 by Sub Pop despite having been recorded in 1987-88, after Soundgarden's two subsequent full-length releases, Ultramega OK (1988) and Louder than Love (1989), had gained them considerable popularity. There are two cover songs on the album; "Swallow My Pride" is a Green River cover and "Fopp" is an Ohio Players cover.
The 2013 re-issue contains an extra track, "Sub Pop Rock City," that is not present on the original release. "Sub Pop Rock City" was a track recorded during the same pre-Ultramega OK era but previously only available on the Sub Pop 200 compilation.
Release and reception
PopMatters journalist J.C. Maçek III reviewed the 2013 remastered version of the album and said, "As for the 'remastering' aspect, to be sure, the album sounds as good as it ever has, especially to those of us who memorized every note by way of audio cassettes. However, the new version doesn't sound markedly different from the previous release on CD, mostly because the songs were recorded tough and rough in the first place."
Track listing
All lyrics written by Chris Cornell, all music composed by Kim Thayil, except where noted.
Original release
Remastered 2013 release
Chart performance
Personnel
Soundgarden
Chris Cornell – lead vocals
Matt Cameron – drums
Kim Thayil – guitar
Hiro Yamamoto – bass
Production (1990 original version)
Jack Endino – production & engineering, tracks 1–6
Steve Fisk – production, tracks 7–10
Drew Canulette – engineering, tracks 7–10
Soundgarden – co-production on tracks 1–6
Charles Peterson – photography
Production (2013 remastered version)
Jack Endino – remastering, all tracks; production & engineering, tracks 1–7
Steve Fisk – production, tracks 8–11
Drew Canulette – engineering, tracks 8–11
Soundgarden – co-production on tracks 1–7
JJ Golden – remastering, all tracks
Charles Peterson – photography
Katey Miller – logo design
References
1990 compilation albums
Soundgarden compilation albums
Sub Pop compilation albums
Albums produced by Steve Fisk
Albums produced by Chris Cornell
Albums produced by Matt Cameron
Albums produced by Jack Endino | [
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222157 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morula | Morula | A morula (Latin, morus: mulberry) is an early-stage embryo consisting of 16 cells (called blastomeres) in a solid ball contained within the zona pellucida.
A morula is distinct from a blastocyst in that a morula (3–4 days after fertilization) is a mass of 16 totipotent cells in a spherical shape whereas a blastocyst (4–5 days after fertilization) has a cavity inside the zona pellucida along with an inner cell mass. A morula, if untouched and allowed to remain implanted, will eventually develop into a blastocyst.
The morula is produced by a series of cleavage divisions of the early embryo, starting with the single-celled zygote (cytula). Once the embryo has divided into 16 cells, it begins to resemble a mulberry, hence the name morula (Latin, morus: mulberry). Within a few days after fertilization, cells on the outer part of the morula become bound tightly together with the formation of desmosomes and gap junctions, becoming nearly indistinguishable. This process is known as compaction. The cells on the outside and inside become differentially fated into trophoblast (outside) and inner cell mass (inside) progenitors. A cavity forms inside the morula, by the active transport of sodium ions from trophoblast cells and osmosis of water. This results in a hollow ball of cells known as the blastocyst. The blastocyst's outer cells will become the first embryonic epithelium (the trophectoderm). Some cells, however, will remain trapped in the interior and will become the inner cell mass (ICM), and are pluripotent. In mammals (except monotremes), the ICM will ultimately form the "embryo proper", while the trophectoderm will form the placenta and extra-embryonic tissues. However, reptiles have a different ICM. The stages are prolonged and divided in four parts.
See also
Cleavage (embryo)
Blastula
References
Further reading
"Regulative development in mammals"
Cloning
Embryology
Animal developmental biology | [
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222161 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orang%20Pendek | Orang Pendek | In Indonesian folklore, the Orang Pendek (Indonesian for 'short person') is the most common name given to a creature said to inhabit remote, mountainous forests on the island of Sumatra. The animal has allegedly been seen and documented for at least 100 years by forest tribes, local villagers, Dutch colonists, and Western scientists and travelers. Consensus among witnesses is that the animal is a ground-dwelling, bipedal primate covered in short fur, standing between 80 and 150 cm (30 and 60 in) tall.
Location
While Orang Pendek and similar animals have historically been said to dwell in the landscapes of Sumatra in Indonesia, and Southeast Asia, claimed sightings have occurred largely within the Kerinci Regency of central Sumatra and especially within the borders of Kerinci Seblat National Park (Taman Nasional Kerinci Seblat or TNKS). The park, 2° south of the equator, is located within the Bukit Barisan mountain range and features some of the most remote primary rainforest in the world. Habitat types within the park include lowland dipterocarp rainforest, montane forests, and volcanic alpine formations on Mount Kerinci, the second highest peak in Indonesia.
Attestations
The following sources make reference to the purported creature:
Suku Anak Dalam
The Suku Anak Dalam ("Children of the Inner-forest") – also known as Orang Kubu, Orang Batin Simbilan, or Orang Rimba—are groups of nomadic people who have traditionally lived throughout the lowland forests of Jambi and South Sumatra. According to their legends, Orang Pendek has been a part of their world and a co-inhabitant of the forest for centuries.
In Bukit Duabelas, the Orang Rimba speak of a creature, known as "Hantu Pendek," whose description closely matches that of Orang Pendek. However, Hantu Pendek is thought of more as a supernatural entity or demon rather than an animal, with the name translating to "short ghost." According to the Orang Rimba, the Hantu Pendek travel in groups of five or six, subsisting on wild yams and hunting animals with small axes. Accounts of the creature claim it ambushes unfortunate Orang Rimba hunters traveling alone in the forest. Along the Makekal River on the western edge of Bukit Duabelas, people recount a legend of how their ancestors outsmarted these cunning yet dim-witted creatures during a hunting trip, and the story is often used to boast of their intellect and reason.
Dutch colonists
Dutch settlers in the early 20th century provided Westerners with their modern introduction to Orang Pendek-like animals in Sumatra. One account in particular is widely reported:
Mr. van Heerwarden, who described an encounter he had while surveying land in 1923:
I discovered a dark and hairy creature on a branch... The sedapa was also hairy on the front of its body; the colour there was a little lighter than on the back. The very dark hair on its head fell to just below the shoulder-blades or even almost to the waist... Had it been standing, its arms would have reached to a little above its knees; they were therefore long, but its legs seemed to me rather short. I did not see its feet, but I did see some toes which were shaped in a very normal manner... There was nothing repulsive or ugly about its face, nor was it at all apelike.
See also
Bukit Timah Monkey Man
Homo floresiensis
Orang Mawas
Yeren
References
External links
Guardian Science Notes September 2011
Related
Bipedalism in orangutans, from August 2007 issue of Scientific American
Sumatra
Indonesian words and phrases
Indonesian legendary creatures
Hominid cryptids | [
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222163 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subprefecture | Subprefecture | A subprefecture is an administrative division of a country that is below prefecture or province.
Albania
There are twelve Albanian counties or prefectures, each of which is divided into several districts, sometimes translated as subprefectures.
Examples: District of Korçë, District of Sarandë
Brazil
In Brazil the subprefectures () are administrative divisions of some big cities, such as São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. The head of a subprefecture, the subprefeito, is indicated by the municipality's mayor (in Brazil called prefeito).
In São Paulo there are 32 subprefectures. The largest in total area, Parelheiros, covers 353.5 km2, and the most populous, Capela do Socorro, has more than 600,000 inhabitants.
Burkina Faso
Example: Djibasso Subprefecture
Central African Republic
Chad
Examples: N'Gouri Subprefecture, Massakory Subprefecture
China
It was used in Qing Dynasty. Called ting (廳 or 厅) in Chinese, it is also on the same level as a department (州) and a district (縣). And is below prefecture (府).
Example:
Aihun Ting in the late-Qing Heilongjiang
A separate term also translated as subprefecture was jūnmínfǔ (t s, for instance at Qianshan in Guangdong.
France
A subprefecture is the administrative town of an arrondissement where an arrondissement does not contain the prefecture. The civil servant in charge of local executive power is the sous-préfet.
Examples: Aix-en-Provence, Apt, Arles, Bayonne, Boulogne-Billancourt, Boulogne-sur-Mer, Calais, Cambrai, Chalon-sur-Saône, Château-Thierry, Cherbourg, Le Havre, Narbonne, Reims, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Saint-Malo, Saint-Omer, Sedan, Vichy.
Guinea
Ivory Coast
A sous-préfecture is an administrative division of a department in Ivory Coast.
Examples: Anyama Subprefecture, Bingerville Subprefecture, Brofodoumé Subprefecture, Songon Subprefecture
Japan
Some Japanese prefectures have branch offices called 支庁 (shichō) in Japanese, which are translated in English as "subprefectures", "branch offices", or "branches of the prefectural government". See details in Subprefectures of Japan and an example of Kushiro Subprefecture.
Taiwan
Under Qing Dynasty rule, this was translated from tīng (廳) in Chinese
Tamsui Subprefecture (淡水廳 dàn shuĭ tīng) and Kavalan (Ga'malan) Subprefecture (噶瑪蘭廳 gá mă lán tīng, of Yilan City) (both in Taiwan).
Under Japanese rule, 廳 (chō) translated to prefecture, so 支廳 (shichō) translated to subprefecture.
Notes
Types of administrative division
Prefectures | [
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222165 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris%20Cornell | Chris Cornell | Christopher John Cornell (né Boyle; July 20, 1964 – May 18, 2017) was an American singer, songwriter, and musician best known as the lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist for the rock bands Soundgarden and Audioslave. He also had a solo career and contributed to soundtracks. Cornell was also the founder and frontman of Temple of the Dog, a one-off tribute band dedicated to his late friend Andrew Wood.
Cornell is considered one of the key figures of the 1990s grunge movement, and is well known for his extensive catalog as a songwriter, his nearly four-octave vocal range, and his powerful vocal belting technique. He released four solo studio albums, Euphoria Morning (1999), Carry On (2007), Scream (2009), and Higher Truth (2015); the live album Songbook (2011); and two compilations, The Roads We Choose (2007) and Chris Cornell (2018), the latter released posthumously. He received a Golden Globe Award nomination for his song "The Keeper", which appeared in the 2011 film Machine Gun Preacher, and co-wrote and performed "You Know My Name", the theme song to the 2006 James Bond film Casino Royale. His last solo release before his death was the charity single "The Promise", written for the ending credits for the 2016 film of the same name.
Across his entire catalog, Cornell sold 14.8 million albums, 8.8 million digital songs, and 300 million on-demand audio streams in the U.S. alone, as well as over 30 million records worldwide. He was nominated for 18 Grammy Awards, winning three. He was voted "Rock's Greatest Singer" by readers of Guitar World, and ranked No. 4 on the list of "Heavy Metal's All-Time Top 100 Vocalists" by Hit Parader, No. 9 on the list of "Best Lead Singers of All Time" by Rolling Stone, and No. 12 on MTV's "22 Greatest Voices in Music".
Cornell struggled with depression for most of his life. He was found dead in his Detroit hotel room in the early hours of May 18, 2017, after performing at a Soundgarden concert an hour earlier at the Fox Theatre. His death was ruled a suicide by hanging.
Early life
Cornell was born Christopher John Boyle on July 20, 1964, in Seattle, Washington, where he was raised. His parents are Edward F. Boyle, a pharmacist of Irish Catholic descent, and Karen Cornell, an accountant of Jewish background and self-proclaimed psychic. After his parents' divorce when he was a teenager, he and his siblings adopted their mother's maiden name, Cornell, as their surname. Cornell was one of six children; he had two older brothers and three younger sisters. He attended Christ the King, a Catholic elementary school, where he performed for the first time in front of a crowd, singing the 1960s anti-war song "One Tin Soldier". He later attended Shorewood High School. When he was in seventh grade, his mother pulled him and his sister out of Catholic school; Cornell claimed because they were about to be expelled for being too inquisitive. He recalled the episode in a 1994 interview: "With a religion like that, it's not designed for anyone to question. Being young people who have a natural curiosity and half a brain, you're going to start finding inconsistencies, which there are tons of in organized religion. We both sort of made it clear in classroom situations that we didn't get it. 'Explain this to me.' And they couldn't, so we started creating a lot of problems."
Cornell traced his musical influences back to Little Richard via The Beatles. He spent a two-year period between the ages of nine and eleven solidly listening to The Beatles after finding a large collection of Beatles records abandoned in the basement of a neighbor's house. He described himself at this age as a loner; he was able to deal with his anxiety around other people through rock music. During his teenage years, he spiraled into severe depression, dropped out of school, and almost never left the house. At the age of 12, he had access to alcohol and marijuana; he used them daily by 13, stopped for a year, but relapsed at age 15 for another year until he turned to music. At 14, he had a bad PCP experience and later suffered from panic disorder and agoraphobia.
Cornell took piano and guitar lessons as a child. He once explained that his mother saved his life when she bought him a snare drum, the instrument he adopted in beginning his path to become a rock musician. Before becoming a successful musician, he worked as a busboy, as a dishwasher, as a fish monger at a seafood wholesaler and was a sous-chef at Ray's Boathouse in Seattle.
In the early 1980s, Cornell was a member of a cover band called The Shemps, which featured bassist Hiro Yamamoto and performed around Seattle. After Yamamoto left The Shemps, the band recruited guitarist Kim Thayil. Cornell and Yamamoto stayed in contact, and after The Shemps broke up, the pair started jamming together, eventually bringing Thayil in to join them.
Recording career
1984–1997 and 2010–2017: Soundgarden
Soundgarden was formed in 1984 by Cornell, Thayil and Yamamoto with Cornell originally on drums and vocals. In 1985, the band enlisted Scott Sundquist as the drummer to allow Cornell to concentrate on vocals. The band's first recordings were three songs that appeared on a compilation for C/Z Records called Deep Six. In 1986, Sundquist, who by that point had a wife and a child, decided to leave the band and spend time with his family. He was replaced by Matt Cameron, the drummer for Skin Yard, who became Soundgarden's permanent drummer.
Soundgarden signed to Sub Pop, releasing the Screaming Life EP in 1987 and the Fopp EP in 1988 (a combination of the two was issued as Screaming Life/Fopp in 1990). Though the band was being courted by major labels, they signed to independent label SST Records in 1988 to release their debut album, Ultramega OK, for which they earned a Grammy Award nomination for Best Metal Performance in 1990. The band subsequently signed with A&M Records, becoming the first grunge band to sign to a major label.
In 1989, the band released their second effort and their first album for a major label, Louder Than Love. Following the album's release, Yamamoto left the band to finish his master's degree in physical chemistry at Western Washington University. He was replaced by former Nirvana guitarist Jason Everman. Everman was fired following Soundgarden's tour supporting Louder Than Love. In 1990, the band was joined by a new bassist, Ben Shepherd.
Along with Nirvana, Alice in Chains, and Pearl Jam, Soundgarden quickly became one of the most successful bands from Seattle's emerging grunge scene in the early 1990s. With Shepherd, the new line-up recorded Badmotorfinger in 1991. The album brought the band to a new level of commercial success, and Soundgarden found itself amidst the sudden popularity and attention given to the Seattle music scene. Badmotorfinger included the singles "Jesus Christ Pose", "Outshined" and "Rusty Cage". The three singles gained considerable airtime on alternative rock radio stations, while the videos for "Outshined" and "Rusty Cage" gained considerable airtime on MTV. The song "Jesus Christ Pose" and its music video was the subject of widespread controversy in 1991, and the video was removed from MTV's playlist. "Rusty Cage" was later covered by Johnny Cash on his 1996 album, Unchained. "Room a Thousand Years Wide" was released (along with the B-side "HIV Baby") as a 7" single through Sub Pop's Single of the Month club a full year before the release of Badmotorfinger, and later re-recorded for the album. Badmotorfinger exposed Soundgarden to its first mainstream success: it was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 1992, and was later ranked number 45 in the October 2006 issue of Guitar World on the magazine's list of the 100 greatest guitar albums of all time.
The band's fourth studio album, 1994's Superunknown, proved to be the band's breakthrough album. Upon its release in March 1994, Superunknown debuted at number one on the Billboard 200. The album launched several successful singles, including "Spoonman" and "Black Hole Sun", and brought Soundgarden international recognition. Superunknown achieved quintuple platinum status in the United States, triple platinum status in Canada, and gold status in the United Kingdom, Sweden, and the Netherlands. Rolling Stone gave Superunknown four out of five stars. Reviewer J.D. Considine said Superunknown "demonstrates far greater range than many bands manage in an entire career." Considine criticized "Black Hole Sun" and "Half", stating that the former is "not a very good song" while the latter "is the virtual definition of a B-side." Jon Pareles of The New York Times said that "Superunknown actually tries to broaden its audience by breaking heavy-metal genre barriers that Soundgarden used to accept." He added that "Soundgarden ... want[s] something different from standard heavy metal." David Browne of Entertainment Weekly gave the album an A, saying "Soundgarden is pumped and primed on Superunknown, and they deliver the goods." He praised it as a "hard-rock milestone—a boiling vat of volcanic power, record-making smarts, and '90s anomie and anxiety that sets a new standard for anything called metal." The album was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Rock Album in 1995. Two singles from Superunknown, "Black Hole Sun" and "Spoonman", won Grammy Awards, and the music video for "Black Hole Sun" won a MTV Video Music Award and a Clio Award. Superunknown was ranked number 336 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, and "Black Hole Sun" was ranked number 25 on VH1's list of the 100 greatest songs of the '90s.
The band's fifth album was 1996's self-produced Down on the Upside. The album spawned several singles, including "Pretty Noose", "Burden in My Hand" and "Blow Up the Outside World". The album was notably less heavy than the group's preceding albums, and marked a further departure from the band's grunge roots. Soundgarden explained at the time that it wanted to experiment with other sounds. David Browne of Entertainment Weekly said, "Few bands since Led Zeppelin have so crisply mixed instruments both acoustic and electric."
However, tensions within the group arose during the sessions, with Thayil and Cornell reportedly clashing over Cornell's desire to shift away from the heavy guitar riffing that had become the band's trademark. Despite favorable reviews, the album did not match the sales of Superunknown.
In 1997, Soundgarden received another Grammy nomination, for the lead single "Pretty Noose". As tensions grew within the band, reportedly due to internal strife over its creative direction, Soundgarden announced it was disbanding on April 9, 1997. In a 1998 interview, Thayil said, "It was pretty obvious from everybody's general attitude over the course of the previous half-year that there was some dissatisfaction."
On January 1, 2010, Cornell alluded to a Soundgarden reunion via his Twitter account, writing: "The 12-year break is over and school is back in session. Sign up now. Knights of the Soundtable ride again!" The message linked to a website that featured a picture of the group performing live and a place for fans to enter their e-mail address to get updates on the reunion. Entering that information unlocked an archival video for the song "Get on the Snake", from Soundgarden's second studio album, 1989's Louder Than Love.
In March 2010, Soundgarden announced that they would be headlining Lollapalooza 2010. Soundgarden made the announcement through their website and email list. On April 16, 2010, Soundgarden held a secret show at the Showbox Theater on First Avenue in downtown Seattle, publicized via the band's mailing list. The show was billed as Nudedragons, an anagram for Soundgarden.
Asked in August 2010 if Soundgarden would record new material, Cornell replied, "it would be exciting to record one song, to hear how Soundgarden-ish that might be this much time later. But for me, it's been more of a trip relearning the songs and playing them together. Some of the songs we're approaching we've never played live."
Soundgarden made their first television appearance since their reunion on the second episode of Conan O'Brien's show on TBS, Conan, on November 9, 2010, and toured North America in summer 2011. In summer 2012, Soundgarden released a new single and video, "Live to Rise", for The Avengers movie soundtrack. Their sixth album, King Animal, was released in November 2012 to largely positive reviews.
Soundgarden had continued to tour worldwide, and guitarist Kim Thayil mentioned in several interviews that the band was to begin work on material for their seventh album.
Following Cornell's death, the surviving members of Soundgarden discussed the possibility of moving on with a replacement for him, but Thayil confirmed in an October 2018 interview with Seattle Times that the band had once again dissolved. Thayil said in an interview with Music Radar in July 2019 that the surviving members of Soundgarden are trying to finish and release the album they were working on with Cornell. However, the master files of Cornell's vocal recordings are currently being withheld and they can't finish the album.
1998–2000 and 2006–2017: Solo career
In 1998, Cornell began working on material for a solo album on which he collaborated with Alain Johannes and Natasha Shneider of the band Eleven. The album, titled Euphoria Morning, was released on September 21, 1999. In his first ever solo tour Cornell spent seven months on the road from September 13, 1999 to March 7, 2000 playing 61 shows in support of Euphoria Morning. Cornell performed two of those coinciding with the debut of the album on September 21 and 22, 1999 at the Henry Fonda Theater in Hollywood California. Attendance for the shows were high, considering he performed the initial shows before fans were even familiar with the music. The touring band was made up of some of the contributing musicians Alain Johannes, Natasha Shneider, Rick Markmann, and Greg Upchurch. The album proved commercially unsuccessful selling 393,000 copies in the U.S., although the album's single "Can't Change Me" was nominated for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance at the 2000 Grammy Awards. Cornell recorded a version of Can't Change Me in French, this version is a bonus on Euphoria Mornings deluxe version and on the Japanese and European editions. The album includes "Wave Goodbye", Cornell's tribute to his late friend Jeff Buckley. It has been noted that Euphoria Morning is influenced by Buckley's songwriting and distinctive vocal style. The album was re-released in 2015 on CD and vinyl and retitled Euphoria Mourning, with Cornell stating in the press release that he had originally intended the album to be called that, but his manager at the time, Jim Guerinot, suggested that "Euphoria Morning" without the "u" would be a better title. "The title was so beautifully poetic to begin with, just the concept of euphoria in mourning; it was a moment I felt inspired and I let all the air out of it. So when we decided to do its first vinyl release I thought, I want to change the fuckin' title! [Laughs] It's time to change it," Cornell stated.
An unreleased song called "Heart of Honey" was also recorded in collaboration with Johannes and Shneider during this period. According to Alain Johannes, "Heart of Honey" was recorded for the film Titan A.E. but not used. The song leaked on the internet. While on his solo tours between 2011–2016, Cornell would often pay tribute to the late Natasha Shneider and play the song "When I'm Down", (from the album Euphoria Morning that Shneider produced) accompanied by a vinyl recording of the original piano track that Shneider performed for the song.
Though not officially released onto CD, an hour-long acoustic concert Cornell performed on September 7, 2006 at O-Baren in Stockholm, is widely available for download under the title Chris Cornell: Unplugged in Sweden. A promotional CD for his solo album, Carry On, was released in March 2007, titled The Roads We Choose – A Retrospective. The 17-song CD included songs from Soundgarden, Temple of the Dog, Audioslave and Cornell's solo work.
On June 5, 2007, Cornell released his second solo album, Carry On, produced by Steve Lillywhite. It debuted at number 17 on the American Billboard charts. Among the artists who accompanied him on his second solo release was friend Gary Lucas, who contributed acoustic guitar to some of the tracks. Cornell stated that he was always writing, and that there were some songs that he was not able to put onto an Audioslave album. While recording his second solo album, Cornell was involved in a motorcycle accident. He was apparently "rear-ended by a truck in Studio City, Los Angeles while riding his motorcycle" and "catapulted 20 feet into the air." He was able to walk away from the accident, but had severe cuts and bruises. He returned to the studio later that day.
In 2007, Cornell appeared as support to Aerosmith on at least two legs of their 2007 world tour—Dublin, London, and Hyde Park—and to Linkin Park in Australia and New Zealand. These shows formed part of his own ongoing world tour which began in April 2007 and continued into 2008 and 2009. Cornell described his touring band—comprising guitarists Yogi Lonich and Peter Thorn, bassist Corey McCormick and drummer Jason Sutter—as "musicians that could get the whole picture" playing music by Soundgarden and Audioslave, as well as his solo material.
In 2008, Cornell was featured on the Main Stage of Linkin Park's Projekt Revolution tour. Throughout the tour, Cornell collaborated with Linkin Park's Chester Bennington while performing "Hunger Strike", and with Street Drum Corps for a number of his Soundgarden tracks. While Linkin Park would perform their Grammy-winning song "Crawling", he would appear on stage singing the second verse of the song, the outro, and harmonies Aaron Lewis provided for the Reanimation version.
Cornell worked with producer Timbaland on his studio album Scream, which was released on March 10, 2009. Timbaland has referred to the recording sessions as "The best work I've done in my career," and predicted that Cornell will be the "first rock star in the club". Cornell called the new album "a highlight of my career". The album was largely panned by critics, but was the highest-charting album of Cornell's solo career, reaching No. 10 on the Billboard 200.
On April 2, 2009, Cornell took over Atlanta Rock station, Project 961, WKLS. For 24 hours the station became "Chris-FM" and included a two-hour special of Cornell DJing and playing his favorite songs of his career with the stories behind them leading up to a rebroadcast of his solo show from the previous night. On September 11, 2009, Cornell performed John Lennon's "Imagine" on The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien.
In January 2011, Cornell announced his solo acoustic "Songbook" tour, continuing a series of acclaimed solo acoustic shows in Los Angeles during 2009 and 2010. The first leg of the sold-out tour began on April 1, 2011 and continued through the U.S. and Canada until May 6, resuming in October and visiting New Zealand, Australia, South America and the U.S. again before ending on December 17. The tour received universally positive reviews.
In November 2011 Cornell, released Songbook, an acoustic live album featuring songs recorded during Cornell's "Songbook" tour in North America. It was his first live album as a solo artist, and it included stripped-down performances of songs from his entire career as a solo artist as well as with Soundgarden, Audioslave, and Temple of the Dog, plus covers of Led Zeppelin's "Thank You" and John Lennon's "Imagine". The album received largely positive reviews, with AllMusic calling it Cornell's "best solo offering to date". Cornell continued his "Songbook" tour in Europe and the U.S. during 2012 and 2013 to further acclaim.
Cornell performed a 10-minute acoustic set at the Commander-in-Chief's Ball in the White House on January 21, 2013, which recognized Medal of Honor recipients and Wounded Warriors. He returned later in the evening with Soundgarden to perform at Barack Obama's Inaugural Ball, doing a three-song set at the event.
In January 2015, Cornell announced via his Twitter account that he was in the studio recording a new solo album. Cornell's last studio album, Higher Truth, was released on September 18, 2015. The last solo release prior to his death was the charity single "The Promise", written for the ending credits for the movie of the same name about the Armenian genocide. Prior to his death, Cornell committed all proceeds from the song to support refugees and vulnerable children.
On February 26, 2018, Cornell's first posthumous song was released. He composed the music and added lyrics to Johnny Cash's poems "You Never Knew My Mind" and "I Never Knew Your Mind". The song, titled "You Never Knew My Mind", is featured on the album Johnny Cash: Forever Words, a collection of songs created from Cash's unused poetry, lyrics and letters interpreted by several artists.
In 2019, Cornell won a posthumous Grammy award in the Best Rock Performance category at the 61st Grammy Awards for his single "When Bad Does Good".
2001–2007: Audioslave
Audioslave was formed after Zack de la Rocha left Rage Against the Machine and the remaining members were searching for another vocalist. Producer and friend Rick Rubin suggested that they contact Cornell. Rubin played the Soundgarden song "Slaves & Bulldozers" for the remaining Rage Against the Machine band members to showcase his ability. Cornell was in the writing process of a second solo album, but decided to shelve that and pursue the opportunity to work with Tom Morello, Tim Commerford and Brad Wilk when they approached him. Morello described Cornell: "He stepped to the microphone and sang the song and I couldn't believe it. It didn't just sound good. It didn't sound great. It sounded transcendent. And ... when there is an irreplaceable chemistry from the first moment, you can't deny it." The quartet wrote 21 songs during 19 days of rehearsal and began working in the studio in late May 2001.
Their debut album, Audioslave, released in November 2002, spawned hits such as "Cochise", "Like a Stone" and "Show Me How to Live", and has reached triple platinum status in the United States. The band was nearly derailed before the album's release; Cornell was going through alcohol problems and a slot on the Ozzfest tour was canceled. During this time, there was a rumor that Cornell had checked himself into drug rehabilitation. He later confirmed it in an interview with Metal Hammer that was conducted from a clinic payphone. In a San Diego CityBeat article, Cornell explained that he went through "a horrible personal crisis" during the making of the first record, staying in rehab for two months and separating from his wife. The problems were ironed out and Cornell remained sober. The band toured through 2003, before resting in 2004 to record their second album.
Audioslave's second album, Out of Exile, was released in May 2005 and debuted at number one on the U.S. charts. The album has since gone on to achieve platinum status. The album features the singles "Out of Exile", "Be Yourself", "Your Time Has Come" and "Doesn't Remind Me". Cornell admitted to writing his most personal songs ever on this album, influenced by the positive changes in his life since 2002. He also described the album as more varied than the debut and relying less on heavy guitar riffs. Critics initially described Audioslave as an amalgamation of Rage Against the Machine and Soundgarden, but by the band's second album, Out of Exile, noted that they had established a separate identity. The album was received more favorably than Audioslave's debut; critics noted Cornell's stronger vocals, likely the result of quitting smoking and drinking, and pointed out that Out of Exile is "the sound of a band coming into its own". AllMusic praised the album as "lean, hard, strong, and memorable".
On May 6, 2005, Audioslave played a free show in Havana, Cuba. Audioslave became the first American rock group to perform a concert in Cuba, playing in front of an audience of 70,000 people. The band traveled to Havana on May 4 to interact with Cuban musicians. Cornell commented: "Hopefully, this concert will help to open the musical borders between our two countries." The 26-song set concert was the longest the band had ever played.
In early 2006 the band returned, recording their third album as they had written most of the material during the tour. The band released the album, titled Revelations, in September 2006. Revelations was influenced by 1960s and 1970s funk and R&B music. The first two singles were "Original Fire" and "Revelations". Two of the songs from the third album, "Shape of Things to Come" and "Wide Awake" were also prominently featured in Michael Mann's 2006 film, Miami Vice, prior to the release of the album. Despite the exposure to other forms of media and the positive critical buzz for their third album, Audioslave did not tour behind the release. They went into hiatus to allow Cornell to complete "You Know My Name", the theme song for the 2006 James Bond film, Casino Royale, and Morello to pursue his own solo work under the moniker of the Nightwatchman.
All of Audioslave's lyrics were written by Cornell, whilst all four members were credited with writing the music. Their songwriting process was described by Wilk as "more collaborative" and "satisfying" than Rage Against the Machine's, which was "a battle creatively". Cornell, for his part, saw Soundgarden's songwriting method as inferior to Audioslave's. Cornell's lyrics were mostly apolitical; Audioslave's Morello referred to them as "haunted, existential poetry". They were characterized by his cryptic approach, often dealing with themes of existentialism, love, hedonism, spirituality and Christianity. Cornell's battle with addiction to prescription drugs and alcoholism was a defining factor in the writing and recording process. Even though the singer admitted that he was "never able to write effectively" while drinking, and attended rehab after recording the debut album, Morello stated that Revelations was "the first record [Cornell] didn't smoke, drink, or take drugs through the recording." However, Morello said: "Chris was stone sober during the making of our Out of Exile album. Chris was also sober during the making of Revelations and prior to recording he gave up smoking as well. I apologize for any confusion or concern that was stirred up by the original article. Sobriety can be a matter of life or death and Chris's courage in maintaining his health for years has been an inspiration."
News about Cornell's departure emerged in July 2006, when insiders stated that after the third album he would leave to pursue for a solo career. The singer immediately denied the rumors, stating: "We hear rumors that Audioslave is breaking up all the time. [...] I always just ignore [them]." On February 15, 2007, Cornell officially announced his departure from Audioslave, stating that "Due to irresolvable personality conflicts as well as musical differences, I am permanently leaving the band Audioslave. I wish the other three members nothing but the best in all of their future endeavors." As the other three members were busy with the Rage Against the Machine reunion with de la Rocha coming back, and Morello and Cornell had each released solo albums in 2007, Audioslave officially disbanded.
On January 17, 2017, it was announced that Audioslave would reunite for their first show in twelve years at Prophets of Rage's Anti-Inaugural Ball, protesting President Donald Trump's inauguration as President of the United States. The event took place on January 20, 2017.
Asked in February 2017 if there would be more Audioslave reunion shows in the future, frontman Cornell replied, "It's always a possibility. I mean, we've been talking about it for at least three or four years now. We were talking about actually picking dates, and it just ended up not working out because everybody's so busy. They have another band again, they all have separate bands that they do themselves, I have Soundgarden and a solo career that's taking up a lot of time, and I just did Temple of the Dog. So, it's really honestly as simple as we end up having a window of time where it's comfortable for everybody and we want to do it, because I definitely feel like everybody's up for it."
Other musical projects
Center for Disease Control Boys
From 1986 to 1987, Cornell was also a member of the satirical Western swing band Center for Disease Control Boys.
Temple of the Dog
While still in Soundgarden, Cornell recorded an album with members of what would become Pearl Jam. This collaboration went under the name Temple of the Dog, and the self-titled album was released in 1991. The album is a tribute to their mutual friend, and Cornell's former roommate, Andrew Wood. Wood, the former lead singer of Mother Love Bone, had died of a heroin overdose the year before. Jeff Ament and Stone Gossard of Mother Love Bone teamed up with Mike McCready, new vocalist Eddie Vedder, and drummer Dave Krusen in 1990, forming Pearl Jam. Cameron would eventually become Pearl Jam's drummer in 1998.
Temple of the Dog has gone on to sell more than a million copies, thanks in large part to the singles "Say Hello 2 Heaven" and "Hunger Strike", the latter of which features a duet between Cornell and Vedder. This was the first time Vedder was recorded professionally. Vedder said about Hunger Strike in the 2009 book Grunge Is Dead; "I really like hearing that song. I feel like I could be real proud of it – because one, I didn't write it, and two, it was such a nice way to be ushered onto vinyl for the first time. I'm indebted to Chris time eternal for being invited onto that track."
During a 2003 Pearl Jam show at the Santa Barbara Bowl, Cornell appeared as a surprise guest. After playing a short acoustic set, Cornell joined Vedder and the rest of the band to perform "Hunger Strike" and "Reach Down".
On October 6, 2009, Cornell made a surprise appearance during a Pearl Jam concert at the Gibson Amphitheater in Los Angeles. The reunited Temple of the Dog played "Hunger Strike". At the end of the concert, Cornell took a bow with the band along with Jerry Cantrell of Alice in Chains.
In September 2011, he joined members of Pearl Jam for a Temple of the Dog live reunion at the two-day PJ20 Festival at Alpine Valley, Wisconsin.
On both October 25 and 26, 2014, Cornell joined Pearl Jam onstage to perform "Hunger Strike" at Shoreline Amphitheater in Mountain View, California during the 28th Annual Bridge School Benefit, the latter being the last time that Vedder and Cornell performed the song together. On January 30, 2015, Pearl Jam bandmates (minus Vedder) Stone Gossard, Jeff Ament, and Matt Cameron joined Chris Cornell and Mike McCready during the Mad Season Sonic Evolution Concert at Benaroya Hall with the Seattle Symphony. The group performed two songs, "Reach Down" and "Call Me a Dog".
The band toured for the first time in the fall of 2016 in celebration of the 25th anniversary of their self-titled album. Vedder did not participate on the tour citing "family commitments", but the crowd sang his part in "Hunger Strike", and Cornell dedicated the song to Vedder during the band's concert at the Paramount Theatre in Seattle on November 21, 2016.
M.A.C.C.
In 1992, Cornell and three other former members of Temple of the Dog played under the name M.A.C.C. (McCready, Ament, Cameron, Cornell), recording the song "Hey Baby (New Rising Sun)" for the 1993 album, Stone Free: A Tribute to Jimi Hendrix. The band performed the song live for the first time during the first Temple of the Dog tour in November 2016.
Collaborations
Cornell worked as a co-producer and backing vocalist on the Screaming Trees' 1991 album, Uncle Anesthesia.
In 1992, Cornell co-wrote the song "The Message" for the album Cuatro by the metal band Flotsam and Jetsam.
Cornell, together with Layne Staley and Jerry Cantrell of Alice in Chains, and Mark Arm of Mudhoney, contributed vocals on the Alice in Chains song "Right Turn", from the 1992 EP Sap, although the band given credit for this song is Alice Mudgarden. The song was featured in the 2001 film Black Hawk Down.
Cornell contributed vocals on Alice Cooper's "Stolen Prayer" and "Unholy War" (which he also wrote) from the 1994 album, The Last Temptation. In 1997, Cornell collaborated with Eleven on a rendition of the song, "Ave Maria", for the Christmas compilation album, A Very Special Christmas 3.
In the '90s, Cornell teamed up with Heart's Ann and Nancy Wilson for a cover of the Rolling Stones' "Wild Horses", when the sisters were performing as The Lovemongers. Bootleg versions of the live performances are available online. Cornell and the Wilsons also performed "Wild Horses" and The Lovemongers' song "Sand" at Layne Staley's funeral in 2002.
It was incorrectly believed (for many years) that Cornell had written the Eleven song "Someone to Die For", featured on the 2004 Spider-Man 2 soundtrack. The song is performed by Jimmy Gnecco of Ours and Brian May of Queen on the soundtrack, and the lyrics are credited to Alain Johannes, Natasha Shneider and Cornell in the album. However, the ASCAP song database only shows Johannes and Shneider as the songwriters. Cornell had recorded a demo of the song some time earlier, which was released only to members of the Eleven street team. The version recorded by Cornell and Eleven can be found on the internet.
Cornell co-wrote (with Brian Howes) David Cook's first post-American Idol album single, "Light On", released in 2008. And in 2009, he contributed vocals on the song, "Mister Dirt", from the album, Good.Night.Melody, by Joshua David Lewis.
In 2009, Cornell co-wrote a song with a fan named Rory de la Rosa, who had lost his six-year-old daughter to cancer in 2008, and he was diagnosed with the same illness shortly afterwards. He reached out to Cornell to tell him how much his music impacted his life and also the bond it helped create for him and his daughter, and he sent Cornell a poem called "I Promise It's Not Goodbye". Cornell was so moved that he turned the poem into a song with the same title. De la Rosa gave Cornell permission to post the song online. It was available for free download on Cornell's official website in April 2009. Cornell asked, however, that his fans would consider making a donation in memory of Rory's daughter and to help ease the financial burden of his disease. In 2013, Cornell made the song available for streaming on his official website in honor of the kids who lost their lives in the Sandy Hook tragedy. Links were provided for donations in memory of the victims.
Cornell sang one song (which he co-wrote) on "Slash", Slash's solo record released in April 2010. The song is called "Promise" and it was premiered at amazon.com on March 26, 2010. He contributed vocals on the song, "Lies", on the 2010 album, Third and Double, by Gabin which was subsequently released as a single in October 2010. Cornell appears on the Carlos Santana album Guitar Heaven: The Greatest Guitar Classics of All Time, where he sings on the cover of Led Zeppelin's "Whole Lotta Love".
Cornell wrote the lyrics and shared vocals with Andrew Wood in the song "Island of Summer", which was recorded while they were living together in Seattle. The song was released for the first time in the 2011 album "Melodies & Dreams", a collection of Wood's unreleased recordings and demos.
Cornell sings backing vocals in a cover of the Everly Brothers' song "All I Have to Do Is Dream", on Rita Wilson's debut album AM/FM, released in 2012.
On April 18, 2013, the Seattle band Heart was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, and Cornell gave Heart's induction speech and emotionally talked about what heroes and role models Ann and Nancy Wilson had been to him and other musicians in Seattle. "For me, and for countless other men and women, they have earned, at long last, their rightful place in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame," Cornell said. Cornell also joined fellow Seattle musicians Jerry Cantrell and Mike McCready to play guitar for Heart's hit song "Barracuda" alongside Ann and Nancy Wilson at the ceremony.
On January 30, 2015, Cornell joined Mike McCready and Barrett Martin plus Duff McKagan, Sean Kinney, the Seattle Symphony and others in a special 'Sonic Evolution' concert at Seattle's Benaroya Hall in a tribute to Mad Season. The performance was released as a live album in August 2015, entitled Mad Season / Seattle Symphony: Sonic Evolution / January 30, 2015 / Benaroya Hall. Proceeds will benefit the Seattle Symphony and Vitalogy Foundation.
Soundtrack contributions
In 1992, Cornell contributed his first solo song "Seasons", and Soundgarden's "Birth Ritual" to the Singles soundtrack.
He also contributed the song "Sunshower" (a bonus track on the Japanese release of Euphoria Morning) to the soundtrack of the 1998 film Great Expectations, and a reworked version of the track "Mission", retitled "Mission 2000", was used on the soundtrack to the 2000 film, Mission: Impossible 2.
Cornell and composer David Arnold collaborated on the song "You Know My Name", which Cornell co-wrote and performed and which accompanies the opening titles for the 2006 James Bond film, Casino Royale. "You Know My Name" is the first theme song since 1983's Octopussy to use a different title than the film, the first ever sung by a male American, and the first ever title theme song that did not appear on the soundtrack album. "You Know My Name" won a 2006 Satellite Award in the category of Best Original Song, and a 2007 World Soundtrack Award in the category of Best Original Song Written Directly for a Film. The song sold 323,000 digital copies and 3.5 million streams, and was also nominated for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media at the 2008 Grammy Awards. It was the first song recorded for his solo album Carry On, which he began work on in 2007.
In August 2011, Cornell released "The Keeper", an original song written for the Marc Forster-directed 2011 film Machine Gun Preacher. The song was nominated for a Golden Globe Award in 2012. For the first 24 hours after its release, the song was exclusively available as part of the "Donate to Download" campaign for Sam Childers' Angels of East Africa children's charity. The song is also the lead track on the film's soundtrack album.
In 2012, Soundgarden released their first song in 15 years, "Live to Rise", written for The Avengers movie soundtrack.
In 2013, Cornell wrote the song "Misery Chain", for the soundtrack to the film 12 Years a Slave, in which he performed a duet with Joy Williams.
In 2016, Cornell covered the song "Stay With Me Baby" for the soundtrack of the HBO TV series Vinyl. Cornell said about recording the song; "I was very honored to be asked to record a version of 'Stay With Me Baby' for Vinyl. I get to pay tribute to Terry Reid, whose version of the song has been a favorite of mine for many years, and be included on a great soundtrack with an amazing group of artists."
In November 2016, Cornell sang a cover of The Beatles' "Drive My Car" on episode 18b of the animated children's television series Beat Bugs.
His last soundtrack contribution was the song "The Promise", written for the ending credits for the movie of the same name released in 2017.
Influences, musical style, and vocal ability
Cornell cited Paul McCartney, XTC, Siouxsie and the Banshees, Ultravox, and Bauhaus as some of the artists he liked.
Cornell's songwriting often features non-standard chord progressions and melodies that do not conform with one diatonic scale. A prominent example is "Black Hole Sun", which not only involves many kinds of open chords and several key changes in short sequences, but also unique melody phrases with large-interval jumps.
A recurrent characteristic is his use of major-only chord sequences ("Sweet Euphoria", "Pretty Noose"), which also leads to more subtle key changes.
Cornell's most concentrated example of his own songwriting style remains on his first solo album Euphoria Morning, as his subsequent works, whether with Audioslave or on his later solo albums, tend toward the conventional and only occasionally contain short but inventive interludes (e.g., "Like a Stone", "Disappearing Act", "No Such Thing").
Cornell was a baritone, with a vocal range of "nearly" four octaves (from C2 to A5). He had the ability to sing extremely high in the tenor range, as well as in the lower register of a baritone voice. He showcased this in various songs, most notably the studio and the demo versions of "Beyond the Wheel", where he can be heard spanning three octaves. He also experimented with various different vocal styles, ranging from light falsetto, to high falsetto screams, and chants. In addition to singing rock and metal mainly with Soundgarden and Audioslave, Cornell sang the blues, neo-soul and stripped-down acoustic numbers. The New York Times music critic Jon Pareles wrote, "As it rose, higher and higher, Mr. Cornell's voice could sustain a melody through the fray, or it could confront hard-rock turbulence with grunts, rasps, wails, bitter moans and, at the top of his range, full-bodied shrieks that admitted no weakness."
Other work
Cornell made a cameo in the 1992 Seattle-based film Singles directed by Cameron Crowe, in which he appeared opposite Matt Dillon and Bridget Fonda. He also appeared onstage with Soundgarden performing the song "Birth Ritual" in a club. Cornell was Crowe's original choice for the role of Cliff Poncier (played by Dillon), but he was unable to do it due to Soundgarden's busy schedule. Cornell was the face of fashion producer John Varvatos' 2006 ad campaign.
Cornell became a restaurateur with the opening of his restaurant, Black Calavados, in Paris, and was also the owner of the music publishing company You Make Me Sick I Make Music.
In 2009, Cornell planned to turn Philip Carlo's true crime book The Night Stalker: The Life and Crimes of Richard Ramirez, into a film, collaborating with Carlo to produce the screenplay. In 2011, James Franco was attached to direct the film and star in the role of Ramirez.
In popular culture
Garbage's song "Fix Me Now" from the band's debut album was originally called "Chris Cornell". According to lead singer Shirley Manson, she was obsessed with Cornell at the time of the release of Soundgarden's hit song "Black Hole Sun". A demo version of "Fix Me Now" has Manson singing Cornell's name.
The line "I'm looking California, and feeling Minnesota" from Soundgarden's song "Outshined" (written by Cornell), inspired the title of Steven Baigelman's 1996 film Feeling Minnesota, starring Keanu Reeves and Cameron Diaz.
Cornell's song "Preaching the End of the World" from his debut solo album Euphoria Morning, inspired the title of Lorene Scafaria's 2012 film Seeking a Friend for the End of the World, starring Steve Carell and Keira Knightley.
Cornell was an answer on the game show Jeopardy! on February 12, 2018. The clue was, "In 2017, music fans were saddened by the death of this Soundgarden singer".
Personal life
In 1985, Cornell started dating Susan Silver, the manager of Alice in Chains, Soundgarden and Screaming Trees, and they married in 1990. They had a daughter, Lillian Jean, born on June 28, 2000. Cornell and Silver divorced in 2004. In 2004, he married Vicky Karayiannis, a Paris-based American publicist of Greek heritage. The couple had a daughter together, Toni, in September 2004, and a son, Christopher Nicholas, in December 2005. In 2012, the Cornells created the Chris and Vicky Cornell Foundation which works to aid the homeless, the poor, and abused or neglected children. In 2013, a portion of proceeds from ticket sales went to benefit the cause.
In a 2008 television interview, Cornell said about religion, "I don't follow any particular one. … Ultimately I think I'm sort of a freethinker and kind of open. … So many bad things–as well as good things–have happened based on people just sort of blindly following religion that I kind of feel like I want to stay away from any type of specific denomination or any religion period."
Friendships with Andrew Wood and Eddie Vedder
Cornell was a close friend of late singer Andrew Wood, who was his roommate in Seattle. While living together, they recorded the song "Island of Summer", which was written by Cornell and is the only existing recording of the two of them singing together. The song was released in 2011 in the album Melodies & Dreams, a solo album from Andrew Wood featuring unreleased songs he recorded throughout his life. Wood's sudden death in 1990 led Cornell to make a tribute album for him with the band Temple of the Dog. In a 2016 interview with The Guardian promoting the first tour of Temple of the Dog, Cornell said about Wood's death: "I've always had a really difficult time with loss. I didn't deal well with Andy's death. After he died, numerous times I'd be driving and I would look out the window and I thought I saw him. It would take me five minutes to update to the moment and realize, 'no, he's actually dead.' This tour, in a sense, is the dealing. It's facing the reality."
During a 1994 Rolling Stone interview on Kurt Cobain's suicide, when asked if it is legitimate to read a songwriter's suicide into his lyrics after the fact, Cornell said:When Andy [Wood] died, I couldn't listen to his songs for about two years after that, and it was for that reason—his lyrics often seem as though they can tell that story. But then again, my lyrics often could tell the same one. In terms of seeing everything as a matter of life and death—if that's what you're feeling at the time, then that's what you're going to write. It's sort of a morbid exchange when somebody who is a writer like that dies, and then everyone starts picking through all their lyrics. In Kurt's case, whatever he was thinking and whatever he was writing, there wasn't an arrow pointing at what his demise was. It's a stream of thought, it's a possibility—it's definitely something that somebody was feeling when they were writing. It doesn't mean that it's going to happen. But it doesn't necessarily mean that it isn't, either.
Cornell was good friends with Pearl Jam frontman Eddie Vedder. Cornell was one of the first people that Vedder met outside his Pearl Jam bandmates after moving to Seattle in 1990. The two were neighbors for a while and had shared vocal duties in Temple of The Dog. Soundgarden manager Susan Silver recalled in the 2009 book Grunge Is Dead: The Oral History of Seattle Rock Music the moment in 1990 that Cornell walked Vedder onstage at the second show performed by Pearl Jam (then named Mookie Blaylock) in Seattle: "Alice in Chains filmed the show at Moore theatre in 1990 and that was the show this new band [Mookie Blaylock] opened for them. Everyone was still reeling from Andy [Andrew Wood]'s death... and they hadn't really played out yet. The band came on and Chris carried Eddie onto the stage – he was on his shoulders. It was one of those super powerful moments, where it was all a big healing for everybody. He came out as this guy who had all the credibility in the world - in terms of people in Seattle - and Malfunkshun and Mother Love Bone were loved bands. Andy was such an endearing personality. It was a hard thing to do - to show up after people die. And Chris bringing Eddie out, and pointing at him, as much to say, 'This is your guy now.'" Pearl Jam lead guitarist Mike McCready said about their friendship; "Ed was from San Diego and he felt very intimidated in Seattle. Chris really welcomed him. Ed was super, super shy. Chris took him out for beers and told him stories. He was like, 'Hey, welcome to Seattle. I love Jeff [Ament] and Stone [Gossard]. I give you my blessing.' From then on he was more relaxed. It was one of the coolest things I saw Chris do."
In September 2011, Vedder introduced Cornell at a concert in Alpine Valley before performing "Hunger Strike" with him, saying, "I had no idea how he would affect my life and my views on music and my views on friendship and what a big impact he would have. These guys [the other members of Pearl Jam] know him much longer than me and his impact is profound." The friendship between Vedder and Cornell is also featured in the 2011 documentary Pearl Jam Twenty.
Depression and substance abuse
Cornell struggled with depression and had multiple addictions which he was able to manage until 1997, when Soundgarden disbanded and his first marriage was failing. At that point, Cornell turned to OxyContin and other substances. He said about that period, "I went through a serious crisis with depression where I didn't eat a whole meal every day. I was just kind of shutting down. I eventually found that the only way out of that was to change virtually everything in my life. That was a very frightening thing to do, but it was worthwhile." He checked into a rehabilitation center in 2002 and quit drinking and smoking around 2005.
Cornell stated in a 1996 interview: "I know what it feels like to be suicidal, and I know what it feels like to be hopeless. There is some point where I learnt enough about myself to know that I don't have the tolerance to create other hurdles as well." In 1999, Cornell said the following about depression:No one really knows what run-of-the-mill depression is. You'll think somebody has run-of-the-mill depression, and then the next thing you know, they're hanging from a rope. It's hard to tell the difference. But I do feel that depression can be useful. Sometimes it's just chemical. It doesn't seem to come from anywhere. And whenever I've been in any kind of depression, I've over the years tried to not only imagine what it feels like to not be there, but try to remind myself that I could just wake up the next day and it could be gone because that happens, and not to worry about it. And at the same time, when I'm feeling great, I remember the depression and think about the differences in what I'm feeling and why I would feel that way, and not be reactionary one way or the other. You just have to realize that these are patterns of life and you just go through them.
At the age of 12, Cornell had access to alcohol, marijuana and prescription drugs; he used them daily by 13, stopped for a year, but relapsed at age 15 for another year until he turned to music. In a 2006 interview, Cornell revealed that at the age of 14, he had a bad PCP experience and later suffered from panic disorder and agoraphobia:It's not like you go to your dad or your doctor and say, 'Yeah, I smoked PCP and I'm having a bad time.' So I became more or less agoraphobic because I'd have flashbacks. From 14 to 16, I didn't have any friends. I stayed home most of the time. Up till then life was pretty great... I never did any drugs until my late 20s. Unfortunately, being a child of two alcoholics, I started drinking a lot, and that's what eventually got me back into drugs. You often hear that pot leads to harder drugs. But I think alcohol is what leads you to everything, because it takes away the fear. The worst drug experimentation I ever did was because I was drunk and didn't care.
In May 2007, Cornell was honored with the Stevie Ray Vaughan Award for "his dedication and support of the MusiCares MAP Fund and his devotion to helping other addicts with the recovery process." The award was presented by Alice Cooper.
When asked how he beat his addictions, Cornell stated, "It was a long period of coming to the realization that this way (sober) is better. Going through rehab, honestly, did help... it got me away from just the daily drudgery of depression and either trying to not drink or do drugs or doing them and you know, they give you such a simple message that any idiot can get and it's just over and over, but the bottom line is really, and this is the part that is scary for everyone, the individual kinda has to want it... not kinda, you have to want it and to not do that crap anymore or you will never stop and it will just kill you. There's nothing you can do...if your best friend has a problem and it's very serious, there's nothing you're going to be able to do about it and it was sad for me and the people around me. Sad for me when friends of mine died because of it."
In a 2011 interview, Cornell said the major change when Soundgarden re-formed was a lack of alcohol: "The biggest difference I noticed... and we haven't even really talked about it: there are no bottles of Jack Daniel's around or beers. And we never talked about it... it's just not there."
Death and aftermath
Around 12:15 a.m. on May 18, 2017, Cornell's bodyguard found him unconscious in the bathroom of his hotel room, 1136, at the MGM Grand in Detroit, Michigan, after performing at a show with Soundgarden at the Fox Theatre on May 17. He was lying on the floor with an exercise band around his neck and blood in his mouth. An MGM medic and EMS personnel were unable to revive Cornell. Cornell was pronounced dead by a doctor at 1:30 a.m., at the age of 52. The cause of death was officially ruled a suicide by hanging. Police ruled out foul play by reviewing a hotel surveillance video, which showed nobody entering or exiting the suite after Cornell's bodyguard left at around 11:35 p.m.
On June 2, 2017, the Wayne County Medical Examiner released its autopsy and toxicology report in the death of Cornell. The medical examiner confirmed that the cause of death was hanging and the manner of death was ruled as suicide, adding that Cornell's injuries were all "consistent with hanging, partially suspended by the resistance exercise band," and that "drugs did not contribute" to the cause of death. Only prescription medications in therapeutic doses were found in Cornell's system: the sedative Butalbital (5.4 µg/mL), commonly prescribed for the treatment of headache; four doses (41 ng/mL) of the anti-anxiety medication lorazepam (also known as Ativan); the decongestant pseudoephedrine (170 ng/mL) and its metabolite norpseudoephedrine (10 ng/mL); caffeine (from No-Doz tablets that Cornell had ingested); and naloxone (used to reverse opioid overdoses), which was reportedly administered by emergency personnel upon their arrival at the scene. No pills were found in Cornell's stomach. Cornell's widow stated that the Ativan was prescribed to him in 2016 as a sleep aid. Photos from Cornell's hotel room showed that his prescription for Ativan was "1 tablet every 12 hours."
Cornell's widow contacted insurance lawyer Kirk Pasich within a few minutes after her husband's death. Pasich became the spokesperson for the widow and blamed Ativan for the singer's death, stating that Cornell would not intentionally take his own life. Cornell's widow said, "When we spoke after the show, I noticed he was slurring his words; he was different. When he told me he may have taken an extra Ativan or two, I contacted security and asked that they check on him." Following the release of the autopsy and toxicology report, Cornell's widow released a statement to the press:
Three weeks after his death, the music video for Cornell's single "Nearly Forgot My Broken Heart" was removed from YouTube. Released in September 2015, the video depicted the singer as a death row prisoner in the Old West who survived a hanging. Cornell's son, Christopher, also appeared in the video.
Cornell publicly talked about his struggle with depression, isolation, and suicidal thoughts several times throughout his life. This started after Cornell stated he had ingested PCP for the first and only time, causing a “deep scar on his psyche.” This changed his life overnight. He said he became an introvert, experienced anxiety and depression, dealing with this period for over two years. Following Cornell's death, his older brother, Peter, started a campaign to raise awareness of depression and suicide prevention. A few days later, Peter revealed that he was being bullied and threatened to change the narrative of his awareness message, stating "this bullying is coming from a place I never could have imagined". In October 2017, Peter reacted to criticism directed at him on social media by his brother's mother-in-law. He talked about the stigma surrounding mental illness and the addiction narrative being spun by his brother's widow and her family to explain Cornell's death, stating, "And there is that word again. Stigma. Somehow it's 'sexy' to be an addict (of which I am also familiar), but let's not talk about mental illness. Stigma. There are those who re-victimize and bully us. Taunt and demand us to re-live and tell the details of our painful upbringing. To what end? It doesn't erase the damage done. It doesn't turn back the hands of time. We are survivors."
On July 11, 2017, the Detroit Police Department released the full police report on Cornell's death, along with photographs from Cornell's hotel room and the 911 call from the MGM Grand Detroit from the night of Cornell's death. The call was made by a hotel employee at 12:56 a.m., reporting "a nonresponsive guest... inside of Room 1136." According to the report, Martin Kirsten (Cornell's bodyguard) was at the singer's hotel room at 11:30 p.m. to help him with his computer. It also says that Cornell's wife, Vicky, talked to her husband at 11:35 p.m. Alarmed by what she heard, Vicky phoned Kirsten to ask him to check on her husband "because he did not sound like he was OK." According to Vicky, Cornell kept saying, "I am just tired," and hung up the phone. A call from Vicky's at 12:15 a.m. prompted Kirsten to go to Cornell's suite to check on him. Unable to enter the room because of the interior latch, Kirsten returned to his room and called hotel security. Security refused to assist.
Kirsten told police that he went to Cornell's room at around 12:15 a.m., but could not access the locked room. He then had a telephone conversation with Vicky, who instructed him to kick the door open, as the hotel staff refused to do it. Kirsten told police in a signed statement that he kicked the bedroom door 6–7 times before it opened, then went inside, and the bathroom door was partially opened and he could see Cornell's feet. Kirsten said that Vicky was on the phone with him the whole time asking for updates. Kirsten said in his statement that he loosened the band around Cornell's neck, then tried to resuscitate him by compressing his chest. Medical personnel arrived at 12:56 a.m. and tried to resuscitate Cornell, with no success. Cornell was pronounced dead at around 1:30 a.m., an hour and 15 minutes after his bodyguard was first contacted by Cornell's wife. It is unknown how long it took for the bodyguard to gain entry to the hotel room and find Cornell.
Questioned by The Detroit News why it took 41 minutes to get a medical team to the scene after the bodyguard found Cornell lying on the floor, police insisted that there were no gaps. Investigators looked at the length of the phone call between Cornell and his wife, and the calls the bodyguard made to security and checked video surveillance footage from the hotel hallway, and determined the timeline was accurate, and the bodyguard's story was accurate.
On May 15, 2018, Vicky Cornell told The Detroit News that she was dissatisfied with the autopsy report. It was incomplete and giving rise to conspiracy theorists of which she and her family were victims. She pointed out that her husband also suffered from a head injury mentioned in two clinical reports that did not appear in the autopsy report.
On November 1, 2018, Vicky Cornell and her children filed suit in Los Angeles Superior Court, claiming that Dr. Robert Koblin "negligently and repeatedly" prescribed "dangerous mind-altering controlled substances to Chris Cornell which impaired Mr. Cornell's cognition, clouded his judgment, and caused him to engage in dangerous impulsive behaviors that he was unable to control, costing him his life." The suit claims Koblin prescribed lorazepam over a period of 20 months without seeing Cornell. In his motion for dismissal, Koblin denied all accusations of negligence and said that Cornell was well aware of the risks inherent to the medication, which he was taking to treat anxiety. Koblin ordered Cornell the first prescription of lorazepam in September 2015. Koblin insisted that he did everything within his power to help Cornell, and that a malpractice law should shield him from being sued. In April 2021, the two parties settled on a confidential agreement.
Memorial and tributes
Cornell's body was cremated on May 23, 2017. His funeral took place on May 26, 2017, at the Hollywood Forever Cemetery in Los Angeles. Attendees and speakers at the ceremony included Soundgarden members Kim Thayil, Matt Cameron, and Ben Shepherd, as well as former members Hiro Yamamoto and Scott Sundquist, along with Audioslave's Tom Morello, and Pearl Jam/Temple of the Dog members Jeff Ament and Mike McCready, The mourners included friends and families as well as many notable musicians and others. The ceremony began with the cemetery's speakers playing Audioslave's "Like a Stone", as well as Cornell's last solo song released before his death, "The Promise". Linkin Park's Chester Bennington and Brad Delson performed Leonard Cohen's "Hallelujah". At the end of the funeral, Temple of the Dog's song "All Night Thing" accompanied mourners as they exited. Cornell's ashes were placed next to his friend Johnny Ramone's cenotaph statue — Ramone is not buried there, he was cremated and his ashes were retained by his widow.
Seattle's Space Needle observation tower went dark from 9:00 p.m. to 10:00 p.m. PST on May 18, 2017, in honor of Cornell and his contributions to the city's music scene. In the same night, Ann Wilson paid tribute to Cornell by singing Soundgarden's "Black Hole Sun" on Jimmy Kimmel Live!. Soundgarden's drummer, Matt Cameron, was the first of Cornell's former bandmates to comment on his death saying "my dark knight is gone" via Facebook. Pearl Jam, for whom Cameron also drums, released a tribute on their website with a picture of Cornell entitled "Chris". Cornell's Audioslave bandmate, Tom Morello, wrote a poem in tribute to him. Alice in Chains paid tribute with a photo of Cornell on their social media pages with the caption, "We are heartbroken". Faith No More changed the homepage of the band's official website to a tribute to Cornell after his death. The message could still be seen on the website until November 9, 2017.
The Seattle Mariners held a pregame tribute to Cornell prior to their game against the Chicago White Sox on May 19 with a moment of silence and videoboard tribute to Cornell. Oakland Athletics's player Trevor Plouffe changed his walk-up music to "Black Hole Sun" to honor Cornell. Linkin Park dedicated their performance of "One More Light" on Jimmy Kimmel's show, in tribute to Cornell. During the 2017 Billboard Music Awards, Imagine Dragons' lead singer, Dan Reynolds, paid tribute to Cornell remembering his life and career and asking for a moment of silence as a photo of Cornell filled television screens at home and the monitors in the venue.
On May 23, 2017, Norah Jones performed a solo piano cover of “Black Hole Sun” at Detroit's Fox Theatre, the theatre Chris last performed in.
During his solo concert in London on June 6, 2017, Eddie Vedder talked for the first time about Cornell since his death, saying "he wasn't just a friend, he was someone I looked up to like my older brother" and "I will live with those memories in my heart and I will love him forever." Cornell's former Audioslave bandmates paid tribute to him during a Prophets of Rage concert in Berlin on June 7, playing an instrumental version of "Like a Stone" with a single spotlight shining down on an empty mic at center stage as the audience filled in on vocals. It was later performed with Serj Tankian of System of a Down on vocals. At the Alternative Press Music Awards on July 17, the band Pierce The Veil paid tribute to Cornell with their rendition of "Black Hole Sun" while images of Cornell were displayed on a screen above the stage. Near the end of the performance, an audio of Cornell singing the song was played.
On July 20, 2017, the day that would have been Cornell's 53rd birthday, Pearl Jam guitarist Stone Gossard, who played with Cornell in Temple of the Dog, wrote a letter to him in a post shared on Pearl Jam's official website. Cornell and Gossard share the same birthday.
In August 2017, Seattle-based singer Shawn Smith announced a single in tribute to Cornell, "The Way You Made Your Garden Grow", set to be released on his first solo vinyl album. Smith said in a statement: "Written and recorded in loving tribute to the glorious Chris Cornell, who left us the day before this session. We will never stop singing your songs. Goodbye for now, Chris... Love Never Dies."
Foo Fighters' drummer Taylor Hawkins added a tribute image of Cornell on his touring drum kit in August 2017.
Cornell's Soundgarden bandmate, Matt Cameron, paid homage to him in his first solo album titled Cavedweller, with the inscription "For Chris" on the vinyl version of the album, which was released on September 22, 2017. Cornell heard the album two months before his death and was very supportive of Cameron's solo debut.
The movie American Satan, released in October 2017, paid tribute to Cornell and other artists who have died since production on the movie began with a music video featuring the band portrayed in the film, The Relentless, playing a cover of Neil Young's song "Hey Hey, My My".
During Pearl Jam's first concert since Cornell's death in Santiago, Chile, on March 13, 2018, lead singer Eddie Vedder dedicated the song "Come Back" (from Pearl Jam's 2006 self-titled album) to Cornell, while drummer Matt Cameron wore a T-shirt with a portrait of Cornell on the back during the show.
On April 14, 2018, Cornell's longtime friends Ann Wilson and Jerry Cantrell paid tribute to him during the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame ceremony with a rendition of Soundgarden's "Black Hole Sun". At the end of the performance, a photo of Cornell was displayed on a screen behind the stage and Cantrell turned around and raised his fist saluting Cornell.
U2 dedicated the song "Running to Stand Still" to Cornell at their concert of May 20, 2017, at the Rose Bowl. Before that concert began, "Black Hole Sun" played over the PA. One year later, they saluted Cornell with a snippet of "Black Hole Sun" during their concert in Inglewood, California, on May 16, 2018.
On the first anniversary of Cornell's death on May 18, 2018, Alice in Chains paid tribute to him by covering two Soundgarden songs, "Hunted Down" and "Boot Camp", respectively, closing their headlining set at the Rock on the Range festival in Columbus, Ohio. Towards the end of "Boot Camp", the lights on stage spelled out "CC" for Chris Cornell and "SG" for Soundgarden as feedback rang out. Soundgarden was scheduled to headline the festival in 2017 prior Cornell's death. On May 20, 2018, Tool dedicated their entire set at Rock on the Range to the friends and family of Cornell.
American rock band Guns N' Roses paid tribute to Cornell on their Not In This Lifetime... Tour.
Alice in Chains' song "Never Fade" from their 2018 album Rainier Fog was partially inspired by Cornell's death. One of Cornell's acoustic guitars was also played by both Jerry Cantrell and William DuVall in the album.
In July 2018, Ann Wilson released her cover of Audioslave's "I Am The Highway" in tribute to Cornell. The song is featured on her covers album Immortal, which honors Wilson's friends and other artists that have inspired her and who died recently. A life-size bronze statue of Cornell was placed at Seattle Center in October 2018.
A compilation album titled Chris Cornell was released on November 16, 2018, featuring songs from Cornell's solo career and his three bands.
On January 16, 2019, a five-hour tribute concert to Cornell named "I Am The Highway" was held at The Forum in Los Angeles and featured Foo Fighters, Metallica, Melvins, as well as members of Soundgarden, Audioslave and Temple of the Dog performing Cornell's songs alongside artists such as Fiona Apple, Jerry Cantrell, William DuVall, Miguel, Nikka Costa, Adam Levine, Jesse Carmichael, Jack Black, Geezer Butler, Ryan Adams, Taylor Momsen, Brandi Carlile, Perry Farrell, Juliette Lewis, Josh Homme, Miley Cyrus, Alain Johannes, Wayne Kramer, Peter Frampton and Ziggy Marley.
Eddie Vedder covered Cornell's "Seasons" at Düsseldorf's Mitsubishi Electric Halle on June 30, 2019, and dedicated it to Cornell's daughter Lily.
On July 20, 2020, Cornell's eldest daughter, Lily Cornell Silver, launched an IGTV interview series on Instagram titled "Mind Wide Open" in honor of her father's 56th birthday. The mission of the series is to help destigmatize the conversations around mental health. The same day, Cornell's estate released a previously unreleased cover of Guns N' Roses' 1988 ballad "Patience". The song was a single from the covers album No One Sings Like You Anymore, Vol. 1 released on December 11, 2020.
Connections to other singers' suicides
Music journalists noted apparently coincidental relationships between Cornell's suicide and those of two other rock singers, one in the past and another shortly afterward, who also hanged themselves.
Theodore Decker of the Columbus Dispatch, the daily newspaper in Columbus, Ohio, where Cornell was due to play his next show, noted that Ian Curtis, the lead singer of the British post-punk band Joy Division, whom Cornell had said in a 1994 Rolling Stone interview was popular with the members of Soundgarden, took his own life on May 18, 1980, exactly 37 years before Cornell, and by the same method as well. Curtis, known for lyrics that, as Cornell's sometimes had, explored despair and depression, had become legendary as a result after his death, Decker recalled. However, Stephen Morris, one of Curtis's bandmates (who later became New Order) recalled Curtis not as the "brooding rock deity" Decker said he became posthumously but as "an ordinary bloke just like you or me." Decker recalled the other deaths of musicians who had risen from Seattle's grunge scene in the early 1990s and called on Cornell's fans to remember that he, too, was a human being who might still be alive if he had gotten the help he needed.
Two months after Cornell's death, on July 20, 2017, the day on what would have been Cornell's 53rd birthday, Chester Bennington, the lead vocalist of Linkin Park, also died by hanging himself. Bennington had been a close friend of Cornell's; the two had performed together on some occasions and Bennington was the godfather to Cornell's son, Christopher. Bennington also sang Leonard Cohen's "Hallelujah" at Cornell's funeral. Bennington's family and bandmates said he had taken Cornell's death hard. Bennington's Linkin Park bandmate Mike Shinoda said that the singer had been unable to complete a performance of the band's song "One More Light", about the death of a friend, both in rehearsals and live, when they appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live! shortly after Cornell's death.
Legacy
In a 1989 interview with Rolling Stone, Axl Rose stated: "I enjoy Soundgarden. The singer [Cornell] just buries me. The guy sings so great." Rose also stated that Cornell was the best vocalist in rock.
In a 2009 interview, Ronnie James Dio stated: "I think Chris Cornell is such a great singer, and those guys [from Soundgarden] write so well and always write well — I mean, I love what he's done with Audioslave and the things he's done since then."
In a 2009 interview, Eddie Vedder stated that Cornell was "the best singer that we've got on the planet".
In April 2017, Scott Stapp stated that Cornell was "the greatest pure Rock singer". He added, "I'm really a huge fan of him, and everything that he has done. I just think all around that he is an extremely talented artist, songwriter, singer, and guitar player. He can do so many different things to evoke emotion. From the soulfulness, to the top end of his range when he gets metal and aggressive, to his choice of melodies and how the melody in itself, despite what he's saying, can incite emotion. I think he'll go down in history as one of the greats."
After hearing about his death, Alice Cooper stated: "Chris Cornell, in our circle, was known as 'The Voice' because he had the best voice in rock and roll. I was lucky enough to write and record two songs with him. His death comes as a total shock to all of us. 'Black Hole Sun' will live on as a classic, and his is a true legacy of rock and roll." Living Colour guitarist Vernon Reid stated: "There are barely any words to describe my grief over the loss of Chris Cornell...His impact as a singer, songwriter and guitarist will be felt for generations to come."
Pearl Jam bassist Jeff Ament said of Cornell: "I've always said that Chris was the greatest songwriter to ever come out of Seattle. Jimi Hendrix could play the guitar like crazy, but Chris had the song-writing chops that we all sort of hoped to get to at different points in our songwriting careers. He had a way he could wrap a melody around odd time signatures and weird parts and make them catchy. He was a beautiful wordsmith. If you look at his lyrics, he obviously was processing his pain and depression, and all of those things. I think that's part of what people, myself included, responded to when he was singing. With the songwriting he had that voice, there's not too many people that have that many options with their voice. He could do a lot of different things with it, and have a lot of different characters in that voice. I feel so lucky that I got to be in a project with him, got to hang out with him, and just sort of witness his greatness."
Following his death, the sales and streams of Cornell's discography grew by more than 550% from the week prior to his death. On platforms like Spotify, Apple Music and Pandora, his songs were streamed 32.5 million times during the week in which he died. The charting week prior to that, his tracks were played 5 million times. That same week, 38,000 copies of Cornell albums were sold, which represented a 1,700% gain in purchases; the week before his death, only 2,000 units were sold.
On August 10, 2020, Nile Rodgers and Merck Mercuriadis's company Hipgnosis Songs Fund acquired 100% of Cornell's catalog of song rights (241 songs), including the Soundgarden catalog.
Discography
Studio albums
Euphoria Morning (1999)
Carry On (2007)
Scream (2009)
Higher Truth (2015)
No One Sings Like You Anymore, Vol. 1 (2020)
with Soundgarden
Ultramega OK (1988)
Louder Than Love (1989)
Badmotorfinger (1991)
Superunknown (1994)
Down on the Upside (1996)
King Animal (2012)
with Temple of the Dog
Temple of the Dog (1991)
with Audioslave
Audioslave (2002)
Out of Exile (2005)
Revelations (2006)
Awards and nominations
Bibliography
See also
List of songs recorded by Chris Cornell
List of songs recorded by Soundgarden
List of songs recorded by Audioslave
List of suicides in the 21st century
References
External links
1964 births
2017 deaths
20th-century American guitarists
20th-century American male singers
20th-century American singers
21st-century American guitarists
21st-century American male singers
21st-century American singers
Alternative metal guitarists
Alternative metal singers
Alternative rock guitarists
Alternative rock singers
American alternative rock musicians
American baritones
American hard rock musicians
American heavy metal guitarists
American heavy metal singers
American male guitarists
American male singer-songwriters
American people of Irish descent
American religious skeptics
American rock guitarists
American rock songwriters
Audioslave members
Burials at Hollywood Forever Cemetery
Grammy Award winners
Grunge musicians
Guitarists from Washington (state)
American people of Jewish descent
Musicians from Seattle
People with mood disorders
Rhythm guitarists
Singers with a four-octave vocal range
Soundgarden members
Sub Pop artists
2017 suicides
Suicides by hanging in Michigan
Temple of the Dog members
Singer-songwriters from Washington (state) | [
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222168 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter%20Sisulu | Walter Sisulu | Walter Max Ulyate Sisulu (18 May 1912 – 5 May 2003) was a South African anti-apartheid activist and member of the African National Congress (ANC), serving at times as Secretary-General and Deputy President of the organization. He was incarcerated at Robben Island, where he served more than 25 years' imprisonment.
How Walter Sisulu started working for democracy
Sisulu was born in Ngcobo in the Union of South Africa. His mother, Alice Mase Sisulu, was a Xhosa domestic worker and his father, Albert Victor Dickinson was white. Dickinson worked in the Railway Department of the Cape Colony from 1903 to 1909 and was transferred to the Office of the Chief Magistrate in Umtata in 1910. Sisulu's mother was related to Evelyn Mase, Nelson Mandela's first wife. Dickinson did not play a part in his son's upbringing, and the boy and his sister, Rosabella, were raised by his mother's family, who were descended from the Thembu clan. Dickinson later went on to become the Attorney General of the Transvaal.
Educated in a local missionary school, Sisulu left in 1926 to find work. He moved to Johannesburg in 1928 and did a wide range of manual jobs.
He founded Sitha Investments in 1939. It was situated at Barclay Arcade between West Street and Commissioner Street in the business district of Johannesburg. Its objective was to help blacks and Indians buy houses in Apartheid South Africa. During its operations, Sitha was the only black-owned real estate agency in South Africa.
He married Albertina in 1944; Nelson Mandela was his best man at their wedding. The couple had five children, and adopted four more. Sisulu's wife and children were also active in the struggle against apartheid.
His son Zwelakhe Sisulu became a journalist and union leader, went on to found the New Nation (at the time South Africa's largest black newspaper), served as Nelson Mandela's press secretary, became CEO of the South African Broadcast Corporation, and later a businessperson.
An adopted daughter, Beryl Rose Sisulu, served as ambassador for the Republic of South Africa in Norway.
ANC activism
Sisulu joined the ANC in 1941. In 1943, together with Nelson Mandela and Oliver Tambo, he joined the ANC Youth League, founded by Anton Lembede, of which he was initially the treasurer. He later distanced himself from Lembede after Lembede, who died in 1947, had ridiculed his parentage (Sisulu was the son of a white foreman). Sisulu was a political networker and had a prominent planning role in the militant Umkhonto we Sizwe ("Spear of the Nation"). He became secretary general of the ANC in 1949, displacing the more passive older leadership, in a post he held until 1954. He also joined the South African Communist Party.
As a planner of the Defiance Campaign from 1952, he was arrested that year and given a suspended sentence. In 1953, he travelled to Europe, the USSR, Palestine, and China as an ANC representative. He was jailed seven times in the next ten years, including five months in 1960, and was held under house arrest in 1962. At the Treason Trial (1956–1961), he was eventually sentenced to six years, but was released on bail pending his appeal. He went underground in 1963, resulting in his wife being the first woman arrested under the General Laws Amendment Act of 1963 (or "90-day clause"). He was caught at Rivonia on 11 July, along with Govan Mbeki, Ahmed Kathrada and 14 others. At the conclusion of the Rivonia Trial (1963–1964), Sisulu was sentenced to life imprisonment on 12 June 1964. With other senior ANC figures, he served the majority of his sentence on Robben Island.
On 15 October 1989, he was released after 26 years in prison, and in July 1991 was elected ANC deputy president at the ANC's first national conference after its unbanning the year before. He remained in the position until after South Africa's first democratic election in 1994.
Awards
In 1992, Walter Sisulu was awarded Isitwalandwe Seaparankoe, the highest honour granted by the ANC, for his contribution to the liberation struggle in South Africa. The government of India awarded him Padma Vibhushan in 1998. Walter Sisulu was given a "special official funeral" on 17 May 2003. In 2004 he was voted 33rd in the SABC 3's Great South Africans.
The Walter Sisulu National Botanic Garden, Walter Sisulu University and Walter Sisulu Local Municipality are named after him.
See also
List of people subject to banning orders under apartheid
References
Further reading
External links
Anti-apartheid fighter Sisulu dies – BBC News article, dated Tuesday, 6 May 2003
South Africa mourns Sisulu – BBC News article, dated Tuesday, 6 May 2003
Nelson Mandela's tribute to Walter Sisulu – BBC News article, dated Tuesday, 6 May 2003
The African Activist Archive Project website includes the audio of a January 1987 Interview with Walter Sisulu conducted in 1954 by George M. Houser of the American Committee on Africa. The website also includes photographs of Sisulu and demonstrations in the U.S. in support of the defendants in the Rivonia Trial.
Interview with Walter Sisulu by Tor Sellström within the project Nordic Documentation on the Liberation Struggle in Southern Africa – dated 15 September 1995
1912 births
2003 deaths
People from Engcobo Local Municipality
Xhosa people
South African people of Xhosa descent
South African people of British descent
Coloured South African people
Members of the African National Congress
Anti-apartheid activists
Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan in public affairs
People with Parkinson's disease
South African prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by South Africa
People acquitted of treason
Inmates of Robben Island
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222169 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultramega%20OK | Ultramega OK | Ultramega OK is the debut studio album by American rock band Soundgarden, released on October 31, 1988 by SST Records. Following the release of the EPs Screaming Life (1987) and Fopp (1988), both for the Sub Pop record label, Soundgarden signed with SST and went to work on their debut full-length. The resulting album contained elements of heavy metal, psychedelic rock, and hardcore punk. The band supported the album with a tour of the United States, as well as its first overseas tour.
In 1990, the album earned a Grammy Award nomination for Best Metal Performance.
Recording
The album was recorded in spring 1988 in Seattle, Washington, and Newberg, Oregon, with producer Drew Canulette. Frontman Chris Cornell said that during the recording sessions the band wasn't on the same page with Canulette. He said, "Material-wise we went through the process that we always do, but the producer wasn't used to the sound we wanted and didn't know what was happening in Seattle."
Later, in a 1995 interview, Cornell admitted "we made a huge mistake with Ultramega OK, because we left our home surroundings and people we'd been involved with and used this producer that really did affect our album in a kind of negative way. The producer was suggested by SST because they could get a good deal. I regret it, because in terms of material, it should have been one of the best records we ever did. It actually slowed down our momentum a little bit because it didn't really sound like us."
Around that same time, veteran Seattle producer Jack Endino, who also produced Soundgarden's first EP, Screaming Life, began the process of remixing the album, and actually completed a rough mix of "Flower". But, due to the band wanting to move on and the financial costs involved with re-pressing and redistributing the record, it was put on hold. The project resumed in 2014 by Jack Endino and Kim Thayil, and was completed in 2017.
Music and lyrics
Ultramega OK has elements of 1960s psychedelic rock, 1970s hard rock and heavy metal, and 1980s hardcore punk. Drummer Matt Cameron said that the band tried to refine its sound while still trying to keep an edge. Steve Huey of AllMusic said that the album is the "best expression of Soundgarden's early, Stooges/MC5-meets-Zeppelin/Sabbath sound", and added that it is "a dark, murky, buzzing record that simultaneously subverts and pays tribute to heavy metal".
Guitarist Kim Thayil recalls "Flower" as being the first time he blew across his guitar strings. This can be heard during the song's introduction, when they are played in rhythm with the drums. "Circle of Power" was one of the few Soundgarden songs to be written without any input from Cornell, as it was written by Thayil and bassist Hiro Yamamoto. It is also the only Soundgarden song on which Yamamoto performs lead vocals.
"Smokestack Lightning" is a Howlin' Wolf cover. On the original version of the album, "Smokestack Lightning" segued into a distorted excerpt from the Sonic Youth song, "Death Valley '69". Soundgarden included it as a tribute/parody of Sonic Youth's similar sampling of The Stooges song "Not Right" on their "Bad Moon Rising" album. This excerpt was removed from the 2017 reissue of "Ultramega OK".
Cornell said that "Flower" is "about a girl...who becomes a woman and basically invests everything in vanity and then burns out quick." Thayil stated that "Nazi Driver" is about "cutting up Nazis and making stew out of them". Cornell observed that the lyrics and vocals for "Incessant Mace" are "very European Gothic".
Three songs on the album were recorded as jokes or parodies by the band. The songs "665" and "667" are parodies of the idea of Satanic content in rock music, the idea being that if 666 is such a powerful number, then the surrounding numbers must be equally as powerful. The album's closing track, "One Minute of Silence", is a "cover" of John Lennon's "Two Minutes of Silence" from the 1969 album, Unfinished Music No.2: Life with the Lions, excluding Yoko Ono's part. Cornell said that the band "appreciated the Lennon arrangement so much". No instruments are played, although the band (presumably) can be faintly heard in the background. Cornell stated, "We were trying real hard to shut up, but Kim couldn't possibly shut up for a whole minute."
Release and reception
Cornell said, "On [Ultramega OK] the production wasn't what we were after at all, and that sort of hurt us critically." Allmusic staff writer Steve Huey gave the album four out of five stars, saying, "It may not be quite as complex or consistent as some of Soundgarden's later albums, but Ultramega OK is easily the best document of grunge's early, pre-Nirvana days." Ann Powers of Blender said, "Not every moment is brilliant, but it sure is loud."
"Flower" was the only single released from the album. Its music video, directed by Mark Miremont, aired regularly on MTV's 120 Minutes, helping to call attention to the early Seattle grunge scene.
At the 1990 Grammy Awards, Ultramega OK received a nomination for Best Metal Performance.
Packaging
The album's cover art, photographed by Lance Mercer, features a black and white picture of the band. According to Cornell, the album's title was a joke conceived by Thayil. Cornell explained that the title Ultramega OK means "absolutely, unbelievably not bad," and suggested that the British version was going to be called Ultramega UK. Cornell explained the title further, stating, "With Ultramega OK we really liked the songs on that record but we were disappointed in the production. We were sort of making fun of the finished product. It was Ultramega Alright. Ultramega could have been better but not bad."
Tour
Soundgarden supported the album with a tour in the United States in the spring of 1989 and a tour in Europe, which began in May 1989 and was the band's first overseas tour.
Reissues
Ultramega OK was reissued on LP in 2012. "One Minute of Silence" was not included on it.
A new reissue of Ultramega OK was released on March 10, 2017 on Sub Pop in four formats, namely, black and colored double LP, CD, cassette tape, and digital download. The album was fully remixed and remastered from the original tapes by Jack Endino. It includes, as bonus tracks, six early eight-track versions of songs from the same album, taken from a demo tape, informally called the "Ultramega EP" by the band members, recorded by Endino and Chris Hanzsek at Reciprocal Recording studio in 1987.
Track listing
On cassette only, there is a 20th track titled "13 Minutes of Silence Remix", similar to the joke track "One Minute of Silence" from the original release.
Personnel
Soundgarden
Chris Cornell – lead vocals, rhythm guitar (6, 8, 9), bass (7)
Kim Thayil – lead guitar
Hiro Yamamoto – bass, lead vocals (7)
Matt Cameron – drums
Production
Drew Canulette – production, engineering
Gardener – back cover photo of Chris Cornell
Lance Limbocker – engineering
Lance Mercer – cover photo
Kathryn Miller – art direction and design
Soundgarden – production, art direction and design
Sydney Taylor – insert photo
Susan Silver – management
Charts
References
1988 debut albums
Soundgarden albums
SST Records albums
Albums produced by Chris Cornell
Albums produced by Matt Cameron | [
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222170 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated%20Television | Associated Television | Associated Television (ATV; originally stylized as Associated TeleVision) was a British television broadcaster within the Independent Television (ITV) network. It provided a service to London at weekends from 1955 to 1968, to the Midlands on weekdays from 1956 to 1968, and to the Midlands all week from 1968 to 1982. It was one of the "Big Four" until 1968, and the "Big Five" after 1968, that between them produced the majority of ITV networked programmes. In 1982, ATV was restructured and rebranded as Central Independent Television, under which name it continued to provide the service for the Midlands.
ATV was awarded its first franchise by the Independent Television Authority (ITA) to provide the Independent Television service at weekends for the London region. This service started on Saturday, 24 September 1955, the second ITA franchise to go on air, and was extended until Sunday, 28 July 1968. ATV was also awarded the franchise to provide the weekdays Independent Television service for the Midlands region. This service started on Friday, 17 February 1956, the third ITA franchisee to go on air, and was extended until Monday, 29 July 1968.
Subsequent to the changes made by the ITA to the regional structure of the Independent Television service, ATV was awarded the franchise to provide a seven-day Independent Television service for the Midlands region which started on Tuesday, 30 July 1968 and was finally extended until 00:34 on Friday, 1 January 1982.
History
Formation
The company was formed from the merger of the Associated Broadcasting Development Company (ABDC) under the control of Norman Collins, and the Incorporated Television Programme Company (ITC) under the control of Prince Littler and Lew Grade, two showbusiness agents.
Both companies had applied for a contract to become one of the new ITV stations. ABDC won the contract but had insufficient money to operate it; ITC failed to win a contract, mainly due to a perceived conflicts of interest resulting from the business operations of Grade and Littler. By the time of the merger ABDC were well advanced with their plans whilst ITPC planned to operate as an independent producer selling their shows to the new network contractors.
When financial problems hit ABDC, the Independent Television Authority, the governing body of ITV, invited Grade and Littler to join the ABDC consortium. This provided the money required and put Littler and Grade in control of the new company, sidelining Collins.
The new company was originally named the Associated Broadcasting Company (ABC), but Associated British Corporation's parent company, which wished to call their station ABC and ran a large chain of cinemas under those initials, successfully sued for prior ownership of the name. After ABC had been operating for three weeks the name was changed to Associated TeleVision Ltd (ATV). The logo, designed for ABC and tweaked for ATV, was a "shadowed eye" inspired by the CBS logo and reputedly designed by Lew Grade on a transatlantic flight back from the US. The logo is one of the most recognisable in broadcasting.
Broadcasting
ABC began broadcasting in its own right on Saturday 24 September 1955, after jointly presenting the network's opening night on Thursday 22 September. The name ATV was first seen in London on Saturday 8 October 1955. The company won two contracts, the weekend contract for London and the Monday–Friday contract for the Midlands. The latter service opened on 17 February 1956, with ABC providing the weekend programmes.
The company ran into financial difficulty due to the staggering losses of the first two years of ITV and start-up costs. The London weekday contractor Associated-Rediffusion shouldered some of ATV's losses and further funding was achieved by selling shares to the Daily Mirror newspaper. The company structure was changed several times until 1966, when ATV and ITC both became subsidiaries of the Associated Communications Corporation (ACC), formed by turning the old structure on its head. This marked the point where Lew Grade advanced from being the greatest influence over the company to taking control.
ATV's main impact was in variety and light entertainment.
In the contract and region changes in 1968, ATV lost the weekend franchise in London to the London Television Consortium, later renamed London Weekend Television, but its Midlands contract was renewed and extended for the full seven days. At this point the company was renamed ATV Network Limited.
End of franchise
During the 1970s, ATV received much criticism over its lack of local programming, particularly for the east of its region; such critics held that local shows had a Birmingham focus. In 1980, the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA) decided that ATV's lack of regional programming and production (it had a major studio centre at Elstree in Hertfordshire, a legacy of its London contract, well outside its Midlands franchise) was hampering the region, so it insisted that the new applicant for the franchise be more clearly based in the region and have separate facilities for the East and West Midlands.
ATV Midlands Limited, a shell company created by ACC solely for the franchise process, applied successfully for the contract. As a condition of its award, ACC was forced to sell 49% of the company, relinquish executive roles, sell the Elstree studios and rename the company to demonstrate that it was effectively a new business.
ATV ceased broadcasting at 12.34am on Friday 1 January 1982, following Scottish Television's networked Hogmanay Show. The final closedown was marked by a brief tribute to ATV from original announcer Shaw Taylor before duty announcer Mike Prince signed off with the playing of the National Anthem (an organ recording made at St. Chad's Cathedral, Birmingham). The newly reformed company, Central Independent Television plc, began broadcasting with an extended promo at 9.25am that morning.
Central inherited the studios at ATV Centre, Birmingham and ATV Elstree along with land that ATV Midlands had purchased for their new Nottingham studio centre. Central also maintained control of ATV's news archive and regional programmes, along with programming already in production or being shown at the time of changeover and schools programming; the rest of the ATV archive was sold by ACC.
ACC later divested itself of the remainder of Central after the Australian investor Robert Holmes à Court staged a boardroom coup and forced Grade to cede control. ACC remained in control of ITC and Stoll-Moss Theatres until 1988 when The Bell Group, the owners of ITC were taken over by the Bond Corporation. Subsequently, the new owners started an asset-stripping programme at ITC. In November 1988, ITC Entertainment was bought by its management.
In January 1995, PolyGram Filmed Entertainment bought ITC for $156 million, with Grade returning as chairman for life, bringing him back into control of ITC until his death in 1998. Carlton Communications spent much of the 1980s and 1990s buying up the intellectual property of the former ACC, including the rights to the ATV logo and company name, the ATV news archive (via its purchase of Central) and finally in early January 1999, the company bought ITC's television and film library from PolyGram/Seagram for £91 million, which reunited the programme library of Associated Television and Central Television and doubled the stock of its library division Carlton International, by giving it a total of 15,000 hours of programming.
Granada plc merged with Carlton in 2002, and all of ATV's national archive programming has been taken into their ownership. The regional news archive from both ATV and Central, plus some regional programmes, are stored at the Media Archive for Central England at the University of Lincoln.
Studios
For most of its time on air, ATV's main production centre was based at Elstree, Borehamwood, Hertfordshire, near London, where the majority of ATV's earlier programming was produced and distributed. The Elstree studios were acquired by the company in May 1958 and gradually converted for television use - the first of four studios opened in November 1960.
Up until production began at Elstree, ATV's London operation used a number of other converted locations for production during its first decade on air, such as the Wood Green Empire, the Hackney Empire, the former Highbury Film Studios, and briefly, the New Cross Empire.
Playout and presentation for ATV London was based at a separate master control facility at Foley Street in Central London, which included two studios for continuity and smaller-scale programming, such as Police 5. Shortly after ATV ceased transmission in London, the Foley Street centre was also used to transmit a management-run national ITV service during the ITV technicians' strike of August 1968.
ATV's Midlands studios were originally based in Aston, Birmingham, jointly owned by ATV and ABC under the banner Alpha Television. They supplied both ATV and ABC, and supplemented production from Elstree. In readiness for colour television, a large 'state of the art' television studio was built by ATV, the ATV Centre off Broad Street near the centre of Birmingham. This replaced the Aston studios, which were sold. The ATV Centre was in use until 1997 although two of the production studios had been 'mothballed' in the early 1990s as demand for production studios fell. As of June 2014, the complex has been partially demolished to be replaced by the upcoming Arena Central development, with the main studio building off Bridge Street standing derelict, pending the commencement of further demolition work. The Alpha Tower remains as a listed building.
A documentary about the ATV Centre was released in 2011 by MACE (Media Archive for Central England). Entitled From ATVLand In Colour (referring to the nickname used on ATV's children's programme, Tiswas, and the building being purpose-built for colour broadcasting), the documentary features presenters, actors, announcers and behind-the-scenes staff talking about their time working there, and the programmes that were made there. Contributors include Chris Tarrant, Shaw Taylor, Jane Rossington and Bob Carolgees.
In the 1981 franchise review, the IBA ordered that for ATV Midlands to keep the franchise the Elstree centre must be sold and a studio centre built in the east of the region. ATV Midlands, renamed Central Independent Television, needed an immediate start for separate East and West Midlands facilities. The new east site was at Lenton Lane, Nottingham, and the land had been bought while ATV was still in control. Planning issues delayed construction so Central purchased an independent production studio in the city (at Giltbrook) as its East Midlands newsroom. Industrial action prevented this centre from being used, with the new studios ready by the time it was resolved.
In 1983 the Elstree centre was sold to the BBC for around £7 million, and is now home of the soap EastEnders.
East Midlands Television Centre in Nottingham began operation in September 1983 but was officially opened by H.R.H. Duke of Edinburgh, Prince Philip, in March 1984. The studio was eventually sold in 2004 to the University of Nottingham as an independent facility and as the home of the Media Archive for Central England, where most of ATV's and Central's programmes are archived.
Identity
ATV's logo has always consisted of a shadowed eye, inspired supposedly by the logo of CBS. This shadowed eye with the letters ATV inside came to represent the company. The first ident featured a single eye shape, moving to reveal the shadowed eye, and animating so that each of the letters ATV animate in accompanied by one of the three musical notes on the ident score. The caption below read Associated TeleVision Ltd., the only time the station's full name was displayed in an ident. The shadowed eye however was out of proportion, attributed to the hurry to redraw the ident following the name change from ABC.
Shortly after the launch of the Midlands franchise, the ident was again changed to an ident consisting of five stripes. Three of four vertical stripes contain the letters ATV, which animate in to the same musical score, with the other vertical stripe housing the logo and the stations airing times, either displaying both or those of the region being viewed in. the final stripe is horizontal, with the caption 'Presents' inside.
The next ident, launched in 1959, featured the shadowed eye zooming into the screen, whilst the familiar letters animate in as in the previous versions. This was altered in 1964 to add either the region name below it, or the word 'Presents' if the programme was an outside broadcast.
The company's most recognisable ident, however, is the one launched in 1969. Called Zoom 2, it was the ident that heralded colour broadcasts to the region for the first time. Starting with three lightspots of red, blue and green that grow individually and combine to form six colours above the caption 'In Colour', the three lightspots fully merge forming a single cream dot which then animates out into the ATV shadowed eye, fully formed, in yellow, while the background dissolves from light grey to dark blue. The score for the ident featured four trumpets, four trombones, timpani and vibraphone in a twelve beat fanfare for the station, by Jack Parnell and arranged by Wally Stott. This ident was used from the introduction of colour in 1969 right until the ATV name ceased to be used in 1982. In addition to this, a variation was produced which only featured a white dot on a black background, growing and transforming into the white shadowed eye for programmes still being shown in black and white.
Names used
Company names:
Associated Broadcasting Company Limited (1954–1955)
Associated TeleVision Limited (1955–1964)
Associated TeleVision Corporation (1964–1966)
Associated Communications Corporation (1966–1982)—parent company
ATV Network Limited (1966–1982)
ATV Midlands Limited (1981) - This is the company that was renamed to Central Independent Television from 1 January 1982, and was the licence holder for the Channel 3 Midlands region service until November 2008, when the licence was transferred to ITV Broadcasting Limited.
On-air names:
Associated Broadcasting Company (24 September 1955 – 2 October 1955)
Associated TeleVision (8 October 1955 – 11 February 1956)
ATV London (18 February 1956 – 28 July 1968)
ATV Midlands (17 February 1956 – 28 July 1968 but referred to in continuity until 1981)
ATV Network (29 July 1968 – 1 January 1982) (always branded on-air as simply 'ATV')
Initials used:
ABC (24 September 1955 – 2 October 1955)
ATV (8 October 1955 – 1 January 1982)
Revival of brand
In 2015, ITV Broadcasting Ltd surrendered its rights to the ATV trademark and it was acquired by Associated Television Productions Ltd which has produced programming for the Made Television network of local television channels.
The company, ATV Network Limited, was re-established in 2006 headed by former ATV cameraman, director and Head of Children's Drama Alan Coleman. It aims to promote and celebrate the legacy of Lew Grade's ATV, with a new logo, based on the 'litespots' of the 1970s. Noting it felt the iconic symbol was best left in the past. It produces the official Crossroads Fan Club website and Noele Gordon's official online presence.
Selected programmes
Astronauts - series 2 (1983) made by Central
ATV Today
Bullseye The 1st series (1981) - subsequently made by Central until 1995 and revived by Granada for Challenge in 2006
Carry On Laughing
Celebrity Squares - revived by Reg Grundy Productions and Central between 1993 and 1997, and again by Fremantle in 2014
Crossroads - subsequently made by Central until ending in 1988 and revived by Carlton in 2001
Death of a Princess
Disraeli Portrait of a Romantic
Edward the Seventh
Emergency – Ward 10
Family Fortunes (1980–1981) - subsequently made by Central and Carlton until ending in 2002 and revived by Fremantle in 2006
Fire Crackers (1964–1965)
General Hospital
Hine (1971)
It Must Be Dusty
James Paul McCartney
Julie on Sesame Street
The Larkins
Lunchbox with Noele Gordon
Honey Lane
Meet Peters and Lee
New Faces - subsequently made by Central
Pipkins
Police 5
Sapphire & Steel
Saturday Variety
Star Soccer
Sunday Night at the London Palladium
The Adventures of Robin Hood
The Cliff Richard Show
The Golden Shot
The Marty Feldman Comedy Machine
The Muppet Show
The Strange World of Gurney Slade
Timeslip
Tiswas - subsequently made by Central until ending in mid-1982
Toyah 1980 documentary
Turtle's ProgressTwo of a Kind (1961)''
The majority of ITC programmes were first broadcast by ATV and distributed in the UK by them. Similarly, ATV's productions were distributed by ITC outside of the UK, with most ATV idents replaced with those for ITC.
Other ventures
ATV Music
As a side note to ATV's television activities, the company also set up a music publishing division. This was known as ATV Music and existed initially to publish TV-related music, such as theme tunes, composed by its in-house composers. It was formed after ATV acquired a substantial share of Pye Records. This company was eventually split away from the parent company and went through numerous different owners as well as buying into other established music publishers including Northern Songs, which was the Beatles' publishing company. ATV Music eventually settled into the hands of Michael Jackson before being merged into Sony/ATV Music Publishing.
See also
Central Independent Television
London Weekend Television
Associated British Corporation
ITV (TV network)
History of ITV
References
External links
sub-TV (unofficial history site)
Independent TeleWeb ATV history page
ATV at TV Ark
ATV Land - an unofficial fan site
Transdiffusion's AYTEEVEE
ITV franchisees
Television in England
Television in London
Mass media in the East Midlands
Mass media in the West Midlands (region)
Television channels and stations established in 1955
Television channels and stations disestablished in 1982
1955 establishments in England
1982 disestablishments in England
British companies established in 1955 | [
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222171 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirah%C3%A3%20language | Pirahã language | Pirahã (also spelled Pirahá, Pirahán), or Múra-Pirahã, is the indigenous language of the isolated Pirahã people of Amazonas, Brazil. The Pirahã live along the Maici River, a tributary of the Amazon River.
Pirahã is the only surviving dialect of the Mura language, all others died out in the last few centuries, as most groups of the Mura people have shifted to Portuguese. Suspected relatives, such as Matanawi, are also extinct. It is estimated to have between 250 and 380 speakers. It is not in immediate danger of extinction, as its use is vigorous and the Pirahã community is mostly monolingual.
The Pirahã language is most notable as the subject of various controversial claims; for example, that it provides evidence for linguistic relativity. The controversy is compounded by the sheer difficulty of learning the language; the number of linguists with field experience in Pirahã is very small.
Phonology
The Pirahã language is one of the phonologically simplest languages known, comparable to Rotokas (New Guinea) and the Lakes Plain languages such as Obokuitai. There is a claim that Pirahã has as few as ten phonemes, one fewer than Rotokas, but this requires analyzing as an underlying . Although such a phenomenon is odd cross-linguistically, Ian Maddieson has found in researching Pirahã data that does indeed exhibit an unusual distribution in the language.
The 'ten phoneme' claim also does not consider the tones of Pirahã, at least two of which are phonemic (marked by an acute accent and either unmarked or marked by a grave accent in Everett), bringing the number of phonemes to at least twelve. Sheldon (1988) claims three tones, high (¹), mid (²) and low (³).
Phoneme inventory
When languages have inventories as small and allophonic variation as great as in Pirahã and Rotokas, different linguists may have very different ideas as to the nature of their phonological systems.
Vowels
Consonants
The segmental phonemes are:
is written .
Everett posits that is an allophone of the sequence .
Women sometimes substitute for .
The number of phonemes is thirteen, matching Hawaiian, if is counted as a phoneme, and there are just two tones; if is not phonemic, there are twelve phonemes, one more than the number found in Rotokas. (English, by comparison, has thirty to forty-five, depending on dialect.) However, many of these sounds show a great deal of allophonic variation. For instance, vowels are nasalized after the glottal consonants and (written h and x). Also,
: the nasal after a pause, the trill before .
: the nasal (an apical alveolar nasal) after a pause; is a lateral alveolar–linguolabial double flap that has only been reported for this language, where the tongue strikes the upper gum ridge and then strikes the lower lip. However, it is only used in certain special types of speech performances, and so might not be considered a normal speech sound.
: in women's speech, occurs as before , and "sometimes" elsewhere.
: in men's speech, word-initial and are interchangeable. For many people, and may be exchanged in some words. The sequences and are said to be in free variation with and , at least in some words.
Because of its variation, Everett states that is not a stable phoneme. By analyzing it as , he is able to theoretically reduce the number of consonants to seven.
Pirahã is sometimes said to be one of the few languages without nasals, with the voiced stops analyzed as underlyingly and :
However, an alternative analysis is possible. By analysing the voiced stops as underlyingly and , and the as , it could also be claimed to be one of the very few languages without velars:
Lexicon
Pirahã has a few loan words, mainly from Portuguese. Pirahã ("cup") is from the Portuguese word , and ("business") comes from Portuguese ("merchandise").
Kinship terms
Everett (2005) says that the Pirahã culture has the simplest known kinship system of any human culture. A single word, (pronounced ), is used for both mother and father (like English "parent" although Pirahã has no gendered alternative), and they appear not to keep track of relationships any more distant than biological siblings.
Numerals and grammatical number
According to Everett in 1986, Pirahã has words for 'one' () and 'two' (), distinguished only by tone. In his 2005 analysis, however, Everett said that Pirahã has no words for numerals at all, and that and actually mean "small quantity" and "larger quantity". Frank et al. (2008) describes two experiments on four Pirahã speakers that were designed to test these two hypotheses. In one, ten spools of thread were placed on a table one at a time and the Pirahã were asked how many were there. All four speakers answered in accordance with the hypothesis that the language has words for 'one' and 'two' in this experiment, uniformly using for one spool, for two spools, and a mixture of the second word and 'many' for more than two spools.
The second experiment, however, started with ten spools of thread on the table, and spools were subtracted one at a time. In this experiment, one speaker used (the word previously supposed to mean 'one') when there were six spools left, and all four speakers used that word consistently when there were as many as three spools left. Though Frank and his colleagues do not attempt to explain their subjects' difference in behavior in these two experiments, they conclude that the two words under investigation "are much more likely to be relative or comparative terms like 'few' or 'fewer' than absolute terms like 'one'".
There is no grammatical distinction between singular and plural, even in pronouns.
A 2012 documentary aired on the Smithsonian Channel reported that a school had been opened for the Pirahã community where they learn Portuguese and mathematics. As a consequence, observations involving concepts like the notion of quantity (which has a singular treatment in Pirahã language), became impossible, because of the influence of the new knowledge on the results.
Color terms
There is also a claim that Pirahã lacks any unique color terminology, being one of the few cultures (mostly in the Amazon basin and New Guinea) that only have specific words for light and dark. Although the Pirahã glossary in Daniel Everett's Ph.D. thesis includes a list of color words (p. 354), Everett (2006) now says that the items listed in this glossary are not in fact words but descriptive phrases (such as "(like) blood" for "red").
Syntax
Pronouns
The basic Pirahã personal pronouns are ti "I, we", gi or gíxai "you", hi "(s)he, they, this". These can be serially combined: ti gíxai or ti hi to mean "we" (inclusive and exclusive), and gíxai hi to mean "you (plural)", or combined with xogiáagaó 'all', as in "we (all) go".
There are several other pronouns reported, such as 'she', 'it' (animal), 'it' (aquatic animal), and 'it' (inanimate), but these may actually be nouns, and they cannot be used independently the way the three basic pronouns can. The fact that different linguists come up with different lists of such pronouns suggests that they are not basic to the grammar. In two recent papers, Everett cites Sheldon as agreeing with his (Everett's) analysis of the pronouns.
Sheldon (1988) gives the following list of pronouns:
Pronouns are prefixed to the verb, in the order SUBJECT-INDOBJECT-OBJECT where INDOBJECT includes a preposition "to", "for", etc. They may all be omitted, e.g., hi³-ti³-gi¹xai³-bi²i³b-i³ha³i¹ "he will send you to me".
For possession, a pronoun is used in apposition (zero-marking):
Thomason & Everett (2001) note the pronouns are formally close to those of the Tupian languages Nheengatu and Tenharim, which the Mura had once used as contact languages:
Both the Tupian and Pirahã 3rd-person pronouns can be used as demonstratives, as in Pirahã hi xobaaxai ti "I am really smart" (lit. "This one sees well: me"). Given the restricted set of Pirahã phonemes, the Pirahã pronouns ti and gi are what one would expect if the Tupian pronouns were borrowed, and hi differs only in dropping the a.
Verbs
Pirahã is agglutinative, using a large number of affixes to communicate grammatical meaning. Even the 'to be' verbs of existence or equivalence are suffixes in Pirahã. For instance, the Pirahã sentence "there is a paca there" uses just two words; the copula is a suffix on "paca":
Pirahã also uses suffixes that communicate evidentiality, a category lacking in English grammar. One such suffix, -xáagahá, means that the speaker actually observed the event in question:
(The suffix -sai turns a verb into a noun, like English '-ing'.)
Other verbal suffixes indicate that an action is deduced from circumstantial evidence, or based on hearsay. Unlike in English, in Pirahã speakers must state their source of information: they cannot be ambiguous. There are also verbal suffixes that indicate desire to perform an action, frustration in completing an action, or frustration in even starting an action.
There are also a large number of verbal aspects: perfective (completed) vs. imperfective (uncompleted), telic (reaching a goal) vs. atelic, continuing, repeated, and commencing. However, despite this complexity, there appears to be little distinction of transitivity. For example, the same verb, xobai, can mean either 'look' or 'see', and xoab can mean either 'die' or 'kill'.
The verbs are, however, zero-marked, with no grammatical agreement with the arguments of the verb.
According to Sheldon (1988), the Pirahã verb has eight main suffix-slots, and a few sub-slots:
Slot A:
intensive ba³i¹
Ø
Slot B:
causative/incompletive bo³i¹
causative/completive bo³ga¹
inchoative/incompletive ho³i¹
inchoative/completive hoa³ga¹
future/somewhere a²i³p.
future/elsewhere a²o³p
past a²o³b
Ø
Slot C:
negative/optative sa³i¹ + C1
Slot C1:
preventive ha³xa³
opinionated ha³
possible Ø
positive/optative a³a¹ti³
negative/indicative hia³b + C2
positive/indicative Ø + C2
Slot C2:
declarative a¹
probabilistic/certain i³ha³i¹
probabilistic/uncertain/beginning a³ba³ga³i¹
probabilistic/uncertain/execution a³ba³i¹
probabilistic/uncertain/completion a³a¹
stative i²xi³
interrogative1/progressive i¹hi¹ai¹
interrogative2/progressive o¹xoi¹hi¹ai¹
interrogative1 i¹hi¹
interrogative2 o¹xoi¹hi¹
Ø
Slot D:
continuative xii³g
repetitive ta³
Ø
Slot E:
immediate a¹ha¹
intentive i³i¹
Ø
Slot F:
durative a³b
Ø
Slot G:
desiderative so³g
Ø
Slot H:
causal ta³i¹o³
conclusive si³bi³ga³
emphatic/reiterative koi + H1
emphatic ko³i¹ + H1
reiterative i³sa³ + H1
Ø + H1
Slot H1:
present i³hi¹ai³
past i³xa¹a³ga³
pastImmediate a³ga³ha¹
These suffixes undergo some phonetic changes depending on context. For instance, the continuative xii³g reduces to ii³g after a consonant, e.g., ai³t-a¹b-xii³g-a¹ → ai³ta¹bii³ga¹ "he is still sleeping".
Also an epenthetic vowel gets inserted between two suffixes if necessary to avoid a consonant-cluster; the vowel is either i³ (before or after s, p, or t) or a³ (other cases), e.g., o³ga³i¹ so³g-sa³i¹ → o³ga³i¹ so³gi³sa³i¹ "he possibly may not want a field".
Conversely, when the junction of two morphemes creates a double vowel (ignoring tones), the vowel with the lower tone is suppressed: si³-ba¹-bo³-ga³-a¹ → si³ba¹bo³ga¹ "he caused the arrow to wound it".
For further details, see Sheldon's 1988 paper.
Embedding
Everett originally claimed that in order to embed one clause within another, the embedded clause is turned into a noun with the -sai suffix seen above:
The examples of embedding were limited to one level of depth, so that to say "He really knows how to talk about making arrows", more than one sentence would be needed.
Everett has also concluded that because Pirahã does not have number-words for counting, does not allow recursive adjective-lists like "the green wealthy hunchbacked able golfer", and does not allow recursive possessives like "The child's friend's mother's house", a Pirahã sentence must have a length limit. This leads to the additional conclusion that there is a finite number of different possible sentences in Pirahã with any given vocabulary.
Everett has also recently reinterpreted even the limited form of embedding in the example above as parataxis. He now states that Pirahã does not admit any embedding at all, not even one level deep. He says that words that appear to form a clause in the example are actually a separate unembedded sentence, which, in context, expresses the same thought that would be expressed by a clause in English. He gives evidence for this based on the lack of specialized words for clause-formation, the pattern of coreferring tokens in the purported clause-constructions, and examples where the purported clause is separated from the rest of the sentence by other complete sentences.
Everett stated that Pirahã cannot say "John's brother's house" but must say, "John has a brother. This brother has a house." in two separate sentences.
According to Everett the statement that Pirahã is a finite language without embedding and without recursion presents a challenge for proposals by Noam Chomsky and others concerning universal grammar—on the grounds that if these proposals are correct, all languages should show evidence of recursive (and similar) grammatical structures.
Chomsky has replied that he considers recursion to be an innate cognitive capacity that is available for use in language but that the capacity may or may not manifest itself in any one particular language.
However, as Everett points out, the language can have recursion in ideas, with some ideas in a story being less important than others. He also mentions a paper from a recursion conference in 2005 describing recursive behaviors in deer as they forage for food. So to him, recursion can be a brain property that humans have developed more than other animals. He points out that the criticism of his conclusions uses his own doctoral thesis to refute his knowledge and conclusions drawn after a subsequent twenty-nine years of research.
Everett's observation that the language does not allow recursion has also been vigorously disputed by other linguists, who call attention to data and arguments from Everett's own previous publications, which interpreted the "-sai" construction as embedding. Everett has responded that his earlier understanding of the language was incomplete and slanted by theoretical bias. He now says that the morpheme -sai attached to the main verb of a clause merely marks the clause as 'old information', and is not a nominalizer at all (or a marker of embedding). More recently, the German linguist Uli Sauerland of the Zentrum für Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft at Humboldt University (Berlin) has performed a phonetic reanalysis of experimental data in which Pirahã speakers were asked to repeat utterances by Everett. Sauerland reports that these speakers make a tonal distinction in their use of "-sai" that "provides evidence for the existence of complex clauses in Pirahã".
Unusual features of the language
Daniel Everett, over the course of more than two dozen papers and one book about the language, has ascribed various surprising features to the language, including:
One of the smallest phoneme inventories of any known language and a correspondingly high degree of allophonic variation, including two very rare sounds, and . Both are reported to be used as phonemes in only this language, but the latter is literally the sound of blowing a raspberry, known among practically all cultures but not used as a linguistic phoneme. The Pirahã are by now apparently aware of the latter's meaning in other cultures and avoid using the phoneme with foreigners.
An extremely limited clause structure, not allowing for nested recursive sentences like "Mary said that John thought that Henry was fired".
No abstract color words other than terms for light and dark (though this is disputed in commentaries by Paul Kay and others on Everett (2005)).
The entire set of personal pronouns appears to have been borrowed from Nheengatu, a Tupi-based lingua franca. Although there is no documentation of a prior stage of Pirahã, the close resemblance of the Pirahã pronouns to those of Nheengatu makes this hypothesis plausible.
Pirahã can be whistled, hummed, or encoded in music. In fact, Keren Everett believes that current research on the language misses much of its meaning by paying little attention to the language's prosody. Consonants and vowels may be omitted altogether and the meaning conveyed solely through variations in pitch, stress, and rhythm. She says that mothers teach their children the language through constantly singing the same musical patterns.
Daniel Everett claims that the absence of recursion in the language, if real, falsifies the basic assumption of modern Chomskyan linguistics. This claim is contested by many linguists, who claim that recursion has been observed in Pirahã by Daniel Everett himself, while Everett argues that those utterances that superficially seemed recursive to him at first were misinterpretations caused by his earlier lack of familiarity with the language. Furthermore, some linguists, including Chomsky himself, argue that even if Pirahã lacked recursion, that would have no implications for Chomskyan linguistics.
Pirahã and linguistic relativity
The concept of linguistic relativity postulates a relationship between the language a person speaks and how that person understands the world. The conclusions about the significance of Pirahã numeracy and linguistic relativity in Frank et al. (2008) are quoted below. In short, in this study the Pirahã were – by and large – able to match exact quantities of objects set before them (even larger quantities), but had difficulty matching exact quantities when larger quantities were set before them and then hidden from view before they were asked to match them.
A total lack of exact quantity language did not prevent the Pirahã from accurately performing a task which relied on the exact numerical equivalence of large sets. This evidence argues against the strong Whorfian claim that language for number creates the concept of exact quantity. […] Instead, the case of Pirahã suggests that languages that can express large, exact cardinalities have a more modest effect on the cognition of their speakers: They allow the speakers to remember and compare information about cardinalities accurately across space, time, and changes in modality. […] Thus, the Pirahã understand the concept of one (in spite of having no word for the concept). Additionally, they appear to understand that adding or subtracting one from a set will change the quantity of that set, though the generality of this knowledge is difficult to assess without the ability to label sets of arbitrary cardinality using number words. (emphasis added)
Being concerned that, because of this cultural gap, they were being cheated in trade, the Pirahã people asked Daniel Everett to teach them basic numeracy skills. After eight months of enthusiastic but fruitless daily study with Everett, the Pirahã concluded that they were incapable of learning the material and discontinued the lessons. Not a single Pirahã had learned to count up to ten or even to add 1 + 1.
Everett argues that test-subjects are unable to count for two cultural reasons and one formal linguistic reason. First, they are nomadic hunter-gatherers with nothing to count and hence no need to practice doing so. Second, they have a cultural constraint against generalizing beyond the present, which eliminates number-words. Third, since, according to some researchers, numerals and counting are based on recursion in the language, the absence of recursion in their language entails a lack of counting. That is, it is the lack of need that explains both the lack of counting-ability and the lack of corresponding vocabulary. However, Everett does not claim that the Pirahãs are cognitively incapable of counting.
Knowledge of other languages
Everett states that most of the remaining Pirahã speakers are monolingual, knowing only a few words of Portuguese. The anthropologist Marco Antônio Gonçalves, who lived with the Pirahã for 18 months over several years, writes that "Most men understand Portuguese, though not all of them are able to express themselves in the language. Women have little understanding of Portuguese and never use it as a form of expression. The men developed a contact 'language' allowing them to communicate with regional populations, mixing words from Pirahã, Portuguese and the Amazonian Língua Geral known as Nheengatu."
In recent work, Jeanette Sakel of the University of Manchester studied the use of Portuguese by Pirahã speakers. Everett states that the Pirahã use a very rudimentary Portuguese lexicon with Pirahã grammar when speaking Portuguese and that their Portuguese is so limited to very specific topics that they are rightly called monolingual, without contradicting Gonçalves (since they can communicate on a very narrow range of topics using a very restricted lexicon). Future research on developing bilingualism (Pirahã-Portuguese) in the community, along the lines of Sakel and Gonçalves, will provide valuable data for the discussion on speakers' grammatical competence (e.g. regarding the effect of culture). Although Gonçalves quotes whole stories told by the Pirahã, Everett (2009) claims that the Portuguese in these stories is not a literal transcription of what was said, but a free translation from the pidgin Portuguese of the Pirahã.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Dixon, R. M. W. and Alexandra Aikhenvald, eds., (1999) The Amazonian Languages. Cambridge University Press.
Everett, D. L. (1992) A Língua Pirahã e a Teoria da Sintaxe: Descrição, Perspectivas e Teoria (The Pirahã Language and Syntactic Theory: Description, Perspectives and Theory). Ph.D. thesis. (in Portuguese). Editora Unicamp, 400 pages; .
Everett, Daniel, (1986) "Piraha". In the Handbook of Amazonian Languages, vol I. Desmond C. Derbyshire and Geoffrey K. Pullum (eds). Mouton de Gruyter.
Everett, Daniel (1988) On Metrical Constituent Structure in Piraha Phonology. Natural Language & Linguistic Theory 6: 207–246
Everett, Daniel and Keren Everett (1984) On the Relevance of Syllable Onsets to Stress Placement. Linguistic Inquiry 15: 705–711
Everett, Daniel 2005. Cultural Constraints on Grammar and Cognition in Pirahã: Another Look at the Design Features of Human Language. Current Anthropology 46:621–646
Keren Everett (1998) Acoustic Correlates of Stress in Pirahã. The Journal of Amazonian Languages: 104–162. (Published version of University of Pittsburgh M.A. thesis.)
Sauerland, Uli. (2010). "Experimental Evidence for Complex Syntax in Pirahã".
Sheldon, Steven N. (1974) Some Morphophonemic and Tone Perturbation Rules in Mura-Pirahã. International Journal of American Linguistics, v. 40 279–282.
Sheldon, Steven N. (1988) Os sufixos verbais Mura-Pirahã (= Mura-Pirahã verbal suffixes). SIL International, Série Lingüística Nº 9, Vol. 2: 147–175 PDF.
Thomason, Sarah G. and Daniel L. Everett (2001) Pronoun Borrowing. Proceedings of the Berkeley Linguistic Society 27. PDF.
Michael Frank (2008) "Number as a Cognitive Technology: Evidence from Pirahã Language and Cognition". PDF.
External links
Piraha Alphabet (at Omniglot)
Everett, Daniel. Home page ()
Pirahã language - by Professor Marco Antonio Gonçalves (UFRJ) in Encyclopedia of Indigenous People in Brazil
Pirahã Dictionary/ Dicionário Mura-Pirahã ()
Mura-Pirahã Dictionary
Etnolinguistica.Org: discussion list on native South American languages
NPR: Tribe Helps Linguist Argue with Prevailing Theory
Unlocking the Secret Sounds of Language: Life Without Time or Numbers — article in The Independent
Brazil's Pirahã Tribe: Living without Numbers or Time — Spiegel
New Yorker article 'The Interpreter' (abstract)
Audio sample of sung Pirahã — two boys singing about a day's events
BBC Radio 4, The Material World: The Language of the Piraha — Prof. Daniel Everett discusses the linguistic significance of the language with Prof. Ian Roberts.
Daniel Everett: Endangered Languages and Lost Knowledge (video), presentation for the Rosetta Project
Sample1 and Sample2 of Pirahã, spoken by native speakers.
Audio recordings of words lists in Pirahã, spoken by native speakers (UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive).
Agglutinative languages
Muran languages
Whistled languages
Tonal languages | [
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222172 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whistled%20language | Whistled language | Whistled languages use whistling to emulate speech and facilitate communication. A whistled language is a system of whistled communication which allows fluent whistlers to transmit and comprehend a potentially unlimited number of messages over long distances. Whistled languages are different in this respect from the restricted codes sometimes used by herders or animal trainers to transmit simple messages or instructions. Generally, whistled languages emulate the tones or vowel formants of a natural spoken language, as well as aspects of its intonation and prosody, so that trained listeners who speak that language can understand the encoded message.
Whistled language is rare compared to spoken language, but it is found in cultures around the world. It is especially common in tone languages where the whistled tones transmit the tones of the syllables (tone melodies of the words). This might be because in tone languages the tone melody carries more of the functional load of communication while non-tonal phonology carries proportionally less. The genesis of a whistled language has never been recorded in either case and has not yet received much productive study.
History
One of the earliest records of whistled speech may be in Xenophon's Anabasis. While travelling through the territory of an ancient tribe on the southern Black Sea coast in 400 B.C.E he writes that the inhabitants could hear one another at great distances across the valleys. The same area encompasses the Turkish village of Kuşköy where whistled speech (kuş dili) is practised today.
In early China, the technique of transcendental whistling was a kind of nonverbal language with affinities to the spiritual aspects of Daoist meditation.
In 1982 in the Greek village of Antia on Euboea island, the entire population knew the local whistled speech called sfyria, but only a few whistlers remain now.
Causes of whistled language development
Ecology
Whistle languages have naturally developed in response to the necessity for humans to communicate in conditions of relative isolation, with possible causes being distance, noise levels, and night, as well as specific activities, such as social information, shepherding, hunting, fishing, courtship, or shamanism. Because of this usage, they are mostly related to places with mountains or dense forests. Southern China, Papua New Guinea, the Amazon forest, subsaharan Africa, Mexico, and Europe encompass most of these locations.
They have been more recently found in dense forests like the Amazon where they may replace spoken dialogue in the villages while hunting or fishing to overcome the pressure of the acoustic environment. The main advantage of whistling speech is that it allows the speaker to cover much larger distances (typically but up to in mountains and less in reverberating forests) than ordinary speech, without the strain (and lesser range) of shouting. More specifically, whistle speech can reach a loudness of 130 dB, and the transmission range can reach up to 10 km (as verified in La Gomera, Canary Island). The long range of whistling is enhanced by the mountainous terrain found in areas where whistled languages are used. Many areas with such languages work hard to preserve their ancient traditions, in the face of rapidly advancing telecommunications systems in many areas.
Culture
In some cases (e.g. Chinantec) the whistled speech is an important and integral part of the language and culture; in others (e.g. Nahuatl) its role is much lesser. Whistled speech may be very central and highly valued in a culture. Shouting is very rare in Sochiapam Chinantec. Men in that culture are subject to being fined if they do not handle whistle-speech well enough to perform certain town jobs. They may whistle for fun in situations where spoken speech could easily be heard.
In Sochiapam, Oaxaca, and other places in Mexico, and reportedly in West and Southern Africa as well (specifically among the VhaVenda), whistled speech is men's language: although women may understand it, they do not use it.
Though whistled languages are not secret codes or secret languages (with the exception of a whistled language used by ñañigos insurgencies in Cuba during Spanish occupation), they may be used for secretive communication among outsiders or others who do not know or understand the whistled language though they may understand its spoken origin. Stories are told of farmers in Aas during World War II, or in La Gomera, who were able to hide evidence of such nefarious activities as milk-watering because they were warned in whistle-speech that the police were approaching.
Characteristics of whistled languages
Tonal and non-tonal whistle languages
Whistled languages differ according to whether the spoken language is tonal or not, with the whistling being either tone or articulation based (or both). Most whistle languages, of which there are several hundred, are based on tonal languages.
A way in which true whistled languages differ from other types of whistled communication is that they encode auditory features of spoken languages by transposing key components of speech sounds. There are two types of whistled languages: those based on non-tone languages, which transpose F2 patterns (dealing with formants), and those based on tone languages, which transpose tone melodies. However, both types of whistle tones have a phonological structure that is related to the spoken language that they are transposing.
Tonal languages are often stripped of articulation, leaving only suprasegmental features such as duration and tone, and when whistled retain the spoken melodic line. Thus whistled tonal languages convey phonemic information solely through tone, length, and, to a lesser extent, stress, and most segmental phonemic distinctions of the spoken language are lost.
In non-tonal languages, more of the articulatory features of speech are retained, and the normally timbral variations imparted by the movements of the tongue and soft palate are transformed into pitch variations. Certain consonants can be pronounced while whistling, so as to modify the whistled sound, much as consonants in spoken language modify the vowel sounds adjacent to them.
Different whistling styles may be used in a single language. Sochiapam Chinantec has three different words for whistle-speech: sie3 for whistling with the tongue against the alveolar ridge, jui̵32 for bilabial whistling, and juo2 for finger-in-the-mouth whistling. These are used for communication over varying distances. There is also a kind of loud falsetto (hóh32) which functions in some ways like whistled speech.
Tonal whistle languages and types of tones
Most whistle languages, of which there are several hundred, are based on tonal languages.
Only the tone of the speech is saved in the whistle, while aspects as articulation and phonation are eliminated. These are replaced by other features such as stress and rhythmical variations. However, some languages, like that of the Zezuru who speak a Shona-derived dialect, include articulation so that consonants interrupt the flow of the whistle. A similar language is the Tsonga whistle language used in the highlands in the Southern parts of Mozambique. This should not be confused with the whistled sibilants of Shona.
There are two different types of whistle tones - hole tones and edge tones. A hole (or 'orifice') tone is produced by a fast-moving cylinder (or 'vena contracta') of air that interacts with the slow-moving anulus of air surrounding it. Instability in the boundary layer leads to perturbations that increase in size until a feedback path is established whereby specific frequencies of the resonance chamber are emphasized. An edge tone, on the other hand, is generated by a thin jet of air that strikes an obstacle. Vortices are shed near the point of disturbance in the flow, alternating on each side of the obstacle or 'wedge'.
In Canary Islands, Silbo on the island of La Gomera, based on Spanish, is one of the best-studied whistled languages (Rialland 2005). The number of distinctive sounds or phonemes in this language is a matter of disagreement, varying according to the researcher from two to five vowels and four to nine consonants. This variation may reflect differences in speakers' abilities as well as in the methods used to elicit contrasts. The work of Meyer clarifies this debate by providing the first statistical analyses of production for various whistlers as well as psycholinguistic tests of vowel identification.
Non-tonal whistle languages
In a non-tonal language, segments may be differentiated as follows:
Vowels are replaced by a set of relative pitch ranges generally tracking the f2 formant of spoken language.
Stress is expressed by higher pitch or increased length
Consonants are produced by pitch transitions of different lengths and height, plus the presence or absence of occlusion. ("Labial stops are replaced by diaphragm or glottal occlusions.")
Sound production techniques
Whistling techniques do not require the vibration of the vocal cords: they produce a shock effect of the compressed air stream inside the cavity of the mouth and/or of the hands. When the jaws are fixed by a finger, the size of the hole is stable. The air stream expelled makes vibrations at the edge of the mouth. The faster the air stream is expelled, the higher is the noise inside the cavities. If the hole (mouth) and the cavity (intra-oral volume) are well matched, the resonance is tuned, and the whistle is projected more loudly. The frequency of this bioacoustical phenomenon is modulated by the morphing of the resonating cavity that can be, to a certain extent, related to the articulation of the equivalent spoken form. "Apart from the five vowel-phonemes [of Silbo Gomero]—and even these do not invariably have a fixed or steady pitch—all whistled speech-sound realizations are glides which are interpreted in terms of range, contour, and steepness."
Bilabial and labiodental techniques
There are a few different techniques of how to produce whistle speech, the choice of which is dependent on practical concerns. Bilabial and labiodental techniques are common for short and medium distance discussions (in a market, in the noise of a room, or for hunting); whereas the tongue retroflexed, one or two fingers introduced in the mouth, a blow concentrated at the junction between two fingers or the lower lip pulled while breathing in air are techniques used to reach high levels of power for long distance speaking. Each place has its favorite trend that depends on the most common use of the village and on the personal preferences of each whistler. Whistling with a leaf or a flute is often related to courtship or poetic expression (reported in the Kickapoo language in Mexico and in the Hmong and Akha cultures in Asia).
Physics
"All whistled languages share one basic characteristic: they function by varying the frequency of a simple wave-form as a function of time, generally with minimal dynamic variations, which is readily understandable since in most cases their only purpose is long-distance communication." A whistled tone is essentially a simple oscillation (or sine wave), and thus timbral variations are impossible. Normal articulation during an ordinary lip-whistle is relatively easy though the lips move little causing a constant of labialization and making labial and labiodental consonants (p, b, m, f, etc.) problematical.
Comparison with spoken languages
Limited expressivity
The expressivity of whistled speech is likely to be somewhat limited compared to spoken speech (although not inherently so), but such a conclusion should not be taken as absolute, as it depends heavily on various factors including the phonology of the language. For example, in some tonal languages with few tones, whistled messages typically consist of stereotyped or otherwise standardized expressions, are elaborately descriptive, and often have to be repeated. However, in heavily tonal languages such as Mazatec and Yoruba, a large amount of information is conveyed through pitch even when spoken, and therefore extensive conversations may be whistled. In any case, even for non-tonal languages, measurements indicate that high intelligibility can be achieved with whistled speech (90%) of intelligibility of non-standardized sentences for Greek and the equivalent for Turkish.
Lack of comprehension
The lack of understanding can be seen with a confusion matrix. It was tested using two speakers of Silbo (Jampolsky 1999). The study revealed that generally, the vowels were relatively easy to understand, and the consonants a bit more difficult.
Confusion matrix of the vowels in the perception test. 'Produced' vowels are displayed horizontally and 'perceived' vowels vertically (Numbers in bold correspond to correct identifications).
Confusion matrix of the consonants in the perception test. 'Produced' consonants are displayed horizontally and 'perceived' consonants vertically. (Numbers in bold correspond to correct identifications).
List of whistled languages
The following list is of languages that exist or existed in a whistled form, or of ethnic groups that speak such languages.
Africa
Cameroon: Gbaya, Doohwaayo, Mofu
Ethiopia: Bench
Ghana: Nchumburu
Mozambique: Shona-derived dialect and similar Tsonga language
Nigeria: Yoruba
South Africa: Southern Bantu
West Africa: Bafia, Bape, Birifor, Bobo, Burunsi, Daguri, Diola, Ewe, Fongbe, Marka, Ngwe, Twi, Tshi, Ule (among others)
Americas
Alaska: Yupik
Bolivia: Sirionó
Brazil: Pirahã
Colombia: Desano
Mexico: Amuzgo, Chinantec, Ch'ol, Kickapoo, Mazatec, Nahuatl, Otomi, Sayula Popoluca, Tepehua, Totonac, Zapotec, whistled Spanish in Tlaxcala
United States: Taos
Asia
China: Akha in Yunnan Province, Hmong and Bai.
Burma: Chin
India: Kongthong village of Meghalaya).
Laos: Akha, and Hmong
Myanmar: Akha, and Hmong
Nepal: Chepang
St. Lawrence Island: for Siberian Yupik inhabitants, see Yupik, Alaska in America mentioned above.
Thailand: Akha, and Hmong
Vietnam: Hmong
Europe
Greece (village of Antia on the island of Euboea): Sfyria
France (village of Aas, Pyrenees): Occitan language
Spain (La Gomera and El Hierro, Canary Islands): El Silbo ("Silbo Gomero")
Turkey: Turkish bird language (village of Kuşköy(tr))
Oceania
New Guinea: Gadsup, Binumarien, Abau, Polopa, Telefol, Bauzi, (possibly Tairora and Narak, in the latter reportedly linked with the spirits talking)
Other means of expressing speech
In continental Africa, speech may be conveyed by a whistle or other musical instrument, most famously the "talking drums". However, while drums may be used by griots singing praise songs or for inter-village communication, and other instruments may be used on the radio for station identification jingles, for regular conversation at a distance whistled speech is used. As two people approach each other, one may even switch from whistled to spoken speech in mid-sentence.
See also
Musical language
Language of the birds
Solresol
Kickapoo whistled speech
Sweep (puppet)
Clangers, stop motion animation characters using a whistled language.
Whistled fricative
References
Bibliography
Foris, David Paul. 2000. A grammar of Sochiapam Chinantec. Studies in Chinantec languages 6. Dallas: SIL International and UT Arlington.
External links
Whistles in the Mist: Whistled Speech in Oaxaca, Mexico "In the Americas with David Yetman" documentary in which Georgetown University linguist Mark Sicoli conducts fieldwork with speaker/whistlers of Sochiápam Chinantec
The World Whistles Network An international network of research and defense on whistled languages
A whistled conversation in Sochiapam Chinantec (SIL-Mexico)
Whistling to Communicate in Alaska from NPR
Link to ELAR documentation of Antia Whistling language
MP3 File of a Voice of America Broadcast - UN: Technology Threatens Whistled Language in Turkey - January 12, 2018
History of telecommunications
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222174 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spur%20ryal | Spur ryal | The Spur Royal was an extremely rare English gold coin issued in the reign of King James I. The coin is a development of the earlier Rose Noble, or Ryal which was worth ten shillings when issued by Kings Edward IV and Henry VII, and fifteen shillings when issued by Queens Mary and Elizabeth I.
The Spur Royal, so called because the sun and rose on the reverse resemble a spur, was introduced during James I's second coinage (1604–1619) when it initially had a value of fifteen shillings (15/-), but in line with all gold coins its value was raised by 10% in 1612, to sixteen shillings and sixpence (16/6). The design of this first issue shows on the obverse the king in a ship holding a sword and shield, surrounded by the legend IACOBUS DG MAG BRIT FRAN ET HIB REX -- "James by the grace of God King of Great Britain France and Ireland". The reverse shows a rose over a radiant star, with a lion and crown in each quarter surrounded by the legend A. DNO FACTUM EST ISTUD ET EST MIRABILE (shorthand for the Latin A DOMINO FACTUM EST ISTUD ET EST MIRABILE) -- "This is the Lord's doing and it is marvellous (in our eyes)".
During James' third coinage (1619–1625) a new-style lighter spur ryal was issued with the value and weight reduced to fifteen shillings (15/-). On the obverse is a lion holding a sceptre over the royal shield which divides the value "XV" for fifteen shillings, surrounded by the legend IACOBUS DG MAG BRIT FRA ET HI REX -- James by the grace of God King of Great Britain France and Ireland. The reverse shows, as before, a rose over a radiant star, with a lion and crown in each quarter surrounded by the legend A. DNO FACTUM EST ISTUD ET EST MIRABILE -- This is the Lord's doing and it is marvellous (in our eyes).
External links
Coins of England
English gold coins
Economy of Stuart England | [
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222177 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrulation | Gastrulation | Gastrulation is the stage in the early embryonic development of most animals, during which the blastula (a single-layered hollow sphere of cells) is reorganized into a multilayered structure known as the gastrula. Before gastrulation, the embryo is a continuous epithelial sheet of cells; by the end of gastrulation, the embryo has begun differentiation to establish distinct cell lineages, set up the basic axes of the body (e.g. dorsal-ventral, anterior-posterior), and internalized one or more cell types including the prospective gut.
In triploblastic organisms, the gastrula is trilaminar ("three-layered"). These three germ layers are known as the ectoderm (outer layer), mesoderm (middle layer), and endoderm (inner layer). In diploblastic organisms, such as Cnidaria and Ctenophora, the gastrula has only ectoderm and endoderm. The two layers are also sometimes referred to as the hypoblast and epiblast. Sponges do not go through the gastrula stage, which is why they are basal among all animals.
Gastrulation takes place after cleavage and the formation of the blastula. Gastrulation is followed by organogenesis, when individual organs develop within the newly formed germ layers. Each layer gives rise to specific tissues and organs in the developing embryo.
The ectoderm gives rise to epidermis, the nervous system, and to the neural crest in vertebrates.
The endoderm gives rise to the epithelium of the digestive system and respiratory system, and organs associated with the digestive system, such as the liver and pancreas.
The mesoderm gives rise to many cell types such as muscle, bone, and connective tissue. In vertebrates, mesoderm derivatives include the notochord, the heart, blood and blood vessels, the cartilage of the ribs and vertebrae, and the dermis.
Following gastrulation, cells in the body are either organized into sheets of connected cells (as in epithelia), or as a mesh of isolated cells, such as mesenchyme.
Although gastrulation patterns exhibit enormous variation throughout the animal kingdom, they are unified by the five basic types of cell movements that occur during gastrulation:
Invagination
Involution
Ingression
Delamination
Epiboly
The terms "gastrula" and "gastrulation" were coined by Ernst Haeckel, in his 1872 work "Biology of Calcareous Sponges". Lewis Wolpert, pioneering developmental biologist in the field, has been credited for noting that "It is not birth, marriage, or death, but gastrulation which is truly the most important time in your life."
Classic model systems
Gastrulation is highly variable across the animal kingdom but has underlying similarities. Gastrulation has been studied in many animals, but some models have been used for longer than others. Furthermore, it is easier to study development in animals that develop outside the mother. Animals whose gastrulation is understood in the greatest detail include:
Mollusc
Sea urchin
Frog
Chicken
Protostomes versus deuterostomes
The distinction between protostomes and deuterostomes is based on the direction in which the mouth (stoma) develops in relation to the blastopore. Protostome derives from the Greek word protostoma meaning "first mouth" (πρῶτος + στόμα) whereas Deuterostome's etymology is "second mouth" from the words second and mouth (δεύτερος + στόμα).
The major distinctions between deuterostomes and protostomes are found in embryonic development:
Mouth/anus
In protostome development, the first opening in development, the blastopore, becomes the animal's mouth.
In deuterostome development, the blastopore becomes the animal's anus.
Cleavage
Protostomes have what is known as spiral cleavage which is determinate, meaning that the fate of the cells is determined as they are formed.
Deuterostomes have what is known as radial cleavage that is indeterminate.
Sea urchins
Sea urchins Euechinoidea have been an important model system in developmental biology since the 19th century. Their gastrulation is often considered the archetype for invertebrate deuterostomes. Experiments along with computer simulations have been used to gain knowledge about gastrulation in Sea urchin. Recent simulations found that planar cell polarity is sufficient to drive Sea urchin gastrulation.
Germ layer determination
Sea urchins exhibit highly stereotyped cleavage patterns and cell fates. Maternally deposited mRNAs establish the organizing center of the sea urchin embryo. Canonical Wnt and Delta-Notch signaling progressively segregate progressive endoderm and mesoderm.
Cell internalization
In sea urchins the first cells to internalize are the primary mesenchyme cells (PMCs), which have a skeletogenic fate, which ingress during the blastula stage. Gastrulation – internalization of the prospective endoderm and non-skeletogenic mesoderm – begins shortly thereafter with invagination and other cell rearrangements the vegetal pole, which contribute approximately 30% to the final archenteron length. The gut's final length depends on cell rearrangements within the archenteron.
Amphibians
The frog, Xenopus has been used as a model organism for the study of gastrulation.
Symmetry breaking
The sperm contributes one of the two mitotic asters needed to complete first cleavage. The sperm can enter anywhere in the animal half of the egg but its exact point of entry will break the egg's radial symmetry by organizing the cytoskeleton. Prior to first cleavage, the egg's cortex rotates relative to the internal cytoplasm by the coordinated action of microtubules, in a process known as cortical rotation. This displacement brings maternally loaded determinants of cell fate from the equatorial cytoplasm and vegetal cortex into contact, and together these determinants set up the organizer. Thus, the area on the vegetal side opposite the sperm entry point will become the organizer. Hilde Mangold, working in the lab of Hans Spemann, demonstrated that this special "organizer" of the embryo is necessary and sufficient to induce gastrulation.
Germ layer determination
Specification of endoderm depends on rearrangement of maternally deposited determinants, leading to nuclearization of Beta-catenin. Mesoderm is induced by signaling from the presumptive endoderm to cells that would otherwise become ectoderm.
Cell internalization
The dorsal lip of the blastopore is the mechanical driver of gastrulation. The first sign of invagination seen in this video of frog gastrulation is the dorsal lip.
Cell signaling
In the frog, Xenopus, one of the signals is retinoic acid (RA). RA signaling in this organism can affect the formation of the endoderm and depending on the timing of the signaling, it can determine the fate whether its pancreatic, intestinal, or respiratory. Other signals such as Wnt and BMP also play a role in respiratory fate of the Xenopus by activating cell lineage tracers.
Amniotes
Overview
In amniotes (reptiles, birds and mammals), gastrulation involves the creation of the blastopore, an opening into the archenteron. Note that the blastopore is not an opening into the blastocoel, the space within the blastula, but represents a new inpocketing that pushes the existing surfaces of the blastula together. In amniotes, gastrulation occurs in the following sequence: (1) the embryo becomes asymmetric; (2) the primitive streak forms; (3) cells from the epiblast at the primitive streak undergo an epithelial to mesenchymal transition and ingress at the primitive streak to form the germ layers.
Symmetry breaking
In preparation for gastrulation, the embryo must become asymmetric along both the proximal-distal axis and the anterior-posterior axis. The proximal-distal axis is formed when the cells of the embryo form the “egg cylinder,” which consists of the extraembryonic tissues, which give rise to structures like the placenta, at the proximal end and the epiblast at the distal end. Many signaling pathways contribute to this reorganization, including BMP, FGF, nodal, and Wnt. Visceral endoderm surrounds the epiblast. The distal visceral endoderm (DVE) migrates to the anterior portion of the embryo, forming the “anterior visceral endoderm” (AVE). This breaks anterior-posterior symmetry and is regulated by nodal signaling.
Germ layer determination
The primitive streak is formed at the beginning of gastrulation and is found at the junction between the extraembryonic tissue and the epiblast on the posterior side of the embryo and the site of ingression. Formation of the primitive streak is reliant upon nodal signaling in the Koller's sickle within the cells contributing to the primitive streak and BMP4 signaling from the extraembryonic tissue. Furthermore, Cer1 and Lefty1 restrict the primitive streak to the appropriate location by antagonizing nodal signaling. The region defined as the primitive streak continues to grow towards the distal tip.
During the early stages of development, the primitive streak is the structure that will establish bilateral symmetry, determine the site of gastrulation and initiate germ layer formation. To form the streak, reptiles, birds and mammals arrange mesenchymal cells along the prospective midline, establishing the first embryonic axis, as well as the place where cells will ingress and migrate during the process of gastrulation and germ layer formation. The primitive streak extends through this midline and creates the antero-posterior body axis, becoming the first symmetry-breaking event in the embryo, and marks the beginning of gastrulation. This process involves the ingression of mesoderm and endoderm progenitors and their migration to their ultimate position, where they will differentiate into the three germ layers. The localization of the cell adhesion and signaling molecule beta-catenin is critical to the proper formation of the organizer region that is responsible for initiating gastrulation.
Cell internalization
In order for the cells to move from the epithelium of the epiblast through the primitive streak to form a new layer, the cells must undergo an epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) to lose their epithelial characteristics, such as cell-cell adhesion. FGF signaling is necessary for proper EMT. FGFR1 is needed for the up regulation of SNAI1, which down regulates E-cadherin, causing a loss of cell adhesion. Following the EMT, the cells ingress through the primitive streak and spread out to form a new layer of cells or join existing layers. FGF8 is implicated in the process of this dispersal from the primitive streak.
Cell signaling
There are certain signals that play a role in determination and formation of the three germ layers, such as FGF, RA, and Wnt. In mammals such as mice, RA signaling can play a role in lung formation. If there isn't enough RA, there will be an error in the lung production. RA also regulates the respiratory competence in this mouse model.
Cell signaling driving gastrulation
During gastrulation, the cells are differentiated into the ectoderm or mesendoderm, which then separates into the mesoderm and endoderm. The endoderm and mesoderm form due to the nodal signaling. Nodal signaling uses ligands that are part of TGFβ family. These ligands will signal transmembrane serine/threonine kinase receptors, and this will then phosphorylate Smad2 and Smad3. This protein will then attach itself to Smad4 and relocate to the nucleus where the mesendoderm genes will begin to be transcribed. The Wnt pathway along with β-catenin plays a key role in nodal signaling and endoderm formation. Fibroblast growth factors (FGF), canonical Wnt pathway, bone morphogenetic protein (BMP), and retinoic acid (RA) are all important in the formation and development of the endoderm. FGF are important in producing the homeobox gene which regulates early anatomical development. BMP signaling plays a role in the liver and promotes hepatic fate. RA signaling also induce homeobox genes such as Hoxb1 and Hoxa5. In mice, if there is a lack in RA signaling the mouse won't develop lungs. RA signaling also has multiple uses in organ formation of the pharyngeal arches, the foregut, and hindgut.
Gastrulation in vitro
There have been a number of attempts to understand the processes of gastrulation using in vitro techniques in parallel and complementary to studies in embryos, usually though the use of 2D and 3D cell (Embryonic organoids) culture techniques using Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) or induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). These are associated with number of clear advantages in using tissue-culture based protocols, some of which include reducing the cost of associated in vivo work (thereby reducing, replacing and refining the use of animals in experiments; the 3Rs), being able to accurately apply agonists/antagonists in spatially and temporally specific manner which may be technically difficult to perform during Gastrulation. However, it is important to relate the observations in culture to the processes occurring in the embryo for context.
To illustrate this, the guided differentiation of mouse ESCs has resulted in generating primitive streak-like cells that display many of the characteristics of epiblast cells that traverse through the primitive streak (e.g. transient brachyury up regulation and the cellular changes associated with an epithelial to mesenchymal transition), and human ESCs cultured on micro patterns, treated with BMP4, can generate spatial differentiation pattern similar to the arrangement of the germ layers in the human embryo. Finally, using 3D embryoid body- and organoid-based techniques, small aggregates of mouse ESCs (Embryonic Organoids, or Gastruloids) are able to show a number of processes of early mammalian embryo development such as symmetry-breaking, polarisation of gene expression, gastrulation-like movements, axial elongation and the generation of all three embryonic axes (anteroposterior, dorsoventral and left-right axes).
See also
Blastocyst
Deuterostome
Fate mapping
Primitive knot
Invagination
Neurulation
Protostome
Vegetal rotation
References
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Gastrulation animations
Gastrulation illustrations and movies from Gastrulation: From Cells To Embryo edited by Claudio Stern
Animal developmental biology
Embryology | [
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222183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretin | Secretin | Secretin is a hormone that regulates water homeostasis throughout the body and influences the environment of the duodenum by regulating secretions in the stomach, pancreas, and liver. It is a peptide hormone produced in the S cells of the duodenum, which are located in the intestinal glands. In humans, the secretin peptide is encoded by the SCT gene.
Secretin helps regulate the pH of the duodenum by (1) inhibiting the secretion of gastric acid from the parietal cells of the stomach and (2) stimulating the production of bicarbonate from the ductal cells of the pancreas. It also stimulates bile production by the liver; the bile emulsifies dietary fats in the duodenum so that pancreatic lipase can act upon them. Meanwhile, in concert with secretin's actions, the other main hormone simultaneously issued by the duodenum, cholecystokinin (CCK), is stimulating the gallbladder to contract, delivering its stored bile for the same reason.
Prosecretin is a precursor to secretin, which is present in digestion. Secretin is stored in this unusable form, and is activated by gastric acid. This indirectly results in the neutralisation of duodenal pH, thus ensuring no damage is done to the small intestine by the aforementioned acid.
In 2007, secretin was discovered to play a role in osmoregulation by acting on the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and kidney.
Discovery
Secretin was the first hormone to be identified. In 1902, William Bayliss and Ernest Starling were studying how the nervous system controls the process of digestion. It was known that the pancreas secreted digestive juices in response to the passage of food (chyme) through the pyloric sphincter into the duodenum. They discovered (by cutting all the nerves to the pancreas in their experimental animals) that this process was not, in fact, governed by the nervous system. They determined that a substance secreted by the intestinal lining stimulates the pancreas after being transported via the bloodstream. They named this intestinal secretion secretin. Secretin was the first such "chemical messenger" identified. This type of substance is now called a hormone, a term coined by Starling in 1905.
Structure
Secretin is initially synthesized as a 120 amino acid precursor protein known as prosecretin. This precursor contains an N-terminal signal peptide, spacer, secretin itself (residues 28–54), and a 72-amino acid C-terminal peptide.
The mature secretin peptide is a linear peptide hormone, which is composed of 27 amino acids and has a molecular weight of 3055. A helix is formed in the amino acids between positions 5 and 13. The amino acids sequences of secretin have some similarities to that of glucagon, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), and gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP). Fourteen of 27 amino acids of secretin reside in the same positions as in glucagon, 7 the same as in VIP, and 10 the same as in GIP.
Secretin also has an amidated carboxyl-terminal amino acid which is valine. The sequence of amino acids in secretin is H–His-Ser-Asp-Gly-Thr-Phe-Thr-Ser-Glu-Leu-Ser-Arg-Leu-Arg-Asp-Ser-Ala-Arg-Leu-Gln-Arg-Leu-Leu-Gln-Gly-Leu-Val–NH2.
Physiology
Production and secretion
Secretin is synthesized in cytoplasmic secretory granules of S-cells, which are found mainly in the mucosa of the duodenum, and in smaller numbers in the jejunum of the small intestine.
Secretin is released into circulation and/or intestinal lumen in response to low duodenal pH that ranges between 2 and 4.5 depending on species; the acidity is due to hydrochloric acid in the chyme that enters the duodenum from the stomach via the pyloric sphincter. Also, the secretion of secretin is increased by the products of protein digestion bathing the mucosa of the upper small intestine.
Secretin release is inhibited by H2 antagonists, which reduce gastric acid secretion. As a result, if the pH in the duodenum increases above 4.5, secretin cannot be released.
Function
pH regulation
Secretin primarily functions to neutralize the pH in the duodenum, allowing digestive enzymes from the pancreas (e.g., pancreatic amylase and pancreatic lipase) to function optimally.
Secretin targets the pancreas; pancreatic centroacinar cells have secretin receptors in their plasma membrane. As secretin binds to these receptors, it stimulates adenylate cyclase activity and converts ATP to cyclic AMP. Cyclic AMP acts as second messenger in intracellular signal transduction and causes the organ to secrete a bicarbonate-rich fluid that flows into the intestine. Bicarbonate is a base that neutralizes the acid, thus establishing a pH favorable to the action of other digestive enzymes in the small intestine.
Secretin also increases water and bicarbonate secretion from duodenal Brunner's glands to buffer the incoming protons of the acidic chyme, and also reduces acid secretion by parietal cells of the stomach. It does this through at least three mechanisms: 1) By stimulating release of somatostatin, 2) By inhibiting release of gastrin in the pyloric antrum, and 3) By direct downregulation of the parietal cell acid secretory mechanics.
It counteracts blood glucose concentration spikes by triggering increased insulin release from pancreas, following oral glucose intake.
Osmoregulation
Secretin modulates water and electrolyte transport in pancreatic duct cells, liver cholangiocytes, and epididymis epithelial cells. It is found to play a role in the vasopressin-independent regulation of renal water reabsorption.
Secretin is found in the magnocellular neurons of the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus and along the neurohypophysial tract to neurohypophysis. During increased osmolality, it is released from the posterior pituitary. In the hypothalamus, it activates vasopressin release. It is also needed to carry out the central effects of angiotensin II. In the absence of secretin or its receptor in the gene knockout animals, central injection of angiotensin II was unable to stimulate water intake and vasopressin release.
It has been suggested that abnormalities in such secretin release could explain the abnormalities underlying type D syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone hypersecretion (SIADH). In these individuals, vasopressin release and response are normal, although abnormal renal expression, translocation of aquaporin 2, or both are found. It has been suggested that "Secretin as a neurosecretory hormone from the posterior pituitary, therefore, could be the long-sought vasopressin independent mechanism to solve the riddle that has puzzled clinicians and physiologists for decades."
Food intake
Secretin and its receptor are found in discrete nuclei of the hypothalamus, including the paraventricular nucleus and the arcuate nucleus, which are the primary brain sites for regulating body energy homeostasis. It was found that both central and peripheral injection of Sct reduce food intake in mouse, indicating an anorectic role of the peptide. This function of the peptide is mediated by the central melanocortin system.
Uses
Secretin is used in a diagnostic tests for pancreatic function; secretin is injected and the pancreatic output can then be imaged with magnetic resonance imaging, a noninvasive procedure, or secretions generated as a result can gathered either through an endoscope or through tubes inserted through the mouth, down into the duodenum.
A recombinant human secretin has been available since 2004 for these diagnostic purposes. There were problems with the availability of this agent from 2012 to 2015.
Research
A wave of enthusiasm for secretin as a possible treatment for autism arose in the 1990s based on a hypothetical gut-brain connection; as a result the NIH ran a series of clinical trials that showed that secretin was not effective, which brought an end to popular interest.
A high-affinity and optimized secretin receptor antagonist (Y10,c[E16,K20],I17,Cha22,R25)sec(6-27) has been designed and developed which has allowed the structural characterization of secreting inactive conformation.
See also
Secretin family
Secretin receptor
References
Further reading
External links
Overview at colostate.edu
Peptide hormones
Intestinal hormones
Digestive system
Treatment of autism
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222186 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITV%20Central | ITV Central | ITV Central, previously known as Central Independent Television and Carlton Central, ITV1 for Central England and commonly referred to as simply Central, is the Independent Television franchisee for the Midlands. It was created following the restructuring of ATV and began broadcasting on 1 January 1982. The service is owned and operated by ITV plc under the licensee of ITV Broadcasting Limited. Historically Central made a major contribution to the ITV network schedule - especially in entertainment and drama - but today its main responsibility is the regional news service.
History
During the 1970s ATV, the previous Midlands licence holder, was often criticised for its lack of regional output and character. Although ATV had purpose-built a modern colour production complex in the centre of Birmingham, most of its major productions were recorded at its main studios at Elstree in Hertfordshire, a legacy of the period when the company had also served London at the weekends until 1968. Its corporate headquarters were in Central London.
ATV attempted to address its problem in 1980 as part of its franchise reapplication; with plans for a second major facility in the area (to be based in Nottingham) and as part of the Independent Broadcasting Authority's plan for the contract to provide separate news coverage for both the East Midlands and the West Midlands. The company name would also be changed from ATV Network Limited to ATV Midlands Limited, thus reinforcing the greater regional focus. The IBA accepted ATV's assertion that ATV Midlands Ltd planned to take a more local identity and awarded the contract to ATV Midlands Ltd on the basis that further changes were to be implemented, including that the parent company, Associated Communications Corporation, would divest 49 per cent of its shareholding in ATV Midlands Ltd in an attempt to introduce local shareholders and that ATV Midlands Ltd's registered office should be within the region. To demonstrate this change of share structure the IBA insisted that ATV change its company name, to show that it was a substantially new company due to the requirement for a dual region.
Launch
The station began transmitting at 9:25 am on Friday 1 January 1982 with an authority announcement by duty announcer Su Evans, followed by an extended five-minute promo entitled Welcome to Central, voiced by Peter Wheeler, previewing the company's network and regional programming, and the schedule for the first day of transmission.
Central initially ran a sole pan-regional service from Birmingham, as a result of an industrial dispute which prevented its East Midlands service from Nottingham commencing before September 1983. The split allowed Central to serve the West Midlands with its own service from Birmingham. There were few differences between the East and West sub-regions, but each had its own news service, advertisements, and during the early years of operation, continuity. This would lead to the BBC launching its own sub-regional service for the East Midlands during the 1980s, which became a region in its own right in January 1991, with the launch of East Midlands Today.
Operations
By March 1984, the reorganisation of the company was complete, allowing pre-tax profits to double from £3.5 million to £6.5 million in its first two financial years. Shortly afterwards, Zenith Productions was established as a subsidiary of Central Television, which produced programming for the UK and the USA – most famously including the company's television adaptations of the Inspector Morse novels. The formation of Zenith Productions on April 3, 1984 allowed the company in order to exploit markets outside of the U.S. and U.K. similar to what Thames did with the Euston Films subsidiary. Central's interests in on-screen fiction saw the company buy the Korda Film Library in 1986.
In January 1987, Central acquired the European division of the American production company FilmFair for £1.5million, which went on to produce several of the station's networked children's series before being sold onto the Storm Group (Caspian) in 1991. On the same day, Central bought a stake in Starstream, who co-founded and operated The Children's Channel – the 22% stake was sold in November 1991 to United Artists Cable International (formerly a subsidiary of United Artists Theatres, the parent company now a division of Regal Entertainment Group, and the former cable company merged into TCI, the predecessor of Liberty Media). A few months later, Central became the first ITV station to broadcast its own overnight service, including short news bulletins, imported output and the long running Jobfinder service – launched in 1986 in partnership with the Manpower Services Commission – which went on to run for 17 years and won a Royal Television Society award. Central was also awarded the Queen's Award to Industry for Export twice, for selling its range of programming to over 80 countries around the world, in April 1987 and April 1989
Under its growing business portfolio, Central created CTE (Central Television Enterprises) in December 1987 and opened international bureaux in Hamburg, New York City and Sydney for sales, sponsorship and newsgathering operations. CTE, the company's key international distributor of programming, would later represent output sales for HTV, Meridian and Carlton, who took over Central in 1994.
In 1989, the company founded Zodiac Entertainment – an American entertainment firm specialising in the production and distribution of animated cartoons. Central invested $35 million in the company before deciding to discontinue its production business in 1994, leaving Zodiac to become a distributor. Also in 1989, Central established Television Sales and Marketing Services Ltd (TSMS), a joint venture with Anglia Television providing airtime sales and program sponsorships, in part to recover production costs. In March 1994, Anglia acquired Central's stake in the company to take full control with Central moving over to Carlton's sales department.
In March 1990, Central formed a partnership with The Observer newspaper to create Central Observer, making environmental themed films for British Satellite Broadcasting and terrestrial channels, with funding from the charity Television Trust for the Environment.
Central was unopposed in retaining its franchise in 1993, which allowed the company to bid only a token £2,000 a year (just over £5 a day) – though the company stressed the need to cut more jobs to become more cost efficient, as the company had agreed to pay 11% of their annual advertising revenue on top of their winning bid. The station's workforce was reduced to 1500 by 1990 and then to 900 by the start of 1992 – less than half of the payroll Central had employed in 1987.
Central also profited from the auction after Meridian, a consortium in which Central held a 20% stake, won the franchise to serve the South and South East of England. Post-1993, the company's ITV network presence was further strengthened when it took over commissioning, presentation and compliance responsibility for a number of continuing Thames Television productions, such as Count Duckula, The Tomorrow People, This Is Your Life, Des O'Connor Tonight, Mr. Bean, Minder, Strike It Lucky and Wish You Were Here.
By April 1993, with the added increase of 8.8% in advertising revenues to £250 million and its income from programme sales rising to £83.4 million, Central became the most successful ITV company after the start of the new franchises.
Ownership and takeover
Although the IBA required 49% of the new station to be owned locally by companies and individuals, the take-up was nowhere near as expected, leaving companies outside the region to buy shares including DC Thomson (15%), Ladbrokes (10%), Pergamon (9%) and British Rail (2%).
Shortly after the station began broadcasting, Australian entrepreneur Robert Holmes à Court – via his Bell Group – started the process of acquiring ACC, but was halted by the IBA, since the law prohibited foreign companies from controlling British television companies. By March, a rival bid from Gerald Ronson's Heron Corporation also entered the race to takeover ACC. In April 1982, ACC was taken-over by Robert Holmes à Court, with the IBA approving the deal in June on condition that ACC's 51 percent stake in Central be put in trust, thus divesting ACC of all voting power until it had reduced its shares in the broadcaster.
By January 1983, 167 staff had bought shares in the station for a £1 each as part of an innovative shareholding scheme to help offload shares to local people in the Central region. In May 1983, ACC finally sold off its stake in Central – Sears Holdings purchased 20% while Ladbrokes and DC Thomson also increased their stakes to 20% each, and Pergamon took its ownership to 12.5%, with 27.5% being held by single stakeholders.
In March 1987, Carlton Communications acquired 20 per cent of Central from Ladbrokes for £30million which finally gave Carlton its first stake in a terrestrial broadcasting company, after a bid to buy Thames Television was blocked by the IBA two years beforehand. In January 1994 Central was bought in its entirety by Carlton for £750 million The new owners later restructured the company further by combining Central's operations into one and moving its Birmingham studios to a smaller complex elsewhere in the city centre. Network programmes were now classed as Carlton UK Productions and around 140 jobs were lost from the downgraded Birmingham operation.
On 6 September 1999, the station was rebranded on-air as Carlton Central, though the registered company name remained Central Independent Television Limited. The new identity, produced by Lambie-Nairn was also used on Central's sister stations in the London and Carlton Westcountry regions. Only the "Carlton" name was used on air, however Central's regional news programmes retained the "Central" brand. With the merger of Carlton and Granada on 2 February 2004, the brand became ITV1 Central. It is currently owned by ITV plc and on 29 December 2006, the registered company name was changed from Central Independent Television Ltd to ITV Central Ltd. This company is, along with most other regional companies owned by ITV plc, listed on www.companieshouse.gov.uk as a "Dormant company".
Incidents
On 5 April 2005, it was revealed ITV Central could be fined by regulator Ofcom for broadcasting a pre-recorded late Central News bulletin for the East Midlands. The regulator later permitted ITV to pre-record some regional news bulletins shortly before transmission.
On 15 July 2008, the station was fined £25,000 for contempt of court.
Studios
Initially, Central inherited ATV's Broad Street studios, ATV Centre, which was renamed Central House when the contractor changed its name – they were retained as Central's headquarters, West Midlands studios and transmission facilities until 1997. Upon winning the franchise, Central decided to construct new studios for its East sub-region, based in Lenton Lane, Nottingham – the new complex was to be called 'East Midlands Television centre'. Up until the studios were opened, Central's East Midlands operations were based on an industrial estate at Giltbrook, near Eastwood on the outskirts of Nottingham. A temporary radio link from Giltbrook to the Waltham transmitter via BT Bowman/Sheriff (Nottingham) Telephone Exchange provided the contribution feed into the studio/transmission network. The Nottingham studios were to be staffed by employees originally based at Elstree (in the studio complex that became BBC Elstree), which led to many problems due to the relocation, including industrial action, which resulted in a long delay for the promised separate news service for the East Midlands until September 1983.
The Nottingham studio complex finally opened in January 1984, followed by an official opening by the Duke of Edinburgh on 2 March 1984 Five years later, Central opened a computerized news centre in Abingdon for the launch of its third sub-region, serving the South Midlands. Central News South was broadcast from the Abingdon studios, supplemented by news bureaux in Aylesbury, Gloucester and Swindon.
The Broad Street studios in Birmingham – which were rented – came under Central's ownership in November 1991, by which time, its network and large scale programming capability had been transferred to Nottingham, scaling down the Birmingham operation to providing Central News West, regional programming and presentation operations, including those for CITV. In 1994, Central's new owners Carlton acquired land on nearby Gas Street to begin work on building a new, smaller digital studio complex. The new centre was completed in 1997, when Central West's regional news department moved from its Broad Street base, which was eventually demolished during the spring of 2015 to make way for the new 'Arena Central' development." Having been one of the first fully computerised news programmes, Central News South was again a pioneer of new technology when, in the Spring of 2001, state-of-the-art Quantel digital video servers and edit suites were installed, along with a complete re-fit of camera and VTR equipment, placing Central South at the forefront of digital news-gathering in regional news.
In February 2004, ITV plc announced plans to close and sell the Lenton Lane production centre in Nottingham with over 350 jobs being axed in the process Following the closure of the studios, a new news-gathering centre was established in the city, but production and transmission of Central News East moved to the Birmingham studio in Spring 2005. The former studio complex is now part of the University of Nottingham and is known as 'King's Meadow Campus'. It still maintains one Studio (Studio 7), and this is rented out to television and film companies, generating income for the university. In October 2004, ITV plc closed Central's presentation/transmission department and moved transmission to the Northern Transmission Centre in Leeds. Although there was heavy opposition, the role of presentation and transmission at Birmingham had been significantly reduced after network presentation was centralised to LNN in London in 2002 and so there was an inevitability that this function would be moved out. CITV (Children's ITV), which had been presented by Central since 1983, was also re-homed to Granada's studios in Manchester, with all content pre-recorded and with out-of vision presentation.
A documentary about the Broad Street studios was later released on DVD in October 2011. Entitled 'From ATVLand in Colour' (referring to the nickname used on Tiswas, and the building being purpose-built by ATV for colour broadcasting), the documentary featured presenters, actors, announcers and behind-the-scenes staff talking about their time working in the studios, and the programmes that were made there by Central, and predecessor ATV. The five-part documentary, produced by ATVLAND Productions, was followed up in November 2012 by From Headlines to Tight Lines, a DVD on the history of the regional news magazine programme ATV Today.
ITV have since also sold the Gas Street office building to Cube Real Estate, a commercial property developer, which has refurbished the interior of the building. While Central maintains office space and a single ground floor studio, the other studio and floors are available to rent as office space. The property is marketed as '22 Gas Street'.
Sub-regions
Central currently operates two sub-regions:
Central West
Central East – broadcast from Birmingham with a newsgathering centre based in Nottingham.
Initially, as a result of a long-running industrial dispute, Central broadcast a single pan-regional news service from Birmingham. The East Midlands service of news, local advertisements and presentation was launched in September 1983, leaving the Birmingham-based service to adopt its focus on the rest of the region. In January 1989, Central launched a third sub-region for the South Midlands (the Oxford and Ridge Hill transmitters previously served by Central West), carrying its own news service and local advertisements.
The Central South region was disbanded in December 2006 after 17 years in operation – with the eastern half of the area merging with Meridian's North region to form an ITV Thames Valley region. At the same time, ITV West's broadcast footprint was expanded to cover North Gloucestershire from the West's Bristol studios, while Herefordshire re-joined Central News West from Birmingham. While all Thames Valley news programmes were broadcast from Meridian's studios in Whiteley in Hampshire, Central's former Abingdon base was retained as a newsgathering centre.
Further changes in February 2009 saw the end of wholly separate programmes for Central's East and West sub-regions. The pan-regional service included a short six-minute opt out within the 6 pm programme and separate late night bulletins for the two areas. In the former Central South area, ITV's Thames Valley operations were fully merged with those in Meridian's South sub-region and its former territory – including Oxfordshire, Swindon and Buckinghamshire – was formally transferred to the Meridian region when the regional licence was renewed in 2014.
On 23 July 2013, proposals for a more localised Channel 3 news service were approved by Ofcom – ITV News Central extended the East and West opt-out services from six minutes to twenty minutes during the half-hour 6 pm programme, in addition to separate lunchtime and weekend bulletins for the two sub-regions. In the former Thames Valley region, plans were approved for a ten-minute opt out within the 6 pm edition of ITV News Meridian for the south of England.
Identity
Globe: 1982–85
Upon launch, Central's on screen presentation featured a sphere (which resembled a moon or a total eclipse) which would burst open with light, before reforming, accompanied by a light jingle, but was dropped and revised during 1983, so the moon ident would just appear of darkness with the colour spectrum appearing to its left hand side. This ident was dropped locally in 1985, but remained on the front and end of networked programmes until August 1988.
Although the symbol is well known as the "globe", Russ J Graham of Transdiffusion said the ident passes through several stages that make the viewer wonder "what is it?", before "revealing nothing", noting he thought of it as an egg, but noted it was apparently based on a UFO hovering over the Midlands.
Cake: 1985–98
Around the end of August 1985, a new presentation package was launched, which saw the moon redesigned into a three-dimensional shape. It was initially used solely for regional continuity purposes. It did not appear as a pre-programme front ident on network programming from Central, however, it having only been adopted for branding network programmes in April 1988, it began to be used as one of only a few animated end captions in ITV’s history, a few months after pre-programme ITV idents were dropped. The new logo was a circle in shape, but with a curved line running down the left hand side and five horizontal lines dividing the sphere up into twelve segments. The left six segments were coloured red, orange, yellow, green, blue and purple and the whole symbol was computer animated. The symbol, nicknamed "The Aspirin", or more popularly The Cake, would have a variety of form ups, mainly involved with bringing the segments together or applying the colour to the symbol. The soundtrack was the same composition, but played in a variety of different ways. On 25 April 1987, a new promotional package was introduced with a new slogan Let's Get Together.
Central also adopted the ITV 1989 generic look as another ident to use alongside the Cake. The generic ident was used in its raw form, with altered music, and as part of another ident giving greater emphasis to the cake but was dropped a year later. Between 1985 and 1997, well over 10,000 different sequences were made by Central's Presentation team in Birmingham, including break bumpers, idents, "next" animations and trail designs, which give the channel a wider range of presentation than any other British television station. The last batch of Cake idents to be created was introduced on 1 January 1997, in which the cake became more abstract with both more advanced computer graphics used and more live action models & sequences (including a physical neon sign version).
Central: 1998–99
From January 1998 the channel started to be called ‘Central ITV’ during continuity announcements although on screen it was just branded ‘Central’ , trailers for programmes were now branded with the ITV logo, The cake lasted 13 years before being replaced on 20 April 1998, by adapting a version of the idents used by Carlton who had been using since 25 November 1996. This featured the name Central in the font Gill Sans in centre screen against a bright and colourful background. The idents featured a 2D animation of either the letters interacting in some way, a letter being replaced with another object, or the word being part of a larger scene, such as a cross word of place names in the region. The look was discontinued on 5 September 1999.
Carlton: 1999–2002
Central adopted the Carlton 'Star' branding on 6 September 1999, shortly before much of the network adopted the second generic look under the theme of 'Hearts'. The Carlton idents featured an opening film featuring a heart at the end, before a star shaped light came from the heart, engulfing the screen, and showing the endboard, which featured a background of spinning stars in different colours with the brand name centre screen above an ITV logo. The ident itself technically was praised, however the presentational package received complaints and criticisms due to the fact that the Central brand was replaced by the Carlton brand. These idents only featured the Carlton name on screen but the announcements that featured with idents used the name "Carlton for the Central Region" and separate continuity was retained.
ITV Central
On 11 August 2001, the ITV1 brand was formed in which replaced the 'ITV' on the Carlton idents. As the ITV1 idents began to be used on their own more and more, and Carlton and Granada owned all the franchises in England and Wales, Carlton and Granada decided to axe regional branding, and replace it with a full-time ITV1 identity. Before regional programmes, the logo 'ITV1 Carlton' was used, until late 2003, when they were known as 'ITV1 for Central England'. The regional idents were gradually phased out, and by 2006, on most days, the only regional branding was for the regional news. In November 2006, the Central name was retired, when regional idents were axed. It would then be known as just ITV1 at all times.
The Carlton brand continued to be seen on production captions until February 2004, with the caption A Carlton Production or A Carlton Production for Central England being used. This was replaced, following the merger of Granada plc and Carlton Communications to form ITV plc, with an ITV regional logo featuring the word Central below the ITV logo with the caption ‘An ITV Production’ Today, the majority of productions have been moved away from the Midlands region, and any productions are accredited to ITV Studios. On 14 January 2013, the station's on-air identity reverted to ITV, along with all other ITV plc-owned franchises.
Programmes
Taking over from ATV as one of the 'Big Five' of ITV companies, Central performed strongly on networked output, carrying on several ATV shows, most notably the soap-opera Crossroads and game shows including Bullseye and Family Fortunes. Original programming included comedy series such as Auf Wiedersehen, Pet (more recently revived by the BBC) and the multi award-winning Spitting Image, drama series Boon and game shows such as The Price is Right and Blockbusters.
Perhaps the station's most successful drama title was its adaptations of the Inspector Morse novels, produced by its subsidiary Zenith Productions. Central also produced the critically acclaimed film Walter – starring Ian McKellen – for Channel 4's first night of transmission. Less successful was one of Central's first networked contributions – the Tiswas spin-off O.T.T., which drew high viewing figures but also heavy criticism for its racy adult content. It was axed after one series and replaced by a low-budget sequel entitled Saturday Stayback. The company also attracted ire with the 1987 sitcom Hardwicke House (starring Roy Kinnear) about an anarchic comprehensive school. The first two episodes received so much public condemnation that the remainder were never transmitted.
Central also formed numerous international partnerships to produce major drama and documentary series – including Legacy of Civilization with Maryland Public Television, Nuclear Age with WGBH-TV (another key PBS affiliate) and NHK and Edens Lost (1989) with ABC.
In the field of news and current affairs, Central had enhanced and bettered on ATV's reputation as a regional news provider by becoming the first British television station to offer three distinct services for different parts of the transmission area. It was also a major contributor to current affairs locally and nationally – from its documentary output such as Viewpoint, 30 Minutes and England Their England to more populist series, including The Cook Report and the long-running debate show Central Weekend, which ran for 15 years in the Midlands on Friday nights. The programme was also the first on British television to examine seriously the AIDS virus, leading to a drama series on the topic, called Intimate Contact. Central also first reported on the Ethiopian famine in July 1984 with the documentary Seeds of Despair. In the same year, the company completed production on one of its more controversial programmes Question of Leadership, a four-part series directed by Ken Loach about trade unions' responses to government actions. The IBA was concerned it breached balance guidelines, while the unions criticised it as defamatory. Even after several re-edits, the series was never transmitted, which was described as political censorship.
Central also played a major role in the ITV network's infrastructure – not only producing children's and schools programming, but also providing scheduling and presentation services with its dedicated Children's ITV and ITV Schools' strands – the latter moving to Channel 4 in 1987.
With the creation of a dedicated ITV Sport network unit, Central also played a significant part in networked sports output under the leadership of Gary Newbon. The station produced nearly all of ITV's football coverage for over a decade – including the FA Cup, UEFA Champions' League, the FIFA World Cup, the UEFA European Championship and Premier League highlights, as well as extensive live regional coverage of Football League matches involving Midlands clubs in The Central Match. The station also played its part in coverage of key European athletics meetings and world championship boxing with The Big Fight Live as a long-standing Saturday night fixture. In 2004, the department was moved to London and merged with the London News Network's operations to form ITV Sport Productions.
Children's
The Adventures of Grady Greenspace (1994-1995)
The Adventures of Portland Bill (1983, co-produced with Filmfair)
Astro Farm (1992–96, co-produced with FilmFair/David Yates)
Bangers and Mash (1989, co-produced with Filmfair)
Bernard's Watch (1997–2005)
Bill the Minder (1986, co-produced with Bevanfield Films)
The Blunders (1986, co-produced with Filmfair)
Dramarama (1983–89, Contributions)
The Dreamstone (1990–95, co-produced with Filmfair)
Emu's World (1982–84)
Emu's All Live Pink Windmill Show (1984–86)
Emu's Wide World (1987–88)
EMU-TV (1989)
Eye TV (1995–2000)
Fox Tales (1985, co-produced with Pullover Productions)
From the Top (1985–86)
The Gingerbread Man (1992, co-produced with FilmFair/David Yates)
Grotbags (1991–93)
Harry's Mad (1993–96)
Huxley Pig (1989, co-produced with FilmFair)
The Legends of Treasure Island (1993–95, co-produced with FilmFair)
Let's Pretend! (1982–88)
The Little Green Man (1985, co-produced with Pentagon Motion Pictures)
Luna
Molly's Gang (1994, co-produced with Martins Gates)
Moschops (1983, co-produced with Filmfair)
The Moomins (1983–85, co-produced with Filmfair)
Murphy's Mob (1982–85)
Nellie the Elephant (1990, co-produced with FilmFair)
Orm and Cheep (1984–87, co-produced with Tony Martin/Orm and Cheep Enterprises Ltd.)
Out of Sight (1996–98)
Paddington Bear (1989–90, co-produced with Hanna-Barbera)
Palace Hill (1988–91)
Playbox (1987–92, co-produced with Ragdoll Productions)
The Pondles (1987, co-produced with Chatsworth Television/Pondle Promotion Company)
Potamus Park (1996–99, co-produced with Zoo Gang Productions)
Press Gang (1989–93)
Professor Lobster (1987, co-produced with Mirageland Productions)
Pullover (1982, co-produced with Pullover Productions/ITC Entertainment)
The Ratties (1987–88, co-produced with Ratties, Ltd./F-Productions)
Rocky and the Dodos (1998–99, co-produced with Cosgrove Hall Productions)
Rod 'n' Emu (1991, co-produced with Filmfair)
Rosie and Jim (1990–2000, co-produced with Ragdoll Productions)
The Saturday Show (1982–84)
The Saturday Starship (1984)
Scratchy & Co. (1995–98, co-produced with Mentorn)
Stanley's Dragon (1994)
Starting Out (1982–92, previously produced by ATV)
Stories of the Sylvanian Families (1988, co-produced with Filmfair)
Star Fleet (1982)
Tales from Fat Tulip's Garden (1985–87)
Tales from the Poop Deck (1992, co-produced with Talkback Productions)
Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends (1984–1986, co-produced with Clearwater Features and Britt Allcroft Ltd)
Tiswas (1982, previously produced by ATV)
Tots TV (1993–98, co-produced with Ragdoll Productions)
Towser (1984; co-produced with King Rollo Films)
Wail of the Banshee (1992)
What-a-Mess (1990, co-produced with Bevanfield Films)
What's Happening? (1982–85)
Windfalls (1989, co-produced with FilmFair)
The Winjin Pom (1991, co-produced with Spitting Image Productions)
Wolves, Witches and Giants (1995–98, co-produced with Honeycomb Animation)
Woof! (1989–97)
Your Mother Wouldn't Like It (1985–88)
Drama
A Kind of Alaska (1984)
Annika (1984)
Auf Wiedersehen, Pet (1983–86, co-produced with Witzend)
The Blackheath Poisonings (1992)
Boon (1986–92; 1995)
The Bretts (1987–89)
Cadfael (1994–98)
Chancer (1990–91)
Coming of Age (1986)
Coming Through (1985)
Connie (1985)
Crossroads (1982–88 & 2001–03, previously produced by ATV)
Dangerous Lady (1995)
Dangerous Women (1992 co-produced with Grundy)
Drumbeat (1999)
Edens Lost (1989)
Faith (1994)
Family Pride (1991–92)
The Free Frenchman (1989)
The Grasscutter (1989)
The Guilty (1992)
Hard Cases (1988–89)
Heart of the High Country (1985)
Home Front (1983)
Inspector Morse (1987–2000, co-produced with Zenith)
Intimate Contact (1987)
The Jump (1998)
Kavanagh QC (1995–2001)
Kennedy (1983)
The Last Place on Earth (1985)
Muck and Brass (1982)
Peak Practice (1993–2002)
Picking Up the Pieces (1998)
On the Line (1982)
The One Game (1988)
The Other Side of Paradise (1992, co-produced with Grundy)
Sapphire & Steel (1982, previously produced by ATV)
Saracen (1989)
Seekers (1993)
Sharpe (1993–97)
Soldier Soldier (1991–97)
Stanley and the Women (1991)
Tanamera – Lion of Singapore (1989, co-produced with Grundy)
Tales of Sherwood Forest (1989)
Tales out of School (1983)
TECX (1990)
Thief Takers (1995–97)
The Shell Seekers (1989)
The Waiting Time (1999)
The Country Diary of an Edwardian Lady (1984)
The Widowmaker (1990)
The Woman in Black (1989)
When the Whales Came (1989, co-produced with Golden Swan)
Unnatural Causes (1986)
Yestersday's Dreams (1987)
Comedy
A Kind of Living (1988–90)
About Face (1989–91)
All Cricket and Wellies (1986)
All in the Game (1993)
And There's More (1985–88)
Astronauts (1982–83, previously produced by ATV)
Barbara (1999–2003)
Bushell on the Box (1996)
The Cabbage Patch (1983)
Cool Head (1991)
Comedy Firsts (1995)
Constant Hot Water (1986)
Cue Gary (1987)
Cuffy (1983)
Des O'Connor Tonight (1993–99)
Dead Ernest (1982)
Eh Brian! It's a Whopper (1984)
Father Charlie (1982)
Freddie Starr (1993–98)
Gas Street (1988)
Girls on Top (1985–86)
Gone to the Dogs/Gone to Seed (1991–92)
Good Night And God Bless (1983)
Hardwicke House (1987)
I Thought You'd Gone (1984)
The Joe Longthorne Show (1988–91)
Just a Gigolo (1993)
Les Girls (1988)
Married for Life (1996)
Mike Reids, Mates and Music (1984)
Mog (1985–86)
Mr. Bean (1993-1995, previously produced by Thames Television)
New Faces (1986–88)
The Nineteenth Hole (1989)
The Old Boy Network (1992)
The Other 'Arf (1982–84, previously produced by ATV)
Outside Edge (1994–96)
O.T.T. (1982)
Paul Merton in Galton and Simpson's... (1996–97)
Paul Squire, Esq/PS It's Paul Squire (1983)
Pull the Other One (1984)
Roll Over Beethoven (1985)
Saturday Stayback (1983)
Saturday Royal (1983)
Spitting Image (1984–96)
Starburst (1982–83, previously produced by ATV)
Shine on Harvey Moon (1982–85, co-produced with Witzend)
Tom Jones: The Right Time (1992)
Troubles and Strife (1985–86)
Valentine Park (1987–88)
Very Big Very Soon (1991)
The Upper Hand (1990–1996)
Young at Heart (1982, previously produced by ATV)
Young, Gifted and Broke (1989)
Wayne Dobson- A Kind of Magic (1990–92)
Documentaries and features
24 Hours (1996–99)
30 Minutes (1999–2004)
The Album Show (1993–94)
Ancient Lives (1984, for Channel 4)
Apollo 13 to the Edge and the Back (1993, co-production with WGBH-TV)
Asian Eye (1993–2001)
Burp! Pepsi v. Coke in the Ice-Cold War (1984)
Central Lobby (1983–2006) (2015–)
Central News (1982–)
Central Sport
Central Week (1986)
Central Weekend (1986–2001)
The Cook Report (1987–99)
Chicken Ranch (1982)
Death of a Nation: The Timor Conspiracy (1994)
Eastern Mix (1996–2001)
Encounter (1983–93)
Eco (1984–87)
England Their England (1978–88)
Find a Family (1989–91)
First Cut (1994–2004)
Gardening Time (1983–95)
Getting On (1982–87)
God, the Universe and Everything Else (1988)
Heart of the Country (1989–2006)
Here and Now (1986–89)
Home Town (1988–90)
It's Your Shout (1994–2003)
Jesus 2000 (2000)
Legacy of Civilization (1989)
Link (1982–99)
Look Good, Feel Great (1987)
Loved Ones (1994)
Network First (1994–97, Contributions)
Not Fade Away (1996–98)
N'Division (1982)
The Nuclear Age (1988)
On the Ball (1998–2004)
Our House (1996–2004)
Premiere (1996–98)
The Price of Progress (1987)
Pulling Power (1997–2005)
Respect (1995)
Royal International Air Tattoo (1994–2002)
Seeds of Despair (1984)
Seeds of Hope (1985–86)
Sob Siters (1989)
Sky High (2001–07)
Travel Trails (1993–1995)
The Night the Bombs went off (1999)
The Struggle for Democracy (1990, co-production with Canadian Broadcasting Corporation)
The Tuesday Special (1991–97)
The Other Americas (1992, co-production with WGBH-TV)
Viewpoint (1986–93)
Vietnam (1983, co-production with WGBH-TV)
Workout (1986)
Xpress (1995)
Game shows
The $64,000 Question (1990–93)
Anything for Money (1991–92, for Sky 1)
Blockbusters (1983–93; 1994–95 for Sky 1)
Bob's Your Uncle (1991–92)
Body Heat (1994–96)
Bullseye (1982–95, previously produced by ATV)
Celebrity Squares (1993–97, co-produced with Grundy, previously produced by ATV)
Dale's Supermarket Sweep (1993–2001, co-produced with Talbot Television, Fremantle Productions (UK))
Family Fortunes (1982–85; 1987–2002, previously produced by ATV)
Home Run (1990s)
Lingo (1987–88)
Mida's Touch (1995–96, co-produced with Grundy)
The Price is Right (1984–88, Sky 1 version 1989)
Sporting Triangles (1987–90)
Steal (1990)
Swot or Wot? (1994–95)
See also
Murder of Tracey Turner – when in 1994 ITV Central broadcast a reconstruction of a recent murder, it incited the killer Alun Kyte to go out and commit the murder of Turner
References
External links
Carlton Television
Central
Television channels and stations established in 1982
Television stations in Birmingham, West Midlands | [
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222192 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie%20Juliette%20Louvet | Marie Juliette Louvet | Marie Juliette Louvet (9 May 1867 – 24 September 1930) was the lover of the unmarried Prince Louis II of Monaco and the mother of his only child, Princess Charlotte of Monaco.
Known as Juliette, Louvet was the daughter of Jacques Henri Louvet (18301910) and his first wife, Joséphine Elmire Piedefer (18281871).
She married the photographer Achille Delmaet, but they divorced in 1893. They had two children, Georges and Marguerite. Juliette Delmaet became an entertainer of sorts, reportedly a cabaret singer. In 1897, she was a hostess in a Montmartre nightclub when she met Prince Louis of Monaco. She gave birth to their daughter, Charlotte, in Constantine, French Algeria, in 1898, where Louis served in the French Army with a regiment of Chasseurs d'Afrique (African Light Horse), and where she justified her presence at the military barracks as a laundress. Through her daughter she is the maternal grandmother of Rainier III, Prince of Monaco and Princess Antoinette, Baroness of Massy.
Notes
1867 births
1930 deaths
People from Seine-Maritime
House of Grimaldi
Royal mistresses
Cabaret singers | [
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222194 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossroads%20Charter%20Academy | Crossroads Charter Academy | Crossroads Charter Academy is a K-12 charter school located in Big Rapids, Michigan in Mecosta County.
History
Founded as a K–8 school in 1998, classes met in the former Big Rapids High School building on North State Street.
In 1999, the school added a ninth grade level and continued adding one grade level per year. In August 2002, Crossroads became a K–12 school. In that same year, the school began construction of its new high school building across West Spruce Street. Construction was completed in February 2003, and high school classes moved to that building afterward.
Academics
Students who earn satisfactory scores on the Michigan Educational Assessment Program examination and have a satisfactory grade point average may dual enrol at Ferris State University for credit in place of usual high school courses. Students may also attend the career center or the Math and Science Center, both administered by the Mecosta-Osceola Intermediate School District.
Athletics
The school participates in several sports, including men's soccer, co-ed cross-country track, women's basketball, men's basketball, women's volleyball, women's soccer, co-ed track, and men's baseball. In 2007, the school added football.
Crossroads Charter Academy was distinguished as the first charter school in Michigan to win a state sports championship when the girls' cross country team won the state finals in 2004. The team won the championship again in 2005. In 2011, the school earned its third state championship trophy when the Boys Track and Field team tied for first place.
External links
Crossroads Charter Academy website
References
Public high schools in Michigan
Public middle schools in Michigan
Public elementary schools in Michigan
Schools in Mecosta County, Michigan
Educational institutions established in 1998
Charter schools in Michigan
1998 establishments in Michigan | [
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222198 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhapsody%20on%20a%20Theme%20of%20Paganini | Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini | The Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini, Op. 43, (, Rapsodiya na temu Paganini) is a concertante work written by Sergei Rachmaninoff for piano and orchestra, closely resembling a piano concerto, all in a single movement. Rachmaninoff wrote the work at his summer home, the Villa Senar in Switzerland, according to the score, from 3 July to 18 August 1934. Rachmaninoff himself, a noted performer of his own works, played the piano part at the piece's premiere on 7 November 1934, at the Lyric Opera House in Baltimore, Maryland, with the Philadelphia Orchestra conducted by Leopold Stokowski. Rachmaninoff, Stokowski, and the Philadelphia Orchestra made the first recording, on 24 December 1934, at RCA Victor's Trinity Church Studio in Camden, New Jersey. The English premiere on 7 March 1935 at Manchester Free Trade Hall also featured Rachmaninoff with The Hallé under Nikolai Malko.
Instrumentation
The piece is scored for piano and orchestra: piccolo, 2 flutes, 2 oboes, English horn, 2 clarinets in B, 2 bassoons, 4 horns in F, 2 trumpets in C, 3 trombones, tuba, timpani, triangle, snare drum, cymbals, bass drum, glockenspiel, harp and strings.
Structure
The piece is a set of 24 variations on the twenty-fourth and last of Niccolò Paganini's Caprices for solo violin, which has inspired works by several composers. The whole composition takes about 22–24 minutes to perform. All variations are in A minor except where noted.
Section 1:
Introduction: Allegro vivace
Variation 1: (Precedente)
Theme: L'istesso tempo
Variation 2: L'istesso tempo
Variation 3: L'istesso tempo
Variation 4: Più vivo
Variation 5: Tempo precedente
Variation 6: L'istesso tempo
Variation 7: Meno mosso, a tempo moderato
Variation 8: Tempo I
Variation 9: L'istesso tempo
Variation 10: L'istesso tempo
Section 2:
Variation 11: Moderato
Variation 12: Tempo di minuetto (D minor)
Variation 13: Allegro (D minor)
Variation 14: L'istesso tempo (F major)
Variation 15: Più vivo scherzando (F major)
Variation 16: Allegretto (B minor)
Variation 17: (Allegretto) (B minor)
Variation 18: Andante cantabile (D major)
Section 3:
Variation 19: A tempo vivace
Variation 20: Un poco più vivo
Variation 21: Un poco più vivo
Variation 22: Marziale. Un poco più vivo (Alla breve)
Variation 23: L'istesso tempo
Variation 24: A tempo un poco meno mosso (A minor → A major)
Although Rachmaninoff's work is performed in one stretch without breaks, it can be divided into three sections, as shown above. These correspond to the three movements of a concerto: up to variation 10 corresponds to the first movement, variations 11 to 18 are the equivalent of a slow movement, and the remaining variations make a finale.
Analysis
After a brief introduction, the first variation is played before the theme. Paganini's theme is stated on strings with the piano picking out salient notes, after the first variation. Rachmaninoff likely got the idea of having a variation before the theme from the finale of Beethoven's Eroica symphony. Variations II to VI recombine elements of the theme. The pauses and rhetorical flourishes for the piano in variation VI herald a change of tempo and tone. The piano next gravely intones the Dies Irae, the "day of wrath" plainchant from the medieval Mass of the Dead, while the orchestra accompanies with a slower version of the opening motif of the Paganini theme. The piece is one of several by Rachmaninoff to quote the Dies Irae plainchant melody.
The slow 18th variation is by far the best known, and it is often included on classical music compilations without the rest of the work. It is based on an inversion of the melody of Paganini's theme. In other words, the A minor Paganini theme is literally played "upside down" in D major, with a few other changes. Rachmaninoff himself recognized the appeal of this variation, saying "This one is for my agent."
The 24th variation is more playful in tone than most of the other variations, ending with a glissando sweep of the keyboard, before quoting the original theme in the last bar. Due to the speed and the large leaps on the piano, the 24th and last variation of the rhapsody presents considerable technical difficulty for the pianist. Shortly before the world première performance, Rachmaninoff – a sufferer of performance anxiety – confessed trepidation over his ability to play it. Upon the suggestion of his friend Benno Moiseiwitsch, Rachmaninoff broke his usual rule against drinking alcohol and had a glass of crème de menthe to steady his nerves, which he reputedly kept beneath the piano. His performance was a spectacular success, and prior to every subsequent performance of the Rhapsody, he drank crème de menthe. This led to Rachmaninoff nicknaming the twenty-fourth the "Crème de Menthe Variation".
Balletic interpretations
In 1939, Michel Fokine wrote to Rachmaninoff from Auckland, New Zealand, where he was touring, seeking the composer's approval to use Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini for his ballet Paganini, which he had almost finished choreographing. Fokine wanted to make a minor change to the score, involving the reuse of 12 earlier measures as a more theatrically effective introduction to the 18th Variation, which he wanted to play in the key of A major, rather than D major. Rachmaninoff agreed to the extra measures, although he said A major would not work and asked that the 18th Variation be played in D major, to provide greater tension. He also wondered why Niccolò Paganini had been turned into a guitar player in Fokine's scenario, but did not object. Paganini was premiered in 1939 by The Royal Ballet at the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden, London. The ballet was a success, which pleased Rachmaninoff, and he wrote his Symphonic Dances in 1940 with Fokine in mind. He played the piano version for Fokine, but both died before the idea got any further.
The Rhapsody has also been used for ballets by Leonid Lavrovsky (Bolshoi Ballet, Moscow, 1960), Frederick Ashton (Royal Ballet, London, 1980), and Ivo van Zwieten.
Selected recordings
Popular culture
The 18th variation, by far the most popular, has been used in various movie and TV show soundtracks to different degrees. This includes:
The Story of Three Loves (1953)
Somewhere in Time (1980 film)
Singapore Sling (1990 film)
Dead Again (1991)
Groundhog Day (1993 film)
Ronin (1998 film)
The Byron Janis Story (2010 TV movie documentary)
Nikolina and Tomislav (2013 short)
Alive Inside: A Story of Music and Memory (2014 documentary)
The Good Wife (2015)
The pop song "If I Had You" by The Korgis uses the melody fragment from the 18th variation.
The video game Gran Turismo 6 uses it as the intro theme.
References
External links
Rachmaninoff's Works for Piano and Orchestra An analysis of Rachmaninoff's works for piano and orchestra, including the Piano Concertos and the Paganini Rhapsody
The BBC's Discovering Music, which includes a link to a .ram (for the RealNetworks audio player) file discussing the piece
1934 compositions
Compositions by Sergei Rachmaninoff
Compositions for piano and orchestra
Composer tributes (classical music)
Rachmaninoff
Variations
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222199 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess%20Antoinette%2C%20Baroness%20of%20Massy | Princess Antoinette, Baroness of Massy | Princess Antoinette, Baroness of Massy (Antoinette Louise Alberte Suzanne Grimaldi; 28 December 1920 – 18 March 2011) was a member of the princely family of Monaco. She was the elder sister of Prince Rainier III. Her parents were Count Pierre de Polignac and Princess Charlotte, Duchess of Valentinois.
She was born in Paris, of French and Monegasque ancestry.
Children
Princess Antoinette had a long-term liaison with Alexandre-Athenase Noghès, a Monegasque-born attorney and international tennis champion, in the mid-1940s. The couple had three children born out-of-wedlock who were legitimated by their parents' eventual marriage and, henceforth, included in the line of succession to the Monegasque Throne until the death of Antoinette's brother, Prince Rainier III, in 2005; Elizabeth Ann de Massy (1947–2020), Christian Louis de Massy (born 1949), and Christine Alix de Massy (1951–1989).
Marriages
Princess Antoinette and Alexandre-Athenase Noghès subsequently married at the Monaco consulate in Genoa on 4 December 1951 (her first, his second) and divorced in 1954.On 15 November 1951, Antoinette was created Baroness of Massy (Baronne de Massy). Her children (Elizabeth-Ann, Christian-Louis and Christine-Alix) were named Grimaldi at birth. They subsequently had their names changed to de Massy. He claim the title of Baron through their mother, but he is not entitled to it.
She married her second husband, Dr. Jean-Charles Rey (Monaco, 22 October 1914 – Monaco, 17 September 1994), president of the Conseil National, the Parlement de Monaco in The Hague on 2 December 1961 and they divorced in 1974.
Her third and last husband was John Brian Gilpin (Southsea, Hampshire, 10 February 1930 – London, 5 September 1983), a British ballet dancer, whom she married in Monaco on 28 July 1983. He died suddenly six weeks later.
Life account
Having divorced Noghès, she and her lover Jean-Charles Rey hatched a plan to depose her brother Rainier III, Prince of Monaco, and declare herself regent on the basis of having a son who would one day inherit the throne. This led to the breakup of the relationship.
Rainier's marriage to Grace Kelly in 1956 and the arrival of his heirs, Princess Caroline in 1957 and Prince Albert in 1958, effectively scuttled Antoinette's plans. She was removed from the Palace by her sister-in-law, Princess Grace, and thereafter was estranged from the princely family for many years.
She was known to be somewhat eccentric and was described as "completely mad" by her servants. Having been banished from Monaco in the late 1950s, she lived down the coast from Monaco at Èze, with a large collection of dogs and cats. She was the president of Monaco's Society for the Protection of Animals and Refuge and a patron of the UK-based Battersea Dogs and Cats Home.
Upon the accession of Albert II in 2005, Antoinette and her descendants lost their place in the line of succession to the Monegasque throne, which is limited to the current sovereign's descendants, siblings, and siblings' descendants.
The Princess Antoinette Park in Monaco's La Condamine district was named in her honour.
Death
On 18 March 2011 Princess Antoinette died at The Princess Grace Hospital Centre, aged 90. Her funeral took place on 24 March 2011. She is buried in the Chapel of Peace in Monaco beside her parents, her daughters Elizabeth-Ann and Christine-Alix, her last husband John Brian Gilpin and her nephew by marriage, Stefano Casiraghi.
Patronages
President of the Society for the Protection of Animals and Refuge of Monaco.
President of the Canine Society of Monaco.
President of the “Monaco Interviews on Energy Medicines”, which became, the “Monaco International Interviews”.
President of the Monegasque Tennis Federation.
President of the Monte Carlo Country Club.
Titles and honours
Titles
28 December 1920 – 15 November 1951: Her Serene Highness Princess Antoinette of Monaco
15 November 1951 – 18 March 2011: Her Serene Highness Princess Antoinette of Monaco, Baroness of Massy
Honours
: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saint-Charles
: Medal for Physical Education and Sports, First Class
: Medal of Recognition of the Monegasque Red Cross
Ancestry
Bibliography
Palace: My Life in the Royal Family of Monaco by Baron Christian de Massy & Charles Higham (1986, Atheneum, )
References
Antoinette of Monaco, Princess
Antoinette of Monaco, Princess
Antoinette of Monaco
Antoinette of Monaco
Regents of Monaco
French baronesses
Monegasque people of Italian descent
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint-Charles
Monegasque people of Mexican descent
Monegasque people of German descent
Monegasque people of English descent
Monegasque people of Scottish descent
Polignac family | [
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222205 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergens%20Tidende | Bergens Tidende | Bergens Tidende is Norway's fifth-largest newspaper, and the country's largest newspaper outside Oslo.
Bergens Tidende is owned by the public company Schibsted ASA. Norwegian owners held a mere 42% of the shares in Schibsted at the end of 2015.
History and profile
Founded in 1868, Bergens Tidende is based in Bergen. The newspaper is published in two sections. Section one contains op-eds, general news, sports, and weather. Section two contains culture, views, local news, and television listings. The feature magazine BTMagasinet is published on Saturdays.
Bergens Tidende is owned by the public company Schibsted, which also owns Aftenposten, Stavanger Aftenblad, and Fædrelandsvennen. At least 30% of the shares of Schibsted are owned by foreign investment banks and insurance companies, such as Goldman Sachs. The paper began to be published in tabloid format in 2006.
The paper was awarded the European Newspaper of the Year in the regional newspaper category by the European Newspapers Congress in 2011.
In 2005 Bergens Tidende reached about 260,000 readers every day, mainly in the county of Vestland. Circulation numbers peaked at 100,000 copies in 1988. Its circulation was about 87,000 copies in 2007. In 2008 the paper had a circulation of 85,825 copies, and later dropped to 70,220 copies by 2015.
Website
The website of Bergens Tidende is bt.no. Until 2009, the newspaper broadcast on BTV (formerly TV Hordaland), but service was taken off air and incorporated into bt.no.
List of editors-in-chief
Edvard Larssen, Jan - Apr 1868
Johan Hekleberg, 1868–1869
David Chrystie Habe, 1869–1871
Olav Lofthus, 1872–1894
Finn Bøgh Henriksen, 1894–1902
K. F. Dahl, 1902–1903
Finn Bøgh Henriksen, 1903–1942
Vidkunn Nitter Schreiner, 1942–1945
Håkon Torsvik, 1945–1956
Ingemund Fænn, 1956–1977
Kjartan Rødland, 1977–1986
Einar Eriksen, 1986–1991
Magne Gaasemyr, 1991–1994
Hans Erik Matre, 1994–1997
Einar Hålien, 1997–2008
Trine Eilertsen, 2008–2012
Gard Steiro, 2012–2015
Øyulf Hjertenes, 2015–2019
Frøy Gudbrandsen, 2019–incumbent
References
External links
bt.no
BTV
1868 establishments in Norway
Daily newspapers published in Norway
Newspapers established in 1868
Newspapers published in Bergen
Norwegian-language newspapers
Norwegian news websites | [
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222210 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vito%20Acconci | Vito Acconci | Vito Acconci (, ; January 24, 1940 – April 27, 2017) was an influential American performance, video and installation artist, whose diverse practice eventually included sculpture, architectural design, and landscape design. His foundational performance and video art was characterized by "existential unease," exhibitionism, discomfort, transgression and provocation, as well as wit and audacity, and often involved crossing boundaries such as public–private, consensual–nonconsensual, and real world–art world. His work is considered to have influenced artists including Laurie Anderson, Karen Finley, Bruce Nauman, and Tracey Emin, among others. Acconci was initially interested in radical poetry, but by the late 1960s, he began creating Situationist-influenced performances in the street or for small audiences that explored the body and public space. Two of his most famous pieces were Following Piece (1969), in which he selected random passersby on New York City streets and followed them for as long as he was able, and Seedbed (1972), in which he claimed that he masturbated while under a temporary floor at the Sonnabend Gallery, as visitors walked above and heard him speaking.
In the late-1970s, he turned to sculpture, architecture and design, greatly increasing the scale of his work, if not his art world profile. Over the next two decades he developed public artworks and parks, airport rest areas, artificial islands and other architectural projects that frequently embraced participation, change and playfulness. Notable works of this period include: Personal Island, designed for Zwolle, the Netherlands (1994); Walkways Through the Wall at the Wisconsin Center, in Milwaukee, WI (1998); and Murinsel, for Graz, Austria (2003). Retrospectives of Acconci's work have been organized by the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam (1978) and the Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago (1980), and his work is in numerous public collections, including those of the Museum of Modern Art and Whitney Museum of American Art. He has been recognized with fellowships from the National Endowment for the Arts (1976, 1980, 1983, 1993), John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation (1979), and American Academy in Rome (1986). In addition to his art and design work, Acconci taught at many higher learning institutions. Acconci died on April 28, 2017, in Manhattan at age 77.
Life and work
Education
Born Vito Hannibal Acconci in the Bronx, New York in 1940, Acconci attended a Roman Catholic elementary school, high school (Regis High School in New York City), and college. He received a BA in literature from the College of the Holy Cross in 1962 and an MFA in literature and poetry from the University of Iowa. He noted: "There wasn't a woman in my classroom between kindergarten and graduate school."
1960s and 70s
Acconci began his career as a poet, editing and self-publishing the poetry magazine 0 TO 9 with Bernadette Mayer in the late 1960s. Produced in quantities of 100 to 350 copies per issue on a mimeograph machine, the magazine mixed contributions by both poets and artists.
In the late 1960s, Acconci transformed himself into a performance and video artist using his own body as a subject for photography, film, video, and performance. Most of his early work incorporated subversive social comment. His performance and video work was marked heavily by confrontation and Situationism. In the mid-1970s, Acconci expanded his métier into the world of audio/visual installations.
One installation/performance work from this period, perhaps his best known work, is Seedbed (January 15–29, 1972). In Seedbed Acconci lay hidden underneath a gallery-wide ramp installed at the Sonnabend Gallery, masturbating while vocalizing into a loudspeaker his fantasies about the visitors walking above him on the ramp. One motivation behind Seedbed was to involve the public in the work's production by creating a situation of reciprocal interchange between artist and viewer.
Cindy Nemser was the first art critic to write about Acconci for Arts Magazine in 1971. Nemser also later did an interview with Acconci which became the cover piece for Arts Magazine.
In the article "Video: the Aesthetics of Narcissism," Rosalind Krauss refers to aspects of Narcissism apparent in the video work of Acconci. "A line of sight begin Acconci's plane of vision ends on the eyes of his projected double." Krauss uses this description to underline aspects of narcissism in the Vito Acconci work Centers. In the piece Acconci is filming himself pointing directly at himself for about 25 minutes; by doing so Acconci makes a nonsensical gesture that exemplifies the critical aspects of a work of art through the beginning of the 20th century. Krauss also goes on to explain the psychological basis behind the actions of video in comparison to discussions of object art.
1980s
In the 1980s, Acconci turned to permanent sculptures and installations. During this time he invited viewers to create artwork by activating machinery that erected shelters and signs. One of the most prominent examples of these temporary installations is titled Instant House, which was first created in 1980, but was recently exhibited in the summer of 2012 at the Museum of Contemporary Art San Diego. Later, in January 1983, Acconci was a visiting artist at Middlebury College. During that time, he completed Way Station I (Study Chamber), which was his first permanent installation. The work sparked immense controversy on the college's campus, and was eventually set on fire and destroyed in 1985. Despite this, the sculpture marked a transition for Acconci's career from performance artist to architectural designer. He turned to the creation of furniture and prototypes of houses and gardens in the late 1980s, and in 1988 the artist founded Acconci Studio, which focused on theoretical design and building. Acconci Studio is located on Jay Street in Brooklyn. Acconci designed the United Bamboo store in Tokyo in 2003 and collaborated on concept designs for interactive art vehicle Mister Artsee in 2006 among others including the highly acclaimed: Murinsel in Graz, Austria.
The artist has focused on architecture and landscape design that integrates public and private space. One example of this is Walkways Through the Wall, which flow through structural boundaries of the Wisconsin Center in Milwaukee, Wisconsin and provide seating at both ends. An example of this interest on the private/public space is the collaboration he did with architect Steven Holl when commissioned on a collaborative building project for Storefront for Art and Architecture. The project replaced the existing facade with a series of twelve panels that pivot vertically or horizontally to open the entire length of the gallery directly onto the street. The project blurs the boundary between interior and exterior and, by placing the panels in different configurations, creates a multitude of different possible facades, and is now regarded as a contemporary architectural landmark. Another example of his work is Dirt Wall (1992) at the Arvada Center for the Arts and Humanities Sculpture Garden in Colorado. The wall begins outside the Arvada Center and extends inside, rising from ground level to a height of 24 feet. The glass and steel wall contains a mixture of volcanic rock, various types of sand, red dolomite, and topsoil which are visible through the glass panels, and represents an attempt to bring what is underground up, and what is outside in.
2000s
One of his later works, Lobby-for-the-Time-Being is an installation in the North Wing Lobby of Bronx Museum of the Arts. It has been there since 2009. The installation fills the lobby with a web of white Corian, creating a long, undulating wall resembling giant paper snowflakes.
In 2008, in an interview with Brian Sherwin for Myartspace, Vito discussed Seedbed at length. Vito discussed the title Seedbed and the connection it had to the performance, stating, "I knew what my goal had to be: I had to produce seed, the space I was in should become a bed of seed, a field of seed – in order to produce seed, I had to masturbate – in order to masturbate, I had to excite myself."
In 2010, Acconci completed Waterfall Out & In, a water feature at the visitors' center of the Newtown Creek Wastewater Treatment Plant in Greenpoint, Brooklyn. Part of the piece is indoors and part of the piece is outdoors.
In 2013, Acconci's Way Station I (Study Chamber), a work that was vandalized and destroyed in 1985 after being constructed for Middlebury College, was reinstalled along with an exhibit at the college's museum.
In 2014, Acconci was featured in a video segment, produced by Marc Santo, in which he talks about a few of his favorite projects that were never completed, including a Skate Park in San Jose and a museum of needles in Ichihara, Japan. "I think what unbuildable stuff leads to is maybe a possible reexamination, not so much of the past, but of what's to come," he said in the interview.
Academic career
Acconci taught at many institutions, including the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design, Halifax; San Francisco Art Institute; California Institute of the Arts, Valencia; Cooper Union; School of the Art Institute of Chicago; Yale University; University of Iowa, Pratt Institute; and the Parsons School of Design. Prior to his death, he had most recently taught at Brooklyn College in the Art Department and Performance and Interactive Media Arts programs and was an Adjunct Associate Professor at Pratt Institute in the Graduate Architecture and Urban Design Department.
Personal life and death
Acconci had been married to the artist Rosemary Mayer in the 1960s. Acconci died on April 28, 2017. He was 77. His cause of death has not been released by his estate. He is survived by his wife, Maria Acconci.
Exhibitions
"Vienna For Art's Sake ! Contemporary Art Show", created by Peter Noever; 161 exceptional artists, architects, designers, 13 solo exhibitions / site-specific interventions: Vito + Maria Elena Acconci, Zaha hadid, Magdalena Jetelová, Michael Kienzer, Hans Kupelwieser, Hermann Nitsch, Eva Schlegel, Kiki Smith, the next ENTERprise, Iv Toshain, Atelier Van Lieshout, Koen Vanmechelen, Manfred Wakolbinger; Winter Palace/Belvedere Wien; starting point: Imago Mundi/Luciano Benetton Collection, Archive Austria, curated by Peter Noever, Wien, 2015
"Vito Acconci. The City Inside Us", edited by Peter Noever/MAK, 1993
See also
Murinsel
Conceptual art
References
Further reading
Peter Lodermeyer, Karlyn De Jongh & Sarah Gold, Personal Structures: Time Space Existence, DuMont Verlag, Cologne, Germany, (2009): p. 282 – 287.
"Vito Acconci." MoMA. MoMA, n.d. Web. 9 May 2013. <http://www.moma.org/collection/artist.php?artist_id=53>.
Lee, A. C. "Exhibits From 2 Artists in Their 70s." The New York Times. 26 Apr. 2012. Web.
Frazer Ward, Mark C. Taylor, Jennifer Bloomer, Vito Acconci, Phaidon, London, 2002.
Articles
Alessandra Orlandoni "Interview with Vito Acconci" – The Plan 020, June 2007.
Frederic Maufras Parachute 118, April–June 2005.
Altered States from London-based ZG Magazine, edited by Rosetta Brooks.
External links
Oral history interview with Vito Acconci, 2008 June 21-28 from the Archives of American Art
Guide to the 0 TO 9 archive from the Fales Library at NYU
Art videos directed and performed by Vito Acconci on UbuWeb
Willoughby Sharp Videoviews Vito Acconci (1973) on UbuWeb
Art en Route: A Guide to Art in the MTA Network See Acconci works at West 8th Street-New York Aquarium and 161st Street-Yankee Stadium subway stations.
Public Art Fund:Face of the Earth
1940 births
2017 deaths
American installation artists
American performance artists
American video artists
Artists from the Bronx
College of the Holy Cross alumni
NSCAD University faculty
People from the Bronx
Regis High School (New York City) alumni
Walking artists
Skowhegan School of Painting and Sculpture alumni
Deaths from cerebrovascular disease
Brooklyn College faculty
American people of Italian descent | [
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222217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim%20Commerford | Tim Commerford | Timothy Robert Commerford (born February 26, 1968) is an American musician, best known as the bassist and backing vocalist for rock band Rage Against the Machine (1991–2000; 2007–2011; 2019–present) and supergroups Audioslave (2001–2007; 2017) and Prophets of Rage (2016–2019). Since 2013 and 2015, he has also been the lead singer and bassist of the bands Future User and Wakrat.
He was ranked eighth on Paste magazine's list of "20 Underrated Bass Guitarists" in 2014.
Early life
Timothy Robert Commerford was born on February 26, 1968, in Irvine, California, the youngest of six children. His father, an aerospace engineer, worked on the Space Shuttle, and his mother was a teacher/mathematician. He is of French and Irish descent. His idols in rock included Gene Simmons, bassist of Kiss; Sid Vicious, bassist of the Sex Pistols; Steve Harris, bassist of Iron Maiden; and Geddy Lee, bassist of Rush. In the fifth grade, he met future bandmate Zack de la Rocha. Around this time, his mother was diagnosed with cancer. Shortly thereafter, his father divorced and remarried. Commerford stayed with his father, while his mother moved to Sacramento, to live with her sister while seeking treatment. Commerford's father abused him during the period when they both lived in Irvine together. During this time, de la Rocha introduced him to bass, and Commerford soon found an outlet in music and poetry, playing bass in the band Juvenile Expression. Commerford's mother died of brain cancer in 1988.
Career
Rage Against the Machine (1991–2000)
In 1991, following the break-up of the band Lock Up featuring guitarist Tom Morello, the band's drummer, Jon Knox, encouraged Commerford and Zack de la Rocha to jam with Tom Morello. Tom soon called Brad Wilk, who had unsuccessfully auditioned for Lock Up. This line-up went on to form Rage Against the Machine. After frequenting the L.A. club circuit, Rage Against the Machine signed a record deal with Epic Records in 1992. That same year, the band released their self-titled debut. They achieved a phenomenal amount of mainstream success and released three more studio albums.
In late 2000, after Commerford's stunt at the VMA's, a disgruntled de la Rocha quit the band. On September 13, 2000, Rage Against the Machine performed their last concert at the Grand Olympic Auditorium in Los Angeles.
Audioslave (2001–2007)
After Zack de la Rocha left Rage Against the Machine, music producer Rick Rubin suggested the three remaining members of Rage get together with then-former Soundgarden singer Chris Cornell, and "see what happens".
By May 2001, they had begun to work in the studio, writing their first song "Light My Way". By April 2002, the newly formed band had split due to "outside" pressures, mainly from management companies. They soon got back together though, and on November 19, 2002 they released their eponymous debut, which would attain triple platinum status. Audioslave attained a large amount of success, and released another two studio albums. On May 5, 2005, Audioslave played a free concert in front of 65,000 Cuban fans, becoming the first American rock band to play a concert within Cuba.
On February 15, 2007, Chris Cornell officially announced his departure from Audioslave, thus disbanding the group.
Rage Against the Machine reunion (2007–2011)
On April 29, 2007, Rage Against the Machine reunited at the Coachella Music Festival. The band played in front of an EZLN backdrop to the largest crowd of the festival. The performance was first thought to be a one-off, this turned out not to be the case. The band played seven more shows in the United States in 2007 (including their first non-festival concert in seven years at the Alpine Valley Music Theater in East Troy, Wisconsin), and in January 2008, they played their first shows outside the US as part of the Big Day Out Festival in Australia and New Zealand, and then at the Reading and Leeds festival in the summer of 2008, in England.
The band continued to tour around the world, headlining many large festivals in Europe and the United States, including Lollapalooza in Chicago. In 2008 the band also played shows in Denver, Colorado and St. Paul, Minnesota, the locations of the Democratic National Convention and Republican National Convention, respectively. Their most recent performance was in 2011, at The Coliseum at Los Angeles.
Future User and Wakrat (2014–present)
Commerford co-founded provocative band Future User, together with Jordan Tarlow (keys), Jon Knox (drums) and super producer Brendan O'Brien (guitars). He plays bass and is the vocalist of the band. Tim Commerford hid several months under the S.W.I.M persona on the first music videos, before unmasking himself in the "Mountain Lion" video. In the band's first video, tennis player John McEnroe subjected himself to waterboarding. The "Mountain Lion" video featured road racing cyclist Lance Armstrong, a close friend of Commerford, while a skateboarding Commerford appears to inject himself with a steroid.
In 2015, he formed "punk and hardcore-influenced band", named Wakrat. The band also features drummer Mathias Wakrat and guitarist Laurent Grangeon. The band debuted their first single, "Knucklehead", in September 2015.
Prophets of Rage (2016–2019)
In 2016, Tim Commerford reunited with Tom Morello and Brad Wilk, and was joined by Chuck D and B-Real to form supergroup Prophets of Rage. They play covers from their Rage Against the Machine, Public Enemy and Cypress Hill material, and new material as well.
Other contributions
Commerford and drummer Brad Wilk contributed to Maynard James Keenan's side project Puscifer and his album "V" Is for Vagina on the track "Momma Sed". Both have taken part in the production of Dave Grohl's 2013 'Sound City Movie' Soundtrack, with the track "Time Slowing Down".
Personal life
In 1993, Commerford was introduced to mountain biking by his future father-in-law, Jimbo Insko. Commerford is known as a biking enthusiast, having featured in Mountain Biking UK magazine issue 242. In 1995, Rage Against the Machine was forced to cancel a concert after Commerford broke his wrist in a biking accident. In 2006, he rode a bike from Los Angeles to Santa Barbara with a group of people (including John McEnroe) to see Pearl Jam and Sonic Youth play at the Santa Barbara Bowl.
In 2001, Commerford married his longtime girlfriend, Aleece Dimas, who is a medical professional and AIDS activist. They have two sons together, Xavier and Quentin, and the family lives in Malibu. The older son, Xavier was featured on Audioslave's music video "Like a Stone". In November 2018, the couple announced they were divorcing.
In 2010, Commerford was interviewed and appeared in the documentary Rush: Beyond the Lighted Stage.
In 2015, Commerford appeared on The Dan Le Batard Show with Stugotz radio show for a then record of five consecutive days. Among many topics, he discussed his protest of Limp Bizkit winning Best Rock Video at the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards and waterboarding John McEnroe.
Political views
Commerford is a self-described "conspiracy theorist". In a Rolling Stone interview in 2015, he claimed that the Moon landing was faked and he confronted Buzz Aldrin about it at a John Cusack movie premiere. In the same interview, Commerford also stated that he doesn't believe ISIS is real and cast doubt upon the ISIS beheading videos:
Equipment
Basses
Commerford had been a major endorser of Fender basses since the mid-1990s, and is best known for playing personally-modified Fender Jazz Basses with Precision Bass necks, hand-wired pickups and Badass II bridges. Commerford's main bass from the early days was an Ernie Ball Music Man StingRay, used almost exclusively until about 1995 when he switched to the Fender Jazz Bass. From the peak of his career in the mid-1990s, Commerford played Fender basses for 12 years, until he made his switch to Lakland for the Rage Against the Machine reunion in 2008. After 21 years, he switched back to Ernie Ball Music Man StingRay basses when he began playing with Prophets of Rage and Wakrat.
Pre-Rage Against the Machine
Rickenbacker 4001.
Rage Against the Machine (1991–1995)
Music Man StingRay – natural finish with pickguard removed.
Rage Against the Machine (1995–2000)
Fender Jazz Bass - natural finish without pickguard, smashed at the MTV Video Music Awards 2000
Fender Jazz Bass - cream coloured finish with black pickguard
Fender Jazz Bass - black finish with white pickguard
Audioslave (2001–2007)
Fender Jazz Bass - Sunburst finish with black pickguard. Used in 2005–2006 with Audioslave, then during the Rage Against the Machine reunion tour in 2007.
Fender Jazz Bass - white finish with brown pickguard. Used in 2005–2006 with Audioslave, then during the Rage Against the Machine reunion tour in 2007.
Fender Jazz Bass - black finish with brown pickguard and left-handed Precision Bass neck
Fender Jazz Bass - black finish with silver pickguard
Fender Jazz Bass - Natural finish with black broken pickguard. Used with Audioslave mainly for Rage and Soundgarden covers.
Twin-Necked Fender Jazz Bass - Cherry finish with black pickguard. Seen on the booklet of Revelations. Never used live.
Rage Against the Machine, Future User, Wakrat (2008–2016)
Lakland Black Joe Osborn Signature – Tim's main tour bass during this time was a Black Joe Osborn with a Dual Access Bridge (as do all of his other basses). It was used on the majority of songs.
Lakland 3-Tone Translucent Joe Osborn Signature – Tortoise Shell Pickguard and Rosewood fretboard.
Lakland 3-Tone Translucent Joe Osborn Signature – Pearloid Pickguard and Maple fretboard.
Lakland Blonde Translucent Joe Osborn Signature – Had a Rosewood fretboard with Birdseye Maple blocks and a Black pickguard. Used between 2008 and 2015 with Rage, Wakrat and the Sound City Studios record.
Lakland Candy Apple Red 44-60/55-60 (Vintage J) (former Joe Osborn Signature) - Main bass during the 2010 tours.
Lakland Inca Silver 44-60/55-60 (Vintage J) (former Joe Osborn Signature) - Drop D bass during the 2010 tours.
Lakland Sunburst Joe Osborn Signature. Used with Wakrat in 2015.
Prophets of Rage, Wakrat (2016–present)
Music Man StingRay – red finish with white pickguard and black applications.
Music Man StingRay – red finish with black Pickguard.
Music Man StingRay – natural finish with white Pickguard.
Music Man StingRay – natural finish with black Pickguard.
Music Man StingRay – black finish (with standard fretboard and details) with black Pickguard.
Music Man StingRay – complete black finish (including fretboard and applications) with black Pickguard.
Music Man StingRay – grey finish with white pickguard.
Music Man StingRay HH – natural finish with black Pickguard.
Music Man StingRay HH – dark red finish with black Pickguard.
Effects
Commerford is very secretive of his tone, even going so far as to put effects on his pedalboard that he doesn't even use, making his own gear, and even removing the labels off some of his effects. Here are some effects which he has used during his career.
Aphex Punch Factory (Audioslave)
Boss DD-3 Digital Delay
Boss OC-2 Octave
MXR Phase 90 (RATM)
Dunlop 105Q Bass Wah
Marshall Guv'nor Distortion Pedal (RATM, 1991–1998)
Custom ABY Amp Selector
Homemade Overdrive Pedals
Electro-Harmonix Big Muff Pi Bass Distortion
Amplifiers and cabinets
Throughout his career, Commerford has used Ampeg amplifiers and cabinets live, and presumably in the studio.
For his years in Rage Against the Machine, he used two Ampeg SVT-2PRO heads and two Ampeg 8x10 Cabinets. Both the cabinets and heads were mounted in road cases that have graffiti art work presumably done by Commerford himself. One was usually draped with an upside-down American flag which was occasionally burned during concerts, most notably at the band's Woodstock '99 performance during "Killing in the Name".
For the recording of Audioslave and Out of Exile, Commerford continued to use Ampeg but switched to a 3 amp and cab system: Each amp an SVT2Pro with a clean signal into an 8x10 cab and increasing levels of gain each into the additional 4x10 cabs. For the Out of Exile tour and recording of Revelations, Tim also used other equipment from Ashdown and Mesa/Boogie. The Mesa replacing his clean channel and the Ashdown ABM Evo replacing his most overdriven channel with an SVT2 taking care of the medium gain. Currently, he uses two Ampeg SVT-VR heads (as of May 2008) and his original two Ampeg Cabinets with graffiti from the 2000-era setup. In 2016, he added various other amp heads including a silverface Ampeg SVT classic and Barefaced bass speaker cabinets.
DiscographyRage Against the Machine Rage Against the Machine (1992)
Evil Empire (1996)
Live & Rare (1998)
The Battle of Los Angeles, (1999)
Renegades (2000)
Live at the Grand Olympic Auditorium (2003)Audioslave Audioslave (2002)
Out of Exile (2005)
Revelations (2006)Future User SteroidsOrHeroin (2015)Wakrat Wakrat (2016)Prophets of Rage' Prophets of Rage'' (2017)
References
External links
Official Facebook Page
1968 births
American people of French descent
American people of Irish descent
Guitarists from Los Angeles
California socialists
American heavy metal bass guitarists
American male bass guitarists
Rage Against the Machine members
Audioslave members
People from Irvine, California
Alternative metal bass guitarists
Living people
American anti-fascists
Moon landing conspiracy theorists
American conspiracy theorists
Grammy Award winners
Prophets of Rage members
20th-century American bass guitarists
21st-century American bass guitarists | [
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222221 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populist%20Party | Populist Party | Populist Party may refer to:
Croatian Popular Party (1919), a Croatian right-wing party also known as Croatian Populist Party
Indonesian National Populist Fortress Party, an Indonesian populist party supportive of Pancasila ideology
Narodnik, a movement in late Tsarist Russia, whose name can be translated as "Populist" and whose ideology has been referenced as "Populism", in scholarly literature
Parti populiste (French Populist Party), a nationalist and eurosceptic organization in France
People's Party (Greece) (Λαїκό Κομμα, Laiko Komma or Laikon Komma), a conservative-monarchist early 20th century Greek party, whose name can be translated as Populist Party
People's Party (Spain) (Partido Popular), a conservative party in Spain
People's Party of Georgia (US) ( Populist Party of Georgia), the Georgia chapter of the 19th and early 20th century American Populist Party
Populist Party (Northern Cyprus), a defunct party in Northern Cyprus
Populist Party (Turkey) (Halkçı Parti), a former kemalist socialist Turkish party translated both as People's Party and as Populist Party
People's Party (United States) (1887–1908), a radical agrarian-oriented American political party commonly called "the Populists"
People's Party (United States, 1971) (1973–1976), sometimes also called Populist Party; inspired by the People's Party of the 1887-1908 period
Populist Party (United States, 1984) (1984–1996), a far-right political party
Social Democratic Populist Party (Turkey), a former kemalist social democratic Turkish party
Vietnam Populist Party, a pro-democracy party in Vietnam, called For The Vietnamese People Party by the state media
See also
People's Party (disambiguation)
Partido Popular (disambiguation)
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222223 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colossus%20%28character%29 | Colossus (character) | Colossus (Piotr "Peter" Nikolayevich Rasputin) (Russian: Пётр Николаевич Распутин) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer Len Wein and artist Dave Cockrum, he first appeared in Giant-Size X-Men #1 (May 1975).
A Russian mutant, he is a member of the X-Men. Colossus is able to transform himself into metallic form, making him the physically strongest of the team. Even when his powers are not engaged, he is still a physically imposing figure of in height. He is portrayed as quiet, honest, and virtuous. He has had a fairly consistent presence in X-Men-related comic books since his debut. A talented artist, he only reluctantly agrees to use his powers in combat, feeling it is his responsibility to use his abilities for the betterment of human- and mutant-kind.
Wizard ranked Colossus at 184 on the "Top 200 Comic Book Characters of All Time". In 2006, IGN placed Colossus in the 10th spot of their list of "The Top 25 X-Men". In 2013, ComicsAlliance ranked Colossus as #22 on their list of the "50 Sexiest Male Characters in Comics".
In film, Donald MacKinnon portrayed a cameo as Colossus in X-Men. Actor Daniel Cudmore took over the role of Colossus in X2 (2003), X-Men: The Last Stand (2006) and X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014), and Stefan Kapičić provides the voice of a CGI character in Deadpool (2016) and Deadpool 2 (2018).
Concept and creation
Editor Roy Thomas, in charge of reviving the X-Men for Giant-Size X-Men #1 (May 1975), told the creative team to go home and create some characters for the new team. Dave Cockrum recalled:I just went home and Colossus was one of the first ones that came to mind. We needed a strong guy for the team, so I drew up a strong guy. The character's armor just kind of fell into place. He was accepted pretty much as-is, except that I had given him bare legs because it seemed only logical that if we're going to show him armored up, the legs should be bare like the arms. But Len Wein didn't like male characters with bare legs. So we decided that his costume would be blue when he wasn't armored up, and that we'd see his legs when he was armored up, due to the unstable molecules of his costume.
Publication history
A mainstay of the X-Men comic book series until the 1990s, Colossus went on to appear regularly in the first series of Excalibur. While a member of the team, he had his own self-titled one-shot that depicted him and his teammate Meggan battling Arcade at his new Murderworld facility.
After returning to the X-Men alongside Excalibur teammates Shadowcat and Nightcrawler, Colossus stayed with the title until his death. He was later resurrected and was a regular in the third series of Astonishing X-Men written by Joss Whedon. He is the feature of a limited series, Colossus: Bloodlines, in which he journeys back to Russia. Colossus has since returned as a regular in the X-Men series, appearing in various titles such as X-Men: Manifest Destiny, X-Men: Secret Invasion, X-Men, and Astonishing X-Men.
Colossus appears in Cable and X-Force, a new series by writer Dennis Hopeless and artist Salvador Larroca which debuted in Dec. 2012. He appears in Extraordinary X-Men, written by Jeff Lemire and drawn by Humberto Ramos. He is part of a team which is led by Storm, and includes his sister Magik, Iceman, a teenaged version of Jean Grey, Nightcrawler, a re-purposed Sentinel named Cerebra, and Old Man Logan.
Fictional character biography
Background
Piotr "Peter" Rasputin was born on a Soviet collective farm called the Ust-Ordynsky Collective near Lake Baikal in Siberia. He lived there with his mother Alexandra, father Nikolai, and sister Illyana. His older brother, Mikhail, had been a Soviet cosmonaut and had apparently died in a rocket accident. The 2006 comic mini-series Colossus: Bloodline established that the family was descended from Grigori Rasputin.
Peter's superhuman powers manifested during his adolescence while saving his sister from a runaway tractor. He was then contacted by Professor Charles Xavier, founder of the X-Men.
X-Men
Peter Rasputin was part of the second generation of X-Men, formed by Charles Xavier to save the original X-Men from the living island Krakoa. He agreed to leave the farm community where he was born to go to the United States with Xavier. Xavier gave him the name Colossus. After the battle was won, Colossus remained in the U.S. with the new X-Men.
Colossus is typically portrayed as peaceful, selfless, reluctant to hurt or kill, and often putting himself in danger to protect others. In some of his earliest missions, he battled the Shi'ar Imperial Guard, and visited the Savage Land, where he met Nereel.
Peter's family always remained in his thoughts and he frequently wrote letters home. Shortly after joining the X-Men, a woman known as Miss Locke kidnapped many of the team's loved ones to force the X-Men to help her free her employer, Arcade, from captivity by one of Doctor Doom's robots. Among her captives was Colossus' younger sister Illyana, whom Locke had kidnapped from the Siberian collective farm and transported to the United States. Arcade brainwashed Colossus into becoming "The Proletarian", who then battled the other X-Men until they countered the brainwashing. The X-Men freed Illyana from captivity, and she went to live with her brother Peter at Xavier's mansion. She was later held captive in a dimension known as Limbo, where she spent years while only mere moments elapsed on Earth, and became the adolescent sorceress Magik. As a result, an alternate-timeline version of Colossus dies in Limbo.
When the X-Men fought the evil mutant Proteus, Colossus attempted to kill Proteus, an act he found morally questionable even though he did it to save Moira MacTaggart's life. During his early career with the X-Men, Peter started what was arguably his most significant relationship with fellow X-Man Kitty Pryde. Although they were only a couple for a short while, the relationship provided the foundation of a deep and lasting friendship.
Colossus was later almost killed in a battle with Mystique's Brotherhood of Mutants, but was saved by Rogue and the Morlock Healer. During the Secret Wars, he became infatuated with the alien healer Zsaji, and realized his feelings for his teammate were not wholly genuine, ending his relationship with Kitty Pryde. Emotionally distraught, he afterwards engaged in a bar fight with Juggernaut.
During the Mutant Massacre, Colossus became heavily involved in the X-Men's efforts to save the Morlocks from the Marauders. When Kitty was severely injured by Harpoon, Peter gave in to his rage and snapped Riptide's neck. He eventually passed out from previous wounds inflicted by Riptide. Magneto, with the aid of Shadowcat, used his powers to heal Peter's armored form, but the process left him paralyzed. He was sent to Muir Island to recuperate, along with Nightcrawler, Shadowcat, and the surviving Morlocks.
Over time, Colossus' wounds healed, but he was trapped in his armoured form and could maintain his human form only with the utmost concentration. When he saw the X-Men in Dallas during the Fall of the Mutants, he had his sister teleport him to the battle, as Destiny had not seen him in her vision of the X-Men's demise. When the team decided to sacrifice themselves to stop the Adversary, Colossus gave his life alongside them to save the world. Like the rest of the X-Men, he was revived by Roma and decided to let the world believe him dead while he and the X-Men worked out of an Australian base.
Following the Inferno event, Illyana was returned to her original Earth age. Colossus decided it would be better for Illyana if she went back to live with their parents in Russia.
In time, Colossus was reunited with Nereel in the Savage Land, and met her son.
After the X-Men began falling apart with Rogue vanishing, Wolverine taking off, Longshot quitting, and Storm apparently killed, Psylocke telepathically prodded the remaining three to disband and travel through the Siege Perilous to gain new lives. Peter emerged in New York with no memory of his past life, inventing a new persona for himself as 'Peter Nicholas', where he quickly became a successful artist. He battled the Genoshan Magistrates. He began having visions of a beautiful model, who turned out to be Callisto transformed by Masque. The two were kidnapped by the Morlocks, though Peter had no memory of his time with the X-Men. He resumed his armored form and defeated Masque. He was saved by Forge, Banshee, and Jean Grey, who decided it better that he live his new life rather than be dragged back into theirs.
Peter was psychically dominated by the Shadow King and sent to hunt down Stevie Hunter and Charles Xavier. Xavier had no choice but to destroy the Peter Nicholas persona to break the Shadow King's hold. Colossus joined in the battle of Muir Island, and rejoined the X-Men as a member of Storm's Gold Strike Force. Peter is shown to be traveling to the Savage Land, where he locates Nereel. He is astonished to learn that the child she bore was not his, but that of another lover. Disheartened, he departs the Savage Land.
The X-Men later found themselves in another dimension, where they discovered that Colossus' brother, Mikhail, was alive and acting as a messiah to the population of that world. Mikhail returned to Earth with the X-Men, but was distraught with having been responsible for the deaths of the original crew from his first trek into the other dimension.
Mikhail established himself as leader of the Morlocks and planned to use them as a part of his mass suicide which he thought would grant him retribution or at least reprieve from his guilt. This would prove to be a great source of grief for Peter in an upcoming string of family deaths that would lead to him temporarily disbanding from the X-Men.
However, unbeknownst to the X-Men, Mikhail survived. In a seemingly last second change of mind, Mikhail transported himself and the Morlocks to another world. Later, upon learning this, Peter was disappointed by his brother's departure and blamed himself.
Back in Siberia, Peter's parents were slain and Illyana kidnapped by the Russian government, who hoped to genetically evolve Illyana to the point where she would have the use of her powers again, to defeat the mutant known as the Soul Skinner. Colossus, with the help of the X-Men, saved Illyana and brought her back to the Mansion.
Later, Illyana became an early victim of the Legacy Virus and died from it. The loss of his immediate family, as well as brain damage that forced him to remain in armored form, caused Colossus to rethink his position with the X-Men and join Magneto and his Acolytes, who had offered him an alternative to the X-Men's pacifist philosophy of peaceful mutant/human coexistence. Colossus recovered from the brain damage soon after, but decided to remain with the Acolytes of his own volition, hoping he could temper their extremist methods with what he had learned from Professor Xavier.
Excalibur
His stay with Magneto was not long once he realized that Avalon was not the place for him, either, particularly after Magneto was left brain-dead and the space station was destroyed by Holocaust. He left in search of the only person he felt truly cared for him, his former love and teammate Shadowcat, now a member of Excalibur. Colossus traveled to England, where he found Kitty in the arms of her new love, Pete Wisdom. Colossus, exhausted, mentally ill, and enraged, attacked Wisdom and, although the battle was short, Piotr nearly killed him. Colossus was subdued by Captain Britain and Meggan, later cured of his illness by Moira MacTaggert.
Colossus accepted Shadowcat's new life and chose to become a member of Excalibur. Although Colossus, along with the rest of the team, soon accepted Kitty's relationship with Wisdom, Kitty's pet dragon, Lockheed, did not, and was often seen trying to reunite Kitty with Peter, whom he much preferred. One such example being snatching away the garter during Meggan and Captain Britain's wedding and dropping it into Colossus' hand, who was then required to place it on Kitty's leg, who had previously caught the bride's flowers. With Excalibur, he participated in many adventures, including helping to save London from an ancient demon. Excalibur eventually disbanded, and Colossus returned with Nightcrawler and Shadowcat to the X-Men. But as soon as they returned, they faced a group of imposters following Cerebro, in the guise of Professor X. During this time, he repaired his friendships with Wolverine and Storm, that were broken when he had joined the Acolytes. He formed a deep friendship with Marrow. Peter again found his long thought-dead brother Mikhail, but unfortunately lost him again when Apocalypse collected The Twelve in his quest for power.
Death
Using thoughts and notes from the recently murdered Moira MacTaggert, the X-Men's resident scientist, Beast, claimed to have found the cure for the Legacy Virus. Unfortunately, it could only be made airborne with the death of its first user. Rather than wait for a safer version and allow others to die as Illyana had, Colossus injected himself with the cure. By using his powers and sacrificing himself, Colossus enabled the release of an airborne cure, effectively eradicating the disease. His body was cremated, and Shadowcat took his ashes back to Russia to be scattered on his native soil.
Return
Nearly two years later, it was brought to the attention of the X-Men that a medical company, entitled Benetech, had developed a mutant cure. After gaining a sample of the cure, Dr. Henry (Beast) McCoy discovered a string of DNA hidden deep within the recesses of the formula. After matching the DNA, Beast and the other X-Men set out to investigate the truth behind Benetech.
During their infiltration, they discovered that Ord, an alien from the Breakworld, was responsible for the means with which the company was able to develop the cure. While the team was separated, Kitty descended into a hidden complex beneath the Benetech building and was able to unlock the true secret behind the cure: shortly after Peter's self-sacrificing death, Ord had captured his body and left a duplicate that the X-Men had cremated.
After reviving him, Ord had used the Legacy Virus cure in Peter's bloodstream to develop his mutant cure. After unknowingly releasing Peter from his cell, Kitty rejoined him with the X-Men. Together they subdued Ord as he tried to escape Earth. Since reuniting with his friends, Peter has returned to fight with the X-Men, and he and Kitty were able to resume their romantic relationship.
Colossus: Bloodline
During the Colossus: Bloodline limited series, Colossus made a trip to Russia in response to a call for help from his cousin, journalist Larisa Mishchenko. Her research had established that their family descended from Grigori Rasputin, and that their relatives were being systematically murdered. Rasputin is established as having been a powerful mutant, whose power and life essence had been passed down to his descendants. As his descendants are murdered, his great power is invested in greater measure in the remaining descendants. When there is only one descendant left, Rasputin will be reborn within that individual. Mister Sinister, an old ally of Rasputin, is revealed as the man behind the murders.
Larisa is murdered by Sinister, but Colossus and his brother Mikhail foil Sinister's plot, and Mikhail banishes himself to a dimension where he can never die, but from which he can never return. If Sinister were to murder Colossus, Rasputin would be reborn in Mikhail, but locked in a dimension on his own. However, all those involved remained unaware of Colossus' son, Peter, in the Savage Land, whose presence could severely alter the situation. Colossus returned to the X-Men, a man without family. It is rumoured that the boy Michael Termani escaped the extermination and made his way to the United States of America in search of Colossus, whom he may be related to.
Breakworld and beyond
During an attack on the institute, Colossus engages Sebastian Shaw, although "Shaw" turned out to be an illusory attack by Cassandra Nova. It was revealed that Colossus is the mutant destined to destroy Breakworld according to the Breakworld's precogs. However, on a mission to the Breakworld, the X-Men discover that this was not an actual prophecy but an elaborate scheme created by Aghanne, the insane leader of a Breakworld reform cult, intended to bring about that world's destruction. Colossus is chosen for the prophecy as his unique organic steel form would allow him to destroy the planet's power source, initiating a chain reaction that would destroy the entire world. Realizing this, Colossus refuses to kill the planet although he does threaten to seize power and rule it if the Breakworld destroys the Earth as planned.
During the "World War Hulk" storyline, Colossus is one of the X-Men members that tries to defend Professor X against the Hulk, who has come looking for Charles as he is one of the members of the secret Illuminati that exiled him from Earth. During their battle, the Hulk reflects on Colossus' bravery, mentioning that Colossus might have made a "decent opponent" to the Hulk's previous incarnations. Locked in a test of strength, Hulk demonstrates his superior power by bending Colossus's arms backwards at the forearms, breaking them. Beast later uses a laser in the lab to heat his arms up near their melting point, while Strong Guy bends them back into place; his arms needed to be re-set in their metal form before he transformed back to his human form to avoid serious injury to them.
Colossus returns to Russia with Wolverine and Nightcrawler along for the ride. The trio are captured by the Russian government, who wish to find out why all their mutant agents succumbed to M-Day, and Colossus did not. This led to a battle against the Russians and Omega Red, who was being examined by their captors. After defeating Omega Red, the heroes receive a call from Cyclops informing them of their new home in San Francisco. They soon arrive back in the States, where they aid in rebuilding the X-Men.
Colossus was briefly a member of the Fifty State Initiative team called The Last Defenders alongside Nighthawk, She-Hulk, and Blazing Skull.
Joining the rest of the X-Men, Colossus relocates to San Francisco. Still mourning Kitty, the other X-Men try to cheer him up using various different methods from picking fights with him to throwing a party. In the end he tells them to leave him be, he just needs time. Later while walking through Golden Gate Park, he come across a little girl who needs help rescuing her Kitty from a tree to which he replies that nothing would make him happier.
X-Infernus
Colossus feels the X-Men are not doing enough to rescue Illyana from Limbo, and is upset. With the aid of Pixie, the team is able to enter Limbo, where they encounter hostile demons. After defeating the demons, the X-Men locate Illyana, who has been defeated by Witchfire. The X-Men and Magik defeat Witchfire by trapping her in the dimension that houses the Elder Gods. Illyana leaves Limbo with the X-Men when Cyclops and Colossus offer her a home.
Utopia
When the Dark Avengers head into San Francisco to battle any X-Men they can find, Colossus battles Venom. They later face off again when the combined Dark Avengers and Dark X-Men attack Utopia, with Colossus and the X-Men emerging victorious.
It's also during this time that Colossus suffers from depression due to the loss of Kitty prior to the Messiah Complex. During this period, Magik arrives at Utopia to ask for help from the X-Men and her former teammates as there's a battle coming in Limbo. The reunion helps alleviate some of Colossus's depression, but after Magneto comes to Utopia, Magneto brings the bullet carrying Kitty back to Earth to save her in a show of good faith and Kitty and Colossus are reunited, but are initially unable to touch as Kitty spent so long phased to stop the bullet hitting something that she has 'forgotten' how to resume a tangible state on her own. Due to Warlord Krunn's mutant cure, Colossus was temporarily depowered and beaten in battle by him, but other Breakworld residents were able to restore Kitty to her fully tangible state.
Fear Itself
After the Juggernaut became Kuurth: Breaker of Stone, one of the Heralds of a long-dormant god of fear known as the Serpent, Colossus made a bargain with Cyttorak, the other-dimensional being who originally empowered the Juggernaut, to gain the power to stand against Kuurth. Colossus became the new avatar of the Juggernaut and was able to push Cain Marko back until Cain was summoned by The Serpent. This decision caused Kitty to break up with Colossus, as she cannot cope with his increasingly displayed willingness to sacrifice himself when she wants someone who will be willing to live for her.
Due to this, Colossus decides to stay on Utopia with Cyclops' team of X-Men instead of returning to Westchester due to his fear of his new Juggernaut powers being unsafe around children. After another stressful battle, Colossus realized that his powers were far more dangerous than he realized, and he requested to be locked up alongside his sister, only to be freed when needed on missions.
Avengers vs. X-Men
At the onset of the Avengers vs. X-Men storyline, Colossus is featured in fights against several characters, including Spider-Man, Red Hulk, and Thing. He is one of the few X-Men teleported by Magik to the dark side of the moon to confront the Avengers over Hope Summers. When the disruptor devised by Iron Man blasts and divides the Phoenix Force, part of it bonds to Colossus, who becomes one of the Phoenix Five along with Cyclops, Emma Frost, Magik and Namor. He attempts to release his Juggernaut powers, but Cyttorak refuses, citing his affiliation with the Phoenix due to his newfound destructive powers. While empowered with his fragment of the Phoenix Force, Colossus attempts to regain Kitty's affections, but she rejects him—wary of his power-mongering and that the Phoenix has changed him for the worse—he reacts angrily. Colossus is eventually defeated when Spider-Man manages to provoke him and Magik into attacking each other, causing them to incapacitate each other. Their Phoenix powers dissipate and are absorbed by Emma Frost and Cyclops (Namor having already been defeated). Following the defeat of Cyclops as the last of the Phoenix Five, Colossus and the other former members of the Phoenix Five did not surrender themselves to the authorities. Magik later purges the Juggernaut powers from Colossus with her Soulsword. Knowing that Magik could have repelled his servitude to Cyttorak at any time and that she made him keep the Juggernaut powers to teach him a lesson, Colossus evinces hatred toward the sister he once loved, going so far as to say he wants her killed.
X-Force
Colossus's powers have gone out of control, apparently as a result of losing the Phoenix Force, causing parts of him to shift between flesh and organic steel rather than all flesh or all organic steel. He now appears as a member of Cable's new X-Force team after Cable provides him with a device that stabilizes his condition.
Amazing X-Men
Colossus has since rejoined Wolverine's team of X-Men after his sister convinced him to, after quitting Cable's X-Force team following the results of the Cable and X-Force/Uncanny X-Force: Vendettas storyline. It is eventually discovered that Cyclops, Emma Frost, Magik, Magneto and Colossus were actually infected with nano-sentinels by Dark Beast, after the incident with the Phoenix Force, and that was the real cause for their flawed abilities. He has since regained control of his organic steel powers and has stopped wearing Cable's harness which helped him to stabilize his flesh and steel forms.
During this time, Cyttorak caused the Crimson Gem to reappear in the ancient temple and triggered a call for suitable candidates to become a new Juggernaut, which led to Colossus and Cain Marko joining a team of X-Men to stop the Gem from being claimed by forces such as Man-Killer and the former Living Monolith. However, when Adbol acquired the Gem for himself, Colossus invoked Cyttorak to confront him about the failure of all of his past Juggernauts, suggesting that Cyttorak withdraw his power from Adbol and empower a new avatar to a greater extent than any before. Unfortunately, Cyttorak chose to empower Marko rather than Colossus, with Marko resolving to destroy the X-Men present and then move on to kill Cyclops for the death of Professor X. With Marko now even immune to psychic attacks, he appeared truly unstoppable, but Colossus was able to defeat him by outmaneuvering the super-empowered Marko until he could strike the sea side cliff edge where they had been fighting, causing Cain to fall into the ocean below, taking him out of the fight at least for the moment.
During the Secret Wars storyline, Colossus is with the X-Men when they take part in the incursion event between Earth-616 and Earth-1610. The Hulk's Doc Green form uses Colossus in a Fastball Special that destroys the Triskelion.
Extraordinary X-Men
Colossus later joins Storm's new team of X-Men who are living in an isolated part of Limbo after magically transporting the mansion there, renaming it X-Haven. Their mission is to provide a refuge and protect mutants from the effects of the M-Pox that has infected the mutants and rendered almost all of the mutant species sterile due to the Terrigen in the atmosphere. During the Apocalypse Wars, Colossus, Ernst, Anole, Glob Herman and No-Girl are separated from Storm's team. When they re-encounter the missing students, they discover them to now be adults protecting an ark of 600 artificially created mutant embryos from the Four Horsemen of Apocalypse, one of whom is a celestially altered Colossus.
Colossus was eventually found by his teammates Iceman and Nightcrawler and teleported back to X-Haven by Cerebra. There, he was transformed back to normal by Apocalypse, who was tricked into doing so by Nightcrawler.
Inhumans vs X-Men and X-Men Gold
After Beast discovers that there isn't a cure for the M-Pox and no way to alter the Terrigen cloud the X-Men are left with the choice to either stay on earth and fight for their right to live and risk becoming extinct in a matter of weeks or leave earth and start fresh somewhere else. The X-Men decide to go to war against the Inhumans to decide the fate of the Terrigen. With the war underway Colossus is stationed at X-Haven to protect it from a potential Inhuman counter-attack. When the Inhuman Royal Family arrives to do just that, Colossus is left to face them on his own. He later joins the rest of the X-Men in Iceland in the final battle against the Inhumans, where Medusa finally understands what the X-Men are fighting for so she voluntarily destroys the Terrigen.
After the Terrigen is destroyed the X-Men sends the refugees back home from X-Haven now that earth is habitable for mutants again. Still, the X-Men find themselves wondering how to move forward with the events of the war still fresh in their minds. Storm asks Kitty Pryde to return to the X-Men and take her place as leader, and in doing so Kitty moves the mansion from Limbo to Central Park and creates a new field team and recruits Colossus. Colossus and Kitty share many awkward moments given their history, trying to move forward as friends but still feeling a chemistry.
Powers and abilities
Colossus is a mutant with the ability to transform his entire body into a form of "organic steel", with properties similar to osmium but of still unknown composition. Colossus must transform his entire body into this armored state; he cannot transform only a portion of his body. When he transforms, he gains approximately in height; official figures state his height at about in transformed state versus in normal human form. His weight is more than doubled. In his armored form, Colossus possesses superhuman levels of strength, as well as superhuman stamina and durability. His physical strength is currently greater than when he first joined the X-Men due to the realignment of his cells by Magneto following an injury during the Mutant Massacre. While in his armored form, Colossus requires no food, water or even oxygen to sustain himself and is extremely resistant to injury. He is capable of withstanding great impacts, large caliber bullets, falling from tremendous heights, electricity, and certain magical attacks. While he has great resistance to temperature extremes of hot and cold, extreme heat followed by rapid super-cooling has been shown to cause damage. As he is vulnerable to the anti-metal Antarctic Vibranium in his metal form, his body instinctively shifts to human form when faced with an Antarctic Vibranium weapon.
Colossus is an excellent hand-to-hand combatant, having been trained in Judo by Cyclops. He has had training in acrobatics and sword fighting from Nightcrawler. In his human form, he is still exceptionally strong and in superb physical condition, though not superhumanly so. He has completed college-level courses at Xavier's school.
As the unstoppable Avatar of Cyttorak, Colossus gained additional superhuman strength and resistance to injury, as well as other mystical powers. Among these was the power to ignore impediments to his movement, hence the "unstoppable" moniker. These powers were later taken away from Colossus and returned to Cain Marko.
Other versions
Age of Apocalypse
In the Age of Apocalypse timeline, Piotr Rasputin/Colossus was a very haunted man, wearing a red mask to cover acid scars on his face. His sister, Illyana Rasputin, was thought to have died years prior, and his brother, Mikhail Rasputin, was captured by Apocalypse. Colossus became leader of the Super Soldiers and faced his brainwashed brother in combat. Now a Horseman of Apocalypse, Mikhail destroyed all of Russia's superheroes except his brother, and from that day the severely beaten Colossus chose to dedicate his life to stopping Apocalypse and Mikhail. He left Russia to find the X-Men. Colossus was one of Magneto's original recruits for his X-Men.
During his first mission as an X-Man, Colossus battled Sabretooth for the life of a young Jewish American mutant named Katherine Pryde/Shadowcat. Colossus fell in love with her, and the two would eventually marry. After years of fighting for Magneto's cause, Colossus lost the will to fight on a battlefield in Africa. He decided to retire from the X-Men. As a final favor to Magneto, he agreed to teach the next generation of mutants with his wife.
Colossus came out of retirement two times. The first time, he was injured so severely only Magneto's metal powers kept him alive. Colossus could not transform back to his human self without risking death. The second time, Magneto offered Colossus and Shadowcat an important mission. It was discovered that Illyana was indeed still alive and being held prisoner in a slave camp, and they needed to save her so they could restore the true timeline.
Colossus and Shadowcat sent their team into the Seattle Core to rescue Illyana. After they found her, Colossus demanded Shadowcat evacuate Illyana immediately, leaving their students behind. Shadowcat disagreed, but followed his orders after he told her that he would go back for their students. Colossus reached the front gate and peered back into the Core. Only one student, Husk, remained standing. Colossus allowed the gate to close without attempting to help. He returned to his wife and sister and claimed he had done all he could.
Colossus and Shadowcat delivered Illyana to Magneto, but after learning the reality Magneto was trying to save was a place where his sister was dead, Colossus went mad. He tried to follow his sister into the M'Kraan Crystal, injuring Iceman in the process, and when Shadowcat stepped in front of him, assuming he would calm down, he didn't. Colossus crushed his wife and killed her. Insane with grief, he was finally taken down by Gambit.
Mortally injured, he reverts to his human form and dies after his sister returns from the M'kraan Crystal.
Years later, when Weapon X had been transformed into Weapon Omega, the Heir of Apocalypse, Colossus was brought back to life through the combined efforts of Sugarman and Dark Beast, who had taken great pains to find and preserve his body. Along with many other "alphas", his mind was altered, turning him into a servant of Weapon Omega.
He was sent together with Azazel and Cyclops to confront another resurrected "alpha", Penance. Penance used her telepathic powers to restore Colossus' true memories, and he swore to help her in her quest to rebuild the world and lead mutants to a brighter future. A fight broke out between him and Cyclop, but Azazel teleported Cyclops and himself away.
Days of Future Past
In the Days of Future Past timeline (Earth-811,), Colossus was detained in the South Bronx Mutant Containment Facility, Like most of the surviving X-Men. In this reality he married Kate Pryde and they had children. When his wife transferred her conscience into the Kitty Pride of Earth-616 and fell unconscious, Colossus tried to protect her from the Sentinels. As one of the last mutants on Earth, He infiltrated the Baxter Building on a suicide run in which he was killed by Sentinels trying to avenge the deaths of Storm and Wolverine.
Earth X
In Earth X, Colossus has become Tsar Piotr of Russia. His country's massive grain supply, protected by an army of Crimson Dynamos, provides one of the greatest food sources for the world. Occasionally, he is attacked by Life Model Decoys of Nick Fury, who seem to think that Piotr is a stereotypical Communist. It is mentioned in passing that at some point in the future, he will travel back in time and become Mister Sinister.
Exiles
Several versions of Colossus have been seen in the Exiles series.
One was killed after betraying his Heroes for Hire teammates to save the alternative version of his sister, Magik.
One dies protecting an alternative version of Shadowcat.
Marvel Zombies
A version of Colossus is seen in Dead Days when the zombifed Alpha Flight attack the mansion. Later, he is seen among the survivors and fighting the other zombie heroes. Colossus, Nightcrawler, Storm, Dr. Strange, Nick Fury and Thor fight a holding action to protect a teleporter from the zombie forces. The group realizes that their plan to evacuate survivors might lead to another innocent world being infected so they destroy the machine and willingly give themselves up to the zombies.
In Marvel Zombies: Halloween, Kitty Pryde and her son with Colossus, Peter Rasputin Pryde are two of the few surviving humans, years later.
Ultimate Marvel
In the Ultimate Marvel universe, Peter Rasputin reluctantly works as an arms smuggler for the Russian mob. Peter was saved from a firing squad as a young child by a boss in the Russian Mafia called Big Boris, who smuggles Peter from Siberia to the United States. Colossus' powers are similar to those of his Earth-616 counterpart. With the use of a deadly drug called Banshee, he has gained super strength to rival other powerhouses such as Thor. He is not immune to Rogue's touch as shown in the "Return to Weapon X" storyline. He is also highly resistant to physical injury. He has withstood being slashed by Ultimate Wolverine's adamantium claws. He has also survived a localized nuclear explosion. A few deviations from the Earth-616 version include the fact that Ultimate Colossus's height remains the same when he changes. Unlike the mainstream version, his eyes remain vulnerable to pressure even in steel form, as shown when fighting Sam Wilson during Ultimate Nightmare.
Colossus is revealed as a mutant during an illegal arms transaction gone wrong. Everyone is killed by gunfire except for Peter, whose mutant ability saves him. Jean Grey finds him soon after and offers him a place among the X-Men.
When the X-Men embark on a world tour to promote Xavier's book, Colossus inexplicably disappears to Russia. Cyclops and Jean Grey track him and find Peter working in a factory. Colossus tells them he left due to unhappiness with his place on the team and with life as a mutant, but Jean suggests that his true reason is unrequited feelings he has for a fellow team member. Peter later comes to terms with his "gift," and becomes a Russian national hero when he rescues the crew of an incapacitated submarine. He leaves Russia to rejoin the X-Men.
Later, Colossus and the X-Men are forced out of the mansion with the U.S. Government on their tails. In a climactic battle between the X-Men and The Ultimates, Colossus is able to defeat Iron Man and Thor, but is finally temporarily incapacitated by Hawkeye who fires a compact nuclear warhead arrow (with a blast radius of about 20 feet) near him. With the surprise assistance from Iceman, the X-Men (without Professor Xavier) manage to regroup and escape.
The X-Men locate Magneto's flying citadel using a signal sent by a captured Cyclops. Upon their arrival, Magneto subdues them. Despite being composed of metal, Colossus' great strength and willpower allow him to overcome Magneto's control and beat Magneto mercilessly for the harm inflicted on Wolverine.
Unlike his mainstream counterpart, Ultimate Colossus is gay and does not have a romance with Ultimate Kitty Pryde/Shadowcat. This is implied during the Mark Millar's run on the title, through his interactions with fellow X-Man Wolverine (this is implied during the "Return of the King" story arc, in which Colossus almost beats Magneto to a pulp when he threatens Wolverine). It is implied (through stereotype) when Jean Grey reveals to the readers that Peter's favorite TV show is Will & Grace, but stated more directly in that the main reason Colossus left the X-Men might have been that he was unable to make the X-Man he'd fallen in love with love him, even in the slightest. Storm also suggests Peter is gay when Angel arrives at the school and Storm explains to him that the reason that all the girls "and maybe Colossus" stare at him is because he is good looking. It is more openly addressed later during a series of mutant murders by Sinister, Colossus tends to the wounds of Northstar, the only survivor. He is shocked when the openly gay Northstar asks if Colossus is single, which triggers a transformation into his metal state.
Colossus and Northstar amicably part ways and keep in touch even after Northstar's team, the Academy of Tomorrow, come to blows with the X-Men. Colossus later agrees to accompany Northstar to his homecoming dance. This disturbs Nightcrawler, Peter's friend, who begins to avoid and resent him. Their relationship becomes very strained after this and never really recovers, Nightcrawler believing that Colossus deliberately misled and "betrayed" him. This also marks a significant change in Nightcrawler's character: much of his relationship with Colossus in the mainstream versions of them also involves Kitty Pryde (Colossus' recurring love interest throughout most of the various X-Men chronicles)'s close relationship with Nightcrawler. In this version, there is no romantic relations between Pryde and Rasputin and all three characters are affected. In other versions, Nightcrawler is routinely seen as an outsider trying desperately to fit in, more so than the other X-Men, but in this one his blatant homophobia and disgust towards Colossus is a strong theme. Comments have been made with a double meaning toward Peter's sexuality, such as Bobby Drake saying "Too bad he's playing for the other team" during a baseball game against the Academy of Tomorrow.
Following Xavier's death, Northstar asks Colossus to come stay with him at the Academy of Tomorrow. Colossus finds a job as a construction worker and refuses to join Bishop's X-Men team.
It has been revealed that Colossus is dependent on the mutant enhancement drug Banshee for his super-human strength; without it, he cannot so much as lift his arms in his organic steel mode. It was also revealed that Peter came to work for the Russian mob after being banished from his home by his father, who had accidentally discovered him in bed with another man. Colossus briefly formed a Banshee-enhanced splinter group of X-Men, but they have since rejoined the main group drug-free.
After rejoining the main X-Men team, a tsunami hits New York and kills numerous people and superheroes including some of his teammates (Beast, Dazzler, and Nightcrawler). He fights against Magneto and his Brotherhood in their attack on the world. He, alongside Jean Grey, Storm, Iceman, and Rogue, is one of the few X-Men to survive the Ultimatum.
At the end of Ultimate X #5, Colossus is shown being held in a government facility: "Camp Angel" along with Storm and Spiral. It can be inferred from the narration of Karen Grant that the government is using them for testing on how to remove the mutant gene. At the start of Ultimate Comics: X-Men as a series, Colossus is seen in this camp. Despite the government's claims that mutants are being well-treated, Colossus is being maliciously tortured with electrical sticks. When the prison is overruled, and arguments started between Storm and Stacy X over the treatment of Warden Lake and Major Walker, until Colossus kills Lake, summoning a fleet of Nimrod Model Sentinels.
X-Men Forever
In X-Men Forever, Colossus returns to Russia after the events of X-Men #1-3, where he becomes a government agent, handled by Natalia Romanova, the Black Widow, with whom he has struck up a romance. Although overjoyed to see his old teammates again, he is intent on staying and serving his country.
In other media
Television
Colossus appears in the episodes "The Education of a Superhero" and "The X-Men Adventure" of the 1981 animated series Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends, voiced by John Stephenson.
Colossus is featured in the 1989 animated special Pryde of the X-Men, the pilot of an unproduced X-Men animated series, voiced by Dan Gilvezan.
Colossus is featured in X-Men, voiced by Rick Bennett in "The Unstoppable Juggernaut" and by Robert Cait in "Red Dawn". He also made several other silent cameos throughout the series.
Colossus appears in the 2000 animated series X-Men: Evolution, voiced by Michael Adamthwaite. He appears as a member of Magneto's Acolytes as seen in the two-part episode "Day of Reckoning". His reason for being a member of the Acolytes is that Magneto is threatening his family. He reveals this to Wolverine and later tries to defy Magneto's threats against his family. Following Magneto's disappearance, Colossus returned to Russia but returned to help the X-Men in their battle against Apocalypse. When Professor Xavier saw the future, he saw Colossus as one of the X-Men.
Colossus appears in the first episode of the animated series Wolverine and the X-Men, voiced by Phil Morris. He was set to reappear in the series' second season before its cancellation with the episode detailing him and his sister Illyana evading Sentinels in Russia.
Colossus cameos in the first and sixth episodes of The Super Hero Squad Show, voiced by Tom Kenny.
Colossus appears in the Astonishing X-Men motion comics, voiced by Dan Green and later by Trevor Devall.
Colossus appears in a non-speaking cameo in the final episode of Marvel Anime: X-Men. He is among the other X-Men members and other heroes that Professor X reaches out to in order to deal with the worldwide crisis that was being caused by Takeo Sasaki.
Colossus appears in Marvel Disk Wars: The Avengers, voiced by Takahiro Fujimoto.
Film
[[File:Colossus X2.jpg|thumb|right|Daniel Cudmore as Colossus in the film X2|alt=Daniel Cudmore as a young Colossus in the film X2'.]]
Colossus has a brief cameo as a student sketching in the Xavier Institute's courtyard in the 2000 film X-Men, played by Donald Mackinnon.
Colossus appears in the 2003 film X2 played by Daniel Cudmore. He helps several of the younger mutants escape the Xavier Institute during William Stryker's raid on the mansion. When Colossus offers to help Wolverine, he tells Colossus to help get the uncaptured students away from the X-Mansion.
Cudmore reprises the role in the 2006 film X-Men: The Last Stand. He takes part in a Danger Room session with the other X-Men, and joins in their battle against Magneto on Alcatraz Island.
Cudmore reprised his role as Colossus in the 2014 film X-Men: Days of Future Past. He is one of the few surviving X-Men in the future. At the beginning of the film, Colossus attempts to stall the Sentinels so that Kitty and Bishop could change the past, but has his arm punched off and head crushed by a Sentinel that mimics his organic steel flesh and uses his own powers against him. However, Kitty and Bishop change the past and Colossus survives. While stalling the Sentinels so that Wolverine could change the timeline, he is torn in half while in his organic steel form. When the timeline is eventually corrected, Colossus is seen teaching with Kitty Pryde when Wolverine wanders through the X-Mansion. A viral marketing website for X-Men: Days of Future Past shows Colossus as one of the mutant babies born prematurely after the Chernobyl disaster.
Colossus appears in the 2016 film Deadpool via CGI. Andre Tricoteux and T.J. Storm provided motion-capture stunt for Colossus in the film, Glenn Ennis provided the initial facial shapes, the film's motion capture supervisor Greg LaSalle provided the final facial performance, while the character is voiced by Serbian actor Stefan Kapičić. Deadpool director Tim Miller stated that Cudmore was originally offered the role, but he declined to return when he was informed that his voice would be dubbed by Kapičić. In the film, he tries to recruit Deadpool into the X-Men while teaching him the morality of being a superhero alongside his X-Men trainee Negasonic Teenage Warhead. He is unsuccessful and after Ajax escapes, Deadpool attempts to fight him in a fit of anger. He then handcuffs Deadpool and attempts to bring him back to the X-Mansion, but Deadpool cuts his own hand off and escapes via a dump truck on the freeway. Later, Deadpool calls for his and Negasonic's help in rescuing Vanessa (as they are, as he notes, the only X-Men the studio could afford) in exchange for considering joining the X-Men. While Deadpool fights Ajax, Colossus fights Angel Dust, whom he defeats with the help of Negasonic. Colossus later tries to stop Deadpool from killing Ajax, pleading for him to spare his enemy's life. Ultimately, his plea falls on deaf ears and Deadpool shoots Ajax in the head. Despite this act, Colossus exits the film with continued faith in Deadpool's ability to do good.
Colossus returns in Deadpool 2 with Kapičić reprising his role in both voicing and provided performance capture for the character's face and Tricoteux returning as the stand-in. In the film, Colossus brings Deadpool to the X-Mansion after Wade's suicide attempt and invites him to join the X-Men which Wade accepts this time to help him recover from the death of his lover. Colossus and Negasonic Teenage Warhead accompany Deadpool on his first X-Men mission to negotiate a standoff between authorities and the unstable young mutant Russell Collins / Firefist at an orphanage, labeled a "Mutant Reeducation Center". When Wade realizes that Collins has been abused by the orphanage staff and kills one of the staff members, Colossus stops him from killing anyone else, and expresses his disappointment as both Wilson and Collins are arrested. Wade later requests for Colossus' help in defeating Juggernaut as he tries to prevent Russell from committing murder. Colossus at first refuses, but later shows up to defeat Juggernaut with Negasonic and Yukio to aid Wade in rescuing Russell from himself.
Video games
Colossus appeared in The Uncanny X-Men.
Colossus was playable in X-Men: Madness in the Murderworld.
Colossus appeared in X-Men II: The Fall of the Mutants.
Colossus was playable in the arcade game X-Men.
Colossus was playable in the arcade game X-Men: Children of the Atom.
Colossus is a partner assist in Marvel vs. Capcom: Clash of Super Heroes.
Colossus is playable in Marvel vs. Capcom 2: New Age of Heroes.
Colossus appeared in X-Men: Reign of Apocalypse as an NPC.
Colossus appears as an NPC in X2: Wolverine's Revenge, voiced by Christopher Corey Smith. He was shown working at the Void when Wolverine shows up. After Wolverine defeats Juggernaut, Colossus drags Juggernaut back to his cell.
Colossus appears as a playable character in X-Men Legends, voiced by Earl Boen.
Colossus appears in X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse, voiced by Jim Ward. One of his alternate costumes is similar to a Gladiator from the period that the Colossus of Rhodes was erected. He has special dialogue with Kitty Pryde where she claims that Colossus is flirting with Scarlet Witch.
Colossus appears in X-Men: The Official Game, voiced by Brad Abrell. He is playable in the Game Boy Advance version of the game.
Colossus is one of the playable characters who were exclusive to a certainprimary Ravensoft gameplay version's console ports of Marvel: Ultimate Alliance, voiced by Crispin Freeman. He is playable by default in Wii, Xbox 360, and PlayStation 3 versions. A possessed version of the character called Dark Colossus appears as a boss across all platforms. A mod available for the PS2, PSP, Xbox, and original PC version of the game unlocks him as a playable character. He is also playable by default in a remastered edition of PC, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One.
Colossus appears in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance 2, voiced by Nolan North. He is a boss in the Pro-Registration campaign and an NPC in the Anti-Registration campaign.
Colossus appears in X-Men: Destiny, voiced by Andre Sogliuzzo.
Colossus is a playable character in Marvel Super Hero Squad Online.
Colossus is a playable character in the Facebook game Marvel: Avengers Alliance.
Colossus is a playable character in the MMORPG Marvel Heroes, voiced by Chris Cox.
Colossus is a playable character in the home console videogame Lego Marvel Super Heroes, voiced by John DiMaggio. During the mission at the X-Mansion, Colossus was seen in the background fighting Juggernaut. He can be unlocked as a playable character by defeating the Sentinel that attacks the X-Mansion.
Colossus is a playable character in Marvel Contest of Champions, as both his regular self and his "Unstoppable Colossus" persona.
Colossus appears as playable character in Marvel Future Fight.
Colossus is a playable character in Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order, voiced by Chris Cox.
Novels
The X-Men/Star Trek crossover novel Planet X'' has the X-Men transported into the Star Trek universe; Colossus is seen transforming into his metal form and is mistaken for a Founder by Starfleet personnel.
See also
List of Russian superheroes
References
External links
Spotlight on Colossus at UncannyXmen.Net
Characters created by Dave Cockrum
Characters created by Len Wein
Comics characters introduced in 1975
Deadpool characters
Excalibur (comics)
Fictional artists
Fictional farmers
Fictional immigrants to the United States
Fictional Russian people
Fictional Soviet people
Male characters in film
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength
Marvel Comics film characters
Marvel Comics male superheroes
Marvel Comics mutants
Russian superheroes
X-Men members | [
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222230 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund%20Landau | Edmund Landau | Edmund Georg Hermann Landau (14 February 1877 – 19 February 1938) was a German mathematician who worked in the fields of number theory and complex analysis.
Biography
Edmund Landau was born to a Jewish family in Berlin. His father was Leopold Landau, a gynecologist and his mother was Johanna Jacoby. Landau studied mathematics at the University of Berlin, receiving his doctorate in 1899 and his habilitation (the post-doctoral qualification required to teach in German universities) in 1901. His doctoral thesis was 14 pages long.
In 1895, his paper on scoring chess tournaments is the earliest use of eigenvector centrality.
Landau taught at the University of Berlin from 1899 to 1909, after which he held a chair at the University of Göttingen. He married Marianne Ehrlich, the daughter of the Nobel Prize-winning biologist Paul Ehrlich, in 1905.
At the 1912 International Congress of Mathematicians Landau listed four problems in number theory about primes that he said were particularly hard using current mathematical methods. They remain unsolved to this day and are now known as Landau's problems.
During the 1920s, Landau was instrumental in establishing the Mathematics Institute at the nascent Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Intent on eventually settling in Jerusalem, he taught himself Hebrew and delivered a lecture entitled Solved and unsolved problems in elementary number theory in Hebrew on 2 April 1925 during the university's groundbreaking ceremonies. He negotiated with the university's president, Judah Magnes, regarding a position at the university and the building that was to house the Mathematics Institute.
Landau and his family emigrated to Mandatory Palestine in 1927 and he began teaching at the Hebrew University. The family had difficulty adjusting to the primitive living standards then available in Jerusalem. In addition, Landau became a pawn in a struggle for control of the university between Magnes and Chaim Weizmann and Albert Einstein. Magnes suggested that Landau be appointed Rector of the university, but Einstein and Weizmann supported Selig Brodetsky. Landau was disgusted by the dispute and decided to return to Göttingen, remaining there until he was forced out by the Nazi regime after the Machtergreifung in 1933. Thereafter, he lectured only outside Germany. He moved to Berlin in 1934, where he died in early 1938 of natural causes.
In 1903, Landau gave a much simpler proof than was then known of the prime number theorem and later presented the first systematic treatment of analytic number theory in the Handbuch der Lehre von der Verteilung der Primzahlen (the "Handbuch"). He also made important contributions to complex analysis.
G. H. Hardy and Hans Heilbronn wrote that "No one was ever more passionately devoted to mathematics than Landau".
Translated works
Foundations of Analysis, Chelsea Pub Co. .
Differential and Integral Calculus, American Mathematical Society. .
Elementary Number Theory, American Mathematical Society. .
See also
Landau's function
Landau prime ideal theorem
Landau's problems
Landau's symbol (Big O notation)
Landau–Kolmogorov inequality
Landau–Ramanujan constant
Landau's problem on the Dirichlet eta function
References
External links
Edmund Landau: The Master Rigorist by Eli Maor, Trigonometric Delights, page 192.
Translation of his doctoral thesis: Neuer Beweis der Gleichung , Berlin 1899
19th-century German mathematicians
20th-century German mathematicians
University of Göttingen faculty
Number theorists
19th-century German Jews
Scientists from Berlin
People from the Province of Brandenburg
1877 births
1938 deaths
Französisches Gymnasium Berlin alumni | [
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222231 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/There%27s%20No%20Disgrace%20Like%20Home | There's No Disgrace Like Home | "There's No Disgrace Like Home" is the fourth episode of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 28, 1990. In the episode, Homer is ashamed of his family's behavior at a catastrophic company picnic and enrolls them in therapy. The therapist, Dr. Marvin Monroe, struggles to solve their problems − culminating in a shock therapy-based showdown between the family members − before eventually giving up and refunding their money.
One of the first-produced episodes of the season, it is known for showcasing early designs and different characterizations for several members of the show's cast. The episode is inspired by the comedy of Laurel and Hardy and features cultural references to films such as Citizen Kane and Freaks as well as the Batman and Twilight Zone television series. When the BBC began airing The Simpsons in November 1996, this episode was the first to be shown.
Plot
Homer takes his family to a company picnic where he is embarrassed by the behavior of Bart, Lisa and Marge. When Homer notices that his boss, Mr. Burns, approves of a "normal", well-mannered family who treat one another with respect, he wonders why his dysfunctional family misbehaves and disrespects everyone.
When Marge, Bart, and Lisa claim there is nothing wrong with them, Homer tries to prove otherwise by taking them on a neighborhood tour and peeking through living room windows to observe other families. This backfires when a neighbor fires a gun at the Simpsons for trespassing and making it worse is how uncomfortable the rest of the Simpsons are with this outing. They immediately retreat back to their home to watch TV. Depressed by the outing, Homer has a drink at Moe's, where he sees a television commercial for Dr. Marvin Monroe's Family Therapy Center. Monroe guarantees "family bliss or double your money back", so Homer thinks therapy will improve his family's behavior.
To his family's chagrin, Homer pawns their television to pay for the $250 therapy. When Monroe asks the Simpsons to draw pictures of the source of their problems, Bart, Lisa, Marge and Maggie draw Homer. Distracted, Homer draws an airplane in flight and Monroe scolds him for being a bad father figure. After Homer gets angry with Bart and tries to attack him with a lamp, Monroe gives the Simpsons padded mallets to work out their aggression without harming each other. The exercise fails when Bart removes the padding from his mallet and hits the doctor in the knee with the hard inner core.
In frustration, Monroe resorts to aversion therapy by wiring the family members to an electric generator so they can deliver electric shocks to one another to deter misbehavior. The Simpsons shock each other so many times - largely due to Maggie pressing the buttons at random - that the generator is damaged and the entire city suffers a brownout, delighting Burns. Realizing he cannot help the Simpsons, Monroe turns off the generator and orders them to leave. Homer reminds Dr. Monroe that his TV commercial promised family bliss or a double-your-money-back guarantee. Monroe agrees to refund double the money to prevent the Simpsons from tarnishing the clinic's reputation. With a fresh sense of unity, the Simpsons use the money to replace their television.
Production
The episode shows telltale signs of being one of the earliest produced. Several of the characters notably behave differently compared to the episodes surrounding it: akin to her portrayal in the Tracey Ullman Show shorts, Lisa is an undisciplined brat indistinguishable from Bart, Marge gets drunk and is inattentive, and Homer is the voice of reason. These roles were reversed in later episodes. It was an early episode for Mr. Burns (who was known as Mr. Meanie in the first draft), who had been voiced by Christopher Collins in the previous episode. Originally, the character was influenced by Ronald Reagan, a concept that was later dropped. The idea that he would greet his employees using index cards was inspired by the way Reagan greeted people. The episode marks the first time Burns refers to "releasing the hounds".
The episode marked the first appearance of Dr. Marvin Monroe and Itchy & Scratchy; the latter had previously appeared in the shorts. It also marked the first appearance of yellow Smithers, who was drawn as an African-American in the previous episode. Eddie and Lou also appeared for the first time, although Lou was mistakenly animated with yellow instead of black, as he would later become. Lou was named after Lou Whitaker, a Major League Baseball player.
The idea behind the shock therapy scene was based on Laurel and Hardy throwing pies at each other. The scene was rearranged in the editing room; it played out differently when first produced. The edits to this scene were preliminary, but well-received, and remained unchanged in the finished product.
The episode's title is a parody of the famous phrase "There's no place like Home" from "Home! Sweet Home!", an 1823 song by Henry Bishop and John Howard Payne. The scene in which the family enters Burns' Manor contains two cultural references. The Manor resembles Charles Foster Kane's mansion from the 1941 film Citizen Kane. The characters refer to it as "stately Burns Manor", a reference to the Batman TV series. In addition, there is a reference to Freaks, the Tod Browning cult horror film, in the repetition of the line "one of us".
While drunk at Mr. Burns' picnic, Marge sings a version of the song "Hey, Brother, Pour the Wine" which was popularised by Dean Martin. The shock therapy scene is reminiscent of the 1971 film A Clockwork Orange.
The episode made a brief appearance as inflight entertainment in the 1990 action film Die Hard 2.
Reception
In its original broadcast, "There's No Disgrace Like Home" finished forty-fifth in ratings for the week of January 22–28, 1990, with a Nielsen rating of 11.2, equivalent to approximately 10.3 million viewing households. It was the second-highest-rated show on Fox that week, following Married... with Children.
Since airing, the episode has received mixed reviews from television critics. The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, note: "It's very strange to see Homer pawning the TV set in an attempt to save the family; if this episode had come later Marge would surely have taken this stance."
They continue, "A neat swipe at family counseling with some great set pieces; we're especially fond of the perfect version of The Simpsons and the electric-shock aversion therapy."
Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review that the episode is "[his] least favorite episode of Season One" and further commented: "Homer feels embarrassed by the others? Marge acts poorly in public and doesn't care about the upkeep of the family? Lisa (Yeardley Smith) engages in pranks and silliness? This ain't the family we've grown to know and love."
It was the first episode to be broadcast on terrestrial television by the BBC on November 23, 1996 on a Saturday at 5:30pm, because the episodes were shown out of order. The episode was screened with five million viewers, slightly less than the show, Dad's Army, which previously held the timeslot. The episode also faced competition from ITV's screening of Sabrina the Teenage Witch.
Home release
The episode was released first on home video in the United Kingdom, as part of a VHS release titled The Simpsons Collection; the episode was paired with season one episode "Bart the General". It was released in the US on the VHS release The Best of The Simpsons, Vol. 1 (1997), paired with "Life on the Fast Lane". It was later re-released in the US in a collector's edition boxed set of the first three volumes of The Best of The Simpsons collections. It was re-released in the UK as part of a VHS boxed set of the complete first season, released in November 1999. The episode's debut on the DVD format was as a part of The Simpsons season one DVD set, which was released on September 25, 2001. Groening, Jean, and Reiss participated in the DVD's audio commentary. A digital edition of the series' first season was published December 20, 2010 in the United States containing the episode, through Amazon Video and iTunes.
References
External links
The Simpsons (season 1) episodes
1990 American television episodes
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222233 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colima%20City | Colima City | Colima () is a city that is the capital of the Colima state and the seat of Colima municipality, located in central−western Mexico. It is located near the Colima volcano, which divides the small state from that of Jalisco.
The city of Colima is the capital of the state of the same name. It is the second largest municipality after Manzanillo by population. FDI Intelligence, a subsidiary of the Financial Times of London, ranked Colima first in small cities and tenth in Latin America as a place to live. It was evaluated under six categories; economic potential, human resources, cost-benefit ratio, quality of life, infrastructure and favorable business environment.
Places
The historic center of the city is a square called Jardín Libertad (Liberty Garden). It consists of a kiosk in the center, brought from Belgium in 1891, surrounded by palms and leafy trees and bushes. It often hosts live music on weekends.
The best known hotel of the city is Hotel Ceballos, located just off the main square called Jardín Libertad behind a set of arches. The hotel was begun by the Ceballos family. Hotel Ceballos has an area under and in front of the arches for outdoor dining. Here and in other restaurants in the city, one can try popular dishes such as atole with milk, white pozole, white menudo, tatamado, pipián mole, birria and sopes. On the side of the Hotel, there is pedestrian street called Andador Constitución. It retains traditional businesses such as the Joven Don Manuelito ice cream shop, which has been there since 1944. On the street proper, one can see street musicians and artists offering to paint or draw landscapes and portraits. At the end of this street, there is a large handcrafts store funded by a government agency called DIF, which focuses on crafts from the state such as indigenous clothing and ceramic figures, especially those of the Mexican hairless dog also known as the Xoloizcuintle or simply Xolo.
The Colima cathedral is called the Basílica Menor Catedral de Colima. The current structure as built in 1894, but since then it has been renovated various times, often due to earthquake damage. The style is Neoclassical with two towers at the front and a dome. The interior is sparse. The former state government palace is next to the cathedral. It is a two-story buildings in French Neoclassical design. It was finished in 1904 and designed by Lucio Urbe, who also did the cathedral. The façade contains a bell, which is a replica of the one Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla rang in Dolores Hidalgo and a clock brought over from Germany. The building surrounded an inner courtyard marked off by arches. The main stairwell contains mural work done in 1953 by the Coliman artist, Jorge Chávez Carrillo. The park behind the cathedral is Jardin Gregorio Torres Quintero, which contains mango, tabachin (Caesalpinia mexicana) and palm trees along with stands selling handcrafts, novelties and food. Stands here and other places in the city sell a local drink called the "bate" which is thick and somewhat gray in color, made from a toasted seed called chan or chía along with honey or piloncillo. Another traditional drink sold on streets and parks is called "tuba." It is made from the flower of a type of palm tree, with apple, cucumber and peanut bits added.
On one side of Jardín Libertad is the Museo Regional de Historia, or the regional museum for Colima. The building dates from 1848 when it was a private home. Later it became a hotel and in 1988, it opened as a museum. The ground floor has a number of archeological pieces along with a replica of a shaft tomb, which is characteristic of the region. It recreates the burial of several peoples along with their belongings and Mexican hairless dogs (Xolos), which were thought to be guides to the next world. The upper floor contains documents and other objects which narrates the history of the state from the Conquest to the Mexican Revolution .
A short distance from Jardín Libertad is Jardín Hidalgo, dedicated to Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla. This square contains an equatorial sundial which is exact. It was designed by Julio Mendoza and contains explanations in several languages. On one side is located the Temple of San Felipe de Jesús. The main altar of this church contains six niches, with a crucifix at the top. The Del Carmen Chapel is next to it, which is a simple building that contains the image of Our Lady of Mount Carmel with the Infant Jesus in her arms. On another side is the Pinacoteca Universitaria Alfonso Michel which is a museum dedicated to the history of art in Colima. It is dedicated to Colima artist Alfonso Michel who is considered the best of the state from the 20th century, and who focused on cubist and impressionist painting. The building is traditional for the city with its corridors lined by arches. Along with its permanent collection, the museum hosts exhibitions by local artists.
The Piedra Lisa Park is named after a large smooth monolithic stone which was thrown here by the Colima Volcano thousands of years ago. According to local legend, visitors to the city who slide down the smooth face of the stone three times are destined to stay or return. This is further assured if the visitor slides down three times. This park is also home to an interactive science museum called the Xoloescuintle.
The Conjunto de la Secretaría de Cultura (Secretary of Culture Complex) is a series of buildings around a central plaza that contains a Juan Soriano sculpture by the name of "El Toro." The three main buildings are the Edificio de Talleres which is for workshops on various artistic disciplines, the Casa de la Cultura Alfonso Michel or Edificio Central, which hosts various exhibitions along with a permanent collection of works by Alfonso Michel and Museo de las Culturas de Occidente María Ahumada de Gómez (María Ahumada de Gómez Museum of Western Cultures.The Ahumada Museum has a large collection of archeological pieces from the region. It divides into two areas. The ground floor is dedicated to the history of the state divided into phases. The upper floor is dedicated to the various pre-Hispanic culture of the area showing various aspects of their lives such as work, clothing, architecture, religion and art.
The Palacio Legislativa y de Justicia (Legislative and Justice Palace) is the work of architects Xavier Yarto and Alberto Yarza. It is a modern design. Its interior contains a mural entitled "La Universialidad de la Justicia" by Gabriel Portillo del Toro.
The Museo Universitario de Artes Populares María Teresa Pomar is not only dedicated to the region's handicrafts and folk art, it also has exhibitions related to the area's popular festivals and traditions. The collection includes festival costumes, toys, masks, cooking utensils, metal miniatures, wood objects, pottery and fiber crafts.
Colima Municipality
As municipal seat, the city of Colima is the local government for 145 communities, with the most important being Colima, Tepames, Piscila, El Chanal and Los Asmoles. The only urban community is Colima with a high population density with almost all involved in commerce, services and some industry. These communities cover a territory of 668.2km2 and are bordered by the municipalities of Cuauhtémoc, Ixtlahuacán, Tecomán, Coquimatlán and Villa de Álvarez with the state of Jalisco to the east and the state of Michoacán to the southeast. The municipal government consists of a municipal president, an officer called a síndico and eleven representatives called regidores.
The municipality contains about one-quarter of the state's total population. About 92% of the municipality's population lives in the city proper. (123,543 in the city versus 8,730 in the rural areas ). , only 574 people spoke an indigenous language, with 239 of them living in the city proper. Over 95% of the population is Catholicism, with about two percent following a Protestant or Evangelical form of Christianity. As of 2010, the municipality had a total population of 146,904, and covers an area of .
The city has radio stations, two broadcast television stations (channels 5 and 11), cable television services, and eight newspapers. The main highways that connect the municipality to the outside include Highway 4 to Manzanillo and Guadalajara and Highway 110 to Jiquilpan, Michoacán. Other modes of transportation include the Guadalajara-Colima-Manzanillo rail line, the Central Camionera and Central Suburbana de Autobuses bus stations and the regional airport Miguel de la Madrid Airport .
Environment
Most of the municipality is located in the Valley of Colima. About half of the municipality has rugged, mountainous terrain, most of which is on the south and southeastern sides but with an average altitude of only 550 masl. These areas are part of the areas belonging to the Colima Volcano and a set of mountains called the Cordillera Costera del Sur, which is part of the Sierra Madre del Sur, especially that of the north and northwest to the Cerro de los Gallos mesa. These mountains separate the area from the ocean.
On the north and northwest, there is a mesa area called the Cerro de los Gallos. Local peaks include Los Mezcales, Los Gallos, El Alcomún, Rincón de Galindo, Pistola Grande, Piscila, El Agostadero, La Salvia, Cerro Pelón, Piedra Ancha, Higuera Panda, Amarradero, La Yerbabuena, Peña Blanca, La Cebadilla, Tinajas, El Salto, Los Volcancillos, La Palmera, El Camichín, El Achoque, La Siempreviva, El Borrego and Copala.
Important rivers in the municipality include El Colima, Salado and the Naranjo or Coahuayana. Feeding into these rivers are streams such as El Zarco, El Astillero Salitrillos, Cardona, Colomitos and El Chico. During the rainy season, the following flow: El Manrique, La Estancia, La Cañada, Tepames, Tinajas and La Palmera.
The climate is semi-humid with rains in the summer, with an annual average temperature of between 24 and 26 °C. One exception to this is a section near the Cuauhtémoc border where the temperature is between 22 and 24° C and annual rainfall is between as opposed to the average for the rest of the municipality. Another exception are the communities of Estampilla and Las Tunas, where the climate is drier and hotter, with an average temperature of and an annual precipitation of between .
In the center, west and southeast, the dominant type of natural vegetation is low growth rainforest. About seventy-five percent of these trees shed their leaves during the dry season. The southeast also contains areas with medium-growth rainforest, which also is deciduous. Most of this forest is near the Ixtlahuacán border. In the highest elevations, south and southeast of the Tepames community, there are some localized forests of holm oak.
The growth of the city in recent decades has put severe stress on the local environment, with subdivisions clearing areas of tropical vegetation, and large quantities of garbage and wastewater improperly disposed. The Manrique River is considered the dirtiest in the state, with an estimated eight to nine tons of garbage within it. However, there have been well run reforestation programs in the municipality.
Economy
The city of Colima is the economic center of the state. Outside in the small communities of the municipality, agriculture is still the most important economic activity. The city has been ranked as first as liveable small city in Mexico and tenth in Latin America by FDI Intelligence. It is one of seventy-one urban areas and 308 municipalities that contribute over eighty percent of Mexico's GDP. It is ranked twelfth in competitiveness. Its main competitive advantage is reliable and objective local laws with its weakness being sustainable use of the local environment. The working population of the municipality is 51,509, with 3,145 working in agriculture, 10,820 in industry, mining and construction and 35,809 in commerce and services . A study by the University of Colima concluded that the municipality is the most competitive in the state and one of the most competitive in the center west of Mexico. Two economic advantages the municipality has are its well development commerce and services sector and its low rate of unemployment. One main disadvantage is its lack of developed technology sector, with most businesses dedicated to basic commodities. Others include high bureaucratic costs, crime rate, over exploitation of aquifers and problems with waste management, especially hazardous materials.
Agriculture is exclusively practiced outside of the city proper, by the small rural communities which still depend on it economically, along with some mining and fishing. The municipality has a total of 70,000 hectares dedicated to agricultural production, which is over ten percent of the total. Most soils in the municipality are fertile. Most irrigated agriculture occurs in the west of the municipality on the Los Asmoles, Las Golondrinas and Los Ortinces mesas. Main crops include corn, rice, melons, animal feed, sugar cane and limes. Other important crops include sorghum, tomatoes, tomatillos, beans, peanuts, mangos, tamarind, coconut, papaya, agave and bananas. Livestock mostly consists of domestic fowl followed by cattle, horses, sheep, goats and pigs. Agriculture employs just over nine percent of the population.
Except for some limestone at the Cerro de Galindo, there are no exploitable minerals in the municipality. Industry is limited to food processing and packaging, especially of rice. There is also some production of oils, soaps and sweets. This sector of the economy employs just over twenty percent of the population.
About sixty eight percent of the population is employed in commerce and services. Colima is one of the state's main commercial centers and is the major distribution center for goods destined for local consumption. The municipality has five traditional fixed markets, eight department stores, ten tianguis markets, one flea market and a very large number of small, independent retail stores. Despite being the capital, the city is not the state's main tourist attraction, eclipsed by Manzanillo and Comala, as it lacks major cultural and historical sites. It is one of the state's main commerce and distribution centers, with over two-thirds of the population employed in commerce and services within the city proper. The main economic activities in the city are commerce and services, including tourism. However, the city lacks major cultural and heritage sites, with makes it lag behind Manzanillo and the small town of Comala as a tourist attraction.
History
Name
The name comes from the Nahuatl "Coliman" which refers to the pre-Hispanic dominion of the area. It divides into syllables referring to the Colima Volcano, also called "grandfather" and the word for hand or dominion. This has been interpreted to mean "place conquered by our grandfathers" or "dominion of the old god or god of fire," referring to the volcano.
The seal for the city was chosen in 1986 from a number submitted as part of a competition. The chosen seal contains fields of red to symbolize the hot climates and local flora such as bougainvilleas, pitayas, and palm trees. Blue represents water on which appears an image of King Collimán. Other images include an open book (education), the two volcanoes of the state, foliage called lambrequins and Mexican hairless dogs (Xolos).
The city's nickname is "Ciudad de las Palmeras" or City of the Palms.
Colonial era
The Spanish colonial settlement of Colima was founded on 15 July 1523 at a location now known as Caxitlán, near present-day Tecomán. This settlement was founded by Gonzalo de Sandoval under orders from Hernán Cortés in order to control the newly conquered Central Mexico region. Due to disease, the settlement was moved on 20 January 1527 to the current location with the name of Villa de San Sebastián Colima. It was the eighth settlement founded by the Spanish in the Viceroyalty of New Spain. Hernán Cortés visited the settlement in 1535.
19th century
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla was in charge of the parish of Colima in 1792. This would lead to a friendship with Father José Antonio Díaz, who would be an insurgent leader in the area during the Mexican War of Independence. The Battle of el Llano de Santa Juana took place on 12 July 1811, with the city taken by the insurgents under Ignacio Sandoval and El Lego Gallaga. Insurgents under José Antonio Torres and Rafael Arteaga arrived to the city, bringing twenty Spanish hostages from Guadalajara. Eleven would be killed but nine were saved by Francisco Ramírez de Oliva. When royalist troops retook the city in March 1811, about three hundred insurgents and sympathizers were executed.
The city under Anastacio Brizuela swore allegiance to the Plan of Iguala in June 1821. When Independence was achieved in 1821, what is now the state of Colima still belonged to the province of Guadalajara. In September 1821, the municipalities of Colima and Zapotlán were ordered to negotiate their borders by the department of Guadalajara. During these negotiations, Zapotlán ceded Tonila to Colima, and Colima ceded Tecaltlán and Xilotlán to Zapotlán.
Colima and the territory it controlled were loyal to Iturbide. However, since it was then part of the territory of Guadalajara, it was forced to support the republic when it was proclaimed in 1823. The city and territory was made part of the state of Jalisco when it was established, with the city remaining the capital of the Colima province. The city tried to gain independence from Jalisco as a new state, but was denied. Anastacio Brizuela continued to work from 1823 to 1824 to separate the city and its province to make it a separate state. This occurred on 4 October 1824, separating from the state of Jalisco. However, this independence was not stable with the area passing back and forth between independent state and province of Jalisco. However, whether state or province, the city remained the seat of government for the area.
In 1824, the town of Colima was recognized as a city. The annual city fair was authorized in 1825 to occur for fifteen days in March.
When part of Jalisco, the city had problems because its political orientation was different from that of Guadalajara. It was also far from where political decisions were made, impeding economic development. This lack of support from Guadalajara kept ambitions for a distinct state alive, with city first petitioning for more support from Guadalajara, but not receiving it. The state and capital were formally recognized in the 1857 Constitution with Manuel Alvarez as the first constitutional governor.
The city hosted the government of Benito Juárez from March to April 1858.
During the French Intervention in Mexico, the state was taken over by those loyal to Maximilian I, reducing the state to an administrative department. Insurgent General Ramón Corona took the city on 31 January 1867 as part of efforts to restore the Mexican Republic.
The Manzanillo-Colima railroad was inaugurated in 1889.
Mexican Revolution to the present
Francisco I. Madero arrived to the city to campaign in 1909. After civil war broke out, forces loyal to this leader entered the city on 18 May 1911 under Eugenio Aviña. Insurgents under Juan José Ríos took control of the city between 1914 and 1916, beginning a series of social and economic reforms. Venustiano Carranza was in the city in 1916. While there, he was invited by Juan José Ríos to open the public library and formalize the state's Red Battalion.
Since then, most of the city's history has revolved around its growth. The population is expected to grow by 38,000 during the 2010s, with job growth of 14,000 and 44,000 more cars on the road. Problems that the city faces now include transit problems, unregulated growth, deteriorating road conditions and street lighting, the lack of public transportation, lack of public security and insufficient water treatment. The city generates eighty-seven tons of garbage every day. The municipal landfill receives about 175 tons of garbage each day. , for every 1,000 residents, there are 400 vehicles, ranking Colima third in the ratio of cars to people, down from first only a year earlier.
Unchecked urban sprawl, especially in the north and south of the city is a major environmental problem. Much of the building in the north is subdivisions which are only partially occupied. The Centro Universario de Gestión Ambiental at the University of Colima claims that there is apathy to environmental issues on the part of various levels of government.
Geography
Climate
Colima has a tropical savanna climate, with consistently high temperatures and extremely dry conditions from November to May followed by heavy rainfall from June to October. The city is sometimes affected by hurricanes, which can bring up to of rain per day and lengthy periods of heavy rain.
Government
Municipal presidents
Gastronomy
Most of the traditional foods of the region of Colima are based out of corn, local fruits, pork and seafood found on the coasts near the region. Some of the most popular and representative dishes of Colima include: "Sopitos" Small deep fried tortillas topped with ground beef, shredded cabbage, onion, and cheese bathed in the juices where the meat has been cooked; "Sopes Gordos" which are medium-size, thick tortillas that are slightly pan fried, topped with refried beans and a variety meats which can include pork tenderloin, pork ribs, pork rinds or shredded chicken; "Tostadas" are larger tortillas that are thinned, deep fried and then topped with the same variety of meats as the "Sopes Gordos"; these two last dishes will also include shredded cabbage, onions, fresh tomatoes, a thin meat sauce, and shredded cheese as a garnishing.
A local variety of "Pozole" is also extremely popular as a lunch or dinner meal. Pozole in Colima is made with a variety of pork meats and is typically served dry (no broth), although you can easily also find the variety that will include broth.
Some other popular dishes include "Tatemado" -pork meat marinated in coconut vinegar and cooked with a thick, mild and very flavorful chilly sauce. "Pepena" - Cooked entrails from either cow or pork. "Coachala" -Ground corn, cooked with shredded chicken. The local varieties of "Tamales" such as "Pata de Mula", which literally translates to mule's feet -filled with spicy beans and covered in corn leaves or "tamales de elote" - Filled with sweet, tender corn; "Ceniza" - Similar to Pata de Mula, but less spicy, larger and less dry.
The neighboring town of Comala characterizes itself for its wide variety of milk products and local varieties of fresh or dry cheeses, as well as for the production of sweet breads and pastries.
Colima is also known for its wide variety of fresh seafood restaurants. Some of the traditional seafood dishes include "Ceviche" - Ground raw fish cooked in a marinade of lime juice, garnished with shredded carrots, chopped cilantro, onions, tomatoes, jalapeño peppers and served on top of a deep fried tortilla. "Pescado a la talla" - A whole fish (typically red snapper) cut open and covered with a variety of chopped vegetables, and cooked wrapped in a banana leaf and grilled on top of hot coals.
There are three drinks that are very characteristics of the region: "Tejuino" - Thick, refreshing drink prepared with corn masa and molasses and it is served with a lot of ice, salt and lime. "Tuba" - A drink brought from the Philippines, is the sap from the coconut tree, which is traditionally extracted making cuts at the top of the palm tree right at the base where the coconuts grow, and it is usually topped with peanuts, almonds or freshly chopped fruits. "Bate" - This drink is made with chia seeds and it is served with molasses. "Ponche de Comala" - This is the only alcoholic drink that it is traditionally made in the region, and it is produced in the neighboring town of Comala; You can find different varieties of Ponche which can be water-based or milk-based. Water-based Ponche include pomegranate, prune, guayabilla, and the milk variety include flavors such as coffee, almonds, among others. To prepare Ponche, locally produced mezcal is used, which is locally known as "Tuxca".
The region is also known for its interesting variety of sweets based out of coconut which are known as "Cocadas" or "Alfajores". Sweets made out of tamarind, pineapple or guava as well as dehydrated plantain are also very popular.
Archaeology
There are two main archeological zones in the municipality called La Campana and El Chanal. La Campana is about fifteen minutes outside of the city and is distinguished by a mound in the shape of a bell, which gives it the name. The site covers an area of about fifty hectares with only one percent explored. The site is also known for a construction style which uses rounded river stones and numerous burials.
El Chanal reached its height between 1,000 and 1,400 over an area of 120 hectares. The site has evidence of the extensive use of obsidian and metals such as copper and gold. Constructions at the site include a Mesoamerican ballcourt, the Plaza of the Altars, the Plaza of Day and Night and the Plaza of Time. Stairwells on pyramid bases often have glyphs similar to those found in central Mexico which may have a calendar function.
Education
The average number of years of schooling is 9.49 years, above the state average of 8.6, with men having only a slight advantage over women. (.3 years) However, there is a large gap between those in the city, with an average of 9.7 years versus those in the rural areas with an average of 5.9. The municipality has public and private schools that offer education from preschool to postgraduate. The municipality has 77 preschools, 104 primary schools, 34 secondary schools, 14 high schools and three technical schools.
University level education is available from the University of Colima, ITESM-Colima and UAP. There is also vocational training available through CONALEP and CEDART.
3.5% of the population in the city is illiterate versus 11.6% in the rural areas, for an average of about five percent.
Transportation
Lic. Miguel de la Madrid Airport serves the city, it is located 22 km outside the capital, in the municipality of Cuauhtémoc. Most of the Colima airport flights go to Mexico City, with about 100,000 passengers going through the terminal in 2009.
Colima is linked to Guadalajara by a four-lane toll highway (Highway 54D).
Two companies manage the public transport: SINTRA (Sistema Integral de Transporte S.A. de C.V.) and SOCACOVA (Sociedad Cooperativa de Autotransportes Colima-Villa de Álvarez S.C.L.).
There are also government run taxi company,
There are also two bus terminals, Terminal de Transportes de Colima S.A., goes to major destinations across the state and the country, and a rural bus terminal that goes to the nearest towns.
International relations
Twin towns – Sister cities
Colima is twinned with:
Norman, United States, since 2009
References
Link to tables of population data from Census of 2005 INEGI: Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática
Colima Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México
Notes
External links
Ayuntamiento de Colima — official website.
Capitals of states of Mexico
Cities in Mexico
Municipalities of Colima
Populated places established in 1523
1523 establishments in New Spain
1520s establishments in Mexico | [
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222234 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durango | Durango | Durango (), officially named Estado Libre y Soberano de Durango (; Tepehuán: Korian; Nahuatl: Tepēhuahcān), is one of the 31 states which make up the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico, situated in the northwest of the country. With a population of 1,832,650, Durango has Mexico's second-lowest population density, after Baja California Sur. The capital city, Victoria de Durango, is named after the first President of Mexico, Guadalupe Victoria.
Geography and environment
General information
With , Durango accounts for about 6.3% of the entire territory of Mexico. It is the fourth largest state lying at the extreme northwest of the Central Mexican Plateau, where it meets the Sierra Madre Occidental—the highest peaks in the state. The state has an average elevation of 1,775 meters above sea level, with a mean elevation of 1,750 m in the Valleys region and 2,450 m in the Sierra region. The city of Durango is on the foothills of the Sierra Madre Occidental, with an elevation of 1,857 m.
Durango is landlocked, bordered by Chihuahua, Coahuila, Zacatecas, Nayarit and Sinaloa. It is divided into 39 municipalities, based on the 1917 Constitution of Mexico, and several additional divisions have been made since.
The Sierra Madre Occidental blocks moisture from the Pacific Ocean, impacting the local climate of the state. Las Quebradas region, located over the mountain chain and on the northwest of the state, has a humid subtropical climate. Excepting the highest elevations, the rest of the state has semi-arid and temperate climates. It is hot and dry in the East, with some temperate areas existing at higher elevations.
Most of the state is mountainous and heavily forested, with the Sierra Madre Occidental covering around two-thirds of the state. Like much of northern Mexico, the state has worked to reforest the degraded forests of the Sierra Madre Occidental and Sierra Madre Oriental. Reforesting efforts have focused on replanting native tree species, versus those used for wood production. However, the tree density in many areas is still too low, especially on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental where tree poaching and clearing for agricultural activities is problematic.
Many rivers begin in Durango, but lead into other Mexican states. Some of these rivers empty into the Pacific, or into the lake area of La Comarca, while one, the Florida, flows into the Gulf of Mexico.
Ecological regions
Ecologically, the state is divided into four regions: La Quebrada, the Sierra, the Valleys and the Semi-desert.
The Semi-desert (sometimes called the Bolsón de Mapimí) is located in the northeast of the state and includes the municipalities of Hidalgo, Mapimí (including the Silent Zone, Tlahualilo, San Pedro del Gallo, San Luis del Cordero, Nazas, Lerdo, Gómez Palacio, Cuencamé, Santa Clara, General Simón Bolívar and San Juan de Guadalupe. Most of the terrain here is flat and its climate is dry. Temperatures are cold in the winter and hot in the summer. These municipalities are classified as either part of the Chihuahua Desert or in the transition zone. The area is relatively flat with some mountain ranges and a slight incline towards the interior of the country. The area was at one time under the sea, but today the vegetation consists of scrub, nopal cactus, maguey plants, barrel cactus and other arid zone plants. It is defined by two rivers: the Nazas and the Aguanaval. The region has two reservoirs: the Lázaro Cárdenas (Palmito) and the Francisco Zarco (Tórtolas), located between the Cuencamé and Lerdo municipalities. Animals that can be found here include coyotes, gavilanes (sparrowhawks), various snakes, owls, chameleons, tarantulas and scorpions. Most of the economically important natural resources come from mining, including deposits of gold, silver, iron and mercury. There are also large deposits of marble.
The La Laguna is short for La Comarca de la Laguna (the region of the lake) or Comarca Lagunera (region of lakes), an arid and semi-arid region that covers a significant portion of northeastern Durango and southeastern Coahuila. The area was created by sediments from torrential river flows deposited over large valleys. These river flows also created lagoons which served to recharge underground aquifers or remain as intermittent surface waters. Originally, the rivers supported habitat for native grasses, rush and ditch reed which provided habitat for various water birds and fish.
The area is home to Durango's only caverns. The Rosario Caves (grutas) are located near Ciudad Lerdo, as well as the Mapimí Biosphere, noted for various plants and the desert tortoise. It is a highly protected area centering on where the states of Chihuahua, Coahuila and Durango meet.
The Valleys are located in the center of the state and include the municipalities of Nombre de Dios, Durango, Nuevo Ideal, Canatlán, Guadalupe Victoria, Pánuco de Coronado, Poanas, Súchil, Vicente Guerrero, Ocampo, San Bernardo, Indé, Coneto de Comonfort, El Oro, Rodeo, San Juan del Río and Peñón Blanco. The region consists principally of river valleys and plains located among small mountain ranges. The main peaks in this area include the San Jacinto in the Silla Mountains and Peñon Blanco, which many schoolchildren in the area take trips to. Other major geographical formations in the Valleys Region include cliffs called Las Catedrales, along with those called Malpaís and La Breña, which were formed by lava flows over 250,000 hectares. The area is also home to the Cerro de Mercado which is important for its large deposit of iron.
The valleys proper are flat and suitable for farming, with irrigation from the Nazas, Florido and Tunal Rivers. Reservoirs for this purpose include the Santiaguillo, Guatimapé and Refugio Salcido. It has large areas with grass, huizache, sabinos and poplar trees. There is a shallow wetland area called the Guatimapé, or Santiguillo. It provides vital habitat for flocks of migrating birds in winter, especially cranes, geese and ducks. Around this lake, there are Mennonite communities who are noted for their cheeses and cured meats. The region also provides habitat for coyotes, rabbits, squirrels, foxes, geese and ducks. The rivers contain fish such as catfish, bass, carp and tilapia. The area also has hot springs due to tectonic activity. The best known springs are the Zape, Atotonilco and the Hervideros. The area is home to the state capital of Durango and many former haciendas that attest to the area's agricultural history.
The Sierra region is in the west of the state. It includes the municipalities of Guanaceví, Tepehuanes, and parts of Santiago Papasquiaro, Topia, Canelas, Otáez, Tamazula, San Dimas, Pueblo Nuevo, Mezquital, Durango, Ocampo and San Bernardo. The terrain is rugged with freezing temperatures in the winter and snow in the higher elevations. There is also a rainy season in the summer. The vegetation in the Sierra region is mostly pine–oak forest, consisting of pines, oak, cedar, and strawberry trees as well as grasslands. The fauna includes deer, pumas, coyotes, foxes, badgers and wild turkeys. Fish such as bass and catfish are found in the rivers, along with various species of birds and reptiles. Most of the state's rivers originate in the mountains of this region.
Las Quebradas is found in the far west of the state, including parts of Mezquital, Pueblo Nuevo, San Dimas, Otáez, Santiago Papasquiaro, Tamazula, Topia, Canelas and Tepehuanes. The region is subdivided by the rugged, western flank of the Sierra Madre. The terrain features deep ravines, canyons and fast-flowing rivers. The Humaya, Tamazula, Los Remedios, Piaxtla, Presidio, and Baluarte rivers flow west to the Pacific through the state of Sinaloa. Further south, the Acaponeta, San Pedro Mezquital, and Huaynamota rivers flow southwest through the state of Nayarit. The region, especially its ravines and canyons, is hot and humid. It receives the most rainfall in the state. There is greater diversity of flora and fauna in its rainforests compared to the desert regions of the state. Animal species include pumas, white-tailed deer, armadillos, badgers, iguanas and a large number of bird species. At higher altitudes, between 600 and 1200 meters, the vegetation changes to pine forests and the climate is more temperate. This area has had the most human habitation and agriculture.
When the Jesuits arrived to the Quebradas, they introduced the grazing of cattle and large-scale farming of corn, sugar cane and fruit trees. In the hotter and wetter areas, they introduced bananas, cherimoyas, guavas, zapotes, plums, avocados, oranges and other types of citrus. However, the difficulty of crossing the mountains to the more prosperous Valleys region limited the economy here.
Las Quebradas has mineral deposits, principally silver with some gold. Most of these deposits are found in an area that extends from the Humaya River to San Diego. During the 18th century, a number of royal mines were in operation here. They have been worked intermittently since them, with the last major activity in the late 19th and early 20th century. The deposits attracted Europeans, displacing the native Acaxes, Xiximes and other indigenous groups, whose numbers fell with the introduction of European diseases. Many of the towns in this area including Félix de Tamazula, Valle de Topia, Santa Veracruz de Topia, Nuestra Señora de la Asunción de Siánori, Santa María de Otáez and San José de Canelas began as mining towns.
The mountains over 3,000 meters above sea level are dominated by dramatic landscapes, including waterfalls, old-growth pine forests and ravines, such as the Basís Quebrada on the Presidio River. The sinkholes and rock formations, such as the El Espinazo del Diablo, are visible from the old highway to Mazatlan. It is one of the most representative landscapes of northwest Mexico. Cerro Gordo is the highest point in the state and is considered sacred to both the Tepehuanes and the Huichol people. This area is home to the La Michilía Biosphere Reserve, which is a pioneer for the reintroduction of the critically endangered Mexican grey wolf.
The Tecuan National Forest is in the Quebradas.
Economy
As a rural state, traditional agriculture is still the main economic activity for most of the population, despite only ten percent of the land being suitable for crops, and only fifteen percent being suitable for pasture. The main crops include corn, beans, chilli peppers, apples, alfalfa, and sorghum. Fruits such as apples and pears are grown in Canatlán, Nuevo Ideal and Guatimapé; nuts in Nazas and San Juan del Rio; and membrillo, apricots and peaches in Nombre de Dios. Most agriculture is concentrated in the Valleys region, in particular, the municipalities of Guadalupe Victoria and Poanas. This is also the area with the highest profit agriculture. It is supported by its three main rivers: the Florida, the Alto Nazas, and the Tunal-Mezquital, which have been dammed primarily for agricultural purposes. Pastures in this area support large herds of cattle, much of which are exported to the United States. Sheep and goats are also raised here.
Despite its dry climate, another important agricultural area has been the La Laguna region. Cotton was the main commodity crop of the La Laguna from the late 19th century to the 1970s. While some cotton and other crops such as alfalfa, wheat, grapes, sorghum and corn are grown, it is limited to areas along the Nazas and Aguanaval rivers that provide irrigation. Most of the agricultural land is in the municipalities of Gómez Palacios, Lerdo and Tlahualilo, part of the Lagunera region. Tlahualilo is also known for the production of watermelon and other melons. The rest of the land is too dry. Livestock is another important activity raising sheep, goats, cattle and chickens.
In 1936, Mexican president Lázaro Cárdenas expropriated 225 profitable haciendas in the La Laguna region to create agricultural collectives called "ejidos." However, this effort failed to significantly improve life for poor farmers in the region, often due to a lack of knowledge and technology, especially in the redistribution of water. The failure of this effort exacerbated the effects of droughts leading to crises in the 1950s and 1960s, only overcome with massive federal investment in hydraulic infrastructure, public works and industrialization. However, the effects of these works still have negative consequences for the La Laguna region.
In the Sierra and Quebrada regions, most agriculture is subsistence for auto-consumption. Important crops include corn, beans, potatoes and oats. The Sierra is an important dairy producer, with its cheese notable in the state. In Las Quebradas, rivers are an important source of fish, especially trout and catfish.
Today, forestry has great importance economically and politically. About 41% of the territory is covered in forest with under five percent covered in rainforest. The state ranks second in Mexico in expanses of temperate forest land areas with 4.9 million ha. It is the country's main timber producer and the largest timber stock, estimated at 410,833,340 m3. Its output accounts to between 20 and 30% of Mexico's total, producing mostly pine (73.3%) and oak. Although 18 municipalities have forestry operations, sic account for just under 80% of the production. Most of the economy of the Sierra region revolves around forestry, including the sawmills and other wood processing facilities located there. Wood products from there are sold both in Durango and other parts of Mexico. They include plywood, furniture, shipping crates for agricultural products as well as pulp for paper. Most of this wood is pine but cedar is also cut in some areas of the Quebradas. Most forest land in the state is held by collectives called ejidos, but these have trouble competing with cheaper imported timber.
Minerals were the initial draw to the area for the Spanish, the heyday for this activity was the 18th century as most of the state's historical landmarks can attest. However, mining continues to be an important economic activity. Durango is one of Mexico's leading producers of gold. There are deposits of gold and silver in the Sierra region, San Dimas, Otáez and Topia. The Valleys region has deposits of gold, silver, iron and mercury.
Most of the state's commerce is related to agriculture and mining.
Gomez Palacio is home to most of the state's industry. There are factories which make cars, textiles, clothes, soap, oils, cookies, pasta and more. Food process, especially of chicken and dairy is important here as well.
Durango's main source of income from outside the state starting in the mid-20th century has been with the production of films. The first known filming in the state occurred when Thomas Edison sent producer James White and cameraman Fred Bleckynden here to film train rides, along with landscapes and scenes of daily life in 1897. The project produced six films, each fifty feet long and included bullfights, women washing clothes, road repair and the arrival of the train in the city of Durango. The first movie set was constructed in 1922 in the former La Trinidad hacienda just outside the city of Durango, which made three movies.
In 1954, 20th century Fox filmed the movie White Feather (La Ley del Bravo) with Robert Wagner and Debra Paget. It was the first Hollywood feature to be shot in the state, followed closely by Robber's Roost (Antro de ladrones) by United Artists. The two films mark the beginning of a movie industry that continues to the present day, although its heyday was in the 1960s and 1970s. The attractions for Hollywood here were the landscapes and the lighting. The first are similar to those of the Old West and the latter due to the climate. From 1954 to 1964, thirteen major productions were shot here and attracted stars such as Burt Lancaster, Audrey Hepburn, Charlton Heston, Maureen O'Hara and John Wayne who worked on films directed by the likes of John Huston and Sam Peckinpah. Between 1965 and 1973, John Wayne alone worked on seven films including the Sons of Katie Elder. During the 1970s a total of 86 films was shot here. Forty-three were U.S. productions; 33 were Mexican productions and nine where collaborations between the two countries.
To date, over 130 films have been shot here both because of the Western-type landscapes the natural light. The state is still called La Tierra del Cine (Land of the Cinema) although movie production here has waned with the decline of westerns starting in the 1980s. Many of the old sets are still standing, if not used, and some have been converted into tourist attractions, and one has been converted into a real town.
Tourism is a small industry here, despite the state's natural resources and history. The government has worked to promote the state for tourism, but this is concentrated mostly on the capital (including the movie sets around the city), two other towns in the state and to some extent, ecotourism.
There are many historic and tourist sites in the Valleys region, in particular in the city of Durango. The San Juan del Rio municipality has the house in which Francisco Villa was born. There are several important architectural sites in the city, including the Ganot-Peschard Museum of Archeology, which is recognized by the National Institute of Anthropology and History as a site of historical significance. In Súchil, the former hacienda of El Mortero was the home of the Count of the Valley of Súchil and is one of the state's major examples of colonial architecture. The town of Mapimí has conserved its traditional urban layout which has permitted it to become a Pueblo Mágico. The most important mine is Ojuela, now famous for its hanging bridge which connects the town with the mine, separated by an extremely deep ravine. It one of the largest of its kind in the Americas. Nazas has a house that Benito Juárez slept in while he was here.
Probably the best-known tourist product of the state relates to scorpions. In the 1980s, a number of entrepreneurs turned the animal into an unofficial symbol of state pride. Most are sold encased in acrylic and mounted on knickknacks such as ashtrays, napkin holders, keychains, earrings, wood boxes and wall mountings. These objects dominate tourist markets such as the Gomez market in Durango City.
One reason for the limited economic development has been the limited transportation and other communications. The railroad was an important development in the late 19th and early 20th centuries but its benefits did not extend far past where the lines went. The state has one international airport serving the capital, which has limited flights to other major Mexican cities and to the United States. However, its geographical position is becoming a benefit, rather than a hindrance to economic development, with its proximity both to Mexico City and the northern border as well as both coasts.
As the nearest seaport, trade and travel to Mazatlan have always been important to the state. The port has been a source for luxury goods since the colonial period, generally paid for with silver mined in the state. The Interoceanic Highway now connects the state with both coasts, and cuts travel time to three hours, less than half what it was before.
Media
Newspapers of Durango include: Contacto Hoy, Diario de Durango , El Siglo de Durango , El Sol de Durango, and Victoria de Durango.
Culture
Durango is a rural state. It is sparsely populated. The three main cities contain almost 65% of the total population (Durango – 35%, Gomez Palacio 20.1% and Lerdo 8.6%). The remaining 35% of the population is scattered among 37 small urban centers and 5,757 villages of less than 2,500 inhabitants. Ninety-one percent of these have less than 250 residents. The state is associated with elements of the wild frontier: banditry, Revolutionary battles, mining and drug traffic. It claims to be the birthplace of Francisco Villa.
For its history, Durango has been both a frontier and central Mexican entity, especially the city. During the colonial period, Durango eventually became one of the main cities of New Spain in part because it was both part of the center and periphery of the territory. One distinction the city has from other colonial cities is that it was not founded on or near a former indigenous population center. The indigenous here were (and are) distinct from those in the center and south culturally.
True to its dangerous reputation, the best-known animal of the state is the scorpion. The sting was possibly fatal in the past but the availability of antidote today makes this very rare. One reason why the creatures are so abundant is that the Sierra Madre Occidental make for perfect breeding grounds. Most scorpions range in size from one to twelve centimeters but a 17-centimeter one was found in 1963. Images of the animal appear drawn or etched into a variety of objects, but since the 1980s, the city of Durango has promoted souvenirs which have real dead scorpions encased in plastic. The arachnids are also cooked and served as a delicacy in markets such as Gomez in the capital. However, they were not traditionally eaten. Durango's soccer team is called the Scorpions.
The state likes to promote itself as the "Tierra del Cine" (Land of the Movies) due to its history of the making of Hollywood western. Today, some film and TV is still shot here.
Indigenous peoples
Although a number of the state's indigenous ethnicities disappeared with the coming of the Spanish, there are still a significant amount residing in the state, most still speaking Uto-Azteca languages. The four main ethnicities are Tepehuans (North and South), Huichols, Tarahumaras and Mexicaneros. The Mexicaneros speak Nahuatl. The Coras and Huichols speak languages named after their groups and are fairly closely related to Nahuatl. The Tepehuano and Tarahumara languages are of the Pima branch. Language preservation varies from communities in which the language dominates to those in which only vestiges remain.
The Southern Tepehuans are the largest indigenous group in Durango. The name comes from Nahuatl and means "masters of the hills" or possibly "conquerors in battle." The Tepehuans call themselves o'dam, which means "those who inhabit." Indigenous resistance to Spanish colonization was particularly fierce there in the north. Eventually, Spanish might forced many to flee into the rugged mountains, where most of the indigenous communities still reside. It was this process that led to the northern and southern branches of the Tepehuan communities. Main Southern Tepehuan communities include Santa María de Ocotán, San Francisco, Teneraca, Taxicarinaga, San Bernardino de Milpillas and Lajas.
The Tepehuan religion is a syncretism of indigenous and Catholic beliefs. The most important type of ceremony is the or , which centers on dance around a bonfire accompanied by one-stringed instruments. They are most common at the beginning and end of the agricultural cycle. For patron saint days, cattle are usually sacrificed for feasting, accompanied by the dance of the Matachines and violin music.
The second-largest indigenous group in Durango is the Huichol. Their communities are found on the edges of the state that border with Nayarit and Jalisco, where the Huichol are more numerous. The Huichol here identify with those in the other states, there is no separation.
The Mexicaneros are the remnants of the indigenous brought by the Spanish from central Mexico to colonize the region. Today, only a small number survive in the communities of San Agustín de Buenaventura and San Pedro Jícaras in the municipality of Mezquital. This is a mixed ethnic zone and they live near groups of Tepehuanos and Huichols who have traditionally been their enemies. Their presence as a community was practically unknown until the academic work of Honrad T. Preuss in the late 19th century. More recent studies of the people have been carried out by Neyra Patricia Alvarado.
The Tarahumaras are mostly in the state of Chihuahua but there are communities in the far north of Durango. The Coras have some presence in communities near the Northern Tepehuanos, although they are more numerous in Nayarit and Jalisco. The Northern Tepehuanos are profoundly religious but language and culture is not significantly different from those in the south.
Handcrafts
The craft items of the state are very similar to those of Zacatecas and Chihuahua. Most of the items made are utilitarian and ceremonial. They are less known compared to those of the middle and south of the country. Many craft items are still important to local cultures and identities.
The most widespread and developed handcraft in the state is pottery, found in just about all of the territory. All of the indigenous groups produce pottery, almost all for utilitarian and ceremonial purposes. There is more modern and varied pottery and ceramics in southern Durango, especially in and around the state capital in the municipalities of Durango, Poanas and Villa Unión. Common products include flower pots, jars, pots and cazuelas (large cooking vessels). The most decorative pottery is found in and around the city proper, with techniques such as (laying small rolls or balls of clay over a pot before firing to make a raised design) and , especially in the newer generations of pottery. Pottery production is still done by hand, often using crude wheels and local deposits of clay. The clays vary by region including the kaolin found in Peñón Blanco and Cuencamé. Those found in the Guadiana Valley produce cream tones. Green, red and white clays are found all over the state depending on the other minerals found in the soil of the area.
There are a number of notable artisans who produced glazed pieces, including José Trinidad (Trino) Núñez and Rafael del Campo. Other important artisans include Margarito Palacios, Santos Vega and Catarino González. In Gómez Palacios and Ciudad Lerdo, there are some workshops doing high-fire work.
The next most-widely done work is basketry and other items made with stiff fibers. These include baskets proper, carrying nets or bags, petites, sombreros, furniture and decorative items made from ixtle, wicker, mesquite roots, reeds, pine needles, pine strips and cactus ribs.
Textile work is produced all over the state, using cotton, ixtle, and wool usually to make clothing. Cloth made with both backstrap and pedal looms are found frequently, but the most-commonly made items are knitted. Embroidery is also widespread.
Indigenous crafts include embroidered clothing, household utensils, farm tools and ceremonial objects. The Huichols are noted for the making of sombreros, carrying bags, and items adorned with beads. They also make some items with wood and clay. Huichol handcrafts are distinguished by the use of symbols from their cosmology and include pottery, embroidery, yarn paintings and beadwork. The Tepehuans make bows and arrows, sombreros, traditional clothing and baskets. The Tarahumara make bows and stone-tipped arrows, ceramics, flutes and drums. The Mexicaneros and Southern Tepehuanos are noted for the making of morrales (carrying bags) with geometric designs. The Tarahumara and Northern Tepehuanes are noted for baskets made with pine strips, as well as those made from palm fronds and cane.
Leatherwork includes bags, wallets, belts, cigarette cases, briefcases, books and saddles. The working of volcanic stone (cantera) almost died out but has experienced something of a comeback. The work has a history from the colonial period when the first craftsmen arrived to work on the Cathedral. The main volcanic stone in Durango is white. At the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th, the Montoya family, headed by brothers Jesús and Matías, then Benigno and Francisco, come from Troncoso, Zacatecas to work with the local stone. Today, there are about a dozen workshops in and around the city. Cabinetry and furniture-making is a dying art but can still be found in the Durango municipality. Major producers of traditional wares include the Pescador family and Saúl García Franco. Some communities make cartonería and fireworks items for festivas such as toritos, castillos and Judas effigies.
Other aspects of the culture
Juárez University sponsors the School of Painting, Sculpture and Handcrafts which teaches both fine and folk art. Handcraft instruction includes textiles, ceramics and glasswork. The glasswork includes delicate flower vases, glassware and multicolored decorative wall hangings.
Much of the state's cuisine is based on corn, although wheat products such as flour tortillas and various breads are readily found. Beef is important but pork dishes are also common. As much of Durango has a colder climate, especially in the higher elevations, soups are popular as a main as well as a first course. While relatively isolated from central Mexico, there is strong influence here from that region.
One of the best known dishes, caldillo duranguense, is essentially a hearty beef soup with roasted green chili peppers. Gorditas are a particularly popular and important food historically, as they were a mainstay for field hands who found the pockets of corn or wheat convenient for carrying and eating meats and sauce outside of the home. Although found in other parts of Mexico, tacos de tripe (intestines) are particularly popular here. Asado rojo de puerco, known as asado de boda in other parts of north-central Mexico is popular. Tamales are popular but they are smaller and have more meat than those made further south. Moles are popular as well. There is barbacoa, but the meat used is as often beef as it is the mutton used farther south. Popular northern dishes include machaca as well as burritos, influence from neighboring Chihuahua. During Lent population (most Catholics) tend to lean toward vegetarian dishes with or without cheese, as fish is not common in the diet of this landlocked state. Local specialties include pinole, which is best known in Santiago Papasquiaro.
The raising of cattle in various parts leads to the making of a variety of cheeses. Some, like manchego and asadero, are available in other parts of the north, but local varieties such as queso ranchero are also consumed. Concentrated sweet paste made from quince is often called cajeta (used for a milk product in other parts of Mexico) as well as the more common name of ate. Other traditional sweets are similar to those found in central Mexico.
The most important secular celebration of the state is the Durango State Fair (Feria de Durango) which has occurred each year since 1948. The first fair queen was crowned in 1950. The most important annual events in the Semi-desert region are the municipal fairs of Gómez Palacio, Mapimí and Santa Ana in Nazas. In the Valleys region the most important annual events are the Apple Festival in Canatlán and the Nut Festival in San Juan del Rio. Important religious observances include those in La Sauceda in Canatlán, El Nayar, La Sierra de Gampon in Guadalupe Victoria and El Tizonazo in Indé. In the Sierra region, most towns observe the feast days of their patron saint with plays based on Biblical stories. Celebrations related to Christmas and the New Year are also important.
In Quebradas, patron saint days are important and often feature indigenous music. The Tepehuans continue the tradition of the mitote, a kind of ceremonial dance, three times per year: in February to ask for health, in May to call the rains and in October to celebrate the first harvests of corn. Those of Mexica, Huicholes and Tarahumara also conserve many aspects of their traditional dance and music.
Traditional music ranges from the purely indigenous to that from Europe, often with mixtures. The state has produced a number of noted musicians including composer Silvestre Revueltas, concert pianist Ricardo Castro, composer and musician Alberto M. Alvarado and contralto Fanny Anitúa. The oldest popular music in the region consists of jarabes and sones which can be found in other parts of Mexico. After 1840, new musical forms came to the state including polkas, shottises, gavotas, redovas, waltzes and other forms from Central Europe. They were first introduced to the upper classes but were adopted by others to eventually form much of northern Mexican music. The first locally produced variations included polkas such as El Revolcadero, Las Virginias, Las Cacerolas and El Jaral as well as shottis called Amor de Madre. The most noted local musician is Alberto M. Alvarado, who was active during the late 19th and early 20th century. His waltz, Recuerdo, is considered emblematic of the state at that time. He also composed works with patriotic themes such as Cuauhtémoc, Corazón Latino and Danza Yaqui. During the Revolution, corridos became popular such as Adelita, La Rielera and Carabina Treinta Treinta by Benjamín Argumedo. These became the basis for the latter narcocorridos which portray the activities of drug traffickers. Mestizo dance and music includes polkas, which became established here during the Mexican Revolution. In the center and south of the state a traditional dance called the choti can be found. The best known of these include El Amor de Madre, El Revolcadero, Los Arbolitos and El Senderito.
Bullfighting was a popular spectator sport for many years. Cockfights are still popular in the state as well as horse racing in rural areas. Many of these occur during fairs and patron saint days. Until the popularity of sports from the United States such as baseball, the most popular sport in the state was a Basque game called rebote often played against the walls of the Catheral in Durango until this was banned in 1769. Courts were constructed on the outskirts of town and remained popular until about the mid-20th century.
Sister cities include Durango, Colorado and Durango, Spain which was arranged in 1984.
History
Conquest and colonial period
Durango sits on a corridor that linked central Mexico with the northwest. Before the arrival of the Spanish, the area had attracted migration into it by Huichols, Coras, Tepehuanos and Tarahumaras. These were sedentary people whose spread was checked by hostility from nomadic tribes. The eastern edge of the state was dominated by Chichimecas and various tribes of the Laguna region, which were distinguished by their informal social structure and nudity.
Durango was the center of a colonial entity called Nuevo Vizcaya or sometimes México del Norte (Northern Mexico). It included all or part of what are now Durango, Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Sonora and Arizona. The diocese also included all or part of New Mexico, Colorado, Coahuila, Texas, Zacatecas, California and Baja California.
The first Spaniard in this area was José de Angulo who arrived to the Sierra de Topia in 1532. The next expedition into the area occurred in 1552 under Ginés Vázques de Mercado, arriving to where the city of Durango is now, naming the area the Guadiana Valley after an area in Spain with a similar environment. The Cerro de Mercado is named after him, and the city is named after Durango in Spain. Other explorers such as Nuño de Guzmán, Alvar Cabeza de Vaca and Juan de Tapia realized expeditions but were not successful in establishing a permanent presence. However, the expedition of Cabeza de Vaca gave rise to the myth of the cities of gold and silver called Cibola and Quivira. The other expeditions would give rise to claims to the area by Jalisco and Michoacán.
The Spanish left the area alone for a time but the discovery of silver and other metals in Zacatecas in 1546 renewed interest in the area. Francisco de Ibarra was sent northwest from Zacatecas by his uncle Diego de Ibarra and the viceroy. Ibarra worked to conquer and hold the territory from 1554 to 1567. After being named conqueror and governor in 1562, Ibarra settle in San Juan (del Río) and constructed a fort. From here he directed the discovery and exploitation of various mines in the state. He divided the new territory into six provinces: Guadiana, Copala, Maloya, Chiametla, Sinaloa and Santa Barbara, naming a head of government for each. Holding the land proved difficult, with Ibarra needing to reconquer areas especially in the outer periphery of Nuevo Vizcaya both because of indigenous attacks as well as the rugged terrain. Much of the territory would not be subdued until late in the 18th century.
The city of Durango was officially established on July 8, 1563 with a mass celebrated by Brother Diego de Cadena where 5 de Febrero and Juarez Streets are now. It was founded specifically to be the capital of Nueva Vizcaya, near both to the new mines and the royal road connecting Mexico City and points north. The name Durango comes from Ibarra's hometown for some time the city was called Durango and Guadiana interchangeably.
It is distinct from cities further north as it was laid out when Philip II's Ordenanzas and Descubrimiento y Población order was still in effect. The cathedra began as the parish church, which was made with adobe with a straw roof (the last church of this construction is found in Ocotán, Durango). However, it burned down in the colonial period, leading to the construction of the current structure over time.
Most of the other colonial period towns were founded as missions and or as mining centers. The first mining towns were Pánuco and Avino established in 1562. El Mezquital was founded in 1588. In 1597, the town of Santiago Papasquiaro and the mission of Santa Catarina de Tepehuanes was founded. Cuencamé was founded in 1598.
The first hospital in the state, Hospital de Caridad, was founded in 1588 in Nombre de Dios. The first hospital in the capital was the Hospital de San Cosme y San Damián, founded in 1595, the same year that the first school, the Colegio de Gramática, was founded.
The Spanish began the process of consolidating their power by the establishment of missions. The first was a Franciscan mission in Nombre de Dios in 1558. After, missions were established in Peñol (Peñón Blanco), San Juan Bautista del Río, Analco, Indé, Topia, La Sauceda, Cuencamé and El Mezquital. The Jesuits joined the Franciscans starting in 1590 and both orders began organizing the territory using Spanish norms. Later missions spread to Mapimí, Santiago Papasquiaro, Tepehuanes, Guanaceví, Santa María del Oro, Tamazula, Cerro Gordo (Villa Ocampo) and San Juan de Bocas (Villa Hidalgo). Originally the territory was under the archdiocese of Guadalajara, but it proved too difficult to administer the large territory. In 1620, Pope Paul V established a new archdiocese in the city of Durango, with Gonzalo de Hermosillo as the first archbishop.
The city was officially recognized as such in 1631, receiving its coat-of-arms; however, it almost disappeared during the early colonial period. The indigenous of the area resisted Spanish domination from the beginning. In 1606, the Acaxes rebelled against the Spanish due to their enslavement to work in mines. The first century of Spanish occupation saw large rebellions by the Tepehuans and Tarahumaras. These continued into most of the 17th century and the Tarahumaras continued into the century after that. The Tepehuan uprising of 1616, the most significant uprising of this time period. It almost caused the abandonment of the capital city, with the government moving to Parral for a time, but in the end, the Tepehuan were forced to flee into the mountains, dividing the ethnicity into north and south. The conquest of New Vizcaya was formally finished with the signing of several treaties with indigenous groups in 1621 and 1622. Durango city did not start growing again until 1680. This was because the mines in Parral had started to give out and the violence had been reduced enough by Spanish authorities. By the late 17th century, the city was ringed by haciendas, especially for sheep, which helped support the city.
The subduing of the local native peoples did not completely end indigenous hostilities. In the 18th century Apaches and Comanches migrated in, being displaced by what is now the United States. Their attacks on towns and haciendas continues well into the late 19th century. Despite these difficulties, Durango was a base for the conquest and settlement of points north including Saltillo, Chihuahua and Parral into what is now Arizona, New Mexico and Texas, along with numerous other communities on the Pacific coast from Nayarit into California.
Durango's economic heyday came in the 18th century, when mines such as Guanaceví, Cuencamé and San Juan del Río began to produce in 1720. The first major mine owner of the era was José del Campo Soberrón y Larrea, who built a palatial residence for himself in the city of Durango in 1776 and received the title of Count of the Valley of Suchil. Starting in the second half of the 18th century, more mines came online. The next major mine owner was Juan José Zambrano, whose mines in Guarizamay did not earn him a noble title but did give him political power in the area. He constructed the second major palatial residence of the city of Durango. However, Zambrano's activities were curtailed by the problems caused by the American Revolution and other wars disrupting commerce with England, leading to shortages of mercury, essential for the extraction of silver.
In 1778, the Spanish government opened up trade in more Pacific ports, including Mazatlan, which had an economic benefit to Durango. Not only did products from the area have an outlet, incoming merchandise destined for Chihuahua and Zacatecas passed through the area. This attracted business people including foreign ones from Germany, England, France and Spain who built large businesses here in the 19th century.
During its height, Durango City's religious and cultural culture rivaled that of continental Europe even being a center for Italian liturgical music despite its isolation. The Durango Cathedral has one of the larger collections of 18th-century cathedral music in the America, roughly comparable to those in Oaxaca and Bogotá, but smaller than that of Mexico City. Much of the work is that of José Bernardo Abella Grijalva and most shows Italian influence. The historic center of the city and a number of haciendas reflect its 18th-century colonial heritage.
19th century
During Mexico's War of Independence, Nuevo Vizcaya began to break up. The first divisions were the creation of the states of Chihuahua and Durango, with Santiago Baca Ortiz as the first governor of the state of Durango along with the separation of the Sinaloa province, which included Sonora and Arizona. The state of Coahuila was separated shortly thereafter. With the 1824 Constitution the states of Durango and Chihuahua were created. Mining was depressed at the time, and the governor negotiated with the English to explore deposits of iron on the Cerro de Mercado. The English constructed installations such as those in Piedras Azules (La Ferrería) to process iron ore. These required large quantities of charcoal, which led to mass deforestation in the area. This eventually made the plant unviable.
Public education was first established in the state in 1824. The first secular institute of higher education in the state was the Colegio Civil y la Academia de Juisprudencia founded in 1833.
The northeast of the state had problems industrializing mostly due to incursions by Apaches into Durango which began in 1832 and later Comanches. Attacks by Comanches remain a major problem until the 1850s, forcing haciendas and textile mills to build walls around them. Counter-attacks on the Comanches diminished their raids, but they did not stop completely until the 1880s.
The rise of the state's second economic and political center, the cities of Gómez Palacio and Lerdo began in the 19th century, when cotton began to be planted along the Nazcas River. This cotton production became important, with sales of the raw material to Mexico City and to European textile mills, especially in England. Large-scale production began in the mid-century, dominating the local economy by the 1870s. Textile production also began here, although shortly after this industry would shift to Torreon. Other textile mills were established in areas such as Tunal, Santiago Papasquiaro, Poanas and Peñon Blanco, but the lack of coal meant that power had to be provided by nearby rivers, which was not efficient enough. This and attacks during the Mexican Revolution brought the demise of the textile industry in the state. Many mills and cotton haciendas eventually wound up in the hands of American investors.
The civil war between liberals and conservatives had the state controlled by liberal forces in 1858, then by conservative ones from 1864 to 1866.
In the late 19th century, rail and telegraph lines reached the state and revitalized Gómez Palacio and Lerdo as industrial centers. The railroad connected the city of Durango with Mexico City and the US border, allowing for shipment of local goods, particularly those from mining, to national and foreign markets. Agriculture and livestock production increased with the end of Comanche insurgencies and the arrival of a train line in 1892 gave the city a new connection with the rest of Mexico. It directly connected the city with Piedras Negras, Coahuila allowing the export of iron ore to foundries in Monclova, where coal was abundant. In 1902, a branch of the railroad reached Tepehuanes, allowing for the exploitation of natural resources in the northwest of the state.
However, the city of Durango remained the political center of the state as well as the regional commercial center for agricultural and handcrafted products. Mayors of the city at this time concentrated on improving infrastructure, such as government buildings, hospitals, water supply lines and public streets. The population of the city grew during this time.
20th century to the present
While the state received high amounts of investment leading to economic development in the late 19th and very early 20th centuries, the benefits were mostly to foreign enterprises, often given permission to operate on indigenous lands and other rural communities. By 1910, North Americans own just about the entire southwest Sierra Madre Occidental region of the state or 65% of the land of the entire state. These areas have the highest concentrations of mining and timber resources.
Durango was one of the areas active during the Mexican Revolution. The first uprising in the state occurred on November 19, 1910 in Gómez Palacio. Various revolutionary leaders were from here and/or used the state as a base of operations including Francisco Villa, Calixto Contreras, Severingo Cenceros, J. Agustín Castro and Oreste Pereyra, especially in the La Lagunera region. The Division del Norte had a base in the Hacienda de la Loma to unite forces in Durango and Chihuahua.
The economic effects on the state were profound. There was a mass exodus of foreigners and a loss of production in both haciendas and factories. On June 18, 1913, insurgents took the city of Durango, burning businesses here. The war led to economic depression that lasted for decades. After the war, there was a process of land redistribution that lasted several decades, but it did not affect the largest land holdings on the most productive of lands. After the Revolution, large land holdings were broken up into ejidos under governor Enrique R. Calderón, particularly in the Comarca Lagunera de Durango. During the same time the municipalities of Mapimí and Goméz Palacio were split off from the municipality of Tlahualilo.
Despite Durango's support during the Revolution, the new government had trouble controlling the state as late as the 1930s as it resisted federal modernization efforts. The questions of land reform and education were central to Durango's discontent during this time period. Between 1926 and 1936, militias were formed to participate in the Cristero War and other uprisings such as the Escobar Military Revolt in 1929. One major point of contention was the government's efforts to take the church out of secular life, especially education, which threatened centuries-old ways of life, especially for many farmers and villagers. These rebellions were strongest in the center and south of the state, including the capital of Victoria de Durango. Rebel activity in parts of Mezquital were such that secular teachers were withdrawn for a time.
In the mid-20th century, several institutions of higher education were established, including universities and institutes of technology. This included the establishment of the UJED at the former Jesuit college in the city of Durango.
The two newest municipalities were established in the latter 20th century. Vicente Guerrero was split from Suchil and the last, Nuevo Ideal, was created in 1989.
The destruction of Durango's city center during the Mexican Revolution led to development outside of it. The first neighborhood, Colonia Obrera, was established near the rail line just outside what was the city proper. It was the first of various neighborhoods to follow these lines. The population grew noticeably in the 1960s and 1970s mostly due to migration from rural areas, increasing urban sprawl to 1,058 hectares. One major factor of this growth was the droughts of this time on agricultural production as well as expectations of industrial development. About the same time, the city government started efforts to regulate this growth.
The growth of the cities has prompted projects in infrastructure, especially in transportation from the latter 20th century to the present. Industrial parks such as Durango and Gomez Palacio were established. The most recent projects have an eye towards connecting the state better to participate in the global economy. In the 20th century, the Pan American highway was built through here (known today as Highway 45). However, a later reconstruction of the highway shifted it east into Zacatecas. This meant that any industrial progress in the state happened in the northern city of Gomez Palacios, and not in the capital. In the 1980s, highways to Gomez Palacios and Ciudad Juarez were modernized, and a highway to Torreón and Monterrey was built. The InterOceanic Highway, which crosses the north of Mexico to connect the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean is Highway 40. The most important leg of this highway for Durango is that which connects it from the capital to Mazatlán, Sinaloa. It cut the drive time between to two places to four hours, replacing a winding mountain road plagued by bandits for many decades. The centerpiece of this highway is the Baluarte Bridge, one of the highest suspension bridges in the world. Pride in this construction can be seen in the city of Durango, with a replica of the bridge found to the side of the Guadiana Park.
Durango has historically been an area associated with banditry and smuggling. Durango is part of the "golden triangle" of Mexico's drug trade. Most of the violence is due to turf battles between the Sinaloa and Gulf cartels. The 2000s were a particularly difficult time as this was during Felipe Calderon's efforts to combat the drug cartels and for a time Joaquin Guzman ("El Chapo") hid out in the state. Most of the violence was in relation to control over the drug routes here. Drug-related violence was a major problem, with hundreds of bodies found in clandestine graves, around the city of Durango in particular. The violence reached a peak here between 2009 and 2011. Highway robberies were also a particular problem, especially on the highway leading to Mazatlan, then considered the most dangerous in Mexico. A new toll highway was built and opened at the end of this period to combat this.
References
External links
Durango Mobile game(Korean)
Durango State Government
Film Commission Durango
Durango thousands of pictures of local rural communities
John P. Schmal, "The history of indigenous Durango" detailing the series of revolts
Territorial Division (legal text)
1824 establishments in Mexico
Mexican Plateau states
States and territories established in 1824
States of Mexico | [
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222242 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidalgo | Hidalgo | Hidalgo may refer to:
People
Hidalgo (nobility), members of the Spanish nobility
Hidalgo (surname)
Places
Mexico
Hidalgo (state), in central Mexico
Hidalgo, Coahuila, a town in the north Mexican state of Coahuila
Hidalgo, Nuevo León, a city in the state of Nuevo León
Hidalgo, Tamaulipas, a municipality in the state of Tamaulipas
Miguel Hidalgo, Mexico City, a borough of the Federal District
Hidalgo Yalalag, Oaxaca
Frontera Hidalgo, Chiapas
Ciudad Hidalgo, Chiapas
Ciudad Hidalgo, Michoacán
Villa de Sabinas Hidalgo, Nuevo León
Villa Hidalgo, Baja California
Villa Hidalgo (Villaflores), Chiapas
Villa Hidalgo (Tuzantán), Chiapas
Villa Hidalgo, Coahuila
Villa Hidalgo, Durango
Villa Hidalgo, Jalisco
Villa Hidalgo, Nayarit
Villa Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí
Villa Hidalgo, Sonora
Villa Hidalgo, Tamaulipas
Villa Hidalgo, Zacatecas
Villa Hidalgo (Santa Rita), Zacatecas
United States
Hidalgo, Illinois
Hidalgo, Texas
Hidalgo County, New Mexico
Hidalgo County, Texas
Dominican Republic
Los Hidalgos, Dominican Republic
Philippines
Hidalgo Street, Qiapo, Manila, Philippines
Fiction
Hidalgo, name of a fictional country in Central America in the Doc Savage stories
Transportation
Hidalgo metro station, in Mexico City
Hidalgo (Mexico City Metrobús, Line 3), a BRT station in Mexico City
Hidalgo (Mexico City Metrobús, Line 4), a BRT station in Mexico City
Hidalgo (Mexico City Metrobús, Line 7), a BRT station in Mexico City
Hidalgo (Mexibús), a BTR station in Ecatepec, State of Mexico
Other uses
944 Hidalgo, an asteroid
Hidalgo (film), a 2004 film based on the legend of the American distance rider Frank Hopkins and his mustang Hidalgo
Hidalgo (moth), a moth genus
Hidalgo (Sherry), a Spanish Sherry producer
See also
Hidalgo County (disambiguation) | [
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222243 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State%20of%20Mexico | State of Mexico | The State of Mexico (; ), officially only Mexico (), is one of the 32 federal entities of the United Mexican States. Commonly known as Edomex (from ) to distinguish it from the name of the whole country, it is the most populous, as well as the most densely populated, state in the country.
Located in South-Central Mexico, the state is divided into 125 municipalities. The state capital city is Toluca de Lerdo ("Toluca"), while its largest city is Ecatepec de Morelos ("Ecatepec"). The State of Mexico surrounds Mexico City on three sides and borders the states of Querétaro and Hidalgo to the north, Morelos and Guerrero to the south, Michoacán to the west, and Tlaxcala and Puebla to the east.
The territory that now comprises the State of Mexico once formed the core of the Pre-Hispanic Aztec Empire. During the Spanish colonial period, the region was incorporated into New Spain. After gaining independence in the 19th century, Mexico City was chosen as the capital of the new nation; its territory was separated out of the state. Years later, parts of the state were broken off to form the states of Hidalgo, Guerrero and Morelos. These territorial separations have left the state with the size and shape it has today, with the Toluca Valley to the west of Mexico City and a panhandle that extends around the north and east of this entity.
The demonym used to refer to people and things from the state is , distinct from ('Mexican'), which describes the people or things from the country as a whole.
Origin and etymology
Mēxihco was originally the Nahuatl name for the Valley of Mexico where the cities of the Mexica (the proper name for the Aztec Triple Alliance) were located. As such, the district that became Mexico City was properly known as Mexico-Tenochtitlan in the years shortly before and after Spanish conquest. After the Spanish Conquest, the term México came to be used for Tenochtitlan/Mexico City and all the pre-conquest lands it controlled, including several other aforementioned Mexican states originally incorporated in the boundaries of the Mexico state.
There are two possible origins for the name “Mexico.” The first is that it derives from metztli (moon) and xictla (navel) to mean from the navel of the moon. This comes from the old Aztec idea that the craters on the moon form a rabbit figure with one crater imitating a navel. The other possible origin is that it is derived from “Mextictli”, an alternate name for the god Huitzilopochtli.
Anáhuac was the proper term for all territories dominated by the Aztec Empire, from Cem Anáhuac, "the entire earth" or "surrounded by waters" e.g. the waters of Lake Texcoco which were considered to be the center of the Aztec world, and as such was proposed as an early name for the entire nation of Mexico prior to independence, to distinguish it from the (preexisting) administrative division of New Spain that became the State of Mexico.
History
Prehistoric to Pre-Hispanic period
The earliest evidence of human habitation in current territory of the state is a quartz scraper and obsidian blade found in the Tlapacoya area, which was an island in the former Lake Chalco. They are dated to the Pleistocene era which dates human habitation back to 20,000 years. The first people were hunter-gatherers. Stone age implements have been found all over the territory from mammoth bones, to stone tools to human remains. Most have been found in the areas of Los Reyes Acozac, Tizayuca, Tepexpan, San Francisco Mazapa, El Risco and Tequixquiac. Between 20,000 and 5000 BCE, the people here eventually went from hunting and gathering to sedentary villages with farming and domesticated animals. The main crop was corn, and stone tools for the grinding of this grain become common. Later crops include beans, chili peppers and squash grown near established villages. Evidence of ceramics appears around 2500 BCE with the earliest artifacts of these appearing in Tlapacoya, Atoto, Malinalco, Acatzingo and Tlatilco.
In prehistoric State of Mexico, the Tepexpan Man is an important finding for Mexican and foreign anthropologists; it is an important key to understand what the Valley of Mexico area was like, 5,000 years ago, as well as helping establish the occupation chronology of the region. Currently some scholars attribute an age of 11,000 years, others 8,000, and some have suggested 5,000 years old. This individual was originally identified as a male, but recent research confirms a female identity, although this is still a subject of discussion.
Sacrum bone found in Tequixquiac is considered a work of prehistoric art. These people were thought to be nomadic, hunting large animals such as mammoths and gathering fruits as evidenced by archaeological evidence found at the site. One of the most salient discoveries of primitive art in America was found in here, called the Tequixquiac Bone, which had no known purpose, but reflected the ideological sense of the artist who carved the piece of bone from a camelid around 22,000 years BCE. The first native settlers of Tequixquiac were the Aztecs and Otomi, who decided to settle here permanently for the abundance of rivers and springs. They were engaged mainly in agriculture and the breeding of domestic animals.
The earliest major civilization of the state is Teotihuacan, with the Pyramids of the Sun and Moon being built between 100 BCE and 100 CE. Between 800 and 900 CE, the Matlatzincas established their dominion with Teotenango as capital. This city is walled with plazas, terraces, temples, altars, living quarters and a Mesoamerican ball game court. In the 15th century, the Aztecs conquered the Toluca and Chalco valleys to the west and east of the Valley of Mexico respectively. Part of the Toluca Valley was held by the Purépechas as well. Other dominions during the pre-Hispanic period include that of the Chichimecas in Tenayuca and of the Acolhuas in Huexotla, Texcotizingo and Los Melones. Other important groups were the Mazahuas in the Atlacomulco area. Their center was at Mazahuacán, next to Jocotitlán volcano. The Otomis were centered in Jilotepec.
Spanish Colonial period
The origin of the modern state is the reorganization of Aztec lands starting after the Spanish Conquest of the Aztec Empire. These lands were initially called the “audiencia” of Mexico and included Mexico City, much of modern states of Guerrero, Morelos and Hidalgo. As the Spanish expanded their control west and south, the entirety was called “New Spain” with former Aztec lands being called “Mexico.” The organization of New Spain would change over the course of the colonial period, but the territory of the Aztecs would keep the name “Mexico”.
After the Conquest in 1521, Hernán Cortés’ cousin Juan Altamirano was given dominion of the Toluca Valley. Other conquistadors such as Antonio Caicedo, Juan de Jaramillo, Cristobal Hernandez and Juan de Samano received encomiendas in the state. Franciscan missionaries came soon after such as Martin de Valencia, Juan de Tecto, Juan de Ahora, and Pedro de Gante, who established missions and the first school called San Antonio de Padua.
In 1535, the areas around Mexico City were divided into a number of “alcaldías mayors” called Chalco y Ameca, Tlayacapan y Coatepec, Otumba, Ecatepec, Sultepec, Zacualpan, Temascaltepec, Malinalco, Metepec and Ixtlahuaca with Toluca and Texcoco recognized as cities. Other orders followed such as the Dominicans, the Augustinians and the Jesuits.
During the colonial period, most of the area's economy was based on agriculture with some mining in the areas of Temascaltepec, Sultepec, Valle de Bravo, Tlatlaya, Amatepec and Zacualpan and the production of pulque in Otumba and Texcoco. In addition certain areas were known for crafts such as wool processing in Texcoco and Sultepec, soap in Toluca, saddles in Almoloya de Juárez, and rebozos in various areas. However, the vast majority of the area's population was extremely poor due to exploitation.
Independence
During the Mexican War of Independence, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla marched into what is now Mexico State from Michoacán in 1810, passing from the northwest to Toluca on his way to Mexico City. East of Toluca, he fought royalist forces at the Battle of Monte de las Cruces on 30 October 1810. While Hidalgo won the battle, he chose not to proceed to Mexico City and then turned towards Celaya. During the rest of the War, most battles were fought between local insurgent leaders such as Manuel de la Concha and Castillo Bustamante and royalist forces. Battles were fought in Sultepec, Amanalco, Temascaltepec, Lerma, Tenango, Tenancingo and Tecualoya.
After the War, the State of Mexico was created by the 1824 Constitution, with the first state congress convening in March of that year in Mexico City. This state still encompassed the vast territory of the old Aztec Empire. The first head of the state was Melchor Múzquiz. The vast territory of the state was divided into eight districts:Acapulco, Cuernavaca, Huejutla, Mexico, Taxco, Toluca, Tula and Tulancingo. Mexico City was the capital of the state. However, soon after, the federal government choose Mexico City as the capital of the new nation. Under the guidelines of the 1824 Constitution, the capital was appropriated as federal land, with the federal government acting as the local authority. The choice was made official on 18 November 1824 and Congress delineated a surface area of two leagues square (8,800 ac) centered on the Zocalo. This area was then separated from the State of Mexico, forcing the state's government to move from the Palace of the Inquisition (now Museum of Mexican Medicine) in the city to Texcoco. This area did not yet include the population centers of the towns of Coyoacán, Xochimilco, Mexicaltzingo and Tlalpan, all of which remained as part of the State of Mexico. As the "federal district" of Mexico City grew in size, these and other territories were taken from the State of Mexico. The capital of the state was moved permanently to Toluca in 1830.
The struggles between the liberals (federalists) and the conservatives (centralized power) in the 19th century affected the state, especially in those areas which would later break away to form the states of Hidalgo, Morelos and Guerrero. During the Mexican–American War, the Americans occupied Toluca and Mexico City with the state government temporarily located in the unoccupied Sultepec.
By 1852, the state had lost a significant amount of territory to the creation of the state of Guerrero, which promoted the reorganization of the municipalities here. During the Reform War, General José María Cobos took and sacked a number of municipalities in the territory remaining. During this war, a number of major figures such as Melchor Ocampo, Santos Delgollado and Leandro Valle were executed by firing squad in the Toluca Valley regions.
In 1869, the areas north east and south of Mexico City were converted to the states of Hidalgo and Morelos respectively. The state promulgated a new constitution in 1869, which established the state as consisting of the districts of Chalco, Cuautitlan, Ixtlahuaca, Jilotepec, Lerma, Otumba, Sultepec, Temascaltepec, Tenango del Valle, Tenancingo and Texcoco, which is the territory the state has today.
The period before the Mexican Revolution was relatively prosperous for the state, especially under governor José Vicente Villada, who promoted public education, government reform, the establishment of a teachers’ college for women and promoted the Instituto Cientifico y Literario (later UAEM). Mines in various parts of the state were at maximum production.
Mexican Revolution to present
Battles were fought in the state during the Mexican Revolution, especially by Zapatistas in the southwest part of the state, with Genovevo de la O and Francisco de Pacheco entering with their armies in 1912. Fighting intensified after Victoriano Huerta took power in 1913. In 1915, Toluca was the site of the Convencion de Generales y Gobernadores Revolucionaries (Convention of Generals and Revolutionary Governors) on two occasions. In 1917, the state had another new constitution, which divided the state into sixteen districts and 118 municipalities.
The extension of the Mexico City Metropolitan Area began in 1940 with the creation of the industrial zone of Naucalpan. The increase of the metro area's population, commerce and industry has continued to this day. The Consejo del Area Metropolitana was created in 1988 to coordinate concerns and action of the Greater Mexico City area in both the Distrito Federal and the State of Mexico.
From 1824 to 1941, the state had no seal. Governor Wenceslao Labra proposed one in 1940, which was adopted the following year. It was designed by Pastor Velázquez with the motto of “Patria, Libertad, Trabajo y Cultura” (Country, Liberty, Work and Culture).
In 1956, the Instituto Cientifico y Literario was converted into the Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México.
During much of rest of the 20th century, works to divert water from the Lerma River and other locations to Mexico City were built as well as highways through the state to connect Mexico City with the rest of the country.
In 1990, the Commission Coordinadora para la Recuperación Ecológica de la Cuenca del Alto Lerma (Coordinating Commission for the Ecological Recuperation of the Upper Lerma River Basin) was established.
Geography and climate
The state is located in the center of the country, consisting mostly of the eastern side of the Anahuác Mesa. Most of the state consists of the Toluca Valley, the Tierra Caliente, Mezquital Valley with the eastern panhandle mostly defined by the Chalco Valley. The state has a territory of 22,499.95km2 and borders the states of Querétaro, Hidalgo, Guerrero, Morelos, Puebla, Tlaxcala and Michoacán. The state surrounds Mexico City on three sides (west, north and east).
The state is divided into five natural regions: the Volcanos of the Valley of Mexico, the hills and plains north of the state, the western mountains, the Balsas Depression and the mountains and valleys of the southeast.
The physical geography of the state varies. The eastern portion is dominated by the Sierra Nevada, which divides the state from Puebla. In this mountain chain are the Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl volcanos. The Sierra de Monte Alto and Sierra de Monte Bajo divide the west side of the Federal District from the state and contain peaks such as Cerro de la Bufa and Monte de las Cruces. The Sierra de Xinantécatl is to the south of the Toluca Valley. At northern edge of this mountain range is the Nevado de Toluca volcano. In the northwest of the state is the Sierra de San Andrés Timilpan. Most of the rock and soil formation in the state is of volcanic origin.
There are three river basins in the state: the Lerma, the Balsas and the Pánuco. The most important is the Lerma River, which begins in the municipality of Almoloya del Río and passes through a large number of municipalities in the state. The southwestern part of the state is dominated by the Balsas River basin. The eastern panhandle of the state is dominated by the Pánuco River basin. On the various rivers of the state are dams such as José Antonio Alzate in Temoaya, Ignacio Ramirez in Almoloya, Guadalupe in Cuautitlán Izcalli, Madín in Naucalpan, Vicente Guerrero in Tlatlaya, Tepetitlan in San Felipe del Progreso as well as those in Valle del Bravo and Villa Victoria.
Lakes in the state include the Laguna del Sol and Laguna de la Luna in the Nevado de Toluca, the lake in the crater of the Cerro Gorde. Atexcapan Lake in Valle de Bravo, San Simón Lake in Donato Guerra, San Pedro Lake and Concepcion de los Baños Lake and Tepetitlan Lake in San Felipe del Progreso, Acuitzilapan Lake at the food of Jocotitlan volcano, El Rodeo Lake near Xonacatlán, Xibojay and Santa Elena Lakes in Jilotepec and Huapango Lake in Timilpan.
About seventy percent of the state has a temperate moist climate, which consists of the highlands of the Toluca Valley and the areas around Texcoco in the north, the Toluca Valley and the areas around Texcoco. Average year-round temperature varies between 12C and 18C with annual precipitation above 700 millimeters. Higher elevations, about 13% of the state, in the center and east of the state have a semicold climate with average temperatures below 16C. Hotter climes are in the relative lowlands in the south west with have an average temperature of between 18C and 22C and constitute about eight percent of the territory. The hottest regions occupy five percent of the state in the extreme southwest with temperatures averaging over 22C. The coldest areas in the highest elevations such as the Nevado de Toluca, Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl. Snow can be found on these elevations year round. There are some arid areas along the borders of Hidalgo and Tlaxcala with annual precipitation between 500 and 700 milliliters.
Due to the various climates, the state has a wide variety of flora. 609,000 hectares is covered in tree, most of which is in the temperate and cold climates of the state. In the extreme southwest of the state, rainforests can be found and desert plants in the Hidalgo border area. In the highest altitudes, such as the peak of the Nevada de Toluca, alpine grassland can be found. In the extreme west, there are forests which receive thousands of monarch butterflies each winter.
The state has 49 environmentally protected areas, with the most important being the Nevado de Toluca National Park. Other important areas include the state parks of Otomi-Mazahua, Sierra Morelos, and Nahuatlaca-Matlatzinca. The Bosencheve National Park extends into Mexico State from Michoacán, and is one of the major monarch butterfly sanctuaries. At the far east is the Iztaccíhuatl–Popocatépetl National Park which is shared with neighboring Puebla state.
Government and politics
Government
The state is governed according to the Constitution of the State of Mexico and the law of the State of Mexico. The previous constitutions of 1827, 1861, and 1870 were replaced in 1917. The government is composed of legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The legislative branch is composed of the Congress of the State of México; the executive branch is composed of the Governor, Cabinet, and Public Prosecutor; and the judicial branch is composed of the Judicial Council, High Court of Justice, and inferior courts.
The state is divided into 125 municipalities, which are governed by local councils () and a mayor, and have their own municipal laws. The municipalities are in turn grouped into 8 regions:
Toluca Region
Zumpango Region
Texcoco Region
Tejupilco Region
Atlacomulco Region
Coatepec Harinas
Valle de Bravo
Jilotepec
There are two metropolitan areas; the first is Greater Mexico City, in which there are 27 municipalities, and the city of Toluca, in which there are 6 municipalities.
The judiciary () is composed of:
The High Court of Justice (), the state's highest court.
The Judicial Council (), responsible for administration of the judiciary.
The trial courts ().
The small claims courts ().
The trial courts are divided on the municipalities basis.
Demographics
The fast-growing state contains about fourteen percent of the country's population and is one of the most densely populated with 740 people per square km. Since the Mexico City has not absorbed many citizens since 1990, Greater Mexico City's explosive expansion is largely absorbed by the state, along with similar trends in Greater Toluca. Outside than these two metropolitan zones, the state is composed largely of villages. Historically however, a handful of other states had been larger population centers until the 1960s, today it has by far the highest population in the country. In 2005, 85% of the population lived in urban centers, and 39% were born in other parts of Mexico.
Five ethnicities are native to the state: the Mazahua, the Otomi, the Nahuas, the Matlazincas and the Ocuitecos or Tlahuicas. There are also communities of Mixtecs, Zapotecs, Totonaca, Mazateca, Mixe, Purépecha and Maya. According to the 2005 census, the state has 312,319 people who speak an indigenous language, which is about 3 out of every 100 people. Two thirds of those speaking an indigenous language also speak Spanish.
According to the 2020 Census, 1.74% of the state of Mexico's population identified as Black, Afro-Mexican, or of African descent.
Education
The state has over three million students who attend about 15,000 schools from kindergarten to high school. It is the largest school system in the country after that of Mexico City. However, as late as 1990, there were over half a million people who were illiterate over the age of 15.
The state university is the Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México (UAEM) which offers 48 majors. This and other institutes of higher education have an enrollment of over 100,000 students. The beginnings of this institution go back to 1828, when the first Instituto Literario for the state was established in what is now the borough of Tlalpan in Mexico City. It was reestablished in Toluca in 1833. In 1886, the name was changed to the Instituto Científico y Literario. In 1943, the institution gained autonomy from direct state control and in 1956, it was reorganized as the UAEM. In 1964, the Ciudad Universitaria on the west side of Toluca was constructed.
Another important public university is the Universidad Autónoma de Chapingo, located in Texcoco. It is an agricultural college offering technical and bachelor's degrees. The school began as the Escuela Nacional de Agricultura (National School of Agriculture) which was founded in 1854 at the Monastery of San Jacinto in Mexico City. The school was moved in 1923 to the ex Hacienda of Chapingo President Álvaro Obregón. One distinguishing feature of the campus is the mural done in the old chapel, now University Ceremonies Room by Diego Rivera called “Tierra Fecundada” (Fertile Land). It is considered to be one of Rivera's best works. More recently, the school acquired an unnamed mural by Luis Nishizawa. This work depicts the agriculture of Mexico in both the past and the present. It is placed in a building that is commonly called “El Partenon”.
Other important educational institutions include the Universidad Technológica del Sur del Estado de Mexico and a campus of the ITESM .
Recently, the Tecnológico de Estudios Superiores de Ecatepec (TESE) has become relevant due to the number of students, careers and location.
Infrastructure
Transport
The state contains 9,723 km of highways with about 90% being state and 10% federal. There are 1227.4 km of rail line and two airports, “Lic. Adolfo López Mateos” in Toluca and “Dr. Jorge Jiménez Cantú” in Atizapán de Zaragoza. Helicopter facilities exist in Chimalhuacán and Jocotitlán. Toluca Airport had served as a major 2nd airport for Mexico city, with coaches especially Volaris running between the two, but in recent years the popularity dwindled. However, with the new airport plans for the capital canceled, Toluca Airport looks again to capitalize on congestion at Mexico City International Airport, and potentially again with Tren Interurbano.
The Ferrocarril Suburbano is a commuter rail line that connects downtown Mexico City with northern Mexico State municipalities. Service began operations in 2008 with the Buenavista Lechería line. The Buenavista-Cuauhtitlan line was inaugurated in 2009, bringing the total rail ine to 27 km serving communities such as Tultitlán, San Rafael, Tlanepantla and others.
Media
The state contains 23 radio stations, 29 television station (2 local and public and 27 affiliates), the information out there is that the two public stations (radio and television) are “Radio Mexiquense” and “Televisión Mexiquense”.
Newspapers of Estado de México include: Amanecer de México, Antesala la Verdad Sin Complicaciones, Aventuras de Vaqueros, De los Municipios Conurbados Imagen, Diario Puntual, El Diario de Toluca , El Heraldo de Toluca , El Sol de Toluca, Extra de El Sol, Global Energy, Impulso, Metro, Milenio Estado de México, Solo Ofertas, and Tollocan a 8 Columnas.
Economy
The state provides 9.7% of the country's gross national product, with over 12% of all of Mexico's active workforce employed in the state. The most important sector of the economy is industry and manufacturing, with over 10% of the state's land urbanized. The State of Mexico ranks second in the country for industrial output. The most important industries include chemicals, food products, textiles, paper products, metalworks and the construction and maintenance of transport vehicles. This sector employs the highest percentage of the population at 27.7%.
The next largest employer is commerce at 21.5%. One important segment of this sector is this hotel and restaurant industry. Outside of the metropolitan areas, tourism is an important element in the state economy, with attractions such as Valle de Bravo, Teotihuacan, Ixtapan de la Sal and others.
Most of the state's land is devoted to agriculture (38.1%) or to forest (34.9%). Much of these crop forest lands are ejido or communal lands. The State of Mexico is the main producer of cut flowers in the country with the municipality of Villa Guerrero producing up to 75% of Mexico's total floral output. The main crop is corn, with peas, barley, beans, potatoes, alfalfa, wheat, avocados and guava also grown. Livestock is raised on about 17% of the state's farmland with cattle being the most important animal. Almost all of the forest lands in the state are used for producing forestry products such as wood and paper. However, this sector only employs 1.3% of the state's population.
Other sectors of the economy include financial services, employing 21.4% of the population and transportation which employs 14.4%. While mining has been historically important, today it is only a minor activity despite residual deposits of gold, silver, lead and other minerals.
Tourism
Archeological sites
Main archeological sites include Teotihuacan, Malinalco, Teotenango and Calixtlahuaca. The best known and most important of these is the massive Mesoamerican Teotihuacan, with thousands visiting it each year. This city predates the Aztecs and the Toltecs, and is distinguished by two large pyramids, the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon.
In Malinalco, the archeological site is officially called the Cuauhtinchan Archeological Zone but it is more commonly called the Cerro de los Idolos. The site is located on a cliff overlooking the town. The visible complex dates from the Aztec Empire but the site's use as a ceremonial center appears to be much older. The main building served as a sanctuary for Aztec warriors. This complex has been compared to Ellora in India, Petra on the shores of the Dead Sea and Abu Simbel in Egypt.
Teotenango was in important pre-Hispanic fortified city located in the southern part of the Valley of Toluca. It was initially founded during the last stages of the Teotihuacan civilization by a group generally referred to as the “Teotenancas.” Later, the Matlatzincas conquered the city and expanded it. The city existed for about 1,000 years, being abandoned only after the Spanish Conquest of the Aztec Empire. In the 15th century, it and the rest of the southern Toluca Valley was conquered by the Aztecs. In the 16th century, the Spanish took over, forced the residents to abandon the old city in favor on a new settlement on the valley floor.
Calixtlahuaca is another Matlazinca site located just outside the city of Toluca. The site is at least 3,000 years old and shows Teotihuacan, Toltec and Aztec influences. Located on the skirts of the Tenismó mountain, the most outstanding structure is the temple dedicated to Ehécatl, or Quetzalcoatl in his wind god aspect.
Spanish colonial and other historical sites
Most of the state's colonial attractions are promoted through the “Pueblos con Encanto” program. These include the monasteries and churches located in towns such as de Acolman, Aculco, Amanalco, Amecameca, Ayapango, El Oro, Ixtapan de la Sal, Malinalco, Metepec, Otumba, Temascalcingo, San Juan Teotihuacán, Tlalmanalco, Tonatico and Villa del Carbón. Other colonial structures can be found in Ozumba, Toluca and the cities that surround Mexico City.
The state has twenty six museums and 543 libraries dependent on the Instituto Mexiquense de Cultura. Major institutions include the Centro Cultural Mexiquense and the Notary Archive, the Executive and Legislative Archives in Toluca.
Natural landmarks
The natural feature most closely associated with the state is the Nevado de Toluca or Xinantécatl volcano which is just south of the capital of Toluca. This is an extinct volcano which rises 4,690 masl, making it the fourth highest peak in Mexico. At the top is a very large crater that contains two lakes called the Laguna del Sol and the Laguna de la Luna. The volcano and its immediate surroundings are part of the Nevado de Toluca National Park and the Los Venado National Park.
Valle de Bravo along with neighboring Lake Avandaro is a major weekend getaway for many in Mexico City and Mexico State. The town is filled with red tile roofs and stone paved streets and has been named a “Pueblo Magico” by the federal tourism agency. The lake is a result of the damming of a regional river and is home to more than forty nautical clubs.
The Grutas de la Estrella is located in the far south of the state on the border with Guerrero. It is a series of live caves in which running water creates formations, some of which are called “The Mammoth,” the “Bride and Groom,” “The Hand” and “The Palace.” They have lighting and other infrastructure as well as guided tours.
Most of the other natural attractions are situated on water sources. Ixtapan de la Sal and Tonatico are noted for their hot-water springs and water parks. Ixtapan de la Sal has attracted the construction of spas and water parks. Tonatico has the fifty-meter high El Salto Waterfall. The Lagunas de Zempoala (Zempoala Lakes) are located on the Santiago Tianguistenco-Cuernavaca highway. The area has forest and cabins. The Isla de la Aves (Island of the Birds) is located in a lake in the municipalities of Atlacolmulco and Timilpan and has an aviary.
Chalma
Chalma is a small community, which is part of the municipality of Malinalco, Mexico State. Its small population is almost completely dedicated to the pilgrims who come to visit the Sanctuary of Chalma, the second most-important pilgrimage site in Mexico. The sanctuary is dedicated to an image of what many people describe as a "black Christ" on a cross that legend says miraculously appeared in an area cave where the worship of a deity commonly known as Oxtoteotl used to take place. Actually, Oxtoteotl is an aspect of Tezcatlipoca, the "Smoking Mirror," and the "black Christ" is really Tezcatlipoca, which the Spanish friars superimposed on the existing representation of Tezcatlipoca in order to convert the natives. Pilgrimages to this Christian sanctuary follow many of the patterns of the prehispanic rituals, including walking the narrow paths to the town itself, bathing in the waters of a special fresh-water spring and dancing at the sanctuary.
Others
To honor the native peoples of the area, there are the Centro Ceremonial Otomi in Temoaya and the Centro Ceremonial Mazahua in San Felipe del Progreso. Both of these have museums, auditoriums, handcrafts centers as well as large forested areas for camping and hiking. Both were built to honor and preserve these indigenous cultures.
Zacango is the state's major zoo with over 2,000 species from all over the world. It is located fourteen km from the city of Toluca in the municipality of Calimaya. It is one of the few zoos in Mexico where all the animals live in natural-like enclosures.
The Cosmovitral is a stained glass mural as well as the name of a building and botanical garden located in Toluca. The building takes its name from the murals which are set in the building's huge windows and in the ceiling. The building originally was constructed in 1910 as the 16 de Septiembre Market, but when this was closed in 1975, Leopoldo Flores successfully convinced the city government to convert the building into a space for art. The Cosmovitral is located downtown, on the corner of Juárez and Lerdo de Tejada streets. The best known aspect of this work is the Hombre Sol or Sun Man. Each year on the spring equinox, the sun aligns with this panel of the stained glass work. This image has become one of the symbols of the state.
Culture
Ceramics have been made in the Toluca Valley region since far into the pre-Hispanic period, mostly by Matlatzincas and Nahuas. The tradition continued into the colonial period although it much changed in both technique and design. Today both manufactured and handcrafted ceramics are produced in the state. The most traditional handcrafted wares are produced in places such as Metepec, Valle de Bravo, Texcoco and Almoloya de Juárez among others. The best known pottery and ceramics locale is Metepec, which specializes in large decorative pieces and sculptures called Trees of Life. Cooking utensils are made as well.
Objects made from precious metals such as silver are a specialty of the Mazahua people of the Toluca Valley. One specialty is jewelry and other decorative objects made with fine silver or gold wire. One community associated with this work is San Felipe del Progreso, where both wire and hammered items are made. Other communities of metalworkers exist in Naucalpan and Ciudad Nezahualcóyotl. In addition to jewelry, items such as bells, sculpture religious paraphernalia and more can be found.
Waxworks is dedicated mostly to the making of decorative and aromatic candles. These range from the simple to elaborately carved samples. These are mostly made in Amecameca, Tenango del Valle and Toluca.
The making of piñatas, decorative cut outs and other objects from paper and/or cardboard is known in Acolman, Metepec, Toluca, Huixquilucan, Nezahualcoyotl and Otumba. This tradition dates back to pre-Hispanic times with bark paper, but newer materials have been incorporated since then. For example, paper cut out banner or papel picado was originally done with crepe paper (called “papel chino” in Spanish) but today it can be seen done on thin plastic sheets.
The making of fireworks is best known in Tultepec in the municipality of Lerma. Not only are firecrackers and rockets made, but elaborate contraptions with firecrackers place to moves the parts when lit are made as well. These can be called “castillos” (castles) or “toritos” (little bulls) depending on their shape. These are use during religious and secular festivals such as saints’ day and Independence Day. Tultepec holds a fireworks festival each year.
Other crafts practiced in the state include the making of candies, basketry, artistic ironwork, and items from bone, horn, stone and wood.
Traditional dances performed in the state include the Danza de los Concheros, Danza de Moros y Cristianos, Doce Pares de Francia, Morisma and Santiagos. One particular to Mexico State is the El Tzimare-cu, which is performed by the Otomi communities in Xonacatlán, Villa Cuauhtemoc and Temoaya.
The state is known for its red and black moles, the barbacoa of Capulhuac and Tenango del Valle, the chorizo sausage of Toluca and the cheese products of Ayapango and Aculco. Beverages include pulque and “tecui.”
Major festivals and fairs in the state include the Feria de San Isidro Labrador, an agricultural fair in Metepec, the Festival de la Quimera, a cultural fair in Metepec, the Feria Internacional del Caballo horse fair in Texcoco, the Feria de la Nuez (Nut Fair) in Amecameca, the Festival de las Almas and Fiests de San Francisco de Asis in Valle de Bravo and the Feria de Alfeñique, which sells candies and other traditional goods for Day of the Dead.
The Orquesta Sinfónica del Estado de México or Mexico State Symphonic Orchestra was established in 1971 by Enrique Bátez Cambell. It is based in Toluca in the Felipe Villanueva Hall. It has given performances in various parts of both the state and nation of Mexico. It has made more recordings than any other state orchestra in the country, and in the 2000s it made its first appearances outside of Mexico in the United States and Europe.
Major municipalities
Ecatepec de Morelos
Nezahualcóyotl
Naucalpan de Juárez
Toluca
Tlalnepantla de Baz
Chimalhuacán
Cuautitlán Izcalli
Atizapán de Zaragoza
Tultitlán
Ixtapaluca
Nicolás Romero
Tecámac
Valle de Chalco Solidaridad
Chalco
Coacalco de Berriozábal
Twinning and covenants
Nuevo León
See also
Administrative divisions of Mexico
Notes
References
External links
State of Mexico Government official website
Bizarro Radio, Radio Station form the zone
Mexico state
Mexico state
Mexico State
Mexico State | [
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222245 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nayarit | Nayarit | Nayarit (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Nayarit (), is one of the 31 states that, along with Mexico City, comprise the Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 20 municipalities and its capital city is Tepic.
It is bordered by the states of Sinaloa to the northwest, Durango to the north, Zacatecas to the northeast and Jalisco to the south. To the west, Nayarit has a significant share of coastline on the Pacific Ocean, including the islands of Marías and Marietas. The beaches of San Blas and the so-called "Riviera Nayarit" are popular with tourists.
Besides tourism, the economy of the state is based mainly on agriculture and fishing. It is also one of two states where the tarantula species Brachypelma klaasi is found, the other being Jalisco.
Home to Uto-Aztecan indigenous peoples such as the Huichol and Cora, the region was exposed to the conquistadores, Hernán Cortés and Nuño de Guzmán, in the 16th century. Spanish governance was made difficult by indigenous rebellions and by the inhospitable terrain of the Sierra del Nayar. The last independent Cora communities were subjugated in 1722.
The state's name recalls the Cora people's label for themselves: Náayerite, commemorating Nayar, a resistance leader.
History
Radiocarbon dating estimate Aztatlán colonization of the western Mexican coast – including parts of Sinaloa, Nayarit and Jalisco – as occurring as early as 900 AD, with some evidence suggesting it might have been as early as 520 AD. Encountered on the western coast by the Spanish invaders in 1500, the cultures were descended from these original Aztatlán settlements and other Classic-stage cultures who had merged with them.
Hernán Cortés was the first known European to enter into the area now known as Nayarit, which he claimed for Spain as part of Nueva Galicia. Under Nuño de Guzmán, Spaniards took the region with considerable brutality, causing the indigenous inhabitants to revolt, in what was later referred to as the Mixtón War. After almost two centuries of resistance, the last independent Cora communities were incorporated into Spanish administration by force in 1722. Then followed intense missionary efforts by Jesuits to convert the indigenous.
In the colonial period, the port of San Blas was one of the most important trade ports on the American Pacific coast. Galleons transporting goods from Manila, the Philippines arrived here before the rise of the port of Acapulco. Today, the town still boasts colonial architecture from its heyday, such as the aduana (customs office), the contaduría (accounting offices) and the fortress that protected the port against pirates.
In Nayarit, the struggle for independence from Spain was initiated by the priest José María Mercado, who conquered Tepic and San Blas before being defeated and executed by Spanish royalists. In 1824, in the first constitution of the Mexican Republic, Nayarit was a part of Jalisco. In the mid-1800s Comanche Indians, from Texas and Oklahoma, attacked Tepic causing widespread destruction. During the second half of the 19th century, Nayarit was one of the most turbulent territories in Mexico. The population was in open revolt, demanding access to land.
Nayarit was one of the last territories admitted as a state of the Mexican federation, which occurred on May 1, 1917.
Geography
Nayarit covers , making it one of the smaller states in Mexico. Nayarit is located between latitude lines 23°05' north and 20°36' south and longitude lines 103°43' east and 105°46' west. Its terrain is broken up by the western ends of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains. Its highest mountains are: San Juan, Sanguangüey, El Ceboruco, Cumbre de Pajaritos and Picachos. Nayarit has two volcanoes, Ceboruco and Sangangüey. In the northeast are broad, tropical plains watered by the Río Grande de Santiago, a continuation of the Lerma River. The main state rivers are the Río Grande de Santiago, San Pedro Mezquital, Acaponeta, Ameca, and Las Cañas. The Río Grande de Santiago is the largest river in Nayarit. The Santiago and its tributaries are of major importance for agricultural irrigation. The Ameca and the Las Cañas lie on the border between Nayarit and the states of Jalisco and Sinaloa, respectively. Notable lagoons in Nayarit include Santa María del Oro, San Pedro Lagunillas and Agua Brava.
Municipalities
Nayarit – as with all states of Mexico – is geographically divided into municipalities (municipios), creating twenty municipalities in Nayarit:
Environment
Nayarit's natural vegetation varies with altitude. The coastal lowlands and river valleys were originally covered with tropical dry forest, with many trees that lose their leaves during the dry season. The Sinaloan dry forests cover the northern coastal lowlands and extend up the valleys of the San Pedro Mezquital River and Río Grande de Santiago and its tributaries. The Jalisco dry forests ecoregion covers coastal Nayarit south of San Blas and the Islas Marías.
The Marismas Nacionales–San Blas mangroves, a network of coastal lagoons and tidal mangrove forests, extend along the state's northern coast and into adjacent Sinaloa. The mangroves are home to abundant wildlife, including migratory and resident waterbirds.
The mountains are home to pine–oak forests, which vary with elevation. Oak forests and woodlands grow at lower elevations, interspersed with smaller areas of humid cloud forest in areas of higher rainfall. Higher elevations are home to forests of pine and oak, with forests of pine and other conifers at the highest elevations.
Nayarit contains hundreds of miles of rain forest in the sierra. Its wildlife includes hundreds of bird species including the lilac-crowned amazon (Amazona finschi) and Mexican woodnymph (Thalurania ridgwayi). There are also 119 registered species of mammals, including white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), collared peccary (Pecari tajacu), caymans, armadillos and wild felines such as jaguarundi (Puma yagouarundi) and ocelot (Felis pardalis) and many more. Unfortunately, most of the rain forest has been exploited, especially around the region of Santa María del Oro. The conservation and protection of the rain forest and wildlife of Nayarit is an issue of crucial importance.
The Islas Marías were designated as the Islas Marías Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO in 2010.
Flora and fauna
Education
Instituto Tecnológico de Tepic
Universidad Autónoma de Nayarit
Universidad Tecnólogica de Nayarit
Universidad Tecnólogica de la Costa
Escuela Normal Superior de Nayarit: a normal school (for teachers)
Universidad Vizcaya de Las Americas
Escuela Secundaria Técnica No. 51 (Emilio M. Gonzalez)
Demographics
Nayarit is Mexico's twenty-ninth most populous state. According to the census of 2020, the state had a population of 1,235,456 and its population density was 39/km2.
Indigenous groups
Nayarit is the home to four indigenous groups: the Wixaritari (Huichol), the Naayeri (Cora), the Odam (Tepehuan) and the Nahuatl-speaking Mexicaneros. The indigenous groups mostly inhabit the Nayar highlands, but are also frequently encountered in Tepic and on the Pacific coast, where they have also established colonies. They are known for their crafts and artwork which they sell. About five percent of the state population speaks an indigenous language.
Economy
Nayarit is predominantly an agricultural state, and produces a large variety of crops such as beans, sorghum, sugar cane, maize, tobacco, rice, chiles, peanuts, melons, tomatoes, coffee, mangoes, bananas, and avocados. In addition to these crops, livestock and fishing are also central to the local economy. Approximately six percent of the land in Nayarit is pasture land, with the most common livestock being cattle, horses, pigs, goats, and sheep. Nayarit has 289 kilometers of coastline, which provides an abundance of fish and shellfish, including bass, snapper, sharks, and oysters. There are over 75 cooperatives related to the fishing industry alone in Nayarit. Much of the food produced in Nayarit is exported to the larger urban areas surrounding Mexico City and Guadalajara, and much of the agricultural labor is performed by migrant laborers. Although mining exists in Nayarit, it is mostly of non-metallic substances such as limestone or kaolin.
Beginning in the late 90's, Nayarit has become known as a producer of specialty Arabica coffee, regarded for its fine taste and high density beans grown in the volcanic soils of the Sierra Madre Occidental. Nayarit coffee is exported all over the world, including to the UK and Australia via the Grupo Terruño Nayarita farmers cooperative.
In recent years, Nayarit has worked to build its tourism sector, marketing the "Riviera Nayarit" as a safe, beautiful destination served by Puerto Vallarta International Airport. Popular resort towns include Bucerías, Punta de Mita, La Cruz de Huanacaxtle, San Blas, Santiago Ixcuintla, Sayulita and Tecuala. However, some residents in these and other towns are concerned that the growth in the tourism industry might have harmful impacts on the community. Timeshare scams with links to the local Nayarit Mafia are quite common.
Media
Newspapers of Nayarit include: El Periódico en que Nayarit Opina Día a Día, El Semanario que refleja qué hay en Nayarit, Matutino Gráfico, Meridiano de Nayarit, and Realidades.
See also
Ixtlán del Rio (archaeological site)
Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition
References
Further reading
External links
Nayarit State Government
Breve Historia de Nayarit: Jean Meyer
Portal de Carrillo Puerto Nayarit, Mexico
Portal de Compostela Nayarit, Mexico
States and territories established in 1917
States of Mexico | [
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222247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuevo%20Le%C3%B3n | Nuevo León | Nuevo León () is a state in the Northeast region of Mexico. The state was named after the New Kingdom of León, an administrative territory from the Viceroyalty of New Spain, which itself was named after the historic Spanish Kingdom of Leon. With a total land area of 64,555 square kilometers (40,112 square miles). Nuevo León is the 13th largest Federal Entity in the United Mexican States. The state is bordered by Tamaulipas to the east, Coahuila to the west, and both Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi to the south. To the North, shares an international border with the US state of Texas. The Laredo-Colombia Solidarity International Bridge is the only vehicular bridge that connects the United States with the state of Nuevo León. Connecting both, the city of Colombia, Nuevo León and Laredo, Texas, crossing over the Rio Grande (Rio Bravo) river.
The state of Nuevo Léon is the seventh largest in terms of population with an estimated population of 5.78 million people in 2020. The state is home to the Monterrey Metropolitan Area, which is the second largest metropolitan area in Mexico with an estimated population of 5.3 million people in 2020. The most populous city is Monterrey with 1.42 million people. The next two most populous cities in the state are Apodaca and Guadalupe, both being part of the Monterrey Metropolitan Area. The metropolitan area is known for being an important industrial, intellectual and financial city in Mexico.
Nuevo León's geography is known for englobing three of the most important physiographic provinces of the region (north-east). The south of the Great Plains is considered to start in the northern most regions of Nuevo León. The region is characterized by the soft hills that dominates the lands neighboring the banks of the Rio Grande River. The south and west of the state consists of the Sierra Madre Oriental Mountain range. The Sierra Madre mountains dominates most of the western scenery. Due to the abrupt shape of the mountains, there are vast valleys in between the mountains. Within these valleys is where the city of Monterrey and its Metropolitan area is situated. To the east, there are the Northern Gulf Coastal Plains. The lowest altitude lands are located in these plains. Due to the alluvial land of these plains it is better known as "inclined plain".
History
Nuevo León was founded by conqueror Alberto del Canto, although frequent raids by Chichimecas, the natives of the north, prevented the establishment of almost any permanent settlements. Subsequent to the failure of del Canto to populate the area, Luis Carvajal y de la Cueva, at the head of a group of Portuguese and Spanish settlers who were of Jewish descent, requested permission from the Spanish King to attempt to settle the area which would be called the New Kingdom of León and would fail as well. It wasn't until 1596 under the leadership of Diego de Montemayor the colony became permanent. Nuevo Leon eventually became (along with the provinces of Coahuila, Nuevo Santander and Texas) one of the Eastern Internal Provinces in Northern New Spain.
The capital of Nuevo León is Monterrey, the second largest city in Mexico with over five million residents. Monterrey is a modern and affluent city, and Nuevo León has long been one of Mexico's most industrialized states.
Geography
Nuevo León has an extreme climate, and there is very little rainfall throughout the year. The territory covers , and can be divided into three regions: a hot, dry region in the north, a temperate region in the mountains, and a semi-arid region in the south. The Sierra Madre Oriental mountain range affects in an important way the lay of the land forming the Galeana and Doctor Arroyo plateaus, the Iguana, Picachos, Papagayos, and Santa Clara mountain ranges, and the Pilón, Ascensión, and Río Blanco valleys. As for hydrography, the San Juan River supplies the El Cuchillo dam, which provides water for Monterrey and the metropolitan area. There are also the Cerro Prieto, La Boca, Vaquerías, Nogalitos, and Agualeguas dams. Laguna de Labradores is a major lake in Nuevo León, and Pozo del Gavilán is a natural well. Both are located in the Galeana municipality. The flora of the region includes brush and pastures in the low regions, and pine and oak trees in the mountains. The fauna includes black bears, mountain lions, javelinas, prairie dogs, foxes, coyotes, and white-tailed deer, along with smaller species.
Demography
As of 2020, Nuevo León's population was about 5.784 million. Of these over 90% of the state's population resides within the Monterrey Metropolitan area, making it the second largest metropolitan area in the country. Life expectancy in the state is high, being 73 years for men and 79 years for women.
Ninety-four percent of the total population occupy urban areas, one million of which are home-owners, and 98% have all utilities (running water, sewer systems and electric power). The remaining 2% is mostly the small indigenous population which is isolated and lives in the mountain regions.
Following the nation's tendency, a majority of the population identifies as being Roman Catholic.
Education
The high quality of life that prevails across the state is reflected on statistical rates such as education, as the entity reports an almost perfect record for finished secondary education, and 13 in 100 inhabitants earn a professional degree. In the same line, illiteracy rates for the state are within the lowest in the nation at 2.8%, just behind the Distrito Federal which still leads the country in this regard.
Institutions of higher education include:
Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM)
Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León (UANL)
Centro de Estudios Universitarios (CEU)
Universidad Regiomontana (UR)
Universidad Metropolitana de Monterrey(UMM)
Universidad de Monterrey (UDEM)
Centro de Estudios Superiores de Diseño de Monterrey (CEDIM)
Economy
Highly industrialized, Nuevo León possesses a standard of living similar to that of countries such as Croatia, Slovakia or Poland. In 2007, the per capita GDP of the state was similar to that of the Asian Tiger of South Korea and even higher than that of some European Union states such as Slovakia and Hungary. At about $27,000, it was the highest GDP per capita (PPP) of any Mexican state (not counting the Federal District, which also has a very high per capita), and was therefore higher than the Mexican national average (2013 GDP per capita (PPP) national average was $15,700).
One of its municipalities, San Pedro Garza García, is among the richest in the country in terms of per capita income. It is also home of powerful conglomerates, such as Cemex (one of the largest construction materials firms in the world), Bimbo (bakery and pastry), Maseca (food and grains), Banorte (the only high-street bank in Mexico wholly owned by Mexicans), ALFA (Sigma, Alestra, Nemak, Alpek and Hylsa (recently bought by Ternium), i-service (HelpDesk), Vitro SA (glass), FEMSA (Coca-Cola in Latin America), and Cervecería Cuauhtémoc Moctezuma (brewers of Sol, Tecate, XX, Bohemia, Indio and Nochebuena).
Nuevo León also boasts a rich agricultural core, called the "orange belt", which comprises the municipalities of Allende, Montemorelos, Hualahuises, General Terán and Linares. Small but productive investments have been transforming traditional harvests (mainly based on orange and cereals) into agroindustrial developments that are producing increasing revenues for the local economy.
In contrast with the relative wealth of industrial Nuevo León and the orange belt, the Southern part of the state (municipalities of Galeana, Aramberri, Zaragoza, Doctor Arroyo and Mier y Noriega) remains rural and less productive. Most of The South of the state is at the mercy of a very dry weather that represents a major hurdle for agriculture and livestock.
As of 2010, Nuevo León's economy represents 11.4% of Mexico's total gross domestic product or US$165 billion. Nuevo León's economy has a strong focus on export oriented manufacturing (i.e. maquiladora / INMEX). As of 2005, 431,551 people are employed in the manufacturing sector. Foreign direct investment in Nuevo León was 1,213.1 million USD for 2005.
In recent years, the state government has been making efforts in attracting significant investments in aeronautics, biotechnology, mechatronics, information and communication technologies fields with the creation of the Research and Technology Innovation Park PIIT (Parque de Investigación e Innovación Tecnológica [es]), a technology park oriented in the development, innovation and research of sciences. The project is one of the key strategies within the Monterrey, City of Knowledge program. The park is located in the municipality of Apodaca, part of Greater Monterrey at the 10 km of the highway to Monterrey's International Airport. It consists of a total surface area of 70 Ha (172 acres), half of it already committed to R&D centers. The other 35 Ha (86 acres) are available for research and development centers, and for businesses that meet the Park's objectives.
Government
Official name
Estado Libre y Soberano de Nuevo León (Free and Sovereign State of Nuevo León).
Official motto
Latin: Semper Ascendens (Always Ascending).
Type of government
Republican and representative according to 30th article of the local constitution.
Executive
In 6 July 2003 gubernatorial election, Alianza Ciudadana – an electoral alliance between the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) and the Green Ecological Party of Mexico (PVEM) – regained control of the state from President Fox's party National Action Party (PAN). The new governor, Natividad González Parás of the PRI, was sworn in on 4 October 2003 for a period of six years.
Cabinet
Chosen directly by the Governor except for the General Comptroller and the State General Attorney, which are elected by Congress from a list of names provided by the Governor.
Legislative
The State has a unicameral chamber. The LXXI Congress of Nuevo León is composed of 42 deputies, 26 of them chosen by first-past-the-post electoral districts and 16 of them by proportional representation on a party-list basis. The parties represented are the PRI with 15 deputies, the PAN with 22 deputies, the Partido del Trabajo (PT) with two deputies, the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) with one, and the New Alliance party (PANAL) with two deputies.
Judiciary
Judicial power rests in the Superior Court of Justice of Nuevo León, led by Minister Gustavo Adolfo Guerrero Gutiérrez.
Political parties
Official recognition is given by the State Electoral Commission to those parties getting more than 1.5% of the votes in the last election (Art.40 of the State Electoral Law), which are the ones represented in Congress.
Municipalities
Nuevo León is divided into 51 municipalities (municipios). See municipalities of Nuevo León.
Largest cities
Climate
Nuevo León has many biomes, which is why it has different climates. Some areas in the mountains are very cold in winter and temperate in summer. In the northern part of the state the climate is arid as a result of the proximity to the Chihuahuan desert. Extreme high temperatures of 47 °C or more occur on the desert areas while winters are short and mild. In Monterrey the climate is hot semi-arid with extreme hot summers and mild winters. There is very little rainfall throughout the year, usually about 500 mm or less. February 2021 North American ice storm sent temperatures in Monterrey below zero celsius.
Flora and fauna
Media
Newspapers and news websites of Nuevo León include: ABC Noticias, Biznews, El Gráfico de Nuevo León, El Norte, El Porvenir, La Última Palabra, Medios Universitarios Diretec, Metro de Monterrey, Milenio Diario de Monterrey, Plataforma Mty. la ciudad que queremos, Publimetro, edición Monterrey, Regio.com, Reporte Indigo, Sòlo Ofertas.
Twinning and covenants
The state has agreements with other states, provinces, regions and autonomous communities.
Quebec
Texas
Catalonia
Lombardy, Italy
State of Mexico, Mexico
Jalisco, Mexico
See also
Fiestas of Nuevo León
History of Nuevo León
Sierra de Picachos
Sources
Human Development Report for Mexico 2002
Historia de Nuevo León by Israel Cavazos
Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México
Comisión Estatal Electoral de Nuevo León
Ley Estatal Electoral de Nuevo León, 1996
References
External links
Nuevo León State Government
States of Mexico
Mexican Plateau states
States and territories established in 1824
1824 establishments in Mexico | [
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222250 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quer%C3%A9taro | Querétaro | Querétaro (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Querétaro (; Otomi: Hyodi Ndämxei), is one of the 32 federal entities of Mexico. It is divided into 18 municipalities. Its capital city is Santiago de Querétaro. It is located in North-Central Mexico, in a region known as Bajío. It is bordered by the states of San Luis Potosí to the north, Guanajuato to the west, Hidalgo to the east, México to the southeast and Michoacán to the southwest.
The state is one of the smallest in Mexico, but it is also one of the most heterogeneous geographically, with ecosystems varying from deserts to tropical rainforest, especially in the Sierra Gorda, which is filled with microecosystems. The area of the state was located on the northern edge of Mesoamerica, with both the Purépecha Empire and Aztec Empire having influence in the extreme south, but neither really dominating it. The area, especially the Sierra Gorda, had a number of small city-states, but by the time the Spanish arrived, these had all been abandoned, with only small agricultural villages and seminomadic peoples inhabiting the area. Spanish conquest was focused on the establishment of the Santiago de Querétaro, which still dominates the state culturally, economically and educationally.
For many years, the name of the State was Querétaro de Arteaga, but since 2010 the State Legislature approved the adoption of the more simple name of Querétaro.
Geography, climate and ecology
Querétaro is located in the north-central area of the country of Mexico, connecting the wetter climes of the south with the drier deserts of the north. The state is divided into 18 municipalities: Amealco de Bonfil, Arroyo Seco, Cadereyta de Montes, Colón, Corregidora, El Marqués, Ezequiel Montes, Huimilpan, Jalpan de Serra, Landa de Matamoros, Pedro Escobedo Municipality, Peñamiller, Pinal de Amoles, Querétaro, San Joaquín, San Juan del Río, Tequisquiapan and Tolimán.
Three of Mexico’s geographic zones cover parts of the state. The Mesa del Centro is in the center-west of the state, and mostly consists of small mesas with an average altitude of above sea level (ASL). A few elevations reach over . The Sierra Madre Oriental occupies the northeast of the state and includes the cities of Huasteca area. The topography of this area is rugged, with long mountain chains and narrow valleys. Elevations here range between and m ASL. The Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt occupies about half of the state in the center and south. The area is mostly volcanic rock with peaks and mesas between and and valleys between and ASL.
The state is divided into five geographical regions: The Sierra Gorda, El Semidesierto Queretano, Los Valles Centrales, El Bajío Queretano and La Sierra Queretana. The Sierra Gorda is located in the north of the state and is part of the Sierra Madre Oriental, specifically in a subprovince called the Huasteco Karst. It is found in the municipalities of Arroyo Seco, Jalpan de Serra, Landa de Matamoros, Pinal de Amoles and San Joaquín and covers an area of 3,789km2 or 32.2% of the state. The topography is rugged, with high elevations and steep valleys. It is a conjunction of mountains and hills formed mostly by limestone, with wide contrasts in climates and vegetation. They range from near desert conditions to forests of pine and holm oak to the tropical rainforests of the Huasteca area in the state of San Luis Potosí. The Sierra Gorda was made a biosphere reserve in 1997, the Reserva de la Biosfera de la Sierra Gorda, to protect its abundance of species and ecosystems. In 2001, the area was registered with the Man and the Biosphere Programme of UNESCO. This area is managed by la Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas of the Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources federal agency.
El Semidesierto Queretano (Querétaro Semidesert) is a wide strip that crosses the state from east to west, which is dry due to the blocking of moist air from the Gulf by the Sierra Madre Oriental. The area is found in the municipalities of Cadereyta de Montes, Colón, Peñamiller and Tolimán, with an area of 3,415.6km2 or 29% of the state. As it is near the mountain range, its topography is relatively rugged. Los Valles Centrales (Central Valleys) is in the center of the state, overlapping almost all of the area formed by the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, with the exception of the north of the El Marqués municipality, which is in the Mesa del Centro. The continental divide runs through here marked by the Sierra Queretana, the El Macizo and El Zamoarano mountain chains. This area occupies the municipalities of Ezequiel Montes, El Marqués, Pedro Escobedo and San Juan del Río with an extension of 2,480.2kmw or 21.1% of the state. El Bajío Queretano is in the western part of the state, which is a low elevation area that extends into neighboring Guanajuato. This area covers 1,005.7km2 or 8.5% of the state, and contains low hills and small mountain chains that are part of the Trans Mexican Volcanic Belt. La Sierra Queretana (Querétaro Sierra Mountains) is in the extreme south of the state, and also part of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. It is mostly found in the municipalities of Amealco de Bonfil and Huimilpan, covering an area of 1,078.3 km or 9.2% of the state. The area has high peaks and plains that narrow into valleys and canyons. Some of the flat areas border the Lerma River.
The state contains two river basins: the Lerma/Santiago and the Pánuco. The first is represented by the Lerma and La Laja Rivers and the second is represented by the Tamuín and Moctezuma Rivers. Other important rivers include the Santa María and the San Juan. These rivers contain 16 dams, including the Santa Catarina, El Batán, Constitution de 1917 and the San Ildefonso.
Most of the state is dry, with the exception of the north, which is temperate and rainy. The average temperature is . Three well-defined climate areas are in the state. The south has a temperate and fairly wet climate. Temperatures are relatively stable through the year, ranging from an average of between 12 and , with most rain falling in the summer. This region includes the municipalities of Amealco, Huimilpan, Pedro Escobedo, San Juan del Río and Corregidora. The center and west have drier and hotter climates, especially in areas under 2,000 m ASL. Here, the Sierra Madre Oriental and parts of the Trans Mexican Volcanic Belt impede moist air from arriving. This dry area includes the municipalities of Querétaro, Corregidora, El Marqués, Peñamiller, Esequiel Montes, Cadereyta, San Juan del Río, Tolimán and Tequisquiapan. The Sierra Madre Oriental area has climates that range from temperate to cold, varying significantly from north to south and even more due to altitude. The north tends to be warmer than the south, but average temperatures can range from in lower elevations and between in higher elevations.
The state’s ecosystems have 18 different classifications ranging from tropical rainforest to arid scrub brush. Deciduous rainforest is found in parts of the north, center and west of the state such as Jalpan de Serra, Arroyo Seco and Landa de Matamoros. Small deciduous forests are found in Jalpan de Serra and Landa de Matamoros. Oyamel forests are found in the highest elevations of El Zamorano in the municipalities of El Marqués and Colón. Pure pine forests are found in Cadereyta de Montes, Pinal de Amoles, San Joaquín and Landa de Matamoros. Mixed pine and holm oak forests are found in the Sierra de El Zamorano and the El Lobo region, opposite the Sierra Madre Oriental. Deciduous oak forests are found in the municipalities of Amealco de Bonfil, Landa de Matamoros, El Marqués, and a number of others, but only at altitudes between 1,600 and 2,800 m ASL. Juniper and cedar forests are found in Pinal de Amoles, Landa de Matamoros, San Joaquín and Cadereyta de Montes at altitudes of between 1,390 and 2,500 m, generally on low hills. Mesquite forests are scarce given that they tend to grow on land suitable for agriculture, but some can still be found in Pedro Escobedo, San Juan del Río, Cadereyta de Montes and other municipalities. The two types of grasslands are those with some trees and those with none. The latter is much more common and found in various parts of the south of the state. Grasslands dotted with trees are found only in the municipality of Querétaro. The other five ecosystems are dominated by various types of arid scrub brush, ranging from those dominated by thorns, without thorns and intermixed with various types of cactus.
The Cerro del Cimatario, on the borders of the municipalities of Corregidora, Querétaro and El Marqués, has been declared a national park and biosphere reserve due to its forests.
Quakes are not uncommon in the state, so there are monitoring stations in Peñamiller, Extoraz, Peña Blanca and 10 in the Sierra Gorda, including Jalpan de Serra, Landa de Matamoros, Arroyo Seco, Pinal de Amoles and San Joaquín. More are planned for Tolimán and Cadereyta. In January 2011, about 70 small quakes caused some damage in the Peñamiller area, in the north, causing a certain amount of panic in the area, because the tremblers continued, with an average strength of 3.5 on the Richter magnitude scale. This is not normal for this area. The quakes are believed related to mining in the area, but the government denies this.
Demographics
As of 2020, the state had a population of 2,368,467 and a population density of 137 inhabitants per square kilometer. Over the 20th century, from 1900 to 2005, the state’s population has grown from 232,389 to the current figure. Growth rates were highest in the 1970s at over 4%, but since have come down to 1.9%. The fastest rates of population growth in the state now are in Querétaro and San Juan del Río at about 4%. Two, Arroyo Seco and Peñamiller, have lost population in the previous decades. The capital city of Santiago de Querétaro has nearly half of the state’s population. Other major cities include San Juan del Río (208,462) Corregidora (104,218) El Marqués (79,743) and Cadereyta de Montes (57,204). About 37% lives in the 1420 communities with between 1 and 1,999 inhabitants, and 16% in communities of between 2,000 and 14,999. The population of the state is sparse in most areas, concentrated in only one true urban center and some smaller communities. Living standards are higher than average for Mexico in and around the city of Querétaro, but diminish significantly in the rural areas.
One important factor in the population growth has been migration into the state from other parts of Mexico due to the state’s industry, low crime rate and other factors. One recent phenomenon has been the influx of families from northern border states migrating south to escape drug-related violence. An estimated 49 new families move into the state every 24 hours, on average. This has made attendance at private universities climb 11% especially at ITESM-Querétaro, Universidad Anáhuac and the Universidad del Valle de México. Most of the families are moving to the area in and around the capital.
Over 96% of the population is Catholic, with very small percentages reporting as Protestant or Evangelical. The state is not culturally or socially homogenous. The first large distinction is between those who live in the mountains and those who live in the valleys. Those in the mountains are closer culturally to those living on the Gulf Coast, with the latter having more in common with cultures found in the west of Mexico and the central highlands .
There are indigenous communities in seven of the 18 municipalities of the state, mostly Otomi and Pame. These communities are divided into three regions: South, Arid Center and Sierra Madre Oriental, with the Otomis dominating in the first two and the Pames in the last. The most important indigenous group in the state is the Otomi. These people have inhabited central Mexico for over 5,000 years and were part of cities and empires such as Cuicuilco, Teotihuacan and Tula. Their language is part of the Oto-mangueana family, which includes Pame, Mazahua, Matlatzinca and the Chichimeca-Jonaz languages. They have maintained their language, which is called hñahñu, which literally means to speak with nasal sounds. However, most Otomi speakers are bilingual. Their name for themselves varies in the different areas of central Mexico where they live, but in southern part of Querétaro, they call themselves the Ñano. Otomi communities in the state have their own authorities, in addition to Mexican ones, in both the civil and religious arenas, who are elected annually. Most profess the Catholic faith, but it is influenced by indigenous beliefs. The trading of goods is still an important part of the economy of many Otomi communities, and they are known for their abilities with herbal medicines. A number who live in rural areas can still be seen in traditional dress. For women, this includes a hand-embroidered blouse and skirt, a garment called a quexquemetl and huaraches. For men, this includes shirts and pants of undyed or white cotton, tied with an embroidered belt, huaraches and a hat made with palm fronds. These communities are located in south in Amealco de Bonfil. Here, over 25,000 people live in 31 communities, such as San Ildefonso, Tultepec, Santiago Mexquititlán, Chitejé de la Cruz and San Miguel Tlaxcatltepec. In the arid parts of the center of the state, indigenous communities are found in the municipalities of Tolimán, Cadereyta, Colón and Ezequiel Montes, with about 21,500 Otomis in 56 different communities. In the Sierra Madre Oriental, about 3,775 people, mostly Pame with an important group of Huastecas are found in three communities in the municipalities of Jalpan de Serra and Arroyo Seco. However, of all the people in these indigenous communities, only a total of 23,363 spoke an indigenous language, primarily Otomi, as of 2005. Most (94.8%) of these were also speakers of Spanish.
According to the 2020 Census, 1.83% of Querétaro's population identified as Black, Afro-Mexican, or of African descent.
Culture
Western painting developed in the state during the colonial period, when artists such as Pedro de Rojas López, Tomás Noriega and Diego Sanabria produced primarily religious art. More diverse production came into being in the 19th century forward; José Mariano Perrusquia y Rubio, Mariano Montenegro and Germán Patiño Díaz produced paintings and even photography. Patiño Díaz was the director of the old Academia de Dibujo y Pintura de San Fernando, which trained more artists in the state such as Agustín Rivera Ugalde. The 20th century produced artists such as Braulio Rodríguez Granda, Jesús Rodríguez de la Vega, Jesús Águila Herrera and Restituto Rodríguez Camacho. The current generation of Querétaro artists includes Rafael Rodríguez, Virginia Ledesma, Ramsés de la Cruz and Juan Eduardo Muñoz . In the field of photography,
Natalia Baquedano was one of the first women to open a photographic studio in Mexico. She began her training in Querétaro, before moving to Mexico city.
The state has produced a large number of writers. Major writers from the 19th century include poet and journalist Juan María Wenceslao Sánchez de la Barquera y Morales, poet and short story writer Néstora Téllez Rendón, poet and orator Celestino Díaz Domínguez, journalist and playwright Luis Frías Hernández, writer and doctor Hilarión Frías y Soto and poet and academic Juan B. Delgado. The early 20th century produced poet and translator Francisco Cervantes, arguably the most important literary figure from Querétaro internationally; poet and journalist José Dolores Frías Rodríguez, songwriter Carlos Cabrera Pedraza, novelist Alfredo Coéllar Gómez and poet Carlos Septién García. The current generation of writers includes poets Román Luján, Luis Alberto Arellano, Benjamín Moreno, César Cano and Tadeus Argüeyo.
Indigenous music can be found in Otomi areas, such as in the municipalities of Amealco and the arid central areas of the state. Often this includes trios consisting of two flutes or two violins with a drum, most often played for community celebrations. The Otomi of Tolimán have a variant of Otomi music called viñuetes, which is played with one large drum, one small drum and a violin. Huapango is a dominant musical form in the Sierra Gorda and some of the arid areas of the center of the state. Two types are generally played: Huasteco and Arribeño. Huasteco is played in trios with two guitars called huapanguera and the smaller jarana huasteca and a violin. The songs consist of stanzas of four to six verses sung in falsetto, often with improvisation. The Arribeño is most common in the mountains areas bordering the states of San Luis Potosí and Guanajuato. It is played in groups of four with a huapanguera, a vihuela and two violins. Lyrics tend to be poetic and sung from memory or improvised. Some are religious in nature. Another indigenous form of music, called comesolos, played with a flute and drum has almost completely died out. In the mountain village of San Joaquín in April is the Concurso Nacional de Huapango Huasteco (National Huasteca Huapango Contest) . This event attracts thousands of visitors and participants each year, as it is the most important Huapango contests in the country.
Most traditional festivals are tied to the Catholic religion, with some of the most important being La Candelaria (Candlemas), Holy Week and Day of the Dead. Locally important are the myriad of festivals to patron saints of towns, villages and municipalities. In addition, ta number of civic and economic festivals and fairs include celebrations of the founding of the various cities, regional fairs in Cadereyta, El Marqués, Jalpan de Serra and others to showcase local products and culture.
México Folklórico is a dance group created in 1990 within the Academia de la Cultura of the state teachers’ union. It consists of teachers’ children, who are studying high school or above, as an extracurricular activity. Its repertoire includes dances and other traditions from various parts of Mexico. It has performed in many parts of Mexico, as well as in the rest of the Americas and Europe.
The cooking of the Sierra Gorda region is strongly influenced by the Huasteca cuisine of neighboring Hidalgo and San Luis Potosí states. One notable dish is sacahuil, which is a large tamal wrapped in the leaves of a plant called a papatla. This dish is most prevalent in Landa de Matamoros and Jalpan de Serra. During festivals in San Miguel Tolimán, the main dish is chickpeas with saffron accompanied by tortillas in a number of colors. In Peñamiller, they celebrate with goat meat, accompanied by pulque. Another common dish in this areas is a variety of tostadas called arriero (donkey handler) . Simichol is a fermented corn drink prepared in Santiago Mexquititlán. In San Joaquín, the drink is called charape, made with piloncillo. In this and other central municipalities, gorditas de migajas (literally crumb gorditas) is a common dish.
Traditional food products include a candy made of guava fruit and sugar, jams, and sweets made from pulque, milk candies from Bernal, a hard bread called mezquitamal, which is made by the Otomis, and various types of mole sauces made in Amealco. In the Sierra Gorda area, gorditas can be prepared with sugar, cheese, and piloncillo. The zacahuil, a large type of tamale, is filled with chicken, turkey or pork with dried chili pepper. A number of insects are used, especially in indigenous dishes such as tantárreas (ants from a type of mesquite tree) and escamoles, often cooked with cactus flowers. One native beverage, called mejengue, made with piloncillo (a type of sugar derived from the cane plant), banana, pulque and corn.
History
The official name of the state is "Estado Libre y Soberano de Querétaro" (Free and Sovereign State of Querétaro). The formal name of the capital is Santiago de Querétaro. However, both are commonly referred to simply as Querétaro. The most likely origin of the name is from the Purépecha word "Créttaro" which means "place with crags". However, there have been other explanations of the name including that it comes from Nahuatl and means Mesoamerican ball court, or even "island of the blue salamanders". Nevertheless, other scholars suggest that it can mean "place of the reptiles" or "place of the giant rocks". The city received the title of Noble y Leal Ciudad de Santiago de Querétaro in 1656, but after Independence, it was changed to simply Querétaro. It was returned to Santiago de Querétaro in 1996, when it was named a World Heritage Site. The ending of "de Arteaga" was added to the state’s name in 1867 in honor of General José María Cayetano Arteaga Magallanes. Originally from Mexico City, Arteaga became governor of Querétaro and distinguished himself as a soldier in the middle of the 19th century. It was removed in 2010.
Agricultural settlements dated to about 500 BCE have been found in the San Juan del Río and Huimilpan areas, which was during the Teotihuacan era. The ancient city had interest and influence in the area because of its agriculture, but did not dominate it. After the fall of this city, the Querétero area had its highest rate of development of both agriculture and social structure. The area was inhabited early on by a number of ethnicities, including the Otomi, Toltecs, Chichimecas, Purépechas and Mexicas. In the 10th century, the area experience population shifts which did not stabilize until the 12th century. Much of this migration moved south from the Querétaro area into the Valley of Mexico. Those who remained by the end of the 12th century were mostly in hunter-gatherer communities and small agricultural settlements. The region’s agriculture and minerals continued to attract the interest of more powerful neighbors. In the 15th century, both the Aztec Empire and Purépecha Empire had strong influence parts of the state, especially in the south, but would never incorporate the area completely into either empire. The Aztec’s interest in the area was mostly to use it as a bulwark against marauding northern Chichimeca tribes, and it never became a tributary state. During this time, as well, a number of new peoples entered the state, most likely from the north, primarily the Pames and the Chichimeca Jonaz. The first group practiced agriculture in the valleys and the latter in the mountain areas.
When the Spanish conquered the Aztec Empire in the early 16th century, the largest indigenous group in the state was the Otomi, many of whom were living more or less under Purépecha rule. This population would increase with Otomi refugees from Aztec lands fleeing the Spanish. Another significant group was the Chichimecas. With the fall of Tenochtitlán, then the Purépecha Empire, the Spanish gained some control over the southern portion of the state. However, the area was still very independent, filled with peoples who lived in small isolated villages or nomadically. There were no major cities, nor large societies there or north.
The conquest and colonization of Querétaro began with the Spanish settlements at San Juan del Río, Querétaro and Huimilpan between 1529 and 1531. Conquistador Herán Pérez de Bocanegra joined forces with a local Otomi lord from Jilotepec named Conín, also known as Fernando de Tapia, to enter Otomi areas in what is now the city of Querétaro. There would be only one major battle as part of the conquest in 1531. The Spanish and their Indian allies were battling the local Otomi and Chichimecas at a hill now known as Sangremal, which was then called Ynlotepeque, and considered sacred in pre-Hispanic times. Chronicles of this event, such as those written by Friar Isidro Félix de Espinoza, state that the natives were at the point of winning when a total eclipse of the sun occurred. This supposedly scared the natives and the Spanish claimed to have seen an image of Saint James (the patron saint of Spain) riding a white horse carrying a rose-colored cross. This event caused the natives to surrender. This event is why the city is called Santiago (Saint James) de Querétaro, with James as patron saint A stone cross imitating the one the Spanish supposedly saw was erected on the hill, which later was accompanied by a church and monastery.
During the rest of the 16th century, the Spanish city of Querétaro would form the northern extension of known lands to the Spanish conquerors. The Spanish initially shared power in the area with local indigenous leaders until well into the 17th century in many areas. However, indigenous power waned over time, eventually disappearing completely. However, the Spanish would not subdue and evangelized the last of the resistant peoples, the Chichimec Jonaz until the end of the 18th century.
Most of the north of the state consists of an area known as the Sierra Gorda, which is an area of very rugged terrain, with widely varying climates. From the 16th to 19th centuries The Spanish would slowly dominate the lands around it, south in Querétaro, west in Guanajuato and east in Hidalgo, with only military and missionary incursions into the area's interior. This was due to the fierce resistance of the local native peoples. Unlike the Pames on the south, the Chichimeca Jonaz were mostly hunter gatherers, not city dwellers, and they were not used to a hierarchical governing system. Attempts to militarily pacify and evangelize the area had little success, with a number of missions never completed or destroyed shortly after they were built. In the mid 18th century, the colonial government in Mexico City decided to make a concerted effort to bring this territory into submission, as it contained important routes to mining areas such as Zacatecas and Guanajuato. José de Escandón was sent in 1727 to pacified a revolt of Pames in Celaya, and was promoted to sergeant mayor of the regiment. In 1732, he subdued rebels at the mines in Guanajuato, and the following year he did the same at Irapuato. In 1734 he pacified 10,000 Indian rebels at San Miguel el Grande. For these accomplishments, he was promoted to colonel and assigned as an aide to the captain general of the Sierra Gorda. However, it was until 1748 that José de Escandón won the Battle of Media Luna, in which the Chichimecas were decisively defeated. The Sierra Gorda Indian missions, some 90 miles north of Santiago de Querétaro, were nestled in a vast region of jagged mountains, home of the Pame people and a scattering of Spanish colonists. When Junipero Serra and Francisco Palóu arrived at the village of Jalpan, they found the mission in disarray: The parishioners, numbering fewer than a thousand, were attending neither confession nor Mass. Junipero Serra tackled the practical side of mission administration; working with the college of San Fernando, he had cattle, goats, sheep, and farming tools brought to the Sierra Gorda mission. Menawhile, Francisco Palóu supervised the farm labor of men of the mission, while the women learned spinning, sewing and knitting. Their products were collected and rationed to the mission residents, according to personal needs. Christian Pames sold their surplus products in nearby trading centers, under the friars' supervision to protect them from cheaters. Pames who adapted successfully to mission life received their own parcels of land to raise corn, beans and pumpkins, and sometimes received oxen and seeds as well. Today, those mission buildings are considered World Heritage Site. A district called an "alcaldía mayor" was established in San José de Escandón -today in the municipality of Pinal de Amoles- which governed what is now the northern half of the state. Decline of mining in the area would have this seat of government moved to Cadereyta in 1675, but this territory would be joined with the alcaldía mayor of the city of Querétaro to form the modern state.
The territory of Querétaro was consolidated during the 17th century. Santiago de Querétaro was declared a city in 1655. The coat of arms granted to the capital city that year is now the state coat of arms, with the substitution of an eagle on a cactus to replace the section referring to the Spanish royalty. Over the colonial period, the Querétaro area became important strategically and economically as it connected the newly explored and conquered lands to the north and west to the center of New Spain in Mexico City. Various trade routes converged here and the city became a cultural crossroads. The activities of Franciscan missionaries were a decisive factor in building the economic, social, political and religious institutions of the state. They were also mostly responsible for the building of most of the religious buildings and the acquisition of paintings and sculptures that can still be seen. These works gave the city an image of richness. The buildings from this era of the city’s history include the Plaza de Armas, The Casa de Ecala, the Casa de los Septién, the Cassa de los Samaniego, the Casa de los Fernández de Jáuregui, the Palacio de la Corregiduría de Legres de Querétaro as well as the Congregación and San Antonio churches. However, the most important structure from the time is the Aqueduct of Querétaro. Much of the evangelization efforts in the Sierra Gorda area was done by Junípero Serra. These efforts left behind a number of missions which exist to this day in Jalpan de Serra, Tancoyol, Concá, Tilaco and Landa de Matamoros.
This development made the city wealthy for the rest of the colonial period. Querétaro reached its height of the colonial period during the 18th century due to its strategic position with the northern territories and because of its livestock production. There was also a significant textile industry for local and regional markets. Querétaro was the first major producer of wool cloth in New Spain. At the end of the century, The Real Fabrica de Tabaco (Royal Tobacco Factory) was established, the second most important of its type in New Spain. There was also some mineral production, especially silver in an area called El Doctor.
The city of Querétaro was strategic in the development of events just before the start of the Mexican War of Independence. It was the site of the conspiracy among Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, Ignacio Allende, Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez and her husband the Corregidor of Querétaro Miguel Domínguez. The plot was uncovered when another conspirator, Epigmenio González, was caught with a stockpile of weapons to start the war. Ortiz de Dominguez sent word to Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla in Dolores, Guanajuato (now Dolores Hidalgo, Guanajuato) that the plot was discovered. At that point, Hidalgo decided to begin the revolt against colonial rule in on 15 September, rather than in December as planned. Gonzalez was imprisoned in the Philippines from 1810 to 1838 for his role. The Corregidor and his wife were caught and imprisoned for their parts as well. Soon after, the city of Querétaro was taken by royalist forces and would stay that way for much of the war. The only fighting in the state were skirmishes fought in the mountain areas. The city of Querétaro would be one of the last royalist bastions to fall.
After the war, Querétaro was made a state with the 1824 Constitution. However, the city and state would lose the economic and cultural prominence that both had enjoyed during the colonial period. The political instability of the 19th century took its toll on commerce, which made the area’s economy suffer. The status of Querétaro would change between state and department, depending on whether Liberals or Conservatives were in power nationally. Within the state, battles for power between the two groups would lead to the state having twenty five governors between 1824 and 1855.
During the century, the capital city was the scene of a number of important events. During the Mexican–American War, the capital was moved from Mexico City to Querétaro. At the end of that war, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed here. The southernmost raids of the Comanche Indians from the plains and prairies of Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas far to the north (along with Kiowas and some Apaches) occurred here during the middle of the 1800s. The 1857 Constitution was published in the city as well and a coalition of states including Querétaro, Jalisco, Aguascalientes, Zacatecas, Guanajuato and Michoacán formed a coalition to defend this constitution against the Plan of Tacubaya. During the short reign of Maximilian I, there were battles between Liberals and Conservatives (with the latter supporting the emperor) in Querétaro. However, Maximilian lost the military support provided by Napoleon III, leaving only four states loyal to the emperor. Querétaro was one of them. Maximilian still resisted Liberal forces which eventually surrounded him at Cerro de Campanas, then outside the city of Querétaro. The emperor was caught and executed on 19 June 1867. Afterwards, the state wrote a new constitution based on Liberal principles. Another new state constitution would be written at the beginning of the Porfiriato in 1879. Despite the turmoil, there was still economic progress in the state, with the establishment of textile mills such as Hércules, Casa Rubio and two other factories in San Antonio and La Purísma. There was also some mining, especially in El Doctor, Río Blando, Maconí and Escanelilla with a total of 216 mines producing silver with some producing gold, copper, lead and more.
Before the end of the century, modern infrastructure such as electricity, telegraph and telephones began to appear. Industry grew and modernized, with El Hércules becoming the largest textile factory in the country. Haciendas and agricultural production also grew, especially in the north of the state. The capital was modified and expanded, and it was linked to the rest of the country via rail in 1882. Public education began in the state at the beginning of the 20th century with fifty-four primary schools and the first graduates of the state’s first teachers’ college.
However, at the same time, strikes and other movements against the Diaz regime had begun in the state and elsewhere in the country. The largest strike in the state was against the El Hércules factory in 1909. At the start of the Mexican Revolution, there were revolts in Jalpan de Serra and Cadereyta along with protests in the capital. Governor González de Cosío resigned in 1911, replaced by Joaquín F. Chicarro, who was allied with Victoriano Huerta and more authoritarian. In 1916 and 1917, the federal government of Venustiano Carranza had to abandon Mexico City, moving the country’s capital to Querétaro. The country’s current 1917 Constitution was promulgated from Teatro de la República in the city of Querétaro.
After the war, the economy of the state recovered slowly. Between 1940 and 1960, economic progress came more rapidly, with the industrial infrastructure growing and modernizing. During the same period, the population grew substantially as well. Much of industrial growth from then to the present can be seen in the various industrial parks located north of the capital city. In the following thirty years, the city grew to over four times its previous size. However, the state conserved the city’s historic center, which was declared a World Heritage Site in 1996. The city’s official name, which had been changed simply to "Querétaro", was restored to "Santiago de Querétaro" the same year.
In 1997, the National Action Party (PAN) won the gubernatorial elections and Ignacio Loyola Vera became the first non PRI governor of the state since the Revolution. In 2008, the state’s constitution was amended to make Querétaro the official state name. The aqueduct Acueducto II was inaugurated in 2011 by President Felipe Calderón and state governor José Calzada Rovirosa. It transports water over 122 km from springs in El Infiernillo to the city of Querétaro. This is to supplement local water sources which are no longer able to meet the city’s needs.
Economy
General description
Economic activity in the state is closely tied to trends at the national level. This includes the declining contribution to GDP of the agricultural sector and an increase in manufacturing and commerce/services. The city of Querétaro is by far the most important economic center in the state, followed by San Juan del Río. Not only is Querétero the population center of the state, it has high-quality soil for irrigation farming and cattle. It is directly connected by highway to Mexico City, the country’s largest market, as well as the north of the country and the United States. This makes the city an almost obligatory stop for most people and goods traveling north and south. This geographical advantage has spurred industrial development in the state, especially since the 1970s. Another advantage the state has is its stable social and political situation. It has a low crime rate and also noted by NGO Transparencia Mexicana as having the lowest levels of corruption among all of Mexico’s states. Of the three main sectors of the economy: agriculture, mining/industry and commerce/services, the percentage each employs and contributes to the GDP varies significantly from municipality to municipality, with agriculture making up a higher percentage of local employment and GDP in rural municipalities than in the Querétaro metropolitan area. However, overall, the state has one of the country’s strongest economies. Government authorities report an increase of 4,602 jobs in the state for January 2011, accounting for a quarter of the gain for the country. Some related to Bombardier.
The municipalities of the state are grouped into five economic regions centered on Amealco de Bonfil, Cadereyta de Montes, Jalpan de Serra, Querétaro and San Juan del Río. The Amealco region includes this municipality and the municipality of Huimilpan. Most of its economy is based on cereal production with only minor industry such as maquiladoras and textiles. There are also handcrafts produced by indigenous groups.
The Cadereyta región includes this municipality, Colón, Peñamiller and Tolimán. Agriculture is limited to the rainy season, but there is significant production of livestock such as goats. There is also some forestry activity. Industry is not common, but some technically advanced factories exist. There are also maquiladoras, textile and recycling operations which primarily employ women.
The Jalpan de Serra region includes this municipality and Arroyo Seco, Pinal de Amoles, Landa de Matamoros and San Joaquín. Agriculture is limited, mostly producing fruits such as citrus, mangos, coffee, peaches and apples. Fish farming is a growing and promising enterprise for the areas. Industry is also very limited.
The Querétaro región includes the capital and the municipalities of Corregidora and El Marqués. This area has the second most productive farms in the state, much of which is irrigated. Crops include sorghum, wheat, barley, alfalfa, oats with some vegetables, corn and beans. This area is also an important producer of all kinds of livestock. Industry is limited to the industrial parks located just north of the capital, but they employ most of the industrial workers of the state.
The San Juan del Río region includes this municipality and Ezequiel Montes, Pedro Escobedo and Tequisquiapan. This is the most agriculturally production region of the state, with most farmland irrigated. There is intensive farming of sorghum, wheat, barley, alfalfa, and oats, with some vegetables, corn and beans. Large areas of natural pasture supports a large livestock industry. The region is second in industry behind Querétaro, concentrating on paper products and food processing. Most industry is located in San Juan del Río.
Agriculture and forestry
Agriculture and livestock have been traditionally important for the state, and while it only provides about four percent of the state’s GDP, down from eighteen percent in 1970, it employs a far larger percentage of the population, with it being the basis of the economy in many rural areas. 28.24% of state land is used for agriculture, mostly raising corn, wheat, alfalfa, sorghum and squash. There is also intensive farming in areas of a number of important crops. Much of the large scale farming is irrigated and is supported in part by the state government, with loans and help with infrastructure such as water and roads. However, most farmland is seasonal, meaning it is worked only during the rainy season. Grains such as barley, wheat, oats and alfalfa are almost exclusively planted on irrigated land along with certain vegetables such as broccoli, garlic, carrots, lettuce, onions and cauliflower. Most nonirrigated land is planted with corn, followed by beans mostly for auto or local consumption. Leading cash crops are beans, cabbage, alfalfa, onions, lettuce and sorghum.
Within agriculture, production of crops has decreased while the production of animal products has increased. Crops as a percentage of agricultural production dropped from 34% in 1988 to 25.8% in 1993. One of the leading milk producers in the country, Querétaro farms also breed livestock and dairy cows. Livestock production is important and growing, mostly consisting of cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, horses and domestic fowl. Querétaro is one of the top producers of chicken in Mexico. The largest producers of livestock in the state are Jalpan, Cadereyta, San Juan del Río and Querétaro.
Forest land is one of the state’s two main natural resources. These forests contain commercial species such as pine, oak, cedar, juniper, mesquite and more. Most of these are found in and around the Sierra Gorda area. There is about 70,000 hectares of possible productive land but only 17,000 have been studied for management. Land actively involved in forestry operations equals 9,358m2, most of which is in the municipalities of Landa de Matamoros and Amealco de Bonfil. 20.7% is used for grazing. 24.22% is forest; 3.95% is rainforest and 40.62 is arid scrub brush.
Mining and industry
Mining, manufacturing and construction accounts for about 39% of the GDP, with manufacturing alone accounting for 32%. This has remained steady for the past few decades. Minerals is one of the state’s two main natural resources. Mining is a traditional economic activity for the state. There are ten mining districts in the Sierra Gorda alone producing lead, silver, zinc, copper, gold, mercury and antimony. Nonmetallic products include marble, kaolin, sandstone, and more. Opals are a distinctive state resource. State and local governments, in partnership with private industry, actively promote foreign investment into the region. The priority of the state government is to encourage industries which use low levels of water for environmental reasons. These have mostly been auto parts, food processing and electronics. Other major industries include chemicals, plastics, textiles, paper products and printing and wood products. Most are micro and small sized operations.
Querétaro’s major cities are home to industrial complexes that produce machinery and other metallic products, chemicals and processed foods. However, most of the state’s manufacturing companies are located in or around the city of Querétaro. Carnation and Purina are among the best-known food processing companies with facilities in the state, and numerous textile mills manufacture clothing made of wool, cotton and henequen. One of the biggest employers is Tremec, an auto parts manufacturer. Currently, there are 392 companies with direct foreign investment and 238 exporting companies that have located in the state. Exports in 2002 totaled $3.35 billion USD, and direct investment in 2003 reached $169 million. Many of these companies are headquartered in modern industrial parks, one of the newest and most technologically advanced being El Marques Industrial Park. This facility was inaugurated in 2003, with an initial investment of $13 million USD. The park occupies a space of with international tenants from Italy, Germany, Spain, the US, Taiwan as well as Mexico representing real estate, automotive, carton packing, food processing and some high tech enterprises. One of these tenants is Siemens whose plant is dedicated to manufacturing equipment for high voltage systems.
The city of Querétaro has become the most advanced center of the aeronautics industry in Mexico, anchored by plant belonging to Canadian conglomerate Bombardier, which opened in 2005. This plant manufactures fuselages and electrical system, recently adding wing production for the Learjet 85, a nonmetallic plane. This plant is the largest of the 189 aeronautics facilities in Mexico, employing about 2,000 people. There are eight other aeronautics enterprises located in the state.
The state is known for dairy products and wine. Two of Querétaro’s cities, San Juan del Río and Ezequiel Montes, have thriving vinicultures. Some of the best comes from the Rancho Santa Marina just to the south of the capital in the municipality of El Marqués. This ranch specializes in sheep milk cheese such as feta, ricotta, picodon and criollo/crottin. Rancho Hondonada is another reputable producer as well as Quesos Vai, which specializes in Mexican cheeses such as Oaxaca and panela. The best known winery is Freixenet which is on the highway between Tequisquiapan and San Juan del Río. The 45-hectare vineyard grows four varieties of grapes: Saint Emilion, Macabeu, Sauvignon Blanc and Pinot Noir. A cave 25 meters (82 ft) below ground maintains a constant and ideal climate for wine cellaring. Other producers include La Redonda and Rancho Los Azteca.
Traditional handcrafts
Handcrafts produced in the state include baskets, textiles, metal objects, pottery and items made from wood, leather and paper. Basket making is common in many parts of the state, and similar fibers are also used to create hats, decorative items and more made from various materials such as reed, willow branches and palm fronds. In Jalpan de Serra, they make various items from palm fronds such as bags, hats and mats. Fine woven hats can be found in Tequisquiapan as well as baskets made with a variety of willow. Baskets are made in San Juan del Río as well as in Cadereyta with willow and with reeds. Basket making and rope are made in most areas of the state. In Ezequiel Montes, ixtle fiber is used to make sisal and rope. In Peñamiller henequen is used. In San Juan del Río reeds are used to make baskets. In Tolimán, furniture and more is made with willow branches. Tequisquiapan makes crafts with rattan, roots, juniper and pine branches along with ixtle.
Tolimán is known for its traditional clothing, especially quexquemetls made of silk and embroidered with colored thread for men and quexquemetls made of cotton for women. The ones made here are the largest in the country, made on backstrap looms. They also weave and embroider bags and linens such as tablecloths and napkins. Another area for traditional Otomi dress is Amealco de Bonfil, where blouses, skirts and more are embroidered with designs from this ethnicity. They also make cloth dolls dressed in traditional clothing. In Tolimán, Pame influence is noted in the textiles, which are mostly woven to make tablecloths and napkins. Colón, Cadereyta and Bernal are known for items made of wool which has been naturally dyed, such as rebozos, blankets and more.
Sculpting and building with sandstone is a major business and craft due to the material’s abundance in the mountains. Various types of sculptures as well as building blocks are created from it. In the communities of Escolásticas and Ejido de Ajuchitlancito in the Pedro Escobedo municipality, families, associations and cooperatives work with the stone. The work from Pedro Escobedo has been exported for many years. Various communities in the Huimilpan municipality do as well. The items create range from ashtrays to large columns for buildings. Much of the stonework of La Cañada in the El Marqués municipality is exported. Another stone that is worked is marble, especially in Vizarrón in Cadereyta municipality and in Tequisquiapan. Onyx, marble, opal and turquoise are worked in San Juan del Río and in the capital city. Opals are mined in the state and come in a variety of colors and sizes. They are mostly made into jewelry.
There are various communities in the state which specialize in pottery. Products include every day utensils and cookware to architectural elements, figures and sculptures. The clay from Cadereyta is valued for its quality. In the community of San Juan de Guedío in the municipality of Amealco they specialized in storage containers as well as the figures of saints and those for nativity scenes. Other areas noted for their pottery are Colón and Ezequiel de Montes.
Other items are made from materials such as wood, leather and paper. Wood items include furniture, toys and musical instruments, especially guitars and violins and include miniature musical instruments, which are made in San Joaquín. Leather is fashioned into belts, pistol holders, handbags, wallets and cowboy boots. These are mostly available in CadereytaLanda de Matamoros and San Vicente Ferrer in the municipality of El Marqués. Cardboard is used to fashion masks and items related to mojiganga theater mostly for use in parades and traditional festivals. Mojiganga figures are made with a reed frame to which the cardboard is applied. Bernal is noted for its masks made of paper and plaster which are often molded. In the city of Querétaro they make masks and mojiganga items, as well as large paper sculptures such as the Judas figures, which are burned.
Commerce, services and tourism
Commerce, services and tourism accounts for 57% of the state’s GDP, led by commerce at 19% and services at 18% both related and not to tourism. This is an increase from 45% in 1970. Since the 1990s, the state has promoted its tourism industry, with attendance at international forums, and building of hotels and other infrastructure. The Centro de Congresos (Convention Center) of Querétaro was inaugurated in 2011 to attract more business travel to the state. The facility contains ten halls, with a capacity of 9,000 people.
There are two areas declared as historic monuments by the Mexican federal government, the historic center of Querétaro and the historic center of San Juan del Río. The historic center of Querétaro has been declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Most historic and cultural attractions are located in the capital. Museums include the Museo de Arte de Querétaro, the Museo Regional de Querétaro, the Museo de la Ciudad, the Museo del Sitio de Querétaro and Museo de la Matemática. Outside of the capital, there are the Museo Histórico de la Sierra Gorda, Museo Arqueológico y Minero de la Sierra and the Museo de la Muerte in San Juan del Río. Another major attraction is its 74-arched aqueduct built in the early 1700s. The aqueduct rises 23 meters (75 ft) above street level and conveyed drinking water to the city from regional springs until 1970. The founding of the city of Querétaro is celebrated in July with various cultural and gastronomic events. Conchero dancers go in procession to the La Cruz Church to commemorate the appearance of Saint James.
Querétaro has a number of areas which lend themselves to ecotourism. One area especially promoted is the Sierra Gorda region. The area is a complex of canyons and mountains extending over 400,000 hectares with a well conserved biological diversity. In the deep canyons there are grottos, valleys, ravines and arroyos. In the higher areas there are forests of pines and holm oak, and tropical forests in the lower elevations. The area was declared a biological reserve and contains about 1,700 species of plants, some endemic only to the area. There are also 360 species of birds, 130 of mammals, and just over 100 of amphibians and reptiles. A number of these are in danger of extinction such as macaws, the black bear, the porcupine and the spider monkey.
The state promotes its wine and cheeses with a Ruta del Vino or Wine Route. This connects three major wineries, Freixenet, La Redonda and Los Aztecas, along with various cheese producing facilities and some small towns chosen for their charm, such as Tequisquiapan and Bernal. There is also a Cheese and Wine Museum. At the wineries, one can observe how the product is made, which includes both sparkling and normal wines. The cheese producers make their products from goats’, cows’ and sheep’s milk, and in the two villages, one can enjoy both wine and cheese at the same time. At the end of July and the beginning of August, there is the first harvest, called the Vendimia. At the end of May and beginning of June, Tequisquiapan hosts the National Cheese and Wine Fair. The Feria del Queso y el Vino (Cheese and Wine Fair) is held at the end of may and beginning of June in Tequisquiapan featuring wine producers from various parts of the world. Grape harvest festivals are held at Freixenet and La Redonda at the end of June.
Querétaro has one Pueblo Mágico, San Sebastián Bernal. It is best known as the home of the Peña de Bernal, the third largest monolith in the world after the Rock of Gibraltar and Sugarloaf Mountain in Río de Janeiro. It was considered sacred by the Chichimeca and dates back to the Jurassic Period more than 100 million years ago. The community was originally occupied by the Otomi. Many colonial structures in the town of sandstone have survived to the present day. It also was a scene of a battle during the French intervention in Mexico . The El Cerrito pyramid is here climbed by those dressed in White for the spring equinox. Today, tourism is an important part of the area’s economy, attracting both those interested in history and those interested in ecotourism activities.
In addition, there are a number of old haciendas which have been converted into hotels, spas and other recreational facilities. The Juriquilla Hacienda is one of nine haciendas which dominated the municipality of San Rosa. The largest was Juriquilla, founded in 1707. In the 19th century, it belonged to Timoteo Fernando de Jaurgui and later to a number of entrepreneurial families. Since 1993, the main house has been converted into a 196 room hotel, maintaining the buildings colonial architecture. The best conserved structure is the hacienda chapel. The Jurica Hacienda is known for its freshwater springs. The main house is a hotel with 182 rooms. The former chapel is intact, all original except the flooring. The Galindo Hacienda was converted into a hotel and restore in the 1970s after decades of abandonment. The San Gil Hacienda is traditionally said to have been a property of La Malinche. Today it is a hotel and spa surrounding the original gardens of the main house. The La Venta Hacienda has its origins in the late 16th century as a land grant to Baltasar de Salazar to build lodgings for those traveling to the unexplored northern lands. It is the smallest of the hacienda resorts with only 51 rooms in its hotel.
The state has a number of colonial era missions, mostly in the Sierra Gorda region. The early ones were founded by the Augustinians and Franciscans with the aim of evangelizing of the area, but they were shut down soon after their founding by the hostility of the Chichimeca. Most were unfinished and/or destroyed. The first successful missionary in the area was Jesuit Junípero Serra because colonial authorities began to militarily control the area. The best known is Bucareli Mission in Pinal de Amoles founded in 1797. Other missions are found including Santiago de Jalpan, San Miguel Concá, Santa María del Agua de Landa, San Francisco del Valle de Tilacoal and Nuestra Señora de la Luz de Tancoyol, all established in the 1750s and 1760s. After restoration efforts between 1979 and 2002, there have been efforts to register these missions as a World Heritage Site.
Education
Basic Education is defined as the levels from preschool to middle school and includes other types of education such as special education, indigenous schools, bilingual school and adult remedial education. The state contains nearly 2,000 schools at this level including 1,225 preschools, 1,392 primary schools and 364 middle schools. Education Media Superior includes high schools, vocational schools and technical schools for those who graduate middle school. There are 115 campuses of this type located in all the municipalities of the state, but it covers less than 80% of the demand for this kind of education. The average number of years of schooling in the state is 7.5 years, meaning the completion of primary school and a little over a year in middle school. Levels of schooling increase with younger generations, with nearly all under 5 attending preschool before primary school. Nearly all children of age attend and finish primary school, and nearly all of these begin middle school. However, 8.8% of the population fifteen and older have not enrolled in school at all. 19% have completed primary, 27.2% have completed at least middle school/technical school, 17.9% have completed high school and 14.5 have gone onto higher education.
The state’s cultural and educational center is the capital, with a variety of universities, technological schools and institutes of higher technical studies, with include. These institutions supply highly trained graduates for the work force. This is one factor that contributes to the higher socioeconomic level of the state. University level education has been the fastest growing level, with the most recent additions being the Universidad Tecnológica de San Juan del Río and the Instituto Tecnológico de Querétaro, Jalpan Campus. In total, there are twenty two public and private institutions. These include the Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro with 43 bachelors, 36 masters and ten doctorate programs, the Instituto Tecnológico de Querétaro with eight bachelors and two masters programs, ITESM-Querétaro with 23 bachelors and seven masters programs, the Universidad Pedagógica Nacional with 19 bachelors programs and the Universidad del Valle de México with 18 bachelors and two masters programs. Other institutions include the Universidad Internacional de México, Universidad Cuauhtémoc, Universidad Contemporánea (UCO), Universidad Mesoamericana, CUMDES, campus Corregidora, Escuela Normal del Estado, Escuela Normal de Jalpan, Escuela Normal Superior, Escuela Normal Queretana, Instituto 5 de Mayo, Normal Instituto la Paz de Querétaro, Universidad Tecnológica del Estado de Querétaro, Centro Interdisciplinario de Investigación y Docencia en Educación Técnica, Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes (INBA), Conservatorio Libre de Música "J. Guadalupe Velázquez" and Centro Nacional de Danza Contemporánea. These together cover about eighty percent of the demand for education at this level.
The state university is the Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro. Its origins are in two colonial era colleges of San Ignacio and San Francisco Javier. These were Jesuit colleges established at the urging of Vasco de Quiroga. The first, San Ignacio, was established in 1625. The two were run by the Jesuits until they were expelled from New Spain in 1767. From then until 1832, the schools were run by regular clergy. The two were converged and reorganized into the State Civil College in 1868 and operated as such until 1950. This college was closed and reorganized again to open as the current institution.
The Universidad Tecnológica de Querétaro (UTEQ) was founded in 1994 with 146 students with majors in Administration, Business, Industrial Maintenance and Production Processes. The first classes were taught in rented as facilities were being built on a 25 hectare campus in Colonia San Pedrito Peñuelas. Today the school has eight majors at the undergraduate level.
The Instituto Tecnológico de Querétaro is part of the National System of Technological Institutes in Mexico. It was founded in 1967, and today it offers six engineering majors and technical training in electrical items, machines and automotive.
There are also thirty one research centers with the most prominent being: el Instituto de Ciencias de la Tierra de la UNAM, Campus Juriquilla, Centro Nacional de Investigación en Fisiología y Mejoramiento Animal (CENIF-MAI), CIATEQ, A.C. (Centro de Investigación y Asistencia Técnica del Estado de Querétaro - CIATEQ), Centro Interdisciplinario de Investigación y Docencia en Educación Técnica (CIIDET), Instituto Mexicano del Transporte (IMT), Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico en Electroquímica del Estado (CIDETEQ), Laboratorio de Materiales Unidad Querétaro del CINESTAV-I.P.N., Centro de Neurobiología, Instituto Tecnológico de Querétaro, Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Campus Querétaro (ITESM), Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo Condumex, Transmisiones y Equipos Mecánicos (TREMEC), Centro Queretano de Recursos Naturales (CQRN), Centro de Ingeniería y Desarrollo Industrial (CIDESI), MABE Tecnología y Desarrollo, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales y Agropecuarias (INIFAP), Instituto de Física UNAM, Escuela Normal del Estado de Querétaro "Andrés Balvanera" (ENEQ) and the Centro de Investigación en Ciencia Aplicada y Tecnología Avanzada I.P.N. (CICATA).
A number of these facilities support manufacturing and other industrial sectors of the economy. This also permits partnerships and alliances. One of the most important research center in the state is the National Metrology Center (CENAM), which is a dependency of the Secretariat of Economy. The main function of the center is to bring together science and technology to support the country’s economy. It is the second most important of its kind in the Americas.
In December 2013, Arkansas State University in Jonesboro, Arkansas announced the construction of an ASU Campus in Querétaro. The school is said to be the first "american-style" campus in Latin America, meaning students will be able to live on-campus, instead of having to commute from home to class. Construction began in February 2014. While classes were originally expected to start in July 2015, due to infrastructure issues (e.g., water and power), the opening has been rescheduled for 2016. Plans for the school include dorms, a library, student resource centers, and sports complexes. The campus is set to open in 2017 with 1,000 students. Whether or not the school will field intercollegiate athletics teams or if the complexes are for student recreational use is unclear.
Transportation and communications
Transport
The state has a total of 3,349.5 km of highways, almost all of which is paved. 571 km of this is federal highway, 880.90 is state highway and 1,885.70 are rural roads. This includes a section of the Pan American Highway. The highway system centers on the capital and connects the state with Mexico City, Guadalajara, Ciudad Valles and north to Ciudad Juárez and the United States. Much of the rural highway infrastructure, especially in the Sierra Gorda area, is for the benefit of mining, agriculture and forestry. The most important of the interstate roads links the state with Mexico City metropolitan area and its market of 20 million people as well as 25 other million customers within . The US border is a nine-hour drive. To support the international transportation of goods, Querétaro has an inner customs office that facilitates the shipment of manufactured products to foreign countries. However, the highway system is most concentrated in the municipalities of Querétaro and San Juan del Río and the corridor in between. Fifty five percent of the traffic along this corridor begins or terminates within the state.
Other infrastructure includes water systems, public buses, rail lines, an international airport and radio and television stations. Most of the irrigation and water-storage areas are also concentrated in the Querétaro and San Juan del Rio municipalities. The capital is home to the state’s largest public bus terminal called the Terminal de Autobuses de Querétaro. This station is a transfer point for many who travel north or south in the country. Other major terminals exist in Colón, Tequisquiapan, Jalpan de Serra, San Juan del Río, Cadereyta and Amealco de Bonfil. The state has 338.9 km of rail line, much the same as it had when they were initially built in the early 20th century. They mostly carry freight and connect the cities of San Juan del Río, Tequisquiapan, Pedro Escobedo, Querétaro, Colón and El Marqués. The Querétaro Intercontinental Airport began operations in 2004, replacing the older Ing. Fernando Espinosa Gutierrez Airport. Located in the capital, the facility handles both cargo and passengers.
Media
The state has twenty radio stations, seventeen of which are commercial enterprises. Stations include XHUAQ, XHORT, XHOZ, XHOE, XHQTO, XHMQ, XHJHS, XHZQ, XHRQ, XEUAQ, XEQG, XEKH, XEXE, XWGV, XEQUE, XEJX, XEHY and XENA. Television stations are mostly repeaters of national channels such as Televisa and Azteca. Televisa has a local operation called Televisora Queretana. Only TV Q is a fully local station. Cable television for the state is provided by Cablecom, Megacable.
Major newspapers and magazines include Noticias, Diario de Querétaro, Sol de San Juan, Financiero Regional, Nuevo Amanecer, Futuro de Querétaro, Para Comentar, Nuevo Milenio, Rotativo, Año 2000, Mundo de Querétaro, Agora, Cabañuelas, El Imparcial, El Informador, Mass, Magazine, Reporte (Q), Rincones Queretanos, Radar and El Informador de Santa Rosa Jáuregui.
Government
The state government is divided into the Legislative, Judicial and Executive branches under Article 23 of the state constitution. The executive branch is headed by the governor, under whom are a number of agencies, including the state secretary and the state attorney general. The Legislature is unicameral made up of representatives popularly elected in districts of the state. This legislature has a number of committees tasked with certain types of legislation. The Judiciary consists of a state supreme court and a system of various lower courts.
Archaeology
Humans have been living in the area for between 4,000 and 6,000 years, with the oldest settlements in the southern part. In the pre-Hispanic period the area was important for its commercial routes which linked the Gulf Coast, the Huasteca Region and the central highlands of Mexico principally, but there is evidence of commercial traffic from much further away. This made the area one of cultural exchanges with various ethnicities. When the Spanish arrived, the area was inhabited by the Chichimeca Jonaz, the Huastecas, the Ximpeces and the Pames.(arqueomex) Four archeological sites are open to the public: Las Ranas, Toluquilla, El Quirambal and El Cerrito.
Las Ranas and Toluquilla are two sites located near each other in the southwest of the Sierra Gorda, about ninety km northwest of Tequisquiapan, in San Joaquín. Both controlled the important commercial routes of the area which linked the Gulf Coast and the central highlands of Mexico, principally, but there is evidence of trade through here from even farther away. One economic activity important to both was the mining of cinnabar (mercury sulfate) which was highly prized as a red pigment in the pre Hispanic period. Las Ranas was established first, reaching its height between the years 200 and 600, but remained an inhabited city until 1000. The main political buildings were constructed on two natural elevations that form a corner. These elevations were terraced to accommodate buildings of stone and mud, then covered in stone plates or tiles to form façades. Other significant buildings include various temples and five Mesoamerican ball courts.
Toluquilla is a smaller site, occupied from 300 CE to 1300CE. This site was a ceremonial, political and administrative center, located on the upper part of an elongated hill, surrounded by ravines. The structures consist of a series of pyramid bases of stone and mud covered in stone plates or tiles. It also contains four Mesoamerican ball courts, one of which is much larger than other similar ones in the area from the same time. There is also a building which shows evidence of stucco work. Later in its history, the area was invaded by the Chichimeca Jonaz, but when the Spanish arrived both sites were abandoned.
El Quirambal is located in the Sierra Gorda between Pinal de Amoles and Jalpan de Serra, in the small community of San Juan. The ruins lie top of a hill and their construction is similar to other sites in the Huasteca region from the end of the Classic into the Post Classic periods (800-1200CE). One important structure is a Mesoamerican ball court which measures forty by twenty meters. On one side of this court, there is a temple with a pyramid base fourteen meters long and seven meters high. All along this flat topped hill, there are structures such as pyramid bases and dwellings and semi circular structures whose purpose has not been determined. The area was inhabited as early as 200 CE and stayed there until it was abandoned in 1200CE. During that time, much of the economy was based on primitive mining.
El Cerrito is located in the municipality of Corregidora, only ten minutes from the historic center of the municipal seat. Twenty three million pesos has been budgeted for its restoration. Only part of the site is open to visitors, which focuses on the El Cerrito pyramid, which is illuminated on certain occasions. This pyramid’s dimensions are similar to that of the Pyramid of the Moon in Teotihuacan. This is one of the main tourist attractions of the area. The name comes from the fact that the site was part of the El Cerrito Hacienda, named after the site, which then was only a "hill" covered in vegetation. The site was an important Toltec influenced ceremonial center, later occupied by the Chichimecas. Later, the area was converted into the sanctuary of the "Virgen de El Pueblito" Virgin Mary image for about a century. Besides the pyramid, another significant structure is called "El Fortín (The Small Fort), which was built over a pre Hispanic pyramid base in 1876, with Neo Gothic doors and windows.
The La Campana archeological site has been sacked and severely damaged. The site is the most important in the northwest of the state, corresponding to the Huasteca culture dating from the year 600 CE. The site was discovered in the mid 20th century, but has not been excavated due to the lack of funds. It contains 160 structures including platforms, plazas, patios, and more.
Other discoveries in the state have included that of a 2,300-year-old mummy of a female child, with accompanying fabric, hair, feathers and plant remains. The discovery was made in a cave at a dry, cold, high-altitude site in the Sierra Gorda region. It is one of the oldest mummies found in Mexico, and was mummified through natural causes rather than by any preservation technique. The girl is estimated to have died around 320 BCE.
See also
Governor of Querétaro
Juan Arricivita
References
Bibliography
External links
Minister of Tourism of the State of Queretaro official website (in Spanish and English)
Web directory of Queretaro
States of Mexico
1823 establishments in Mexico
States and territories established in 1823 | [
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222251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinaloa | Sinaloa | Sinaloa (), officially the Estado Libre y Soberano de Sinaloa (), is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into 18 municipalities and its capital city is Culiacán Rosales.
It is located in Northwestern Mexico, and is bordered by the states of Sonora to the north, Chihuahua and Durango to the east (separated from them by the Sierra Madre Occidental) and Nayarit to the south. To the west, Sinaloa faces Baja California Sur across the Gulf of California. The state covers an area of , and includes the Islands of Palmito Verde, Palmito de la Virgen, Altamura, Santa María, Saliaca, Macapule and San Ignacio. In addition to the capital city, the state's important cities include Mazatlán and Los Mochis.
Etymology
The most widely accepted etymology has established that Sinaloa is composed from two Cahitan words: sina and lobola, which respectively mean "pitaya" and "rounded." Sinalobola means "round pitaya."
History
Prior to the coming of the Spaniards, much of Sinaloa was inhabited by the Cáhita peoples.
In 1531, Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán with a force of over 10,000 men, defeated a force of 30,000 Cáhita warriors at the site of Culiacán. Beltrán de Guzmán established a Spanish and allied Indian outpost at San Miguel de Culiacán. Over the next decade, the Cahíta suffered severe depopulation from smallpox and other diseases the Spanish brought.
The Spanish organized Sinaloa as part of the gobierno of Nueva Galicia. In 1564, the area was realigned: the area of Culiacán and Cosalá remained in control of Nueva Galicia, while the areas to the north, south and west were made part of the newly formed Nueva Vizcaya province, making the Culiacán area an exclave of Nueva Galicia. The first capital of Nueva Vizcaya was located in San Sebastián, near Copala, but the capital moved to Durango in 1583.
Starting in 1599, Jesuit missionaries spread out from a base at what is now Sinaloa de Leyva and by 1610, the Spanish influence had been extended to the northern edge of Sinaloa. In 1601, the Jesuits' movement into the eastern part of Sinaloa led to the Acaxee going to war. The Spanish eventually managed to reassert authority in the Sierra Madre Occidental region and executed 48 Acaxee leaders.
After Mexican independence, Sinaloa was joined with Sonora as Estado de Occidente, but became a separate, sovereign state in 1830.
Geography and environment
The coastal plain is a narrow strip of land that stretches along the length of the state and lies between the Gulf of California and the foothills of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range, which dominates the eastern part of the state. Sinaloa is traversed by many rivers, which carve broad valleys into the foothills. The largest of these rivers are the Culiacán, Fuerte, and Sinaloa.
Sinaloa has a warm climate on the coast; moderately warm climate in the valleys and foothills; moderately cold in the lower mountains, and cold in the higher elevations. Its weather characteristics vary from subtropical, found on coastal plains, to cold in the nearby mountains. Temperatures range from to with rain and thunderstorms during the rainy season (June to October) and dry conditions throughout most of the year. Its average annual precipitation is 790 millimetres.
Numerous species of plants and animals are found within Sinaloa. Notable among the tree species is the elephant tree, Bursera microphylla.
Culture
Culturally, the state is known for its popular styles of music banda and norteño.
Sinaloa is the only place in the continent where the ancient Mesoamerican ballgame is still played, in a handful of small, rural communities not far from Mazatlán. The ritual ballgame was central in the society, religion and cosmology of all the great Mesoamerican cultures including the Mixtecs, Aztecs, and Maya.
The Sinaloa version of the game is called ulama and is very similar to the original. There are efforts to preserve this 3500-year-old unique tradition by supporting the communities and children who play it.
Its rich cuisine is well known for its variety particularly in regard to mariscos (seafood) and vegetables. Sushi is a popular dish here. Sinaloa is particularly famous for its aguachile.
Famous entertainers from Sinaloa include actor Pedro Infante and singer Ana Gabriel, born in Guamúchil; singer and actress Lola Beltrán from Rosario, Cruz Lizárraga, the founder of Banda el Recodo, baseball player Jorge Orta, actress/comedian/singer Sheyla Tadeo, born in Culiacán; actress Sabine Moussier and actress/singer Lorena Herrera from Mazatlán.
The Sinaloa Cartel (Cártel de Sinaloa or CDS) has significantly influenced the culture of Sinaloa. The cartel is reportedly the largest drug trafficking, money laundering and organized crime syndicate in the Americas; it is based in the city of Culiacán, Sinaloa.
Demography
According to the 2020 census, Sinaloa is home to 3,026,943 inhabitants, 60% of whom reside in the capital city of Culiacán and the municipalities of Mazatlán and Ahome. It is a young state in terms of population, 56% of which is younger than 30 years of age.
Other demographic particulars report 87% of the state practices the Catholic faith. Also, 1% of those over five years of age speak an indigenous language alongside Spanish; the main indigenous ethnic group still residing in the state is the Mayo or "Yoreme" (Cáhita language) people. Life expectancy in the state follows the national tendency of higher rates for women than men, a difference of almost five years in the case of Sinaloa, at 72.5 and 77.4 years respectively.
In ethnic composition, Sinaloa has received large historic waves of immigration from Europe (mainly Spain, the United Kingdom, Ireland, France, Germany, Austria, Italy and Russia) and Asia (namely China, Japan, the Philippines, Lebanon and Syria). The latter two countries also make up most of the Arab Mexican community in the state. In recent years, retirees from the U.S., Canada and South America have arrived and made Sinaloa their home.
There was also a sizable influx of Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews in the first decades of the twentieth century.
Greeks (ancestry from Greece) form a notable presence in Sinaloa, where one can find local cuisine with kalamari and a few Greek Orthodox churches along the state's coast.
Overall Sinaloa has one of the highest European Mexican rates in the whole country, estimated at 38%, although the Mexican Census didn't have a racial category count since 1921.
According to the 2020 Census, 1.39% of Sinaloa's population identified as Black, Afro-Mexican, or of African descent.
Sinaloenses have moved to the United States in large numbers since 1970; a large community lives in the twin towns of Indio, California and Coachella, California about 25 miles east of Palm Springs, California in the desert resort industry.
Education
In terms of education, average schooling reaches 8.27 years; 4.2% of those over 15 years of age are illiterate, and 3.18% of children under 14 years of age do not attend school.
Institutions of higher education include Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, TecMilenio University, Universidad Politécnica de Sinaloa, Universidad Politécnica del Mar y la Sierra, Universidad Politécnica del Valle del Evora, Universidad Autónoma de Durango, Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Sinaloa, Universidad Autónoma de Occidente and Universidad Casa Blanca.
Municipalities
Sinaloa is divided into 18 municipios (municipalities). See Municipalities of Sinaloa.
The state's major cities include the capital and largest city, Culiacán. Also Mazatlán, which is a world-famous tourist resort and destination. Los Mochis, an agricultural hub in the Northwestern region of Mexico.
Economy
The main economic activities of Sinaloa are agriculture, fishing, livestock breeding, commerce and industry. The products obtained from these activities are used for both local and national consumption. Sinaloa has on its license plates the image of a Tomato, as the state is widely recognized for harvesting this particular fruit in great abundance from Los Mochis in the North to Culiacan in the Central region of the state. Agriculture produce aside from tomatoes include cotton, beans, corn, wheat, sorghum, potatoes, soybeans, mangos, sugarcane, peanuts and squash. Sinaloa is the most prominent state in Mexico in terms of agriculture and is known as "Mexico's breadbasket". Additionally, Sinaloa has the second largest fishing fleet in the country. Livestock produces meat, sausages, cheese, milk as well as sour cream.
Government and politics
The current governor of Sinaloa is Quirino Ordaz Coppel (PRI), elected for the period 2017–2022. The state is represented in the Mexican Congress by three Senators in the upper house and fourteen federal deputies in the lower house.
Media
Newspapers of Sinaloa include: El Debate de Culiacán, El Debate de Guamuchil, El Debate de Guasave, El Debate de los Mochis, El Debate de Mazatlán, El Sol de Culiacán, El Sol de Sinaloa, La I Noticias para Mí Culiacán, Noroeste (Culiacán), Noroeste de Mazatlán, and Primera Hora.
Notable residents
Carlos Bojórquez – Boxer
Julio César Chávez – Six time World Boxing Champion
Jorge Orta – Major League Baseball player
Jorge Arce – Boxer and flyweight champion
Cristobal Arreola – Boxer
Luis Ayala – Major League Baseball player
Sandra Avila Beltrán – Drug Lord
Lola Beltrán – Actress and Ranchera singer
Perla Beltrán Acosta – Beauty queen, model and entrepreneur
Paul Aguilar — Football Player
Heraclio Bernal – Social Agitator/Folk Hero
Jared Borgetti – Football player
Omar Bravo – Football player
Ariel Camacho – Norteño Singer/Folk Songs
Javier Valdez Cárdenas – Journalist
Oscar Dautt – Football player
Iván Estrada – Football player
Carlos Fierro – Football player
Rodolfo Fierro - Revolutionary Fighter
Ana Gabriel – Singer
Pedro Avilés Pérez – Drug Lord
Joaquín Guzmán Loera – Former leader and co-founder of the Sinaloa Cartel.
Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo – Former leader and co-founder of the Guadalajara Cartel.
Rafael Caro Quintero – Former leader and founder of the Sonora Cartel.
Amado Carrillo Fuentes – Former leader and co-founder of the Juárez Cartel.
Alfredo Beltrán-Leyva – Leader and co-founder of the Beltrán-Leyva Organization.
Héctor Luis Palma Salazar – Former leader and co-founder of the Sinaloa Cartel.
Ismael Zambada García – Leader of the Sinaloa Cartel.
Benjamín Arellano Félix – Former leader and co-founder of the Tijuana Cartel (Arellano Félix Organization.)
Ramón Arellano Félix – Former leader and co-founder of the Tijuana Cartel (Arellano Félix Organization.)
Ernesto Fonseca Carrillo – Former leader and co-founder of the Guadalajara Cartel.
Enedina Arellano Félix – Leader and co-founder of the Tijuana Cartel (Arellano Félix Organization.)
Lorena Herrera – Actress
Pedro Infante – Singer and actor
Francisco Labastida – Economist and politician affiliated to the PRI
Horacio Llamas – Basketball player
Los Tigres del Norte – Norteño music group
Banda el Recodo – Banda Sinaloense
Jesús Malverde – Folklore hero
Alberto Medina – Football player
César Millán – TV personality and professional dog trainer
Fernando Montiel – Boxer
Héctor Moreno – Football player
Sabine Moussier – Actress
Patricia Navidad – Actress and singer
Antonio Osuna – Major League Baseball player
Roberto Osuna – Major League Baseball player
Óliver Pérez – Major League Baseball player
Fausto Pinto – Football player
Julio Preciado – Singer
José Luis Ramírez – Boxer
Sara Ramírez – Actress
Paul Rodriguez – Comedian
Aurelio Rodríguez – Major League Baseball player
Dennys Reyes – Major League Baseball player
Sheyla Tadeo – Actress and comedian
María del Rosario Espinoza – Taekwondo Olympic medalist
Roberto Tapia – Singer
Julio Urías – Major League Baseball player
José Urquidy – Major League Baseball player
Chayito Valdez – Folk singer
Chalino Sánchez – Singer
Banda MS - Banda Sinaloense
Arrolladora banda el limón Banda Sinaloense
Banda Los Recoditos - Banda Sinaloense
José Manuel López Castro - Norteño Singer
See also
Sinaloa Cartel
Las Labradas, an archaeological site located in southern Sinaloa
Notes
References
C. Michael Hogan. 2009. Elephant Tree: Bursera microphylla, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg
Asociacion de Gestores del Patrimonio Historico y Cultural de Mazatlán. 2009. The Mesoamerican Ballgame-Ulama
External links
The History of Indigenous Sinaloa
PBS Frontline: The place Mexico's drug kingpins call home
States of Mexico
States and territories established in 1831
1831 establishments in Mexico | [
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] |
222253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists%20of%20cathedrals | Lists of cathedrals | This is a list of cathedrals by country, including both actual cathedrals (seats of bishops in episcopal denominations, such as Catholicism, Anglicanism, and Orthodoxy) and a few prominent churches from non-episcopal denominations commonly referred to as "cathedral", usually having formerly acquired that status. As of December 2018, the Catholic Church had 3,391 cathedral-level churches; Cathedral (3,037), Co-cathedral (312), and Pro-cathedral (42) status around the world, predominantly in countries with a significant Roman Catholic population: Italy (368), Brazil (287), United States (215), India (183), France (110), Mexico (100), Spain (88), Philippines (88), Colombia (86), Canada (79) and Argentina (72).
Africa
List of cathedrals in Algeria
List of cathedrals in Angola
List of cathedrals in Benin
List of cathedrals in Botswana
List of cathedrals in Burkina Faso
List of cathedrals in Burundi
List of cathedrals in Cameroon
List of cathedrals in the Central African Republic
List of cathedrals in Chad
List of cathedrals in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
List of cathedrals in the Republic of the Congo
List of cathedrals in Egypt
List of cathedrals in Ghana
List of cathedrals in Ivory Coast
List of cathedrals in Liberia
List of cathedrals in Madagascar
List of cathedrals in Malawi
List of cathedrals in Morocco
List of cathedrals in Mozambique
List of cathedrals in Nigeria
List of cathedrals in Rwanda
List of cathedrals in Senegal
List of cathedrals in South Africa
List of cathedrals in Tanzania
List of cathedrals in Zambia
List of cathedrals in Zimbabwe
Americas
List of cathedrals in Antigua and Barbuda
List of cathedrals in Argentina
List of cathedrals in the Bahamas
List of cathedrals in Barbados
List of cathedrals in Belize
List of cathedrals in Bermuda
List of cathedrals in Bolivia
List of cathedrals in Brazil
List of cathedrals in Canada
List of cathedrals in Chile
List of cathedrals in Colombia
List of cathedrals in Costa Rica
List of cathedrals in Cuba
List of cathedrals in Dominica
List of cathedrals in the Dominican Republic
List of cathedrals in Ecuador
List of cathedrals in El Salvador
List of cathedrals in Guatemala
List of cathedrals in Haiti
List of cathedrals in Honduras
List of cathedrals in Mexico
List of cathedrals in Nicaragua
List of cathedrals in Panama
List of cathedrals in Paraguay
List of cathedrals in Peru
List of cathedrals in the United States
List of cathedrals in Uruguay
List of cathedrals in Venezuela
Asia
List of cathedrals in Armenia
List of cathedrals in Azerbaijan
List of cathedrals in Bangladesh
List of cathedrals in Cambodia
List of cathedrals in China
List of cathedrals in East Timor
List of cathedrals in Hong Kong
List of cathedrals in India
List of cathedrals in Indonesia
List of cathedrals in Iraq
List of cathedrals in Israel
List of cathedrals in Japan
List of cathedrals in Kazakhstan
Cathedrals in North Korea
List of cathedrals in South Korea
List of cathedrals in Lebanon
Cathedrals in Macau
List of cathedrals in Malaysia
List of cathedrals in Myanmar
List of cathedrals in the State of Palestine
List of cathedrals in Pakistan
List of cathedrals in the Philippines
List of cathedrals in Sri Lanka
List of cathedrals in Syria
List of cathedrals in Taiwan
List of cathedrals in Thailand
List of cathedrals in Turkey
List of cathedrals in Vietnam
Europe
List of cathedrals in Albania
List of cathedrals in Austria
List of cathedrals in Belarus
List of cathedrals in Belgium
List of cathedrals in Bosnia and Herzegovina
List of cathedrals in Bulgaria
List of cathedrals in Croatia
List of cathedrals in the Czech Republic
List of cathedrals in Denmark
List of cathedrals in England and Wales
List of cathedrals in Estonia
List of cathedrals in Finland
List of cathedrals in France
List of cathedrals in Germany
List of cathedrals in Hungary
List of cathedrals in Iceland
List of cathedrals in Ireland
List of cathedrals in Italy
List of cathedrals in Latvia
List of cathedrals in Lithuania
List of cathedrals in Malta
List of cathedrals in Montenegro
List of cathedrals in the Netherlands
List of cathedrals in Norway
List of cathedrals in Poland
List of cathedrals in Portugal
List of cathedrals in Romania
List of cathedrals in Russia
List of cathedrals in Scotland
List of cathedrals in Serbia
List of cathedrals in Slovakia
List of cathedrals in Slovenia
Cathedrals in Spain
List of cathedrals in Sweden
List of cathedrals in Switzerland
List of cathedrals in Turkey
List of cathedrals in Ukraine
List of cathedrals in the United Kingdom
Oceania
List of cathedrals in Australia
List of cathedrals in New Zealand
List of cathedrals in Papua New Guinea
List of cathedrals in Solomon Islands
See also
Church (building)
Co-cathedral
Duomo
Minster (church)
Pro-cathedral
List of largest church buildings
List of tallest church buildings
List of Catholic basilicas
Lists of buildings and structures
List of Buddhist temples
List of Hindu temples
List of mosques (Islamic)
List of synagogues (Jewish)
List of gurdwaras (Sikh)
List of Shinto shrines
References
Lists of churches | [
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222254 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamaulipas | Tamaulipas | Tamaulipas (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Tamaulipas (), is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into 43 municipalities.
Located in northeastern Mexico, it is bordered by the states of Veracruz to the southeast, San Luis Potosí to the southwest, and Nuevo León to the west. To the north, it has a stretch of the U.S.–Mexico border along the state of Texas, and to the east it is bordered by the Gulf of Mexico. In addition to the capital city, Ciudad Victoria, the state's largest cities include Reynosa, Matamoros, Nuevo Laredo, Tampico, and Mante.
Etymology
The name Tamaulipas is derived from Tamaholipa, a Huastec term in which the tam- prefix signifies "place (where)". No scholarly agreement exists on the meaning of holipa, but "high hills" is a common interpretation. Another explanation of the state name is that it is derived from Ta ma ho'lipam ("place where the Lipan Apache prey").
History
The area known as Tamaulipas has been inhabited for at least 8,000 years. Several different cultures (north coastal, south coastal, lowlands, and mountains) have come and gone during that period.
Tamaulipas was originally populated by the nomad Chichimec and sedentary Huastec, in addition to non-Chichimec hunter-gatherer and fishing tribes.
Colonial era
A gradual process was needed for Spain to subjugate the inhabitants of Tamaulipas in the 16th and 17th centuries. The first permanent Spanish settlement in the area was Tampico in 1554. Further settlement was done by Franciscan missionaries; widespread cattle and sheep ranching by the Spanish bolstered the area's economy while forcing native populations from their original lands. Repeated indigenous rebellions kept the area unstable and weakened colonial interest in the region. What is now Tamaulipas was first incorporated as a separate province of New Spain in 1746 with the name Nuevo Santander. The local government capital during this time moved from Santander to San Carlos, and finally to Aguayo. The territory of this time spanned from the San Antonio River to the northeast to the Gulf of Mexico, then south to the Pánuco River near Tampico and west to the Sierra Madre Mountains. The area became a haven for rebellious Indians who fled there after increased Spanish settlements in Nuevo León and Coahuila.
In the mid-17th century, various Apache bands from the Southern Plains, after acquiring horses from Europeans in New Mexico, moved southeastward into the Edwards Plateau, displacing the native hunting and gathering groups. One of these groups was known as Lipan (see Hodge 1907 Vol. I:769 for a confusing list of synonyms). After 1750, when most Apache groups of the Central Texas highlands were displaced by Comanche and moved into the coastal plain of southern Texas, the Europeans of the San Antonio area began referring to all Apache groups in southern Texas as Lipan or Lipan Apache.
Many Indian groups of missions in southern Texas and northeastern Mexico had recently been displaced from their territory through the southward push by the Lipan Apaches and were still hostile toward Apaches, linking arms with the local Spanish authorities against their common foe.
By 1790, Europeans turned their attention from the aboriginal groups and focused on containing the Apache invaders. In northeastern Coahuila and adjacent Texas, Spanish and Apache displacements created an unusual ethnic mix. Here, the local Indians mixed with displaced groups from Coahuila and Chihuahua and Texas. Some groups, to escape the pressure, combined and migrated north into the Central Texas highlands.
Independent Mexico
In 1824, after the Mexican War of Independence from Spain, and the fall of the Mexican Empire, Tamaulipas was one of the 19 founder states of the new United Mexican States. Slavery was formally abolished by the 1824 Constitution. During the fights between centralists and federalists that after independence, the successful Texas Revolution led to the creation of the Republic of Texas in 1836. The new republic claimed as part of its territory northern Tamaulipas.
In 1840, it became a part of the short-lived Republic of the Rio Grande. In 1848, after the Mexican–American War, Tamaulipas lost more than a quarter of its territory via the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo. American president James K. Polk had desired to annexe Mexican territory as far south as Tampico although his negotiator Nicholas Trist disregarded this and settled on a border with Texas on the Rio Grande. Its capital was kept at Aguayo, which later was renamed Ciudad Victoria in honor of Guadalupe Victoria, first President of Mexico.
In the wake of the war, Tamaulipas remained an object of interest to American expansionists. The climate was considered suitable for the spread of slavery by Southerners who desired the admission of new territory to shift the balance in Congress back towards the slave states. Senator Albert Gallatin Brown declared "I want Tamaulipas, Potosi, and one or two other Mexican states; and I want them all for the same reason - for the plantation and spreading of slavery". In the 1850s José María Jesús Carbajal led several incursions into Tamaulipas before being indicted for violating the Neutrality Act. Filibustering efforts were also directed towards Cuba with the Lopez Expedition, which was desired for the same reason as Tamaulipas.
The French occupation and reign of Emperor Maximilian during the 1860s was difficult for Tamaulipas, at least on the borders and in the city of Tampico. Portions of Tamaulipas supported the republican forces led by President Benito Juarez in resisting the French, especially in the north. Two years after French occupation began, Tamaulipas as a state finally acceded to Maximilian's rule, and the last French soldiers left the state in 1866, leading up to Maximilian's execution and fall of the Second Mexican Empire in 1867.
However, the years after Maximilian's defeat were ones of rebuilding and great growth in Tamaulipas. International trade began to blossom, especially with the coming of the railroad to Tampico, which was developing as not only a port city but also as an industrial and commercial center. The railroad allowed goods to flow quickly from the mines and cities of the interior and the Texas border to Tampico for processing and shipment. This, in turn, caused significant growth in towns such as Matamoros and Nuevo Laredo.
Since the revolution of 1910, successive governments have dedicated themselves to building industry and infrastructure in Tamaulipas, including communications and educational systems. Norberto Treviño Zapata founded the state university system, as well as reformed the state oil industry. Marte Gómez provided increased farm sizes for private family farmers. And more recently, Emilio Martínez Manautou led industrial growth. Lately, a push has been to strengthen fishing, including efforts to increase the price of fish and shellfish on the international market. During the 1970s, Colombia was experiencing the Colombian Conflict, leading to the rise of illicit criminal organizations like the Cali Cartel and Medellín Cartel led by drug traffickers like Pablo Escobar and Fabio Ochoa Vásquez. In Mexico, there had already existed various illicit organizations doing drug trafficking like the Gulf Cartel, Milenio Cartel, Juaréz Cartel, Guadalajara Cartel, and a new group of vigilante drug traffickers called La Familia Michoacana. The Gulf Cartel was in charge of the State of Tamaulipas and other gulf coast states, leading to the drug trafficking rates going high in the 1990s. Around that time, a group of defectors from the Mexican Special Forces that participated in the Chiapas conflict defected as Osiel Cárdenas Guillén made them promises that they would receive better wages if they worked as the enforcer group of the Gulf Cartel called Los Zetas. They did incursions in states like Michoacán and merged La Familia Michoacana as an enforcer group from 2004 to 2006. In 2006, their crimes resulted in the Mexican drug war and Joint Operation Nuevo León-Tamaulipas.
Geography
The Tropic of Cancer crosses the southern part of the municipality of Victoria.
The coastal plains along the Gulf have a large presence in the state, whereas inland the landscape is adorned by cactus species and pasture. Predominant fauna in the region include the cougar (Puma concolor), long-tailed weasel (Mustela frenata), ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), American badger (Taxidea taxus), North American beaver (Castor canadensis), plain chachalaca (Ortalis vetula) and quail.
In the western part of the state, the Sierra Madre Oriental displays warm valleys and high sierras with peaks reaching in the Pedragoso Sierra; in the Borregos Sierra; in La Gloria Sierra; in Cerro el Nacimiento; and above sea level in the Sierra el Pinal. The Sierra de Tamaulipas and the Sierra de San Carlos are isolated mountain ranges in eastern Tamaulipas.
In terms of hydrology, the Bravo, Purificacion, and Guayalejo Rivers flow into the Gulf of Mexico after crossing the state from the western inland. On their way, their basins and zones of influence naturally correspond to the areas destined for agricultural use. The Rio Grande, known to Mexicans as the Río Bravo, represents the northern frontier shared with the United States. One of the tributaries of this natural border, the San Juan River, feeds the Marte R. Gómez Dam. Agricultural and cattle-raising activities are served by 14 other dams across the state, with a total capacity of 7,500 million m3 of water.
Climate
About 58% of the state has a hot humid subtropical climate. In the centre, north, and towards southwest, an arid and semi-arid climate predominate (both of these account for 38% of the state). A temperate subtropical climate is found in the extreme southwest of the state while in the extreme southeast, such as Tampico, there is a tropical savanna climate. Mean annual temperature in the state is around while mean annual precipitation is , mostly concentrated between June to September.
Government and infrastructure
State agencies include:
Secretaría de Seguridad Pública (Tamaulipas)
Secretetaria De Obras Publica
Procuraduria General De Justica Tamaulipas
Policia Estatal
Economy and culture
Northern Tamaulipas shares its economic culture with that of Texas, and is primarily characterized by agriculture and strong growth in all industrial sectors. This region is home to many of the maquiladoras, factories owned by foreign companies but worked by Mexicans, primarily by women. In the state there are important industrial parks such as the Oradel Industrial Center, located in the border city of Nuevo Laredo.
Southern Tamaulipas' economy is based primarily on the petrochemical industries. There are petrochemical production plants around Altamira as well as a principal Gulf coast container port, refinery facilities in Ciudad Madero and many oil-industry support service companies in Tampico, as well as a major general and bulk cargo port. Also of importance are the tourism and fishing industries, as well as much commercial shipping, based in Tampico and Altamira. The little village of La Pesca, in the municipality of Soto La Marina, about midway between Brownsville, Texas and Tampico, is a rapidly growing tourist area with lovely beaches and excellent fishing both in the Gulf of Mexico and the Rio Soto La Marina. The central zone contains the capital, Ciudad Victoria, and is home to much forestry and farming, as well as some industrial development. About 30% of the population lives here, both in the capital and in Ciudad Mante. Ciudad Victoria is a significant educational center, home to the Autonomous University of Tamaulipas (which also has campuses in other cities in the state), the Regional Technical Institute of Ciudad Victoria, the University of Valle de Bravo, and other institutions of learning.
As of the 1990 Mexican census, 13 percent of the homes had only dirt floors, nearly 19 percent had no running water, and over 15 percent of the homes had no electricity. This was better than the national average but was skewed because of the high rate of development in the urban centers. In rural communities in Tamaulipas, access to running water was available in less than 40 percent of homes.
As of 2005, Tamaulipas's economy represents 3.3% of Mexico's total gross domestic product or 21,664 million USD. Tamaulipas's economy has a strong focus on export oriented manufacturing (i.e. maquiladora / IMMEX). As of 2005, 258,762 people are employed in the manufacturing sector. Foreign direct investment in Tamaulipas was 386.2 million USD for 2005. The average wage for an employee in Tamaulipas is approximately 240 pesos per day, $2.00 to $3.00 an hour.
Demographics
There is a large number of people (around 200 000 only in the city of Reynosa) born in the southern neighboring state of Veracruz who are economic immigrants that end up working in the maquila industry.
Education
Tamaulipas enjoys standards slightly higher than the national averages, since illiteracy has been reduced to 5% for those over 15 years of age, average schooling reaches 7.8 years, and as many as 11% have earned a professional degree.
Institutions of higher education include:
Instituto de Estudios Superiores de Tamaulipas (IEST)
Instituto Tecnológico de Ciudad Madero (ITCM)
Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas
Transportation
Airports
Tamaulipas is served by 5 international airports and one national airport.
Ciudad Victoria is served by: General Pedro J. Méndez International Airport
Matamoros is served by: General Servando Canales International Airport
Nuevo Laredo is served by: Quetzalcóatl International Airport
Reynosa is served by: General Lucio Blanco International Airport
Tampico is served by: General Francisco Javier Mina International Airport
Ciudad Mante is served by: Ciudad Mante National Airport
Media
Newspapers of Tamaulipas include: El Bravo, El Diario de Ciudad Victoria, El Mañana, El Mañana de Reynosa, El Mercurio de Tamaulipas, El Sol de la Tarde, El Sol de Tampico, Hora Cero Tamaulipas, La Razón, La Tarde, La Verdad de Tamaulipas, Milenio, Periódico Valle del Norte, and Siempre con la verdad a tiempo.
Notable natives and residents
José Ángel Gurría Treviño, diplomat and economist, Secretary-General of the OECD.
Intocable, Regional Mexican musical group
Fito Olivares, Cumbia singer/musician
Alicja Bachleda-Curus, actress, singer
Rosemary Barkett, US judge
Jean-Louis Berlandier (1803 – 1851) French-Mexican naturalist, physician, and anthropologist.
James Carlos Blake, award-winning novelist
José María Jesús Carbajal, Mexican freedom fighter, military governor of Tamaulipas
Linda Christian, actress
Ivan Contreras, volleyball olympics
Ana Brenda Contreras, actress, singer
Amalia González Caballero de Castillo Ledón, diplomat, cabinet minister, minister plenipotentiary, writer,
Laura Elizondo, beauty queen/model
Juan García Esquivel, composer/band leader/pianist
Laura Flores, actress
Rafael Aguilar Guajardo, drug criminal
Manuel González Flores, general and politician who served as president of Mexico from 1880 to 1884.
Víctor García, singer
Elma González, plant cell biologist
Rodrigo González, musician and songwriter
Emilio Portes Gil, president of Mexico after the death of Alvaro Obregon in 1928.
Alejandro Gomez Monteverde, director/producer
Manuel Raga, basketball player
Aurora Robles, model
James de La Rosa, welterweight boxer
Juan de la Rosa, boxer on the NBC's show The Contender
Arleth Terán, actress
Rigo Tovar, singer/songwriter/composer/actor
Ismael Valdez, former starting pitcher in Major League Baseball
Eduardo Verástegui, actor/model
B. Traven, German author and activist
Juan Garcia Abrego, drug criminal
Juan Nepomuceno Guerra, smuggler/founder of C.D.G.
Mauricio Garces, actor
State anthem
The current anthem of the state of Tamaulipas is , composed in 1926 by Rafael Antonio Pérez Pérez, set to music by Alfredo Tamayo Marín. Normally, only the chorus, first verse and chorus are sung in public.
Crime
This state is known to be the site of a territorial struggle for both the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas. The resulting deaths and unresolved kidnappings from the gang violence have been described as a "humanitarian tragedy".
The state of Tamaulipas is one of the most affected by violence in the country, mainly caused by organized crime. In February 2010, an armed conflict broke out between the criminal groups known as the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas, resulting in many border cities becoming "ghost towns", such is the case of the border strip known as "La Frontera Chica "made up of the cities of Miguel Alemán, Mier, Camargo and Nueva Ciudad Guerrero.
In November 2010, the Mexican army, together with the Federal Police and the Navy, launched an operation around the north of the state of Tamaulipas, allowing hundreds of families to return to their homes after months of exile in other states, mainly in municipalities like Mier, where around 4,000 people returned.
According to INEGI , in 2012 Tamaulipas contained 9 municipalities with a homicide rate higher than 100 per 100,000 inhabitants: Cruillas (106), San Fernando (175), Llera (159), Mier (156), Güémez (141), Hidalgo (135), Nuevo Laredo (134), González (109) and Soto la Marina (100). On the other hand, the municipalities that had had the most intentional homicides in 2012 were Nuevo Laredo (536 homicides), Victoria (165) and San Fernando (102).
In 2013, 880 homicides were recorded in the state, giving a rate of 25 per 100,000 inhabitants. This placed it that year in the 9th position of the states with the most homicides in Mexico. In 2013, Tamaulipas reached the first national place in kidnappings with 275 known cases and the ninth place in violent highway robbery (68 cases).
Currently Tamaulipas continues to be affected by violence, this being one of the factors that have greatly hindered the economic and social activity of the state. In 2014 it was estimated that the losses due to violence by each company in Tamaulipas reached an average of 95 thousand pesos per year (fourth highest in the country). This placed it above the national average in terms of cost of crime for each company (13,600 pesos against the national average of 12,800).
See also
Sierra de Tamaulipas
References
External links
Tamaulipas state government
Ley de Escudo de Armas y el Himno de Tamaulipas
States of Mexico
States and territories established in 1824
1824 establishments in Mexico | [
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222256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%20River | Green River | Green River may refer to:
Rivers
Canada
Green River (British Columbia), a tributary of the Lillooet River
Green River, a tributary of the Saint John River, also known by its French name of Rivière Verte
Green River (Ontario), a tributary of the Crowe River
United States
Green River (Illinois), a tributary of the Rock River
Green River (Kentucky), a tributary of the Ohio River
Green River (Housatonic River tributary), a tributary of the Housatonic River in Massachusetts and New York
Green River (Hoosic River tributary), a tributary of the Hoosic River in Massachusetts
Green River (Deerfield River tributary), a tributary of the Deerfield River in Massachusetts and Vermont
Green River (Cold River tributary), a river of Massachusetts
Green River (Jordan River tributary), a tributary of the Jordan River in Antrim County, Michigan
Green River (Intermediate River tributary), part of the Elk River Chain of Lakes Watershed in Antrim County, Michigan
Green River (North Carolina)
Green River (North Dakota), a tributary of the Heart River
Green River (Oregon), a tributary of Five Rivers
Green River (Missouri), a river of Missouri
Green River (Tennessee), a tributary of the Buffalo River
Green River (Texas), a tributary of the Rio Grande
Green River (Batten Kill), a river of Vermont
Green River (Lamoille River tributary), a river of Vermont
Green River (Colorado River tributary), major tributary of the Colorado River, headwaters in Wyoming, flowing into Utah with a loop into Colorado
Green River (Duwamish River tributary), a tributary of the Duwamish River in the U.S. state of Washington
Green River (North Fork Toutle River tributary), the largest tributary of the North Fork Toutle River in the U.S. state of Washington
Green River (Toutle River tributary), a river of Washington
Elsewhere
Green River (Northern Cape), a river in the Northern Cape Province, South Africa
Yeşilırmak (river), a river of northern Turkey
Communities
Green River, Illinois, an unincorporated community in Henry County
Green River, Utah, a city in Emery County
Green River, Wyoming, a city in Sweetwater County
Green River, a ghost town in British Columbia
Green River, a community in Pickering, Ontario
Rivière-Verte, New Brunswick, a village in Madawaska County
Green River Rural LLG, local-level government in Sandaun Province, Papua New Guinea
Music
Green River (band), a grunge band from Seattle, Washington
Green River (album), a 1969 album by Creedence Clearwater Revival
"Green River" (song), a 1969 song from that album
"Green River", a song by C. W. McCall on the album Black Bear Road
"Green River", a song by Waylon Jennings from the album Nashville Rebel
"Green River", a song by The Everly Brothers from the album Stories We Could Tell
"Green River", a song from the Dixie Chick's debut album Thank Heavens for Dale Evans
"Green River", a song by Hooded Fang from the 2010 album titled Album
"Green River", a song by Real Estate from the album Real Estate
"Green River", an instrumental by Church of Misery from the album Master of Brutality
Transportation
Green River station (Utah), an Amtrak train station in Green River, Utah, United States
Green River station, a former Amtrak train station in Green River, Wyoming, United States
Other uses
Green River (soft drink), a bright green, lime-flavored soft drink which originated in Chicago. It was created by the Schoenhofen Edelweiss Brewing Company in 1919, and is currently manufactured by WIT Beverage Company
Novell "Green River", codename for Novell NetWare 4.11
Green River Community College, community college in Auburn, Washington
Green River Formation, a geologic formation in the States of Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah in the United States of America
Green River Killer or Gary Ridgway, an American serial killer
Green River Launch Complex, a missile testing ground outside Green River, Utah, operated by the U. S. Air Force from 1964 to 1973
Green River Ordinance, a common United States city ordinance prohibiting door-to-door solicitation
See also
Green Creek (disambiguation) | [
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222257 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan%20Downey | Juan Downey | Juan Downey (May 11, 1940 – June 9, 1993) was a Chilean artist who was a pioneer in the fields of video art and interactive art.
Early life and education
Downey was born in Santiago, Chile. His father, David Downey V., was a distinguished architect in Chile, and following in his father's footsteps, Juan Downey studied to complete a Bachelor of Architecture in 1964 from the Pontificia Universidad Católica of Chile. In 1961, to further his studies and develop his artistic practice, Downey traveled to Europe. He spent a few months in Barcelona and Madrid, followed by Paris, where he lived for three years studying printmaking at Stanley William Hayter's legendary Atelier 17. During that time, he befriended artists Eugenio Téllez, Roberto Matta, Julio Le Parc, and Takis.
In 1965, Downey traveled to Washington, D.C., at the invitation of the Organization of American States to present a solo show of his work. It was there that Downey would meet his future wife, Marilys Belt. Downey stayed in Washington for a couple of years before moving with his family to New York in 1969.
Downey was an associate professor of art at the Pratt Institute in New York from 1970 until 1993. He died in New York on June 9, 1993, as a result of cancer.
Career
In New York, Downey would become involved with the groups Radical Software and Raindance collective, both of them early proponents of using video for artistic and political means.
Downey is recognized as a pioneer and early adopter of video art, but during his artistic career, he created an extensive body of work that also includes electronic and video sculptures, photography, painting, drawing, printmaking, performance, installation, and writing. Downey's drawings are especially remarkable and remained a constant practice of his. All of his major works were accompanied by drawings. They reflect not only his “sureness of hand,” as curators David Ross and James Harithas noted, but also his compelling ideas and visions, and they reveal a sustained practice of drawing over a lifetime.
The early period of Juan Downey's artistic practice consisted of painting, drawing, writing, and printmaking. After moving to the United States in 1965, he began to experiment with numerous forms of art that included creating interactive electronic sculptures, performances, happenings, and, in the late 1960s, video art. He wrote: “The universe is not an assemblage of independent parts, but an overlapping, interrelated system of energy. All my work relates to this vision.” These media permitted Downey to investigate ideas about invisible energy as well as to invite active participation by viewers of his work.
Two seminal series in Downey's career were Video Trans Americas, begun in 1971, and The Thinking Eye, begun in the mid-1970s. Video Trans Americas (VTA.) is often divided into two groups: the first group was developed from 1973 to 1976, and the second from 1976 to 1977. The two series stress Downey's preoccupation with political discourse, the self, the history of art, Western civilization, and Latin American identity.
Exhibitions
Solo exhibitions
Solo exhibitions featuring Juan Downey's work include:
Juan Downey: Audio-Kinetic Electronic Sculptures, The Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington DC, (1968);
With Energy Beyond These Walls, Howard Wise Gallery, New York, NY, (1970);
Video Trans Americas, Contemporary Art Museum, Houston, TX, (1976);
Juan Downey: Video Trans Americas, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, NY, (1976);
Video Trans Americas, Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse, NY (1977);
Juan Downey: New American Filmmaker Series, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, NY (1978);
Juan Downey, Matrix/Berkeley 16, University Art Museum, Berkeley, CA (1978);
Une Forêt 'Videoformes': Retrospective Juan Downey, Festival de la Création Vidéo, Clermont-Ferrand, France (1993);
Juan Downey: Instalaciones, Dibujos y Videos, Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, Santiago (1995), Chile;
Juan Downey: Con energía más allá de estos muros, Institut Valencià d'Art Modern, Centre del Carme, Valencia, Spain (1997–98);
Retrospectiva de Video Arte de Juan Downey, Museo de Arte Moderno de Chiloé, Castro, Chiloé, Chile (2000);
Plateau of Humankind, Honorable Mention: “Excellence in Art Science and Technology,” 49th Venice Biennale Chilean Pavilion, Venice, Italy (2001);
Juan Downey: El ojo pensante, Sala de Arte Fundación Telefónica, Santiago, Chile (2010);
Juan Downey: The Invisible Architect, MIT List Visual Arts Center, Cambridge, MA, Arizona State University Art Museum, Tempe, AZ, The Bronx Museum of the Arts, NY (2011-2012)
Juan Downey una utopía de la comunicación, Museo Rufino Tamayo, Mexico City (2013)
Group exhibitions
Downey's work was included in numerous group exhibitions as follows.
Some More Beginnings: An Exhibition of Submitted Works Involving Technical Materials and Processes, organized by Experiments in Art and Technology, in collaboration with the Brooklyn Museum, Brookly, NY and The Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY (1968);
New Learning Spaces & Places, Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, MN (1974);
Whitney Biennial Exhibition, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, NY (1975, 1977, 1981, 1983, 1985, 1987, 1989, 1991);
Documenta 6, Kassel, Germany, (1977);
Venice Biennale, US Pavilion, Venice, Italy, (1980);
Sydney Biennale, Sydney, Australia, (1982);
II Bienal de La Habana, Havana, Cuba, (1986);
The Thinking Eye, International Center for Photography, New York, NY, (1987);
Passages de l’image, Musée national d'Art moderne- Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, France, (1990);
Video Art: The First 25 Years, The Museum of Modern Art, and The American Federation of Arts, New York, NY, (1995);
Info Art ’95, Kwangju Biennale, Kwangju, Korea, (1995);
Electronic Highways, The Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY, (1997);
Rational/Irrational, Haus der Kulturen der Welt, Berlin, Germany, (2008-2009)
The Looking Glass: Artist Immigrants of Washington, American University Art Museum, Washington, DC (2016)
VIVA ART VIVA, Venice Biennale, Venice, Italy, (2017);
Selected works
Interactive art
Against Shadows, 1968, is an interactive artwork that uses a grid of photo sensors to translate shadow thrown by the human body to a matching grid of wall-mounted lightbulbs.
In Invisible Energy Dictates a Dance Concert, 1969-1970, readings taken by geiger counters are sent by walkie-talkies to dancers in different rooms of the gallery.
Three-Way Communication by Light, 1972, used video, super 8 film and laser beams to join the actions of three performers painted in whiteface.
Plato Now, 1973
Performance art
Imperialistic Octopus, 1972
Energy Fields, 1972
Video Trans Americas Debriefing Pyramid, 1974
Video art
Early works
Fresh Air, 3/4" NTSC format, b/w 16 min., 1971
Plato Now, b/w, 30 min., 9 channels, 1972
Monument to the Charles River, b/w, 27 min., 2 channels, 1973
Rewe, video installation, 1991
Video Trans Americas
The Video Trans Americas (VTA) Series was a video-installation composed of videos recorded with a Sony portapak during Downey’s travels from North to Central and South America between 1973 and 1976. The first complete screening of the VTA video-installation was in the exhibition Landscape Studies in Video curated by David Ross at the Long Beach Museum of Art in 1975. The VTA video-installation in subsequent exhibitions at other museum institutions such as the Whitney Museum of American Art (1976) was exhibited differently. This was largely due to the spatial component entailed in the presentation of the work, a key concern for Downey, as well as his own artistic liberty to make changes or integrate other components in the installation. Therefore, there are a number of different versions in the way the VTA video installation was exhibited. The following videos were included in the installation:
Rumbo al Golfo, b/w, 27 min., 1973
Zapoteca, b/w, 27 min., 1973
Yucatán, 1973
Chile, color, 13 min., 1974
Guatemala, b/w, 27 min., 1973
New York/Texas I & II, b/w, 27 min., 2 channels, 1974
Nazca I & II, b/w 11 min., 2 channels, 1974
Lima/Machu Picchu, b/w, 27 min., 1975
Cuzco I & II, 1976
Inca I & II, 1976
Uros I & II, 1975
La Frontera I & II, 1976
Additional videos that are part of the VTA series:
Moving, b/w, 27 min., 1974
Publicness, b/w, 30 min., 1974
Central Zone, b/w, 27 min., 1975
Videodances, b/w, 30 min., 1975
Inca Split, 1976
Bi-Deo, 1976
In the Beginning, 1976
Guahibos, color, 26 min. 1976
Yanomami Healing I, b/w, 1977
Yanomami Healing II, b/w, 1977
The Circle of Fires, 1978 (video installation comes in 2 versions)
More Than Two, 1978 (installation)
The Abandoned Shabono, 1979
The Laughing Alligator, 1979
Chiloe, color, 18 min., 1981
Chicago Boys, color, 16 min., stereo, 1982–83
About Cages, 1986 (installation)
The Motherland, 1986
The Return of the Motherland, 1989
The Thinking Eye Series
Las Meninas (Maids of Honor), color, 20 min., 1975
Venus and Her Mirror, 1980 (video-installation)
The Looking Glass, 1981
Information Withheld, 1983
Shifters, 1984
Sinage, 1984 (video-installation)
Obelisk, 1985 (video-installation)
J.S. Bach, 1986
Bachdisc, 1988 (interactive video-disc)
Hard Times and Culture: Part One, Vienna fin-de-siecle, 1990
Collections
Downey’s work can be found in private collections and in the collections of major museums. Selected museum collections include:
The Tate Modern, London, UK;
The Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY;
Centre Pompidou/Musée National d’Art Moderne, Paris, France;
Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, Madrid, Spain;
The Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, DC, and
Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, Santiago, Chile, among others.
Awards
Downey was a Guggenheim fellow in the area of fine arts in 1971.
Selected bibliography
Valerie Smith, ed. Juan Downey: The Invisible Architect. Leipzig: MIT List Visual Art Center & The Bronx Museum, 2011.
González, Julieta, Nicolás Guagnini, Carla Macchiavello, and Valerie Smith. Juan Downey: el ojo pensante. Santiago: Fundación Telefónica, 2010.
Arévalo, Antonio, Marilys Belt de Downey, Juan Downey, José Goñi Carrasco, and Luisa Ulibarri Lorenzini. Juan Downey: La Biennale di Venezia, 49 Esposizione Internazionale d’Arte. Milan: Rodrigo Figueroa Schirmer, 2001.
Bonet, Eugeni, Douglas Davis, Juan Downey, Nuria Enguita, Coco Fusco, Juan Guardiola, John G. Hanhardt, James Harithas, and David Ross. Juan Downey: With Energy Beyond These Walls (Con energía más allá de estos muros). Valencia: Institut Valencià d’Art Modern and Centre del Carme, 1997-98.
Hanhardt, John G., and Ann D. Hoy. Juan Downey of Dream Into Study. Santiago: Editorial Lord Cochrane, 1987.
References
External links
Juan Downey in the Video Data Bank
Juan Downey auf culturebase.net
Centro de Arte Digital en Memoria de Juan Downey
1940 births
1993 deaths
Chilean film directors
Video artists
People from Santiago
Videographers | [
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] |
222259 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six%20O%27Clock%20News%20%28film%29 | Six O'Clock News (film) | Six O'Clock News is a 1996 documentary film by Ross McElwee about television news in the United States, the randomness of fate, the anxiety of parenting, and the difference between representation and reality.
The film is the subject of scholarly study.
References
External links
Ross McElwee's web page
1996 documentary films
1996 films
American documentary films
American films
English-language films
Documentary films about journalism
Films directed by Ross McElwee
Documentary films about television | [
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222266 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubble%20gum | Bubble gum | Bubble gum is a type of chewing gum, designed to be inflated out of the mouth as a bubble.
Bubble gum flavor
While there is a bubble gum "flavor" – which various artificial flavorings including esters are mixed to obtain – it varies from one company to another. Esters used in synthetic bubblegum flavoring may include methyl salicylate, ethyl butyrate, benzyl acetate, amyl acetate or cinnamic aldehyde.
A natural bubble gum flavoring can be produced by combining banana, pineapple, cinnamon, cloves, and wintergreen. Vanilla, cherry, lemon, and orange oil have also been suggested as ingredients.
Composition
In modern chewing gum, if natural rubber such as chicle is used, it must pass several purity and cleanliness tests. However, most modern types of chewing gum use synthetic gum-based materials. These materials allow for longer lasting flavor, a better texture, and a reduction in tackiness.
History
In 1928, Walter Diemer, an accountant for the Fleer Chewing Gum Company in Philadelphia, was experimenting with new gum recipes. One recipe, based on a formula for a chewing gum called "Blibber Blubber", was found to be less sticky than regular chewing gum, and stretched more easily. This gum became highly successful and was eventually named by the president of Fleer as Dubble Bubble because of its stretchy texture.
This remained the dominant brand of bubble gum until after WWII, when Bazooka bubble gum entered the market.
Until the 1970s, bubble gum still tended to stick to one's face. At that time, synthetic bubble gum was introduced, which would almost never stick as a bubble popped. The first brands in the US to use these new synthetic gum bases were Hubba Bubba and Bubble Yum.
Bubble gum got its distinctive pink color because the original recipe Diemer worked on produced a dingy gray colored gum, so he added red dye (diluted to pink) as that was the only dye he had on hand at the time.
Flavors
In taste tests, children tend to prefer strawberry and blue raspberry flavors, rejecting more complex flavors as they say these make them want to swallow the gum rather than continue chewing.
Records
In 1996, Susan Montgomery Williams of Fresno, California set the Guinness World Record for largest bubblegum bubble ever blown, which was in diameter. Chad Fell though holds the record for "Largest Hands-free Bubblegum Bubble" at , achieved on 24 April 2004.
Tourism
Bubblegum Alley is a tourist attraction in downtown San Luis Obispo, California, known for its accumulation of used bubble gum on the walls of an alley.
The Market Theater Gum Wall is a brick wall covered in used chewing gum located in an alleyway in Post Alley under Pike Place Market in Downtown Seattle.
See also
Blibber-Blubber
Functional gum
Gumball machine
Gum base
Gum industry
Inca Kola
List of chewing gum brands
References
Chewing gum
Bubbles (physics)
Products introduced in 1928
American inventions | [
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] |
222270 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunt%20%28disambiguation%29 | Hunt (disambiguation) | A hunt is the act of pursuing and capturing or killing wild animals.
Hunt may also refer to:
Companies
Hunt Petroleum, an oil and gas company formed in 1950, now part of XTO Energy
Hunt Oil Company, an independent oil and gas company headquartered in Dallas, Texas
Hunt Refining Company, a refiner of asphalt
J. B. Hunt, an American transportation and logistics company
Names
Hunt (surname), a list of people and fictional characters
Hunt (given name), a list of people and fictional characters
Places
Hunt, Ohio, an unincorporated community
Hunt, Texas, an unincorporated town
McFarland, California, formerly called Hunt
Ships
USS Hunt (DD-194), a Clemson-class destroyer commissioned in 1919
USS Hunt (DD-674), a Fletcher-class destroyer commissioned in 1943
Other uses
Hunt (painting), a 2002 painting by Neo Rauch
23041 Hunt, an asteroid
Fox hunting clubs or hunts
"Hunt", a song by Goldfrapp from Head First
Witch-hunt, a search for evidence of witchcraft or practitioners of it
See also
The Hunt (disambiguation)
Hunt-class (disambiguation), three British Royal Navy ship classes
Hunt model, a mathematical description of human color vision
Hunter (disambiguation)
Hunting (disambiguation)
Hunt's, a brand of tomato products
Lord Hunt (disambiguation), various British barons | [
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222273 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Washington%2C%20D.C.%20professional%20baseball | History of Washington, D.C. professional baseball | Washington, DC has been home to over a dozen baseball organizations since 1872 and is currently represented by the Washington Nationals.
The early years: 1872–1899
The first professional baseball teams and leagues formed in the late 19th century and several were based in Washington, D.C. Many early teams used the names "Nationals" and "Senators" but were otherwise unrelated organizations.
The National Association Washington Olympics (1871–1872)
The National Association Washington Nationals (1872)
The National Association Washington Blue Legs (1873)
The National Association Washington Nationals (1875)
The Union Association Washington Nationals (1884)
The American Association Washington Nationals (1884)
The National League Washington Nationals (1886–1889)
The American Association Washington Statesmen (1891)
The National League Washington Senators (1892–1899)
"First in war, first in peace, and last in the American League": 1901–1971
Washington was continuously home to a major league baseball team from 1901 until 1971. Two separate franchises alternated between the nicknames "Senators" and "Nationals" and sometimes used the names interchangeably.
The American League Washington Nationals/Senators (1901–1960): The team was officially named the "Senators" from 1901-1904, the "Nationals" from 1905-1955 and the Senators again from 1956-1960 but nonetheless was commonly referred to as the Senators throughout its history (and unofficially as the "Grifs" during Clark Griffith's tenure as manager from 1912-1920). In 1961, this team moved to Minneapolis-St. Paul and became the Minnesota Twins.
The American League Washington Senators (1961–1971): This expansion team began play in Washington immediately following the departure of the former franchise. In 1972, this team moved to Dallas–Fort Worth and became the Texas Rangers.
Since the expansion franchise began play the year immediately after the original franchise's final year in Washington, and because they both used the same nickname, the teams are commonly confused or combined and photographs are often dated based on player uniforms. The original club used dark blue as its primary color, with a thick, sans-serif, red or white block "W" on its caps. The expansion club mainly used caps with a stylized cursive "W," first in blue with a red letter (1963–1967), then in red with a white letter (1968–1971), similar to current Washington Nationals. In 1961–1962, the expansion Senators wore dark blue caps with a sans-serif block "W" outlined in white, nearly identical to the caps of the original Senators save for a red button at the top of the cap. Varying shades of the Senators' red, white and blue colors are still used by their successor teams in Minnesota and Texas.
Two other teams also competed in Washington during this time period.
The United States Baseball League Washington Senators (1912): This club was unrelated to the American League team and the new league folded after one month of operation.
The Negro National League Homestead Grays (1930–1948): Though officially based on Homestead, Pennsylvania, this club played many of its games in Washington and were informally known as the "Washington Homestead Grays." When baseball returned to Washington in 2005, "Grays" was one of the three finalists for the team's nickname.
The return: 2005–present
Major League Baseball returned to Washington in 2005 after a 33-year absence.
The National League Washington Nationals (2005–present): The Montreal Expos, under the ownership of Major League Baseball, were relocated to Washington and sold to a new ownership group.
The Nationals adopted similar colors to 1968–1971 Senators adding gold accents to a tilted version of the expansion Senators cursive "W" logo.
In 2012, the Nationals won the NL East division championship and brought postseason baseball to Washington, D.C., for the first time in 79 years.
In 2014, the Nationals won their second NL East division championship in three years after defeating the Atlanta Braves, 3–0, on September 16, 2014. In the NLDS of the same year, the Nationals would lose to the San Francisco Giants, who would go on to win the World Series.
In 2019, the Washington Nationals won the Wild Card game, defeated the Los Angeles Dodgers in the NLDS, defeated the St. Louis Cardinals in the NL Championship Series, and then on October 30 won their first franchise World Series, defeating the American League champion Houston Astros in an historic matchup where neither team won a home game.
See also
Sports in Washington, D.C.
History of the National Football League in Los Angeles: A comparably inconsistent history of National Football League teams expanding in and relocating to and from the Greater Los Angeles market
References
Baseball in Washington, D.C.
Wash
History of Major League Baseball
+
Washington Senators (1891–1899)
Washington Senators (1901–1960)
Washington Senators (MLB 1961–1971) | [
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222279 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20school | Old school | Old school, Old School, or Old Skool may refer to:
Computers and gaming
Old school gaming or retrogaming, playing and collecting older computer, video, and arcade games
Old School Renaissance, a trend in tabletop gaming
Old School RuneScape, a playable 2007 version of the MMORPG RuneScape
Oldskool, in demoscene, a production made before the mid-1990s
Film and television
Old School (film), a 2003 American comedy film
Old School (TV series), a 2014 Australian drama series
"Old School" (Brooklyn Nine-Nine), a 2013 television episode
"Old School" (Runaways), a 2018 television episode
"Old School" (Yin Yang Yo!), a 2006 television episode
Literature
Old School (novel), a 2003 novel by Tobias Wolff
Old School: Life in the Sane Lane, a 2017 book by Bill O'Reilly and Bruce Feirstein
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Old School, a 2015 book by Jeff Kinney
Music
Genres
Old-school hip hop
Oldskool hardcore or breakbeat hardcore
Urban oldies, or Old School, a radio format
Performers
Old School (quartet), an American barbershop quartet
Ol' Skool, an American new jack swing group
Albums
Old School (Helix album), 2019
Oldschool (Nena album), 2015
Ol' School, by Ohio Players, 1996
Old School (EP), by Tebey, 2016
Old Skool (EP), by Armin van Buuren, 2016
Old School, a box set by Alice Cooper, 2011
Songs
"Old School" (Hedley song), 2008
"Old School" (John Conlee song), 1985
"Old School", by Boss Hog, 1999
"Old School", by Danger Doom from The Mouse and the Mask, 2005
"Old School", by Overkill from ReliXIV, 2005
"Old School", by Toby Keith from Peso in My Pocket, 2021
"Old School", by Tupac Shakur, a B-side of "Dear Mama", 1995
Other uses
Old School (Kenyon), a former school building in Kenyon, Minnesota, US
Old school (tattoo), a traditional tattoo style
Old School–New School Controversy, a schism of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America
Old School, or arm twist ropewalk chop, a professional wrestling aerial technique used by The Undertaker
Koryū, translated as "old school", a category of Japanese martial arts
See also
Vintage (design)
Jeune École | [
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222283 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore%20and%20Ohio%20Railroad | Baltimore and Ohio Railroad | The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was the first common carrier railroad and the oldest railroad in the United States, with its first section opening in 1830. Merchants from the city of Baltimore, which had benefited to some extent from the construction of the National Road early in the century, wanted to continue to compete for trade with trans-Appalachian settlers with the Albany-Schenectady Turnpike built in 1797, and the newly constructed Erie Canal, opened in 1825, (both of which served New York City), another canal being proposed by Pennsylvania (which would have connected Philadelphia and Pittsburgh), the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal (C&O, which connected to the nation's capital, Washington, D.C., although it never reached Ohio), and the James River Canal, which directed traffic toward Richmond and Norfolk, Virginia. At first, the B&O was located entirely in the state of Maryland, its original line extending from the port of Baltimore west to Sandy Hook (opened in 1834). There it connected with Harper's Ferry (by boat, then by the Wager Bridge) across the Potomac into Virginia, and also with the navigable Shenandoah River.
Because of competition with the C&O canal for trade with coal fields in western Maryland, the railroad could not use the C&O right-of-way west of Harpers Ferry. Thus, to continue westward through the Appalachian Mountains, the B&O chose to build the B & O Railroad Potomac River Crossing (1837) at Harpers Ferry, Virginia (since 1863, West Virginia). The line continued through Virginia to a point just west of the junction of Patterson Creek and the North Branch Potomac River, where it crossed back into Maryland to reach Cumberland (1842), connecting with the National Road, the main route westward. It reached the Ohio River at Moundsville, Virginia (1852), Wheeling (1853), where it built a terminus, and a few years later (1857) also to Parkersburg, Virginia, below rapids which made navigation difficult during parts of the year. It proved crucial to Union success during the American Civil War, although the conflict also caused considerable damage and repair costs. After the war's end, the B&O consolidated several feeder lines in Virginia and West Virginia, as well as expanded westward into Ohio (including a junction at Portsmouth), Indiana, and Illinois. B&O advertising later carried the motto: "Linking 13 Great States with the Nation."
After several mergers, the B&O became part of the CSX Transportation (CSX) network. The B&O also includes the Leiper Railroad, the first permanent horse-drawn railroad in the U.S. At the end of 1970, the B&O operated 5,552 miles of road and 10,449 miles of track, not including the Staten Island Rapid Transit (SIRT) or the Reading and its subsidiaries. It includes the oldest operational railroad bridge in the United States.
When CSX established the B&O Railroad Museum as a separate entity from the corporation, it donated some of the former B&O Mount Clare Shops in Baltimore, including the Mt. Clare roundhouse, to the museum, while selling the rest of the property. The B&O Warehouse at the Camden Yards rail junction in Baltimore now dominates the view over the right-field wall at the Baltimore Orioles' current home, Oriole Park at Camden Yards.
Part of the B&O Railroad's immortality has come from being one of the four featured railroads on the original version of the board game Monopoly; it is the only railroad on the board that did not directly serve Atlantic City, New Jersey, the city which the places and names the Monopoly's original edition were named after.
History
Ohio
The railroad did not reach the Ohio River until 1852, 24 years after the project started. Yet the Ohio was from the beginning the destination the railroad was seeking to link with Baltimore, at the time a railroad center. By crossing the Appalachian Mountains, a technical challenge, it would link the new and booming territories of what at the time was the West—including Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky—with the east coast rail and boat network, from Maryland northward. (There was no rail link between Maryland and Virginia until the B&O opened the Harpers Ferry bridge in 1839.)
Starting in 1825, the Erie Canal provided an animal-powered water facility connecting New York City with Ohio via Lake Erie. It took ten days to travel from Buffalo to New York City. The Cumberland Road, later the beginning of the National Road, federally financed, provided a road link for animal-powered transport between Cumberland, Maryland (on the Potomac) and Wheeling, Virginia (on the Ohio) when completed in 1837; it was the second paved road in the country. However, the 1831 DeWitt Clinton locomotive, running between Albany and Schenectady, New York, demonstrated speeds of per hour, dramatically decreasing the cost of transportation and announcing the coming end of the canal and turnpike (road) systems, many of which were never completed since they were or would soon be obsolete.
In New York, political support for the Erie Canal detracted from the prospect of building a railroad to replace it, whose full length did not open until 1844. Mountains in Pennsylvania made construction in the western part of the state expensive and technically challenging, and the Pennsylvania Railroad, linking Pittsburgh and Philadelphia, did not open its full length until 1852, and there was no rail link west from Pittsburgh to Ohio for several more years.
The fast-growing port city of Baltimore, Maryland, faced economic stagnation unless it opened a route to the western states. On February 27, 1827, twenty-five merchants and bankers studied the best means of restoring "that portion of the Western trade which has recently been diverted from it by the introduction of steam navigation." Their answer was to build a railroad—one of the first commercial lines in the world.
Their plans worked well, despite many political problems from canal backers and other railroads. For example, only the Pennsylvania Railroad was allowed to build in its namesake state, requiring the B&O to skirt around a corner of the state, even though the Pennsylvania Railroad didn't even operate in that area of Pennsylvania.
The railroad grew from a capital base of $3 million in 1827 to a large enterprise generating $2.7 million of annual profit on its of track in 1854, with 19 million passenger miles. The railroad fed tens of millions of dollars of shipments to and from Baltimore and its growing hinterland to the west, thus making the city the commercial and financial capital of the region south of Philadelphia.
Charters
Two men—Philip E. Thomas and George Brown—were the pioneers of the railroad. They spent the year 1826 investigating railway enterprises in England, which were at that time being tested in a comprehensive fashion as commercial ventures. Their investigation completed, they held an organizational meeting on February 12, 1827, including about twenty-five citizens, most of whom were Baltimore merchants or bankers. Chapter 123 of the 1826 Session Laws of Maryland, passed February 28, 1827, and the Commonwealth of Virginia on March 8, 1827, chartered the Baltimore and Ohio Rail Road Company, with the task of building a railroad from the port of Baltimore west to a suitable point on the Ohio River. The railroad, formally incorporated April 24, was intended to provide a faster route for Midwestern goods to reach the East Coast then to the hugely successful but slow Erie Canal across upstate New York. Thomas was elected as the first president and Brown the treasurer. The capital of the proposed company was fixed at five million dollars,
but the B&O was initially capitalized in 1827 with a three million dollar issue of stock. Half of this stock was reserved for the Maryland state government and the municipal government of Baltimore, which invested $1,000,000 and $500,000, respectively, in the new company. Around twenty-two thousand people—a quarter of the city's population—bought the remaining private equity.
Early construction and legal battles
Construction began on July 4, 1828, when Charles Carroll of Carrollton (one of the last living signers of the Declaration of Independence) performed the groundbreaking by laying the cornerstone. The initial tracks were built with granite stringers topped by strap iron rails. The first section, from Baltimore west to Ellicott's Mills (now known as Ellicott City), opened on May 24, 1830. A horse pulled the first cars 26 miles and back, since the B&O did not decide to use steam power for several years. Railroad men in South Carolina had earlier commissioned a steam locomotive from a New York foundry (which would reach 25 miles per hour and became the first passenger service by locomotive), while the B&O was still experimenting with horse power and sails. The B&O's first locomotive, Tom Thumb, was made in America as a demonstrator and could pull passenger and freight cars at 18 miles per hour.
Developers decided to follow the Patapsco River to a point near Parr's Ridge (now known as Mount Airy), where the railroad would cross a height of land and descend into the valley of the Monocacy and Potomac rivers. Further extensions opened to Frederick (including the short Frederick Branch) on December 1, 1831; Point of Rocks on April 2, 1832; and Sandy Hook on December 1, 1834. Sandy Hook, Maryland, on the north shore of the Potomac, was the end of the line until the B & O Railroad Potomac River Crossing opened in 1836, linking Harpers Ferry, West Virginia (until 1863, Virginia). The connection at Harpers Ferry with the Winchester and Potomac Railroad, running southwest to Winchester, Virginia, opened in 1837, then the line northwest to Martinsburg in May 1842; Hancock in June 1842; and Cumberland, Maryland, on November 5, 1842, for some years the end of the line. The final section linked Piedmont on July 21, 1851, and Fairmont on June 22, 1852. It first reached the Ohio River at Moundsville later in 1852, and port facilities were built there. The B&O reached Wheeling, West Virginia (then part of Virginia) on January 1, 1853. That would remain the terminus through the American Civil War (apart from conflict-related outages principally between Cumberland and Martinsburg during the war) until a railroad bridge could be constructed across the Ohio River.
The narrow strip of available land along the Potomac River from Point of Rocks to Harpers Ferry caused years of legal battles between the B&O and the Chesapeake and Ohio (C&O) Canal, as both sought to exclude the other from its use. A compromise eventually allowed the two companies to share the right of way. The B&O also prevailed in a lawsuit against it by the Washington and Baltimore Turnpike Road.
The B&O wanted links to Virginia's Shenandoah Valley, as well as the parts of western Virginia draining into the Ohio River valley and ultimately the Mississippi River, such as Wheeling (where the National Road crossed the Ohio River) and the Kanawha River valley. However, many Virginia politicians wanted the minerals, timber and produce of those areas to instead ship through Richmond and reach the Atlantic through Norfolk, although the James River Canal required substantial maintenance and was never completed through the Appalachians to the Ohio River watershed. Thus, while the B&O reached Wheeling in 1853, political compromises meant the B&O would only reach Grafton to connect to Parkersburg on the Ohio River through a connection with the Northwestern Virginia Railroad which was completed in 1857. During the "Great Railway Celebrations of 1857", a large group of notables boarded the B&O in Baltimore, then transferred to steamboats in Wheeling to Marietta, Ohio, where they boarded a railroad to Cincinnati, where after another celebration, they boarded the Ohio and Mississippi Railroad, which brought them to St. Louis, Missouri, three days after they had started their journey. The B&O would only reach Charleston (at the confluence of the Kanawha and Elk Rivers) and ultimately Huntington (which was named after a major B&O investor) on the Ohio River more than a decade after the American Civil War and the creation of the state of West Virginia.
Meanwhile, the State of Maryland granted the B&O a charter to build a line from Baltimore to Washington, D.C., in 1831, and the Washington Branch was opened in 1835. This line joined to the original mainline at Relay, Maryland, crossing the Patapsco River on the Thomas Viaduct (which remains one of the B&O's signature structures). This line was partially funded by the state of Maryland, and was operated separately until the 1870s, with Maryland receiving a 25 percent cut of gross passenger receipts. The B&O's charter also forbad further taxation of the railroad, and that no-tax provision was upheld in the 1840s after Baltimore City tried to tax it. This Washington Branch line was built in stone, much like the original mainline. By this time, however, strap rail was no longer used for new construction. Most of the stone bridges on the Old Main Line did not last long, being washed out by the periodic flooding of the Patapsco River and replaced at first by Bollman Truss bridges. The Annapolis and Elk Ridge Railroad to Annapolis connected to this line at Annapolis Junction in 1840. As an unwritten condition for the charter, it was understood that the state of Maryland would not charter any competing line between Baltimore and Washington, and no such charters were approved until well after the American Civil War, when the Pennsylvania Railroad acquired a railroad on the Delmarva Peninsula, which had the power to build short branch lines, so it was able to connect to Washington through Bowie, Maryland.
The B&O also wanted access to Pittsburgh and coal fields in western Pennsylvania and Ohio. Although the directors of the Pennsylvania Railroad wanted a monopoly in their state, delays in laying track to Pittsburgh led the Pennsylvania legislature in 1846 to require construction to be completed within 10 years, else competition would be allowed. The Pennsylvania Railroad finished its trans-Allegheny track with two years to spare, thus the B&O would only be able to extend its tracks up the Youghiogheny River valley to the soft coal fields in 1871.
Early engineering
When construction began on the B&O in the 1820s, railroad engineering was in its infancy. Unsure exactly which materials would suffice, the B&O erred on the side of sturdiness and built many of its early structures of granite. Even the track bed to which iron strap rail was affixed consisted of the stone.
Though the granite soon proved too unforgiving and expensive for track, most of the B&O's monumental bridges have survived to this day, and many are still in active railroad use by CSX. Baltimore's Carrollton Viaduct, named in honor of Charles Carroll of Carrollton, was the B&O's first bridge, and is the world's second-oldest railroad bridge still carrying trains (the world's oldest is the Skerne Bridge, Darlington, UK of 1824–1825). The Thomas Viaduct at Relay, Maryland, was the longest bridge in the United States upon its completion in 1835. It also remains in use. The B&O made extensive use of the Bollman iron truss bridge design in the mid-19th century. Its durability and ease of assembly aided faster railroad construction.
As the B&O built the main line west to Parrs Ridge, it had limited information about the operation of steam locomotives. Consequently, the company was uncertain if the engine's metal wheels would grip the metal rails sufficiently to pull a train up to the top of the ridge. The railroad decided to construct two inclined planes on each side of the ridge along which teams of horses, and perhaps steam-powered winches, would assist pulling the trains uphill. The planes, about a mile long on each side of the ridge, quickly proved an operational bottleneck. Before the decade of the 1830s ended, the B&O built a alternate route that became known as the Mount Airy Loop. The planes were quickly abandoned and forgotten, though some artifacts survive to the present.
See also Old Main Line Subdivision
First telegraph line
In 1843, Congress appropriated $30,000 for construction of an experimental telegraph line between Washington, D.C., and Baltimore along the B&O's right-of-way. The B&O approved the project with the agreement that the railroad would have free use of the line upon its completion. An impressive demonstration occurred on May 1, 1844, when news of the Whig Party's nomination of Henry Clay for U.S. president was telegraphed from the party's convention in Baltimore to the Capitol Building in Washington. On May 24, 1844, the line was officially opened as Samuel F. B. Morse sent his famous words, "What hath God wrought", from the B&O's Mount Clare station to the Capitol by telegraph.
Innovations
Contrary to legend, the B&O was not the first chartered railroad in the United States; John Stevens obtained a charter for the New Jersey Railroad in 1815. The B&O was, however, the first company to operate a locomotive built in America, with the Tom Thumb in 1829. It built the first passenger and freight station (Mount Clare in 1829) and was the first railroad to earn passenger revenues in December 1829, and publish a timetable on May 23, 1830. On Christmas Eve 1852, the B&O line was completed between Baltimore and the Ohio River near Moundsville, West Virginia.
Conflicts in the early years
Partial government ownership caused some operational problems. Of the thirty members on its board of directors, twelve were elected by shareholders, while eighteen were appointed either by Maryland or the Baltimore City Council. Many had conflicting interests: the directors appointed by the state and city desired low fares and all construction to be funded from corporate revenues, while the directors elected by shareholders desired greater profits and dividends. These conflicts became more intense in the 1850s after the completion of the C&O Canal, which brought additional competition to the B&O. In 1853, after being nominated by large shareholder and director Johns Hopkins, John W. Garrett became president of the B&O, a position he would hold until his death in 1884. In the first year of his presidency, corporate operating costs were reduced from 65 percent of revenues to 46 percent, and the railroad began distributing profits to its shareholders.
John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry
The B&O played a major role, and got national attention, in the response to abolitionist John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia (since 1863, West Virginia), in October 1859. Black porter Hayward Shepherd, to whom there is a monument in Harpers Ferry, was the first man killed; stationmaster Fontaine Beckham, who was also the town's mayor, was killed the next day. Raiders had cut the telegraph line, and stopped the 1:30 AM Wheeling to Baltimore express, but after several hours the train was allowed to continue and at the first station with a working telegraph (Monocacy) the conductor sent a telegram to B&O headquarters. After confirming from the Martinsburg station (via Wheeling, because of the cut telegraph line) that the report was not a hoax, Garrett telegraphed President James Buchanan, the Secretary of War, the Governor of Virginia, and Maryland Militia General George Hume Steuart about the insurrection in progress. The B&O made its rolling stock available to the military. At 3:20 p.m. a train left Washington Depot with 87 U.S. Marines and two howitzers, and a 3:45 p.m. train from nearer Frederick, Maryland, carried three Maryland militia companies under Col. Edward Shriver. These trains stopped before the bridge at Sandy Hook, Maryland (end of the line before the bridge was built), and troops continued across the bridge on foot. Soon Garrett's Master of Transportation William Prescott Smith left Baltimore City, together with Maryland Gen. Charles G. Egerton Jr. and the Second Light Brigade, which train also picked up the Marines on the federal troop train at the junction in Relay, Maryland. All awaited Lt.Col. Robert E. Lee and Lt. J.E.B. Stuart, who had received orders from the Secretary of War to retake Harpers Ferry and capture the insurgent abolitionists, which they quickly did. Garrett reported with evident relief the next day that aside from the cut telegraph line, which was quickly repaired, there had been no damage to any B&O track, equipment, or facilities.
The government of Maryland published in a book the many telegrams sent by B&O employees and management during the raid.
American Civil War
At the outset of the Civil War, the B&O possessed 236 locomotives, 128 passenger coaches, 3,451 rail cars and of rail road, all in states south of the Mason–Dixon line, as Garrett had noted before the war began. Although many Marylanders had Southern sympathies, Garrett and Hopkins supported the Union. The B&O became crucial to the Federal government during the Civil War, being the main rail connection between Washington, D.C., and the northern states, especially west of the Appalachian mountains.
However, its initial problem became Lincoln's first Secretary of War, Simon Cameron, a major stockholder in the rival North Central Railroad, which received long haul freight destined for Baltimore from the rival Pennsylvania Railroad. Furthermore, the Pennsylvania Railroad and other investors sought permission to construct rail lines which threatened the B&O's monopolies on the Washington Branch (between Relay and Washington DC) and westward through Cumberland, Maryland. Raids and battles during the war also cost the B&O substantial losses, many never indemnified. Master of Transportation Prescott Smith kept a diary during the war years, describing incidents such as the June 1861 derailment of a 50 car coal train, which plunged into a ravine after a bridge was destroyed (the wreckage burned for months and melted the metal coal hoppers), as well as later ironclad trains (one only disabled by an artillery shell piercing the boiler).
1861–1862
On April 18, 1861, the day after Virginia seceded from the Union, Virginia militia seized the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, which was also an important work station on the B&O's main westward line. The following day, Confederate rioters in Baltimore attempted to prevent Pennsylvania volunteers from proceeding from the North Central Railway's Bolton station to the B&O's Mount Clare station, and Maryland's governor Hicks and Baltimore Mayor George W. Brown ordered 3 North Central and 2 Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad (PW&B) bridges destroyed to prevent further federal troop movements through (and riots in) the city. Soon B&O president John Work Garrett received letters from Virginia's Governor John Letcher telling the B&O to pass no federal troops destined for any place in Virginia over the railroad, and threatening to confiscate the lines. Charles Town's mayor also wrote, threatening to cut the B&O's main line by destroying the long bridge over the Potomac River at Harpers Ferry, and Garrett also received anonymous threats. Thus he and others asked Secretary of War Cameron to protect the B&O as the national capitol's main westward link. Cameron instead warned Garrett that passage of any rebel troops over his line would be treason. The Secretary of War agreed to station troops to protect the North Central, the Pennsylvania Railroad, and even the PW&B, but flatly refused to help the B&O, his main competition.
The B&O had to repair damaged line at its own expense, and often received late or no payment for services rendered to the federal government. In May, CSA Colonel Jackson's operations against the B&O Railroad (1861) began. Stonewall Jackson initially permitted B&O trains to operate during limited hours over the approximately 100 miles from Point of Rocks to Cumberland. On June 20, 1861, Jackson's Confederates seized Martinsburg, a major B&O work center, having blown up the Harpers Ferry railroad bridge on June 14. Confederates confiscated dozens of locomotives and train cars and ripped up double track in order to ship rails for Confederate use in Virginia (14 locomotives and 83 rail cars were dismantled and sent south, and another 42 locomotives and 386 rail cars damaged or destroyed at Martinsburg, with the B&O water station and machine shops also destroyed and miles of telegraph wire removed by the time federal control was restored in March 1862). By the end of 1861, 23 B&O railroad bridges had been burned and of track were torn up or destroyed.
Since Jackson cut the B&O main line into Washington for more than six months, the North Central and Pennsylvania Railroads profited from overflow traffic, even as many B&O trains stood idle in Baltimore. Garrett tried to use his government contacts to secure the needed protection, from Maryland Delegate Reverdy Johnson to General George McClellan and Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase. As winter began, coal prices soared in Washington, even though the B&O in September arranged for free coal transport from its Cumberland, Maryland, terminal down the C&O Canal (which reduced prices somewhat, although Confederates also damaged the C&O canal that winter). Furthermore, western farmers could not get their produce to markets because of the B&O shutdown, only partially alleviated by the summer 1861 Union army victories at the Battle of Philippi (West Virginia) and Rich Mountain, and vigorous army and company work crews which reduced the main-line gap to 25 miles between Harpers Ferry and Back Creek.
Finally at year end, Samuel M. Felton, the PW&B President, wrote newspapers about the War Department's discrimination against his cooperating railroad line, which competed with Cameron's favored North Central and Pennsylvania Railroads. President Lincoln (familiar with railroad law since his days as an Illinois lawyer) in January 1862 replaced Cameron with Pennsylvania lawyer Edwin M. Stanton, who had been serving as Cameron's legal advisor. Furthermore, on January 31, 1862, Congress passed the Railways and Telegraph Act of January 31, 1862, creating the United States Military Railroad and allowing it to seize and operate any railroad or telegraph company's equipment, although Stanton and USMRR Superintendent Daniel McCallum would take a "team of rivals" approach to railroad management and allow civilian operations to continue. In February 1862, Union forces recaptured Martinsburg and Harpers Ferry, and work crews continued replacing wrecked bridges and equipment, although bushwhacker raids continued.
Even then train movements were sporadic and subject to frequent stoppages, derailments, capture and attack. Prominent raids on the B&O railroad during this period were:
The Great Train Raid of 1861, May 22 – June 23, 1861
The Romney Expedition, January 1 through January 24, 1862
Operations during the Maryland Campaign, September 8, 1862
Various raids of Brigadier General A. G. Jenkins, Fall, 1862
{| class="wikitable"
|+ B&O Locomotives Captured During the Great Train Raid of 1861
! Engine Name!!Eng. No.!!Type
|-
! ?
| No. 17
| Norris 4-2-0
|-
! ?
| No. 34
| Mason 4-4-0
|-
! ?
| No. 187
| Camel 0-8-0
|-
! Lady Davis (CSA name)
| No. 188
| Tyson 4-4-0 "Dutch Wagon"
|-
! ?
| No. 193
| Camel 0-8-0
|-
! ?
| No. 198
| Hayes Camel 0-8-0
|-
! ?
| No. 199
| Camel 0-8-0
|-
! ?
| No. 201
| ?
|-
|}
1863–1865
The second half of the Civil War was characterized by near-continuous raiding, which severely hampered the Union defense of Washington, D.C. Union forces and leaders often failed to properly secure the region, despite the B&O's vital importance to the Union cause.
This military strategy, or lack thereof, allowed Confederate commanders to contribute significantly to the length of the war, by conducting free-ranging military operations against the region and railroad.
Before the Battle of Monocacy, B&O agents began reporting Confederate troop movements eleven days prior to the battle, and Garrett had their intelligence passed to authorities in the War Department and to Major General Lew Wallace, who commanded the department responsible for defense of the area. As preparations for the battle progressed, the B&O provided transport for federal troops and munitions, and on two occasions Garrett was contacted directly by President Abraham Lincoln for further information. Though Union forces lost this battle, the delay allowed Ulysses S. Grant to successfully repel the Confederate attack on Washington at the Battle of Fort Stevens two days later. After the battle, Lincoln paid tribute to Garrett as:
The Jones-Imboden Raid, April 24 through May 22, 1863
The Catoctin Station Raid, June 17, 1863
The First Calico Raid, June 19, 1863
The B&O Raid on Duffield Station, January 1864
The McNeill Raid, May 5, 1864
The Second Calico Raid, July 3, 1864
The Battle of Monocacy, July 9, 1864
Gilmor's Raid, July 11, 1864
The Greenback Raid, by Mosby's Rangers on October 14, 1864
The B&O Raid on Duffield Station II, January 1865
Gilmor's B&O Raid, February 1865
The B&O Derailment Raid, March 1865
The Confederate leaders who led these operations and specifically targeted the railroad included:
Lieutenant General Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson and many units under his command
Lieutenant General Jubal Anderson Early and many units under his command
Brigadier General Turner Ashby and his "Black Horse" cavalry
Brigadier General John D. Imboden and the 62nd Virginia Mounted Infantry (1st Partisan Rangers)
Brigadier General Albert G. Jenkins and the 8th Virginia Cavalry
Brigadier General William E. "Grumble" Jones and the "Laurel Brigade"
Colonel John S. Mosby's "Mosby's Rangers"
Major Harry Gilmor's "Gilmor's Raiders"
Captain John H. McNeill's "McNeill's Rangers"
Bases of operation involved in raiding the B&O Railroad:
Winchester, Virginia
Harpers Ferry, West Virginia
Westward by merger
A steel and stone bridge was built across the Ohio River between Bellaire, Ohio, and Wheeling, West Virginia, in 1871, connecting the B&O to the Central Ohio Railroad, which the B&O had leased starting in 1866. This provided a direct rail connection to Columbus, Ohio, and the lease marked the beginning of a series of expansions to the west and north.
Other railroads included in the B&O were:
Winchester and Potomac Railroad and Winchester and Strasburg Railroad from 1867. This pair of lines connected with the B&O at Harper's Ferry, West Virginia, and constituted the only significant B&O trackage in present-day Virginia.
Sandusky, Mansfield and Newark Railroad leased through the Central Ohio in 1869
Pittsburgh and Connellsville Railroad from 1871. This was the B&O entry into Pittsburgh, thwarting the denial of a Pennsylvania charter to the B&O.
Somerset and Cambria Railroad from 1879
Buffalo Railroad from 1880
Pittsburgh Southern Railroad acquired 1883. Originally a narrow gauge railroad, it was converted to standard gauge and renamed the Baltimore & Ohio Short Line.
West Virginia and Pittsburgh Railroad from 1890
Columbus and Cincinnati Midland Railroad leased through the Central Ohio in 1890
Monongahela River Railroad from 1900
Marietta and Cincinnati Railroad from 1882. This was initially renamed the Cincinnati, Washington and Baltimore Railroad and then again to the Baltimore and Ohio Southwestern Railroad in 1889. The B&OSW absorbed the Ohio and Mississippi Railroad in 1893, giving the B&O a connection to St. Louis, Missouri, and finally the B&OSW disappeared into the rest of the system in 1900.
Ohio River Railroad from 1901
Pittsburgh Junction Railroad from 1902
Pittsburgh and Western Railroad from 1902. This was originally a narrow gauge system which was standard gauged from 1883 to 1911. It formed the main B&O line west from Pittsburgh. The line passed the Mars Train Station in Mars, Pennsylvania, northwest of Pittsburgh.
Cleveland, Terminal and Valley Railway from 1895. This was the B&O's entry into Cleveland, Ohio.
Cleveland, Lorain and Wheeling Railroad from 1909
Chicago Terminal Transfer Company, reorganized in 1910 as the Baltimore and Ohio Chicago Terminal Railroad. This switching line was always operated as a separate company.
Salisbury Railroad near Pittsburgh, operated from 1912
Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton Railroad from 1912
Morgantown and Kingwood Railroad from 1920
Coal and Coke Railway from 1916
Cincinnati, Indianapolis and Western Railroad from 1927. This was originally part of the Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton, and gave the B&O a connection to Springfield, Illinois.
Buffalo, Rochester and Pittsburgh Railway in 1932. This gave the B&O a line into New York state.
Buffalo and Susquehanna Railroad from 1932. Part of the line was severed from the rest of the system by flooding, and became part of the Wellsville, Addison and Galeton Railroad in 1955.
(This list omits certain short lines.)
The Chicago and Alton Railroad was purchased by the B&O in 1931 and renamed the Alton Railroad. It was always operated separately and was eventually bought by the Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad after receivership in 1942.
Great Railroad Strike of 1877
As a result of poor national economic conditions in the mid-1870s following the Panic of 1873, the B&O attempted to reduce its workers' wages. After a second reduction in wages was announced in the same year, workers began the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 on July 14 in Martinsburg, West Virginia. Striking workers would not allow any of the trains, mainly freight trains, to roll until the third wage cut was revoked. West Virginia Governor Henry M. Mathews sent in state militia units to restore train service but the soldiers refused to fire on the strikers. The strike spread to Cumberland, and when Maryland Governor John Lee Carroll attempted to put down the strike by sending the state militia from Baltimore, riots broke out resulting in 11 deaths, the burning of parts of Camden station, and damage to several engines and cars. The next day workers in Pittsburgh staged a sympathy strike that was also met with an assault by the state militia; Pittsburgh then erupted into widespread rioting. The strike ended after federal troops and state militias restored order.
New lines in Maryland
In 1866 the B&O began constructing the Metropolitan Branch west out of Washington, which was completed in 1873 after years of erratic effort. Before this line was laid, rail traffic west of Washington had to travel first to Relay or Baltimore before joining the main line. The line cut a more or less straight line from Washington to Point of Rocks, Maryland, with many grades and large bridges. Upon the opening of this line, through passenger traffic was rerouted through Washington, and the Old Main Line from Point of Rocks to Relay was reduced to secondary status as far as passenger service was concerned. The Washington to Gaithersburg section of the Met Branch was double-tracked during 1886–1893. Rebuilding in the early 20th century and complete double-tracking of the branch by 1928 increased capacity; the "branches" became the de facto mainline, though the Old Main Line was retained as a relief route.
Meanwhile, the Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR) outmaneuvered the B&O to acquire the B&O's northern connection, the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad in the early 1880s, cutting off the B&O's access to Philadelphia and New York. The state of Maryland had stayed true to its implicit promise not to grant competing charters for the Baltimore/Washington line, but when a charter was granted in 1860 to build a line from Baltimore to Pope's Creek in southern Maryland, lawyers for the Pennsylvania RR picked up on a clause in the unfulfilled charter allowing branches up to long, from any point and in any direction. The projected route, passing through what is now Bowie, Maryland, could have a "branch" constructed that would allow service into Washington. The Pennsylvania picked up the charter through the agency of the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad and in 1872 service between Baltimore and Washington began. (See Pope's Creek Subdivision.) At the same time, the PRR outmaneuvered the B&O and took control of the Long Bridge across the Potomac River into Virginia, the B&O's connection to southern lines.
In response, the B&O chartered the Philadelphia Branch in Maryland and the Baltimore and Philadelphia Railroad in Delaware and Pennsylvania and built a parallel route, finished in 1886. The 10th president, Charles F. Mayer, spearheaded the development of the Baltimore Belt Line, which opened in 1895, and recruited engineer Samuel Rea to design it. This belt line connected the main line to the Philadelphia Branch without the need for a car ferry across the Patapsco River, but the cost of constructing the Howard Street Tunnel drove the B&O to bankruptcy in 1896.
Two other lines were built in attempts to reconnect to the south. The Alexandria Branch (now called the Alexandria Extension) was built in 1874, starting from Hyattsville, Maryland, and ending at a ferry operation at Shepherd's Landing. The ferry operation continued until 1901 when the trackage rights agreement concluded as part of the construction of Washington Union Station saw the south end of the branch realigned to link to the PRR trackage in Anacostia, across the Anacostia Railroad Bridge, into the Virginia Avenue Tunnel, through Southwest Washington, D.C., to Potomac Yard in Alexandria, Virginia. (See RF&P Subdivision.) The Alexandria Branch trackage to Shepherd's Landing was heavily used during World War II when traffic congestion on the Long Bridge caused the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to construct a bridge along the original plan of the B&O: Alexandria to Shepherd's Landing, Washington. Trains of empty freight cars were routed north and south over the structure, which was demolished after the end of World War II.
Before either connection was made, however, another branch was built around the west side of Washington. During the 1880s the B&O had organised a group of bankrupt railroads in Virginia into the Virginia Midland Railroad. The VM track ran from Alexandria to Danville, Virginia. The line projected west across the Potomac River was intended to cross the Potomac just north of the D.C. line, to continue southwest to a connection with the B&O-controlled Virginia Midland (VM) in Fairfax (now Fairfax Station, to distinguish it from what was Fairfax Court House and is now the City of Fairfax, Virginia), and if possible to a connection with the Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad in Quantico. The branch was started in 1892 and reached Chevy Chase, Maryland, the same year. Financial problems in both the VM and B&O forced a halt to construction and led to the B&O's loss of control of the VM. Following bankruptcy, and control by the Pennsylvania Railroad, by the time the line was completed in 1910 there was no longer any point to the river crossing. Thus, the renamed Georgetown Branch came to serve a wide range of customers in Maryland and in Georgetown, such as the Potomac Electric Power Company, the Washington Milling Company, and the U.S. government. The line cut directly across various creeks, and includes what was said to be the longest wood trestle on the railroad over Rock Creek; and a short tunnel, Dalecarlia Tunnel, under the Washington Aqueduct. The line was almost completely abandoned in 1986 by CSX and is presently used in part as the right-of-way for the Capital Crescent Trail.
After a flood damaged the C&O Canal in 1877, the B&O acquired a majority interest in the canal mainly to keep its property and right of way from potential use by the Western Maryland Railroad. The canal was operated by the B&O until 1924 when it was damaged in another flood. The canal's property was later transferred to the U.S. government in 1938 in consideration for obtaining a loan from the federal Reconstruction Finance Corporation.
In 1895 the B&O introduced electric locomotives over of line near Camden, initially using an overhead electric slot system.
The 20th century
Following its emergence from bankruptcy, control of the B&O was acquired by the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1901, though the two kept separate corporate identities. A rising young PRR Vice President, Leonor F. Loree, was appointed president. Loree shared the Pennsy management's belief in infrastructure and the B&O at that time needed some of that. New classes of engines were built to haul longer, heavier trains faster. The Old Main Line was reworked, sections of the original right-of-way cut off by the straightening of curves and replacement of old, weight-restricted bridges with newer, heavier bridges. Most of Loree's work on the B&O physical plant remains evident today. Many iron and steel bridges on the railroad were replaced with stone (Pennsy preferred stone to the preference of the Reading and Lackawanna Railroad for concrete). With the adoption of anti-trust legislation in 1906, the relation between the two companies was severed.
The railroad's passenger numbers were at a disadvantage with the railroad's major competitor in the northeast, the Pennsylvania Railroad. That railroad had a tunnel into Manhattan, thus carrying passengers directly into New York City. The B&O had no tunnel rights, and its New York City market trains actually terminated at the Central Railroad of New Jersey Terminal in Jersey City. From Philadelphia to Jersey City the B&O traveled over Reading Railroad tracks to Bound Brook and there joining Central Railroad of New Jersey tracks to Jersey City. Passengers rode CNJ ferries on B&O busses to Manhattan. Suffering from its weaker market position from Baltimore to New York, the B&O discontinued all passenger service north of Baltimore on April 26, 1958. On April 19, 1960, the railroad retired its last steam locomotive.
The Chesapeake and Ohio Railway took financial control of the B&O in 1963. The B&O already had a controlling interest in the Western Maryland Railway. In 1973 the three railroads were brought together under one corporate identity, the Chessie System, although they continued to operate as separate railroads. In 1980 the Chessie System and Seaboard Coast Line Industries, a holding company that owned the Seaboard Coast Line, the Louisville & Nashville, the Clinchfield, and the Georgia Railroad, agreed to form CSX Corporation. SCL Industries was renamed the Seaboard System Railroad (SBD) in 1983, the same year that the Western Maryland Railway was completely absorbed into the B&O. SBD was renamed CSX Transportation (CSX) in 1986. On April 30, 1987, the B&O's corporate existence ended when it was absorbed into the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, which merged into CSX Transportation on August 31 of that year.
In railroading's golden age, the B&O was one of several trunk lines uniting the northeast quadrant of the United States into a wide industrial zone. It was the southern border as the New York Central was the northern border. The Pennsylvania Railroad controlled the center, and smaller roads like the Lackawanna, Lehigh Valley, and the Erie in the center surviving largely through the Interstate Commerce Commission. The corners of this map are Baltimore in the southeast, Boston in the northeast, Chicago in the northwest, and St. Louis in the southwest.
Branches
Mount Airy Branch
The Mount Airy Branch is the surviving, in-use portion of the 1839-opened Mount Airy Loop. The Loop had been mainline track
on the Old Main Line until superseded by the Mount Airy Cutoff and Tunnel in 1902.
Frederick Branch
The Frederick Branch was built from Frederick Junction, on the Old Main Line, to downtown Frederick. The 3.5 mile (5.6 km) branch opened on December 1, 1831. In planning the route of the Old Main Line, the B&O decided against building the main line directly through Frederick, preferring instead to take advantage of a valley grade to the south of the city. The continuation of the main line from Frederick Junction opened April 2, 1832.
Metropolitan Branch
Connected Washington, D.C., to the Old Main Line at Point of Rocks. Constructed between 1866 and 1873, and originally single-tracked. Now called the Metropolitan Subdivision. Amtrak operates the daily Capitol Limited train between Washington, DC and Chicago along this branch; MTA Maryland operates weekday commuter rail service between Washington, DC and Martinsburg, WV.
Patuxent Branch
The Patuxent Branch was constructed in the 1880s and split off from the Washington Branch at Savage, Maryland, to serve a mill, a quarry, and other small industry. After 1925, the line was gradually cut back, and disconnected completely in 2005.
Georgetown Branch
The Georgetown Branch ran from a junction on the Metropolitan Branch north of the Silver Spring, Maryland, station to the Georgetown area of Washington, D.C. Built between 1892 and 1910. Originally intended as an extension of the railroad to a crossing of the Potomac River near the Chain Bridge, the agreement between the Pennsylvania Railroad and the B&O resulting from the rerouting of track for the Washington Union Station project put an end to the crossing, and the branch settled down to being just a country railroad until the Washington, D.C., suburbs grew around it (Silver Spring, Chevy Chase, and Bethesda). The branch was abandoned in 1986, and much of the right-of-way is now used by the Capital Crescent Trail. The State of Maryland is currently building a new light-rail transit line, the Purple Line, along much of the right-of-way between Bethesda and Silver Spring.
Washington Branch
Original name for the line built between Baltimore and Washington, D.C., from 1833 to 1835. Now called the Capital Subdivision. Maryland Transit Administration (MARC) operates weekday commuter rail service along this branch between Camden Station and Washington's Union Station.
Alexandria Extension
The Alexandria Extension (originally the Alexandria Branch) was built from Hyattsville on the Washington Branch in 1874, ending at Shepherd's Landing. Now connects to the Anacostia Railroad Bridge through Washington, D.C., toward Virginia, serving as a bypass around Washington Union Station for freight trains.
Washington County Branch
The B&O had decided against a direct line to Hagerstown, though the city had petitioned the Directors. Several north–south routes like the Cumberland Valley built through Hagerstown and the construction of the Western Maryland Railway to that city persuaded the B&O management to build a branch. It was decided that the branch would leave the mainline at Weverton and wind its way through the hills of Western Maryland to Hagerstown. A station was constructed at the stub end of the line in downtown Hagerstown.
Baltimore and New York Railway
The Baltimore and New York Railway was constructed from Cranford Junction on the Central Railroad of New Jersey, in Union County, New Jersey, New Jersey, east to the western end of the Arthur Kill Bridge, where it connected with the North Shore Branch of the Staten Island Railway, which ran to St. George, Staten Island, New York, giving the B&O access to its own deepwater port and ferry terminal. The line no longer runs between Union Avenue and St George on Staten Island. Many attempts have been made to restore the North Shore Branch for passenger service, but have hit political, financial, or legal barriers.
Ohio River Branch
The Marietta & Cincinnati Railroad (M&C), later absorbed into the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Southwest, included a stretch of track called the Ohio & Mississippi (O&M) that stretched westward from Cincinnati to East St. Louis. "The O&M featured two branches, one south from North Vernon, Indiana, to Jeffersonville (Indiana) opposite of Louisville, Kentucky, on the Ohio River.(8) The other was from Beardstown, Illinois, on the Illinois River to Shawneetown on the Ohio, which crossed the O&M main line at Flora."
Locomotive roster
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad had numerous locomotives and cab units, mostly the latter. The railroad had locomotives from the following companies:
Electro-Motive Diesel
Baldwin Locomotive Works
Lima Locomotive Works
Fairbanks-Morse
Heritage units
In 2021, CSX repainted two EMD F40PH's into an honorary B&O scheme.
See also
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Martinsburg Shops, a National Historic Landmark
Baltimore Belt Line
Aeolus Railroad Car
Camden Station
Mount Royal Station
Mount Clare Shops
Charles T. Hinde
La Paz, a preserved coach that was operated by B&O
References
Mileposts from:
Further reading (most recent first)
Has much on the railroad's history, not just Harpers Ferry.
External links
Articles about B&O arrival in Wheeling
B&O Railroad Historical Society
B&O Railroad Photo Tours in and around Maryland
B&O Railroad page on the Baltimore Collective
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Museum
The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Timeline
1827 report shows motivations of early boosters
John W. Garrett Collection, 1850–1880 Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.
The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Network
Maryland Railroads as of 1850
Virginia (and West Virginia) Railroads as of 1850
List and Family Trees of North American Railroads
B&O Whistles, Whistle museum
Baltimore and Ohio Rail Road Station From Walnut Street Wharf Schuylkill River, June 29, 1889 by D.J. Kennedy, Historical Society of Pennsylvania
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad lines
Railway companies established in 1827
American companies established in 1827
Railway lines opened in 1830
Railway companies disestablished in 1987
Former Class I railroads in the United States
Standard gauge railways in the United States
Companies based in Baltimore
Predecessors of CSX Transportation
Chesapeake and Ohio Railway
Defunct Delaware railroads
Defunct Washington, D.C., railroads
Defunct Illinois railroads
Defunct Indiana railroads
Transportation in Gary, Indiana
Defunct Kentucky railroads
Defunct Maryland railroads
Defunct Michigan railroads
Defunct Missouri railroads
Defunct New York (state) railroads
Defunct Ohio railroads
Defunct Pennsylvania railroads
Defunct Virginia railroads
Defunct West Virginia railroads
Railroads in the Chicago metropolitan area
Defunct New Jersey railroads
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222286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-roll | B-roll | In film and television production, B-roll, B roll, B-reel or B reel is supplemental or alternative footage intercut with the main shot. The term A-roll, referring to main footage, has fallen out of use.
Film and video production
Films and videos may cut away from the main story to show related scenery or action. Establishing shots may be used to show the audience the context of the story. These secondary images are often presented without sound, or with very low level sound, as the sound from the primary footage is expected to continue while the other images are shown. The various shots presented without sound are called B-roll.
B-roll may be shot by smaller second unit crews, since there is no need for sound. In film, smaller MOS cameras, lacking sound circuitry, may be used for greater portability and ease of setup. In electronic news-gathering (ENG) and documentary film projects, B-roll footage is often shot after the main interview is shot, to provide supporting scenes for what was said by the interview subject. In a docudrama project, B-roll may refer to dramatic re-enactment scenes staged by the producer and performed by actors, to be used as cutaway shots.
There are many different types of B-roll, including: insert shots, FX shots, establishing shots, stock footage, and pickup shots.
B-roll footage may be added to or drawn from a stock footage library.
History
The term B-roll originates from a particular solution to the problem of visible splices in the narrow film stock used in 16 mm film. 35 mm film was wide enough to hide splices, but 16 mm film revealed the splices as flaws in the picture. To avoid this problem, the intended shots were spliced to opaque black leader, with the black leader hiding the splice. Two sequences of shots were assembled, the odd-numbered shots on the A-roll, and the even-numbered shots on the B-roll, such that all of the shots on one roll were matched by black leader on the other roll, in a checkerboard pattern (an alternate name for the process was "checkerboard printing".) Unexposed 16 mm raw print stock was exposed twice, once to the A-roll, then it was exposed again to the B-roll.
Until the mid-1970s, ENG teams shot both main A-roll and secondary B-roll footage on 16 mm film. Sound was integrated onto the film by way of a magnetic stripe at the edge of the film. The A-roll and B-roll scenes, shot at 24 frames per second, were converted to the television frame rate of 30 fps using a telecine system consisting of two film projectors, one showing the main A-roll footage and the other showing the B-roll. The sound from the A-roll footage was used, or sound from narration or voiceover, while MOS images from the B-roll were intercut as desired.
In the 1980s, the term B-roll was adopted for linear video editing using at least two video tape machines. Traditionally, the tape decks in an edit suite were labeled by letter, with the 'A' deck being the one containing the main tape upon which the main action material was shot. The 'B' deck was used to run tapes that held additional footage such as establishing shots, cutaway shots, and any other supporting footage. The sound was usually taken from the A deck alone, so that the B deck provided video without sound. As linear editing systems were unable to dissolve between clips on the same tape, an edit decision list (EDL) was used to mark clips as "A-roll" and "B-roll" to indicate source machines.
See also
Camera coverage
Pick-up (filmmaking)
References
Film production
Film editing
Home video supplements
Film and video terminology
Television terminology | [
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222289 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rykodisc | Rykodisc | Rykodisc is an American record label owned by Warner Music Group, operating as a unit of WMG's Independent Label Group and is distributed through Alternative Distribution Alliance.
History
Claiming to be the first CD-only independent record label in the United States, Rykodisc was founded in 1983 in Salem, Massachusetts, by Arthur Mann, Rob Simonds, Doug Lexa and Don Rose. The name "Ryko," which the label claimed was a Japanese word meaning "sound from a flash of light," was chosen to reflect the company's CD-only policy. In the late 1980s, however, the label also began to issue high-quality cassette / vinyl and MiniDisc versions of many releases under the name Ryko Analogue.
Rykodisc had some notable successes in the CD-reissue industry, as artists such as Elvis Costello, David Bowie, Yoko Ono, Frank Zappa, the estate of Nick Drake, Nine Inch Nails, Sugar, Robert Wyatt, and Mission of Burma allowed Rykodisc to issue their catalogs on CD. Rykodisc also re-released the SST Records-era recordings by the Meat Puppets. It also was responsible for the first release of the "I Am the Cosmos" LP by the late Chris Bell of Big Star, another band on the label.
Over the years the label acquired Hannibal Records, Tradition Records, Gramavision (founded by Jonathan F. P. Rose), Emperor Norton Records, Restless Records and Cordless Recordings. Rykodisc also founded a distribution company, Ryko Distribution, and a music publishing company, Rykomusic. The label's catalog exceeds 1,200 titles.
In 1998, Chris Blackwell left Island Records and bought Rykodisc for a reported $35 million as a means of acquiring music marketing and distribution expertise for his new venture, a media company called Palm Pictures. In 1999, one year after the Blackwell buy-out, the office in Salem, Massachusetts, was closed, and many industry veterans were laid off. In 2001 Blackwell parted ways with Rykodisc. The label was then located in New York City with offices in Los Angeles and in Beverly, Massachusetts.
On March 23, 2006, it was announced that Warner Music Group acquired the Ryko Corporation for $67.5 million. The Zappa Family Trust and Ryko parted ways in 2012 with the Zappa Family Trust reacquiring Frank Zappa's recorded music catalogue and Universal Music Enterprises taking over distribution of the Zappa catalogue. Also in 2006, the independent publishing company Evergreen Copyrights purchased the Rykomusic publishing catalogue, among others. In September 2010, Evergreen was acquired by BMG Rights Management.
In 2009, Ryko Distribution was folded into Alternative Distribution Alliance.
Rykodisc artists
See also
List of record labels
References
Record labels established in 1983
Labels distributed by Warner Music Group
Warner Music labels
American record labels
Jazz record labels
Pop record labels
Reissue record labels
Rock record labels | [
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222291 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20history | Social history | Social history, often called the new social history, is a field of history that looks at the lived experience of the past. In its "golden age" it was a major growth field in the 1960s and 1970s among scholars, and still is well represented in history departments in Britain, Canada, France, Germany, and the United States. In the two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history rose from 31% to 41%, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to 30%. In the history departments of British and Irish universities in 2014, of the 3410 faculty members reporting, 878 (26%) identified themselves with social history while political history came next with 841 (25%).
Charles Tilly, one of the best known social historians, identifies the tasks of social history as: 1) “documenting large structural changes; 2) reconstructing the experiences of ordinary people in the course of those changes; and (3) connecting the two” (1985:P22).
Old and new social history
The older social history (before 1960) included numerous topics that were not part of the mainstream historiography of political, military, diplomatic and constitutional history. It was a hodgepodge without a central theme, and it often included political movements, such as Populism, that were "social" in the sense of being outside the elite system. Social history was contrasted with political history, intellectual history and the history of great men. English historian G. M. Trevelyan saw it as the bridging point between economic and political history, reflecting that, "Without social history, economic history is barren and political history unintelligible." While the field has often been viewed negatively as history with the politics left out, it has also been defended as "history with the people put back in."
New social history movement
The "new social history" movement exploded on the scene in the 1960s, emerged in the UK and quickly become one of the dominant styles of historiography there as well in the US and in Canada. It drew on developments within the French Annales School, was very well organized, dominated French historiography, and influenced much of Europe and Latin America. Jürgen Kocka finds two meanings to "social history." At the simplest level, it was the subdivision of historiography that focused on social structures and processes. In that regard, it stood in contrast to political or economic history. The second meaning was broader, and the Germans called it Gesellschaftsgeschichte. It is the history of an entire society from a social-historical viewpoint.
In Germany the Gesellschaftsgeschichte movement introduced a vast range of topics, as Kocka, a leader of the Bielefeld School recalls:
In the 1960s and 1970s, "social history" caught the imagination of a young generation of historians. It became a central concept -- and a rallying point -- of historiographic revisionism. It meant many things at the same time. It gave priority to the study of particular kinds of phenomena, such as classes and movements, urbanization and industrialization, family and education, work and leisure, mobility, inequality, conflicts and revolutions. It stressed structures and processes over actors and events. It emphasized analytical approaches close to the social sciences rather than by the traditional methods of historical hermeneutics. Frequently social historians sympathized with the causes (as they saw them) of the little people, of the underdog, of popular movements, or of the working class. Social history was both demanded and rejected as a vigorous revisionist alternative to the more established ways of historiography, in which the reconstruction of politics and ideas, the history of events and hermeneutic methods traditionally dominated.
Americanist Paul E. Johnson recalls the heady early promise of the movement in the late 1960s:
The New Social History reached UCLA at about that time, and I was trained as a quantitative social science historian. I learned that "literary" evidence and the kinds of history that could be written from it were inherently elitist and untrustworthy. Our cousins, the Annalistes, talked of ignoring heroes and events and reconstructing the more constitutive and enduring "background" of history. Such history could be made only with quantifiable sources. The result would be a "History from the Bottom Up" that ultimately engulfed traditional history and, somehow, helped to make a Better World. Much of this was acted out with mad-scientist bravado. One well-known quantifier said that anyone who did not know statistics at least through multiple regression should not hold a job in a history department. My own advisor told us that he wanted history to become "a predictive social science." I never went that far. I was drawn to the new social history by its democratic inclusiveness as much as by its system and precision. I wanted to write the history of ordinary people—to historicize them, put them into the social structures and long-term trends that shaped their lives, and at the same time resurrect what they said and did. In the late 1960s, quantitative social history looked like the best way to do that.
The Social Science History Association was formed in 1976 to bring together scholars from numerous disciplines interested in social history. It is still active and publishes Social Science History quarterly. The field is also the specialty of the Journal of Social History, edited since 1967 by Peter Stearns It covers such topics as gender relations; race in American history; the history of personal relationships; consumerism; sexuality; the social history of politics; crime and punishment, and history of the senses. Most of the major historical journals have coverage as well.
However, after 1990 social history was increasingly challenged by cultural history, which emphasizes language and the importance of beliefs and assumptions and their causal role in group behavior.
Subfields
Historical demography
The study of the lives of ordinary people was revolutionized in the 1960s by the introduction of sophisticated quantitative and demographic methods, often using individual data from the census and from local registers of births, marriages, deaths and taxes, as well as theoretical models from sociology such as social mobility. H-DEMOG is a daily email discussion group that covers the field broadly.
Historical demography is the study of population history and demographic processes, usually using census or similar statistical data. It became an important specialty inside social history, with strong connections with the larger field of demography, as in the study of the Demographic Transition.
African-American history
Black history or African-American history studies African Americans and Africans in American history. The Association for the Study of African American Life and History was founded by Carter G. Woodson in 1915 and has 2500 members and publishes the Journal of African American History, formerly the Journal of Negro History. Since 1926 it has sponsored Black History Month every February.
Ethnic history
Ethnic history is especially important in the US and Canada, where major encyclopedias helped define the field. It covers the history of ethnic groups (usually not including Black or Native Americans).
Typical approaches include critical ethnic studies; comparative ethnic studies; critical race studies; Asian-American, and Latino/a or Chicano/a studies. In recent years Chicano/Chicana studies has become important as the Hispanic population has become the largest minority in the US.
The Immigration and Ethnic History Society was formed in 1976 and publishes a journal for libraries and its 829 members.
The American Conference for Irish Studies, founded in 1960, has 1,700 members and has occasional publications but no journal.
The American Italian Historical Association was founded in 1966 and has 400 members; it does not publish a journal
The American Jewish Historical Society is the oldest ethnic society, founded in 1892; it has 3,300 members and publishes American Jewish History
The Polish American Historical Association was founded in 1942, and publishes a newsletter and Polish American Studies, an interdisciplinary, refereed scholarly journal twice each year.
H-ETHNIC is a daily discussion list founded in 1993 with 1400 members; it covers topics of ethnicity and migration globally.
Labor history
Labor history, deals with labor unions and the social history of workers. See for example Labor history of the United States The Study Group on International Labor and Working-Class History was established: 1971 and has a membership of 1000. It publishes International Labor and Working-Class History. H-LABOR is a daily email-based discussion group formed in 1993 that reaches over a thousand scholars and advanced students. the Labor and Working-Class History Association formed in 1988 and publishes Labor: Studies in Working-Class History.
Kirk (2010) surveys labour historiography in Britain since the formation of the Society for the Study of Labour History in 1960. He reports that labour history has been mostly pragmatic, eclectic and empirical; it has played an important role in historiographical debates, such as those revolving around history from below, institutionalism versus the social history of labour, class, populism, gender, language, postmodernism and the turn to politics. Kirk rejects suggestions that the field is declining, and stresses its innovation, modification and renewal. Kirk also detects a move into conservative insularity and academicism. He recommends a more extensive and critical engagement with the kinds of comparative, transnational and global concerns increasingly popular among labour historians elsewhere, and calls for a revival of public and political interest in the topics. Meanwhile, Navickas, (2011) examines recent scholarship including the histories of collective action, environment and human ecology, and gender issues, with a focus on work by James Epstein, Malcolm Chase, and Peter Jones.
Women's history
Women's history exploded into prominence in the 1970s, and is now well represented in every geographical topic; increasingly it includes gender history. Social history uses the approach of women's history to understand the experiences of ordinary women, as opposed to "Great Women," in the past. Feminist women's historians have critiqued early studies of social history for being too focused on the male experience.
Gender history
Gender history focuses on the categories, discourses and experiences of femininity and masculinity as they develop over time. Gender history gained prominence after it was conceptualized in 1986 by Joan W. Scott in her article "Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis." Many social historians use Scott's concept of "perceived differences" to study how gender relations in the past have unfolded and continue to unfold. In keeping with the cultural turn, many social historians are also gender historians who study how discourses interact with everyday experiences.
History of the family
The History of the family emerged as a separate field in the 1970s, with close ties to anthropology and sociology. The trend was especially pronounced in the US and Canada. It emphasizes demographic patterns and public policy, but is quite separate from genealogy, though often drawing on the same primary sources, such as censuses and family records.
The influential pioneering study Women, Work, and Family (1978) was done by Louise A. Tilly and Joan W. Scott. It broke new ground with their broad interpretive framework and emphasis on the variable factors shaping women's place in the family and economy in France and England. The study considered the interaction of production, or traditional labor, and reproduction, the work of caring for children and families, in its analysis of women's wage labor and thus helped to bring together labor and family history. Much work has been done on the dichotomy in women's lives between the private sphere and the public. For a recent worldwide overview covering 7000 years see Maynes and Waltner's 2012 book and ebook, The Family: A World History (2012). For comprehensive coverage of the American case, see Marilyn Coleman and Lawrence Ganong, eds. The Social History of the American Family: An Encyclopedia (4 vol, 2014).
The history of childhood is a growing subfield.
History of education
For much of the 20th century, the dominant American historiography, as exemplified by Ellwood Patterson Cubberley (1868-1941) at Stanford, emphasized the rise of American education as a powerful force for literacy, democracy, and equal opportunity, and a firm basis for higher education and advanced research institutions. It was a story of enlightenment and modernization triumphing over ignorance, cost-cutting, and narrow traditionalism whereby parents tried to block their children's intellectual access to the wider world. Teachers dedicated to the public interest, reformers with a wide vision, and public support from the civic-minded community were the heroes. The textbooks help inspire students to become public schools teachers and thereby fulfill their own civic mission.
The crisis came in the 1960s, when a new generation of New Left scholars and students rejected the traditional celebratory accounts, and identified the educational system as the villain for many of America's weaknesses, failures, and crimes. Michael Katz (1939-2014) states they:
tried to explain the origins of the Vietnam War; the persistence of racism and segregation; the distribution of power among gender and classes; intractable poverty and the decay of cities; and the failure of social institutions and policies designed to deal with mental illness, crime, delinquency, and education.
The old guard fought back and bitter historiographical contests, with the younger students and scholars largely promoting the proposition that schools were not the solution to America's ills, they were in part the cause of Americans problems. The fierce battles of the 1960s died out by the 1990s, but enrollment in education history courses never recovered.
By the 1980s, compromise had been worked out, with all sides focusing on the heavily bureaucratic nature of the American public schooling.
In recent years most histories of education deal with institutions or focus on the ideas histories of major reformers, but a new social history has recently emerged, focused on who were the students in terms of social background and social mobility. In the US attention has often focused on minority and ethnic students. In Britain, Raftery et al. (2007) looks at the historiography on social change and education in Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, with particular reference to 19th-century schooling. They developed distinctive systems of schooling in the 19th century that reflected not only their relationship to England but also significant contemporaneous economic and social change. This article seeks to create a basis for comparative work by identifying research that has treated this period, offering brief analytical commentaries on some key works, discussing developments in educational historiography, and pointing to lacunae in research.
Historians have recently looked at the relationship between schooling and urban growth by studying educational institutions as agents in class formation, relating urban schooling to changes in the shape of cities, linking urbanization with social reform movements, and examining the material conditions affecting child life and the relationship between schools and other agencies that socialize the young.
The most economics-minded historians have sought to relate education to changes in the quality of labor, productivity and economic growth, and rates of return on investment in education. A major recent exemplar is Claudia Goldin and Lawrence F. Katz, The Race between Education and Technology (2009), on the social and economic history of 20th-century American schooling.
Urban history
The "new urban history" emerged in the 1950s in Britain and in the 1960s in the US. It looked at the "city as process" and, often using quantitative methods, to learn more about the inarticulate masses in the cities, as opposed to the mayors and elites. A major early study was Stephan Thernstrom's Poverty and Progress: Social Mobility in a Nineteenth Century City (1964), which used census records to study Newburyport, Massachusetts, 1850–1880. A seminal, landmark book, it sparked interest in the 1960s and 1970s in quantitative methods, census sources, "bottom-up" history, and the measurement of upward social mobility by different ethnic groups. Other exemplars of the new urban history included Kathleen Conzen, Immigrant Milwaukee, 1836-1860 (1976); Alan Dawley, Class and Community: The Industrial Revolution in Lynn (1975; 2nd ed. 2000); Michael B. Katz, The People of Hamilton, Canada West (1976); Eric H. Monkkonen, The Dangerous Class: Crime and Poverty in Columbus Ohio 1860-1865 (1975); and Michael P. Weber, Social Change in an Industrial Town: Patterns of Progress in Warren, Pennsylvania, From Civil War to World War I. (1976).
Representative comparative studies include Leonardo Benevolo, The European City (1993); Christopher R. Friedrichs, The Early Modern City, 1450-1750 (1995), and James L. McClain, John M. Merriman, and Ugawa Kaoru. eds. Edo and Paris (1994) (Edo was the old name for Tokyo).
There were no overarching social history theories that emerged developed to explain urban development. Inspiration from urban geography and sociology, as well as a concern with workers (as opposed to labor union leaders), families, ethnic groups, racial segregation, and women's roles have proven useful. Historians now view the contending groups within the city as "agents" who shape the direction of urbanization. The subfield has flourished in Australia—where most people live in cities.
Rural history
Agricultural History handles the economic and technological dimensions, while Rural history handles the social dimension. Burchardt (2007) evaluates the state of modern English rural history and identifies an "orthodox" school, focused on the economic history of agriculture. This historiography has made impressive progress in quantifying and explaining the output and productivity achievements of English farming since the "agricultural revolution." The celebratory style of the orthodox school was challenged by a dissident tradition emphasizing the social costs of agricultural progress, notably enclosure, which forced poor tenant farmers off the land. Recently, a new school, associated with the journal Rural History, has broken away from this narrative of agricultural change, elaborating a wider social history. The work of Alun Howkins has been pivotal in the recent historiography, in relation to these three traditions. Howkins, like his precursors, is constrained by an increasingly anachronistic equation of the countryside with agriculture. Geographers and sociologists have developed a concept of a "post-productivist" countryside, dominated by consumption and representation that may have something to offer historians, in conjunction with the well-established historiography of the "rural idyll." Most rural history has focused on the American South—overwhelmingly rural until the 1950s—but there is a "new rural history" of the North as well. Instead of becoming agrarian capitalists, farmers held onto preindustrial capitalist values emphasizing family and community. Rural areas maintained population stability; kinship ties determined rural immigrant settlement and community structures; and the defeminization of farm work encouraged the rural version of the "women's sphere." These findings strongly contrast with those in the old frontier history as well as those found in the new urban history.
Religion
The historiography of religion focuses mostly on theology and church organization and development. Recently the study of the social history or religious behavior and belief has become important.
Social history in Europe
UK
Social history is associated in the United Kingdom with the work of E.P. Thompson in particular, and his studies The Making of the English Working Class and Whigs and Hunters: The Origin of the Black Act. Emerging after the second world war, it was consciously opposed to traditional history's focus on 'great men', which it counter-posed with 'History from below' (also known as People's History).
Thus in the UK social history has often had a strong political impetus, and can be contrasted sharply with traditional history's (partial) documentation of the exploits of the powerful, within limited diplomatic and political spheres, and its reliance on archival sources and methods (see historical method and archive) that exclude the voices of less powerful groups within society. Social history has used a much wider range of sources and methods than traditional history and source criticism, in order to gain a broader view of the past. Methods have often including quantitative data analysis and, importantly, Oral History which creates an opportunity to glean perspectives and experiences of those people within in society that are unlikely to be documented within archives. Eric Hobsbawm was an important UK social historian, who has both produced extensive social history of the UK, and has written also on the theory and politics of UK social history. Eric Hobsbawm and EP Thompson were both involved in the pioneering History Workshop Journal.
Ireland has its own historiography.
France
Social history has dominated French historiography since the 1920s, thanks to the central role of the Annales School. Its journal Annales focuses attention on the synthesizing of historical patterns identified from social, economic, and cultural history, statistics, medical reports, family studies, and even psychoanalysis.
Germany
Social history developed within West German historiography during the 1950s-60s as the successor to the national history discredited by National Socialism. The German brand of "history of society" - Gesellschaftsgeschichte - has been known from its beginning in the 1960s for its application of sociological and political modernization theories to German history. Modernization theory was presented by Hans-Ulrich Wehler (1931-2014) and his Bielefeld School as the way to transform "traditional" German history, that is, national political history, centered on a few "great men," into an integrated and comparative history of German society encompassing societal structures outside politics. Wehler drew upon the modernization theory of Max Weber, with concepts also from Karl Marx, Otto Hintze, Gustav Schmoller, Werner Sombart and Thorstein Veblen.
In the 1970s and early 1980s German historians of society, led by Wehler and Jürgen Kocka at the "Bielefeld school" gained dominance in Germany by applying both modernization theories and social science methods. From the 1980s, however, they were increasingly criticized by proponents of the "cultural turn" for not incorporating culture in the history of society, for reducing politics to society, and for reducing individuals to structures. Historians of society inverted the traditional positions they criticized (on the model of Marx's inversion of Hegel). As a result, the problems pertaining to the positions criticized were not resolved but only turned on their heads. The traditional focus on individuals was inverted into a modern focus on structures, the traditional focus on culture was inverted into a modern focus on structures, and traditional emphatic understanding was inverted into modern causal explanation.
Hungary
Before World War II, political history was in decline and an effort was made to introduce social history in the style of the French Annales School. After the war only Marxist interpretations were allowed. With the end of Communism in Hungary in 1989. Marxist historiography collapsed and social history came into its own, especially the study of the demographic patterns of the early modern period. Research priorities have shifted toward urban history and the conditions of everyday life.
Soviet Union
When Communism ended in 1991, large parts of the Soviet archives were opened. The historians' data base leapt from a limited range of sources to a vast array of records created by modern bureaucracies. Social history flourished. The old Marxist historiography collapsed overnight.
Canada
Social history had a "golden age" in Canada in the 1970s, and continues to flourish among scholars. Its strengths include demography, women, labour, and urban studies.
Political history
While the study of elites and political institutions has produced a vast body of scholarship, the impact after 1960 of social historians has shifted emphasis onto the politics of ordinary people—especially voters and collective movements. Political historians responded with the "new political history," which has shifted attention to political cultures. Some scholars have recently applied a cultural approach to political history. Some political historians complain that social historians are likely to put too much stress on the dimensions of class, gender and race, reflecting a leftist political agenda that assumes outsiders in politics are more interesting than the actual decision makers.
Social history, with its leftist political origins, initially sought to link state power to everyday experience in the 1960s. Yet by the 1970s, social historians increasingly excluded analyses of state power from its focus. Social historians have recently engaged with political history through studies of the relationships between state formation, power and everyday life with the theoretical tools of cultural hegemony and governmentality.
See also
List of history journals
Annales School
History of sociology
Living history and open-air museums
People's History
Oral History
Practitioners
Salo Baron (1895–1989), Jewish history
Marc Bloch (1886–1944), Medieval, Annales School
Asa Briggs, Baron Briggs, (1921 - 2018) British
Martin Broszat (1926–1989), Germany
Merle Curti (1897-1997) American
Natalie Zemon Davis, (b. 1928) France
Herbert Gutman (1928-1985), American black and labor history
Eugene D. Genovese (1930-2012), American slavery
S. D. Goitein (1900-1985), Medieval Jewish history in Fustat and environs
Oscar Handlin (1915-2011), American ethnic
Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie (b. 1929), leader of Annales School, France
Ram Sharan Sharma (1919-2011), India
Stephan Thernstrom (b. 1934), ethnic American; social mobility
Charles Tilly (1929 – 2008), European; theory
Louise A. Tilly (1930 - 2018), Europe; women and family
Eric Hobsbawm (1917-2012), labor history, social movements and resistances
E. P. Thompson (1924–1993), British labour
Hans-Ulrich Wehler (1931-2014), 19th-century Germany, Bielefeld School
Notes
Bibliography
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Thompson, E. P. The Essential E. P. Thompson. (2001). 512 pp. highly influential British historian of the working class
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Primary sources
Binder, Frederick M. and David M. Reimers, eds. The Way We Lived: Essays and Documents in American Social History.'' (2000). 313 pp.
External links
American Social History Project, NEH project—print, visual, and multimedia on US social and cultural history
Social History Society (UK); news items; also posts from authors of recent new books in social and cultural history.
Victorian-era social history, British 19c
Society for the social history of medicine, organization of historians studying social impact of medicine
"Social History Portal", guide to 900.000 digital objects in social history at 13 organizations
International Institute of Social History, presents research & new data on the global history of work, workers, and labour relations
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222292 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunger%20strike | Hunger strike | A hunger strike is a method of non-violent resistance in which participants fast as an act of political protest, or to provoke a feeling of guilt in others, usually with the objective to achieve a specific goal, such as a policy change. Most hunger strikers will take liquids but not solid food.
In cases where an entity (usually the state) has or is able to obtain custody of the hunger striker (such as a prisoner), the hunger strike is often terminated by the custodial entity through the use of force-feeding.
Early history
Fasting was used as a method of protesting injustice in pre-Christian Ireland, where it was known as Troscadh or Cealachan. Detailed in the contemporary civic codes, it had specific rules by which it could be used. The fast was often carried out on the doorstep of the home of the offender. Scholars speculate that this was due to the high importance the culture placed on hospitality. Allowing a person to die at one's doorstep, for a wrong of which one was accused, was considered a great dishonor. Others say that the practice was to fast for one whole night, as there is no evidence of people fasting to death in pre-Christian Ireland. The fasts were primarily undertaken to recover debts or get justice for a perceived wrong. There are legends of Saint Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland, using the hunger strike as well.
In India, the practice of a hunger protest, where the protester fasts at the door of an offending party (typically a debtor) in a public call for justice, was abolished by the government in 1861; this indicates the prevalence of the practice prior to that date, or at least a public awareness of it.
Medical view
In the first three days, the body is still using energy from glucose. After that, the liver starts processing body fat, in a process called ketosis. After depleting fat, the body enters a "starvation mode". At this point the body "mines" the muscles and vital organs for energy, and loss of bone marrow becomes life-threatening. There are examples of hunger strikers dying after 46 to 73 days of strike, for example the 1981 Irish hunger strike.
Examples
British and American suffragettes
In the early 20th century suffragettes frequently endured hunger strikes in British prisons. Marion Dunlop was the first in 1909. She was released, as the authorities did not want her to become a martyr. Other suffragettes in prison also undertook hunger strikes. The prison authorities subjected them to force-feeding, which the suffragettes categorized as a form of torture. Emmeline Pankhurst's sister Mary Clarke died shortly after being force-fed in prison, and others including Lady Constance Bulwer-Lytton are believed to have had serious health problems caused by force feeding, dying of a heart attack not long after. William Ball, a working class supporter of women's suffrage, was the subject of a pamphlet Torture in an English Prison not only due to the effects of force-feeding, but a cruel separation from family contact and mental health deterioration, secret transfer to a lunatic asylum and needed lifelong mental institutional care.
In 1913 the Prisoners (Temporary Discharge for Ill Health) Act 1913 (nicknamed the "Cat and Mouse Act") changed policy. Hunger strikes were tolerated but prisoners were released when they became sick. When they had recovered, the suffragettes were taken back to prison to finish their sentences. About 100 women received medals for hunger striking or enduring force-feeding.
Like their British counterparts, American suffragettes also used this method of political protest. A few years before the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, a group of American suffragettes led by Alice Paul engaged in a hunger strike and endured forced feedings while incarcerated at the Occoquan Workhouse in Virginia.
Irish republicans
Hunger strikes have deep roots in Irish society and in the Irish psyche. Fasting in order to bring attention to an injustice which one felt under his lord, and thus shame him, was a common feature of early Irish society and this tactic was fully incorporated into the Brehon legal system. The tradition is ultimately most likely part of the still older Indo-European tradition of which the Irish were part. Within the 20th century a total of 22 Irish republicans died on hunger strike with survivors suffering long term health and psychological effects.
The tactic was used by physical force republicans during the 1916–23 revolutionary period. Early use of hunger strikes was countered with force-feeding, culminating in 1917 in the death of Thomas Ashe in Mountjoy Prison. During the Anglo-Irish war, in October 1920, the Lord Mayor of Cork, Terence MacSwiney, died on hunger strike in Brixton prison. At the same time, the 1920 Cork hunger strike took place. Two other Cork Irish Republican Army (IRA) men, Joe Murphy and Michael Fitzgerald, died in this protest. Over a period of 94 days, from August 11 to November 12, 1920, John and Peter Crowley, Thomas O'Donovan, Michael Burke, Michael O'Reilly, Christopher Upton, John Power, Joseph Kenny and Seán Hennessy, demanding reinstatement of political status and release from prison, undertook a hunger strike at Cork County Gaol. Arthur Griffith called off the strikes after the deaths of MacSwiney, Murphy and Fitzgerald.
During the early 1920s, the vessel was used as a prison ship for the holding of Irish republicans by the British. Conditions on board were brutal and there were several hunger strikes, including one involving upwards of 150 men in the winter of 1923.
Irish hunger strikes between 1923–1976
In February 1923, 23 women (members of Cumann na mBan) went on hunger strike for 34 days over the arrest and imprisonment without trial of Irish republican prisoners.The Free State subsequently released the women republican prisoners. Most of the male republicans were not released until the following year. After the end of the Irish Civil War in October 1923, up to 8,000 IRA prisoners went on hunger strike to protest their continued detention by the Irish Free State (a total of over 12,000 republicans had been interned by May 1923). Three men, Denny Barry, Joseph Whitty, and Andy O'Sullivan, died during the 1923 Irish Hunger Strikes. The strike, however, was called off before any more deaths occurred.
Under de Valera's first Fianna Fáil government in 1932, military pensions were awarded to dependants of republicans who died in 1920s hunger strikes on the same basis as those who were killed in action. During the state of emergency of World War II another De Valera government interned many IRA members, three of whom died on hunger strike: Sean McCaughey, Tony D'Arcy and Jack McNeela. Hundreds of others carried out shorter hunger strikes during the de Valera years.
The tactic was revived by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) in the early 1970s, when several republicans successfully used hunger strikes to get themselves released from custody without charge in the Republic of Ireland. Michael Gaughan died after being force-fed in Parkhurst Prison in 1974. Frank Stagg, an IRA member being held in Wakefield Prison, died in 1976 after a 62-day hunger strike which he began as a campaign to be repatriated to Ireland.
Irish hunger strike of 1981
In 1980, seven Irish Republican prisoners, six from the IRA and one from the Irish National Liberation Army, in the Maze Prison launched a hunger strike as a protest against the revocation by the British Government of a prisoner-of-war-like Special Category Status for paramilitary prisoners in Northern Ireland. The strike, led by Brendan Hughes, was called off before any deaths, when the British government seemed to offer to concede their demands; however, the British Government then reneged on the details of the agreement. The prisoners then called another hunger strike the following year. This time, instead of many prisoners striking at the same time, the hunger strikers started fasting one after the other in order to maximise publicity over the fate of each one.
Bobby Sands was the first of ten Irish republican paramilitary prisoners to die during the 1981 hunger strike. There was widespread sympathy for the hunger strikers from Irish republicans and the broader nationalist community on both sides of the Irish border. Sands was elected as an MP for Fermanagh and South Tyrone to the United Kingdom's House of Commons and two other prisoners, Paddy Agnew (who was not a hunger striker) and Kieran Doherty, were elected to Dáil Éireann in the Republic of Ireland by electorates who wished to register their opposition to the British Government's policy. The ten men survived without food for 46 to 73 days, taking only water and salt, before succumbing. After the deaths of the men and severe public disorder, the British Government granted partial concessions to the prisoners, and the strike was called off. The hunger strikes gave a significant propaganda boost to a previously severely demoralised IRA.
Gandhi and Bhagat Singh
Mahatma Gandhi was imprisoned in 1922, 1930, 1933 and 1942. Because of Gandhi's stature around the world, British authorities were loath to allow him to die in their custody; Gandhi engaged in several famous hunger strikes to protest British rule of India.
In addition to Gandhi, various others used the hunger strike option during the Indian independence movement, including Jatin Das, who fasted to death, and Bhagat Singh. It was only on the 116th day of their fast, on October 5, 1929, that Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt gave up their strike (surpassing the 97-day world record for hunger strikes which was set by an Irish revolutionary). During this hunger strike that lasted 116 days and ended with the British succumbing to his wishes, he gained much popularity among the common Indians. Before the strike his popularity was limited mainly to the Punjab region.
Potti Sriramulu
Potti Sriramulu was an Indian revolutionary who died after undertaking a hunger strike for 58 days in 1952 after Indian independence in an attempt to achieve the formation of a separate state, to be known as Andhra State. His death became instrumental in the linguistic re-organisation of states.
He is revered as Amarajeevi (Immortal being) in Coastal Andra for his role in achieving the linguistic re-organisation of states. As a devout follower of Mahatma Gandhi, he worked for much of his life to uphold principles such as truth, non-violence and patriotism, as well as causes such as Harijan movement to end the traditional alienation of, and accord respect and humane treatment to those traditionally called "untouchables" in Indian society.
Cuban dissidents
On April 3, 1972, Pedro Luis Boitel, an imprisoned poet and dissident, declared himself on hunger strike. After 53 days on hunger strike, receiving only liquids, he died of starvation on May 25, 1972. His last days were related by his close friend, poet Armando Valladares. He was buried in an unmarked grave in the Cólon Cemetery in Havana.
Guillermo Fariñas did a seven-month hunger strike to protest against the extensive Internet censorship in Cuba. He ended it in Autumn 2006, with severe health problems although still conscious. Reporters Without Borders awarded its cyber-freedom prize to Guillermo Fariñas in 2006.
Jorge Luis García Pérez (known as Antúnez) has done hunger strikes. In 2009, following the end of his 17-year imprisonment, Antúnez, his wife Iris, and Diosiris Santana Pérez started a hunger strike to support other political prisoners. Leaders from Uruguay, Costa Rica, and Argentina declared their support for Antúnez.
On February 23, 2010, Orlando Zapata, a dissident arrested in 2003 as part of a crackdown on opposition groups, died in a hospital while undertaking a hunger strike that had been ongoing for 85 days. His hunger strike was a protest against poor prison conditions. Amnesty International had declared him a prisoner of conscience.
Legal situation
Article 8 of the 1975 World Medical Association Declaration of Tokyo states that doctors are not allowed to force-feed hunger strikers. They are supposed to understand the prisoner's independent wishes, and it is recommended to have a second opinion as to the capability of the prisoner to understand the implication of their decision and be capable of informed consent.
Where a prisoner refuses nourishment and is considered by the physician as capable of forming an unimpaired and rational judgement concerning the consequences of such a voluntary refusal of nourishment, he or she shall not be fed artificially. The decision as to the capacity of the prisoner to form such a judgement should be confirmed by at least one other independent physician. The consequences of the refusal of nourishment shall be explained by the physician to the prisoner.
The World Medical Association (WMA) recently revised and updated its Declaration of Malta on Hunger Strikers. Among many changes, it unambiguously states that force feeding is a form of inhumane and degrading treatment in its Article 21.
The American Medical Association (AMA) is a member of the WMA, but the AMA's members are not bound by the WMA's decisions, as neither organization has formal legal powers. The AMA has formally endorsed the WMA Declaration of Tokyo and has written several letters to the US government and made public statements in opposition to US physician involvement in force feeding of hunger strikers in contravention of medical ethics. The United States Code of Federal Regulations rule on hunger strikes by prisoners states, "It is the responsibility of the Bureau of Prisons to monitor the health and welfare of individual inmates, and to ensure that procedures are pursued to preserve life." It further provides that when "a medical necessity for immediate treatment of a life or health threatening situation exists, the physician may order that treatment be administered without the consent of the inmate."
See also
List of hunger strikes
References
External links
"Hunger Strikes, Force-feeding, and Physicians' Responsibilities"
Fasting as a Method To Demand International Protection For the People of Darfur, Sudan
Bibliography on hunger strikes and force-feeding in the IFHHRO Right to Health Wiki
"The long history of the Irish hunger strike: New exhibition in Kilmainham Gaol tells the story from Thomas Ashe to Bobby Sands" Irish Times 2017-09-21
Civil disobedience
Protest tactics
Strikes (protest)
Fasting | [
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222294 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Hinckley%20Jr. | John Hinckley Jr. | John Warnock Hinckley Jr.(born May 29, 1955) is known for his attempted assassination of U.S. President Ronald Reagan in Washington, D.C. on March 30, 1981. Using a .22 caliber revolver, Hinckley wounded Reagan, police officer Thomas Delahanty, and Secret Service agent Tim McCarthy. He critically wounded Press Secretary James Brady, who was permanently disabled in the shooting and died from his injuries 33 years later.
Hinckley was reportedly seeking fame to impress actress Jodie Foster, with whom he had an obsessive fixation. He was found not guilty by reason of insanity and remained under institutional psychiatric care for over three decades. Public outcry over the verdict led to the Insanity Defense Reform Act of 1984, which altered the rules for consideration of mental illness of defendants in Federal Criminal Court proceedings in the U.S.
In 2016, a federal judge ruled that Hinckley could be released from psychiatric care as he was no longer considered a threat to himself or others, albeit with many conditions. After 2020, a ruling was issued that Hinckley may showcase his artwork, writings, and music publicly under his own name, rather than anonymously as he had in the past. Since then, he has maintained a YouTube channel for his music. His restrictions are scheduled to be unconditionally released in June 2022.
Early life
John Warnock Hinckley Jr. was born in Ardmore, Oklahoma, and moved with his wealthy family to Dallas, Texas at the age of four. His father was John Warnock Hinckley (June 6, 1925 – January 29, 2008), chairman and president of the Vanderbilt Energy Corporation. His mother was Jo Ann Hinckley (née Moore; December 7, 1925 – July 30, 2021).
Hinckley grew up in University Park, Texas, and attended Highland Park High School in Dallas County. After Hinckley graduated from high school in 1973, his family, owners of the Hinckley oil company, moved to Evergreen, Colorado, where the new company headquarters was located. He was an off-and-on student at Texas Tech University from 1974 to 1980 but eventually dropped out. In 1975, he went to Los Angeles in the hope of becoming a songwriter. His efforts were unsuccessful, and he wrote to his parents with tales of misfortune and pleas for money. He also spoke of a girlfriend, Lynn Collins, who turned out to be a fabrication. In September 1976, he returned to his parents' home in Evergreen. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Hinckley began purchasing weapons and practicing with them. He was prescribed anti-depressants and tranquilizers to deal with his emotional problems.
Obsession with Jodie Foster
Hinckley became obsessed with the 1976 film Taxi Driver, in which disturbed protagonist Travis Bickle (Robert De Niro) plots to assassinate a presidential candidate. Bickle was partly based on the diaries of Arthur Bremer, who attempted to assassinate George Wallace. Hinckley developed an infatuation with Jodie Foster, who played a sexually trafficked 12-year-old child, Iris Steensma, in the film. When Foster entered Yale University, Hinckley moved to New Haven, Connecticut, for a short time to stalk her. There, he sent Foster love letters and romantic poems, and repeatedly called and left her messages.
Failing to develop any meaningful contact with Foster, Hinckley fantasized about conducting an aircraft hijacking or committing suicide in front of her to get her attention. Eventually, he settled on a scheme to impress her by assassinating the president, thinking that by achieving a place in history, he would appeal to her as an equal. Hinckley trailed President Jimmy Carter from state to state, and was arrested in Nashville, Tennessee, on a firearms charge. Penniless, he returned home. Despite psychiatric treatment for depression, his mental health did not improve. He began to target the newly elected president Ronald Reagan in 1981. For this purpose, he collected material on the assassination of John F. Kennedy.
Hinckley wrote to Foster just before his attempt on Reagan's life:
Ronald Reagan assassination attempt
On March 30, 1981, at 2:27 p.m. EST, Hinckley shot a .22 caliber Röhm RG-14 revolver six times at Reagan as he left the Hilton Hotel in Washington, D.C., after the president addressed an AFL–CIO conference.
Hinckley wounded police officer Thomas Delahanty and Secret Service agent Timothy McCarthy, and critically wounded press secretary James Brady. Though Hinckley did not hit Reagan directly, the president was seriously wounded when a bullet ricocheted off the side of the presidential limousine and hit him in the chest. Alfred Antenucci, a Cleveland, Ohio labor official who stood near Hinckley and saw him firing, hit Hinckley in the head and pulled him to the ground. Within two seconds agent Dennis McCarthy (no relation to agent Timothy McCarthy) dived onto Hinckley, intent on protecting Hinckley and to avoid what happened to Lee Harvey Oswald. Another Cleveland-area labor official, Frank J. McNamara, joined Antenucci and started punching Hinckley in the head, striking him so hard he drew blood. Brady had been shot by Hinckley in the right side of the head, and endured a long recuperation period, remaining paralyzed on the left side of his body until his death on August 4, 2014. Brady's death was ruled a homicide 33 years after the shooting.
At his 1982 trial in Washington, D.C., having been charged with 13 offenses, Hinckley was found not guilty by reason of insanity on June 21. The defense psychiatric reports portrayed Hinckley as insane while the prosecution reports characterized him as legally sane. Hinckley was transferred into psychiatric care from Bureau of Prisons custody on August 18, 1981. Soon after his trial, Hinckley wrote that the shooting was "the greatest love offering in the history of the world" and was disappointed that Foster did not reciprocate his love.
The verdict resulted in widespread dismay. As a consequence, the United States Congress and a number of states revised laws governing when a defendant may use the insanity defense in a criminal prosecution. Idaho, Montana, and Utah abolished the defense altogether. In the United States, before the Hinckley case, the insanity defense had been used in less than 2% of all felony cases and was unsuccessful in almost 75% of those trials. Public outcry over the verdict led to the Insanity Defense Reform Act of 1984, which altered the rules for consideration of mental illness of defendants in federal criminal court proceedings. In 1985, Hinckley's parents wrote Breaking Points, a book detailing their son's mental condition.
Changes in federal and some state rules of evidence laws have since excluded or restricted the use of testimony of an expert witness, such as a psychologist or psychiatrist, regarding conclusions on "ultimate" issues in insanity defense cases, including whether a criminal defendant is legally "insane", but this is not the rule in most states.
Vincent J. Fuller, an attorney who represented Hinckley during his trial and for several years afterward, said Hinckley has schizophrenia. Park Dietz, a forensic psychiatrist who testified for the prosecution, diagnosed Hinckley with narcissistic and schizoid personality disorders and dysthymia, as well as borderline and passive-aggressive features. At the hospital Hinckley was treated for narcissistic and schizotypal personality disorder and major depressive disorder.
Treatment
Hinckley was confined at St. Elizabeths Hospital in Washington, D.C. After Hinckley was admitted, tests found that he was an "unpredictably dangerous" man who might harm himself or any third party. In 1983, he told Penthouse that on a normal day he would "see a therapist, answer mail, play guitar, listen to music, play pool, watch television, eat lousy food and take delicious medication". Around 1987, Hinckley applied for a court order allowing him periodic home visits. As part of the consideration of the request, the judge ordered Hinckley's hospital room searched. Hospital officials found photographs and letters in Hinckley's room that showed a continued obsession with Foster, as well as evidence that Hinckley had exchanged letters with serial killer Ted Bundy and sought the address of the incarcerated Charles Manson, who had inspired Lynette Fromme to try to kill President of the United States Gerald Ford. The court denied Hinckley's request for additional privileges.
In 1999, Hinckley was permitted to leave the hospital for supervised visits with his parents. In April 2000, the hospital recommended allowing unsupervised releases but a month later they removed the request. Hinckley was allowed supervised visits with his parents again during 2004 and 2005. Court hearings were held in September 2005 on whether he could have expanded privileges to leave the hospital.
On December 30, 2005, a federal judge ruled that Hinckley would be allowed visits, supervised by his parents, to their home in Williamsburg, Virginia. The judge ruled that Hinckley could have up to three visits of three nights and then four visits of four nights, each depending on the successful completion of the last. All of the experts who testified at Hinckley's 2005 conditional release hearing, including the government experts, agreed that his depression and psychotic disorder were in full remission and that he should have some expanded conditions of release.
In 2007, Hinckley requested further freedoms, including two one-week visits with his parents, and a month-long visit. U.S. District Judge Paul L. Friedman denied that request on June 6, 2007.
On June 17, 2009, Judge Friedman ruled that Hinckley would be permitted to visit his mother for a dozen visits of 10 days at a time, rather than six, to spend more time outside of the hospital, and to have a driver's license. The court also ordered that Hinckley be required to carry a GPS-enabled cell phone to track him whenever he was outside of his parents' home. He was prohibited from speaking with the news media. The prosecutors objected to this ruling, saying that Hinckley was still a danger to others and had unhealthy and inappropriate thoughts about women. Hinckley recorded a song, "Ballad of an Outlaw", which the prosecutors claim is "reflecting suicide and lawlessness".
In March 2011, it was reported that a forensic psychologist at the hospital testified that "Hinckley has recovered to the point that he poses no imminent risk of danger to himself or others". On March 29, 2011, the day before the 30th anniversary of the assassination attempt, Hinckley's attorney filed a court petition requesting more freedom for his client, including additional unsupervised visits to the Virginia home of Hinckley's mother, Joanne. On November 30, 2011, a hearing in Washington was held to consider whether he could live full-time outside the hospital. The Justice Department opposed this, stating that Hinckley still poses a danger to the public. Justice Department counsel argued that Hinckley had been known to deceive his doctors in the past.
By December 2013, the court ordered that visits be extended to his mother, who lives near Williamsburg. Hinckley was permitted up to eight 17-day visits, with evaluation after the completion of each one.
On August 4, 2014, James Brady died. As Hinckley had critically wounded Brady in 1981, the death was ruled a homicide. Hinckley did not face charges as a result of Brady's death because he had been found not guilty of the original crime by reason of insanity. In addition, since Brady's death occurred more than 33 years after the shooting, prosecution of Hinckley was barred under the year and a day law in effect in the District of Columbia at the time of the shooting.
Release
On July 27, 2016, a federal judge ruled that Hinckley could be released from St. Elizabeths on August 5, as he was no longer considered a threat to himself or others.
Hinckley was released from institutional psychiatric care on September 10, 2016, with many conditions. He was required to live full-time at his mother's home in Williamsburg. In addition, the following prohibitions and requirements were imposed on him.
Prohibitions
drinking alcohol
possessing any firearms, ammunition, other weapons, or memorabilia of Jodie Foster, e.g. photos, or magazine articles
contacting Reagan's family, Brady's family, Jodie Foster, Foster's family, or Foster's agent
from watching or listening to violent movies, television, or compact discs
from accessing printed or online pornography
online access to violent movies, television, music, novels or magazines
speaking to the press
visiting present or past homes of the current or past president or certain past or present government officials
visiting graves of past presidents or certain past government officials
driving from his mother's home more than unattended or when attended
erasing his computer's web browser history
Required
to work at least 3 days per week
to leave immediately if he finds himself approaching prohibited places
to record his browser history
Although the court ordered a risk assessment to be completed within 18 months of his release, it had not been done .
On November 16, 2018, Judge Friedman ruled Hinckley could move out of his mother's house in Virginia and live on his own upon location approval from his doctors. On September 10, 2019, Hinckley's attorney stated that he had planned to ask for full, unconditional release from the court orders that determined how he could live by the end of that year.
On September 27, 2021, a federal judge approved Hinckley for unconditional release beginning June 2022.
Depiction in media
American new wave band Devo recorded a song "I Desire" for their fifth studio album, Oh, No! It's Devo (1982), which brought the band controversy because the lyrics were taken directly from a poem written by Hinckley. Hinckley has claimed that he has not received royalties for the use of his poem by them. Another new wave band, Wall of Voodoo, released a song about Hinckley and his life titled "Far Side of Crazy" (1985), with the name also being a quotation from his poetry. Singer-songwriter Carmaig de Forest devoted a verse of his song "Hey Judas" to Hinckley, blaming him for Reagan's increased popularity following the assassination attempt.
Hinckley is featured as a character of the Stephen Sondheim and John Weidman musical Assassins (1990), in which he and Lynette Fromme sing "Unworthy Of Your Love", a duet about their respective obsessions with Foster and Charles Manson. Hinckley's life leading up to the assassination attempt is fictionalized in the 2015 novel Calf by Andrea Kleine. The novel also includes a fictionalization of Hinckley's former girlfriend, Leslie deVeau, whom he met at St. Elizabeths Hospital.
Hinckley is portrayed by Steven Flynn in the American television film, Without Warning: The James Brady Story (1991). Hinckley appears as a character in the television film The Day Reagan Was Shot (2001), portrayed by Christian Lloyd. He was portrayed by Kevin Woodhouse in the television film The Reagans (2003). Hinckley is portrayed by Kyle S. More in the movie Killing Reagan, released in 2016. In the TV series Timeless (2018), he is portrayed by Erik Stocklin.
Songwriting
As a young adult, Hinckley made unsuccessful efforts to become a songwriter; years later he posted music online anonymously but received little interest. In October 2020, a federal court ruled that Hinckley may showcase and market his artwork, writings, and music publicly under his own name, but his treatment team could rescind the display privilege. Hinckley created a YouTube channel where, since December 2020, he has posted videos of himself performing original songs with a guitar and covers of songs such as "Blowin' in the Wind" by Bob Dylan and the Elvis Presley song "Can't Help Falling in Love". His subscribers totaled over 24,500 by late December 2021.
On June 6, 2021, Hinckley stated in a YouTube video that he was working on an album and looking for a record label to release it. Hinckley later announced in December 2021 that the album would be released in early 2022 on Emporia Records, a label he founded to "[release] the music of others, music that needs to be heard."
On October 7, 2021, Hinckley self-published his first single called "We Have Got That Chemistry" onto streaming platforms.
On November 10, 2021, Hinckley self-published another single called "You Let Whiskey Do Your Talking" onto multiple streaming platforms. Hinckley has also continued to release other original songs on his YouTube channel.
In January of 2022, Hinckley announced that he was looking for members for his own band.
See also
United States federal laws governing defendants with mental diseases or defects
Samuel Byck
Sara Jane Moore
Vladimir Arutyunian
References
Further reading
Clarke, James W. (2006). Defining Danger: American Assassins and the New Domestic Terrorists.
Clarke, James W. (1990). On Being Mad or Merely Angry: John W. Hinckley Jr. and Other Dangerous People. Princeton University Press.
Hinckley, John W. (September 20, 1982). "The Insanity Defense and Me". Newsweek.
External links
Linder, Douglas (2002). The Trial of John Hinckley Jr. University of Missouri–Kansas City School of Law.
Dean, Eddie (July 25, 1997). "Stalking Hinckley". Washington City Paper.
"Footage of the Ronald Reagan assassination attempt".
1955 births
20th-century American criminals
American male criminals
20th-century American trials
American failed assassins
American murderers
American YouTubers
Male YouTubers
Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan
Criminals from Oklahoma
Failed assassins of presidents of the United States
Highland Park High School (University Park, Texas) alumni
Living people
Music YouTubers
Outsider musicians
People acquitted by reason of insanity
People from Ardmore, Oklahoma
People from University Park, Texas
People from Williamsburg, Virginia
People with mood disorders
People with narcissistic personality disorder
People with schizoid personality disorder
People with schizotypal personality disorder
Stalking
Texas Tech University alumni | [
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222297 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropic%20hormone | Tropic hormone | Tropic hormones are hormones that have other endocrine glands as their target. Most tropic hormones are produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary. The hypothalamus secretes tropic hormones that target the anterior pituitary, and the thyroid gland secretes thyroxine, which targets the hypothalamus and therefore can be considered a tropic hormone.
The term tropic is from Ancient Greek τροπικός (tropikós), in the sense "of or pertaining to a turn or change", meaning "causing a change, affecting"; this is the same origin as tropic and trope. This should not be confused with trophic, as in similar-sounding trophic hormone – the words and concepts are both unrelated. Tropic hormones are contrasted with non-tropic hormones, which directly stimulate target cells.
Examples
Anterior pituitary
Tropic hormones from the anterior pituitary include:
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH or thyrotropin) – stimulates the thyroid gland to make and release thyroid hormone.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH or corticotropin) – stimulates the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids.
Luteinizing hormone (LH) – stimulates the release of steroid hormones in gonads—the ovary and testes.
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) – stimulates the maturation of eggs and production of sperm.
Hypothalamus
In turn, the hypothalamus controls the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary by secreting a class of hypothalamic neurohormones called releasing and release-inhibiting hormones—which are released to the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system and act on the anterior pituitary.
See also
Endocrine system
Non-tropic hormone
Trophic hormone
References
Anterior pituitary hormones | [
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222299 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasopressin | Vasopressin | Vasopressin, also called antidiuretic hormone (ADH), arginine vasopressin (AVP) or argipressin, is a hormone synthesized from the gene as a peptide prohormone in neurons in the hypothalamus, and is converted to AVP. It then travels down the axon terminating in the posterior pituitary, and is released from vesicles into the circulation in response to extracellular fluid hypertonicity (hyperosmolality). AVP has two primary functions. First, it increases the amount of solute-free water reabsorbed back into the circulation from the filtrate in the kidney tubules of the nephrons. Second, AVP constricts arterioles, which increases peripheral vascular resistance and raises arterial blood pressure.
A third function is possible. Some AVP may be released directly into the brain from the hypothalamus, and may play an important role in social behavior, sexual motivation and pair bonding, and maternal responses to stress.
Vasopressin induces differentiation of stem cells into cardiomyocytes and promotes heart muscle homeostasis.
It has a very short half-life, between 16 and 24 minutes.
Physiology
Function
Vasopressin regulates the tonicity of body fluids. It is released from the posterior pituitary in response to hypertonicity and causes the kidneys to reabsorb solute-free water and return it to the circulation from the tubules of the nephron, thus returning the tonicity of the body fluids toward normal. An incidental consequence of this renal reabsorption of water is concentrated urine and reduced urine volume. AVP released in high concentrations may also raise blood pressure by inducing moderate vasoconstriction.
AVP also may have a variety of neurological effects on the brain. It may influence pair-bonding in voles. The high-density distributions of vasopressin receptor AVPr1a in prairie vole ventral forebrain regions have been shown to facilitate and coordinate reward circuits during partner preference formation, critical for pair bond formation.
A very similar substance, lysine vasopressin (LVP) or lypressin, has the same function in pigs and its synthetic version was used in human AVP deficiency, although it has been largely replaced by desmopressin.
Kidney
Vasopressin has three main effects which are:
Increasing the water permeability of distal and cortical collecting tubules (DCT & CCT), as well as outer and inner medullary collecting duct (OMCD & IMCD) in the kidney, thus allowing water reabsorption and excretion of more concentrated urine, i.e., antidiuresis. This occurs through increased transcription and insertion of water channels (Aquaporin-2) into the apical membrane of collecting tubule and collecting duct epithelial cells. Aquaporins allow water to move down their osmotic gradient and out of the nephron, increasing the amount of water re-absorbed from the filtrate (forming urine) back into the bloodstream. This effect is mediated by V2 receptors. Vasopressin also increases the concentration of calcium in the collecting duct cells, by episodic release from intracellular stores. Vasopressin, acting through cAMP, also increases transcription of the aquaporin-2 gene, thus increasing the total number of aquaporin-2 molecules in collecting duct cells.
Increasing permeability of the inner medullary portion of the collecting duct to urea by regulating the cell surface expression of urea transporters, which facilitates its reabsorption into the medullary interstitium as it travels down the concentration gradient created by removing water from the connecting tubule, cortical collecting duct, and outer medullary collecting duct.
Acute increase of sodium absorption across the ascending loop of Henle. This adds to the countercurrent multiplication which aids in proper water reabsorption later in the distal tubule and collecting duct.
Central nervous system
Vasopressin released within the brain may have several actions:
Vasopressin is released into the brain in a circadian rhythm by neurons of the suprachiasmatic nucleus.
Vasopressin released from posterior pituitary is associated with nausea.
Recent evidence suggests that vasopressin may have analgesic effects. The analgesia effects of vasopressin were found to be dependent on both stress and sex.
Regulation
Gene regulation
Vasopressin is regulated by AVP gene expression which is managed by major clock controlled genes. In this circadian circuit known as the transcription-translation feedback loop (TTFL), Per2 protein accumulates and is phosphorylated by CK1E. Per2 subsequently inhibits the transcription factors Clock and BMAL1 in order to reduce Per2 protein levels in the cell. At the same time, Per2 also inhibits the transcription factors for the AVP gene in order to regulate its expression, the expression of vasopressin, and other AVP gene products.
Many factors influence the secretion of vasopressin:
Ethanol (alcohol) reduces the calcium-dependent secretion of AVP by blocking voltage-gated calcium channels in neurohypophyseal nerve terminals in rats.
Angiotensin II stimulates AVP secretion, in keeping with its general pressor and pro-volumic effects on the body.
Atrial natriuretic peptide inhibits AVP secretion, in part by inhibiting Angiotensin II-induced stimulation of AVP secretion.
Cortisol inhibits secretion of antidiuretic hormone.
Production and secretion
The physiologic stimulus for secretion of vasopressin is increased osmolality of the plasma, monitored by the hypothalamus. A decreased arterial blood volume, (such as can occur in cirrhosis, nephrosis and heart failure), stimulates secretion, even in the face of decreased osmolality of the plasma: it supersedes osmolality, but
with a milder effect. In other words, vasopressin is secreted in spite of the presence of hypoosmolality (hyponatremia) when the arterial blood volume is low.
The AVP that is measured in peripheral blood is almost all derived from secretion from the posterior pituitary gland (except in cases of AVP-secreting tumours). Vasopressin is produced by magnocellular neurosecretory neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus (PVN) and supraoptic nucleus (SON). It then travels down the axon through the infundibulum within neurosecretory granules that are found within Herring bodies, localized swellings of the axons and nerve terminals. These carry the peptide directly to the posterior pituitary gland, where it is stored until released into the blood.
There are other sources of AVP, beyond the hypothalamic magnocellular neurons. For example, AVP is also synthesized by parvocellular neurosecretory neurons of the PVN, transported and released at the median eminence, from which it travels through the hypophyseal portal system to the anterior pituitary, where it stimulates corticotropic cells synergistically with CRH to produce ACTH (by itself it is a weak secretagogue).
Vasopressin during surgery and anaesthesia
Vasopressin concentration is used to measure surgical stress for evaluation of surgical techniques. Plasma vasopressin concentration is elevated by noxious stimuli, predominantly during abdominal surgery, especially at gut manipulation and traction of viscera.
Receptors
Types of AVP receptors and their actions:
Structure and relation to oxytocin
The vasopressins are peptides consisting of nine amino acids (nonapeptides). The amino acid sequence of arginine vasopressin (argipressin) is Cys-Tyr-Phe-Gln-Asn-Cys-Pro-Arg-Gly-NH2, with the cysteine residues forming a disulfide bond and the C-terminus of the sequence converted to a primary amide. Lysine vasopressin (lypressin) has a lysine in place of the arginine as the eighth amino acid, and is found in pigs and some related animals, whereas arginine vasopressin is found in humans.
The structure of oxytocin is very similar to that of the vasopressins: It is also a nonapeptide with a disulfide bridge and its amino acid sequence differs at only two positions. The two genes are located on the same chromosome separated by a relatively small distance of less than 15,000 bases in most species. The magnocellular neurons that secrete vasopressin are adjacent to magnocellular neurons that secrete oxytocin, and are similar in many respects. The similarity of the two peptides can cause some cross-reactions: oxytocin has a slight antidiuretic function, and high levels of AVP can cause uterine contractions.
Comparison of vasopressin and oxytocin neuropeptide families:
Medical use
Vasopressin is used to manage anti-diuretic hormone deficiency. Vasopressin is used to treat diabetes insipidus related to low levels of antidiuretic hormone. It is available as Pressyn.
Vasopressin has off-label uses and is used in the treatment of vasodilatory shock, gastrointestinal bleeding, ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation.
Vasopressin agonists are used therapeutically in various conditions, and its long-acting synthetic analogue desmopressin is used in conditions featuring low vasopressin secretion, as well as for control of bleeding (in some forms of von Willebrand disease and in mild haemophilia A) and in extreme cases of bedwetting by children. Terlipressin and related analogues are used as vasoconstrictors in certain conditions. Use of vasopressin analogues for esophageal varices commenced in 1970.
Vasopressin infusions are also used as second line therapy for septic shock patients not responding to fluid resuscitation or infusions of catecholamines (e.g., dopamine or norepinephrine) to increase the blood pressure while sparing the use of catecholamines. These argipressins have much shorter elimination half-life (around 20 minutes) comparing to synthetic non-arginine vasopresines with much longer elimination half-life of many hours. Further, argipressins act on V1a, V1b, and V2 receptors which consequently lead to higher eGFR and lower vascular resistance in the lungs. A number of injectable arginine vasopressins are currently in clinical use in the United States and in Europe.
Pharmacokinetics
Vasopressin is administered through an intravenous device, intramuscular injection or a subcutaneous injection. The duration of action depends on the mode of administration and ranges from thirty minutes to two hours. It has a half life of ten to twenty minutes. It is widely distributed throughout the body and remains in the extracellular fluid. It is degraded by the liver and excreted through the kidneys. Arginin vasopressins for use in septic shock are intended for intravenous use only.
Side effects
The most common side effects during treatment with vasopressin are dizziness, angina, chest pain, abdominal cramps, heartburn, nausea, vomiting, trembling, fever, water intoxication, pounding sensation in the head, diarrhoea, sweating, paleness, and flatulence. The most severe adverse reactions are myocardial infarction and hypersensitivity.
Contraindications
The use of lysine vasopressin is contraindicated in the presence of hypersensitivity to beef or pork proteins, increased BUN and chronic kidney failure. It is recommended that it be cautiously used in instances of perioperative polyuria, sensitivity to the drug, asthma, seizures, heart failure, a comatose state, migraine headaches, and cardiovascular disease.
Interactions
alcohol - may lower the antidiuretic effect
carbamazepine, chloropropamide, clofibrate, tricyclic antidepressants and fludrocortisone may raise the diuretic effect
lithium, demeclocycline, heparin or norepinephrine may lower the antidiuretic effect
vasopressor effect may be higher with the concurrent use of ganglionic blocking medications
Role in disease
There may be a connection between arginine vasopressin and autism.
Deficiency
Decreased AVP release (neurogenic — i.e. due to alcohol intoxication or tumour) or decreased renal sensitivity to AVP (nephrogenic, i.e. by mutation of V2 receptor or AQP) leads to diabetes insipidus, a condition featuring hypernatremia (increased blood sodium concentration), polyuria (excess urine production), and polydipsia (thirst).
Excess
Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone secretion (SIADH) in turn can be caused by a number of problems. Some forms of cancer can cause SIADH, particularly small cell lung carcinoma but also a number of other tumors. A variety of diseases affecting the brain or the lung (infections, bleeding) can be the driver behind SIADH. A number of drugs have been associated with SIADH, such as certain antidepressants (serotonin reuptake inhibitors and tricyclic antidepressants), the anticonvulsant carbamazepine, oxytocin (used to induce and stimulate labor), and the chemotherapy drug vincristine. It has also been associated with fluoroquinolones (including ciprofloxacin and moxifloxacin). Finally, it can occur without a clear explanation. Hyponatremia can be treated pharmaceutically through the use of vasopressin receptor antagonists.
History
Vasopressin was elucidated and synthesized for the first time by Vincent du Vigneaud.
Animal studies
Evidence for an effect of AVP on monogamy vs polygamy comes from experimental studies in several species, which indicate that the precise distribution of vasopressin and vasopressin receptors in the brain is associated with species-typical patterns of social behavior. In particular, there are consistent differences between monogamous species and polygamous species in the distribution of AVP receptors, and sometimes in the distribution of vasopressin-containing axons, even when closely related species are compared.
Human studies
Vasopressin has shown nootropic effects on pain perception and cognitive function. Vasopressin also plays a role in autism, major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia.
See also
Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone secretion (SIADH)
Oxytocin
Sexual motivation and hormones
Vasopressin receptor
Vasopressin receptor antagonists
Copeptin
References
Further reading
Neuropeptides
Posterior pituitary hormones
Neuroendocrinology
Renal physiology
Vasopressin receptor agonists
Orgasm
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222300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxytocin | Oxytocin | Oxytocin (Oxt or OT) is a peptide hormone and neuropeptide normally produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary. It plays a role in social bonding, reproduction, childbirth, and the period after childbirth. Oxytocin is released into the bloodstream as a hormone in response to sexual activity and during labour. It is also available in pharmaceutical form. In either form, oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions to speed up the process of childbirth. In its natural form, it also plays a role in bonding with the baby and milk production. Production and secretion of oxytocin is controlled by a positive feedback mechanism, where its initial release stimulates production and release of further oxytocin. For example, when oxytocin is released during a contraction of the uterus at the start of childbirth, this stimulates production and release of more oxytocin and an increase in the intensity and frequency of contractions. This process compounds in intensity and frequency and continues until the triggering activity ceases. A similar process takes place during lactation and during sexual activity.
Oxytocin is derived by enzymatic splitting from the peptide precursor encoded by the human OXT gene. The deduced structure of the active nonapeptide is:
Cys – Tyr – Ile – Gln – Asn – Cys – Pro – Leu – Gly – NH2, or CYIQNCPLG-NH2.
Etymology
The term "oxytocin" derives from the Greek "ὠκυτόκος" (ōkutókos), based on ὀξύς (oxús), meaning “sharp” or "swift", and τόκος (tókos), meaning “childbirth”. The adjective form is "oxytocic", which refers to medicines which stimulate uterine contractions, to speed up the process of childbirth.
History
The uterine-contracting properties of the principle that would later be named oxytocin were discovered by British pharmacologist Henry Hallett Dale in 1906, and its milk ejection property was described by Ott and Scott in 1910 and by Schafer and Mackenzie in 1911.
In the 1920s, oxytocin and vasopressin were isolated from pituitary tissue and given their current names.
Oxytocin‘s molecular structure was determined in 1952. In the early 1950s, American biochemist Vincent du Vigneaud found that oxytocin is made up of nine amino acids, and he identified its amino acid sequence, the first polypeptide hormone to be sequenced. In 1953, du Vigneaud carried out the synthesis of oxytocin, the first polypeptide hormone to be synthesized. Du Vigneaud was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1955 for his work.
Further work on different synthetic routes for oxytocin, as well as the preparation of analogues of the hormone (e.g. 4-deamido-oxytocin) was performed in the following decade by Iphigenia Photaki.
Biochemistry
Estrogen has been found to increase the secretion of oxytocin and to increase the expression of its receptor, the oxytocin receptor, in the brain. In women, a single dose of estradiol has been found to be sufficient to increase circulating oxytocin concentrations.
Biosynthesis
The oxytocin peptide is synthesized as an inactive precursor protein from the OXT gene. This precursor protein also includes the oxytocin carrier protein neurophysin I. The inactive precursor protein is progressively hydrolyzed into smaller fragments (one of which is neurophysin I) via a series of enzymes. The last hydrolysis that releases the active oxytocin nonapeptide is catalyzed by peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase (PAM).
The activity of the PAM enzyme system is dependent upon vitamin C (ascorbate), which is a necessary vitamin cofactor. By chance, sodium ascorbate by itself was found to stimulate the production of oxytocin from ovarian tissue over a range of concentrations in a dose-dependent manner. Many of the same tissues (e.g. ovaries, testes, eyes, adrenals, placenta, thymus, pancreas) where PAM (and oxytocin by default) is found are also known to store higher concentrations of vitamin C.
Oxytocin is known to be metabolized by the oxytocinase, leucyl/cystinyl aminopeptidase. Other oxytocinases are also known to exist. Amastatin, bestatin (ubenimex), leupeptin, and puromycin have been found to inhibit the enzymatic degradation of oxytocin, though they also inhibit the degradation of various other peptides, such as vasopressin, met-enkephalin, and dynorphin A.
Neural sources
In the hypothalamus, oxytocin is made in magnocellular neurosecretory cells of the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei, and is stored in Herring bodies at the axon terminals in the posterior pituitary. It is then released into the blood from the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) of the pituitary gland. These axons (likely, but dendrites have not been ruled out) have collaterals that innervate neurons in the nucleus accumbens, a brain structure where oxytocin receptors are expressed. The endocrine effects of hormonal oxytocin and the cognitive or behavioral effects of oxytocin neuropeptides are thought to be coordinated through its common release through these collaterals. Oxytocin is also produced by some neurons in the paraventricular nucleus that project to other parts of the brain and to the spinal cord. Depending on the species, oxytocin receptor-expressing cells are located in other areas, including the amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis.
In the pituitary gland, oxytocin is packaged in large, dense-core vesicles, where it is bound to neurophysin I as shown in the inset of the figure; neurophysin is a large peptide fragment of the larger precursor protein molecule from which oxytocin is derived by enzymatic cleavage.
Secretion of oxytocin from the neurosecretory nerve endings is regulated by the electrical activity of the oxytocin cells in the hypothalamus. These cells generate action potentials that propagate down axons to the nerve endings in the pituitary; the endings contain large numbers of oxytocin-containing vesicles, which are released by exocytosis when the nerve terminals are depolarised.
Non-neural sources
Endogenous oxytocin concentrations in the brain have been found to be as much as 1000-fold higher than peripheral levels.
Outside the brain, oxytocin-containing cells have been identified in several diverse tissues, including in females in the corpus luteum and the placenta; in males in the testicles' interstitial cells of Leydig; and in both sexes in the retina, the adrenal medulla, the thymus and the pancreas. The finding of significant amounts of this classically "neurohypophysial" hormone outside the central nervous system raises many questions regarding its possible importance in these diverse tissues.
Male
The Leydig cells in some species have been shown to possess the biosynthetic machinery to manufacture testicular oxytocin de novo, to be specific, in rats (which can synthesize vitamin C endogenously), and in guinea pigs, which, like humans, require an exogenous source of vitamin C (ascorbate) in their diets.
Female
Oxytocin is synthesized by corpora lutea of several species, including ruminants and primates. Along with estrogen, it is involved in inducing the endometrial synthesis of prostaglandin F2α to cause regression of the corpus luteum.
Evolution
Virtually all vertebrates have an oxytocin-like nonapeptide hormone that supports reproductive functions and a vasopressin-like nonapeptide hormone involved in water regulation. The two genes are usually located close to each other (less than 15,000 bases apart) on the same chromosome, and are transcribed in opposite directions (however, in fugu, the homologs are further apart and transcribed in the same direction).
The two genes are believed to result from a gene duplication event; the ancestral gene is estimated to be about 500 million years old and is found in cyclostomata (modern members of the Agnatha).
Biological function
Oxytocin has peripheral (hormonal) actions, and also has actions in the brain. Its actions are mediated by specific oxytocin receptors. The oxytocin receptor is a G-protein-coupled receptor, OT-R, which requires magnesium and cholesterol and is expressed in myometrial cells. It belongs to the rhodopsin-type (class I) group of G-protein-coupled receptors.
Studies have looked at oxytocin's role in various behaviors, including orgasm, social recognition, pair bonding, anxiety, in-group bias, situational lack of honesty, autism, and maternal behaviors. Oxytocin is believed to have a significant role in social learning. There are indicators that oxytocin may help to decrease noise in the brain's auditory system, increase perception of social cues and support more targeted social behavior. It may also enhance reward responses. However, its effects may be influenced by context, such as the presence of familiar or unfamiliar individuals.
Physiological
The peripheral actions of oxytocin mainly reflect secretion from the pituitary gland. The behavioral effects of oxytocin are thought to reflect release from centrally projecting oxytocin neurons, different from those that project to the pituitary gland, or that are collaterals from them. Oxytocin receptors are expressed by neurons in many parts of the brain and spinal cord, including the amygdala, ventromedial hypothalamus, septum, nucleus accumbens, and brainstem, although the distribution differs markedly between species. Furthermore, the distribution of these receptors changes during development and has been observed to change after parturition in the montane vole.
Milk ejection reflex/Letdown reflex: in lactating (breastfeeding) mothers, oxytocin acts at the mammary glands, causing milk to be 'let down' into lactiferous ducts, from where it can be excreted via the nipple. Suckling by the infant at the nipple is relayed by spinal nerves to the hypothalamus. The stimulation causes neurons that make oxytocin to fire action potentials in intermittent bursts; these bursts result in the secretion of pulses of oxytocin from the neurosecretory nerve terminals of the pituitary gland.
Uterine contraction: important for cervical dilation before birth, oxytocin causes contractions during the second and third stages of labor. Oxytocin release during breastfeeding causes mild but often painful contractions during the first few weeks of lactation. This also serves to assist the uterus in clotting the placental attachment point postpartum. However, in knockout mice lacking the oxytocin receptor, reproductive behavior and parturition are normal.
In male rats, oxytocin may induce erections. A burst of oxytocin is released during ejaculation in several species, including human males; its suggested function is to stimulate contractions of the reproductive tract, aiding sperm release.
Human sexual response: Oxytocin levels in plasma rise during sexual stimulation and orgasm. At least two uncontrolled studies have found increases in plasma oxytocin at orgasm – in both men and women. Plasma oxytocin levels are increased around the time of self-stimulated orgasm and are still higher than baseline when measured five minutes after self arousal. The authors of one of these studies speculated that oxytocin's effects on muscle contractibility may facilitate sperm and egg transport.
In a study measuring oxytocin serum levels in women before and after sexual stimulation, the author suggests it serves an important role in sexual arousal. This study found genital tract stimulation resulted in increased oxytocin immediately after orgasm. Another study reported increases of oxytocin during sexual arousal could be in response to nipple/areola, genital, and/or genital tract stimulation as confirmed in other mammals. Murphy et al. (1987), studying men, found that plasma oxytocin levels remain unchanged during sexual arousal, but that levels increase sharply after ejaculation, returning to baseline levels within 30 minutes. In contrast, vasopressin was increased during arousal but returned to baseline at the time of ejaculation. The study concludes that (in males) vasopressin is secreted during arousal, while oxytocin is only secreted after ejaculation. A more recent study of men found an increase in plasma oxytocin immediately after orgasm, but only in a portion of their sample that did not reach statistical significance. The authors noted these changes "may simply reflect contractile properties on reproductive tissue".
Due to its similarity to vasopressin, it can reduce the excretion of urine slightly, and so it can be classified as an antidiuretic. In several species, oxytocin can stimulate sodium excretion from the kidneys (natriuresis), and, in humans, high doses can result in low sodium levels (hyponatremia).
Cardiac effects: oxytocin and oxytocin receptors are also found in the heart in some rodents, and the hormone may play a role in the embryonal development of the heart by promoting cardiomyocyte differentiation. However, the absence of either oxytocin or its receptor in knockout mice has not been reported to produce cardiac insufficiencies.
Modulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity: oxytocin, under certain circumstances, indirectly inhibits release of adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol and, in those situations, may be considered an antagonist of vasopressin.
Preparing fetal neurons for delivery (in rats): crossing the placenta, maternal oxytocin reaches the fetal brain and induces a switch in the action of neurotransmitter GABA from excitatory to inhibitory on fetal cortical neurons. This silences the fetal brain for the period of delivery and reduces its vulnerability to hypoxic damage.
Feeding: a 2012 paper suggested that oxytocin neurons in the para-ventricular hypothalamus in the brain may play a key role in suppressing appetite under normal conditions and that other hypothalamic neurons may trigger eating via inhibition of these oxytocin neurons. This population of oxytocin neurons is absent in Prader-Willi syndrome, a genetic disorder that leads to uncontrollable feeding and obesity, and may play a key role in its pathophysiology. Research on the oxytocin-related neuropeptide asterotocin in starfish also showed that in echinoderms, the chemical induces muscle relaxation, and in starfish specifically caused the organisms to evert their stomach and react as though feeding on prey, even when none were present.
Psychological
Autism: Oxytocin has been implicated in the etiology of autism, with one report suggesting autism is correlated to a mutation on the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR). Studies involving Caucasian, Finnish and Chinese Han families provide support for the relationship of OXTR with autism. Autism may also be associated with an aberrant methylation of OXTR.
Bonding
In the prairie vole, oxytocin released into the brain of the female during sexual activity is important for forming a pair bond with her sexual partner. Vasopressin appears to have a similar effect in males. Oxytocin has a role in social behaviors in many species, so it likely also does in humans. In a 2003 study, both humans and dog oxytocin levels in the blood rose after a five to 24 minute petting session. This possibly plays a role in the emotional bonding between humans and dogs.
Maternal behavior: Female rats given oxytocin antagonists after giving birth do not exhibit typical maternal behavior. By contrast, virgin female sheep show maternal behavior toward foreign lambs upon cerebrospinal fluid infusion of oxytocin, which they would not do otherwise. Oxytocin is involved in the initiation of human maternal behavior, not its maintenance; for example, it is higher in mothers after they interact with unfamiliar children rather than their own.
Human ingroup bonding: Oxytocin can increase positive attitudes, such as bonding, toward individuals with similar characteristics, who then become classified as "in-group" members, whereas individuals who are dissimilar become classified as "out-group" members. Race can be used as an example of in-group and out-group tendencies because society often categorizes individuals into groups based on race (Caucasian, African American, Latino, etc.). One study that examined race and empathy found that participants receiving nasally administered oxytocin had stronger reactions to pictures of in-group members making pained faces than to pictures of out-group members with the same expression. Moreover, individuals of one race may be more inclined to help individuals of the same race than individuals of another race when they are experiencing pain. Oxytocin has also been implicated in lying when lying would prove beneficial to other in-group members. In a study where such a relationship was examined, it was found that when individuals were administered oxytocin, rates of dishonesty in the participants' responses increased for their in-group members when a beneficial outcome for their group was expected. Both of these examples show the tendency of individuals to act in ways that benefit those considered to be members of their social group, or in-group.
Oxytocin is not only correlated with the preferences of individuals to associate with members of their own group, but it is also evident during conflicts between members of different groups. During conflict, individuals receiving nasally administered oxytocin demonstrate more frequent defense-motivated responses toward in-group members than out-group members. Further, oxytocin was correlated with participant desire to protect vulnerable in-group members, despite that individual's attachment to the conflict. Similarly, it has been demonstrated that when oxytocin is administered, individuals alter their subjective preferences in order to align with in-group ideals over out-group ideals. These studies demonstrate that oxytocin is associated with intergroup dynamics. Further, oxytocin influences the responses of individuals in a particular group to those of another group. The in-group bias is evident in smaller groups; however, it can also be extended to groups as large as one's entire country leading toward a tendency of strong national zeal. A study done in the Netherlands showed that oxytocin increased the in-group favoritism of their nation while decreasing acceptance of members of other ethnicities and foreigners. People also show more affection for their country's flag while remaining indifferent to other cultural objects when exposed to oxytocin. It has thus been hypothesized that this hormone may be a factor in xenophobic tendencies secondary to this effect. Thus, oxytocin appears to affect individuals at an international level where the in-group becomes a specific "home" country and the out-group grows to include all other countries.
Drugs
Drug interaction: According to several studies in animals, oxytocin inhibits the development of tolerance to various addictive drugs (opiates, cocaine, alcohol), and reduces withdrawal symptoms. MDMA (ecstasy) may increase feelings of love, empathy, and connection to others by stimulating oxytocin activity primarily via activation of serotonin 5-HT1A receptors, if initial studies in animals apply to humans. The anxiolytic drug buspirone may produce some of its effects via 5-HT1A receptor-induced oxytocin stimulation as well.
Addiction vulnerability: Concentrations of endogenous oxytocin can impact the effects of various drugs and one's susceptibility to substance use disorders, with higher concentrations associated with lower susceptibility. The status of the endogenous oxytocin system can enhance or reduce susceptibility to addiction through its bidirectional interaction with numerous systems, including the dopamine system, the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis and the immune system. Individual differences in the endogenous oxytocin system based on genetic predisposition, gender and environmental influences, may therefore affect addiction vulnerability. Oxytocin may be related to the place conditioning behaviors observed in habitual drug abusers.
Fear and anxiety
Oxytocin is typically remembered for the effect it has on prosocial behaviors, such as its role in facilitating trust and attachment between individuals. However, oxytocin has a more complex role than solely enhancing prosocial behaviors. There is consensus that oxytocin modulates fear and anxiety; that is, it does not directly elicit fear or anxiety. Two dominant theories explain the role of oxytocin in fear and anxiety. One theory states that oxytocin increases approach/avoidance to certain social stimuli and the second theory states that oxytocin increases the salience of certain social stimuli, causing the animal or human to pay closer attention to socially relevant stimuli.
Nasally administered oxytocin has been reported to reduce fear, possibly by inhibiting the amygdala (which is thought to be responsible for fear responses). Indeed, studies in rodents have shown oxytocin can efficiently inhibit fear responses by activating an inhibitory circuit within the amygdala. Some researchers have argued oxytocin has a general enhancing effect on all social emotions, since intranasal administration of oxytocin also increases envy and Schadenfreude. Individuals who receive an intranasal dose of oxytocin identify facial expressions of disgust more quickly than individuals who do not receive oxytocin. Facial expressions of disgust are evolutionarily linked to the idea of contagion. Thus, oxytocin increases the salience of cues that imply contamination, which leads to a faster response because these cues are especially relevant for survival. In another study, after administration of oxytocin, individuals displayed an enhanced ability to recognize expressions of fear compared to the individuals who received the placebo. Oxytocin modulates fear responses by enhancing the maintenance of social memories. Rats that are genetically modified to have a surplus of oxytocin receptors display a greater fear response to a previously conditioned stressor. Oxytocin enhances the aversive social memory, leading the rat to display a greater fear response when the aversive stimulus is encountered again.
Mood and depression
Oxytocin produces antidepressant-like effects in animal models of depression, and a deficit of it may be involved in the pathophysiology of depression in humans. The antidepressant-like effects of oxytocin are not blocked by a selective antagonist of the oxytocin receptor, suggesting that these effects are not mediated by the oxytocin receptor. In accordance, unlike oxytocin, the selective non-peptide oxytocin receptor agonist WAY-267,464 does not produce antidepressant-like effects, at least in the tail suspension test. In contrast to WAY-267,464, carbetocin, a close analogue of oxytocin and peptide oxytocin receptor agonist, notably does produce antidepressant-like effects in animals. As such, the antidepressant-like effects of oxytocin may be mediated by modulation of a different target, perhaps the vasopressin V1A receptor where oxytocin is known to weakly bind as an agonist.
Oxytocin mediates the antidepressant-like effects of sexual activity. A drug for sexual dysfunction, sildenafil enhances electrically evoked oxytocin release from the pituitary gland. In accordance, it may have promise as an antidepressant.
Sex differences
It has been shown that oxytocin differentially affects males and females. Females who are administered oxytocin are overall faster in responding to socially relevant stimuli than males who received oxytocin. Additionally, after the administration of oxytocin, females show increased amygdala activity in response to threatening scenes; however, males do not show increased amygdala activation. This phenomenon can be explained by looking at the role of gonadal hormones, specifically estrogen, which modulate the enhanced threat processing seen in females. Estrogen has been shown to stimulate the release of oxytocin from the hypothalamus and promote receptor binding in the amygdala.
It has also been shown that testosterone directly suppresses oxytocin in mice. This has been hypothesized to have evolutionary significance. With oxytocin suppressed, activities such as hunting and attacking invaders would be less mentally difficult as oxytocin is strongly associated with empathy.
Social
Affecting generosity by increasing empathy during perspective taking: In a neuroeconomics experiment, intranasal oxytocin increased generosity in the Ultimatum Game by 80%, but had no effect in the Dictator Game that measures altruism. Perspective-taking is not required in the Dictator Game, but the researchers in this experiment explicitly induced perspective-taking in the Ultimatum Game by not identifying to participants into which role they would be placed. Serious methodological questions have arisen, however, with regard to the role of oxytocin in trust and generosity. Empathy in healthy males has been shown to be increased after intranasal oxytocin This is most likely due to the effect of oxytocin in enhancing eye gaze. There is some discussion about which aspect of empathy oxytocin might alter – for example, cognitive vs. emotional empathy. While studying wild chimpanzees, it was noted that after a chimpanzee shared food with a non-kin related chimpanzee, the subjects' levels of oxytocin increased, as measured through their urine. In comparison to other cooperative activities between chimpanzees that were monitored including grooming, food sharing generated higher levels of oxytocin. This comparatively higher level of oxytocin after food sharing parallels the increased level of oxytocin in nursing mothers, sharing nutrients with their kin.
Trust is increased by oxytocin. Disclosure of emotional events is a sign of trust in humans. When recounting a negative event, humans who receive intranasal oxytocin share more emotional details and stories with more emotional significance. Humans also find faces more trustworthy after receiving intranasal oxytocin. In a study, participants who received intranasal oxytocin viewed photographs of human faces with neutral expressions and found them to be more trustworthy than those who did not receive oxytocin. This may be because oxytocin reduces the fear of social betrayal in humans. Even after experiencing social alienation by being excluded from a conversation, humans who received oxytocin scored higher in trust on the Revised NEO Personality Inventory. Moreover, in a risky investment game, experimental subjects given nasally administered oxytocin displayed "the highest level of trust" twice as often as the control group. Subjects who were told they were interacting with a computer showed no such reaction, leading to the conclusion that oxytocin was not merely affecting risk aversion. When there is a reason to be distrustful, such as experiencing betrayal, differing reactions are associated with oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) differences. Those with the CT haplotype experience a stronger reaction, in the form of anger, to betrayal.
Romantic attachment: In some studies, high levels of plasma oxytocin have been correlated with romantic attachment. For example, if a couple is separated for a long period of time, anxiety can increase due to the lack of physical affection. Oxytocin may aid romantically attached couples by decreasing their feelings of anxiety when they are separated.
Group-serving dishonesty/deception: In a carefully controlled study exploring the biological roots of immoral behavior, oxytocin was shown to promote dishonesty when the outcome favored the group to which an individual belonged instead of just the individual.
Oxytocin affects social distance between adult males and females, and may be responsible at least in part for romantic attraction and subsequent monogamous pair bonding. An oxytocin nasal spray caused men in a monogamous relationship, but not single men, to increase the distance between themselves and an attractive woman during a first encounter by 10 to 15 centimeters. The researchers suggested that oxytocin may help promote fidelity within monogamous relationships. For this reason, it is sometimes referred to as the "bonding hormone". There is some evidence that oxytocin promotes ethnocentric behavior, incorporating the trust and empathy of in-groups with their suspicion and rejection of outsiders. Furthermore, genetic differences in the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) have been associated with maladaptive social traits such as aggressive behavior.
Social behavior and wound healing: Oxytocin is also thought to modulate inflammation by decreasing certain cytokines. Thus, the increased release in oxytocin following positive social interactions has the potential to improve wound healing. A study by Marazziti and colleagues used heterosexual couples to investigate this possibility. They found increases in plasma oxytocin following a social interaction were correlated with faster wound healing. They hypothesized this was due to oxytocin reducing inflammation, thus allowing the wound to heal more quickly. This study provides preliminary evidence that positive social interactions may directly influence aspects of health. According to a study published in 2014, silencing of oxytocin receptor interneurons in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) of female mice resulted in loss of social interest in male mice during the sexually receptive phase of the estrous cycle. Oxytocin evokes feelings of contentment, reductions in anxiety, and feelings of calmness and security when in the company of the mate. This suggests oxytocin may be important for the inhibition of the brain regions associated with behavioral control, fear, and anxiety, thus allowing orgasm to occur. Research has also demonstrated that oxytocin can decrease anxiety and protect against stress, particularly in combination with social support. It is found, that endocannabinoid signaling mediates oxytocin-driven social reward. According to a study published in 2008, it's results pointed to how a lack of oxytocin in mice saw a abnormalities in emotional behavior. Another study in conducted in 2014, saw similar results with a variation in the oxytocin receptor is connected with dopamine transporter and how levels of oxytocin are dependent on the levels of dopamine transporter levels. One study explored the effects of low levels of oxytocin and the other on possible explanation of what affects oxytocin receptors. As a lack of social skills and proper emotional behavior are common signs of Autism, low levels of oxytocin could become a new sign for individuals that fall into the Autism Spectrum.
Chemistry
Oxytocin is a peptide of nine amino acids (a nonapeptide) in the sequence cysteine-tyrosine-isoleucine-glutamine-asparagine-cysteine-proline-leucine-glycine-amide (Cys – Tyr – Ile – Gln – Asn – Cys – Pro – Leu – Gly – NH2, or CYIQNCPLG-NH2); its C-terminus has been converted to a primary amide and a disulfide bridge joins the cysteine moieties. Oxytocin has a molecular mass of 1007 Da, and one international unit (IU) of oxytocin is the equivalent of 1.68 μg of pure peptide.
While the structure of oxytocin is highly conserved in placental mammals, a novel structure of oxytocin was reported in 2011 in marmosets, tamarins, and other new world primates. Genomic sequencing of the gene for oxytocin revealed a single in-frame mutation (thymine for cytosine) which results in a single amino acid substitution at the 8-position (proline for leucine). Since this original Lee et al. paper, two other laboratories have confirmed Pro8-OT and documented additional oxytocin structural variants in this primate taxon. Vargas-Pinilla et al. sequenced the coding regions of the OXT gene in other genera in new world primates and identified the following variants in addition to Leu8- and Pro8-OT: Ala8-OT, Thr8-OT, and Val3/Pro8-OT. Ren et al. identified a variant further, Phe2-OT in howler monkeys.
The biologically active form of oxytocin, commonly measured by RIA and/or HPLC techniques, is the oxidized octapeptide oxytocin disulfide, but oxytocin also exists as a reduced straight-chain (non-cyclic) dithiol nonapeptide called oxytoceine. It has been theorized that oxytoceine may act as a free radical scavenger, as donating an electron to a free radical allows oxytoceine to be re-oxidized to oxytocin via the dehydroascorbate / ascorbate redox couple.
Recent advances in analytical instrumental techniques highlighted the importance of liquid chromatography (LC) coupled with mass spectrometry (MS) for measuring oxytocin levels in various samples derived from biological sources. Most of these studies optimized the oxytocin quantification in electrospray ionization (ESI) positive mode, using [M+H]+ as the parent ion at mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) 1007.4 and the fragment ions as diagnostic peaks at m/z 991.0, m/z 723.2 and m/z 504.2. These important ion selections paved the way for the development of current methods of oxytocin quantification using MS instrumentation.
The structure of oxytocin is very similar to that of vasopressin. Both are nonapeptides with a single disulfide bridge, differing only by two substitutions in the amino acid sequence (differences from oxytocin bolded for clarity): Cys – Tyr – Phe – Gln – Asn – Cys – Pro – Arg – Gly – NH2. Oxytocin and vasopressin were isolated and their total synthesis reported in 1954, work for which Vincent du Vigneaud was awarded the 1955 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with the citation: "for his work on biochemically important sulphur compounds, especially for the first synthesis of a polypeptide hormone."
Oxytocin and vasopressin are the only known hormones released by the human posterior pituitary gland to act at a distance. However, oxytocin neurons make other peptides, including corticotropin-releasing hormone and dynorphin, for example, that act locally. The magnocellular neurosecretory cells that make oxytocin are adjacent to magnocellular neurosecretory cells that make vasopressin. These are large neuroendocrine neurons which are excitable and can generate action potentials.
In popular culture
"Oxytocin" is the name of the fifth song on Billie Eilish's second album Happier Than Ever.
In the novel The Fireman by Joe Hill, the hormone plays a role in neutralizing the danger posed by an infectious spore that causes a condition known as Dragonscale. If the spore enters an oxytocin-rich environment, it will enter a dormant state instead of causing its host to undergo spontaneous human combustion.
The formula for Oxytocin is displayed as written on the fingers of Nina Zilli and appears in the opening shot of her video for "Sola".
See also
Oxytocin (medication)
References
Further reading
.
External links
Antidiuretics
Breastfeeding
Hormones of the hypothalamus
Hormones of the pregnant female
Human female endocrine system
Interpersonal attraction
Neuropeptides
Neurotransmitters
Orgasm
Oxytocin receptor agonists
Posterior pituitary hormones
Vasopressin receptor agonists
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222301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Forrestal | James Forrestal | James Vincent Forrestal (February 15, 1892 – May 22, 1949) was the last Cabinet-level United States Secretary of the Navy and the first United States Secretary of Defense.
Forrestal came from a very strict middle class Irish Catholic family. He was a successful financier on Wall Street before becoming Undersecretary of the Navy in 1940, shortly before the United States entered the Second World War. He became Secretary of the Navy in May 1944 upon the death of his superior, Frank Knox. President Franklin D. Roosevelt requested that Forrestal take the lead in building up the Navy. In 1947, after the end of the war, President Harry S. Truman appointed him the first Secretary of the newly created Department of Defense. Forrestal was intensely hostile to the Soviet Union, fearing Communist expansion in Europe and the Middle East. Along with Secretary of State George C. Marshall, he strongly opposed the United States' support for the establishment of the State of Israel, fearing that this would alienate Arab nations which were needed as allies, and whose petroleum reserves were vital for both military and civilian industrial expansion.
Forrestal was a supporter of naval battle groups centered on aircraft carriers. He tried to weaken the proposed Department of Defense for the Navy's benefit, but was hard pressed to run it from 1947 to 1949 after Truman named him Secretary of Defense. The two men were often at odds, and Truman forced Forrestal's resignation.
Thereafter, Forrestal's mental health rapidly deteriorated, declining to the point in which he underwent medical care for depression. While a patient at Bethesda Naval Hospital, Forrestal died from fatal injuries sustained after falling out a sixteenth floor window.
In 1954, the USN's new supercarrier was named in his honor, as is the James V. Forrestal Building, which houses the headquarters of the United States Department of Energy. He is the namesake of the Forrestal Lecture Series at the United States Naval Academy and of the James Forrestal Campus of his alma mater Princeton University.
Life and career
Early life
Forrestal was born in Matteawan, New York, (now part of Beacon, New York), the youngest son of James Forrestal, an Irish immigrant who dabbled in politics. His mother, the former Mary Anne Toohey (herself the daughter of another Irish immigrant) raised him as a devout Catholic. During his youth, Forrestal was an amateur boxer. After graduating from high school at the age of 16, in 1908, he spent the next three years working for a trio of newspapers: the Matteawan Evening Journal, the Mount Vernon Argus and the Poughkeepsie News Press.
Forrestal entered Dartmouth College in 1911, but transferred to Princeton University in his sophomore year, where he served as an editor for The Daily Princetonian. His senior class voted him "Most Likely to Succeed", but he left just prior to completing work on a degree. Forrestal was a member of University Cottage Club while he was a student at Princeton. Forrestal married the former Josephine Stovall (née Ogden), a Vogue writer, in 1926. She eventually developed a dependence on alcohol and suffered various mental health issues.
Wall Street financier
Forrestal went to work as a bond salesman for William A. Read and Company (later renamed Dillon, Read & Co.) in 1916. When the USA entered the First World War, he enlisted in the Navy and ultimately became a Naval Aviator, training with the Royal Flying Corps at Camp Borden and Deseronto in Canada. During the final year of the war, Forrestal spent much of his time in Washington, at the Office of Naval Operations while completing his flight training and reached the rank of lieutenant. After the war, Forrestal resumed his career in finance and made his fortune on Wall Street. He became a partner in 1923, was appointed vice president in 1926, and by 1937 was president of the company. He also acted as a publicist for the Democratic Party committee in Dutchess County, New York, helping politicians from the area win elections at both the local and state level. One of the individuals aided by his work was a neighbor, Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Forrestal was a compulsive workaholic and skilled administrator. He was described as pugnacious, introspective, shy, philosophic, solitary, and emotionally insecure.<ref>Hoopes and Brinkley, "Driven Patriot</ref> He took no part in national politics, though he usually voted for Democrats, but did not support New Deal liberalism.
Political career
Secretary of the Navy
President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Forrestal a special administrative assistant on June 22, 1940. Six weeks later, he nominated him for the newly established position, Undersecretary of the Navy. In his nearly four years as undersecretary, Forrestal proved highly effective at mobilizing domestic industrial production for the war effort. Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral Ernest J. King, wanted to control logistics and procurement, but Forrestal prevailed.
In September 1942, to get a grasp on the reports for materiel his office was receiving, he made a tour of naval operations in the Southwest Pacific and a stop at Pearl Harbor. Returning to Washington, D.C., he made his report to President Roosevelt, Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson, and the cabinet. In response to Forrestal's elevated request that materiel be sent immediately to the Southwest Pacific area, Stimson (who was more concerned with supplying Operation Torch in North Africa), told Forrestal, "Jim, you've got a bad case of localitis." Forrestal shot back in a heated manner, "Mr. Secretary, if the Marines on Guadalcanal were wiped out, the reaction of the country will give you a bad case of localitis in the seat of your pants".
He became Secretary of the Navy on May 19, 1944, after his immediate superior, Secretary Frank Knox, died from a heart attack. Knox had been a figurehead as secretary and Forrestal was highly energetic. Forrestal led the Navy through the closing year of the war and the early years of demobilization that followed. Forrestal ordered that a Naval Court of Inquiry be convened to investigate the facts surrounding the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and to assess any culpability borne by members of the Navy. The Court consisted of Admiral Adolphus Andrews; Admiral Orin G. Murfin, who served as President of the Court, and Admiral Edward C. Kalbfus.
The court convened on July 24, 1944, and held daily sessions in Washington, D.C., San Francisco, and Pearl Harbor. After interviewing numerous witnesses, it completed its work on October 19, 1944. Its report to the Navy Department largely exonerated Rear Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, commander in chief of the Pacific Fleet at the time of the attack. The court found that Kimmel's decisions had been correct given the limited information available to him, but criticized then-Chief of Naval Operations Harold R. Stark for failing to warn Kimmel that war was imminent. The court concluded that "based upon the facts established, the Court is of the opinion
that no offenses have been committed nor serious blame incurred on the
part of any person or persons in the naval service." Because the court's findings implicitly revealed that American cryptographers had broken the Japanese codes, a critical wartime secret, the court's report was not made public until after the end of the war.
Upon reviewing the report, Forrestal felt that the court had been too lenient in assigning blame for the disaster. The court had found that the Army and Navy had adequately cooperated in the defense of Pearl Harbor; that there had been no information indicating that Japanese carriers were on their way to attack Pearl Harbor; and that the attack had succeeded principally because of the aerial torpedo, a secret weapon whose use could not have been predicted. Forrestal disapproved all of these findings, judging that Kimmel could have done more with the information he had had to prevent or mitigate the attack. Forrestal concluded that both Kimmel and Stark had "failed to demonstrate the superior judgment necessary for exercising command commensurate with their rank and their assigned duties."
As Secretary, Forrestal introduced a policy of racial integration in the Navy. Forrestal traveled to combat zones to see naval forces in action. He was in the South Pacific in 1942, present at the Battle of Kwajalein in 1944, and (as Secretary) witnessed the Battle of Iwo Jima in 1945. After five days of pitched battle, a detachment of Marines was sent to hoist the American flag on the 545-foot summit of Mount Suribachi on Iwo Jima. This was the first time in the war that the U.S. flag had flown on Japanese soil. Forrestal, who had just landed on the beach, claimed the historic flag as a souvenir. When Forrestal witnessed the sight of the Stars and Stripes atop Mount Suribachi, he turned to Major General Holland Smith and said, "the raising of that flag on Suribachi means a Marine Corps for the next 500 years." A second, larger flag was run up in its place, and this second flag-raising was the moment captured by Associated Press photographer Joe Rosenthal in his famous photograph.
In the early months of 1945, Forrestal, along with Secretary of War Henry Stimson and Under Secretary of State Joseph Grew, strongly advocated a softer policy toward Japan that would permit a negotiated armistice, a face-saving surrender. Forrestal's primary concern was not the resurgence of a militarized Japan, but rather "the menace of Russian Communism and its attraction for decimated, destabilized societies in Europe and Asia," and, therefore, keeping the Soviet Union out of the war with Japan. So strongly did he feel about this matter that he cultivated negotiation efforts that some regarded as approaching insubordination.
His counsel on ending the war was finally followed, but not until the atomic bombs had been dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The day after the Nagasaki attack, the Japanese sent out a radio transmission saying that it was ready to accept the terms of the allies' Potsdam Declaration, "with the understanding that said declaration does not comprise any demand which prejudices the prerogatives of His Majesty as a sovereign ruler." That position still fell short of the U.S. "unconditional surrender" demand, retaining the sticking point that had held up the war's conclusion for months. Strong voices within the administration, including Secretary of State James Byrnes, counseled fighting on. At that point, "Forrestal came up with a shrewd and simple solution: Accept the offer and declare that it accomplishes what the Potsdam Declaration demanded. Say that the Emperor and the Japanese government will rule subject to the orders of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers. This would imply recognition of the Emperor while tending to neutralize American public passions against the Emperor. Truman liked this. It would be close enough to 'unconditional.'"
After the war, Forrestal urged Truman to take a hard line with the Soviets over Poland and other issues. In furtherance of the anti-Soviet position, he was the primary promoter of the famous "long telegram" by State Department official George Kennan. "[Averell] Harriman thought Forrestal's reaction [to the Kennan document] was a 'decisive' catalyst in shaping American opinion on the issue." He also strongly influenced the new Wisconsin Senator, Joseph McCarthy, concerning infiltration of the government by Communists. Upon McCarthy's arrival in Washington in December 1946, Forrestal invited him to lunch. In McCarthy's words, "Before meeting Jim Forrestal I thought we were losing to international Communism because of incompetence and stupidity on the part of our planners. I mentioned that to Forrestal. I shall forever remember his answer. He said, 'McCarthy, consistency has never been a mark of stupidity. If they were merely stupid, they would occasionally make a mistake in our favor.' This phrase struck me so forcefully that I have often used it since."
Secretary of Defense
In 1947, President Harry S. Truman appointed him the first United States Secretary of Defense. Forrestal continued to advocate for complete racial integration of the services, a policy eventually implemented in 1949.
During private cabinet meetings with President Truman in 1946 and 1947, Forrestal had argued against partition of Palestine on the grounds it would infuriate Arab countries who supplied oil needed for the U.S. economy and national defense. Instead, Forrestal favored a federalization plan for Palestine. Outside the White House, response to Truman's continued silence on the issue was immediate. President Truman received threats to cut off campaign contributions from wealthy donors, as well as hate mail, including a letter accusing him of "preferring fascist and Arab elements to the democracy-loving Jewish people of Palestine." Appalled by the intensity and implied threats over the partition question, Forrestal appealed to Truman in two separate cabinet meetings not to base his decision on partition, whatever the outcome, on the basis of political pressure. In his only known public comment on the issue, Forrestal stated to J. Howard McGrath, Senator from Rhode Island:
...no group in this country should be permitted to influence our policy to the point it could endanger our national security.
Forrestal's statement soon earned him the active enmity of some congressmen and supporters of Israel. Forrestal was also an early target of the muckraking columnist and broadcaster Drew Pearson, an opponent of foreign policies hostile to the Soviet Union, who began to regularly call for Forrestal's removal after President Truman named him Secretary of Defense. Pearson told his own protege, Jack Anderson, that he believed Forrestal was "the most dangerous man in America" and claimed that if he was not removed from office, he would "cause another world war."
Upon taking office as Secretary of Defense, Forrestal was surprised to learn that the administration did not budget for defense needs based on military threats posed by enemies of the United States and its interests. According to historian Walter LaFeber, Truman was known to approach defense budgetary requests in the abstract, without regard to defense response requirements in the event of conflicts with potential enemies. The president would begin by subtracting from total receipts the amount needed for domestic needs and recurrent operating costs, with any surplus going to the defense budget for that year. The Truman administration's willingness to slash conventional readiness needs for the Navy and Marine Corps soon caused fierce controversies within the upper ranks of their respective branches.Blair, Clay, The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950–1953, Naval Institute Press (2003)
During the Reagan years, Paul Nitze reflected upon the qualities which made a Secretary of Defense great: the ability to work with Congress, the ability for "big-time management," and an ability at war planning. Nitze felt that Forrestal was the only one who possessed all three qualities together.
Post-war
At the close of World War II, millions of dollars of serviceable equipment had been scrapped or abandoned rather than having funds appropriated for its storage costs. New military equipment en route to operations in the Pacific theater was scrapped or simply tossed overboard. Facing the wholesale demobilization of most of the US defense force structure, Forrestal resisted President Truman's efforts to substantially reduce defense appropriations, but was unable to prevent a steady reduction in defense spending, resulting in major cuts not only in defense equipment stockpiles, but also in military readiness.
By 1948, President Harry Truman had approved military budgets billions of dollars below what the services were requesting, putting Forrestal in the middle of a fierce tug-of-war between the President and the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Forrestal was also becoming increasingly worried about the Soviet threat. His 18 months at Defense came at an exceptionally difficult time for the U.S. military establishment: Communist governments came to power in Czechoslovakia and China; the Soviets imposed a blockade on West Berlin prompting the U.S. Berlin Airlift to supply the city; the 1948 Arab–Israeli War followed the establishment of Israel; and negotiations were going on for the formation of NATO.
Dwight D. Eisenhower recorded he was in agreement with Forrestal's theories on the dangers of Soviet and International communist expansion. Eisenhower recalled that Forrestal had been "the one man who, in the very midst of the war, always counseled caution and alertness in dealing with the Soviets." Eisenhower remembered on several occasions, while he was Supreme Allied Commander, he had been visited by Forrestal, who carefully explained his thesis that the Communists would never cease trying to destroy all representative government. Eisenhower commented in his personal diary on 11 June 1949, "I never had cause to doubt the accuracy of his judgments on this point."
Forrestal also opposed the unification of the military services proposed by the Truman officials. Even so, he helped develop the National Security Act of 1947 that created the National Military Establishment (the Department of Defense was not created as such until August 1949). With the former Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson retiring to private life, Forrestal was the next choice.
Michael Hogan downplays Forrestal’s achievements:
Forrestal was not in FDR's inner circle, was not apprised of the Manhattan Project, and did not attend the major wartime conferences....Forrestal also ended up on the wrong side of the struggle to unify the armed forces....He slowed but did not stop the unification process as secretary of the navy and then had to live with legislation that prevented him from managing the military establishment efficiently as the country's first secretary of defense. In that capacity, however, Forrestal was unable to devise an integrated defense budget, work out a joint war plan, or compel the Joint Chiefs of Staff to accept presidential directives they did not like.
Resignation as Secretary of Defense
Governor of New York Thomas E. Dewey was expected to win the presidential elections of 1948. Forrestal met with Dewey privately, and it was agreed he would continue as Secretary of Defense under a Dewey administration. Unwittingly, Forrestal would trigger a series of events that would not only undermine his already precarious position with President Truman but contribute to the loss of his job, his failing health, and eventual demise. Weeks before the election, Pearson published an exposé of the meetings between Dewey and Forrestal.
In 1949, angered over Forrestal's continued opposition to his defense economization policies, and concerned about reports in the press over his mental condition, Truman abruptly asked Forrestal to resign. By March 31, 1949, Forrestal was out of a job. He was replaced by Louis A. Johnson, an ardent supporter of Truman's defense retrenchment policy.
Psychiatric treatment
In 1949, exhausted from overwork, Forrestal entered psychiatric treatment. The attending psychiatrist, Captain George N. Raines, was handpicked by the Navy Surgeon General. The regimen was as follows:
1st week: narcosis with sodium amytal.
2nd – 5th weeks: a regimen of insulin sub-shock combined with psycho-therapeutic interviews. According to Dr. Raines, the patient overreacted to the insulin much as he had to the amytal and this would occasionally throw him into a confused state with a great deal of agitation and confusion.
4th week: insulin administered only in stimulating doses; 10 units of insulin four times a day, morning, noon, afternoon and evening.
According to Dr. Raines, "We considered electro-shock but thought it better to postpone it for another 90 days. In reactive depression if electro-shock is used early and the patient is returned to the same situation from which he came there is grave danger of suicide in the immediate period after they return... so strangely enough we left out electro-shock to avoid what actually happened anyhow".
Death
Although Forrestal told associates he had decided to resign, he was reportedly shattered when Truman abruptly asked for his resignation. His letter of resignation was tendered on March 28, 1949 and his condition steadily deteriorated. On the day of Forrestal's resignation from office, he was reported to have gone into a strange daze and was flown on a Navy airplane to the estate of Under Secretary of State Robert A. Lovett in Hobe Sound, Florida, where Forrestal's wife, Josephine, was vacationing. Dr. William C. Menninger of the Menninger Clinic in Kansas was consulted and he diagnosed "severe depression" of the type "seen in operational fatigue during the war". The Menninger Clinic had successfully treated similar cases during World War II, but Forrestal's wife, his friend and associate Ferdinand Eberstadt, Dr. Menninger, and Navy psychiatrist Captain Dr. George N. Raines decided to send the former Secretary of Defense to the National Naval Medical Center (NNMC) in Bethesda, Maryland, where it would be possible to deny his mental illness. He was checked into NNMC five days later. The decision to house him on the 16th floor instead of the first floor was justified in the same way. Forrestal's condition was officially announced as "nervous and physical exhaustion"; his lead doctor, Captain Raines, diagnosed his condition as "depression" or "reactive depression".
As a person who prized anonymity and once stated that his hobby was "obscurity", Forrestal, with his policies, had been the constant target of vicious personal attacks from columnists, including Drew Pearson and Walter Winchell. Pearson's protégé, Jack Anderson, later asserted that Pearson "hectored Forrestal with innuendos and false accusations".
Forrestal seemed to be on the road to recovery, having regained since his admission into the hospital. However, in the early morning hours of May 22, his body, clad only in the bottom half of a pair of pajamas, was found on a third-floor roof below the sixteenth-floor kitchen across the hall from his room. Forrestal's alleged last written statement, touted in the contemporary press and later biographers as an implied suicide note, was part of a poem from W. M. Praed's translation of Sophocles' tragedy Ajax:
Fair Salamis, the billows' roar,
Wander around thee yet,
And sailors gaze upon thy shore
Firm in the Ocean set.
Thy son is in a foreign clime
Where Ida feeds her countless flocks,
Far from thy dear, remembered rocks,
Worn by the waste of time–
Comfortless, nameless, hopeless save
In the dark prospect of the yawning grave....
Woe to the mother in her close of day,
Woe to her desolate heart and temples gray,
When she shall hear
Her loved one's story whispered in her ear!
"Woe, woe!" will be the cry–
No quiet murmur like the tremulous wail
Of the lone bird, the querulous nightingale–
The official Navy review board, which completed hearings on May 31, waited until October 11, 1949, to release only a brief summary of its findings. The announcement, as reported on page 15 of the October 12 New York Times, stated only that Forrestal had died from his fall from the window. It did not say what might have caused the fall, nor did it make any mention of a bathrobe sash cord that had first been reported as tied around his neck. The full report was released by the Department of the Navy in April 2004.
He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, in Arlington, Virginia.Hoopes and Brinkley Driven Patriot, p. 469, Naval Institute Press, 2000 .
The Forrestal Diaries
Forrestal's diaries from 1944 to March 1949 were serialised in the New York Herald Tribune in 1951, and published as a 581-page book The Forrestal Diaries, edited by Walter Millis in October 1951. They were censored prior to publication. Adam Matthew Publications Ltd. published a microfilm of the complete and unexpurgated diaries in 2001, from the originals preserved in the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University; a digital edition was released in January 2020. An example of censorship is the removal of the following account of a conversation with Truman: "He referred to Hitler as an egomaniac. The result is we shall have a Slav Europe for a long time to come. I don't think it is so bad."
Possible Conflicted personality
Biographer Arnold Rogow explores the pathos and tragedy of Forrestal's tormented life. He was brought up in a rigidly Catholic environment where harsh discipline gave the boy doubts about himself that were never overcome by his many achievements. He compensated by emphasizing toughness in terms of physicality and morality – he had no use for slackers or cowards. He felt war was a necessity and negotiation was possible only alongside military's parity or superiority. This intensity alienated his colleagues, as he focused his fears on Communists and Zionists. He abandoned his religion and his Irish community, but was never at ease on Wall Street, where he suspected and envied its rich and wellborn WASP elite. Although his brilliance and energy made him a favorite of President Roosevelt, he profoundly distrusted liberalism and never championed the New Deal.Arnold A. Rogow, James Forrestal,: A study of personality, politics, and policy (1963).
Awards
Forrestal was awarded both the Distinguished Service Medal and the Medal of Merit by President Truman.
In popular culture
The James V. Forrestal Building in Washington, D.C., completed in 1969, is named for him.
The J. V. Forrestal Elementary School at 125 Liberty Street in Beacon, New York, his hometown, is named for him.
Forrestal Elementary School in the Great Lakes military housing area is named for him.
In the 1994 television movie Roswell, Forrestal is portrayed by Eugene Roche. He is depicted as sitting on a commission concerning the Roswell UFO incident and advocating the eventual release of information to the public. The film treats his death and classified diary as highly suspicious.
An opera concerning the conspiracy theories behind Forrestal's death, Nightingale: The Last Days of James Forrestal composed by Evan Hause with a libretto by Gary Heidt, premiered in New York City at the Present Company Theatorium on May 19, 2002.
In The Golden Age, a DC Comics Elseworlds "imaginary story" four-issue prestige format mini-series by James Robinson (writer) and Paul Smith (artist), Forrestal's death is shown to have been a murder. Forrestal is pushed from the window of his Bethesda Naval Hospital room by the Golden Age Robotman.
In the PC game Area 51 one of the secret documents the player can collect talks about the Majestic 12 initiative being threatened with "receiving the same punishment as his last secretary, Forrestal", implying the murder of Forrestal was to cover his operation from the public.
In the anime OVA series Mobile Suit Gundam 0083: Stardust Memory, a secret document is briefly viewable in the eighth episode that mentions the death of a Secretary Forrestal. It goes on to say that a "vacancy" was left due to his death until he was replaced by an unnamed general.
In the 2002 HBO TV movie Path to War, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara (portrayed by Alec Baldwin) hauntingly recounts the story of James Forrestal's dismissal and suicide to speechwriter Richard Goodwin (portrayed by James Frain).
In the 2006 film Flags of Our Fathers, Forrestal was played by Michael Cumpsty.
The story of James Forrestal is prominently featured in Chapter 4 of the Oliver Stone popular documentary series Oliver Stone's Untold History of the United States, which aired on Showtime in 2012–13.
The later part of Forrestal's life, including his marriage and his death, is a large part of Majic Man by Max Allan Collins.
In 2017, the final episode of Netflix Miniseries Wormwood implies that Forrestal’s death may have been one of a series of deaths labeled as suicides that were actually covert assassinations by the CIA.
The 2020 film The 11th Green suggests that in 1949, Forrestal was preparing to make public proof of alien visitations and technology, and was forced by two Men in Black to choose between committing suicide or seeing his entire family killed. A title slide over the last shot of the movie says "Dedicated to the Memory of James V. Forrestal (1892-1949), who understood the significance of the events and sought to act honorably amid treachery."
See also
Frank Olson, a CIA scientist who plummeted from a high building to his death in 1953
References
Further reading
Mary Akashah and Donald Tennant (1980). "Madness and Politics: The Case of James Forrestal" (PDF). Proceedings of the Oklahoma Academy of Science 60: 89–92. Retrieved on 2007-09-09. Refutes the idea that Forrestal's "policies and positions were somehow the products of a diseased mind."
Robert G. Albion and Robert H. Connery, Forrestal and the Navy (1962), a major study.
Carl W. Borklund, Men of the Pentagon: From Forrestal to McNamara (1966)
Demetrios Caraley, The Politics of Military Unification (1966)
Robert H. Connery, The Navy and Industrial Mobilization in World War II (1951)
Cornell, Cecelia. "Understanding Forrestal," Psychohistory Review 21#3 (1993) 329–38
Jeffrey M. Dorwart, Eberstadt and Forrestal, A National Security Partnership, 1909–1949 (College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 1991)
Jeffrey M. Dorwart, "James Forrestal" American National Biography (2000), short scholarly biography.
Paul Y. Hammond, Organizing for Defense: The American Military Establishment in the Twentieth Century (1961).
Michael J. Hogan. "The Vice Men of Foreign Policy" Reviews in American History (1993) 21#2 pp. 320–28 online
Townsend Hoopes and Douglas Brinkley, Driven Patriot, the Life and Times of James Forrestal (1992), scholarly biography
David Martin, The Assassination of James Forrestal, 2nd edition (McCabe Publishing, 2021)
M. J. Meaker, Sudden Endings, 13 Profiles in Depth of Famous Suicides (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1964), p. 46–66: "Patriot's Record: James Forrestal"
Walter Millis ed., The Forrestal Diaries (New York: Viking, 1951)
Arnold A. Rogow, James Forrestal, A Study of Personality, Politics, and Policy (Macmillan Publishers, 1963)
Arnold A. Rogow, "Private illness and public policy: The case of James Forrestal and John Winant" The American Journal of Psychiatry 125#8 (1969) pp. 1093–98
Cornell Simpson, The Death of James Forrestal'' (Western Islands, 1969)
External links
DoD biography (includes more details of DoD formation process and budget negotiations)
Annotated bibliography for James Forrestal from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
The Last Salute: Civil and Military Funeral, 1921–1969, Chapter V, Former Secretary of Defense James V. Forrestal, Official Funeral, 22–25 May 1949 by B. C. Mossman and M. W. Stark. United States Army Center of Military History.
Admiral M.D. Willcutts Report, 1949 (pdf). Or in searchable html.
Diaries of James V. Forrestal, 1944–1949
James V. Forrestal Papers at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University
Arnold A. Rogow Papers on James V. Forrestal at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University
Media
1892 births
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Military personnel from New York (state)
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Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
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222302 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turey%20El%20Ta%C3%ADno | Turey El Taíno | Turey El Taíno is a Puerto Rican publication that remains the most long-standing local comic to date. Originally available in stand-alone magazines and in a strip featured on the now defunct El Mundo newspaper, Turey debuted in news stands on October 26, 1989. Published by Editorial Manos and written and drawn by Ricardo Álvarez-Rivón, Turey shows its readers the way the Taínos used to live before Puerto Rico was discovered by Christopher Columbus and his crew. It also depicts the many different words and instruments they used and how they battled their arch-enemies, the Caribs. Between 1991 and 2006, Turey strips were published in El Nuevo Día. Álvarez-Rivón continues to write and illustrate the Turey comic strips with the collaboration of his wife, Magali Álvarez-Rivón.
In 1999, the USPS's Hato Rey station honored the magazine by nicknaming the station the Turey station.
Publication history
Puerto Rican artist Jorge Rechani first instructed Álvarez Rivón in basic illustration at Colegio San José, from where he graduated in 1968. During this timeframe, he had become heavily invested in comics, avidly following the work of Will Eisner and other authors. Despite emphasizing in his professional career, Álvarez Rivón continued to practice and refine his illustration abilities. In 1979, he became the Art Director of a magazine named Torito y sus amiguitos (lit. "Torito and friends") and worked along José Miguel Agrelot, where he first published what he later referred to as a "precursor to Turey". Álvarez Rivón's work in Torito y sus amiguitos, headlined by Coquí Lindo, featured the same educational content that he would later use in Turey. He continued to publish these for a period of approximately four years. As a reader of other Latin American comic series such as Condorito and Mafalda, Álvarez Rivón felt that Puerto Rico needed its own autochthonous series. Due to his work in public relations, he identified that this niche was unexploited.
Aided by his wife, Magali J. Meléndez, Álvarez Rivón then began the process of creating Turey, a character that he intended to portray as a "Puerto Rican hero" that could serve as a positive role model for children, but without being excessively theatric or unrealistic. In his efforts to create a relatable character, he noted that Turey was never meant to be a superhero, "he was not Superman […] he was a human character". When the approach to the character was tilting towards idealism, Meléndez contributed to keep it more realistic. At the time there were some comic authors in Puerto Rico such as Pepe Vázquez and Pedro Cortés, but none were employing the cultural aspects that Álvarez Rivón included in Turey. After settling on the idea that a Puerto Rican Taíno was the best choice for the main character, he invested heavily in familiarizing himself with their culture and customs, buying several history books in an effort to make his work as didactic as possible. The name choose is the Taíno word for "sky". After deciding that the best format was to print the comic in magazines, Álvarez Rivón and Meléndez began pursuing someone that could finance their work. However, after visiting several banks, their own personal savings were used along some sponsors. To reduce production costs, the couple was forced to contract a Miami-based print works. Hurricane Hugo delayed the debut of the series, since it prevented the copies from shipping. Originally intended for the first week of the month, the first issue of Turey was published on October 26, 1989.
Only three days later, the comic strip variant debuted in the Gente Joven (lit. "Young People") section of the now-defunct El Mundo. All of the original comics employed the same format, a fully colored cover featuring the series’ logo and its slogan, ACCIÓN, ENTRETENIMIENTO, AVENTURA (lit. "Action, Entertainment, Adventure"), with black-and-white interior art. However, the newspaper variant featured colored strips. Turey was self-published by Editorial Manos, with Álvarez Rivón in charge of illustrating and writing while Meléndez was in charge of distribution. Approx. 10,000 of each issue were printed monthly and sold in several businesses, including pharmacies and other unorthodox places. Initially, around 5,000 or 6,000 remained unsold, which were then stored by advertising agencies and later
redistributed as promotional material. The number of copies was later limited to 7,000-8,000 monthly copies. This first effort did cost them some losses, something that they solved by innovating their approach. Meléndez decided to expand the brand by selling the Turey character as a mascot to several companies. Locally, it replaced Ernie Keebler as Keebler Company's mascot.
The government also adopted Turey, first becoming the image of the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority. This was followed by an alliance with the Puerto Rico Department of Education, which led to the creation of seven publications. A van labelled with Turey el Taíno el cómic de aquí: el cómic número uno de Puerto Rico (lit. "Turey the Taíno the local comic: the number one comic in Puerto Rico") was used to promote the publication, traveling as far as Mayagüez and working along drink bottler Malta India and radio station Sistema 102. The year after El Mundo closed, El Nuevo Día's Graphic Director and a comic enthusiast himself, José Luis Díaz de Villegas, brought the Turey comic strip to that newspaper. There the sequences were featured in a section titled Muñequitos (lit. "Cartoons") of the En Grande (lit. "In a Big Way") Sunday supplement. Turey shared this space with several local comics, including Nadia Martín's Tuta y Tita and Nick Ianone's Paladín El Cacique y los Campeadores Boricuas, as well as foreign publications. However, the section was systematically reduced to create space and reduce costs, eventually disappearing. Despite this, Turey survived and continued being published in the children-friendly Mi Pequeño Día (lit. "My Little Day"), being joined by Martín Gaudier's Tato y Kenepo.
Afterwards, Álvarez Rivón made an effort to bring the character to contemporary relevancy. In its original run, the Turey comic book magazines published 35 issues, with the last one being released on June 1995. This was the longest run of a stand-alone comic book magazine in Puerto Rico. In its newspaper format, the comic strips continued to be published on a regular basis. Eventually, the supplement's editor, Josefina Barceló, requested that the Turey strips were simplified and easier to understand. However, Álvarez Rivón and Meléndez did not agree with this, feeling that it would damage its intellectual property. Barceló's demands were regarded as ridiculous and heavily deviated from its source material, with the artist noting particular discontent with an Easter strip where Turey was depicted practicing the Anglo-Saxon tradition of finding Easter eggs. After growing frustrations, Álvarez Rivón and Meléndez decided to withdraw the comic strip from El Nuevo Día in 2006, ending a 15-year run in that newspaper. The decision was made public in one last strip, which almost went unpublished.
Art style
Throughout the years, Turey has featured the work of several illustrators and artists. Among them are Arturo Vilmenay, David Álvarez, and Reynaldo León, who went on to create their own series and characters. However, this also led to wildly fluctuating and contrasting art styles. In its initial form, Álvarez Rivón employed an art style that heavily incorporated textures and emphasized lighting and shadowing which has been described as "attractive [and] dynamic". His work featured aspects from older cartoon and comic strips, such as the employment of onomatopoeias and visual metaphors. His use of facial expressions bears a resemblance to that of Quino. Álvarez Rivón also used this art style to convey environmental hazards and other panoramic features. Lettering of the speech balloons was done by hand, and also featured the work of Vilmenay, who employed a different style for the character of Baracutey to emphasize his emotionless demeanor. The topic of issue 32 was based on a suggestion of Vilmenay, where the sister of a now deceased Baracutey steals his body bent on revenge, with the artist providing a realistic and detailed cover that distanced itself from Álvarez Rivón's style to depict a more vile and dark character.
Of the guest artists, León was the one that took more liberty with the artistic license. His work in issues 14, 33, 34 and 35 was notably cartoonish, heavily depending on exaggeration to emphasize its humor. David Álvarez collaborated with illustrations in issues 20, 22, 23 and 25, also inking issue 21. Finally, Pepe "J.H. Vazz" Vázquez's guest artist collaboration deviates from the art style used by all other artists, employing his personal illustration and shadowing style. Despite these variations, the content of the comic remained unchanged, with Álvarez Rivón noting that regardless of the illustration quality his priority was always the quality of the script. All of these artists, and several invited guests such as Eddie Ortiz, Nadia Martín, Paco López, Vicente Avilés, Freddy Camareno and Arturo Yépez, were featured in interviews included within the comics.
Characters
Turey: family leader, adventurer, father of Tureycito.
Tureycito: son of Turey, inquisitive, acts like a child because he is a child.
Yaya: wife of Turey.
Batu: comedic character, always prefers to stay on the safe side of things.
Baracutey: cold blooded warrior, but loyal to his friends. He possesses almost inhuman strength and many times is portrayed fighting sharks and other hard to beat opponents.
Mambi: leader of the Caribs, who later befriends Turey
Plot
Set in 1490, only two years before the arrival of Christopher Columbus to the Americas, the comic follows the life of a Taíno yucayeque or village in the island of Borikén (Puerto Rico). Among them was a member of the worker naboría class named Turey, who despite being significantly shorter than his counterparts, dreamed of becoming a member of cacique Yaguaca's royal guard. The series also follows the exploits of his family, particularly his wife Yaya and his son Tureycito, as well as his finds and other members of the village. Eventually, Turey's courage earned him the respect of his yucayeque. In its different issues, Álvarez Rivón covers different aspects of Taíno culture, ranging from their complete reliance on nature to their territorial disputes with the neighboring Carib tribes. However, these aspects are included as part of a larger story, which in turn balance its educational content with entertainment. After its third issue, the stories ended with a moral message authored by Meléndez. Each issue introduced new words from the Taíno language, with their meaning being discussed in detail in a section titled Vocabulario Taíno (lit. "Taíno Vocabulary") included towards the end of each magazine. The newspaper strips relaxed this dynamic, focusing on a humorous approach that sometimes bordered on the absurd, surreal or hypothetical. From 2000 onwards, Turey was more often depicted in large single-panel strips depicting his reaction when placed in contemporary situations or historical events, a change based on the editorial decisions of El Nuevo Día's staff.
Reception
Finding original copies of the comics is difficult, something that has made it a sought after item among collectors. The entire collection is available in two volumes, and the cost of each has been estimated to be $150 per book. Turey earned the approval of author Abelardo Díaz Alfaro, who congratulated Álvarez Rivón on both his illustrations and the comic's capacity to transmit educational material about the Taínos. Likewise, Ricardo Alegría praised its timing, noting that the publication appeared just when it was needed, in years after native archeological sites were being unearthed in Tibes and Caguana. Despite featuring an art style that mostly appealed to preteens and teenagers, Turey was followed by children as young as 9-years old and was used as a resource by several school teachers. The popularity gathered during its initial run allowed the brand to expand, eventually branching into other products. Among these was a puppet show featuring Turey, Yaya and Tureycito, which was mostly a musical albeit with educational content. The marionettes were handled by two independent performers. The shows gathered contracts with the government and other entities, often being sponsored by corporations such as Mattel or Coca-Cola. Likewise, the Puerto Rico Department of Education sponsored several related presentations.
Its local popularity opened doors beyond Puerto Rico, with anglosaxon McGraw-Hill publishing a licensed English book titled Laugh 'n' Learn Spanish: Turey el Taíno, authored by Brenda Wegmann and Llanca Letelier. However, not all of the international attention gathered was positive. On three separate occasions, Turey was plagiarized by foreign publishers. In October 2005, WAPA-TV gave Turey its first television segment in its morning newscast, Noticentro 4 Al Amanecer (lit. "Noticentro 4 in the Morning"). El Mensaje Positivo de Turey el Taíno (lit. "The Positive Message of Turey the Taíno") was animated with Adobe Flash, and in 30-second vignettes the character would transmit a motivational message. In November 2017, the character migrated to Univision Puerto Rico where it served as a host of educational segments named Aprendiendo con Turey el Taíno (lit. "Learning with Turey the Taíno"), ending a decade in its previous television spot.
The Institute of Puerto Rican Culture honored Turey by publishing a book about the character, which included a collection of the comic strips. Turey is also the principal figure on an educational pamphlet published by El Nuevo Día Educador ("ENDE"). The United States Postal Service honored Turey and his creator in 1999, by presenting a cancelled postal stamp and renaming the postal station in Plaza Las Americas in San Juan, Puerto Rico, the "Turey Postal Station". On November 10, 1999, The Puerto Rican House of Representatives, honored Álvarez Rivón and presented him with a plaque. The titular character received a recognition during the 2013 San Sebastián Festival, an annual cultural event celebrated in the vicinity of Old San Juan.
References
External links
Ricardo Álvarez Rivón's Turey webpage (in Spanish)
Comics publications | [
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222303 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gringo | Gringo | Gringo (, , ) (masculine) (or gringa (feminine)) is a term in Spanish and Portuguese for a foreigner, usually an English-speaking American of European descent. There are differences in meaning depending on region and country. In Latin America, it is generally used to refer to non-Latin Americans. The term is often considered disparaging in English, and in the United States its usage and offensiveness is disputed.
The word derives from the term used by the Spanish for a Greek person: griego. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first recorded use in English comes from John Woodhouse Audubon's Western Journal of 1849–1850, in which Audubon reports that his party was hooted and shouted at and called "Gringoes" while passing through the town of Cerro Gordo, Veracruz.
Etymology
The word gringo originally referred to any kind of foreigner. It was first recorded in 1787 in the Spanish Diccionario castellano con las voces de Ciencias y Artes:
The most likely theory is that it originates from griego ('Greek'), used in the same way as the English phrase "it's Greek to me". Spanish is known to have used Greek as a stand-in for incomprehensibility, though now less common, such as in the phrase hablar en griego (lit. 'to speak Greek'). The 1817 Nuevo diccionario francés-español, for example, gives gringo and griego as synonyms in this context:
This derivation requires two steps: griego > grigo, and grigo > gringo. Corominas notes that while the first change is common in Spanish (e.g. priesa to prisa), there is no perfect analogy for the second, save in Old French (Gregoire to Grigoire to Gringoire). However, there are other Spanish words whose colloquial form contains an epenthetic n, such as gordiflón and gordinflón ('chubby'), and Cochinchina and Conchinchina ('South Vietnam'). It is also possible that the final form was influenced by the word jeringonza, a game like Pig Latin also used to mean "gibberish".
Alternatively, it has been suggested that gringo could derive from the Caló language, the language of the Romani people of Spain, as a variant of the hypothetical *peregringo, 'peregrine', 'wayfarer', 'stranger'.
Folk etymologies
There are several folk etymologies that purport to derive the origin of gringo from word coincidences. Many of these folk etymologies date the word to the Mexican–American War (1846–1848):
Gringo is a result of American troops singing songs which began with "Green grows..." such as "Green Grow the Rushes, O", "Green Grow the Lilacs", and various others.
Another theory involves locals yelling "Green, go home!" at invading American soldiers (sometimes in conflicts other than the Mexican–American War), in reference to their supposedly green uniforms.
Another derives from the Irish "Erin go bragh" ("Ireland forever"), which served as the motto for Saint Patrick's Battalion who fought alongside the Mexican army.
Regional usage
Argentina
The word gringo is mostly used in rural areas following the original Spanish meaning. Gringo in Argentina was used to refer to non-Spanish European immigrants who first established agricultural colonies in the country. The word was used for Swiss, German, Polish, Italian and other immigrants, but since the Italian immigrants were the larger group, the word primarily referred to Italians in the lunfardo argot. It also found use in the intermittent exercise Gringo-Gaucho between Argentine Naval Aviation and US Navy aircraft carriers. More recently, young people may use gringo to refer to US citizens.
Brazil
In Brazil, the word gringo means "foreigner" and has no connection to physical characteristics or specific countries. For example, foreign football players in the Brazilian Championship that come from other Latin American countries are referred to as "gringos" by the sports media and by sports fans. Tourists are called gringos regardless of their ethnic origins (i.e. Latin Americans or people from other regions, like Europe).
As the word has no connection to physical appearance in Brazil, black African or African American foreigners are also called gringos. Popularly used terms for fair-skinned and blond people are generally based in specific nationalities, like "alemão" (i.e., German), "russo" (Russian) or, in some regions, "galego" (Galician) which are used for both Brazilians and foreigners with such characteristics, regardless of national or ethnic origins.
Mexico
In Mexico, the use of the word "gringo" has been reserved for people from the U.S., especially white people, since the end of the 19th century.
The term is mentioned in its meaning of "incomprehensible language" from the 18th century (1789) to the 1830s, but also to indicate foreign troops, at first, coming from Spain in the second half of the 18th century. A text published in Mexico, but written by a Spaniard, denigrates a Mexican from Sonora for speaking "gringo", in reference to the indigenous language. After the Mexican-American War, gringo began to be used for citizens from that country, with expressions such as "American gringo" or simply gringo, attested as in popular use in Tepetitlán in 1849. Since then, gringo became a way to designate United States citizens exclusively.
United States
In the United States, gringo is often used by Latino Americans to refer to white Americans. It is considered to be a racial slur targeted towards white people but it may also refer to any person that is not Latino. Among the US Latino communities it may also disparagingly refer to another Latino person perceived to not be culturally Latino, e.g. inability to speak Spanish.
Other regions
In Bolivia, Honduras, Nicaragua and Peru, the term is used for referring to blonde people.
Other uses
Food
In Mexican cuisine, a gringa is a flour tortilla with al pastor pork meat with cheese, heated on a comal and optionally served with a salsa de chile (chilli sauce). Some attribute the name to the white flour used.
Activism
In 1969, José Ángel Gutiérrez, one of the leaders of the Mexican American Youth Organization, said his and MAYO's use of the term, rather than referring to non-Latinos, referred to people or institutions with policies or attitudes that reflect racism and violence.
See also
Notes
References
1780s neologisms
Anti-Americanism
Pejorative terms for white people
Ethnic and religious slurs
Mexican slang
Mexican Spanish
Mexican-American history
Spanish words and phrases
Portuguese words and phrases
Social rejection | [
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222305 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All | All | All or ALL may refer to:
Language
All, an indefinite pronoun in English
All, one of the English determiners
Allar language (ISO 639-3 code)
Allative case (abbreviated ALL)
Music
All (band), an American punk rock band
All (All album), 1999
All (Descendents album) or the title song, 1987
All (Horace Silver album) or the title song, 1972
All (Yann Tiersen album), 2019
"All" (song), by Patricia Bredin, representing the UK at Eurovision 1957
"All (I Ever Want)", a song by Alexander Klaws, 2005
"All", a song by Collective Soul from Hints Allegations and Things Left Unsaid, 1994
Science and mathematics
ALL (complexity), the class of all decision problems in computability and complexity theory
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia
Anterolateral ligament
Sports
American Lacrosse League
Arena Lacrosse League, Canada
Australian Lacrosse League
Other uses
All, Missouri, a community in the United States
All, a brand of Sun Products
Albanian lek (ISO 4217 currency code)
See also
Awl (disambiguation)
Alle (disambiguation)
Allyl group
"For all", a Universal quantification in predicate logic, represented by ∀ | [
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222307 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koichi%20Domoto | Koichi Domoto | is a Japanese idol, singer, actor, singer-songwriter, composer, lyricist, television personality, voice actor. Along with Tsuyoshi Domoto (with whom he has no blood-relation), he is a member of the duo KinKi Kids, who holds the Guinness World Records for having the most consecutive No.1 singles since debut and the most consecutive years with a Japanese No.1 single, and is one of the top 20 best-selling artists of all time in Japan.
Although Domoto also actively works as a television actor and host, he is most famous for his musical SHOCK series, which he participates as the lead actor and director at the same time. SHOCK series started at the Tokyo Imperial Theatre in 2000, making him the youngest Zachō (chairman and lead role) and the first idol to perform at Imperial Theatre. With more than 1800 performances, SHOCK series is now the most-performed musical and the second most-performed theatre with a single-lead in Japan. In 2018, he starred in musical Knights’ Tale directed by John Caird as well.
Career
Born in Ashiya, Hyōgo, Japan, Domoto joined the Japanese talent agency Johnny & Associates at the age of 12 after his sister sent in his application without his knowledge. Domoto and his bandmate Tsuyoshi Domoto first worked together as back-dancers for Hikaru Genji, who were holding a concert at Yokohama Arena, and has since then been partnered up for magazine photoshoots, music acts and drama projects. The duo eventually made their debut in 1997 with a double release of a single Garasu no Shōnen and an album A Album, both of which went on to sell over a million copies.
Theatre
In 1993, Domoto played in his first stage in SMAP's ANOTHER. As early as in 1994, he expressed his enthusiasm of musical, saying that his dream was to "play in musicals that have singing, dancing and acting" in an interview. In 1997, he played in the stage kyotokyo with many others from Johnny & Associates. He managed to star as the lead (or Zachō in Japanese) in musical MASK'99 in Nissay Theatre in 1999.
In November 2000, Domoto played the lead role in musical MILLENNIUM SHOCK, becoming the youngest Zachō and also the first idol to play the lead at Tokyo Imperial Theatre. Since then, SHOCK series has continued to perform every year. The title was changed to Shōgeki・SHOCK, SHOCK is Real SHOCK and Shocking SHOCK in the following years but had the similar story. In 2005, it was revised to Endless SHOCK and the story was changed completely. Domoto started to participate as the director and composed several songs since this year. In April 2008, the long-running musical Endless SHOCK was awarded the Grand Prize of the 33rd Kazuo Kikuta Drama Awards for theatre. In January 2012, Endless SHOCK was performed at Hakata-za in Fukuoka, which was the first time for the musical to be performed in places other than Tokyo. On March 21, 2013, Endless SHOCK welcomed its 1000th performance, making it the forth theatre to reach 1000 performances in Japan. It was also brought to Umeda Arts Theatre in Osaka in September 2013. After its 1408th performance on October 26, 2014, Endless SHOCK overtook Matsumoto Hakuō II's Japanese version of Man of La Mancha to become the most-performed musical and the second most-performed theatre with single lead-starring in Japan. In April 2020, Domoto alone was awarded the Grand Prize of the 45th Kazuo Kikuta Drama Awards for his achievement for leading SHOCK series for twenty years, becoming the youngest single winner of this award. SHOCK series reached its 1800th performance on February 12, 2021.
Domoto has also participated in some other theatres. In November 2010, he played in stage Shichinin no Samurai produced by Kansai Yamamoto, which was an adaptation of Seven Samurai. From July to September 2018, he starred as Arcite in John Caird's musical Knights’ Tale, which was an adaptation of William Shakespeare's The Two Noble Kinsmen, at Imperial Theatre. Since 2019, Domoto took over the position of director of another musical DREAM BOYS produced by Johnny & Associates and played by his junior colleagues.
The premiere of MILLENNIUM SHOCK in 2000 at Imperial Theatre was very controversial since it was also the first time a theatre from Johnny & Associates to be performed there. It was believed that idols were unqualified to stand at the most famous and important theatre in Japan, let alone playing the lead at the age of 21. However, SHOCK gradually becomes one of the most important musicals at Imperial Theatre and one of the representing Japanese original musicals. In 2018, Domoto played the lead in Endless SHOCK and Knights’ Tale from February to March and from July to August respectively at Imperial Theatre, becoming the fourth person in history and the first person in 26 years to play a lead for four months in a year at Imperial Theatre. After the success of SHOCK, several other stages from Johnny & Associates and musicals starred idols from other companies started to be performed at Imperial Theatre, and Domoto is credited for broadening the career of musical actors for idols.
Acting
After joining Johnny & Associates, Domoto played his first role in movie 200X Nen Shō in 1992 and first role in drama Aiyo Nemuranaide in 1993. From July 1994 to September 1994, Domoto and his bandmate Tsuyoshi appeared in drama Ningen Shikkaku, which had a peak rating of 28.9% on its final episode. In 1994 and 1995, he starred as the main male role in move Ie Naki Ko and the drama Ie Naki Ko 2, which had a rating of 31.9% on its final episode. He gained unprecedented popularity through these works even though he had not formally debuted as KinKi Kids. From January to March 1996, he played two roles, Ginrō Fuwa and Kōsuke Fuwa, in drama Ginrō Kaiki File: Futatsu No Zunō Wo Motsu Shōnen, which had an average rating of more than 20%. He also starred together with his bandmate Tsuyoshi for their second drama together in Wakaba No Koro in 1996.
On August 23, 1997, Domoto starred in his first drama after debut in Yūki To Iu Koto, as a special drama corner of NTV's annual telethon 24-Hour Television, in which KinKi Kids were also appointed as the main host. The drama had a rating of 26.3%, becoming the highest rated 24-Hour Television special drama at the time, and it is still the second highest one until now. From October to December 1997, Domoto and his bandmate Tsuyoshi Domoto starred in their third drama together called Bokura no Yūki Miman City. Since then, Domoto starred in one drama every year, which all received relative high ratings. He shifted his focus to musicals after starring in Remote from October to December 2002, where he won the best supporting actor in the 35th Drama Academy Award.
In 2006, Domoto starred in his first drama in four years as the lead in Kinō Kōen, which was part of TV special Tales of The Unusual 2006 Autumn Special Drama. In July 2007, Domoto starred as the lead in a drama entitled Sushi Ōji!, where he played the role of a martial artist training in the art of sushi. In addition, the sequel movie Ginmaku Ban Sushi Ōji!: New York e Iku was released on April 19, 2008. It was his first movie appearance since the 1994 movie Ienaki Ko.
On March 7, 2015, Domoto played Kazumi Ishioka in his first drama in nearly eight years in Tensai Tantei Mitarai Nankai Jiken File: Kasa o Oru Onna, which was an adaptation of Soji Shimada's Detective Kiyoshi Mitarai Series. On September 13, 2015, he played Minamoto no Hiromasa in Onmyōji. To commemorate the 20th anniversary of KinKi Kids, the sequel of 1997 drama Bokura no Yūki Miman City was broadcast as a special drama Bokura no Yūki Miman City: 2017 in NTV, where Domoto played the same character as before.
Music
In the early days after KinKi Kids debuted, Domoto had several solo songs credited as KinKi Kids in their albums. He held his first solo concert tour in 2004, mainly performing his solo songs in group albums and songs from SHOCK. On January 11, 2006, he released his first CD album Koichi Domoto「Endless Shock」Original Sound Track, but was not regarded as his solo debut. The album peaked in Oricon and became the first musical soundtrack album to reach No.1, winning the Soundtrack album of the year in 21st Japan Gold Disc Award. He made his official CD debut on July 12, 2006, with a release of single Deep in your heart/+MILLION but -LOVE, followed by the release of album Mirror on September 13.
On April 30, 2008, Domoto released a new single No More under the name of "Tsukasa Maizu", the character he played in Sushi Ōji!, as the theme song of the movie Ginmaku Ban Sushi Ōji!: New York e Iku. His second single Ayakashi was released on July 29, 2009. On September 1, 2010, Domoto released BPM, his first solo album in four years. On October 3, 2012, Domoto released his third solo album Gravity, which ranked the first in Oricon. Domoto released his first DVD/Blu-ray single INTERACTIONAL/SHOW ME UR MONSTER on June 10, 2015, followed by his fourth solo album Spiral on July 8. On April 19, 2017, the second original soundtrack of his musical Endless SHOCK was released. On June 2, 2021, Domoto released his fifth solo album PLAYFUL and topped in Oricon. The album also featured a collaboration short movie made by Square Enix, in which Domoto himself and a CG version of him starred together.
Domoto wrote his first song in KinKi Kids's music variety LOVE LOVE Aishiteru in 1997, where they were required to learn guitar and write songs. Since then, he wrote a great number of songs, mainly devoted to the group, his solo work and musical SHOCK. He composed several No.1 winning singles for KinKi Kids and himself, such as Suki ni Natteku Aishitteku (2000), Deep in your heart (2006), Family~Hitotsu ni Naru Koto (2010) and Topaz Love (2018). In 2002, Domoto wrote the lyrics for and composed KinKi Kids' single solitude~Honto no Sayonara~ , which was also the theme song for his drama Remote, under the pen name "K.Dino". The single also reached No.1 in Oricon and won the best theme song in the 35th Drama Academy Award. The song Ai no Katamari of KinKi Kids he composed in 2001 was voted as the most loved song by fans in an official voting held for creation of KinKi Kids's 10th anniversary compilation album 39 in 2007. He composed various songs used in his musical Endless SHOCK. Domoto has also provided songs for other artists from Johnny & Associates, such as NEWS, Hideaki Takizawa, and the musical DREAM BOYS.
Discography
Studio albums
Singles
Video albums
Solo activities
Concerts and Events
KOICHI DOMOTO LIVE TOUR 2004 1/2 (Concert tour; March 29 – June 5, 2004)
KOICHI DOMOTO Presents IT LOOKS BACK UPON 1/2 (Event; November 1, 2004)
KOICHI DOMOTO CONCERT TOUR 2006 "mirror" 〜The Music Mirrors My Feeling〜 (Concert tour; September 13 – October 3, 2006)
Koichi Domoto CONCERT TOUR 2009 Best Performance And Music (Concert tour; August 15 – October 12, 2009)
KOICHI DOMOTO CONCERT TOUR 2010 BPM (Concert tour; September 11 – November 14, 2010)
KOICHI DOMOTO 2011 BPM Concerts in Seoul, Taipei (Concert tour in Korea and Taiwan; September 9 – October 2, 2011)
KOICHI DOMOTO 2012 "Gravity" (Concert tour; September 23 – December 16, 2012)
KOICHI DOMOTO LIVE TOUR 2015 Spiral (Concert tour; July 12 – August 21, 2015)
KOICHI DOMOTO LIVE TOUR 2021 PLAYFUL (Concert tour: June 20 - August 12, 2021)
Television (as personality)
Television (as actor)
Anime
Jyu Oh Sei (Fuji TV: May 18, 2006 – June 22, 2006)
Movies
200X Nen Shō (Humax: November 14, 1992)
Shoot! (Shochiku: March 12, 1994)
Ie Naki Ko (Toho: December 17, 1994)
Ginmaku Ban Sushi Ōji!: New York e Iku (Warner Bros.: )
Endless SHOCK (Toho: February 1, 2021)
Musicals
Another (August 6, 1993 - August 24, 1993)
Mask'99 (January 6, 1999 - January 31, 1993)
SHOCK series
MILLENNIUM SHOCK (November 2–26, 2000: 38 shows): Lead Role
SHOW 劇・SHOCK (December 1, 2001 - January 7, 2002; June 4–28, 2002: 114 shows): Lead Role
SHOCK is Real Shock (January 8 - February 25, 2003: 76 shows): Lead Role
Shocking SHOCK (February 6–29, 2004: 38 shows): Lead Role
Endless SHOCK (2005 -): Lead Role
Knights' Tale (July 27 – October 15, 2018; 8 September - 30 November 2021): Lead role
Dubbing
Rush, James Hunt (Chris Hemsworth)
Publications
Book
When I become a fan (January 20, 2011; Sony Magazines) (compiled and edited from Domoto's serial F1 hymn in GRAND PRIX SPECIAL specialized magazine)
When I become a fan 2 (March 14, 2013; M-ON! Entertainment Inc.) (compiled and edited from Domoto's serial F1 hymn in GRAND PRIX SPECIAL specialized magazine)
The Entertainer Case (February 14, 2016; Nikkei Business Publications, Inc.) (compiled and edited from Domoto's serial The Entertainer Case in Nikkei Entertainment magazine)
Serial
F1 hymn「F1賛歌」in GRAND PRIX SPECIAL (February 2006 – January 2016)
Speed of Light Corner「光速コーナー」in Tokyo Chunichi Sports (2007 – December 1, 2012; 2017 –)
Domoto Koichi's Endless Days「Endless Days 〜堂本光一のオワラナイ日々〜」in Susumeru Pia! (February – December 2012)
The Entertainer Case「エンタテイナーの条件」in Nikkei Entertainment (September 2013 –)
Domoto Koichi – 0.1 second ecstasy「堂本光一 コンマ一秒の恍惚」in Weekly Playboy (October 2016 –)
Awards
2002: 6th Nikkan Sports Drama Grand Prix: Best Supporting Actor for Remote
2003: 35th Television Drama Academy Awards (Winter): Best Supporting Actor for Remote
2008: 33rd Kikuta Kazuo Drama Award: Grand Prize Award for high achievements in stage performance (together with Endless SHOCK staff and cast)
2020: 45th Kikuta Kazuo Drama Award: Grand Prize Award
References
External links
1979 births
Living people
Actors from Hyōgo Prefecture
Johnny & Associates
Japanese male composers
Japanese composers
Japanese male pop singers
Japanese male voice actors
Japanese male singer-songwriters
Japanese singer-songwriters
Japanese television personalities
Musicians from Hyōgo Prefecture
21st-century Japanese singers
21st-century Japanese male singers | [
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222309 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsuyoshi%20Domoto | Tsuyoshi Domoto | is a Japanese idol, singer, songwriter, actor, and television personality. Along with Koichi Domoto (with whom he has no blood-relation), he is a member of KinKi Kids, which is a Japanese duo under the management of Johnny & Associates and the record holder of Guinness World Records for having the record of the most consecutive number-one singles since their debut single.
Biography
Born in Nara, Domoto joined Johnny's Entertainment on May 5, 1991, which also the first time he met his future bandmate Koichi Domoto. The opportunity came while without his knowing, his mother and his 6-years-older sister sent his resume to the office. Domoto and his bandmate Koichi Domoto first worked together as backdancers for Hikaru Genji, who were holding a concert at Yokohama Arena, and has since then been partnered up for magazine photoshoots, music acts and drama projects. The duo starred in their first drama together called Ningen Shikkaku in 1994, in which Domoto was awarded Best Newcomer in the Television Drama Academy Awards.
With Koichi Domoto, he eventually made his debut in 1997 as KinKi Kids with a double release of a single "Garasu no Shōnen" and an album A Album, both of which went on to sell more than a million copies.
On May 29, 2002, Domoto released his first solo single, "Machi/Dekiai Logic", in which he penned and composed all the tracks. The single was used as the theme song for Domoto's lead-role drama Yume no California and it reached number 1 in the weekly chart. In the following month, Domoto started his career as an illustrator by publishing a book in collaboration with writer Shizuka Iziyuuin. They collaborated again for another book in 2003.
Domoto appeared in the 2003 drama Moto Kare, in which he co-starred for the second time with Ryōko Hirosue after their hit drama Summer Snow in 2000. In April 2004, Domoto once again provided the theme song for his lead-role drama Home Drama. This year, he won the 'Best Jeanist' award. The following year, Domoto acted in a movie, Fantastipo, with fellow Johnny's personality Taichi Kokubun. He paired with Toraji Haiji to release the theme song for the movie. The same year, Domoto starred in Hoshi ni Negai o (a.k.a. Wish Upon A Star), a TV drama produced by Disney and Fuji TV based on the true story of planetarium engineer Takayuki Ohira who designed Megastar II – the world's most advanced planetarium projector.
In 2006, Domoto put his acting career on hold and focused more on his music career. He began to release his solo work under the project name Endlicheri-Endlicheri. During his Endlicheri-Endlicheri era, Domoto released three singles which all topped the weekly charts and made him the second male soloist after Masahiko Kondo to have achieved five consecutive number one singles. He then renamed his solo project 244 Endli-x (pronounced "Tsuyoshi Endorikkusu") in 2008. He announced that he would go on his first concert tour as 244 Endli-x soon after, which began on March 29, 2008 at the Yokohama Arena and ended in Sendai on May 8, 2008. At the end of April, Domoto was appointed to be the first special ambassador for Nara tourism.
Domoto once again changed his solo project name in 2009 to and simultaneously released a single and an album on his birthday, April 10. In the same year, he released another single, "Rain", on September 9, which topped the Oricon Single Weekly Charts. Domoto also announced his collaboration with the hat brand CA4LA. Known as the fashion leader with unique style, Domoto was chosen by famous sports brand Adidas Originals to be the image character for its new campaign BE Originals which start on February 12, 2010.
On April 6, 2011, Domoto released his ninth single, "Eni o Yuite", which was recorded at shrines believed to have connections to Nara's entertainment and music industries. Another single, "Niji no Uta", was released in September 2011.
On June 28, 2017 it was revealed that Domoto would be hospitalized for one week after experiencing sudden deafness, otherwise known as sudden sensorineural hearing loss. Due to this, he was unable to attend TV Tokyo’s “Ongakusai 2017” broadcast on the same date with fellow bandmate Koichi. He was released the following week and was instructed to continue outpatient recovery. He returned to the stage after a 4 month hiatus, participating in the music festival "TV Asahi Dream Festival 2017" with Koichi on the 29th of October.
Domoto, once again changing his name to Endrecheri, released a new full length studio album titled "Naralien" on August 14, 2019. The album featured lead track "4 10 cake (Hot Cake) and brand new songs “FUNK TRON”, “Heki”, and “PURPLE FIRE”. Remakes of his older songs “Believe in intuition…” & “NIPPON” were also included. The album was released in three versions. Limited Edition A included a DVD containing the music video for the Album's lead track “4 10 cake (Hot cake)” and footage from ENDRECHERI’s performance at SUMMER SONIC 2018, while the Limited Edition B is packaged with a second DVD which includes an hour-long video centering around Tsuyoshi and his band members. The album charted #1 on the Oricon weekly Albums chart.
In the video for the album's lead track "4 10 cake (Hot Cake)" Domoto is seen singing and dancing with various different dancers including Japanese Choreographer Riehata.
Discography
Filmography
Film
Television
As an actor
As a personality
Japanese dub
Books
2002: Kimi to arukeba (Story by: Shizuka Iziyuuin, Illustration by: Domoto Tsuyoshi, Published by: Asahi Shimbun)
2003: Zuutto isshou. (Story by: Shizuka Iziyuuin, Illustration by: Domoto Tsuyoshi, Published by: Asahi Shimbun)
2005: Boku no Kutsu oto (Compilation of Domoto Tsuyoshi writing that serialize in Myojo from 1999 to 2005, Published by: Shueisha)
2006: Shoujiki I LOVE YOU (First Solo Photo-book, Published by: Tokyo Shimbun)
2009: Domoto Tsuyoshi to Atama no Naka (FINEBOYS Special Fashion Book, Published by: Hinode Publishing)
2010: Berlin (Published by: Shogakukan)
2014: Kokoro no Hanashi (Published by: KADOKAWA)
Concerts
Awards
1994: 2nd Television Drama Academy Awards (Summer): Best Newcomer for Ningen Shikkaku
1998: 2nd Nikkan Sports Drama Grand Prix (98–99): Best Actor for Ao no Jidai
1999: 22nd Television Drama Academy Awards (Summer): Best Actor for To Heart Koishite Shinitai
2000: 26th Television Drama Academy Awards (Summer): Best Actor for Summer Snow
2004: Best Jeanist of the Year
References
External links
Instagram
Twitter
1979 births
Living people
Funk musicians
Gan-Shin artists
Musicians from Nara Prefecture
People from Nara, Nara
Johnny & Associates
Japanese male pop singers
Japanese male rock singers
Japanese male actors
Japanese male singer-songwriters
Japanese singer-songwriters
Japanese television personalities
21st-century Japanese singers
21st-century Japanese male singers
Horikoshi High School alumni | [
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222313 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation%20evaluation | Formation evaluation | In petroleum exploration and development, formation evaluation is used to determine the ability of a borehole to produce petroleum. Essentially, it is the process of "recognizing a commercial well when you drill one".
Modern rotary drilling usually uses a heavy mud as a lubricant and as a means of producing a confining pressure against the formation face in the borehole, preventing blowouts. Only in rare and catastrophic cases, do oil and gas wells come in with a fountain of gushing oil. In real life, that is a blowout—and usually also a financial and environmental disaster. But controlling blowouts has drawbacks—mud filtrate soaks into the formation around the borehole and a mud cake plasters the sides of the hole. These factors obscure the possible presence of oil or gas in even very porous formations. Further complicating the problem is the widespread occurrence of small amounts of petroleum in the rocks of many sedimentary provinces. In fact, if a sedimentary province is absolutely barren of traces of petroleum, it is not feasible to continue drilling there.
The formation evaluation problem is a matter of answering two questions:
What are the lower limits for porosity, permeability and upper limits for water saturation that permit profitable production from a particular formation or pay zone; in a particular geographic area; in a particular economic climate.
Do any of the formations in the well under consideration exceed these lower limits.
It is complicated by the impossibility of directly examining the formation. It is, in short, the problem of looking at the formation indirectly.
Formation evaluation tools
Tools to detect oil and gas have been evolving for over a century. The simplest and most direct tool is well cuttings examination. Some older oilmen ground the cuttings between their teeth and tasted to see if crude oil was present. Today, a wellsite geologist or mudlogger uses a low powered stereoscopic microscope to determine the lithology of the formation being drilled and to estimate porosity and possible oil staining. A portable ultraviolet light chamber or "Spook Box" is used to examine the cuttings for fluorescence. Fluorescence can be an indication of crude oil staining, or of the presence of fluorescent minerals. They can be differentiated by placing the cuttings in a solvent filled watchglass or dimple dish. The solvent is usually carbon tetrachlorethane. Crude oil dissolves and then redeposits as a fluorescent ring when the solvent evaporates. The written strip chart recording of these examinations is called a sample log or mudlog.
Well cuttings examination is a learned skill. During drilling, chips of rock, usually less than about 1/8 inch (6 mm) across, are cut from the bottom of the hole by the bit. Mud, jetting out of holes in the bit under high pressure, washes the cuttings away and up the hole. During their trip to the surface they may circulate around the turning drillpipe, mix with cuttings falling back down the hole, mix with fragments caving from the hole walls and mix with cuttings travelling faster and slower in the same upward direction. They then are screened out of the mudstream by the shale shaker and fall on a pile at its base. Determining the type of rock being drilled at any one time is a matter of knowing the 'lag time' between a chip being cut by the bit and the time it reaches the surface where it is then examined by the wellsite geologist (or mudlogger as they are sometimes called). A sample of the cuttings taken at the proper time will contain the current cuttings in a mixture of previously drilled material. Recognizing them can be very difficult at times, for example after a "bit trip" when a couple of miles of drill pipe has been extracted and returned to the hole in order to replace a dull bit. At such a time there is a flood of foreign material knocked from the borehole walls (cavings), making the mudloggers task all the more difficult.
Coring
One way to get more detailed samples of a formation is by coring. Two techniques commonly used at present. The first is the "whole core", a cylinder of rock, usually about 3" to 4" in diameter and up to to long. It is cut with a "core barrel", a hollow pipe tipped with a ring-shaped diamond chip-studded bit that can cut a plug and bring it to the surface. Often the plug breaks while drilling, usually in shales or fractures and the core barrel jams, slowly grinding the rocks in front of it to powder. This signals the driller to give up on getting a full length core and to pull up the pipe.
Taking a full core is an expensive operation that usually stops or slows drilling for at least the better part of a day. A full core can be invaluable for later reservoir evaluation. Once a section of well has been drilled, there is, of course, no way to core it without drilling another well.
Another, cheaper, technique for obtaining samples of the formation is "Sidewall Coring". One type of sidewall cores is percussion cores. In this method, a steel cylinder—a coring gun—has hollow-point steel bullets mounted along its sides and moored to the gun by short steel cables. The coring gun is lowered to the bottom of the interval of interest and the bullets are fired individually as the gun is pulled up the hole. The mooring cables ideally pull the hollow bullets and the enclosed plug of formation loose and the gun carries them to the surface. Advantages of this technique are low cost and the ability to sample the formation after it has been drilled. Disadvantages are possible non-recovery because of lost or misfired bullets and a slight uncertainty about the sample depth. Sidewall cores are often shot "on the run" without stopping at each core point because of the danger of differential sticking. Most service company personnel are skilled enough to minimize this problem, but it can be significant if depth accuracy is important.
A second method of sidewall coring is rotary sidewall cores. In this method, a circular-saw assembly is lowered to the zone of interest on a wireline, and the core is sawed out. Dozens of cores may be taken this way in one run. This method is roughly 20 times as expensive as percussion cores, but yields a much better sample.
A serious problem with cores is the change they undergo as they are brought to the surface. It might seem that cuttings and cores are very direct samples but the problem is whether the formation at depth will produce oil or gas. Sidewall cores are deformed and compacted and fractured by the bullet impact. Most full cores from any significant depth expand and fracture as they are brought to the surface and removed from the core barrel. Both types of core can be invaded or even flushed by mud, making the evaluation of formation fluids difficult. The formation analyst has to remember that all tools give indirect data.
Mud logging
Mud logging (or Wellsite Geology) is a well logging process in which drilling mud and drill bit cuttings from the formation are evaluated during drilling and their properties recorded on a strip chart as a visual analytical tool and stratigraphic cross sectional representation of the well. The drilling mud which is analyzed for hydrocarbon gases, by use of a gas chromatograph, contains drill bit cuttings which are visually evaluated by a mudlogger and then described in the mud log. The total gas, chromatograph record, lithological sample, pore pressure, shale density,D-exponent, etc. (all lagged parameters because they are circulated up to the surface from the bit) are plotted along with surface parameters such as rate of penetration (ROP), Weight On Bit (WOB),rotation per minute etc. on the mudlog which serve as a tool for the mudlogger, drilling engineers, mud engineers, and other service personnel charged with drilling and producing the well.
Wireline logging
The oil and gas industry uses wireline logging to obtain a continuous record of a formation's rock properties. Wireline logging can be defined as being "The acquisition and analysis of geophysical data performed as a function of well bore depth, together with the provision of related services." Note that "wireline logging" and "mud logging" are not the same, yet are closely linked through the integration of the data sets. The measurements are made referenced to "TAH" - True Along Hole depth: these and the associated analysis can then be used to infer further properties, such as hydrocarbon saturation and formation pressure, and to make further drilling and production decisions.
Wireline logging is performed by lowering a 'logging tool' - or a string of one or more instruments - on the end of a wireline into an oil well (or borehole) and recording petrophysical properties using a variety of sensors. Logging tools developed over the years measure the natural gamma ray, electrical, acoustic, stimulated radioactive responses, electromagnetic, nuclear magnetic resonance, pressure and other properties of the rocks and their contained fluids. For this article, they are broadly broken down by the main property that they respond to.
The data itself is recorded either at surface (real-time mode), or in the hole (memory mode) to an electronic data format and then either a printed record or electronic presentation called a "well log" is provided to the client, along with an electronic copy of the raw data. Well logging operations can either be performed during the drilling process (see Logging While Drilling), to provide real-time information about the formations being penetrated by the borehole, or once the well has reached Total Depth and the whole depth of the borehole can be logged.
Real-time data is recorded directly against measured cable depth. Memory data is recorded against time, and then depth data is simultaneously measured against time. The two data sets are then merged using the common time base to create an instrument response versus depth log. Memory recorded depth can also be corrected in exactly the same way as real-time corrections are made, so there should be no difference in the attainable TAH accuracy.
The measured cable depth can be derived from a number of different measurements, but is usually either recorded based on a calibrated wheel counter, or (more accurately) using magnetic marks which provide calibrated increments of cable length. The measurements made must then be corrected for elastic stretch and temperature.[1]
There are many types of wireline logs and they can be categorized either by their function or by the technology that they use. "Open hole logs" are run before the oil or gas well is lined with pipe or cased. "Cased hole logs" are run after the well is lined with casing or production pipe.[2]
Wireline logs can be divided into broad categories based on the physical properties measured.
Electric logs
In 1928, the Schlumberger brothers in France developed the workhorse of all formation evaluation tools: the electric log. Electric logs have been improved to a high degree of precision and sophistication since that time, but the basic principle has not changed. Most underground formations contain water, often salt water, in their pores. The resistance to electric current of the total formation—rock and fluids—around the borehole is proportional to the sum of the volumetric proportions of mineral grains and conductive water-filled pore space. If the pores are partially filled with gas or oil, which are resistant to the passage of electric current, the bulk formation resistance is higher than for water filled pores. For the sake of a convenient comparison from measurement to measurement, the electrical logging tools measure the resistance of a cubic meter of formation. This measurement is called resistivity.
Modern resistivity logging tools fall into two categories, Laterolog and Induction, with various commercial names, depending on the company providing the logging services.
Laterolog tools send an electric current from an electrode on the sonde directly into the formation. The return electrodes are located either on surface or on the sonde itself. Complex arrays of electrodes on the sonde (guard electrodes) focus the current into the formation and prevent current lines from fanning out or flowing directly to the return electrode through the borehole fluid. Most tools vary the voltage at the main electrode in order to maintain a constant current intensity. This voltage is therefore proportional to the resistivity of the formation. Because current must flow from the sonde to the formation, these tools only work with conductive borehole fluid. Actually, since the resistivity of the mud is measured in series with the resistivity of the formation, laterolog tools give best results when mud resistivity is low with respect to formation resistivity, i.e., in salty mud.
Induction logs use an electric coil in the sonde to generate an alternating current loop in the formation by induction. This is the same physical principle as is used in electric transformers. The alternating current loop, in turn, induces a current in a receiving coil located elsewhere on the sonde. The amount of current in the receiving coil is proportional to the intensity of current loop, hence to the conductivity (reciprocal of resistivity) of the formation. Multiple transmitting and receiving coils are used to focus formation current loops both radially (depth of investigation) and axially (vertical resolution). Until the late 80's, the workhorse of induction logging has been the 6FF40 sonde which is made up of six coils with a nominal spacing of . Since the 90's all major logging companies use so-called array induction tools. These comprise a single transmitting coil and a large number of receiving coils. Radial and axial focusing is performed by software rather than by the physical layout of coils. Since the formation current flows in circular loops around the logging tool, mud resistivity is measured in parallel with formation resistivity. Induction tools therefore give best results when mud resistivity is high with respect to formation resistivity, i.e., fresh mud or non-conductive fluid. In oil-base mud, which is non conductive, induction logging is the only option available.
Until the late 1950s electric logs, mud logs and sample logs comprised most of the oilman's armamentarium. Logging tools to measure porosity and permeability began to be used at that time. The first was the microlog. This was a miniature electric log with two sets of electrodes. One measured the formation resistivity about 1/2" deep and the other about 1"-2" deep. The purpose of this seemingly pointless measurement was to detect permeability. Permeable sections of a borehole wall develop a thick layer of mudcake during drilling. Mud liquids, called filtrate, soak into the formation, leaving the mud solids behind to -ideally- seal the wall and stop the filtrate "invasion" or soaking. The short depth electrode of the microlog sees mudcake in permeable sections. The deeper 1" electrode sees filtrate invaded formation. In nonpermeable sections both tools read alike and the traces fall on top of each other on the stripchart log. In permeable sections they separate.
Also in the late 1950s porosity measuring logs were being developed. The two main types are: nuclear porosity logs and sonic logs.
Porosity logs
The two main nuclear porosity logs are the Density and the Neutron log.
Density logging tools contain a caesium-137 gamma ray source which irradiates the formation with 662 keV gamma rays. These gamma rays interact with electrons in the formation through Compton scattering and lose energy. Once the energy of the gamma ray has fallen below 100 keV, photoelectric absorption dominates: gamma rays are eventually absorbed by the formation. The amount of energy loss by Compton scattering is related to the number electrons per unit volume of formation. Since for most elements of interest (below Z = 20) the ratio of atomic weight, A, to atomic number, Z, is close to 2, gamma ray energy loss is related to the amount of matter per unit volume, i.e., formation density.
A gamma ray detector located some distance from the source, detects surviving gamma rays and sorts them into several energy windows. The number of high-energy gamma rays is controlled by compton scattering, hence by formation density. The number of low-energy gamma rays is controlled by photoelectric absorption, which is directly related to the average atomic number, Z, of the formation, hence to lithology. Modern density logging tools include two or three detectors, which allow compensation for some borehole effects, in particular for the presence of mud cake between the tool and the formation.
Since there is a large contrast between the density of the minerals in the formation and the density of pore fluids, porosity can easily be derived from measured formation bulk density if both mineral and fluid densities are known.
Neutron porosity logging tools contain an americium-beryllium neutron source, which irradiates the formation with neutrons. These neutrons lose energy through elastic collisions with nuclei in the formation. Once their energy has decreased to thermal level, they diffuse randomly away from the source and are ultimately absorbed by a nucleus. Hydrogen atoms have essentially the same mass as the neutron; therefore hydrogen is the main contributor to the slowing down of neutrons. A detector at some distance from the source records the number of neutron reaching this point. Neutrons that have been slowed down to thermal level have a high probability of being absorbed by the formation before reaching the detector. The neutron counting rate is therefore inversely related to the amount of hydrogen in the formation. Since hydrogen is mostly present in pore fluids (water, hydrocarbons) the count rate can be converted into apparent porosity. Modern neutron logging tools usually include two detectors to compensate for some borehole effects. Porosity is derived from the ratio of count rates at these two detectors rather than from count rates at a single detector.
The combination of neutron and density logs takes advantage of the fact that lithology has opposite effects on these two porosity measurements. The average of neutron and density porosity values is usually close to the true porosity, regardless of lithology. Another advantage of this combination is the "gas effect." Gas, being less dense than liquids, translates into a density-derived porosity that is too high. Gas, on the other hand, has much less hydrogen per unit volume than liquids: neutron-derived porosity, which is based on the amount of hydrogen, is too low. If both logs are displayed on compatible scales, they overlay each other in liquid-filled clean formations and are widely separated in gas-filled formations.
Sonic logs use a pinger and microphone arrangement to measure the velocity of sound in the formation from one end of the sonde to the other. For a given type of rock, acoustic velocity varies indirectly with porosity. If the velocity of sound through solid rock is taken as a measurement of 0% porosity, a slower velocity is an indication of a higher porosity that is usually filled with formation water with a slower sonic velocity.
Both sonic and density-neutron logs give porosity as their primary information. Sonic logs read farther away from the borehole so they are more useful where sections of the borehole are caved. Because they read deeper, they also tend to average more formation than the density-neutron logs do. Modern sonic configurations with pingers and microphones at both ends of the log, combined with computer analysis, minimize the averaging somewhat. Averaging is an advantage when the formation is being evaluated for seismic parameters, a different area of formation evaluation. A special log, the Long Spaced Sonic, is sometimes used for this purpose. Seismic signals (a single undulation of a sound wave in the earth) average together tens to hundreds of feet of formation, so an averaged sonic log is more directly comparable to a seismic waveform.
Density-neutron logs read the formation within about four to seven inches (178 mm) of the borehole wall. This is an advantage in resolving thin beds. It is a disadvantage when the hole is badly caved. Corrections can be made automatically if the cave is no more than a few inches deep. A caliper arm on the sonde measures the profile of the borehole and a correction is calculated and incorporated in the porosity reading. However, if the cave is much more than four inches deep, the density-neutron log is reading little more than drilling mud.
Lithology logs - SP and gamma ray
There are two other tools, the SP log and the Gamma Ray log, one or both of which are almost always used in wireline logging. Their output is usually presented along with the electric and porosity logs described above. They are indispensable as additional guides to the nature of the rock around the borehole.
The SP log, known variously as a "Spontaneous Potential", "Self Potential" or "Shale Potential" log is a voltmeter measurement of the voltage or electrical potential difference between the mud in the hole at a particular depth and a copper ground stake driven into the surface of the earth a short distance from the borehole. A salinity difference between the drilling mud and the formation water acts as a natural battery and will cause several voltage effects. This "battery" causes a movement of charged ions between the hole and the formation water where there is enough permeability in the rock. The most important voltage is set up as a permeable formation permits ion movement, reducing the voltage between the formation water and the mud. Sections of the borehole where this occurs then have a voltage difference with other nonpermeable sections where ion movement is restricted. Vertical ion movement in the mud column occurs much more slowly because the mud is not circulating while the drill pipe is out of the hole. The copper surface stake provides a reference point against which the SP voltage is measured for each part of the borehole. There can also be several other minor voltages, due for example to mud filtrate streaming into the formation under the effect of an overbalanced mud system. This flow carries ions and is a voltage generating current. These other voltages are secondary in importance to the voltage resulting from the salinity contrast between mud and formation water.
The nuances of the SP log are still being researched. In theory, almost all porous rocks contain water. Some pores are completely filled with water. Others have a thin layer of water molecules wetting the surface of the rock, with gas or oil filling the rest of the pore. In sandstones and porous limestones there is a continuous layer of water throughout the formation. If there is even a little permeability to water, ions can move through the rock and decrease the voltage difference with the mud nearby. Shales do not allow water or ion movement. Although they may have a large water content, it is bound to the surface of the flat clay crystals comprising the shale. Thus mud opposite shale sections maintains its voltage difference with the surrounding rock. As the SP logging tool is drawn up the hole it measures the voltage difference between the reference stake and the mud opposite shale and sandstone or limestone sections. The resulting log curve reflects the permeability of the rocks and, indirectly, their lithology. SP curves degrade over time, as the ions diffuse up and down the mud column. It also can suffer from stray voltages caused by other logging tools that are run with it. Older, simpler logs often have better SP curves than more modern logs for this reason. With experience in an area, a good SP curve can even allow a skilled interpreter to infer sedimentary environments such as deltas, point bars or offshore tidal deposits.
The gamma ray log is a measurement of naturally occurring gamma radiation from the borehole walls. Sandstones are usually nonradioactive quartz and limestones are nonradioactive calcite. Shales however, are naturally radioactive due to potassium isotopes in clays, and adsorbed uranium and thorium. Thus the presence or absence of gamma rays in a borehole is an indication of the amount of shale or clay in the surrounding formation. The gamma ray log is useful in holes drilled with air or with oil based muds, as these wells have no SP voltage. Even in water-based muds, the gamma ray and SP logs are often run together. They comprise a check on each other and can indicate unusual shale sections which may either not be radioactive, or may have an abnormal ionic chemistry. The gamma ray log is also useful to detect coal beds, which, depending on the local geology, can have either low radiation levels, or high radiation levels due to adsorption of uranium. In addition, the gamma ray log will work inside a steel casing, making it essential when a cased well must be evaluated.
Interpreting the tools
The immediate questions that have to be answered in deciding to complete a well or to plug and abandon (P&A) it are:
Do any zones in the well contain producible hydrocarbons?
How much?
How much, if any, water will be produced with them?
The elementary approach to answering these questions uses the Archie Equation.
Bibliography
Petroleum economics
Petroleum production
Evaluation | [
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222314 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meritage | Meritage | Meritage is a name for red and white Bordeaux-style wines without infringing on the Bordeaux (France) region's legally protected designation of origin. Winemakers must license the Meritage trademark from its owner, the California-based Meritage Alliance. Member wineries are found principally in the United States, though increasingly elsewhere.
History
The Meritage Association was formed in 1988 by a small group of Sonoma County and Napa Valley, California vintners increasingly frustrated by U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives regulations stipulating wines contain at least 75% of a specific grape to be labeled as a varietal. As interest grew in creating Bordeaux-style wines, which by their blended nature fail to qualify for varietal status, members sought to create a recognizable name for their blended wines.
In 1988, the association hosted a contest to conceive a proprietary name for these wines, receiving over 6,000 submissions. "Meritage"—a portmanteau of merit and heritage—was selected and its coiner awarded two bottles of the first ten vintages of every wine licensed to use the brand.
The first wine to be labeled with the term "Meritage" was the 1986 "The Poet" by Mitch Cosentino (Cosentino Winery) and 1985 vintage by Dry Creek Vineyard was the oldest vintage released "Meritage".
By 1999, the Meritage Association had grown to 22 members. Shifting its focus from trademark policing to education and marketing resulted in swift growth. By 2003, the Association had over 100 members, including its first international participants.
In May 2009, the Meritage Association announced that it had changed its name to the Meritage Alliance. As of July 2014, the Alliance had over 350 members.
Trademark licensing and wine production
The Meritage agreement stipulates the blends that can be labeled "Meritage", a fee per case (currently $1.00, capped at $500.00 per vintage), and various labeling restrictions.
A red Meritage must be made from a blend of at least two of the following varieties: Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Cabernet Franc, Malbec, Petit Verdot, St. Macaire, Gros Verdot, or Carmenère, with no variety comprising more than 90 percent of the blend.
A white Meritage must be made from a blend of at least two or more of the following varieties: Sauvignon blanc, Sémillon, or Muscadelle du Bordelais, with no variety comprising more than 90 percent of the blend.
Although not stipulated by the licensing agreement, the Meritage Alliance strongly recommends that wineries label only their best blend Meritage and limit production to no more than 25,000 cases.
Unlike regulations like French AOC, there are no mandatory rules related to winemaking or winegrowing.
Pronunciation
Although many people, including many wine experts, have a tendency to Frenchify the word "Meritage" by pronouncing its last syllable with a "zh" sound, as in the U.S. pronunciation of "garage," the Meritage Alliance specifically states that the word should be pronounced to rhyme with "heritage", that is, Meritage should be pronounced .
References
What is Meritage?
The Meritage Alliance License Agreement
2005 Code of Federal Regulations, Title 27, Volume 1, Part 5: Labeling and Advertising of Distilled Spirits
Footnotes
External links
The Meritage Alliance official site
American wine
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222320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interphase | Interphase | Interphase is the portion of the cell cycle that is not accompanied by gross changes under the microscope, and includes the G1, S and G2 phases. During interphase, the cell grows (G1), replicates its DNA (S) and prepares for mitosis (G2). A cell in interphase is not simply quiescent. The term quiescent (i.e. dormant) would be misleading since a cell in interphase is very busy synthesizing proteins, copying DNA into RNA, engulfing extracellular material, processing signals, to name just a few activities and things. The cell is quiescent only in the sense of cell division (i.e. the cell is out of the cell cycle, G0). Interphase is the phase of the cell cycle in which a typical cell spends most of its life. Interphase is the 'daily living' or metabolic phase of the cell, in which the cell obtains nutrients and metabolizes them, grows, replicates its DNA in preparation for mitosis, and conducts other "normal" cell functions.
Interphase was formerly called the resting phase. However, interphase does not describe a cell that is merely resting; rather, the cell is living and preparing for later cell division, so the name was changed. A common misconception is that interphase is the first stage of mitosis, but since mitosis is the division of the nucleus, prophase is actually the first stage.
In interphase, the cell gets itself ready for mitosis or meiosis. Somatic cells, or normal diploid cells of the body, go through mitosis in order to reproduce themselves through cell division, whereas diploid germ cells (i.e., primary spermatocytes and primary oocytes) go through meiosis in order to create haploid gametes (i.e., sperm and ova) for the purpose of sexual reproduction.
Stages of interphase
There are three stages of cellular interphase, with each phase ending when a cellular checkpoint checks the accuracy of the stage's completion before proceeding to the next. The stages of interphase are:
G1 (Gap 1), in which the cell grows and functions normally. During this time, a high amount of protein synthesis occurs and the cell grows (to about double its original size) – more organelles are produced and the volume of the cytoplasm increases. If the cell is not to divide again, it will enter G0.
Synthesis (S), in which the cell synthesizes its DNA and the amount of DNA is doubled but the number of chromosomes remains constant (via semiconservative replication).
G2 (Gap 2), in which the cell resumes its growth in preparation for division. The mitochondria divide and the cell continues to grow until mitosis begins. In plants, chloroplasts also divide during G2.
In addition, some cells that do not divide often or ever, enter a stage called G0 (Gap zero), which is either a stage separate from interphase or an extended G1.
The duration of time spent in interphase and in each stage of interphase is variable and depends on both the type of cell and the species of organism it belongs to. Most cells of adult mammals spend about 24 hours in interphase; this accounts for about 90%-96% of the total time involved in cell division.
Interphase includes G1, S, and G2 phases. Mitosis and cytokinesis, however, are separate from interphase.
DNA double-strand breaks can be repaired during interphase by two principal processes. The first process, non-homologous end joining (NHEJ), can join the two broken ends of DNA in the G1, S and G2 phases of interphase. The second process, homologous recombinational repair (HRR), is more accurate than NHEJ in repairing double-strand breaks. However HRR is only active during the S and G2 phases of interphase when DNA replication is either partially or fully accomplished, since HRR requires two adjacent homologous chromosomes.
Interphase within sequences of cellular processes
Interphase and the cell cycle
When G2 is completed, the cell enters a relatively brief period of nuclear and cellular division, composed of mitosis and cytokinesis, respectively. After the successful completion of mitosis and cytokinesis, both resulting daughter cells re-enter G1 of interphase.
In the cell cycle, interphase is preceded by telophase and cytokinesis of the M phase. In alternative fashion, interphase is sometimes interrupted by G0 phase, which, in some circumstances, may then end and be followed by the remaining stages of interphase. After the successful completion of the G2 checkpoint, the final checkpoint in interphase, the cell proceeds to prophase, or in plants to preprophase, which is the first stage of mitosis.
G0 phase is viewed as either an extended G1 phase where the cell is neither dividing nor preparing to divide, or as a distinct quiescent stage which occurs outside of the cell cycle.
Interphase and other cellular processes
In gamete production, interphase is succeeded by meiosis. In programmed cell death, interphase is followed or preempted by apoptosis.
See also
Prophase
Prometaphase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytoskeleton
References
Mitosis
Cell biology | [
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