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222620 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City%20of%20Portland%20%28train%29 | City of Portland (train) | The City of Portland was a named passenger train operated by the Union Pacific Railroad between Chicago, Illinois, and Portland, Oregon. It started service in June 1935, using the streamlined M-10001 trainset. With only one set of equipment the train left each of its terminals five times a month (or six, for the first few months). The route used Chicago and Northwestern trackage between Chicago and Omaha, Nebraska until 1955, replaced by Milwaukee Road trackage.
It was the first streamliner with sleeping cars and the first streamliner running from Chicago to the Pacific coast; its 39-hour-45-minute schedule became the standard. (In April 1935 the fastest train took 59 hr 20 min Chicago to Portland.) The M-10001 was withdrawn in March 1938 and replaced with another articulated trainset, the former City of Los Angeles M-10002. In July 1941, M-10002 was replaced with a train powered by the EMC E3 set inherited from City of Los Angeles pulling the former M-10004 cars, with some former M-10001 cars added, as its consist. Service was expanded following the war as the train was joined, then replaced, by full-size trains powered by E6 and E7 locomotive sets. The train was the first of the 40-hour Coast streamliners to run daily, in February 1947. In 1955 the Milwaukee Road tracks were used instead of the Chicago and North Western between Chicago and Omaha; from January 1959 until 1967 the train ran via Denver. The train was discontinued May 1, 1971, with the takeover of Union Pacific's passenger services by Amtrak. The route roughly follows the trail of the defunct Amtrak route, the Pioneer, except that the latter diverted to Ogden, Utah, while the City of Portland did not enter Utah.
In addition to baggage, coach, and sleeping cars, about 1955 the City of Portland added an Astra Dome dome coach, dome observation lounge and dome dining car to each consist. The dome dining cars were unique to Union Pacific and were only operated on this train and the City of Los Angeles.
Major cities served
Prior to 1955:
Chicago, Union Station
Cedar Rapids, Union Station
Omaha, Union Station
Boise, Union Pacific Depot
Portland, Union Station
Following 1955 rerouting via Milwaukee Road:
Chicago, Union Station
Marion station (Cedar Rapids via bus connection)
Omaha, Union Station
Boise, Union Pacific Depot
Portland, Union Station
Following 1959 rerouting:
Chicago, Union Station
Marion station (Cedar Rapids via bus connection)
Omaha, Union Station
Denver, Union Station
Boise, Union Pacific Depot
Portland, Union Station
See also
Passenger train service on the Chicago and North Western Railway
Passenger train service on the Union Pacific Railroad
References
External links
Passenger trains operating on the eve of Amtrak
Passenger trains of the Union Pacific Railroad
Passenger trains of the Chicago and North Western Railway
Passenger trains of the Milwaukee Road
Named passenger trains of the United States
Railway services introduced in 1935
Night trains of the United States
Railway services discontinued in 1971 | [
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] |
222627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20railway%20companies | List of railway companies | This is an incomplete list of the world's railway operating companies listed alphabetically by continent and country. This list includes companies operating both now and in the past.
In some countries, the railway operating bodies are not companies, but are government departments or authorities.
Particularly in many European countries beginning in the late-1980s, with privatizations and the separation of the track ownership and management from running the trains, there are now many track-only companies and train-only companies.
Africa
Railway unions
Union of African Railways (UAR)
Southern African Railway Association (SARA), which represents:
CFB (Benguela railway, in Angola)
Botswana Railways
Caminhos de Ferro de Moçambique (CFM) (Mozambique Railway)
Malawi Railways
TransNamib
Swaziland Railway
TAZARA (Tanzania/Zambia Railway Authority)
Zambia Railways
National Railways of Zimbabwe
Tanzania Railways Corporation
Central East African Railway in Malawi
Beitbridge Bulawayo Railway
Metrorail (South Africa)
Spoornet (South-Africa)
Algeria
Algerian Railways (SNTF)
Angola
Benguela Railway
Moçâmedes Railway
Luanda Railway
Gunza-Gabala line
Benin
Benin Railways (Benirail & Bolloré Railways since 2014 )
Botswana
Botswana Railways (BR)
Burkina Faso
Abidjan-Niger Railway (SITARAIL)
Cameroon
Cameroon National Railways Authority (REGIFERCAM)
Côte d'Ivoire
Abidjan-Niger Railway (SITARAIL)
Republic of the Congo
Congo-Ocean Railway (CFCO)
Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire)
Due to civil war, a good portion of the railway system of the Dem Rep of Congo is not presently functioning)
Congo Railway (CNC)
Matadi-Kinshasa Railway
Djibouti
Ethio-Djibouti Railways
Egypt
Egyptian Railways
Eritrea
Eritrean Railway
Ethiopia
Ethio-Djibouti Railways
Gabon
Gabon State Railways (OCTRA)
Ghana
Ghana Railways & Ports (GRP) (Ghana's rail system is largely derelict)
Ghana Railway Company
Guinea
Guinea Railway
Kenya
Kenya Railways
Rift Valley Railways Consortium
Africa Star Railway Operation Company Limited
Lesotho
South African Railways (SAS/SAR)
Liberia
Bong Mining Co
Lamgo JV Operating Co
Madagascar
Madagascar Railways
Malawi
Malawi Railways (Central East African Railway)
Mali
Dakar-Niger Railway
Mauritania
S.N.I.M.
Morocco
Office National des Chemins de Fer (ONCF) : national railway office.
Mozambique
Mozambique State Railways
Beira Railroad Corporation
Namibia
TransNamib
Nigeria
Nigerian Railway Corporation
Senegal
Dakar-Niger Railway
South Africa
Passenger Rail Agency of South Africa
Transnet Freight Rail
Gautrain (Modern High Speed Trains)
Sudan
Sudan Railways
Gezira Light Railway
Eswatini
Eswatini Railways
Tanzania
Tanzania Railways Corporation
TAZARA Railway
Togo
Togo Railways (RCFT)
Although Togo has railways in place, no trains have run on them for many years.
Tunisia
Tunisian National Railways (SNCFT)
Uganda
Rift Valley Railways Consortium
Uganda Railways Corporation
Zambia
Zambia Railways
TAZARA Railway
Mulobezi Railway
Maamba Colliery Railway
Njanji Commuter Line
Zimbabwe
National Railways of Zimbabwe
Beitbridge Bulawayo Railway
(There are no railways in Burundi, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Equatorial Guinea, the Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Mauritius, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Seychelles, and Somalia.)
Asia
Afghanistan
Afghanistan has only 24.6 km of railway which are railheads from neighbouring countries. Iran and Turkmenistan plan to help Afghanistan build a rail network that would enable Iran and Turkey to link up with Central Asia.
Bangladesh
Bangladesh Railway
Dhaka Mass Transit Company
Dhaka Metro Rail
Myanmar
Myanma Railways
China (People's Republic of China)
China Railway (CR, 中国铁路 Zhōngguó Tiělù)
China Railway High-speed (CRH, 中国高速铁路 Zhōngguó gāosù tiělù)
Beijing-Shanghai High-Speed Railway Co. Ltd
Urban rail transit in China
Hong Kong, China
MTR
MTR Light Rail
Peak Tram
Hong Kong Tramways
Macau, China
Macau Light Rail Transit
India
Railway Operator
Indian Railways (IR)
Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation (IRCTC)
High Speed Rail Corporation of India Limited (HSRC)
Rail Vikas Nigam Limited (RVNL)
RITES (Rail India Technical and Economic Service)
Konkan Railway Corporation (KRC)
Container Corporation of India (CONCOR)
Urban Transit
Calcutta Tramways Company (CTC)
Kolkata Metro Rail Corporation (KMRC)
Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC)
National Capital Region Transport Corporation Ltd (NCRTC)
Mumbai Metro One Pvt Ltd (MMOPL)
Mumbai Metro Rail Corporation (MMRC)
Mumbai Railway Vikas Corporation (MRVC)
Noida Metro Rail Corporation Ltd. (NMRCL)
Chennai Metro Rail Limited (CMRL)
Rapid Metro Gurgaon Ltd. (RMGL)
Bangalore Metro Rail Corporation Limited (BMRCL)
Hyderabad Metro Rail Ltd. (HMRL)
Jaipur Metro Rail Corporation (JMRC)
Kerala Monorail Corporation Limited (KMCL)
Kochi Metro Rail Ltd (KMRL)
Lucknow Metro Rail Corporation Ltd (LMRCL)
Indonesia
Kereta Api Indonesia (Indonesian Railways / PT KAI)
Jakarta MRT (MRTJ)
Kereta Commuter Indonesia (Indonesia Commuter Train Operators / PT KCI)
Jakarta LRT (LRTJ)
Railink (Airport train in Jakarta and Medan)
Iran
Islamic Republic of Iran Railways
Asia Seir Aras Company
Rail Pardaz Seir Company
Railway Services and Technical Construction Engineering Company (RSTC Co.)
Raja Rail Transportation Company
Behtash Sepahan Rail Transportation Company (BTSCo)
Railway Transportation Company
Railways Installations & Constructions Engineering Company (Ballast)
Rail Tarabar Saba (Transportation)
Iraq
Iraqi Republic Railways (IRR)
Israel
Israel Railways
Carmelit - the world's smallest subway system, in Haifa
Cfir, constructing and operating the Jerusalem Light Rail
NTA, constructing and will operate the Tel Aviv Light Rail
Japan
Japan Railways Group (JR Group)
Jordan
Hedjaz Jordan Railway
Aqaba Railway Corporation
Kazakhstan
Qazaqstan Temir Zholy (Kazakhstan railways)
Lebanon
Lebanon State Railways
Malaysia
Freight, intercity and commuter rail
Keretapi Tanah Melayu Berhad (KTMB)
Malaysia Rail Link Sdn. Bhd.
MyHSR Corporation Sdn Bhd.
Sabah State Railway (SSR)
Metro and rapid transit
Prasarana Malaysia - Rapid Rail Sdn Bhd
Mass Rapid Transit Corporation Sdn. Bhd.
Airport train
Express Rail Link Sdn. Bhd.
Mongolia
UBTZ (Ulaanbaatar Railways)
Nepal
Nepal Railways
Nepal Government Railway
North Korea
Korean State Railway
Pakistan
Pakistan Railways (PR)
Karachi Circular Railway (KCR)
There are few private companies offering private carrying.
Philippines
Philippine National Railways
Light Rail Transit Authority (Line 1 and Line 2)
Metro Rail Transit Corporation (Line 3)
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Railways Organization
Saudi Railway Company (SAR)
Singapore
Main operators
SBS Transit (ComfortDelGro)
SMRT Trains (SMRT Corporation)
Other operators
Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore (Changi Airport Skytrain)
Wildlife Reserves Singapore (Jurong Bird Park Panorail)
Sentosa Development Corporation (Sentosa Express)
South Korea
passenger/freight train
Korail
passenger train
AREX
subway
Busan Transportation Corporation
Daegu Metropolitan Subway Corporation
Daejeon Express Transti Corporation
Gwangju Metropolitan Rapid Transit Corporation
Incheon Transit Corporation
Korail
Seoul Metro
Seoul Metro Line9
Seoul Metropolitan Rapid Transit Corporation
NeoTrans Co. Ltd. (Shinbundang Line)
Yongin Light Rail Corporation
track management
Korea Rail Network Authority
signaling system
Yookyung Control
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka Railways
Syria
Syrian Railways
Hedjaz Railway
Taiwan
Taiwan Railways Administration
Taiwan High Speed Rail Corporation
Taipei Metro
Kaohsiung Mass Rapid Transit
Taichung Metro
Thailand
State Railway of Thailand
S.R.T. Electrified Train Company Limited (SRT Red Lines train operator)
BTS skytrain (BTS, Bangkok Mass Transit: sky train operator)
Northern Bangkok Monorail Company Limited (MRT Pink Line train operator)
Eastern Bangkok Monorail Company Limited (MRT Yellow Line train operator)
MRT (BMCL, Bangkok Metro Company Limited: underground train operator)
Eastern High-Speed Rail Linking Three Airports Company Limited (Eastern Line HSR operator)
Turkmenistan
Demirýollary
Vietnam
Vietnam Railways
Europe
Union Internationale des Chemins de Fer
Albania
HSH (Albanian Railways - Hekurudha Shqiptare)
Armenia
South Caucasus Railway
Austria
ÖBB (Austrian Federal Railways - Österreichische Bundesbahnen, till 1938 called BBÖ)
STB (Stubai Valley Railway - Stubaitalbahn) :de:Stubaitalbahn
StLB (Styrian Provincial Railways - Steiermärkische Landesbahnen) :de:Steiermärkische Landesbahnen
MBS (Montafonerbahn Schruns, from Bludenz to Schruns) :de:Montafonerbahn
GKB (Graz-Köflacher Eisenbahn) :de:Graz-Köflacher Eisenbahn
LTE (Logistik- und Transport GmbH) :de:Logistik- und Transport GmbH
WESTbahn (WESTbahn Management GmbH)
Azerbaijan
Passenger/freight train
ADY (Azerbaijan Railways - Azərbaycan Dəmir Yolları)
Subway
Baku Metro (Bakı Metropoliteni)
Belarus
Belarusian Railway - , Belarusian Railway website
Belgium
NMBS/SNCB (Belgian National Railways - Nationale Maatschappij der Belgische Spoorwegen / Société Nationale des Chemins de fer belges), abbreviated in Dutch/French.
Lineas
Thalys
Eurostar
Dillen & Le Jeune Cargo NV
Bosnia-Herzegovina
ŽFBH (Railways of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina - Željeznice Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine)
ŽRS (Railways of Republika Srpska - Željeznice Republike Srpske)
Bulgaria
BDZh (Bulgarian State Railways - Български Държавни Железници, Bălgarski Dărzhavni Zheleznitsi)
Croatia
HŽ (Croatian Railways - Hrvatske željeznice)
HŽ - Passenger Services ltd. - HŽ - Putnički prijevoz d.o.o.
HŽ - Cargo ltd. - HŽ - Cargo d.o.o.
HŽ - Infrastructure ltd. - HŽ - Infrastruktura d.o.o.
Czech Republic
SŽDC (Správa železniční dopravní cesty, s.o. - Railway Infrastructure Administration, state organization)
ČD (České dráhy, a.s. - Czech Railways)
ČDC (ČD Cargo, a.s.)
JHMD (Jindřichohradecké místní dráhy - Jindřichův Hradec Local Railways)
AWT (Advanced World Transport, a.s.)
UNIDO (Unipetrol Doprava, a.s.)
MTR (METRANS Rail, s.r.o.)
RJ (RegioJet, a.s.)
LEO (LEO Express, a.s.)
GWTR (GW Train Regio, a.s.)
CXM (Connex Morava, a.s.)
ODOS (Ostravská dopravní společnost, a.s.)
SDKD (SD - Kolejová doprava, a.s.)
CZL (CZ Logistics, s.r.o.)
Denmark
Current
State ownership
DSB (Danish State Railways - Danske Statsbaner)
Banedanmark (Rail Net Denmark)
Public ownership
Lokaltog (Local trains)
Nordjyske Jernbaner (North Jutland Railways)
Midtjyske Jernbaner (Central Jutland Railways)
Vestbanen (Western railway)
Aarhus Letbane (Aarhus Light Rail)
Odense Letbane (Odense Light Rail)
Hovedstadens Letbane (Greater Copenhagen Light Rail)
Metroselskabet (Metro company - Copenhagen Metro)
Private ownership
Arriva Danmark
Keolis Danmark
Metro Service A/S
DB Cargo Scandinavia A/S
Contec Rail ApS
Former
GDS/HFHJ (Gribskovbanen / Hillerød-Frederiksværk-Hundested Jernbane)
HHJ (Odderbanen (Hads-Ning Herreders Jernbane))
HL (Capital City Local Railways - Hovedstadens Lokalbaner)
HTJ/OHJ (Høng-Tølløse Jernbane / Odsherreds Jernbane)
LJ (Lollandsbanen)
LN (Lille Nord)
LNJ (Lyngby-Nærum Jernbane)
ØSJS (Eastern Railway - Østbanen (Østsjællandske Jernbaneselskab))
VLTJ (Lemvigbanen (Vemb-Lemvig-Thyborøn Jernbane)). A popular song about the railway by Danish band Tørfisk is simply called VLTJ.
Estonia
CoalTerminalTrans Coal train operator to Muuga coal terminal (operated in 2006)
Edelaraudtee (passenger and freight; 1997–2014)
Eesti Raudtee (Estonian Railways, national railway company; privatized 2001, re-nationalized 2006–2007)
Elektriraudtee (Electric Railway, Tallinn suburban passenger railway; 1998–2013)
Elron (government-owned passenger train operator; 2013–)
Go Rail (named EVR Ekspress until 2006; Tallinn–Moscow passenger service operator; 1998–2015)
Põlevkivi Raudtee (Coal train operator to Narva Power Plants)
Raudteeinspektsioon (formerly Raudteeamet; Estonian Railway Inspectorate (regulator); 1999–)
Spacecom (freight train operator; 2004–)
Westgate Transport (Transoil, freight train operator)
Finland
Passenger services
VR (VR Ltd—VR Oy)
Pääkaupunkiseudun Junakalusto Oy
Freight only
Proxion Train Oy
Teollisuuden Raideliikenne Oy
France
Chemins de Fer de Provence (CFP) (operating trains Nice–Digne)
Euro Cargo Rail
Getlink
SNCF (French National Railways - Société Nationale des Chemins de fer Français)
Chemins de fer de l'Est
Chemins de fer de l'État
Chemins de fer de l'Ouest
Chemins de fer du Nord
Chemins de fer de Paris à Lyon et à la Méditerranée
Chemins de fer de Paris à Orléans et du Midi
RATP (Paris Transport Authority - Régie Autonome des Transports Parisiens)
SNCB : services between Lille, its suburbs and Belgium
Eurostar : services between Alps, Marseille, Paris, Lille and London
Thalys : services between Alps, Marseille, Paris, Aachen, Brussel, Cologne, Amsterdam
Lyria : services between Montpellier, Marseille, Paris and Switzerland
Renfe : services between Paris, Lyon, Toulouse, Marseille, Barcelona and Madrid
Thello : services between Paris, Marseille, Nice, Milan, Torino and Venice
RDT13
Ouigo : services between Marseille, Montpellier, Lyon Airport and Disneyland Resort Paris
RTM : Marseille Public Transport Authority - Régie des Transports de Marseille
DB
CFL : services between Luxembourg and Volmerange-les-Mines.
Georgia
Georgian Railway
Germany
*Deutsche Bahn (DB AG - German Railways 1992-) :de:Liste deutscher Eisenbahngesellschaften
Passenger railways
ABELLIO - Abellio GmbH :de:Abellio Rail
ABG - Anhaltische Bahn Gesellschaft mbH :de:Dessau-Wörlitzer Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft (?)
AKN - AKN Eisenbahn AG :de:AKN Eisenbahn
ALEX - Allgäu-Express :de:Allgäu-Express
AVG - Albtal-Verkehrs-Gesellschaft mbH :de:Albtal-Verkehrs-Gesellschaft
BBG - Bahnbetriebsgesellschaft Stauden mbH
BKD - Borkumer Kleinbahn und Dampfschiffahrt GmbH :de:Borkumer Kleinbahn
BLB - Berchtesgadener Land Bahn
BLB - Burgenlandbahn
BayOB - Bayerische Oberlandbahn GmbH Bayerische Oberlandbahn
BOB - Bodensee-Oberschwaben-Bahn GmbH :de:Bodensee-Oberschwaben-Bahn
BSB - Breisgau-S-Bahn-Gesellschaft :de:Breisgau-S-Bahn
BSEG - Brohltal Schmalspur-Eisenbahn Betriebs-GmbH
BVO - Busverkehr Ober- und Westerzgebirge Bahn GmbH
BZB - Bayerische Zugspitzbahn AG :de:Bayerische Zugspitzbahn
CAN - Cantus Verkehrsgesellschaft
CBC - City Bahn Chemnitz GmbH :de:Chemnitzer Verkehrs-Aktiengesellschaft & :de:Verkehrsverbund Mittelsachsen
Chiemsee-Bahn :de:Chiemsee-Bahn
CS - Connex Sachsen GmbH :de:Connex Sachsen
DBG - Döllnitzbahn GmbH
Drachenfelsbahn - Bergbahnen im Siebengebirge AG
EB - Erfurter Bahn
EGB - DBAG Erzgebirgsbahn :de:Erzgebirgsbahn
EIB - Erfurter Industriebahn GmbH (historic)
Eurobahn - Rhenus Keolis GmbH & Co. KG :de:Eurobahn
EVB - Eisenbahnen und Verkehrsbetriebe Elbe-Weser GmbH :de:Eisenbahnen und Verkehrsbetriebe Elbe-Weser
FEG - Freiberger Eisenbahngesellschaft mbH :de:Freiberger Eisenbahn
FKE - Frankfurt-Königsteiner Eisenbahn AG :de:Frankfurt-Königsteiner Eisenbahn
FME - Franconian Museum Railway e.V. :de:Fränkische Museums-Eisenbahn
GVG - Georgs-Verkehrs-GmbH
HEX - HarzElbeExpress (Connex Sachsen-Anhalt GmbH) :de:Connex-Fernverkehr
HLB - Hessische Landesbahn GmbH :de:Hessische Landesbahn
HSB - Harzer Schmalspurbahnen
HSB - Heidelberger Straßen- und Bergbahn AG
HTB - Hellertalbahn GmbH :de:Hellertalbahn
HzL - Hohenzollerische Landesbahn AG :de:Hohenzollerische Landesbahn
IL - Inselbahn Langeoog Inselbahn Langeoog
KHB - DBAG Kurhessenbahn :de:Kurhessenbahn
KML - Kreisbahn Mansfelder Land GmbH
Mecklenburgische Bäderbahn
MBB - Mecklenburgische Bäderbahn Molli GmbH
ME - Metronom Eisenbahngesellschaft mbB :de:Metronom Eisenbahngesellschaft
MeBa - Mecklenburg Bahn GmbH
NB - Nordseebahn :de:NordseeBahn
NBE - Nordbahn Eisenbahngesellschaft mbH :de:Nordbahn (Schleswig-Holstein)
NEB - Niederbarnimer Eisenbahn
NEG - NEG Niebüll mbH (former NVAG) :de:Norddeutsche Eisenbahngesellschaft mbH (?)
NOB - Nord-Ostsee-Bahn :de:Nord-Ostsee-Bahn
NWB - NordWestBahn :de:NordWestBahn
OBS - DBAG Oberweißbacher Berg- und Schwarzatalbahn :de:Oberweißbacher Berg- und Schwarzatalbahn
ODEG - Ostdeutsche Eisenbahn
OEG - Oberrheinische Eisenbahngesellschaft AG :de:Oberrheinische Eisenbahn
OLA - Ostseeland-Verkehr GmbH (former MeBa/OME) :de:Ostseeland Verkehr
OPB - Oberpfalzbahn :de:Oberpfalzbahn
OSB - Ortenau-S-Bahn :de:Ortenau-S-Bahn
PEG - Prignitzer Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft :de:Prignitzer Eisenbahn
RBG - Regental Bahnbetriebe GmbH ("Länderbahn") Regentalbahn
RBK - Regionalbahn Kassel GmbH :de:Regionalbahn Kassel
Regio-Bahn GmbH
RHB - Rhein-Haardt-Bahn GmbH :de:Rhein-Haardt-Bahn
RNV - Rhein-Neckar-Verkehr GmbH :de:Rhein-Neckar-Verkehr
RTB - Rurtalbahn GmbH & Co. KG (former DKB) :de:Rurtalbahn
RüKB - Rügensche Kleinbahn GmbH & Co.
Saarbahn GmbH :de:Saarbahn GmbH
S S-Bahn Berlin GmbH
SBB - Schweizerische Bundesbahn GmbH
SBE - Sächsisch-Böhmische-Eisenbahn :de:Sächsisch-Böhmische Eisenbahngesellschaft
SHB - Schleswig-Holstein-Bahn GmbH :de:Schleswig-Holstein-Bahn
SHG - S-Bahn Hamburg GmbH
SOB - DBAG SüdostBayernBahn :de:SüdostBayernBahn
SOEG - Sächsisch-Oberlausitzer Eisenbahngesellschaft mbH :de:Verkehrsverbund Oberlausitz-Niederschlesien
SSB - Stuttgarter Straßenbahnen AG :de:Stuttgarter Straßenbahnen
STB - Süd-Thüringen Bahn :de:Süd-Thüringen Bahn
STE - Strausberger Eisenbahn GmbH :de:Strausberger Eisenbahn GmbH
SWEG - Südwestdeutsche Verkehrs AG :de:Südwestdeutsche Verkehrs AG
TDR - Trans regio Deutsche Regionalbahn GmbH :de:Trans regio
TE - Trossinger Eisenbahn :de:Trossinger Eisenbahn
TL - Trilex
UBB - Usedomer Bäderbahn :de:Usedomer Bäderbahn
VBG - Vogtlandbahn GmbH :de:Vogtlandbahn
VBK - Verkehrsbetriebe Karlsruhe GmbH :de:Verkehrsbetriebe Karlsruhe GmbH
vectus - Vectus Verkehrsgesellschaft :de:Vectus
VIAS - VIAS GmbH (Odenwald-Bahn) :de:VIAS GmbH
?? - Waldbahn
WB - WestfalenBahn :de:WestfalenBahn
WEBA - Westerwaldbahn GmbH :de:Westerwaldbahn des Kreises Altenkirchen GmbH
WEG - Württembergische Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft :de:Württembergische Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft
Wendelsteinbahn GmbH :de:Wendelsteinbahn
WFB - DBAG WestFrankenBahn :de:WestFrankenBahn
??? - Zahnradbahn, Stuttgart
Historic state railways
Deutsche Bundesbahn (DB - German Federal Railways)
Deutsche Reichsbahn (DR - East German Railways)
Deutsche Reichsbahn-Gesellschaft (DRB - German State Railways 1920–45)
Greece
TrainOSE and OSE (Greek Railways Organization - Οργανισμός Σιδηροδρόμων Ελλάδας, Organismós Sidirodrómon Elládas)
Rail Cargo Goldair (Private freight rail operator, joint venture with Rail Cargo Austria)
Hungary
Passenger services
MÁV (Hungarian State Railways - Magyar Államvasutak), Infrastructure manager
GySEV/ROeEE (Győr-Sopron-Ebenfurth Railway - Győr-Sopron-Ebenfurti Vasút / Raab-Oedenburg-Ebenfurter Eisenbahn - Hungaro-Austrian regional railway company), Infrastructure manager
Freight only
Rail Cargo Hungaria - formerly MÁV-Cargo
AWT RAIL HU (Subsidiary of Advanced World Transport Group)
MMV (Hungarian Private Railways Limited - Magyar Magánvasút Zrt.)
Floyd (Hungarian private rail undertaking)
Iceland
Apart from a short line used in the construction of Reykjavik harbour in the early 20th century, there have never been any railways in Iceland.
Ireland
Iarnród Éireann - Irish Rail, part of Córas Iompair Éireann (CIÉ)
Northern Ireland Railways
Italy
Alifana, operates, also as Metrocampania Nordest, in northern Campania region
ATM operates tramway routes in and around Milan, and the Milan Metro underground network
FAL, operates in Basilicata and Calabria regions
Metropolitana di Roma, Metro or Subway in Rome
FCU, operates in the Umbria region
Ferrovia Circumetnea, the local narrow-gauge line around Mount Etna
Ferrovia del Bernina, the local railway of the Bernina mountain range
Ferrovia Genova-Casella, a narrow-gauge line in Genoa
Ferrovie del Gargano, operates in the northern Apulia region
Ferrovie della Calabria, operates in the Calabria region
Ferrovie della Sardegna, operates narrow gauge lines in almost all of the island and region of Sardinia
Ferrovie dello Stato, or "FS", Italian State Railways, nationwide
Ferrovie del Sud Est, operates in the central and southern Apulia region
FNM, operates trains in Lombardy and Piedmont
FUC, operates Ferrovia Udine-Cividale in the Friuli region
GTT, operates in the Turin metropolitan area
LFI, operates in the Tuscany region
Met.Ro., operates Ferrovia Roma-Viterbo in the area of Rome
NTV, a private high-speed train operator
Sangritana, operates in the Abruzzo region
SEPSA, operates the Cumana railway and the Circumflegrea railway in the Naples metropolitan area
SFSM, operates as Ferrovia Circumvesuviana narrow-gauge lines in the Naples metropolitan area
Sistemi Territoriali, operates in the Veneto region
TFT (the passenger division of LFI)
Trenitalia (passenger division of FS)
Trenitalia Tper operates trains in Emilia-Romagna
Trenord operates trains in Lombardy
Trentino trasporti, railway Ferrovia Trento-Malè and a bus company in the Province of Trento
Kazakhstan
Qazaqstan Temir Zholy (Kazakhstan railways)
Kosovo
Kosovo Railways (Kosovo Railways J.S.C - Hekurudhat e Kosovës Sh.A - Kosovske Železnice D.O.O.)
Latvia
LDz (Latvian Railway - Latvijas dzelzceļš - infrastructure manager)
Baltijas Ekspresis (Private rail company - Cargo Train)
Baltijas Tranzita Servis (Private rail company - Cargo Train)
LDz Cargo (Cargo Train)
Pasažieru Vilciens (Passenger Train)
Lithuania
LG (Lithuanian Railways - Lietuvos geležinkeliai)
ASG (Aukštaitijos narrow gauge railway - Aukštaitijos siaurasis geležinkelis)
Luxembourg
CFL (Luxembourg Railways - Chemins de Fer Luxembourgeois)
North Macedonia
MZ (Macedoniann Railways - Makedonski Zeleznici)
Malta
Malta Railway Company Limited (1883-1890)
Government of Malta (1892-1931)
Moldova
CFM (Moldovan Railway - Calea Ferată din Moldova)
Monaco
SNCF (French National Railways - Société Nationale des Chemins de fer Français)
Montenegro
Railways of Montenegro (Railways of Montenegro - Željeznica Crne Gore)
Netherlands
Nederlandse Spoorwegen (NS; English: "Dutch Railways")
NS International
Arriva Netherlands
Connexxion
Breng
Keolis Nederland
Qbuzz, operates on the MerwedeLingelijn
A few Dutch railway stations are served, even for journeys within the country, by foreign railway companies under the responsibility of NS. These companies are:
DB Regio, including DB Regionalbahn Westfalen and DB Euregiobahn
Prignitzer Eisenbahn, part of Arriva Germany
Abellio Rail NRW
National Railway Company of Belgium (NMBS/SNCB)
Cargo operators include:
DB Cargo
ACTS
ERS Railways
HSL Logistik
RAIL4CHEM
Norway
Vy (current) (State owned)
Norwegian National Rail Administration (infrastructure) (State owned)
CargoNet (State owned)
Railcare Tåg (Swedish Rail Infrastructure Companies)
Airport Express Train (State owned)
Hector Rail (Private Swedish freight rail carrier with permission to operate in Norway on certain lines )
Malmtrafikk (Owned by Swedish government under state owned mining company LKAB )
NSB Gjøvikbanen (State owned)
SJ (Swedish State Railroads)
Poland
Koleje Dolnośląskie (Lower Silesian Railways; KD) - Regional rail operator in the Lower Silesian Voivodeship.
Koleje Małopolskie (Lesser Poland Railways; KMAL) - Regional rail operator in the Lesser Poland Voivodeship.
Koleje Mazowieckie (Rail Mazovia; KMKOL) - Regional rail operator in the Masovian Voivodeship.
Koleje Śląskie (Silesian Railways; KSL) - Regional rail operator in the Silesian Voivodeship.
Koleje Wielkopolskie (Polish for Greater Poland Railways; KW) - Regional rail operator in the Greater Poland Voivodeship.
Łódzka Kolej Aglomeracyjna (Lodz Agglomeration Railway) - Commuter Rail operator based in Lodz, owned by the Voivodeship Government.
PKP (Polskie Koleje Państwowe - Polish State Railways)
PKP Cargo
PKP Intercity
PKP LHS (broad-gauge line operator)
PKP PLK (infrastructure)
Pomorska Kolej Metropolitalna - metropolitan rail owned by the Pomeranian Voivodeship
Przewozy Regionalne
Szybka Kolej Miejska (Tricity) (Szybka Kolej Miejska - S-Bahn type service in Poland's Tricity region)
Szybka Kolej Miejska (Warsaw)
Warszawska Kolej Dojazdowa
Arriva PCC - Consortium of PCC Rail and Arriva Polska won auction of passenger rail service on diesel lines in Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodship for 3 years (from December 2007)
CTL Logistics
Lotos Kolej
Orlen KolTrans
PCC Intermodal
PCC Rail Rybnik
PCC Śląskie Linie Kolejowe (infrastructure)
Trakcja Polska (building company)
Portugal
State Companies
CP (Portuguese Railways - Caminhos de ferro portugueses); Since 2004: Portuguese Trains - Comboios de Portugal
IP Infrastructure management; since 2015
State Subway Companies
Metro de Lisboa
Metro do Porto
Private Companies
Fertagus
Medway (formerly CP Carga)
Takargo (In partnership with COMSA)
Romania
State companies
Căile Ferate Române - State Railway Company
Private companies
Grup Feroviar Român
Unifertrans
Servtrans
Regiotrans
Cargo Trans Vagon
CTF
SAAF
Constantin Group
Rail Force
Sudarec
RollingStock
Via Terra
Express Forwarding
Private Company rail operator
Dori Trans
CET Suceava
CET Brașov
Termocentrala Deva-Mintia
AZOMURES
Bega Group
CefMur
Electro Comp Iași
Vitrometan Medias
Remarul 16 Februarie
Transferoviar Grup
Softrans
Transcombi
Trans Expedition Feroviar
SET CFR
Trans blue
Classfer
Light rail
Metrorex - Bucharest Metro rapid transit
RAT - Public transport including trams and light rail
Russia
RZhD (Russian Railways - Российские железные дороги, Rossiskiye Zheleznye Dorogi)
Freight One (Freight One - Первая Грузовая Компания, Pervaya Gruzovaya Companiya)
New Forwarding Company (Новая перевозочная компания)
Yamal Railway
Yakutian Railway
Crimea Railway
Serbia
ŽS (Serbian Railways - Železnice Srbije) - Engineering, formerly single national railway company
Srbija Voz - Passenger transport
Srbija Kargo - Cargo transport
Serbian Railways Infrastructure - Infrastructure asset management
Kombinovani Prevoz - Private railway operator
Despotija d.o.o. - Private railway operator
ŽT TENT (Railway transport of TPP Nikola Tesla - Železnički transport Termoelektrane Nikola Tesla)
Slovakia
ŽSR (Železnice Slovenskej Republiky - The Railways of the Slovak Republic, infrastructure manager)
ZSSK (Železničná Spoločnosť Slovensko, a.s., passenger transport operator)
ZSSKC (Železničná Spoločnosť Cargo Slovakia, a.s., freight transport operator)
LTT (LTE Logistik a Transport Slovakia s.r.o.)
SŽDS (Slovenská železničná dopravná spoločnosť, a.s.)
Slovenia
SŽ (Slovenian Railways - Slovenske železnice)
Adria Transport, First private railway company in Slovenia :de:Adria Transport
Spain
State Companies
Adif (Railway Infrastructure Manager - Administrador de Infraestructura Ferroviaria)
Renfe (Incumbent train undertaking - Broad and Standard Gauge)
Renfe Feve (Narrow Gauge Railways - Ferrocarriles de Vía Estrecha)
EuskoTren (Basque Railways - Eusko Trenbideak)
FGC (Catalan Government Railways - Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat de Catalunya)
FGV (Valencian Government Railways - Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat Valenciana)
SFM (Majorcan Railway Services - Serveis Ferroviaris de Mallorca)
Private Companies
Acciona Rail Services
ArcelorMittal Siderail
COMSA Rail Transport (now Captrain España)
Continental Rail
FS (Sóller Railway - Ferrocarril de Sóller)
Logitren
Low Cost Rail
Tracción Rail
Transfesa
Transitia Rail
Sweden
Arlanda Express
Bergslagernas Järnvägar
BK Tåg
Transdev
Green Cargo
Hector Rail
MTR Express
MTR Stockholm
SJ (State Railways - Statens Järnvägar)
Skandinaviska Jernbanor
Tågkompaniet
Switzerland
AB (Appenzeller Bahnen, :de:Appenzeller Bahnen)
RHB (Rorschach-Heiden-Bahn)
RhW (Bergbahn Rheineck–Walzenhausen)
TB (Trogenerbahn, :de:Trogenerbahn)
ASm (Aare Seeland mobil) :de:Aare Seeland mobil
BC (Blonay-Chamby)
BDWM (BDWM Transport AG), merger of
BD (Bremgarten-Dietikon-Bahn)
WM (Wohlen-Meisterschwanden-Bahn)
BLM (Bergbahn Lauterbrunnen-Mürren)
BLS (BLS AG), merger of
BLS (Bern - Lötschberg - Simplon bahn)
RM (Regionalverkehr Mittelland AG :de:Regionalverkehr Mittelland)
EBT (Emmental-Burgdorf-Thun Bahn :de:Emmental-Burgdorf-Thun-Bahn)
BLT (Baselland Transport, :de:Baselland Transport)
BOB (Berner Oberland Bahnen), also owns
SPB (Schynige Platte Bahn)
BRB (Brienz Rothorn Bahn)
BVB (Basler Verkehrs-Betriebe)
CIS (Cisalpino), Train operating company
CJ (Chemins de fer du Jura :de:Chemins de fer du Jura)
Db (Dolderbahn, Zürich)
DFB (Dampfbahn Furka-Bergstrecke)
DVZO (Dampfbahn-Verein Zürcher Oberland), preserved line ex-SBB
FART (Ferrovie autolinee regionali ticinesi)
FB (Forchbahn)
FLP (Ferrovia Lugano-Ponte Tresa)
FW (Frauenfeld-Wil-Bahn :de:Frauenfeld-Wil-Bahn)
GGB (Gornergrat-Monte Rosa-Bahnen)
JB (Jungfraubahn)
KLB (Kriens-Luzern-Bahn), short freight line until December 2009, remaining infrastructure to Zentralbahn
LEB (Chemin de fer Lausanne-Echallens-Bercher)
LO (Métro Lausanne-Ouchy)
MBC (Transports de la région Morges-Bière-Cossonay), was before
BAM (Chemin de fer Bière-Apples-Morges :de:Chemin de fer Bière-Apples-Morges)
MG (Monte Generoso Railway)
MGB (Matterhorn-Gotthard-Bahn) (merger between FO and BVZ)
BVZ (BVZ Zermatt-Bahn ex Brig - Visp - Zermatt Bahn)
FO (Furka Oberalp Railway)
MIB (Meiringen-Innertkirchen Bahn), owned by KWO (Kraftwerke Oberhasli)
MOB (Chemin de fer Montreux-Oberland Bernois)
MVR (Transports Montreux-Vevey-Riviera (MVR), :de:Transports Montreux-Vevey-Riviera (merger of MTGN, CEV and some cable cars))
CEV (Chemins de fer électriques Veveysans)
MGN (Montreux-Glion-Rochers de Naye)
NStCM (Chemin de fer Nyon-St-Cergue-Morez :de:Chemin de fer Nyon-Saint Cergue-Morez)
OeBB (Oensingen-Balsthal-Bahn)
PB (Pilatusbahn)
RB (Rigi Railways)
VRB (Vitznau-Rigi-Bahn (see Rigi-Bahnen))
RBS (Regionalverkehr Bern-Solothurn, :de:Regionalverkehr Bern-Solothurn)
RhB (Rhätische Bahn / Viafier retica)
RiT (Riffelalp Tramway)
SBB CFF FFS (Swiss Federal Railways - Schweizerische Bundesbahnen - Chemins de fer fédéraux - Ferrovie federali svizzere)
SEFT (Società Esercizio Ferroviario Turistico operating Ferrovia Mesolcinese)
SOB (Schweizerische Südostbahn AG :de:Schweizerische Südostbahn)
BT (Bodensee Toggenburg Bahn)
ST (Sursee-Triengen railway)
SVB (Städtische Verkehrsbetriebe Bern, "Bernmobil", :de:Bernmobil)
SZU (Sihltal Zürich Uetliberg Bahn)
THURBO (THURBO), passenger operation, also successor of
MThB (Mittelthurgau-Bahn)
TMR (Transports de Martigny et Régions)
MC (Martigny-Châtelard)
MO (Martigny-Orsières)
TN (Transports publics du littoral neuchatelois)
TPC (Transports Publics du Chablais (merger of AL, AOMC, ASD and VB)
AL (Aigle-Leysin Bahn (see TPC))
AOMC (Aigle-Ollon-Monthey-Champéry (see TPC))
ASD (Aigle-Sépey-Diablerets (see TPC))
BVB (Bex-Villars-Bretaye) (see TPC)
TPF (Transports publics Fribourgeois)
GFM (Chemins der fer Fribourgeios (Gruyére-Friburg-Morat))
TPG (Transports Publics Genevois)
TRAVYS (Transports Vallée de Joux - Yverdon-les-Bains - Ste-Croix)
OC (Orbe-Chavornay)
PBr (Chemin de fer Pont-Brassus)
YSC (Chemin de fer Yverdon - Ste-Croix)
TRN (TRN SA for "Transports publics neuchâtelois")
TSOL (société du tramway du sud-ouest lausannois S.A.)
VBG (Verkehrsbetriebe Glattal)
VBZ (Verkehrsbetriebe Zürich)
WAB (Wengernalpbahn)
WB (Waldenburgerbahn, :de:Waldenburgerbahn)
WSB (Wynental- und Suhrentalbahn)
ZB Zentralbahn (2005 merger of the Luzern-Stans-Engelberg-Bahn and the Swiss Federal Railways' Bruenigbahn)
LSE (Luzern-Stans-Engelberg-Bahn)
Turkey
TCDD Taşımacılık (TCDD - Turkiye Cumhuriyeti Devlet Demiryolları)
İstanbul Ulaşım A.Ş. (operating subways in city of Istanbul)
İZBAN (operating commuter trains in city of İzmir)
TUVASAS (Turkish wagon industry)
TULOMSAS (Turkish Locomotiveand Engines industry)
TUDEMSAS (Turkish carriage wagon industry)
EUROTEM (Railway Vehicles Industry and Trade Joint Stock Company)
SİTAŞ (Sivas Sleeper Manufacturing Industry and Trade Joint Stock Company)
RAYSİMAŞ (Rail Systems Engineering, Consultancy Joint Stock Company)
VADEMSAŞ (Voestalpine Kardemir Railway Systems Industry and Trade Joint Stock Company)
Ukraine
UZ (Ukrainian Railway - Укрзалізниця, Ukrzaliznytsia)
United Kingdom
See List of railway companies involved in the 1923 grouping
See List of companies operating trains in the United Kingdom.
Abellio Greater Anglia / Stansted Express
Abellio ScotRail
Arriva Rail London
Arriva Trains Wales
Avanti West Coast
British Railways
CrossCountry
c2c
Chiltern Railways
East Midlands Railway
Eurostar
Getlink
Govia Thameslink Railway
Grand Central
Great Western Railway
Heathrow Express
Hull Trains
London North Eastern Railway
London Underground
Merseyrail
Northern Trains
South Western Railway
Southeastern
Transport for Wales
TransPennine Express
Tyne & Wear Metro
West Midlands Trains
Vatican City
FS, Italian State Railways
Trenitalia (Passenger division of FS)
Latin America and the Caribbean
Argentina
Trenes Argentinos (SOFSE) (2013)
Administración de Infraestructuras Ferroviarias Sociedad del Estado (Part of Trenes Argentinos, infrastructure division)
Tren Patagonico
Freight operators
Trenes Argentinos (TACyL, Trenes Argentinos Cargas y Logística) is the state-run company operating the Belgrano, San Martín, and Urquiza freight lines.
Ferrosur Roca - (FR) Operates most of the former Roca division of FA.
Nuevo Central Argentino - (NCA) Operates former Mitre division of FA.
Ramal Ferro Industrial Río Turbio - (RFIRT)
Suburban operators
Ferrovías - operates services over Linea Belgrano Norte.
Metrovias - operates services over Linea Urquiza and also operates the Buenos Aires Metro
Trenes Argentinos (formerly known as Ferrocarriles Argentinos, Nuevos ferrocarriles argentinos and SOFSE) operates most of the suburban lines in Argentina, including the Roca line, the Sarmiento line, the Mitre line, the South Belgrano line, the San Martín line and the Tren de la costa line in Buenos Aires metro area. It also operates suburban lines in Resistencia, Chaco, Paraná, Entre Ríos, and Neuquén, Neuquén. Currently, another suburban rail system is being built in Córdoba.
Sociedad de Transporte de Mendoza is a company run by the government of the city of Mendoza that currently operates the suburban light rail and tram system of that city and the city of Godoy Cruz.
Long distance and regional passenger operators
Trenes Argentinos (formerly known as Ferrocarriles Argentinos, Nuevos ferrocarriles argentinos and SOFSE) operates almost every long distance and regional train in Argentina.
Tren Patagonico is a company run by the government of the province of Río Negro. It currently operates two lines.
Belize
(There are no longer any railways in Belize)
Stann Creek Railway (closed in 1937 - see Rail transport in Belize)
Bolivia
Empresa Nacional de Ferrocarriles (ENFER) (Bolivia National Railways, 1996 split and partly privatized)
Empresa Ferroviaria Andina (FCA) (Western railway network)
Ferroviaria Oriental S.A. (FO) (Eastern railway network, 50% owned by Genesee & Wyoming)
Brazil
Rede Ferroviária Federal SA (RFFSA)
América Latina Logística SA (ALL)
MRS Logística (MRS)
Ferrovia Centro Atlântica (FCA) (Controlled by Vale)
Companhia Ferroviária do Nordeste (CFN) (Controlled by Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional)
Companhia do Metropolitano de São Paulo (Metrô-SP) (the state owned company responsible for rapid transit transit in the state of São Paulo, except for lines 4, 5 and 6)
Companhia Paulista de Trens Metropolitanos (CPTM) (the state owned company responsible for the commuter trains in the state of São Paulo)
ViaQuatro (CCR S.A.) (private owned company responsible for operation of rapid transit Line 4 of São Paulo)
ViaMobilidade (CCR S.A.) (private owned company responsible for operation of rapid transit Line 5 of São Paulo)
Linha Universidade (Acciona) (private owned company responsible for construction and operation of rapid transit Line 6 of São Paulo)
Supervia (the privately owned company responsible for the commuter trains in the state of Rio de Janeiro)
Companhia Brasileira de Trens Urbanos (CBTU) (the state owned company responsible for the commuter trains in several states)
Ferronorte (controlled by Brasil Ferrovias holding, from 2006 to ? was bought by the company América Latina Logística SA (ALL))
Novoeste (controlled by Brasil Ferrovias holding, from 2006 to ? was bought by the company América Latina Logística SA (ALL)))
Ferroban (controlled by Brasil Ferrovias holding, from 2006 to ? was bought by the company América Latina Logística SA (ALL)))
Those lines were always privately owned:
Estrada de Ferro Vitória a Minas (EFVM) (Controlled by Vale)
Estrada de Ferro Carajás (EFC) (Controlled by Vale)
Chile
Empresa de los Ferrocarriles del Estado (EFE) Chilean State Railways
FEPASA, Chilean Freight Operation Concession on the broad gauge lines in the south
TRANSAP, Chilean Freight Operation Concession on the broad gauge lines in the south
Ferronor FERRONOR, Chilean Freight Operation Concession on the meter gauge lines in the north
FCALP, Chilean Freight Operation Concession on the meter gauge lines in the north
FCAB, Chilean Freight Operation Private company on the meter gauge lines in the north
Sociedad Química y Minera, gauge line from Maria Elena to Tocopilla
Colombia
Ferrocarriles Nacionales de Colombia (National Railways of Colombia)
Costa Rica
Instituto Costarricense de Ferrocarriles (INCOFER), llamado antes de 1991 FECOSA (Ferrocarriles de Costa Rica)
National Atlantic Railroad Formerly called Northern Railway Company before being taken by Costa Rican government
Pacific Electric Railroad
Cuba
Ferrocarriles Nacionales de Cuba (Cuban National Railways)
Ecuador
Empresa de Ferrocarriles Ecuatorianos (Ecuador State Railways)
Falkland Islands
Camber Railway (1915 - 1920s/1940)
Guatemala
Ferrocarriles de Guatemala (FEGUA) (Guatemala Railway) - see Rail transport in Guatemala
Guyana
Haiti
Compagnie des Chemins de Fer de Port-au-Prince, January 17, 1878 - April 1888
Société des Tramways de Port-au-Prince, April 18, 1897–1901 (purchased by Compagnie des Chemins de Fer de la Plaine du Cul-de-Sac)
Chemin de Fer Central (owned by Haitian American Sugar Company/Hasco) 1915–1932(?)
Compagnie des Chemins de Fer de la Plaine du Cul-de-Sac 1896–1950s(?)
Compagnie Nationale (Compagnie de Fer Nationale?/Haitian National Railroad?) 1905–1940s(?) (probably purchased by Société Haitiano-Américaine de Développement Agricole/SHADA in 1940s)
Honduras
Ferrocarril Nacional de Honduras
Vaccaro Railway
Tela Railroad
Here are some pictures and information on Ferrocarril Nacional de Honduras http://www.fahrplancenter.com/FCNacionalHondurasEntry.html
Jamaica
Jamaica Railway Corporation (See Transport in Jamaica)
Mexico
Línea Coahuila Durango
Ferrocarril Chiapas-Mayab
Ferrocarril del Istmo de Tehuantepec
Ferrocarril y Terminal del Valle de México
Ferrosur
Ferromex
Ferroviaria y Abastecedora del Pacifico
Kansas City Southern de México, wholly owned by the Kansas City Southern Railway which both operate together as one.
Ferrocarriles Nacionales de Mexico (FNM) (formerly FNM)
Ferrocarril Sonora-Baja California (SBC)
Nicaragua
(There are no longer any railways in Nicaragua)
Ferrocarril del Pacifico de Nicaragua (Pacific Railway of Nicaragua)
see some pictures on http://www.fahrplancenter.com/NicaraguaTitel.html
Panama
Panama Canal Railway
Chiriqui National Railroad
Bay Line Railroad de Panama
Paraguay
Ferrocarril Presidente Carlos Antonio Lopez (President Carlos Antonio Lopez Railway)
Peru
Empresa Nacional de Ferrocarriles del Peru (ENAFER) (Peruvian National Railways)
El Salvador
Ferrocarriles Nacionales del Salvador (FENADESAL) (National Railways of El Salvador)
Suriname
Suriname Government Railway
Uruguay
Administración de Ferrocarriles del Estado (AFE) (State Railways Administration).
Venezuela
Instituto Autónomo de Ferrocarriles del Estado (IAFE) (Venezuela National Railways)
Ferrominera Orinoco C.A.
North America
Canada
Canadian National Railway
Canadian Pacific Railway
GO Transit
Via Rail
Ontario Northland
Rocky Mountaineer
White Pass and Yukon Route
New Brunswick Southern Railway
Quebec North Shore and Labrador Railway
Quebec Gatineau Railway
Tshiuetin Rail Corporation
Great Western Railway (Saskatchewan)
Hudson Bay Railway (1910)
Hudson Bay Railway (1997)
Huron Central Railway
Ottawa Valley Railway
Ontario Southland
Southern Ontario Railway
Agencie Metropolitaine de Transport (Exo)
West Coast Express
Urban transit
OC Transpo (Ottawa)
Societe de Transport de Montreal (Montreal)
Toronto Transit Commission (Toronto)
Calgary Transportation Service (Calgary)
Edmonton Transportation Service (Edmonton)
Metro Vancouver (Vancouver)
Lake line Railway (Manitoba)
Mexico
Ferromex
Kansas City Southern de Mexico (KCSM)
Ferrosur
Ferrovalle
Ferrocarriles Nacionales de Mexico
Ferrocarril Sonora-Baja California
United States
Alabama and Florida Rail Road Company
Amtrak
AN Railway
Arizona & California Railroad
BNSF Railway
Brightline
California High-Speed Rail
Caltrain
CSX Transportation
Genesee & Wyoming
Iowa Interstate Railroad
Kansas City Southern Railway
Louisville and Nashville Railroad
MARC Train
Metra
Metrolink
Metro Transit
Metropolitan Transportation Authority
Miami Metrorail
Mobile and Girard Railroad
Mobile and Montgomery Railroad Company
Mobile and Montgomery Railway Company
Mobile and Ohio Railroad
Montgomery and West Point Railroad
New York and Atlantic Railway
Norfolk Southern Railway
PATH
Pensacola and Louisville Railroad Company
Pensacola Railroad
Providence & Worcester Railroad
SunRail
Tri-Rail
Union Pacific Railroad
Washington Department of Transportation
Wisconsin and Southern Railroad
Oceania
Australia
Pacific National
SCT Logistics
Aurizon
One Rail Australia
Southern Shorthaul Railroad
TasRail
Qube Holdings
V/Line
NSW TrainLink
Journey Beyond
Bowmans Rail
Transwa
Queensland Rail
Metro Trains Melbourne
Sydney Trains
Adelaide Metro
New Zealand
New Zealand Railways Department NZR or NZGR (to 1981)
New Zealand Railways Corporation (Rail operator 1981 1990, land owner 19902003, Ontrack 2003–2008, railway land owner 2008 present)
New Zealand Rail Limited (Defunct, privatised 1993, renamed Tranz Rail in 1995)
Tranz Rail (Defunct, brought out by Toll New Zealand in 2003)
Toll New Zealand (Defunct, brought out by Government 2008)
KiwiRail (formed 2008)
Transdev Auckland (2004 - 2022)
Auckland One Rail (2022 - )
Dunedin Railways (formerly Taieri Gorge Railway)
New Zealand Midland Railway Company (to 1890s)
Sanson Tramway (to 1945)
Wellington & Manawatu Railway Company (to 1908)
See also
References
Lists of transport companies
Rail transport-related lists | [
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222629 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture%20%28band%29 | Culture (band) | Culture are a Jamaican roots reggae group founded in 1976. Originally they were known as the African Disciples. The one constant member until his death in 2006 was Joseph Hill.
History
The group formed in 1976 as the vocal trio of Joseph Hill (formerly a percussionist in Studio One house band the Soul Defenders), his cousin Albert "Ralph" Walker, and Roy "Kenneth" Dayes, initially using the name The African Disciples. Roy Dayes also used the name "Kenneth Paley", which is the name that appears on the Culture records released by Virgin Records. The African Disciples soon changed their name to Culture, and auditioned successfully for the "Mighty Two": producer Joe Gibbs and engineer Errol Thompson. While at Gibbs' studio, they recorded a series of singles, starting with "See Dem a Come" and including "Two Sevens Clash" (which predicted the apocalypse on 7 July 1977), many of which ended up on their debut album Two Sevens Clash. The song was sufficiently influential that many in Kingston stayed indoors on 7 July, fearing that the prophecy would come true. A second Gibbs-produced album, Baldhead Bridge, followed in 1978, by which time the group had moved on to record for producer Sonia Pottinger. The group entered into a long-running dispute with Gibbs over royalties to the first album.
Two Sevens Clash meanwhile had become a big seller in the United Kingdom, popular with punk rock fans as well as reggae fans and boosted by the support of John Peel on his BBC Radio 1 show, and reached number 60 on the UK Albums Chart in April 1978. This prompted Virgin Records to sign the group to its Front Line label, releasing Harder than the Rest (1978) and International Herb (1979). Culture also released records on other labels in Jamaica, including a dub version of Harder than the Rest, Culture in Dub (1978, High Note), and an album of different recordings of the same album, Africa Stand Alone (April 1978). An album recorded for Pottinger in 1979 with a working title of Black Rose remained unreleased until tracks emerged in 1993 on Trod On.
Culture performed at the One Love Peace Concert in 1978.
In 1981 the three singers went their own ways. Hill carried on using the Culture name, and recorded the Lion Rock album, which was reissued in the United States by Heartbeat Records. Hill and his new band recorded a session for long time supporter John Peel in December 1982, and the group went on to record further studio sessions for Peel in 1998 and 2002, and their performance at the Royal Festival Hall in July 1998 was broadcast on his show. For their part, Walker and Dayes recorded a handful of songs on their own; a few of which turned up on an album titled Roots & Culture. Hill performed at the Reggae Sunsplash festival in 1985 and in 1986 the original line-up reformed to record two highly regarded albums – Culture in Culture and Culture at Work.
Several albums followed in the 1990s on Shanachie Records and Ras Records, often recorded with Sly and Robbie, with Dayes leaving the group again around 1994, with Reginald Taylor replacing him. Dayes subsequently worked as a solo artist under the name Kenneth Culture.
By 2001 Telford Nelson had replaced Taylor.
Joseph Hill, who came to symbolise the face of Culture, died in Berlin, Germany on 19 August 2006 while the group was on tour, after collapsing following a performance. His son, Kenyatta Hill, who had acted as the group's sound engineer on tour, performed with his father's band at the Western Consciousness show in 2007, which was dedicated to Joseph Hill, and became the lead singer of Culture; Walker and Nelson continue to provide backing vocals.
In 2011, Live On was released, featuring Kenyatta's performances of his father's songs, including "Two Sevens Clash" and "International Herb".
Discography
Studio albums
Two Sevens Clash (1977), Joe Gibbs Music
Baldhead Bridge (1978), Joe Gibbs Music
Harder than the Rest produced by Sonia Pottinger (1978), Virgin Records/Front Line
Africa Stand Alone (1978), April
Cumbolo produced by Sonia Pottinger (1979), Virgin/Front Line
International Herb produced by Sonia Pottinger (1979), High Note/Virgin
More Culture aka Innocent Blood (1981), Joe Gibbs Music
Lion Rock (1982), Sonic Sounds
Culture in Culture (1985), Music Track
Culture at Work (1986), Blue Mountain/Shanachie
Nuff Crisis! (1988), Blue Mountain
Good Things (1989), RAS
Three Sides to My Story (1991), Shanachie
Wings of a Dove (1992), Shanachie
One Stone (1996), Gorgon/RAS
Trust Me (1997), RAS
Payday (1999), RAS
Humble African (2000), VP
World Peace (2003), Heartbeat
Pass the Torch (Tafari Records) (2007) (Seven versions of old tunes by Joseph Hill, and seven tunes by his son Kenyatta Hill)
Live On (2011), Zojak Worldwide
Dub albums
Culture Dub (1978), High Note
Culture in Dub: 15 Dub Shots (1994), Heartbeat
Stoned (One Stone in Dub engineered by Fathead and Jim Fox) (1996), RAS
Scientist Dubs Culture into a Parallel Universe (2000)
Rare and Unreleased Dub, Revolver
Live albums
Cultural Livity: Live Culture '98 (1998), RAS
Live in Africa (2002)
Live in Negril (2003)
Split albums
Roots and Culture (1982), Jah Guidance – split with Don Carlos
Compilations
Vital Selection (1981), Virgin
Rare and Unreleased Dub Revolver Records (1989)
Too Long in Slavery produced by Sonia Pottinger (1981), Virgin
17 Chapters of Culture (1992), Sonic Sounds
Trod On produced by Sonia Pottinger (1993), Heartbeat
Strictly Culture: The Best Of Culture 1977–1979 (1994), MCI
Ras Portraits (1997), RAS
Peace and Love (1997), Rhino
Reggae Giants (1997), Top Tape
Production Something (1998), Heartbeat
Kings of Reggae (2001), Nocturne
Chanting On (2004), Earmark
This Is Crucial Reggae (2004), Sanctuary
Culture & The Deejays at Joe Gibbs 1977–79 (2008), 17 North Parade
At Joe Gibbs (2011), 17 North Parade
Seven Sevens Clash (2012), 17 North Parade – box set of seven 7-inch singles
Stronger than Ever: At Their Best, Rocky One
Natty Never Get Weary, Revolver
DVDs
Live in Africa (2002), RAS
References
External links
[ Allmusic biography]
2003 article, ic stand against crack
Culture biography and discography
1976 establishments in Jamaica
Jamaican reggae musical groups
Musical groups established in 1976
VP Records artists
Shanachie Records artists | [
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222633 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VxD | VxD | VxD is the device driver model used in Microsoft Windows/386 2.x, the 386 enhanced mode of Windows 3.x, Windows 9x, and to some extent also by the Novell DOS 7, OpenDOS 7.01, and DR-DOS 7.02 (and higher) multitasker (TASKMGR). VxDs have access to the memory of the kernel and all running processes, as well as raw access to the hardware. Starting with Windows 98, Windows Driver Model was the recommended driver model to write drivers for, with the VxD driver model still being supported for backward compatibility, until Windows Me.
Design
The name "VxD" is an abbreviation for "virtual xxx driver", where "xxx" is some class of hardware device. It derives from the fact that most drivers had filenames of the form vxxxd.386 in Windows 3.x. Some examples are: vjoyd.386 (joystick), vmm.386 (memory manager). VxDs usually have the filename extension .386 under Windows 3.x and .vxd under Windows 9x. VxDs written for Windows 3.x can be used under Windows 9x but not vice versa.
History
Prior to the advent of Windows, DOS applications would either communicate directly with the various pieces of hardware (responding to interrupts, reading and writing device memory etc.) or go through a DOS device driver. As DOS was not multitasking, each application would have exclusive and complete control over the hardware while running. Though Windows applications don't often communicate directly with hardware, it was the only way for Windows drivers; and still is in the real and standard modes of Windows 3.x.
Windows/386 and onward allowed multiple DOS applications to execute concurrently by executing each within its own virtual machine. To share physical resources among these virtual machines, Microsoft introduced virtual device drivers. These drivers solved issues relating to conflicting usage of physical resources by intercepting calls to the hardware. Instead of a machine port representing an actual device, it would represent a "virtual" device, which could be managed by the operating system.
Obsolescence
Although Windows 98 introduced the Windows Driver Model (WDM), VxD device drivers can be used under Windows 98 and Windows Me. VxDs are not usable in Windows NT or its descendants. Starting with Windows 2000, Windows NT-based operating systems also use the Windows Driver Model, while Windows NT 4 and earlier versions must use drivers written specifically for them. Using VxD drivers instead of WDM drivers in Windows 9x resulted in advanced ACPI states like hibernation being unavailable.
VxDs should not be confused with the similarly named NTVDM-specific 'VDDs' (Virtual Device Drivers), which provide a method of emulating direct I/O under a Windows NT "DOS Box". NTVDM VDDs run as regular, 32-bit, user-mode DLLs, and must rely on the Win32 API (or another WDM driver) to emulate the desired I/O on behalf of the 16-bit program.
See also
VXD (CONFIG.SYS directive)
Windows Driver Model (WDM)
Architecture of Windows 9x
References
Further reading
(xviii+856+vi pages, 3.5"-floppy) Errata:
Microsoft application programming interfaces
Device drivers
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222638 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple%20Unite%20%28English%20coin%29 | Triple Unite (English coin) | The Triple Unite, valued at sixty shillings, 60/- or three pounds, was the highest English denomination to be produced in the era of the hammered coinage. It was only produced during the English Civil War, at King Charles I's mints at Oxford (between 1642 and 1644) and, rarely, at Shrewsbury in 1642. It weighed 421 grains (27.3 grams, or just over seven-eighths of a troy ounce).
The gold coins are undoubtedly magnificent pieces of work, and they show the king holding a sword and an olive branch on the obverse, signifying his wish for peace rather than war.
The extremely rare Shrewsbury-produced coin shows, on the obverse, a plume behind the kings' head surrounded by the legend CAROLUS DG MAG BRIT FRAN ET HIBER REX – Charles by the grace of God King of Great Britain France and Ireland. The reverse shows the legend RELIG PROT LEG ANG LIBER PAR in three lines – The religion of the Protestants, the laws of England and the liberty of Parliament, with three plumes and the value numeral III above the declaration and the year 1642 below it, the whole being surrounded by the legend EXURGAT DEUS DISSIPENTUR INIMICI ("Let God arise and His enemies be scattered", from Psalm 68).
The Oxford issues are very similar to the Shrewsbury one, except that the legend on the reverse appears in three lines rather than two, and the obverse legend appears as CAROLUS DG MAG BRIT FR ET HIB REX. Oxford coins appear with slight design differences in each year of 1642, 1643, and 1644.
External links
Triple Unite Sales Archive – A gallery of Triple Unite pictures, varieties and values.
Coins of England
English gold coins
English Civil War
1642 in England
1642 introductions | [
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222639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superunknown | Superunknown | Superunknown is the fourth studio album by American rock band Soundgarden, released on March 8, 1994, through A&M Records. It is the band's second album with bassist Ben Shepherd, and features new producer Michael Beinhorn. Soundgarden began work on the album after touring in support of its previous album, Badmotorfinger (1991). Superunknown captured the heaviness of the band's earlier releases while displaying a more diverse range of influences.
Superunknown was a critical and commercial success and became the band's breakthrough album. It debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, selling 310,000 copies in its opening week. The album also topped the Australian, Canadian, and New Zealand charts. Five singles were released from the album: "The Day I Tried to Live", "My Wave", "Fell on Black Days", "Spoonman", and "Black Hole Sun", the latter two of which won Grammy Awards and helped Soundgarden reach mainstream popularity. In 1995, the album was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Rock Album. The album has been certified five times platinum by the RIAA in the United States, has sold 9 million copies worldwide and remains Soundgarden's most successful album. In April 2019, Superunknown was ranked No. 9 on Rolling Stones "50 Greatest Grunge Albums" list.
Recording
Soundgarden began work on the album about two months after finishing its stint on the 1992 Lollapalooza tour. The individual band members would work on material on their own and then bring in demos to which the other members of the band would contribute. Frontman Chris Cornell said that the band members allowed each other more freedom than on past records. Thayil observed that even though the band spent as much time writing and arranging as it had on previous albums, it spent a lot more time working on recording the songs. After two albums with producer Terry Date, the band decided to seek another collaborator, as guitarist Kim Thayil said, "We just thought we'd go for a change." Eventually they settled on producer Michael Beinhorn, who "didn't have his own trademark sound which he was trying to tack on to Soundgarden" and had ideas the band approved.
The album's recording sessions took place from July 1993 to September 1993 at Bad Animals Studio in Seattle, Washington, as according to Cornell "there was never a decent studio in Seattle and now there's one with a Neve console, so it seemed obvious to use it". Bad Animals' resident engineer Adam Kasper, who went on to produce Soundgarden's following albums, assisted Beinhorn on the recording process. Soundgarden took the approach of recording one song at a time. The drum and bass parts were recorded first for each song, and then Cornell and Thayil would lay down their parts over top. Cornell said that getting to know Beinhorn contributed to the length of time Soundgarden spent working on the album. The band spent time experimenting with different drum and guitar sounds, as well as utilizing techniques such as layering, resulting in an expansive production sound. Cornell said, "Michael Beinhorn was so into sounds. He was so, almost, anal about it, that it took the piss out of us a lot of the time ... By the time you get the sounds that you want to record the song, you're sick and tired of playing it." Beinhorn tried to add many of his preferred musicians to mold the band's sound, in what Billboard described as "weaning the band from brute force, giving it the impetus to invest in a more subtle power". For instance, prior to recording the vocals of "Black Hole Sun", Beinhorn made Cornell listen to Frank Sinatra.
Superunknown lasts for 15 songs clocking on approximately 70 minutes because according to Cornell, "we didn't really want to argue over what should be cut". Soundgarden took a break in the middle of recording to open for Neil Young on a ten-day tour of the United States. The band then brought in Brendan O'Brien to mix the album, as Beinhorn felt the band needed "a fresh pair of ears"; O'Brien had come recommended by Pearl Jam guitarist Stone Gossard. Thayil called the mixing process "very painless", and bassist Ben Shepherd said it was "the fastest part of the record".
Composition
The songs on Superunknown captured the metal influences of the band's previous works while showcasing the group's newly evolving style. Steve Huey of AllMusic said that the band's "earlier punk influences are rarely detectable, replaced by surprisingly effective appropriations of pop and psychedelia." Cornell labeled the album as more "challenging" and "versatile" than the band's previous releases. The songs on the album are more experimental and diverse than the band's previous recordings, with some songs having a Middle-Eastern or Indian flavor (for example "Half", sung by Shepherd). Some songs also show a Beatles influence, such as "Head Down" and "Black Hole Sun". In a 1994 interview with Guitar World, Thayil explained, "We looked deep down inside the very core of our souls and there was a little Ringo sitting there. Oh sure, we like telling people it's John Lennon or George Harrison; but when you really look deep inside of Soundgarden, there's a little Ringo wanting to get out." Drummer Matt Cameron said that the experimentation on the album was "just a matter of refinement." According to The A.V. Club, the album "both redefined and transcended grunge". Michael Beinhorn stated that to achieve the intensity of Superunknown, he sought influence from European electronic music, such as the British Aphex Twin and the Dutch genre of Gabber, described by him as "some of the rawest music made".
Soundgarden used alternate tunings and odd time signatures on several of the album's songs. "Spoonman", "Black Hole Sun", "Let Me Drown" and "Kickstand" were performed in drop D tuning while "Mailman" and "Limo Wreck" employed CGDGBe tuning. Some songs used more unorthodox tunings: "My Wave" and "The Day I Tried to Live" are both in an EEBBBb tuning. "Head Down" and "Half" both utilised CGCGGe tuning. "4th of July" is in a similar CFCGBe tuning. "Fresh Tendrils" is in DGDGBe tuning and "Like Suicide" is performed in DGDGBC tuning. Soundgarden's use of odd time signatures was varied as well; "Fell On Black Days" is in 6/4, "Limo Wreck" is played in 15/8, "My Wave" alternates between 5/4 and 4/4, and "The Day I Tried to Live" alternates between 7/8 and 4/4 sections. Thayil has said that Soundgarden usually did not consider the time signature of a song until after the band had written it, and said that the use of odd meters was "a total accident".
Lyrically, the album is quite dark and mysterious, as much of it is often interpreted to be dealing with issues such as substance abuse, suicide, and depression, with running themes of revenge, annihilation, seclusion, fear, loss, death, and discovery. Cornell was inspired by the writings of Sylvia Plath at the time. Commenting on the album's lyrics, Thayil said that "a lot of Superunknown seems to me to be about life, not death. Maybe not affirming it, but rejoicing—like the Druids [put it]: 'Life is good, but death's gonna be even better!" Cameron said that the lyrics on the album are "a big fuck-you to the world, a plea to 'leave us alone. Cornell stated that "Let Me Drown" is about "crawling back to the womb to die", "Fell on Black Days" is about realizing "you're unhappy in the extreme", "Black Hole Sun" is about a "surreal dreamscape", "Limo Wreck" is a "'shame-on-decadence' song", "The Day I Tried to Live" is about "trying to step out of being patterned and closed off and reclusive", and "4th of July" is about using LSD. Cornell talked about "Mailman" at a concert saying, "This next one is about killing your boss. It's about coming to work early one morning cause you have a special agenda and you're going to shoot him in the fucking head." Conversely, "Like Suicide" was literal, written by Cornell after a bird flew into a window of his house. He found the severely injured animal and killed it, hitting it with a brick to end its suffering.
The video clip of the song "Spoonman" is notable for featuring a performance by Artis the Spoonman, a street entertainer in Seattle. The title of the song is credited to bassist Jeff Ament of Pearl Jam. While on the set of the movie Singles, Ament produced a list of song titles for the fictional band featured in the movie. Cornell took it as a challenge to write songs for the film using those titles, and "Spoonman" was one of them. An acoustic demo version of the song appears in the movie. Cornell said that the song is about "the paradox of who [Artis] is and what people perceive him as".
Packaging
The album's cover art (known as the 'Screaming Elf') is a distorted photograph of the band members, photographed by Kevin Westenberg, above a black and white upside-down burning forest. Concerning the artwork, Cornell said, "Superunknown relates to birth in a way ... Being born or even dying—getting flushed into something that you know nothing about. The hardest thing is to nail down a visual image to put on a title like that. The first thing we thought of was a forest in grey or black. Soundgarden has always been associated with images of flowers and lush colors and this was the opposite. It still seemed organic but it was very dark and cold ... I was into those stories as a kid where forests were full of evil and scary things as opposed to being happy gardens that you go camping in." In a 1994 Pulse! magazine interview, Cornell said that the inspiration for the album's title came from his misreading of a video entitled Superclown. He added, "I thought it was a cool title. I'd never heard it before, never saw it before, and it inspired me." The album also saw a limited release on 12" colored vinyl (blue, orange, and clear), as a double-LP in a gatefold sleeve. The album's title 'SUPERUNKNOWN' is sometimes displayed with the "UNKNOWN" as semi upside down and reversed lettering (stylized as "SUPER∩ИKИOMИ").
On May 25, 2017, photographer Kevin Westenberg revealed the full photo from the cover for the first time on his Instagram account.
Release and commercial performance
Superunknown was Soundgarden's breakout album, earning the band international recognition. Upon its release in March 1994, Superunknown debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 album chart, and eventually closed the year as the 13th best-selling album of 1994, with 2.5 million copies sold. The album Superunknown has been certified five times platinum by the RIAA in the United States, three times platinum in Canada, and gold in the United Kingdom, Sweden, and the Netherlands.
Superunknown has sold around 9 million copies worldwide; 3,900,000 of these in the United States. The album spawned the EP Songs from the Superunknown and the CD-ROM Alive in the Superunknown, both released in 1995.
20th-anniversary reissues
The 20th-anniversary reissue of "Superunknown" was made available in two deluxe versions. The Deluxe Edition was a 2-CD package featuring the remastered album along with disc two consisting of demos, rehearsals, B-sides and more. The Super Deluxe Edition was a 5-CD package featuring the remastered album, additional demos, rehearsals and B-sides and the fifth disc is the album mixed in Blu-ray Audio 5.1 Surround Sound. The Super Deluxe Edition was packaged in a hardbound book with a lenticular cover, liner notes by David Fricke and newly reimagined album artwork designed by Josh Graham. It also featured never-before-seen band photography by Kevin Westerberg. A 2-LP gatefold of the original 16 vinyl tracks remastered on 200-gram vinyl in a gatefold jacket was also made available. In addition, the Superunknown singles and associated b-sides with newly interpreted artwork sleeves by Josh Graham was reissued on Record Store Day, April 19, 2014, as a set of five limited-edition 10-inch vinyl records."
Critical reception
Superunknown received universal acclaim from music critics. Q said, "Soundgarden dealt in unreconstructed heavy rock: a heavy guitar sound, depth-charge drumming ... Yet Superunknown also includes more measured moments". Rolling Stone magazine's J. D. Considine was impressed by the record's range and, despite criticizing "Black Hole Sun" and "Half", he said "at its best, Superunknown offers a more harrowing depiction of alienation and despair than anything on In Utero". Jon Pareles of The New York Times credited the band with trying to transcend conventional heavy metal: "Superunknown actually tries to broaden its audience by breaking heavy-metal genre barriers that Soundgarden used to accept." In Entertainment Weekly, David Browne wrote, "Soundgarden is pumped and primed on Superunknown, and they deliver the goods." He praised it as a "hard-rock milestone – a boiling vat of volcanic power, record-making smarts, and '90s anomie and anxiety that sets a new standard for anything called metal." Ann Powers from Blender said that "guitarist Thayil helps create the stoner-rock template", and that it "stands as Soundgarden's masterpiece". Village Voice critic Robert Christgau, who had "mocked" Soundgarden's "conceptual pretentions for years", still felt their foredooming, pessimistic lyrics lacked much substance, but said they had improved composing, arranging, and producing on an album that was "easily the best—most galvanizing, kinetic, sensational, catchy—Zep rip in history". In a retrospective review, AllMusic editor Steve Huey wrote, "It's obvious that Superunknown was consciously styled as a masterwork, and it fulfills every ambition." It received a nomination in the Best Rock Album category for the 1995 Grammy Awards.
"We were listening to Nirvana and Pearl Jam just like everybody else," remarked Def Leppard's Vivian Campbell, "and especially to Soundgarden – the Superunknown record. That was the record that we referenced in terms of the sonics and the mood of it when making Slang."
Accolades
The critical acclaim garnered by Superunknown has led to its inclusion in many lists of the greatest albums.
Tour
The band began touring in January 1994 in Oceania and Japan, areas where the record came out early. The band had never toured these regions before. This round of touring ended in February 1994, and then in March 1994 the band moved on to Europe. The band were to join a 20-date co-headline American tour with Nine Inch Nails in April/May, but had to cancel, but continued with a headlining theater tour on May 27, 1994. The opening acts were Tad and Eleven. In late 1994, after touring in support of Superunknown, doctors discovered that Cornell had severely strained his vocal cords. Soundgarden cancelled several more shows to avoid causing any permanent damage. Cornell said, "I think we kinda overdid it! We were playing five or six nights a week and my voice pretty much took a beating. Towards the end of the American tour I felt like I could still kinda sing, but I wasn't really giving the band a fair shake. You don't buy a ticket to see some guy croak for two hours! That seemed like kind of a rip off." The band made up the dates later in 1995.
Track listing
Outtakes
Although the album's singles featured quite a few B-sides, only "Exit Stonehenge" (from the "Spoonman" single) was sourced from the Superunknown recording sessions in 1993. "Cold Bitch" (also from "Spoonman") was recorded during the Badmotorfinger recording sessions in 1991, "Kyle Petty, Son of Richard" and "Motorcycle Loop" (both from the "Fell on Black Days" single) were recorded by Stuart Hallerman at Avast Studios in Seattle in 1994. "Kyle Petty, Son of Richard" was later featured on the 1996 Home Alive compilation. "Tighter & Tighter", "No Attention", and "An Unkind", all of which later appeared on the band's 1996 album, Down on the Upside, were attempted during the Superunknown recording sessions. Cameron said that the band wasn't pleased with the recording of "No Attention" that came out of the sessions. An instrumental entitled "Ruff Riff-Raff" and a light-hearted song called "Bing Bing Goes to Church" were recorded at album rehearsals but were presumably not recorded during the Superunknown recording sessions. Both were released in 2014 on the 20th anniversary Super Deluxe edition.
Personnel
Soundgarden
Chris Cornell – lead vocals, backing vocals, rhythm guitar
Kim Thayil – lead guitar
Ben Shepherd – bass, drums and percussion (track 6), backing vocals (track 8), lead vocals and guitar (track 14)
Matt Cameron – drums, percussion, Mellotron (track 4), pots and pans (track 8)
Additional musicians
April Acevez – viola (track 14)
Artis the Spoonman – spoons (track 8)
Michael Beinhorn – piano (track 1)
Fred Chalenor – harmonic guidance (track 9)
Justine Foy – cello (track 14)
Gregg Keplinger – drums and percussion (track 6)
Natasha Shneider – clavinet (track 12)
Production
Michael Beinhorn – production
David Collins – mastering
Jason Corsaro – engineering
Adam Kasper – assistant engineering
Kelk – front cover design
Gregg Keplinger – studio assistance
Tony Messina – studio assistance
Brendan O'Brien – mixing
Reyzart – layout
Soundgarden – production
Kevin Westenberg – band photography
Susan Silver – management
Charts
Original release
20th anniversary re-release
Year-end charts
Singles
Certifications
References
1994 albums
A&M Records albums
Albums produced by Michael Beinhorn
Soundgarden albums
Albums produced by Chris Cornell
Albums produced by Matt Cameron | [
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222643 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy%20MacLaren%20%28politician%29 | Roy MacLaren (politician) | Roy MacLaren, (born 26 October 1934), is a Canadian politician, diplomat, historian, and author.
Born in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, he received a Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of British Columbia with a major in History, a master's degree from St Catharine's College, Cambridge, a Master of Divinity degree from the University of Trinity College and an honorary Doctor of Sacred Letters degree from the University of Toronto, another honorary degree from the University of Alabama, and in 1973 attended Harvard University's Advanced Management Program. In 2002, he received the Alumni Award of Distinction from the University of British Columbia.
During twelve years with the Canadian foreign service, MacLaren's postings included Hanoi, Saigon, Prague and the United Nations in New York and Geneva. He served as the Canadian Chair of the Canada-Europe Round Table and the Canadian Institute for International Affairs. He has also served on the Canadian and British board of directors of Deutsche Bank plus a number of other multi-national corporations. He is also the Honorary Colonel of the 7th Toronto Regiment, Royal Canadian Artillery. MacLaren is currently the Chairman of the Canada-India Business Council.
His historical book, Canadians on the Nile, 1882–1898 was published in 1978 and the following year he was elected to the House of Commons of Canada as the Liberal MP for Etobicoke North. In June 1983, MacLaren was appointed by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau as Minister of State [Finance]. In June 1984, he was appointed to John Turner's short-lived cabinet as Minister of National Revenue, but was defeated in the September election by Conservative Bob Pennock. In 1988, he was again elected MP for Etobicoke North. After the Liberals won the 1993 election, he was appointed Minister of International Trade, but resigned that position and his seat in 1996, when he was appointed High Commissioner for Canada in the United Kingdom. He served in that position until 2000.
Roy MacLaren is currently the Chairman of the Canada-India Business Council he also co-Chairs the Canada Europe Roundtable for Business, sits on the Council of the Champlain Society, the Executive Committee of the Trilateral Commission, the board of directors of the Royal Ontario Museum Foundation Board, is President of St Catharine's College Society, and a director of The Council for Business and the Arts in Canada. His published writings reflect his personal and professional experience, much of it concentrating on Canada's international history.
While serving as High Commissioner in London, he published the historically significant diaries of explorer William Stairs. The depiction on the book cover of the expedition up Mt. Ruwenzori is based on a sketch by William Stairs now in the National Archives of Canada.
Works
Canadians in Russia, 1918–1919 (1976)
Canadians on the Nile, 1882–1898 (1978)
Canadians Behind Enemy Lines, 1939–1945 (1981)
Honourable Mentions: The uncommon diary of an M.P." (Toronto, ON: Deneau Publishers, Inc., 1986) African Exploits, The Diaries of William Stairs, 1887–1892 (1998) Commissions High; Canada in London 1870–1970'' (2004)
Archives
There is a Roy MacLaren fonds at Library and Archives Canada.
Electoral record
References
External links
1934 births
Living people
Alumni of St Catharine's College, Cambridge
Canadian Anglicans
Canadian historians
Canadian male non-fiction writers
High Commissioners of Canada to the United Kingdom
Liberal Party of Canada MPs
Members of the 22nd Canadian Ministry
Members of the 23rd Canadian Ministry
Members of the 26th Canadian Ministry
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from British Columbia
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Politicians from Vancouver
Royal Ontario Museum
Trinity College (Canada) alumni
University of Toronto alumni
Writers from Vancouver | [
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222651 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minas%20Gerais | Minas Gerais | Minas Gerais () is a state in Southeastern Brazil. It ranks as the second most populous, the third by gross domestic product (GDP), and the fourth largest by area in the country. The state's capital and largest city, Belo Horizonte, is a major urban and finance center in Latin America, and the sixth largest municipality in Brazil, after the cities of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, Brasília and Fortaleza, but its metropolitan area is the third largest in Brazil with just over 5,800,000 inhabitants, after those of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. Nine Brazilian presidents were born in Minas Gerais, the most of any state. The state has 10.1% of the Brazilian population and is responsible for 8.7% of the Brazilian GDP.
With an area of —larger than Metropolitan France—it is the fourth most extensive state in Brazil. The main producer of coffee and milk in the country, Minas Gerais is known for its heritage of architecture and colonial art in historical cities such as São João del Rei, Congonhas, Ouro Preto, Diamantina, Tiradentes and Mariana. In the south, the tourist points are the hydro mineral spas, such as Caxambu, Lambari, São Lourenço, Poços de Caldas, São Thomé das Letras, Monte Verde and the national parks of Caparaó and Canastra. The landscape of the state is marked by mountains, valleys, and large areas of fertile lands. In the Serra do Cipó, Sete Lagoas, Cordisburgo and Lagoa Santa, the caves and waterfalls are the attractions. Some of Brazil's most famous caverns are located there.
Etymology
Two interpretations are given for the origin of the name Minas Gerais. It comes from "Minas dos Matos Gerais", the former name of the colonial province ("Mines of the General Woods"). So a first and more common understanding affirms that the name simply means "General Mines", with the word Gerais serving as an adjective to the mines, which were themselves spread in several spots around a larger region. Another explanation is that this ignores the two large geographical spaces which conformed the state in its history: the region of the mines (Minas), and the region of the Gerais ("Matos Gerais" or "Campos Gerais", which means something close to "General Fields"). These corresponded to the areas of Sertão which were farther and hard to access (with an economy based on farming and agriculture) from the mining spots (whose economic space was urban from its origin). The confusion comes from the fact that the term "Gerais" is taken as an adjective to "Minas" in the first version, although according to this point of view it refers to the region called Gerais (as a noun). A further complication is that this is not a well-defined area on the map of the state, but rather a designation to these parts outside the mining spots, more related to the geography of Sertão, and more isolated from the state's nucleus.
Location
Minas Gerais is in the north of the southeast region of Brazil, which also contains the states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo. It borders on Bahia (north), Goiás (west and northwest), Mato Grosso do Sul (far west), the states of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro (south) and the state of Espírito Santo (east). It also shares a short boundary with the Distrito Federal (northwest). Minas Gerais is situated between 14°13'58" and 22°54'00" S latitude and between 39°51'32" and 51°02'35" W longitude. It is larger in area than Metropolitan France or Spain.
Geography
Minas Gerais features some of the longest rivers in Brazil, most notably the São Francisco, the Paraná and to a lesser extent, the Rio Doce. The state also holds many hydroelectric power plants, including Furnas. Some of the highest peaks in Brazil are in the mountain ranges in the southern part of the state, such as Serra da Mantiqueira and Serra do Cervo, that mark the border between Minas and its neighbors São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. The most notable one is the Pico da Bandeira, the third highest mountain in Brazil at 2890 m, standing on the border with Espírito Santo state. The state also has huge reserves of iron and sizeable reserves of gold and gemstones, including emerald, topaz and aquamarine mines. Emeralds found in this location are comparable to the best Colombia-origin emeralds, and are most often a bluish-green color.
Each region of the state has a distinct character, geographically and to a certain extent culturally.
The central and eastern area of the state is hilly and rocky, with little vegetation on the mountains. Around Lagoa Santa and Sete Lagoas a typical Karst topography with caves and lakes is found. Some of the mountains are almost entirely iron ore, which led to extensive mining (in some places at the expense of the environment). Recent advances in environmental policy helped to put limits to mining. About to the east of Belo Horizonte is the second Metropolitan Region of the state, Vale do Aço (steel valley), which has iron and steel processing companies along the course of the Rio Doce and its tributaries. Vale do Aço's largest cities are Ipatinga, Coronel Fabriciano and Timóteo. Now that mining is restricted large areas of forest are being removed for timber, charcoal and to clear land for cattle ranching. The original forest cover of these inland hills is very much fragmented. The city of Governador Valadares is in the limit of this region with the poorer North.
The south of Minas Gerais is hilly and green, with coffee and milk production. This region is notably cooler than the rest of the state, and some locations are subject to temperatures just below the freezing point during the winter. The region is also famed for its mineral-water resorts, including the cities of Poços de Caldas, Lambari, São Lourenço and Caxambu. Many industries are located at Varginha and Pouso Alegre.
The southeast of the state, called Zona da Mata (Forest Zone) was the richest region until the mid 20th century, nowadays the biggest city, Juiz de Fora, remains an important industrial, cultural and educational center, being also the fourth largest in the Minas state. The day-to-day living in the Zona da Mata however, is better represented by a group of smaller cities like Manhuaçu Além Paraíba, Viçosa, Leopoldina, Cataguases, Muriaé, Ubá, Astolfo Dutra and several others. Those cities put together form a strong economic presence based mostly on agriculture, textiles and minerals. The city of the principal coffee region in Minas Gerais is São João do Manhuaçu situated in Zona da Mata.
The west of Minas Gerais, also known as "Triângulo Mineiro" (which means "the Minas Triangle", due to the geographic shape of this region), is composed of a particular type of savanna, known as the Cerrado. This region was initially occupied by large free-wheeling beef ranches, which are still important for the economy of the region. Over the 1990s, extensive soy and corn farms occupied much of the farming land available. The Cerrado is also one of the principal coffee-growing areas of Brazil. The main cities of this region are Uberlândia, Uberaba, Patos de Minas and Araguari.
The north of Minas Gerais is part of the arid sertão of the Nordeste, and is thus subject to frequent droughts. Recent irrigation projects use the water from the São Francisco river for agriculture; the river crosses the northern region carrying water from its basin in the central area of the state, which is subject to a regular rainfall pattern. The diamond mines of this region, mainly in Diamantina, attracted miners but are now exhausted, and the remaining population lives in poor conditions, especially in the valley of the Jequitinhonha River. The region is, however, known for its high quality cachaça production. Salinas in particular exports large amounts of this alcoholic beverage. The main cities of this region are Montes Claros, Teófilo Otoni, Pirapora and Janaúba.
Geology
Paleontology
The discovery of the Maxakalisaurus topai (Dinoprata) fossils was a significant paleontological find. The fossil is a genus of titanosaurid dinosaur found 45 kilometers (28 mi) from the city of Prata (Triângulo Mineiro), in the state of Minas Gerais in 1998. It was closely related to Saltasaurus, a sauropod considered unusual because it had evolved apparently defensive traits, including bony plates on its skin and vertical plates along its spine; such osteoderms have also been found for Maxakalisaurus. The genus name is derived from the tribe of the Maxakali.
The Maxakalisaurus fossils belonged to an animal about 13 meters (43.3 ft) long, with an estimated weight of 9 tons, although, according to paleontologist Alexander Kellner, it could reach a length of approximately 20 meters (65 ft). It had a long neck and tail, ridged teeth (unusual among sauropods) and lived about 80 million years ago. Because sauropods seem to have lacked significant competition in South America, they evolved there with greater diversity and more unusual traits than elsewhere in the world. A replica has been displayed at the Museu Nacional in Rio de Janeiro, since August 28, 2006.
History
Indigenous inhabitation
The region where Minas Gerais is today was inhabited by indigenous peoples as long ago as 11,400 to 12,000 years ago, based on the estimated age of Luzia, the name of the oldest human fossil found in the Americas. Luzia was found in excavations in Lapa Vermelha, a cave in the region of Lagoa Santa and Pedro Leopoldo, in the Metropolitan Region of Belo Horizonte. In the region of the municipalities of Januária, Montalvânia, Itacarambi and Juvenília, in the north of the state of Minas Gerais, archaeological excavations have led to estimates that the initial settlement occurred between 11,000 and 12,000 years ago. Starting in this period, cultural characteristics emerged, such as the use of stone or bone, the creation of cemeteries and small grain silos, as well as cave paintings. Later, about four thousand years ago, it is speculated that vegetable cultivation occurred, in particular corn, and that two thousand years ago, ceramic products were already being manufactured.
The discovery of Luzia in the 1970s led to the hypothesis that the settlement of the Americas was begun with the migration of hunter gatherers from Asia, probably through the Bering Strait, by way of a land bridge called Beringia (which was left by the recession of the sea during the last ice age). The indigenous peoples of Minas Gerais, as well as throughout Brazil and South America, are descendants of the groups who migrated there through North America.
More than a hundred indigenous groups inhabited the state of Minas Gerais. The region was occupied until the 16th century by indigenous peoples of the Macro-Jê linguistic stock such as the Xakriabá, the Maxakali, the Crenaques, the Aranãs, the Mocurins, the Atu-auá-araxás and the Purí. A few decades after Portuguese colonization, however, they became targets of enslavement, and were, for centuries, captured by Bandeirantes to work on their farms or to be sold; those who revolted were subject to genocide. There are currently five groups: the Xakriabá, the Crenaques, the Maxakalis, the Pataxós and the Pankararus.
Colonial era
In the colonial era, the Brazilian interior was colonized by Portuguese and bandeirantes. The Brazilian gold rush ushered in an influx of new settlers in search of veins of gold (discovered 1693) and gems, and later diamonds which come from the naturally occurring itacolumite rock that can be found in great numbers in the region. These helped to boost occupation of the inner lands and led to the foundation of several new villages. In 1697, the Portuguese used enslaved African labor to start building the Estrada Real, the "royal road," that would connect the ports of cities of Rio de Janeiro and Paraty to the mineral-rich regions of Ouro Preto, Serro, and, at the northernmost point, Diamantina. In 1753 Rosa Egipcíaca was enslaved and forced to work as a prostitute in a mine in the region, until she became ill and began to have religious visions. These visions led to her arrest and imprisonment and ultimately interrogation by the Inquisition. She recorded them in the first book to be written by a black woman in Brazil - Sagrada Teologia do Amor Divino das Almas Peregrinas.
Prior to 1720, Minas Gerais was part of the captaincy of São Vicente (later renamed São Paulo e Minas de Ouro). The first capital of Minas Gerais, and seat of the local see, was the city of Mariana; it was later moved to Vila Rica. In the late 18th century, Vila Rica was the largest city in Brazil and one of the most populous in America. As the gold mines were exhausted over the 19th century, the city lost its importance; it was later renamed Ouro Preto and remained the state capital until the construction of the all-new, planned city of Belo Horizonte at the turn of the 20th century. The gold cycle left its mark in cities such as Mariana, Ouro Preto, Diamantina, Sabará, Tiradentes and São João del Rei. The relative isolation from European influence, added to the huge influx of gold and other valuable minerals, helped the local people to develop their own style of art, which became known as Barroco Mineiro. Prime examples of this period are the richly decorated churches in the colonial cities. The most important artist of this period was Antônio Francisco Lisboa, who became known as Aleijadinho. His sculptural and architectural work, as exhibited in the Twelve Prophets and The Church of Saint Francis of Assisi in Ouro Preto, are highly valued by experts as one of the most refined artistic expressions outside Europe at that time.
In addition to art and architecture, there was an explosion of musical activity in Minas Gerais in the 18th century. Printed copies of European music, as well as accomplished musicians, made the journey to the area, and soon a local school of composition and performance was born and achieved considerable sophistication. Several composers worked in Minas Gerais in the 18th century, mainly in Vila Rica (now Ouro Preto), Sabará, Mariana, and other cities. Some of the names which have survived include José Joaquim Emerico Lobo de Mesquita, Marcos Coelho Netto, Francisco Gomes da Rocha and Ignácio Parreiras Neves; they cultivated a style related to the classical European style but marked by more a more chordal, homophonic sound, and they usually wrote for mixed groups of voices and instruments.
Guimarães Rosa's literature is mostly situated in Minas Gerais, with locations widely located across the State (hence the term General, although more concentrated in its north) rather than delimited and identifiable. This northern area began to be colonized (with brutal conflicts with the large Amerindian population who lived in some parts, especially in Vale do Jequitinhonha) and became accessible to colonists departing from Bahia up north, which made the Portuguese crown insert the region within the state of Minas Gerais's borders in order to prevent gold and diamond smuggling from people trying to avoid colonial taxation and oversight; thus the state of MG was closely watched by the crown because of its tax revenue.
During the 18th century, mining exploration was strongly controlled by the Portuguese Crown, which imposed heavy taxes on everything extracted (one fifth of all gold would go to the Crown). Several rebellions were attempted by the colonists, always facing strong reaction by the imperial crown. One of the most important was the Felipe dos Santos revolt that ended with his execution but also with the separation of Minas Gerais of São Paulo. The most notable one, however, was the Inconfidência, started in 1789 by group of middle-class colonists, mostly intellectuals and young officers. They were inspired by the American and French Enlightenment ideals. The conspiracy failed and the rebels were arrested and exiled. The most famous of them, Joaquim José da Silva Xavier (known as Tiradentes), was hanged by order of Queen Maria I of Portugal, becoming a local hero and a national martyr of Brazil. The Minas Gerais flag—a red triangle on a white background, along with the Latin motto "Libertas quæ sera tamen", "freedom albeit late"—is based on the design for the national flag proposed by the "Inconfidentes", as the rebels became known.
In the economic history of Brazil, Minas Gerais plays a pivotal role in shifting the economic axis from the Brazilian northeast (based on sugarcane, that starts declining in the 18th century) to the southeast of the country, which still remains the major economic center. The large amounts of gold found in the region attracted the attention of Portugal back to Brazil, progressively turning Rio de Janeiro into an important port city, from where these would be shipped to Portugal and where the Portuguese crown would eventually move its administration in 1808 after Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion of Portugal (see Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil).
Due to the economic importance of the state and the particular traits of the local population—famed for its reserved and balanced character—Minas Gerais has also played an important role on national politics. During the 19th century, politicians such as José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva were instrumental in the establishment of the Brazilian Empire under the rule of Dom Pedro I and later his son, Dom Pedro II. After the installation of the Brazilian Republic, during the early 20th century, Minas Gerais shared the control of the national political scene with São Paulo in what became known as the "Coffee with Milk" (café com leite) political cycle (coffee being the major product of São Paulo, and milk representing Minas Gerais' dairy industry, despite the latter also being an important coffee producer).
Minas Gerais was also home to two of the most influential Brazilian politicians of the second half of the 20th century. Juscelino Kubitschek was president from 1956 to 1961, and he was responsible for the construction of Brasília as the new capital of Brazil. Tancredo Neves had an extensive political career that culminated with his election in 1984 to be the first civil president after the 1964 military countercoup. However, he died after a series of health complications just as he was about to assume the position. Also, Itamar, Brazil's previous president, lived there, though he was not born in Minas.
See also the List of Governors of Minas Gerais.
Gallery
Demographics
According to the IBGE of 2008, there were 19,765,000 people residing in the state. The population density was . Urbanization: 85% (2006); Population growth: 1.4% (1991–2000); Houses: 5,741,000 (2006).
The last PNAD (National Research for Sample of Domiciles) census revealed the following numbers: 9,091,000 White people (46%), 8,927,000 Brown (Multiracial) people (45%), 1,802,000 Black people (9%), 40,000 Asian people (0.2%), 37,000 Amerindian people (0.2%).
Ethnic groups found in Minas Gerais include: Amerindians, Portuguese, Africans, Italians, Germans and Lebanese.
The ethnic composition of the population varies from town to town. For example, in Córrego do Bom Jesus, a small town located in the extreme south of Minas Gerais, White people make up 98.7% of the population. The South of Minas Gerais is both the most European and the most densely populated part of the state. On the other hand, in Setubinha, located in the northeast part of the state, 71.8% are mixed-race and 14.7% Black. It is historically explainable: southern Minas Gerais, in the border with São Paulo, received larger numbers of Portuguese farmers in colonial times. In the late 19th century, Italian immigrants also arrived. The north region, close to Bahia, was a place to the arrival of many African slaves since the 18th century. The central part of the state, where the capital Belo Horizonte is, has a more balanced ratio between White, Black and mixed people.
The population of Minas Gerais is the result of an intense mixture of peoples, particularly between Black Africans and Portuguese. In colonial Minas Gerais, the population was divided in five different categories: Whites, mostly Portuguese; Africans, who often did not have a surname and were usually known for their region of origin (for example Francisca Benguela would refer to Benguela); Crioulos (Black people born in Brazil, usually to both African parents); Mulattoes (people of mixed Black and White ancestry, usually born to a Black mother and a Portuguese father) and Cabras (people of mixed ancestry, usually with high degree of Amerindian admixture). Black people and "Mulattoes" predominated in the population after the beginning of the colonization. By the 19th century, however, whites were already the largest single group in the Minas Gerais population. Taking the population as a whole (all groups included), European genes account for the majority of the Minas Gerais genetic heritage, which has been explained on the basis of the extremely high mortality rates of the enslaved African population and lower reproductive rate of African slaves (the vast majority of them were males, among other reasons for their lower reproductive success). The Amerindian population was hit hard by the diseases brought by the European colonists and they did not have much of an impact either, especially in Minas Gerais, where European presence and colonization was massive.
During the colonial period, the disproportion between the number of men and women was quite sharp. The census of 1738 in Serro do Frio, which included Diamantina, revealed that of the 9,681 inhabitants, 83.5% were men and 16.5% women. Among the slaves, women were only 3.1%. The number of free "women of color" (Black and "Mulatto") was very high. The same census revealed that 63% of the former slaves were women and only 37% men. Since interracial relationships between "women of color" and White men were widespread, the female slaves were more likely to be freed than the male slaves.
The monogamous family structure that the Catholic Church tried to deploy in colonial Brazil was the exception in Minas Gerais. At that time cohabitation and temporary relationships predominated in Minas Gerais, as well as in Brazil as a whole. Monogamy and weddings in churches would only take root in Brazil in the 19th century, fitting the moral standards imposed by the Church. The role of women in colonial Minas Gerais was much more dynamic than it would be allowed by the standards of the time. Many women used to live on their own, were heads of family and worked, particularly the "women of color" and former slaves. The society of Minas Gerais provided a great social mobility to former slaves, mainly for women. In Tejuco, the percentage of White males who were head of family (37.7%) was very similar to the percentage of Black women who were head of family (38.5%). Many former slaves were able to accumulate goods and many of them became slave owners as well. Some Black people and mainly Mulattos were able to integrate themselves in the highest social stratum of the society of Minas Gerais, once restricted to Whites. This happened through a process of "whitening" their descendence and through the assimilation of the culture of the White elite, like being members of Catholic brotherhoods.
Cohabitation was the most common crime in Minas Gerais. The Catholic Church was strict in the punishment of this crime, in order to prevent the widespread miscegenation between White, mostly Portuguese males with Black or Mulatto women.
According to a 2013 autosomal DNA study, the ancestral composition of the state of Minas Gerais can be described as: 59.20% European, 28.90% African and 11.90% Native American
During the time of the gold rush, thousands of Portuguese immigrated to Brazil (mainly from the Minho), and many of them to Minas Gerais, the place where the gold rush activities took place. Most of them came from Entre Douro e Minho, in Northern Portugal. The reference book for a large number of these families is "Velhos Troncos Mineiros" (Old Mineiro Branches) by Raimundo Trindade. The Native American population of Minas Gerais was estimated to be at 97,000 in 1500, by the time the Portuguese arrived in Brazil in 1500 (John Hemming in "Red Gold: The Conquest of the Brazilian Indians").
The ancestry of the Africans brought to Minas Gerais was both West African and Bantu, with a predominance of the former initially and a predominance of the latter later.
Major cities
Religion
According to the 2010 Brazilian Census, most of the population (13.8 million people) consider themselves to be Catholic, which puts the state in ninth place when considering the percentage of the population belonging to this religion (70.4%). Although the number of Catholics has been gradually decreasing in recent years, Roman Catholicism is still strongly rooted in the Culture of Minas Gerais, but religious pluralism has also grown in recent years.
Economy
Minas Gerais is the second-largest consumer market in Brazil, behind the state of São Paulo. It shares 10.4% of the Brazilian consumer market. Companies of this Brazilian state have access to 49% of the Brazilian consumer market, with estimated consumption potential of 223 billion US dollars. The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 47.1%, followed by the industrial sector at 44.1%. agriculture represents 8.8% of GDP (2004). Main exports: mineral products 44.4%, metals 15.8%, vegetable products 13%, precious metals 5.5%, foodstuffs 4.9%, transportation 3.5% (2012).
Share of the Brazilian economy: 9% (2005).
Minas Gerais (or simply Minas, as it is commonly called) is a major producer of milk, coffee and other agricultural commodities, as well as minerals. Electronics are also produced in Minas. The automakers Fiat and Mercedes-Benz have factories there. Tourism is also an important activity for the state: historical cities like Ouro Preto, Mariana, Sabará, Congonhas, Diamantina, Tiradentes, and Sao João del Rey, are major attractions for visitors interested in their colonial architecture. Other cities, like Araxá, Poços de Caldas, Lambari, Caxambu, Lavras, and others, attract visitors interested in their mineral watersprings. Eco-tourism is a rising economic activity in the state, specially in localities situated on the several Serras (highlands) that exist in Minas Gerais.
The state has marked economic divisions. The southern part of the state (close to the São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro state borders) has several mid-sized cities with solid industrial bases such as Juiz de Fora, Varginha, Pouso Alegre, and Poços de Caldas, as well as Ipatinga in the east of the state, which is also a modern and major industrial city and Itabira, considered mother city of mining company Vale, that has stocks quoted in Bovespa and NYSE. The northeastern region is marked by poverty, but Governador Valadares and Teófilo Otoni attract foreign traders for the semi-precious gems such as topaz and sapphire. In Teófilo Otoni, some companies are also attracted because of Brazilian Export Processing Zone, a free trade area. The central region of the state (where the capital is located) has big reserves of iron (and to a lesser extent, gold) still being actively mined. There are also large companies installed the automotive industry, as manufacturers FIAT in Betim, IVECO in Sete Lagoas and suppliers of auto-parts, as STOLA and USIPARTS. The western part, the "Triângulo Mineiro", is less densely populated than the rest of the state, and it is now a focus of biotechnology investment, particularly on the cities of Uberlândia, Uberaba, Patos de Minas and Araguari, which includes leading research on cattle, soy and corn culture.
In agriculture, the state stands out in the production of coffee, sugar cane and soy, and also has large productions of orange, beans, sorghum, carrot, potato, banana, tangerine and strawberry, in addition to producing papaya, persimmon and yuca.
In 2020, Minas Gerais was the largest producer of Coffea arabica in the country, with 74% of the national total (1.9 million tons, or 31.2 million 60-kg bags). In 2017, Minas represented 54.3% of the total national production of coffee (first place).
The state was the third largest producer of sugar cane in Brazil in 2020, representing 11.1% of the total produced in the country, with 74.3 million tons.
The cultivation of soy, on the other hand, is increasing, however, it is not among the largest national producers of this grain. In the 2018–2019 harvest, Minas Gerais harvested 5 million tons (seventh place in the country).
About orange, Minas Gerais was the second largest producer in 2018, with a total of 948 thousand tons.
Minas Gerais is the second largest producer of beans in Brazil, with 17.2% of national production in 2020. In addition, it is one of the largest national producers of sorghum: around 30% of Brazilian production. It also ranks third in domestic production of cotton.
The state was the third largest producer of banana in 2018, with 766 thousand tons. Brazil was already the 2nd largest producer of the fruit in the world, currently in 3rd place, losing only to India and Ecuador.
In 2018, São Paulo and Minas Gerais were the largest producers of tangerine in Brazil. Minas was the 5th largest producer of papaya. About persimmon, Minas ranks third with 8%.
In 2019, in Brazil, there was a total production area of around 4 thousand hectares of strawberry. The largest producer is Minas Gerais, with approximately 1,500 hectares, cultivated in most municipalities in the extreme south of the state, in the Serra da Mantiqueira region, with Pouso Alegre and Estiva being the largest producers.
Regarding to carrot, Brazil ranked fifth in the world ranking in 2016, with an annual production of around 760 thousand tons. In relation to the exports of this product, Brazil occupies the seventh world position. Minas Gerais is the largest producer in Brazil. Among the production centers in Minas Gerais are the municipalities of São Gotardo, Santa Juliana and Carandaí. As for potato, the main national producer is the state of Minas Gerais, with 32% of the total produced in the country. In 2017, Minas Gerais harvested around 1.3 million tons of the product.
In the production of cassava, Brazil produced a total of 17.6 million tons in 2018. Minas was the 12th largest producer in the country, with almost 500 thousand tons.
Regarding the bovine herd, Minas has the second largest in the country. In 2015, it had a total of 23.8 million head of cattle.
Minas is the main producer of milk in Brazil, with the highest number of milked cows, responsible for 26.6% of production and 20.0% of total milking animals. The municipality of Patos de Minas was the second largest producer in 2017, with 191.3 million liters of milk. In 2015, the state produced 9.1 billion liters of milk.
In terms of pork meat, in 2017, Minas had the 4th largest herd in the country, with 5.2 million heads, 12.7% of the national total.
The state is the third largest producer of egg s in the country, with 9.3% of the Brazilian total in 2019 (which was 3.83 billion dozen).
In mineral production, in 2017, Minas Gerais was the country's largest producer of iron (277 million tons worth R $ 37.2 billion), gold (29.3 tons worth R $ 3.6 billion), zinc (400 thousand tons worth R $ 351 million) and niobium (in the form of hydrochloride) (131 thousand tons worth R $ 254 million). In addition, Minas was the second largest producer of aluminum (bauxite) (1.47 million tons at a value of R $ 105 million), third of manganese (296 thousand tons a worth R $ 32 million) and 5th of tin (206 tons worth R $ 4.7 million). Minas Gerais had 47.19% of the value of the production of minerals marketed in Brazil (first place), with R $ 41.7 billion.
The state has the largest production of various precious and semi-precious stones in the country. In aquamarine, Minas Gerais produces the most valuable stones in the world. In diamond, Brazil was the largest diamond producer in the world from 1730 to 1870, mining occurred for the first time in the Serra da Canastra, region of Diamantina, even lowering the price of stone in everyone due to over production. Minas Gerais continues to mine diamonds, in addition to having larger or smaller scale productions of agate, emerald, garnet, jasper and sapphire. Topaz and tourmaline stand out. In topaz, Brazil has the most valuable variety in the world, imperial topaz, only produced in Ouro Preto. Furthermore, the country is the world's leading producer of topaz. It's also among the world's largest tourmaline producers.
Minas Gerais had an industrial GDP of R $ 128.4 billion in 2017, equivalent to 10.7% of the national industry. It employs 1,069,469 workers in the industry. The main industrial sectors are: construction (17.9%), extraction of metallic minerals (15.2%), food (13.4%), industrial services of public utility, such as electricity and water (10.8%) and metallurgy (10.5%). These 5 sectors concentrate 67.8% of the state's industry.
In Brazil, the automotive sector represents about 22% of industrial GDP. Minas is the third largest vehicle producer in the country, with a 10.7% participation in 2019. Minas Gerais has factories of Fiat and Iveco.
In the steel industry, Brazilian crude steel production was 32.2 million tons in 2019. Minas Gerais represented 32.3% of the volume produced in the period, with 10,408 million tons, being the largest steel center . Among the steel companies in Minas are Usiminas, ArcelorMittal Aços Longos (formerly Belgo Mineira), Açominas (belonging to Gerdau), Vallourec & Mannesmann and Aperam South America.
In Food Industry, in 2019, Brazil was the second largest exporter of processed foods in the world, with a value of US$34.1 billion in exports. The income of the Brazilian food and beverage industry in 2019 was R $ 699.9 billion, 9.7% of the country's gross domestic product. In 2015, the food and beverage industry in Brazil comprised 34,800 companies (not including bakeries), the vast majority of which were small. These companies employed more than 1,600,000 workers, making the food and beverage industry the largest employer in the manufacturing industry. There are around 570 large companies in Brazil, which concentrate a good part of the total industry income. Minas Gerais created food companies of national importance such as Itambé and Pif Paf Alimentos.
In the Footwear industry, in 2019 Brazil produced 972 million pairs. Exports were around 10%, reaching almost 125 million pairs. Brazil ranks fourth among world producers, behind China, India and Vietnam, and 11th among the largest exporters. Minas Gerais has a polo specialized in cheap shoes and sneakers in Nova Serrana. The city has around 830 industries, which in 2017 produced around 110 million pairs.
In Textile industry, Brazil, despite being among the 5 largest producers in the world in 2013, and being representative in the consumption of textiles and clothing, has little insertion in world trade. In 2015, Brazilian imports ranked 25th (US$5.5 billion). And in exports, it was only 40th in the world ranking. Brazil's share of world textile and clothing trade is only 0.3%, due to the difficulty of competing in price with producers from India and mainly from China. The gross value of production, which includes the consumption of intermediate goods and services, of the Brazilian textile industry corresponded to almost R $ 40 billion in 2015, 1.6% of the gross value of industrial production in Brazil. Minas Gerais has 8.51% (third largest production in the country).
In Electronics industry, the billing of industries in Brazil reached R $ 153.0 billion in 2019, around 3% of national GDP. The number of employees in the sector was 234.5 thousand people. Exports were $ 5.6 billion, and the country's imports were $ 32.0 billion. Brazil has two large electroelectronic production centers, located in the Metropolitan Region of Campinas, in the State of São Paulo, and in the Free Zone of Manaus, in the State of Amazonas. The country also has other smaller centers, one of them in the municipality of Santa Rita do Sapucaí, in the state of Minas Gerais. In Santa Rita do Sapucaí, 8 thousand jobs are linked to the sector, with more than 120 companies. Most of them produce equipment for the telecommunications industry, such as decoders, including those used in the transmission of the digital television system The company Multilaser produces in the city of Extrema.
Communications
As of April 2007, there are 11.3 million mobile phones and 4.2 million telephones in the country.
Minas Gerais (MG) cities area phone codes (called DDD in Brazil) are from 31 to 38.
Education
Minas Gerais is home to some of the best schools in the country, both at the secondary and higher levels. It is also the state that contains the largest number of Federal Universities, public universities maintained directly by the federal government.
Main educational institutions
Universidade do Estado de Minas Gerais (UEMG) (State University of Minas Gerais)
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG) (Federal University of Minas Gerais)
Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU) (Federal University of Uberlandia)
Universidade Federal de Lavras (UFLA) (Federal University of Lavras)
Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto (UFOP) (Federal University of Ouro Preto)
Universidade Federal de Viçosa (UFV) (Federal University of Viçosa)
Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora (UFJF) (Federal University of Juiz de Fora)
Universidade Federal de Itajuba (Unifei) (Federal University of Itajuba)
Universidade Federal de São João del Rei (UFSJ) (Federal University of São João del Rei)
Universidade Federal do Triângulo Mineiro (UFTM) (Federal University of Triangulo Mineiro)
Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri (UFVJM) (Federal University of Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys)
Universidade Federal de Alfenas (Unifal-MG) (Federal University of Alfenas)
Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica de Minas Gerais (CEFET-MG) (Federal Center for Technological Education of Minas Gerais)
Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Minas Gerais (PUC-MG) (Pontifical Catholic University of Minas Gerais)
Faculdade de Ciências Medicas de Minas Gerais (FCMMG) (Minas Gerais' School of Medical Sciences)
Universidade Estadual de Montes Claros (Unimontes) (State University of Montes Claros)
Escola Preparatória de Cadetes do Ar (EPCAr) (Preparatory School for Air Cadets)
Colégio Técnico/UFMG (Coltec)
Colégio Aplicação/UFV
Colégio Militar de Belo Horizonte (CMBH) (Belo Horizonte Military School)
Culture
Minas Gerais may be called Deep Brazil by analogy with France profonde. It has a distinctly more native flavour than cosmopolitan São Paulo, a more traditional slant than flashy Rio de Janeiro, and is more Portuguese than the South and São Paulo with their great influx of Italians and other Central Europeans, the North with its Native Americans, or the Northeast with its heavy Afro-Brazilian influence.
People
Those born and raised in Minas Gerais, also called Mineiros, bear an unmistakable accent that sets them apart from fellow Brazilians, although people born in different regions of the state bear slightly different accents, some resembling those of neighboring states, such as São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Bahia. They are considered reserved, prudent, relatively silent to the point of melancholy but welcoming and family-focused. It is one of the most religious states, with a large proportion of staunch Roman Catholics and a burgeoning Evangelical and neo-Pentecostal population, with pockets of African religions. The Spiritist doctrine is also professed by a significant portion of the population, partly due to the influence of Chico Xavier, the main spiritual icon of Brazil, who lived in Minas Gerais all his life.
Cuisine
Minas Gerais is known nationally for its cuisine. The cultural basis of its cuisine is the small farmhouse, and many of the dishes are prepared using locally produced vegetables and meats, especially chicken and pork. Traditional cooking is done using coal- or wood-fired ovens and cast iron pans, making for a particularly tasty flavor; some restaurant chains have adopted these techniques and made this type of food popular in other parts of the country.
Many of the cakes and appetizers of the local cuisine use corn or cassava (known there as mandioca) flour instead of wheat, as the latter did not adapt well to the local weather. The best-known dish from Minas Gerais is "pão de queijo", a small baked roll (known internationally as "Brazilian cheese rolls") made with cheese and cassava flour that can be served hot as an appetizer or for breakfast.
The state is also Brazil's most traditional producer of cheese. Minas cheese is renowned nationwide as the distinct Brazilian cheese. Cachaça is also a local produce of some importance.
The state cuisine is showcased in various festivals year round and in many locations throughout the state, but the biggest festival is the month-long Comida de Buteco in Belo Horizonte, where 41 bars and restaurants are selected to create a dish using ingredients traditional to local cuisine. People from all over the country and abroad rate the food, the temperature of the beer, the ambiance and service. In 2007, over 400,000 people participated in the festival according to Vox Populi statistics.
Galinhada is one of the specialities in Minas Gerais. It's basically rice cooked with chicken, corn and peas. Usually, the meal is very spicy.
Museums
Mariano Procópio Museum, in Juiz de Fora, and Centro de Arte Contemporânea Inhotim, in Brumadinho, are among the most important cultural institutions.
Music
Music is one of the most striking features of Minas Gerais and has been part of the history of the state since the early 16th and 17th centuries.
From the 18th century, composers including Jose Joaquim Lobo de Mesquita, Francisco Gomes da Rocha, Marcos Coelho Neto and Manoel de Oliveira Dias reinforced the musical tradition of Minas with the composition of baroque pieces that are now revered as masterpieces. For classical music, the state features productions and performances of various orchestras and choirs.
Among them there are the Symphonic Orchestra of Minas Gerais and the Coral Lírico de Minas Gerais, a State Choir, maintained by Clovis Salgado Foundation, an institution linked to the Secretary of State for Culture. These and other groups have a strong presence in the capital and throughout the state, working for the popularization and democratization of classical music. One of the most prolific contemporary composers was born in Minas Gerais, Prof. Dr. Andersen Viana, which music has been recognized most frequently abroad.
The most varied rhythms and sounds have their origins in the state. Ary Barroso, who in 1939 composed one of Brazil's best known songs throughout the world, Aquarela do Brasil, was born in Ubá, in the Zona da Mata Mineira.
In the 1960s and 70s streets in the traditional neighborhood of Santa Tereza, Belo Horizonte, were the scene of one of the most important movements of national music: Clube da Esquina. With a unique blend of Brazilian popular music with pop and jazz, the club was met with talents like Milton Nascimento, Wagner Tiso, Toninho Horta, Fernando Brant, Lô Borges, Beto Guedes, and Flávio Venturini.
In the 1980s and 90s a scene of heavy metal bands has been held in Belo Horizonte. It is the origin of important Brazilian bands of this genre, many of them are known worldwide, such as Sepultura, Sarcófago, Overdose, Mutilator, Holocausto and Chakal.
The current scenario continues reflecting the vibrancy and dynamism of its culture. A new generation of artists is represented by names like Skank, Pato Fu, Jota Quest, Vander Lee, Uakti, Marina Machado, Maurício Tizumba, Berimbrown, Copo Lagoinha and Amaranto.
Moving freely through different rhythms like rock, reggae, heavy metal, samba and MPB, among others, the music in Minas Gerais continues the excellence and diversity that has always been a staple in the country.
The important International Festival of Colonial Brazilian Music and Ancient Music takes place in Juiz de Fora since 1989.
Brazil's most prestigious dance company, Grupo Corpo is also from Minas Gerais, having its headquarters in Belo Horizonte.
Famous personalities
Many famous Brazilian writers were born in Minas Gerais: Carlos Drummond de Andrade, Fernando Sabino, Pedro Nava, Murilo Mendes and João Guimarães Rosa. Aviation pioneer Alberto Santos-Dumont was born in Minas Gerais, as well as various politicians, such as Presidents Afonso Pena, Venceslau Brás, Delfim Moreira, Artur Bernardes, Juscelino Kubitschek, Tancredo Neves and Dilma Rousseff. Former president Itamar Franco is usually included in lists of presidents born in Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, but he was actually born prematurely in a ship travelling in the Atlantic Ocean. Current UFC fighters, Middleweight Paulo Costa (fighter) and Light Heavyweight Glover Teixeira were born in Minas Geiras too. Minas Gerais is often recognized abroad as the state where the footballer Pelé was born (he has lived in the state of São Paulo since childhood, though). Rosa Egipcíaca, the author of Sagrada Teologia do Amor Divino das Almas Peregrinas, which is the first book by a black women to be written in Brazil, lived in the region when she was enslaved.
Infrastructure
Airport
Tancredo Neves International Airport is located in the municipalities of Lagoa Santa and Confins, 38 km (23 mi) from Belo Horizonte, and was opened in January 1984. It was planned from the start for future expansion in steps to meet growing demand. The airport has one of the lowest rates of shutdown for bad weather in the country. However, the Confins airport was not using much of its capacity until 2005, when it was decided that a large part of the Pampulha Airport flights (which is smaller and located inside Belo Horizonte's urban area) would move to Confins.
The first step was undertaken with careful concern for the environment, including monitoring by specialized consultants, since the region has a rich archeological heritage. Among the hundreds of caverns in the region, the one at Lapa Vermelha stands out. Located 2.7 km (1.6 mi) from the airport, the oldest female cranium in the Americans was discovered there, dated at roughly 12 thousand years old. Confins is certified by the ISO 9001 standard, covering ten processes in the administrative, operational, safety/security and maintenance areas.
The Tancredo Neves International Airport is currently the fifth busiest airport in the country, after Guarulhos, Congonhas, Brasília and Galeão. It is a main hub for Azul. In addition to direct flights to over 40 destinations in Brazil, it also has regular scheduled international services to Buenos Aires, Panama City, Miami and Lisbon.
In 2014 the airport was auctioned to the private sector. Renovations were concluded in 2016. A new terminal was built with 17 new jetways, increasing the airport's capacity to 22 million passengers a year and the runway is undergoing expansion. A new runway is planned to be built by 2020.
Administrative center
A new Administrative Center (Cidade Administrativa de Minas Gerais) was completed in March 2010, for the state of Minas Gerais. Designed by architect Oscar Niemeyer, the center consists of four large buildings on an 800,000 square meter site. Two buildings accommodate 17 of the state ministries, the third building consists of an auditorium, with capacity for 540 guests. The fourth building is the "Palacio do Governo", which is the world's largest suspended structure, built in reinforced concrete. The building has a 150m span, and its roof is supported by four columns.
Highways
Minas Gerais is the Brazilian state that harbors the highest mileage of highways. The state highway network is 269,545 kilometers, of which only 11,396 on federal roads and 21,472 on state highways and state coincide, corresponding to all other municipal roads. Because of its central position, the state is crossed by the most important national highways, like BR-116 (Rio-Bahia), BR-040 (Rio-Brasília) and others. Many of the most important Brazilian routes cross the state and, for this reason, it counts the greater proportion of car accidents per capita.
BR-122,
BR-040,
BR-135,
BR-146,
BR-251,
BR-259,
BR-265,
BR-265,
BR-265,
BR-265,
BR-267,
BR-352,
BR-354,
BR-356,
BR-356,
BR-364,
BR-367,
BR-367,
BR-367,
BR-381,
BR-381,
BR-383,
BR-383,
BR-393,
BR-459,
BR-462,
BR-464,
BR-491.
Sports
As in the rest of Brazil, football is the most popular sport among locals. Pelé, widely considered the best footballer of all time, was born in the Minas city of Três Corações. Belo Horizonte is home to two of the most successful teams in the country, and the city also has one of the biggest football stadiums in the world, the Mineirão, opened in 1965. Reopened after renovations in 2013, Mineirão was chosen as one of the venues for the 2014 FIFA World Cup, and also the soccer tournament of the 2016 Summer Olympics. Another stadium in Belo Horizonte, Independência Stadium, was one of the venues of the 1950 FIFA World Cup, where it hosted a legendary upset of the United States team over England.
The biggest teams of Belo Horizonte and Minas as a whole are Atlético Mineiro, founded in 1908 and nicknamed "Galo" (rooster) after its mascot, and Cruzeiro, founded in 1921 as "Palestra Itália" by the members of the local Italian community - but renamed in the 1940s as the government of Getúlio Vargas forbid mentions of the Axis powers.
Atlético won one edition of the Campeonato Brasileiro Série A in 1971, two CONMEBOL Cups (the predecessor of the current Copa Sudamericana), is the biggest winner of the State Championship with 41 titles, one title of the Libertadores Cup Champion in 2013 and one Copa do Brasil title in 2014. Cruzeiro won 36 state championships, won four times the Brazilian Championship, defeating Pelé's Santos in the 1966 Taça Brasil, the 2003 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A (which combined with a state championship and a Brazilian Cup in the same year lead to a treble named by Cruzeiro as "Triple Crown"), won the 2013 and 2014 national league. Cruzeiro has been one of Brazil's most successful clubs since the 1960s, being elected the most successful Brazilian team of the 20th century by IFFHS. Its titles include 4 editions of the Brazilian Cup, 4 Brazilian Championships and 2 Copa Libertadores in 1976 and 1997. Cruzeiro was relegated to the second division of the National League in 2019, while Atlético missed the 2006 edition, following a relegation in the previous year (2005).
Belo Horizonte is also home to América Mineiro, founded in 1912 current owner of Independência and considered the third force of the state. While the team's struggles combined with the popularization of Atlético and Cruzeiro reduced América's supporters, the team has won both the second and third levels of the Brazilian Championship, the Sul-Minas Cup in 2000, and 16 state championships, including a record dynasty of ten tournaments between 1916 and 1925. Both Villa Nova of Nova Lima and Betim Esporte Clube (when it was known as Ipatinga Futebol Clube) have won the state championship and been in Série A of the Brazilian league.
Besides football, Belo Horizonte has one of the largest attendances at volleyball matches in the whole country. Multisport club Minas Tênis Clube had its male and female teams win the Brazilian Superleague of Volleyball, with Contagem-based Sada Cruzeiro also winning the male tournament. Sada-Cruzeiro also won the FIVB World Club Championship two times in last 3 years, being one of the most successful volleyball team in the world. The Brazil national volleyball team has had some of its highest attendance numbers at Mineirinho, an arena located near the Mineirão stadium. On basketball, both Minas and Uberlândia's Uberlândia Tênis Clube are in the national tournament.
Flag
The flag of the state of Minas Gerais is the oldest one adopted in Brazil that was devised by Brazilians. It was remembered by the Republican Party, which opposed the Brazilian Imperial Government, and adopted unofficially as the flag of the state. It has been the official state flag since 1963.
The flag's Latin inscription, "Libertas quæ sera tamen", means "Freedom albeit late", and was the motto of the Inconfidência Mineira, which fought for Minas' independence from Portugal in the 18th century. The phrase was taken from Virgil's Eclogues 1.30. The triangle is said to represent the Holy Trinity. The colors were chosen for their revolutionary meaning: white represents the desire to form a peaceful nation, discarding all colonial institutions, and red the flame of liberty or the blood of the revolutionary martyrs such as Tiradentes.
Cities
In spite of not being the largest state of Brazil and ranking second in population, Minas Gerais has the largest number of cities. Of the more than 5,500 municipalities in the country, Minas has 853 of them, a fact explained by the number of inhabitants and by the vast territory, comparable in area to Madagascar and larger than Metropolitan France. The most notable cities are: the capital Belo Horizonte, Contagem, Betim, Juiz de Fora, Varginha, Muriae, Montes Claros, Uberlândia, Governador Valadares, Ipatinga, Ouro Preto, Sete Lagoas, Uberaba, Araxá, Patos de Minas, Divinópolis, Barbacena, Pouso Alegre, Janaúba, Teófilo Otoni, Conselheiro Lafaiete, Mariana, Poços de Caldas and São João del Rei.
Notes
References
External links
Government of Minas Gerais website
Legislative Assembly of Minas Gerais website
Court of Justice of Minas Gerais website
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222653 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badmotorfinger | Badmotorfinger | Badmotorfinger is the third studio album by American rock band Soundgarden, released on October 8, 1991, through A&M Records. Soundgarden began the recording sessions for the album with new bassist Ben Shepherd in the spring of 1991. The album maintained the band's heavy metal sound, while featuring an increased focus on songwriting compared to the band's previous releases. AllMusic considered the album's music to be "surprisingly cerebral and arty"; alternative tunings and odd time signatures were present on several of the album's songs, and lyrics were intended to be ambiguous and evocative.
The focus on the Seattle grunge scene helped bring attention to Badmotorfinger, and the singles "Outshined" and "Rusty Cage" were able to find an audience in rock radio and MTV. Badmotorfinger became the band's highest charting album at the time on the Billboard 200, where it peaked at number 39. The band supported the album with tours of North America and Europe, including opening for Guns N' Roses on that band's Use Your Illusion Tour. In 1992, Badmotorfinger was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance, and it was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America in 1996.
Writing
Badmotorfinger has been classified by various critics as grunge, alternative metal, heavy metal and hard rock. Steve Huey of AllMusic said the songwriting on the album "takes a quantum leap in focus and consistency", adding: "It's surprisingly cerebral and arty music for a band courting mainstream metal audiences, but it attacks with scientific precision." Guitarist Kim Thayil jokingly called it the "Heavy Metal White Album". Frontman Chris Cornell said, "I think there's songs on the new record which are almost more commercially viable because they have that memorable feel to them, and I think if anyone expected us to come out and make something more commercial than Louder Than Love [the band's previous album], then I'm glad that they were surprised." He added that the album was more representative of how the band was live.
Compared with Louder Than Love, the band took a more collaborative approach to the writing process for Badmotorfinger. It was Soundgarden's first album with bassist Ben Shepherd, who replaced Jason Everman in April 1990, and Cornell said Shepherd brought a "fresh and creative" approach to the recording sessions, while the band as a whole said his knowledge of music and writing skills redefined the group. Before joining, Soundgarden had been Shepherd's favorite band. Shepherd contributed the song "Somewhere" and collaborated on the musical composition of several other songs on the album, as did Thayil and drummer Matt Cameron. Thayil said Shepherd's contributions helped make the album "faster" and "weirder".
Several of the album's songs utilize alternative tunings, such as "Rusty Cage", "Searching with My Good Eye Closed", and "Holy Water" (on all of which the bottom E string of the guitars is tuned down to B), and "Mind Riot" (on which every string is tuned to one of several octaves of E). There are also some unusual time signatures on the album, with Thayil quoted as saying he didn't "push for weird time signatures", but rather "push[ed] to get the quirkiness out of things".
Regarding the lyrics, Cornell said he tried to not get too specific and was more interested in letting ambiguity "[create] colourful images." Thayil compared listening to the album to "reading a novel [about] man's conflict with himself and society, or the government, or his family, or the economy, or anything." Cornell said "Outshined" is about going from "periods of extreme self-confidence" to "plummeting in the opposite direction". "Jesus Christ Pose" was written about famous people who exploit the symbol of Jesus' crucifixion to suggest they're persecuted by the public. Thayil wrote the lyrics for "Room a Thousand Years Wide", and said the song is about "experience in general". "Holy Water" was written about people who force their beliefs onto others. "New Damage" subtly criticizes the right-wing government of the United States.
Recording
The album was recorded in the spring of 1991 at Studio D in Sausalito, California, Bear Creek Studios in Woodinville, Washington, and A&M Studios in Los Angeles, California. Soundgarden chose to work with producer Terry Date, as it had on Louder Than Love, because, according to Cornell, the band had a good relationship with Date and did not want to go through the pressure of trying to find a new producer. One example of the innovative techniques used to record the album is that, for the opening song, "Rusty Cage", Thayil used a wah pedal as an audio filter, which resulted in an unusual guitar sound he said produced a guitar riff that "almost sounds backward".
Artwork
The Badmotorfinger logo on the cover of the album was drawn by guitarist Mark Dancey of the Sub Pop band Big Chief and consists of a jagged, cyclone-like design, in the center of which is a triangle that has the album's title along the interior perimeter and a spark plug in the middle. Thayil suggested the title Badmotorfinger as a joke on the Montrose song "Bad Motor Scooter" and said, regarding the title: "It was sort of off the top of my head. I simply like it because it was colorful. It was kinda aggressive, too ... It conjures up a lot of different kinds of images. We like the ambiguity in it, the way it sounded and the way it looked."
Release and reception
Badmotorfinger was scheduled for release on September 24, 1991, but A&M Records pushed it back to October 8 due to "production problems." Coming a month and a half after Pearl Jam's Ten and just weeks after Nirvana's Nevermind and Red Hot Chili Peppers’ Blood Sugar Sex Magik (both of which were released on September 24), it has been credited with helping to break alternative rock and grunge into the mainstream. Although overshadowed at the time of its release by the sudden popularity of Nevermind, the attention that album brought to the Seattle music scene helped Soundgarden get broader exposure, and Badmotorfinger peaked at number 39 on the Billboard 200 album chart on February 29, 1992. It was among the 100 top selling albums of 1992, sold a million copies in the early 1990s, and was certified platinum by the RIAA in January 1993; it was certified double platinum, signifying two million shipped copies, in April 1996.
The album included the singles "Jesus Christ Pose", "Outshined", and "Rusty Cage", which gained considerable airtime on alternative rock radio stations. The music videos for "Outshined" and "Rusty Cage" gained considerable airtime on MTV, but the video for "Jesus Christ Pose", the album's lead single, was removed from MTV's playlist amidst widespread controversy over the perceived anti-Christian message of the song and video. Promotion of the song also precipitated death threats against the band while they were on tour to support the album in the United Kingdom.
In a contemporary review for Spin, Lauren Spencer hailed Badmotorfinger as a "garden of sound" that drew on older hard rock influences without sounding "derivative". Ann Powers of Blender said: "Cornell strikes the perfect Jesus Christ pose on this sonic wallop", while Entertainment Weekly critic Gina Arnold commended Soundgarden for writing more engagingly than their contemporaries, "who seldom get beyond extolling booze, girls, and cars". She concluded in her review that the record was more "stylishly bombastic rather than bludgeoningly bombastic. Tuneless heavy metal is, after all, still tuneless heavy metal, and in that department, Soundgarden are as functional as they make 'em." In a retrospective review, AllMusic staff-writer Steve Huey deemed the album "heavy, challenging hard rock full of intellectual sensibility and complex band interplay." Robert Christgau was less enthusiastic, finding it "credible" as a metal record because of Thayil's impressive use of guitar noise, but less impressive lyrically, writing: "Chris Cornell howls on about 'lookin for the paradigm' and 'your Jesus Christ pose' (I swear, that's the good stuff)".
At the 1992 Grammy Awards, Badmotorfinger received a nomination for Best Metal Performance. That same year, the album won a Northwest Area Music Award for Best Metal Album. It was ranked number 45 in the October 2006 issue of Guitar World on the magazine's list of the 100 greatest guitar albums of all time and, in April 2019, was ranked number 2 on Rolling Stone's "50 Greatest Grunge Albums" list.
Buzz Osborne, whose band Melvins had a massive influence on grunge, called Badmotorfinger his favorite grunge album of all time, praising its sophistication and complex structures. In 2010, singer Greg Puciato named "Room a Thousand Years Wide" his favorite song.
25th-anniversary reissues (2016)
The 25th-anniversary reissue of Badmotorfinger was made available in two deluxe versions:
The "Deluxe Edition" was a 2-CD package featuring a remastered version of the album on one disc and some studio outtakes and live tracks from a performance at the Paramount Theatre on the other.
The "Super Deluxe Edition" was a 7 disc package: disc one was the remastered version of the album; disc two had studio outtakes; discs three and four consisted of live tracks from the performance at the Paramount Theatre, and disc five was a DVD of video footage of the same show; disc six featured Motorvision, a 1992 concert film depicting the band performing at the Paramount, alongside other live performances and the music videos for the album's three singles; and disc seven contained the album mixed in Blu-ray Audio 5.1 Surround Sound. This release was packaged with various extras, and the first 1,000 people to pre-order it received an exclusive re-issue of the "Jesus Christ Pose" single on 7" vinyl.
A 2-LP gatefold of the album was also made available, with a limited edition of 1,000 produced using silver-colored vinyl.
The Badmotorfinger reissue was created using a backup digital audio tape safety copy of the album, as the original master tapes were damaged or destroyed in the 2008 Universal Studios fire, which affected the label group's tape vault and purportedly destroyed material from hundreds of other recording artists. According to a document filed as part of a class action lawsuit Soundgarden and other artists brought against UMG as a result of the fire, the label made the band aware in May 2015 that the original half-inch master tape of Badmotorfinger had been destroyed and was unavailable for use on the remaster project.
Tour
Following the release of Badmotorfinger, Soundgarden went on a tour in North America during October and November 1991. Following this tour, they were selected by Guns N' Roses for an opening slot on that band's Use Your Illusion Tour. After this, Soundgarden took a slot opening for Skid Row in North America in February 1992 on that band's Slave to the Grind tour. Soundgarden then headed to Europe for a month-long headlining theater tour before returning to tour in the United States. They rejoined Guns N' Roses and the Use Your Illusion Tour in the summer of 1992 for a tour of Europe along with fellow opening act Faith No More. Regarding the time spent opening for Guns N' Roses, Cornell said: "It wasn't a whole lot of fun going out in front of 40,000 people for 35 minutes every day. Most of them hadn't heard our songs and didn't care about them. It was a bizarre thing." The band would go on to play the 1992 Lollapalooza tour with the Red Hot Chili Peppers and Pearl Jam, among others. They later released Motorvision, which was filmed at the Paramount Theatre in 1992.
Track listing
Original release
Satanoscillatemymetallicsonatas
In anticipation of the band's appearance on the 1992 Lollapalooza tour, a limited edition of Badmotorfinger was released on June 28, 1992, with a second disc containing the EP Satan Oscillate My Metallic Sonatas (or SOMMS). The title is a palindrome. This EP includes three covers, an unreleased original song, and a live version of "Slaves & Bulldozers". For the cover of Black Sabbath's "Into the Void", the original lyrics were replaced with words of protest by Chief Seattle (also known as Sealth), which fit the meter of the song. At the 1993 Grammy Awards, "Into the Void (Sealth)" received a nomination for Best Metal Performance.
Satanoscillatemymetallicsonatas was reissued on purple 12" vinyl for Record Store Day on November 25, 2016.
Outtakes
"Cold Bitch", which was one of Shepherd's favorite songs the band recorded, was featured on the "Spoonman" single in 1994, while "She's a Politician" appeared on the "Burden in My Hand" single in 1996.
The song "Birth Ritual" was worked on during the Badmotorfinger recording sessions, but was not completed. The finished version would eventually see release on the Singles soundtrack in 1992, and later, on both the Telephantasm (2010) and Echo of Miles: Scattered Tracks Across the Path (2014) compilations.
"No Attention", which later appeared on the band's 1996 album, Down on the Upside, was attempted during the recording sessions, but "did not work" according to Kim Thayil.
"Black Rain" was mostly recorded during the sessions, but the vocals were never completed. It was eventually finished in 2010 and released on Telephantasm and Echo of Miles: Scattered Tracks Across The Path.
Three tracks were discarded during the mixing process, two of which were "A Broom", and "How Should I Know?"
Although Badmotorfingers singles featured plenty of B-sides, none of these were from the recording sessions for the album. A one-day recording session with Stuart Hallerman yielded "Stray Cat Blues", "Into the Void (Sealth)", "Girl U Want", "Show Me", and "Touch Me". "Show Me" was later featured on the 1993 No Alternative compilation, and "Girl U Want" was later featured on the "Fell on Black Days" single.
Personnel
Soundgarden
Chris Cornell – vocals, rhythm guitar
Kim Thayil – lead guitar
Ben Shepherd – bass
Matt Cameron – drums
Additional musicians
Scott Granlund – saxophone on "Room a Thousand Years Wide" and "Drawing Flies"
Ernst Long – trumpet on "Face Pollution", "Room a Thousand Years Wide", and "Drawing Flies"
Damon Stewart – narration on "Searching with My Good Eye Closed"
Artwork
Mark Dancey – front cover illustration
Walberg Design – design
Michael Lavine – photography
Len Peltier – art direction
Production
Terry Date – production, engineering
Soundgarden – production
Larry Brewer – production assistance
Efren Herrera, John Jackson – assistance
Ron St. Germain – mixing
Howie Weinberg – mastering
Susan Silver – management
Chart performance
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Singles
Certifications
Accolades
The information regarding accolades attributed to Badmotorfinger is adapted in part from AcclaimedMusic.net.
References
1991 albums
A&M Records albums
Albums produced by Terry Date
Soundgarden albums
Albums produced by Chris Cornell
Albums produced by Matt Cameron
Grunge albums
Alternative metal albums by American artists
Heavy metal albums by American artists
Hard rock albums by American artists
Albums recorded at Bear Creek Studio | [
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222656 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five%20guineas%20%28British%20coin%29 | Five guineas (British coin) | The Five Guinea was a machine-struck gold coin produced from 1668–1753. Measuring 37 millimetres in diameter and weighing between 41 and 42 grams, it was the largest regularly produced gold coin in Britain. Although the coin is commonly known as the "Five guinea" piece, during the 17th and 18th centuries it was also known as a Five-pound piece, as the guinea was originally worth twenty shillings (i.e. a pound) — until its value was fixed at twenty-one shillings by a Royal Proclamation in 1717 the value fluctuated rather in the way that bullion coins do today.
This denomination shows the year of striking on the reverse; but also the edge inscription — An ornament and a safeguard, in the year of the reign... — is followed by the regnal year of the monarch, in Latin words. In the case of Charles II, the regnal year is calculated from the execution of Charles I, so 1668 is , the twentieth year of the reign. The edge inscription was put on the coin before the other two sides were struck — in the early years the blanks were cut out from a strip of gold which had been produced by horse power, then the blanks were sent to have the edge inscriptions impressed by a secret process devised by one Pierre Blondeau, a former engineer from the Paris mint who jealously guarded his methods. The blanks were then returned to the mint to have the obverse and reverse struck in a hand-operated press. Samuel Pepys gives a long and detailed description of the rolling, cutting, and striking of the blanks in his diary entry for 19 May 1663.
Many of the coins produced up to 1699 have an elephant and castle beneath the monarch's head, indicating that the gold was provided by the Africa Company. Coins of 1703 (Queen Anne ) have the word VIGO under the Queen's head, indicating that the gold was captured from Spanish galleons in the Battle of Vigo Bay in October 1702, but very few of these coins now remain in existence and are considered extremely valuable by collectors (an example sold for £845,000 at a New York auction in January 2019)
Charles II
The Five Guinea coin was produced in each year of Charles II's reign from 1668 to 1684; before 1670 the weight limits were 41-42 grams, afterwards 41.0–41.8 grams. The obverse and reverse of this coin were designed by John Roettier (1631–c.1700). The obverse showed a fine right-facing bust of the king wearing a laurel wreath, surrounded by the legend , while the reverse showed four crowned cruciform shields bearing the arms of England, Scotland, France, and Ireland, between which were four sceptres, and in the centre were four interlinked "C"s, surrounded by the inscription .
The regnal years used in this reign's coin issue were:
James II
John Roettiers continued to design the dies for this denomination in the reign of King James II. In this reign, the weight of the coins varied between 41.5 and 42.0 grams. The king's head faces left in this reign, and is surrounded by the inscription , while the obverse is the same as in Charles II's reign except for omitting the interlinked "C"s in the centre of the coin.
The regnal years for this reign are:
Mary II and William III
With the removal of James II in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, his daughter Mary, and her husband Prince William of Orange ruled jointly by agreement as co-monarchs. Their heads appear conjoined on the five guinea piece in Roman style, with William's head uppermost, with the legend . In a departure from the previous reigns the reverse featured a totally new design of a large crowned shield which bore the arms of France in the first quarter, of Scotland in the second quarter, of Ireland in the third quarter, and of England in the fourth quarter, the whole ensemble having a small shield in the centre bearing the rampant lion of Nassau; the legend on the obverse read . The weight tolerance of the coin in this reign was 41.5–41.8 grams. The five guinea coin of this reign was probably the work of James and/or Norbert Roettier.
The regnal years for this joint reign are:
William III
Following the death of Queen Mary II from smallpox in 1694, William continued to reign as William III, with his regnal years continuing to date from 1688. Five guinea coins were only produced in the last three years of his sole reign, the design probably being the work of Johann Crocker, also known as John Croker, since James Roettier had died in 1698 and his brother Norbert had left somewhat under a cloud for Paris in 1695.
The coins of William III's reign weighed 41.6–41.7 grams. William's head faces right on his coins, with the legend , while the reverse design of William and Mary's reign was judged to be unsuccessful, so the design reverted to that used by Charles II and James II, but with a small shield with the lion of Nassau in the centre, with the legend .
The regnal years for this reign are:
Anne
The reign of Queen Anne (1702–1714) began with one of the most valuable and exotic of all British coins, the "Vigo" five guinea piece of 1703, which was struck from gold captured from Spanish galleons at the Battle of Vigo Bay in October 1702. A Royal Warrant of 10 February 1703 (1702 Old Style) authorised the word "VIGO" be placed "under our effigies, which inscription we intend as a mark of distinction from the rest of our gold and silver moneys to continue to posterity the remembrance of that glorious action". At a sale of "Vigo" pieces in October 1992 the auctioneers, Glendining, noted that certainly fewer than twenty Vigo five guinea pieces survive.
Queen Anne five guineas were subsequently produced in 1705, 1706, 1709, 1711, 1713 and 1714. The obverse of the coin throughout her reign shows the left-facing effigy of the queen, with the legend .The general design of the reverse was similar to that of the previous reign, with four crowned cruciform shields bearing the arms of England, Scotland, Ireland, and France, separated by sceptres and with a central rose, and the legend . However, the union of England and Scotland necessitated a change in the design of the arms on the shield in 1706 (although the actual union took place on 1 May 1707, just over a month after the start of the year, the bill for the Act of Union received the Royal Assent on 6 March 1707 (that is, still in 1706 by the old-style calendar)), therefore coins dated 1706 appear with both reverses. The order of the arms appearing on the cruciform shields until 1706 was England, then Scotland, then France, then Ireland. With the union, the English and Scottish arms appear conjoined on one shield, with the left half being the English arms and the right half being the Scottish arms, and the order of arms appearing on the shields becomes England+Scotland, France, England+Scotland, Ireland. In 1706, with the Union, the central rose on the reverse was replaced by the Star of the Order of the Garter.
The regnal years for this reign are:
George I
George I's Five Guinea coins were only struck in 1716, 1717, 1720, and 1726, and they bear his abbreviated Hanoverian titles in addition to the usual British, French, and Irish title. The obverse bears a right-facing portrait of the king with the legend . The reverse follows the same general design as before, except the order of the shields is England+Scotland, France, Ireland, and Hanover, with the legend — Duke of Brunswick and Lueneburg, Arch-Treasurer and Elector of the Holy Roman Empire. The coins of this reign weighed 41.7–41.8 grams.
The value of the guinea had fluctuated over the years from twenty to thirty shillings (in 1694), and back down to twenty one shillings and sixpence by the start of George's reign. A Royal Proclamation of December 1717 fixed the value of the guinea at twenty one shillings.
The regnal years for this reign are:
George II
George II's Five Guinea pieces mark the last of the denomination. The series began in 1729, and was also struck in 1731, 1735, 1738, 1741, 1746, 1748, and for the last time in 1753. The coins weighed 41.8–42.0 grams. Some of the 1729 coins bear the initials EIC under the king's head, indicating the gold was supplied by the East India Company, while the 1746 coins have LIMA under the head, indicating the gold was obtained during Admiral Anson's circumnavigation of the world (though the use of LIMA is something of a mystery, as there is no known connection with Peru).
The obverse has a left-facing bust of the king (with an older head from 1746), with the legend , while the reverse features a single large crowned shield with the quarters containing the arms of England+Scotland, France, Hanover, and Ireland, and the legend —King of Great Britain, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, Duke of Brunswick and Lueneburg, Arch-Treasurer and Elector of the Holy Roman Empire.
The regnal years for this reign are:
See also
British coinage
References
External links
British Coins - Free information about British coins. Includes an online forum.
Coins of the UK - Five pounds and guineas - Tony Clayton's history of the Five Guineas.
Five Guineas and Pounds - Images of five-guinea coins
Five Guinea Archive - A gallery of Five Guinea pictures, varieties and values.
British gold coins
Coins of England
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222657 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Zhongdu | Battle of Zhongdu | The Battle of Zhongdu (present-day Beijing) was a battle in 1215 between the Mongols and the Jurchen Jin dynasty, which controlled northern China. The Mongols won and continued their conquest of China.
History
The year 1211 marked the beginning of the war between the Mongols and the Jin Dynasty. The Jin Dynasty was able to hold Genghis Khan (Temüjin) and his Mongol army at bay for the first two years of the war.
The Jurchen Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji's daughter, Jurchen Princess Qiguo was married to Mongol leader Genghis Khan in exchange for relieving the Mongol siege upon Zhongdu (Beijing) in the Mongol conquest of Jin China.
Throughout this time, however, Temüjin continued to build his forces and by 1213 had an army so powerful that it conquered all Jin territory up to the Great Wall of China. From this strategic location Temüjin made the decision to split his forces into three smaller armies in an attempt to break through the wall and finish his conquest of northern China. He sent his brother, Kasar, at the head of one of these armies east into Manchuria. He sent another army south toward Shanxi under command of his three oldest sons. He himself led the third army, along with his son Tuli, towards Shandong. The plan was a success, as all three armies broke through the wall in different places.
According to Ivar Lissner, the besieged inhabitants resorted to firing gold and silver cannon shot on the Mongols with their muzzle-loading cannons when their supply of metal for ammunition ran out.
The battle for Beijing was long and tiresome, but the Mongols proved to be more powerful as they finally took the city on 1 June 1215, massacring its inhabitants. This forced Jin Emperor Xuanzong to move his capital south to Kaifeng, and opened the Yellow River valley to further Mongol ravages. Kaifeng also fell to the Mongols after a siege in 1232.
See also
History of Beijing
References
Mongol conquest of Jin China
Zhongdu 1215
Zhongdu 1215
1215 in Asia
History of Beijing
Conflicts in 1215
1215 in the Mongol Empire | [
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222659 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saguenay%E2%80%93Lac-Saint-Jean | Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean | Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean (, ) is a region in Quebec, Canada. It contains the Saguenay Fjord, the estuary of the Saguenay River, stretching through much of the region. It is also known as Sagamie in French, from the first part of "Saguenay" and the last part of "Piekouagami", the Innu name (meaning "flat lake") for Lac Saint-Jean, with the final "e" added to follow the model of other existing region names such as Mauricie, Témiscamie, Jamésie, and Matawinie. With a land area of 98,712.71 km2 (38,113.9 sq mi), the Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean is, after the Nord-du-Québec and Côte-Nord regions, the third-largest of Quebec regions in the area.
This region is bathed by two major watercourses, Lac Saint-Jean and the Saguenay River, both of which mark its landscape deeply and have been the main drives of its development in history. It is also irrigated by several other large watercourses. Bordered by forests and mountainous massifs, the southern portion of the region constitutes a fertile enclave in the Canadian Shield called the Saguenay Graben. Both the scenery and the cultural sites and activities of Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean attract tourists every year. Lac Saint-Jean is a popular vacation destination in the summer for residents of the more urban regions of Quebec.
Etymology
The name Saguenay is possibly derived from the Innu word "Saki-nip" which means "where water flows out".
Population
The population of the Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean region was 276,368 at the Canada 2016 Census, representing 3.5% of Quebec's population. It is concentrated primarily in three clusters: the city of Saguenay (pop. 144,746), the city of Alma (pop. 30,904) and the agglomeration of Roberval (pop. 10,227), Saint-Félicien (pop. 10,278) and Dolbeau-Mistassini (pop. 14,384). Saguenay, the region's largest city, is located slightly west of the fjord, mostly south of the river.
Flag
The flag was incorporated in 1938 on the centenary of the first settlers' arrival in 1838 and was created by Mgr. Victor Tremblay, a local historian. The four colours represent the four elements of the richness of Saguenay: the grey cross represents aluminum, which is an important product of local industry; the red border represents the inhabitants' labour; green, at the top represents the forest; and yellow, at the bottom, represents agriculture.
Subdivisions
Following the Saguenay municipal reorganization in 2002, the region now counts 49 municipalities (including unorganized territories).
Regional County Municipalities
(2016 Census populations)
Le Fjord-du-Saguenay Regional County Municipality (pop. 21,600)
Lac-Saint-Jean-Est Regional County Municipality (pop. 52,741)
Le Domaine-du-Roy Regional County Municipality (pop. 31,285)
Maria-Chapdelaine Regional County Municipality (pop. 24,793)
Independent City
Saguenay (pop. 144,746)
Native Reserve
Mashteuiatsh within Le Domaine-du-Roy, (pop. 2,213 Montagnais)
Sources: Government of Quebec, Ministry of Municipal Affairs (MAMROT)
Major communities
Albanel
Alma
Dolbeau-Mistassini
Hébertville
Métabetchouan-Lac-à-la-Croix
Normandin
RobervalSaguenay
Saint-Ambroise
Saint-Bruno
Saint-David-de-Falardeau
Saint-Félicien
Saint-Honoré
Saint-Prime
School districts
Each school service centre (french:centre de services scolaire) give services to five school distics of 20 in the region:
Centre de services scolaire de la Jonquière
Centre de services scolaire du Lac-Saint-Jean
Centre de services scolaire du Pays-des-Bleuets (Maria-Chapdelaine, Le Domaine-du-Roy, Mashteuiatsh and Saint-Ludger-de-Milot)
Centre de services scolaire des Rives-du-Saguenay (Le Fjord-du-Saguenay Regional County Municipality (except Larouche, Saint-Ambroise, Bégin), Sagard and Saguenay (except Jonquière))
The whole region is part of the anglophone district Central Quebec School Board.
References
External links
Portail du Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean Official website
saguenay lac st jean Tourisme Alma | [
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222661 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple%20of%20the%20Dog | Temple of the Dog | Temple of the Dog was an American rock supergroup that formed in Seattle, Washington in 1990. It was conceived by vocalist Chris Cornell of Soundgarden as a tribute to his friend, the late Andrew Wood, lead singer of the bands Malfunkshun and Mother Love Bone. The lineup included Stone Gossard on rhythm guitar, Jeff Ament on bass guitar (both ex-members of Mother Love Bone and later Pearl Jam), Mike McCready (later Pearl Jam) on lead guitar, and Matt Cameron (Soundgarden and later Pearl Jam) on drums. Eddie Vedder appeared as a guest to provide some lead and backing vocals. Vedder would appear four months later as lead vocalist on Pearl Jam's debut album, Ten.
The band released its only album, the self-titled Temple of the Dog, in April 1991 through A&M Records. The recording sessions took place in November and December 1990 at London Bridge Studio in Seattle, Washington, with producer Rakesh "Rick" Parashar. Although earning praise from music critics at the time of its release, the album was not widely recognized until 1992, when Vedder, Ament, Gossard, and McCready had their breakthrough with Pearl Jam. Cameron would later join Pearl Jam, serving as drummer since 1998, following the Soundgarden's initial break-up in 1997.
The band reformed and toured in 2016 to celebrate the 25th anniversary of their self-titled album. It was the only tour the band ever undertook.
History
Formation
Temple of the Dog was started by Soundgarden frontman Chris Cornell, who had been a roommate of Andrew Wood, the lead singer of Malfunkshun and Mother Love Bone. Wood died on March 19, 1990, of a heroin overdose, the day Cornell got back from a tour. As he went on to tour Europe a few days later, he started writing songs in tribute to his late friend. The result was two songs, "Reach Down" and "Say Hello 2 Heaven", which he recorded as soon as he returned home from touring.
The recorded material was slow and melodic, musically different from the aggressive rock music of Soundgarden. Cornell approached Wood's former Mother Love Bone bandmates Stone Gossard and Jeff Ament—who were still figuring out what to do after the death of their singer and lyricist—with the intention of releasing the songs as a single. Ament described the collaboration as "a really good thing at the time" for Gossard and him that put them into a "band situation where we could play and make music." The band's lineup was completed by the addition of Soundgarden (and later Pearl Jam) drummer Matt Cameron and future Pearl Jam lead guitarist Mike McCready, who was Gossard's childhood friend. They named themselves Temple of the Dog, a reference to a line in the lyrics of the Mother Love Bone song "Man of Golden Words".
The band started rehearsing "Reach Down", "Say Hello 2 Heaven", and other songs that Cornell had written on tour prior to Wood's death, as well as re-working some existing material from demos written by Gossard, Ament, and Cameron. One such demo became a song for two bands, recorded as "Footsteps" by Pearl Jam and "Times of Trouble" by Temple of the Dog. The idea of doing covers of Wood's solo material also came up, but was abandoned quickly, as the band felt it would make people (including Wood's close friends and relatives) think they were "exploiting his material."
Recording
The release of a single was soon deemed a "stupid idea" by Cornell and dropped in favor of an EP or album. The album was recorded in only 15 days, produced by the band themselves, along with Rick Parashar of London Bridge Studio. Gossard described the recording process as a "non-pressure-filled" situation, as there were no expectations or pressure coming from the record company. Eddie Vedder, who had flown up to Seattle from San Diego to audition to be the singer of Ament, Gossard, and McCready's new band, Mookie Blaylock (named for a basketball player, the band would later be renamed Pearl Jam), was at one of the Temple of the Dog rehearsals, and ended up providing backing vocals on a few songs, with "Hunger Strike" becoming a duet between Cornell and Vedder. Cornell was still figuring out the vocals at practice, when Vedder stepped in and filled in the blanks, singing the low parts because he saw it was hard for Cornell. As Cornell later described it: "He sang half of that song not even knowing that I'd wanted the part to be there and he sang it exactly the way I was thinking about doing it, just instinctively." "Hunger Strike" became Temple of the Dog's breakout single. It was also Vedder's first featured vocal on a record. In the 2011 documentary Pearl Jam Twenty, Vedder states: “That was the first time I heard myself on a real record. It could be one of my favorite songs that I’ve ever been on — or the most meaningful.”
Release and delayed success
Temple of the Dog, the band's self-titled album, was released on April 16, 1991, through A&M Records and initially sold 70,000 copies in the United States. Ament recalled requesting that A&M include a Pearl Jam sticker on the cover—as they had just picked their new name—because "it'll be a good thing for us", but they refused. The album received favorable reviews, but failed to chart. Critic Steve Huey of AllMusic later gave the album four-and-a-half stars out of five, stating that the "record sounds like a bridge between Mother Love Bone's theatrical '70s-rock updates and Pearl Jam's hard-rocking seriousness." David Fricke of Rolling Stone wrote, in retrospect, that the album "deserves immortality." The band members were pleased with the material, as it achieved its purpose; Cornell believed that "Andy really would have liked" the songs, and Gossard also asserted that he thought Wood would be "blown away by the whole thing". Soon after the album's release, Soundgarden and Pearl Jam embarked on recording their own albums, and the Temple of the Dog project was brought to a close, without a promotional tour for the album.
In the summer of 1992, the album received renewed attention. Although it had been released more than a year earlier, A&M Records realized that they had in their catalog what was essentially a collaboration between Soundgarden and Pearl Jam, who had both risen to mainstream attention in the months since the album's release with their respective albums, Badmotorfinger and Ten. A&M decided to reissue the album and promote "Hunger Strike" as a single, with an accompanying music video that had been previously filmed. The attention allowed both the album and single to chart on Billboard charts and resulted in a boost in album sales. The album ended up being among the 100 top-selling albums of 1992, and it has sold more than a million copies, achieving a platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America.
Subsequent events
McCready, Ament, Cameron, and Cornell later reunited under the name M.A.C.C. to record a cover of Jimi Hendrix's "Hey Baby (Land of the New Rising Sun)" for the 1993 tribute album Stone Free: A Tribute to Jimi Hendrix. The song has since been included as part of the band's live set. In a 2007 interview with Ultimate Guitar Archive, Cornell stated he would be open to a Temple of the Dog reunion, or "some collaboration with any combination of those guys". He also revealed that Temple of the Dog was the reason he joined Audioslave, as the experience made him "keep an open mind" about collaborations with musicians from other bands.
Live performances
During their initial existence, the only time Temple of the Dog played a full one-hour set was while rehearsing and writing the material for the album. The band (with the exception of Vedder) performed in Seattle at the Off Ramp Café on November 13, 1990. They also opened for Alice in Chains, following the short lived Seattle group Panic, on December 22, 1990, at the Moore Theatre in Seattle.
In the time since the album's release, the band has re-formed for short live one-off performances on occasions where both Soundgarden and Pearl Jam were performing. Temple of the Dog performed "Hunger Strike" on October 3, 1991, at the Foundations Forum in Los Angeles, California; a three-song set on October 6, 1991, at the Hollywood Palladium in Hollywood for the RIP Magazine 5th anniversary party (Temple of the Dog played after secret headlining act Spinal Tap); and "Hunger Strike" on both August 14, 1992, at Lake Fairfax Park in Reston, Virginia, and September 13, 1992, at Irvine Meadows Amphitheater in Irvine, California (both shows were part of the Lollapalooza festival series in 1992). The band also played "Reach Down" on the latter occasion.
At a Pearl Jam show at the Santa Barbara Bowl in Santa Barbara, California, on October 28, 2003, Cornell joined the band on-stage, effectively reuniting Temple of the Dog (Cameron had been the drummer for Pearl Jam since 1998) for renditions of "Hunger Strike" and "Reach Down". Cornell also performed Audioslave's "Like a Stone" and Chris Cornell's "Can't Change Me". The version of "Reach Down" recorded that night later appeared on Pearl Jam's 2003 fan club Christmas single. Pearl Jam has also been known to perform, on rare occasions, "Hunger Strike" live without Cornell.
Cornell's post-Soundgarden band, Audioslave, added "All Night Thing", "Call Me a Dog", and "Hunger Strike" to its live set in 2005. Additionally, Cornell added the aforementioned songs, plus "Pushin Forward Back", "Wooden Jesus", "Reach Down", and "Say Hello 2 Heaven", to his solo live set.
On October 6, 2009, Cornell joined Pearl Jam onstage to perform "Hunger Strike" in Los Angeles, effectively reuniting Temple of the Dog once again. After this, a fan group emerged on Facebook in April 2010 to encourage a 20th anniversary benefit reunion tour, to begin on April 16, 2011.
During Labor Day weekend, 2011, Cornell joined Pearl Jam onstage at Alpine Valley in Wisconsin for PJ20 (Pearl Jam's twentieth anniversary celebration). On September 3, he joined them for a four-song set, which included the songs "Stardog Champion" (a Mother Love Bone cover with Cornell on vocals), "Say Hello 2 Heaven", "Reach Down", and "Hunger Strike". The next day, he joined them for "Hunger Strike", "Call Me a Dog", "All Night Thing", and "Reach Down" (which also included Glen Hansard, Dhani Harrison of Thenewno2, Davíd Garza, and Liam Finn).
On both October 25 and 26, 2014, Cornell joined Pearl Jam onstage to perform "Hunger Strike" at Shoreline Amphitheater in Mountain View, California, during the 28th Annual Bridge School Benefit. The October 26 concert marked the last time that Vedder and Cornell performed the song together.
On January 30, 2015, Pearl Jam bandmates Stone Gossard, Jeff Ament, and Matt Cameron joined Chris Cornell and Mike McCready during the Mad Season Sonic Evolution Concert at Benaroya Hall with the Seattle Symphony. The group performed two songs from the album: "Reach Down" and "Call Me a Dog".
Temple of the Dog finally officially toured in the fall of 2016 in celebration of the 25th anniversary of their self-titled album. Vedder did not participate in the tour, citing "family commitments", so, at the band's concert at the Paramount Theatre in Seattle on November 21, 2016, the crowd sang his part in "Hunger Strike" and Cornell dedicated the song to him.
Discography
Studio albums
Singles
Music videos
1991 – "Hunger Strike"
2016 – "Hunger Strike" (2016 Mix)
Members
Chris Cornell – lead vocals, rhythm guitar, banjo, harmonica
Mike McCready – lead guitar, backing vocals
Stone Gossard – rhythm guitar, backing vocals
Jeff Ament – bass, backing vocals
Matt Cameron – drums, backing vocals
Eddie Vedder – backing vocals, co-lead vocals
See also
List of alternative rock artists
References
External links
A&M Records artists
Alternative rock groups from Washington (state)
Grunge musical groups
Musical groups established in 1990
Musical groups disestablished in 1992
Musical groups reestablished in 2016
Musical groups from Seattle
Pearl Jam
Soundgarden
Supergroups (music)
Tribute bands | [
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222662 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VariCAD | VariCAD | VariCAD is a computer program for 3D/2D CAD and mechanical engineering which has been developed since 1988 in the Czech Republic. VariCAD runs on Windows and Linux. It features many tools for 3D modeling and 2D drafting. VariCAD provides support for parameters and geometric constraints, tools for shells, pipelines, sheet metal unbending and crash tests, assembly support, mechanical part and symbol libraries, calculations, bills of materials, and more.
The program includes a standard part library with screws, nuts, bearings etc. Additionally, it offers many calculation modules for, e.g., springs, beam torsion, volume, mass and center of gravity.
VariCAD allows editing of DWG files without conversion using the Open Design Alliance DWGdirect libraries. VariCAD support the ISO industrial product data exchange format STEP/STP. A list of notable supported file formats is listed in the Comparison of CAD software article.
VariCAD is available for both Windows and for some time on the Linux OS. With the addition of support for Unicode user interface now also supports non Latin character sets such as those used in the Japanese, Chinese and Russian languages.
VariCAD is available in English, German, Portuguese and Japanese languages.
VariCAD Viewer is a free proprietary computer program for viewing of 3D/2D CAD files. It runs on the Windows and Linux operating systems. Notable supported file formats are listed in the Comparison of CAD, CAM and CAE file viewers article.
See also
Comparison of CAD, CAM and CAE file viewers
Comparison of CAD editors for AEC
References
External links
VariCAD Homepage
Computer-aided design software
Computer-aided design software for Linux | [
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222663 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mura%20language | Mura language | Mura is a language of Amazonas, Brazil. It is most famous for Pirahã, its sole surviving dialect. Linguistically, it is typified by agglutinativity, a very small phoneme inventory (around 11 compared to around 44 in English), whistled speech, and the use of tone.
In the 19th century, there were an estimated 30,000–60,000 Mura. It is now spoken by only 300 Pirahã people in eight villages.
Dialects
Since at least Barboza Rodrigues (1892), there have been three ethnic names commonly listed as dialects of Mura, or even as Muran languages. The names are:
Bohurá, or Buxwaray, the original form of the name 'Mura'; spoken on the Autaz River
Pirahã, or Pirahá, Pirahán, the name the remaining dialect goes by
Yahahí, also spelled Jahahi; spoken on the Branco River
On the basis of a minuscule amount of data, it would appear that Bohurá (Mura proper) was mutually intelligible with Pirahã; however, for Yahahí there exists only ethnographic information, and it can be assumed they spoke the same language as other Mura. Rodrigues describes the Yahahí as having come from the Branco river, a tributary of the right bank of the upper Marmelos river. The last Yahahí are said to have joined the Pirahã.
The Mura/Bohurá endonym is , according to Barboza Rodrigues (1892), or ~ , according to Tastevin (1923). This was pronounced Murá by their neighbors, the Torá and Matanawi. In his vocabulary, Rodrigues lists Bohura for the people and bhurai-ada "Mura language" for the language, from the Mura of the Manicoré River; Tastevin has Bohurai and bohuarai-arase for the same. They also record,
"That one is Mura"
"We are all Mura"
(Caution: these words need to be confirmed. The scanned text of Nimuendaju (1948) at the link has several errors, such as for , for , and for .)
Genealogical relations
Mura is often proposed to be related to Matanawí. Kaufman (1994) also suggests a connection with Huarpe in his Macro-Warpean proposal.
Vocabulary
Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for Mura language varieties.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! gloss !! Múra !! Bohurá !! Pirahá
|-
! one
| || huyiː ||
|-
! two
| || mukui ||
|-
! head
| a-pái || hana-pai || a-paixi
|-
! ear
| ku-pái || hane-apue || apu-pay
|-
! tooth
| aro-pái || haine-tué || atu-pay
|-
! hand
| upa || hane-uí || upai
|-
! woman
| yúehẽ || kairi || yuéhe
|-
! water
| pé || ipé || pé
|-
! fire
| foai || huai || wái
|-
! stone
| atí || atí || begé
|-
! maize
| chihuha || tihoʔahai || chifuä
|-
! tapir
| kabachí || kabatí || kauátei
|}
Notes
Bibliography
Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. .
Everett, D. L. (1992). A língua Pirahã e a teoria da sintaxe: descrição, perspectivas e teoria. Campinas: Editora da Unicamp.
Hanke, W. (1950a). O idioma Mura. Arquivos: Coletânea de documentor para a História da Amazônia, 12:3-8.
Hanke, W. (1950b). Vocabulário e idioma mura dos índios mura do rio Manicoré. Arquivos, 12:3-8.
Heinrichs, A. (1961). Questionário: Mura-Pirahã Rio Marmelos. (Questionário dos Vocabulários Padrões para estudos comparativos preliminares de línguas indígenas brasileiras.) Rio de Janeiro: Museu Nacional.
Heinrichs, A. (1963). Questionário: Mura-Pirahã Rios Marmelos e Maici. (Questionário dos Vocabulários Padrões para estudos comparativos preliminares de línguas indígenas brasileiras.) Rio de Janeiro: Museu Nacional.
Kaufman, Terrence. (1994). The native languages of South America. In C. Mosley & R. E. Asher (Eds.), Atlas of the world's languages (pp. 46–76). London: Routledge.
Curt Nimuendajú (1948): "The Mura" and "The Yahahi", in Handbook of South American Indians, Volume 3: The Tropical Forest Tribes, ed. Julian H. Steward, pp. 255–269.
External links
PROEL: Grupo Muran
Endangered indigenous languages of the Americas | [
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222665 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McCarthy%2091%20function | McCarthy 91 function | The McCarthy 91 function is a recursive function, defined by the computer scientist John McCarthy as a test case for formal verification within computer science.
The McCarthy 91 function is defined as
The results of evaluating the function are given by M(n) = 91 for all integer arguments n ≤ 100, and M(n) = n − 10 for n > 100. Indeed, the result of M(101) is also 91 (101 - 10 = 91). All results of M(n) after n = 101 are continually increasing by 1, e.g. M(102) = 92, M(103) = 93.
History
The 91 function was introduced in papers published by Zohar Manna, Amir Pnueli and John McCarthy in 1970. These papers represented early developments towards the application of formal methods to program verification. The 91 function was chosen for being nested-recursive (contrasted with single recursion, such as defining by means of ). The example was popularized by Manna's book, Mathematical Theory of Computation (1974). As the field of Formal Methods advanced, this example appeared repeatedly in the research literature.
In particular, it is viewed as a "challenge problem" for automated program verification.
It is easier to reason about tail-recursive control flow, this is an equivalent (extensionally equal) definition:
As one of the examples used to demonstrate such reasoning, Manna's book includes a tail-recursive algorithm equivalent to the nested-recursive 91 function. Many of the papers that report an "automated verification" (or termination proof) of the 91 function only handle the tail-recursive version.
This is an equivalent mutually tail-recursive definition:
A formal derivation of the mutually tail-recursive version from the nested-recursive one was given in a 1980 article by Mitchell Wand, based on the use of continuations.
Examples
Example A:
M(99) = M(M(110)) since 99 ≤ 100
= M(100) since 110 > 100
= M(M(111)) since 100 ≤ 100
= M(101) since 111 > 100
= 91 since 101 > 100
Example B:
M(87) = M(M(98))
= M(M(M(109)))
= M(M(99))
= M(M(M(110)))
= M(M(100))
= M(M(M(111)))
= M(M(101))
= M(91)
= M(M(102))
= M(92)
= M(M(103))
= M(93)
.... Pattern continues increasing till M(99), M(100) and M(101), exactly as we saw on the example A)
= M(101) since 111 > 100
= 91 since 101 > 100
Code
Here is an implementation of the nested-recursive algorithm in Lisp:
(defun mc91 (n)
(cond ((<= n 100) (mc91 (mc91 (+ n 11))))
(t (- n 10))))
Here is an implementation of the nested-recursive algorithm in Haskell:
mc91 n
| n > 100 = n - 10
| otherwise = mc91 $ mc91 $ n + 11
Here is an implementation of the nested-recursive algorithm in OCaml:
let rec mc91 n =
if n > 100 then n - 10
else mc91 (mc91 (n + 11))
Here is an implementation of the tail-recursive algorithm in OCaml:
let mc91 n =
let rec aux n c =
if c = 0 then n
else if n > 100 then aux (n - 10) (c - 1)
else aux (n + 11) (c + 1)
in
aux n 1
Here is an implementation of the nested-recursive algorithm in Python:
def mc91(n: int) -> int:
"""McCarthy 91 function."""
if n > 100:
return n - 10
else:
return mc91(mc91(n + 11))
Here is an implementation of the nested-recursive algorithm in C:
int mc91(int n)
{
if (n > 100) {
return n - 10;
} else {
return mc91(mc91(n + 11));
}
}
Here is an implementation of the tail-recursive algorithm in C:
int mc91(int n)
{
return mc91taux(n, 1);
}
int mc91taux(int n, int c)
{
if (c != 0) {
if (n > 100) {
return mc91taux(n - 10, c - 1);
} else {
return mc91taux(n + 11, c + 1);
}
} else {
return n;
}
}
Proof
Here is a proof that
which provides an equivalent non-recursive algorithm to compute .
For n > 100, equality follows from the definition of . For n ≤ 100, a strong induction downward from 100 can be used.
For 90 ≤ n ≤ 100,
M(n) = M(M(n + 11)), by definition
= M(n + 11 - 10), since n + 11 > 100
= M(n + 1)
So M(n) = M(101) = 91 for 90 ≤ n ≤ 100.
This can be used as base case.
For the induction step, let n ≤ 89 and assume M(i) = 91 for all n < i ≤ 100, then
M(n) = M(M(n + 11)), by definition
= M(91), by hypothesis, since n < n + 11 ≤ 100
= 91, by the base case.
This proves M(n) = 91 for all n ≤ 100, including negative values.
Knuth's generalization
Donald Knuth generalized the 91 function to include additional parameters. John Cowles developed a formal proof that Knuth's generalized function was total, using the ACL2 theorem prover.
References
Formal methods
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222666 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-3 | ISO 3166-3 | ISO 3166-3 is part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), and defines codes for country names which have been deleted from ISO 3166-1 since its first publication in 1974. The official name of the standard is Codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions – Part 3: Code for formerly used names of countries. It was first published in 1999.
Each former country name in ISO 3166-3 is assigned a four-letter alphabetic code. The first two letters are the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of the former country, while the last two letters are allocated according to the following rules:
If the country changed its name, the new ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code is used (e.g., Burma changed its name to Myanmar, whose new alpha-2 code is ), or the special code is used if its alpha-2 code was not changed (e.g., Byelorussian SSR changed its name to Belarus, which has kept the same alpha-2 code).
If the country merged into an existing country, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of this country is used (e.g., the German Democratic Republic merged into Germany, whose alpha-2 code is ).
If the country was divided into several parts, the special code is used to indicate that there is no single successor country (e.g., Czechoslovakia was divided into the Czech Republic and Slovakia), with the exception of Serbia and Montenegro, for which is used to avoid duplicate use of the same ISO 3166-3 code, as the alpha-2 code had twice been deleted from ISO 3166-1, the first time due to the split of Czechoslovakia and the second time due to the split of Serbia and Montenegro.
Besides the former country name and its ISO 3166-3 code, each entry in ISO 3166-3 also contains its former ISO 3166-1 codes, its period of validity, and the new country names and ISO 3166-1 codes used after its deletion from ISO 3166-1.
After a country is deleted from ISO 3166-1, its alpha-2 and alpha-3 codes will be transitionally reserved for a transitional period of at least fifty years. After the expiration of the transitional period, these codes are free to be reassigned.
If a country changes its name without any territorial change, its ISO 3166-1 numeric code remains the same. For example, when Burma was renamed Myanmar without territorial change in 1989, its alphabetic codes were changed, but its numeric code has remained the same.
Currently, a few ccTLDs using deleted alpha-2 codes are still active or being phased out. However, alpha-2 codes which were deleted before the popularization of the Domain Name System in the late 1980s and early 1990s were never used for the Internet's country code top-level domains (ccTLDs). Likewise, ISO 3166-2, the ISO standard for country subdivision codes which was first published in 1998, predated the deletion of many alpha-2 codes.
Current codes
The following is a list of current ISO 3166-3 codes, with the following columns:
Former country name – English short country name officially used by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA)
Former codes – ISO 3166-1 alpha-2, alpha-3, and numeric codes
Period of validity – Years when codes were officially assigned
ISO 3166-3 code – Four-letter code assigned for former country name
New country names and codes – Successor countries and their ISO 3166-1 codes
Click on the button in the header to sort by ISO 3166-3 code.
Notes
Changes
The ISO 3166/MA updates ISO 3166-3 when necessary. The updating of ISO 3166-3 is totally dependent on the updating of ISO 3166-1.
ISO used to announce changes in newsletters which updated the currently valid standard, and releasing new editions which comprise a consolidation of newsletter changes. As of July 2013, changes are published in the online catalogue of ISO only and no newsletters are published anymore. Past newsletters remain available on the ISO website.
See also
International Organization for Standardization
ISO 3166
ISO 3166-1
ISO 3166-2
ISO 3166-3
List of ISO 3166 country codes
Lists of countries and territories
Sovereign state
List of sovereign states
List of states with limited recognition
Dependent territory
United Nations
Member states of the United Nations
United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories
References
Sources and external links
ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency, International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
Country codes - Online Browsing Platform (OBP)
Administrative Divisions of Countries ("Statoids"), Statoids.com
ISO 3166-1 Change History
3
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222671 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine%20Yass | Catherine Yass | Catherine Yass (born 1963) is an English artist known for her wall-mounted lightboxes.
Biography
Catherine Yass was born in 1963 in London. She studied at the Slade School of Fine Art, the Hochschule der Künste, Berlin, and Goldsmiths College. In 2002, Yass was nominated for the Turner Prize. She teaches photography at the Royal College of Art, London. She lives in London.
Works
Yass is noted for her films and brightly coloured photographs. Many of her works are mounted on light boxes.
Yass has also worked with video. Descent (2002) is one film and two light boxes.
In 2000, Yass designed the Christmas tree for Tate Britain, and in the same year along with Richard Wentworth she designed the public square around The New Art Gallery Walsall. Yass has had solo exhibitions including Lighthouse at Alison Jacques Gallery, London (2012); a mid-career retrospective at De La Warr Pavilion, Bexhill-on-Sea (2011); Flight, The Phillips Collections, Washington D.C.; The China Series, Stedelijk-Hertogenbosch Museum, The Netherlands (2009); Descent, St Louis Art Museum, St Louis, MO (2009).
Yass participated in the 13th Montreal Photo Biennale (2013). Her work is in the collections of the Jewish Museum, New York, the Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art, and the Tate Britain. it is also in the National Museum of Women in the Arts collection.
In July 2014 Yass was refused permission to drop a piano from the 27-story Balfron Tower in Poplar, London as part of a "community workshop to explore how sound travels".
References
External links
images of Yass' work at the Galerie Lelong & Co
1963 births
Living people
20th-century British women artists
21st-century British women artists
Artists from London
Alumni of Goldsmiths, University of London
Alumni of the Slade School of Fine Art
English women photographers
English contemporary artists
20th-century women photographers
21st-century women photographers
20th-century English women
21st-century English women | [
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222676 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis%20acids%20and%20bases | Lewis acids and bases | A Lewis acid (named for the American physical chemist Gilbert N. Lewis) is a chemical species that contains an empty orbital which is capable of accepting an electron pair from a Lewis base to form a Lewis adduct. A Lewis base, then, is any species that has a filled orbital containing an electron pair which is not involved in bonding but may form a dative bond with a Lewis acid to form a Lewis adduct. For example, NH3 is a Lewis base, because it can donate its lone pair of electrons. Trimethylborane (Me3B) is a Lewis acid as it is capable of accepting a lone pair. In a Lewis adduct, the Lewis acid and base share an electron pair furnished by the Lewis base, forming a dative bond. In the context of a specific chemical reaction between NH3 and Me3B, the lone pair from NH3 will form a dative bond with the empty orbital of Me3B to form an adduct NH3•BMe3. The terminology refers to the contributions of Gilbert N. Lewis.
The terms nucleophile and electrophile are more or less interchangeable with Lewis base and Lewis acid, respectively. However, these terms, especially their abstract noun forms nucleophilicity and electrophilicity, emphasize the kinetic aspect of reactivity, while the Lewis basicity and Lewis acidity emphasize the thermodynamic aspect of Lewis adduct formation.
Depicting adducts
In many cases, the interaction between the Lewis base and Lewis acid in a complex is indicated by an arrow indicating the Lewis base donating electrons toward the Lewis acid using the notation of a dative bond—for example, Me3B←NH3. Some sources indicate the Lewis base with a pair of dots (the explicit electrons being donated), which allows consistent representation of the transition from the base itself to the complex with the acid:
Me3B + :NH3 → Me3B:NH3
A center dot may also be used to represent a Lewis adduct, such as Me3B•NH3. Another example is boron trifluoride diethyl etherate, BF3•Et2O. (In a slightly different usage, the center dot is also used to represent hydrate coordination in various crystals, as in MgSO4•7H2O for hydrated magnesium sulfate, irrespective of whether the water forms a dative bond with the metal.)
Although there have been attempts to use computational and experimental energetic criteria to distinguish dative bonding from non-dative covalent bonds, for the most part, the distinction merely makes note of the source of the electron pair, and dative bonds, once formed, behave simply as other covalent bonds do, though they typically have considerable polar character. Moreover, in some cases (e.g., sulfoxides and amine oxides as R2S→O and R3N→O), the use of the dative bond arrow is just a notational convenience for avoiding the drawing of formal charges. In general, however, the donor–acceptor bond is viewed as simply somewhere along a continuum between idealized covalent bonding and ionic bonding.
Lewis acids
Classically, the term "Lewis acid" is restricted to trigonal planar species with an empty p orbital, such as BR3 where R can be an organic substituent or a halide. For the purposes of discussion, even complex compounds such as Et3Al2Cl3 and AlCl3 are treated as trigonal planar Lewis acids. Metal ions such as Na+, Mg2+, and Ce3+, which are invariably complexed with additional ligands, are often sources of coordinatively unsaturated derivatives that form Lewis adducts upon reaction with a Lewis base. Other reactions might simply be referred to as "acid-catalyzed" reactions. Some compounds, such as H2O, are both Lewis acids and Lewis bases, because they can either accept a pair of electrons or donate a pair of electrons, depending upon the reaction.
Lewis acids are diverse. Simplest are those that react directly with the Lewis base. But more common are those that undergo a reaction prior to forming the adduct.
Examples of Lewis acids based on the general definition of electron pair acceptor include:
the proton (H+) and acidic compounds onium ions, such as NH4+ and H3O+
high oxidation state transition metal cations, e.g., Fe3+;
other metal cations, such as Li+ and Mg2+, often as their aquo or ether complexes,
trigonal planar species, such as BF3 and carbocations H3C+
pentahalides of phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony
electron poor -systems, such as enones and tetracyanoethylenes.
Again, the description of a Lewis acid is often used loosely. For example, in solution, bare protons do not exist. In the same vein, CH3+ can be considered to be the Lewis acid in methylation reactions. However, the methyl cation never occurs as a free species in the condensed phase, and methylation reactions by reagents like CH3I take place through the simultaneous formation of a bond from the nucleophile to the carbon and cleavage of the bond between carbon and iodine (SN2 reaction).
There is some disagreement as to whether alkyl halides like CH3I should be considered to be Lewis acids. Textbooks disagree on this point, with Vollhardt and Schore's Organic Chemistry stating that alkyl halides are electrophiles but not Lewis acids, while Carey's Organic Chemistry states that alkyl halides (e.g. CH3Br) are a type of Lewis acid. The IUPAC Gold Book is contradictory: under the entry for Lewis acid, it states that Lewis acids and Lewis bases react to form Lewis adducts, a definition excluding alkyl halides, while the entry for electrophile specifically states that electrophilic reagents are Lewis acids.
Simple Lewis acids
Some of the most studied examples of such Lewis acids are the boron trihalides and organoboranes, but other compounds exhibit this behavior:
BF3 + F− → BF4−
In this adduct, all four fluoride centres (or more accurately, ligands) are equivalent.
BF3 + OMe2 → BF3OMe2
Both BF4− and BF3OMe2 are Lewis base adducts of boron trifluoride.
In many cases, the adducts violate the octet rule, such as the triiodide anion:
I2 + I− → I3−
The variability of the colors of iodine solutions reflects the variable abilities of the solvent to form adducts with the Lewis acid I2.
In some cases, the Lewis acid is capable of binding two Lewis base, a famous example being the formation of hexafluorosilicate:
SiF4 + 2 F− → SiF62−
Complex Lewis acids
Most compounds considered to be Lewis acids require an activation step prior to formation of the adduct with the Lewis base. Well known cases are the aluminium trihalides, which are widely viewed as Lewis acids. Aluminium trihalides, unlike the boron trihalides, do not exist in the form AlX3, but as aggregates and polymers that must be degraded by the Lewis base. A simpler case is the formation of adducts of borane. Monomeric BH3 does not exist appreciably, so the adducts of borane are generated by degradation of diborane:
B2H6 + 2 H− → 2 BH4−
In this case, an intermediate B2H7− can be isolated.
Many metal complexes serve as Lewis acids, but usually only after dissociating a more weakly bound Lewis base, often water.
[Mg(H2O)6]2+ + 6 NH3 → [Mg(NH3)6]2+ + 6 H2O
H+ as Lewis acid
The proton (H+) is one of the strongest but is also one of the most complicated Lewis acids. It is convention to ignore the fact that a proton is heavily solvated (bound to solvent). With this simplification in mind, acid-base reactions can be viewed as the formation of adducts:
H+ + NH3 → NH4+
H+ + OH− → H2O
Applications of Lewis acids
A typical example of a Lewis acid in action is in the Friedel–Crafts alkylation reaction. The key step is the acceptance by AlCl3 of a chloride ion lone-pair, forming AlCl4− and creating the strongly acidic, that is, electrophilic, carbonium ion.
RCl +AlCl3 → R+ + AlCl4−
Lewis bases
A Lewis base is an atomic or molecular species where the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) is highly localized. Typical Lewis bases are conventional amines such as ammonia and alkyl amines. Other common Lewis bases include pyridine and its derivatives. Some of the main classes of Lewis bases are
amines of the formula NH3−xRx where R = alkyl or aryl. Related to these are pyridine and its derivatives.
phosphines of the formula PR3−xAx, where R = alkyl, A = aryl.
compounds of O, S, Se and Te in oxidation state -2, including water, ethers, ketones
The most common Lewis bases are anions. The strength of Lewis basicity correlates with the of the parent acid: acids with high 's give good Lewis bases. As usual, a weaker acid has a stronger conjugate base.
Examples of Lewis bases based on the general definition of electron pair donor include:
simple anions, such as H− and F−
other lone-pair-containing species, such as H2O, NH3, HO−, and CH3−
complex anions, such as sulfate
electron-rich -system Lewis bases, such as ethyne, ethene, and benzene
The strength of Lewis bases have been evaluated for various Lewis acids, such as I2, SbCl5, and BF3.
Applications of Lewis bases
Nearly all electron pair donors that form compounds by binding transition elements can be viewed as a collections of the Lewis bases—or ligands. Thus a large application of Lewis bases is to modify the activity and selectivity of metal catalysts. Chiral Lewis bases thus confer chirality on a catalyst, enabling asymmetric catalysis, which is useful for the production of pharmaceuticals.
Many Lewis bases are "multidentate," that is they can form several bonds to the Lewis acid. These multidentate Lewis bases are called chelating agents.
Hard and soft classification
Lewis acids and bases are commonly classified according to their hardness or softness. In this context hard implies small and nonpolarizable and soft indicates larger atoms that are more polarizable.
typical hard acids: H+, alkali/alkaline earth metal cations, boranes, Zn2+
typical soft acids: Ag+, Mo(0), Ni(0), Pt2+
typical hard bases: ammonia and amines, water, carboxylates, fluoride and chloride
typical soft bases: organophosphines, thioethers, carbon monoxide, iodide
For example, an amine will displace phosphine from the adduct with the acid BF3. In the same way, bases could be classified. For example, bases donating a lone pair from an oxygen atom are harder than bases donating through a nitrogen atom. Although the classification was never quantified it proved to be very useful in predicting the strength of adduct formation, using the key concepts that hard acid—hard base and soft acid—soft base interactions are stronger than hard acid—soft base or soft acid—hard base interactions. Later investigation of the thermodynamics of the interaction suggested that hard—hard interactions are enthalpy favored, whereas soft—soft are entropy favored.
Quantifying Lewis acidity
Many methods have been devised to evaluate and predict Lewis acidity. Many are based on spectroscopic signatures such as shifts NMR signals or IR bands e.g. the Gutmann-Beckett method and the Childs method.
The ECW model is a quantitative model that describes and predicts the strength of Lewis acid base interactions, −ΔH. The model assigned E and C parameters to many Lewis acids and bases. Each acid is characterized by an EA and a CA. Each base is likewise characterized by its own EB and CB. The E and C parameters refer, respectively, to the electrostatic and covalent contributions to the strength of the bonds that the acid and base will form. The equation is
−ΔH = EAEB + CACB + W
The W term represents a constant energy contribution for acid–base reaction such as the cleavage of a dimeric acid or base. The equation predicts reversal of acids and base strengths. The graphical presentations of the equation show that there is no single order of Lewis base strengths or Lewis acid strengths. and that single property scales are limited to a smaller range of acids or bases.
History
The concept originated with Gilbert N. Lewis who studied chemical bonding. In 1923, Lewis wrote An acid substance is one which can employ an electron lone pair from another molecule in completing the stable group of one of its own atoms. The Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory was published in the same year. The two theories are distinct but complementary. A Lewis base is also a Brønsted–Lowry base, but a Lewis acid doesn't need to be a Brønsted–Lowry acid. The classification into hard and soft acids and bases (HSAB theory) followed in 1963. The strength of Lewis acid-base interactions, as measured by the standard enthalpy of formation of an adduct can be predicted by the Drago–Wayland two-parameter equation.
Reformulation of Lewis theory
Lewis had suggested in 1916 that two atoms are held together in a chemical bond by sharing a pair of electrons. When each atom contributed one electron to the bond, it was called a covalent bond. When both electrons come from one of the atoms, it was called a dative covalent bond or coordinate bond. The distinction is not very clear-cut. For example, in the formation of an ammonium ion from ammonia and hydrogen the ammonia molecule donates a pair of electrons to the proton; the identity of the electrons is lost in the ammonium ion that is formed. Nevertheless, Lewis suggested that an electron-pair donor be classified as a base and an electron-pair acceptor be classified as acid.
A more modern definition of a Lewis acid is an atomic or molecular species with a localized empty atomic or molecular orbital of low energy. This lowest-energy molecular orbital (LUMO) can accommodate a pair of electrons.
Comparison with Brønsted–Lowry theory
A Lewis base is often a Brønsted–Lowry base as it can donate a pair of electrons to H+; the proton is a Lewis acid as it can accept a pair of electrons. The conjugate base of a Brønsted–Lowry acid is also a Lewis base as loss of H+ from the acid leaves those electrons which were used for the A—H bond as a lone pair on the conjugate base. However, a Lewis base can be very difficult to protonate, yet still react with a Lewis acid. For example, carbon monoxide is a very weak Brønsted–Lowry base but it forms a strong adduct with BF3.
In another comparison of Lewis and Brønsted–Lowry acidity by Brown and Kanner, 2,6-di-t-butylpyridine reacts to form the hydrochloride salt with HCl but does not react with BF3. This example demonstrates that steric factors, in addition to electron configuration factors, play a role in determining the strength of the interaction between the bulky di-t-butylpyridine and tiny proton.
See also
Acid
Base (chemistry)
Acid–base reaction
Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory
Chiral Lewis acid
Frustrated Lewis pair
Gutmann–Beckett method
ECW model
References
Further reading
Acid–base chemistry
Acids
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222677 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animacy | Animacy | Animacy (antonym: inanimacy) is a grammatical and semantic feature, existing in some languages, expressing how sentient or alive the referent of a noun is. Widely expressed, animacy is one of the most elementary principles in languages around the globe and is a distinction acquired as early as six months of age.
Concepts of animacy constantly vary beyond a simple animate and inanimate binary; many languages function off of a hierarchical general animacy scale that ranks animacy as a "matter of gradience". Typically (with some variation of order and of where the cutoff for animacy occurs), the scale ranks humans above animals, then plants, natural forces, concrete objects, and abstract objects, in that order. In referring to humans, this scale contains a hierarchy of persons, ranking the first- and second-person pronouns above the third person, partly a product of empathy, involving the speaker and interlocutor.
Examples
The distinction between he, she, and other personal pronouns, on one hand, and it, on the other hand is a distinction in animacy in English and in many Indo-European languages. The same can be said about distinction between who and what. Some languages, such as Turkish, Georgian, Spoken Finnish and Italian do not distinguish between s/he and it. In Finnish, there is a distinction in animacy between , "he/she", and , "it", but in Spoken Finnish can mean "he/she". English shows a similar lack of distinction between they animate and they inanimate in the plural but, as shown above, it has such a distinction in the singular.
There is another example of how animacy plays some role in English. For example, the higher animacy a referent has, the less preferable it is to use the preposition of for possession (that can also be interpreted in terms of alienable or inalienable possession):
My face is correct while *the face of me would sound very strange.
The man's face and the face of the man are both correct, but the former is preferred.
The clock's face and the face of the clock are both correct.
Examples of languages in which an animacy hierarchy is important include the Totonac language in Mexico and the Southern Athabaskan languages (such as Western Apache and Navajo) whose animacy hierarchy has been the subject of intense study. The Tamil language has a noun classification based on animacy.
Proto-Indo-European language
Because of the similarities in morphology of feminine and masculine grammatical gender inflections in Indo-European languages, there is a theory that in an early stage, the Proto-Indo-European language had only two grammatical genders: "animate" and "inanimate/neuter"; the most obvious difference being that inanimate/neuter nouns used the same form for the nominative, vocative, and accusative noun cases. The distinction was preserved in Anatolian languages like Hittite, all of which are now extinct.
The animate gender would then later, after the separation of the Anatolian languages, have developed into the feminine and masculine genders. The plural of neuter/inanimate nouns is believed to have had the same ending as collective nouns in the singular, and some words with the collective noun ending in singular were later to become words with the feminine gender. Traces can be found in Ancient Greek in which the singular form of verbs was used when they referred to neuter words in plural. In many Indo-European languages, such as Latin and the Slavic languages, the plural ending of many neuter words in the merged nominative–accusative–vocative corresponds to the feminine singular nominative form.
Navajo (Diné)
Like most other Athabaskan languages, Southern Athabaskan languages show various levels of animacy in their grammar, with certain nouns taking specific verb forms according to their rank in this animacy hierarchy. For instance, Navajo (Diné) nouns can be ranked by animacy on a continuum from most animate (a human) to least animate (an abstraction) (Young & Morgan 1987: 65–66):
Adult human/lightning > infant/big animal > medium-sized animal > small animal > natural force > abstraction
Generally, the most animate noun in a sentence must occur first while the noun with lesser animacy occurs second. If both nouns are equal in animacy, either noun can occur in the first position. Both sentences (1) and (2) are correct. The yi- prefix on the verb indicates that the first noun is the subject and bi- indicates that the second noun is the subject.
Sentence (3), however, sounds wrong to most Navajo speakers because the less animate noun occurs before the more animate noun:
In order to express that idea, the more animate noun must occur first, as in sentence (4):
There is evidence suggesting that the word order itself is not the important factor. Instead, the verb construction usually interpreted as the passive voice (e.g. "the girl was pecked by the bird") instead indicates that the more animate noun allowed the less animate noun to perform the action (e.g. "the girl let herself be pecked by the bird"). The idea is that things ranked higher in animacy are presumed to be in control of the situation, and that the less-animate thing can only act if the more-animate thing permits it.
Japanese
Although nouns in Japanese are not marked for animacy, it has two existential/possessive verbs; one for implicitly animate nouns (usually humans and animals) and one for implicitly inanimate nouns (often non-living objects and plants). The verb iru (, also written ) is used to show the existence or possession of an animate noun. The verb aru (, sometimes written when existential or when possessive) is used to show the existence or possession of an inanimate noun.
An animate noun, here 'cat', is marked as the subject of the verb with the subject particle ga (), but no topic or location is marked. That implies the noun is indefinite and merely exists.
In the second example, a topic is introduced, in this case "I", with the topic particle wa (). The animate noun is again marked with a subject particle, and no location is denoted. That implies that the topic owns or is holding onto the noun.
In the third example, the noun is marked as the topic (and by default functions as the subject of the verb) while a location, here the top of a chair, is marked with the location particle ni (). That implies that the noun is a definite noun and is at the specified location.
In all these cases, if the noun is not animate, such as a stone, instead of a cat, the verb iru must be replaced with the verb aru ( or [possessive] / [existential, locative]).
In some cases in which "natural" animacy is ambiguous, whether a noun is animate or not is the decision of the speaker, as in the case of a robot, which could be correlated with the animate verb (to signify sentience or anthropomorphism) or with the inanimate verb (to emphasise that is a non-living thing).
Ryukyuan languages
The Ryukyuan languages, spoken in the Ryukyu Islands agree in animacy in their case systems.
Slavic languages
Overview
Slavic languages that have case (all of them except Bulgarian and Macedonian), including Russian, have a somewhat complex hierarchy of animacy in which syntactically animate nouns may include both animate and inanimate objects (like mushrooms and dances). Overall, the border between animate and inanimate places humans and animals in the former and plants, etc., in the latter, thus basing itself more so on sentience than life.
Animacy functions as a subgender through which noun cases intersect in a phenomenon called syncretism, which here can be either nominative-accusative or genitive-accusative. Inanimate nouns have accusative forms that take on the same forms as their nominative, with animate nouns marked by having their accusative forms resemble the genitive.
For example, syncretism conditioned by referential animacy results in forms like the following:
NOM stol ‘table’ -> ACC stol, like nom -> GEN stola (exhibiting nom-acc syncretism);
NOM kot ‘cat’ -> ACC kota, like gen -> GEN kota (exhibiting gen-acc syncretism).
That syncretism also occurs when restricted by declension class, resulting in syncretism in multiple pronominal forms, such as the reflexive pronoun , personal pronouns, and the indefinite interrogative and relative pronoun kto.
In their plural forms, nouns of all genders may distinguish the categories of animate vs. inanimate by that syncretism, but only masculine nouns of the first declension (and their modifiers) show it in the singular (Frarie 1992:12), and other declensions and genders of nouns "restrict (morphological) expression of animacy to the plural" (Frarie 1992:47).
Masc nouns that show acc-gen (sg & plural) syncretism: [muʂ] husband, [sɨn] son, [lʲef] lion, [konʲ] horse.
Fem animate nouns that show acc-gen (plural) syncretism: [ˈʐɛnʲɕːɪnə] woman, [ˈɫoʂətʲ] horse.
Neut animate nouns that show acc-nom (sg) and acc-gen (plural) syncretism: 'animal', 'insect'.
Elsewhere, animacy is displayed syntactically, such as in endings of modifiers for masc nouns of the second declension.
Animacy as a "subgender"
While animacy is viewed as primarily semantic when approached diachronically, a synchronic view suggests animacy as a sublevel of gender. Syntactic gender is defined through patterns in agreement, not necessarily semantic value. For example, Russian has "common gender" nouns that refer to traditionally masculine roles but act as syntactically feminine.
Animacy occurs as a subgender of nouns and modifiers (and pronouns only when adjectival) and is primarily reflected in modifier-head agreement (as opposed to subject-predicate agreement).
Controversy
Some consider the system to be based on marking inanimacy in which case the gen-acc distinguishes a "non-inanimate" subgender of nouns and modifiers, and others claim that ultimately it is indeed animacy that is marked.
Sinhala
In spoken Sinhala, there are two existential/possessive verbs: hiţinawā / innawā are used only for animate nouns (humans and animals), and තියෙනවා tiyenawā for inanimate nouns (like non-living objects, plants, things):
Spanish
Nouns
In Spanish, the preposition (meaning "to" or "at") has gained a second role as a marker of concrete animate direct objects:
{|
|
| "I can see that cathedral."
| (inanimate direct object)
|-
|
| "I can see that person."
| (animate direct object)
|-
|
| "I come to Spain."
| ( used in its literal sense)
|}
The usage is standard and is found around the Spanish-speaking world.
Pronouns
Spanish personal pronouns are generally omitted if the subject of the sentence is obvious, but when they are explicitly stated, they are used only with people or humanized animals or things. The inanimate subject pronoun in Spanish is , like it in English.
Spanish direct-object pronouns () do not differentiate between animate and inanimate entities, and only the third persons have a gender distinction. Thus, for example, the third-person singular feminine pronoun, , could refer to a woman, an animal (like , butterfly), or an object (like , house), if their genders are feminine.
With pronouns, there is a tendency to use (which is usually an indirect object pronoun, meaning "to him/her") as a direct-object pronoun, at the expense of the direct-object pronouns , if the referent is animate. That tendency is especially strong if (a) the pronoun is being used as a special second-person pronoun of respect, (b) the referent is male, (c) certain verbs are used, (d) the subject of the verb happens to be inanimate. There is great regional variation as regards that usage.
Arabic
In Classical and Modern Standard Arabic and some other varieties of Arabic, animacy has a limited application in the agreement of plural and dual nouns with verbs and adjectives. Verbs follow nouns in plural agreement only when the verb comes after the subject. When a verb comes before an explicit subject, the verb is always singular. Also, only animate plural and dual nouns take plural agreement; inanimate plural nouns are always analyzed as singular feminine or plural feminine for the purpose of agreement. Thus, Arabic (Al-muhandisūn yaṭīrūn 'ilā 'Almāniyā, "The engineers fly to Germany") is masculine plural agreement, but (Al-ṭā'irāt taṭīr 'ilā 'Almāniyā, "The planes fly to Germany") is feminine singular. Compare them to (Taṭīr al-muhandisāt 'ilā 'Almāniyā) and (Al-muhandisāt yaṭirna 'ilā 'Almāniyā) for "The [female] engineers fly to Germany."
In general, Arabic divides animacy between (thinking, or rational) and (unthinking, or irrational). Animals fall in the latter category, but their status may change depending on the usage, especially with personification. Different writers might use (Al-ghurbān yaṭīrūn 'ilā 'Almāniyā) or (Al-ghurbān taṭīr 'ilā 'Almāniyā) for "The ravens fly to Germany."
Animacy hierarchy and morphosyntactic alignment
Split ergativity
Animacy can also condition the nature of the morphologies of split-ergative languages. In such languages, participants more animate are more likely to be the agent of the verb, and therefore are marked in an accusative pattern: unmarked in the agent role and marked in the patient or oblique role.
Likewise, less animate participants are inherently more patient-like, and take ergative marking: unmarked when in the patient role and marked when in the agent role. The hierarchy of animacy generally, but not always, is ordered:
{|
| 1st person
| > || 2nd person
| > || 3rd person
| > || proper names
| > || humans
| > ||
| > || inanimates
|}
The location of the split (the line which divides the inherently agentive participants from the inherently patientive participants) varies from language to language, and, in many cases, the two classes overlap, with a class of nouns near the middle of the hierarchy being marked for both the agent and patient roles.
Hierarchical alignment
In a direct–inverse language, clauses with transitive verbs can be expressed with either a direct or an inverse construction. The direct construction is used when the subject of the transitive clause outranks the object in salience or animacy. The inverse construction is used when the "notional object" outranks the "notional subject".
Thematic roles
A noun essentially requires the traits of animacy in order to receive the role of Actor and Experiencer. Additionally, the Agent role is generally assigned to the NP with highest ranking in the animacy hierarchy – ultimately, only animate beings can function as true agents. Similarly, languages universally tend to place animate nouns earlier in the sentence than inanimate nouns.
Animacy is a key component of agency – combined with other factors like "awareness of action". Agency and animacy are intrinsically linked – with each as a "conceptual property" of the other.
See also
Grammatical gender
Noun class
Classifier (linguistics)
Notes and references
LOCAT:location
Notes
References
Frishberg, Nancy. (1972). Navajo object markers and the great chain of being. In J. Kimball (ed.), Syntax and semantics, vol. 1, p. 259–266. New York: Seminar Press.
Hale, Kenneth L. (1973). A note on subject–object inversion in Navajo. In B. B. Kachru, R. B. Lees, Y. Malkiel, A. Pietrangeli, & S. Saporta (eds.), Issues in linguistics: Papers in honor of Henry and Renée Kahane, p. 300–309. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Thomas E. Payne, 1997. Describing morphosyntax: A guide for field linguists. Cambridge University Press. .
Young, Robert W., & Morgan, William, Sr. (1987). The Navajo language: A grammar and colloquial dictionary (rev. ed.). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. .
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Grammatical gender
Linguistic morphology
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222679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salishan%20languages | Salishan languages | The Salishan (also Salish) languages are a group of languages of the Pacific Northwest in North America (the Canadian province of British Columbia and the American states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho and Montana). They are characterised by agglutinativity and syllabic consonants. For instance the Nuxalk word clhp’xwlhtlhplhhskwts’ (), meaning "he had had [in his possession] a bunchberry plant", has thirteen obstruent consonants in a row with no phonetic or phonemic vowels.
The Salishan languages are a geographically contiguous block, with the exception of the Nuxalk (Bella Coola), in the Central Coast of British Columbia, and the extinct Tillamook language, to the south on the central coast of Oregon.
The terms Salish and Salishan are used interchangeably by linguists and anthropologists studying Salishan, but this is confusing in regular English usage. The name Salish or Selisch is the endonym of the Flathead Nation. Linguists later applied the name Salish to related languages in the Pacific Northwest. Many of the peoples do not have self-designations (autonyms) in their languages; they frequently have specific names for local dialects, as the local group was more important culturally than larger tribal relations.
All Salishan languages are considered critically endangered, some extremely so, with only three or four speakers left. Those languages considered extinct are often referred to as 'sleeping languages,' in that no speakers exist currently. In the early 21st century, few Salish languages have more than 2,000 speakers. Fluent, daily speakers of almost all Salishan languages are generally over sixty years of age; many languages have only speakers over eighty.
Salishan languages are most commonly written using the Americanist phonetic notation to account for the various vowels and consonants that do not exist in most modern alphabets. Many groups have evolved their own distinctive uses of the Latin alphabet, however, such as the St'at'imc.
Family division
The Salishan language family consists of twenty-three languages. Below is a list of Salishan languages, dialects, and subdialects. The genetic unity among the Salish languages is evident. Neighboring groups have communicated often, to the point that it is difficult to untangle the influence each dialect and language has upon others.
A 1969 study found that "language relationships are highest and closest among the Interior Division, whereas they are most distant among the Coast Division."
This list is a linguistic classification that may not correspond to political divisions. In contrast to classifications made by linguistic scholars, many Salishan groups consider their particular variety of speech to be a separate language rather than a dialect.
Extinct languages or dialects are marked with (†) at the highest level.
Bella Coola
1. Bella Coola ( Nuxalk, Salmon River)
Kimsquit
Nuxalk
Kwatna
Tallheo
Coast Salish
A. Central Coast Salish ( Central Salish)
2. Comox
K'omoks (Sahtloot) ( Qʼómox̣ʷs)
Tla A'min (Homalco/Xwemalhkwu–Klahoose–Sliammon/Tla A-min) ( ʔayʔaǰuθəm)
3. Halkomelem
Island ( Hulʼq̱ʼumiʼnumʼ, Həl̕q̓əmín̓əm̓)
Cowichan
Snuneymuxw and Snaw-Na-Was
Halalt
Stz'uminus (Chemainus)
Lamalcha
Malahat
Penelakut
Lyackson
Lake Cowichan
Downriver ( Hunqʼumʔiʔnumʔ)
Musqueam
Katzie
Kwantlen
Snokomish
Tsawwassen
Kwikwetlem
Tsleil-waututh
Upriver ( Upper Sto:lō, Halqʼəméyləm)
Sts'Ailes
Chilliwack area bands
Tait
Skway
4. Lushootseed ( Puget Salish, Skagit-Nisqually, dxʷləšúcid) (†)
Northern
Skagit ( Skaǰət)
Sauk-Suiattle ( ̌sa̓ʔqʷəbixʷ
Snohomish ( Sduhubš)
Southern
Duwamish-Suquamish ( Dxʷduʔabš)
Puyallup ( Spuyaləpubš)
Nisqually ( Sqʷaliʔabš)
5. Nooksack ( Łə́čələsəm, Łə́čælosəm) (†)
6. Pentlatch ( Pənƛ̕áč) (†)
7. Sechelt ( Seshelt, Sháshíshálh, Shashishalhem, Šášíšáɬəm)
8. Squamish ( Sḵwx̱wú7mesh snichim, Sḵwx̱wú7mesh, Sqwxwu7mish, Sqʷx̣ʷúʔməš)
i. Straits Salish group ( Straits)
9. Klallam ( Clallam, Nəxʷsƛ̕áy̓emúcən) (†)
Becher Bay
Eastern
Western
10. Northern Straits ( Straits)
Lummi ( Xwlemiʼchosen, Xʷləmiʔčósən) (†)
Pauquachin (
Saanich ( SENĆOŦEN, Sənčáθən, Sénəčqən)
Samish ( Siʔneməš)
Semiahmoo ( Tah-tu-lo) (†)
T'Sou-ke ( Sooke, C̓awk) (†)
Songhees ( Lək̓ʷəŋín̓əŋ) (†)
11. Twana ( Skokomish, Sqʷuqʷúʔbəšq, Tuwáduqutšad) (†)
Quilcene
Skokomish ( Sqʷuqʷúʔbəšq)
B. ( Olympic) (†)
i. Inland
12. Cowlitz ( Lower Cowlitz, ƛʼpúlmixq) (†)
13. Upper Chehalis ( Q̉ʷay̓áyiɬq̉) (†)
Oakville Chehalis
Satsop
Tenino Chehalis
ii. Maritime
14. Lower Chehalis ( Łəw̓ál̕məš) (†)
Humptulips
Westport-Shoalwater
Wynoochee
15. Quinault ( Kʷínayɬ) (†)
Queets
Quinault
C. Tillamook (†)
16. Tillamook ( Hutyéyu) (†)
Siletz
Siletz
Tillamook
Garibaldi-Nestucca
Nehalem
Interior Salish
A. Northern
17. Shuswap ( Secwepemctsín, səxwəpməxcín)
Eastern
Kinbasket
Shuswap Lake
Western
Canim Lake
Chu Chua
Deadman's Creek–Kamloops
Fraser River
Pavilion-Bonaparte
18. Lillooet ( Lilloet, St'át'imcets)
Lillooet-Fountain
Mount Currie–Douglas
19. Thompson River Salish ( Nlakaʼpamux, Ntlakapmuk, nɬeʔkepmxcín, Thompson River, Thompson Salish, Thompson, known in frontier times as the Hakamaugh, Klackarpun, Couteau or Knife Indians)
Lytton
Nicola Valley
Spuzzum–Boston Bar
Thompson Canyon
B. Southern
20. Coeur d’Alene ( Snchitsuʼumshtsn, snčícuʔumšcn)
21. Columbia-Moses ( Columbia, Nxaʔamxcín)
Chelan
Entiat
Columbian
Wenatchee ( Pesquous)
22. Colville-Okanagan ( Okanagan, Nsilxcín, Nsíylxcən, ta nukunaqínxcən)
Northern
Quilchena & Spaxomin
Sinixt sn-selxcin
Penticton
Similkameen
Vernon
Southern
Colville-Inchelium
Methow
San Poil–Nespelem
Southern Okanogan
23. Montana Salish (Kalispel–Pend d'Oreille language, Spokane–Kalispel–Bitterroot Salish–Upper Pend d'Oreille)
Salish ( Séliš, Bitterroot Salish, Flathead)
Kalispel ( Qalispé)
Chewelah
Kalispel ( Qlispé, Lower Pend d'Oreille, Lower Kalispel)
Upper Pend d’Oreille ( Sɫq̓etk͏ʷmsčin̓t, Čłqetkʷmcin, Qlispé, Upper Kalispel)
Spokane ( Npoqínišcn)
Pentlatch, Nooksack, Twana, Lower Chehalis, Upper Chehalis, Cowlitz, Klallam, and Tillamook are now extinct. Additionally, the Lummi, Semiahmoo, Songhees, and Sooke dialects of Northern Straits are also extinct.
Genetic relations
No relationship to any other language family is well established.
Edward Sapir suggested that the Salishan languages might be related to the Wakashan and Chimakuan languages in a hypothetical Mosan family. This proposal persists primarily through Sapir's stature: with little evidence for such a family, no progress has been made in reconstructing it.
The Salishan languages, principally Chehalis, contributed greatly to the vocabulary of the Chinook Jargon.
Family features
post-velar harmony (more areal)
presence of syllables without vowels
grammatical reduplication
nonconcatenation (infixes, metathesis, glottalization)
tenselessness
nounlessness (controversial)
Syntax
The syntax of Salish languages is notable for its word order (verb-initial), its valency-marking, and the use of several forms of negation.
Word order
Although there is a wide array of Salish languages, they all share some basic traits. All are verb initial languages, with VSO (verb-subject-object) being the most common word order. Some Salishan languages allow for VOS and SVO as well. There is no case marking, but central noun phrases will often be preceded by determiners while non-central NPs will take prepositions. Some Salishan languages are ergative, or split-ergative, and many take unique object agreement forms in passive statements. In the St'át'imcets (Lillooet Salish) language, for example, absolutive relative clauses (including a head, like "the beans," and a restricting clause, like "that she re-fried," which references the head) omit person markers, while ergative relative clauses keep person makers on the subject, and sometimes use the topic morpheme "-tali." Thus, St'át'imcets is split-ergative, as it is not ergative all the time. Subject and object pronouns usually take the form of affixes that attach to the verb. All Salish languages are head-marking. Possession is marked on the possessed noun phrase as either a prefix or a suffix, while person is marked on predicates. In Central Salish languages like Tillamook and Shuswap, only one plain NP is permitted aside from the subject.
Valency-marking
Salishan languages are known for their polysynthetic nature. A verb stem will often have at least one affix, which is typically a suffix. These suffixes perform a variety of functions, such as transitive, causative, reciprocal, reflexive, and applicative. Applicative affixes seem to be present on the verb when the direct object is central to the event being discussed, but is not the theme of the sentence. The direct object may be a recipient, for example. It may also refer to a related noun phrase, like the goal a verb intends to achieve, or the instrument used in carrying out the action of the verb. In the sentence ‘The man used the axe to chop the log with.’, the axe is the instrument and is indicated in Salish through an applicative affix on the verb.
Applicative affixes increase the number of affixes a verb can take on, that is, its syntactic valence. They are also known as "transitivizers" because they can change a verb from intransitive to transitive. For example, in the sentence 'I got scared.', 'scared' is intransitive. However, with the addition of an applicative affix, which is syntactically transitive, the verb in Salish becomes transitive and the sentence can come to mean ‘I got scared of you.’. In some Salishan languages, such as Sḵwx̲wú7mesh, the transitive forms of verbs are morphologically distinctive and marked with a suffix, while the intransitive forms are not. In others such as Halkomelem, intransitive forms have a suffix as well. In some Salish languages, transitivizers can be either controlled (the subject conducted the action on purpose) or limited-control (the subject did not intend to conduct the action, or only managed to conduct a difficult action).
These transitivizers can be followed by object suffixes, which come to modern Salishan languages via Proto-Salish. Proto-Salish had two types of object suffixes, neutral (regular transitive) and causative (when a verb causes the object to do something or be in a certain state), that were then divided into first, second, and third persons, and either singular or plural. Tentative reconstructions of these suffixes include the neutral singular *-c (1st person), *-ci (2nd person), and *-∅ (3rd person), the causative singular *-mx (1st), *-mi (2nd), and *-∅ (3rd), the neutral plural *-al or *-muɬ (1st), *-ulm or *-muɬ (2nd), and the causative plural *-muɬ (1st and 2nd). In Salishan languages spoken since Proto-Salish, the forms of those suffixes have been subject to vowel shifts, borrowing pronoun forms from other languages (such as Kutenai), and merging of neutral and causative forms (as in Secwepemc, Nlaka'pamuctsin, Twana, Straits Salishan languages, and Halkomelem).
Three patterns of negation
There are three general patterns of negation among the Salishan languages. The most common pattern involves a negative predicate in the form of an impersonal and intransitive stative verb, which occurs in sentence initial position. The second pattern involves a sentence initial negative particle that is often attached to the sentence's subject, and the last pattern simply involves a sentence initial negative particle without any change in inflectional morphology or a determiner/complementizer. In addition, there is a fourth restricted pattern that has been noted only in Squamish.
Nounlessness
Salishan languages (along with the Wakashan and the extinct Chimakuan languages) exhibit predicate/argument flexibility. All content words are able to occur as the head of the predicate (including words with typically 'noun-like' meanings that refer to entities) or in an argument (including those with 'verb-like' meanings that refer to events). Words with noun-like meanings are automatically equivalent to [be + NOUN] when used predicatively, such as Lushootseed sbiaw which means '(is a) coyote'. Words with more verb-like meanings, when used as arguments, are equivalent to [one that VERBs] or [VERB+er]. For example, Lushootseed ʔux̌ʷ means '(one that) goes'.
The following examples are from Lushootseed.
An almost identical pair of sentences from St’át’imcets demonstrates that this phenomenon is not restricted to Lushootseed.
This and similar behaviour in other Salish and Wakashan languages has been used as evidence for a complete lack of a lexical distinction between nouns and verbs in these families. This has become controversial in recent years. David Beck of the University of Alberta contends that there is evidence for distinct lexical categories of 'noun' and 'verb' by arguing that, although any distinction is neutralised in predicative positions, words that can be categorised as 'verbs' are marked when used in syntactic argument positions. He argues that Salishan languages are omnipredicative, but only have 'uni-directional flexibility' (not 'bi-directional flexibility'), which makes Salishan languages no different from other omnipredicative languages such as Arabic and Nahuatl, which have a clear lexical noun-verb distinction.
Beck does concede, however, that the Lushootseed argument ti ʔux̌ʷ ('the one who goes', shown in example sentence (1b) above) does represent an example of an unmarked 'verb' used as an argument and that further research may potentially substantiate M. Dale Kinkade's 1983 position that all Salishan content words are essentially 'verbs' (such as ʔux̌ʷ 'goes' and sbiaw 'is a coyote') and that the use of any content word as an argument involves an underlying relative clause. For example, with the determiner ti translated as 'that which', the arguments ti ʔux̌ʷ and ti sbiaw would be most literally translated as 'that which goes' and 'that which is a coyote' respectively.
Historical linguistics
There are twenty-three languages in the Salishan language family. They occupy the Pacific Northwest, with all but two of them being concentrated together in a single large area. It is clear that these languages are related, but it's difficult to track the development of each because their histories are so interwoven. The different speech communities have interacted a great deal, making it nearly impossible to decipher the influences of varying dialects and languages on one another. However, there are several trends and patterns that can be historically traced to generalize the development of the Salishan languages over the years.
The variation between the Salishan languages seems to depend on two main factors: the distance between speech communities and the geographic barriers between them. The diversity between the languages corresponds directly to the distance between them. Closer proximity often entails more contact between speakers, and more linguistics similarities are the result. Geographic barriers like mountains impede contact, so two communities that are relatively close together may still vary considerably in their language use if there is a mountain dividing them.
The rate of change between neighboring Salishan languages often depends on their environments. If for some reason two communities diverge, their adaptation to a new environment can separate them linguistically from each other. The need to create names for tools, animals, and plants creates an array of new vocabulary that divides speech communities. However, these new names may come from borrowing from neighboring languages, in which case two languages or dialects can grow more alike rather than apart. Interactions with outside influences through trade and intermarriage often result in language change as well.
Some cultural elements are more resilient to language change, namely, religion and folklore. Salishan language communities that have demonstrated change in technology and environmental vocabulary have often remained more consistent with their religious terminology. Religion and heavily ingrained cultural traditions are often regarded as sacred, and so are less likely to undergo any sort of change. Indeed, cognate lists between various Salishan languages show more similarities in religious terminology than they do in technology and environment vocabulary. Other categories with noticeable similarities include words for body parts, colors, and numbers. There would be little need to change such vocabulary, so it's more likely to remain the same despite other changes between languages. The Coast Salishan languages are less similar to each other than are the Interior Salishan languages, probably because the Coast communities have more access to outside influences.
Another example of language change in the Salishan language family is word taboo, which is a cultural expression of the belief in the power of words. Among the Coast languages, a person's name becomes a taboo word immediately following their death. This taboo is lifted when the name of the deceased is given to a new member of their lineage. In the meantime, the deceased person's name and words that are phonetically similar to the name are considered taboo and can only be expressed via descriptive phrases. In some cases these taboo words are permanently replaced by their chosen descriptive phrases, resulting in language change.
Pragmatics
At least one Salish language, Lillooet Salish, differs from Indo-European languages in terms of pragmatics. Lillooet Salish does not allow presuppositions about a hearer's beliefs or knowledge during a conversation. To demonstrate, it's useful to compare Lillooet Salish determiners with English determiners. English determiners take the form of the articles ‘a’, ‘an’ and ‘the’. The indefinite articles ‘a’ and ‘an’ refer to an object that is unfamiliar or that has not been previously referenced in conversation. The definite article ‘the’ refers to a familiar object about which both the speaker and the listener share a common understanding. Lillooet Salish and several other Salish languages use the same determiner to refer to both familiar and unfamiliar objects in conversation. For example, when discussing a woman, Lillooet Salish speakers used [ɬəsɬánay] (with [ɬə] serving as the determiner and [sɬánay] meaning ‘woman’) to refer to the woman both when initially introducing her and again when referencing her later on in the conversation. Thus, no distinction is made between a unique object and a familiar one.
This absence of varying determiners is a manifestation of the lack of presuppositions about a listener in Salish. Using a definite article would presuppose a mental state of the listener: familiarity with the object in question. Similarly, a Salishan language equivalent of the English sentence "It was John who called" would not require the assumption that the listener knows that someone called. In English, such a sentence implies that someone called and serves to clarify who the caller was. In Salish, the sentence would be void of any implication regarding the listener's knowledge. Rather, only the speaker's knowledge about previous events is expressed.
The absence of presuppositions extends even to elements that seem to inherently trigger some kind of implication, such as ‘again’, ‘more’, ‘stop’, and ‘also’. For example, in English, beginning a conversation with a sentence like "It also rained yesterday" would probably be met with confusion from the listener. The word ‘also’ signifies an addition to some previously discussed topic about which both the speaker and the listener are aware. However, in Salish, a statement like "It also rained yesterday" is not met with the same kind of bewilderment. The listener's prior knowledge (or lack thereof) is not conventionally regarded by either party in a conversation. Only the speaker's knowledge is relevant.
The use of pronouns illustrates the disregard for presuppositions as well. For example, a sentence like "She walked there, and then Brenda left" would be acceptable on its own in Lillooet Salish. The pronoun ‘she’ can refer to Brenda and be used without the introduction that would be necessary in English. It is key to note that presuppositions do exist in Salishan languages; they simply don't have to be shared between the speaker and listener the way they do in English and other Indo-European languages. The above examples demonstrate that presuppositions are present, but the fact that the listener doesn't necessarily have to be aware of them signifies that the presuppositions only matter to the speaker. They are indicative of prior information that the speaker alone may be aware of, and his/her speech reflects merely his/her perspective on a situation without taking into account the listener's knowledge. Although English values a common ground between a listener and speaker and thus requires that some presuppositions about another person's knowledge be made, Salish does not share this pragmatic convention.
In popular culture
Stanley Evans has written a series of crime fiction novels that use Salish lore and language.
An episode of Stargate SG-1 ("Spirits", 2x13) features a culture of extraterrestrial humans loosely inspired by Pacific coastal First Nations culture, and who speak a language referred to as "ancient Salish".
In the video game Life Is Strange, the Salish lore was used on certain history of Arcadia Bay as totem poles are seen on some areas. Including a segment from the first episode of its prequel involving the raven.
References
Bibliography
Beck, David. (2000). Grammatical Convergence and the Genesis of Diversity in the Northwest Coast Sprachbund. Anthropological Linguistics 42, 147–213.
Boas, Franz, et al. (1917). Folk-Tales of Salishan and Sahaptin Tribes. Memoirs of the American Folk-Lore Society, 11. Lancaster, Pa: American Folk-Lore Society.
Czaykowska-Higgins, Ewa; & Kinkade, M. Dale (Eds.). (1997). Salish Languages and Linguistics: Theoretical and Descriptive Perspectives. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. .
Davis, Henry. (2005). On the Syntax and Semantics of Negation in Salish. International Journal of American Linguistics 71.1, January 2005.
Davis, Henry. and Matthewson, Lisa. (2009). Issues in Salish Syntax and Semantics. Language and Linguistics Compass, 3: 1097–1166. Online.
Flathead Culture Committee. (1981). Common Names of the Flathead Language. St. Ignatius, Mont: The Committee.
Jorgensen, Joseph G. (1969). Salish Language and Culture. 3. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Publications.
Kiyosawa, Kaoru; Donna B. Gerdts. (2010). Salish Applicatives. Leiden, Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV.
Kroeber, Paul D. (1999). The Salish Language Family: Reconstructing Syntax. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press in cooperation with the American Indian Studies Research Institute, Indiana University, Bloomington.
Kuipers, Aert H. (2002). Salish Etymological Dictionary. Missoula, MT: Linguistics Laboratory, University of Montana.
Liedtke, Stefan. (1995). Wakashan, Salishan and Penutian and Wider Connections Cognate Sets. Linguistic Data on Diskette Series, no. 09. Munchen: Lincom Europa.
Pilling, James Constantine. (1893). Bibliography of the Salishan Languages. Washington: G.P.O.
Pilling, James Constantine (2007). Bibliography of the Salishan Languages. Reprint by Gardners Books.
Silver, Shirley; Wick R. Miller. (1997). American Indian languages: Cultural and Social Contexts. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
Salishan language hymns.
Thompson, Laurence C. (1973). The Northwest. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Linguistics in North America (pp. 979–1045). Current Trends in Linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hague: Mouton.
Thompson, Laurence C. (1979). Salishan and the Northwest. In L. Campbell & M. Mithun (Eds.), The Languages of Native America: Historical and Comparative Assessment (pp. 692–765). Austin: University of Texas Press.
External links
Bibliography of Materials on Salishan Languages (YDLI)
University of Montana Occasional Papers in Linguistics (UMOPL) (Native languages of the Northwest)
Coast Salish Culture: an Outline Bibliography
Coast Salish Collections
International Conference on Salish and Neighboring Languages
The Salishan Studies List (Linguist List)
Native Peoples, Plants & Animals: Halkomelem
Saanich (Timothy Montler's site)
Klallam (Timothy Montler's site)
A Bibliography of Northwest Coast Linguistics
Classification of the Salishan languages reflecting current scholarship
Nkwusm Salish Language Institute
Tulalip Lushootseed Language Web Site
Recordings of Montana Salish Wordlists with phonetic transcription by Peter Ladefoged
Agglutinative languages
Language families
Mosan languages | [
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222683 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermidor | Thermidor | Thermidor () was the eleventh month in the French Republican Calendar. The month was named after the French word thermal, derived from the Greek word "thermos" (heat).
Thermidor was the second month of the summer quarter (mois d'été). It started July 19 or 20. It ended August 17 or 18. It follows the Messidor and precedes the Fructidor. During Year 2, it was sometimes called Fervidor.
Because of the Thermidorian Reaction—9 Thermidor Year II—the overthrow of revolutionary radical Maximilien Robespierre and his followers in that month, the word "Thermidor" has come to mean a retreat from more radical goals and strategies during a revolution, especially when caused by a replacement of leading personalities.
Day name table
Like all French Republican Calendar months, Thermidor lasted 30 days and was divided into three 10-day weeks called décades (decades). Every day had the name of an agricultural plant, except the 5th (Quintidi) and 10th day (Decadi) of every decade, which had the name of a domestic animal or an agricultural tool, respectively.
Conversion table
Thermidor in revolution
The Thermidorian Reaction, Revolution of Thermidor, or simply Thermidor refers to the coup of 9 Thermidor (27 July 1794) in which the Committee of Public Safety led by Maximilien Robespierre was sidelined and its leaders arrested and guillotined, resulting in the end of the Reign of Terror. The new regime, known as The Directory, introduced more conservative policies aimed at stabilizing the revolutionary government.
Consequently, for historians of revolutionary movements, the term Thermidor has come to mean the phase in some revolutions when the political pendulum swings back towards something resembling a pre-revolutionary state, and power slips from the hands of the original revolutionary leadership. Leon Trotsky, in his book The Revolution Betrayed, refers to the rise of Joseph Stalin and the accompanying post-revolutionary bureaucracy as the "Soviet Thermidor".
Thermidor in culture
The food Lobster Thermidor was named, directly or indirectly, after the month. (Sometimes it is said that it was first prepared for Napoleon I during the month of Thermidor; others say that it was created by Tony Girod at the Café de Paris to celebrate the opening of a play called Thermidor.)
Thermidor is also the name of a story revolving around the end of the French Revolution in Neil Gaiman's The Sandman, issue #29.
"Thermidor" and "Thermidor 2" were lobster-like robots on Robot Wars.
A man by the name of "Thermidor" is the leader of the ORCA reactionary group in the video game Armored Core: For Answer. Additionally, in the game, ORCA launches a large-scale offensive on "13 Thermidor", as the game narration states that "for many, the chaos began in early July".
There is a song recorded by J-pop artist Nana Mizuki by the name of "Thermidor". Its lyrics talk about a person in love that is also rethinking his or her personal feelings after realizing that the person they love has changed, and so has the person. Its lyrics mimic the modern definition of Thermidor.
The events of the Thermidorean Reaction are also referenced in an album by California punk-rock band Shinobu, which is appropriately titled "10 Thermidor", and has tracks named both "9 Thermidor" and "10 Thermidor" on the album.
External links
Summer Quarter of Year II (facsimile)
French Republican calendar
July
August
Maximilien Robespierre
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222684 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s%20Rodr%C3%ADguez%20%28politician%29 | Andrés Rodríguez (politician) | Andrés Rodríguez Pedotti (June 19, 1924 – April 21, 1997) was a military officer and politician, being President of Paraguay from February 3, 1989 to August 15, 1993. He led the coup d'état on February 2 and 3, 1989 against the dictator Alfredo Stroessner Matiauda.
1989 coup d'état
Rodríguez had been Alfredo Stroessner's closest confidant for 35 years. The two became so close that Rodríguez' daughter married Stroessner's elder son. Under Stroessner's rule, Rodríguez became one of the richest men in Paraguay. Despite only earning the equivalent of $500 per month, he owned the nation's largest brewery, a chain of currency exchanges, an import-export company, a copper wire company, and several ranches.
However, relations between the two grew increasingly strained in the late 1980s. As the decade wore on, Rodríguez cultivated ties with the "traditionalists" in the long-dominant Colorado Party. This element of the party had supported Stroessner throughout his three-decade rule, but had come to favor a more humane way of governing. Matters came to a head in January 1989, when Stroessner relieved several generals of their commands and replaced them with men thought to be unquestionably loyal to him. Later that month, in what was viewed as a direct strike at Rodríguez, Stroessner closed all of the country's currency exchanges. On February 2, Stroessner summoned his former ally and gave him an ultimatum—either accept appointment as defense minister (which would have effectively been a demotion) or retire. It was reported that Rodríguez avoided the reunion (and attempted to quell rumors of him planning a coup) by faking a leg injury, going as far as having a fake cast put on one of his legs.
Rodríguez gave his answer on the night of February 2 when he launched a violent coup. Rebel troops and tanks surrounded the headquarters of the Presidential Guard in Asunción (where Stroessner had sought refuge). The coup had the backing of much of the Roman Catholic Church and of the United States, who no longer required Stroessner as an ally in the Cold War. With this support, the coup quickly succeeded, with Stroessner resigning only hours after hostilities began. However, some 500 soldiers on both sides are believed to have died as a consequence of Stroessner's capture. He was released and fled into exile a few days later, eventually taking refuge in Brazil.
A couple of weeks following the coup, former interior minister Edgar Ynsfran, a former Stroessner ally who now sided with Rodríguez, told reporters that Rodríguez had begun planning the coup toward the end of December 1988.
Presidency
At the time, Paraguay did not have a vice president. Per the Constitution, if a president died, resigned, or became permanently disabled, a provisional president was to be chosen by Congress and the Council of State within 24 hours. Accordingly, Congress and the Council of State met soon after the coup and designated Rodríguez as provisional president.
Upon taking office, Rodríguez canceled most of Stroessner's most repressive measures, which came as a surprise given his previous closeness to Stroessner. He abolished the death penalty, freed political prisoners, and tried to imprison some leading members of the Stroessner government. He formally canceled the state of siege that had been in place for virtually all of Stroessner's rule; while it had nominally been repealed in 1987, its substance had remained in place in the form of draconian security laws and close restrictions on press freedom (opposition leaders had been arrested, and the Colorados had been the only party that had been allowed to campaign unmolested in the 1988 elections). He also welcomed back several longtime exiles.
Over the course of the following week, the military was purged of Stroessner's loyalists, and the commanders of the six rebellious army divisions were promoted to replace them.
As provisional president, Rodríguez dissolved the Chamber of Deputies on February 9 under a provision in the 1967 constitution that allowed the president to dissolve the legislature if he felt it had acted in a manner that distorted the constitutional separation of powers. He issued a decree setting new elections in May, and announced that all non-Communist parties would be allowed to compete. He intended to use this as a tool to purge the militants. This was a remarkable turn in a country where the opposition had been barely tolerated for much of its history, particularly during Stroessner's rule. Indeed, at the time of the coup, the country had only known two years of pluralism in its entire history. A presidential election for the balance of Stroessner's term was also on the same day as the congressional elections. The constitution required new elections within 90 days of a president resigning less than two years into his term, with the winner serving the unexpired portion of the term. Rodríguez ran as the Colorado candidate and was elected with 76 percent of the vote in what was the closest thing the country had seen to a free and fair election up to that time.
Soon after the ouster of Stroessner, the Rodríguez government was contacted by representatives of the People's Republic of China, inviting Paraguay to end its long-standing diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan) and to recognize PRC instead. However, Rodríguez accepted the arguments of the Taiwanese ambassador Wang Sheng that continuing the relationship with ROC, and thus keeping Taiwan's development assistance and access to Taiwan's markets, would be more advantageous for Paraguay.
End of rule and death
On June 20, 1992; Paraguay adopted a new constitution. It limited the president to a single five-year term, with no possibility of reelection. The ban on reelection retroactively applied to Rodríguez, even though he had promised that he would not run for a full term in 1993. Rodríguez called this provision evidence of a lack of confidence in his word, and boycotted the inauguration ceremony. Fears of a coup were only allayed when he signed the new constitution into law on June 22. He stepped down as president on August 15, 1993—the first Paraguayan president in decades to leave office at the end of his term. He was succeeded by Juan Carlos Wasmosy, who like Rodríguez was a member of the Colorado Party.
Rodríguez died in New York City in 1997 after a long battle with cancer.
References
External links
Biography by CIDOB
1924 births
1997 deaths
People from Guairá Department
Presidents of Paraguay
Paraguayan soldiers
Paraguayan anti-communists
Leaders who took power by coup
Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
Colorado Party (Paraguay) politicians
Paraguayan emigrants to the United States
Paraguayan people of Italian descent
Paraguayan people of Spanish descent | [
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222685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilithium | Dilithium | Dilithium, Li2, is a strongly electrophilic, diatomic molecule comprising two lithium atoms covalently bonded together. Li2 is known in the gas phase.
It has a bond order of 1, an internuclear separation of 267.3 pm and a bond energy of 102 kJ/mol or 1.06eV in each bond.
The electron configuration of Li2 may be written as σ2.
It has been observed that 1% (by mass) of lithium in the vapor phase is in the form of dilithium.
Being the lightest stable neutral homonuclear diatomic molecule after H2, and the helium dimer, dilithium is an extremely important model system for studying fundamentals of physics, chemistry, and electronic structure theory.
It is the most thoroughly characterized compound in terms of the accuracy and completeness of the empirical potential energy curves of its electronic states. Analytic empirical potential energy curves have been constructed for the X-state, a-state, A-state, c-state, B-state, 2d-state, l-state, E-state, and the F-state . The most reliable of these potential energy curves are of the Morse/Long-range variety (see entries in the table below).
Li2 potentials are often used to extract atomic properties. For example, the C3 value for atomic lithium extracted from the A-state potential of Li2 by Le Roy et al. in is more precise than any previously measured atomic oscillator strength.
This lithium oscillator strength is related to the radiative lifetime of atomic lithium and is used as a benchmark for atomic clocks and measurements of fundamental constants.
See also
Morse/Long-range potential
Dilithium molecular orbital diagram
Dilithium (Star Trek)
Lithium
References
Further reading
Lithium
Homonuclear diatomic molecules
Allotropes
de:Dilithium
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222687 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan%20Georgakas | Dan Georgakas | Dan Georgakas (; 1938–2021) was an American anarchist poet and historian, who specialized in oral history and the American labor movement, best known for the publication Detroit: I do mind dying: A study in urban revolution (1975), which documents African-American radical groups in Detroit during the 1960s and 1970s.
Early life
Dan Georgakas was born March 1, 1938, to Xenophon and Sophia Georgakas in Detroit, Michigan.
Career
In 1966, Georgakas and painter Ben Morea helped found the Anarchist group Up Against the Wall Motherfucker affiliated with New York City's Lower East Side.
In 1967, he signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest," initiated by an editor of the New York Times Magazine. Inspired by the civil disobedience of Henry David Thoreau, the manifesto united 528 American writers and publishers who refused to pay the 10% tax for the Vietnam War.
In 1975, Georgakas co-published with Marvin Surkin Detroit: I do mind dying: a study in urban revolution. The book traces workers' struggles of the 1970s in the car factories. It highlights: conditions of line work, corruption of union apparatus, daily racism in American society.
In the late 1980s, Georgakas began co-writing the Encyclopedia of the American Left (1990, 1998) with Mari Jo Buhle and husband Paul Buhle.
Georgakas had spoken at annual seminars for the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (IBEW).
Georgakas had long served on the editorial board of Cineaste magazine and specializes in Latin American cinema.
Georgakas had taught at New York University, Columbia University, the University of Oklahoma, the University of Massachusetts Amherst, and Queens College.
Before his death, Georgakas had been serving as director of the Greek American Studies Project of the Center for Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies; he also specialized in Latin American cinema.
Legacy
In 1967, Georgakas and Surkin helped coin the term "New Detroit."
Georgakas has left the bulk of his papers to the Walter P. Reuther Library, Archives of Labor and Urban Affairs at Wayne State University, with writings on cinema in the Tamiment Library of New York University.
Works
Written: Georgakas' written works include:
Richard Trevellick and the labor reformers (1960?)
"The Black Jacobins in Detroit" (chapter) (1963)
Romiossini The Story of the Greeks with Giannēs Ritsos
"Conversation over Tea" in Phylon (1963)
Michigan labor and the Civil War with Albert A Blum (1965?)
Manifesto for the grey generation with Friederike Poessnecker and Carl Weissner (1966)
"And All Living Things Their Children" (1968) Poetry published by Screeches Press, UK
Detroit: I do mind dying: a study in urban revolution with Marvin Surkin (1975)
"Dark Odyssey" in Senses of Cinema (1980)
The Methuselah Factors: Strategies for a Long and Vigorous Life (1980)
Encyclopedia of the American Left with Mari Jo Buhle and Paul Buhle (1990, 1998)
"The Films of Theo Angelopoulos" in Journal of Modern Greek Studies (2000)
"Stella Michael Cacoyannis, Greece 1955" in The Cinema of the Balkans, London and New York (2006)
My Detroit: Growing Up Greek and American in Motor City (2006)
"HUAC and the Red Trilogy of World War II: The North Star, Mission to Moscow, Ballad of Russia" in New Politics (2013)
"Radical America" in New Politicas (2018)
"This week in history: Radical feminist Voltairine de Cleyre" in People's World (2016)
Film: Georgakas' has appeared in documentaries, including:
Detroit: Run of a City (2005)
I'm Standin' Over Here Now (2013)
Dan Georgakas: A Diaspora Rebel'' (2015)
References
1938 births
Living people
American male non-fiction writers
21st-century American historians
Activists from Detroit
American people of Greek descent
Historians from Michigan
American anarchists
Labor historians | [
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222689 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiaolin%20Wu%27s%20line%20algorithm | Xiaolin Wu's line algorithm | Xiaolin Wu's line algorithm is an algorithm for line antialiasing.
Antialiasing technique
Xiaolin Wu's line algorithm was presented in the article "An Efficient Antialiasing Technique" in the July 1991 issue of Computer Graphics, as well as in the article "Fast Antialiasing" in the June 1992 issue of Dr. Dobb's Journal.
Bresenham's algorithm draws lines extremely quickly, but it does not perform anti-aliasing. In addition, it cannot handle any cases where the line endpoints do not lie exactly on integer points of the pixel grid. A naive approach to anti-aliasing the line would take an extremely long time. Wu's algorithm is comparatively fast, but is still slower than Bresenham's algorithm. The algorithm consists of drawing pairs of pixels straddling the line, each coloured according to its distance from the line. Pixels at the line ends are handled separately. Lines less than one pixel long are handled as a special case.
An extension to the algorithm for circle drawing was presented by Xiaolin Wu in the book Graphics Gems II. Just as the line drawing algorithm is a replacement for Bresenham's line drawing algorithm, the circle drawing algorithm is a replacement for Bresenham's circle drawing algorithm.
Algorithm
function plot(x, y, c) is
plot the pixel at (x, y) with brightness c (where 0 ≤ c ≤ 1)
// integer part of x
function ipart(x) is
return floor(x)
function round(x) is
return ipart(x + 0.5)
// fractional part of x
function fpart(x) is
return x - floor(x)
function rfpart(x) is
return 1 - fpart(x)
function drawLine(x0,y0,x1,y1) is
boolean steep := abs(y1 - y0) > abs(x1 - x0)
if steep then
swap(x0, y0)
swap(x1, y1)
end if
if x0 > x1 then
swap(x0, x1)
swap(y0, y1)
end if
dx := x1 - x0
dy := y1 - y0
if dx == 0.0 then
gradient := 1.0
else
gradient := dy / dx
end if
// handle first endpoint
xend := round(x0)
yend := y0 + gradient * (xend - x0)
xgap := rfpart(x0 + 0.5)
xpxl1 := xend // this will be used in the main loop
ypxl1 := ipart(yend)
if steep then
plot(ypxl1, xpxl1, rfpart(yend) * xgap)
plot(ypxl1+1, xpxl1, fpart(yend) * xgap)
else
plot(xpxl1, ypxl1 , rfpart(yend) * xgap)
plot(xpxl1, ypxl1+1, fpart(yend) * xgap)
end if
intery := yend + gradient // first y-intersection for the main loop
// handle second endpoint
xend := round(x1)
yend := y1 + gradient * (xend - x1)
xgap := fpart(x1 + 0.5)
xpxl2 := xend //this will be used in the main loop
ypxl2 := ipart(yend)
if steep then
plot(ypxl2 , xpxl2, rfpart(yend) * xgap)
plot(ypxl2+1, xpxl2, fpart(yend) * xgap)
else
plot(xpxl2, ypxl2, rfpart(yend) * xgap)
plot(xpxl2, ypxl2+1, fpart(yend) * xgap)
end if
// main loop
if steep then
for x from xpxl1 + 1 to xpxl2 - 1 do
begin
plot(ipart(intery) , x, rfpart(intery))
plot(ipart(intery)+1, x, fpart(intery))
intery := intery + gradient
end
else
for x from xpxl1 + 1 to xpxl2 - 1 do
begin
plot(x, ipart(intery), rfpart(intery))
plot(x, ipart(intery)+1, fpart(intery))
intery := intery + gradient
end
end if
end function
References
External links
Xiaolin Wu's homepage
Anti-aliasing algorithms
Articles with example pseudocode | [
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222700 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatorade | Gatorade | Gatorade is an American brand of sports-themed beverage and food products, built around its signature line of sports drinks. Gatorade is currently manufactured by PepsiCo and is distributed in over 80 countries. The beverage was first developed in 1965 by a team of researchers led by Dr. Robert Cade. It was originally made for the Gators at the University of Florida to replenish the carbohydrates that the school's student-athletes burned and the combination of water and electrolytes that they lost in sweat during rigorous sports activities.
Originally produced and marketed by Stokely-Van Camp, the Gatorade brand was purchased by the Quaker Oats Company in 1983, which, in turn, was bought by PepsiCo in 2000. As of 2010, Gatorade is PepsiCo's fourth-largest brand, on the basis of worldwide annual retail sales. It competes with Coca-Cola's Powerade and Vitaminwater brands worldwide, and with Lucozade in the United Kingdom. Within the United States, Gatorade accounts for approximately 75% of market share in the sports drink category.
History
Gatorade was created in 1965, by a team of scientists at the University of Florida College of Medicine, including Robert Cade, Dana Shires, Harry James Free, and Alejandro de Quesada. Following a request from Florida Gators football head coach Ray Graves, Gatorade was created to help athletes by acting as a replacement for body fluids lost during physical exertion. The earliest version of the beverage consisted of a mixture of water, sodium, sugar, potassium, phosphate, and lemon juice. Ten players on the University of Florida football team tested the first version of Gatorade during practices and games in 1965, and the tests were deemed successful. On the other hand, star quarterback Steve Spurrier said, "I don’t have any answer for whether the Gatorade helped us be a better second-half team or not. . . . We drank it, but whether it helped us in the second half, who knows?" Nonetheless, the football team credited Gatorade as having contributed to their first Orange Bowl win over the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets in 1967, at which point the drink gained traction within the athletic community. Yellow Jackets coach Bobby Dodd, when asked why his team lost, replied: "We didn't have Gatorade. That made the difference."
The University of Florida researchers initially considered naming their product "Gator-Aid". They settled on the name Gatorade, however, since the researchers wanted to create a commercial product, not a scientifically-validated one. Darren Rovell notes his history of Gatorade, First in Thirst, "the doctors realized that they probably shouldn't use the 'Aid' suffix, since that would mean that if the drink were ever marketed, they would have to prove that it had a clear medicinal use and perform clinical tests on thousands of people." Gatorade co-inventor Dana Shires explained, "We were told that you couldn't use that because the Food and Drug Administration prohibited that. That would classify it as something other than a cola or soft drink, so we changed it to ade."
For example, some were skeptical that the product's effect was anything more than a placebo effect. Cade mentioned, "If you told a football player that you were giving him Demerol to relieve pain and you gave him a placebo instead, there's about a 30% chance that the placebo will relieve the pain as much as taking Demerol would have."
Shortly after the 1969 Orange Bowl, Robert Cade entered into an agreement providing Stokely-Van Camp, Inc. (SVC), a canned-food packaging company, with the U.S. rights to production and sale of Gatorade as a commercial product. In the same year, a licensing arrangement made Gatorade the official sports drink of the National Football League (NFL), representing the first in a history of professional sports sponsorship for the Gatorade brand. A year after its commercial introduction, S-VC tested multiple variations of the original Gatorade recipe, finally settling on more palatable variants in lemon-lime and orange flavors. This reformulation also removed the sweetener cyclamate—which was banned by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1969 - replacing it with additional fructose. In the early 1970s, legal questions arose regarding whether or not the researchers who invented Gatorade were entitled to ownership of its royalties since they had been working under a research grant from the federal government which provided financial stipends. The University of Florida also claimed partial rights of ownership, which was brought to resolution in 1973 in the form of a settlement awarding the university with a 20% share of Gatorade royalties. As of 2009, the university had received more than $150 million from its share and was receiving approximately $12 million per year.
The Quaker Oats Company purchased SVC and Gatorade in 1983 for $220 million, following a bidding war with rival Pillsbury. In its first two decades of production, Gatorade was primarily sold and distributed within the United States. Beginning in the 1980s, the company expanded distribution of Gatorade, venturing into Canada in 1984, regions of Asia in 1987, South America and parts of Europe in 1988, and Australia in 1993. In 1990, Gatorade introduced Gatorade Light, a lower-calorie version sweetened with saccharin. International expansion came at the cost of $20 million in 1996 alone; however, the resulting efforts produced worldwide sales of $283 million in more than 45 countries during the same year. In 1997, distribution of Gatorade in an additional 10 countries prompted an 18.7% growth in annual sales.
In 2001, the multinational food and beverage company PepsiCo acquired Gatorade's parent company, the Quaker Oats Company, for $13 billion in order to add Gatorade to its portfolio of brands. PepsiCo had also recently developed All Sport, which it divested of shortly following the Quaker acquisition to satisfy antitrust regulations. Worldwide development of Gatorade continued into the 2000s, including expansion into India in 2004, and the United Kingdom and Ireland in 2008. As of 2010, Gatorade products were made available for sale in more than 80 countries. As the number-one sports drink by annual retail sales in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Italy, Argentina, Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, Indonesia, and the Philippines, Gatorade is also among the leading sports drink brands in Korea and Australia.
As the distribution of Gatorade expanded outside of the U.S., localized flavors were introduced to conform to regional tastes and cultural preferences, among other factors. For example, Blueberry is available in Colombia, and in Brazil, a Pineapple flavor of Gatorade is sold. In Australia, flavors include Antarctic Freeze and Wild Water Rush. Some flavors that have been discontinued in the U.S., such as Alpine Snow and Starfruit, have since been made available in other countries.
In 2011, Gatorade was re-introduced to New Zealand by Bluebird Foods, a PepsiCo subsidiary in New Zealand. The product is made in Australia by Schweppes Australia, and imported to New Zealand and distributed along with Bluebird potato chips.
Products
In its early years, the Gatorade brand consisted of a single product line, Gatorade Thirst Quencher, which was produced in liquid and powder form under two flavor variants: Lemon Lime and Orange. These remained as the only two flavor options for nearly 20 years, until the addition of the fruit punch flavor in 1983. In 1988 a Citrus Cooler flavor was introduced. The rise to popularity of this flavor was largely a result of Michael Jordan, who, at the height of his NBA career in the early 1990s, stated that it was his favorite flavor. This claim appeared on the packaging beginning in 1991, as part of a 10-year endorsement deal. The Citrus Cooler flavor was reportedly discontinued at some point in the 1990s; however, as of 2011, it is listed as being a current product in the U.S. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, as well as the late 1990s to early 2000s, a Gatorade brand of chewing gum called Gator Gum was produced. The product, manufactured by Fleer Corporation, was available in both of Gatorade's original flavors (lemon-lime and orange). In the late 1970s, Stokely-Van Camp (owner of Gatorade before 1983) negotiated a long-term licensing deal with Swell and Vicks to market Gator Gum. The gum was discontinued in 1989 after the contract expired.
It was not until the mid and late 1990s that Gatorade beverages became available in a broader range of flavor variations. Among these initial flavor extensions were Watermelon, introduced in 1995, and Cherry Rush, Strawberry Kiwi, and Mandarina flavors, added in 1996. In January 1997 Gatorade launched a new sub-line called Gatorade Frost with the intent of broadening the brand's appeal beyond traditional team competitive sports. Three initial flavors under the Frost product line were introduced at this time: Alpine Snow, Glacier Freeze, and Whitewater Splash. Aimed at what the company described as the 'active thirst' category—a market 10 times the size of the sports drink segment—Gatorade Frost proved to be successful, far surpassing the company's initial expectations. Flavors in the Frost line were the first from Gatorade to divert from fruit names; it was described as consisting of "light-tasting fruit-flavor blends".
Gatorade revealed the Gatorade Energy Bar in 2001. This bar was Gatorade's first foray into solid foods and was introduced to compete with PowerBar and Clif Bar. Gatorade Energy Bars contained a large proportion of protein, in addition to carbohydrates. The bar was primarily made up of puffed grains and corn syrup, common components of other energy bars. In 2001, Gatorade introduced the Gatorade Performance Series, a special line of sports nutrition products. These products include Gatorade Carbohydrate Energy Drink, Gatorade Protein Recovery Shake, the Gatorade Nutrition Shake, and the Gatorade Nutrition Bar. The Endurance Formula, introduced in 2004, contained twice the sodium and three times the potassium of the typical Gatorade formula as well as chloride, magnesium, and calcium, to better replace what athletes lose while training and competing.
Introduced in 2002, Gatorade Ice was marketed as a lighter flavored Gatorade and came in Strawberry, Lime, Orange, and Watermelon. All of these flavors were colorless and transparent. Ice was re-branded in 2006 as Gatorade Rain and the flavor selections altered. In late 2007, a low-calorie line of Gatorade drinks, named G2, was released. G2 was meant for athletes off the field and the yoga crowd. , G2 has been produced in eight flavors: Orange, Fruit Punch, Grape, Lemon-Lime, Tropical blend, Blueberry-Pomegranate, Raspberry Melon, and Glacier Freeze. SymphonyIRI Group named G2 the "top new food product of 2008", noting that the product generated retail sales of $159.1 million in its first full year of production.
Gatorade Tiger was a Gatorade Thirst Quencher sports drink formed as the result of a sponsorship arrangement with Tiger Woods. Debuting in March 2008, Gatorade Tiger was available in Red Drive (cherry), Cool Fusion (lemon-lime), and Quiet Storm (grape). Gatorade Tiger contained 25% more electrolytes than Gatorade Thirst Quencher. As part of the 2009 rebranding, Gatorade Tiger was re-labeled as Focus. It was reformulated, adding the amino acid theanine, which is naturally found in many forms of tea, improving mental focus. Focus contained about 25 mg per serving or 50 mg per bottle. On November 25, 2009, it was reported by Beverage Digest, and later confirmed by PepsiCo, that they had made a decision, several months before November 2009, to discontinue some products to make room for the Prime and Recover products as part of a then-upcoming G Series re-branding. In 2015, the Gatorade Energy gummies made their debut along with the Gatorade energy bar.
Re-branding
In 2010, Gatorade re-branded a number of its products. Original Gatorade was initially re-labeled as Gatorade G. Gatorade Rain was re-labeled as No Excuses. Gatorade AM was re-labeled Shine On; Gatorade X-Factor was relabeled as Be Tough, and Gatorade Fierce was relabeled Bring It. However, these names were short-lived, as a 2% decline in market share in 2009 led to a broader repositioning of the entire line in 2010. Beginning in February 2010, the Gatorade product portfolio was re-positioned around what the company refers to as the G Series, categorizing varieties of its products into three main segments: before, during, and after athletic events.
The Prime 01 product line consists of a pre-game fuel in a gel consistency, positioned for consumption prior to athletic activity.
Traditional Gatorade products such as Gatorade Thirst Quencher (Original Gatorade), G2, and Gatorade Powder are categorized under the Perform 02 classification, representing their intention for consumption during periods of physical exertion.
Recover 03 refers to a post-workout protein and carbohydrate drink, formulated with the consistency of a sports drink. The composition of this beverage reflects its intention to provide both hydration and muscle recovery after exercise.
G Series Pro, a brand extension initially developed for professional athletes, began to be sold in GNC and Dick's Sporting Goods stores in the U.S. in 2010 after first being available only in professional locker rooms and specialized training facilities. Also in 2010, Gatorade introduced the G Natural Gatorade line which is made with "natural flavors and ingredients", specifically sweetened with Stevia and sold in Whole Foods grocery stores within the United States. G Natural was released in two flavors: G Orange Citrus and G2 Berry. The G Series began to replace prior iterations of Gatorade product lines in the U.S. (the brand's highest volume market) in 2010, and Canada in 2011. While Gatorade products have historically been developed for athletes engaging in competitive sporting events, a separate line of products formulated for consumption before, during and after personal fitness exercise was introduced in the U.S. in 2011. Labeled under the name G Series FIT, this product line consists of pre-workout fruit-and-nut bites, lightly flavored electrolyte replacement drinks, as well as post-workout protein recovery smoothies.
In March 2021, Gatorade released Gx Sweat patch, which measures your sweat and hydration. It is the company's first wearable product.
Composition and health concerns
The original Gatorade is based on oral rehydration therapy, a mixture of salt, sugar, and water, with the citrus-based flavoring and added food coloring. The composition of individual Gatorade products varies depending upon the product in question, as well as the country in which it is sold. Gatorade Thirst Quencher contains water, sucrose (table sugar), dextrose, citric acid, natural flavor, sodium chloride (table salt), sodium citrate, monopotassium phosphate, and flavoring/coloring ingredients. Some Gatorade flavor variations used to contain brominated vegetable oil as a stabilizer. Brominated vegetable oil was discontinued in 2013, and has been replaced with sucrose acetate isobutyrate. An serving of Gatorade Perform 02 (Gatorade Thirst Quencher) contains 50 calories, 14 grams of carbohydrates, 110 mg sodium and 30 mg potassium.
Gatorade Thirst Quencher is sweetened using a sucrose-dextrose mix. For a period of time in the 1990s and early 2000s, high fructose corn syrup was used to sweeten Gatorade distributed in North America, but as of 2011, the drink once again sweetened with a sucrose-dextrose combination, which the company describes as being "preferred by consumers". G2 and G2 Natural, labeled as being "lower calorie" variants, are sweetened in part with PureVia, an extract of the Stevia plant.
The presence of calories, sugar, and sodium in Gatorade products has drawn attention from public school constituents, who have raised question over whether the sale of Gatorade beverages should be permitted in such schools. In 2010, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger sponsored a bill () which proposed a ban on the sale of sports drinks in California schools. In 2015, the University of California, San Francisco began to phase out the sale of sodas, sports drinks and energy drinks in its cafeterias, vending machines, and campus catering and retail locations, and began to "sell only zero-calorie beverages or non-sweetened drinks with nutritional value, such as milk and 100% juice".
There are 34 g of sugar (8 teaspoons) in one 20 oz bottle of regular Gatorade. The USDA's recommended daily maximum of added sugars per person is about 50 grams. According to the American Heart Association, the recommended maximum amount of sugar for women is about 6 teaspoons and about 9 teaspoons for men. Family Education says the AHA states that children should consume even less sugar, no more than only about 3 to 4 teaspoons each day.
In 2012, a study on nearly 11,000 teens reported that "teens put on even more weight if they drank a bottle of sports drink each day, averaging 3.5 pounds for every sports drinks consumed per day". The researchers concluded, "We need to educate parents and clinicians about what constitutes a sugary drink... Sports drinks are promoted by professional athletes as a healthy drink, but they really don't need to be used by kids unless they are continually exercising for long periods or they're in hot climates."
The USDA states that the average American will consume 160 pounds of sugar each year; almost a half-pound of sugar per day. One of the most prevalent ways that sugar is consumed is through drinks. Most people do not notice the amount of sugar that one given drink can have.
In January 2013, the Gatorade manufacturer (PepsiCo) agreed to remove brominated vegetable oil from its Gatorade products in the USA amidst health concerns.
The composition of Gatorade in Europe, Japan and India remain unaffected as BVO was outlawed there 23 years earlier.
Research and development
Gatorade's inventors went on to develop new sports drinks. Gatorade's owners sued to acquire rights to these new products, but they never made them available publicly. First, Shires and Cade developed Go!, a drink that, unlike Gatorade, contained protein to stimulate muscular recovery. Stokley-Van Camp paid "a fee to have the exclusive rights for some period of time, but they never did develop it".
In 1989, Dr. Cade created a new sports drink that he claimed was more effective than Gatorade. The new product was called TQ2, shorthand for Thirst Quencher 2. The patent application read:
"The invention described here is a novel fluid composition which surprisingly and advantageously maintains blood volume at levels well above those observed in the absence of fluids or even with Gatorade."
In an experiment with cyclists, Cade found that TQ2 allowed athletes to endure for 30% longer than Gatorade.
Cade pitched the TQ2 product to Pepsi and other beverage companies. Meanwhile, Gatorade's owner Quaker sued Cade. After years of legal proceedings, Cade was forced to sell TQ2 to Quaker in 1993. Quaker "bagged" TQ2, never releasing it to the public. Gatorade claimed that its research found that TQ2 was not an improvement over the original Gatorade formula. Cade, on the other hand, continued to stand by his product. He accused Quaker and Gatorade of stifling the publication of the research behind TQ2.
The Gatorade Sports Science Institute (GSSI), a research facility operated in Barrington, Illinois, has been featured in a number of the company's commercials. Established in 1985, this organization consists of scientists studying the correlation and effects of exercise, environmental variables, and nutrition on the human body. According to Darren Rovell, "GSSI was created at a time when there was a lot of scientific controversy, since there wasn't much public evidence that Gatorade actually worked...GSSI was also created to be part of Gatorade’s powerful marketing arm."
It regularly conducts testing and research on how hydration and nutrition affect athletic performance. Professional athletes such as Eli Manning as well as collegiate and amateur athletes have been involved in fitness testing programs at the GSSI, which in part have led to innovations in new Gatorade formula variations and product lines.
In 2001, the GSSI observed that professional race car drivers were not maintaining adequate levels of hydration during races, attributable to the nature of drivers enduring multiple-hour races in high temperatures. As a result, it developed a product called the "Gatorade In-Car Drinking System", which has since been implemented in the vehicles of many professional race car drivers.
In addition to the Gatorade Sports Science Institute, Gatorade sponsors external health and fitness research. In 1992, Gatorade paid the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) $250,000. A year later, Gatorade and the American College of Sports Medicine held a roundtable meeting on "exercise and fluid replacement". The ACSM published the meeting's results in 1996, advising athletes to drink "at a rate sufficient to replace all the water lost through sweating" or "the maximal amount that can be tolerated". Gatorade continues to sponsor the American College of Sports Medicine, though the exact amount it pays is not public.
Advertising and publicity
Early Gatorade advertisements claimed that the drink moved through the body 12 times faster than water. Research found that this was not true - Gatorade moves through the body at the same speed as water. Gatorade removed the claim from its advertisements. Gatorade advertisements have claimed that athletes need to consume at least "40 oz. per hour or your performance could suffer". South African exercise physiologist Dr. Tim Noakes found that Cynthia Lucero died from exercise-associated hyponatremic encephalopathy drinking Gatorade at "the rate recommended by the advertisements".
Gatorade is the official sports drink of the NFL, MLB, NBA, WNBA, USA Basketball, NHL, Association of Volleyball Professionals, Indian Super League, High School Sports Teams, NASCAR, and other professional and collegiate athletic organizations, providing supplies of the drinks to sponsored teams in some cases. Distribution was extended to include the U.K. in 2008, coinciding with an agreement designating Gatorade as the official sports drink of Chelsea F.C. (for outside of the U.S. and Canada) Gatorade's 1991 "Be Like Mike" ads featured Michael Jordan of the Chicago Bulls, a North American basketball team which had just won its first National Basketball Association championship at the time. The ads began airing in August 1991 and "Be Like Mike" became a household phrase in the United States. In 2015, new versions of the ads were produced to commemorate the brand's 50th anniversary. In more recent years, the Gatorade brand has continued to employ professional sports athletes in the promotion of its products. Primary endorsers in the 2000s have included Major League Baseball player Derek Jeter of the New York Yankees, National Hockey League player Sidney Crosby of the Pittsburgh Penguins, National Basketball Association player Dwyane Wade of the Miami Heat and Chicago Bulls, PGA Tour golfer Tiger Woods, and National Football League quarterback Peyton Manning of the Indianapolis Colts and Denver Broncos. In April 2014 it was announced that Gatorade would become an official supplier to Formula 1 team Sahara Force India. Gatorade became the main global sponsor for the UEFA Champions League starting in the 2015-18 cycle outside of North America. In November 2021, Gatorade signed UConn basketball superstar Paige Bueckers, making her the company's first college endorser since the NCAA allowed athletes at its member schools to receive compensation for product endorsements. At the time, other athlete endorsers included basketball players Elena Delle Donne, Jayson Tatum, and Zion Williamson; NFL quarterback Trevor Lawrence; track star Sydney McLaughlin, and tennis great Serena Williams.
Gatorade also hosts a variety of awards given to high school athletes who excel in their respective sports. One prominent award given is the Gatorade National Football Player of the Year.
The Gatorade shower
Gatorade has been the subject of substantial media attention and reference in popular culture situations, most of which are in relation to team or individual athletic sports. The most notable and ongoing presence of Gatorade in popular culture is the Gatorade shower, originally called the "Gatorade Dunk", where players from a victorious team pick up the Gatorade cooler, sneak up behind the head coach, and pour the contents of the cooler (generally Gatorade and ice) over his head at the end of an American football game. This tradition was popularized in the mid-1980s when Harry Carson and Jim Burt, of the New York Giants, doused head coach Bill Parcells during the 1985 season. Burt's teammates picked up on this practice and popularized it during the team's championship season of 1986–87. The tradition has since become a recurring tradition across other team sports, including Canadian football. The name is often used even when non-Gatorade drinks such as water or Powerade are substituted.
Gatorade and oral rehydration
In the aftermath of the 1994 Rwandan genocide, aid agencies were struggling to save the lives of thousands of Rwandan refugees dying of dehydration due to cholera in camps in eastern Zaire. The aid agency AmeriCares was heavily criticized for choosing to provide Gatorade as a form of oral rehydration solution. The New York Times stated:
But while Gatorade might be good for athletes, it is not good for cholera, said Dr. Michael Toole, an epidemiologist at the Centers for Disease Control. Gatorade does not have all the essential ingredients that an I.V. has, and people who were given it might have taken more appropriate solutions, Dr. Toole said.
AmeriCares' president responded: "We stand by our decision to ship Gatorade to Rwandan refugees. In the absence of potable water, Gatorade, with its electrolytes and water, saved countless lives in a true triage situation."
Two studies have suggested that Gatorade is at least as effective in treating dehydration as oral rehydration therapies for adults or Pedialyte for children between the ages of 5 and 12. In both studies, however, potassium deficiency (hypokalemia) was more common in patients receiving Gatorade.
See also
Powerade the main competition of Gatorade.
Food colorings
Sports drink
References
External links
Gatorade.com
Gatorade Sports Science Institute
Gatorade page on PepsiCo International UK & Ireland
Which University created Gatorade as a way of enhancing their football teams performance?
Florida Gators
Products introduced in 1965
Products introduced in 1967 | [
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222705 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church%20of%20God%20in%20Christ | Church of God in Christ | The Church of God in Christ (COGIC) is a Holiness–Pentecostal Christian denomination. COGIC is the largest Pentecostal denomination in the United States. Although an international and multi-ethnic religious organization, it has a predominantly African-American membership in the United States. The international headquarters is in Memphis, Tennessee. The current Presiding Bishop is Bishop John Drew Sheard Sr., who is the Senior Pastor of the Greater Emmanuel Institutional Church of God in Christ of Detroit, Michigan. He was elected as the denomination's leader on March 27, 2021.
History
Holiness origins
The Church of God in Christ was formed in 1897 by a group of disfellowshipped Baptists, most notably Charles Price Jones (1865–1949) and Charles Harrison Mason (1864–1961). In 1895, C. P. Jones and C. H. Mason were licensed Baptist ministers in Mississippi who began teaching and preaching a Wesleyan doctrine of Christian perfection or Entire Sanctification as a second work of grace to their Baptist congregations. Mason was influenced by the testimony of the African-American Methodist evangelist Amanda Berry Smith, one of the most widely respected African-American holiness evangelists of the nineteenth century. Her life story led many African-Americans into the Holiness movement, including Mason. He testified to receiving Entire Sanctification after reading her autobiography in 1893.
In June 1896, Jones held a Holiness convention at Mt. Helm Baptist Church in Jackson, Mississippi, attended by Mason and others from several states. Protestant doctrinal debates about Calvinism and Wesleyan Perfectionism affected how even local African-American Baptist pastors responded to new Christian movements at the time. Some of these African-American Baptist pastors in local Southern areas such as Mississippi, Tennessee, and Arkansas considered Jones and Mason to be controversial. The leadership of the Mississippi State Convention of the National Baptist Convention intervened and expelled Jones, Mason, and others who embraced the Wesleyan teaching of Entire Sanctification.
In 1897, Elder Mason founded the St. Paul Church in Lexington, Mississippi, as the first church of the new movement. At its first convocation held in 1897, the group identified simply as the "Church of God." Many Holiness Christian groups and fellowships forming at the time wanted biblical names for their local churches and fellowships, such as "Church of God, Church of Christ, or Church of the Living God". They rejected denominational names such as Baptist, Methodist, or Episcopal. Since so many new holiness groups and fellowships were forming that used the name "Church of God," C. H. Mason sought a name to distinguish his Holiness group from others. Later in 1897, while in Little Rock, Arkansas, C. H. Mason stated that God had given him such a name for the group, the "Church of God in Christ". He believed that the name, taken from 1 Thessalonians 2:14, was divinely revealed and biblically inspired. This Holiness group/fellowship adopted the name Church of God in Christ, and COGIC began to develop congregations throughout the South. C. P. Jones was elected the General Overseer, C. H. Mason was selected as Overseer of Tennessee, and J. A. Jeter was selected as Overseer of Arkansas. After testifying to being sanctified, members of the church referred to themselves as "Saints," believing that they were set apart to live a daily life of Christian Holiness in words and deeds. In 1898, these men were expelled from preaching in local Baptist churches under the Mississippi State Convention.
Pentecostal origins
By 1906, the church had grown to nearly 100 congregations in three states. Desiring to learn more about the work of the Holy Spirit in the church, C. H. Mason, J. A Jeter and D. J. Young were appointed as a committee by C. P. Jones to investigate reports of a revival in Los Angeles, California that was being led by an itinerant preacher named William J. Seymour. Jones was acquainted with Seymour between 1895 and 1905, as Seymour's travels led him to many Holiness preachers such as John G. Lake and Martin Wells Knapp. Mason stayed in Los Angeles for five weeks and his visit to the Azusa Street Revival changed the direction of the newly formed holiness church. During his visit, Mason received the baptism of the Holy Ghost; the evidence was believed to be his "speaking in other tongues", in accordance with the biblical account found in the book of Acts 2:4. Upon his return to Jackson, Mississippi, Mason faced opposition when he recounted his experience. Not everyone in the church were willing to accept "speaking in tongues" as the initial evidence of baptism of the Holy Ghost. At the 1907 COGIC Convocation held in Jackson, a separation occurred among Jones and other leaders in the church because of such disagreements.
After being ejected for accepting these new Pentecostal teachings, Mason called a meeting in Memphis later in the year and reorganized the Church of God in Christ as a Holiness-Pentecostal body. The early pioneers of this newly formed Holiness-Pentecostal body in 1907 were E. R. Driver, J. Bowe, R. R. Booker, R. E. Hart, W. Welsh, A. A. Blackwell, E. M. Blackwell, E. M. Page, R. H. I. Clark, D. J. Young, James Brewer, Daniel Spearman, and J. H. Boone. These elders became the first Pentecostal General Assembly of the Church of God in Christ. They unanimously chose C.H. Mason as General Overseer and Chief Apostle. Mason was given authority to lead the new denomination.
In 1907, with ten congregations, The Church of God in Christ became the first legally chartered Pentecostal body incorporated in the United States. C. P. Jones and those Holiness leaders who did not embrace the Azusa Revival experience continued as Holiness churches. In 1915, after years of court litigation over the name of the organization and use of the name "Church of God in Christ" by the two groups; Mason's group was granted the use of the name and Jones's group organized a legally chartered Holiness body called the Church of Christ (Holiness) U.S.A.
Growth and development
Senior and presiding bishops
Bishop Charles Harrison Mason 1897–1961 – founder and senior bishop
Bishop Ozro Thurston Jones, Sr. 1961–1968 – second senior bishop
Bishop James Oglethorpe Patterson, Sr. 1968–1989 – first elected presiding bishop (elected six times)
Bishop Louis Henry Ford 1990–1995 – second elected presiding bishop (elected twice)
Bishop Chandler David Owens, Sr. 1995–2000 – third elected presiding bishop (elected once)
Bishop Gilbert Earl Patterson 2000–2007 – fourth elected presiding bishop (elected twice)
Bishop Charles Edward Blake, Sr. 2007–2021 – fifth elected presiding bishop (elected three times)
Bishop John Drew Sheard, Sr. 2021–present – sixth elected presiding bishop (elected once)
Bishop C. H. Mason era (1897–1961)
After moving to Memphis, Tennessee, Bishop Mason established a local congregation called Temple COGIC. He also established the COGIC national headquarters there. He called for an annual gathering of COGIC members, known as the "International Holy Convocation", to be held in Memphis. Originally, this gathering of the 'Saints' lasted for twenty days, from November 25 to December 14. This seasonal period was selected because most of the COGIC members were farmers and were finished harvesting their crops around this time. COGIC members gathered for praying, fasting, teaching, preaching, fellowship and conducting business related to the national COGIC organization.
COGIC originated among African Americans in the Southern states of Mississippi, Arkansas, and Tennessee. But during the early twentieth century, the Pentecostal movement had rapid growth nationally and attracted racially integrated congregants to its worship services. Bishop Mason was pivotal in licensing and credentialing both white and African-American ministers, who spread the Pentecostal message and planted new churches. The first general secretary of COGIC was Elder William B. Holt, a white minister. During 1910–1913, two white ministers, Elder H. A. Goss and Elder Leonard P. Adams, were clergy under the authority of C. H. Mason. They were given the authority through a "gentlemen's agreement" to license ministers and establish churches under the COGIC name.
More than a decade after the Azusa Revival, in 1914, shortly before the United States entered World War I, approximately 300 white ministers, representing a variety of independent churches and networks of churches, including the "Association of Christian Assemblies" of Indiana; and the "Church of God in Christ and in Unity with the Apostolic Faith Movement" from Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Texas; met in Hot Springs, Arkansas. They determined to separate from COGIC and form what would eventually become the Assemblies of God. There seemed no prospect of an integrated Pentecostal movement under the leadership of an African American such as C. H. Mason. The organizers of the meeting in Hot Springs had sent invitations only to white ministers to discuss a new movement. Bishop Mason attended the opening meeting, addressed the assembly and commended the brethren to the work of the lord.
The H. A. Goss faction left COGIC to join the Assemblies of God USA. Over time, the ministers and churches under Leonard P. Adams also separated from COGIC; they assimilated into other white Pentecostal groups or organizations. In 1916, a few white churches were organized as a white branch of COGIC. William B. Holt was appointed as General Superintendent. The racial climate in the post WWI years, when there was high competition for jobs and housing and violent unrest in many cities in 1919, would not sustain this relationship. It ultimately ended by 1930, when the Depression set in.
Mason continued to travel across the nation preaching and establishing COGIC churches. As African Americans migrated north and west to industrial cities during the Great Migration, he began to establish COGIC churches in the north and, especially after 1940, in the west. Mason sent ministers and evangelists to cities and urban areas outside the South, including William Roberts (Chicago), O. M. Kelly (New York), O. T. Jones Sr. (Philadelphia), E. R. Driver (Los Angeles), and Samuel Kelsey (Washington, D.C.) From these major cities, COGIC spread throughout the country.
In 1926, Mason authorized the church's constitution, outlining the bylaws, rules, and regulations of the church. In 1933, he set apart five overseers to the Office of Bishop in the church, the first five bishops of COGIC. Those consecrated were I. S. Stafford (Detroit, Michigan), E. M. Page (Dallas, Texas), W. M. Roberts (Chicago, Illinois), O. T. Jones, Sr. (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), and R. F. Williams (Cleveland, Ohio).
The first national tabernacle was built and completed in 1925. It was destroyed by fire in 1936. In 1945, Mason dedicated Mason Temple in Memphis as the church's national meeting site. Built in the 1940s during World War II, the nearly 4000-seat building was the largest church auditorium of any African-American religious group in the United States. After his death, Mason was entombed there, the only person so honored. Mason Temple remained the site of the International Holy Convocation until the mid-1970s, when the number of delegates far exceeded its capacity. Many COGIC members would refer to their preparation to attend the annual COGIC Holy Convocation as getting ready for "Jerusalem", with Mason Temple the special destination.
In 1951, when Bishop Mason was approaching 85 years of age, he set up a "special commission" to help with the administration and oversight of the church. On June 5, 1951, he selected Bishop A. B. McEwen, Bishop J. S. Bailey, and Bishop O. M. Kelly as his assistants. On May 19, 1952, he added Bishop J. O. Patterson, Sr. Also in 1952, Mason revised the constitution to determine the leadership and succession of the church after his death. Three years later on October 12, 1955, he added three more bishops to the hierarchy: Bishop U. E. Miller, Bishop S. M. Crouch, and Bishop O. T. Jones, Sr. This group of seven bishops became known officially as the executive commission; they took on greater responsibility over church affairs until Mason's death.
In 1907, there were ten COGIC churches, but by the time of Bishop Mason's death in 1961, COGIC had spread to every state in the United States and to many foreign countries. It had a membership of more than 400,000, who supported more than 4,000 churches.
Bishop O.T. Jones Sr. era (1962–1968)
1962–1968 has been described as a "Dark Period" in the history of the Church of God in Christ, because there was polarization and conflict in leadership following the death of the founder. After Mason's death, in accordance with the 1952 church constitution, the control of the church reverted to the Board of Bishops. However, the General Assembly vested authority in the executive board composed of the seven bishops selected by Bishop Mason before his death. The COGIC constitution at the time did not identify a clear successor or the authority of the executive board after Mason's death. A. B. McEwen was elected chairman of the executive board, and O.T. Jones Sr. was elected Senior Bishop by the General Assembly.
Bishop Ozro Thurston Jones Sr. was pastor of the Holy Temple Church of God in Christ in Philadelphia and the Jurisdictional Bishop of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania Jurisdiction. Bishop Jones was the only living bishop of the five original bishops consecrated by Bishop Mason. After the death of Bishop Mason, he assumed leadership as the Senior Bishop of the Church of God in Christ. In 1964 however, disagreement between the authority of the Senior Bishop and the executive board, led by Bishop A. B. McEwen, came to a head and was addressed at the 57th Holy Convocation. Factions developed within the organization as both the senior bishop and Bishop A. B. McEwen made conflicting administrative and executive decisions.
The parties filed lawsuits in the Chancery Court of Shelby County, Tennessee, to resolve the legitimate authority of the denomination. The court ordered the church to convene a constitutional convention in February 1968. The constitutional convention drafted and approved a new constitution which dissolved both the office of the Senior Bishop and the executive board; it also established the General Assembly, which meets biannually, as the supreme authority over the church to decide matters of faith and practice. Furthermore, the new constitution created the office of the presiding bishop and a general board of twelve bishops and defined their responsibilities. The presiding bishop and all twelve members of the general board are to be elected every four years and preside over the church when the General Assembly is not in session. On November 14, 1968, the General Assembly of the COGIC elected the first general board and presiding bishop of the church.
First general board 1968–1972
Bishop J. O. Patterson, Sr. – presiding bishop
Bishop J. S. Bailey – first assistant presiding bishop
Bishop S. M. Crouch – second assistant presiding bishop
Bishop W. N. Wells
Bishop L. H. Ford
Bishop O. M. Kelly
Bishop C. E. Bennett
Bishop J. A. Blake
Bishop J. W. White
Bishop D. L. Williams
Bishop F. D. Washington
Bishop J. D. Husband
Several bishops disagreed with the new organizational structure; they severed ties with COGIC to start their own organizations. The most notable rift occurred in 1969, when fourteen bishops met in Evanston, Illinois, to form the Church of God in Christ, International. They disagreed in having an electoral process to select the presiding bishop.
Another body operating under the same name Church of God in Christ, International, split and organized in the Northeast area under Bishop R. T. Jones of Philadelphia and later Bishop C. E. Williams, Sr. of Brooklyn, New York.
Bishop O. T. Jones Sr, however, did not leave the COGIC. After being removed from the office of Senior Bishop, he remained the Jurisdictional Bishop of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania until his death in 1972. COGIC continued to grow and in 1973, the church claimed a worldwide membership of nearly three million.
Bishop J. O. Patterson era (1968–1989)
Bishop James Oglethorpe Patterson, Sr., was elected in November 1968 as the first presiding bishop of the church by the General Assembly at the Sixty-First Holy Convocation of the church. Bishop Patterson was also to date the youngest person to ever be elected presiding bishop of COGIC at the age of 56; the second youngest was his nephew Gilbert Earl (G.E.) Patterson, who became presiding bishop in 2000 at the age of 60. The son-in-law of Bishop Mason, J. O. Patterson, Sr., had served the church previously as a member of the executive board and as executive secretary. He was pastor of the Pentecostal Temple Institutional COGIC in Memphis, Tennessee, and was the Presiding Prelate of the Tennessee Headquarters Jurisdiction. Patterson established protocols of worship, policy and practices. A new constitution and official manual of the church were completed in 1973. COGIC became a major force in the collective Black Church and worldwide Pentecostal movement. It has had rapid growth in many regions as one of the fastest-growing and largest religious groups in the United States.
As the first elected presiding bishop, Bishop Patterson Sr. established the Charles Harrison Mason Seminary in Atlanta, Georgia; the C. H. Mason System of Bible Colleges; the J. O. Patterson, Sr. Fine Arts Department; and the Historical Museum and Fine Arts Center. He organized the Charles Harrison Mason Foundation and the Presiding Bishop's Benefit Fund, which provides scholarships to members' children. He expanded the COGIC Bookstore and COGIC Publishing House.
In 1982, Patterson led COGIC in its Diamond Jubilee, in a celebration of the International Holy Convocation. He established the World Fellowship of Black Pentecostal Churches and gained COGIC membership in the Congress of National Black Churches. His dream was to establish an international ministry complex known as "Saints Center" and an accredited institution known as "All Saints University". He was elected four times uncontested as presiding bishop. He consecrated and appointed more than 100 bishops during his twenty-one years of leadership. His initiatives contributed to the church's growth; by his death in 1989, it had a membership exceeding four million in the United States, was established in 47 foreign countries, and had 10,000 churches.
Bishop L. H. Ford era (1990–1995)
Bishop Louis Henry Ford of Chicago, Illinois, was elected after the death of J.O. Patterson Sr. in 1989. Ford was pastor of the St. Paul COGIC in Chicago and was Presiding Prelate of the Historic Illinois First Jurisdiction. He was a strong advocate for social justice. He became nationally recognized in 1955 for officiating at the funeral of 15-year-old Emmett Till, who was brutally murdered in Mississippi. He gave the eulogy for Till at Robert's Temple COGIC in 1955.
As a Presiding Bishop whose earlier service had spanned a history of many social and cultural changes, Ford emphasized a return to the historic foundations or, as he described "The Old Landmark" of early COGIC practices and traditions. He criticized the high church liturgy, vestments, and modernity that many congregations had adopted since his early years with COGIC. He worked to remind members of the sacrifices of the pioneers of COGIC. He reopened Saints Academy and College in Lexington, Mississippi, which had financial difficulties and closed in the early 1970s after the death of its influential leader, Arenia Conella Mallory. He also constructed the new multimillion-dollar Deborah Mason Patterson Hall at the campus.
Bishop Ford also renovated several COGIC structures in Memphis, including Mason Temple. Bishop Ford is credited with inviting President Bill Clinton, a personal friend, to speak to the Eighty-Sixth International Holy Convocation on November 13, 1993. Clinton is the only US president to have addressed a COGIC convocation at Mason Temple.
Racial reconciliation
During the 1990s and Bishop Ford's administration, the Pentecostal denominations in the United States began to work to heal the racial divide among the churches. In 1994 the association of Pentecostal/Charismatic Churches of North America (PCCNA) was established, superseding what had become the all-white Pentecostal Fellowship of North America (PFNA). In what was called the Memphis Miracle, the new group was formed as an inclusive organization, to represent all the major Pentecostal groups in North America regardless of race. Since its creation, it has had a co-chair leadership. One position has been filled by a COGIC bishop, usually a member of the General Board. The other is filled by a minister of a white denomination from the previous PFNA.
Bishop C. D. Owens era (1995–2000)
Bishop Chandler David Owens, Sr. was elected Presiding Bishop after the death of Bishop Ford in 1995. C. D. Owens had gained national attention in the church as the president of the Youth Department. He was a noted evangelist who had pastored several churches, including: Bostick Temple in St. Louis, Missouri; Well's Cathedral COGIC in Newark, New Jersey; and Greater Community COGIC in Marietta, Georgia. He also served as the Presiding Prelate of the New Jersey Garden State Jurisdiction and the Central Georgia Jurisdiction. Bishop Owens led the COGIC in its centennial celebration in 1997 with the theme, "Holiness, a Proven Foundation for a Promising Future!" He is credited with systematically restructuring church departments and ministries, expanding the church in Asia, primarily India and the Philippines, and placing the COGIC on a solid financial status. Owens outlined a progressive plan to position the COGIC for ministry in the twenty-first century, known as "Vision 2000 and Beyond." In 2000 at the Ninety-Third International Holy Convocation, the COGIC General Assembly elected Bishop Gilbert Earl Patterson to replace Owens as Presiding Bishop. Owens continued to serve as a jurisdictional bishop and member of the General Board until his death in 2011.
Bishop G. E. Patterson era (2000–2007)
Bishop Gilbert Earl (G. E.) Patterson began his ministry as co-pastor of the Holy Temple COGIC with his father, Bishop W. A. Patterson. In 1975, he resigned as co-pastor, withdrawing his membership in the COGIC because of leadership disagreements with his uncle, J. O. Patterson, Sr. concerning an establishment of another jurisdiction in the city of Memphis. J. O. Patterson Sr. was the Presiding Bishop at that time. G. E. Patterson established the Temple of Deliverance, the Cathedral of Bountiful Blessing which grew to become the largest Pentecostal church in Memphis with over 14,000 members. In 1988, after a thirteen-year exodus from COGIC, Bishop G. E. Patterson returned as the founding Prelate of the newly formed Tennessee Fourth Jurisdiction. In 2000, he was elected as the Presiding Bishop of COGIC. Bishop Patterson was the second youngest person to ever be elected Presiding Bishop of COGIC at the age 60 in 2000, second to his uncle, Bishop J. O. Patterson, Sr. who was 56 when he was elected Presiding Bishop in 1968. He re-ignited the church to be a flagship Pentecostal denomination. He was able to bridge denominational barriers and encourage non-COGIC ministries to work collboratively with the COGIC denomination. He established COGIC Charities which has provided thousands of dollars in college scholarships and disaster relief efforts such as Hurricanes Katrina and Rita.
Bishop C. E. Blake Era (2007–2021)
Bishop Charles E. Blake assumed leadership and was elected Presiding Bishop of the church after the death of Bishop G.E. Patterson in March 2007. Bishop Blake is the senior pastor of the West Angeles Cathedral COGIC in Los Angeles. For many years, West Angeles has been one of the fastest growing churches in the United States and remains the largest COGIC local congregation with a membership of 25,000. C. E. Blake served as the Presiding Prelate of the First Jurisdiction of Southern California. Bishop Blake led COGIC through the death of G. E. Patterson while preparing the church for its 100th Holy Convocation; an important milestone for the church. Bishop Blake led the COGIC to become a greater global ministry, primarily in Africa and Latin America, while at the same time investing in the inner cities where many COGIC congregations are located. He is also known for his aggressive initiative, "Save Africa's Children" which supports hundreds of African children who have been affected by HIV/AIDS in orphanages in several countries in Africa. In 2009, Bishop Blake unveiled an aggressive program known as "Urban Initiatives" to address the plight of America's urban areas. In 2010, Bishop Blake led more than 50,000 delegates to the 103rd International Holy Convocation to St. Louis, Missouri. In April 2018, Bishop Blake led COGIC in partnership with American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees (AFSCME) to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in Memphis to continue to struggle for civil rights in the 21st Century. On October 23, 2020, Bishop Blake announced that he will not seek a re-election as Presiding Bishop nor as a member of the General Board and that he would retire from the Office of Presiding Bishop and from the General Board in 2021.
Bishop J. D. Sheard era (2021–present)
Bishop John Drew Sheard, Sr., who had previously been elected to the General Board in 2012 and 2016, was reelected to the General Board and subsequently elected as the current Presiding Bishop on March 20, 2021, in the first-ever virtual online election for the denomination. The elections were held online virtually because of the on-going global COVID-19 pandemic. Bishop J. Drew Sheard currently serves as the bishop of the Michigan North Central Jurisdiction, and is currently the senior pastor of the Greater Emmanuel Institutional COGIC in Detroit, Michigan. He is the first COGIC Presiding Bishop to be elected from Michigan. He is married to famed Gospel singer, Karen Clark Sheard and father of famed Gospel singer Kierra "Kiki" Sheard-Kelly, He is the son of the Bishop John Henry Sheard, the former chairman of the Board of Bishops of COGIC and was also the son-in-law of the late Mattie Moss Clark, who served as one of the international music department presidents of COGIC.
Statistics
In 2020, the denomination had an estimated 8.8 million members. The denomination reports having more than 12,000 churches and over 5 million members in the United States. The National Council of Churches ranks it as the fifth largest Christian denomination in the U.S. COGIC is a Holiness–Pentecostal Christian denomination, with a predominantly African-American membership. According to a 2015 statistical study by the Pew Research Center, the denomination was estimated to have a United States membership of approximately 84% African-Americans, 5% White Americans, 8% Latino-Americans, and roughly 2% Asian-Americans.
COGIC can be found in more than 100 nations with an international membership estimated between one and three million adherents in more than 13,000 churches, missions, and outreaches. Its combined worldwide membership is estimated to be between six and a half and eight million composing more than 25,000 congregations throughout the world.
Theology and beliefs
COGIC is a trinitarian Holiness Pentecostal denomination. The church teaches three separate and distinct works of grace that God performs in the life of believers: salvation, entire sanctification, and the baptism or infilling of the Holy Ghost. The church declares to be evangelical in ministry, fundamental in doctrine and practice and Pentecostal in worship and expression. COGIC theology and beliefs fall in the tradition of Wesleyan-Arminian theology.
Statement of faith
The beliefs of the Church of God in Christ are briefly written in its Statement of Faith, which is reproduced below: It is often recited in various congregations as part of the order of worship and all national and international convocations.
We believe the Bible to be the inspired and only infallible written Word of God.
We believe that there is One God, eternally existent in three persons, God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit.
We believe in the Blessed Hope, which is the rapture of the Church of God, which is in Christ, at His return.
We believe that the only means of being cleansed from sin is through repentance and faith in the precious Blood of Jesus Christ.
We believe that the regeneration by the Holy Ghost is absolutely essential for personal salvation.
We believe that the redemptive work of Christ on the Cross provides healing for the human body in answer to believing prayer.
We believe that the Baptism of the Holy Ghost, according to Acts 2:4, is given to believers who ask for it.
We believe in the sanctifying power of the Holy Spirit, by whose indwelling a Christian is enabled to live a holy and separated life in the present world. Amen
Doctrine
According to the Articles of Religion in the COGIC Official Manual, COGIC believes in biblical inspiration and holds that the Bible is the supreme and final authority for doctrine and practice. There is one God eternally existent in three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. COGIC teaches the deity of Jesus Christ, his virgin birth, sinless life, physical death, burial, resurrection, ascension and visible return to the earth. Christ is the Head of the church, and He is the only mediator between God and humanity, and there is no salvation in any other. COGIC teaches that the Holy Spirit is alive and active in the world. The Holy Spirit is the agent that equips, empowers, leads, and guides the church until the return of Christ.
COGIC teaches that angels are messengers sent from God who served during the creation, throughout the Old Testament, the life and ministry of Jesus Christ, the establishment of the church and the ministry of the apostles, and continue to be at work in the Kingdom of God. They exist primarily in the spiritual realm and are organized according to duty and function. Demons exist as manifestation of evil or unclean spirits. They are fallen angels who joined Satan in his failed attempt to usurp power in Heaven. They exist today as adversaries to the kingdom, purpose and will of God. As Pentecostals, the Church believes that demons can be subdued and subjugated through the power of the Holy Spirit in the name of Jesus Christ.
COGIC teaches that man was created perfect and sinless in the image of God as a tripartite being having a body, soul, and spirit. Sin originated in eternity when Satan committed open rebellion against God in heaven. Sin was transmitted to humanity when Adam and Eve ate of the forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden, as a result all men have original sin. The result of sin is the depravity of man, broken communion with God, shame and guilt, and physical and spiritual death. Humanity can only be restored through salvation offered only through Jesus Christ. The human soul is immortal and will spend eternity either in heaven as the redeemed or in hell as the damned.
COGIC teaches that salvation is the work of redemption to the sinner and his restoration to divine favor and communion with God. Salvation is an operation of the Holy Spirit upon sinners brought about by repentance toward God, which brings about conversion, faith, justification, and regeneration. It teaches that salvation is a work of grace brought about through faith in Jesus Christ; it does not promulgate nor encourage the doctrine of "eternal security," also known as "once saved, always saved."
COGIC teaches that sanctification is a continuous operation of the Holy Spirit, by which he "delivers the justified sinner from the pollution of sin, renews his whole nature in the image of God and enables him to perform good works". It is a separate and distinct work of grace that occurs in the lives of believers after conversion. It teaches that sanctification should precede the baptism with the Holy Spirit.
COGIC teaches that the baptism of the Holy Ghost or Holy Spirit is an experience subsequent to conversion and sanctification, can be experienced by all believers who ask for it. As a Pentecostal church, COGIC teaches that when one is baptized in the Holy Spirit, the believer will experience an initial evidence of speaking in tongues (glossolalia) by the will of God. COGIC does not teach that Spirit baptism is the same as salvation. According to the Articles of Religion, "We believe that we are not baptized with the Holy Ghost in order to be saved, but that we are baptized with the Holy Ghost because we are saved". COGIC also teaches that all the spiritual gifts are for believers today.
COGIC teaches that the church is the community of Christian believers who have accepted Jesus Christ and submit to his Lordship and authority in their lives. It can be spoken of as the individual and the collective, physical and spiritual. It includes not only those who are members of COGIC, but all believers who have placed their faith in the Lord Jesus Christ. COGIC teaches that according to the Word of God, there will be final events and conditions that address the end of this present age of the world. These events include physical death, the intermediate state, bodily resurrection, the Second Coming of Christ, the Great Tribulation, the Battle of Armageddon, the Millennial Reign, the Final Judgment, the future of the wicked in hell, and life for the redeemed in heaven.
COGIC believes in divine healing, however, it does not advocate the exclusion of medical supervision. It believes that the gifts of the Spirit are given to believers and are active in the church today. The ordinances of the church are water baptism by immersion, the Lord's Supper and foot washing. The church does not practice infant baptisms or christenings, but does conduct baby dedications in formal ceremonies.
Distinctives
As a classical Holiness Pentecostal church, COGIC continues to embrace its holiness heritage, teaching modesty in dress, appearance, moderate participation in secular entertainment and prohibitions against profanity, alcohol, substance abuse and immoral behavior. The church has a tradition of prayer, fasting, praise, and consecration that was once unique to Holiness or Holiness Pentecostal groups. Many mainline denominations and countless nondenominational churches that once rejected these beliefs and practices have adopted these distinctions in their worship liturgy and lifestyle practices.
Abortion
COGIC has always been traditionally anti-abortion/pro-life. The denomination teaches that God gives life to human beings, biologically and spiritually, through the moment of conception in the womb of the mother, using Jeremiah 1:5, Genesis 1:26–27, and Psalms 139:13–16 as their scriptural basis for this belief. COGIC teaches that because God uses conception through and after sexual reproduction and intercourse to create human life, that willfully aborting a human fetus is contrary to God's Word and Christian ethics, and it is considered to be a sin against God and the Bible within the denomination. However, the Church believes that in some extreme or rare cases, medical and operational abortion may be the safest way to help the mother if the pregnancy is jeopardizing the mother's life and health. COGIC believes, though, that even then in the case of saving the life of the mother, that abortion should still only be considered as a last resort, if all other options to help the mother and the unborn fetus have been thoroughly exhausted. COGIC believes "...that if such a case arises, the mother should pray and seek the wisdom and guidance of God and the Holy Spirit on whether or not they should resort to emergency abortion if it is necessary to save her life," but if not, the Church traditionally encourages expecting mothers to "...seek God's guidance for other options and choices regarding their unborn child so that they do not have to choose aborting it, and can safely go through with their pregnancy until childbirth." COGIC also encourages mothers that if they know they will not be able to provide proper care to their child, they should seek assistance to give the child up for either private adoption, legal adoption through domestic or international adoption agencies, or foster care.
In July 2016 during their annual Auxiliaries in Ministries convention, COGIC announced their Urban Initiative Outreach ministries and Missions and Charity departments would be partnering up with The Human Coalition, a pro-life anti-abortion advocacy group, from 2016 to 2019 for a three-year initiative to encourage COGIC pastors and ministers to encourage pro-life anti-abortion advocacy in their local churches. The three-year initiative would also help encourage COGIC clergy to use their missions and charity ministries in local churches to help offer aid and assistance to African-Americans and people of other ethnic minorities, and people of low incomes in local communities who are considering and contemplating abortion and offer aid and assistance to people dealing with economic and medical issues from pregnancy. The three-year-initiative with The Human Coalition was also supposed to encourage local COGIC clergy leaders across the United States, both male and female, to partner up with other anti-abortion advocacy groups and Christian ministries to lobby for more anti-abortion restrictions throughout local states.
Civil rights
Organized in the South and having a predominately African-American membership, COGIC has had a long history in advancing civil rights. Pentecostals have been criticized because of their noticeable absence from the official record of activism that has been largely overshadowed by black ministers of other denominations such as Baptists and Methodists; however, there is evidence to verify and document the role and response of COGIC ministers and other Pentecostal denominations to the cause and struggle for Civil Rights in the United States during the 20th Century.
As previously stated, COGIC although predominately black, had a significant white membership during its first decade of existence, with a number of white ministers holding leadership positions in the church. However, after a meeting in Hot Springs, Arkansas that led to the founding of the Assemblies of God, the white constituency of COGIC continued to decline, until it was almost nonexistent by the 1930s. During World War I, the FBI opened a file on Bishop Mason and conducted surveillance on him because of his pacifism during the war. Bishop Mason taught COGIC members against going to war, but more so he was against African-American men being called to fight a war overseas for freedom and then coming home and being treated as second-class citizens and being lynched, even in their uniforms, because of racism.
During the 1940s and 50s, Bishop Mason often invited the white elected officials of the city of Memphis to the International Holy Convocation on Civic Night. Overseer E.R. Driver, who was the overseer of California and pastor of the Saints Home COGIC led an interracial congregation made up of many Blacks, Whites, and Latinos, for many years. However, his out-spoken criticism of the racial prejudice and discrimination of whites led most, if not all of them, to leave his church for other ministries where the message against racism was not so obvious and offensive to them. During the 1930s and 40s, a white COGIC elder named James L. Delk who remained in the church after many whites had left, was very active in politics in Missouri and worked to promote civil rights by writing legislatures and petitioning the federal government on the behalf of COGIC. He is credited with helping to secure the steel needed to construct Mason Temple which was virtually impossible during World War II.
During the 1950s and 60s, during the height of the civil rights movement, COGIC ministers and congregations played host to many significant events. In 1955, Emmett Till's funeral was held at Robert's Temple Church Of God in Christ in Chicago, Illinois. Mamie Till-Mobley was a member of St. Paul COGIC led by then Elder Louis Henry Ford (who would later become the presiding bishop of the denomination) officiated the service. In Chicago, Ford organized voter registration initiatives. He protested during the 1950s and 1960s against lodging segregation in Memphis, while participating in COGIC Holy Convocations there during the Civil Rights era before federal laws prohibiting such segregation.
Medger Evers, the famed NAACP Field representative for the state of Mississippi who was gunned down in the front of his house in 1963 was raised in by his mother as a member of COGIC before later becoming a Baptist. On February 25, 1965, when Malcolm X was assassinated and the family needed a place for his funeral, no major black church or facility would open their doors for the service. COGIC Bishop Alvin A. Childs of the Faith Temple Church of God in Christ (later renamed Child's Memorial in his honor) was the clergyman who finally opened his doors. According to Alex Haley, "He and his wife then received bomb threats at home and at church." Malcolm X's Funeral was held in Harlem, New York City at Faith Temple Church Of God in Christ.
In 1965, during the March to Selma, a young COGIC minister Charles E. Blake, (current COGIC Presiding Bishop) was studying at the Interdenominational Theological Center (ITC) in Atlanta, GA. He led a group of students to participate in the March on Selma. In 1968, Two sanitation workers who were also COGIC members, Echol Cole and Robert Walker, were crushed to death in a garbage compactor where they were taking shelter from the rain. Their pastor was then elder Gilbert Earl Patterson, who also became a COGIC Presiding Bishop, at Holy Temple COGIC in Memphis, Tennessee. He was one of the nine members of the strategy committee that organized the sanitation strike in Memphis. Holy Temple COGIC was the first church to open its doors to the garbage workers. On April 3, 1968, Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his "I've Been To The Mountaintop" speech, at Mason Temple Church Of God in Christ in Memphis. He was assassinated the next day, on the balcony of the Lorraine Motel.
Throughout the 1970s and 80s, as COGIC continued to grow to millions of members nationwide, COGIC ministers all over the country continued to advance civil rights in their communities. As the International Holy Convocation grew to thousands, COGIC leaders had to negotiate with city officials to provide hotel accommodations for the saints. Rev. Al Sharpton, a noted civil rights activist, began his ministerial career as a minister in COGIC. His pastor and mentor was Bishop F. D. Washington of Brooklyn, NY. In 1984 and 1988 respectively, Rev. Jesse Jackson was invited to speak during the COGIC International Holy Convocation when he was running for the presidency. During the 1990s, President Bill Clinton was invited by then COGIC Presiding Bishop, Louis Henry Ford to attend the International Holy Convocation. President Clinton gave speeches at COGIC meetings including the International Holy Convocation at Mason Temple and the Women's International Convention.
At the start of the new millennium, then COGIC presiding Bishop Gilbert Earl Patterson, continued to support the advancement of civil rights. During the current administration of Presiding Bishop Charles Blake, COGIC unveiled its Urban Initiatives Program to provide 60,000 programs nationwide through its more than 12,000 congregations to continue to promote the work of civil rights, and to reduce poverty, crime and violence, etc. In April 2018, Presiding Bishop Charles Blake along with Lee Saunders, Andrew Young, DeMaurice Smith, and Brian Dunn coordinated the "I AM 2018 Mountaintop Conference" at the historic Mason Temple in Memphis to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.
Marriage and sexuality
COGIC believes marriage is a monogamous sacred, civil, and legal union between a husband and wife that is recognized as a covenant between them and God for the purpose of the couple being a helpmate to each other and raising a family together. COGIC clergy are also allowed to be married. Remarriage is usually highly discouraged, except in the case of the death of a spouse or former spouse. Divorce is considered inconsistent with biblical teachings and is highly discouraged as well, but exceptions are made for special circumstances. COGIC considers any physical, sexual relationship outside of the sanctity of marriage to be outside of the sovereign will of God and unbiblical. COGIC clergy do not officially sanction or recognize same-sex relationships to be united in marriage and the denomination at-large discourages same-sex relationships as unbiblical and immoral. COGIC regards homosexuality, infidelity, and any other forms of sexual immorality that does not agree with Biblical scripture as sinful. COGIC policies and bylaws have also been established regarding sexual misconduct of COGIC clergy and laymembers for disciplinary purposes. COGIC clergy are also encouraged to have a certain degree of training in marriage counseling as well.
A 2014 statistical study from the Pew Research Center Forum on Religion & Public Life, reported that most members of COGIC usually got married between the ages of 25 and 30, and that over 42% of COGIC members between the ages of 25 and 65+ were married, at least 19% were divorced or separated, 32% were never married, and at least 5% were widowed. The study also found that over 70% of COGIC members overwhelmingly opposed the legalizing of same-sex marriage, and considered relationships from infidelity, polygamy, polyamory, and sex outside of marriage as sinful and unbiblical as well.
Ecumenism
The COGIC has always had a long history with Christian ecumenism, partnering up with and collaborating with other Christian churches and denominations for the purposes of advancing ministry and charity efforts, both in the United States, and globally in foreign countries as well.
When the COGIC was first founded by Bishop Mason in the 1910s, he wanted the denomination to have ecumenical relationships with other predominantly Black Methodist and Baptist churches, but many of them were unwilling to do so at the time because of Mason's controversial history with being expelled from his former Baptist ministry associations and churches in Mississippi for preaching sanctification and Pentecostalism. At the time, because many churches disagreed with the–what was considered at the time–eccentric worship styles and expressions of Pentecostalism such as the Baptism of the Holy Spirit and speaking in tongues and the laying on of hands, many churches distanced themselves from the COGIC for many years.
Nevertheless, as time progressed in the 1950s and 60s, and as COGIC began to grow and became increasingly institutionalized as a denomination, several other churches and denominations began partnering up with COGIC's leaders to help advance the cause of Civil Rights for African Americans, most notably such as the National Baptist Convention, the African Methodist Episcopal Church, the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, and many other similar predominantly Black denominations as well.
During the tenure of Bishop J. O. Patterson, Sr. as Presiding Bishop in the 1970s and 80s, Bishop Patterson established several interdenominational Christian schools and seminaries, and helped to establish the World Fellowship of Black Pentecostal Churches and gained COGIC membership in the Congress of National Black Churches as well, a national caucus of Black church denominations that represent different denominations and organizations of the Black Church in America. During the tenure of Bishop L. H. Ford as Presiding Bishop in the 1990s, he helped gain COGIC membership into the Pentecostal/Charismatic Churches of North America, a more diverse, international caucus of different Pentecostal church denominations and organizations that sought to heal the racial divides in the North American Pentecostal movement.
During the tenure of Bishop G.E. Patterson, the nephew of the above-mentioned Bishop J.O. Patterson, as Presiding Bishop of the Church in the 2000s, he helped bridge denominational barriers and encouraged non-COGIC ministries and denominations to work collboratively with the COGIC denomination to help support charity efforts for poor and disadvantaged African Americans and people affected by poverty and disasters in foreign countries through the COGIC Charities Department and the COGIC Missions and Evangelism Department.
Bishop Charles E. Blake, as the Presiding Bishop of the COGIC from the late 2000s up to the 2010s, was also dedicated to increasing and maintaining stable ecumenical relationships from the COGIC with other diverse Christian denominations, most notably Pentecostal/Charismatic churches, Baptist churches, African Methodist Episcopal (A.M.E.) Churches, and A.M.E. Zion churches, and even some non-denominational Christian ministries for the purposes of ministry efforts and collaborating on addressing social issues that affect Christians and specifically the Black Church in America, most notably through his Urban Initiatives program.
Polity and government
According to its 1973 Constitution, the church has two structures to govern the church: civil and ecclesiastical. The civil structure of the Church of God in Christ includes a president, first vice-president, second vice-president, general secretary, general treasurer, and the financial secretary. All officers are elected by the General Assembly. The general secretary, general treasurer, and financial secretary terms run concurrent with the current presidential administration that is elected every four years.
Corporate structure
General officers
Presiding Bishop – Bishop J. Drew Sheard, Michigan
1st Assistant Presiding Bishop – Bishop Jerry W. Macklin, California
2nd Assistant Presiding Bishop – Bishop Lawrence M. Wooten, Missouri
General Secretary – Bishop Joel H. Lyles, Jr., Maryland
Chairman of the General Assembly – Bishop Lemuel F. Thuston, Kansas
General Treasurer – Bishop Charles Harrison Mason Patterson, Sr., Tennessee
Financial Secretary – Bishop Frank A. White, New York
The legislative authority of the church is vested in a general assembly, composed of the members of the general board, jurisdictional/auxiliary bishops, jurisdictional supervisors, chaplains, pastors, ordained elders, four district missionaries and six lay members from each jurisdiction. The general assembly elects a 12-person general board (presidium) every four years from the college of bishops, who serve functionally as apostles of the church. The general assembly meets biannually each year in April and November while the presidium acts as the executive branch of the church, overseeing the day-to-day operation when the general assembly is not in session. As a result, the general board exercises great authority over the church. The presidium includes a separately elected international presiding bishop by the general assembly who serves a term of four years, who, then appoints two assistant presiding bishops. The current presiding bishop and chief apostle is Bishop J. Drew Sheard who was elected in 2021.
National officers of the church are chosen at the general assembly every four years unless special elections are warranted. The judicial board serves as the judicial branch and is the supreme body that interprets polity and practice. It has nine members, elected by the general assembly, including three bishops, three elders, and three lay members.
Members of the General Board Quadrennial 2021–present
Bishop J. Drew Sheard, Sr. – Presiding Bishop (2021–present) and board member (2012–present), Michigan
Bishop Jerry W. Macklin – First Assistant Presiding Bishop (2021–present) and board member (2004–present), California
Bishop Lawrence M. Wooten – Second Assistant Presiding Bishop (2021–present) and board member (2012–present), Missouri
Bishop Brandon B. Porter – Secretary to the General Board (2021–present) and board member (2012–present), Tennessee
Bishop Michael E. Hill – Assistant Secretary to the General Board (2021–present) and board member (2021–present), Michigan
Bishop Sedgwick Daniels – Board member (2008–present), Wisconsin
Bishop Darrell L. Hines – Board member (2016–present), Illinois
Bishop Prince E. W. Bryant, Sr. – Board member (2021–present), Texas
Bishop David A. Hall, Sr. – Board member (2021–present), Tennessee
Bishop Malcolm W. Coby – Board member (2021–present), Oklahoma
Bishop Charles H. McClelland – Board member (2021–present), Wisconsin
Bishop Elijah Hankerson III - Board member (2021–present), Missouri
Emeritus members of the General Board
Bishop Charles E. Blake – Presiding Bishop Emeritus
In addition to the general board, there is a board of bishops that is composed of all jurisdictional and auxiliary bishops, a national trustee board that is composed of 15 members who are elected for a term of four years, the General Council of Pastors and Elders, which is open to any officially recognized pastor and current credentialed ordained elder in the church.
Additional officers
Chairman of the Board of Bishops – Vacant as of November 11, 2021 – Bishop John H. Sheard (Deceased, Died on November 11, 2021)
1st Vice Chairman of the Board of Bishops – Bishop Albert Galbraith, California
2nd Vice Chairman of the Board of Bishops – Bishop Roger L. Jones, Michigan
Secretary of the Board of Bishops – Bishop William Watson, III, Texas
Assistant Secretary of the Board of Bishops – Bishop Adrian Williams, Georgia
Chairman of the General Council of Pastors and Elders – Superintendent Michael Eaddy, Illinois
Vice chairman of the General Council of Pastors and Elders – Superintendent Marcus Ways, Michigan
Secretary of the General Council of Pastors and Elders – Superintendent Prince W. Bryant, II, Texas
Treasurer of the General Council of Pastors and Elders – Pastor William Ward, Virginia
Chief Operating Officer (COO) – Bishop Keith Kershaw, South Carolina
Adjutant General – Bishop Dickerson L. S. Wells, Sr., Tennessee
General Supervisor, Department of Women – Mother Barbara McCoo Lewis, California
Chairman of the National Judiciary Board – Bishop Martin Luther Johnson, New Jersey
Vice Chairman of the National Judiciary Board – Bishop Enoch Perry, Washington, D.C.
Secretary of the National Judiciary Board – Attorney Peter Davis, New Jersey
Chairman of the National Board of Trustees – Bishop Dwight E. Walls, Sr., Michigan
First Vice Chairman of the National Board of Trustees – Superintendent Melton Timmons, Texas
Second Vice Chairman of the National Board of Trustees – Attorney Amos Smith, Illlinois
Secretary of the National Board of Trustees – Evangelist T. Lynn Smith, Georgia
Vice Chairman of the General Assembly – Bishop Jerry W. Maynard, Tennessee
Assistant General Secretary – Bishop Talbert W. Swan II, Nova Scotia, Canada
Assistant General Treasurer – Bishop Kendall Anderson, Tennessee
Assistant Financial Secretary – Bishop David A. Sanders, Illinois
Chairman of AIM – Bishop Linwood Dillard, Tennessee
Co – Directors of the Men's Department – Bishop – Designate Michael B. Golden, Jr. Virginia, Bishop Patrick L. Wooden Sr., North Carolina
Superintendent, International Sunday School Department – Superintendent Mark Ellis, Louisiana
Field representative, International Sunday School Department – Mother Cleolia Penix, Illinois
President, International Youth Department – Superintendent Nathaniel Green, Texas
Chairlady, International Youth Department – Evangelist Vandalyn Kennedy, New York
President, International Department of Missions – Bishop Vincent Matthews, Jr., Tennessee and South Africa
Elect Lady, International Department of Missions – Mother Maddaline Norfleet, Connecticut
President, International Department of Evangelism – Evangelist Gary Sprewell, California
Elect Lady, International Department of Evangelism – Evangelist Dr. Dorinda Clark-Cole, Michigan
President, International Music Department – Dr. Myron Williams, Texas
Ecclesiastical structure
The Church of God in Christ ecclesiastical structure is an episcopal-presbyterian form of government. Churches are organized in dioceses called jurisdictions, each under the authority of a bishop. There is a presiding bishop, known as the chief apostle of the church. The presiding bishop is part of a general board, consisting of eleven other bishops elected by a general assembly consisting of pastors, elders, chaplains, bishops, missionaries, supervisors, and designated lay delegates. The general assembly is the supreme authority over the church to decide matters of faith and practice. Jurisdictions range in size between 30 and 100 churches. Each state in the US consists of at least one jurisdiction, and several states have more than one jurisdiction. These jurisdictions are then separated into districts, which consist of 5 to 7 churches and are governed by superintendents (ordained elder or pastor). There are more than 200 ecclesiastical jurisdictions around the world, with 170 in the United States. Jurisdictions are set up similar to the national church in terms of composition, polity, and procedure.
Annual events
Leadership Conference (January)
General Assembly and Call Meeting (April) Memphis
Men Perfecting Men Conference (May)
General Council of Pastors and Elders (May)
International Women's Crusade and Convention (May)
National Judicial Conference (June)
Auxiliaries in Ministry (AIM) Conference (July)
Bishop Mason's Birthday/Founder's Celebration (September)
Bishop's Conference (September)
International Holy Convocation and General Assembly (November)
World headquarters are in Memphis, Tennessee at Mason Temple.
Department ministries
During the formative stages of COGIC, Bishop Mason organized departments to further support the work of the church as it continued to grow and expand. These departments include: the Women's Department, the Sunday School Department, the Youth Department known as Y.P.W.W. (Young People Willing Workers), and Missions and Evangelism. As COGIC has continued to grow, new departments, auxiliaries, and ministries have been established including the music department, the National Adjutancy, Men's Department, COGIC Charities, and Urban Initiatives to name a few. These auxiliaries are found in nearly every church, district, and jurisdiction within COGIC and function to support the holistic approach that COGIC has toward ministry within the church and the larger community that COGIC congregations serve.
Women's Department
Women in COGIC have been influential in the leadership and organization of the church since its inception. They are the largest department in the COGIC. Bishop Mason was opposed to the ordination of women to formal ministry, but in 1911 created an autonomous department to promote the ministry of women in the church. The church believes that women are gifted and called to ministry; it does not, however, officially ordain women to the office of elder, pastor, or bishop. Nevertheless, women are licensed in COGIC to proclaim the gospel as evangelists. COGIC licensed female evangelists may also serve as chaplains in military, federal, state, and local institutions requiring chaplains. This endorsement allows female chaplains who are serving in the military, working in an institution or jails to perform religious services including funerals and weddings. Some pastor's wives have served as pastor of congregations usually after the death of a pastor sometimes serving under the title of "shepherdess, shepherd mother, or church administrator”.
Organization of the department
A general supervisor of women is appointed by the presiding bishop and given authority to lead the International Women's Ministry of the church. Each jurisdictional bishop appoints a jurisdictional supervisor to lead the work of the women on a jurisdictional level. The jurisdictional supervisor is assisted by district missionaries who oversee the women's ministry of the district. Historically, women in ministry in COGIC are known as "Missionaries" and are designated in two categories: Deaconess Missionary, and Evangelist Missionary. Deaconess Missionaries serve and assist in the ceremonial and temporal affairs of the local church. Evangelist Missionaries are licensed to preach the gospel, conduct gospel meetings, and may be given the oversight of local congregations serving as the church administrator. Recognizing the significance of women to the ministry, COGIC has created numerous positions that allow women to work as counterparts to the department presidents as chair ladies (YPWW) and Elect ladies (Evangelism).
On the local church level in addition to the office of missionary, COGIC developed and has maintained the position of the "church mother." Church mothers have historically served as the leader of the women's ministries in the local congregations. The designated church mother along with other "older and seasoned" women of the church provided the practical teaching of holiness in daily life and practice. Today however, many church mothers have been reserved to titular positions as many pastor's wives have assumed the role of leader of women's ministries in local congregations. Despite what seems to be obvious limitations to minister because of ordination, women have been given great latitude and numerous opportunities to serve in ministry in COGIC. As a result, many local congregations, foreign missions, and schools were established through the leadership and efforts of women in COGIC.
General supervisors for the Department of Women
Mother Lizzie Woods Robinson – first general supervisor (1911–1945)
Mother Lillian Brooks Coffey – second general supervisor and founding president of the Women's International Convention (1946–1964)
Mother Annie L. Bailey – third general supervisor (1964–1975)
Mother Mattie McGlothen – fourth general supervisor (1975–1994)
Mother Emma F. Crouch – fifth general supervisor (1994–1997)
Mother Willie Mae Rivers – sixth general supervisor (1997–2017)
Mother Barbara McCoo Lewis – seventh general supervisor (2017–present)
Lizzie Woods Robinson (1911–1945) was the first "General Mother" of the church. Finding two groups of women in the church, one group praying known as the Prayer Band, the other group studying and teaching the Word known as the Bible Band, she combined the two under the name of the Prayer and Bible Band. She organized the sewing circle and after meeting Elder Searcy, she encouraged the women to support mission work through the Home and Foreign Mission bands. As the church continued to grow, she created women auxiliaries including the Purity Class and the Sunshine Band. She began women's work on the state level and appointed the first state mothers. Robinson was a staunch advocate for holiness and taught strict guidelines for the women with regard to dress and worldliness. She was greatly interested in the building of Mason Temple and she kept her national building fund drives functioning until she knew the building was ready for dedication. When she died in 1945, she had laid an impressive foundation for the women's ministry in COGIC.
Her successor, Lillian Brooks Coffey (1945–1964) was the organizer of the Women's International Convention to support the work of foreign missionaries. The first convention was held in Los Angeles, California, in 1951. Today the International Women's Convention/Crusade meets annually in May in different cities throughout the nation drawing thousands of women from around the world. It is one of the largest gathering of Christian women from any major denomination and religious organization. Coffey was a child convert to COGIC under the preaching of Bishop Mason, and was influential in organizing many of the auxiliaries, bands, and units that exist within the COGIC Women's Department. The most active women's auxiliaries include: Missionary Circle, Hospitality, Executive Hospitality, Hulda Club, Wide Awake Band, Minister's Wives Circle, Deaconess, Deacon's Wives Circle, Prayer Warriors, Young Women's Christian Council, Usher Board, Educational Committee, Boy's League, Big Brothers, Cradle Roll, Women's Chorus, Board of Examiners, Public Relations, News Reporters and the Burners Home and Foreign Mission Bands. Coffey also began the use of the title "Jurisdictional Supervisor" for state mothers as more jurisdictions were forming in each state.
After the death of Mother Coffey in 1964, Dr. Annie L. Bailey (1964–1975), became the third General Supervisor. She was the wife and companion of Bishop John Seth Bailey, a trusted adviser of Bishop Mason, and later the first assistant presiding bishop of the church. The pair modeled the pastor and wife ministry team in COGIC. She developed the International Women's Convention into a training institute for women in the ministry. She served as the jurisdictional supervisor of several states including Maryland and New Jersey helping to establish and stabilize struggling jurisdictions. Units added during her tenure as general supervisor were the: business and Professional Women's Federation, Rescue Squad, Sunday School Representatives Unit, United Sisters of Charity, National Secretaries Unit, and the Jr. Missionaries.
Dr. Mattie McGlothen (1975–1994) the fourth General Supervisor, was a tremendous organizer with great impact on the development of the Women's Department. She was the Jurisdictional Supervisor of Women for California Northern First Jurisdiction. She established new auxiliaries including the International Hospitality Unit, the Educational and Bishop's Wives Scholarship funds, WE-12 and Lavender Ladies. She built a home for missionaries in the Bahamas, a pavilion for senior citizens and unwed mothers in Port-au-Prince, Haiti. She also established the Mattie McGlothen Library and Museum in Richmond, California, as a resource for COGIC historical facts and memorabilia. Finally, she changed the visible presence of women in ministry with the introduction of the ministry "habit". Today thousands of COGIC women when ministering the gospel or serving in official capacities are seen in their civic (black) or ceremonial (white) habits.
After the death of Mother McGlothen, Mother Emma F. Crouch (1994–1997) of Dallas, Texas, served as the fifth General Supervisor. She was the Jurisdictional Supervisor of Women for Texas Southwest Jurisdiction under the late Bishop T. D. Iglehart. In her brief tenure, she encouraged the women to stay focused and supportive to the leadership of the church. One of her contributions was to divide the women's fellowship in the local congregations into two groups: The Christian Women's Council for the middle aged and senior women, and the Young Women's Christian Council (YWCC) for the younger women.
Mother Willie Mae Rivers (1997–2017) of Goose Creek, South Carolina, succeeded Mother Crouch. She is also the Jurisdictional Supervisor of Women for the South Carolina Jurisdiction. She served as chairperson of the board of supervisors, member, Executive Board, member, Screening Committee, member, Program Committee General Church, coordinator, Leadership Conference, International Marshall, secretary, and Assistant General Supervisor for the Department of Women. A local church mother since the age of 21, she was committed to strengthening the auxiliaries in the local churches and to prepare the younger women to carry the mission of COGIC into the Twenty-first Century. Under her leadership, the Women's International Convention added the term "and Crusade" to highlight and promote the evangelistic approach of the convention. Mother Rivers also began the "49 and Under" to enlist and focus the younger women of COGIC to remain committed to the doctrine and teachings of the church. Mother Willie Mae Rivers served faithfully for 20 years as General Mother until 2017 and the age of 91.
The current General Supervisor of Women is Dr. Barbara McCoo Lewis of Los Angeles, California. She is also the Jurisdictional Supervisor for the First Jurisdiction, Southern California. She has previously served on the Women's advisory board, Executive Board, steering committee Women's International Convention, General Supervisor's Regional Representative (West Coast Region of the United States), member of the Program Committee then chairperson, Chairperson Special Convention Assistance Committee, National Leadership Conference and Women's Convention Leadership Conference, International Marshall and Assistant General Supervisor. A visionary, she spearheaded the establishment of the multi-million dollar Hale Morris Lewis Manor, a senior citizen complex in Los Angeles, CA.
Significant women of COGIC ministry
As has been stated, COGIC does not ordain women as elder or bishop, however, COGIC would not have become the largest predominately African-American Pentecostal church in the world, nor have the largest Women's convention of any major denomination without the contributions of women. These women have been listed for their significant contributions and impact to the church.
Evangelist Emily Bram Bibby#, longest-serving national female evangelist
Missionary Pearl Paige Brown#, foreign missionary
Dr. Valerie Daniels Carter, entrepreneur, Jurisdictional Supervisor,
Dr. Dorinda Clark Cole, International Elect Lady of Evangelism Dept., international evangelist
Dr. Mattie Moss Clark#, second and longest-serving president of Int'l. Music Dept.
Mother Elizabeth Dabney#, prayer leader
Mother Dorothy Exume#, foreign missionary
Evangelist Reatha D. Herndon#, first and longest-serving elect Lady, church organizer, national evangelist
Supervisor Deola Wells Johnson, national evangelist, jurisdictional supervisor
Mother Frances Kelley, prayer leader
Evangelist Maria Gardner Langston, COGIC pastor, national evangelist, former Elect Lady
Dr. Arenia Mallory#, educator, president, Saint's College
Mother Elsie Washington Mason#, third and final wife of Bishop Mason
Mother Lelia Washington Mason#, second wife of Bishop Mason
State Senator Yvonne Miller#, evangelist missionary, state senator, VA
Mother Deborah Mason Patterson#, daughter of founder, Bishop Mason and wife of first presiding bishop James O. Patterson, Sr.
Supervisor Irene Oakley#, pastor, supervisor, bishop's wife
Mother Louise Patterson, evangelist, former first lady and wife of G.E. Patterson
Evangelist Joyce L Rodgers#, Jurisdictional Supervisor, Former Chairlady of Youth Dept., international evangelist
Mother Elsie Shaw#, prayer leader
Mother Leatha Herndon Chapman Tucker#, church organizer, national evangelist
Mother Elizabeth White#, foreign missionary
Dr. Rita Womack, national evangelist, former Elect Lady
Mother Willa Mary Collins#, founding First Lady of Holy Trinity Church of God in Christ in Evansville, Indiana
(#) deceased
Sunday School Department
The first Sunday School Superintendent was Professor L. W. Lee (1908–1916). In 1924, the Sunday School was formally organized under "Father" F. C. Christmas (1916–1944). Elder L. C. Patrick was added to the National Sunday School. In 1945, Bishop S. Crouch of the Northern California Jurisdiction appointed Elder H. C. Johnson as State Sunday School Superintendent who appointed Missionary Lucille Cornelius to be Chairlady, the first woman to lead the supervision of COGIC women in the Sunday School Department. Mother Jennie Bell Dancy Jones of Arkansas became the first National Field Representative under Bishop Patrick. There was the creation of the Sunday School Field Representative. This office is reserved for a woman who serves as counterpart to the Sunday School Superintendent. These offices are found in every local, district, and jurisdiction to support development and growth of the Sunday School. In 1946, the National Sunday School Congress began to meet with the Young People's Willing Workers (YPWW) Congress. In 1951, the first separate National Sunday School Convention convened in Kansas City, Missouri. The current International Sunday School Superintendent is Superintendent Mark Ellis of Baton Rouge, Louisiana, and the International Field Representative is Mother Cleolia Penix of Chicago, Illinois.
Young People Willing Workers (YPWW) International Youth Department (IYD)
The first youth leader on a national level was Elder M.C. Green. In 1917, the YPWW was officially organized under the leadership of Elder Ozro Thurston Jones, Sr., who in 1928 established the first Youth Congress bringing together youth leaders and workers on a national level. He began production of the YPWW Quarterly Topics to train the youth of the COGIC in the faith, doctrine, and polity of the church. YPWW became a distinctive trademark for COGIC and the principle training institute usually meeting on Sunday night prior to evening worship services. For a brief period of time, the YPWW Congress was combined with the Sunday School Congress in a joint convention until 1951. The Youth Congress eventually become one of the largest conventions in COGIC. Other leaders of the Youth Department who leader became influential leaders of the church included: Bishop F.D. Washington, Bishop Chandler D. Owens, Bishop Brandon B. Porter, and Bishop J. Drew Sheard. To be consistent with progressive measures and modernization, in the Nineties, the international church along with many local COGIC churches began to use the term "youth department" instead of "YPWW. " Today, the International Youth Department (IYD) is led by the International Youth President, Superintendent Nathaniel Green of Dallas, TX, and the International Chairlady, Evangelist Vandalyn Kennedy of Queens, NY.
Missions Department
Missions work in COGIC began under Elder Searcy in 1925. In 1926, upon the recommendation of Mother Lizzie Roberson, Elder C. G. Brown of Kansas City Missouri, was appointed the first Executive Secretary-Treasurer of the Home and Foreign Missions Department by Bishop C. H. Mason. The Elders' Council met and organized the first Missions board of the Church of God in Christ. In 1927, the call was made for workers to go to serve the Lord in foreign lands. Mrs. Mattie McCaulley of Tulsa, Oklahoma was the first to respond, and was sent to Trinidad. Thereafter, missionaries were sent to Africa and the islands of the Caribbean, Asia, and elsewhere. Military chaplains have also been instrumental in spreading COGIC through military installations. In November 1975, at the National Holy Convocation in Memphis, TN., with the consent of the General Board, Bishop Carlis Moody, Sr. of Evanston, Illinois, was appointed by Bishop J. O. Patterson to be president of the Department of Home and Foreign Missions. Bishop Carlis Moody immediately began to reorganize the Missions Department, giving new guidelines. President Moody also added these ministries to the Missions Department:
Youth on a Mission (YOAM) – a ministry of young people visiting the mission field to serve each summer.
Student Aid – a ministry of support to foreign students.
Touch a Life – child support ministry
Nurses Aid Ministry – nurses taking their skills to the mission field.
Sister Church Support Ministry – a church in the USA giving support to a church on the mission field.
The Voice of Missions – a bimonthly magazine
Today COGIC has more than 12,000 churches, and several schools, missions, and medical clinics in more than eighty nations, including every inhabited continent. The church is thought to have nearly two million members in 7,000 churches on the continent of Africa. The church has more than 3,000 churches in Asia, and 2,000 churches in the Caribbean and South America. The fastest growing areas include Nigeria, South Africa, Brazil, and India. Nigeria alone has 19 bishops and more than 2000 churches. The international membership of COGIC is estimated be between one and three million adherents. In 2015, after more than 40 years of faithful service, Bishop Carlos L. Moody was emeritized as Bishop of Missions. The current president of the Missions Department is Bishop Vincent Mathews, Jr. of South Africa.
Evangelism Department
The Department of Evangelism was officially organized on a national level by Overseer L.C. Page in 1927. The spread of COGIC was due largely to the efforts of its evangelists through crusades and revivals. Male as well as female evangelists were instrumental in spreading COGIC throughout the United States as well as around the world. The first meeting was held in Memphis, Tennessee around 1937. The early conventions of the Evangelist Board were basically crusades led by Page and a few other Evangelists from across the country. In 1981, Bishop J.O. Patterson appointed Dr. Edward Lee Battles President of the Department of Evangelism. During his administration, Battles organized Regions to oversee evangelistic ministry in various regional areas across the country. He also instituted the Annual Prayer Breakfast, conducted Evangelistic Crusades across the country and developed the Church of God in Christ National Evangelist Registry. Battles served as president until his death in December 1996.
In 1997, Bishop Chandler D. Owens appointed Evangelist Richard "Mr. Clean" White as president of the Department of Evangelism. He continued to build on the department through expansion of the Regional Administration into 10 geographical locations across the country. He appointed regional presidents to serve as liaisons to the jurisdictional presidents. Of special note is Evangelist Reatha Herndon who served as the International Elect Lady of the Department of Evangelism from 1951 to 2001. Mother Lillian Coffey appointed Mother Reatha Herndon as president of the National Women's Evangelist Board in 1951. Herndon and her twin sister Leatha were pioneers of the evangelistic work of the Church of God in Christ. Together they traveled across the country proclaiming the Gospel of Jesus Christ. They were also instrumental in establishing 75 churches across the nation. Pastor Dennis Martin and Superintendent Willie James Campbell succeeded Bishop White as presidents. The current president of the Department of Evangelism is Bishop Elijah Hankerson III of St. Louis, Missouri. In 2017, Presiding Bishop Charles E. Blake appointed gospel artist and Evangelist Dr. Dorinda Clark Cole of Detroit, Michigan as the Elect Lady. Her predecessor was Evangelist Dr. Rita Womack of Los Angeles, California.
Music Department
Pentecostals have been known and continue to be known for their lively worship, exuberant expressions of praise and worship, and musical compilations, mostly relying on congregational singing of hymns and chants. The COGIC emphasized the use of the choir as an integral part of the worship experience. From the very beginning of gospel music, COGIC members have influenced its rise. In the 1920s, Arizona Dranes, a blind Evangelist Missionary became one of the first gospel artists to bring the musical styles of COGIC to the public in her records for Okeh and performances. Later, Sister Rosetta Tharpe, ironically known as the "godmother of Rock and Roll," expanded and highlighted the COGIC sound to the greater American public in the 1930s and 1940s. Evangelist Goldia Haynes, Elder Utah Smith, Madame Earnestine Washington, and Marion Williams continued COGIC's influence throughout the fifties and sixties. Mrs. Anna Broy Crockett Ford was the first organizer and director of the National Music Department, which was formally established in November 1949.
Dr. Mattie Moss Clark
COGIC became a staple of gospel music under the guidance and leadership of Dr. Mattie Moss Clark. (1972–1994). She revolutionized and reorganized the music ministry to become a leading department in the church. She developed the role of the State Minister of Music and traveled the world conducting seminars and workshops perfecting the quality of choir music, their performance, appearance and demeanor, and the COGIC sound. Under her leadership and tenure, COGIC choirs and individual singers came to dominate gospel music producing a number of recordings and gospel hits. She formed her daughters into a singing group who became known as the legendary "Clark Sisters" who helped introduce and became leaders of the contemporary gospel music era. In 1982 during the Seventy-Fifth Holy Convocation, the diamond jubilee of the church, COGIC published its own hymnal, Yes, Lord!, which included many arrangements and songs written by COGIC and African-American musicians and songwriters. She is the longest serving president of the International Music Department and her influence and legacy have been indelible and are recognized around the world.
Influence of COGIC on gospel music
Well-known gospel musicians with COGIC roots include; Andrae Crouch and Sandra Crouch, Walter Hawkins and Edwin Hawkins, Tramaine Hawkins, Rubenstein McClure, Yvette Flunder, Sara Jordan Powell, Daryl Coley, BeBe and CeCe Winans, The Winans, "Detroit" Gary Wiggins, John P. Kee, The O'Neal Twins, Vanessa Bell Armstrong, Rance Allen, Rev. Timothy Wright, Myrna Summers, Rev. James Moore, Thomas Whitfield (singer), Deniece Williams, Hubert Powell, Donnie McClurkin, LaShun Pace, The Anointed Pace Sisters, Dr. Bettye Ransom Nelson, Bishop Richard "Mr. Clean" White, Bishop Paul S. Morton, The Clark Sisters: (Jacky Clark-Chisholm, Elbernita "Twinkie" Clark, Dorinda Clark-Cole and Karen Clark-Sheard). COGIC continues to influence gospel music with a new generation of artists with COGIC roots that include: Kim Burrell, Ivan Powell, Doobie Powell, Kierra Sheard, J. Moss, Micah Stampley, Kurt Carr, Ricky Dillard, Kelly Price, Mary Mary Erica Campbell (musician) and Tina Campbell (musician), Tamela Mann, Dr. Gennie Ruth Cheatham Chandler, Earnest Pugh, Jonathan McReynolds, Jabari Johnson, DuShawn Washington, Instrumentalists: Dr. Vernard Johnson (saxophonist), Samuel Murrell (violinist) and Terrance Curry (trombonist), D'Extra Wiley (II D Extreme) and Michelle Williams (Destiny's Child). The current leader of the International Music Department is Dr. Judith Christie McAllister of Los Angeles, California, who is also a praise and worship national recording artist. Former International Music Department President Professor Iris Stevenson-McCullough (originally from Rochester, NY) is a major influence in the gospel music industry around the world.
United National Auxiliary Conference (UNAC) and Auxiliaries in Ministry (AIM)
As COGIC continued to grow, the various departments began the practice of convening annually to conduct the business unique of their ministries. The YPWW department began in 1928 with the convening of its first Youth Congress. Then in 1946, the YPWW Department was combined with the Sunday School Department for joint conventions until 1951 when they were separated once again. Each department convened its own convention in various cities through 1975. In 1976, under the leadership of Bishop J.O. Patterson Sr., the five major departments of COGIC were united under an umbrella convention known as UNAC-5 (United National Auxiliary Convention). Dr. Roy L.H. Winbush was selected to serve as the first chairman. In 1992, during the Ford administration, UNAC was disbanded in favor of three separate conventions namely: the International Sunday School Convention, the MY Convention (Music and Youth) and the ME Convention (Missions and Evangelism) again meeting in separate cities.. However, in 1996, the umbrella format was revised under the administration of Bishop C.D. Owens and became known as AIM (Auxiliaries in Ministry). Bishop J.W. Macklin was selected as the first chairman. This convention brings thousands of COGIC members representing all the major departments including Sunday School, Missions, Evangelism, Music, and Youth together in July and meets in cities around the U.S. The current chairman of AIM is Bishop Linwood E. Dillard of Memphis, TN.
Educational institutions
In 1918, COGIC opened its first institution of higher learning, the Saints Industrial and Literary School in Lexington, Mississippi, for both girls and boys. In keeping with the times, the school had some industrial education and training for its students, so that they could learn practical skills. It also increasingly stressed high academic standards so that its graduates could go to normal school or college, especially to teach other African Americans. Education was considered key to advancement of the race. As public education was segregated and underfunded by white officials in the South through most of the tenure of the first major leader, this school became a destination for parents wanting their children to have high-quality education.
The school enjoyed its greatest growth and success under the leadership of Dr. Arenia Conella Mallory (1904–1977). Bishop Mason appointed her as a young woman to be head of the small school in 1926, after she had been teaching there. She led its expansion and emphasized high academic standards, disciplined behavior, and prayer. She also established a musical program. She established a high school and gained accreditation for it, and then for the junior college which she founded on campus. By that time, it was known as Saints Academy and Junior College. During her leadership, several new buildings were constructed on the 350-acre campus to serve this expansion. African-American parents sent their children to this school from across the United States, especially those who had grown up in Mississippi and knew its reputation. Mallory retired in 1976 after fifty years of service; and she had a national reputation. Known for the achievements of her students and school alumni, she had also served during these years, by invitation and appointment, on national federal commissions and with noted African-American women's groups.
The school closed in 1977 after her death, as it struggled financially in a period when some families were choosing integrated schools for their children. It was reopened in the early 1990s under the administration of Bishop L.H. Ford, as Saints' Academy, a private co-educational grade school. The school and college remain closed at present.
In 1968, COGIC established the C.H. Mason Theological Seminary to train its ministers and ministry leaders. Today COGIC operates the All Saints Bible College in Memphis, the C. H. Mason system of bible colleges, and the C. H. Mason Theological Seminary in Atlanta, Georgia. The seminary is accredited by the Association of Theological Schools (ATS) and is part of a consortium of the Interdenominational Theological Center.
Notable ministers
John Seth Bailey#, general board member, jurisdictional bishop, Michigan Southwest Jurisdiction; pastor, Bailey Cathedral, Detroit, MI
Philip Aquila Brooks#, general board member, jurisidictional bishop, Historic Michigan First Jurisdiction; pastor, New St. Paul Tabernacle, Detroit, MI
Ithiel Conrad Clemmons#, historian, general board member, jurisdictional bishop, Eastern New York First Jurisdiction, pastor, First, Brooklyn, NY; Wells Memorial, Greensboro, NC
Elmer Elijah Cleveland#, jurisdictional bishop, Northern California Jurisdiction, pastor, Ephesians, Oakland, CA
David Daniels, educator, professor, auxiliary bishop
James Logan Delk#, politician, pastor, First, Hopkinsville, KY
James Louis Felton, auxiliary bishop, pastor, Mount Airy, Philadelphia, PA
Samuel L. Green Jr.#, television minister, general board member jurisdictional bishop, Virginia Second Jurisdiction; pastor, St. John's, Newport News, VA
James Neaul Haynes#, general board member, jurisdictional bishop, Texas Northeast First Jurisdiction; pastor, Saintsville, Dallas, TX
Roderick Hennings, author, auxiliary bishop, pastor, Zion Dominion Global Ministries, Amherst, NY
William Morgan James#, general board member, jurisdictional bishop, Ohio North First Jurisdiction, pastor, St. James, Toledo, OH and James Temple, Cincinnati, OH
Orzo Thurston Jones, Jr.#, general board member, jurisdictional bishop, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania Jurisdiction; pastor, Holy Temple, Philadelphia, PA
Otha Miema Kelly#, general board member, jurisdictional bishop, Eastern New York First Jurisdiction; pastor, Kelly Temple, Harlem, NY
Otis Lockett#, church planter, jurisdictional bishop, North Carolina Second Jurisdiction, pastor, Evangel Word Fellowship, Greensboro, NC
George Dallas McKinney, scholar, general board member, jurisdictional bishop, Southern California Second Jurisdiction; pastor, St. Stephen's Cathedral, San Diego, CA
S.E. Mitchell#, national evangelist, pastor, St. Andrew, Denton, TX
Carlis L. Moody, foreign missionary, jurisdictional bishop emeritus, Germany Jurisdiction; pastor, Faith Temple, Evanston, IL
J.O. Patterson, Jr.#, politician, bishop, Headquarters Jurisdiction; pastor, Pentecostal Temple, Memphis, TN
Eugene Franklin Rivers, political activist, pastor, Azusa Christian Community, Boston, MA
William Roberts#, jurisdictional bishop, Illinois First Jurisdiction, pastor, Robert's Temple, Chicago, IL
Bobby Rush, US Congressman, IL; pastor, Beloved Christian Community, Chicago, IL
John Drew Sheard, general board member, jurisdictional bishop, Michigan North Central Jurisdiction; pastor, Greater Emmanuel Institutional, Detroit, MI
Nathan Simmons#, national evangelist, pastor, Citadel of Hope Evangelistic, Atlanta, GA
Talbert W. Swan II, Assistant General Secretary, MA; Prelate, Nova Scotia Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction, Pastor, Spring of Hope, Springfield, MA, activist, author, Radio Talk Show Host, National Chaplain, Iota Phi Theta, President, Greater Springfield NAACP
Ted G. Thomas#, general board member, jurisdictional bishop, Virginia First Jurisdiction; Pastor, New Community Temple, Portsmouth,VA
Barnett K. Thoroughgood#, adjutant general, auxiliary bishop; pastor, New Jerusalem, Virginia Beach, VA
Robert James Ward#, jurisdictional bishop, Eastern Missouri First Jurisdiction; pastor, Historic Kennerly Temple, St. Louis, MO
F. D. Washington#, general board member, jurisdictional bishop, Eastern New York First Jurisdiction; pastor, Washington Temple, Brooklyn, NY
Wyoming Wells#, jurisdictional bishop, Greater North Carolina Jurisdiction; pastor, Well's Memorial, Greensboro, NC; Well's Chapel, Greenville, NC
Frank Otha White#, General Board Member, Jurisdictional Bishop, New York Eastern Third Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction; Pastor, Zion Cathedral, Freeport, NY
David Lawrence Williams, Sr.#, general board member, jurisdictional bishop, Virginia Second Jurisdiction; pastor, Mason Memorial, Norfolk, VA
Levi Edgar Willis#, radio and television personality, jurisdictional bishop, Virginia Third Jurisdiction; pastor, Garden of Prayer Temple, Norfolk, VA
Roy Lawrence Hailey Winbush#, general board member, jurisdictional bishop, Louisiana First Jurisdiction; pastor, Gethsemane, Lafayette, LA
(#) deceased
Controversies
In 2014, at the COGIC International Holy Convocation held in St. Louis, Missouri, COGIC minister Elder Earl Carter was selected by the General Board to be the keynote speaker for Saturday night. He referred in his sermon to gay men as "sissies", "perverted and lost", and said, "If you want to feel like a girl; I wish God would give you the monthly of a girl; I wish He had you bleeding out of your butt." This excerpt of Elder Carter's sermon went viral throughout social media and was picked up by major television news broadcasts.
COGIC Presiding Bishop Charles E. Blake issued a public apology, saying "I apologize for what seemed to be a harsh, uncompassionate, disrespectful spirit on the part of that speaker." Bishop Blake apologized to a young man (Andrew C. Caldwell) who, following Superintendent Carter's message, came forward to proclaim that he had been delivered from homosexuality. His testimony "literally went viral, and… brought upon him criticism and sardonicism."
Elder Carter was attempting to address members of COGIC as to sexual misconduct, and specifically, homosexual practices. The denomination considers these to be inconsistent with COGIC doctrine and teaching. Bishop Blake said, "The Church of God in Christ does not compromise its stance against homosexuality as the Word of God condemns it as sin, but "this preacher's" (referring to Earl Carter) comments were unacceptably offensive and uncalled for, and will not be tolerated by the Church of God in Christ or its leadership."
Elder Carter said that such public rebuke and condemnation were unwarranted, as he was not given a chance to say why he had made such statements. As a result, an ongoing dispute between Elder Carter and Bishop Blake continued without resolution. Throughout the dispute, Elder Carter made allegations against Bishop Blake for impropriety, sexual misconduct, and abuse of power as presiding bishop. Leaders within the COGIC, other denominations and Bishop Blake's own family came to his defense. Elder Carter called for a Church trial before the COGIC General Assembly and Judicial Board according to the Constitution of the COGIC. He was denied such trial in 2016. Bishop Blake also won a defamation lawsuit in 2016 against Earl Carter, who was ordered to remove all defamatory videos and to cease and desist from further conduct disparaging Bishop Blake. Carter was found in contempt of court for failing to obey the court order and was jailed until he removed all videos and agreed to comply.
After the November 2016 COGIC Holy Convocation, Carter left the COGIC denomination because Blake had been re-elected as the Presiding Bishop. Carter currently posts material on YouTube and Facebook reporting alleged misconduct and impropriety within current leadership of COGIC and other Christian (mainly African-American) denominations. He self-identifies as Bishop/CEO of his newly organized fellowship called the 7000 Club (not to be confused with The 700 Club from Pat Robertson).
See also
Charles Harrison Mason
Charles Edward Blake Sr.
Gilbert E. Patterson
O.T. Jones Sr.
Arenia Mallory
Denver Heights COGIC
Gilbert E. Patterson
J.O. Patterson, Jr.
Talbert W. Swan II
Lizzie Robinson House in North Omaha, Nebraska
List of Jurisdictions of the Church of God in Christ
Protestantism in the United States
Christianity in the United States
List of the largest Protestant bodies
Notes
References
Clemmons, Ithiel C. Bishop C. H. Mason and the Roots of the Church of God in Christ. Lanham, Maryland: Pneuma Life Publishing, 1996. .
Lincoln, Eric and Mamiya, Lawerence. The Black Church in the African-American Experience. Duke University Press: Raleigh, 1990
Official Manual with the Doctrines and Discipline of the Church of God in Christ. Memphis, Tennessee: Church of God in Christ Publishing House, 1973.
Owens, Robert R. Never Forget! The Dark Years of COGIC History. Xulon Press: Fairfax, 2002.
Synan, Vinson. The Twentieth-Century Pentecostal Explosion. Santa Barbara, California: Creation House, 1987.
Further reading
Alexander, Estrelda Y. "Black Fire: One Hundred Years of African American Pentecostalism" (Downers Grove, IL, 2011).
Butler, Anthea. "Women in the Church of God in Christ: Making a Sanctified World" (Chapel Hill, NC 2007).
Mason, Mary. "The History and Life Work of Bishop C.H. Mason" (Memphis, TN, 1924).
Owens, Robert R. "Never Forget! The Dark Years of COGIC History" (Fairfax, VA, 2002).
Smith, Raynard D. "With Signs Following: The Life and Ministry of Charles Harrison Mason" (St. Louis, MO, 2015).
White, Calvin Jr. "The Rise to Respectability: Race, Religion, and The Church of God in Christ" (Fayetteville, AR, 2012).
External links
Succession of Church of God in Christ Leaders
Pentecostal denominations
Pentecostalism in the United States
Historically African-American Christian denominations
Christian organizations established in 1907
Christian denominations established in the 20th century
Christian terminology
1907 establishments in Tennessee
Holiness denominations
Holiness Pentecostals | [
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222716 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20chief%20governors%20of%20Ireland | List of chief governors of Ireland | The office of chief governor of Ireland existed under various names from the 12th-century Norman invasion to the creation of the Irish Free State on 6 December 1922. Common names were (Chief) justiciar (13th–14th centuries); (King's) lieutenant (14th–16th century); (Lord) Deputy (15th–17th centuries), and Lord Lieutenant (standard after 1690). The unofficial term Viceroy was also common.
Reasons for difficulty in stating terms of office include that many left the office empty for a period (sometimes to return to the Court of St. James's, sometimes to return to their British estates) before either being replaced or returning. There is difficulty in getting clear information before 1529; in the earlier years, there were frequent long vacancies, during which a Lord Deputy or Lord Justice would act as chief governor. The Irish Act of Union merged the Kingdom of Ireland with the Kingdom of Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The new United Kingdom came into being on 1 January 1801 resulting in the disappearance of the separate Irish Parliament: Though many expected the office of Lord Lieutenant to be abolished, it survived. Periodic debates throughout the nineteenth century erupt over whether it should be replaced by a 'Secretary of State for Ireland'. The office of Chief Secretary for Ireland (in effect number two in Irish government ranking) grows in importance, with the Lord Lieutenant gradually reduced to a largely though not completely ceremonial role.
The office was replaced by the Governor-General of the Irish Free State. In Northern Ireland the position was replaced by that of Governor of Northern Ireland.
Medieval
Source:
Hugh de Lacy, Lord of Meath: 1172–73
William FitzAldelm: 1173
Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke (Strongbow): 1173–1176
William FitzAldelm: 1176–1177
Hugh de Lacy, Lord of Meath: 1177–1181
John fitz Richard, Baron of Halton, Constable of Chester and Richard Peche, Bishop of Lichfield, jointly: 1181
Hugh de Lacy, Lord of Meath and Hubert Walter, Bishop of Salisbury, jointly: (1181–1184)
Philip de Worcester: 1184–1185
John de Courcy: 1185–1192
William le Petit & Walter de Lacy: 1192–1194
Walter de Lacy & John de Courcy: 1194–1195
Hamo de Valognes: 1195–1198
Meiler Fitzhenry: 1198–1208
John de Gray, Bishop of Norwich: 1208–1213
William le Petit 1211: (during John's absence)
Henry de Loundres, Archbishop of Dublin: 1213–1215
Geoffrey de Marisco: 1215–1221
Henry de Loundres, Archbishop of Dublin: 1221–1224
William Marshal: 1224–1226
Geoffrey de Marisco: 1226–1228
Richard Mor de Burgh: 1228–1232
Hubert de Burgh, 1st Earl of Kent 1232 (held the office formally, but never came to Ireland)
Maurice FitzGerald, 2nd Lord of Offaly: 1232–1245
Sir John Fitz Geoffrey: 1246–1256
Richard de la Rochelle 1256
Alan de la Zouche: 1256–1258
Stephen Longespée: 1258–1260
William Dean: 1260–1261
Sir Richard de la Rochelle: 1261–1266
David de Barry 1266–1268
Robert d'Ufford 1268–1270
James de Audley: 1270–1272
Maurice Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald: 1272–1273
Geoffrey de Geneville: 1273–1276
Sir Robert D'Ufford: 1276–1281
Stephen de Fulbourn, Archbishop of Tuam: 1281–1288
John de Sandford, Archbishop of Dublin: 1288–1290
Sir Guillaume de Vesci: 1290–1294
Sir Walter de la Haye: 1294
William fitz Roger, prior of Kilmainham 1294
Guillaume D'Ardingselles: 1294–1295
Thomas Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald: 1295
Sir John Wogan: 1295–1308
Edmund Butler 1304–1305 (while Wogan was in Scotland)
Piers Gaveston: 1308–1309
Sir John Wogan: 1309–1312
Edmund Butler, Earl of Carrick: 1312–1314
Theobald de Verdun, 2nd Baron Verdun: 1314–1315
Edmund Butler, Earl of Carrick: 1315–1318
Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March: 1317–1318
William FitzJohn, Archbishop of Cashel: 1318
Alexander de Bicknor, Archbishop of Dublin: 1318–19
Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March 1319–1320
Thomas FitzGerald, 2nd Earl of Kildare: 1320–1321
Sir Ralph de Gorges: 1321 (appointment ineffective)
John de Bermingham, 1st Earl of Louth: 1321–1324
John D'Arcy: 1324–1327
Thomas FitzGerald, 2nd Earl of Kildare: 1327–1328
Roger Utlagh: 1328–1329
John D'Arcy: 1329–1331
William Donn de Burgh, 3rd Earl of Ulster: 1331–1331
Anthony de Lucy: 1331–1332
John D'Arcy: 1332–1338 (Lords Deputy: Sir Thomas de Burgh: 1333–1337 and Sir John Charlton: 1337–1338)
Thomas Charleton, Bishop of Hereford: 1338–1340
Roger Utlagh: 1340
Sir John d'Arcy: 1340–1344 (Lord Deputy: Sir John Moriz (or Morris))
Sir Raoul d'Ufford: 1344–1346
Roger Darcy 1346
Sir John Moriz: 1346–1346
Sir Walter de Bermingham: 1346–1347
John L'Archers, Prior of Kilmainham: 1347–1348
Sir Walter de Bermingham: 1348–1349
John, Lord Carew: 1349
Sir Thomas de Rokeby: 1349–1355
Maurice FitzGerald, 4th Earl of Kildare: 1355–1355
Maurice FitzGerald, 1st Earl of Desmond: 1355–1356
Maurice FitzGerald, 4th Earl of Kildare: 1356
Sir Thomas de Rokeby: 1356–1357
John de Boulton: 1357
Maurice FitzGerald, 4th Earl of Kildare: 1357
Almaric de St. Amaud, Lord Gormanston: 1357–1359
James Butler, 2nd Earl of Ormond: 1359–1360
Maurice FitzGerald, 4th Earl of Kildare: 1361
Lionel of Antwerp, 5th Earl of Ulster (later Duke of Clarence): 1361–1364
James Butler, 2nd Earl of Ormond: 1364–1365
Lionel of Antwerp, Duke of Clarence: 1365–1366
Thomas de la Dale: 1366–1367
Gerald FitzGerald, 3rd Earl of Desmond: 1367–1369, a.k.a. Gearóid Iarla
Sir William de Windsor: 1369–1376
James Butler, 2nd Earl of Ormond: 1376–1378
Alexander de Balscot and John de Bromwich: 1378–1380
Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March: 1380–1381
Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March: 1382 (first term, aged 11, Lord Deputy:Sir Thomas de Mortimer)
Sir Philip Courtenay: 1385–1386
Robert de Vere, Duke of Ireland: 1386
Alexander de Balscot, Bishop of Meath: 1387–1389
Sir John Stanley, K.G., King of Mann: 1389–1391 (first term)
James Butler, 3rd Earl of Ormond: 1391
Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester: 1392–1395
Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March: 1395–1398 (second term)
Thomas Holland, Duke of Surrey: 1399
Sir John Stanley: 1399–1402 (second term)
Thomas of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Clarence: 1402–1405 (aged 13)
James Butler, 3rd Earl of Ormond: 1405
Gerald FitzGerald, 5th Earl of Kildare: 1405–1408
Thomas of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Clarence: 1408–1413
Sir John Stanley: 1413–1414 (third term)
Thomas Cranley, Archbishop of Dublin: 1414
John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury: 1414–1421 (first term)
James Butler, 4th Earl of Ormond: 1419–1421 (first term)
Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March: 1423–1425
John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury: 1425 (second term)
James Butler, 4th Earl of Ormond: 1425–1427
Sir John Grey: 1427–1428
John Sutton, later 1st Lord Dudley: 1428–1429
Sir Thomas le Strange: 1429–1431
Thomas Stanley, 1st Baron Stanley: 1431–1436
Lionel de Welles, 6th Baron Welles: 1438–1446
John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury: 1446 (third term)
Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York: 1447–1460 (Lord Deputy:Thomas FitzGerald, 7th Earl of Kildare)
George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence: 1462–1478 (Lords Deputy:Thomas FitzGerald, 7th Earl of Desmond/Thomas FitzGerald, 7th Earl of Kildare)
John de la Pole, 2nd Duke of Suffolk: 1478
Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York: 1478–1483 (aged 5. Lord Deputy:Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare)
Edward of Middleham: 1483–1484 (aged 11. Lord Deputy:Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare)
John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln: 1484–1485
Jasper Tudor, 1st Duke of Bedford| 1485–1494 (Lord Deputy:Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare)
Henry, Duke of York: 1494–?1519 (Aged 4. Lords Deputy: Sir Edward Poynings/Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare/Gerald FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare)
Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk: 1519–1523 (Lord Deputy:Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey)
Lords Deputy
The Earl of Ossory: 1523–1524
Gerald FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare: 1524–1529
The Duke of Richmond and Somerset: 22 June 1529 (aged 10)
Sir William Skeffington: 1529–1532
Gerald FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare: 1532–1534
Sir William Skeffington: 30 July 1534
Leonard Grey, 1st Viscount Grane: 23 February 1536 – 1540 (executed, 1540)
Lords Justices: 1 April 1540
Sir Anthony St Leger: 7 July 1540 (first term)
Sir Edward Bellingham: 22 April 1548
Lords Justices: 27 December 1549
Sir Anthony St Leger: 4 August 1550 (second term)
Sir James Croft: 29 April 1551
Lords Justices: 6 December 1552
Sir Anthony St Leger: 1 September 1553 – 1556 (third term)
Viscount FitzWalter: 27 April 1556
Lords Justices: 12 December 1558
The Earl of Sussex (Lord Deputy): 3 July 1559
The Earl of Sussex (Lord Lieutenant): 6 May 1560
Sir Henry Sidney: 13 October 1565
Lord Justice: 1 April 1571
Sir William FitzWilliam: 11 December 1571
Sir Henry Sidney: 5 August 1575
Lord Justice: 27 April 1578
The Lord Grey de Wilton: 15 July 1580
Lords Justices: 14 July 1582
Sir John Perrot: 7 January 1584
Sir William FitzWilliam: 17 February 1588
Sir William Russell: 16 May 1594
The Lord Burgh: 5 March 1597
Lords Justices: 29 October 1597
The Earl of Essex 12 March 1599
Lords Justices: 24 September 1599
The Lord Mountjoy (Lord Deputy): 21 January 1600
The Lord Mountjoy (Lord Lieutenant): 25 April 1603
Sir Arthur Chichester: 15 October 1604
Sir Oliver St John: 2 July 1616
Henry Cary, 1st Viscount Falkland: 18 September 1622
Lords Justices: 8 August 1629
The Viscount Wentworth later The Earl of Strafford: 3 July 1633 (executed May 1641)
The Earl of Leicester (Lord Lieutenant): 14 June 1641
The Marquess of Ormonde: 13 November 1643 (appointed by the king)
Viscount Lisle: 9 April 1646 (appointed by parliament, commission expired 15 April 1647)
The Marquess of Ormonde: 30 September 1648 (appointed by the King)
Oliver Cromwell (Lord Lieutenant): 22 June 1649
Henry Ireton (Lord Deputy): 2 July 1650 (d. 20 November 1651)
Charles Fleetwood (Lord Deputy): 9 July 1652
Henry Cromwell (Lord Deputy): 17 November 1657
Henry Cromwell (Lord Lieutenant): 6 October 1658, resigned 15 June 1659
Edmund Ludlow (Commander-in-Chief): 4 July 1659
The Duke of Albemarle: June 1660
The Duke of Ormonde: 21 February 1662
The Earl of Ossory (Lord Deputy): 7 February 1668
The Lord Robartes: 3 May 1669
The Lord Berkeley of Stratton: 4 February 1670
The Earl of Essex: 21 May 1672
The Duke of Ormonde: 24 May 1677
The Earl of Arran: 13 April 1682
The Duke of Ormonde: 19 August 1684
Lords Justices: 24 February 1685
The Earl of Clarendon: 1 October 1685
The Earl of Tyrconnell (Lord Deputy): 8 January 1687
King James II himself in Ireland: 12 March 1689 – 4 July 1690
King William III himself in Ireland: 14 June 1690
Lords Justices: 5 September 1690
The Viscount Sydney: 18 March 1692
Lords Justices: 13 June 1693
The Lord Capell (Lord Deputy): 9 May 1695
Lords Justices: 16 May 1696
The Earl of Rochester: 28 December 1700
The Duke of Ormonde: 19 February 1703
The Earl of Pembroke: 30 April 1707
The Earl of Wharton: 4 December 1708
The Duke of Ormonde: 26 October 1710
The Duke of Shrewsbury: 22 September 1713
The Earl of Sunderland: 21 September 1714
Lords Justices: 6 September 1715
The Viscount Townshend: 13 February 1717
The Duke of Bolton: 27 April 1717
The Duke of Grafton: 18 June 1720
The Lord Carteret: 6 May 1724
The Duke of Dorset: 23 June 1730
The Duke of Devonshire: 9 April 1737
The Earl of Chesterfield: 8 January 1745
The Earl of Harrington: 15 November 1746
The Duke of Dorset: 15 December 1750
The Duke of Devonshire: 2 April 1755
The Duke of Bedford: 3 January 1757
The Earl of Halifax: 3 April 1761
The Earl of Northumberland: 27 April 1763
The Viscount Weymouth: 5 June 1765
The Earl of Hertford: 7 August 1765
The Earl of Bristol: 16 October 1766 (did not assume office)
The Viscount Townshend: 19 August 1767
The Earl Harcourt: 29 October 1772
The Earl of Buckinghamshire: 7 December 1776
The Earl of Carlisle: 29 November 1780
The Duke of Portland: 8 April 1782
The Earl Temple: 15 August 1782
The Earl of Northington: 3 May 1783
The Duke of Rutland: 12 February 1784
The Marquess of Buckingham: 27 October 1787
The Earl of Westmorland: 24 October 1789
The Earl FitzWilliam: 13 December 1794
The Earl Camden: 13 March 1795
The Marquess Cornwallis: 14 June 1798
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
The Earl of Hardwicke: 27 April 1801
The Earl of Powis: 21 November 1805 (did not serve)
The Duke of Bedford: 12 March 1806
The Duke of Richmond: 11 April 1807
The Viscount Whitworth: 23 June 1813
The Earl Talbot: 3 October 1817
The Marquess Wellesley: 8 December 1821
The Marquess of Anglesey: 27 February 1828
The Duke of Northumberland: 22 January 1829
The Marquess of Anglesey: 4 December 1830
The Marquess Wellesley: 12 September 1833
The Earl of Haddington: 1 January 1835
The Earl of Mulgrave: 29 April 1835
Viscount Ebrington: 13 March 1839
The Earl de Grey: 11 September 1841
The Lord Heytesbury: 17 July 1844
The Earl of Bessborough: 8 July 1846
The Earl of Clarendon: 22 May 1847
The Earl of Eglinton: 1 March 1852
The Earl of St Germans: 5 January 1853
The Earl of Carlisle: 7 March 1855
The Earl of Eglinton: 8 March 1858
The Earl of Carlisle: 24 June 1859
The Lord Wodehouse: 1 November 1864
The Marquess of Abercorn: 13 July 1866
The Earl Spencer: 18 December 1868
The Duke of Abercorn: 2 March 1874
The Duke of Marlborough: 11 December 1876
The Earl Cowper: 4 May 1880
The Earl Spencer: 4 May 1882
The Earl of Carnarvon: 27 June 1885
The Earl of Aberdeen: 8 February 1886
The Marquess of Londonderry: 3 August 1886
The Earl of Zetland: 30 July 1889
The Lord Houghton: 18 August 1892
The Earl Cadogan: 29 June 1895
The Earl of Dudley: 11 August 1902
The Earl of Aberdeen: 11 December 1905
The Lord Wimborne: 17 February 1915
The Viscount French: 9 May 1918
The Viscount FitzAlan of Derwent: 27 April 1921
See also
Lord Deputy of Ireland
Lord Justices (Ireland)
References
01
List of Lords Lieutenant
Lists of political office-holders in Ireland
Lists of political office-holders in the United Kingdom
List of Lords Lieutenant | [
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222721 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney%20Conservatorium%20of%20Music | Sydney Conservatorium of Music | The Sydney Conservatorium of Music (formerly the New South Wales State Conservatorium of Music and known by the moniker "The Con") is a heritage-listed music school in Macquarie Street, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. It is one of the oldest and most prestigious music schools in Australia. Located adjacent to the Royal Botanic Gardens on the eastern fringe of the Sydney central business district, the conservatorium is a faculty of the University of Sydney, and incorporates the community-based Conservatorium Open Academy and the Conservatorium High School. In addition to its secondary, undergraduate, post-graduate and community education teaching and learning functions, the conservatorium undertakes research in various fields of music. The building was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 14 January 2011.
History
The land originally belonged to the Aboriginal people, called the "Eora", who lived around Sydney coast. They lived off the land by relying on its natural resources including the rich plants, birds, animals and marine life surrounding the Harbour within what is now the City of Sydney local government area the traditional owners are the Cadigal and Wangal bands of the "Eora". There is no written record of the name of their language spoken and currently, there are debates as to whether these people spoke a separate language or a dialect of the Dharug language.
Governor Arthur Phillip arrived in 1788 with a pre-fabricated building which was assembled as his Government House, now partially on the current site of the Museum of Sydney and partially under Bridge Street. In its varied additions and permutations, it survived as the Sydney residence of the Governor until completion of the new Government House.
Governor Lachlan Macquarie took control of the colony in 1810 using that building as his Sydney residence. On 18 March 1816, he reported that he had postponed any changes to convert Sydney Government House into adequate accommodation. He noted the poor condition of the building saying that "All the Offices, exclusive of being in a decayed and rotten State, are ill Constructed in regard to Plan and on Much too Small a Scale; they now exhibit a Most ruinous Mean, Shabby Appearance. No private Gentleman in the Colony is so Very ill Accommodated with Offices as I am at this Moment, Not having Sufficient Room to lodge a Very Small Establishment of Servants; the Stables; if possible, are still worse than the other Offices, it having been of late frequently Necessary to prop them up with Timber Posts to prevent it falling, or being blown down by the Winds." He noted that he wished to erect a new Government House and Offices in the Domain as soon as the Barracks was complete at the expense of the Police Fund.
The then Secretary for the Colonies, Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst, soon responded, writing on 30 January 1817 that he needed to see a plan and estimate of costs before he could approve the erection. In 1817, Macquarie resumed the sites of a bakehouse and mill on the proposed site. On 4 July 1817, he instructed former convict, Francis Greenway to prepare plans of offices and stables. Work commenced on the stables on 9 August 1817. Macquarie replied to Bathurst on 12 December that he was disappointed with the lack of approval, but claimed that no construction had commenced due to heavy rains. Macquarie laid the foundation stone for the stables on 16 December 1817.
Though Francis Greenway was the designer, it was not solely his work. In December 1819, Greenway noted that Macquarie saw the elevation before work began, but that his wife Macquarie gave him details of the number of rooms needed so that he could make a suitable plan. By 1819, according to Greenway, the stables were virtually planned though the barn in the range had become a stable. It then held 30 horses plus the stallions in the octagonal Towers. He estimated the cost of the stables to be . In a letter to the Australian of 28 April 1825, he identified Thornbury Castle as his model. A relative of Macquarie's wife, Archibald Campbell, had been a pioneer of the Gothic architectural style in the late 18th century when he erected Inveray Castle and it may have had a greater influence on the design by Greenway. Yet. on 7 February 1821, Major Druitt reported that Governor Macquarie had not liked the ornamentation of the towers and the rich Cornish around the battlements.
It was not until 24 March 1819 that Macquarie informed the Colonial Office that he had commenced building the stables, in contravention of a firm order from Bathurst. "I had so long Suffered such very great Inconvenience from the want of a Secure Stables for my Horses and decent sleeping places for my Servants, that I had been under the Necessity of building a regular Suite of Offices of this Description in a Situation Contiguous to and sufficiently Convenient for the present Old Government House, and also in one that will equally suit and New Government House that my Successors may he hereafter Authorised to Erect. These Stables are built on a Commodious tho" not expensive Plan, and I expect they will be Completed in about three Months hence.' Horses were prized possessions and very valuable. They needed to be protected from the weather and made secure from thieves. Early in 1819 Lt John Watts was sent from England with plans and estimates, but these do not appear to have serviced.
On 26 September 1819, Commissioner John Thomas Bigge arrived in the colony to report the effectiveness of transportation to NSW as a publishment for criminals. He was soon examining Macquarie's program of public works and his policy of fostering former criminals to fill positions of authority. Bigge objected to the construction of the stables in October 1819 but noted that the work was so far advanced that to halt it would be a waste.
An 1820 plan held at the Mitchell Library is not a construction plan, but seem to show it in its finished state. It depicted the towers as accommodation for servants, plus a dairy next to one of the coach houses and accommodation for a dairy maid, cowman and lodge keeper.
Architect Henry Kitchen was highly critical of the stables in evidence to Bigge on 29 January 1821 saying it was extravagant whilst not providing the accommodation needed. He described it as an "incorrect attempt in the style of the castellated Gothic" with an area 174 feet by 130 feet housing 28 horses, [plus coach houses cow house and servant's quarters. The stables were complete in February 1821.
Greenway is better known for his Georgian designs but he also created a number of buildings in the Gothic mode. Of these Forts Philip and Macquarie, Dawes Point Battery and the Parramatta Road Toll-gate have all been demolished. Only the Government House Stables survives of his Gothic buildings.
After Macquarie's return to Britain in 1821, the Stables had mixed uses. On 25 May 1825, Governor Thomas Brisbane suggested to Earl Bathurst that the 'Gothic Building on the pleasantest side of the Scite of the Domain, which was intended for a Government Stables, is utterly useless at present from the great disproportion of the Establishment of the Government, may be advantageously improved into a Government residence.' On 30 June 1825, Earl Bathurst permitted Governor Ralph Darling to erect a new Government House or to convert the Stables into one though the estimates of costs would have to be sent to Britain for approval. Late in 1825, Brisbane had loaned the stables to the Australian Agricultural Company to temporarily house its livestock after it arrived.
There are a number of artists' views of the stables. This derived form its position overlooking the harbour as part of a vista of Sydney. It also acknowledged the stables as a piece of Gothic architecture, both romantic and picturesque. Even more to the point, it highlighted its role as a "folly" in a managed landscape.
The stables remained under utilised. Governor Richard Bourke sought approval in February 1832 to erect a new Government House near the stables by selling some of the Domain to raise funds. He also suggested that rooms in the stables could accommodate some of the Government House servants.
At an inquiry into the building of the new Government House in 1836, Colonel George Barney originally suggested converting the stables into offices but later changed his mind to recommend demolition. Construction of the new Government House from 1837 finally ensured that another building overshadowed the stables. After the erection of the New Government House, the stables were used to accommodate staff and horses.
Panoramic views form the top of the Garden Palace Exhibition building taken in 1881 by Charles Bayliss are the only known views of the internal courtyard and layout of the stables. Additions were made to the north side in the late 1870s or early 1880s.
By about 1910, the building's role as a horse stables and staff accommodation was ending due to the increasing use of motor cars. In 1912 the government declared the building would become a museum whilst the Minister for Public Instruction suggested it as an Academy of Fine Arts but the proposal turned into a specialist Conservatorium of Music.
From 1913 to 1915, work to convert it into a conservatorium to the design of R. Seymour Wells from the Government Architect's Office was undertaken, including the construction of a roof over the courtyard and the construction of a large auditorium. A new entrance of a cantilevered concrete awning was created and the former one removed. The windows and doors were altered considerably, though the castellated stuccoed exterior remained. The conservatorium auditorium was officially opened on 6 April 1915.Henri Verbrugghen was appointed as director on 20 May 1915 and teaching began on 6 March 1916. The site was formerly dedicated with an area of 3 roods 20 perches for a conservatorium of music on 22 December 1916 but was revoked on 2 November 1917 for an enlarged area of 3 roods 31 perches. The Conservatorium High School commenced in 1919.
After consideration of various proposals to increase accommodation, the Carr Labor government decided to rebuild on the site in 1995. The enlarged building designed by NSW Government Architect Chris Johnson and the private partnership of Daryl Jackson, Robin Dyke and Robert Tanner was completed in 2001. Construction work proceeded in tandem with a major archaeological investigation of the site of the extensions. Deep excavation around the original core of the building allowed the needs of accommodation be met while preserving views to the site. Technological solutions such as separating the building shell from the surrounding sandstone and resting much of the extensions on rubber pads allowed the special acoustic needs of the Conservatorium to be met despite its proximity to the Cahill Expressway and the underground railway line. The work won an Australian Award for Urban Design Excellence in 2002.
Greenway building
Originally commissioned in 1815 as the stables for the proposed Government House, the oldest conservatorium building was designed by the convict architect Francis Greenway. Listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register in the Gothic Picturesque architectural style with turrets, the building was described as a "palace for horses" and is a portrayal of the romantic vision of Governor Macquarie and the British architectural trends of the time. It is the only example of a gothic building designed by Greenway still standing. The cost and apparent extravagance was one of the reasons Macquarie was recalled to Britain. The stables, located close to picturesque Sydney Harbour, reflect the building techniques and the range of materials and skills employed during the early settlement era.
At the time of its listing on the State Heritage Register, the building was given the following statement of significance:
Origins of the conservatorium
In 1915 the NSW Government under William Holman allocated £22,000 to the redevelopment of the stables into a music school. The NSW State Conservatorium of Music opened on 6 March 1916 under the directorship of the Belgian conductor and violinist Henri Verbrugghen, who was the only salaried staff member. The institution's stated aims were "providing tuition of a standard at least equal to that of the leading European Conservatoriums" and to "protect amateurs against the frequent waste of time and money arising from unsystematic tuition". The reference to European standards and the appointment of a European director was not uncontroversial at the time, but criticism soon subsided. By all accounts, Verbrugghen was hugely energetic: Joseph Post, later himself to be director, described him as "a regular dynamo, and the sort of man of whom you had to take notice the moment he entered the room". Enrolments in the first year were healthy with 320 "single-study" students and a small contingent of full-time students, the first diploma graduations occurring four years later. A specialist high school, the Conservatorium High School was established in 1918, establishing a model for music education across the secondary, tertiary, and community sectors which has survived to this day.
Verbrugghen's impact was incisive but briefer than had been hoped. When he put a request to the NSW Government that he be paid separate salaries for his artistic work as conductor of the orchestra (by then the NSW State Orchestra) and educational work as director of the conservatorium, the government withdrew its subsidies for both the orchestra and the string quartet that Verbrugghen had installed. He resigned in 1921 after taking the Conservatorium Orchestra to Melbourne and to New Zealand.
The conservatorium was home to Australia's first full-time orchestra, composed of both professional musicians and conservatorium students. The orchestra remained Sydney's main orchestra for much of the 1920s, accompanying many artists brought to Australia by producer J. C. Williamson, including the violinist Jascha Heifetz, who donated money to the Conservatorium library for orchestral parts. However, during the later part of the stewardship of Verbrugghen's successor, W. Arundel Orchard (director 1923–34), there were tensions with another emerging professional body, the ABC Symphony Orchestra, later to become the Sydney Symphony Orchestra, driven by the young, ambitious and energetic Bernard Heinze, Director-General of Music for the federal government's new Australian Broadcasting Commission.
In 1935, under Edgar Bainton (director 1934–48), the Conservatorium Opera School was founded, later performing works such as Verdi's Falstaff and Otello, Wagner's Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg and Die Walküre, and Debussy's Pelléas et Mélisande, among others. Under Sir Eugene Goossens (Director 1948–55), opera at the conservatorium made a major contribution to what researcher Roger Covell has described as " the most seminal years in the history of locally produced opera...". Although the most prominent musician to have held the post of director, Goossens' tenure was not without controversy. Apart from the international scandal surrounding his departure in 1956, Goossens was said during his directorship to have channelled the best players in the Conservatorium Orchestra into the Sydney Symphony Orchestra (of which he was concurrently Chief Conductor), leaving only a student group for the Conservatorium. He disbanded the choir and several chamber ensembles and, some claimed, tended to ignore administrative matters. Richard Bonynge, however, who graduated in 1950, felt that it was Goossens who turned the Conservatorium into a world-class institution, lifting standards and exposing students to sophisticated 20th-century scores (particularly those of Debussy and Ravel).
Expansion and reforms
Under the direction of Rex Hobcroft (1972–82), the Conservatorium adopted the modern educational profile recognised today. Hobcroft's vision of a "Music University" was realised, in which specialised musical disciplines including both classical and jazz performance, music education, composition and musicology enriched each other.
In 1990, as part of the Dawkins Reforms, the Conservatorium amalgamated with the University of Sydney, and was renamed the Sydney Conservatorium of Music.
A 1994 review of the Sydney Conservatorium by the University of Sydney resulted in a recommendation that "negotiations with the NSW State Government about permanent suitable accommodation for the Conservatorium be pursued as a matter of urgency."
As in 1916, a wide range of sites were considered, many of them controversial. In May 1997, 180 years after Governor Macquarie laid the foundation stone for the Greenway Building, State Premier Bob Carr announced a major upgrade of the Conservatorium, with the ultimate goal of creating a music education facility equal to or better than any in the world. A team was assembled to work to that brief, resulting in a complex collaboration between various government departments (notably the Department of Education and Training and the Department of Public Works and Services), the Government Architect, US-based acoustic consultants Kirkegaard Associates, Daryl Jackson Robin Dyke Architects, the key users represented by the Principal and Dean of the Sydney Conservatorium of Music, and the Principal of the Conservatorium High School, the Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain Trust and many others.
Building description
The Conservatorium of Music is a large building designed in the Early Colonial Gothick Picturesque style. Located on the western edge of the Royal Botanic Gardens, the building was originally designed to be the stables for the new Government House that Governor Macquarie hoped to be the stables for the new Government House that Macquarie hoped but did not succeed in building. The stables were designed by Francis Greenway who was appointed as civil architect on 30 March 1816. Greenway may have taken some of his Gothic inspiration from his time working with John Nash in England, or from direction from Elizabeth Macquarie. Elizabeth's cousin had been an English pioneer of the Gothic Revival design and his work influenced her husband Governor Macquarie in his attempts to give the young colony some order and style.
The stables were designed as a castellated fort. As part of Macquarie's scheme was to transform Sydney into an attractive city, the stables were intended as part of a picturesque landscape suitable for a gentleman's residence that Macquarie envisaged around the Government House he wished to build. The construction is of masonry with a sandstone base below rendered walls. Squat towers mark the corners of the complex and divide the main elevation to mark the main entries to the building. The external walls are parapeted with battlement parapets. The parapets to the towers have stylised machicolations below the cornice.
Entries are through wide pointed arch openings on the north and south sides. Ground floor windows are pairs of three pane casement sashes below a topflight. Label moulds frame the top of the ground floor window openings. The first floor has smaller single sash windows, most directly below the cornice mouldings. Small single sash windows are in the towers. Some windows, probably the original and reconstructed windows have sandstone reveals and margins. Others have rendered reveals and margins. Some original sandstone reveals survive, primarily on the east side. The main entries to the former stables have pointed arch openings.
The two storey ranges of rooms were arranged around a central courtyard. A few weals on the courtyard side of these ranges survive notably on the south side where they are left unrendered. The central courtyard was infilled and roofed over in 1913-1915 to house an auditorium as part of the conversion for the Sydney Conservatorium of Music. The new infill is a largely independent structure from the stables with rendered masonry walls supporting a hipped roof with ventilation gables at the east and west ends and topped by copper clad lanterns. Copper gutters are used with copper rainwater heads marked with the date 1914. Internally the building retains the general plan of the original with an outer ring of rooms around a corridor. The Verbruggen Hall is at the centre of the plan.
Basement level additions in 2001 provide a landscaped court on the east and north sides of the building. A new entry structure to the south of the former stables building connects the original stables to the basement additions.
Archaeological evidence of the roadway that led from First Government House to the stables has been conserved in the 2001 entry structure to the south of the original building. A water storage cistern dating from the 1790s remains in situ and the foundations of a mill and bakery owned by John Palmer remain under the floor of the Verbrugghen Hall. A collection of artefacts unearthed during the restoration works is housed in the conservatorium. The collection and in situ archaeology constitute part of this listing.
Condition
Although converted into a Conservatorium, a good deal of original fabric remains in a fair to good condition. Archaeological investigations that accompanied recent additions were extensive and included deep excavation around the building. Although subject to alteration to fit it out as a Conservatorium, a good deal of the original fabric remains extant and it is still perfectly legible as an Old Colonial Gothic building. Internally some of the original surfaces remain visible, though most have been covered to fit it out as a Conservatorium.
Modifications and dates
Cantilevered awning added to the west side 1913-1915, removed 2001
Openings reconstructed 2001
Conservatorium extended with basement rooms and new entry on south side 2001
Upper floor openings in larger bays between towers added 2001
Verbrugghen Hall refitted 2001
West entry converted to window 2001
Extensive deep excavation around the Conservatorium for extensions and archaeological excavation 1998 - 2001 removed most of the archaeological evidence from the immediate surrounds of the site.
Further information
Although altered through conversion to a Conservatorium a good deal of original fabric remains and it is still perfectly legible as an Old Colonial Gothick building. Internally some of the original surfaces remain visible, though most have been covered to fit it out for its use as a Conservatorium.
Centenary commissions
To mark the centenary of the Conservatorium in 2015, it commissioned 101 new works, the spread designed to represent those who have shaped music over the past 100 years. The first work in the series was John Corigliano's Mr Tambourine Man, based on the poetry of Bob Dylan, which was presented on 11 September 2009.
Heads of the Conservatorium
The past directors, principals and deans were:
Notable alumni
Essie Ackland, contralto
Richard Bonynge, conductor
Alexander Briger, conductor
Tony Buck, member of band The Necks
David Butts, former member of The Hooley Dooleys
Jorja Chalmers, saxophone and keyboards
Romola Costantino, piano
Carl Crossin, conductor, director of the Elder Conservatorium
Iva Davies, frontman of band Icehouse
Tania Davis, member of band Bond
Bryan Fairfax, conductor
Richard Farrell, piano
Rhondda Gillespie, piano
Julian Hamilton, band member of The Presets, The Dissociatives and Silverchair
David Hansen, countertenor
Bernadette Harvey-Balkus, piano
Dominic Harvey, French horn, conductor
Michael Kieran Harvey, piano
Rowan Harvey-Martin, violin, conductor
Erin Holland, Miss World Australia 2013
Dulcie Holland, piano and composition
Bryce Jacobs, film composer and guitarist
Carmel Kaine, violin
Constantine Koukias, composition
Robert Lafferty (Roberto Romani), voice
Geoffrey Lancaster, fortepiano
Indra Lesmana, Indonesian Jazz musician
Cho-Liang Lin, violin
Stephanie McCallum, piano
Jade MacRae, voice
Anthony Maydwell, harp
Richard Meale, composition
Nicholas Milton, conductor
Sam Moran, former member of The Wiggles
James Morrison, trumpeter
Kim Moyes, band member of The Presets, The Dissociatives and Silverchair
Margaret Packham Hargrave, poet, writer
Geoffrey Parsons, piano
Geoffrey Payne, trumpet
Deborah Riedel, voice
Kathryn Selby, piano
Larry Sitsky, composition and piano
Rai Thistlethwayte, lead singer of Thirsty Merc
Katia Tiutiunnik, composer
Richard Tognetti, violin
Esme Tombleson (1917–2010), Member of Parliament in New Zealand, and multiple sclerosis advocate
Nathan Waks, cellist
Christopher Willcock, composer of liturgical music
Gerard Willems, piano
Kim Williams, composition, clarinet
Malcolm Williamson, composition and piano
Jamie Lee Wilson, singer-songwriter
Rowan Witt, theatre and film actor
Roger Woodward, piano, conductor
Simone Young, conductor
Notable teachers
Winifred Burston, piano
Edwin Carr, composition
George De Cairos Rego (1858-1946) piano
Richard Goldner, viola
Isador Goodman, piano
Alex Henery, double bass
Stephanie McCallum, piano
William Motzing, jazz
Robert Pikler, violin and viola
Goetz Richter, violin, Associate Professor and Chair of Strings
Nancy Salas, piano and harpsichord
Natalia Sheludiakova, piano
Lois Simpson, cello
Howie Smith, jazz
Alexa Still, flute
Alexander Sverjensky, piano
Ernest Truman
Mark Walton, woodwind, performance
Gordon Watson, piano
Fred Werner (active 1909-1915)
Wanda Wiłkomirska, violin
Gerard Willems, piano
Heritage listing
As at 15 July 2009, the Conservatorium of Music is of State Heritage significance because the former Government House Stables is a notable example of Old Colonial Gothick architecture. It is a rare surviving example of the work of noted ex-convict architect Francis Greenway in the Old Colonial Gothick style. Greenway was instrumental in Macquarie accomplishing Macquarie's aim to transforming the fledgling colony into an orderly, well-mannered society and environment. It is the only example of a gothic building designed by Greenway still standing. The cost and apparent extravagance was one of the reasons Macquarie was recalled to Britain.
The Conservatorium building also has strong associations with Macquarie's wife, Elizabeth, an influential figure in moulding the colony into a more ordered and stylish place under her husband and with the assistance of Greenway.
Since the building was converted for use as a Conservatorium in 1916, it has been the core music education institution in NSW and has strong associations with numerous important musicians.
Sydney Conservatorium of Music was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 14 January 2011 having satisfied the following criterion:
The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.
The Conservatorium of Music is of historic significance at a State level because when it was designed and built the building was a key element in Governor Lachlan Macquarie's grand vision to make Sydney into an attractive, well designed city. The design was a result of Macquarie's ideas with input from his wife Elizabeth and was executed by ex convict architect Frances Greenway. Greenway had a key role in implementing landmark elements of Macquarie's designs for churches and public buildings. The Stables was the first stage of Macquarie's plan for a New Government House and although this was not built, the Stables influenced the new Government House that was eventually built. After the building's conversion to the Conservatorium of Music it has been the principal music education institution in the State from 1916 onwards and continues to fulfil its role in the building originally modified for this purpose.
The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history.
The Conservatorium of Music is of State heritage significance through its association with Governor Lachlan Macquarie who commissioned the work, his wife Elizabeth who strongly influenced the design and ex convict architect Francis Greenway who designed the building. On 30 March 1816 Greenway was appointed as the colony's first "Civil Architect", the forerunning position to the Government Architect. In its role as the principal music education institution in NSW for many years it has strong and significant association with noted musicians and administrators such as Henry Verbrugghen and Eugene Goossens who were Directors of the Conservatorium.
The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.
The Conservatorium building is of aesthetic significance at a State level as it is a notable exemplar of the Old Colonial Gothick Picturesque style of architecture in Australia. In addition it is the only surviving example of this style of architecture designed by Francis Greenway. Its strong symmetry, battlemented parapet walls, squat towers, pointed arch and square headed openings, label moulded over windows make the building an aesthetically distinctive example of Old Colonial Gothick Picturesque style.
The substantial size of the building for a stable, the use of the picturesque style and its location on the edge of the Governor's Domain demonstrate the ambition of Governor Macquarie in creating order and style in the town of Sydney. Once complete and lacking its accompanying new Government House, it was a landmark "folly" in a managed landscape inspiring young artists and adding a touch of romance to a colony seen by British eyes as devoid of legend and antiquity.
The Conservatorium of Music continues to feature as a prominent landmark in the townscape and the Royal Botanic Gardens. It features as a focal point at the entry leading to Government House.
The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.
The Conservatorium of Music is of State heritage significance for its association with generations of noted Australian musicians. It was and continues to be a focus for musical activity attracting visiting performers to perform in the auditorium
The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.
The Conservatorium is of State heritage significance as its potential archaeological resource has not been exhausted despite extensive investigation. The results of archaeological investigations to date have revealed much about the early history and activity of the colony and many artefacts uncovered are displayed and interpreted in the new building.
The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.
Being the only surviving example of Francis Greenways design in the Old Colonial Gothic Picturesque style makes the Conservatorium of Music an rarity. It also appears to be the only extant stable block in the Sydney CBD which survives from the Macquarie period.
The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a class of cultural or natural places/environments in New South Wales.
The Conservatorium is of State heritage significance as a fine example of Old Colonial Gothic Picturesque and demonstrates the principal elements of this style in its strong symmetry, battlemented parapet walls, squat towers, pointed arch and square headed openings, label moulded over windows.
See also
Australian non-residential architectural styles
University of Sydney
References
Citations
Sources
Attribution
External links
Sydney Conservatorium of Music
Daryl Jackson Robin Dyke
[CC-By-SA]
1916 establishments in Australia
Education in Sydney
Music
Music schools in Australia
Culture of Sydney
Educational institutions established in 1916
New South Wales State Heritage Register sites located in the Sydney central business district
Gothic Revival architecture in Sydney
Government buildings in Sydney
Francis Greenway buildings
Stables
Articles incorporating text from the New South Wales State Heritage Register
Macquarie Street, Sydney
University of Sydney buildings | [
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222736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faust%20%28band%29 | Faust (band) | Faust (English: "fist") are a German rock band. Formed in 1971 in Wümme by producer and former music journalist Uwe Nettelbeck, the group was originally composed of Werner "Zappi" Diermaier (b.1949), Hans Joachim Irmler (b.1950), Arnulf Meifert, Jean-Hervé Péron (b.1949), Rudolf Sosna (b.1946 - d.1996) and Gunther Wüsthoff, working with engineer Kurt Graupner. Their work was oriented around dissonance, improvisation, and experimental electronic approaches, and would influence subsequent ambient and industrial music. They are considered a central act of West Germany's 1970s krautrock movement.
History
1971–75
Faust formed in 1971 in the rural setting of Wümme. They secured a recording contract with Polydor and soon began recording their debut, Faust, which sold poorly but received critical acclaim for its innovative approach and established a devoted fan base. Meifert was sacked shortly afterwards because, as Peron wrote in 2004, "he discussed things, because he had flat buttocks and an absolutely beautiful girlfriend, because he practised every day, because he always kept his room neat and woke up every morning to first wet a cloth he'd put in front of his room to keep the dirt out, because he played such a hard 4/4th that we had to travel into the tongue, ready to drop, ding dong is handsome top."
In 1972 the band recorded its second, slightly more accessible album So Far. Faust became one of the premier bands in the international appreciation of the genre that would eventually be known as krautrock.
Faust became one of the first acts to sign to Richard Branson's Virgin Records, who embarked on a marketing campaign somewhat daring for its time, aimed at introducing Faust to British record-buyers. The Faust Tapes was a cut-and-paste album, which spliced together a large number of bits and pieces from their extensive collection of private recordings not originally intended for release. Virgin issued it at the then price of a single, 48 pence. The Faust Tapes reportedly sold over 100,000 copies but its low price tag rendered it ineligible for a chart placing.
After collaborating with Tony Conrad on the album Outside the Dream Syndicate, Faust recorded Faust IV at Virgin's studios in England. The band broke up in 1975 after Virgin rejected its fifth album (some of the recordings later appeared on the Munich and Elsewhere album), but reissues of their recordings and various additional material through Chris Cutler's Recommended Records maintained a level of interest.
Faust experimented with the presentation of their early records. Their first album was originally released on clear vinyl, in a clear sleeve with an X-ray of a human fist silkscreened on the outer sleeve. Their second album, So Far, made extensive use of the color black, though inside the sleeve were sheets with a different illustration for each song. The Faust Tapes had a visually unsettling op art cover design by Bridget Riley, while that for Faust IV consisted of a series of blank music staves.
1975–present: breakup, "disappearance" and reunion
After Faust's breakup, the group's whereabouts were unknown; the Recommended Records catalogues talked about the group's "disappearance". The official Web site lists three concerts during the 1980s, and the "Patchwork" album, a compilation of outtakes, feature three snippets that were recorded in the 1980s, but apart from that, the group's activities between 1975 and 1990 remain shrouded in mystery.
In 1990 and 1992, members Irmler, Diermaier and Péron reunited for performances. In 1994, Faust toured the United States for the first time, with Péron and Diermaier assisted by Steven Wray Lobdell and with members of Sonic Youth as an opening act. Irmler did not participate in the 1994 US tour, but took a more active role after that, producing the groups' records and releasing them on his Klangbad label. He also compiled and edited the "Patchwork" remix album in 2002. Sosna's chronic alcoholism ended a brief reunion with Faust "after four or five exhausting days", and he died on 10 November 1996. Gunter Wüsthoff has not taken part in any of the reunions. They have continued to perform in various combinations and with various additional musicians ever since, with Diermaier always behind the drum kit.
In 1996, Diermaier and Péron met Olivier Manchion and Amaury Cambuzat from French group Ulan Bator. They performed for the first time together as "Collectif Met(z)" in November 1996 (this quartet became the basis of a later Faust line-up and this concert was part of a 2005 release). A few days after, Faust performed at the Garage in London and at the Transmusicales de Rennes, featuring Chris Cutler.
After two studio albums, Péron left the group in June 1997. From mid-1997 to 2004, Faust toured as Zappi W. Diermaier, Hans Joachim Irmler, Steven Wray Lobdell, Lars Paukstat and Michael Stoll, releasing many more studio and live albums.
Diermaier and "art-errorist" Péron reunited in 2005, when Zappi proposed that they start a "new" Faust together with Olivier Manchion and Amaury Cambuzat from Ulan Bator. Faust now exists in two completely different incarnations, both active and each reflecting different aspects of the original group. Uwe Nettelbeck died on 17 January 2007.
Diermaier/Péron's new Faust made their debut at the 2005 Art-Errorist Avant Garde festival in Schiphorst, Germany, where they also presented a new release entitled Collectif Met(z), a collection including concerts from 1996 and 2005 and unreleased solo songs. They also recorded Trial and Error, released on DVD in 2007 by the Fuenfundvierzig Label. This incarnation of the group has been extremely active, releasing several CD-Rs and DVD-Rs and touring extensively, including a very successful autumn 2005 UK tour, released in 2007 as ... In Autumn by Dirter. This release also features ex Henry Cow saxophonist/flautist Geoff Leigh, vocalist Lucianne Lassalle, poet Zoë Skoulding and the members of the Welsh group Ectogram. The trio of Diermaier, Péron and Cambuzat performed at a Rock in Opposition festival in France in April 2007. This trio lineup also recorded a new album entitled Disconnected which was mixed by Steven Stapleton and Colin Potter of Nurse with Wound. It was released to tie in with the 2007 Schiphorst Avant Garde festival in July 2007. C'est com... com... compliqué, the second album from these sessions was released in February 2009 on the Bureau B label.
A 2009 BBC documentary on Krautrock featured interview segments with Péron and Diermaier. In 2011, in collaboration with the British artists Geraldine Swayne and James Johnston, the duo recorded a new Faust studio album, Something Dirty.
In 2010, Faust with members Hans Joachim Irmler, Steven Wray Lobdell, Lars Paukstat, Michael Stoll and Jan Fride released a new studio album, Faust Is Last, which happened to be the last studio album by Irmler's Faust.
Collaborations
During the Wümme years, Diermaier, Péron and Wüsthoff played on Slapp Happy's first two albums, Sort Of (1972) and Acnalbasac Noom (1973) which were also produced by Uwe Nettelbeck. Slapp Happy's Peter Blegvad had played with Faust in Wümme and subsequently toured with them in the UK. That tour also featured Uli Trepte, who had performed with Guru Guru and Neu!.
In contrast with Slapp Happy's song-based music, in 1972 Diermaier, Péron and Sosna also collaborated with the violinist Tony Conrad on Outside the Dream Syndicate; the record was released in 1973 at a low price in the UK and was, at the time, one of the few available examples of drone-based minimalism. A live recording from a 1995 concert, entitled Outside the Dream Syndicate Alive featuring Tony Conrad, Zappi Diermaier & Jean-Hervé Péron of Faust and Jim O'Rourke was released in Autumn 2005.
Faust collaborated with New Jersey avant-garde hip-hop crew Dälek for the album Derbe Respect, Alder in 2004.
Jean-Hervé Péron collaborated with THEME and Zsolt Sores on a MLP called 'Poison Is (Not) The Word' released on the Lumberton Trading Company label in 2012, and in 2013 Faust recorded 'Live at Clouds Hill' with Omar Rodríguez-López.
Faust performed with Slapp Happy again in November 2016 at the Week-End festival in Cologne, Germany. The two groups also played together in February 2017 at Cafe Oto in London.
In December 2017, Faust recorded a one-off collaboration with erotic-electronic artist Natalie Sharp, aka Lone Taxidermist, as part of the BBC Radio 3 programme Late Junction's "Late Junction Sessions" series.
Discography
Studio albums
Collaborations
Outside the Dream Syndicate (1973) – collaboration with Tony Conrad
Derbe Respect, Alder (2004) – collaboration with Dälek
Outside the Dream Syndicate Alive (2005) – 1995 live collaboration with Tony Conrad
Disconnected (2007) – collaboration album with Nurse with Wound
Poison Is (Not) the Word (2012) – Jean-Herve Peron collaboration with THEME and Zsolt Sores
...Live at Clouds Hill (Vinylbox #3) (2013) – collaboration with Omar Rodríguez-López
Singles
"So Far" (1972) (re-issue in 2010)
"Chemical Imbalance" (1990)
"Überschall 1996" (1996) – split single with Stereolab and Foetus
"Trafics" (1997) – split single with La Kuizine
"Wir Brauchen Dich" (2001)
Compilations
Munic and Elsewhere (1986)
The Last LP: Faust Party No. 3, 1971–1972 (1988)
71 Minutes of Faust (1988) – compilation of material from the above two
Faust/Faust So Far (2000)
The Wumme Years: 1970–1973 (2000)
BBC Sessions + (2001)
Faust 1971–1974 (2021) – 8xCD or 7xLP box set (includes unreleased album Punkt)
Live albums, and other releases
Faust 5 (1975) – never officially released, it exists only in the form of a Virgin Records promotional cassette
Faust Concerts, Volume 1: Live in Hamburg, 1990 (1994)
Faust Concerts, Volume 2: Live in London, 1992 (1994)
BBC Sessions/Kisses for Pythagoras LP Lmt. Ed. (1996)
Untitled (1996) – compilation of live and studio material
Edinburgh 1997 [live] (1997)
Land of Ukko & Rauni [live] (2000)
Freispiel (2002) – remixes of Ravviviando
Patchwork 1971–2002 (2002) – compilation of remixed and unreleased material
Abzu (2003) – 4 CDs box with interviews and unreleased, live, solo and remixed tracks
Collectif Met(z) (2005) – 3 CDs box + video CD
Silver Monk Time (2006) – tribute album to The Monks by various artists; Faust contribute one track
Live in Krakow 2006 (2007)
... In Autumn (2007) – 3 CDs box + 1 DVD, recorded 2005
Od Serca Do Duszy [live] (2007) – 2xCD
Kleine Welt [live] (2008) – Hans Joachim Irmler's Faust, recorded 2006
Schiphorst 2008 [live] (2009) – recorded at the Schiphorst Festival
Clouds Hill Hamburg Studio Sessions 2009 (2009) – CDR of rehearsals, recorded February 2009
Live in Oslo (2009) – CDR
WFMU Fest in Brooklyn [live] (2010) – recorded 1 October 2009
Radical Mix (2012) – CDR, remix
Films
Impressions (2006) – DVD
Trial and Error (2007) – DVD, recorded 2005
Faust: Nobody Knows If It Ever Happened (2007) – DVD on Ankst (live at The Garage, London, 1996)
Klangbad: Avant-garde in the Meadows (2010) – DVD on Play Loud! Productions, Hans Joachim Irmler's Faust
Faust: Live at Klangbad Festival (2010) – DVD on Play Loud! Productions, Hans Joachim Irmler's Faust
Faust: Where Roads Cross (2013) – DVD on 6ème Droite – (More info here: http://6emedroite.com/DVD-Faust-Where-Roads-Cross)
Romantic Warriors IV: Krautrock (2019)
Further reading
Faust: Stretch Out Time 1970–1975. Andy Wilson. Mute / The Faust-Pages, 2006. .
Krautrocksampler. Julian Cope. Head Heritage 1997
The Wumme Years: 1970–1973 – accompanying booklet 2000
References
External links
The Faust Pages
jean-hervé péron
zappi diermaier
hans-joachim irmler
Video Report on OC-TV.net
Gunther Wüsthoff
"Interview: Krautrock legends Faust", The Guardian, 18 October 2021
German experimental musical groups
Krautrock musical groups
Musical groups established in 1971
Virgin Records artists | [
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222737 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane%20Siberry | Jane Siberry | Jane Siberry ( ; ; born 12 October 1955) is a Canadian singer-songwriter, known for such hits as "Mimi on the Beach", "I Muse Aloud", "One More Colour" and "Calling All Angels". She performed the theme song to the television series Maniac Mansion. She has released material under the name Issa ( ) – an identity (as opposed to a simple stagename) which she used formally between 2006 and 2009.
On 30 August 2005, Siberry was awarded the 2005 Victor Martyn Lynch-Staunton Award in music by the Canada Council for the Arts.
Career history
Childhood and early years
Jane Stewart was born in Toronto in 1955 and was raised in the suburb of Etobicoke. She would take her subsequent surname, "Siberry", from the family name of her maternal aunt and uncle. Many years later, she would explain this choice by stating "this woman and her husband were the first couple I met where I could feel the love between them and I held that in front of me as a reference point."
Siberry learned piano from the age of four, predominantly teaching herself and developing her own concepts of notation and structure. At school she learned conventional music theory (as well as French horn) and taught herself to play guitar by working through Leonard Cohen songs. Her first song was completed at the age of seventeen, although she had been developing song ideas since much earlier.
Following high-school graduation from Richview Collegiate in Etobicoke, Ontario, and then the Canadian Junior College, Lausanne, Switzerland, Siberry moved on to study music at the University of Guelph, later switching to microbiology (in which she gained a BSc degree) when she found freshman music courses to be stifling. She began performing in folk clubs in Guelph, linking up first with singer Wendy Davis and then with bass guitarist John Switzer in a group called Java Jive.
First three albums and Canadian success (1979–1986)
Following the split of Java Jive in 1979, Siberry maintained both a musical and a romantic relationship with John Switzer (who would work with her on her first four records). On leaving university, she supported her work as a solo performer by working as a waitress, earning enough to finance and tour her debut album, the folk-influenced Jane Siberry, which was released in 1981 on Duke Street Records. The album was relatively successful for an independent release, enabling Siberry to sign a three-album deal with A&M Records via the Windham Hill label. As part of the deal, Siberry was able to release her albums on Duke Street Records in Canada while Windham Hill handled American release and distribution.
Assembling a backing band of Switzer, guitarist Ken Myhr, keyboard players Doug Wilde and Jon Goldsmith, and drummer Al Cross, Siberry recorded her second album No Borders Here (released in 1984) for which she mostly abandoned the folk approach in favour of electronic art-pop. This coincided with a growth in support of new wave and independent music within Canadian broadcast media, including the Toronto radio station CFNY and the video channel MuchMusic. Both of these became keen supporters of Siberry and put her onto high playlist rotation.
Siberry's first hit was the No Borders Here track "Mimi on the Beach" – a seven-and-a-half-minute art-rock single which benefited from the art-friendly broadcast support at the time (and from its video made by Siberry and friends). Both factors earned it heavy MuchMusic and college radio play. Two further singles with videos – "You Don't Need" and "I Muse Aloud" – consolidated the success. No Borders Here sold 40,000 copies and won Siberry a CASBY award for best female vocalist, as well as giving her first opportunity to play live in New York.
Siberry's third album, The Speckless Sky (1985), continued her art-pop approach. It was another commercial and critical success, going gold in Canada by selling over 100,000 units and establishing Siberry as a Canadian pop star. The album provided another hit single, "One More Colour" (with a video featuring Siberry walking a cow) and won the 1985 CASBY for best album, with Siberry also picking up the award for best producer. In 1986 Siberry signed with Warner Brothers subsidiary Reprise Records, which picked up her American contract from Windham Hill, while honouring the existing Canadian arrangement with Duke Street Records.
Reprise Records period
The Walking and Bound By the Beauty (1987–1992)
For her fourth album (her first for Reprise) Siberry created The Walking. Released in 1988, it contained a set of intricately structured songs, many of which were lengthy and shifted between narrative viewpoints and characters. Many of the songs dealt with romantic collapse and miscommunication, partially inspired by Siberry's breakup with John Switzer (which happened during the writing and recording of the album). She was marketed as part of the "high art" end of rock music, alongside artists such as Kate Bush or Peter Gabriel. Siberry embarked on a tour of Europe and the United States to promote The Walking. This included her first European performance, which took place at the ICA in London.
In spite of the efforts of both label and artist, The Walking was ultimately less of a commercial success than The Speckless Sky, with Siberry failing to make her mainstream breakthrough. Although the album met with the same critical interest and attention as its predecessor, reviews were noticeably harsher and less welcoming. As well, the album was considered unsuitable by broadcasters for radio airplay, despite the presence of several shorter and more accessible tracks on the album (both the title track and a shorter edit of "Ingrid and the Footman" were released as singles but failed to make an impact).
Despite this setback, Reprise retained Siberry's contract, even taking over the Canadian side of the distribution for her next album, 1989's Bound by the Beauty. Siberry moved towards more simple and direct song forms, jettisoning electronic art-pop in favour of more acoustic styles drawing on country and western and Latin music. While retaining her quirkier conceptual approach, the album's song themes were generally more lighthearted than those of The Walking. Prior to the album's release, Siberry toured various folk festivals (in a duo format with Ken Mhyr on guitar) to reposition herself in the market; Bound by the Beauty had better record sales, and appeared on the RPM Top 100 Albums chart in 1989. In 1990, she embarked on a 50-date tour of Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Britain, the United States and Canada.
By 1991, Siberry had completed demos for her next album: however, this was scrapped when neither Reprise nor Siberry herself were happy with the results, which were deemed too much like Bound by the Beauty. In 1992, during the wait for a new record, Reprise released a Siberry compilation album called Summer in the Yukon for the UK market. This focussed primarily on her more pop-oriented side and featured a remix of the Bound by the Beauty track "The Life is the Red Wagon" with a new dance-friendly rhythm track.
When I Was a Boy and Maria (1993–1996)
Siberry's sixth album, When I Was a Boy, was completed in 1993 after a three-year writing and recording period during which she'd undergone changes in her personal life and in her musical approach. For the first time she chose to share album production responsibilities with other musicians – in this case Michael Brook and Brian Eno, both of whom also contributed instrumental work to the album. During the recording period, she had also confronted and overcome a longstanding alcohol addiction. She would later consider the music on the record to be more liberated, featuring what she described as "more body in it, more sexual energy... it's about the sacred aspects of sexuality, and finally being able to embrace them and not, em, (just) be an observer anymore."
In contrast to its predecessor, When I Was a Boy was influenced by funk, dance and gospel music and featured extensive use of layering and sampler technology, in line with developments in latterday pop music, trip-hop and R'n'B. It also featured what would become Siberry's best-known song, "Calling All Angels" (a duet with k.d. lang which had first appeared as part of the soundtrack to Wim Wenders' Until the end of the World and as a track on Summer in the Yukon; it was later re-recorded for the Pay It Forward soundtrack). Other contributors on the album included Canadian singers Holly Cole and Rebecca Jenkins and (for the last time) regular guitarist Ken Mhyr. The album introduced the more spiritually-oriented themes that became a hallmark of Siberry's later work and launched three singles – "Calling All Angels", "Sail Across the Water" and "Temple".
Prior to the release of When I Was a Boy, Siberry performed in Edinburgh as the opening act for Mike Oldfield's premiere of Tubular Bells 2. She met with a disastrous rejection by the audience. Initially, Siberry was devastated (later describing herself as having "cried for two weeks") and had to make a serious reassessment of her perspective on her work. From this point onwards, she chose to reclaim her art for herself and decided "I took back all the power back that I had put outside myself trying to please (others). The worst show of my life has become the best show because it's given me the ultimate freedom to care only about what I think is really good. How my career does is secondary."
Siberry would subsequently reassert full control over all areas of her work, from songwriting to stage presentation and video direction. For her promotional tour for When I Was a Boy – which she called "The It Ain't a Concert Concert", she opted not to use a band and instead performed solo, encouraging audience interaction and including spoken-word material (to the puzzlement of critics).
Later in 1993, Siberry collaborated with Holly Cole, Rebecca Jenkins, Mary Margaret O'Hara and Victoria Williams on a live concert of Christmas music, which was broadcast on CBC Radio on Christmas Day that year before being released in 1994 as the album Count Your Blessings.
During 1994 Siberry recorded sporadically, without constructing a new album. She came to the attention of a new audience when her song "It Can't Rain All the Time" was included on the soundtrack for the movie The Crow; time spent with Peter Gabriel at Real World Studios resulted in three more songs (not released for another seven years) and she sang on the Indigo Girls album Swamp Ophelia.
Siberry's next release was another complete change of direction. In contrast to the intricate studio production of When I Was a Boy, Maria (released in 1995) featured a more jazz-inspired direction with live acoustic instrumentation and approaches similar to Van Morrison's Astral Weeks. The basic tracks to the album were recorded in three days flat by a group featuring Tim Ray (pianist for jazz band Orange then Blue), Betty Carter's double bass player Christopher Thomas, top jazz session drummer Brian Blade and trumpeter David Travers-Smith (with Siberry playing electric guitar and singing). She edited and reworked the recorded material into fully realized songs, most of which featured various perspectives on innocence. The album also featured a 20-minute extended conceptual work called "Oh My My". Siberry took this new band on tour across Canada and the United States and professed herself pleased with the results, but Reprise Records were less pleased with the album sales.
After Maria, Siberry parted company with Reprise Records, later stating "they wanted me to work with a producer and that severed any sense of loyalty. I realized they truly didn't understand what I was doing... so I took my leave."
Sheeba Records period
New York period (1996–1997)
In 1996, Siberry founded her own Toronto-based independent label, Sheeba Records, on which she has released all of her subsequent material. Although her public profile became lower once she became an independent artist, she retained a devoted cult following. Her first Sheeba release was Teenager (1996), an album of songs which she had originally written during her teenage years and which she had recorded during the Maria sessions (taking advantage of the fact that the sessions had been completed with studio time left over). Leaving the Sheeba Records office to continue its work in Toronto, Siberry herself then relocated to New York City in search of new inspiration.
In 1996, she performed four concerts at the city's famous Bottom Line jazz club – all of which were recorded and released on a set of live albums between 1997 and 1999, collectively known as the "New York City Trilogy". The first of these was 1997's Child: Music for the Christmas Season, a double album which combined Christmas standards and carols (such as "O Holy Night" and "In the Bleak Midwinter") and original Siberry songs containing religious imagery (such as "An Angel Stepped Down...")
Siberry had also demonstrated the greater creative freedom she had as an independent recording artist via her other 1997 album, A Day in the Life. This was her most unconventional release to date – although it did feature song excerpts, it was predominantly a sound collage representation of a typical day's experience by Siberry in New York. The album was filled with recordings of yoga classes, phone messages and street sounds; and featured conversations and exchanges with a wide variety of people – cab drivers, friends, fellow students and Siberry's then-current musical collaborators Patty Larkin, Joe Jackson, k.d. lang and Darol Anger.
Also in 1997, Siberry's former label Reprise Records released a second compilation album of her work, A Collection 1984–1989, aimed at the Canadian and American markets, and drew from the whole range of Siberry's output prior to When I Was a Boy.
Toronto period (1997–2005)
With Sheeba running into financial problems, Siberry left New York, returned to Toronto and reestablished her label as a one-woman operation (handling everything from songwriting to envelope-stuffing). To finance Sheeba, she also began to experiment with what were then seen as unorthodox promotional ideas, such as the weekend-long "Siberry Salons" (a concert-cum-seminar featuring two performances plus a workshop and dinner, which were hosted at intimate and unusual venues such as art galleries and loft apartments). Sheeba now also sold soft toys and auctioned off collectible career-related items such as signed lyric sheets, her first guitar and even the pink bra which she had worn on the cover of Maria.
Siberry took two years to restore Sheeba's precarious fortunes, during which she kept busy. Her first book of prose-poems, S W A N, was published by Sheeba in 1998, the same year that she toured as one of the acts on the female-oriented "Suffragette Sessions" tour, alongside Indigo Girls, Lisa Germano and members of Luscious Jackson and the Breeders. A second book, One Room Schoolhouse, followed in 1999. In the same year, Siberry released the second and third volumes of the New York concert recordings. Lips: Music for Saying It was based around themes of communication (and included a "Mimi"-sung riposte to 1984's "Mimi on the Beach"). Tree: Music for Films and Forests documented a concert in which Siberry had sung songs linked by the concept of trees, as well as adding a couple of songs she'd contributed to film scores. The complete trilogy was reissued as a three album box set the same year.
Siberry's tenth studio album, Hush was released in 2000. This was a predominantly acoustic record consisting entirely of cover versions in which Siberry explored traditional American and Celtic folk and gospel songs such as "Jacobs Ladder", "Ol' Man River" and "Streets of Laredo". She released a third book via Sheeba in 2000, New Year's Baby. The following year's City album compiled various non-album tracks, rarities and collaborations between Siberry and other musicians. As well as providing another home for "Calling All Angels", the album included work with Nigel Kennedy, Peter Gabriel, Hector Zazou and Joe Jackson and featured "All the Pretty Ponies" (a children's song which Siberry had contributed to the Barney's Big Adventure soundtrack).
In 2002, Love is Everything: The Jane Siberry Anthology was released on Rhino Records: a double-CD album combining material from her Duke Street, Reprise and Sheeba eras and summarizing the first twenty-one years of her career. This was followed in 2003 by Shushan the Palace: Hymns of Earth – another Christmas-themed album of cover versions. This time, Siberry performed her own interpretations of liturgical Christmas hymns by various classical and Romantic composers including Mendelssohn, Bach, Holst and Handel.
Despite her apparent productivity, Siberry was continuing to find her independent career and business efforts to be challenging and problematic. The live albums were in part an inexpensive tactic to enable her to gain resources to record her original work. She would later confess "I really thought it was going to be much, much easier. The whole label thing. It wasn't. Those records, Shushan and Hush, were to pay for studio time."
"Issa" period (2006–2009)
Early in 2006, Siberry closed her Sheeba office, then auctioned and sold nearly all of her possessions via eBay – including her Toronto home and her musical instruments. She retained one travelling guitar, but none of the other instruments featured on her albums and in her concerts. In 2006, she told The Globe and Mail that she had kept a very few precious possessions, including her Miles Davis CDs, in storage.
On 3 June 2006, somewhere in northwestern Europe, Siberry changed her name to Issa: revealing this change of identity to the public a couple of weeks later on 24 June 2006. She told The Globe and Mail that she chose the name Issa as a feminine variant of Isaiah. She stated that her older music would remain available for sale under the name "Jane Siberry", but her new material would be released as Issa.
At the time she also stated, regarding the change of identity, "I had to do it right. I had to be serious about it and I had to convey that. When I put Jane away, I went silent for 24 hours. Not a word to anyone. And then Issa from that point on."
Later she would describe the process of choosing a new identity in terms of changing her writing approach – "Moving into Issa, I didn't know if I'd be in the music business any more. I just started writing. I wanted to let go of any expectations and just try to get closer to what I heard in my head... I just tried to write as precisely as I could to what I heard in my head. I slowed everything down and took one note at a time, and just waited until I heard the next note." The process was evidently successful, resulting in thirty-three songs written in thirty-three days.
On 4 July 2006, Issa gave a lecture at University of British Columbia in Vancouver on the topic of "Cracking the Egg: A Look from the Inside". She began with a poetic meditation on science and life, and then opened the floor up to questions from the audience. She talked about her recent adventures in decommodifying her life, her change in name, and her new conception of herself as an artist. Over 2006 and 2007, she documented the process of recording some thirty new songs in her journal, posted on her MySpace page and on her new website.
In autumn 2008 Issa finalized the ideas for a trilogy of albums to be called the "Three Queens" sequence. The first of these – Dragon Dreams – was the debut Issa release, on 12 December 2008. As with the previous Jane Siberry material, it was released on Sheeba: Issa had retained the label despite slimming down its operations. In 2009, Issa released the second album in the "Three Queens" trilogy, With What Shall I Keep Warm? However, it was plain that her identity was no longer fixed, as both of the names she'd used as a musician – "Issa" and "Jane Siberry" – were included on the cover. In December 2009, she notified her fans that she had recently changed her name from Issa back to Jane Siberry, feeling that the process of working under a different name had run its course.
Later work (2010–present)
Inspired by the dichotomy between frequent e-mails from devoted international fans asking her to play a concert in their city and her difficulty in finding a suitable concert promoter, Siberry launched a "microtour" through her fan mailing list in 2010, in which she offered to play small venues – ranging from intimate cafés to fans' own homes – in any location in Europe where one or more fans could organize a space, an audience of about 20 to 30 people and a night of accommodation.
In May 2010, Siberry made her entire back catalogue of music available as free downloads in MP3 and AIFF formats. She had previously employed a flexible pricing policy, stating "I started feeling weird about holding back anything people wanted because of the money. It just felt wrong to my stomach, so I made a flexible interface so people could take it with whatever reasoning they felt was right, and I didn't have to worry about it any more."
In March 2011, Siberry advised her fans through her mailing list that the third album of the "Three Queens" trilogy was almost ready (having been "nearly completed" several times before), and that she intended to release a fourth disc as part of the collection. The album, Meshach Dreams Back, was released later in 2011 and was the first album to be credited to "Jane Siberry" for eight years.
In 2014 Siberry used crowdfunding to raise funds to produce Ulysses' Purse, a limited edition CD. Siberry is featured in the Corey Hart single "10,000 Horses", which was released on 8 April 2014.
Musical style and commercial approach
Siberry's music is most commonly compared to artists such as Laura Nyro, Joni Mitchell, Kate Bush, Toyah Wilcox, Anna Domino, Suzanne Vega and Laurie Anderson. She has drawn from a wide variety of styles, ranging from new wave rock on her earlier albums to a reflective pop style influenced by jazz, folk, gospel, classical and liturgical music in her later work. She has cited Van Morrison and Miles Davis as being strong creative influences.
Siberry has often criticized the competitive power of commercial radio and the recording industry. In 2005, she pioneered a self-determined pricing policy through her website on which the purchaser is given the choices of: standard price (about US$0.99/track); pay now, self-priced; pay later, self-priced; or "a gift from Jane". In an interview with The Globe and Mail, Siberry confirmed that since she had instituted the self-determined pricing policy, the average income she receives per song from Sheeba customers is in fact slightly more than standard price.
Personal life
Siberry is a vegetarian.
Discography
Albums
Studio albums
Jane Siberry (1981)
No Borders Here (1984)
The Speckless Sky (1985)
The Walking (1987)
Bound by the Beauty (1989)
When I Was a Boy (1993)
Maria (1995)
Teenager (1996)
A Day in the Life (1997)
Hush (2000)
Shushan the Palace: Hymns of Earth (2003)
Dragon Dreams (as Issa) (2008)
With What Shall I Keep Warm? (as Issa/Jane Siberry) (2009)
Meshach Dreams Back (2011)
Ulysses' Purse (2016)
Angels Bend Closer (2016)
Live albums
Count Your Blessings (1994, live, performances by Jane Siberry, Holly Cole, Rebecca Jenkins, Mary Margaret O'Hara and Victoria Williams)
Child: Music for the Christmas Season (1997, live)
Lips: Music for Saying It (1999, live)
Tree: Music for Films and Forests (1999, live)
Compilations
Summer in the Yukon (1992) – UK-only "best of"
A Collection 1984-1989 (1995) – North American "best-of"
New York City Trilogy (1999) – 4-CD box set of live albums '"Tree'", '"Child'" and '"Lips"'
City (2001) – Collaborations, non-album tracks and rarities
Love is Everything: The Jane Siberry Anthology (2002) – 2-CD "best of", 1981–2002
Chart singles
Siberry has placed three singles in the Canadian RPM Hot 100:
"Mimi on the Beach" (1984) – No. 68
"One More Colour" (1985) – No. 27
"Sail Across the Water" (1993) – No. 66
Two other tracks made RPM's Adult Contemporary charts:
"Map of the World (Part II)" (1986) – No. 17
"Calling All Angels" (1992) – No. 9
Compilation albums
Siberry has also contributed tracks to a number of movie soundtracks and compilation albums:
Until the end of the World, 1991 ("Calling All Angels")
Kick at the Darkness, 1991 ("A Long Time Love Song", duet with Martin Tielli)
Toys, 1992 ("Happy Workers (reprise)")
The Crow, 1994 ("It Can't Rain All the Time")
Faraway, So Close, 1994 ("Slow Tango")
Chansons des mers froides, 1994 ("She's Like A Swallow")
Time and Love: The Music of Laura Nyro, 1997 ("When I Think of Laura Nyro")
Women Like Us: Lesbian Favorites, 1997 ("Temple")
Pay It Forward, 1998 ("Calling All Angels")
Care Bears: Journey to Joke-a-lot, 2004 ("With All Your Heart")
Whatever: The '90s Pop & Culture Box, 2005 ("Calling All Angels")
Covers
Two Nice Girls recorded a country/folk cover of "Follow Me" on their 1989 debut album 2 Nice Girls.
Her song "One More Colour" was covered by Sarah Polley on the 1997 soundtrack to The Sweet Hereafter, and by the Rheostatics on their Introducing Happiness album.
K.D. Lang covered "The Valley" and "Love Is Everything" on her album Hymns of the 49th Parallel.
Alice covered "Calling All Angels" on her album God Is My DJ in 1999.
Rock Plaza Central covered "You Don't Need"; and "Calling All Angels" was covered by The Wailin' Jennys in 2009.
The late Kevin Gilbert recorded a piano version of her song "The Taxi Ride" which appears on the posthumously-released album Bolts, a collection of unreleased material from Gilbert's career released in 2009.
Steven Page with the Art of Time Ensemble recorded The Taxi Ride on the 2009 release A Singer Must Die.
Guest performances
She sings on Bob Wiseman's 1991 Presented By Lake Michigan Soda. She sings "The Bridge" on the Joe Jackson album Heaven & Hell.
Jane sang backing vocals on the 2003 Emmylou Harris album Stumble into Grace .
References
External links
Jane Siberry on Sheeba Records
Issalight.com Siberry's website ca. 2006–2007.
1955 births
Living people
Reprise Records artists
Canadian women singer-songwriters
Canadian singer-songwriters
Musicians from Guelph
Musicians from Toronto
University of Guelph alumni
Feminist musicians
Women new wave singers
Canadian women pop singers
20th-century Canadian women singers
21st-century Canadian women singers | [
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222740 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flesh | Flesh | Flesh is any aggregation of soft tissues of an organism. Various multicellular organisms have soft tissues that may be called "flesh". In mammals, including humans, flesh encompasses muscles, fats and other loose connective tissues, but sometimes excluding non-muscular organs (liver, lung, spleen, kidney) and typically discarded parts (hard tendon, brain tissue, intestines, etc.). In a culinary context, consumable animal flesh is called meat.
In particular animal groups such as vertebrates, molluscs and arthropods, the flesh is distinguished from tougher body structures such as bone, shell and scute, respectively. In plants, the "flesh" is the juicy, edible structures such as the mesocarp of fruits and melons as well as soft tubers, rhizomes and taproots, as opposed to tougher structures like nuts and stems. In fungi, flesh refers to trama, the soft, inner portion of a mushroom, or fruit body.
A more restrictive usage may be found in some contexts, such as the visual arts, where flesh may refer only to visibly exposed human skin, as opposed to parts of the body covered by clothing and hair. Flesh as a descriptor for colour usually refers to the non-melanated pale or pinkish skin colour of white humans, however, it can also be used to refer to the colour of any human skin.
In Christian religious circles, the flesh is a metaphor associated with carnality.
Gallery
References
Tissues (biology)
Vertebrate anatomy
Art history | [
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222745 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participle | Participle | In linguistics, a participle () (from Latin a "sharing, partaking") is a nonfinite verb form that has some of the characteristics and functions of both verbs and adjectives. More narrowly, participle has been defined as "a word derived from a verb and used as an adjective, as in a laughing face".
“Participle” is a traditional grammatical term from Greek and Latin that is widely used for corresponding verb forms in European languages and analogous forms in Sanskrit and Arabic grammar.
Cross-linguistically, participles may have a range of functions apart from adjectival modification. In European and Indian languages, the past participle is used to form the passive voice. In English, participles are also associated with periphrastic verb forms (continuous and perfect) and are widely used in adverbial clauses. In non-Indo-European languages, ‘participle’ has been applied to forms that are alternatively regarded as converbs (see Sireniki Eskimo below), gerunds, gerundives, transgressives, and nominalised verbs in complement clauses. As a result, ‘participles’ have come to be associated with a broad variety of syntactic constructions.
Etymology
The word participle comes from classical Latin , from 'sharing, participation', because it shares certain properties of verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. The Latin grammatical term is a calque of the Greek grammatical term 'participation, participle'.
In particular, Greek and Latin participles agree with the nouns that they modify in gender, number and case, but are also conjugated for tense and voice and can take prepositional and adverbial modifiers.
The linguistic term, past participle, was coined circa 1798 based on its participial form, whose morphology equates to the regular form of preterite verbs. The term, present participle, was first used circa 1864 to facilitate grammatical distinctions. Despite the taxonomical use of "past" and "present" as associated with the aforementioned participles, their respective semantic use can entail any tense, regardless of aspect, depending on how they are structurally combined.
Forms
Some languages have extensive participial systems but English has only two participial forms, most commonly termed:
past participle, which is regularly formed with an -ed suffix (e.g. looked, ended, tutored) but has numerous irregular forms (e.g. broken, made, understood); and
present participle, which is formed with an -ing suffix (e.g. breaking, making, understanding).
Some grammars further distinguish passive participles as often associated with passive voice versus active participles as often associated with e.g. the present progressive tense, but such linguistic distinctions are neither recognized nor employed on a universal basis.
Types of participle
Participles can be used adjectivally (i.e. without characteristics of canonical verbs) as attributive adjectives. They then take neither object complements nor modifiers that are typical of canonical verbs, but they are capable of being modified by adverbs such as very or slightly. The difference is illustrated by the following examples:
The subject interesting him at the moment is Greek history.
Greek history is a very interesting subject.
In the first sentence interesting functions transitively as a nonfinite verb that takes the object him, thereby forming the phrase interesting him, which constitutes an adjectival phrase modifying subject. In the second sentence interesting functions non-transitively; it instead acts as a prepositive adjective that can be modified by typical adverbs such as very or quite (or a prefix such as un-). Similar examples are "interested people", "a frightened rabbit", "fallen leaves", "meat-eating animals".
Participles are often used to form certain grammatical tenses or grammatical aspects. The two types of participle in Modern English are termed present participle and past participle, respectively (often also referred to as the -ing form and -ed/-en form). The traditional terms are misleading because the participles do not necessarily correspond to tense: the present participle is often associated with the progressive (continuous) aspect, while the past participle is linked with the perfect aspect or passive voice. See the examples below:
They were just standing there.
By the time you get home I will have cleaned the house.
The first sentence is in the past tense (were) , but a present participle expresses the progressive aspect (be standing). The second sentence is in the future tense (will), but a past participle is used for the perfect aspect (have cleaned).
Participles may also be identified with a particular voice: active or passive. Some languages (such as Latin and Russian) have distinct participles for active and passive uses. In English, the present participle is essentially an active participle, while the past participle has both active and passive uses.
The following examples illustrate this:
I saw John eating his dinner. (Here eating is an active present participle).
The bus has gone. (Here gone is an active past participle).
The window was broken with a rock. (Here broken is a passive past participle)
Some languages differentiate adjectival participles and adverbial participles. An adverbial participle (or a participial phrase/clause based on such a participle) plays the role of an adverbial (adverb phrase) in the sentence in which it appears, whereas an adjectival participle (or a participial phrase/clause based on one) plays the role of an adjective phrase. Such languages include Russian and other Slavic languages, Hungarian, and many Eskimo languages, such as Sireniki, which has a sophisticated participle system. Details can be found in the sections below or in the articles on the grammars of specific languages.
Grammatical descriptions vary in the way these are treated. Some descriptive grammars treat such adverbial and adjectival participles as distinct lexical categories, while others include them both in a single category of participles. Adverbial participles in certain languages may be called converbs, gerunds, or gerundives (though this is not consistent with the meanings of the terms gerund or gerundive as normally applied to English or Latin), or transgressives.
Indo-European languages
Germanic languages
Early English
In Old English, past participles of Germanic strong verbs were marked with a ge- prefix, as are most strong and weak past participles in Dutch and German today, and often by a vowel change in the stem. Those of weak verbs were marked by the ending -d, with or without an epenthetic vowel before it. Modern English past participles derive from these forms (although the ge- prefix, which became y- in Middle English, has now been lost — except in some rare dialects such as the Dorset dialect, where it takes the form of a-).
Old English present participles were marked with an ending in -ende (or -iende for verbs whose infinitives ended in -ian).
Middle English
In Middle English, the form of the present participle varied across regions: -ende (southwest, southeast, Midlands), -inde (southwest, southeast), -and (north), -inge (southeast). The last is the one that became standard, falling together with the suffix -ing used to form verbal nouns. See -ing (etymology).
Modern English
Modern English includes two traditional terms for its participles:
The present participle, also sometimes called the active, imperfect, or progressive participle, takes the ending -ing, for example doing, seeing, working, running, breaking, understanding. It is identical in form to the verbal noun and gerund (see below). The term present participle is sometimes used to include the gerund; the term "gerund–participle" is also used to indicate the verb form.
The past participle, also sometimes called the passive or perfect participle, is identical to the past tense form (ending in -ed) in the case of regular verbs, for example "loaded", "boiled", "mounted", but takes various forms in the case of irregular verbs, such as done, sung, written, broken, understood, put, gone, etc.
In addition, various compound participles can be formed, such as having done, being done, having been doing, having been done.
Details of participle formation can be found under English verbs and List of English irregular verbs.
Participles, or participial phrases (clauses) formed from them, are used as follows:
1. As an adjective used in an attributive sense:
A broken window (i.e., one that has been broken)
An interesting book (i.e., one that interests)
An exciting adventure (i.e., one that excites)
The attached files (i.e., those that are attached)
A fallen tree (i.e., one that has fallen)
Our fallen comrades (i.e., those who have fallen)
Additionally, participles that express an adjectivally attributive meaning can be affixed to form adverbs, such as interestingly and excitedly.
2. In postpositive phrases. These are often regarded as functioning as a reduced relative clause:
A window broken by the wind (A window that was broken by the wind).
A woman wearing a red hat (A woman who was wearing a red hat).
The man standing over there is my uncle (The man who is standing over there is my uncle).
We are a people clamoring for freedom (We are a people who are clamoring for freedom).
3. In an adverbial phrase. In the following, the subject is understood to be the same as that of the main clause:
Reviewing her bank statement, Ann started to cry (While she reviewed her bank statement, Ann started to cry).
Having reviewed the bank statement, Ann started to cry (After she reviewed her bank statement, Ann started to cry).
He shot the man, killing him (He shot the man and killed him).
Maintained properly, wooden buildings can last for centuries (If/when they are maintained properly, wooden buildings can last for centuries).
With a different subject, placed before the participle:
He and I having reconciled our differences, the project then proceeded smoothly (Because/after he and I had reconciled our differences, the project proceeded smoothly). (This is known as the nominative absolute construction.)
More generally as a clause or sentence modifier:
Broadly speaking, the project was successful. (See also dangling participle.)
4. Participles are used to form periphrastic verb tenses:
The present participle forms the progressive aspect with the auxiliary verb be:
Jim was sleeping.
The past participle forms the perfect aspect with the auxiliary verb have:
The chicken has eaten.
5. The past participle is used to form passive voice:
The chicken was eaten.
Such passive participles can appear in an adjectival phrase:
The chicken eaten by the children was contaminated.
Adverbially:
Eaten in this manner, the chicken presents no problem.
And in a nominative absolute construction, with a subject:
The chicken eaten, we returned home.
Note that a past participle that complements a stative verb (e.g., "The files that are attached or "Our comrades who have fallen") becomes a passive participle within a passive voice construct.
6. As a gerund. The gerund is traditionally regarded as distinct from the present participle. A gerund can function transitively (e.g., "I like eating ice cream") or intransitively (e.g., "I like swimming"). In both instances, a gerund functions nominatively rather than adjectivally or adverbially—whether as an object (e.g., "I like sleeping") or as a subject (e.g., "Sleeping is not allowed"). Although gerunds and present participles are morphologically identical, their grammatical functions differ substantially.
Sometimes their morphological similarity can create contextual ambiguity, as Noam Chomsky pointed out in his well-known example:
Flying planes can be dangerous.
When the meaning is "The practice of flying a plane is dangerous," flying functions as a gerund; when the danger concerns "Planes that fly" or "Planes when they are flying" (i.e., in contrast to grounded planes), flying is being used adjectivally as a participle. For more on the distinctions between these uses of the -ing verb form, see -ing: uses.
For more details on uses of participles and other parts of verbs in English, see Uses of English verb forms, including the sections on the present participle and past participle.
The following table summarises some of the uses of participles in English:
Scandinavian languages
In all of the Scandinavian languages the past participle has to agree with the noun to some degree. All of the Scandinavian languages have mandatory agreement with the noun in number. Nynorsk and Swedish have mandatory agreement in both number and gender. Icelandic and Faroese have agreement in number, gender and case. For the present participle there is no agreement.
Examples in Nynorsk:
Sjølvkøyrande bilar kan vere farlege. (English: self-driving cars can be dangerous)
Kyllingen vart eten (English: The chicken was eaten)
Dyret vart ete (English: The animal was eaten)
The participles are marked in bold. The first example involves a present participle and the two latter examples involves a past participle. All present participles end with an -ande suffix.
Latin and Romance languages
Latin
Latin grammar was studied in Europe for hundreds of years, especially the handbook written by the 4th-century teacher Aelius Donatus, and it is from Latin that the name and concept of the participle derives. According to Donatus there are four participles in Latin, as follows:
present participle: present stem + -ns (gen. -ntis); e.g. legēns (plural legentēs) "(while) reading"
perfect participle: supine stem + -us, -a, -um; e.g. lēctus "read (by someone)"
future participle: supine stem + -ūrus, -ūra, -ūrum; e.g. lēctūrus "going to read", "due to read"
gerundive (sometimes considered the future passive participle): e.g. legendus "due to be read", "necessary to be read"
However, many modern Latin grammars treat the gerundive as a separate part of speech.
The perfect participle is usually passive in meaning, and thus mainly formed from transitive verbs, for example frāctus "broken", missus "sent (by someone)". However, certain verbs (called deponent verbs) have a perfect participle in an active sense, e.g. profectus "having set out", hortātus "having encouraged", etc. The present and future participles are always active, the gerundive usually passive.
Because a participle is an adjective as well as a verb, just like any other Latin adjective its ending changes according to the noun it describes. So when the noun is masculine, the participle must be masculine; when the noun is in the accusative (object) case, the participle is also in the accusative case; when the noun has plural endings, the participle also has plural endings. Thus a simple participle such as frāctus "broken" can change to frācta, frāctum, frāctī, frāctō and so on, according to its gender, number, and case.
A participle can have a descriptive meaning like an adjective, or a more dynamic meaning like a verb. Thus in the following sentence the participle strīctō "drawn" is better taken as describing an action ("he drew his sword" or "after drawing his sword") rather than as describing the sword ("with a drawn sword"):
Strīctō gladiō ad dormientem Lucrētiam vēnit."With drawn sword he came to the sleeping Lucretia."
The dynamic, verbal meaning is more common, and Latin often uses a participle where English might use a simple verb.
The present participle often describes the circumstances attending the main verb. A typical example is:
Balbus ad mē vēnit currēns."Balbus came to me running."
Both the future and the perfect participle (but not the present participle) can be used with various tenses of the verb esse "to be" to make a compound tense such as the future-in-the-past or the perfect passive:
Eō diē Rōmam ventūrus erat."On that day he was going to return to Rome."
Occīsus est ā Thēbānīs."He was killed by the Thebans."
The perfect and future participles can also be used, with or without the verb esse "to be", in indirect speech clauses:
(Dīxit eōs) locum facile inventūrōs (esse)."He said that they were easily going to find the place / He said that they would find the place easily."
For uses of the gerundive, see Latin syntax#The gerundive.
French
There are two basic participles:
Present active participle: formed by dropping the -ons of the nous form of the present tense of a verb (except with être and avoir) and then adding ant: marchant "walking", étant "being", ayant "having".
Past participle: formation varies according to verb group: vendu "sold", mis "placed", marché "walked", été "been", and fait "done". The sense of the past participle is passive as an adjective and in most verbal constructions with "avoir", but active in verbal constructions with "être", in reflexive constructions, and with some intransitive verbs.
Compound participles are possible:
Present perfect participle: ayant appelé "having called", étant mort "being dead"
Passive perfect participle: étant vendu "being sold, having been sold"
Usage:
Present participles are used as qualifiers as in "un insecte volant" (a flying insect) and in some other contexts. They are never used to form tenses. The present participle is used in subordinate clauses, usually with en: "Je marche, en parlant".
Past participles are used as qualifiers for nouns: "la table cassée" (the broken table); to form compound tenses such as the perfect "Vous avez dit" (you have said) and to form the passive voice: "il a été tué" (he/it has been killed).
Spanish
In Spanish, the so-called present or active participle (participio activo or participio de presente) of a verb is traditionally formed with one of the suffixes -ante, -ente or -iente, but modern grammar does not consider it a true participle, as such forms usually have the meaning of simple adjectives or nouns: e.g. amante "loving" or "lover", viviente "living" or "live".
Another participial form is known as the gerundio, which ends in an (unchanging) suffix -ando, -endo, or -iendo. The gerundio is used in combination with the verb estar ("to be") to make continuous tenses: for example, estar haciendo means "to be doing" (haciendo being the gerundio of hacer, "to do"), and there are related constructions such as seguir haciendo meaning "to keep doing" (seguir being "to continue"). Another use is in phrases such as vino corriendo ("he/she came running") and lo vi corriendo ("I saw him running").
The past participle (participio pasado or participio pasivo) is regularly formed with one of the suffixes -ado or -ido (-ado for verbs ending in "-ar" and -ido for verbs ending in "-er" or "-ir"; but some verbs have an irregular form ending in -to (e.g. escrito, visto, puesto), or -cho (e.g. dicho, hecho). The past participle is used generally as an adjective referring to a finished action, in which case its ending changes according to gender and number. At other times is used to form compound tenses: the present perfect, past perfect (sometimes referred to as the pluscuamperfecto), and the future perfect, in which case it is indeclinable. Some examples:
As an adjective (note how "escritas" agrees in gender with the noun, "las cartas"):
las cartas escritas "the written letters"
To form compound tenses:
Ha escrito una carta. "She (he, it) has written a letter."
Había escrito una carta. "She (he, it) had written a letter."
Habrá escrito una carta. "She (he, it) will have written a letter."
Hellenic languages
Ancient Greek
The Ancient Greek participle shares in the properties of adjectives and verbs. Like an adjective, it changes form for gender, case, and number. Like a verb, it has tense and voice, is modified by adverbs, and can take verb arguments, including an object. Participles are quite numerous in Ancient Greek: a non-defective verb has as many as ten participles.
There is a form of the participle for every combination of aspect (present, aorist, perfect, future) and voice (active, middle, passive). All participles are based on their finite forms. Here are the masculine nominative singular forms for a thematic and an athematic verb:
Like an adjective, it can modify a noun, and can be used to embed one thought into another.
In the example, the participial phrase tòn eû stratēgḗsonta, literally "the one going to be a good general," is used to embed the idea eû stratēgḗsei "he will be a good general" within the main verb.
The participle is very widely used in Ancient Greek, especially in prose.
Indo-Aryan languages
Hindi & Urdu
There are two types of participles in Hindi & Urdu (called together Hindustani), aspectual participles which mark the aspect and non-aspectual participles which do not mark verbal aspect. The table below mentions the different participles present in Hindustani, ɸ denotes the verb root. The aspectual participles can take a few other copulas after them besides the verb honā "to be". Those copular verbs are rêhna "to stay", ānā "to come", jānā "to go".
Celtic languages
Cornish
In Cornish, an equivalent present participle construction to English is formed by using ow (owth before vowels) with a verbal noun, e.g. Yma an den ow hwerthin ("The man is laughing"), and den ow hwerthin ("a laughing man"). Like Breton but unlike Welsh, Cornish also has verbal adjectives which are used similarly to English past participles, e.g. dehen molys ("clotted cream"), from the verbal noun mola "to clot".
Welsh
In Welsh, the effect of a participle in the active voice is constructed by yn followed by the verb-noun (for the present participle) and wedi followed by the verb-noun (for the past participle). There is no mutation in either case. In the passive voice, participles are usually replaced by a compound phrase such as wedi cael ei/eu ("having got his/her/their ...ing") in contemporary Welsh and by the impersonal form in classical Welsh.
Slavic languages
Polish
The Polish word for participle is imiesłów (pl.: imiesłowy). There are four types of imiesłowy in two classes:
Adjectival participle (imiesłów przymiotnikowy):
active adjectival participle (imiesłów przymiotnikowy czynny): robiący – "doing", "one who does"
passive adjectival participle (imiesłów przymiotnikowy bierny): robiony – "being done" (can only be formed off transitive verbs)
Adverbial participle (imiesłów przysłówkowy):
present adverbial participle (imiesłów przysłówkowy współczesny): robiąc – "doing", "while doing"
perfect adverbial participle (imiesłów przysłówkowy uprzedni): zrobiwszy – "having done" (formed in virtually all cases off verbs in their perfective forms, here denoted by the prefix z-)
Due to the distinction between adjectival and adverbial participles, in Polish it is practically impossible to make a dangling participle in the classical English meaning of the term. For instance, in the sentence:
I found them hiding in the closet.
it is unclear whether "I" or "they" were hiding in the closet. In Polish there is a clear distinction:
Znalazłem ich, chowając się w szafie. – chowając is a present adverbial participle agreeing grammatically with the subject ("I")
Znalazłem ich chowających się w szafie. – chowających is an active adjectival participle agreeing grammatically with the object ("them")
Russian
Verb: слышать [ˈsɫɨ.ʂɐtʲ] (to hear, imperfective aspect)
Present active: слышащий [ˈsɫɨ.ʂɐ.ɕːɪj] "hearing", "who hears"
Present passive: слышимый [ˈsɫɨ.ʂɨ̞.mɨ̞j] "being heard", "that is heard", "audible"
Past active: слышавший [ˈsɫɨ.ʂɐf.ʂɨ̞j] "who heard", "who was hearing"
Past passive: слышанный [ˈsɫɨ.ʂɐn.nɨ̞j] "that was heard", "that was being heard"
Adverbial present active: слыша [ˈsɫɨ.ʂɐ] "(while) hearing"
Adverbial past active: слышав [ˈsɫɨ.ʂɐf] " (while) hearing "
Verb: услышать [ʊˈsɫɨ.ʂɐtʲ] (to hear, perfective aspect)
Past active: услышавший [ʊˈsɫɨ.ʂɐf.ʂɨ̞j] "who has heard"
Past passive: услышанный [ʊˈsɫɨ.ʂɐn.nɨ̞j] "who has been heard"
Adverbial past active: услышав [ʊˈsɫɨ.ʂɐf] "having heard"
Future participles formed from perfective verbs are not considered a part of standard language.
Bulgarian
Participles are adjectives formed from verbs. There are various kinds:
Verb: правя [pravja] (to do, imperfective aspect):
Present active: правещ [pravešt]
Past active aorist: правил [pravil]
Past active imperfect: правел [pravel] (only used in verbal constructions)
Past passive: правен [praven]
Adverbial present active: правейки [pravejki]
Verb: направя [napravja] (to do, perfective aspect):
Past active aorist: направил [napravil]
Past active imperfect: направел [napravel] (only used in verbal constructions)
Past passive: направен [napraven]
Macedonian
Macedonian has completely lost or transformed the participles of Common Slavic, unlike the other Slavic languages. The following points may be noted:
present active participle: this has transformed into a verbal adverb;
present passive participle: there are some isolated cases or remnants of the present passive participle, such as the word лаком [lakom] (greedy);
past active participle: there is only one remnant of the past active participle, which is the word бивш [bivš] (former). However, this word is often replaced with the word поранешен [poranešen] (former);
past passive participle: this has been transformed into a verbal adjective (it behaves like a normal adjective);
resultative participle: this has transformed into a verbal l-form (глаголска л-форма). It is not a participle since it doesn't function attributively.
Baltic languages
Lithuanian
Among Indo-European languages, the Lithuanian language is unique for having fourteen different participial forms of the verb, which can be grouped into five when accounting for inflection by tense. Some of these are also inflected by gender and case. For example, the verb eiti ("to go, to walk") has the active participle forms einąs/einantis ("going, walking", present tense), ėjęs (past tense), eisiąs (future tense), eidavęs (past frequentative tense), the passive participle forms einamas ("being walked", present tense), eitas (“walked” past tense), eisimas (future tense), the adverbial participles einant ("while [he, different subject] is walking" present tense), ėjus (past tense), eisiant (future tense), eidavus (past frequentative tense), the semi-participle eidamas ("while [he, the same subject] is going, walking") and the participle of necessity eitinas ("that which needs to be walked"). The active, passive, and the semi-participles are inflected by gender, and the active, passive, and necessity ones are inflected by case.
Semitic languages
Arabic
The Arabic verb has two participles: an active participle (’ism al-fā‘il اسم الفاعل) and a passive participle (’ism al-maf‘ūl اسم المفعول), and the form of the participle is predictable by inspection of the dictionary form of the verb. These participles are inflected for gender, number and case, but not person. Arabic participles are employed syntactically in a variety of ways: as nouns, as adjectives or even as verbs. Their uses vary across varieties of Arabic. In general the active participle describes a property of the syntactic subject of the verb from which it derives, whilst the passive participles describes the object. For example, from the verb كتب kataba, the active participle is kātib كاتب and the passive participle is maktūb مكتوب. Roughly these translate to "writing" and "written" respectively. However, they have different, derived lexical uses. كاتب kātib is further lexicalized as "writer", "author" and مكتوب maktūb as "letter".
In Classical Arabic these participles do not participate in verbal constructions with auxiliaries the same way as their English counterparts do, and rarely take on a verbal meaning in a sentence (a notable exception being participles derived from motion verbs as well as participles in Qur'anic Arabic). In certain dialects of Arabic however, it is much more common for the participles, especially the active participle, to have verbal force in the sentence. For example, in dialects of the Levant, the active participle is a structure that describes the state of the syntactic subject after the action of the verb from which it derives has taken place. ʼĀkil, the active participle of ʼakala ("to eat"), describes one's state after having eaten something. Therefore, it can be used in analogous way to the English present perfect (for example, ʼAnā ʼākil انا آكل meaning "I have eaten", "I have just eaten" or "I have already eaten"). Other verbs, such as rāḥa راح ("to go") give a participle (rāyiḥ رايح), which has a progressive ("is going…") meaning. The exact tense or continuity of these participles is therefore determined by the nature of the specific verb (especially its lexical aspect and its transitivity) and the syntactic/semantic context of the utterance. What ties them all together is that they describe the subject of the verb from which they derive. The passive participles in certain dialects can be used as a sort of passive voice, but more often than not, are used in their various lexicalized senses as adjectives or nouns.
Hebrew
Like Arabic, Hebrew has two types of participles (בינוני bênônî): an active participle (בינוני פועל bênônî pô‘ēl) and a passive participle (בינוני פעול bênônî pā‘ûl). These participles are inflected for gender and number, but not case, unlike Arabic. The active participle takes a variety of syntactic roles, such as a verb in present tense, a noun, and an adjective.
Hebrew has a syntactic construction of the verb "to be" (הָיָה) hayá in the past tense, and the active participle that cognates to the past progressive tense in English. For example, the word עבדתי avádti means "I worked", and הייתי עובד hayíti ovéd means "I was working". Unlike English, Hebrew does not differentiate between a perfect verb and an imperfect verb on a regular basis, so the word עבדתי avádti can mean "I was working". Another use of this syntactic structure is equivalent to "used to" in English. For example, דויד בילדותו היה גר בארצות הברית davíd b'yaldutó hayá gar b'arcót habrít (David in his childhood used to live in the United States).
Finno-Ugric languages
Finnish
Finnish uses six participles (partisiippi) to convey different meanings. Below is a table displaying the declension of the participles of the verb tappaa (to kill).
The participles work in the following way:
Each and every one of these participles can be used as adjectives, which means that some of them can be turned into nouns.
Hungarian
Hungarian uses adjectival and adverbial participles.
Adjectival participles (melléknévi igenév) can be one of these three types:
Present (active): olvas (read) – olvasó (reading), él (live) – élő (living)
Past (usually passive): zár (close) – zárt (closed)
Future (has a modal meaning): olvas (read) – olvasandó (to be read), fizet (pay) – fizetendő (to be paid)
Adverbial participles (határozói igenév) can be:
Imperfect: siet (hurry) – sietve (hurrying, i.e. in a hurrying manner)
Perfect: bemegy (go in) – bemenvén (having gone in) (this form is rarely used in modern Hungarian)
In Hungarian grammar the infinitive is also considered a kind of participle, namely the noun participle (főnévi igenév).
Turkic languages
Turkish
Participles are called sıfat-fiil (lit. adjective-verb) or ortaç in Turkish.
Turkish participles consist of a verb stem and a suffix. Some participles may be conjugated, but some may not. Participles always precede the noun they are defining, as in English.
Participle suffixes, like many other suffixes in Turkish, change according to the vowel harmony and sandhi.
There are eight types of participle suffixes; -en, -esi, -mez, -ar, -di(k/ği) -ecek and -miş
Eskimo-Aleut languages
Sireniki Eskimo
Sireniki Eskimo language, an extinct Eskimo–Aleut language, has separate sets of adverbial participles and adjectival participles. Different from in English, adverbial participles are conjugated to reflect the person and number of their implicit subjects; hence, while in English a sentence like "If I were a marksman, I would kill walruses" requires two full clauses (to distinguish the two verbs' different subjects), in Sireniki Eskimo one of these may be replaced with an adverbial participle (since its conjugation indicates the subject).
Constructed languages
Esperanto
Esperanto has six different participle conjugations; active and passive for past, present and future. The participles are formed as follows:
For example, a falonta botelo is a bottle that will fall or is about to fall. A falanta botelo is one that is falling through the air. After it hits the floor, it is a falinta botelo. These examples use the active participles, but the usage of the passive participles is similar. A cake that is going to be divided is a dividota kuko. When it is in the process of being divided, it is a dividata kuko. Having been cut, it is now a dividita kuko.
These participles can be used in conjunction with the verb to be, esti, forming 18 compound tenses (9 active and 9 passive). However, this soon becomes complicated and often unnecessary, and is only frequently used when rigorous translation of English is required. An example of this would be la knabo estos instruita, or, the boy will have been taught. This example sentence is then in the future anterior.
When the suffix -o is used, instead of -a, then the participle refers to a person. A manĝanto is someone who is eating. A manĝinto is someone who ate. A manĝonto is someone who will eat. Also, a manĝito is someone who was eaten, a manĝato is someone who is being eaten, and a manĝoto is someone who will be eaten.
These rules hold true for all transitive verbs. Since copular and intransitive verbs do not have passive voice, their participle forms can only be active.
An informal and unofficial addition to these six are the participles for conditional forms, which use -unt- and -ut-. For example, parolunto refers to someone who would speak (or would have spoken), and a leguta libro is a book that would be read (or have been read). These unofficial participle forms are however very rarely used in practice, and more often as a linguistic joke than in a serious way.
See also
Attributive verb
Gerund
Grammar
Hanging participle
Nonfinite verb
Transgressive (linguistics)
Converb
Notes
References
Participles from the American Heritage Book of English Usage (1996).
Quirk, R; Greenbaum, S; Leech, G.; Svartvik, J. (1972). A Grammar of Contemporary English. Longman.
External links
List of English simple past and past participle verb forms from myenglishteacher.net
Ernest De Witt Burton: Moods and Tenses of New Testament Greek. The adverbial participle.
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222749 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Indian%20composers | List of Indian composers | List of Indian composers, arranged in alphabetical order:
Film Composers
Abhimann Roy
Aby Tom Cyriac
Ajay-Atul
Alphons Joseph
Adhyan Dhara
Amaal Mallik
Amit Trivedi
Anand–Milind
Anil Biswas
Anirudh Ravichander
Ankit Tiwari
Ananda Shankar
Anu Malik
Anupam Roy
A. R. Rahman
Arjun Janya
Asif Panjwani
Bennet Veetraag
Pandit Bhajan Sopori
Bhupen Hazarika
Bombay Ravi
Chitragupta Shrivastava
C. Ramchandra
D. Imman
Daboo Malik
Damodar Raao
Datta Naik
Debojyoti Mishra
Deva
Devi Sri Prasad
Freddie Mercury
G. Devarajan
G. V. Prakash Kumar
Gopi Sunder
Gurukiran
Gulzar
Hamsalekha
Harris Jayaraj
Himesh Reshammiya
Honey Singh
Hridaynath Mangeshkar
Ilaiyaraaja
Ismail Darbar
Jaidev
Jatin–Lalit
Jim Ankan Deka
Jeet Ganguly
Johnson
Karthik
Karthik Raja
Karthikeya Murthy
Kamal Heer
Kartik Seshadri
Louis Banks
Madan Mohan
Manoj George
Mani Sharma
Meet Bros
Mickey J Meyer
Mithoon
M. Jayachandran
M.S Baburaj
Laxmikant–Pyarelal
L. Subramaniam
Kalyanji-Anandji
Naushad Ali
Nadeem-Shravan
Nityanand Haldipur
Oni-Adil
O. P. Nayyar
Pankaj Kumar Mullick
Parichay (singer)
Pritam Chakraborty
Raam Laxman
Ram Sampath
Rahul Dev Burman
Rahul Raj
Raichand Boral
Pandit Ravi Shankar
Ravindra Jain
Raveendran
Remo Fernandes
Roop Kumar Rathod
Rohan-Rohan
Raju Singh
Sachin Dev Burman
Sajid–Wajid
Sachin–Jigar
Salil Chowdhury
Salim–Sulaiman
Sandeep Khurana
Sandeep Chowta
Sangtar
Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy
Shantanu Moitra
Shashwat Sachdev
Shankar–Jaikishan
Srinivas Khale
Shubha Mudgal
Sneha Khanwalkar
Sohail Sen
Sudhir Phadke
Tanishk Bagchi
Thaman Sai
Vidyasagar
Vijay Antony
Vishal Bhardwaj
Vishal–Shekhar
Vishal Mishra
Vishvesh Parmar
Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy
Yuvan Shankar Raja
Zakir Hussain
Zubeen Garg
Vikram Montrose
Carnatic Composers
Annamacharya
Chembai Vaidyanatha Bhagavatar
Ilayaraja
Irayimman Thampi
L. Subramaniam
Lalgudi Jayaraman
M Balamuralikrishna
Muthuswami Dikshitar
Purandara Dasa
Subbaraya Shastri
Swathi Thirunal
Syama Shastri
Thyagaraja
Periasamy Thooran
Jayadeva
Western Classical/Art music Composers (of Indian descent)
Clarence Barlow
Ilayaraja
L. Subramaniam
Sandeep Bhagwati
Reena Esmail
Vijay Iyer
Shirish Korde
Rudresh Mahanthappa
Naresh Sohal
Param Vir
Lists of composers by nationality
Composers
Composers | [
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222752 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravi%20Sethi | Ravi Sethi | Ravi Sethi (born 1947) is an Indian computer scientist retired from executive roles at Bell Labs and Avaya Labs. He also serves as a member of the National Science Foundation's Computer and Information Science and Engineering (CISE) Advisory Committee. He is best known as one of three authors of the classic computer science textbook Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools, also known as the Dragon Book.
Sethi was born in 1947 in Murdana, Punjab. He attended the Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur (IITK) and went on to obtain a Ph.D. at Princeton University. He worked as an assistant professor at Penn State University, before joining Bell Labs in 1976.
While working for Bell Labs he was awarded the "Distinguished Technical Staff award", and in 1996 he was named a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery. Also in 1996 he was named research vice president in charge of computing and mathematical sciences and, additionally, in 1997, chief technical officer for Lucent’s Communications Software Group.
In 2014, Sethi joined the department of computer science at the University of Arizona.
References
External links
Home page (University of Arizona)
Home page (Bell Labs)
Autobiographical note at Avaya website
Publication list on DBLP
1947 births
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Indian computer scientists
Living people
Avaya employees
Scientists at Bell Labs
IIT Kanpur alumni
Princeton University alumni
People from Punjab, India | [
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222753 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3ABE | ISO 3166-2:BE | ISO 3166-2:BE is the entry for Belgium in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g. provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Belgium, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for two levels of subdivisions:
3 regions
10 provinces
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Belgium. The second part is three letters. For the provinces, the first letter indicates the region where the province is in:
V: Flemish Region ()
W: Walloon Region ()
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
ISO 639-1 codes are used to represent subdivision names in the following administrative languages:
(fr): French
(nl): Dutch
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Regions
Notes
Provinces
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998. ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013.
The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:
See also
Subdivisions of Belgium
FIPS region codes of Belgium
NUTS codes of Belgium
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: BE
Provinces of Belgium, Statoids.com
2:BE
ISO 3166-2
ISO 3166-2
Belgium geography-related lists | [
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222754 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3ABR | ISO 3166-2:BR | ISO 3166-2:BR is the entry for Brazil in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g. provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Brazil, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 26 states and 1 federal district. The Federal District has a special status similar to the states.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Brazil. The second part is two letters, widely used in Brazil as abbreviations of the states and federal district.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Previous codes
The following codes were used for previous states and territories:
FN: Territory of Fernando de Noronha, split from Pernambuco (PE) in 1942, merged back into the state in 1988.
GB: State of Guanabara, merged into Rio de Janeiro (RJ) in 1975. Was the country capital until 1960, replaced by Distrito Federal (DF).
GR: Territory of Guaporé, formed from parts of Amazonas (AM) and Mato Grosso (MT) in 1943, renamed Rondônia (RO) in 1956, became a state in 1981.
IC: Territory of Iguaçu, formed from parts of Paraná (PR) and Santa Catarina (SC) in 1943, merged back into the states in 1946.
PP: Territory of Ponta Porã, split from Mato Grosso (MT) in 1943, merged back into the state in 1946, part of Mato Grosso do Sul (MS) from its formation in 1977.
RB: Territory of Rio Branco, split from Amazonas (AM) in 1943, renamed Roraima (RR) in 1962, became a state in 1988.
Hierarchical numeric representation
IBGE conventions for numerical representation of each current federation unit, where the first digit is the region and the second digit its element:
It is not part of ISO standandard, but there are a direct mapping between ISO codes and IBGE numbers. IBGE is the authority of the ISO codes, and defined both, codes and numbers.
See also
FIPS region codes of Brazil
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: BR
States of Brazil, Statoids.com
References
2:BR
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222755 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuwaitha%20Nuclear%20Research%20Center | Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Center | The Baghdad Nuclear Research Facility adjacent to the Tuwaitha "Yellow Cake Factory" or Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Center contains the remains of nuclear reactors bombed by Iran in 1980, Israel in 1981 and the United States in 1991. It was used as a storage facility for spent reactor fuel and industrial and medical wastes. The radioactive material would not be useful for a fission bomb, but could be used in a dirty bomb. Following the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the facility was heavily looted by hundreds of Iraqis, though it is unclear what was taken.
History
The Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Center was the main nuclear site in Iraq that was involved with handling nuclear material. It was started in 1967 when three main nuclear facilities and waste location were put in operation. These were the IRT 2000 research reactor, the radioisotope production building and the dumping station (waste store). Many other nuclear facilities were subsequently constructed at this site, and the IRT 2000 reactor was also upgraded to IRT 5000.
Until 1991, the facility was a nuclear research facility supposedly under the direction of Khidir Hamza. The facility is surrounded by a sand berm four miles (6.4 km) around and 160 feet (50 m) high, and contained the French-built research reactor Osirak, destroyed by Israel in 1981. Israel contended that there was a secret underground compartment for the production of plutonium. Plutonium is produced in breeder reactors by surrounding a neutron source, such as a nuclear reactor, with a 'blanket' of U-238. The neutrons released by nuclear fission are donated, producing Pu-239 and is the cheapest and easiest way to achieve large-scale production of plutonium. The director of the IAEA, which conducted regular inspections of the complex, argued that a secret vault 40 meters below the reactor core would not be very effective, to which Israel responded by correcting their original statement to 4 meters. The IAEA was aware of such a vault but the reactor floor was shielded and the vault contained the mechanisms for raising the control rods which requires access for maintenance. According to the Director of the IAEA, the shielding would block the neutrons needed to turn U-238 into Pu-239 and the reactor would not be able to operate if the vault was blocked by being filled with uranium.
As the sole reactor site in Iraq, the reactors relied on fuel imported from France and was unable to produce significant quantities of enriched uranium. In 1991, If Iraq had converted their entire stockpile of nuclear fuel rods, assuming they were able to perform the extremely difficult task of separation from highly irradiated fuel which contained 69 elements, they would only have 41 kg of U-235, less than the 64 kg used in Little Boy. 52 kg of 93% HEU is the minimum critical mass required to create a uranium bomb. They did not have the technical capabilities or resources to produce an implosion type device that uses less U-235 but requires complex lenses and initiators.
During the initial months of the occupation, Tuwaitha was protected by American forces and administered by contractors from the Raytheon Corporation. Complete control of the facility was turned over to Iraqi authorities in the Summer of 2004. During American occupation the complex was looted, mostly for scrap lead. lead-lined barrels and containers were emptied on-site then taken to a nearby improvised lead foundry then smelted into ingots. The operation was conducted in two parts. The first was a highly orchestrated event requiring industrial machinery in which large pieces of shielding from the destroyed reactors was stolen. The second involved local villagers carrying items on hand-carts. At most 10 kg of uranium was lost in what could easily be explained as minor contamination by a few grams of dust per vessel of the more than 200 containers stolen.
Research Achievements
Research conducted at the complex produced novel results necessary to establish a self-sufficient nuclear program.
The IRT-5000 was used as an extremely limited breeder reactor using 3 Iraqi manufactured natural uranium rods and a 10% enriched rod and reprocessed with the permission of the IAEA. Using PUREX based technology, Project 22 produced 5 grams of plutonium.
7.6% enrichment using EMIS (magnetic separation) technology, producing a total of 640g from 1985 to 1991.
Experimenting with the Japanese Asahi Kasei technique, produced 100 kg of polyvinyl, phenylpyridine-based, macroreticular anion exchange resin over a 2-year period.
Gas centrifuge, laser isotopic separation and gas diffusion technology were investigated but abandoned due to the Iraqi economy lacking the industrial infrastructure to support such an effort. Although the Iraqi government was able to smuggle some steel and carbon-fiber centrifuge units into the country, they needed at least a thousand to process industrial quantities. Without wide availability of extremely high precision instrumentation and production facilities, the task was impossible under anti-proliferation embargoes. Russia and the U.S.A. only developed the high-precision machining technology required during the space race.
Present status
The 18 facilities and radwaste locations on this site and included within the decommissioning project are as follows:
Radiochemistry Laboratory
IRT 5000 Reactor
Italian Radioisotope Production (Isotope Production No 2)
Russian Radioisotope Production (Isotope Production No 1)
LAMA
Tamuz 2 Reactor
Radioactive Waste Treatment Station (RWTS)
Solid Waste Storage Silo (French)
RWTS Warehouse/ Waste Store
Contaminated ground and material surrounding RWTS Building
Russian Waste Storage Silos
Uranium Metal Production
Fuel Fabrication and U Purification (including Waste Pit)
Fuel Element Thermal Test Facility (Other Italian Complex)
Technology Hall (Uranium Tetrachloride Preparation and Purification Labs)
Po 210 Production
OUT-1 Burial/Concealment Location
Scrap yards and Burial Sites
See also
Iraq and weapons of mass destruction
External links and references
Iraqi Nuclear Site Is Found Looted: U.S. Team Unable to Determine Whether Deadly Materials Are Missing, Washington Post, 4 May 2003
The IAEA IN Iraq - Past Activities and Findings. IAEA Bulletin. 44/2/2002, Garry B. Dillon - Verified nuclear materials. 500 tons natural uranium, 1.8 tons partially enriched, and 300 tons of medical radioactive materials.
Mohamed ElBaradei: Iraq should get one final chance?
IAEA Tuwaitha general documents
http://www-ns.iaea.org/projects/iraq/tuwaitha.asp?s=8&l=66
http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/iraq/tuwaitha.htm
References
Iraq and weapons of mass destruction
Nuclear technology in Iraq
Industrial buildings in Iraq
Research institutes in Iraq
Nuclear research institutes | [
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222757 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional%20healers%20of%20Southern%20Africa | Traditional healers of Southern Africa | Traditional healers of Southern Africa are practitioners of traditional African medicine in Southern Africa. They fulfill different social and political roles in the community, including divination, healing physical, emotional and spiritual illnesses, directing birth or death rituals, finding lost cattle, protecting warriors, counteracting witchcraft, and narrating the history, cosmology, and concepts of their tradition. There are two main types of traditional healers within the Nguni, Sotho-Tswana, and Tsonga societies of Southern Africa: the diviner (sangoma), and the herbalist (inyanga). These healers are effectively South African shamans who are highly revered and respected in a society where illness is thought to be caused by witchcraft, pollution (contact with impure objects or occurrences) or through neglect of the ancestors. It is estimated that there are as many as 200,000 traditional healers in South Africa compared to 25,000 doctors trained in bio-medical medicine. Traditional healers are consulted by approximately 60% of the South African population, usually in conjunction with modern biomedical services.
For harmony between the living and the dead, vital for a trouble-free life, traditional healers believe that the ancestors must be shown respect through ritual and animal sacrifice. They perform summoning rituals by burning plants like imphepho (Helichrysum petiolare), dancing, chanting, channelling or playing drums. Traditional healers will often give their patients muti—medications made from plant, animal and minerals—imbued with spiritual significance. These muti often have powerful symbolism; for example, lion fat might be prepared for children to promote courage. There are medicines for everything from physical and mental illness, social disharmony and spiritual difficulties to potions for protection, love and luck.
Although sangoma is a Zulu term that is colloquially used to commonly describe all types of Southern African traditional healers, there are differences between practices: an inyanga is concerned mainly with medicines made from plants and animals, while a sangoma relies primarily on divination for healing purposes and might also be considered a type of fortune teller. In modern times, colonialism, urbanisation, apartheid and transculturation have blurred the distinction between the two and traditional healers tend to practice both arts. Traditional healers can alternate between these roles by diagnosing common illnesses, selling and dispensing remedies for medical complaints, and divining cause and providing solutions to spiritually or socially centred complaints.
Each culture has their own terminology for their traditional healers. Xhosa traditional healers are known as amaxwele (herbalists) or amagqirha (diviners). Ngaka and selaoli are the terms in Northern Sotho and Southern Sotho respectively, while among the Venda they are called mungome. The Tsonga refer to their healers as n'anga or mungoma.
Beliefs and tradition
A sangoma is a practitioner of ngoma, a philosophy based on a belief in ancestral spirits (siSwati: amadloti; Zulu: amadlozi; Sesotho: badimo; Xhosa: izinyanya) and the practice of traditional African medicine, which is often a mix of medicinal plants and various animal body fats or skin. Sangomas perform a holistic and symbolic form of healing by drawing on the embedded beliefs of the Bantu peoples in South Africa, who believe that ancestors in the afterlife guide and protect the living. Sangomas are called to heal, and through them it is believed that ancestors from the spirit world can give instruction and advice to heal illness, social disharmony and spiritual difficulties. Traditional healers work in a sacred healing hut or indumba, where they believe their ancestors reside. Where no physical 'indumba' is available, a makeshift miniature sacred place called imsamo can be used.
Sangomas believe they are able to access advice and guidance from their ancestors for their patients through spirit possession by an ancestor, or mediumship, throwing bones, or by dream interpretation. In possession states, the sangoma works themself into a trance through drumming, dancing and chanting, and allows their ego to step aside for an ancestor to take possession of his or her body and communicate directly with the patient, or dancing fervently beyond their stated ability. The sangoma will provide specific information about the problems of the patient. Some sangomas speak to their patients through normal conversation, whilst others speak in tongues, or languages foreign to their patients, but all languages used by sangomas are indigenous Southern African languages depending on the specific ancestors being called upon. Not all sangomas follow the same rituals or beliefs.
Ancestral spirits can be the personal ancestors of the sangoma or the patient or they might be general ancestors associated with the geographic area or the community. It is believed that the spirits have the power to intervene in people's lives who work to connect the sangoma to the spirits that are acting in a manner to cause affliction. For example, a crab could be invoked as a mediator between the human world and the world of spirits because of its ability to move between the world of the land and the sea. Helping and harming spirits are believed to use the human body as a battleground for their own conflicts. By using ngoma, the sangoma believes they can create harmony between the spirits which is thought to bring an alleviation of the patient's suffering.
The sangoma may burn incense (like impepho) or sacrifice animals to please the ancestral spirits. Snuff is also used to communicate with the ancestors through prayer.
Divination, diagnosis and healing practices
A sangoma's goal in healing is to establish a balanced and harmless relationship between the afflicted patient and the spirits that are causing their illness or problem. The healer intercedes between the patient and the world of the dead in order to make restitution. This is generally performed through divination (throwing the bones or ancestral channeling), purification rituals, or animal sacrifice to appease the spirits through atonement.
Throwing the bones to access the advice of ancestors is an alternative practice to the exhausting ritual of possession by the ancestor. In a typical session, a patient will visit the sangoma and the sangoma must determine what the affliction is or the reason the patient has come to them for help. Before the throwing of the bones, the healer should first ask the name and surname of the patient; the healer then calls the ancestors by names, starting with his/her initiators' names, then his/hers, followed by the patient's ancestors names. The patient or diviner throws bones on the floor, which may include animal vertebrae, dominoes, dice, coins, shells and stones, each with a specific significance to human life. For example, a hyena bone signifies a thief and will provide information about stolen objects. The sangoma or the patient throws the bones but the ancestors control how they lie. The sangoma then interprets this metaphor in relation to the patient's afflictions, what the ancestors of the patient require, and how to resolve the disharmony. In the same way, sangomas will interpret metaphors present in dreams, either their own or their patients.
When the diviner comes to an acceptable understanding of the problem and the patient agrees, the diviner then needs to again throw the bones to ask the ancestors if he/she could help the patient. Depending on the feedback from the bones he/she will instruct the patient on a course of medicine which may include the use of ngoma, referral to a herbalist, inyanga (if the sangoma does not have the knowledge themselves), or recommend a Western medicine regimen.
Medicines and muti
The spiritually curative medicines prescribed by a traditional healer are called muti. They may be employed in healing as warranted in the opinion of the herbal specialist or inyanga. Muti is a term derived from a Zulu word for tree. African traditional medicine makes extensive use of botanical products but the medicine prescribed by an inyanga may also include other formulations which are zoological or mineral in composition. Traditional medicine uses approximately 3,000 out of 30,000 species of higher plants of Southern Africa. Over 300 species of plants have been identified as having psychoactive healing effects on the nervous system, many of which need further cultural and scientific study In South African English and Afrikaans, the word muti is sometimes used as a slang term for medicine in general.
Mutis are prepared, and depending on the affliction, a number of purification practices can be administered Ukuzila Fasting one of the most important thing to do in preparing muti and healing. These practices include bathing, vomiting, steaming, nasal ingestion, enemas, and cuttings:
Bathing – Herbal mixtures are added to bath water to purify the patient
Vomiting (phalaza) – A large volume (up to +-2 litres) of a weak, lukewarm herbal infusion is drunk and a process of self-induced vomiting occurs to cleanse and tone the system.
Steaming (futha) – Medicinal herbs are commonly inhaled by steaming them in a bucket of boiling water. A blanket is used to cover the patient and container. Hot rocks or a portable stove may be included to keep the bucket boiling. The patient sits under the blanket or plastic (preferably) as blankets get to absorb the heat and the steam does not rotate well, breathes in the herbal steam and sweats.
Nasally – A variety of plants can be taken dried and powdered as snuff. Some are taken to induce sneezing which may traditionally be believed to aid the expulsion of disease. Others are taken for the common conditions such as headaches.
Enemas – Infusions and some decoctions are commonly administered as enemas. The enema is a preferred route of administration of certain plant extracts, as it is believed they are more effective when administered this way.
Cuttings (ukugcaba) – Extracts or powders are directly applied to small cuts made with a razor blade in the patients skin.
An experienced inyanga/Sangoma will generally seek the guidance of an ancestral spirit before embarking to find and collect muti and you can also go to herbalists to ask for a certain plant/herb you need. The healer, through dreams or during prayers, believes they are advised of auspicious times for collecting the plants. In some cases, symbols and dreams are also interpreted to determine which particular plants to collect for a specific patient and where these plants are located, not in all cases as most traditional healers have their herbs stored in their huts(eNdumbeni). The healer supplements the perceived advice from an ancestral spirit with their own knowledge, training and experience.
Thwasa and initiation
Both men and women can become traditional healers. A sangoma is believed to be "called" to heal through an initiation illness; symptoms involve psychosis, headaches, intractable stomach pain, shoulder, neck complaints, short breath, swollen feet and waist issues or illness that cannot be cured by conventional methods. These problems together must be seen by a sangoma as thwasa or the calling of the ancestors. Sangomas believe that failure to respond to the calling will result in further illness until the person concedes and goes to be trained. The word thwasa is derived from thwasa which means 'the light of the new moon' or from ku mu thwasisa meaning 'to be led to the light'.
A trainee sangoma (or ithwasane) trains formally under another sangoma for a period of anywhere between a number of months and many years. The training involves learning humility to the ancestors, purification through steaming, washing in the blood of sacrificed animals, and the use of muti, medicines with spiritual significance. The ithwasa may not see their families during training and must abstain from sexual contact and often live under harsh and strict conditions. This is part of the cleansing process to prepare the healer for a life's work of dedication to healing and the intense experiences of training tend to earn a deeply entrenched place in the sangoma's memory.
During the training period the ithwasa will share their ailments in the form of song and dance, a process that is nurtured by the analysis of dreams, anxieties, and with prayer. The story develops into a song which becomes a large part of the graduation-type ceremony that marks the end of the ukuthwasa training. At times in the training, and for the graduation, a ritual sacrifice of an animal is performed (usually chickens and a goat or a cow).
At the end of ukuthwasa and during initiation, early hours of the morning a goat that will be slaughtered should be a female one, that's for Umguni, the second one will be slaughtered the following morning after the chickens, which are sacrificed at the river Abamdzawo. All this sacrifices are to call to the ancestors and appease them. The local community, friends and family are all invited to the initiation to witness and celebrate the completion of training. The ithwasane is also tested by the local elder sangomas to determine whether they have the skills and insight necessary to heal. The climactic initiation test is to ensure the ithwasa has the ability to "see" things hidden from view. This is signified and proved when other sangomas hide the ithwasa's sacred objects, including the gall bladder of the goat that was sacrificed and the thwasane must, in front of the community, call upon their ancestors, find the hidden objects, which includes the skin of the goat, Umgamase, the ancestors clothes and return them back to the sangomas that hid them, thus proving they have the ability to "see" beyond the physical world. The heading practice is also done at night after taking off all those traditional clothing you had worn all day, they hide them for that thwasane to look for them again. The graduation ceremony takes three days from Friday to Sunday, the early hours of the morning the thwasane needs to sweep the whole yard, wash his/her clothes and also to bath at the river; he/she should return home when they are dry.
Drumming and ancestral dancing
Sangoma can also literally mean 'person of the drum' or 'the drumming one' and drumming is an important part of summoning the ancestors. During times of celebration (e.g. at an Initiation) the possessed sangoma is called to dance and celebrate their ancestors. The sangoma will fall into trance (when in trance the Sangoma is not conscious of what is happening, so after that he/she will be told of the things he/she had said) where the ancestors will be channeled (which is signified in Zulu traditions by episodes of convulsive fits) followed by the singing of ancestral songs. These songs are echoed back to the ancestor via the audience in a process of call and response. The possessed sangoma will then change into their traditional ancestral clothing and dance vigorously while others drum and sing in celebration.
History and background
The Zulu word with prefix is isangoma (pl. izangoma), alternatively it is also spelled as umngoma (pl. abangoma), sa ngoma means 'do ngoma and i sa ngoma means "those who do ngoma", so sangoma or isangoma refers specifically to the practitioner of the ngoma practice.
The term sangoma is often used colloquially in South Africa for equivalent professions in other Bantu cultures in Southern Africa. Forms of the ngoma ritual are practiced throughout southern and south-eastern Africa in countries such as South Africa, Eswatini, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Lesotho, Kenya, and Batswana. In more northern areas the practices are generally more diverse and less organized than the southern practices. Among the Kongo, the practice is called loka or more negatively doga, a term meaning witchcraft.
Ngoma is believed to have come to southern Africa during the western Bantu migration that began around 2000 BCE and was further influenced by the eastern Bantu migration that occurred until 500 CE. The practice has evolved along with the social problems of its users. In pre-colonial form ngoma songs dealt mainly with issues of hunting. Over time the system adapted to include the introduction of guns, and later the racial and class struggles of practitioners under colonial rule. In Zimbabwe, the civil war experience led to a revival of ngoma practice with a new emphasis on the spirits of the victims of war. The service allowed the sangoma to help people cope with their own violent acts as well as those they had fallen victim to. An example of this is the Tsonga who believe that one of the main alien spirits that can bestow powers of clairvoyance and the ability to detect witchcraft is the Ndau Spirit. The Ndau spirit possesses the descendants of the Gaza soldiers who had slain the Ndau and taken their wives. Once the Ndau spirit has been converted from hostile to benevolent forces, the spirits bestow the powers of divination and healing on the n'angna.
In addition, ngoma has been adapted by many to include both Christian and Muslim beliefs.
Legal status
Sangomas are legally recognised in South Africa as "traditional health practitioners", under the Traditional Health Practitioners Act of 2007 (Act. 22 of 2007) as diviners alongside herbalists, traditional birth attendants, and traditional surgeons. The act calls for the establishment of a national council of traditional health practitioners to regulate and register a.o. sangomas in the country. However, it was only in December 2011 that the National Department of Health took action and opened nominations for seats on an interim council. In October 2012, Health Department spokesperson Joe Maila advised that the Department aimed to have the council up and running by the end of 2012. The Interim Traditional Health Practitioners Council was eventually inaugurated on 12 February 2013. Several sections of the act, dealing with the establishment and governance of the national council and the registration of practitioners, came into effect on 1 May 2014.
Previously, the South African Parliament had passed the Traditional Health Practitioners Act of 2004 (Act. 35 of 2004). However, the act was ruled unconstitutional after Doctors for Life International challenged it at the Constitutional Court, citing the insufficient public participation at provincial level in the drafting of the act.
The South African Law Reform Commission received a submission from the Traditional Healers Organisation requesting the investigation of the constitutionality of the Witchcraft Suppression Act of 1957 and the Mpumalanga Witchcraft Suppression Bill of 2007, the drafting of which was suspended in 2008. On 23 March 2010 the Minister of Justice and Constitutional Development approved a South African Law Reform Commission project to review witchcraft legislation. In March 2012 the South African Law Reform Commission advised that Ms Jennifer Joni has been designated as researcher and Judge Dennis Davis has been designated as project leader for Project 135: Review of witchcraft legislation. Dr Theodore Petrus, who completed a doctoral thesis on witchcraft-related crime in 2009, was invited to become part of an advisory committee to assist in the review.
White sangomas
While there are recorded instances of white sangomas before 1994, since 1994 an increasing number of white people have openly trained as sangomas in South Africa. The question of authenticity is still an ongoing discussion. According to Nokuzola Mndende of the Icamagu Institute, a Xhosa sangoma and former lecturer in religious studies at the University of Cape Town: Philip Kubekeli, director of the Traditional Medical Practitioners, Herbalist and Spiritual Healers Association, and Phephsile Maseko, spokesperson of the Traditional Healers Organisation, see nothing wrong with white sangomas. Kubekeli and Maseko maintain the position that traditional healing knows no colour.
Several white sangomas, interviewed by The Big Issue in 2010, claimed that they have been welcomed by the black community in South Africa, aside from isolated experiences of hostility. On the other hand, there have also been reports that white sangomas have been less readily accepted by black sangomas.
A number of the South African traditions (e.g. Swazi and Tsonga/Shangaan) believe that a foreign or alien spirit can call one to become a traditional healer, which they call Abandzawo, especially if there is a significant extreme relationship between one of the healer's biological ancestors and the foreign spirit that occurred in the past. Dr Nhlavana Maseko, founder of the Traditional Healers Organisation, explains:
Relationship with bio-medical medicine
The formal health sector has shown continued interest in the role of sangomas and the efficacy of their herbal remedies. Botanists and pharmaceutical scientists continue to study the ingredients of traditional medicines in use by sangomas. Well known contributions to world medicine from South African herbal remedies include aloe, buchu and devil's claw. Public health specialists are now enlisting sangomas in the fight, not only against the spread of HIV/AIDS, but also diarrhoea and pneumonia, which are major causes of death in rural areas, especially in children. In the past decade, the role of traditional healers has become important in fighting the impact of HIV and treating people infected with the virus before they advance to a point where they require (or can obtain) anti-retroviral drugs. However, there are no traditional medicines in South Africa that have clinically been proven to be effective in the treatment of HIV/AIDS. A conclusion from a review by UNAIDS in September 2000, regarding collaboration with traditional healers in HIV/AIDS prevention and care, found that modern and traditional belief systems are not incompatible, but complementary.
While for many they provide the healing needed, there are some causes for concern. Charlatans who have not undergone thwasa charge exorbitant prices for fraudulent service, and not all countries in southern Africa have effective regulatory bodies to prevent this practice. Some sangomas have been known to abuse the charismatic power they have over their patients by sexually assaulting them, sometimes dressed up as ritual. Repeated use of the same razor blade to make incisions for muti carries HIV transmission risks in regions where the disease is rife. Western-style doctors have seen a number of cases of patients with serious gastrointestinal problems through the use of muti, especially in enema form, and have coined the phrase "ritual enema induced colitis" to describe the phenomenon.
Fraudulent sangomas and scam artists
Some charlatans have set up bogus healing practices, where they exploit clients for as much money as possible. These charlatans often call themselves doctors or professors and claim themselves as sangomas, faith healers, psychics or as traditional healers, but have no legitimate references and are not trained as such. All this Charlatans do not really see the negative impact they make in the community as all they want is quick money, it is believed these people use Salamos for one not to even see when they are being scammed, most scammers claim to be able to help people multiply their wealth, perform abortions, penis enlargement, bring your love back. A true Sangome/Inyanga stays in one place not moving around. In the Cape, they often adopt Muslim sounding names in order to attract the local Cape Coloured population, who are in part Muslim.
They advertise through flyers, posters and adverts that are commonly plastered on the streets and lamposts of cities throughout South Africa, especially in densely populated urban areas. The adverts make outlandish promises and claims about spells that bring back lost lovers, potions to enlarge penises and spells that will make people rich or provide them with luck to win in gambling or the lottery, to name a few. The sophistication of their advertising also extends to advertising in local newspapers and internet websites. Many people have lost significant amounts of money from scams, tricks and false promises that these charlatans use in their cons. Many women have significantly damaged their reproductive organs and the ability to reproduce, due to back street abortions.
Legitimate sangomas are angered by these charlatans and are working to end the trade of bogus traditional healers and fake sangomas through regulation, legal action and awareness. They believe the charlatans harm the reputation of the legitimate traditional healers and also damage the lives of many innocent people. As a general rule, sangomas tend not to advertise through flyers or posters. They tend to rely more on their reputation, word of mouth and their trust in their ancestors to bring them the right clients.
Mary Bungeni, a sangoma herself, explains:
Dr Motlalepula Matsabisa, director of the Medical Research Council's Indigenous Knowledge Unit, says there appears to be many fake traditional healers around, however because of a lack of regulation, they go unchecked and explains that if anyone can bring about good luck and predict lotto numbers, they would not be poor themselves. However, he also warns that people should not be gullible.
Phephsile Maseko, national co-ordinator of the Traditional Healers Organisation (THO), says:
See also
Busi Mhlongo
John Lockley
Mercy Manci
Curandero
Murder for body parts
Ubuntu
Vusamazulu Credo Mutwa
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Overview of Indigenous Healing in SA by the University of the Witswatersrand (WITS)
Sangoma Photo Gallery – Gallery of sangomas from different cultures around the Cape.
Spirits of Africa – Project dedicated to creating online documentaries of African spiritual and healing practices
Traditional healthcare occupations
Zulu culture
Xhosa culture
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222758 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AFI | ISO 3166-2:FI | ISO 3166-2:FI is the entry for Finland in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g. provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Finland, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 19 regions (under six Regional State Administrative Agencies plus Åland).
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Finland. The second part is two numbers.
Åland (; ), an autonomous region of Finland (also a former province), is also officially assigned its own set of country codes in ISO 3166-1, with alpha-2 code .
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
ISO 639-1 codes are used to represent subdivision names in the following administrative languages:
(fi): Finnish
(sv): Swedish
In addition, the list also includes translation to English (en).
Subdivision names are sorted in Finnish alphabetical order: a–z, å, ä, ö.
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Regions
Notes
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:
Codes before Newsletter II-3
See also
Subdivisions of Finland
FIPS region codes of Finland
NUTS codes of Finland
References
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: FI
Regions of Finland, Statoids.com
2:FI
ISO 3166-2
Finland geography-related lists | [
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222759 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tochigi%20%28city%29 | Tochigi (city) | is a city located in Tochigi Prefecture, in the northern Kantō region of Japan. , the city had an estimated population of 159,056 in 66,018 households, and a population density of 480 persons per km². The total area of the city is . Because the city escaped war damage during World War II, many historical temples, traditional shops and kura (Japanese traditional storehouses) remain in the city center. The city was awarded the "Utsukushii-machinami Taisho" prize from the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism in 2009.
Geography
Tochigi is located in the very southern portion of Tochigi Prefecture, bordering on Ibaraki Prefecture and Gunma Prefecture to the southwest. The city is located in the northern part of the Kanto plain, with a mountain range extending in the northern part of the city. The Tomawa River runs through the city center, the Oshigawa River runs through the eastern part, and the Watarase River runs through the southern part. At the confluence of these three rivers is the Yanaka Reservoir, which is used for sailboating and windsurfing. It was designated a Ramsar Site in June 2012.
Surrounding municipalities
Tochigi Prefecture
Oyama
Shimotsuke
Kanuma
Sano
Mibu
Nogi
Ibaraki Prefecture
Koga
Gunma Prefecture
Itakura
Climate
Tochigi has a Humid continental climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cold winters with heavy snowfall. The average annual temperature in Tochigi is 14.2 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1325 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 26.5 °C, and lowest in January, at around 2.9 °C.
Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Tochigi has remained relatively steadily over the past 40 years.
History
In the Edo period, Tochigi prospered from its location on the Uzumagawa River, which connected with the Tone River to Edo. Envoys using the Reiheishi Way sent from the Imperial Court going to Shrines and Temples of Nikkō stayed at the lodging area in the city. Most of the area was formerly tenryō territory controlled directly by the Tokugawa shogunate; however, the minor feudal domain of Fukiake Domain was located within the borders of modern city of Tochigi.
Following the Meiji Restoration and the creation of Tochigi Prefecture, Tochigi Town was the prefectural capital from 1871 until its relocation to Utsunomiya in 1884. On April 1, 1937, Tochigi was elevated to city status.
On September 30, 1954, Tochigi absorbed the villages of Ōmiya, Minagawa, Fukiage and Terao (all from Shimotsuga District). This was followed by the village of Kōō (from Shimotsuga District) on March 31, 1957.
Tochigi hosted its first film festival, the Kuranomachikado, or, "Eizo Film Festival" from October 5, 2007, to October 8, 2007.
On March 29, 2010, Tochigi absorbed the towns of Fujioka, Ōhira and Tsuga (Shimotsuga District). This was followed by the town of Nishikata (from Kamitsuga District) on October 1, 2011, and the town of Iwafune (from Shimotsuga District) on April 5, 2014.
Government
Tochigi has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral city legislature of 30 members. Tochigi contributes four members to the Tochigi Prefectural Assembly. In terms of national politics, the city is divided between the Tochigi 2nd district, Tochigi 4th district and Tochigi 5th district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.
Economy
Tochigi city is a regional commercial center, and has a mixed local economy. Food processing, automotive parts and light manufacturing dominated the industrial sector. Isuzu has maintained a factory since 1961. In 2010, the city ranked first in the number of farming families in the prefecture.
Education
Kokugakuin Tochigi Junior College
Tochigi has 29 public primary schools and 15 public middle schools operated by the city government. The city has eight public high schools operated by the Tochigi Prefectural Board of Education. The prefecture also operated one special education school for the handicapped.
Transportation
Railway
JR East – Ryōmō Line
- -
Tobu Railway – Tobu Nikko Line
- - - - - - -
Tobu Railway – Tobu Utsunomiya Line
- -
Highway
– Sano-Fujioka Interchange, Iwafune Junction, Tochigi Interchange, Tochigi-Tsuga Junction, Tsuga-Nishikata Parking Area
– Iwafune Junction, Tochigi-Tsuga Junction, Tsuga Interchange
Local attractions
*the sound of Tree frogs in Ajisai-zaka, Mount Ohirasan in Tochigi have been designated as one of the 100 Soundscapes of Japan by the Ministry of the Environment
Sister City relations
Evansville, Indiana, USA,
Noted people from Tochigi
Namihei Odaira, founder of Hitachi
Yūzō Yamamoto, author
Tanaka Isson, artist
Toyo Shibata, poet
Tomoko Yamaguchi, actress
Toshio Furukawa, voice actor
Yuriko Handa, Olympic volleyball athlete
Hirokazu Sawamura, professional baseball player
Takayuki Terauchi, professional baseball player
Takuya Takei, professional football player
Shingo Tomita, professional football player
Koji Hachisuka, professional football player
Toshiaki Kawada, professional wrestler
Ryoji Isaoka, Olympic weightlifter
Tochigiyama Moriya, sumo wrestler
Kosuke Hagino, swimmer
References
External links
Official Website
Cities in Tochigi Prefecture
Tochigi, Tochigi | [
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222767 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Hebrides | New Hebrides | New Hebrides, officially the New Hebrides Condominium (, "Condominium of the New Hebrides") and named for the Hebrides Scottish archipelago, was the colonial name for the island group in the South Pacific Ocean that is now Vanuatu. Native people had inhabited the islands for three thousand years before the first Europeans arrived in 1606 from a Spanish expedition led by Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós. The islands were colonised by both the British and French in the 18th century, shortly after Captain James Cook visited.
The two countries eventually signed an agreement making the islands an Anglo-French condominium that divided New Hebrides into two separate communities: one Anglophone and one Francophone. That divide continued even after independence, with schools teaching in either one language or the other, and with different political parties. The condominium lasted from 1906 until 1980, when New Hebrides gained its independence as the Republic of Vanuatu.
Politics and economy
New Hebrides was a rare form of colonial territory in which sovereignty was shared by two powers, Britain and France, instead of being exercised by just one. Under the Condominium there were three separate governments – one French, one British, and one joint administration that was partially elected after 1975.
The French and British governments were called residencies, each headed by a resident appointed by the metropolitan government. The residency structure greatly emphasised dualism, with both consisting of an equal number of French and British representatives, bureaucrats and administrators. Every member of one residency always had an exact mirror opposite number on the other side whom they could consult. The symmetry between the two residencies was almost exact.
The joint government consisted of both local and European officials. It had jurisdiction over the postal service, public radio station, public works, infrastructure, and censuses, among other things. The two main cities of Luganville and Port Vila also had city councils, but these did not have a great deal of authority.
While initial settlers were predominantly British living in Australia, the late 19th century saw an influx of French. Within a few decades, there were twice as many French on the islands as there were British, prompting a multitude of petitions to cede power to either the French or the British. Despite this, the two nations came together to form a condominium, a specialised form of government where both nations would have all of their own administrations and jointly rule the islands. The only place they came together was in the Joint Court. As Mander describes, "The Joint Court was the key to the situation and much was to depend upon it….Three judges–one British, one French, and the third nominated by the King of Spain–were to comprise the court." This meant convictions in court were chosen based on either British or French law, depending on the circumstances.
Other than the Joint Court, everything existed in pairs. "Cynics called the Condominium 'the Pandemonium', as the dual administration produced amazing duplication. There were two police forces with their own laws, including road laws, two health services, two education systems, two currencies, and two prison systems." Additionally, there were separate British and French governments, which meant two immigration policies, two courts (apart from the Joint Court), and two corporation laws. Inhabitants of the islands were given the choice of which government they wanted to be ruled by. As Miles put it, "The result was an inevitable clash of foreign policy and colonial mentality."
Local people could choose whether to be tried under the British common law or the French civil law. Visitors could choose which immigration rules to enter under. Nationals of one country could set up corporations under the laws of the other. In addition to these two legal systems, a third Native Court existed to handle cases involving Melanesian customary law. There was also a Joint Court, composed of British and French judges. The President of the Joint Court was appointed by the King of Spain until 1939 when the post was abolished after the retirement of the last President, partly due to the abolition of the Spanish monarchy in 1931.
There were two prison systems to complement the two court systems. The police force was technically unified but consisted of two chiefs and two equal groups of officers wearing two different uniforms. Each group alternated duties and assignments.
Language was a serious barrier to the operation of the naturally inefficient system, as all documents had to be translated once to be understood by one side, then the response translated again to be understood by the other, though Bislama creole represented an informal bridge between the British and the French camps.
The Condominium was not beneficial for Ni-Vanuatu, as they were "...officially stateless. [For instance,] To travel abroad, they needed an identifying document signed by both the British and the French resident commissioners." Inevitably, that led to discontent across the islands, with a multitude of revolutionary groups forming in an attempt to create agency and self-government for themselves.
During the Second World War, approximately 10,000 Ni-Vanuatu men served in the Vanuatu Labor Corps, a labor battalion of the United States Armed Forces. They provided logistical support to the Allied war effort during the Guadalcanal Campaign. The mass participation of Ni-Vanuatu men in the Labor Corps had a significant effect on the John Frum movement, giving it the characteristics of a cargo cult.
See also
Coconut War
French colonial empire
List of French possessions and colonies
List of Resident Commissioners of the New Hebrides
Postage stamps and postal history of Vanuatu
History of Vanuatu
References
Notes
Sources
External links
Pandemonium Reigns in New Hebrides, The Times-News – 10 May 1973
A Political Memoir of the Anglo-French Condominium of the New Hebrides
History of Vanuatu
Former colonies in Oceania
Former British colonies and protectorates in Oceania
Former French colonies
French colonisation in Oceania
British Western Pacific Territories
Condominia (international law)
European colonisation in Oceania
States and territories established in 1906
States and territories disestablished in 1980
1906 establishments in Oceania
1906 establishments in the British Empire
1906 establishments in the French colonial empire
1980s disestablishments in France
1980 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
1980 disestablishments in Oceania
France–United Kingdom relations
France–Vanuatu relations
United Kingdom–Vanuatu relations
20th century in Vanuatu
Vanuatu and the Commonwealth of Nations
20th-century disestablishments in the French colonial empire
International archipelagoes
Former polities of the Cold War | [
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222769 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chattel | Chattel | Chattel may refer to:
Chattel, an alternative name for tangible personal property
A chattel house, a type of West Indian dwelling
A chattel mortgage, a security interest over tangible personal property
Chattel slavery, the most extreme form of slavery, in which the enslaved were treated as property
The Chattel, a 1916 silent film | [
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222771 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-1 | ISO 3166-1 | ISO 3166-1 (Codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions – Part 1: Country codes) is a standard defining codes for the names of countries, dependent territories, and special areas of geographical interest. It is the first part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization.
It defines three sets of country codes:
ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 – two-letter country codes which are the most widely used of the three, and used most prominently for the Internet's country code top-level domains (with a few exceptions).
ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 – three-letter country codes which allow a better visual association between the codes and the country names than the alpha-2 codes.
ISO 3166-1 numeric – three-digit country codes which are identical to those developed and maintained by the United Nations Statistics Division, with the advantage of script (writing system) independence, and hence useful for people or systems using non-Latin scripts.
The alphabetic country codes were first included in ISO 3166 in 1974, and the numeric country codes were first included in 1981. The country codes have been published as ISO 3166-1 since 1997, when ISO 3166 was expanded into three parts, with ISO 3166-2 defining codes for subdivisions and ISO 3166-3 defining codes for former countries.
As a widely used international standard, ISO 3166-1 is implemented in other standards and used by international organizations to allow facilitation of the exchange of goods and information. However, it is not the only standard for country codes. Other country codes used by many international organizations are partly or totally incompatible with ISO 3166-1, although some of them closely correspond to ISO 3166-1 codes.
Criteria for inclusion
Currently 249 countries, territories, or areas of geographical interest are assigned official codes in ISO 3166-1. According to the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA), the only way to enter a new country name into ISO 3166-1 is to have it registered in one of the following two sources:
United Nations Terminology Bulletin Country Names, or
Country and Region Codes for Statistical Use of the United Nations Statistics Division.
To be listed in the bulletin Country Names, a country must be at least one of the following:
A member state of the United Nations
A member of one of its specialized agencies
A party to the Statute of the International Court of Justice
The list of names in Country and Region Codes for Statistical Use of the UN Statistics Division is based on the bulletin Country Names and other UN sources.
Once a country name or territory name appears in either of these two sources, it will be added to ISO 3166-1 by default.
The ISO 3166/MA may reserve code elements for other entities that do not qualify for inclusion based on the above criteria. For example, because the European Union is not a country, it is not formally included in ISO 3166-1, but for practical reasons, the ISO 3166/MA has "reserved the two-letter combination for the purpose of identifying the European Union within the framework of ISO 3166-1".
Information included
ISO 3166-1 is published officially in both English and French. Since the second edition of ISO 3166-1, the following columns are included for each entry:
Country Name – English (or French) short name (all upper-case)
English (or French) short name lower case (title case)
English (or French) full name
Alpha-2 code
Alpha-3 code
Numeric code
Remarks
Independent
Additional information: Administrative language(s) alpha-2 code element(s)
Additional information: Administrative language(s) alpha-3 code element(s)
Additional information: Local short name(s)
Naming and code construction
Naming and disputes
The country names used in ISO 3166-1 are taken from the two UN sources mentioned above. Some country names used by the UN, and accordingly by ISO, are subject to dispute:
Coding
The codes are chosen, according to the ISO 3166/MA, "to reflect the significant, unique component of the country name in order to allow a visual association between country name and country code". For this reason, common components of country names like "Republic", "Kingdom", "United", "Federal" or "Democratic" are normally not used for deriving the code elements. As a consequence, for example, the United Kingdom is officially assigned the alpha-2 code rather than , based on its official name "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland" (although is reserved on the request of the United Kingdom). Some codes are chosen based on the native names of the countries. For example, Germany is assigned the alpha-2 code , based on its native name "Deutschland".
Current codes
Officially assigned code elements
The following is a complete ISO 3166-1 encoding list of the countries which are assigned official codes. It is listed in alphabetical order by the country's English short name used by the ISO 3166/MA.
Note: Each country's alpha-2 code is linked to more information about the assignment of its code elements.
Reserved and user-assigned code elements
Besides the officially assigned codes, code elements may be expanded by using either reserved codes or user-assigned codes.
Reserved code elements are codes which have become obsolete, or are required in order to enable a particular user application of the standard but do not qualify for inclusion in ISO 3166-1. To avoid transitional application problems and to aid users who require specific additional code elements for the functioning of their coding systems, the ISO 3166/MA, when justified, reserves these codes which it undertakes not to use for other than specified purposes during a limited or indeterminate period of time. Codes are usually reserved for former countries, overseas territories, international organizations, and special nationality status. The reserved alpha-2 and alpha-3 codes can be divided into the following four categories (click on the links for the reserved codes of each category):
Alpha-2: exceptional reservations, transitional reservations, indeterminate reservations, and codes currently agreed not to use
Alpha-3: exceptional reservations, transitional reservations, indeterminate reservations, and codes currently agreed not to use
Numeric: no reserved codes
User-assigned code elements are codes at the disposal of users who need to add further names of countries, territories, or other geographical entities to their in-house application of ISO 3166-1, and the ISO 3166/MA will never use these codes in the updating process of the standard. The following codes can be user-assigned:
Alpha-2: , to , to , and
Alpha-3: to , to , to , and to
Numeric: to
User-assigned codes in wide use
: Used to denote Northern Ireland for the purposes of VAT collection in trade between it and the European Union.
Changes
The ISO 3166/MA updates ISO 3166-1 when necessary. A country is usually assigned new ISO 3166-1 codes if it changes its name or its territorial boundaries. In general, new alphabetic codes are assigned if a country changes a significant part of its name, while a new numeric code is assigned if a country changes its territorial boundaries. Codes for formerly used country names that were deleted from ISO 3166-1 are published in ISO 3166-3.
ISO used to announce changes in newsletters which updated the currently valid standard, and releasing new editions which comprise a consolidation of newsletter changes. As of July 2013, changes are published in the online catalogue of ISO only, and no newsletters are published anymore. Past newsletters remain available through the search option on the ISO website.
See also
Country code
International Organization for Standardization
ISO 3166
ISO 3166-1
ISO 3166-2
ISO 3166-3
List of ISO 3166 country codes
International vehicle registration code
Country code top-level domain
List of Internet top-level domains
ISO 639 – Codes for the representation of names of languages
Lists of countries and territories
Sovereign state
List of sovereign states
List of states with limited recognition
Dependent territory
Timeline of historical geopolitical changes
United Nations
Member states of the United Nations
United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories
List of IOC country codes
List of CGF country codes
Notes
References
Sources and external links
ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency, International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
Country names and code elements — list of alpha-2 codes
Standard Country or Area Codes for Statistical Use, United Nations Statistics Division
Countries or areas, codes and abbreviations — list of alpha-3 and numeric codes (a few territories officially assigned codes in ISO 3166-1 are not included in this list)
The World Factbook (public domain), Central Intelligence Agency
Appendix D – Country Data Codes — comparison of GEC (formerly FIPS 10-4), ISO 3166, and STANAG 1059 country codes
1
Country codes
Lists of country codes
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222775 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Lodge%2C%20Australia | The Lodge, Australia | The Lodge is the primary official residence of the Prime Minister of Australia, situated in the national capital Canberra. It is located at 5 Adelaide Avenue in the suburb of Deakin, a short distance away from Parliament House. The Lodge is one of two official prime ministerial residences, the secondary official residence being Kirribilli House in Sydney. The building was completed in 1927 in the Georgian revival style, and has been renovated several times since then. It was not initially intended to be used as a permanent official residence, and several prime ministers have chosen to live elsewhere during their terms in office.
History
The Lodge is a 40-room Australian Georgian revival style mansion, located on 18,000 square metres (4.4 acres) of landscaped grounds. The origin of its name is unknown. It was built as a temporary measure, to be occupied by whoever was the prime minister "until such time as a monumental prime minister's residence is constructed, and thereafter to be used for other purposes". The original "prime minister's cottage" was built in 1926–1927 at a base cost of £25,000 and an eventual total of "£28,319 (approximately $2,298,825 AUD in 2020), including the landscaping of 2.8 hectares of grounds, construction of a tennis court and croquet lawn, and furnishing and interior decoration". The architects were Percy A. Oakley and Stanley T. Parkes of Melbourne; the builder was J. G. Taylor of Sydney. Ruth Lane Poole of Melbourne was responsible for interior design and furnishing, as she had been for the governor-general's residence, Government House. The Lodge was intended as one of a set of three official residences, the others to be for the presiding officers of the Parliament of Australia (the speaker of the House of Representatives and the president of the Senate), but the others were never built.
The first prime minister to live in the Lodge was Stanley Bruce. He and his wife Ethel (they had no children) moved in on 4 May 1927, five days before the official opening of the Provisional Parliament House on 9 May. When he was leader of the opposition, Bruce's successor James Scullin (1929–32) had objected to the cost of running the Lodge and, true to his word, he and his wife lived at the Hotel Canberra (now the Hyatt Hotel) during his premiership. However the next prime minister, Joseph Lyons, chose the Lodge, and all subsequent prime ministers have used it as their primary place of residence, except for:
Earle Page (1939), Frank Forde (1945), and John McEwen (1967–68), who served as caretaker prime ministers following the deaths of an incumbent.
Ben Chifley (1945–49), who preferred the Hotel Kurrajong, where many Labor politicians of the era stayed.
John Howard (1996–2007), who stayed at the Lodge when he was in Canberra for parliamentary or government business, but lived primarily at Kirribilli House, Sydney. The latter is a residence maintained for the official use of prime ministers when they need to perform official duties and extend official hospitality in Sydney.
Tony Abbott (2013–15), who served as the prime minister while the Lodge was being renovated. Abbott resided at an apartment at the Australian Federal Police training college when in Canberra.
Scott Morrison (2018–present), who stays at the Lodge when he is in Canberra for parliamentary or government business, but lives primarily at Kirribilli House, Sydney. Morrison stated that this was to ensure that his daughters could continue to 'live as normal a life as is possible'.
When Julia Gillard became Prime Minister on 24 June 2010 after the parliamentary Labor Party decided to replace Kevin Rudd as leader, she declared that she would not move into the Lodge until she had "fulsomely earned the trust of the Australian people to be prime minister" at an election; instead, she remained living in her home in Altona in Melbourne and her flat in Canberra. Following the 2010 election at which Gillard led her party into minority government, she moved into The Lodge on 26 September 2010.
Of the three Australian prime ministers who have died in office, the only one to die at The Lodge was John Curtin in 1945.
Earlier prime ministers' residences
Melbourne served as the temporary capital from 1901 to 1927. During this time, there was no official residence for the prime minister. Edmund Barton, the first prime minister, initially lived in "a kind of bachelor flat" in the attic of Parliament House, Melbourne. This was remembered by James Drake as like a turret, "comfortably furnished as a writing room, and it opened into an equally small sleeping apartment with a bathroom adjoining". He retained a private residence in Sydney: 'Miandetta' at 67 Carabella Street, Kirribilli, from 1896 to 1906, and usually returned there when parliament was not in session. In May 1903 he instead moved into a suite at the Grand Hotel, which remained his residence until his resignation in September 1903. The second prime minister, Alfred Deakin, was a Melbournian and lived at his private residence "Llanarth" in South Yarra during each of his three terms as prime minister. He also had a vacation house, "Ballara", at Point Lonsdale. However, Deakin drew a distinction between his public and private lives and did not conduct official business at either of his homes. Chris Watson and George Reid both had their ordinary residences in Sydney, and stayed in boarding houses with other MPs during their short periods as prime minister; Watson's was in East Melbourne and Reid's was in St Kilda.
Andrew Fisher, who represented a Queensland seat, was the first non-Victorian prime minister to live permanently in the capital. In 1907 he purchased "Oakleigh Hall", a 13-room mansion in St Kilda East with of gardens. He and his extended family and servants used it as their residence during his three terms as prime minister beginning in 1908 and 1915. He frequently received guests and conducted official business there, but was given no allowance for its upkeep. Joseph Cook and Billy Hughes lived primarily in Sydney, but Stanley Bruce was another Melburnian and resumed the tradition of prime ministers residing in the capital year-round. In 1926, the year before The Lodge was finished, Bruce built "Pine Hill", a 16-room mansion in Frankston.
Description
The building's interior has an American Colonial character, with stained wall panelling and exposed upper-floor beams under the ceiling. The ground-floor entrance opens into an entrance hall. To the left of the entrance is the dining room and service wing, which includes staff quarters. To its right are the formal reception rooms—a drawing room, study, and sitting room/library (which was originally intended as a billiards room). The staircase rises to a landing which contains office space for the prime minister's spouse, then divides into two flights, leading to a hall opening onto a loggia above the entrance. On the first floor are the private apartments and guest accommodation, consisting of a study, six bedrooms, sitting room, a drawing room, and a billiards/games room.
Renovations
Menzies, 1939
When Robert Menzies' wife Pattie supervised a major refurbishment. The makeshift children's bedrooms on the front balcony, built for the large Lyons family, were removed. Worn carpets and furnishings were replaced and kerosene heaters installed.
Holt, 1966
Harold Holt's wife Zara Holt also organised a major makeover. All the curtains and carpets were discarded. The floors were re-covered with a dramatic emerald green carpet. The tall, arched windows of the entrance were draped with crisp white curtains. A flagpole flying the Australian flag was installed on the stair landing. Most controversial of all was the extensive work needed to transform the dark varnished Tasmanian mountain ash panelling of the walls of all three rooms. Once the stripping was completed, the walls were coated with a white gloss paint. These bright walls remained the backdrop of formal photographs at The Lodge for the next five prime ministers.
Gorton, 1968
John Gorton's wife Bettina had practical skills in farm repairs which were soon called on to deal with maintenance issues resulting from some of Zara Holt's decorating shortcomings. Repairs to a leaking ceiling that threatened the silk wallpaper in the 'Swan Suite', and toning down some of the more vibrant colours in furnishings and finishes, were among the tasks she undertook. But Bettina Gorton's lasting imprint on The Lodge was in the grounds. During the Gortons' tenure, a wall was built surrounding The Lodge, both as a security measure and to give some privacy from the encroaching traffic of Adelaide Avenue on the eastern side of the residence. Once the wall was completed, Bettina Gorton developed a garden of Australian native plants. The Gortons also installed a swimming pool and a courtyard in the north-east corner of the grounds.
Fraser, 1977-78
Major work was carried out in 1977–78 to upgrade the kitchen and staff quarters and to extend the main dining room. The Frasers found the house drab and unwelcoming. The once-glamorous wallpaper was peeling from the guestroom ceiling, and numerous cracks had appeared in the bathroom walls. Tamie Fraser thought the layout of the house was inefficient, the service area inadequate and, like every occupant since 1927, found the dining room too small for adequate official entertaining. Among the visitors entertained at The Lodge by the Frasers were the Prince of Wales, and then Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh in 1977.
The first task Tamie Fraser undertook was to supplement the surviving settings of the 1927 white and gold Royal Doulton dinner service. It had a special pattern that had been designed by Ruth Lane Poole in 1926 featuring the prime-ministerial monogram (consisting of the interwoven letters 'P' and 'M'), which also appears carved into the backs of the dining-room chairs. The man who handled Tamie Fraser's order in 1977 had arranged for the manufacture of the original set fifty years earlier. Though this expensive purchase created a furore, it did not deter Tamie Fraser from battling to secure major renovations of the service wing and dining room in 1978. She chose architect Guilford Bell to oversee this remodelling and to redecorate the main reception rooms to 'classic colours and style', with cream-painted walls and a white Berber carpet.
Hawke, 1987
The most notable feature of the work done by Hawke's wife Hazel during her eight years at The Lodge was her sympathetic restoration of the building's interior. She also supported The Australiana Fund, started by Tamie Fraser, which used donations to collect Australian art and furniture for the four official residences – Government House and The Lodge in Canberra, and Admiralty House and Kirribilli House in Sydney. Hazel Hawke found and arranged restoration of The Lodge's original Australian-made Beale Piano. The piano, chosen for The Lodge by Ruth Lane Poole to fit the original designs for the drawing room, had been used in the Canberra School of Music as a practice piano after its removal from The Lodge. Mrs Hawke also fitted out a room on the mezzanine landing of The Lodge as her office, which she remembered as her favourite room in which she spent most of her time.
Keating, 1991
The Keatings made some changes to the furnishings, moving a massive William Rojo bookcase provided by the Australiana Fund into storage and providing the 'Brown Room' with new sofas. Unlike many of the earlier prime-ministerial families, the Keatings preferred to treat The Lodge as a family home and did not often entertain official visitors there.
Howard, 1996
Although the Howards chose to reside at Kirribilli House in Sydney, they used The Lodge for official purposes and made significant changes. From 2000 to 2005, the reception areas of the residence were progressively refurbished with the assistance of interior designer Mary Durack. The two main reception rooms, the Morning Room and the Drawing Room, were redecorated in a complementary theme rather than as two distinctive areas, as was previously the case. The dining room and the foyer were also refurbished.
Major refurbishment, 2011–2015
Howard's successor in 2007, Kevin Rudd, returned to tradition by living at The Lodge, as did his successor Julia Gillard.
In October 2011 the Department of Finance and Deregulation had announced an intended 18-month repair and refurbishment project, involving roofing, insulation, guttering, plumbing, removal of hazardous material, heating and cooling, electrical rewiring, and replacement of the Australian Federal Police guard houses. "As these works have progressed, other works that could be undertaken to further improve the security, safety and functionality of the residence have been identified, and it is more efficient to complete these works while a major project is underway". In an interview with ABC News, Special Minister of State Gary Gray said the total cost would run into the millions of dollars. The original estimate of $3.19 million was rapidly exceeded and, , had been revised to $8.8 million.
In 2013, after Kevin Rudd replaced Julia Gillard as PM, he led Labor to the 2013 federal election which resulted in Coalition leader Tony Abbott becoming Prime Minister. Pending the completion of the renovations, Abbott chose to reside at Kirribilli House in Sydney and the Australian Federal Police College when he was in the capital. The renovations were not completed before Abbott's term as Prime Minister ended, and thus he never had the opportunity to reside at The Lodge. Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull and his wife Lucy moved into The Lodge in January 2016.
Security
The Lodge is highly secure. The residence has many security features in protecting the Prime Minister and their family, including the use of many security cameras, biometric security, high fences, shatterproof windows, and a safe room.
Gallery
See also
Australian residential architectural styles
List of official residences of Australia
References
Attribution
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
National Library of Australia Photographs of The Lodge, external and internal, in 1927. Retrieved 30 March 2011
Official site of The Prime Minister of Australia
Buildings and structures in Canberra
Official residences in Australia
Prime ministerial residences
Buildings of the Australian government
Georgian Revival architecture in Australia
Residential buildings completed in 1927
Prime Minister of Australia
Commonwealth Heritage List places in the Australian Capital Territory
1927 establishments in Australia | [
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222777 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deng%20Nan | Deng Nan | Deng Nan () (born October 1945 in Guang'an, Sichuan) is a Chinese politician and physicist.
Early life
Deng was born the second daughter of Deng Xiaoping with his third wife Zhuo Lin.
Deng studied physics at Peking University from 1964 to 1970. During university, she was secretary of the branch Communist Youth League of China. In Spring 1968, Nie Yuanzi directed Red Guards to detain Deng and her elder brother Deng Pufang. They were imprisoned in separate rooms of the physics department in an attempt to force self-criticisms from each. Deng was released relatively soon, whereas her brother was held and tortured for four months.
In 1970, Deng was sent to the Gaozhaizi Commune in present-day Ningqiang County for reeducation. She was assigned to the people's welfare production brigade at Dingjiawan (), where she lived with the family of the branch secretary Jiang Yingchang. She participated in constructing terraces, drying cereals, collecting firewood, and other labour. In her first year, Deng was referred to as the most zealous of the intellectual youth sent to Ningqiang County.
Career
She served as vice minister of China's State Science and Technology Commission (1998 - November 2004). She was a member of the 17th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China.
She is considered to be a member of the Crown Prince Party.
Personal life
Deng's university classmate Zhang Hong () was sent to the same commune in Ningqiang County, where the two frequently cooked food and collected firewood together. They are thought to have already been romantically involved at this point. The two later had a daughter in 1972 called Deng Zhuorui (), alternatively known as Mianmian (). Zhuorui married the CEO of Anbang Insurance Group, Wu Xiaohui in 2004. It was Wu's third marriage and they had one son. In 2014, Zhuorui ceased being a shareholder in two companies owned by Anbang, which was followed by news of the couple's separation in 2015.
References
Notes
Works Cited
1945 births
Living people
Politicians from Guang'an
Deng Xiaoping family
People's Republic of China politicians from Sichuan
Chinese Communist Party politicians from Sichuan
21st-century Chinese women politicians | [
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222779 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes%20of%20Apollonia | Diogenes of Apollonia | Diogenes of Apollonia ( ; ; 5th century BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher, and was a native of the Milesian colony Apollonia in Thrace. He lived for some time in Athens. His doctrines are known chiefly from Diogenes Laërtius and Simplicius. He believed air to be the one source of all being, and, as a primal force, to be intelligent. All other substances are derived from it by condensation and rarefaction. Aristotle has preserved a long passage by Diogenes concerning the organization of the blood vessels.
Life
Diogenes was a native of the Milesian colony Apollonia Pontica in Thrace, present-day Sozopol on the Black Sea. His father's name was Apollothemis. Nothing is known of the events in his life, except that he lived some time in Athens. Diogenes Laërtius states that "great jealousy nearly put his life in danger in Athens," but there may be confusion with Anaxagoras who is mentioned in the same passage. Like all the physiologoi (natural philosophers), he wrote in the Ionic dialect. In The Clouds of Aristophanes, it is thought that some views of Diogenes are transferred to Socrates.
Works
His most famous work was On Nature (Περὶ Φύσεως, Peri Physeos), some fragments of which are preserved, chiefly by Simplicius. Diogenes, like Anaximenes, believed air to be the one source of all being, and all other substances to be derived from it by condensation and rarefaction. This he modified by the theories of his contemporary Anaxagoras, and asserted that air, the primal force, was intelligent:
And it seems to me that that which possessed thought is what people call air, and that by this everyone both is governed and has power over everything. For it is this which seems to me to be god and to have reached everything and to arrange everything and to be in everything. And there is not a single thing which does not share in it.
The nature of the universe is air, limitless and eternal, from which, as it condenses and rarefies and changes its properties, the other forms come into being. Among his other doctrines, he is said to have believed that there was an infinite number of worlds, and infinite void; that air, densified and rarefied, produced the different worlds; that nothing was produced from nothing, or was reduced to nothing; that the Earth was round, supported in the middle, and had received its shape from the whirling round of the warm vapours, and its concretion and hardening from cold.
The longest surviving fragment of Diogenes is that which is inserted by Aristotle in the third book of his History of Animals. It contains a description of the distribution of the blood vessels in the human body. It is notable chiefly because "here we can read at first hand what in the case of the other Presocratics we learn only indirectly: an attempt to describe in scientific detail the structure and organization of the physical world."
Diogenite meteorites are named for Diogenes of Apollonia, who was the first to suggest an outer space origin for meteorites:
With the visible stars revolve stones which are invisible, and for that reason nameless. They often fall on the ground and are extinguished, like the stone star that came down on fire at Aegospotami.
Notes
References
André Laks. Diogène d'Apollonie. La dernière cosmologie présocratique. Lille: Presses Universitaires de Lille 1983. Edition, translation and commentary.
André Laks (ed.), Diogène d'Apollonie: edition, traduction et commentaire des fragments et témoignages. International Pre-platonic Studies; v. 6. Sankt Augustin: Academia Verlag, 2008 (revised edition of the preceding volume)
External links
5th-century BC Greek people
5th-century BC philosophers
Ancient Greek metaphysicians
Ancient Thracian Greeks
Ionic Greek writers
Metic philosophers in Classical Athens
Presocratic philosophers
People from Sozopol | [
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222781 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government%20House | Government House | Government House is the name of many of the official residences of governors-general, governors and lieutenant-governors in the Commonwealth and the remaining colonies of the British Empire. The name is also used in some other countries.
Government houses in the Commonwealth of Nations
Anguilla
Government House, Old Ta is the official residence of the governor of Anguilla.
Antigua and Barbuda
Government House, St. John's is the official residence of the Governor-General of Antigua and Barbuda.
Australia
Government House, Canberra, commonly known as Yarralumla, is the official residence of the Governor General of Australia.
Admiralty House, Kirribilli is the Governor General's official residence in Sydney.
Government Houses for the state Governors exist also in each state and the Northern Territory:
Government House, Sydney in New South Wales
Government House, Melbourne in Victoria; between 1901 and 1930 used by the Governor-General
Government House, Brisbane in Queensland
Old Government House, Queensland, used between 1862 and 1909
Government House, Norfolk Island, residence of the Administrator of Norfolk Island
Government House, Perth in Western Australia
Government House, Adelaide in South Australia
Government House, Hobart in Tasmania
Government House, Darwin in the Northern Territory
Government House, West Island in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands
The Bahamas
Government House, Duke Street, Nassau is the official residence of the Governor General of the Bahamas, and formerly of the Governor of the Bahamas.
Barbados
Government House is the former name of State House, the official residence of the President of Barbados. It is located on Government Hill, St. Michael, Barbados.
Belize
Belize House, Belmopan is the official residence of the Governor-General of Belize.
Government House, Belmopan was the official residence of the former Governors of British Honduras (later Governors of Belize) and used by the Governor-General of Belize between 1981 and 1984. The building is now the Museum of Culture.
Bermuda
Government House, Hamilton is the official residence of the Governor of Bermuda.
The British Virgin Islands
Government House, Road Town, Tortola is the official residence of the Governor of the British Virgin Islands.
Canada
Rideau Hall (officially Government House) in Ottawa is the official residence of the monarch and Governor General of Canada.
Citadelle of Quebec in Quebec City, Quebec, is a second official residence for the monarch and governor general and is normally occupied for several weeks each year.
Government Houses or official residences for the provincial lieutenant governors exist also in most provinces.
The Cayman Islands
Government House, Seven Mile Beach, Grand Cayman is the official residence of the Governor of the Cayman Islands.
Dominica
Government House, Roseau is the official residence of the President of Dominica.
The Falkland Islands
Government House, Stanley is the residence of the Governor of the Falkland Islands. It was the scene of a battle with Argentine troops during the 1982 invasion.
Fiji
Government House, Suva is located on Victoria Parade, Suva. It is the home of the President of Fiji and was built in 1928 to replace the original building – the residence of the colonial governor – which burnt to the ground after being struck by lightning in 1921.
The Gambia
Government House is the former name of State House, the official residence of the President of the Gambia.
Gilbert and Ellice Islands
A Government House of Gilbert and Ellice Islands was created in South Tarawa on 1 January 1972. It became the Presidential Residency of Kiribati on 12 July 1979.
Guyana
Government House is the former name of State House, which is the official residence of the President of Guyana.
Hong Kong
Government House, Hong Kong is located on Government Hill in the Central, Hong Kong of Hong Kong Island and the official residence of the Chief executive of Hong Kong.
India
Rashtrapati Bhavan was originally Government House, New Delhi. It was built as a residence for the Viceroy of India. From 1947 until 1950, it was the residence of the Governor-General of India. Since 1950, the President of India has lived in this building.
Raj Bhavan, Kolkata was the Viceroy's residence until capital of India shifted from Calcutta to New Delhi in 1911, when the Governor of Bengal moved in.
The Isle of Man
Government House, Governor's Road, Onchan is the official residence of the Lieutenant Governor Vice Admiral Sir Paul Haddacks, Her Majesty's representative on the Island.
Jamaica
King's House, Jamaica, is also known as Government House.
Jersey
Government House, St Saviour is the official residence of the Lieutenant Governor of Jersey (currently Lieutenant-General Sir Andrew Ridgway). It is also the official residence of the Duke of Normandy (currently Queen Elizabeth II) as head of state when staying in Jersey.
Kenya
Government House is the former name of State House, which is the official residence of the President and First Lady of Kenya.
Mauritius
Le Réduit, the official residence of the former Governors and Governors-General of Mauritius, was also known as Government House from 1810 until 1992. Since then, it has been called State House and is the official residence of the President of Mauritius.
Montserrat
Government House, Woodlands is the official residence of the Governor of Montserrat.
New Zealand
Government House, Wellington is the primary residence of the Governor-General of New Zealand. There is a second house in Auckland, Government House, Auckland.
Official Link: Governor-General of New Zealand
Nigeria
Government House, Port Harcourt is the official residence of the
Governor of Rivers State.
Pakistan
Government House of Baluchistan in Quetta.
Government House of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Peshawar.
Government House of Punjab in Lahore.
Government House of Sindh in Karachi.
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Government House, Basseterre, Saint Kitts, is the official residence of the Governor-General of Saint Kitts and Nevis.
Saint Lucia
Government House, Morne Fortune is the official residence of the Governor-General of Saint Lucia.
Sierra Leone
Government House is the former name of State House, the official residence of the President of Sierra Leone.
Singapore
Government House – Former residence of Stamford Raffles and the Governors of Singapore at Government Hill, Singapore, demolished in 1859 and a replica of it currently stands on its former site.
Government House of Singapore – Currently The Istana, the official residence of President of Singapore.
Pavilion - Former Government House from 1859 - 1861.
South Africa
Trinidad and Tobago
Government House is the former name of President's House, which is the official residence of the President of Trinidad and Tobago.
Government Houses outside the Commonwealth of Nations
Armenia
Government House, Yerevan
Azerbaijan
Government House, Baku, is a government building housing various state ministries of Azerbaijan. It is located on Neftchiler Avenue and faces the Baku Boulevard. From 1924 to 1927, construction of several large government buildings was planned and included in the budget of Baku. In 1934, the Soviet authorities announced a tender for the construction of the Baku Soviet Palace (later renamed the Government House).
The Presidential Palace houses the executive administration of the President of Azerbaijan. The office is in charge of fulfilling the constitutional responsibilities of the President. The building is located on Istiglaliyyat Street of the capital city, Baku. Built in 1971, it was occupied by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Azerbaijan. After the restoration of Azerbaijan's independence in 1991, the building was assigned to the President of Azerbaijan and his administration. It was renamed the Presidential Palace in 2003.
Bahrain
Government House, Manama
Belarus
Government House, Minsk
Hong Kong
Government House, Hong Kong, is located on Government Hill, Central, on Hong Kong Island. It was the official residence of most of the Governors of Hong Kong during British administration. After 1997, its status as the official residence of the head of the Hong Kong Government was abolished and has been used as a place for mere ceremonial uses. However, when Sir Donald Tsang became the Chief executive of Hong Kong, he reverted it and designated the House as the official residence and office. He moved into the House at the end of January 2006.
Jerusalem
The Palace of the Commissioner in Jerusalem is the former headquarters of the government of the British Mandate of Palestine until 1948, and has since June 1948 been the headquarters of the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization.
Moldova
Government House, Chișinău
Thailand
Government House of Thailand – Not an official residence, but the headquarters of the Office of the Prime Minister of Thailand.
Ukraine
Government House, Lviv, Ukraine – formerly the seat of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, a province of the Austro-Hungarian Empire
United States
Some gubernatorial residences in the United States of America are also named Government House:
Government House (St. Augustine), listed on the NRHP in Florida
Government House (Maryland)
Government House (New York City), intended to be the official residence for President George Washington, demolished in 1815
Government House (American Samoa), a National Historic Landmark
Zimbabwe
Government House, Harare, (now called State House) the official residence of the President of Zimbabwe
Government House, Bulawayo, (now called State House) the official residence in Bulawayo
See also
Official residence
Government Houses of the British Empire and Commonwealth
Governor's Mansion (disambiguation)
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222783 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partnership | Partnership | A partnership is an arrangement where parties, known as business partners, agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests. The partners in a partnership may be individuals, businesses, interest-based organizations, schools, governments or combinations. Organizations may partner to increase the likelihood of each achieving their mission and to amplify their reach. A partnership may result in issuing and holding equity or may be only governed by a contract.
History
Partnerships have a long history; they were already in use in medieval times in Europe and in the Middle East. According to a 2006 article, the first partnership was implemented in 1383 by Francesco di Marco Datini, a merchant of Prato and Florence. The Covoni company (1336-40) and the Del Buono-Bencivenni company (1336-40) have also been referred to as early partnerships, but they were not formal partnerships.
In Europe, the partnerships contributed to the Commercial Revolution which started in the 13th century. In the 15th century the cities of the Hanseatic League would mutually strengthen each other; a ship from Hamburg to Gdansk would not only carry its own cargo but was also commissioned to transport freight for other members of the league. This practice not only saved time and money, but also constituted a first step toward partnership. This capacity to join forces in reciprocal services became a distinctive feature, and a long lasting success factor, of the Hanseatic team spirit.
A close examination of medieval trade in Europe shows that numerous significant credit based trades were not bearing interest. Hence, pragmatism and common sense called for a fair compensation for the risk of lending money, and a compensation for the opportunity cost of lending money without using it for other fruitful purposes. In order to circumvent the usury laws edicted by the Church, other forms of reward were created, in particular through the widespread form of partnership called commenda, very popular with Italian merchant bankers. Florentine merchant banks were almost sure to make a positive return on their loans, but this would be before taking into account solvency risks.
In the Middle East, the Qirad and Mudarabas institutions developed when trade with the Levant, namely the Ottoman Empire and the Muslim Near East, flourished and when early trading companies, contracts, bills of exchange and long-distance international trade were established. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the Levant trade revived in the 10th to 11th centuries in Byzantine Italy. The eastern and western Mediterranean formed part of a single commercial civilization in the Middle Ages, and the two regions were economically interdependent through trade (in varying degrees).
The Mongols adopted and developed the concepts of liability in relation to investments and loans in Mongol–ortoq partnerships, promoting trade and investment to facilitate the commercial integration of the Mongol Empire. The contractual features of a Mongol-ortoq partnership closely resembled that of qirad and commenda arrangements, however, Mongol investors used metal coins, paper money, gold and silver ingots and tradable goods for partnership investments and primarily financed money-lending and trade activities. Moreover, Mongol elites formed trade partnerships with merchants from Central and Western Asia and Europe, including Marco Polo’s family.
Partnership agreements
Although not required by law, partners may benefit from a partnership agreement that defines the important terms of the relationship between them. Partnership agreements can be formed in the following areas:
Business: two or more companies join forces in a joint venture, a buyer-supplier relationship, a strategic alliance or a consortium to i) work on a project (e.g. industrial or research project) which would be too heavy or too risky for a single entity, ii) join forces to have a stronger position on the market, iii) comply with specific regulation (e.g. in some emerging countries, foreigners can only invest in the form of partnerships with local entrepreneurs. In this case, the alliance may be structured in a process comparable to a Mergers & Acquisitions transaction. A large literature in business and management has paid attention to the formation and management of partnership agreements. It has, in particular, shown the role of contracts and relational mechanisms to organize business partnerships.
Politics (or geopolitics): In what is usually called an alliance, governments may partner to achieve their national interests, sometimes against allied governments holding contrary interests, as occurred during World War II and the Cold War.
Knowledge: In education, accrediting agencies increasingly evaluate schools, or universities, by the level and quality of their partnerships with local or international peers and a variety of other entities across societal sectors.
Individual: Some partnerships occur at personal levels, such as when two or more individuals agree to domicile together, while other partnerships are not only personal, but private, known only to the involved parties.
Partnerships present the involved parties with complex negotiation and special challenges that must be navigated unto agreement. Overarching goals, levels of give-and-take, areas of responsibility, lines of authority and succession, how success is evaluated and distributed, and often a variety of other factors must all be negotiated. Once agreement is reached, the partnership is typically enforceable by civil law, especially if well documented. Partners who wish to make their agreement affirmatively explicit and enforceable typically draw up Articles of Partnership. Trust and pragmatism are also essential as it cannot be expected that everything can be written in the initial partnership agreement, therefore quality governance and clear communication are critical success factors in the long run. It is common for information about formally partnered entities to be made public, such as through a press release, a newspaper ad, or public records laws.
While industrial partnerships stand to amplify mutual interests and accelerate success, some forms of collaboration may be considered ethically problematic. When a politician, for example, partners with a corporation to advance the latter's interest in exchange for some benefit, a conflict of interest results; consequentially, the public good may suffer. While technically lawful in some jurisdictions, such practice is broadly viewed negatively or as corruption.
Partner compensation
Partner compensation will often be defined by the terms of a partnership agreement. Partners who work for the partnership may receive compensation for their labor before any division of profits between partners.
Equity vs. salaried partners
In certain partnerships of individuals, particularly law firms and accountancy firms, equity partners are distinguished from salaried partners (or contract or income partners). The degree of control which each type of partner exerts over the partnership depends on the relevant partnership agreement.
An equity partner is a part-owner of the business, and is entitled to a proportion of the distributable profits of the partnership.
A salaried partner who is paid a salary but does not have any underlying ownership interest in the business and will not share in the distributions of the partnership (although it is quite common for salaried partners to receive a bonus based on the firm's profitability).
Although individuals in both categories are described as partners, equity partners and salaried partners have little in common other than joint and several liability. In many legal systems, salaried partners are not technically "partners" at all in the eyes of the law. However, if their firm holds them out as partners, they are nonetheless subject to joint and several liability.
In their most basic form, equity partners enjoy a fixed share of the partnership (usually, but not always an equal share with the other partners) and, upon distribution of profits, receive a portion of the partnership's profits proportionate to that share. In more sophisticated partnerships, different models exist for determining either ownership interest, profit distribution, or both. Two common alternate approaches to distribution of profit are "lockstep" and "source of origination" compensation (sometimes referred to, more graphically, as "eat what you kill").
Lockstep involves new partners joining the partnership with a certain number of "points". As time passes, they accrue additional points, until they reach a set maximum sometimes referred to as a plateau. The length of time it takes to reach the maximum is often used to describe the firm (so, for example, one could say that one firm has a "seven-year lockstep" and another has a "ten-year lockstep" depending on the length of time it takes to reach maximum equity).
Source of origination involves the compensation of profits according to a formula that takes into consideration the amount of revenue and profit generated by each partner, such that partners who generate more revenue receive a greater share of the partnership's distributed profit.
Law firms
Source of origination compensation is rarely seen outside of law firms. The principle is simply that each partner receives a share of the partnership profits up to a certain amount, with any additional profits being distributed to the partner who was responsible for the "origination" of the work that generated the profits.
British law firms tend to use the lockstep principle, whereas American firms are more accustomed to source of origination. When British firm Clifford Chance merged with American firm Rogers & Wells, many of the difficulties associated with that merger were blamed on the difficulties of merging a lockstep culture with a source of origination culture.
Taxation
Partnerships recognized by a government body may enjoy special benefits from taxation policy. Among developed countries, for example, business partnerships are often favored over corporations in taxation policy, since dividend taxes only occur on profit before they are distributed to the partners. However, depending on the partnership structure and the jurisdiction in which it operates, owners of a partnership may be exposed to greater personal liability than they would as shareholders of a corporation. In such countries, partnerships are often regulated via antitrust laws, so as to inhibit monopolistic practices and foster free market competition. Enforcement of the laws, however, varies considerably. Domestic partnerships recognized by governments typically enjoy tax benefits, as well.
Common law
At common law, members of a business partnership are personally liable for the debts and obligations of the partnership. Forms of partnership have evolved that may limit a partner's liability.
Forms of partnership
The general partnership, in which all partners manage the business and are personally liable for its debts, developed under common law. General partners have an obligation of strict liability to third parties injured by the Partnership. General partners may have joint liability or joint and several liability depending upon circumstances.
The limited partnership (LP), is a partnership in which general partners manage the partnership's operations, and limited partners forego the right to manage the business in exchange for limited liability for the partnership debts. The liability of limited partners is limited to their investment in the partnership. This form of partnership was developed in the 19th Century, the U.K. where it was imparted by charter, and in the U.S. where it was created by statute.
More recently, additional forms of partnership have been recognized:
limited liability partnership (LLP): a form of partnership in which all partners may have some degree of limited liability.
limited liability limited partnership (LLLP): a form of limited partnership in which general partners have limited liability for the debts and obligations of the limited partnership.
Silent partners
A silent partner or sleeping partner is one who still shares in the profits and losses of the business, but who is not involved in its management. Sometimes the silent partner's interest in the business will not be publicly known. A silent partner is often an investor in the partnership, who is entitled to a share of the partnership's profits. Silent partners may prefer to invest in limited partnerships in order to insulate their personal assets from the debts or liabilities of the partnership.
Oceania
Australia
Summarising s. 5 of the Partnership Act 1958 (Vic), for a partnership in Australia to exist, four main criteria must be satisfied. They are:
Valid Agreement between the parties;
To carry on a business – this is defined in s. 3 as "any trade, occupation or profession";
In Common – meaning there must be some mutuality of rights, interests and obligations;
View to Profit – thus charitable organizations cannot be partnerships (charities are typically incorporated associations under Associations Incorporations Act 1981 (Vic))
Partners share profits and losses. A partnership is basically a settlement between two or more groups or firms in which profit and loss are equally divided
South Asia
Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, the relevant law for regulating partnership is the Partnership Act 1932. A partnership is defined as the relation between persons who have agreed to share the profits of a business carried on by all or any of them acting for all. The law does not require written partnership agreement between the partners to form a partnership. A partnership is not required to be registered, but a partnership is considered as a separate legal identity from its owners only if the partnership is registered. There must be a minimum of 2 partners and maximum of 20 partners.
India
According to section 4 of the Partnership Act of 1932,"Partnership is defined as the relation between two or more persons who have agreed to share the profits of a business carried on by all or any one of them acting for all". This definition superseded the previous definition given in section 239 of Indian Contract Act 1872 as – “Partnership is the relation which subsists between persons who have agreed to combine their property, labor, skill in some business, and to share the profits thereof between them”. The 1932 definition added the concept of mutual agency. The Indian Partnerships have the following common characteristics:
1) A partnership firm is not a legal entity apart from the partners constituting it. It has limited identity for the purpose of tax law as per section 4 of the Partnership Act of 1932.
2) Partnership is a concurrent subject. Contracts of partnerships are included in the Entry no.7 of List III of The Constitution of India (the list constitutes the subjects on which both the State government and Central (National) Government can legislate i.e. pass laws on).
3) Unlimited Liability. The major disadvantage of partnership is the unlimited liability of partners for the debts and liabilities of the firm. Any partner can bind the firm and the firm is liable for all liabilities incurred by any firm on behalf of the firm. If property of partnership firm is insufficient to meet liabilities, personal property of any partner can be attached to pay the debts of the firm.
4) Partners are Mutual Agents.The business of firm can be carried on by all or any of them acting for all. Any partner has authority to bind the firm. Act of any one partner is binding on all the partners. Thus, each partner is ‘agent’ of all the remaining partners. Hence, partners are ‘mutual agents’. Section 18 of the Partnership Act, 1932 says "Subject to the provisions of this Act, a partner is the agent of the firm for the purpose of the business of the firm"
5) Oral or Written Agreements. The Partnership Act, 1932 nowhere mentions that the Partnership Agreement is to be in written or oral format. Thus the general rule of the Contract Act applies that the contract can be 'oral' or 'written' as long as it satisfies the basic conditions of being a contract i.e. the agreement between partners is legally enforceable. A written agreement is advisable to establish existence of partnership and to prove rights and liabilities of each partner, as it is difficult to prove an oral agreement.
6) Number of Partners is minimum 2 and maximum 50 in any kind of business activities. Since partnership is ‘agreement’ there must be minimum two partners. The Partnership Act does not put any restrictions on maximum number of partners. However, section 464 of Companies Act 2013, and Rule 10 of Companies (Miscellaneous) Rules, 2014 prohibits partnership consisting of more than 50 for any businesses, unless it is registered as a company under Companies Act, 2013 or formed in pursuance of some other law. Some other law means companies and corporations formed via some other law passed by Parliament of India.
7) Mutual agency is the real test. The real test of ‘partnership firm’ is ‘mutual agency’ set by the Courts of India, i.e. whether a partner can bind the firm by his act, i.e. whether he can act as agent of all other partners.
North America
Canada
Statutory regulation of partnerships in Canada fall under provincial jurisdiction. A partnership is not a separate legal entity and partnership income is taxed at the rate of the partner receiving the income. It can be deemed to exist regardless of the intention of the partners. Common elements considered by courts in determining the existence of a partnership are that two or more legal persons:
Are carrying on a business
In common
With a view to profit.
United States
Under U.S. law a partnership is a business association of two or more individuals, through which partners share the profits and responsibility for the liabilities of their venture. U.S. states recognize forms of limited partnership that may allow a partner who does not participate in the business venture to avoid liability for the partnership's debts and obligations. Partnerships typically pay less taxes than corporations in fields like fund management.
The federal government of the United States does not have specific statutory law governing the establishment of partnerships. Instead, every U.S. state and the District of Columbia has its own statutes and common law that govern partnerships. The National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws has issued non-binding model laws (called uniform act) in which to encourage the adoption of uniformity of partnership law into the states by their respective legislatures. Model laws include the Uniform Partnership Act and the Uniform Limited Partnership Act. Most U.S. states have adopted a form of the Uniform Partnership Act, which includes provisions regulating general partnerships, limited partnerships and limited liability partnerships.
Although the federal government does not have specific statutory law for establishing partnerships, it has an extensive statutory and regulatory scheme for the taxation of partnerships, set forth in the Internal Revenue Code (IRC) and Code of Federal Regulations. The IRC defines federal tax obligations for partnership operations that effectively serve as federal regulation of some aspects of partnerships.
East Asia
Hong Kong
A partnership in Hong Kong is a business entity formed by the Hong Kong Partnerships Ordinance, which defines a partnership as "the relation between persons carrying on a business in common with a view of profit" and is not a joint stock company or an incorporated company. If the business entity registers with the Registrar of Companies it takes the form of a limited partnership defined in the Limited Partnerships Ordinance. However, if this business entity fails to register with the Registrar of Companies, then it becomes a general partnership as a default.
Europe
United Kingdom limited partnership
A limited partnership in the United Kingdom consists of:
One or more people called general partners, who are liable for all debts and obligations of the firm; and
One or of the firm beyond the amount contributed.
Limited partners may not:
Draw out or receive back any part of their contributions to the partnership during its lifetime; or
Take part in the management of the business or have power to bind the firm.
If they do, they become liable for all the debts and obligations of the firm up to the amount drawn out or received back or incurred while taking part in the management, as the case may be.
See also
Alliance
Consortium
Business partnering
Corporation
General partnership
Joint venture
Keiretsu
Limited liability partnership (LLP)
Limited partnership (LP)
Partnership accounting
Partnership taxation
Strategic Alliance
Types of business entity
Up or out (aka partnership system)
References
External links
Business law
Types of business entity | [
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] |
222786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPB | SPB | SPB may refer to:
Places
Saint Petersburg, Russia
Science and technology
Shortest Path Bridging in the IEEE 802.1aq standard
Slowly pulsating B star, a type of variable star
Spindle pole body, the functional equivalent of the mammalian centriole in yeast
Superpressure balloon
Transportation
Scappoose Industrial Airpark, Oregon, USA, FAA LID
Schynige Platte Bahn, a mountain railway in Switzerland
Charlotte Amalie Harbor Seaplane Base, U.S. Virgin Islands, IATA airport code SPB
Shepherd's Bush railway station, London, National Rail station code SPB
Other uses
Society of the Precious Blood, Anglican religious order
S. P. Balasubrahmanyam (1946–2020), Indian playback singer, actor, music director, voice actor and film producer
SPB Software, mobile software developer
Belarus Free Trade Union, a trade union in Belarus
State Procurement Board in South Australia
Sparisjóðabanki, also known as SPB hf., a defunct bank in Iceland | [
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222788 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishmael | Ishmael | Ishmael was the first son of Abraham through the Egyptian Hagar (), the common patriarch of the Abrahamic religions, and is venerated by Muslims as a prophet. According to the Genesis account, he died at the age of 137 ().
Jewish, Christian and Islamic traditions consider Ishmael to be the ancestor of the Ishmaelites (Hagarenes or Arabians) and patriarch of Qaydār. According to Muslim tradition, in which he is regarded as an ancestor of Muhammad, Ishmael thereby founded a great nation as promised by God in the Old Testament, and was buried with his mother Hagar (Hājar) next to the Kaaba in Mecca, under the area demarcated by the semi-circular Hijr Ismail wall.
Etymology
The name "Yishma'el" existed in various ancient Semitic cultures, including early Babylonian and Minæan. It is a theophoric name translated literally as "God (El) has hearkened", suggesting that "a child so named was regarded as the fulfillment of a divine promise".
Genesis narrative
The Genesis narrative sees the account of Ishmael's life take place through .
Birth
In , the birth of Ishmael was planned by the Patriarch Abraham's first wife, who at that time was known as Sarai. She and her husband Abram (Abraham) sought a way to have children in order to fulfill the Abrahamic covenant that was established in . Sarai was 75 years old and had yet to bear a child. She had the idea to offer her Egyptian handmaiden Hagar to her husband so that they could have a child by her. Abraham took Hagar as his wife and conceived a child with her.
Hagar began to show contempt for Sarah, who responded by treating her harshly. Hagar then fled into the desert region between Abraham's settlement and Shur. describes the naming of Ishmael, and God's promise to Hagar concerning Ishmael and his descendants. This occurred at the well of Beer-lahai-roi, where Hagar encountered the Angel of the Lord, who said to her "Behold, you are with child / And shall bear a son; / You shall call him Ishmael, / For the Lord has paid heed to your suffering." The Angel commanded Hagar, "Return to your mistress [Sarai] and submit to her."
Abraham was blessed so that his descendants would be as numerous as the dust of the earth. God would make of Ishmael a great nation because he was of the seed of Abraham. However, God told Hagar that her son would be living in conflict with his relatives. When Ishmael was born, Abraham was 86 years old.
Inheritance, rights and the first circumcision
When he was 13 years old, Ishmael was circumcised at the same time as all other males in Abraham's household, becoming a part of the covenant in a mass circumcision. His father Abram, given the new name "Abraham", then 99, was circumcised along with the others ().
At the time of the covenant, God informed Abraham that his wife Sarah would give birth to a son, whom he was instructed to name Isaac. God told Abraham that He would establish his covenant through Isaac, and when Abraham inquired as to Ishmael's role, God answered that Ishmael has been blessed and that he "will make him fruitful, and will multiply him exceedingly; twelve princes shall he beget, and I will make him a great nation." (). God also mentioned that "He will be a wild donkey of a man, His hand will be over (against) everyone, And everyone's hand will be against him; And he will live in the presence of his brethren."().
A year later, Ishmael's half-brother Isaac was born to Abraham by his first wife Sarah when she was 90 years old (), after she had ceased showing any signs of fertility ().
On the day of feasting during which Abraham celebrated the weaning of Isaac, Ishmael was "mocking" or "playing with" Isaac (the Hebrew word , is ambiguous) and Sarah asked Abraham to expel Ishmael and his mother, saying: "Get rid of that slave woman and her son, for that slave woman's son will never share in the inheritance with my son Isaac." Her demand was painful for Abraham, who loved Ishmael. Abraham agreed only after God told him that "in Isaac your seed shall be called", and that God would "make a nation of the son of the bondwoman" Ishmael, since he was a descendant of Abraham (), God having previously told Abraham "I will establish My covenant with [Isaac]", while also making promises concerning the Ishmaelite nation ().
At the age of 14, Ishmael was freed along with his mother. The Lord's covenant made clear Ishmael was not to inherit Abraham's house and that Isaac would be the seed of the covenant: "Take your son, your only son, whom you love and go to the region of Moriah." (Genesis )
Abraham gave Ishmael and his mother a supply of bread and water and sent them away. Hagar entered in the wilderness of Beer-sheba where the two soon ran out of water and Hagar, not wanting to witness the death of her son, set the boy some distance away from herself, and wept. "And God heard the voice of the lad" and sent his angel to tell Hagar, "Arise, lift up the lad, and hold him in thine hand; for I will make him a great nation." And God "opened her eyes, and she saw a well of water", from which she drew to save Ishmael's life and her own. "And God was with the lad; and he grew, and dwelt in the wilderness, and became an archer." ()
Descendants
After roaming the wilderness for some time, Ishmael and his mother settled in the Desert of Paran, where he became an expert in archery. Eventually, his mother found him a wife from the land of Egypt. They had twelve sons each of whom became a tribal chief in one of the regions from Havilah to Shur (from Assyria to the border of Egypt). His sons:
Nebaioth ()
Kedar (), father of the Qedarites, a northern Arab tribe that controlled the area between the Persian Gulf and the Sinai Peninsula. According to tradition, he is the ancestor of the Quraysh tribe, and thus, ancestor of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.
Adbeel ()
Mibsam ()
Mishma ()
Dumah ()
Massa ()
Hadad ()
Tema ()
Jetur ()
Naphish ()
Kedemah ()
Ishmael also had one known daughter, Mahalath or Basemath, the third wife of Esau.
Ishmael appeared with Isaac at the burial of Abraham. Ishmael died at the age of 137.
Family tree
World views
Historians and academics in the field of source criticism believe that the stories of Ishmael belong to the three strata of J, or Yahwist source, the P, or Priestly source, and the E, or Elohist source (See Documentary hypothesis). For example, the narration in is of J type and the narration in is of E type. Genesis 25 would have been added during the Persian Period by the Priestly source, who attributed the known Ishmaelite (Shumu'ilu) Tribes as the names of the sons of Ishmael, although the narrative and name of Ishmael himself preceded this.
Jewish and Islamic traditions consider Ishmael to be the ancestor of Arabians.
Pre-Islamic Arabia
Some Pre-Islamic poetry mentions Ishmael, his father Abraham, and a sacrifice story, such as the Pre-Islamic poet "Umayyah Ibn Abi As-Salt", who said in one of his poems: ([The sacrifice] of his first-born of whose separation he [Abraham] could not bear neither could he see him surrounded in foes).
Zayd ibn Amr was another Pre-Islamic figure who refused idolatry and preached monotheism, claiming it was the original belief of their [Arabs] father Ishmael.
Also, some of the tribes of Central West Arabia called themselves the "people of Abraham and the offspring of Ishmael", as evidenced by a common opening of speeches and harangues of reconciliation between rival tribes in that area.
Judaism
In Judaism, Ishmael was inclined towards many things Abraham considered wicked. Ishmael even prayed to idols when he believed himself unobserved, although this narrative is not in the Torah. According to the Book of Genesis, in the Hebrew Bible, Isaac rather than Ishmael was the true heir of the Abrahamic tradition and covenant, while at the same time being blessed by God with a great nation.
In Samaritan Torah version, Ishmael was described in Book of Genesis 16 as a 'fertile of man' instead of a 'wild ass of a man' as suggested in Masoretic Pentateuch which commonly used as standard version of Hebrew Bible in Jewish community.
In some traditions Ishmael is said to have had two wives, one of them named Aisha. This name corresponds to the Muslim tradition for the name of Muhammad's wife. This is understood as a metaphoric representation of the Muslim world (first Arabs and then Turks) with Ishmael.
Rabbinical commentators in the Midrash Genesis Rabbah also say that Ishmael's mother Hagar was the Pharaoh's daughter, making Ishmael the Pharaoh's grandson. This could be why Genesis 17:20 refers to Ishmael as the father of 12 mighty princes. According to Genesis 21:21, Hagar married Ishmael to an Egyptian woman, and if Rabbinical commentators are correct that Hagar was the Pharaoh's daughter, his marriage to a woman she selected could explain how and why his sons became princes.
According to other Jewish commentators, Ishmael's mother Hagar is identified with Keturah, the woman Abraham sought out and married after Sarah's death. It is suggested that Keturah was Hagar's personal name, and that "Hagar" was a descriptive label meaning "stranger". This interpretation is discussed in the Midrash and is supported by Rashi, Gur Aryeh, Keli Yakar, and Obadiah of Bertinoro. Rashi (Rabbi Shlomo Itzhaki) argues that "Keturah" was a name given to Hagar because her deeds were as beautiful as incense (Hebrew, ketoret), and that she remained chaste (literally "tied her opening", with the verb tied in Aramaic being k-t-r) from the time she was separated from Abraham.
It is also said that Sarah was motivated by Ishmael's sexually frivolous ways because of the reference to his "making merry" (Gen. 21:9), a translation of the Hebrew word "Mitzachek". This was developed into a reference to idolatry, sexual immorality or even murder; some rabbinic sources claim that Sarah worried that Ishmael would negatively influence Isaac, or that he would demand Isaac's inheritance on the grounds of being the firstborn. Regarding the word "Mitzachek" (again in Gen. 21:9) The Jewish Study Bible by Oxford University Press says this word in this particular context is associated with "Playing is another pun on Isaac's name (cf. 17.17; 18.12; 19.14; 26.8). Ishmael was 'Isaacing', or 'taking Isaac's place'." Others take a more positive view, emphasizing Hagar's piety, noting that she was "the one who had sat by the well and besought him who is the life of the worlds, saying 'look upon my misery'".
Christianity
In the book of Galatians (4:21–31), Paul uses the incident to symbolize the two covenants the old but fulfilled and new covenant which is universal by promise through Jesus Christ. In Galatians 4:28–31, Hagar is associated with the Sinai covenant, while Sarah is associated with the covenant of grace into which her son Isaac enters.
Some Christians believe that God fulfills his promises to Ishmael today by blessing the Ishmaelites with oil and political strength.
Islam
Ishmael (Arabic:إسماعيل Ismāʿēl) is recognized as an important prophet and patriarch of Islam. Like Christians and Jews, Muslims believe that Ishmael was the firstborn of Abraham, born to him from his wife Sarah's slave, Hagar. Ishmael is recognized by Muslims as the ancestor of several northern prominent Arab tribes and the forefather of Adnan, the ancestor of Muhammad. Muslims also believe that Muhammad was the descendant of Ishmael who would establish a great nation.
Ishmael in the Quran
Ishmael is mentioned over ten times in the Quran, often alongside other patriarchs and prophets of ancient times. He is mentioned together with Elisha and Dhul-Kifl as one of "the patiently enduring and righteous, whom God caused to enter into his mercy." It is also said of Lot, Elisha, Jonah and Ishmael, that God gave each one "preference above the worlds". These references to Ishmael are, in each case, part of a larger context in which other holy prophets are mentioned. In other chapters of the Quran, however, which date from the Medina period, Ishmael is mentioned closely with his father Abraham: Ishmael stands alongside Abraham in their attempt to set up the Kaaba in Mecca as a place of monotheistic pilgrimage and Abraham thanks God for granting him Ishmael and Isaac in his old age. Ishmael is further mentioned alongside the patriarchs who had been given revelations and Jacob's sons promised to follow the faith of their forefathers, "Abraham, Ishmael and Isaac", when testifying their faith. In the Quranic narrative of the near-sacrifice of Abraham's son, the son is not named and, although the general interpretation is that it was Ishmael, Tabari maintained that it was Isaac, consistent with the Hebrew scriptures. Most modern commentators, however, regard the son's identification as least important in a narrative given for its moral lesson.
Ishmael in Muslim literature
The commentaries on the Quran and the numerous collections of Stories of the Prophets flesh out the Islamic perspective of Ishmael and detail what they describe as his integral part in setting up the Kaaba. According to Muslim tradition, Ishmael was buried at the Hijr near the Kaaba, inside the Sacred Mosque.
In Islamic belief, Abraham prayed to God for a son and God heard his prayer. Muslim exegesis states that Sarah asked Abraham to marry her Egyptian handmaiden Hagar because she herself was barren. Hagar soon bore Ishmael, who was the first son of Abraham. God then instructed Abraham to take Hagar and Ishmael to the desert and leave them there. He did so, taking them to the location of the Kaaba's foundations (which now was in ruins) and as he turned away from Hagar and started to walk away she called out to him and asked "Why are you leaving us here?", to which Abraham didn't reply the first two times she asked. She then changed her question and asked "Did God command you to do this?" to which Abraham stopped, turned around, looked back and replied "Yes." She responded, "Then God will provide for us." Abraham then continued on his journey back to Sarah. In the desert, the baby Ishmael cried with thirst. His mother placed him in the shade under a bush and went on a frantic search for water, which resulted in her running seven times between the Safa and Marwah hills trying to find a source of water or a passing caravan she could trade with for water. Hagar, not finding any sources of water and fearing the death of her baby, sat down and cried asking for God's help. God sent angel Gabriel to her informing her to lift up her baby and when she did, she noticed that his feet had scratched the ground allowing a spring of water to bubble up to the surface. Hagar quickly shifted the ground to form a well around the spring to contain the water, forming the Zamzam well. Hagar refilled the bottle with water and gave her baby a drink. This spring became known to caravans that traveled through Arabia and Hagar negotiated deals with them for supplies in exchange for the water. From her actions, the city of Mecca (originally Becca or Baca in Hebrew) grew, and attracted settlers who stayed and provided protection for her and Ishmael as well as being sources of various goods brought in and exchanged with visiting caravans. To commemorate the blessing of the Zamzam well God gave to Hagar and Ishmael, Muslims run between the Safa and Marwah hills retracing Hagar's steps during the rites of Hajj.
Abraham returned and visited Ishmael at various times throughout his life. At one time, according to a tradition of Muhammad, Abraham had arrived when his son was out and Abraham visited with Ishmael's wife. Abraham decided to leave before seeing his son, but based upon the complaints Ishmael's wife made in response to his questions, he gave her a message to give to her husband when he returned home, which was "change his threshold." When Ishmael arrived that night, he asked if they had had any visitors, and was informed by his wife of the man who had visited and what he said. Ishmael understood his father and explained to his wife that the visitor was his father and he had been instructed to divorce his wife and find a better one, which Ishmael did. Some time after this, Abraham returned to visit Ishmael and again Ishmael was out. Abraham talked with Ishmael's new wife and found her answers indicated faith in God and contentment with her husband. Abraham again had to leave before he saw his son, but left him the message to "keep his threshold." When Ishmael returned that night, he again asked if there had been any visitors and was informed of Abraham's visit. Ishmael told his wife who it was that had come to visit and that he approved of her and their marriage.
On one of his visits to Mecca, Abraham is said to have asked his son to help him build the requested Kaaba. Islamic traditions hold that the Kaaba was first built by Adam and that Abraham and Ishmael rebuilt the Kaaba on the old foundations. As Ishmael grew up in Arabia, he is said to have become fluent in Arabic. In the genealogical trees that the early scholars drew, Ishmael was considered the ancestor of the Northern Arabs and Muhammad was linked to him through the lineage of the patriarch Adnan.
Bahá'í Faith
The scriptures of the Baháʼí Faith state that it was Ishmael, and not Isaac, who was the son Abraham almost sacrificed. But they also state that the name is unimportant as either could be used: the importance is that both were symbols of sacrifice. According to Shoghi Effendi, there has also been another Ishmael, a prophet of Israel, commonly known as Samuel.
See also
Abraham
Biblical narratives and the Qur'an
Isaac
Legends and the Qur'an
List of names referring to El
Prophets of Islam
Stories of The Prophets
Notes
References
Sources
Books and journals
Encyclopedias
External links
Genealogy from Adam to the Twelve Tribes
Ishmael in Islam
The Jewish Encyclopedia: Ishmael.
Biographical Study on Ishmael
Ishmael in Bahaʼi Faith
Children of Abraham
Angelic apparitions in the Bible
Book of Genesis people
Lech-Lecha
People whose existence is disputed
Legendary progenitors
Adnanites
Hagar
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222789 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lata%20Mangeshkar | Lata Mangeshkar | Lata Mangeshkar () (born as Hema Mangeshkar; 28 September 1929 – 6 February 2022) was an Indian playback singer and occasional music composer. She is widely considered to have been one of the greatest and most influential singers in India. Her contribution to the Indian music industry in a career spanning seven decades gained her honorific titles such as the "Queen of Melody", "Nightingale of India", and "Voice of the Millennium".
Lata recorded songs in over thirty-six Indian languages and a few foreign languages, though primarily in Marathi, Hindi, and Bengali. Her foreign languages included English, Russian, Dutch, and Swahili. She received several accolades and honors throughout her career. In 1989, the Dadasaheb Phalke Award was bestowed on her by the Government of India. In 2001, in recognition of her contributions to the nation, she was awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour; she is only the second female singer, after M. S. Subbulakshmi, to receive this honour. France conferred on her its highest civilian award, Officer of the National Order of the Legion of Honour, in 2007.
She was the recipient of three National Film Awards, 15 Bengal Film Journalists' Association Awards, four Filmfare Best Female Playback Awards, two Filmfare Special Awards, the Filmfare Lifetime Achievement Award and many more. In 1974, she was one of the first Indian playback singers to perform at Royal Albert Hall in London, UK. Her last recorded song was "Saugandh Mujhe Is Mitti ki" released on 30 March 2019 as a tribute to the Indian Army and the Nation.
At one point, she appeared in the Guinness World Records which listed her as the most recorded artist in history between 1948 and 1987.
Early life
Lata Mangeshkar was born on 28 September 1929 in a Maharashtrian Brahmin family the eldest daughter of Deenanath Mangeshkar, a Marathi and his wife Shudhamati, a Gujarati in Indore (in the present-day Indore district of Madhya Pradesh and then the capital of the princely state of Indore which was part of the Central India Agency in British India). Her father, Deenanath, was a classical singer and theatre actor. Her mother, Shevanti (later renamed Shudhamati), a Gujarati woman from Thalner, Bombay Presidency (now in northwest Maharashtra), was Deenanath's second wife; his first wife Narmada, who had died, was Shevanti's older sister.
Her paternal grandfather, Ganesh Bhatt Navathe Hardikar (Abhisheki), was a married Karhade Brahmin pujari who performed the abhisheka of the Shiva lingam at the Mangueshi Temple in Goa. Her paternal grandmother, Yesubai Rane, was his Devadasi mistress from Goa. Since Deenanath Mangeshkar's parents were not married to each other, he did not inherit his father's caste and surname but instead inherited his mother's caste status. Her maternal grandfather, Seth Haridas Ramdas Lad, was from Gujarat, a prosperous businessman and landlord of Thalner. She learned Gujarati folk songs such as garbas of Pavagadh from her maternal grandmother.
Deenanath adopted the surname Mangeshkar in order to identify his family with his native town of Mangeshi, Goa. Lata was named "Hema" at her birth. Her parents later renamed her Lata after a female character, Latika, in one of her father's plays, भाव बंधन.
She was the eldest child in the family. Meena, Asha, Usha, and Hridaynath, in birth order, are her siblings; all are accomplished singers and musicians.
She received her first music lesson from her father. At the age of five, she started to work as an actress in her father's musical plays (Sangeet Natak in Marathi). On her first day of school, Mangeshkar left because she was not allowed to bring her sister Asha along with her.
Singing career
Early career in the 1940s
In 1942, when Mangeshkar was 13, her father died of heart disease. Master Vinayak (Vinayak Damodar Karnataki), the owner of Navyug Chitrapat movie company and a close friend of the Mangeshkar family, took care of them. He helped her get started in a career as a singer and actress.
She sang the song "Naachu Yaa Gade, Khelu Saari Mani Haus Bhaari", which was composed by Sadashivrao Nevrekar for Vasant Joglekar's Marathi movie Kiti Hasaal (1942), but the song was dropped from the final cut. Vinayak gave her a small role in Navyug Chitrapat's Marathi movie Pahili Mangalaa-gaur (1942), in which she sang "Natali Chaitraachi Navalaai" which was composed by Dada Chandekar. Her first Hindi song was "Mata Ek Sapoot Ki Duniya Badal De Tu" for the Marathi film Gajaabhaau (1943). The Bollywood industry was yet to find its feet, so Mangeshkar had to first concentrate on acting, which she didn't like, as the lights and people ordering her around made her feel uncomfortable.
She moved to Mumbai in 1945 when Master Vinayak's company moved its headquarters there. She started taking lessons in Hindustani classical music from Ustad Aman Ali Khan of Bhindibazaar Gharana. She sang "Paa Lagoon Kar Jori" for Vasant Joglekar's Hindi-language movie Aap Ki Seva Mein (1946), which was composed by Datta Davjekar. The dance in the film was performed by Rohini Bhate, who later became a famous classical dancer. Lata and her sister Asha played minor roles in Vinayak's first Hindi-language movie, Badi Maa (1945). In that movie, Lata also sang a bhajan, "Maata Tere Charnon Mein." She was introduced to music director Vasant Desai during the recording of Vinayak's second Hindi-language movie, Subhadra (1946).
After Vinayak's death in 1948, music director Ghulam Haider mentored her as a singer. He introduced her to producer Sashadhar Mukherjee, who was then working on the movie Shaheed (1948), but Mukherjee dismissed her voice as "too thin". An annoyed Haider responded that in coming years producers and directors would "fall at Lata's feet" and "beg her" to sing in their movies. Haider gave her her first major break with the song "Dil Mera Toda, Mujhe Kahin Ka Na Chhora"—lyrics by Nazim Panipati—in the movie Majboor (1948), which became her first big breakthrough film hit. In an interview on her 84th birthday in 2013, she declared "Ghulam Haider is truly my Godfather. He was the first music director who showed complete faith in my talent."
Initially, she is said to have imitated the acclaimed singer Noor Jehan, but she later developed her own style of singing. She brought a new signature style of singing to Indian film music, moving away from mehfil-style performances to suit both 'modern' and 'traditional' female protagonists. A soprano range voice with less volume or amplitude, she had enough weight in her voice to give definite shape to the melody of Indian film songs. Although she had limited coloratura skills in her early career, she developed better tone and pitch as she progressed in her playback career. Lyrics of songs in Hindi movies are primarily composed by Urdu poets and contain a higher proportion of Urdu words, including the dialogue. Actor Dilip Kumar once made a mildly disapproving remark about her accent while singing Hindi/Urdu songs; so for a period of time, she took lessons in Urdu from an Urdu teacher named Shafi. In subsequent interviews she said that Noor Jehan heard her as a child and had told her to practice a lot. The two stayed in touch with each other for many years to come.
One of her first major hits was "Aayega Aanewaala," a song in the movie Mahal (1949), composed by music director Khemchand Prakash and lip-synced on screen by actress Madhubala. This was a defining moment for her, and a catalyst for the recognition of playback singers in India. Before this, playback singers were seen as the vocal equivalent of a stuntman and remained invisible and uncredited. This song was such a big hit, that Radio Goa revealed her identity and she became a star in her own right. This opened the door for other playback singers to achieve the recognition they deserved.
1950s
In the 1950s, Mangeshkar sang songs composed by various music directors of the period, including Anil Biswas (in films such as Tarana (1951) and Heer (1956)), Shankar Jaikishan, Naushad Ali, S. D. Burman, Sardul Singh Kwatra, Amarnath, Husanlal, and Bhagatram (in films like Bari Behen (1949), Meena Bazaar (1950), Aadhi Raat (1950), Chhoti Bhabi (1950), Afsana (1951), Aansoo (1953), and Adl-e-Jehangir (1955)), C. Ramchandra, Hemant Kumar, Salil Chowdhury, Datta Naik, Khayyam, Ravi, Sajjad Hussain, Roshan, Kalyanji-Anandji, Vasant Desai, Sudhir Phadke, Hansraj Behl, Madan Mohan, and Usha Khanna. She sang "Sri Lanka, Ma Priyadara Jaya Bhumi", a song in Sinhala, for the 1955 Sri Lankan film Seda Sulang. Lata Didi recorded her first Telugu song Nidhurapora Thammudaa in 1955 Telugu film Santhanam for music director Susarla Dakshinamurthi. She made her debut in Tamil playback singing with Vanaradham in 1956 (Uran Khotala dubbed in Tamil) with the Tamil song Enthan Kannalan for Nimmi in the dubbed version composed by Naushad.
She sang many raga-based songs for Naushad in movies such as Deedar (1951), Baiju Bawra (1952), Amar (1954), Uran Khatola (1955) and Mother India (1957). Ae Chorre Ki Jaat Badi Bewafa, a duet with G. M. Durrani, was her first song for the composer Naushad. The duo, Shankar–Jaikishan, chose Lata for Barsaat (1949), Aah (1953), Shree 420 (1955) and Chori Chori (1956). Before 1957, composer S. D. Burman chose her as the leading female singer for his musical scores in Sazaa (1951), House No. 44 (1955), and Devdas (1955). However a rift developed between her and Burman in 1957, and she did not sing his compositions again until 1962.
She won a Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer for Salil Chowdhury's composition "Aaja Re Pardesi" from Madhumati (1958). Her association with C. Ramchandra produced songs in movies such as Albela (1951), Shin Shinkai Bublaa Boo (1952), Anarkali (1953), Pehli Jhhalak (1954), Azad (1955), Aasha (1957), and Amardeep (1958). For Madan Mohan, she performed for films like Baagi (1953), Railway Platform (1955), Pocketmaar (1956), Mr. Lambu (1956), Dekh Kabira Roya (1957), Adalat (1958), Jailor (1958), Mohar (1959), and Chacha Zindabad (1959).
Her song Aye Maalik Tere Bande Hum which was the original composition of Vasant Desai and used in the film Do Aankhen Barah Haath on 1957, was adapted by a Pakistani school as the school anthem.
1960s
Mangeshkar's song "Pyar Kiya To Darna Kya" from Mughal-e-Azam (1960), composed by Naushad and lip-synced by Madhubala, still remains famous. The Hawaiian-themed number "Ajeeb Dastaan Hai Yeh", from Dil Apna Aur Preet Parai (1960), was composed by Shankar–Jaikishan and lip-synced by Meena Kumari.
In 1961, she recorded two popular bhajans, "Allah Tero Naam" and "Prabhu Tero Naam", for Burman's assistant, Jaidev. In 1962, she was awarded her second Filmfare Award for the song "Kahin Deep Jale Kahin Dil" from Bees Saal Baad, composed by Hemant Kumar.
On 27 January 1963, against the backdrop of the Sino-Indian War, she sang the patriotic song "Aye Mere Watan Ke Logo" (literally, "Oh, People of My Country") in the presence of Jawaharlal Nehru, then the Prime Minister of India. The song, composed by C. Ramchandra and written by Kavi Pradeep, is said to have brought the Prime Minister to tears.
In 1963, she returned to collaborate with S. D. Burman. She had sung in R. D. Burman's first film, Chhote Nawab (1961), and later in his films such as Bhoot Bungla (1965), Pati Patni (1966), Baharon ke Sapne (1967), and Abhilasha (1969). She also recorded several popular songs for S. D. Burman, including "Aaj Phir Jeene Ki Tamanna Hai", "Gata Rahe Mera Dil" (duet with Kishore Kumar) and "Piya Tose" from Guide (1965), "Hothon Pe Aisi Baat" from Jewel Thief (1967), and "Kitni Akeli Kitni Tanhaa" from Talash.
During the 1960s, she continued her association with Madan Mohan, which included the songs "Aap Ki Nazron Ne Samjha" from Anpadh (1962), "Lag Jaa Gale" and "Naina Barse Rim Jhim" from Woh Kaun Thi? (1964), "Woh Chup Rahen To" from Jahan Ara (1964), "Tu Jahan Jahan Chalega" from Mera Saaya (1966) and "Teri Aankho Ke Siva" from Chirag (1969), and she had a continuing association with the maestros Shankar Jaikishan, who got her to sing in various genres in the 1960s.
The 1960s also witnessed the beginning of her association with Laxmikant–Pyarelal, the music directors for whom she sang the most popular songs in her career. Starting in 1963, Laxmikant–Pyarelal's association with Lata Mangeshkar grew stronger over the years. She sang over 700 songs for the composer duo over a period of 35 years, many of which became huge hits. She sang for Parasmani (1963), Mr. X in Bombay (1964), Aaye Din Bahar Ke (1966), Milan (1967), Anita (1967), Shagird (1968), Mere Hamdam Mere Dost (1968), Intaquam (1969), Do Raaste (1969) and Jeene Ki Raah, for which she got her third Filmfare Award.
She also sang several playback songs for Marathi films, composed by Marathi music directors including Hridaynath Mangeshkar, Vasant Prabhu, Srinivas Khale, Sudhir Phadke and herself, under the pseudonym Anandghan. During the 1960s and 1970s, she also sang several Bengali songs composed by music directors like Salil Chowdhury and Hemant Kumar.
She made her Kannada debut in 1967 for the film Kranthiveera Sangolli Rayanna by recording two songs for the music director Lakshman Berlekar. The song "Bellane Belagayithu" was well received and appreciated.
In the 1960s, she recorded duets with Kishore Kumar, Mukesh, Manna Dey, Mahendra Kapoor and Mohammed Rafi. For a brief period during the 1960s, she was not on good terms with Mohammed Rafi over the issue of royalty payments to singers. She wanted Rafi to back her in demanding a half-share from the five percent song royalty that the film's producer conceded to select composers. But Rafi took a diametrically opposite view, and believed that a playback singer's claim on the filmmaker ended with the payment of the agreed fee for the song, leading to tensions between the two. After an argument during the recording of the song "Tasveer Teri Dil Mein", from Maya (1961), the two refused to sing with each other. The music director Shankar Jaikishan later negotiated a reconciliation between the two.
1970s
In 1972, Meena Kumari's last film, Pakeezah, was released. It featured popular songs including "Chalte Chalte" and "Inhi Logon Ne", sung by Mangeshkar, and composed by Ghulam Mohammed. She recorded many popular songs for S.( ) D. Burman's last films, including "Rangeela Re" from Prem Pujari (1970), "Khilte Hain Gul Yahaan" from Sharmeelee (1971), and "Piya Bina" from Abhimaan (1973) and for Madan Mohan's last films, including Dastak (1970), Heer Raanjha (1970), Dil Ki Rahen (1973), Hindustan Ki Kasam (1973), Hanste Zakhm (1973), Mausam (1975) and Laila Majnu (1976).
Many of her notable songs in the 1970s were composed by Laxmikant–Pyarelal and Rahul Dev Burman. Many of her songs composed by Laxmikant-Pyarelal in the 1970s were written by the lyricist Anand Bakshi. She also recorded many hit songs with Rahul Dev Burman in the films Amar Prem (1972), Caravan (1971), Kati Patang (1971), and Aandhi (1975). The two are noted for their songs with the lyricists Majrooh Sultanpuri, Anand Bakshi, and Gulzar.
In 1973, she won the National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer for the song "Beeti Na Bitai" from the film Parichay, composed by R. D. Burman, and written by Gulzar. In 1974, she sang her only Malayalam song "Kadali Chenkadali" for the film Nellu, composed by Salil Chowdhury, and written by Vayalar Ramavarma. In 1975, she again won the National Award, this time for the song "Roothe Roothe Piya" from the film Kora Kagaz, composed by Kalyanji Anandji.
From the 1970s onward, she also staged many concerts in India and abroad, including several charity concerts. She transformed the way Indian music concerts were perceived in the West. Her first concert overseas was at the Royal Albert Hall, London, in 1974. (Despite some sources claiming that she was the first Indian to do so, according to the Hall's own records, the first Indian to perform there was the late Ravi Shankar, on 21 October 1969.) Until that time, film music concerts were song-and-dance affairs held in community halls and colleges, rarely taken seriously. Mangeshkar demanded to sing in mainstream halls only, which was an honour that until then was bestowed only upon classical musicians.
She also released an album of Mirabai's bhajans, "Chala Vaahi Des", composed by her brother Hridaynath Mangeshkar. Some of the bhajans in the album include "Saanware Rang Ranchi" and "Ud Jaa Re Kaaga". In the early 1970s, she released other non-film albums, such as her collection of Ghalib ghazals, an album of Marathi folk songs (Koli-geete), an album of Ganesh aartis (all composed by her brother Hridaynath) and an album of "abhangs" of Sant Tukaram composed by Shrinivas Khale.
In the 1978 Raj Kapoor-directed Satyam Shivam Sundaram, she sang the main theme song "Satyam Shivam Sundaram," among the chart-toppers of the year. The film's story is inspired by her, according to Kapoor's daughter Ritu Nanda in her book Raj Kapoor. The book quotes Kapoor as saying, "I visualised the story of a man falling for a woman with an ordinary countenance but a golden voice and wanted to cast Lata Mangeshkar in the role."
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, she worked with the children of composers she had earlier worked with. Some of these composers included Rahul Dev Burman, son of Sachin Dev Burman, Rajesh Roshan, son of Roshan, Anu Malik, son of Sardar Malik, and Anand–Milind, sons of Chitragupta. She also sang many songs in the Assamese language and developed a very good relationship with the Assamese musician Bhupen Hazarika. She sang many songs under his direction; the song "Dil Hoom Hoom Kare" from Rudaali (1993) made the highest record sales that year.
1980s
From the 1980s onward, Mangeshkar worked with music directors such as Shiv-Hari in Silsila (1981), Faasle (1985), Vijay (1988), and Chandni (1989) and Ram Laxman in Ustadi Ustad Se (1981), Bezubaan (1982), Woh Jo Hasina (1983), Ye Kesa Farz (1985), and Maine Pyar Kiya (1989). She sang in other movies, such as Karz (1980), Ek Duuje Ke Liye (1981), Silsila (1981), Prem Rog (1982), Hero (1983), Pyar Jhukta Nahin (1985), Ram Teri Ganga Maili (1985), Nagina (1986), and Ram Lakhan (1989). Her song "Zu Zu Zu Yashoda" from Sanjog (1985) was a chartbuster. In the late 1980s, she made a comeback to Tamil films with two back-to-back renditions of composer Ilaiyaraaja's songs "Aaraaro Aaraaro" and "Valai Osai", for the films Anand (1987) and Sathya (1988), respectively.
Lata Didi Recorded her second Telugu Song "Thella Cheeraku" for Director K. Raghavendra Rao 1988 film Aakhari Poratam .
In the 1980s, the composer duo Laxmikant–Pyarelal had Lata sing their biggest hits—"Sheesha Ho Ya Dil Ho" in Asha (1980), "Tu Kitne Baras Ka" in Karz (1980), "Kitna Aasan Hai" in Dostana (1980), "Hum Ko Bhi Gham" in Aas Paas (1980), "Mere Naseeb Mein" in Naseeb (1980), "Zindagi Ki Na Toote" in Kranti (1981), "Solah Baras Ki" in Ek Duuje Ke Liye (1981), "Ye Galiyan Ye Chaubara" in Prem Rog (1982), "Likhnewale Ne Likh Dale" in Arpan (1983), "Din Maheene Saal" in Avtaar (1983), "Pyar Karnewale" and "Nindiya Se Jagi" in Hero (1983), "Zu Zu Zu Yashoda" in Sanjog (1985), "Zindagi Har Qadam" in Meri Jung (1985), "Baith Mere Paas" in Yaadon Ki Kasam (1985), "Ungli Mein Anghoti" in Ram Avtar (1988) and "O Ramji Tere Lakhan Ne" in Ram Lakhan (1989).
Some Rahul Dev Burman compositions for Lata in these years include "Aaja Sar-e-Bazaar" in Alibaba Aur 40 Chor (1980), "Bindiya Tarase" in Phir Wohi Raat (1981), "Thodi Si Zameen" in Sitara (1981), "Kya Yahi Pyar Hai" in Rocky (1981), "Dekho Maine Dekha" in Love Story (1981), "Tune O Rangeele" in Kudrat (1981), "Jaane Kaise Kab" in Shakti (1982), "Jab Hum Jawan Honge" in Betaab (1983), which became instantly popular, "Humein Aur Jeene" in Agar Tum Na Hote (1983), "Tujhse Naraaz Nahin" in Masoom (1983), "Kahin Na Ja" and "Jeevan Ke Din" in Bade Dil Wala (1983), "Jaane Kya Baat" in Sunny (1984), "Bhuri Bhuri Aankhon" in Arjun (1985), "Sagar Kinare" in Sagar (1985), "Din Pyar Ke Aayenge" in Savere Wali Gaadi (1986). "Kya Bhala Hai Kya", "Khamosh Sa Afsana" and "Seeli Hawa Chhoo" in Libaas (1988).
Rajesh Roshan's collaboration with Dev Anand in Lootmaar and Man Pasand resulted in songs such as "Paas Ho Tum Magar Qareeb" and "Sumansudha Rajni Chandha" respectively. Lata had duets with Rafi such as "Mujhe Chhoo Rahi Hain" in Swayamwar (1980), "Kabhi Kabhi Bezubaan" in Johny I Love You (1982), "Tujh Sang Preet" in Kaamchor (1982), "Angrezi Mein Khete Hai" in Khud-Daar (1982), "Ankhiyo Hi Ankhiyo Mein" in Nishaan (1983), "Dushman Na Kare" in Aakhir Kyon? (1985) and "Wada Na Tod" in Dil Tujhko Diya (1987), later featured in the soundtrack of the 2004 film Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind.
Bappi Lahiri composed some songs for Lata, such as "Dooriyan Sab Mita Do" in Saboot (1980), "Baithe Baithe Aaj Aayi" in Patita (1980), "Jaane Kyun Mujhe" in Agreement (1980), "Thoda Resham Lagta Hai" in Jyoti (1981), "Dard Ki Ragini" in Pyaas (1982), and "Naino Mein Sapna" (duet with Kishore Kumar) in Himmatwala (1983).
Mohammed Zahur Khayyam continued to work with her during the 80s and composed songs such as "Hazaar Rahein Mud" (duet with Kishore Kumar) in Thodisi Bewafai (1980), "Simti Huyi" from Chambal Ki Kasam (1980), "Na Jane Kya Hua" in Dard (1981), "Chandni Raat Mein" in Dil-e-Nadaan (1982), "Dikhayi Diye" in Bazaar (1982), "Chand Ke Paas" in Dil-e-Nadaan (1982), "Bhar Lein Tumhe" and "Aaja Nindiya Aaja" from Lorie (1984) and "Kiran Kiran Mein Shokhiyan" in Ek Naya Rishta (1988).
During the 80s, Lata sang hits such as "Sun Sahiba Sun" in Ram Teri Ganga Maili (1985) for Ravindra Jain, "Chand Apna Safar" in Shama (1981), "Shayad Meri Shaadi" and "Zindagi Pyar Ka" in Souten (1983), "Hum Bhool Gaye Re" in Souten Ki Beti (1989) for Usha Khanna. Hridaynath Mangeshkar had "Kale Kale Gehre Saye" in Chakra (1981), "Ye Ankhen Dekh Kar", and "Kuchh Log Mohabbat Ko" in Dhanwan (1981), "Mujhe Tum Yaad Karna" in Mashaal (1984), Assamese song "Jonakore Rati" (1986) with music and lyrics by Dr. Bhupen Hazarika, "Jaane Do Mujhe" in Shahenshah (1989) for Amar-Utpal, "Sajan Mera Us Paar" in Ganga Jamuna Saraswati (1988) and "Mere Pyar Ki Umar" in Waaris (1989) for Uttam Jagdish.
In June 1985, the United Way of Greater Toronto invited her to perform at Maple Leaf Gardens. At the request of Anne Murray, Lata sang her song "You Needed Me". 12,000 attended the concert, which raised $150,000 for the charity.
1990s
During the 1990s, Mangeshkar recorded with music directors including Anand–Milind, Nadeem-Shravan, Jatin–Lalit, Dilip Sen-Sameer Sen, Uttam Singh, Anu Malik, Aadesh Shrivastava and A. R. Rahman. She recorded some non-film songs, including ghazals with Jagjit Singh. She has also sung with Kumar Sanu, Amit Kumar, S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, Udit Narayan, Hariharan, Suresh Wadkar, Mohammed Aziz, Abhijeet Bhattacharya, Roop Kumar Rathod, Vinod Rathod, Gurdas Maan and Sonu Nigam.
In 1990 she launched her own production house for Hindi movies which produced the Gulzar-directed movie Lekin.... She won her third National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer for her rendition of the song "Yaara Sili Sili" from the film, which was composed by her brother Hridaynath.
She has sung for almost all the Yash Chopra films and films from his production house Yash Raj Films at that time, including Chandni (1989), Lamhe (1991), Darr (1993), Yeh Dillagi (1994), Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge (1995), Dil To Pagal Hai (1997) and later in Mohabbatein (2000), Mujhse Dosti Karoge! (2002) and Veer-Zaara (2004).
During 1990 she recorded with Raamlaxman in Patthar Ke Phool (1991), 100 Days (1991), Mehboob Mere Mehboob (1992), Saatwan Aasman (1992), I Love You (1992), Dil Ki Baazi (1993), Antim Nyay (1993), The Melody of Love (1993), The Law (1994), Hum Aapke Hain Koun..! (1994), Megha (1996), Lav Kush (1997), Manchala (1999), and Dulhan Banoo Main Teri (1999).
From 1998 to 2014, A. R. Rahman recorded a few songs with her, including "Jiya Jale" in Dil Se.. (1998), "Ek Tu Hi Bharosa" in Pukar (2000), "Pyaara Sa Gaon" in Zubeidaa (2000), "So Gaye Hain" in Zubeidaa, "Khamoshiyan Gungunane Lagin" in One 2 Ka 4 (2001), "O Paalanhaare" in Lagaan (2001), "Lukka Chuppi" in Rang De Basanti (2006) and Laadli in Raunaq (2014). She made an on-screen appearance in the film Pukar singing "Ek Tu Hi Bharosa."
In 1994, she released Shraddanjali – My Tribute to the Immortals. The special feature of the album is that Lata offers her tributes to immortal singers of the time by rendering a few of their songs in her own voice. There are songs of K. L. Saigal, Kishore Kumar, Mohammed Rafi, Hemant Kumar, Mukesh, Punkaj Mallick, Geeta Dutt, Zohrabai, Amirbai, Parul Ghosh and Kanan Devi.
She sang both Rahul Dev Burman's first and last songs. In 1994, she sang "Kuch Na Kaho" for Rahul Dev Burman in 1942: A Love Story.
In 1999, Lata Eau de Parfum, a perfume brand named after her, was launched.
She was also awarded Zee Cine Award for Lifetime Achievement the same year
In 1999, she was nominated as a member of Rajya Sabha. However, she did not attend Rajya Sabha sessions regularly, inviting criticism from several members of the House, including the Deputy Chairperson Najma Heptullah, Pranab Mukherjee and Shabana Azmi. She stated the reason for her absence as ill-health; it was also reported that she had not taken a salary, allowance or a house in Delhi for being a Member of Parliament.
2000s
In 2001, Mangeshkar was awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour.
In the same year, she established the Master Deenanath Mangeshkar Hospital in Pune, managed by the Lata Mangeshkar Medical Foundation (founded by the Mangeshkar family in October 1989). In 2005, she designed a jewellery collection called Swaranjali, which was crafted by Adora, an Indian diamond export company. Five pieces from the collection raised £105,000 at a Christie's auction, and a part of the money was donated for the 2005 Kashmir earthquake relief. Also in 2001, she recorded her first Hindi song with the composer Ilaiyaraaja, for the film Lajja; she had earlier recorded Tamil and Telugu songs composed by Ilaiyaraaja.
Her song "Wada Na Tod" was included in the film Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004) and in its soundtrack.
After 14 years, she recorded a song for composer Nadeem-Shravan; "Kaise Piya Se" for Bewafaa (2005). She recorded with Shamir Tandon "Kitne Ajeeb Rishte Hain Yahan Pe" for Page 3 (2005) and "Daata Sun Le" for Jail (2009).
On 21 June 2007, she released the album Saadgi, featuring eight ghazal-like songs written by Javed Akhtar and composed by Mayuresh Pai.
2010s
On 12 April 2011, Mangeshkar released the album Sarhadein: Music Beyond Boundaries, which contains the duet "Tera Milna Bahut Acha Lage" by her and Mehdi Hassan (written by Pakistan's Farhad Shahzad). The album features Usha Mangeshkar, Suresh Wadkar, Hariharan, Sonu Nigam, Rekha Bhardwaj and another Pakistani singer, Ghulam Ali, with compositions by Mayuresh Pai and others.
Shamir Tandon recorded a song with her ("Tere Hasne Sai Mujheko") for the film Satrangee Parachute (2011). After a hiatus she came back to playback singing and recorded at her own studio the song "Jeena kya hai, jaana maine" for Dunno Y2... Life Is a Moment (2015), the sequel to Kapil Sharma's queer love story Dunno Y... Na Jaane Kyun (2010) for which also she had lent her voice to one song.
On 28 November 2012, she launched her own music label, LM Music, with an album of bhajans, Swami Samarth Maha Mantra, composed by Mayuresh Pai. She sang with her younger sister Usha on the album.
In 2014, she recorded a Bengali album, Shurodhwani, including poetry by Salil Chowdhury, also composed by Pai. Lata Mangeshkar also recorded "Laadli" song with A.R.
Rahman for his music album Raunaq (Album) (2014).
On 30 March 2019, Mangeshkar released the song "Saugandh Mujhe Is Mitti Ki", composed by Mayuresh Pai, as a tribute to the Indian army and nation.
Bengali career
Mangeshkar has sung 185 songs in Bengali, making her debut in 1956 with the hit song "Aakash Prodeep Jwole", composed by Satinath Mukhopadhyay. The same year, she recorded "Rongila Banshite", composed by Bhupen Hazarika, which was also a hit. In the late 1950s, she recorded a string of hits such as "Jaare Ude Jare Pakhi", "Na Jeona", and "Ogo Aar Kichu To Noy", all composed by Salil Chowdhury, and which were respectively adapted into Hindi as "Ja Re Ud Ja Re Panchi" and "Tasveer Tere Dil Mein" in Maya, and "O Sajna" in Parakh. In 1960, she recorded "Akash Pradip Jole". Later in the 1960s, she sang hits like "Ekbar Biday De Ma Ghure Ashi," "Saat Bhai Champa," "Ke Pratham Kache Esechi," "Nijhum Sandhyay," "Chanchal Mon Anmona," "Asharh Srabon," "Bolchi Tomar Kaney," and "Aaj Mon Cheyeche" by composers like Sudhin Dasgupta, Hemant Kumar and Salil Chowdhury.
Collaboration with other singers
From the 1940s to the 1970s, Mangeshkar sang duets with Asha Bhosle, Suraiya, Shamshad Begum, Usha Mangeshkar, Kishore Kumar, Mohammed Rafi, Mukesh, Talat Mahmood, Manna Dey, Hemant Kumar, G. M. Durrani, Mahendra Kapoor. In 1964, she sang "Chanda Se Hoga" with P. B. Sreenivas from Main Bhi Ladki Hoon.
Mukesh died in 1976. The 1980s saw the deaths of Mohammed Rafi and Kishore Kumar. After their demise, she continued to sing with Shailendra Singh, Shabbir Kumar, Nitin Mukesh (Mukesh's son), Manhar Udhas, Amit Kumar (Kishore Kumar's son), Mohammed Aziz, Suresh Wadkar, S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, Vinod Rathod.
In the 1990s she began singing duets with Roop Kumar Rathod, Hariharan, Pankaj Udhas, Abhijeet, Udit Narayan, Kumar Sanu. Her most notable work of the 90s was Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge with songs such as "Mere Khwabon Mein Jo Aaye", "Ho Gaya Hai Tujhko To Pyaar Sajna", "Tujhe Dekha To Yeh Jana Sanam", and "Mehndi Laga Ke Rakhna".
In the 2000s her duets were performed mainly with Udit Narayan and Sonu Nigam. 2005-06 were the years of her last well-known songs: "Kaise Piya Se" from Bewafa (2005) and "Shayad Yehi To Pyaar Hai" from Lucky: No Time for Love (2005), with Adnan Sami and "Lukka Chhupi" in Rang De Basanti (2006 film) with A. R. Rahman. She sang "Ek Tu Hi Bharosa" from Pukar (2000). Other notable songs of this decade were from Veer-Zaara (2004), sung with Udit Narayan, Sonu Nigam, Jagjit Singh, Roop Kumar Rathod, and Gurdas Mann. One of her latest songs was "Jeena Hai Kya" from Dunno Y2 (2015).
Non-singing career
Music direction
Lata Mangeshkar composed music for the first time in 1955 for the Marathi movie Ram Ram Pavhane. Later in the 1960s, she composed music for following Marathi movies under the pseudonym of Anand Ghan.
1960 - Ram Ram Pavhana
1963 - Maratha Tituka Melvava
1963 - Mohityanchi Manjula
1965 - Sadhi Manase
1969 - Tambadi Mati
She won Maharashtra State Government's Best Music Director Award for the film Sadhi Manase. The song "Airanichya Deva Tula" from the same film received best song award.
Production
Lata Mangeshkar has produced four films:
1953 - Vaadal (Marathi)
1953 - Jhaanjhar (Hindi), co-produced with C. Ramchandra
1955 - Kanchan Ganga (Hindi)
1990 - Lekin... (Hindi)
Illness and death
On 8 January 2022, Lata Mangeshkar tested positive for COVID-19 with mild symptoms and was admitted to Breach Candy Hospital's intensive care unit in Mumbai. She remained in the ICU with signs of "marginal improvement" in her health. The doctors treating her had taken her off the ventilator on 28 January after her health "improved marginally"; however, she was back on the ventilator on 5 February, after her health deteriorated, and was undergoing "aggressive therapy".
Mangeshkar died from multiple organ dysfunction syndrome on 6 February 2022, at the age of 92. She had undergone 28 days of constant treatment for pneumonia and COVID-19.
The Government of India announced a two-day period of national mourning and that the national flag will fly at half-mast from 6 to 7 February throughout India out of respect for her. President Ram Nath Kovind, Vice President Venkaiah Naidu, Prime Minister Narendra Modi, several Union Ministers and Chief Ministers, many members of the Indian Music Industry, Indian film industry, celebrities, fans, and netizens expressed their condolences. Indian Cricket Team players wore black arm band to mourn the loss of Mangeshkar in India vs. West Indies 1st ODI. Prime Minister of Pakistan, Imran Khan, Prime Minister of Bangladesh, Sheikh Hasina, Prime Minister of Nepal, Sher Bahadur Deuba, Prime Minister of Sri Lanka, Mahinda Rajapaksa, former President of Afghanistan, Hamid Karzai, and Pakistani Minister Fawad Chaudhry expressed their grief on her passing.
Mangeshkar's last rites (performed by her brother, Hridaynath Mangeshkar) and cremation were held, with full state honours, at Mumbai's Shivaji Park on the same day. Prime Minister Narendra Modi, Governor Bhagat Singh Koshyari, Chief Minister Uddhav Thackeray paid their last respects and placed floral tributes. Mangeshkar's sisters Asha Bhosle and Usha Mangeshkar, Devendra Fadnavis, Raj Thackeray, Sharad Pawar, Shah Rukh Khan, Aamir Khan, Ranbir Kapoor, Vidya Balan, Shraddha Kapoor, Sachin Tendulkar, Anuradha Paudwal and several dignitaries and family members were also in attendance. Overseas in February 2022, an electronic billboard in Times Square, Manhattan sponsored by the Binder Indian Cultural Center featured a tribute to Mangeshkar.
On 10 February 2022, Mangeshkar's ashes were immersed in the Godavari River at Ramkund, Nashik by her sister Asha Bhosle and Nephew Adinath Mangeshkar.
Awards and recognition
Mangeshkar won several awards and honours, including the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian award, Padma Bhushan (1969), Padma Vibhushan (1999), Zee Cine Award for Lifetime Achievements (1999), Dadasaheb Phalke Award (1989), Maharashtra Bhushan Award (1997), NTR National Award (1999), Bharat Ratna (2001), Legion of Honour (2007), ANR National Award (2009), three National Film Awards and 15 Bengal Film Journalists' Association Awards. She also won four Filmfare Best Female Playback Awards. In 1969, she made the unusual gesture of giving up the Filmfare Best Female Playback Award in order to promote fresh talent. She was later awarded the Filmfare Lifetime Achievement Award in 1993 and Filmfare Special Awards in 1994 and 2004.
In 1984, the State Government of Madhya Pradesh instituted the Lata Mangeshkar Award in her honour. The State Government of Maharashtra also instituted a Lata Mangeshkar Award in 1992.
In 2009, she was awarded the title of Officer of the French Legion of Honour, France's highest order.
In 2012, she was ranked number 10 in Outlook India's poll of the Greatest Indian since independence.
Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan said kambakht, kabhi besuri na hoti ("[she] is never off-key"). Dilip Kumar once commented, Lata Mangeshkar ki awaaz kudrat ki takhleek ka ek karishma hain, meaning "Lata Mangeshkar's voice is a miracle from God".
She also received honorary doctorates from the Sangeet Natak Akademi in 1989, Indira Kala Sangeet Vishwavidyalaya, Khairagarh, and Shivaji University in Kolhapur.
Controversy
In 1974, The Guinness Book of Records listed Lata Mangeshkar as the most recorded artist in history, stating that she had reportedly recorded "more than 25,000 solo, duet and chorus backed songs in 20 Indian languages" between 1948 and 1974. Her record was contested by Mohammad Rafi, who was claimed to have sung around 28,000 songs. After Rafi's death, in its 1984 edition, the Guinness Book of World Records stated her name for the "Most Recordings", but also stated Rafi's claim. The later editions of Guinness Book stated that she had sung no fewer than 30,000 songs between 1948 and 1987.
The entry was discontinued by Guinness editions in 1991 without explanation, while several sources continued to claim that she recorded thousands of songs, with estimates ranging up to figures as large as 50,000. However, even the earliest Guinness claim of 25,000 songs (between 1948 and 1974) was disputed and claimed to have been exaggerated by several others, stating that the number of songs sung by her in Hindi films till 1991 was found to be 5025. Mangeshkar stated that she did not keep a record of the number of songs she recorded, and that she did not know from where Guinness Book editors got their information. In 2011, the entry was revived by Guinness crediting the record to her sister Asha Bhosle as the most recorded artist in music history, "for recording up to 11,000 solo, duet and chorus-backed songs and in over 20 Indian languages since 1947". Since 2016, current record in this category belongs to
P. Susheela, for recording at least 17,695 songs in 6 languages, not counting some lost early recordings.
See also
List of Indian playback singers
List of songs by Lata Mangeshkar
Playback singer
Bollywood songs
Mangeshkar family
References
Further reading
A collection of articles written by Lata Mangeshkar since 1952.
A collection of articles written by Lata Mangeshkar since 1952.
External links
1929 births
2022 deaths
20th-century Indian composers
20th-century Indian singers
20th-century Indian women musicians
20th-century Indian women singers
20th-century women composers
21st-century Indian composers
21st-century Indian singers
21st-century Indian women musicians
21st-century Indian women singers
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Bengali-language singers
Best Female Playback Singer National Film Award winners
Bhojpuri cinema
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Dadasaheb Phalke Award recipients
Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in India
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Marathi people
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Music of Bengal
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Recipients of the Bharat Ratna
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Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship
Singers from Madhya Pradesh
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Women musicians from Madhya Pradesh | [
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222792 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subprefectures%20in%20France | Subprefectures in France | In France, a subprefecture () is the commune which is the administrative centre of a departmental arrondissement that does not contain the prefecture for its department. The term also applies to the building that houses the administrative headquarters for an arrondissement.
The civil servant in charge of a subprefecture is the subprefect, assisted by a general secretary. Between May 1982 and February 1988, subprefects were known instead by the title Deputy Commissionner of the Republic (commissaire adjoint de la République). Where the administration of an arrondissement is carried out from a prefecture, the general secretary to the prefect carries out duties equivalent to those of the subprefect.
The municipal arrondissements of Paris, Lyon and Marseille are divisions of the commune rather than the prefecture. They are not arrondissements in the same sense.
See also
Prefectures in France
List of subprefectures of France
List of arrondissements of France
References
Sous-prefecture
fr:Sous-préfecture
oc:Sosprefectura
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222793 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishmael%20%28Moby-Dick%29 | Ishmael (Moby-Dick) | Ishmael is a character in Herman Melville's Moby-Dick (1851), which opens with the line, "Call me Ishmael." He is the first person narrator in much of the book. Because Ishmael plays a minor role in the plot, early critics of Moby-Dick assumed that Captain Ahab was the protagonist. Many either confused Ishmael with Melville or overlooked the role he played. Later critics distinguished Ishmael from Melville, and some saw his mystic and speculative consciousness as the novel's central force rather than Captain Ahab's monomaniacal force of will.
The Biblical name Ishmael has come to symbolize orphans, exiles, and social outcasts. By contrast with his namesake from the Book of Genesis, who is banished into the desert, Melville's Ishmael wanders upon the sea. Each Ishmael, however, experiences a miraculous rescue; in the Bible from thirst, here from drowning.
Characteristics
Both Ahab and Ishmael are fascinated by the whale, but whereas Ahab perceives him exclusively as evil, Ishmael keeps an open mind. Ahab has a static world view, blind to new information, but Ishmael's world view is constantly in flux as new insights and realizations occur. "And flux in turn ... is the chief characteristic of Ishmael himself." In the chapter "The Doubloon," Ishmael reports how each spectator sees his own personality reflected in the coin, but does not look at it himself. Fourteen chapters later, in "The Guilder," he participates in "what is clearly a recapitulation" of the earlier chapter. The difference is that the surface of the golden sea in "The Guilder" is alive, whereas the surface of the doubloon is unalterably fixed, "only one of several contrasts between Ishmael and Ahab."
Ishmael meditates on a wide range of topics. In addition to explicitly philosophical references, in Chapter 89, for instance, he expounds on the legal concept, "Fast-Fish and Loose-Fish", which he takes to mean that possession, rather than a moral claim, bestows the right of ownership.
Biography
Ishmael explains his need to go to sea and travels from Manhattan Island to New Bedford. He is a seasoned sailor, having served on merchant vessels in the past, but this would be his first time aboard a whaling ship. The inn is crowded and he must share a bed with the tattooed Polynesian, Queequeg, a harpooneer whom Ishmael assumes to be a cannibal. The next morning Ishmael and Queequeg head for Nantucket. Ishmael signs up for a voyage on the whaler Pequod, under Captain Ahab. Ahab is obsessed by the white whale, Moby Dick, who on a previous voyage had severed his leg. In his quest for revenge Ahab has lost all sense of responsibility, and when the whale sinks the ship, all crew-members drown, with the exception of Ishmael: "And I only am escaped alone to tell thee"
says the epigraph. Ishmael keeps himself alive floating on his friend's coffin
until he is picked up by another whaling ship, the Rachel.
Ishmael (Old Testament)
The name Ishmael is Biblical in origin: in Genesis 16:1-16; 17:18-25; 21:6-21; 25:9-17, Ishmael was the son of Abraham by the servant Hagar. In 21:6-21, the most significant verses for Melville's allegory, Hagar was cast off after the birth of Isaac, who inherited the covenant of the Lord instead of his older half-brother.
Melville shapes his allegory to the Biblical Ishmael as follows:
Biblical Ishmael is banished to "the wilderness of Beer-sheba", while the narrator of Moby-Dick wanders, in his own words, in "the wilderness of waters." In the Bible, the desert or wilderness is a common setting for a vision of one kind or another. By contrast, Melville's Ishmael takes to sea searching for insights.
In Genesis, Hagar was visited by an angel who instructed her to call her still unborn child Yishma'el, meaning "God shall hear". This prophecy was fulfilled when Ishmael, perishing in the desert, was saved by a miracle: the sudden appearance of a well of water. In Moby-Dick, only Ishmael escapes the sinking of the Pequod, which is described as "that by a margin so narrow as to seem miraculous."
In direct translation from the Hebrew Bible; about Ishmael: "His hand in all, and the hand of all in him"
The name further points to a Biblical analogy that marks Ishmael as the prototype of "wanderer and outcast," the man set at odds with his fellows. Nathalia Wright says that all Melville's heroes—with the exception of Benito Cereno and Billy Budd—are manifestations of the Biblical Ishmael, and four are actually identified with him: Redburn, Ishmael, Pierre, and Pitch from The Confidence-Man.
Critical views
During the early decades of the Melville revival, readers and critics often confused Ishmael with Melville, whose works were perceived as autobiography. The critic F.O. Matthiessen complained as early as 1941 that "most of the criticism of our past masters has been perfunctorily tacked onto biographies" and objected to the "modern fallacy" of the "direct reading of an author's personal life into his works." In 1948 Howard P. Vincent, in his study The Trying-Out of Moby-Dick, "warned against forgetting the narrator", that is, assuming that Ishmael was merely describing what he saw. Robert Zoellner pointed out that Ishmael's role as narrator "breaks down" either when Ahab and Stubb "have a conversation off by themselves" in chapter 29 or else when Ishmael reports "the soliloquy of Ahab sitting alone" in chapter 37.
Views also differ as to whether the protagonist is Ishmael or Ahab. M.H. Abrams finds Ishmael is "only a minor or peripheral" participant in the story he tells, but Walter Bezanson argues that the novel is not so much about Ahab or the White Whale as it is about Ishmael, who is "the real center of meaning and the defining force of the novel."
Bezanson argues that there are two Ishmaels. The first is the narrator, "the enfolding sensibility of the novel" and "the imagination through which all matters of the book pass." The reader is not told how long after the voyage Ishmael begins to tell his adventure, the second sentence's "some years ago" being the only clue. The "second Ishmael," continues Bezanson, is "forecastle Ishmael," or the "younger Ishmael of 'some years ago.'... Narrator Ishmael is merely young Ishmael grown older." Forecastle Ishmael is "simply one of the characters in the novel, though, to be sure, a major one whose significance is possibly next to Ahab's." From time to time there are shifts of tense to indicate that "while forecastle Ishmael is busy hunting whales, narrator Ishmael is sifting memory and imagination in search of the many meanings of the dark adventure he has experienced."
In a 1986 essay, Bezanson calls the character-Ishmael an innocent "and not even particularly interesting except as the narrator, a mature and complex sensibility, examines his inner life from a distance, just as he examines the inner life of Ahab..."
John Bryant points out that as the novel progresses the central character is "flip-flopping from Ishmael to Ahab." The beginning of the book is "comedy" in which anxious Ishmael and serene Queequeg "bed down, get ‘married,' and take off on a whaling adventure come-what-may." After Ahab enters in Ch. 29, Ishmael, who does not reappear until Ch. 41., is no longer the "central character", but the novel's "central consciousness and narrative voice." As his role as a character erodes, says Bryant, "his life as a lyrical, poetic meditator upon whales and whaling transforms the novel once again..." Ishmael wrestles with the realization that he cannot follow Ahab to a fiery doom but must be content with "attainable felicity," (Ch. 94) but Ahab then takes over once more.
Narrator-Ishmael demonstrates "an insatiable curiosity" and an "inexhaustible sense of wonder," says Bezanson, but has not yet fully understood his adventures: "'It was the whiteness of the whale that above all things appalled me. But how can I hope to explain myself here; and yet, in some dim, random way, explain myself I must, else all these chapters might be naught.'" This Ishmael must not be equated with Melville himself: "we resist any one-to-one equation of Melville and Ishmael." Bezanson does attribute characteristic Melvillean features to the narrator, who in the Epilogue, likens himself to "another Ixion".
Bezanson also insists that it would be a mistake "to think the narrator indifferent to how his tale is told." Earlier critics charged that Melville did not pay a great deal of attention to point of view, "and of course this is true" in Henry James's sense of the technique, yet Ishmael-narrator's "struggle" with the shaping of his narrative, "under constant discussion, is itself one of the major themes of the book." Ishmael deploys among other genres and styles, a sermon, a dream, a comic set-piece, a midnight ballet, a meditation, an emblematic reading.
Actors who have played Ishmael
Howard Duff in the 1948 NBC Favorite Story radio adaptation in which William Conrad portrayed Ahab.
Richard Basehart, in Moby Dick, a 1956 film adaptation in which Gregory Peck plays Ahab.
Henry Thomas, in Moby Dick, a 1998 television miniseries adaptation in which Patrick Stewart plays Ahab.
Tim Guinee (voice), in Animated Epics: Moby Dick, a 2000 animated movie in which Rod Steiger provides the voice of Ahab.
Terry O'Neill, in The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, a 2003 film based on the comic book of the same name, as the first mate of Captain Nemo.
Jack Aranson (and 8 other characters) in a 2003 stage adaptation of the book.
F. Murray Abraham, in the 2006 three-part BBC Radio 4 radio play.
Renee O'Connor plays Michelle Herman, a female counterpart of Ishmael in Moby Dick, a 2010 modern-day film adaptation in which Barry Bostwick plays Ahab.
Charlie Cox, in Moby Dick, a 2011 television miniseries adaptation in which William Hurt plays Ahab.
Stephen Costello plays Greenhorn, the renamed Ishmael character, in the 2010 opera version by Jake Heggie.
PJ Brennan, as a young man in the 2010 two-part BBC Radio 4 radio play.
Manik Choksi, in Dave Malloy's 2019 musical Moby Dick: A Musical Reckoning
Notes
Citations
References
External links
Moby-Dick Chapter 1: Loomings — First (numbered) chapter of Moby-Dick, introducing Ishmael.
Librivox: Moby Dick Audiobook - Public Domain Audiobook
Moby-Dick
Fictional sailors
Characters in American novels of the 19th century
Fictional sole survivors
Literary characters introduced in 1851
Male characters in literature | [
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222799 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AMX | ISO 3166-2:MX | ISO 3166-2:MX is the entry for Mexico in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Mexico, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 31 states and 1 capital. The capital of the country Mexico City has special status equal to the states.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Mexico. The second part is three letters.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Subdivision names are sorted in traditional Spanish alphabetical order: a-c, ch, d-l, ll, m-n, ñ, o-z.
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
See also
Subdivisions of Mexico
FIPS region codes of Mexico
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: MX
States of Mexico, Statoids.com
2:MX
ISO 3166-2
Mexico geography-related lists | [
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222800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governorates%20of%20Iraq | Governorates of Iraq | Iraq consists of 19 governorates (; ), also known as "provinces". Per the Iraqi constitution, governorates can form an autonomous region. Baghdad and Basra are the oldest standing administrative regions of Iraq. In 2014, the decision was made to create the Halabja Governorate out of the Halabja District of the Sulaymaniyah Governorate.
On 21 January 2014, the Council of Ministers of the government of Iraq approved in principle proposals to create more governorates. The Council announced that two new governorates, Tal Afar and Tuz Khurmatu, would be formed from the current Ninawa Governorate and Saladin Governorate, respectively. It was also announced that the city of Fallujah of the Al Anbar Governorate would become a separate governorate.
Governorates
Previous governorates
Formerly governorates
Kuwait was annexed by Iraq in 1990 and then became Kuwait Governorate (1990–1991)
See also
Districts of Iraq
ISO 3166-2:IQ
List of Governorates of Iraq by Human Development Index
List of places in Iraq
References
Governorates, Iraq
Iraq geography-related lists
Iraq, Provinces
Iraq 1
bg:Административно деление на Ирак
pl:Podział administracyjny Iraku
ru:Административное деление Ирака | [
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222803 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Japanese%20writers%3A%20J | List of Japanese writers: J | List by Family Name: A - B - C - D - E - F - G - H - I - J - K - M - N - O - R - S - T - U - W - Y - Z
Jakuren (1139–1202)
Jien (1155–1225)
Jinzai Kiyoshi (November 15, 1903 – March 11, 1957)
Jippensha Ikku (1765–1831)
Jun Maeda (born 1975)
J | [
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222806 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AEC | ISO 3166-2:EC | ISO 3166-2:EC is the entry for Ecuador in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Ecuador, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 24 provinces.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Ecuador. The second part is one or two letters, currently used in vehicle registration plates, with a few exceptions.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:
See also
Subdivisions of Ecuador
FIPS region codes of Ecuador
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: EC
Provinces of Ecuador, Statoids.com
2:EC
ISO 3166-2
Ecuador geography-related lists | [
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222808 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deng%20Pufang | Deng Pufang | Deng Pufang () (born 16 April 1944) is the eldest son of former Chinese Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping. He is mostly known for being injured by the Red Guards and becoming a paraplegic. He has since dedicated his life to improving the rights of people with disabilities.
Biography
Deng Pufang was born to Deng Xiaoping and Zhuo Lin, his third wife, in Zuoquan, Jinzhong, Shanxi. He is considered a member of the Crown Prince Party.
Paralyzing injury
During the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping and his family were targeted by Mao Zedong. He was branded as a capitalist roader. In one session, he was forced to kneel to the ground with his arm stretched out behind him and over his head. His family watched as the students forced him to confess to capitalist ways of thinking.
Mao's Red Guards then imprisoned Deng Pufang. He was tortured and thrown out of the window of a three-story building at Peking University in 1968, but some sources claimed he may have fallen or jumped out of the window himself. His back broken, he was rushed to the hospital, but was denied admission. By the time he reached another clinic, he was paralyzed. He remains a paraplegic, using a wheelchair.
With regard to his views on the Cultural Revolution, Deng Pufang once said, "The generation of the Cultural Revolution is in no sense a lost generation, as is often said. Quite to the contrary. All those who passed through that testing have been toughened. These people think a great deal, and have their own ideas. They are firm in their convictions, and show initiative. To my way of thinking this generation represents a trump card for China and for the reforms which they have set in motion."
Post-injury work
In 1984 Deng Pufang established the China Welfare Fund for the Disabled. Then, he founded and became the chairman of the China Disabled Persons' Federation in 1988. In 1987, he was the prime mover behind a national survey for people with disabilities. In 1990, he led the formation of the Chinese Rehabilitation and Research Association for the Mentally Disabled. In 1991, legislation was passed to recognize mental illness as a disability.
He was awarded the United Nations Human Rights Prize in December 2003 for his work in protecting the rights of individuals with disability in China.
The International Paralympic Committee awarded Deng the Paralympic Order at their November 2005 meeting in Beijing.It was the first year the award was offered to one recipient only; in the past, gold, silver, and bronze medals were awarded.
Deng also helped organize the 2008 Beijing Olympics as the executive president of the Beijing Organizing Committee.
References
External links
Deng Pufang's Biography
1944 births
Living people
Chinese disability rights activists
Chinese torture victims
Politicians from Jinzhong
Chinese politicians with physical disabilities
Politicians with paraplegia
People's Republic of China politicians from Shanxi
Vice Chairpersons of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference
Victims of the Cultural Revolution
Deng Xiaoping family
Recipients of the Olympic Order
Chinese Communist Party politicians from Shanxi | [
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222811 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20Herald | New York Herald | The New York Herald was a large-distribution newspaper based in New York City that existed between 1835 and 1924, when it was acquired by its smaller rival the New-York Tribune to form the New York Herald Tribune.
It ceased publication in 1966 after a prolonged and draining strike with its printers union; its European edition was jointly acquired by The Washington Post and The New York Times, which renamed it the International Herald Tribune. The Times subsequently gained full control, publishing it today as The New York Times International Edition.
New York magazine, created as the Herald Tribunes Sunday magazine in 1963, was independently revived in 1968. It continues to publish today under this name.
History
The first issue of the paper was published by James Gordon Bennett Sr., on May 6, 1835. The Herald distinguished itself from the partisan papers of the day by the policy that it published in its first issue: "We shall support no party—be the agent of no faction or coterie, and we care nothing for any election, or any candidate from president down to constable." Bennett pioneered the "extra" edition during the Herald'''s sensational coverage of the Robinson–Jewett murder case.
By 1845, it was the most popular and profitable daily newspaper in the United States. In 1861, it circulated 84,000 copies and called itself "the most largely circulated journal in the world." Bennett stated that the function of a newspaper "is not to instruct but to startle and amuse." His politics tended to be anti-Catholic and he had tended to favor the Know-Nothing faction. But he was not as anti-immigrant as the Know-Nothing party were. During the American Civil War, Bennett's policy, as expressed by the newspaper, was to staunchly support the Democratic Party. Frederic Hudson served as managing editor of the paper from 1846 to 1866.
In April 1867 Bennett turned over control of the paper to his son James Gordon Bennett Jr. Under James Jr., the paper financed Henry Morton Stanley's expeditions into Africa to find explorer David Livingstone, where they met on November 10, 1871. The paper also supported Stanley's trans-Africa exploration. In 1879 it supported the ill-fated expedition of George W. De Long to the Arctic region.
In 1874, the Herald ran the New York Zoo hoax,Connery, T. B. (June 3, 1893). A Famous Newspaper Hoax, Harper's Weekly, p. 534 in which the front page of the newspaper was devoted entirely to a fabricated story of wild animals getting loose at the Central Park Zoo and attacking numerous people.
On October 4, 1887, James Jr. sent Julius Chambers to Paris, France to launch a European edition. Bennett later moved to Paris, but the New York Herald suffered from his attempt to manage its operation in New York by telegram. In 1916 a Saturday issue of the paper reported that a major financier was found dead from poisoning; it added that in 1901 he was "mysteriously poisoned and narrowly escaped death."
In 1924, after James Jr.'s death, the New York Herald was acquired by its smaller rival the New York Tribune, to form the New York Herald Tribune. In 1959, the New York Herald Tribune and its European edition were sold to John Hay Whitney, then the U.S. ambassador to the UK.
In 1966, the New York paper ceased publication after a lengthy and costly printers' strike. The Washington Post and The New York Times acquired joint control of the European edition, renaming it the International Herald Tribune. The IHT, renamed The New York Times International Edition, is now wholly owned by The New York Times.
When the Herald was still under the authority of its original publisher Bennett, it was considered to be the most intrusive and sensationalist of the leading New York papers. Its ability to entertain the public with timely daily news made it the leading circulation paper of its period.
Evening Telegram
The New York Evening Telegram was founded in 1867 by the junior Bennett, and was considered by many to be an evening edition of the Herald. Frank Munsey acquired the Telegram in 1920, and ceased its connection to the Herald.
Commemorated
New York's Herald Square is named after the New York Herald newspaper.
The New York Herald Building was designed by the prestigious firm of Stanford White, and completed in 1908. It occupied the north side of the square. At its top was a sculpture commemorating the Bennetts. The statue of Minerva, the Bellringers, and Owls, by Antonin Carles, sounded every hour with bellringing.
After the building was demolished in 1921 to make way for other development, the sculpture was installed on the north side of Herald Square, and the sound was stopped.
The chorus of "Give My Regards to Broadway" includes the phrase "[R]emember me to Herald Square." North of Herald Square is Times Square, which is named after the rival The New York Times.
See also
Porter Cornelius Bliss
New York Herald Tribune (successor to the New York Herald'')
References
External links
The New York Herald 1842-1920 Many Editions Digitized Online at The Library of Congress
Three months with the New York Herald: or, Old news on board of a homeward ... by John Henry Potter
Photographs and architectural sketches of the New York Herald Building
A winter evening in a crowded Herald Square at the New York Herald Building, oil on board painting
American penny papers
Newspapers established in 1835
Publications disestablished in 1924
Defunct newspapers published in New York City
1835 establishments in New York (state)
1924 disestablishments in New York (state)
Daily newspapers published in New York City | [
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] |
222812 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliban%20%28disambiguation%29 | Caliban (disambiguation) | Caliban is a character in William Shakespeare's play The Tempest.
Caliban may also refer to:
Caliban (moon), a moon of Uranus
Music
Caliban (band), a metalcore band from Germany
Caliban's_Dream, a track written by Underworld for the Isles of Wonder opening ceremony of the 2012 summer Olympics in London.
Fiction
Caliban (Marvel Comics), a mutant character in the Marvel Comics Universe
Isaac Asimov's Caliban, the first of a trilogy of science-fiction novels by Roger MacBride Allen
Caliban (Arduin dungeon), a dungeon module from the Arduin series
Calibans are native lifeforms in Forty Thousand in Gehenna, a science fiction novel by CJ Cherryh
Caliban's War, the second book in The Expanse novel series.
People
Hubert Phillips used this pseudonym | [
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222815 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KVM | KVM | KVM may refer to:
Computing
Kernel-based Virtual Machine, a virtualization solution that turns the Linux kernel into a hypervisor
K virtual machine, for Java
Keyboard–screen–mouse
KVM switch (keyboard, video, and mouse switch), a hardware device for controlling multiple computers
Rackmount KVM, a computer input/output device offering the combination of a keyboard, video monitor and mouse (pointing device), typically rack mounted
Other
K. V. Mahadevan, South Indian music composer
Kalamazoo Valley Museum, a museum in Michigan, US
Kheti Virasat Mission, a farmers' movement in Punjab
Kosovo Verification Mission
KV Mechelen, a Belgian football (soccer) club | [
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222819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crazy%20Horse%20%28disambiguation%29 | Crazy Horse (disambiguation) | Crazy Horse (c. 1840–1877) was an American Sioux chief.
Crazy Horse or Krazy Horse may also refer to:
Clubs
Crazy Horse (cabaret), a French night club
Crazy Horse, Stockholm, a defunct tavern in Stockholm, Sweden
The Crazy Horse, a Lebanese cabaret and brothel
Crazy Horse, a fictional nightclub managed by Adriana La Cerva in The Sopranos
Film
Crazy Horse (film), a 1996 western film
Chief Crazy Horse (film), a 1955 western movie starring Victor Mature
Music
Crazy Horse (band), an American rock band associated with Neil Young
Crazy Horse (album)
Crazy Horse (Paradiso Girls album)
"Crazy Horses" (song), a 1972 song by The Osmonds, covered by a.o. KMFDM
People with the nickname
Charles Bennett (fighter) (born 1979), American martial arts fighter
Kandia Crazy Horse, American musician and rock critic
Mike Cuellar (1937–2010), American professional baseball pitcher
Emlyn Hughes (1947–2004), English footballer
Lewis Moody (born 1978), English professional rugby player
Ángel Pagán (born 1981), Puerto Rican professional baseball player
Ram Vaswani (born 1970), English professional poker player
Other uses
Crazyhorse (magazine), an American magazine that publishes fiction, poetry, and essays
Crazy Horse rifle
Crazy Horse, the original name of the BP Thunder Horse Oil Field Project
See also
Crazy Horse Memorial
Crazy Horse Too, a former Las Vegas strip club | [
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222823 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mildred%20Gillars | Mildred Gillars | Mildred Elizabeth Gillars (November 29, 1900 – June 25, 1988) who, along with Rita Zucca was nicknamed "Axis Sally", was an American broadcaster employed by Nazi Germany to disseminate Axis propaganda during World War II. Following her capture in post-war Berlin, she became the first woman to be convicted of treason against the United States. In March 1949, she was sentenced to ten to thirty years' imprisonment. She was released in 1961.
Early life
Born Mildred Elizabeth Sisk in Portland, Maine, she took the surname Gillars in 1911 after her mother remarried. Her family resided in Bellevue, Ohio where her father was a dentist. At 16, she moved to Conneaut, Ohio, with her family. In 1918, she enrolled at Ohio Wesleyan University to study dramatic arts, but left without graduating.
She then moved to Greenwich Village, New York City, where she worked in various low-skilled jobs to finance drama lessons. She toured with stock companies and appeared in vaudeville but she was unable to establish a theatrical career. She also worked as an artist's model for sculptor Mario Korbel, but was unable to find regular employment, so in 1929, she moved to France and lived in Paris for six months.
In 1933, she left the United States again, residing first in Algiers, where she found work as a dressmaker's assistant. In 1934, she moved to Dresden, Germany, to study music, and was later employed as a teacher of English at the Berlitz School of Languages in Berlin.
Work as a Nazi propagandist
In 1940, she obtained work as an announcer with the Reichs-Rundfunk-Gesellschaft (RRG), German State Radio.
By 1941, the US State Department was advising American nationals to leave Germany and German controlled territories. However, Gillars chose to remain because her fiancé, Paul Karlson, a naturalized German citizen, said he would never marry her if she returned to the United States. Shortly afterwards, Karlson was sent to aid the German war effort in the Eastern Front, where he was killed in action.
Gillars' broadcasts initially were largely apolitical. This changed in 1942 when Max Otto Koischwitz, the program director in the USA Zone at the RRG, cast Gillars in a new show called Home Sweet Home. She soon acquired several names amongst her GI audience, including the "Bitch of Berlin," Berlin Babe, Olga, and Sally, but the most common was "Axis Sally". This name probably came when, asked on air to describe herself, Gillars said she was "the Irish type… a real Sally."
In 1943, an Italian-American woman, Rita Zucca, also began broadcasting to American forces from Rome, using the name "Sally". The two often were confused with each other and even thought by many to be one and the same, though Gillars was annoyed another woman was broadcasting under her name.
Gillars' main programs from Berlin were:
Home Sweet Home Hour, from December 24, 1942, until 1945, a regular propaganda program aimed at making U.S. forces in Europe feel homesick. A running theme of these broadcasts was the infidelity of soldiers' wives and sweethearts while the listeners were stationed in Europe and North Africa. She questioned whether the women would remain faithful, "especially if you boys get all mutilated and do not return in one piece". Opening with the sound of a train whistle, Home Sweet Home attempted to exploit the fears of American soldiers about the home front. The broadcasts were designed to make soldiers feel doubt about their mission, their leaders, and their prospects after the war.
Midge at the Mike, broadcast from March to late fall 1943, in which she played American songs interspersed with defeatist propaganda, anti-Semitic rhetoric and attacks on Franklin D. Roosevelt.
GI's Letter-box and Medical Reports (1944), directed at the U.S. home audience in which Gillars used information on wounded and captured U.S. airmen to cause fear and worry in their families. After D-Day (June 6, 1944), Gillars and Koischwitz worked for a time from Chartres and Paris for this purpose, visiting hospitals and interviewing POWs, falsely claiming to be a representative of the International Red Cross. In 1943, they had toured POW camps in Germany, interviewing captured Americans and recording their messages for their families in the US. The interviews were then edited for broadcast as though the speakers were well-treated or sympathetic to the Nazi cause.
Gillars made her most famous broadcast on May 11, 1944, a few weeks prior to the D-Day invasion of Normandy, France, in a radio play written by Koischwitz, Vision of Invasion. She played Evelyn, an Ohio mother, who dreams that her son had died a horrific death on a ship in the English Channel during an attempted invasion of Occupied Europe.
Koischwitz died in August 1944 and Gillars' broadcasts became lackluster and repetitive without his creative energy. She remained in Berlin until the end of the war. Her last broadcast was on May 6, 1945, just two days before the surrender of Germany.
Arrest, trial, and imprisonment
The US attorney general dispatched prosecutor Victor C. Woerheide to Berlin to find and arrest Gillars. He and Counterintelligence Corps special agent Hans Winzen had only one solid lead: Raymond Kurtz, a B-17 pilot shot down by the Germans, recalled that a woman who had visited his prison camp seeking interviews was the broadcaster who called herself "Midge at the Mike". According to Kurtz, the woman had used the alias Barbara Mome. Woerheide organized wanted posters with Gillars' picture to put up in Berlin, but the breakthrough came when he was informed that a woman calling herself "Barbara Mome" was selling her furniture at second-hand markets around the city. A shop owner who was found selling a table belonging to Gillars was detained, and under "intensive interrogation" revealed Gillars' address. When she was arrested on March 15, 1946, Gillars only asked to take with her a picture of Koischwitz.
She was then held by the Counterintelligence Corps at Camp King, Oberursel, along with collaborators Herbert John Burgman and Donald S. Day, until she was conditionally released from custody on December 24, 1946, however, she declined to leave military detention. She was abruptly re-arrested on January 22, 1947 after being offered conditional release by the United States of America at the request of the Justice Department and was eventually flown to the United States on August 21, 1948 to await trial on charges of aiding the German war effort.
Gillars was indicted on September 10, 1948, and charged with ten counts of treason, but only eight were proceeded with at her trial, which began on January 25, 1949. The prosecution relied on the large number of her programs recorded by the Federal Communications Commission, stationed in Silver Hill, Maryland, to show her active participation in propaganda activities directed at the United States. It was also shown that she had taken an oath of allegiance to Adolf Hitler. The defense stated that her broadcasts stated unpopular opinions but did not amount to treasonable conduct. It was also argued that she was under the hypnotic influence of Koischwitz and therefore not fully responsible for her actions until after his death. On March 10, 1949, the jury convicted Gillars on just one count of treason, that of making the Vision of Invasion broadcast. She was sentenced to 10 to 30 years in prison, and a $10,000 fine. In 1950, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia upheld the conviction.
Gillars served her sentence at the Federal Reformatory for Women in Alderson, West Virginia. She became eligible for parole in 1959, but did not apply until 1961. She was released on June 10, 1961.
Later life
Having converted to Roman Catholicism while in prison, Gillars went to live at the Our Lady of Bethlehem Convent in Columbus, Ohio, and taught German, French, and music at St. Joseph Academy, Columbus.
In 1973, she returned to Ohio Wesleyan University to complete her degree, a Bachelor of Arts in speech.
Gillars died of colon cancer at Grant Medical Center in Columbus on June 25, 1988.
Film
Gillars' wartime broadcasts and trial are the subject of the 2021 legal drama American Traitor: The Trial of Axis Sally.
See also
Jane Anderson (Nazi collaborator)
Robert Henry Best
Herbert John Burgman
Douglas Chandler
Donald S. Day
Iva Toguri D'Aquino
Tokyo Rose
References
External links
The Last Archive Episode 3: The Inner Front - Jill Lepore podcast
Nazi propagandists
American women civilians in World War II
People from Portland, Maine
Radio personalities from New York City
1900 births
1988 deaths
American collaborators with Nazi Germany
American prisoners and detainees
People convicted of treason against the United States
Converts to Roman Catholicism
Ohio Wesleyan University alumni
People from Conneaut, Ohio
Deaths from colorectal cancer
Deaths from cancer in Ohio
Women in Nazi Germany
Catholics from Ohio
Catholics from Maine
Radio personalities from Maine | [
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222828 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit%20testing | Unit testing | In computer programming, unit testing is a software testing method by which individual units of source code—sets of one or more computer program modules together with associated control data, usage procedures, and operating procedures—are tested to determine whether they are fit for use.
Description
Unit tests are typically automated tests written and run by software developers to ensure that a section of an application (known as the "unit") meets its design and behaves as intended. In procedural programming, a unit could be an entire module, but it is more commonly an individual function or procedure. In object-oriented programming, a unit is often an entire interface, such as a class, or an individual method. By writing tests first for the smallest testable units, then the compound behaviors between those, one can build up comprehensive tests for complex applications.
To isolate issues that may arise, each test case should be tested independently. Substitutes such as method stubs, mock objects, fakes, and test harnesses can be used to assist testing a module in isolation.
During development, a software developer may code criteria, or results that are known to be good, into the test to verify the unit's correctness. During test case execution, frameworks log tests that fail any criterion and report them in a summary. For this, the most commonly used approach is test - function - expected value.
Writing and maintaining unit tests can be made faster by using parameterized tests. These allow the execution of one test multiple times with different input sets, thus reducing test code duplication. Unlike traditional unit tests, which are usually closed methods and test invariant conditions, parameterized tests take any set of parameters. Parameterized tests are supported by TestNG, JUnit and its .Net counterpart, XUnit. Suitable parameters for the unit tests may be supplied manually or in some cases are automatically generated by the test framework. In recent years support was added for writing more powerful (unit) tests, leveraging the concept of theories, test cases that execute the same steps, but using test data generated at runtime, unlike regular parameterized tests that use the same execution steps with input sets that are pre-defined.
Advantages
The goal of unit testing is to isolate each part of the program and show that the individual parts are correct. A unit test provides a strict, written contract that the piece of code must satisfy. As a result, it affords several benefits.
Unit testing finds problems early in the development cycle. This includes both bugs in the programmer's implementation and flaws or missing parts of the specification for the unit. The process of writing a thorough set of tests forces the author to think through inputs, outputs, and error conditions, and thus more crisply define the unit's desired behavior. The cost of finding a bug before coding begins or when the code is first written is considerably lower than the cost of detecting, identifying, and correcting the bug later. Bugs in released code may also cause costly problems for the end-users of the software. Code can be impossible or difficult to unit test if poorly written, thus unit testing can force developers to structure functions and objects in better ways.
In test-driven development (TDD), which is frequently used in both extreme programming and scrum, unit tests are created before the code itself is written. When the tests pass, that code is considered complete. The same unit tests are run against that function frequently as the larger code base is developed either as the code is changed or via an automated process with the build. If the unit tests fail, it is considered to be a bug either in the changed code or the tests themselves. The unit tests then allow the location of the fault or failure to be easily traced. Since the unit tests alert the development team of the problem before handing the code off to testers or clients, potential problems are caught early in the development process.
Unit testing allows the programmer to refactor code or upgrade system libraries at a later date, and make sure the module still works correctly (e.g., in regression testing). The procedure is to write test cases for all functions and methods so that whenever a change causes a fault, it can be quickly identified. Unit tests detect changes which may break a design contract.
Unit testing may reduce uncertainty in the units themselves and can be used in a bottom-up testing style approach. By testing the parts of a program first and then testing the sum of its parts, integration testing becomes much easier.
Unit testing provides a sort of living documentation of the system. Developers looking to learn what functionality is provided by a unit, and how to use it, can look at the unit tests to gain a basic understanding of the unit's interface (API).
Unit test cases embody characteristics that are critical to the success of the unit. These characteristics can indicate appropriate/inappropriate use of a unit as well as negative behaviors that are to be trapped by the unit. A unit test case, in and of itself, documents these critical characteristics, although many software development environments do not rely solely upon code to document the product in development.
When software is developed using a test-driven approach, the combination of writing the unit test to specify the interface plus the refactoring activities performed after the test has passed, may take the place of formal design. Each unit test can be seen as a design element specifying classes, methods, and observable behavior.
Limitations and disadvantages
Testing will not catch every error in the program, because it cannot evaluate every execution path in any but the most trivial programs. This problem is a superset of the halting problem, which is undecidable. The same is true for unit testing. Additionally, unit testing by definition only tests the functionality of the units themselves. Therefore, it will not catch integration errors or broader system-level errors (such as functions performed across multiple units, or non-functional test areas such as performance). Unit testing should be done in conjunction with other software testing activities, as they can only show the presence or absence of particular errors; they cannot prove a complete absence of errors. To guarantee correct behavior for every execution path and every possible input, and ensure the absence of errors, other techniques are required, namely the application of formal methods to proving that a software component has no unexpected behavior.
An elaborate hierarchy of unit tests does not equal integration testing. Integration with peripheral units should be included in integration tests, but not in unit tests. Integration testing typically still relies heavily on humans testing manually; high-level or global-scope testing can be difficult to automate, such that manual testing often appears faster and cheaper.
Software testing is a combinatorial problem. For example, every Boolean decision statement requires at least two tests: one with an outcome of "true" and one with an outcome of "false". As a result, for every line of code written, programmers often need 3 to 5 lines of test code. This obviously takes time and its investment may not be worth the effort. There are problems that cannot easily be tested at all – for example those that are nondeterministic or involve multiple threads. In addition, code for a unit test is as likely to be buggy as the code it is testing. Fred Brooks in The Mythical Man-Month quotes: "Never go to sea with two chronometers; take one or three." Meaning, if two chronometers contradict, how do you know which one is correct?
Another challenge related to writing the unit tests is the difficulty of setting up realistic and useful tests. It is necessary to create relevant initial conditions so the part of the application being tested behaves like part of the complete system. If these initial conditions are not set correctly, the test will not be exercising the code in a realistic context, which diminishes the value and accuracy of unit test results.
To obtain the intended benefits from unit testing, rigorous discipline is needed throughout the software development process. It is essential to keep careful records not only of the tests that have been performed, but also of all changes that have been made to the source code of this or any other unit in the software. Use of a version control system is essential. If a later version of the unit fails a particular test that it had previously passed, the version-control software can provide a list of the source code changes (if any) that have been applied to the unit since that time.
It is also essential to implement a sustainable process for ensuring that test case failures are reviewed regularly and addressed immediately. If such a process is not implemented and ingrained into the team's workflow, the application will evolve out of sync with the unit test suite, increasing false positives and reducing the effectiveness of the test suite.
Unit testing embedded system software presents a unique challenge: Because the software is being developed on a different platform than the one it will eventually run on, you cannot readily run a test program in the actual deployment environment, as is possible with desktop programs.
Unit tests tend to be easiest when a method has input parameters and some output. It is not as easy to create unit tests when a major function of the method is to interact with something external to the application. For example, a method that will work with a database might require a mock up of database interactions to be created, which probably won't be as comprehensive as the real database interactions.
Example
Here is a set of test cases in Java that specify a number of elements of the implementation. First, that there must be an interface called Adder, and an implementing class with a zero-argument constructor called AdderImpl. It goes on to assert that the Adder interface should have a method called add, with two integer parameters, which returns another integer. It also specifies the behaviour of this method for a small range of values over a number of test methods.
import static org.junit.Assert.assertEquals;
import org.junit.Test;
public class TestAdder {
@Test
public void testSumPositiveNumbersOneAndOne() {
Adder adder = new AdderImpl();
assertEquals(2, adder.add(1, 1));
}
// can it add the positive numbers 1 and 2?
@Test
public void testSumPositiveNumbersOneAndTwo() {
Adder adder = new AdderImpl();
assertEquals(3, adder.add(1, 2));
}
// can it add the positive numbers 2 and 2?
@Test
public void testSumPositiveNumbersTwoAndTwo() {
Adder adder = new AdderImpl();
assertEquals(4, adder.add(2, 2));
}
// is zero neutral?
@Test
public void testSumZeroNeutral() {
Adder adder = new AdderImpl();
assertEquals(0, adder.add(0, 0));
}
// can it add the negative numbers -1 and -2?
@Test
public void testSumNegativeNumbers() {
Adder adder = new AdderImpl();
assertEquals(-3, adder.add(-1, -2));
}
// can it add a positive and a negative?
@Test
public void testSumPositiveAndNegative() {
Adder adder = new AdderImpl();
assertEquals(0, adder.add(-1, 1));
}
// how about larger numbers?
@Test
public void testSumLargeNumbers() {
Adder adder = new AdderImpl();
assertEquals(2222, adder.add(1234, 988));
}
}
In this case the unit tests, having been written first, act as a design document specifying the form and behaviour of a desired solution, but not the implementation details, which are left for the programmer. Following the "do the simplest thing that could possibly work" practice, the easiest solution that will make the test pass is shown below.
interface Adder {
int add(int a, int b);
}
class AdderImpl implements Adder {
public int add(int a, int b) {
return a + b;
}
}
As executable specifications
Using unit-tests as a design specification has one significant advantage over other design methods: The design document (the unit-tests themselves) can itself be used to verify the implementation. The tests will never pass unless the developer implements a solution according to the design.
Unit testing lacks some of the accessibility of a diagrammatic specification such as a UML diagram, but they may be generated from the unit test using automated tools. Most modern languages have free tools (usually available as extensions to IDEs). Free tools, like those based on the xUnit framework, outsource to another system the graphical rendering of a view for human consumption.
Applications
Extreme programming
Unit testing is the cornerstone of extreme programming, which relies on an automated unit testing framework. This automated unit testing framework can be either third party, e.g., xUnit, or created within the development group.
Extreme programming uses the creation of unit tests for test-driven development. The developer writes a unit test that exposes either a software requirement or a defect. This test will fail because either the requirement isn't implemented yet, or because it intentionally exposes a defect in the existing code. Then, the developer writes the simplest code to make the test, along with other tests, pass.
Most code in a system is unit tested, but not necessarily all paths through the code. Extreme programming mandates a "test everything that can possibly break" strategy, over the traditional "test every execution path" method. This leads developers to develop fewer tests than classical methods, but this isn't really a problem, more a restatement of fact, as classical methods have rarely ever been followed methodically enough for all execution paths to have been thoroughly tested. Extreme programming simply recognizes that testing is rarely exhaustive (because it is often too expensive and time-consuming to be economically viable) and provides guidance on how to effectively focus limited resources.
Crucially, the test code is considered a first class project artifact in that it is maintained at the same quality as the implementation code, with all duplication removed. Developers release unit testing code to the code repository in conjunction with the code it tests. Extreme programming's thorough unit testing allows the benefits mentioned above, such as simpler and more confident code development and refactoring, simplified code integration, accurate documentation, and more modular designs. These unit tests are also constantly run as a form of regression test.
Unit testing is also critical to the concept of Emergent Design. As emergent design is heavily dependent upon refactoring, unit tests are an integral component.
Unit testing frameworks
Unit testing frameworks are most often third-party products that are not distributed as part of the compiler suite. They help simplify the process of unit testing, having been developed for a wide variety of languages.
It is generally possible to perform unit testing without the support of a specific framework by writing client code that exercises the units under test and uses assertions, exception handling, or other control flow mechanisms to signal failure. Unit testing without a framework is valuable in that there is a barrier to entry for the adoption of unit testing; having scant unit tests is hardly better than having none at all, whereas once a framework is in place, adding unit tests becomes relatively easy. In some frameworks many advanced unit test features are missing or must be hand-coded.
Language-level unit testing support
Some programming languages directly support unit testing. Their grammar allows the direct declaration of unit tests without importing a library (whether third party or standard). Additionally, the boolean conditions of the unit tests can be expressed in the same syntax as boolean expressions used in non-unit test code, such as what is used for and statements.
Languages with built-in unit testing support include:
Apex
Cobra
Crystal
D
Go
LabVIEW
MATLAB
Python
Racket
Ruby
Rust
Some languages without built-in unit-testing support have very good unit testing libraries/frameworks. Those languages include:
ABAP
C++
C#
Clojure
Elixir
Java
JavaScript
Objective-C
Perl
PHP
PowerShell
R with testthat
Scala
tcl
Visual Basic .NET
Xojo with XojoUnit
See also
Acceptance testing
Characterization test
Component-based usability testing
Design predicates
Design by contract
Extreme programming
Functional testing
Integration testing
List of unit testing frameworks
Regression testing
Software archaeology
Software testing
Test case
Test-driven development
xUnit – a family of unit testing frameworks.
References
Further reading
External links
Test Driven Development (Ward Cunningham's Wiki)
Extreme programming
Articles with example Java code
Types of tools used in software development | [
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] |
222834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model%20airport | Model airport | A model airport is a scale model of an airport.
While airport models have been around, in a way, since airfields were open to the public, early model airports were basically restricted to public showcases about the airport and its surroundings to the public; these were usually located inside the airport themselves.
Since Herpa Wings's introduction of their airport set series to their line of airline related toys, there has been an increase of aircraft modelers who have made mock airports to showcase their private collection of model aircraft. Often, the collector will model their airport after a real-life airport.
Model airports can be made to look very realistic, with many real airport features such as terminals, control towers, cargo terminals, hangars, passenger bridges and more, Gemini Jets, Herpa Wings, and JC Wings have produced ground support equipment in various scales.
Collectors who make model airports may use die-cast models for their creation. Among the brands of die cast aircraft models most commonly used on these airports are Aeroclassics, Herpa Wings, Dragon Models Limited, Gemini Jets, Phoenix Models, JC Wings, and NG Model.
In 2011, what may be the world's largest model airport opened for public view at Miniatur Wunderland, Hamburg, Germany. Knuffingen International Airport is based on Hamburg International Airport.
Another popular park in Europe, Madurodam in the Netherlands, includes a model airport featuring models of several airlines such as KLM, Transavia, Thai Airways, Korean Air, Delta Air Lines and an A380 of Singapore Airlines, alongside (inaccurately) a DHL Airbus A300. The Madurodam airport is based on Amsterdam's Schiphol Airport.
See also
Diorama
Model building
References
Scale modeling | [
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222836 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positional%20asphyxia | Positional asphyxia | Positional asphyxia, also known as postural asphyxia, is a form of asphyxia which occurs when someone's position prevents the person from breathing adequately. People may die from positional asphyxia accidentally, when the mouth and nose are blocked, or where the chest may be unable to fully expand.
Background
A 1992 article in The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology and a 2000 article in The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology said that multiple cases have been associated with the hogtie or hobble prone restraint position.
The New York Police Department’s guidelines, explaining protocols for mitigating in-custody deaths, were published in a 1995 Department of Justice bulletin on "positional asphyxia." The NYPD recommended that, “[a]s soon as the subject is handcuffed, get him off his stomach. Turn him on his side or place him in a seated position." A 1996 FBI bulletin said that many law enforcement and health personnel were being taught to avoid restraining people face-down or to do so only for a very short period of time.
Resuscitation of persons who exhibit cardiac arrest following restraint has proven to be difficult, according to a 1995 article in Annals of Emergency Medicine. Even in cases where the subject was in the immediate care of paramedics, resuscitation has failed and the subject has died. A March 1999 article in the Academic Emergency Medicine journal reported that one group of doctors had presented a method of resuscitation, correcting acidosis in the blood of the victim, which proved effective in their small scale study. A 2010 article in the Journal of the Tennessee Medical Association reported a single case of successful resuscitation using "aggressive sedation", "ventilatory assistance" among other interventions but added that "avoiding hobble and prone restraint positions may eliminate some of the problems".
In 1997 Annals of Emergency Medicine article reported on a single small laboratory study in which "15 healthy men ages 18 through 40 years" were placed in the ""hobble" or "hog-tie" restraint position. Researchers found that the effects of restraint on the breathing and oxygen levels these 15 healthy men, was limited
A 2002 review of the literature published in the British Journal of Forensic Practice said that restraining a person in a face-down position is likely to cause greater restriction of breathing than restraining a person face-up.
A 2008 article in Medicine, Science and the Law said that the way the subject is restrained can also increase the risk of death, for example kneeling or otherwise placing weight on the subject and particularly any type of restraint hold around the subject's neck. Research measuring the effect of restraint positions on lung function suggests that restraint which involves bending the restrained person or placing body weight on them has more effect on their breathing than face-down positioning alone.
In the United States, there were 16 cases reported deaths in police custody between 1998 and 2009 in which restraint was a "direct or contributory factor to the death." The investigation into the deaths resulted in a 2010 report tabled by the Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC).
Prolonged (particularly resisted) restraint, obesity, prior cardiac or respiratory problems, and the use of illicit drugs such as cocaine can increase the risk of death by restraint, according to a 2001 article in American Journal of Emergency Medicine.
Positional asphyxia is not limited to restraint in a face down position according to a 2011 article in Medicine, Science, and the Law. Restraining a person in a seated position may also reduce the ability to breathe, if the person is pushed forwards with the chest on or close to the knees. The risk will be higher in cases where the restrained person has a high body mass index (BMI) and/or large waist girth.
A 2012 series by the Bureau of Investigative Journalism (TBIJ) reported that, since the late 1990s, coroners used the term "excited delirium", to explain restraint-related deaths involving police officers. A May 1997 article in Wiener klinische Wochenschrift said that deaths in real life situations occur after excited delirium, which had not been studied in laboratory simulations at that time.
Major cases of positional asphyxia-related deaths in police custody
Three prominent cases of in-custody deaths involve African American men, David Smith in 2010, Eric Garner in 2014, and George Floyd in 2020.
In 2013, the family of 28-year-old David Smith successfully sued Minneapolis, Minnesota for $3.075 million, the "second-largest for police misconduct" in the city's history, when the Smith family's legal team—cited evidence from a Minneapolis police officer's body-worn camera (BWC) showing that the officers had used the "controversial" police technique called prone restraint to subdue Smith. According to a June 1, 2013 Star Tribune article, MPD officers had "forced Smith onto his stomach, then placed a knee in his back and held him down for about four minutes, which the family attorneys said made it impossible for him to breathe."
The July 17, 2014, killing of Eric Garner has been linked to positional asphyxia.
On May 25, 2020, according to a private autopsy contradicting the official autopsy, George Floyd died by asphyxia when Minneapolis Police officer Derek Chauvin knelt on Floyd's neck and another officer, J. Alexander Kueng, knelt on his back for almost ten minutes as Floyd lay on his stomach on the pavement.
Positional asphyxia due to accident or illness
Positional asphyxia may also occur as a result of accident or illness, according to a 2008 article in the Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine. This can include bed rail strangulation.
A 2008 EMBO Reports article on sudden infant death syndrome, said that the number of diagnoses of ‘accidental suffocation', ‘wedging' or ‘positional asphyxia' had increased."
Olympic track athlete Florence Griffith-Joyner and ex-Major League Baseball player John Marzano both died due to positional asphyxia, the former following an epileptic seizure and the latter following a fall down a flight of stairs.
References
Medical emergencies
Law enforcement
Causes of death | [
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222837 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffocation%20%28disambiguation%29 | Suffocation (disambiguation) | Suffocation is the process of Asphyxia.
Suffocation or Suffocate may also refer to:
Suffocation (band), an American death metal band
Suffocation (album), 2006
"Suffocation", a song on Morbid Angel's debut album, Altars of Madness
"Suffocation", a song on Obituary's debut album Slowly We Rot
"Suffocation", a song on Vangelis's album See You Later
"Suffocate", a song by Finger Eleven from their 2000 album The Greyest of Blue Skies (album)
"Suffocate", a song by Cold from their 2003 album Year of the Spider
"Suffocate", a song by Green Day from their 2002 album Shenanigans
"Suffocate" (Feeder song), a 1998 single by Feeder
"Suffocate" (J. Holiday song), a 2007 single by J. Holiday
"Suffocate", a song by Mutiny Within from Mutiny Within
"Suffocate" (King Adora song), 2001
"Suffocate", a song by Crossfade from their 2011 album We All Bleed | [
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222838 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrobert%20Arts%20Centre | Macrobert Arts Centre | Macrobert Arts Centre is a multi-arts venue located on the main campus of the University of Stirling, Scotland. The Arts Centre offers a varied programme of events and experiences – cinema, comedy, dance, exhibitions, family, get involved, music, opera and theatre – catering for audiences from across Stirling, the Forth Valley and beyond. It was originally opened in 1971 as Scotland's first purpose-built arts centre, the brainchild of the university's first principal, Tom Cottrell FRSE, who wanted appreciation of the arts to be at the heart of the university's cultural ethos.
In October 2002 the Arts Centre re-opened following a period of refurbishment by Appleton Architects and Buro Happold.
Macrobert Arts Centre is a registered charity under Scottish law. It receives key funding from Creative Scotland and the University of Stirling, while raising 70% of its required funds through ticket sales and donations, grants and sponsorship.
References
External links
Macrobert Arts Centre's website
Cinemas in Scotland
Entertainment in Scotland
Buildings and structures in Stirling (council area)
Theatres in Scotland
University of Stirling
Tourist attractions in Stirling (council area)
Arts centres in Scotland
1971 establishments in Scotland
Buildings and structures completed in 1971
1971 in theatre
Charities based in Scotland
Arts organisations based in Scotland | [
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222839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welfare%20state | Welfare state | The welfare state is a form of government in which the state (or a well-established network of social institutions) protects and promotes the economic and social well-being of its citizens, based upon the principles of equal opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, and public responsibility for citizens unable to avail themselves of the minimal provisions for a good life. Sociologist T. H. Marshall described the modern welfare state as a distinctive combination of democracy, welfare, and capitalism.
There is substantial variability in the form and trajectory of the welfare state across countries and regions. All welfare states entail some degree of private-public partnerships wherein the administration and delivery of at least some welfare programmes occurs through private entities. Welfare state services are also provided at varying territorial levels of government.
Early features of the welfare state, such as public pensions and social insurance, developed from the 1880s onwards in industrializing Western countries. World War I, the Great Depression, and World War II have been characterized as important events that ushered in expansions of the welfare state, including the use of state interventionism to combat lost output, high unemployment, and other problems. The fullest forms of the welfare state developed after World War II.
Etymology
The German term sozialstaat ("social state") has been used since 1870 to describe state support programs devised by German sozialpolitiker ("social politicians") and implemented as part of Otto von Bismarck's conservative reforms.
The literal English equivalent "social state" did not catch on in Anglophone countries. However, during the Second World War, Anglican Archbishop William Temple, author of the book Christianity and the Social Order (1942), popularized the concept using the phrase "welfare state". Bishop Temple's use of "welfare state" has been connected to Benjamin Disraeli's 1845 novel Sybil: or the Two Nations (in other words, the rich and the poor), where he writes "power has only one duty – to secure the social welfare of the PEOPLE". At the time he wrote Sybil, Disraeli (later a prime minister) belonged to Young England, a conservative group of youthful Tories who disagreed with how the Whigs dealt with the conditions of the industrial poor. Members of Young England attempted to garner support among the privileged classes to assist the less fortunate and to recognize the dignity of labor that they imagined had characterized England during the Feudal Middle Ages.
History
Ancient
India
Emperor Ashoka of India put forward his idea of a welfare state in the 3rd century BCE. He envisioned his dharma (religion or path) as not just a collection of high-sounding phrases. He consciously tried to adopt it as a matter of state policy; he declared that "all men are my children" and "whatever exertion I make, I strive only to discharge debt that I owe to all living creatures." It was a totally new ideal of kingship. Ashoka renounced war and conquest by violence and forbade the killing of many animals. Since he wanted to conquer the world through love and faith, he sent many missions to propagate Dharma. Such missions were sent to places like Egypt, Greece, and Sri Lanka. The propagation of Dharma included many measures of people's welfare. Centers of the treatment of men and beasts founded inside and outside of the empire. Shady groves, wells, orchards and rest houses were laid out. Ashoka also prohibited useless sacrifices and certain forms of gatherings which led to waste, indiscipline and superstition. To implement these policies he recruited a new cadre of officers called Dharmamahamattas. Part of this group's duties was to see that people of various sects were treated fairly. They were especially asked to look after the welfare of prisoners.
However, the historical record of Ashoka's character is conflicted. Ashoka's own inscriptions state that he converted to Buddhism after waging a destructive war. However, the Sri Lankan tradition claims that he had already converted to Buddhism in the 4th year of his reign, prior to the conquest of Kalinga. During this war, according to Ashoka's Major Rock Edict 13, his forces killed 100,000 men and animals and enslaved another 150,000. Some sources (particularly Buddhist oral legends) suggest that his conversion was dramatic and that he dedicated the rest of his life to the pursuit of peace and the common good. However, these sources frequently contradict each other, and sources soundly dated nearer to the Edicts (like Ashokavadana, circa 200 BCE at the earliest) describe Ashoka engaging in sectarian mass murder throughout his reign, and make no mention of the philanthropic efforts claimed by later legends. The interpretation of Ashoka's dharma after conversion is controversial, but in particular, the texts which describe him personally ordering the massacre of Buddhist heretics and Jains have been disputed by some fringe Buddhist scholars. They allege that these claims are propaganda, albeit without historical, archaeological, or linguistic evidence. It is unclear if they believe the entire Ashokavadana to be an ancient fabrication, or just the sections related to Ashoka's post-conversion violence.
China
The Emperor Wen (203 – 157 BCE) of Han Dynasty instituted a variety of measures with resemblances to modern welfare policies. These included pensions, in the form of food and wine, to all over 80 years of age, as well as monetary support, in the form of loans or tax breaks, to widows, orphans, and elderly without children to support them. Emperor Wen was also known for a concern over wasteful spending of tax-payer money. Unlike other Han emperors, he wore simple silk garments. In order to make the state serve the common people better, cruel criminal punishments were lessened and the state bureaucracy was made more meritocratic. This led to officials being selected by examinations for the first time in Chinese history.
Rome
The Roman Republic intervened sporadically to distribute free or subsidized grain to its population, through the program known as Cura Annonae. The city of Rome grew rapidly during the Roman Republic and Empire, reaching a population approaching one million in the second century AD. The population of the city grew beyond the capacity of the nearby rural areas to meet the food needs of the city.
Regular grain distribution began in 123 BC with a grain law proposed by Gaius Gracchus and approved by the Roman Plebeian Council (popular assembly). The numbers of those receiving free or subsidized grain expanded to a high of an estimated 320,000 people at one point. In the 3rd century AD, the dole of grain was replaced by bread, probably during the reign of Septimius Severus (193-211 AD). Severus also began providing olive oil to residents of Rome, and later the emperor Aurelian (270-275) ordered the distribution of wine and pork. The doles of bread, olive oil, wine, and pork apparently continued until near the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD. The dole in the early Roman Empire is estimated to account for 15 to 33 percent of the total grain imported and consumed in Rome.
In addition to food, the Roman Republic also supplied free entertainment, through ludi (public games). Public money was allocated for the staging of ludi, but the presiding official increasingly came to augment the splendor of his games from personal funds as a form of public relations. The sponsor was able to cultivate the favor of the people of Rome.
Middle East
The concept of states taxing for the welfare budget was introduced in early 7th century Islamic law. Zakat is one of the five pillars of Islam and is a mandatory form of 2.5% income tax to be paid by all individuals earning above a basic threshold to provide for the needy. Umar (584–644), leader of the Rashidun Caliphate (empire), established a welfare state through the Bayt al-mal (treasury), which for instance was used to stockpile food in every region of the Islamic Empire for disasters and emergencies.
Modern
Otto von Bismarck established the first welfare state in a modern industrial society, with social-welfare legislation, in 1880s Imperial Germany. Bismarck extended the privileges of the Junker social class to ordinary Germans. His 17 November 1881 Imperial Message to the Reichstag used the term "practical Christianity" to describe his program. German laws from this era also insured workers against industrial risks inherent in the workplace.
In Switzerland, the Swiss Factory Act of 1877 limited working hours for everyone, and gave maternity benefits. The Swiss welfare state also arose in the late 19th century; its existence and depth varied individually by canton. Some of the programs first adopted were emergency relief, elementary schools, and homes for the elderly and children.
In the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a version was set up by Count Eduard von Taaffe a few years after Bismarck in Germany. Legislation to help the working class in Austria emerged from Catholic conservatives. Von Taffe used Swiss and German models of social reform, including the Swiss Factory Act of 1877 German laws that insured workers against industrial risks inherent in the workplace to create the 1885 Trade Code Amendment.
Changed attitudes in reaction to the worldwide Great Depression of the 1930s, which brought unemployment and misery to millions, were instrumental in the move to the welfare state in many countries. During the Great Depression, the welfare state was seen as a "middle way" between the extremes of communism on the left and unregulated laissez-faire capitalism on the right. In the period following World War II, some countries in Western Europe moved from partial or selective provision of social services to relatively comprehensive "cradle-to-grave" coverage of the population. Other Western European states did not, such as the United Kingdom, Ireland, Spain and France. Political scientist Eileen McDonagh has argued that a major determinant of where welfare states arose is whether or not a country had a historical monarchy with familial foundations (a trait that Max Weber called patrimonialism); in places where the monarchic state was viewed as a parental steward of the populace, it was easier to shift into a mindset where the industrial state could also serve as a parental steward of the populace.
The activities of present-day welfare states extend to the provision of both cash welfare benefits (such as old-age pensions or unemployment benefits) and in-kind welfare services (such as health or childcare services). Through these provisions, welfare states can affect the distribution of wellbeing and personal autonomy among their citizens, as well as influencing how their citizens consume and how they spend their time.
Analysis
Historian of the 20th Century fascist movement, Robert Paxton, observes that the provisions of the welfare state were enacted in the 19th century by religious conservatives to counteract appeals from trade unions and socialism. Later, Paxton writes "All the modern twentieth-century European dictatorships of the right, both fascist and authoritarian, were welfare states… They all provided medical care, pensions, affordable housing, and mass transport as a matter of course, in order to maintain productivity, national unity, and social peace." In Germany, Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party maintained the welfare state established by previous German governments, but restructured it so as to help only Aryan individuals considered worthy of assistance, excluding "alcoholics, tramps, homosexuals, prostitutes, the 'work-shy' or the 'asocial', habitual criminals, the hereditarily ill (a widely defined category) and members of races other than the Aryan." Nevertheless, even with these limitations, over 17 million German citizens were receiving assistance under the auspices of the National Socialist People's Welfare by 1939.
When social democratic parties abandoned Marxism after World War II, they increasingly accepted the welfare state as a political goal, either as a temporary goal within capitalism or an ultimate goal in itself.
A theoretical addition from 2005 is that of Kahl in their article 'The religious roots of modern policy: Catholic, Lutheran and Reformed Protestant traditions compared'. They argue that the welfare state policies of several European countries can be traced back to their religious origins. This process has its origin in the 'poor relief' systems, and social norms present in Christian nations. The example countries are categorized as follows: Catholic - Spain, Italy and France; Lutheran - Denmark, Sweden and Germany; Reformed Protestant - Netherlands, the UK and the USA. The Catholic countries late adoption of welfare benefits and social assistance, the latter being splintered and meagre, is due to several religious and social factors. Alms giving was an important part of catholic society as the wealthy could resolve their sins through participation in the act. As such, begging was allowed and was subject to a greater degree of acceptance. Poverty was seen as being close to grace and there was no onus for change placed onto the poor. These factors coupled with the power of the church meant that state provided benefits did not arise until late in the 20th century. Additionally, social assistance wasn't done at a comprehensive level, each group in need had their assistance added incrementally. This accounts for the fragmented nature of social assistance in these countries.
Lutheran states were early to provide welfare and late to provide social assistance but this was done uniformly. Poverty was seen as more of an individual affliction of laziness and immorality. Work was viewed as a calling. As such these societies banned begging and created workhouses to force the able-bodied to work. These uniform state actions paved the way for comprehensive welfare benefits, as those who worked deserved assistance when in need. When social assistance was delivered for those who had never worked, it was in the context of the uniform welfare provision. The concept of Predestination is key for understanding welfare assistance in Reformed Protestant states. Poor people were seen as being punished, therefore begging and state assistance was non existent. As such churches and charities filled the void resulting in early social assistance and late welfare benefits. The USA still has minimal welfare benefits today, because of their religious roots, according to Kahl.
Also from 2005, Jacob Hacker stated that there was "broad agreement" in research on welfare that there had not been welfare state retrenchment. Instead, "social policy frameworks remain secure."
Forms
Broadly speaking, welfare states are either universal, with provisions that cover everybody; or selective, with provisions covering only those deemed most needy. In his 1990 book, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism, Danish sociologist Gøsta Esping-Andersen further identified three subtypes of welfare state models.
Since the building of the decommodification index is limited and the typology is debatable, these 18 countries could be ranked from most purely social-democratic (Sweden) to the most liberal (the United States). Ireland represents a near-hybrid model whereby two streams of unemployment benefit exist: contributory and means-tested. However, payments can begin immediately and are theoretically available to all Irish citizens even if they have never worked, provided they are habitually resident.
Social stigma varies across the three conceptual welfare states. Particularly, it is highest in liberal states, and lowest in social democratic states. Esping-Andersen proposes that the universalist nature of social democratic states eliminate the duality between beneficiaries and non-recipients, whereas in means-tested liberal states there is resentment towards redistribution efforts. That is to say, the lower the percent of GDP spent on welfare, the higher the stigma of the welfare state. Esping-Andersen also argues that welfare states set the stage for post-industrial employment evolution in terms of employment growth, structure, and stratification. He uses Germany, Sweden, and the United States to provide examples of the differing results of each of the three welfare states.
According to Evelyne Huber and John Stephens, different types of welfare states emerged as a result of prolonged government by different parties. They distinguish between social democratic welfare states, Christian democratic welfare states, and "wage earner" states.
According to the Swedish political scientist Bo Rothstein, in non-universal welfare states, the state is primarily concerned with directing resources to "the people most in need". This requires tight bureaucratic control in order to determine who is eligible for assistance and who is not. Under universal models such as Sweden, on the other hand, the state distributes welfare to all people who fulfill easily established criteria (e.g. having children, receiving medical treatment, etc.) with as little bureaucratic interference as possible. This, however, requires higher taxation due to the scale of services provided. This model was constructed by the Scandinavian ministers Karl Kristian Steincke and Gustav Möller in the 1930s and is dominant in Scandinavia.
Sociologist Lane Kenworthy argues that the Nordic experience demonstrates that the modern social democratic model can "promote economic security, expand opportunity, and ensure rising living standards for all ... while facilitating freedom, flexibility and market dynamism."
American political scientist Benjamin Radcliff has also argued that the universality and generosity of the welfare state (i.e. the extent of decommodification) is the single most important societal-level structural factor affecting the quality of human life, based on the analysis of time serial data across both the industrial democracies and the American States. He maintains that the welfare state improves life for everyone, regardless of social class (as do similar institutions, such as pro-worker labor market regulations and strong labor unions).
By country or region
Australia
Prior to 1900 in Australia, charitable assistance from benevolent societies, sometimes with financial contributions from the authorities, was the primary means of relief for people not able to support themselves. The 1890s economic depression and the rise of the trade unions and the Labor parties during this period led to a movement for welfare reform.
In 1900, the states of New South Wales and Victoria enacted legislation introducing non-contributory pensions for those aged 65 and over. Queensland legislated a similar system in 1907 before the federal labor government led by Andrew Fisher introduced a national aged pension under the Invalid and Old-Aged Pensions Act 1908. A national invalid disability pension was started in 1910, and a national maternity allowance was introduced in 1912.
During the Second World War, Australia under a labor government created a welfare state by enacting national schemes for: child endowment in 1941; a widows' pension in 1942; a wife's allowance in 1943; additional allowances for the children of pensioners in 1943; and unemployment, sickness, and special benefits in 1945.
Canada
Canada's welfare programs are funded and administered at all levels of government (with 13 different provincial/territorial systems), and include health and medical care, public education (through graduate school), social housing and social services. Social support is given through programs including Social Assistance, Guaranteed Income Supplement, Child Tax Benefit, Old Age Security, Employment Insurance, Workers' Compensation, and the Canada/Quebec Pension Plans.
France
After 1830, French liberalism and economic modernization were key goals. While liberalism was individualistic and laissez-faire in Britain and the United States, in France liberalism was based instead on a solidaristic conception of society, following the theme of the French Revolution, Liberté, égalité, fraternité ("liberty, equality, fraternity"). In the Third Republic, especially between 1895 and 1914 "Solidarité" ["solidarism"] was the guiding concept of a liberal social policy, whose chief champions were the prime ministers Leon Bourgeois (1895–96) and Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau (1899-1902). The French welfare state expanded when it tried to follow some of Bismarck's policies. Poor relief was the starting point. More attention was paid to industrial labour in the 1930s during a short period of socialist political ascendency, with the Matignon Accords and the reforms of the Popular Front. Paxton points out these reforms were paralleled and even exceeded by measures taken by the Vichy regime in the 1940s.
Germany
Some policies enacted to enhance social welfare in Germany were Health Insurance 1883, Accident Insurance 1884, Old Age Pensions 1889 and National Unemployment Insurance 1927. Otto von Bismarck, the powerful Chancellor of Germany (in office 1871–90), developed the first modern welfare state by building on a tradition of welfare programs in Prussia and Saxony that had begun as early as in the 1840s. The measures that Bismarck introduced – old-age pensions, accident insurance, and employee health insurance – formed the basis of the modern European welfare state. His paternalistic programs aimed to forestall social unrest and to undercut the appeal of the new Social Democratic Party, and to secure the support of the working classes for the German Empire, as well as to reduce emigration to the United States, where wages were higher but welfare did not exist. Bismarck further won the support of both industry and skilled workers through his high-tariff policies, which protected profits and wages from American competition, although they alienated the liberal intellectuals who wanted free trade.
During the 12 years of rule by Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party, the welfare state established by previous German governments was maintained, but it was restructured so as to help only Aryan individuals considered worthy of assistance, excluding "alcoholics, tramps, homosexuals, prostitutes, the 'work-shy' or the 'asocial', habitual criminals, the hereditarily ill (a widely defined category) and members of races other than the Aryan." Nevertheless, even with these limitations, over 17 million German citizens received assistance under the auspices of the Nationalsozialistische Volkswohlfahrt (NSV) by 1939. The agency projected a powerful image of caring and support for those who were seen as full members of the German racial community, but it also inspired fear through its intrusive questioning and the threat of opening investigations on those who did not fulfill the criteria for support.
India
The Directive Principles of State Policy, enshrined in Part IV of the Indian Constitution reflects that India is a welfare state. Food security to all Indians are guaranteed under the National Food Security Act, 2013 where the government provides food grains to people at a very subsidised rate. There are public health insurance schemes, social aid to families and new mothers, free school meals, pension schemes and unemployment benefit schemes run both at the federal and the state level.
As of 2020, the government's expenditure on social security and welfare (direct cash transfers, financial inclusion, health insurance, subsidies, rural employment guarantee), was approximately , which was 7.3 percent of gross domestic product (GDP).
Latin America
Welfare states in Latin America have been considered as "welfare states in transition", or "emerging welfare states". Welfare states in Latin America have been described as "truncated": generous benefits for formal-sector workers, regressive subsidies and informal barriers for the poor to obtain benefits. Mesa-Lago has classified the countries taking into account the historical experience of their welfare systems. The pioneers were Uruguay, Chile and Argentina, as they started to develop the first welfare programs in the 1920s following a bismarckian model. Other countries such as Costa Rica developed a more universal welfare system (1960s–1970s) with social security programs based on the Beveridge model. Researchers such as Martinez-Franzoni and Barba-Solano have examined and identified several welfare regime models based on the typology of Esping-Andersen. Other scholars such as Riesco and Cruz-Martinez have examined the welfare state development in the region.
About welfare states in Latin America, Alex Segura-Ubiergo wrote:
Latin American countries can be unequivocally divided into two groups depending on their 'welfare effort' levels. The first group, which for convenience we may call welfare states, includes Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, Costa Rica, and Brazil. Within this group, average social spending per capita in the 1973–2000 period was around $532, while as a percentage of GDP and as a share of the budget, social spending reached 51.6 and 12.6 percent, respectively. In addition, between approximately 50 and 75 percent of the population is covered by the public health and pension social security system. In contrast, the second group of countries, which we call non-welfare states, has welfare-effort indices that range from 37 to 88. Within this second group, social spending per capita averaged $96.6, while social spending as a percentage of GDP and as a percentage of the budget averaged 5.2 and 34.7 percent, respectively. In terms of the percentage of the population actually covered, the percentage of the active population covered under some social security scheme does not even reach 10 percent.
Middle East
Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, and Qatar have become welfare states with elaborate subsidies exclusively for their own citizens.
Nordic countries
The Nordic welfare model refers to the welfare policies of the Nordic countries, which also tie into their labor market policies. The Nordic model of welfare is distinguished from other types of welfare states by its emphasis on maximizing labor force participation, promoting gender equality, egalitarian and extensive benefit levels, the large magnitude of income redistribution and liberal use of the expansionary fiscal policy.
While there are differences among the Nordic countries, they all share a broad commitment to social cohesion, a universal nature of welfare provision in order to safeguard individualism by providing protection for vulnerable individuals and groups in society and maximizing public participation in social decision-making. It is characterized by flexibility and openness to innovation in the provision of welfare. The Nordic welfare systems are mainly funded through taxation.
People's Republic of China
China traditionally relied on the extended family to provide welfare services. The one-child policy introduced in 1978 has made that unrealistic, and new models have emerged since the 1980s as China has rapidly become richer and more urban. Much discussion is underway regarding China's proposed path toward a welfare state. Chinese policies have been incremental and fragmented in terms of social insurance, privatization, and targeting. In the cities, where the rapid economic development has centered, lines of cleavage have developed between state-sector and non-state-sector employees, and between labor-market insiders and outsiders.
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka's welfare programs focus on free universal health care, free universal secondary education and free tertiary education which was started as part of state welfare in the 1930s and 1940s. In 1995, the government started the Samurdhi (Prosperity) program aimed at reducing poverty, having replaced the Jana Saviya poverty alleviation programme that was in place at the time.
United Kingdom
About the British welfare state, historian Derek Fraser wrote:
The modern welfare state in the United Kingdom began operations with the Liberal welfare reforms of 1906–1914 under Liberal Prime Minister H. H. Asquith. These included the passing of the Old-Age Pensions Act 1908, the introduction of free school meals in 1909, the Labour Exchanges Act 1909, the Development and Road Improvement Funds Act 1909, which heralded greater government intervention in economic development, and the National Insurance Act 1911 setting up a national insurance contribution for unemployment and health benefits from work.
The People's Budget was introduced by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George, in 1909 to fund the welfare reforms. After much opposition, it was passed by the House of Lords on 29 April 1910.
The minimum wage was introduced in the United Kingdom in 1909 for certain low-wage industries and expanded to numerous industries, including farm labour, by 1920. However, by the 1920s, a new perspective was offered by reformers to emphasize the usefulness of family allowance targeted at low-income families was the alternative to relieving poverty without distorting the labour market. The trade unions and the Labour Party adopted this view. In 1945, family allowances were introduced; minimum wages faded from view. Talk resumed in the 1970s, but in the 1980s the Thatcher administration made it clear it would not accept a national minimum wage. Finally, with the return of Labour, the National Minimum Wage Act 1998 set a minimum of £3.60 per hour, with lower rates for younger workers. It largely affected workers in high turnover service industries such as fast food restaurants, and members of ethnic minorities.
December 1942 saw the publication of the Report of the Inter-Departmental Committee on Social Insurance and Allied Services, commonly known as the Beveridge Report after its chairman, Sir William Beveridge. The Beveridge Report proposed a series of measures to aid those who were in need of help, or in poverty and recommended that the government find ways of tackling what the report called "the five giants": Want, Disease, Ignorance, Squalor, and Idleness. It urged the government to take steps to provide citizens with adequate income, adequate health care, adequate education, adequate housing, and adequate employment, proposing that "[a]ll people of working age should pay a weekly National Insurance contribution. In return, benefits would be paid to people who were sick, unemployed, retired, or widowed." The Beveridge Report assumed that the National Health Service would provide free health care to all citizens and that a Universal Child Benefit would give benefits to parents, encouraging people to have children by enabling them to feed and support a family. The report stressed the lower costs and efficiency of universal benefits. Beveridge cited miners' pension schemes as examples of some of the most efficient available and argued that a universal state scheme would be cheaper than a myriad of individual friendly societies and private insurance schemes and also less expensive to administer than a means-tested government-run welfare system for the poor.
The Liberal Party, the Conservative Party, and then the Labour Party all adopted the Beveridge Report's recommendations. Following the Labour election victory in the 1945 general election many of Beveridge's reforms were implemented through a series of Acts of Parliament. On 5 July 1948, the National Insurance Act, National Assistance Act and National Health Service Act came into force, forming the key planks of the modern UK welfare state. In 1949, the Legal Aid and Advice Act was passed, providing the "fourth pillar" of the modern welfare state, access to advice for legal redress for all.
Before 1939, most health care had to be paid for through non-government organisations – through a vast network of friendly societies, trade unions, and other insurance companies, which counted the vast majority of the UK working population as members. These organizations provided insurance for sickness, unemployment, and disability, providing an income to people when they were unable to work. As part of the reforms, the Church of England also closed down its voluntary relief networks and passed the ownership of thousands of church schools, hospitals and other bodies to the state.
Welfare systems continued to develop over the following decades. By the end of the 20th-century parts of the welfare system had been restructured, with some provision channelled through non-governmental organizations which became important providers of social services.
United States
The United States developed a limited welfare state in the 1930s. The earliest and most comprehensive philosophical justification for the welfare state was produced by an American, the sociologist Lester Frank Ward (1841–1913), whom the historian Henry Steele Commager called "the father of the modern welfare state".
Ward saw social phenomena as amenable to human control. "It is only through the artificial control of natural phenomena that science is made to minister to human needs" he wrote, "and if social laws are really analogous to physical laws, there is no reason why social science should not receive practical application such as have been given to physical science." Ward wrote:
The charge of paternalism is chiefly made by the class that enjoys the largest share of government protection. Those who denounce it are those who most frequently and successfully invoke it. Nothing is more obvious today than the single inability of capital and private enterprise to take care of themselves unaided by the state; and while they are incessantly denouncing "paternalism," by which they mean the claim of the defenseless laborer and artisan to a share in this lavish state protection, they are all the while besieging legislatures for relief from their own incompetency, and "pleading the baby act" through a trained body of lawyers and lobbyists. The dispensing of national pap to this class should rather be called "maternalism," to which a square, open, and dignified paternalism would be infinitely preferable.
Ward's theories centred around his belief that a universal and comprehensive system of education was necessary if a democratic government was to function successfully. His writings profoundly influenced younger generations of progressive thinkers such as Theodore Roosevelt, Thomas Dewey, and Frances Perkins (1880–1965), among others.
The United States was the only industrialized country that went into the Great Depression of the 1930s with no social insurance policies in place. In 1935 Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal instituted significant social insurance policies. In 1938 Congress passed the Fair Labor Standards Act, limiting the work week to 40 hours and banning child labor for children under 16, over stiff congressional opposition from the low-wage South.
The Social Security law was very unpopular among many groups – especially farmers, who resented the additional taxes and feared they would never be made good. They lobbied hard for exclusion. Furthermore, the Treasury realized how difficult it would be to set up payroll deduction plans for farmers, for housekeepers who employed maids, and for non-profit groups; therefore they were excluded. State employees were excluded for constitutional reasons (the federal government in the United States cannot tax state governments). Federal employees were also excluded.
By 2013, the U.S. remained the only major industrial state without a uniform national sickness program. American spending on health care (as a percent of GDP) is the highest in the world, but it is a complex mix of federal, state, philanthropic, employer and individual funding. The US spent 16% of its GDP on health care in 2008, compared to 11% in France in second place.
Some scholars, such as Gerard Friedman, argue that labor-union weakness in the Southern United States undermined unionization and social reform throughout the United States as a whole, and is largely responsible for the anemic U.S. welfare state. Sociologists Loïc Wacquant and John L. Campbell contend that since the rise of neoliberal ideology in the late 1970s and early 1980s, an expanding carceral state, or government system of mass incarceration, has largely supplanted the increasingly retrenched social welfare state, which has been justified by its proponents with the argument that the citizenry must take on personal responsibility. Scholars assert that this transformation of the welfare state to a post-welfare punitive state, along with neoliberal structural adjustment policies and the globalization of the U.S. economy, have created more extreme forms of "destitute poverty" in the U.S. which must be contained and controlled by expanding the criminal justice system into every aspect of the lives of the poor.
Other scholars such as Esping-Andersen argue that the welfare state in the United States has been characterized by private provision because such a state would better reflect the racial and sexual biases within the private sector. The disproportionate number of racial and sexual minorities in private sector jobs with weaker benefits, he argues, is evidence that the American welfare state is not necessarily intended to improve the economic situation of such groups.
Effects
Effects of welfare on poverty
Empirical evidence suggests that taxes and transfers considerably reduce poverty in most countries whose welfare states constitute at least a fifth of GDP.
Effects of social expenditure on economic growth, public debt and education
Researchers have found very little correlation between economic performance and social expenditure. They also see little evidence that social expenditures contribute to losses in productivity; economist Peter Lindert of the University of California, Davis attributes this to policy innovations such as the implementation of "pro-growth" tax policies in real-world welfare states, nor have social expenses contributed significantly to public debt. Martin Eiermann wrote:
According to the OECD, social expenditures in its 34 member countries rose steadily between 1980 and 2007, but the increase in costs was almost completely offset by GDP growth. More money was spent on welfare because more money circulated in the economy and because government revenues increased. In 1980, the OECD averaged social expenditures equal to 16 percent of GDP. In 2007, just before the financial crisis kicked into full gear, they had risen to 19 percent – a manageable increase.
A Norwegian study covering the period 1980 to 2003 found welfare state spending correlated negatively with student achievement. However, many of the top-ranking OECD countries on the 2009 PISA tests are considered welfare states.
Social expenditure as a percentage of GDP
The table below shows social expenditure as a percentage of GDP for OECD member states in 2018:
Criticism and response
Early conservatives, under the influence of Thomas Malthus (1766-1834), opposed every form of social insurance "root and branch". Malthus, a clergyman for whom birth control was anathema, believed that the poor needed to learn the hard way to practice frugality, self-control and chastity. Traditional conservatives also protested that the effect of social insurance would be to weaken private charity and loosen traditional social bonds of family, friends, religious and non-governmental welfare organisations.
On the other hand, Karl Marx opposed piecemeal reforms advanced by middle-class reformers out of a sense of duty. In his Address of the Central Committee to the Communist League, written after the failed revolution of 1848, he warned that measures designed to increase wages, improve working conditions and provide social insurance were merely bribes that would temporarily make the situation of working classes tolerable to weaken the revolutionary consciousness that was needed to achieve a socialist economy. Nevertheless, Marx also proclaimed that the Communists had to support the bourgeoisie wherever it acted as a revolutionary progressive class because "bourgeois liberties had first to be conquered and then criticised".
In the 20th century, opponents of the welfare state have expressed apprehension about the creation of a large, possibly self-interested, bureaucracy required to administer it and the tax burden on the wealthier citizens that this entailed.
In 2012, political historian Alan Ryan pointed out that the modern welfare state stops short of being an "advance in the direction of socialism. [...] [I]ts egalitarian elements are more minimal than either its defenders or its critics think". It does not entail advocacy for social ownership of industry. Ryan further wrote:
The modern welfare state, does not set out to make the poor richer and the rich poorer, which is a central element in socialism, but to help people to provide for themselves in sickness while they enjoy good health, to put money aside to cover unemployment while they are in work, and to have adults provide for the education of their own and other people's children, expecting those children's future taxes to pay in due course for the pensions of their parents' generation. These are devices for shifting income across different stages in life, not for shifting income across classes. Another distinct difference is that social insurance does not aim to transform work and working relations; employers and employees pay taxes at a level they would not have done in the nineteenth century, but owners are not expropriated, profits are not illegitimate, cooperativism does not replace hierarchical management.
In 2017, historian Walter Scheidel argued that the establishment of welfare states in the West in the early 20th century could be partly a reaction by elites to the Bolshevik Revolution and its violence against the bourgeoisie, which feared violent revolution in its own backyard. They were diminished decades later as the perceived threat receded. Scheidel wrote:
It's a little tricky because the US never really had any strong leftist movement. But if you look at Europe, after 1917 people were really scared about communism in all the Western European countries. You have all these poor people, they might rise up and kill us and take our stuff. That wasn't just a fantasy because it was happening next door. And that, we can show, did trigger steps in the direction of having more welfare programs and a rudimentary safety net in response to fear of communism. Not that they [the communists] would invade, but that there would be homegrown movements of this sort. American populism is a little different because it's more detached from that. But it happens roughly at the same time, and people in America are worried about communism, toonot necessarily very reasonably. But that was always in the background. And people have only begun to study systematically to what extent the threat, real or imagined, of this type of radical regime really influenced policy changes in Western democracies. You don't necessarily even have to go out and kill rich peopleif there was some plausible alternative out there, it would arguably have an impact on policy making at home. That's certainly there in the 20s, 30s, 40s, 50s, and 60s. And there's a debate, right, because it becomes clear that the Soviet Union is really not in very good shape, and people don't really like to be there, and all these movements lost their appeal. That's a contributing factor, arguably, that the end of the Cold War coincides roughly with the time when inequality really starts going up again, because elites are much more relaxed about the possibility of credible alternatives or threats being out there.
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
Esping-Andersen, Gøsta; Politics against markets, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press (1985).
Kenworthy, Lane. Social Democratic America. Oxford University Press (2014).
Korpi, Walter; "The Democratic Class Struggle"; London: Routledge (1983).
Koehler, Gabriele and Deepta Chopra; "Development and Welfare Policy in South Asia"; London: Routledge (2014).
Kuhnle, Stein. Survival of the European Welfare State 2000 Routledge
Pierson, P. (1994). Dismantling the Welfare State?: Reagan, Thatcher and the Politics of Retrenchment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rothstein, Bo. Just institutions matter: the moral and political logic of the universal welfare state (Cambridge University Press, 1998)
Radcliff, Benjamin (2013) The Political Economy of Human Happiness (New York: Cambridge University Press).
Van Kersbergen, K. "Social Capitalism"; London: Routledge (1995).
Silvestri P., "The All too Human Welfare State. Freedom Between Gift and Corruption", Teoria e critica della regolazione sociale, 2/2019, pp. 123-145. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7413/19705476007
External links
Data and statistics
OECD
Health Policy and Data: Health Division
OECD – Social Expenditure database (SOCX)
Figures on wages and benefit systems in various OECD member states
Contains information on social security developments in various EC member states from 1957 to 1978
Contains information on social security developments in various EC member states from 1979 to 1989
Contains information on social assistance programmes in various EC member states in 1993
Contains detailed information on the welfare systems in the former Yugoslav republics
The impact of benefit and tax uprating on incomes and poverty (UK)
Capitalism
Comparative politics
Government aid programs
Social democracy
Christian democracy | [
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222847 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silvan%20Shalom | Silvan Shalom | Zion Silvan Shalom (, born 4 August 1958) is an Israeli politician who served as a member of the Knesset for Likud between 1992 and 2015. He held several prominent ministerial positions, including being Vice Prime Minister and Minister of the Interior. He resigned on 24 December 2015 following allegations of sexual harassment. Later on, the Attorney-General closed this investigation and said these claims were unsubstantiated.
Early life
Shalom was born in Gabès, Tunisia on 4 August 1958 to a family that traced its roots to the Sephardic Beit Shalom dynasty. His family moved to Israel in 1959, settling in the city of Beersheba in the Negev. On 3 November 1964, when Shalom was six years old, his father Shimon Shalom, a bank manager and a member of the Betar movement, was killed during the course of a bungled bank robbery. The murder was notoriously known as the first committed in a bank robbery in the history of the young State of Israel. At the age of 18, Shalom was inducted into the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) and rose to the rank of sergeant.
Education and early career
After completing his service in the IDF, Shalom attended Ben-Gurion University of the Negev in Beersheba, from which he received a BA in economics and earned his certification as a Certified Public Accountant. During that time, Shalom was elected as the chairman of the university's students' union and later as the vice chairman of the national students union. He then studied law and public policy at Tel Aviv University. He received an LLB and was certified as a lawyer, and a received a Master's degree in public policy.
Shalom began his career as a journalist. While working on his bachelor's degree, he wrote for Yedioth Aharonoth, a daily newspaper, in its students section. Afterwards he started working at the Rosh Berosh magazine and in the Negev's local newspaper. In 1980, he moved to Tel Aviv and started working at the now-defunct daily Hadashot. In 1984, he was appointed as its head political and economic correspondent.
Political career
In 1985, Shalom was appointed adviser to the Finance Minister, Yitzhak Moda'i, who was later appointed Justice Minister. At the age of 31, he was appointed director-general of the Energy Ministry and two years later, in 1990, he was appointed director-general of the Israel Electric Corporation.
Knesset member
In 1992, at the age of 34, Shalom was 34th on the Likud list for the 13th Knesset, but the party received only 33 seats in the elections. When former Defense Minister Moshe Arens resigned, Shalom succeeded him as an MK.
As a young MK, his first bill was in the academic field. In 1992 there was room for only 100,000 university students, with no space for more. Shalom acted to allow all students to be accepted once others left their academic institutions at the end of their first year. His bill increased awareness about the problem and, as a result, Israeli colleges were established to expand access to academic studies. In 2010, for the first time, more students were enrolled in colleges than universities.
Shalom, during his first term, was the first male MK to be a member of the Knesset's committee on the status of women. He was also the chairman of the subcommittee regarding the capital market, chairman of the subcommittee of energy and a member of the economic affairs committee.
Deputy Defense Minister
Following the 1996 election, Shalom, who won the 18th spot in the combined list of Likud and two other conservative parties, became Deputy Defense Minister, Yitzhak Mordechai. One of his biggest achievements was enabling Hareidi Jews to serve in the army, a step that they had been avoiding for decades. The Hareidi battalion, "Netzah Yehuda", was established in February 1999.
Minister of Science
After a rotation with MK Michael Eitan, Shalom, on 13 July 1998, became Minister of Science. During his year in office he created the "science flowers" project, which helped universities reach Israel's periphery and helped underprivileged students excel. Another main project Shalom was involved in was in expanding Internet and broadband access in Israel.
MK in the opposition (1999–2001)
In the 1999 election, the Likud party, headed by the widely unpopular prime minister at the time, Benjamin Netanyahu, was running against the Labor party, headed by Ehud Barak. Labor won 26 seats in the Knesset, while Likud received only 19 seats and lost the election. After Labor gained power in 1999 and following Netanyahu's resignation, Shalom became number one on the Likud list and became part of the opposition led by Ariel Sharon.
Since 2001
Shalom was the runner-up to Netanyahu for party leadership in late 2005 and was granted the second spot on the Likud list to the 2006 general election and thus did not compete in its 11 January 2006 primaries. He was placed seventh on the party's list for the 2009 elections.
In January 2010, he asked Pope Benedict XVI to open the wartime archives of the papacy of Pius XII.
As Energy Minister Shalom led an Israeli delegation to Abu Dhabi on renewable energy in January 2014. The visit was controversial, as the United Arab Emirates did not maintain diplomatic relations with Israel and no Israeli leaders had traveled there since the assassination of Mahmoud al-Mabhouh in 2010.
In May 2012, during a meeting with Likud activists in the city of Rehovot, Shalom said about the heads of Likud opposition to founding of a Palestinian state, "We are all against a Palestinian state, there is no question about it."
Following the 2015 elections Shalom was appointed Interior Minister and Vice Prime Minister.
Sexual harassment allegations
On 24 March 2014, a woman complained that Shalom had sexually harassed her at work more than 15 years before. The police investigation was closed several months later by the Attorney General, Yehuda Weinstein, since the statute of limitations had already passed. Two other former employees also accused him of touching them against their will. All three alleged he had cornered them on various occasions and tried to kiss them. One woman said she was once summoned to a Jerusalem hotel room where Shalom was staying, only to find him waiting for her on the bed, wearing nothing but a bathrobe. Another said, "He kissed me against my will, and when I tried to get away, he chased me into the bathroom." The third woman said that during one of their meetings, Shalom "told me he's had intimate thoughts about me for years and that he wanted to see me outside the office."
In the aftermath, Shalom decided not to submit his candidacy for the position of President of Israel. He had been considered a front-runner for the post before the allegation was made.
In late 2015, new allegations were made by women, triggering Shalom's announcement on 21 December that he would withdraw from public life and resign. He denied all the allegations. "For some 23 years, I have served the public with determination and faith as an MK and a minister in various offices out of a feeling I was fulfilling a mission and a desire to advance important social and public goals, but I have had enough of the torment inflicted on me and my family," Shalom said in a statement announcing his resignation. "My family supports me, but there is no justification for the price they've had to pay." He was replaced by Amir Ohana as a member of Knesset.
The Attorney General instructed the Major Crimes Unit of the Israel Police to examine the new allegations. On 30 June 2016, Attorney-General Avichai Mandelblit ended the preliminary examination of the allegations. The Justice Ministry issued a statement reading: "Some of the women could not be located, or there was no grounds to approach them due to the quality of the information concerning them; some didn't confirm the claims, and some didn't rule out the claims, but decisively refused to give testimony to the police. Regardless, in some of the cases the statute of limitations expired on the information." Only one of the accusers filed an official police report. On 3 July 2016, a group of Members of Knesset and party activists began efforts to bring Shalom back into politics.
Personal life
From 1993 to 2017 Shalom was married to Israeli talk show host Judy Shalom Nir-Mozes. The couple have five children, including two sons from Mozes previous marriage.
References
External links
1958 births
20th-century Sephardi Jews
21st-century Sephardi Jews
Living people
Ben-Gurion University of the Negev alumni
Israeli chief executives
Israeli corporate directors
Israeli people of Tunisian-Jewish descent
Jewish Israeli politicians
Likud politicians
Ministers of Finance of Israel
Ministers of Foreign Affairs of Israel
Ministers of Internal Affairs of Israel
Politicians from Beersheba
People from Gabès
Tel Aviv University alumni
Tunisian emigrants to Israel
Tunisian Jews
Members of the 13th Knesset (1992–1996)
Members of the 14th Knesset (1996–1999)
Members of the 15th Knesset (1999–2003)
Members of the 16th Knesset (2003–2006)
Members of the 17th Knesset (2006–2009)
Members of the 18th Knesset (2009–2013)
Members of the 19th Knesset (2013–2015)
Members of the 20th Knesset (2015–2019)
Deputy ministers of Israel | [
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222848 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Stuart | Henry Stuart | Henry Stuart may refer to:
Members of the Royal House of Stuart
Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley (1545–1567), King Consort of Scotland, cousin and second husband of Mary, Queen of Scots, father of James VI of Scotland
Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales (1594–1612), elder brother of Charles I of England and Prince of Wales from 1603 to 1612
Henry Benedict Stuart (1725–1807), known as Cardinal Duke of York and King Henry IX, younger brother of Bonnie Prince Charlie
Henry Stuart, Duke of Gloucester (1640–1660), Protestant younger brother of Charles II and James II of England
Others
Henry Stuart (MP) (1804–1854), English MP for Bedford
Henry Stuart (priest) (1864–1933), Anglican Dean of Carlisle
Henry Carter Stuart (1855–1933), early twentieth century governor of Virginia
Henry Stuart (actor) (1885–1942), British-Swiss film actor
Henry Stuart (Australian politician) (1853–1910), New South Wales politician
See also
Henry Stewart (disambiguation) | [
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] |
222850 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinness%20Book%20of%20Astronomy | Guinness Book of Astronomy | The Guinness Book of Astronomy is a book () by the British astronomer Patrick Moore, first published in 1979, and running to seven editions.
The first part of the book is written like a Guinness Book of Records, with paragraphs like "the most luminous star", "the farthest star", and so on. Solar System objects are explained in detail.
The second part is a detailed sky atlas for amateur astronomy observations: for each constellation, a list of bright and dim stars, deep sky and other notable objects is given to the reader. The object tables are so complete that this book alone is enough for months of observations with small telescopes.
Notes
1979 non-fiction books
Astronomy books | [
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222852 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14th%20century%20in%20literature | 14th century in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 14th century.
Events
1323 – The name Pléiade is adopted by a group of fourteen poets (seven men and seven women) in Toulouse.
1324: 3 May (Holy Cross Day) – The Consistori del Gay Saber, founded the previous year in Toulouse to revive and perpetuate the lyric poetry of the Old Occitan troubadors, holds its first contest. Arnaut Vidal de Castelnou d'Ari wins the violeta d'or (golden violet) for a sirventes in praise of the Virgin Mary. At about this date, Raimon de Cornet writes Doctrinal de trobar in support of the aims of the Gay Saber.
1327
Between 20 January and 21 September – The deposed King Edward II of England perhaps writes the "Lament of Edward II".
6 April (Good Friday) – Tuscan writer Petrarch sees a woman he names Laura in the church of Sainte-Claire d'Avignon, which awakes in him a lasting passion. He writes a series of sonnets and other poems in Italian dedicated to her up to about 1368, which are collected into Il Canzoniere, an influential model for Renaissance culture.
27 August – Death of Thomas Cobham, Bishop of Worcester in England. His books are bequeathed to the University of Oxford where they are installed in the University Church of St Mary the Virgin, forming the university's first library.
1329: February – French poet and composer Guillaume de Machaut is brought to the Siege of Medvėgalis by John of Bohemia so the king's crusading deeds can be commemorated in song and poetry.
c. 1330 – Production of the Macclesfield Psalter in East Anglia.
1331 – Production of the Nuremberg Mahzor.
1341: 8 April – Petrarch becomes poet laureate at a ceremony in Rome.
1357 – The Polychronicon concludes, Ranulf Higden having ceased work on it at least a dozen years earlier.
1360 – The future English writer Geoffrey Chaucer is captured by the French during the Reims campaign of the Hundred Years' War and ransomed by King Edward III of England.
1362: September – Petrarch's library is donated to the Republic of Venice, although subsequently dispersed.
1368
The new Hongwu Emperor in China halts government taxation on books.
The Bibliothèque nationale de France (National Library of France) is founded as the Royal Library at the Louvre Palace in Paris by Charles V of France.
1370–1398 – Approximate date of production of the earliest part of the Sankt Florian Psalter, one of the earliest surviving texts to use the Polish language.
1372 – Old Permic alphabet introduced by Stephen of Perm.
1374
23 April: English writer Geoffrey Chaucer is granted a gallon of wine a day for the rest of his life by order of King Edward III of England in recognition of his services.
Ludolph of Saxony completes his Vita Christi, which appears first in book form in 1474 and becomes an influence on St Ignatius Loyola in the early 16th century.
1377 – Production of the earliest known copy of the Laurentian Codex.
1381: 30 May–November – Peasants' Revolt in England. Preacher John Ball apparently cites the poem Piers Plowman (which is revised during this decade) and John Gower includes an account of the events in his Vox Clamantis. On 15 June, the University of Cambridge's library and archives are burnt in the centre of the town, with one Margery Starre leading the mob in a dance to the rallying cry "Away with the learning of clerks, away with it!". The events inspire the late 16th century play The Life and Death of Jack Straw, Robert Southey's dramatic poem Wat Tyler (1794), and novels such as Pierce Egan the Younger's Wat Tyler (1841), William Harrison Ainsworth's Merry England (1874) and William Morris's A Dream of John Ball (1886).
1382 – Earliest recorded appearance of Wycliffe's Bible.
1384 – Henry of Langenstein writes his letter, De scismate, to Echard von Dersch, Bishop of Worms.
1386: October – Geoffrey Chaucer is obliged to give up most of his official offices in London and retires to Kent where he may work on The Canterbury Tales.
1388 – Revision of Wycliffe's Bible is completed by John Purvey, and Wyclif's followers, known as Lollards, begin to be persecuted in England.
1390–1 – Production of the Book of Ballymote in Ireland.
1390s – Production of the Yellow Book of Lecan in Ireland.
1397 – Production of the Kiev Psalter in Kiev Rus.
1398 – The early 13th century carved wooden text of the Tripitaka Koreana is moved to the Haeinsa Buddhist temple in modern-day South Korea, where it will remain into the 21st century.
unknown dates
The prose original of the Amadis de Gaula is produced (or perhaps translated into Old Spanish from an earlier 14th-century version), perhaps by the knight Vasco de Lobeira or the troubador João de Lobeira.
Madhava Kandali produces the Saptakanda Ramayana (a retelling of the Ramayana), one of the earliest written examples of the Assamese language and the first translation from Sanskrit into one of the modern regional Indo-Aryan languages.
New works
c. 1300
Anonymous – Gesta Romanorum
Taliesin – Book of Taliesin, Middle Welsh. Taliesin (c. 534 – c. 599) is a Brythonic bard of Sub-Roman Britain believed to have sung at the courts of at least three Celtic British kings.
Marguerite Porete – The Mirror of Simple Souls
Rustichello da Pisa – The Travels of Marco Polo
c. 1300–10
Gona Budda Reddy – Ranganatha ramayan (శ్రీ రంగనాథ రామాయణం) (Telugu language)
Early to mid-14th century
Shihāb al-Dīn Ahmad bin 'Abd al-Wahhāb al-Nuwayri – The Ultimate Ambition in the Arts of Erudition (encyclopedia of Muslim knowledge)
Anonymous Middle English writer from southern England (possible author of all following)
King Alisaunder
Of Arthour and of Merlin
Richard Coer de Lyon
The Seven Sages of Rome
Pseudo-Bonaventure – Meditations on the Life of Christ
Der Busant
Long Life of Saint Gerard (Legenda maior S. Gerardi, compiled)
1307
John of Gaddesden – Rosa Medicinæ
c. 1308–21
Dante Alighieri – Divine Comedy (Comedia)
c. 1309–24
Speculum Humanae Salvationis
The Book of Dede Korkut
1310
Amir Khusrow – Khazain-ul-Futuh
1310–1320
Queen Mary Psalter
1312
Jacques de Longuyon – Les Voeux du paon (The Vows of the Peacock)
1315–16
Amir Khusrow – Duval Rani–Khizr Khan (Romance of Duval Rani and Khizr Khan; masnavi)
c. 1315–25
Rochefoucauld Grail
1316–18
Amir Khusrow – Noh-Sepehr (Nine Skies; masnavi)
1318
Arnaut Vidal de Castelnou d'Ari – Guilhem de la Barra
c. 1320–35
Erikskrönikan
c. 1320–30
Jacob of Liège – Speculum musicae
1320
Dante Alighieri – Quaestio de Aqua et Terra
Amir Khusrow – Tughluq Nama (Book of the Tughluqs; prose)
1320–23
William of Pagula – Oculus Sacerdotis (Priest's Eye, a manual for priests)
c. 1321
Liber Legum Regum Antiquorum (attributed to Andrew Horn)
c. 1321–23
Sānguózhì Pínghuà (三國志平話, "Story of Records of the Three Kingdoms")
1326
Ibn Abi Zar – Rawd al-Qirtas
1328
Ramon Muntaner - Chronicle (Crònica), the longest of The Four Great Catalan Chronicles
c. 1329–32
Yoshida Kenkō (吉田 兼好) – Tsurezuregusa (Essays in Idleness)
1330
Robert of Basevorn – The Form of Preaching (date of first known MS)
'Michael' – Kildare Poems (MS of about this date)
c. 1330–40
Perceforest
1330–43
Juan Ruiz, Archpriest of Hita – The Book of Good Love (El Libro de Buen Amor)
c. 1330–1400
Luo Guanzhong (attributed) – Romance of the Three Kingdoms (三國演義)
1335
Matthew Blastares (compiler) – Syntagma Canonum
Lê Tắc – An Nam chí lược (安南志略)
Don Juan Manuel – Tales of Count Lucanor
1335–40
Giovanni Boccaccio – Il Filostrato
1338–14 (first published 1396–1397)
Petrarch – Africa
1340
Michael of Northgate (translator) – Ayenbite of Inwyt
c. 1340
Anonymous - The Ointment Seller
c. 1340–41
Giovanni Boccaccio – Teseida
c. 1340–1349
Dafydd ap Gwilym – The Girls of Llanbadarn and The Seagull
1345
Richard de Bury – The Philobiblon
1346
Toqto'a (Yuan Dynasty) (editor) – History of Song (宋史, Sòng Shǐ)
c. 1350
Baudouin de Sebourc (probably from Hainaut)
Prick of Conscience (Yorkshire)
White Book of Rhydderch
The Tale of Gamelyn (anonymous)
c. 1352
Bahubali Pandita of Sringeri – Dharmanathapuranam
Wynnere and Wastoure (anonymous)
1353
Giovanni Boccaccio – The Decameron
c. 1355
Giovanni Boccaccio – Corbaccio
c. 1360–84
John of Fordun – Chronica Gentis Scotorum
1365
Mpu Prapanca – Nagarakretagama
c. 1367
William Langland (presumed author) – Piers Plowman (earliest likely date)
1369
Geoffrey Chaucer – The Book of the Duchess
1370
Bureau of History of the Ming dynasty, under direction of Song Lian – History of Yuan (元史, Yuán Shǐ)
1371
The Travels of Sir John Mandeville (anonymous)
Geoffroy IV de la Tour Landry – The Book of the Knight of the Tower
Kakuichi (compiler) – The Tale of the Heike (平家物語, Heike Monogatari)
Ibn Marzuq – The Correct and Fine Traditions About the Glorious Deeds of our Master Abu 'l-Hasan (Musnad as-sahid al-hasan fi maʿathir mawlana Abi 'l Hasan)
c. 1374
Beatrijs
1375
John Barbour – The Brus
1376
John Wycliffe – De civili dominio (On Civil Dominion)
1377
Ibn Khaldun – Muqaddimah (Prolegomena)
1378
Qu You – Jiandeng Xinhua (剪灯新话, "New stories told while trimming the wick")
1381
Amarkosh (अमरकोश, Sanskrit-Nepal Bhasa dictionary)
1382
Jacobus de Teramo – Consolatio peccatorum, seu Processus Luciferi contra Jesum Christum
Red Book of Hergest (soon after this date)
c. 1383
Sofonii of Razan – Zadonshchina
1384
Terç del Crestià, volume 3 of Lo Crestià
Late 1380s
Walter Hilton – The Scale of Perfection
1387
John Trevisa – translation of Ranulf Higden's Polychronicon, including "Dialogue on Translation Between a Lord and a Clerk"
1389
Gopalraj Vamshavali (गोपालराज वंशावली, a history of Nepal)
c. 1390
Anonymous – The Forme of Cury (earliest cookbook in the English language)
1390
John Gower – Confessio Amantis
1390s
Geoffrey Chaucer – The Canterbury Tales
1395
Lady Julian of Norwich – Revelations of Divine Love, first published book in English language to be written by a woman.
Mangaraja II – Mangaraja Nighantu (lexicon, 1398)
'Pearl Poet'
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
Pearl
Cleanness
Patience
Sayana – commentary on the Vedas.
Ipomadon (Middle English tail-rhyme verse version; earliest likely date)
South English Legendary
Völsunga saga (approximate date of written version)
Water Margin (水浒传, Shui Hu Zhuan; approximate date of earliest components known)
c. 1399
Bernat Metge - The Dream (Lo Somni), first humanist work in Catalan.
Christine de Pizan
Cent Ballades d'Amant et de Dame, Virelyas, Rondeaux
L'Épistre au Dieu d'amours
L'Épistre de Othéa a Hector
Unknown
Egils saga einhenda ok Ásmundar berserkjabana
Epic of Sundiata
Grettis saga (approximate date)
Kavi Malla – Manmathavijaya
Peterborough Psalter
Drama
Li Qianfu – Circle of Chalk ()
c. 1350 – Misteri d'Elx (Valencian)
1358–76 – Katherine of Sutton (adaptations) – Depositio, Descensus Christi, Elevatio and Visitatio
Late 14th century – Ordinalia (Middle Cornish)
Births
1303 – Bridget of Sweden (Birgitta Birgersdotter), Swedish mystic, writer and saint (died 1373)
1304 – Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca) Tuscan poet (died 1374)
1313 – Giovanni Boccaccio, Italian writer (died 1375)
c. 1315 or 1317 – Hafez, Persian poet (died 1390)
1320 – Lalleshwari, Kashmiri Hindu poet (died 1392)
1332: 27 May – Ibn Khaldun, North African historiographer and philosopher (died 1406)
c. 1332 – Catherine of Vadstena, Swedish mystic, writer and saint (died 1381)
1333 – Kan'ami (Kan'ami Kiyotsugu (観阿弥 清次), Japanese Noh actor (died 1384)
c. 1340–45 – Walter Hilton, English mystic writing in Latin and English (died 1396)
c. November 1342 – Julian of Norwich, English religious writer and mystic (died c. 1416)
1343 – Geoffrey Chaucer, English poet (died 1400)
1347 – Catherine of Siena, Italian theologian and saint (died 1380)
1348 – Jan of Jenštejn, Archbishop of Prague, writer, composer and poet (died 1400)
c. 1363 – Zeami Motokiyo (世阿弥 元清), Japanese Noh actor and playwright (died c. 1443)
1364 – Christine de Pizan, Venetian-born Middle French court poet and writer (died c. 1430)
c. 1368 – Thomas Hoccleve, English poet and clerk (died 1426)
c. 1373 – Margery Kempe, English mystic and autobiographer (died c. 1440)
1378 – Zhu Quan (朱權), Prince of Ning, Chinese military commander, feudal lord, historian and playwright (died 1448)
1384 – Enrique de Villena, Spanish writer, theologian and poet (died 1434)
1393 – John Capgrave, English historian and scholastic theologian (died 1464)
1398 – Íñigo López de Mendoza, 1st Marquis of Santillana, Castilian politician and poet (died 1458)
Deaths
After 1306 – Adam de la Halle, French trouvère poet (born c. 1237)
1308 – Duns Scotus, Scottish philosopher and theologian (born c. 1266)
1309 – Angela of Foligno, Italian mystic and saint (born 1248)
1310: 1 June – Marguerite Porete, French mystic (burnt as heretic, year of birth unknown)
1315: 10 March – Agnes Blannbekin, Austrian Beguine and Christian mystic (born c. 1244)
c. 1315 – Ramon Llull, Majorcan polymath and novelist in Catalan (born c. 1232)
1321: 14 September – Dante Alighieri, Italian poet (born c. 1265)
1325:
7 January – King Denis of Portugal, poet
October – Amir Khusrow, Sufi poet
1345: 14 April – Richard de Bury, English bishop and bibliophile (born 1287)
1349: September – Richard Rolle, English hermit, mystic and religious writer (probably born between 1390 and 1400)
c. 1350 – Yoshida Kenkō (吉田 兼好), Japanese author and Buddhist monk (probably born 1283)
1364: 12 March – Ranulf Higden, English chronicler
1373: 23 July – Bridget of Sweden (Birgitta Birgersdotter), Swedish mystic, writer and saint
1374: 19 July – Petrarch, Italian poet
1375: 21 December – Giovanni Boccaccio, Italian poet
1377: April – Guillaume de Machaut, French poet and composer
1380:
29 April – Catherine of Siena, Italian theologian and saint
2 December – John of Ruysbroeck (Jan van Ruysbroeck), Flemish mystic (born 1293 or 1294)
1381: 24 March – Catherine of Vadstena, Swedish mystic, writer and saint
1384:
8 June – Kan'ami (Kan'ami Kiyotsugu, 観阿弥 清次), Japanese Noh playwright and actor (born 1333);
December – John Wycliffe, philosopher, translator and theologian (born c.1320);
Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani, Persian Sūfī, poet scholar.
1392 – Lalleshwari, Kashmiri Shaivite poet and mystic
1395: 13 March – John Barbour, Scottish poet
1396: 24 March – Walter Hilton, English Augustinian mystic writing in Latin and English (born c. 1340–45)
1400: 25 October – Geoffrey Chaucer, English poet (born c. 1343)
See also
14th century in poetry
13th century in literature
15th century in literature
List of years in literature
References
Medieval literature
Renaissance literature
History of literature
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] |
222856 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMC | GMC | GMC may refer to:
Government
India
Gandhinagar Municipal Corporation, in Gujarat
Gobichettipalayam Municipal Corporation, in Tamil Nadu
Guntur Municipal Corporation, in Andhra Pradesh
Guwahati Municipal Corporation, in Assam
Gwalior Municipal Corporation, in Madhya Pradesh
United Kingdom
General Medical Council
Greater Manchester Council, a former local authority
NHS Genomic Medicine Centres
Schools
India
Gandhi Medical College, in Hyderabad
Gandhi Medical College, Bhopal
Goa Medical College
Government Medical College (disambiguation)
Grant Medical College, in Mumbai
Guntur Medical College
Other places
Gomal Medical College, of Khyber Medical University in Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan
Gujranwala Medical College, Pakistan
Greenwich Maritime Centre of the University of Greenwich, United Kingdom
Georgia Military College, in Milledgeville, Georgia, United States
Green Mountain College, in Poultney, Vermont, United States
Science and technology
Geiger–Müller counter
Genetically modified crops
Ganglion mother cell
Generalized Method of Cells
Giant molecular cloud
Global motion compensation
Gun Motor Carriage, a collective term for American World War II tank destroyers
Gold Master Candidate, a candidate for a final version of software ready for release to manufacturing.
Companies
GMC (automobile), including a list of GMC vehicles
General Motors company
General Motors Canada, the Canadian subsidiary of General Motors
GMC TV, now Up TV, an American television network
A bicycle manufactured by Kent International
Other uses
GMC Athletic Stadium, Bambolim, Goa, India
G. M. C. Balayogi (1951–2002), Indian lawyer and politician
Gambia Moral Congress, a political party
Germanic languages
Global Management Challenge, a competition for university students
Global Movement for Children
Gray Matters Capital, an American impact investing foundation
Great Midwest Conference, a former NCAA athletic conference
Greater Manchester Challenge, a yacht
Green Mountain Club, an American hiking organization
Gwinnett Medical Center, in Georgia, United States
Guangmingcheng railway station, China Railway pinyin code GMC
A variant of the Martin MB-1 bomber
See also | [
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222857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonnell%20F-101%20Voodoo | McDonnell F-101 Voodoo | The McDonnell F-101 Voodoo is a supersonic jet fighter which served the United States Air Force (USAF) and the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF).
Initially designed by McDonnell Aircraft Corporation as a long-range bomber escort (known as a penetration fighter) for the USAF's Strategic Air Command (SAC), the Voodoo was instead developed as a nuclear-armed fighter-bomber for the USAF's Tactical Air Command (TAC), and as a photo reconnaissance aircraft based on the same airframe. An F-101A set a number of world speed records for jet-powered aircraft, including fastest airspeed, attaining per hour on 12 December 1957. They operated in the reconnaissance role until 1979.
Delays in the 1954 interceptor project led to demands for an interim interceptor aircraft design, a role that was eventually won by the B model of the Voodoo. This required extensive modifications to add a large radar to the nose of the aircraft, a second crew member to operate it, and a new weapons bay using a rotating door that kept its four AIM-4 Falcon missiles or two AIR-2 Genie rockets hidden within the airframe until it was time to be fired. The F-101B entered service with USAF Air Defense Command in 1959 and the Royal Canadian Air Force in 1961. US examples were handed off to the USAF Air National Guard where they served until 1982. Canadian examples remained in service until 1984.
Design and development
Background
The Voodoo's career as a fighter-bomber was relatively brief, but the reconnaissance versions served for some time. Along with the US Air Force's Lockheed U-2 and US Navy's Vought RF-8 Crusaders, the RF-101 reconnaissance variant of the Voodoo was instrumental during the Cuban Missile Crisis and saw extensive service during the Vietnam War. Interceptor versions served with the Air National Guard until 1982, and in Canadian service, they were a front line part of NORAD until their replacement with the CF-18 Hornet in the 1980s.
While the Voodoo was a moderate success, it may have been more important as an evolutionary step towards its replacement in most roles, the F-4 Phantom II, one of the most successful Western fighter designs of the 1950s. The Phantom would retain the twin engines, twin crew for interception duties, and a tail mounted well above and behind the jet exhaust but was an evolution of the F3H Demon while the Voodoo was developed from the earlier XF-88 Voodoo.
Initial design
Initial design on what would eventually become the Voodoo began just after World War II in response to a USAAF Penetration Fighter Competition in 1946. This called for a long-range, high-performance fighter to escort a new generation of bombers, much as the North American P-51 Mustang had escorted the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses and Consolidated B-24 Liberators in World War II. Several companies responded with designs, and the Air Force provided funds for several of them to produce prototypes.
After being awarded a contract (AC-14582) on 14 February 1947, McDonnell built two prototypes, designated the XF-88 Voodoo. The first prototype (serial number 46-6525), powered by two 3,000 lbf (13.3 kN) Westinghouse XJ34-WE-13 turbojets, flew from Muroc on 20 October 1948. Preliminary testing revealed that while handling and range was adequate, the top speed was a disappointing 641 mph (1,032 km/h) at sea level. After fitting McDonnell-designed afterburners to the second prototype, thrust was increased to 3,600 lbf (16.1 kN) with corresponding performance increases in top speed, initial rate of climb and reduced takeoff distance. Fuel consumption was greatly increased by use of the afterburners, however, reducing the range.
Although the XF-88 won the "fly-off" competition against the competing Lockheed XF-90 and North American YF-93, the detonation of the first nuclear weapon by the Soviet Union resulted in the USAF (created in 1947) re-evaluating its fighter needs, with interceptors being more important and bomber escorts being of reduced priority, and it terminated the Penetration Fighter program in 1950. Analysis of Korean War missions, however, revealed that contemporary USAF strategic bombers were vulnerable to fighter interception. In 1951, the USAF issued a new requirement for a bomber escort with all major US manufacturers submitting designs. The McDonnell design was a larger and higher-powered version of the XF-88 and won the bid in May 1951. The F-88 was redesignated the F-101 Voodoo in November 1951.
Design changes for new engines
The new design was considerably larger, carrying three times the initial fuel load and designed around larger, more powerful Pratt & Whitney J57 turbojets. The greater dimensions of the J57 engines required modifications to the engine bays, and modification to the intakes to allow a larger amount of airflow to the engine. The new intakes were also designed to be more efficient at higher Mach numbers. In order to increase aerodynamic efficiency, reduce structural weight and alleviate pitch-up phenomena recently identified in-flight testing of the Douglas D-558-2 Skyrocket, an aircraft with a control surface configuration similar to the XF-88, the horizontal tail was relocated to the top of the vertical stabilizer, giving the F-101 its signature "T-tail". In late 1952, the mission of the F-101 was changed from "penetration fighter" to "strategic fighter", which entailed equal emphasis on both the bomber escort mission and on nuclear weapons delivery. The new Voodoo mock-up with the reconfigured inlets, tail surfaces, landing gear, and dummy nuclear weapon was inspected by Air Force officials in March 1953. The design was approved, and an initial order for 29 F-101As was placed on 28 May 1953, no prototypes being required as the F-101 was considered a simple development of the XF-88, with the Cook-Cragie production policy, in which initial low-rate production would be used for testing without the use of separate prototypes, chosen instead.
First production
F-101A serial number 53-2418 was the first production aircraft; its maiden flight was on 29 September 1954 at Edwards AFB where it reached at . This aircraft, which is privately owned, has been moved to the Evergreen Maintenance Center in Marana, Arizona, restored, and now on display at the Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum in McMinnville, Oregon. It was previously on display at the Pueblo Weisbrod Aircraft Museum.
The end of the war in Korea and the development of the jet-powered Boeing B-52 Stratofortress negated the need for fighter escort and Strategic Air Command withdrew from the program.
Despite SAC's loss of interest, the aircraft attracted the attention of Tactical Air Command (TAC), and the F-101 was reconfigured as a fighter bomber, intended to carry a single nuclear weapon for use against tactical targets such as airfields. With the support of TAC, testing was resumed, with Category II flight tests beginning in early 1955. A number of problems were identified during development, with many of these fixed. The aircraft had a dangerous tendency toward severe pitch-up at high angle of attack that was never entirely solved. Around 2,300 improvements were made to the aircraft in 1955–56 before full production was resumed in November 1956.
Operational history
F-101A / RF-101G
The first F-101A was delivered on 2 May 1957 to the 27th Strategic Fighter Wing, which transferred to TAC in July that year, replacing their F-84F Thunderstreak. The F-101A was powered by two Pratt & Whitney J57-P-13 turbojets, allowing good acceleration, climb-performance, ease in penetrating the sound barrier in level flight, and a maximum performance of Mach 1.52. The F-101's large internal fuel capacity allowed a range of approximately nonstop. The aircraft was fitted with an MA-7 fire-control radar for both air-to-air and air-to-ground use, augmented by a Low Altitude Bombing System (LABS) for delivering nuclear weapons, and was designed to carry a Mk 28 nuclear bomb. The original intended payload for the F-101A was the McDonnell Model 96 store, a large fuel/weapons pod similar in concept to that of the Convair B-58 Hustler, but was cancelled in March 1956 before the F-101 entered service. Other operational nuclear payloads included the Mk 7, Mk 43, and Mk 57 weapons. While theoretically capable of carrying conventional bombs, rockets, or Falcon air-to-air missiles, the Voodoo never used such weapons operationally. It was fitted with four 20mm M39 cannon, with one cannon often removed in service to make room for a TACAN beacon-receiver.
The F-101 set a number of speed records, including: a JF-101A (the ninth F-101A modified as a testbed for the more powerful J-57-P-53 engines of the F-101B) setting a world speed record of 1,207.6 mph (1,943.4 km/h) on 12 December 1957 during "Operation Firewall", beating the previous record of 1,132 mph (1,811 km/h) set by the Fairey Delta 2 in March the previous year. The record was then subsequently taken in May 1958 by a Lockheed F-104 Starfighter. On 27 November 1957, during "Operation Sun Run," an RF-101C set the Los Angeles-New York City-Los Angeles record in 6 hours 46 minutes, the New York to Los Angeles record in 3 hours, 36 minutes, and the Los Angeles to New York record in 3 hours 7 minutes.
A total of 77 F-101As were built. They were gradually withdrawn from service starting in 1966. Twenty-nine survivors were converted to RF-101G specifications with a modified nose, housing reconnaissance cameras in place of cannons and radar. These served with the Air National Guard through 1972.
RF-101A
In October 1953, the USAF requested that two F-101As be built as prototype YRF-101A tactical reconnaissance aircraft. These were followed by 35 RF-101A production aircraft. The RF-101A shared the airframe of the F-101A, including its 6.33 g (62 m/s²) limit, but replaced the radar and cannons with up to six cameras in the reshaped nose. Like all other models of the F-101, it had provision for both flying boom and probe-and-drogue in-flight refueling capability, as well as for a buddy tank that allowed it to refuel other aircraft. It entered service in May 1957, replacing the RB-57 Canberra.
USAF RF-101As from the 363d Tactical Reconnaissance Wing at Shaw AFB, SC flew reconnaissance sorties over Cuba during the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962.
In October 1959, eight RF-101As were transferred to Taiwan, which used them for overflights of the Chinese mainland. These ROCAF RF-101A were modified with the C-model vertical fins and air intake. The intake is used to cool the drag chute compartment and eliminates the 5-minute limit on using the afterburners on the A model. Two were reportedly shot down.
F-101B / CF-101B / EF-101B
In the late 1940s, the Air Force had started a research project into the future interceptor aircraft that eventually settled on an advanced specification known as the 1954 interceptor. Contracts for this specification eventually resulted in the selection of the F-102 Delta Dagger, but by 1952 it was becoming clear that none of the parts of the specification other than the airframe would be ready by 1954; the engines, weapons, and fire control systems were all going to take too long to get into service. An effort was then started to quickly produce an interim supersonic design to replace the various subsonic interceptors then in service, and the F-101 airframe was selected as a starting point.
Although McDonnell proposed the designation F-109 for the new aircraft (which was to be a substantial departure from the basic Voodoo), the USAF assigned the designation F-101B. It was first deployed into service on 5 January 1959, with the 60th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron. The production ended in March 1961. The Voodoo featured a modified cockpit to carry a crew of two, with a larger and more rounded forward fuselage to hold the Hughes MG-13 fire control radar of the F-102. It had a data link to the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) system, allowing ground controllers to steer the aircraft towards its targets by making adjustments through the plane's autopilot. The F-101B had more powerful Pratt & Whitney J57-P-55 engines, making it the only Voodoo not using the −13 engines. The new engines featured a substantially longer afterburner than J57-P-13s. To avoid a major redesign, the extended afterburners were simply allowed to extend out of the fuselage by almost 8 ft (2.4 m). The more powerful engines and aerodynamic refinements allowed an increased speed of Mach 1.85.
The F-101B was stripped of the four M39 cannons and carried four AIM-4 Falcon air-to-air missiles instead, arranged two apiece on a rotating pallet in the fuselage weapons bay. The initial load was two GAR-1 (AIM-4A) semi-active radar homing and two GAR-2 (AIM-4B) infrared-guided weapons with one of each carried on each side of the rotating pallet. After the first two missiles were fired, the door turned over to expose the second pair. Standard practice was to fire the weapons in SARH/IR pairs to increase the likelihood of a hit. Late-production models had provision for two 1.7-kiloton MB-1/AIR-2 Genie nuclear rockets on one side of the pallet with IR-guided GAR-2A (AIM-4C) on the other side. "Project Kitty Car" upgraded most earlier F-101Bs to this standard beginning in 1961.
From 1963–66, F-101Bs were upgraded under the Interceptor Improvement Program (IIP; also known as "Project Bold Journey"), with a fire control system enhancement against hostile ECM and an infrared sighting and tracking (IRST) system in the nose in place of the in-flight refueling probe.
The F-101B was made in greater numbers than the F-101A and C, with a total of 479 being delivered by the end of production in 1961. Most of these were delivered to the Air Defense Command (ADC) beginning in January 1959. The only foreign customer for the F-101B was Canada. For more details on the history of the Voodoo in Canada, see McDonnell CF-101 Voodoo.
The F-101B was withdrawn from ADC service from 1969 to 1972, with many surviving USAF aircraft transferred to the Air National Guard (replacing F-102s), serving until 1982. The last Voodoo in US service (F-101B-105-MC, AF Ser. No. 58-300) was finally retired by the 2nd Fighter Weapons Squadron at Tyndall AFB, Florida on 21 September 1982.
F-101C / RF-101H
The F-101A fighter-bomber had been accepted into Tactical Air Command (TAC) service despite a number of problems. Among others, its airframe had proven to be capable of withstanding only 6.33 g (62 m/s²) maneuvers, rather than the intended 7.33 g (72 m/s²). An improved model, the F-101C, was introduced in 1957. It had a 500 lb (227 kg) heavier structure to allow 7.33-g maneuvers as well as a revised fuel system to increase the maximum flight time in afterburner. Like the F-101A it was also fitted with an underfuselage pylon for carrying nuclear weapons, as well as two hardpoints for drop tanks. A total of 47 were produced.
Originally serving with the 27th Tactical Fighter Wing at Bergstrom AFB, Texas, the aircraft was transferred in 1958 from TAC to the 81st Tactical Fighter Wing, part of United States Air Forces in Europe (USAFE) which operated three squadrons from the twin RAF air stations Bentwaters & Woodbridge. The 78th Tactical Fighter Squadron was stationed at Woodbridge, while the 91st and 92nd were stationed at Bentwaters. The 81st TFW served as a strategic nuclear deterrent force, the Voodoo's long-range putting almost all of the Warsaw Pact countries, and targets up to deep into the Soviet Union within reach.
Both the A and C model aircraft were assigned to the 81st TFW and were used interchangeably within the three squadrons. Operational F-101A/C were upgraded in service with Low Angle Drogued Delivery (LADD) and Low Altitude Bombing System (LABS) equipment for its primary mission of delivering nuclear weapons at extremely low altitudes. Pilots were trained for high speed, low-level missions into Soviet or Eastern Bloc territory, with primary targets being airfields. These missions were expected to be one-way, with the pilots having to eject behind Soviet lines.
The F-101C never saw combat and was replaced in 1966 with the F-4C Phantom II. Thirty-two aircraft were later converted for unarmed reconnaissance use with the RF-101H designation. They served with Air National Guard units until 1972.
RF-101C
Using the reinforced airframe of the F-101C, the RF-101C first flew on 12 July 1957, entering service in 1958. Like the RF-101A, the RF-101C had up to six cameras in place of radar and cannons in the reshaped nose and retained the bombing ability of the fighter-bomber versions. 166 RF-101Cs were built, including 96 originally scheduled to be F-101C fighter-bombers.
The 1964 Project "Toy Tiger" fitted some RF-101C with a new camera package and a centerline pod for photo-flash cartridges. Some were further upgraded under the Mod 1181 program with automatic control for the cameras.
The RF-101C saw service during the Cuban Missile Crisis and soon followed the North American F-100 Super Sabres in October 1961, into combat when RF-101s from the 67th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing deployed to Vietnam. The RF-101C was deployed operationally during the Vietnam War, sustaining losses with the first F-101 being lost in November 1964 to ground fire. From 1965 through November 1970, its role was gradually taken over by the RF-4C Phantom II. In some 35,000 sorties, 39 aircraft were lost, 33 in combat, including five to SAMs, one to an airfield attack, and one in air combat to a MiG-21 in September 1967. The RF-101C's speed made it largely immune to MiG interception. 27 of the combat losses occurred on reconnaissance missions over North Vietnam. In April 1967, ALQ-71 ECM pods were fitted to provide some protection against SAMs. Although the Voodoo was again able to operate at medium altitudes, the added drag and weight decreased the speed enough to make RF-101 vulnerable to the maneuverable (and cannon-equipped) MiGs and thus requiring fighter escort.
On 27 November 1957 during Operation Sun Run, an RF-101C piloted by then-Captain Robert Sweet set the Los Angeles-New York City-Los Angeles record in 6 hours 46 minutes, and New York to Los Angeles record in 3 hours, 36 minutes. Another RF-101C, piloted by then-Lieutenant Gustav Klatt, set a Los Angeles to New York record of 3 hours 7 minutes.
After withdrawal from Vietnam, the RF-101C continued to serve with USAF units through 1979.
In service, the RF-101C was nicknamed the "Long Bird"; it was the only version of the Voodoo to see combat.
TF-101B / F-101F / CF-101F
Some of the F-101Bs were completed as dual-control operational trainer aircraft initially dubbed TF-101B, but later redesignated F-101F. Seventy-nine new-build F-101Fs were manufactured, and 152 more existing aircraft were later modified with dual controls. Ten of these were supplied to Canada under the designation CF-101F. These were later replaced with 10 updated aircraft in 1971.
RF-101B
In the early 1970s, a batch of 22 former Royal Canadian CF-101Bs was returned to the US Air Force and converted to RF-101B reconnaissance aircraft with their radar and weapons bay replaced with a set of three KS-87B cameras and two AXQ-2 TV cameras. An in-flight refueling boom receptacle was also fitted. These aircraft served with the 192d Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron of the Nevada Air National Guard through 1975. They were expensive to operate and maintain and had a short service life.
Variants
Section source: Angelucci and Bowers 1987, pp. 309–10
F-101A initial production fighter bomber, 77 produced
NF-101A one F-101A used by General Electric for testing of the General Electric J79 engine
YRF-101A two F-101As built as prototype reconnaissance models
RF-101A first reconnaissance version, 35 built
F-101B two-seat interceptor, the most numerous version with 479 built (including CF-101B)
CF-101B 112 F-101Bs transferred to Royal Canadian Air Force
RF-101B 22 former RCAF CF-101Bs modified for reconnaissance use
TF-101B dual-control trainer version of F-101B, redesignated F-101F, 79 built
EF-101B single F-101B converted for use as a radar target and leased to Canada
NF-101B F-101B prototype based on the F-101A airframe; the second prototype was built with a different nose
F-101C improved fighter-bomber, 47 built
RF-101C reconnaissance version of F-101C airframe, 166 built
F-101D proposed version with General Electric J79 engines, not built
F-101E another J79 proposal, not built
F-101F dual-control trainer version of F-101B; 79 re-designated TF-101Bs plus 152 converted F-101Bs
CF-101F Canadian designation for 20 TF-101B/F-101F dual-control aircraft
TF-101F 24 dual-control versions of F-101B, re-designated F-101F (these are included in the -F total)
RF-101G 29 F-101As converted for ANG reconnaissance
RF-101H 32 F-101Cs converted for reconnaissance use
Operators
Royal Canadian Air Force
Canadian Forces
Republic of China Air Force
United States Air Force
Colorado State University
Aircraft on display
Following the type's retirement, a large number of F-101s are preserved in museums or on display as gate guards.
Specifications (F-101B)
Aircraft type badges
All models of the aircraft were known by the nickname "One-oh-Wonder" and this was reflected on the aircraft type patches worn by crews.
See also
References
Notes
Bibliography
Angelucci, Enzo, and Peter M. Bowers. The American Fighter. Sparkford, Somerset, UK: Haynes Publishing Group, 1987. .
Characteristics Summary, F-101B, dated 16 August 1960.
Donald, David, ed. Century Jets: USAF Frontline Fighters of the Cold War. Norwalk, CT; AirTime Publishing, 2003. .
Dorr, Robert F. "McDonnell F-88/F-101 Variant Briefing". Wings of Fame, Volume 1. London: Aerospace Publishing, 1995. .
Dorr, Robert F., and David Donald. Fighters of the United States Air Force. London: Temple Press/Aerospace, 1990. .
Francillon, René J. McDonnell Douglas Aircraft since 1920 (Vol. II). London: Putnam, 1990. (2nd ed.) .
Francillon, PhD., René J. "It's Witchcraft: McDonnell's F-101 Voodoo". Airpower, Vol. 10, no. 3, May 1980.
Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. The Great Book of Fighters. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing, 2001. .
Greenhalgh, William. The Air Force in Southeast Asia The RF-101 Voodoo 1961-1970. Office of Air Force History. 1979. .
Gunston, Bill. Fighters of the Fifties. Cambridge, UK: Patrick Stephens, 1981. .
Hansen, Chuck. U.S. Nuclear Weapons. Arlington, Texas: Aerofax, 1988. .
Hobson, Chris. Vietnam Air Losses: United States Air Force, Navy and Marine Corps Fixed-Wing Aircraft Losses in Southeast Asia, 1961–73. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2002. .
Jenkins, Dennis R., and Tony R. Landis. Experimental & Prototype U.S. Air Force Jet Fighters. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2008. .
Jones, Lloyd S. U.S. Fighters: Army Air-Force 1925 to 1980s. Fallbrook, California: Aero Publishers, 1975. .
Keaveney, Kevin. McDonnell F-101B/F. (Aerofax Minigraph 5). Arlington, Texas: Aerofax, 1984 .
Kinsey, Bert. F-101 Voodoo (Detail and Scale; vol. 21). Blue Ridge Summit, Pennsylvania: Tab Books, 1986. .
Knaack, Marcelle Size. Encyclopedia of US Air Force Aircraft and Missile Systems: Volume 1 Post-World War II Fighters 1945–1973. Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1978. .
Peacock, Lindsay. "The One-O-Wonder". Air International, Volume 29, No. 2, August 1985, pp. 75–81, 93–95. ISSN 0306-5634.
Taylor, Michael J. H., ed. "The McDonnell Voodoo". Jane's American Fighting Aircraft of the 20th Century. New York: Modern Publishing, 1995. .
United States Air Force Museum Guidebook. Wright-Patterson AFC, Ohio: Air Force Association, 1975 edition.
External links
McDonnell F-101 Voodoo articles and publications
Baugher's F-101 Voodoo Aircraft
USAF National Museum site: XF-88 page
F-101A/C fact sheet
F-101B & F-101B fact sheet
RF-101A/C fact sheet
McDonnell F-101 "Voodoo" history & information
F-101 Voodoo Survivors List of static displays, location, serial numbers, and links.
(1971) T.O. 1F-101(R)G-1 Flight Manual USAF Series RF-101G and RF-101H Aircraft (Part 1),(Part 2)
F-101
1950s United States fighter aircraft
Twinjets
T-tail aircraft
Mid-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1954
Second-generation jet fighters | [
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222858 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial%20cryptography | Financial cryptography | Financial cryptography is the use of cryptography in applications in which financial loss could result from subversion of the message system. Financial cryptography is distinguished from traditional cryptography in that for most of recorded history, cryptography has been used almost entirely for military and diplomatic purposes.
Financial cryptography includes the mechanisms and algorithms necessary for the protection of financial transfers, in addition to the creation of new forms of money. Proof of work and various auction protocols fall under the umbrella of Financial cryptography. Hashcash is being used to limit spam.
Financial cryptography has been seen to have a very broad scope of application. Ian Grigg sees financial cryptography in seven layers, being the combination of seven distinct disciplines: cryptography, software engineering, rights, accounting, governance, value, and financial applications. Business failures can often be traced to the absence of one or more of these disciplines, or to poor application of them. This views Financial cryptography as an appropriately cross-discipline subject. Indeed, inevitably so, given that finance and cryptography are each built upon multiple disciplines.
History
Cryptographers think the field originated from the work of Dr David Chaum who invented the blind signature. The blind signature is a special form of a cryptographic signature which allowed virtual coins to be signed without the signer seeing the actual coin. It permitted a form of digital token money that prevented traceability. This form is sometimes known as digital currency. Similar concepts are now being applied to modern blockchain technologies.
A system that was widely used during the 1970s-1990s and previously developed cryptographic mechanism is the Data Encryption Standard, which was used primarily for the protection of electronic funds transfers. However, it was the work of David Chaum that excited the cryptography community about the potential of encrypted messages as actual financial instruments.
As part of a business model, Financial cryptography followed the guide of cryptography and only the simplest ideas were adopted. Account money systems protected by SSL such as PayPal and e-gold were relatively successful. In 2001, Paypal processed $3.1 billion in payments, averaging 189,000 transactions daily totaling $9.6 million.
But more innovative mechanisms, including blinded token money, struggled to gain traction. David Chaum's DigiCash, opened in 1989, filed for bankruptcy protection in November 1998. Two competitive rivals also failed to remain viable. First Virtual Holdings abandoned its business in August 1998. CyberCash ceased its "CyberCoin" in early 1999.
Associations
Financial cryptography is to some extent organized around the annual meeting of the International Financial Cryptography Association, which is held each year in a different location.
See also
Automated teller machines (ATM)
Bitcoin
Blockchain
Cryptoeconomics
Digital currency
Monero (cryptocurrency)
Point-of-sale (POS)
Hardware security modules (HSM)
Payment system
Smart contracts
Economics of security
Bilateral key exchange
References
External links
International Financial Cryptography Association
Fincrypt weblog
Financial Cryptography weblog
Bitcoin whitepaper
Banking technology
Cryptocurrencies | [
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222859 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.com | .com | The domain name com is a top-level domain (TLD) in the Domain Name System (DNS) of the Internet. Added in 1985, its name is derived from the word commercial, indicating its original intended purpose for domains registered by commercial organizations. Later, the domain opened for general purposes.
The domain was originally administered by the United States Department of Defense, but is today operated by Verisign, and remains under ultimate jurisdiction of U.S. law. Verisign registrations in the .com domain are processed via registrars accredited by ICANN. The registry accepts internationalized domain names.
The domain was one of the original top-level domains (TLDs) on the Internet when the Domain Name System was implemented in January 1985, the others being edu, gov, mil, net, org, and int. It has grown into the largest top-level domain, and has lent its name to an era in the late 1990s, the dot-com bubble, during which excessive speculation in Internet-related companies in a period of rapid growth in the use and adoption of the Internet led to a stock market bubble and crash.
History
The domain .com was one of the first set of top-level domains when the Domain Name System was first implemented for use on the Internet on January 1, 1985. The domain was administered by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD), however, the department contracted the domain maintenance to SRI International. SRI created DDN-NIC, also known as SRI-NIC, or simply the NIC (Network Information Center), then accessible online with the domain name nic.ddn.mil. Beginning October 1, 1991, an operations contract was awarded to Government Systems Inc. (GSI), which sub-contracted it to Network Solutions Inc. (NSI).
On January 1, 1993, the National Science Foundation assumed responsibility of maintenance, as com was primarily being used for non-defense interests. The NSF contracted operation to Network Solutions (NSI). In 1995, the NSF authorized NSI to begin charging registrants an annual fee for the first time since the domain's inception. Initially, the fee was US$50 per year, with US$35 going to NSI, and US$15 going to a government fund. New registrations had to pay for the first two years, making the new-domain registration fee US$100. In 1997, the United States Department of Commerce assumed authority over all generic TLDs. It is currently operated by VeriSign, which had acquired Network Solutions. VeriSign later spun off Network Solutions' non-registry functions into a separate company that continues as a registrar. In the English language, the domain is often spelled with a leading period and commonly pronounced as dot-com, and has entered common parlance this way.
Although com domains were initially intended to designate commercial entities, the domain has had no restrictions for eligible registrants since the mid-1990s. With the commercialization and popularization of the Internet, the domain was opened to the public and quickly became the most common top-level domain for websites, email, and networking. Many companies that flourished in the period from 1997 to 2001—the time known as the "dot-com bubble"—incorporated the label com into company names; these became known as dot-coms or dot-com companies. The introduction of biz in 2001, which is restricted to businesses, has had no impact on the popularity of com.
Although companies anywhere in the world can register com domains, many countries have a second-level domain with a similar purpose under their own country code top-level domain (ccTLD), such as Australia (com.au), China (com.cn), Greece (com.gr), Israel (co.il), India (co.in), Indonesia (co.id), Japan (co.jp), Mexico (com.mx), Nepal (.com.np), South Korea (co.kr), Sri Lanka (com.lk), United Kingdom (co.uk), and Vietnam (.com.vn).
Many non-commercial sites and networks use com names to benefit from the perceived recognizability of a com domain. However, the registration statistics show varying popularity over the years.
In December 2011, VeriSign reported that approximately 100 million com domains were registered. According to the Domain Name Industry Brief published in March 2020, which publishes every quarter, com domain registration totaled 145.4 million. As of March 2009, VeriSign reported that 926 accredited registrars serve the domain.
On November 29, 2012, the U.S. Department of Commerce approved the renewal of the com Registry Agreement between Verisign, Inc., and ICANN. Through this agreement, Verisign managed the com registry until November 30, 2018.
List of oldest second-level domains
The following are the 100 oldest still-existing registered com domains.
See also
List of most expensive domain names
References
External links
IANA .com whois information
List of .com accredited registrars
.com WhoIS
.com Registry Agreement at ICANN
Generic top-level domains
Council of European National Top Level Domain Registries members
Computer-related introductions in 1985
Internet properties established in 1985
1985 establishments in the United States | [
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] |
222867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar | Lunar | Lunar most commonly means "of or relating to the Moon".
Lunar may also refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Lunar (series), a series of video games
"Lunar" (song), by David Guetta
"Lunar", a song by Priestess from the 2009 album Prior to the Fire
Lunars, a fictional race in the series The Lunar Chronicles by Marissa Meyer
Other uses
Lunar Magic, Super Mario World level editor
Lunar Design, or LUNAR, a San Francisco-based design consultancy
Hasselblad Lunar, a digital camera
Lunar, a brandname of Ethinylestradiol/cyproterone acetate, a birth control pill
Lunar C (Jake Brook, born 1990), English rapper
See also
Lunar calendar, based upon the monthly cycles of the Moon's phase
Lunar day, in such calendars
Lunar month, in such calendars
Moon (disambiguation)
Luna (disambiguation) | [
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222869 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20E.%20White | Thomas E. White | Thomas Eugene White Jr. (born December 14, 1943) is an American businessman and former United States Army officer who served as senior executive at the now collapsed Enron and as the United States Secretary of the Army from May 31, 2001 until November 17, 2004.
Military career and education
White was born in Detroit, Michigan. In 1963 White graduated from Cass Technical High School in Detroit. He was a part of the JROTC program at Cass Tech, which is highly ranked every year in military competition. In 1967, White graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point with a Bachelor of Science degree and was commissioned in the United States Army. In 1974, he received a Master of Science degree in operations research from the Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California. In 1984, he attended the United States Army War College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania.
During a long military career, that included two tours of duty in Vietnam, he served in a variety of capacities including:
Commander, 1st Squadron, 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment
Commander, 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment, V Corps
Director, Armor/Anti-Armor Special Task Force
In 1989, White was appointed executive assistant to the then chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Colin Powell, where he was described in The Washington Post by a mutual friend as Powell's "alter ego" in "a job that requires tremendous political sophistication." In July 1990 White retired from the Army with the rank of Brigadier General.
Business career
In 1990 White entered the private sector as Vice-Chairman of Enron Energy Services (E.E.S.), a subsidiary of the Enron Corporation responsible for providing energy outsource solutions. According to his original Department of Defense biography White was responsible for the delivery component of energy management services, which included;
Commodity management
Purchasing, maintaining and operating energy assets
Developing and implementing energy information services
Capital management
Facilities management
He was responsible for the Enron Engineering and Construction Company, which managed an extensive construction portfolio with domestic and international projects. White also served as a member of Enron's Executive Committee and was chairman and chief executive officer for Enron Operations Corporation.
Appointment as Secretary of the Army
White was a controversial choice for Government service despite his long military service due to his most recent position as an executive with the Enron Corporation. U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld however had decided to make corporate experience one of the key requirements in his appointees.
White was sworn in on May 31, 2001 as 18th Secretary of the Army and was responsible for all matters relating to Army manpower, personnel, reserve affairs, installations, environmental issues, weapons systems and equipment acquisition, communications, and financial management. He led a work-force of over one million active duty, National Guard and Army Reserve soldiers and 270,000 civilian employees, he had stewardship over 15 million acres (60,000 km²) of land and an annual budget of nearly $70 billion.
White was immediately embroiled in controversy regarding his previous employment with Enron and what he may have known about some of Enron's questionable business practices. His retention of a sizable amount of Enron stock fueled the perception of a conflict interest.
In 2002, White became involved with a dispute with Donald Rumsfeld over the proposed cancellation of the Army's Crusader artillery project. White supported the Army view that the Crusader was vital to the Army's future and circulated "talking points" for congressional discussions extolling its value. However, Rumsfeld decided it was not suited for wars of the future and eventually canceled the program.
In 2003, White refused to publicly rebuke General Eric Shinseki for his statement to the Senate Armed services committee that it would take "something in the order of several hundred thousand soldiers" to occupy Iraq after invasion. This, combined with White's actions on the Crusader, disagreements with Rumsfeld on the Stryker project, and his distracting association with Enron including the selling of restricted Enron stock through "private investments" (derivatives), prompted Rumsfeld to demand White's resignation. White resigned on April 25, 2003.
Controversy
While serving as Vice Chairman of Enron Energy Services White had actively pursued military contracts for the company and in 1999 had secured a prototype deal at Fort Hamilton for privatizing the power supply of army bases. Enron had been the only bidder for this deal after White had controversially used his government and military contacts to secure key concessions.
In his first speech just "two weeks after he became secretary of the Army, White vowed to speed up the awarding of such contracts"; as the Enron Ft. Hamilton contract, despite the fact that he still held a considerable interest in Enron. A Pentagon spokeswoman responded to suggestions of a possible conflict of interests by saying that "Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld sees no conflict and has complete confidence in the Army secretary".
The Washington Post reported that in late October 2001, White made numerous phone calls to Enron executives including Vice President Jude Rolfes, former CEO Jeff Skilling and President current CEO Ken Lay. Shortly after the calls were made, White unloaded 200,000 Enron shares for $12 million. The L.A. Times reported that White had brief conversations with Rumsfeld in November and Powell in December, the focus of which were "a concern on their part for the impact that the bankruptcy of Enron may have had on my personal well-being. My response in both cases was that I had suffered significant personal losses but that I would persevere."
The New York Times reported that in late January 2002, Rep. Henry Waxman requested a meeting with White regarding the military contracts and the irregularities with the accounting at E.E.S. stating "you are in a unique position because you are the person in government who has the most intimate knowledge of Enron". Furthermore, the Washington Post reported that at this time White still held interests in Enron, including a claim on 50,000 stock options and an annuity paid by the company, despite having promised to divest himself at his confirmation hearing 8 months earlier. This earned him a rebuke from Sens. Carl Levin (D-Mich.) and John Warner (R-Va.) of the Senate Armed Services Committee. He was also accused in the Washington Post of Misuse of Government Property, by allegedly using military jets for personal trips for himself and his wife. In July, following news reports of the company's involvement in the 2000–2001 California electricity crisis, White denied his involvement under oath before the Senate Commerce Committee.
References
John Hendren "Army Secretary Takes On Afghan, Enron Wars" January 26, 2002, Los Angeles Times
Russ Kick "The Incredible Shrinking Résumé of Thomas White" Village Voice
Jayson Blair "U.S. Checking Enron Deal at Ft. Hamilton" March 10, 2002, New York Times
Laurence McQuillan "Ex-Enron official speeds Army's energy deals White's push to privatize isn't a conflict, Pentagon says" USA Today
REUTERS "Rep. Waxman Wants to Quiz Army Boss About Enron" February 1, 2002, New York Times
"Washington Post: The Army Secretary's Business" March 28, 2002, Washington Post
"Army Chief Faces Enron Questions" July 18, 2002, CBSNews.com
Paul Krugman "Cronies in Arms" September 17, 2002 in the New York Times
"Biography Comparison The Memory Hole
External links
1943 births
Living people
United States Army personnel of the Vietnam War
Cass Technical High School alumni
United States Army generals
United States Department of Defense officials
United States Secretaries of the Army
United States Military Academy alumni
Recipients of the Silver Star
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
Naval Postgraduate School alumni
George W. Bush administration personnel
Recipients of the Defense Distinguished Service Medal | [
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222871 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olga%20Korbut | Olga Korbut | Olga Valentinovna Korbut (born 16 May 1955) is a former gymnast who competed for the Soviet Union. Nicknamed the "Sparrow from Minsk", she won four gold medals and two silver medals at the Summer Olympic Games, in which she competed in 1972 and 1976 for the Soviet team, and was the inaugural inductee to the International Gymnastics Hall of Fame in 1988.
While Korbut retired from gymnastics in 1977 at the age of 22, which was considered young for gymnasts of the period, Korbut's influence and legacy in gymnastics was far reaching. Korbut's 1972 Olympic performances are widely credited as redefining gymnastics, changing the sport from emphasising ballet and elegance to acrobatics as well as changing popular opinion of gymnastics from a niche sport to one of the most popular sports in the world.
Early life
Korbut was born in Grodno to Valentin and Valentina Korbut. After World War II, the family moved to Grodno from Dubniaki (small town near Kalinkavichy). She started training at age 8, and entered a Belarusian sports school headed by coach Renald Knysh at age 9. There, Korbut's first trainer was Elena Volchetskaya, an Olympic gold medalist (1964), but she was moved to Knysh's group a year later. Initially he found her "lazy and capricious" but he also saw potential in her great talent, unusually supple spine, and charisma. With him, she learned a difficult backward somersault on the balance beam. She debuted this at a competition in the USSR in 1969. The same year, Korbut completed a backflip-to-catch on the uneven bars; this was the first backward release move ever performed by a woman on bars.
She finished fifth at her first competition in the 1969 USSR championships, where she was allowed to compete as a 14-year-old. The next year, she won a gold medal in the vault. Due to illness and injury, she was unable to compete in many of the competitions before the 1972 Summer Olympics.
Olympics
At the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, Korbut's acrobatics and open high-level gymnastics brought her much fame. To this day, the back tuck and Korbut Flip are still very popular (2003 world beam champion Fan Ye performed both in her routine).
During the Olympics, Korbut was one of the favorites for the all-around after her dynamic performance in the team competition; however, she missed her mount on bars three times and the title went to teammate Ludmilla Tourischeva. That said, Korbut won three gold medals for the balance beam, floor exercise, and team competitions. In one of the most controversial finishes of all time, she took a silver medal in the uneven bars. Korbut's first attempt at her uneven bars routine was marred by several mistakes which all but ended her chances of winning a gold medal in the all-around. The next day, Korbut repeated the same routine in the event finals, although this time successfully. After the boards displayed a score of 9.8, the audience began to whistle and shout vulgar remarks at the judges in disapproval, believing her score to be too low. This carried on for several minutes but the judges refused to change her score.
Korbut is most famous for her uneven bars and balance beam routines, as well as her charismatic performances that captivated audiences. In 1973, she won the Russian and World Student (i.e., University) Games, and a silver medal in the all-around at the European Championships.
At the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, Soviet coaches and officials had designated Korbut as the woman who could beat the Romanian prodigy, Nadia Comăneci, but Korbut was injured and her performances in the games were sub-par. She was overshadowed not only by Comăneci, but also by her own teammate Nellie Kim. She did collect a team gold medal, and an individual silver medal for the balance beam.
Retirement and life after the Olympics
Korbut graduated from the Grodno Pedagogical Institute in 1977, became a teacher, and retired from gymnastic competition thereafter. She married Leonid Bortkevich, who was a member of Belarusian folk band Pesniary. The couple had a son, Richard, born in 1979. In 1988 Korbut was the first gymnast to be inducted into the International Gymnastics Hall of Fame.
In 1991, she and her family emigrated to the United States, because they were worried about the effects of fallout from the Chernobyl disaster on Belarus. They settled in New Jersey, where she taught gymnastics. They moved to Georgia two years later where she continued to coach. Korbut and Bortkevich divorced in 2000; she became a naturalized U.S. citizen the same year. In 2002 Korbut moved to Scottsdale, Arizona, to become head coach at Scottsdale Gymnastics and Cheerleading. Korbut faced Darva Conger on an episode of Celebrity Boxing which aired on 22 May 2002. Conger won by unanimous decision. Korbut lives in Scottsdale, Arizona. She now works with private gymnastics pupils and does motivational speaking.
Korbut traveled to London for the 2012 Summer Olympics. She watched the gymnastics competitions in the North Greenwich Arena, providing commentary by way of Twitter and Facebook. During the Olympics the Royal Opera House hosted an exhibit it created with the Olympic Museum in Lausanne, Switzerland, titled The Olympic Journey, The Story of the Games. As well as historical artifacts, the exhibit featured the personal stories of 16 Olympic medalists, including Korbut. Korbut celebrated the 40th anniversary of her Olympic victories with an appearance at the exhibition on 3 August. She said "I didn't even expect this. I am so honored to be here."
In 2017, Korbut sold her 1972 and 1976 Olympic medals amongst thirty-two lots (including two golds and a silver from the Munich Olympics) which fetched $333,500 at Heritage Auctions.
In 1999 she spoke out about alleged sexual assault and rape she suffered at the hands of her coach, Renald Knysh, which he denied. Later in 2018 Korbut appeared in a TV show in which she again spoke out about several incidents in which she alleged that her coach sexually assaulted her. As a result of Korbut speaking out publicly, several other gymnasts who had also trained under Knysh spoke of similar incidents corroborating Korbut's allegations.
Legacy
Korbut, who has won four Olympic gold medals, is best known for her move, the Korbut flip, a backflip performed on the uneven parallel bars, starting from a standing position on the high bar and then catching the same bar from below on the under swing. She also achieved the flip on the 4" balance bar onto the straddle position and later the flip landing on her feet. Named after Korbut since she was the first to perform the skill at an international competition in 1972, the move has since been made illegal in the Olympic Code of Points.
After the 1972 Olympic competition, she also met United States President Richard Nixon at the White House. About the meeting, Korbut said: "He told me that my performance in Munich did more for reducing the political tension during the Cold War between our two countries than the embassies were able to do in five years." In addition to greatly publicizing gymnastics worldwide, she also contributed to a marked change in the tenor of the sport itself. Prior to 1972, the athletes were generally older and the focus was on elegance rather than acrobatics. In the decade after Korbut's Olympic debut, the emphasis was reversed. Korbut, in her 1972, gold-medal Olympics, at and , exemplified the deliberate and purposeful trend toward smaller women in the sport.
Her 1972 Olympic achievement earned her ABC's Wide World of Sports title of Athlete of the Year. In a UK poll conducted by Channel 4 in 2002 the public voted "Olga Korbut charms the world" No.46 in the list of the 100 Greatest Sporting Moments.
Eponymous skills
Vault: Handspring forward with a full twist onto the table with a full twist off, no saltos (4.0); and Handspring forward with a full twist onto the table with no twists or saltos off (3.60).
Uneven Bars: Arched layout backflip from standing on top of the high bar to regrasp the same bar; and Back Layout Dismount from standing on top of the high bar to past the low bar (both no longer in the Code of Points).
Balance Beam: Back handspring to swing down to cross straddle sit (B); Back Tuck Salto (C- although not named after her, first to perform it); and Front Tuck Salto Dismount (A- not named after her, first to perform).
Floor: Back Layout to Chest Position (A).
In popular culture
In a Peanuts comic strip published on 15 May 1973, the character Snoopy is seen doing balance beam positions with flawless precision on top of his doghouse for three panels until coming to a rest in the fourth one saying: "Olga Korbut has been bugging me for lessons!"
See also
List of people from Belarus
List of multiple Olympic gold medalists at a single Games
List of top Olympic gymnastics medalists
List of Olympic female gymnasts for the Soviet Union
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Olga Korbut- Biography.com
Incredible Performance From Olga Korbut 'Darling Of Munich' – Munich 1972 Olympics – The Olympic Channel
Gymnast Olga Korbut charms the World – Faster, Higher, Stronger – BBC Two – BBC
1955 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Grodno
Soviet female artistic gymnasts
Belarusian female artistic gymnasts
Olympic gold medalists for the Soviet Union
Olympic silver medalists for the Soviet Union
Olympic gymnasts of the Soviet Union
Olympic medalists in gymnastics
Gymnasts at the 1972 Summer Olympics
Gymnasts at the 1976 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1972 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1976 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the World Artistic Gymnastics Championships
Originators of elements in artistic gymnastics
Belarusian emigrants to the United States
Universiade medalists in gymnastics
Naturalized citizens of the United States
BBC Sports Personality World Sport Star of the Year winners
Universiade gold medalists for the Soviet Union
Universiade bronze medalists for the Soviet Union
Medalists at the 1973 Summer Universiade | [
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222872 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhein-Pfalz-Kreis | Rhein-Pfalz-Kreis | The Rhein-Pfalz-Kreis is a district (Kreis) in the east of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany.
Neighboring districts are (from north clockwise) the district-free city Worms, the district Bergstraße, district-free Mannheim, Frankenthal and Ludwigshafen, Rhein-Neckar, district-free Speyer, the districts Karlsruhe, Germersheim, Südliche Weinstraße and Bad Dürkheim.
History
The district was created in 1886 under the name Bezirksamt Ludwigshafen, one of the last acts of king Ludwig II of Bavaria. The population in the area around Speyer had grown significantly, which made the splitting of the Bezirksamt Speyer necessary. In 1969, the Speyer and Ludwigshafen districts and parts of the Frankenthal and Neustadt districts were merged again to form the new Ludwigshafen district.
On May 19, 2003, the district parliament passed a resolution to rename the district "Rhein-Pfalz-Kreis" starting in 2004.
Partnerships
The district started its first partnership in 1964 with the municipalities Schnals and Naturns in Italy. The Speyer district had a partnership with Schlanders and Martell, also in Italy, which were taken over after the merging of the district. As part of the partnership of Rhineland-Palatinate with Rwanda the district has a partnership with the municipality of Kinyami starting in 1983. After the German reunification the district supported the Saalkreis in Saxony-Anhalt in modernising the administration to western standard, which resulted in a friendship between the two districts. In 1991 a partnership with the district Radviliskis in Lithuania was started, and in 2002 with the Polish district Opole in Silesia.
Geography
The district is located in the valley of the Rhine river, both the actual river valley and the Vorderpfälzer Tiefland, formed by the sediments of the rivers of the Palatinate hills. The district has a very warm climate, together with the fertile loess soil it makes the area favourable for growing vegetable. However the rainfall is comparatively low, thus irrigation is needed.
Coat of arms
The wavy line from the bottom-right to the top-left symbolizes the Rhine river.
The lion in the left is the lion of the Electorate of the Palatinate, to which the largest part of the district belonged historically.
The silver cross in the right part is taken from the State of Speyer, taken from the coat of arms of the Speyer district.
The shield in the middle show water lily leaves, a typical symbol for the district, as this plant grows in the old arms of the Rhine river.
Towns and municipalities
Verband-free municipalities
Verbandsgemeinden
*seat of the Verbandsgemeinde
References
External links
Official website (German)
Districts of Rhineland-Palatinate
Anterior Palatinate
1886 establishments in Germany | [
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222874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s%20Guill%C3%A9n | Nicolás Guillén | Nicolás Cristóbal Guillén Batista (10 July 1902 – 17 July 1989) was a Cuban poet, journalist, political activist, and writer. He is best remembered as the national poet of Cuba.
Born in Camagüey, he studied law at the University of Havana, but abandoned a legal career and worked as both a typographer and journalist. His poetry was published in various magazines from the early 1920s; his first collection, Motivos de son (1930) was strongly influenced by his meeting that year with the African-American poet, Langston Hughes. He drew from son music in his poetry. West Indies, Ltd., published in 1934, was Guillén's first collection with political implications. Cuba's dictatorial Gerardo Machado regime was overthrown in 1933, but political repression intensified. After being jailed in 1936, Guillén joined the Communist Party the next year, traveling to Spain for a Congress of Writers and Artists, and covering the Spanish Civil War as a magazine reporter.
After returning to Cuba, he stood as a Communist in the local elections of 1940. This caused him to be refused a visa to enter the United States the following year, but he traveled widely during the next decades in South America, China and Europe. In 1953, after being in Chile, he was refused re-entry to Cuba and spent five years in exile. He returned after the successful Cuban revolution of 1959. From 1961 he served more than 30 years as president of the Unión Nacional de Escritores de Cuba, the National Cuban Writers' Union. His awards included the Stalin Peace Prize in 1954, the 1976 International Botev Prize, and in 1983 he was the inaugural winner of Cuba's National Prize for Literature.
Early life
Nicolás Guillén Batista was born July 10, 1902, in Camagüey, Cuba, the eldest of six children (three boys and three girls) of Argelia Batista y Arrieta and Nicolás Guillén y Urra, both of whom were of mixed-race, African-European descent. His father had fought for independence as a lieutenant. When his first son Nicolás was born, the father worked as a journalist for one of the new local papers. He introduced his son to Afro-Cuban music when he was very young. Guillén y Urra belonged to the Partido Libertad and founded the daily newspaper, La Libertad, to express its views. Government forces assassinated Guillén's father for protesting against electoral fraud and destroyed his printing press, where Nicolás and a brother were already working. Argelia and her children struggled financially. Nicolás and his siblings encountered discriminatory racism in Cuba similar to that suffered by African-Americans in the United States.
Literary works
Guillén drew from his mixed African and Spanish ancestry and education to combine his knowledge of traditional literary form with firsthand experience of the speech, legends, songs, and songs of Afro-Cubans in his first volume of poetry, Motivos de son. It was soon acclaimed as a masterpiece and widely imitated. In the 1920s, when Afro-Cuban sounds and instruments were changing the world of Cuban music, Afro-Cuban culture began to be expressed in art and literature as well. Initially, Afro-Cuban poetry, or "negrista" poetry, was mainly published by European Cubans such as Emilio Ballagas, Alejo Carpentier, and José Tallet. It was not until the 1930s that Guillén would appeal in literary terms by expressing a personal account of the struggles, dreams, and mannerisms of Afro-Cubans.
Guillén became outspoken politically, and dissatisfied with picturesque portrayal of the daily life of the poor. He began to decry their oppression in his poetry volumes Sóngoro cosongo and West Indies Ltd. Guillen also wrote Cantos para soldados y sones para turistas, which reflected his growing political commitment. Guillén is probably the best-known representative of the "poesía negra" ("black poetry"), which tried to create a synthesis between black and white cultural elements, a "poetic mestizaje". Characteristic for his poems is the use of onomatopoetic words ("Sóngoro Cosongo", "Mayombe-bombe") that try to imitate the sound of drums or the rhythm of the son. Silvestre Revueltas's symphonic composition Sensemayá was based on Guillén's poem of the same name, and became that composer's best-known work, followed by José Limantour's suite from his film score for La noche de los mayas.
Guillén later became acknowledged by many critics as the most influential of those Latin American poets who dealt with African themes and re-created African song and dance rhythms in literary form. Guillen made an international mark with the publication of Motivos de son (1930). The work was inspired by the living conditions of Afro-Cubans and the popular son music. The work consists of eight short poems using the everyday language of the Afro Cubans. The collection stood out in the literary world because it emphasized and established the importance of Afro-Cuban culture as a valid genre in Cuban literature.
In Man-Making Words: Selected Poems of Nicolás Guillén, Angel Aguier, in reference to Motivos de son, wrote that
"the 'son,' a passionate dance born of the Negro-white encounter under Caribbean skies in which the words and music of the people culminate in song, is the basic substance of the elemental poetry which Guillen intuitively felt as the expression of the Cuban spirit.... He specifically chose the son as the mixed artistic creation of the two races that make up the Cuban population; for the son, in form and content, runs the full gamut of every aspect of our national character." This quote establishes how the son, such a profound musical genre of that time, initiated the fusion of black and white Cuban culture. Guillén's incorporation of the genre into his writings, symbolized and created a pathway for the same cultural fusion in Cuban literature.
Guillén's unique approach of using the son in his poetry is expressed in his book Sóngoro consongo (1931). In this work, Guillén included poems that depicted the lives of Cubans and emphasized the importance of Afro-Cuban culture in Cuban history. Sóngoro consongo captures the essence of the Afro-Cuban culture and ways that the people deal with their personal situations.
Guillén's poem, "Motivos de son", from Sóngoro consongo, is a fusion of West African and Hispanic literary styles, contributing to his unique literary vision.
"La canción del bongó", like many poems in Sóngoro consongo, incorporates the rhythmic sounds of son. The poem has a rhythm that uses the marking of stressed and unstressed syllables in strong and weak beats, rather than simply the number of syllables. Dellita L. Martin says that "La canción del bongó" stands out as a poem because "it is the only one to indicate Guillén's painfully increasing awareness of racial conflicts in Cuba".
Langston Hughes and Nicolás Guillén
In 1930 José Antonio Fernández de Castro, publisher of the Havana daily, Diario de la Marina, and the first to translate American Langston Hughes’s poetry to Spanish, arranged for the two poets to meet. He was a white Cuban from an aristocratic family who loved black Cuba. He was a newspaperman, a diplomat, and a friend to Cuba’s artists.
In February 1930, Langston Hughes traveled to Cuba for the second time, on a two-week mission to find a black composer to collaborate on a folk opera. He had been given a letter of introduction to José Antonio Fernández de Castro, his door to Cuba’s artistic world. At this time Hughes’ poetry was better known to Cubans than that of Guillén, so the American’s arrival created a stir in the artistic community. The next month, on 9 March 1930, Guillén published “Conversación con Langston Hughes”, an article describing his experience of meeting Hughes in Havana. The Cubans expected a nearly white, tall and heavyset man in his forties with thin lips and an even thinner English-style mustache. Instead they saw a twenty-seven-year-old, slight brown man without a mustache. Guillén wrote that Mr. Hughes "parece justamente un mulatico cubano” – looks just like a Cuban mulatto.
Guillén was especially taken with Hughes' warm personality and enthusiasm for the 'son' music, which he heard on the nightly forays into Cuba’s Marinao district organized by Fernandez de Castro. Hughes was said to be a hit with the soneros. His enthusiasm for Cuban music inspired Guillén. Hughes immediately saw the similarities between 'son' and the blues, as folk music traditions whose form was based on the call-and-response structure of African music. Additionally, he was excited about its possibilities as an organic base for formal poetry. According to biographer Arnold Rampersad, Hughes suggested to Guillén that he make the rhythms of the 'son' central to his poetry, as the American had used elements of blues and jazz.
Hughes drew not only rhythmic innovation from these folk music traditions, but used them as a means to express his protest against racial inequality. Both poets shared anger against racism, but Hughes impressed Guillén with his particular kind of racial consciousness. Although the Cuban poet had expressed outrage against racism and economic imperialism, he had not yet done so in language inspired by Afro-Cuban speech, song, and dance. He had been more concerned with protest than with celebrating the power and beauty of Afro Cubans.
Within weeks of meeting Hughes, Guillén quickly wrote eight poems that were markedly different from his previous work. His new poems generated controversy and established Guillén's fame as one of the premier poets of the Négritude movement, which spanned the Americas. On 21 April 1930, Guillén sent Hughes the result of his inspiration, his book of poetry Motivos de Son. The author wrote on the inside cover, “Al poeta Langston Hughes, querido amigo mío. Afectuosamente, Nicolás Guillén”. Although Hughes did not find an Afro-Cuban composer to work with, he created a lasting friendship with Guillén; it was based on their mutual respect and convictions about racial inequality.
Poetry and politics
Cuba's dictatorial Gerardo Machado regime was overthrown in 1933, but political repression in the following years intensified. In 1936, with other editors of Mediodía, Guillén was arrested on trumped-up charges, and spent some time in jail. In 1937 he joined the Communist Party and made his first trip abroad in July 1937 to attend the Second International Writers' Congress, the purpose of which was to discuss the attitude of intellectuals to the war in Spain, held in Valencia, Barcelona and Madrid and attended by many writers including André Malraux, Ernest Hemingway, Stephen Spender and Pablo Neruda. During his travels in the country, he covered Spain's Civil War as a magazine reporter.
Guillén returned to Cuba via Guadeloupe. He stood as a Communist in the local elections of 1940. The following year he was refused a visa to enter the United States, but he travelled widely during the next two decades in South America, China and Europe.
Guillén's poetry was increasingly becoming imbued with issues of cross-cultural Marxist dialectic. In 1953, he was prevented by the Fulgencio Batista government from re-entering Cuba after a trip to Chile and had to spend five years in exile.
After the Cuban revolution of 1959, Guillen was welcomed back by Fidel Castro, the new president. In 1961 he was appointed as president of the Unión Nacional de Escritores de Cuba, the National Cuban Writers' Union, serving for more than 25 years. He continued to write evocative and poignant poetry highlighting social conditions, such as "Problemas de Subdesarrollo" and "Dos Niños" (Two Children). He was considered the national poet of Cuba, who drew from its multicultural history and population for inspiration.
Nicolás Guillén died in 1989 at age 87 of Parkinson's disease. He was buried in the Colon Cemetery, Havana.
Legacy and honors
In 1954 Guillén was awarded the Stalin Peace Prize (it was later renamed for Lenin under de-Stalinization).
1976, he was awarded the International Botev Prize.
In 1983 he was the inaugural winner of Cuba's National Prize for Literature.
His nephew was experimental Cuban filmmaker Nicolás Guillén Landrián (1938–2003).
Major works
Motivos de son (1930)
Sóngoro cosongo (1931)
West Indies Ltd. (1934)
España: poema en cuatro angustias y una esperanza (1937)
Cantos para soldados y sones para turistas (1937)
El son entero (1947)
Elegías (1948–1958)
Tengo (1964)
Poemas de amor (1964)
El gran zoo (1967)
La rueda dentada (1972)
El diario que a diario (1972)
Por el mar de las Antillas anda un barco de papel. Poemas para niños y mayores de edad (1977)
Yoruba from Cuba: Selected Poems of Nicolas Guillen (trans. Salvador Ortiz-Carboneres; Peepal Tree Press, 2005)
Discography
Antologia Oral: Poesia Hispanoamericana del Siglo XX / Oral Anthology: Spanish-American Poetry of the 20th Century (Folkways Records, 1960)
Nicolás Guillén: Poet Laureate of Revolutionary Cuba (Folkways, 1982)
See also
Négritude
Nicolás Guillén Landrián
Cuban literature
Caribbean poetry
Further reading
Hernández, Consuelo. "Por las rutas del Caribe: Nicolás Guillén, Nancy Morejón y otras voces." Voces y perspectivas en la poesía latinoamericana del siglo XX. Madrid: Visor libros y Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional, 2009.
Auguier, Angel, and J.M. Bernstein. "The Cuban Poetry of Nicolas Guillen". Phylon 12. (1951): 1. 29–36. 5 March 2010.
Pérez Firmat, Gustavo. The Cuban Condition: Translation and Identity in Modern Cuban Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Rpt. 1997, 2006.
"Nicolás Guillén 1902–1989". Enotes.com. Poetry Criticism. 7 March 2010.
"Nicolas Guillen, Cuban Poet". Books on Cuba. 7 March 2010.
References
External links
International Jose Guillermo Carrillo Foundation
Fundación Guillén
Nicolás Guillén from Cervantes Virtual
Guillén, Nicolás from Enotes.com
Bio from los-poetas.com
Guillén Discography at Smithsonian Folkways
The Cuban Condition
The Nicolás Guillén Papers are held at the Cuban Heritage Collection, University of Miami Libraries, University of Miami.
1902 births
1989 deaths
20th-century Cuban poets
20th-century journalists
Cuban communists
Cuban journalists
Male journalists
Cuban people of Spanish descent
Cuban male poets
Cuban revolutionaries
Marxist journalists
People from Camagüey
Stalin Peace Prize recipients
Recipients of the Order of Friendship of Peoples
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour
Communist poets
University of Havana alumni
Cuban exiles | [
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222875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm%20Schroeder | Wilhelm Schroeder | Wilhelm Schroeder (April 23, 1898 – July 8, 1943) was a German politician (NSDAP) and pilot. He was born in Leipzig.
Early life
After attending high school, Schroeder graduated in approximately 1920 to 1921 to an agricultural apprenticeship. From October 1914, Schroeder volunteered in the First World War. While he initially was in the infantry, he later became a pilot, in either 1917 or 1918. In 1916, he achieved the rank of lieutenant in the reserve. During the war, he was awarded the Iron Cross, in both classes. After the war, he attended high school in Dresden from 1919 to 1920. He then studied agriculture, economics, history, and art for a year in Munich. From 1923 through to 1932, Schroeder earned his living as Gutsinspektor. He married in 1927.
Political life
In January 1923, Schroeder joined the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP) in (Mitgliedsnr. 63,277). He was also a member of the Sturmabteilung (SA). After the temporary ban on the party from November 1923 to January 1925, he rejoined the Nazi party in 1926. In the following years, he held various party roles, including appearing as a party speaker in 1930. He was the local leader and agricultural Gau Fachberater. From 1932-1935 he served as the leader of the SA Standard 139.
In the July 1932 general election, Schroeder was a candidate of the NSDAP, for the constituency 29 (Leipzig) in the Reichstag of the Weimar Republic election. After his mandate in the next three elections - November 1932, March 1933 and November 1933 - was confirmed, Schroeder ran for the constituency 22 (Düsseldorf East) in the election of March 1936, which he retained until April 1938. From April 1938 until his death in July 1943, he represented constituency 34 (Hamburg). Among the parliamentary events in which Schroeder was the vote on the Enabling Act in March 1933.
After the "seizure of power" by the Nazis in the spring of 1933, Schroeder was promoted to SA-Standartenführer. In 1934 he became a member of the State Farmers' Council of Saxony. On 12 February 1935, he joined the Schutzstaffel (SS) at (Mitgliedsnr. 261,293). From 6 May 1935 until 15 January 1937, he led the 20th SS Regiment (Düsseldorf). From 1 January 1937 until 20 May 1939, he was the leader of the SS Section XV (Dortmund). On 9 November 1937, he was promoted to SS Chief Leader.
On 1 June 1939, he was promoted to staff leader of the SS section Alpine country whose headquarters were in Salzburg. In 1943, he was appointed First Lieutenant of the Waffen-SS transport. According to the work of "The Big German Reichstag", Schroeder died in July 1943 during an anti-partisan action in Carinthia. A personal condolence letter by his commander F. Bochmann, dated 15 July 1943, states that Schroeder as of 8 July 1943, "west of the village Gouki has remained as head of the heavy tank company of our regiment from the enemy." Additionally, a newspaper clipping refers to the fact that Schroeder "is an SS Lieutenant leader and company commander in the SS-Panzer-Grenadier-Division 'Totenkopf' fallen in the ongoing heavy fighting in the East."
Schroeder was awarded the Golden Party Badge, the in Gold, the Sword of Honor of the Reichsführer SS and the Skull Ring of the SS. He died in battle on July 8, 1943 in Redin, Carinthia.
References
External link
Nazi Party politicians
1898 births
1943 deaths
German military personnel killed in World War II
Waffen-SS personnel | [
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222877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15th%20century%20in%20literature | 15th century in literature | This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in the 15th century.
Events
1403 – A guild of stationers is founded in the City of London. As the Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers (the "Stationers' Company"), it continues to be a Livery Company in the 21st century.
1403–08 – The Yongle Encyclopedia is written in China.
c. 1408–11 – An Leabhar Breac is probably compiled by Murchadh Ó Cuindlis at Duniry in Ireland.
c. 1410 – John, Duke of Berry, commissions the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, illustrated by the Limbourg brothers between c. 1412 and 1416.
1424 – The first French royal library is transferred by the English regent of France, John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford, to England.
1425 – At about this date the first Guildhall Library (probably for theology) is established in the City of London under the will of Richard Whittington.
1434 – Japanese Noh actor and playwright Zeami Motokiyo is exiled to Sado Island by the Shōgun.
1438: 28 April – Completion of Margery Kempe's The Book of Margery Kempe, the first known English autobiography, begins (by dictation) at Bishop's Lynn in England; it will not be published in full until 1940.
1442 – Enea Piccolomini, the future Pope Pius II, arrives at the court of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor, in Vienna, who names him imperial poet.
1443 – King Sejong the Great establishes Hangul as the native alphabet of Korean. It is first described in the Hunminjeongeum published on 9 October 1446
1444: 15 June – Cosimo de' Medici founds the Laurentian Library in Florence.
1448 – Pope Nicholas V founds the Vatican Library in Rome.
1450 – Johannes Gutenberg has set up his movable type printing press as a commercial operation in Mainz by this date and a German poem has been printed.
1451
1 August – A manuscript of Dante's Divine Comedy is sold in London.
Sir Thomas Malory of Newbold Revel in Warwickshire, England, presumed author of the chivalric tales of Le Morte d'Arthur, is imprisoned for most of the following decade on multiple charges including violent robbery and rape.
1452 – Completion of the Malatestiana Library (Biblioteca Malatestiana) in Cesena (in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy, commissioned by the city's ruler Malatesta Novello), the first European public library, in the sense of belonging to the commune and open to all citizens.
1453 – Pageant of Coriolan staged in the piazza of Milan Cathedral.
1455
23 February – Johannes Gutenberg completes printing of the Gutenberg Bible in Mainz, the first major book printed with movable type in the West, using a textualis blackletter typeface.
5 June – French poet François Villon is implicated in a murder.
1457
14 August – The Mainz Psalter, the second major book printed with movable type in the West, the first to be wholly finished mechanically (including colour) and the first to carry a printed date, is printed by Johann Fust and Peter Schoeffer for the Elector of Mainz.
The Central Library of Astan Quds Razavi in Persia is known to be in existence.
1460 – From about this date, Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, begins to form the Bibliotheca Corviniana, Europe's largest secular library.
1461 – Albrecht Pfister is pioneering movable type book printing in German and the addition of woodcut illustrations in Bamberg, producing a collection of Ulrich Boner's fables, Der Edelstein, the first book printed with illustrations. Soon after this he prints the first known Biblia pauperum (picture Bible).
1462: 10 September – Robert Henryson enrols as a teacher in the recently founded University of Glasgow in Scotland.
1462: 8 November – First known sentence written in Albanian, a Formula e pagëzimit (baptismal formula) by Archbishop Pal Engjëlli.
1463: 5 January – François Villon is reprieved from hanging in Paris but never heard of again.
1465 – Having established the Subiaco Press at Subiaco in the Papal States in 1464, German printers Arnold Pannartz and Konrad Sweynheim produce an edition of Donatus (lost), a Cicero, De Oratore (September 1465) and Lactantius' De divinis institutionibus (October 1465), followed by Augustine's De civitate Dei in 1467, the first books to be printed in Italy, using a form of Roman type.
1467 – German printers Arnold Pannartz and Konrad Sweynheim move from Subiaco to Rome where the Massimo family place a house at their disposal and they publish an edition of Cicero's letters that gives its name to the typographic unit of measurement the cicero.
1468
31 May – The Byzantine scholar Cardinal Basilios Bessarion donates his library to the Republic of Venice, the foundation of the Biblioteca Marciana.
The printers Johann and Wendelin of Speyer settle in Venice; their first book published here, Cicero's Epistolae ad familiares, appears in 1469.
1470
Johann Heynlin prints the first book in Paris, the Epistolae Gasparini of Gasparinus de Bergamo (d. c. 1431), a guide to writing Latin prose.
Nicolas Jenson's edition of Eusebius, published in Venice, is the first book to use a roman type based on the principles of typography rather than manuscript.
, a sermon printed in Cologne, is the first book to incorporate printed page numbers.
1473
First book printed in Hungary, Chronica Hungarorum, the "Buda Chronicle".
First known printing in Poland, Almanach cracoviense ad annum 1474, a wall calendar.
1474
First book printed in Spain, , the anthology of a religious poetry contest held this year in Valencia.
Approximate date – Georgius Purbachius (Georg von Peuerbach)'s Theoricae nouae planetarum is published in Nuremberg, an early example of the application of color printing to an academic text.
1475
February – Pope Sixtus IV appoints the humanist Bartolomeo Platina as Prefect of the newly-re-established Vatican Library (Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana) in Rome after Platina has presented him with the manuscript of his Lives of the Popes.
Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye is the first book to be printed in English, by William Caxton in Bruges.
Rashi's commentary on the Torah is the first dated book to be printed in Hebrew, in Reggio di Calabria.
1476
30 January – Constantine Lascaris's Erotemata ("Questions", also known as Grammatica Graeca) is the first book to be printed entirely in Greek (in Milan).
William Caxton sets up the first printing press in England, at Westminster. This year he prints improving pamphlets: Stans Puer ad Mensam (John Lydgate's translation of Robert Grosseteste's treatise on table manners, printed together with Salve Regina); The Churl and the Bird and The Horse, the Goose and the Sheep (both by Lydgate); and a parallel text edition of Cato with translation by Benjamin Burgh.
First performance of one of Terence's plays since antiquity, Andria in Florence.
1477
The first printed edition of Ptolemy's Geography (in Latin translation as Cosmographia) with maps, published in Bologna, is the first printed book with engraved illustrations and also the first with maps by a known artist, the plates having been engraved by Taddeo Crivelli of Ferrara (book wrongly dated 1462).
18 November – Caxton prints Earl Rivers' translation of Dictes or Sayengis of the Philosophres, the first full-length book printed in England on a printing press.
1478 – In England
William Caxton publishes the first printed copy of the Canterbury Tales.
The Ranworth Antiphoner is presented to St Helen's Church, Ranworth.
17 December – First book printed in Oxford.
1479
The St Albans Press, the third printing press in England, is set up in the Abbey Gateway, St. Albans.
Robert Ricart begins writing The Maire of Bristowe is Kalendar in Bristol, England.
1480s (approximate date) – Scottish makar Robert Henryson writes The Morall Fabillis of Esope the Phrygian.
1482: 25 January – Probable first printing of the Torah (in Hebrew with vowels and marks of cantillation printed), with paraphrases in Aramaic and Rashi's commentary, printed in Bologna.
1483: 22 February – First known book printed in Croatian, the Missale Romanum Glagolitice (Misal po zakonu rimskoga dvora), a missal printed in Glagolitic script, edited in Istria and printed in either Venice or in Croatia at Kosinj.
1484: 22 June – First known book printed by a woman, Anna Rügerin, an edition of Eike of Repgow's compendium of customary law, the Sachsenspiegel, produced in Augsburg.
1485 – The play Elckerlijc wins first prize in the Rederijker contest in Antwerp.
1488 – Duke Humfrey's Library at the University of Oxford receives its first books.
1490
Chinese scholar Hua Sui invents bronze-metal movable type printing in China.
Publication in Valencia of the prose chivalric romance Tirant lo Blanch completed by Martí Joan de Galba from the work of the knight Joanot Martorell (d. c. 1468), written in Valencian and a pioneering example of the novel in modern Europe.
1492: 16 January – Antonio de Nebrija publishes Gramática de la lengua castellana, the first grammar text for Castilian Spanish, in Salamanca, which he introduces to the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, newly restored to power in Andalusia, as "a tool of empire".
1494: 17 August – Blaž Baromić completes the first work of his printing press in Senj, Croatia, a glagolithic missal, the second edition of the Missale Romanum.
1495: February–March – An edition of Constantine Lascaris's Erotemata in Greek with a parallel Latin translation (Grammatica Graeca) by Johannes Crastonis is the first book to be published by Aldus Manutius, in Venice, using typefaces cut by Francesco Griffo.
1495–1498 – Aldus Manutius publishes the Aldine Press edition of Aristotle in Venice.
1496: February – Francesco Griffo cuts the first old-style serif (or humanist) typeface (known from the 20th century as Bembo) for the Aldine Press edition of Pietro Bembo's narrative Petri Bembi de Aetna Angelum Chabrielem liber ("De Aetna", a description of a journey to Mount Etna) published in Venice, Aldus Manutius' first printing in the Latin alphabet and a work which includes early adoption of the semicolon (dated 1495 according to the more veneto).
1497
7 February (Shrove Tuesday) – Followers of Girolamo Savonarola burn thousands of "immoral" objects, including books, at the Bonfire of the Vanities in Florence, an episode repeatedly revisited in literature.
Possible date – First performance of the earliest known full-length secular play wholly in English, Fulgens and Lucrece by Henry Medwall, the first English vernacular playwright known by name, perhaps at Lambeth Palace in London.
1499: Late – Contents of the library of the Madrasah of Granada are publicly burned.
New works and first printings of older works
1400
Alliterative Morte Arthure
Shivaganaprasadi Mahadevaiah – Shunyasampadane
c. 1400–1410
Nicholas Love – The Mirror of the Blessed Life of Jesus Christ (translation and adaptation into Middle English of the Meditations on the Life of Christ)
1402
Christine de Pizan – Dit de la Rose
1402–1403
Christine de Pizan – Le livre du chemin de long estude
1405
Christine de Pizan
L'Avision de Christine
The Book of the City of Ladies (Le livre de la Cité des dames)
The Treasure of the City of Ladies (Le trésor de la Cité des dames; also known as The Book of the Three Virtues)
c. 1410
Mahathera Bodhiramsi – Cāmadevivaṃsa ()
1411
Thomas Occleve – The Regement of Princes
1413
Edward of Norwich, 2nd Duke of York – The Master of Game
1418
Domenico Bandini of Arezzo – Fons memorabilium universi
1420
John Lydgate – The Siege of Thebes
Approximate date: Andrew of Wyntoun – Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland
1423
Jordi de Sant Jordi - Presoner
1424
Bhaskara – Jivandhara Charite
1425
Sharafuddin Ali Yazdi – Zafar Nama (history of Timur)
1429
Leone Battista Alberti – Amator
Radoslav Gospels
(?) Kashefi – Anvār-e Soheylī (, "The Lights of Canopus"), a translation of the Panchatantra
1430
Kallumathada Prabhudeva – Ganabhasita Ratnamale
1434
Treatise on the Barbarian Kingdoms on the Western Oceans (China)
Approximate date: John Lydgate – The Life of St. Edmund, King and Martyr
1435
Leon Battista Alberti – Della Pittura
1436
The Marvels discovered by the boat bound for the Galaxy (China)
1438
The Buik of Alexander
Gilte Legende, a translation into Middle English
1439
Kalyanakirti – Jnanachandrabhyudaya
1440
Zhu Quan – Cha Pu (Tea Manual)
Santikirtimuni – Santinathacharite
(approximate date) Geoffrey the Grammarian (probable compiler) – Promptorium parvulorum
1444
Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini – The Tale of Two Lovers
1447
Walter Bower – Scotichronicon (completed)
1448
Vijayanna – Dvadasanuprekshe
1450
Reginald Pecock – Represser of over-much weeting [blaming] of the Clergie
Approximate date: Ballads "A Gest of Robyn Hode" and "Robin Hood and the Monk"
1453
Antoine de la Sale – Petit Jehan de Saintre
1455
Padmanābha - Kanhadade Prabandha
Pre-1460
Ausiàs March - Poems
Turpines Story (Middle English translation of the Historia Caroli Magni)
1461
François Villon – Grand Testament
1464
The Deeds of Sir Gillion de Trazegnies in the Middle East
A Short English Chronicle (Cronycullys of Englonde)
1467
Cardinal Juan de Torquemada – Meditationes, seu Contemplationes devotissimae ("Meditations, or the Contemplations of the Most Devout"), the first book printed in Italy to include woodcut illustrations
1469/70
Giovanni Boccaccio – The Decameron (completed 1353)
c. 1470–85
Pietru Caxaro – Il Cantilena, oldest known Maltese text
1471
Marsilio Ficino (translator) – De potestate et sapientia Dei, a translation from the Hermetica
1472
Dante Alighieri – Divine Comedy (written c.1308-21), first printed 11 April in Foligno, Italy, by Johann Numeister and Evangelista Angelini da Trevi
Johannes de Sacrobosco – De sphaera mundi (written c. 1230), the first printed astronomical book
Paul of Venice (posthumously) – Logica Parva
Roberto Valturio – De re militari, the first book with technical illustrations
1472 or 1473
Johannes Tinctoris – Proportionale musices (Proportions in Music)
Zainuddin – Rasul Bijay (Victory of the Messenger) in Bengali
1473
Avicenna – The Canon of Medicine
Richard de Bury – The Philobiblon (written 1345; first printing)
Sir John Fortescue – The Governaunce of England (first published 1714)
Approximate date: Missale Speciale (Constance Missal)
1474
Obres e trobes en lahors de la Verge María, first literary book printed in Spain (40 poems in Catalan/Valencian, 4 in Spanish, 1 in Italian)
1475
Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye, the first book printed in English, by William Caxton in Bruges
c. 1475?
The Squire of Low Degree
1477
Earl Rivers (translator) – Dictes or Sayengis of the Philosophres (printed by William Caxton in Westminster)
William Caxton (translation from the French of Raoul Le Fèvre) – History of Jason (printed by Caxton)
Bible in duytsche (Delft Bible)
First printed edition of The Travels of Marco Polo
Approximate date: Blind Harry – The Wallace (The Actes and Deidis of the Illustre and Vallyeant Campioun Schir William Wallace, Middle Scots poem)
1478
Geoffrey Chaucer – Canterbury Tales
Bíblia Valenciana (Valencian Bible), the first printed bible in Catalan/Valencian, translated by Bonifaci Ferrer
1479
Rodolphus Agricola – De inventione dialectica
1480
Pierre Le Baud – (approximate date of completion)
John of Capua – Directorium Humanae Vitae, a translation of the Panchatantra
1481
The boke intituled Eracles, and also of Godefrey of Boloyne the whiche speketh of the conquest of the holy londe of Iherusalem, a translation by William Caxton from Estoire d'Eracles, the French version of William of Tyre's Historia
Mirrour of the Worlde, a translation of 1480 by William Caxton from Vincent of Beauvais's Speculum Maius, the first book printed in England to include woodcut illustrations
The Historie of Reynart the Foxe (first English translation)
Approximate date: 'Pseudo-Apuleius' – Herbarium Apuleii Platonici, the first printed illustrated herbal
1482
Mosen Diego de Valera – Crónica abreviada de España ("Crónica Valeriana")
Euclid – Elements (in Latin)
Hans Tucher der Ältere – Beschreibung der Reyß ins Heylig Land
1483
The Book of the Knight of the Tower, a translation by William Caxton
The Golden Legend, a translation by William Caxton; as the most printed incunable across Europe, this reaches its 9th edition in English by 1527
Giacomo Filippo Foresti – Supplementum chronicarum
Das Der Buch Beyspiele, a translation of the Panchatantra
Theophrastus – Historia Plantarum (first Latin version of Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία translated by Theodore Gaza)
1484
Aesop's Fables, a translation (from French) by William Caxton
Plato – Opera Platonis (complete works), a translation by Marsilio Ficino
1485
Leon Battista Alberti – De Re Aedificatoria (written 1443–52 and published posthumously), the first printed work on architecture
Joseph Albo – Sefer ha-Ikkarim (written before 1444)
Bommarasa of Terakanambi – Sanatkumara Charite
Sir Thomas Malory – Le Morte d'Arthur
1486
Bernhard von Breydenbach – Peregrinatio in Terram Sanctam, with illustrations taken from life by the printer Erhard Reuwich
The Boke of Seynt Albans, with a contribution attributed to Juliana Berners
Giovanni Pico della Mirandola – De hominis dignitate
1487
Niccolò da Correggio – Fabula di Cefalo
Heinrich Kramer with James Sprenger – Malleus Maleficarum, a witch-hunting manual
1489
Marsilio Ficino – De vita libri tres (Three Books on Life)
1490
John Ireland – The Meroure of Wyssdome
Joanot Martorell and Martí Joan de Galba – Tirant lo Blanch
c. 1490s
Jacomijne Costers – Visioen en exempel
1491
Johannes de Ketham (ed.) – Fasciculus Medicinae (first printed book to contain anatomical illustrations)
1492
John of Gaddesden – Rosa Medicinæ (first printing; written 1307)
1493
Giuliano Dati – Lettera delle isole novamente trovata, a translation into verse of a letter from Christopher Columbus to Ferdinand of Spain, regarding Columbus' first exploratory voyage across the Atlantic in 1492
15 June: Hartmann Schedel – Nuremberg Chronicle
The Seven Sages of Rome, midland English version of the Seven Wise Masters story cycle (printed by Richard Pynson)
1494
Sebastian Brant – Ship of Fools (Daß Narrenschyff)
Fra Luca Pacioli – Summa de arithmetica
1496
Isaac Abrabanel – Ma'yene ha-Yeshu'ah
Juan del Encina – Cancionero
1497
Mīr-Khvānd – Rawżat aṣ-ṣafāʾ
1497–1504
Pietro Bembo – Gli Asolani (three volumes on courtly love, first printed 1505)
1498
Annio da Viterbo – Commentaria super opera diversorum auctorum de antiquitatibus loquentium ("Antiquities", forgeries)
Polydore Vergil – Adagia
1499
Francesco Colonna (attrib.) – Hypnerotomachia Poliphili
Pierre Desrey – Genealogie de Godefroi de Buillon
Thomas of Erfurt (mistakenly ascribed to Duns Scotus) – De Modis Significandi printed (written in early 14th century)
Niccolò Machiavelli – Discorso sopra le cose di Pisa
Fernando de Rojas – Comedia de Calisto y Melibea, better known as La Celestina
Polydore Vergil – De inventoribus rerum
Jehan Lagadec (ed.) – Catholicon, the first French dictionary (trilingual with Breton and Latin; compiled in 1464)
Undated
Krittibas Ojha (translator, d. 1461) – Krittivasi Ramayan
Kim Si-seup (1435–1493) – Geumo Sinhwa (金鰲新話, "Tales of Mount Geumo" or New stories of the Golden Turtle)
At least two of the Middle English versions of Ipomadon
Voynich manuscript (undeciphered, carbon dated to early 15th century)
Drama
c.1463–1475
Probable date of composition of the "N-Town Plays" in The Midlands of England
1470
Approximate date of composition of Elckerlijc, attributed to Peter van Diest (first printed 1495)
Probable date of composition of Mankind
1492
Juan del Encina – Triunfo de la fama
1493
Ludovico Ariosto –
c.1497
Henry Medwall – Fulgens and Lucrece
Approximate date of composition
The Castle of Perseverance
The Somonyng of Everyman
Births
Early 15th c. – Henry Lovelich, English poet and translator from London
1405: 18 October – Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, Italian erotic poet and novelist, later Pope Pius II (died 1464)
1406 – Matteo Palmieri, Florentine humanist and historian (died 1475)
1413 – Giosafat Barbaro, Venetian travel writer (died 1494)
c. 1426 – Bhalan, Indian Gujarati-language poet (died c. 1500)
1432 – Ōta Dōkan (太田 道灌, Ōta Sukenaga), Japanese samurai warrior-poet and Buddhist monk (died 1486)
1434: 29 August – Janus Pannonius, Hungarian/Croatian poet and bishop writing in Latin (died 1472)
c. 1435 – Johannes Tinctoris (Jehan le Teinturier), Low Countries' writer on music and musician (died 1511)
1441: 9 February – Ali-Shir Nava'i, Chagatai Turkic-language Timurid poet and scholar (died 1501)
c. 1441 – Felix Fabri (Felix Faber), Swiss Dominican theologian and travel writer (died 1502)
1449 – Aldus Manutius, Italian publisher (died 1515)
c. 1451 – Richard Methley, English Dominican writer and translator (died 1527 or 1528)
1453 – Ermolao Barbaro, Italian scholar (died 1493)
c. 1460 – John Skelton, English poet (died 1529)
1462: 8 September – Henry Medwall, English playwright and ecclesiastical lawyer (died c. 1501/2?)
1465 – Yamazaki Sōkan (山崎宗鑑, Shina Norishige), Japanese poet (died 1553)
1470: 20 May – Pietro Bembo, Venetian-born scholar, poet and cardinal (died 1547)
c. 1473 – Jean Lemaire de Belges, Walloon French poet and historian (died c. 1525)
1475 – Ludovico Vicentino degli Arrighi, Italian calligrapher and type designer (died 1527)
1483: 6 March – Francesco Guicciardini, Italian historian and statesman
1483: 19 April – Paolo Giovio, Italian contemporary historian, bishop and scientist (died 1552)
1485 – Hanibal Lucić, Croatian poet and playwright (died 1553)
1486: 28 July – Pieter Gillis, Flemish humanist, printer and Antwerp city official (died 1533)
1488: c. 24 August – Ferdinand Columbus, Spanish bibliophile (died 1539)
1488: (estimated) – Otto Brunfels, German botanist and theologian (died 1534)
1490: Gáspár Heltai (Kaspar Helth), Transylvanian writer in German (died 1574)
1494: November (probable) – François Rabelais, French writer (died 1553)
1496: 23 November – Clément Marot, French poet (died 1544)
1497 – Edward Hall, English historian, politician and lawyer (died 1547)
Deaths
1400 – Jan of Jenštejn, archbishop of Prague, writer, composer and poet (born 1348)
1406: 19 March – Ibn Khaldun, North African historiographer and philosopher (born 1332)
c. 1416 – Julian of Norwich, English religious writer and mystic (born c. 1342)
1426 – Thomas Hoccleve, English poet and clerk (born c. 1368)
c. 1426 – John Audelay, English poet and priest (year of birth unknown)
c. 1430 – Christine de Pizan, French poet and author of conduct books (born 1364)
c. 1440 – Margery Kempe, English mystic and autobiographer (born c. 1373)
c. 1443 – Zeami Motokiyo (世阿弥 元清), Japanese Noh actor and playwright (born c. 1363)
1448 – Zhu Quan (朱|權), Prince of Ning, Chinese military commander, feudal lord, historian and playwright (born 1378)
c. 1451 – John Lydgate, English poet and monk (born c. 1370)
1454 – Francesco Barbaro, Italian humanist and politician (born 1390)
1458 – Íñigo López de Mendoza, 1st Marquis of Santillana, Castilian politician and poet (born 1398)
1459 - Ausiàs March, Valencian poet and knight (born 1400)
1464:
14 August – Pope Pius II
John Capgrave, English historian and scholastic theologian (born 1393)
1468 – Joanot Martorell, Valencian novelist and knight (born 1413)
1471 – Sir Thomas Malory, presumed English writer (year of birth unknown)
1472: 27 March – Janus Pannonius, Hungarian/Croatian poet and bishop writing in Latin (born 1434)
1475 – Matteo Palmieri, Florentine historian and humanist (born 1406)
c. 1483 – Richard Holland, Scottish cleric and poet
1486 – Margareta Clausdotter, Swedish chronicler and nun
c. 1490 – Lewys Glyn Cothi, Welsh poet (born 1420)
1492 – Jami, Persian poet and scholar (born 1414)
1493 – Ermolao Barbaro, Italian scholar (born 1453)
1494 – Giosafat Barbaro, Italian travel writer, diplomat and explorer (born 1413)
1496: 28 August – Kanutus Johannis, Swedish Franciscan friar, writer and book collector
See also
15th century in poetry
14th century in literature
16th century in literature
List of years in literature
References
Renaissance literature
History of literature | [
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222878 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16th%20century%20in%20literature | 16th century in literature | This article presents lists of literary events and publications in the 16th century.
Events
1501
Italic type (cut by Francesco Griffo) is first used by Aldus Manutius at the Aldine Press in Venice, in an octavo edition of Virgil's Aeneid. He also publishes an edition of Petrarch's Le cose volgari and first adopts his dolphin and anchor device.
1502
Aldine Press editions appear of Dante's Divine Comedy, Herodotus's Histories and Sophocles.
1507
King James IV grants a patent for the first printing press in Scotland to Walter Chapman and Andrew Myllar.
1508
April 4 – John Lydgate's The Complaint of the Black Knight becomes the first book printed in Scotland.
The earliest known printed edition of the chivalric romance Amadis de Gaula, as edited and expanded by Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo, is published in Castilian at Zaragoza.
Elia Levita completes writing the Bovo-Bukh.
1509
Desiderius Erasmus writes The Praise of Folly while staying with Thomas More in England.
1510
April 10 – Henry Cornelius Agrippa pens the dedication of De occulta philosophia libri tres to Johannes Trithemius.
1510–1511
Ein kurtzweilig Lesen von Dyl Ulenspiegel, geboren uß dem Land zu Brunßwick, wie er sein leben volbracht hat … is published by printer in Strassburg in Early New High German, the first appearance of the trickster character Till Eulenspiegel in print.
1512
The word "masque" is first used to denote a poetic drama.
1513
The Aldine Press editiones principes of Lycophron, Lysias, Pindar and Plato is published by Aldus Manutius in Venice.
Niccolò Machiavelli is banished from Florence by the House of Medici and writes The Prince as De Principatibus (On Principalities) in Tuscany this summer.
Johannes Potken publishes the first Ge'ez text, Psalterium David et Cantica aliqua, at Rome.
1514
May 15 – The earliest printed edition of Saxo Grammaticus' 12th-century Scandinavian history Gesta Danorum, edited by Christiern Pedersen from an original found near Lund, is published as Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae by Jodocus Badius in Paris.
Gregorio de Gregorii begins printing Kitab Salat al-Sawa'i (a Christian book of hours), the first known book printed in the Arabic alphabet using movable type. It is falsely assigned in Venice to Fano.
1515
Christoph Froschauer becomes the first printer in Zürich.
1516
Samuel Nedivot prints the 14th-century Hebrew Sefer Abudirham in Fez, the first book printed in Africa.
Paolo Ricci translates the 13th-century Kabbalistic work Sha'are Orah by Joseph ben Abraham Gikatilla as Portae Lucis.
1519
Apokopos by Bergadis, the first book in Modern Greek, is printed in Venice.
The chivalric romance Libro del muy esforzado e invencible caballero Don Claribalte (Book of the much striving and invincible knight Don Claribalte), the first work by Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, is published in Valencia, Spain, by Juan Viñao. In a foreword dedicating it to Ferdinand, Duke of Calabria, Oviedo relates that it has been conceived and written in the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo (the Caribbean island of Hispaniola), where he has been working since 1514. It can therefore claim to be the first literary work created in the New World.
1521
June 29 or 30 – Neacșu's letter is the oldest surviving dateable document written primarily in Romanian (using the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet).
1522
Luo Guanzhong's 14th-century compilation Romance of the Three Kingdoms is first printed as Sanguozhi Tongsu Yanyi.
Luther Bible: Martin Luther's translation of the New Testament into Early New High German from Greek, Das newe Testament Deutzsch, is published.
1522–24
St Ignatius Loyola writes his Exercitia spiritualia (Spiritual Exercises), on which Jesuit spirituality is based. It is published in 1548 after formal approval by Pope Paul III.
1524
Eyn Gespräch von dem gemaynen Schwabacher Kasten ("als durch Brüder Hainrich, Knecht Ruprecht, Kemerin, Spüler, und irem Maister, des Handtwercks der Wüllen Tuchmacher") is published in Germany, the first publication in the "Schwabacher" blackletter typeface.
1526
Spring – The first complete printed translation of the New Testament into English by William Tyndale arrives in England from Germany, having been printed in Worms. In October, Cuthbert Tunstall, Bishop of London, attempts to collect all the copies in his diocese and burn them.
The New Testament in Swedish, the first official Bible translation into Swedish, is made by Olaus Petri under royal patronage.
The first complete Dutch-language translation of the Bible is printed by Jacob van Liesvelt in Antwerp.
The Bibliotheca Corviniana in Ofen is destroyed by troops of the Ottoman Empire.
1530
January – The first printed translation of the Torah in English, by William Tyndale, is published in Antwerp for distribution in Britain.
An edition of Erasmus's Paraphrasis in Elegantiarum Libros Laurentii Vallae is the first book to use the Roman form of the Garamond typeface cut by Claude Garamond.
Paracelsus finishes writing Paragranum.
1533
October – The censors of the Collège de Sorbonne condemn François Rabelais' Pantagruel as obscene.
1534
Luther Bible: Martin Luther's Biblia: das ist die gantze Heilige Schrifft Deudsch, a translation of the complete Bible into German, is printed by Hans Lufft in Wittenberg, with woodcut illustrations.
Cambridge University Press is granted a royal charter by King Henry VIII of England to print "all manner of books" and so becomes the first of the privileged presses.
Rabbi Asher Anchel's Mirkevet ha-Mishneh (a Tanakh concordance) is the first book printed in Yiddish (in Kraków).
1535
The earliest printed book in Estonian, a Catechism with a translation by Johann Koell from the Middle Low German Lutheran text of Simon Wanradt, is printed by Hans Lufft in Wittenberg for use in Tallinn.
1536
Petar Zoranić writes the first Croatian novel, the pastoral-allegorical Planine ("Mountains"); it first appears posthumously in Venice in 1569.
1537
Construction of the Biblioteca Marciana in Venice to the design of Jacopo Sansovino begins, continuing to 1560.
Paracelsus starts to write Astronomia Magna or the whole Philosophia Sagax of the Great and Little World.
December 28 – Ordonnance de Montpellier initiates a legal deposit system for books in the Kingdom of France.
1538
Paracelsus finishes writing Astronomia Magna or the whole Philosophia Sagax of the Great and Little World.
December 20 – Pietro Bembo is made a Cardinal.
1539
April – Printing of the Great Bible (The Byble in Englyshe) is completed. It is distributed to churches in England. Prepared by Myles Coverdale, it contains much material from the Tyndale Bible, unacknowledged as Tyndale's version is officially considered heretical.
Game Place House in Great Yarmouth becomes the first English building to be used regularly as a public theatre.
Marie Dentière writes an open letter to Marguerite of Navarre, sister of the King of France; the Epistre tres utile (Very useful letter) calls for expulsion of Catholic clergy from France.
The first printing press in North America is set up in Mexico City. Its first known book, Manual de Adultos, appears in 1540.
1540
Sir David Lyndsay's Middle Scots satirical morality play A Satire of the Three Estates is first performed, privately.
1541
Elia Levita's chivalric romance, the Bovo-Bukh, is first printed, becoming the earliest published secular work in Yiddish.
1542
La relación/The Account, written by Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, appears, as the first European publication devoted wholly to discussion of North America.
1550
Primož Trubar's Catechismus and Abecedarium, the first books in Slovene, are printed in Schwäbisch Hall.
Popol Vuh is written after a long oral tradition.
1551
An edition of the Book of Common Prayer becomes the first book printed in Ireland.
1552
June – Sir David Lyndsay's Middle Scots satirical morality play A Satire of the Three Estates is first performed publicly in full, at Cupar in Fife.
1554
Publication of Menno Simons' Uytgangh ofte bekeeringhe begins the Dutch Golden Age of literature.
1565
Torquato Tasso enters the service of Cardinal Luigi d'Este at Ferrara.
1567
October 14 – António Ferreira becomes Desembargador da Casa do Civel and leaves Coimbra for Lisbon.
Approximate date – The first publication in book form of the Chinese shenmo fantasy novel Fengshen Yanyi.
1571
October 7 – In the naval Battle of Lepanto, Miguel de Cervantes is wounded.
Michel de Montaigne retires from public life and isolates himself in the tower of the Château de Montaigne.
1572
England's Vagabonds Act 1572 prescribes punishment for rogues. This includes acting companies lacking formal patronage.
Luís Vaz de Camões of Portugal publishes his epic Os Lusíadas.
1575
September 26 – Miguel de Cervantes is captured by Barbary pirates, to be ransomed only five years later.
Sir Philip Sidney meets Penelope Devereaux, the inspiration for his Astrophel and Stella.
1576
December – James Burbage builds The Theatre, London's first permanent public playhouse. This opens the great age of English Renaissance theatre.
1586
October 17 – The poet Sir Philip Sidney (born 1554) dies of wounds received at the Battle of Zutphen.
1590
A troupe of boy actors, the Children of Paul's, is suppressed due to its playwright John Lyly's role in the Marprelate controversy.
1596
Blackfriars Theatre opens in London.
1597
Ben Jonson is briefly jailed in Marshalsea Prison after his play The Isle of Dogs is suppressed.
1598
September 22 – Ben Jonson kills actor Gabriel Spenser in a duel, but is only held briefly in Newgate Prison.
December 28 – The Theatre in London is dismantled .
Thomas Bodley refounds the Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford.
1599
Spring/Summer – The Globe Theatre built in Southwark, London, utilises material from The Theatre.
June 4 – Bishops' Ban of 1599: Thomas Middleton's Microcynicon: Six Snarling Satires and John Marston's Scourge of Villainy are publicly burned as the English ecclesiastical authorities clamp down on published satire.
Late – The War of the Theatres, a satirical controversy, breaks out on the London stage.
New books
1500
This is the Boke of Cokery, the first known printed cookbook in English
Desiderius Erasmus – Collectanea Adagiorum (1st ed., Paris)
Singiraja – Maha Basavaraja Charitra
1501
Desiderius Erasmus – Handbook of a Christian Knight (Enchiridion militis Christiani)
Margery Kempe – The Book of Margery Kempe (posthumous)
Marko Marulić – Judita (written)
1502
Shin Maha Thilawuntha – Yazawin Kyaw
1503
William Dunbar – The Thrissil and the Rois
Euripides – Tragoediae
Approximate date: "Robin Hood and the Potter" (ballad)
1505
Georges Chastellain – Récollections des merveilles advenues en mon temps (posthumous)
Stephen Hawes
The Passtyme of Pleasure
The Temple of Glass
Lodovico Lazzarelli – Crater Hermetics (posthumous)
Pierre Le Baud – Cronique des roys et princes de Bretaigne armoricane (completed)
1508
William Dunbar – The Goldyn Targe
Erasmus of Rotterdam – Adagiorum chiliades (2nd ed., Venice)
Johannes Trithemius – De septem secundeis
1509
Manjarasa – Samyukta Koumudi
1510
Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo – Las sergas de Esplandián
Ruiz Paez de Ribera – Florisando
1511
The Demaũdes Joyous (joke book published by Wynkyn de Worde in English)
Erasmus – The Praise of Folly
1512
Henry Medwall – Fulgens and Lucrece
Huldrych Zwingli – De Gestis inter Gallos et Helvetios relatio
Il-yeon - The Samguk Yusa
1513
Mallanarya of Gubbi – Bhava Chintaratna
First translation of Virgil's Aeneid into English (Scots dialect) by Gavin Douglas
1514–15
Gian Giorgio Trissino – Sofonisba
1516
Henry Cornelius Agrippa
Dialogus de homine (Casale)
De triplici ratione cognoscendi Deum
Erasmus – Novum Instrumentum omne (Greek New Testament translation)
Robert Fabyan (anonymous; died c. 1512) – The New Chronicles of England and France
Marsilio Ficino – De triplici vita
Thomas More – Utopia
1517
Francysk Skaryna's Bible translation and printing
Teofilo Folengo's Baldo, a popular Italian work of comedy
1518
Henry Cornelius Agrippa – De originali peccato
Erasmus – Colloquies
Tantrakhyan (Nepal Bhasa literature)
1519
Santikirti – Santinatha Purana
1520
Scholars at Complutense University, Alcalá de Henares, under the direction of Diego Lopez de Zúñiga – Complutensian Polyglot Bible
1521
Goražde Psalter
1522
Luo Guanzhong (attrib.) – Romance of the Three Kingdoms; first publication
Martin Luther – Das newe Testament Deutzsch, translation of the New Testament into German
1523
Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples – Nouveau Testament, translation of the New Testament into French
Martin Luther – , translation of the Pentateuch into German
Maximilianus Transylvanus – De Moluccis Insulis, the first published account of the Magellan–Elcano circumnavigation
1524
Philippe de Commines – Mémoires (Part 1: Books 1–6); first publication (Paris)
Martin Luther and Paul Speratus – Etlich Cristlich Lider: Lobgesang un Psalm ("Achtliederbuch"), the first Lutheran hymnal (Wittenberg)
Martin Luther and others – Eyn Enchiridion oder Handbüchlein (the "Erfurt Enchiridion"), two editions of a hymnal printed respectively by Johannes Loersfeld and Matthes Maler (Erfurt)
Johann Walter – Eyn geystlich Gesangk Buchleyn ("A sacred little hymnal") (Wittenberg)
1525
Pietro Bembo – Prose della volgar lingua
Francesco Giorgi – De harmonia mundi totius
Paracelsus – De septem puncti idolotriae christianae
Antonio Pigafetta – Relazione del primo viaggio intorno al mondo ("Report on the First Voyage Around the World"); partial publication (Paris)
1526
William Tyndale's New Testament Bible translation
1527
Hector Boece – Historia Scotorum
Philippe de Commines – Mémoires (Part 2: Books 7–8); first publication
Hans Sachs and Andreas Osiander – Eyn wunderliche Weyssagung von dem Babsttumb, wie es ihm biz an das endt der welt gehen sol ("A wonderful prophecy of the papacy about how things will go for it up until the end of the world")
1528
Baltissare Castiglione – The Book of the Courtier (Il Cortegiano)
Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples – Ancien Testament, translation of the Old Testament into French
Francisco Delicado – Portrait of Lozana: The Lusty Andalusian Woman (Retrato de la Loçana andaluza)
William Tyndale – The Obedience of a Christian Man
1530
William Tyndale – The Practice of Prelates
1531
Henry Cornelius Agrippa – De occulta philosophia libri tres, Book One
Andrea Alciato – Emblemata
Sir Thomas Elyot – The Boke Named the Governour, the first English work concerning moral philosophy
Niccolò Machiavelli (posthumous) – Discourses on Livy
Paracelsus – Opus Paramirum (written in St. Gallen)
Michael Servetus – De trinitatis erroribus ("On the Errors of the Trinity")
1532
Niccolò Machiavelli (posthumous) – The Prince
François Rabelais (as Alcofribas Nasier) – Pantagruel (Les horribles et épouvantables faits et prouesses du très renommé Pantagruel Roi des Dipsodes, fils du Grand Géant Gargantua)
Feliciano de Silva – Don Florisel de Niquea
1533
Henry Cornelius Agrippa – Books Two and Three of De occulta philosophia libri tres
Antoine Marcourt (as Pantople) – Le livre des marchans
1534
Asher Anchel – Mirkevet ha-Mishneh
Martin Luther (translator) – "Luther Bible" (Biblia)
François Rabelais (as Alcofribas Nasier) – Gargantua (La vie très horrifique du grand Gargantua, père de Pantagruel)
Polydore Vergil – Historia Anglica
1535
John Bourchier, 2nd Baron Berners – Huon of Bordeaux
Simon Wanradt and Johann Koell – Catechism
Bible d'Olivétan (first translation of the complete Bible made from the original Hebrew and Greek into French)
1536
John Calvin – Institutes of the Christian Religion (in Latin)
Sir Thomas Elyot – The Castel of Helth
Paracelsus – Die große Wundarzney
1538
Hélisenne de Crenne – Les Angoisses douloureuses qui procèdent d'amours
Sir Thomas Elyot – The dictionary of syr Thomas Eliot knyght (Latin to English)
1539
Robert Estienne – Alphabetum Hebraicum
1540
Historia Scotorum of Hector Boece, translated into vernacular Scots by John Bellenden at the special request of James V of Scotland
The Byrth of Mankynde, the first printed book in English on obstetrics, and one of the first published in England to include engraved plates
1541
George Buchanan
Baptistes
Jephtha
Joachim Sterck van Ringelbergh – Lucubrationes vel potius absolutissima kyklopaideia
1542
Paul Fagius – Liber Fidei seu Veritatis
Edward Hall – The Union of the Two Noble and Illustrate Famelies of Lancastre & Yorke
1543
Nicolaus Copernicus – De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres)
Andreas Vesalius – De humani corporis fabrica libri septem (On the Fabric of the Human body in Seven Books)
1544
Cardinal John Fisher – Psalmi seu precationes (posthumous) in an anonymous English translation by its sponsor, Queen Katherine Parr
John Leland – Assertio inclytissimi Arturii regis Britanniae
1545
Roger Ascham – Toxophilus
Bernard Etxepare – Linguae Vasconum Primitiae
Sir John Fortescue – De laudibus legum Angliae (written c. 1471)
Queen Katherine Parr – Prayers or Meditations, the first book published by an English queen under her own name
1546
Sir John Prise of Brecon – Yn y lhyvyr hwnn (first book in Welsh; anonymous)
François Rabelais – Le tiers livre
1547
Gruffudd Hiraethog – (posthumous collection of Welsh proverbs made by William Salesbury)
Martynas Mažvydas – The Simple Words of Catechism (first printed book in Lithuanian)
Queen Katherine Parr – The Lamentation of a Sinner
William Salesbury – A Dictionary in Englyshe and Welshe
1548
John Bale – Illustrium majoris Britanniae scriptorum, hoc est, Angliae, Cambriae, ac Scotiae Summarium... ("A Summary of the Famous Writers of Great Britain, that is, of England, Wales and Scotland"; 1548–9)
1549
Johannes Aal – Johannes der Täufer (St. John Baptist)
The Complaynt of Scotland
1550
Martin Bucer – De regno Christi
The Facetious Nights of Straparola published in Italian, the first European storybook to contain fairy-tales
1552
François Rabelais – Le quart livre
Gerónimo de Santa Fe – Hebræomastix (posthumous)
Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis (Little Book of the Medicinal Herbs of the Indians), composed in Nahuatl by Martín de la Cruz and translated into Latin by Juan Badiano.
1553
Francesco Patrizi – La Città felice ("The Happy City")
1554
Anonymous – Lazarillo de Tormes
1559
The Elizabethan version of the Book of Common Prayer of the Church of England, which remains in use until the mid-17th century and becomes the first English Prayer Book in America
Jorge de Montemayor – Diana
Pavao Skalić – Encyclopediae seu orbis disciplinarum tam sacrarum quam profanarum epistemon
1560
Jacques Grévin – Jules César
William Whittingham, Anthony Gilby, Thomas Sampson – Geneva Bible
1562
William Bullein – Bullein's Bulwarke of Defence againste all Sicknes, Sornes, and Woundes
1563
John Foxe – Foxe's Book of Martyrs
1564
John Dee – Monas Hieroglyphica
1565
Camillo Porzio – La Congiura dei baroni
1567
Joan Perez de Lazarraga – Silbero, Silbia, Doristeo, and Sirena (MS in Basque)
Magdeburg Centuries, vols X-XI
William Salesbury – Testament Newydd ein Arglwydd Iesu Christ (translation of New Testament into Welsh)
Séon Carsuel, Bishop of the Isles – Foirm na n-Urrnuidheadh (translation of Knox's Book of Common Order into Classical Gaelic)
1569
Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga – La Araucana, part 1
Petar Zoranić – Planine
1571
Ali Sher Bengali – Sharḥ Nuzhat al-Arwāḥ (in Persian)
François de Belleforest – La Pyrénée (or La Pastorale amoureuse), the first French "pastoral novel"
Aibidil Gaoidheilge agus Caiticiosma (first printing in Irish)
1572
Friedrich Risner – Opticae thesaurus
Turba Philosophorum
1560-1575
Dawlat Wazir Bahram Khan – Laily-Majnu in Bengali
1576
Jean Boudin – Six livres de la République
George Pettie – A Petite Palace of Pettie His Pleasure
The Paradise of Dainty Devices, the most popular of the Elizabethan verse miscellanies
1577
Richard Eden – The History of Travayle in the West and East Indies
Thomas Hill – The Gardener's Labyrinth
Raphael Holinshed – The Chronicles of England, Scotland and Irelande
1578
George Best – A True Discourse of the Late Voyages of Discoverie...under the Conduct of Martin Frobisher
John Florio – First Fruits
Jaroš Griemiller – Rosarium philosophorum
Gabriel Harvey – Smithus, vel Musarum lachrymae
John Lyly – Euphues: the Anatomy of Wit
1579
Stephen Gosson – The Schoole of Abuse
Thomas Lodge – Honest Excuses
1581
Barnabe Riche –
1582
George Buchanan – Rerum Scoticarum Historia
Richard Hakluyt – Divers VoyagesJohn Leland – (posthumous translation)
1583
Philip Stubbes – The Anatomy of Abuses1584
James VI of Scotland – Some Reulis and CautelisDavid Powel – Historie of CambriaReginald Scot – The Discovery of Witchcraft1585
Miguel de Cervantes – La GalateaWilliam Davies – Y Drych Cristianogawl1586
John Knox – Historie of the Reformatioun of Religioun within the Realms of ScotlandJohn Lyly – Pappe with an hatchet, alias a figge for my GodsonneGeorge Puttenham (attr.) – The Arte of English Poesie1588
Thomas Hariot – A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of VirginiaThomas Nashe – The Anatomie of Absurditie1590
Thomas Lodge – Rosalynde: Euphues Golden LegacieThomas Nashe – An Almond for a Parrat1592
Robert Greene – Greene's Groatsworth of WitGabriel Harvey – Foure Letters and certaine SonnetsRichard Johnson – Nine Worthies of London1594
Sir John Davis – The Seamans SecretsRichard Hooker – Of the Lawes of Ecclesiastical Politie1595
Sir Philip Sidney (posthumous) – An Apology for Poetry (written c. 1579)
1596
Sir Walter Raleigh – The Discoverie of the Large, Rich and Beautiful Empyre of Guiana1597
Francis Bacon – Essays1598
John Bodenham – Politeuphuia (Wits' Commonwealth)King James VI of Scotland – The Trew Law of Free MonarchiesFrancis Meres – Palladis Tamia, Wits TreasuryJohn Stow – Survey of London1599
John Bodenham – Wits' TheaterNew drama
1502The Monologue of the Cowboy1504Beunans Meriasek (Cornish)
1508
Ludovico Ariosto – CassariaThe World and the Child, also known as Mundas et Infans (probable date of composition)
1509
Ludovico Ariosto – I suppositi1513
Juan del Encina – Plácida y Victoriano1517A Trilogia das Barcas1522
Niklaus Manuel Deutsch I – Vom Papst und Christi Gegensatz1523Farsa de Inês Pereira1524
Niklaus Manuel Deutsch I – Vom Papst und seiner Priesterschaft1525
Niklaus Manuel Deutsch I – Der Ablasskrämer1531
Accademia degli Intronati – Gl' Ingannati1536
Hans Ackermann – Der Verlorene Sohn1538
John BaleKynge Johan, the earliest known English historical drama (in verse)Three Laws of Nature, Moses and Christ, corrupted by the Sodomytes, Pharisees and Papystes most wicked1541
Giovanni Battista Giraldi – Orbecche1551
Marin Držić – Dundo Maroje1553
(about 1553) – Gammer Gurton's Needle and Ralph Roister Doister, the first comedies written in English
António Ferreira – Bristo1562
Thomas Norton and Thomas Sackville – GorboducJack Juggler – anonymous, sometimes attributed to Nicholas Udall
1566
George Gascoigne – Supposes1567
John Pickering – Horestes1568
Ulpian Fulwell – Like Will to Like1573
Torquato Tasso – Aminta1582
Giovanni Battista Guarini – Il pastor fido1584
John LylyCampaspeSapho and PhaoGeorge Peele – The Arraignment of ParisRobert Wilson – The Three Ladies of London (published)
1588
George Peele – The Battle of Alcazar (performed)
1589The Rare Triumphs of Love and Fortune – anonymous (published)
1590
Christopher Marlowe – Tamburlaine (both parts published)
George Peele – Famous Chronicle of King Edward the FirstRobert Wilson – The Three Lords and Three Ladies of London (published)
1591
John Lyly – Endymion (published)The Troublesome Reign of King John – Anonymous (published)
1592
Thomas Kyd – The Spanish Tragedy (published)
William Shakespeare – Henry VI, Part 1, Part 2, Part 3Arden of Faversham – anonymous (previously attributed to Shakespeare)
1594
Samuel Daniel – CleopatraRobert GreeneFriar Bacon and Friar Bungay (published)Orlando Furioso (published)
Thomas Lodge & Robert Greene – A Looking Glass for London (published)
Lope de Vega – El maestro de danzar ("The Dancing Master")
George Peele – The Battle of Alcazar (published)
William Shakespeare – Romeo and JulietRobert Wilson – The Cobbler's Prophecy (published)
1595
Anonymous – Locrine (published)
1597
Thomas Nashe and Ben Jonson – The Isle of DogsWilliam Shakespeare – Richard II (published)
1598
Robert Greene – The Scottish Historie of James the Fourth (published)
Ben Jonson – Every Man in His Humour1599
Thomas Dekker – The Shoemaker's HolidayThomas Dekker, Henry Chettle, and William Haughton – Patient GrisselBen Jonson – Every Man Out of His HumourWilliam Shakespeare – Henry VNew poetry
1505
Pietro Bembo – Gli Asolani1514
Francesco Maria Molzo – Translation of the Aeneid into Italian, in consecutive unrhymed verse (forerunner of blank verse)
1516
Ludovico Ariosto – Orlando Furioso (first version, April)
1527
Pietro Aretino – Sonetti Lussuriosi ("Sonnets of lust" or "Aretino's Postures", to accompany an edition of Raimondi's erotic engravings, I Modi)
1528
Anna Bijns – Refrains1530
Pietro Bembo – RimeBy 1534
"A Gest of Robyn Hode"
1550
Sir Thomas Wyatt – Pentential Psalms1557
Giovanni Battista Giraldi – ErcoleTottel's Miscellany1562
Arthur Brooke – The Tragical History of Romeus and JulietTorquato Tasso – Rinaldo1563
Barnabe Googe – Eclogues, Epitaphs, and Sonnets1567
George Turberville – Epitaphs, Epigrams, Songs and Sonnets1572
Luís de Camões – Os Lusíadas1573
George Gascoigne – A Hundred Sundry Flowers1575
Nicholas Breton – A Small Handful of Fragrant FlowersGeorge Gascoigne – The Posies1576The Paradise of Dainty Devices, the most popular of the Elizabethan verse miscellanies
1577
Nicholas Breton – The Works of a Young Wit and A Flourish upon Fancy1579
Edmund Spenser – The Shepherd's Calendar1581
Torquato Tasso – Jerusalem DeliveredThomas Watson – Hekatompathia or Passionate Century of Love1586
Luis Barahona de Soto – Primera parte de la Angélica1590
Sir Philip Sidney – ArcadiaEdmund Spenser – The Faerie Queene, Books 1–3
1591
Sir Philip Sidney – Astrophel and Stella (published posthumously)
1592
Henry Constable – Diana1593
Michael Drayton – The Shepherd's GarlandGiles Fletcher, the Elder – Licia1594
Michael Drayton – Peirs Gaveston1595
Thomas Campion – Poemata1596
Sir John Davies – Orchestra, or a Poeme of DauncingMichael Drayton – The Civell Warres of Edward the Second and the BarronsEdmund Spenser – The Faerie Queene, Books 1–6
1597
Michael Drayton – Englands Heroicall Epistles1598
Lope de VegaLa ArcadiaLa Dragontea1599
Sir John DaviesHymnes of AstraeaNosce TeipsumGeorge Peele – The Love of King David and Faire BethsabeBirths
c. 1501 – Garcilaso de la Vega, Spanish soldier and poet (died 1536)
1503 – Thomas Wyatt
1504 – Nicholas Udall (died 1556)
1508 – Primož Trubar, author of the first printed books in Slovene (died 1586)
1510 – Martynas Mažvydas
1511 – Johannes Secundus (died 1535)
1513 – Daniele Barbaro (died 1570)
1515 – Roger Ascham
1515 – Johann Weyer, Dutch occultist (died 1588)
1517 – Henry Howard
c. 1520 – Christophe Plantin, printer (died 1589)
1524 – Luís de Camões (died 1580)
1547 – Miguel de Cervantes (died 1616)
1551 – William Camden
1554 – Philip Sidney
1555 – Lancelot Andrewes
1558 – Robert Greene
1558 – Thomas Kyd
1561 – Luís de Góngora y Argote, Spanish poet (died 1627)
1562 – Lope de Vega, Spanish poet and dramatist (died 1635)
1564 – Henry Chettle, English dramatist (died 1607)
1564 – Christopher Marlowe, English poet and dramatist (died 1593)
1564 – William Shakespeare, English poet and dramatist (died 1616)
1570 – Robert Aytoun
1572 – Ben Jonson, John Donne
1576 – John Marston
1577 – Robert Burton
1580 – Francisco de Quevedo (died 1645)
1581 – Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft
1583 – Philip Massinger
1587 – Joost van den Vondel
1594 – James Howell
Deaths
1502
Felix Fabri (Felix Faber), Swiss Dominican theologian and travel writer (born c. 1441)
Henry Medwall, English dramatist (born c. 1462)
1513 – Robert Fabyan, English chronicler and sheriff (year of birth unknown)
1515 – Aldus Manutius, Italian publisher (born 1449)
1527 – Ludovico Vicentino degli Arrighi, Italian calligrapher and type designer (born 1475)
1534 – Wynkyn de Worde, Lotharingian-born English printer
1536 – Johannes Secundus, Dutch poet writing in Latin (born 1511)
1542 – Thomas Wyatt, English poet (born 1503)
1546 – Meera, Indian poet and mystic (born 1498)
1552 – Alexander Barclay, English or Scottish poet (born c. 1476)
1553
Hanibal Lucić, Croatian poet and playwright (born c. 1485)
François Rabelais, French writer and polymath (year of birth unknown)
1555 – Polydore Vergil (Polydorus Vergilius), Italian scholar (born c. 1470)
1563
John Bale, English historian, controversialist and bishop (born 1495)
Martynas Mažvydas, Lithuanian religious writer (born 1510)
1566 – Marco Girolamo Vida, Italian poet (born 1485?)
30 December 1568 – Roger Ascham, English scholar and didact (born 1515)
1570 – Daniele Barbaro, Italian writer, translator and cardinal (born 1513)
1577 – George Gascoigne, English poet and soldier (born c. 1535)
1580 or 1582 – Wu Cheng'en, Chinese writer (born c. 1500)
1584 – Jan Kochanowski, Polish poet (born 1530)
1585 – Pierre de Ronsard, French poet (born 1524)
1586 – Primož Trubar, Slovene author (born 1508)
1588 – Johann Weyer, Dutch occultist (born 1515)
1 July 1589 – Christophe Plantin, Dutch humanist and printer (born c. 1520)
3 September 1592 – Robert Greene, English dramatist (born 1558)
30 May 1593 – Christopher Marlowe, English dramatist, poet and translator (born 1564)
15 August 1594 (burial) – Thomas Kyd, English dramatist (born 1558)
5 November 1595 – Luis Barahona de Soto, Spanish poet (born 1548)
In literature
The main action of Peter Shaffer's drama The Royal Hunt of the Sun'' (1964) is set in 1532–33.
See also
16th century in poetry
15th century in literature
17th century in literature
List of years in literature
Early Modern literature
Renaissance literature
References
Renaissance literature
Early Modern literature
History of literature | [
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222880 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/17th%20century%20in%20literature | 17th century in literature |
Events and trends
1605–1615 – Miguel de Cervantes writes the two parts of Don Quixote.
1616: April – Death of both William Shakespeare and Miguel de Cervantes.
1630-1651: William Bradford writes Of Plymouth Plantation, journals that are considered the most authoritative account of the Pilgrims and their government.
1660–1669 – Samuel Pepys writes his diary.
1667–68 – Marianna Alcoforado writes her Letters of a Portuguese Nun.
1671–1696 – Madame de Sévigné writes her famous letters.
Metaphysical poets
German literature of the Baroque period
New books and plays
1600
Hamlet, Prince of Denmark by William Shakespeare
England's Helicon (anthology) – including work by Edmund Spenser, Michael Drayton, Thomas Lodge, Philip Sidney and others
Old Fortunatus – Thomas Dekker
The Spanish Moor's Tragedy – Thomas Dekker, John Marston, and William Haughton
1601
Twelfth Night, or What You Will by William Shakespeare
Cynthia's Revels – Ben Jonson
Disputationes Metaphysicae by Francisco Suárez first published
Satiromastix – Thomas Dekker
1602
Rymes by Lope de Vega
Troilus and Cressida by William Shakespeare
Antonio and Mellida (play) – John Marston
Mirum in Modum (poetry) – John Davies of Hereford
Satiromastix (play) – Thomas Dekker and John Marston
A Survey of Cornwall – Richard Carew
1603
The True Law of Free Monarchies by King James VI and I
Ane Godlie Dreame (poem) by Elizabeth Melville published in Edinburgh
Measure for Measure by William Shakespeare
Othello by William Shakespeare
The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus by Christopher Marlowe (published)
1604
All's Well That Ends Well by William Shakespeare
The Honest Whore (play) – Thomas Dekker
The Malcontent (play) – John Marston
1605
Timon of Athens by William Shakespeare
The Dutch Courtesan (play) – John Marston
The Tragedy of Philotas (play) – Samuel Daniel
The Tragedy of King Lear by William Shakespeare
Don Quixote (El Ingenioso Hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha), Part I – Miguel de Cervantes
Epistle concerning the Excellencies of the English Tongue – Richard Carew
1606
Macbeth by William Shakespeare
Antony and Cleopatra by William Shakespeare
1607
A Woman Killed with Kindness (play) – Thomas Heywood
Bussy D'Ambois (play) – George Chapman
Michaelmas Terme (play) – Thomas Middleton
The Knight of the Burning Pestle (play) – Francis Beaumont
The Famous History of Sir Thomas Wyatt (play) – Thomas Dekker and John Webster
The Legend of Great Cromwell – Michael Drayton
Pericles, Prince of Tyre by William Shakespeare
The Revenger's Tragedy by Thomas Middleton
1608
Coriolanus by William Shakespeare
A Nest of Ninnies – Robert Armin
Humour out of Breathe (play) – John Day
The Belman of London (play) – Thomas Dekker
The Merry Devil of Edmonton (play) – anonymous; has been attributed to William Shakespeare, Michael Drayton and others.
1609
The Winter's Tale by William Shakespeare
Jersulam Conquered (epic poem) by Lope de Vega
Fourre Birds of Noahs Arke – Thomas Dekker
1610
Sidereus Nuncius by Galileo Galilei
Cymbeline by William Shakespeare
The Faithful Shepherdess (play) – John Fletcher
1611
Fuente Ovejuna (play) – Lope de Vega
The Authorized Version (King James version) of the Bible
The Tempest by William Shakespeare
Catiline his Conspiracy (play) – Ben Jonson
The Roaring Girle (play) – Thomas Dekker and Thomas Middleton
1612
Four Soluloquies – Lope de Vega
El comendador de Ocaña (Ocaña's mayor) – Lope de Vega
A Woman is a Weather-Cocke – Nathan Field
1613
Soledades – Luis de Góngora
La dama boba (the fool lady) – Lope de Vega
The Dog in the Manger (play) – Lope de Vega
Henry VIII by William Shakespeare
Tears on the Death of Moeliades – William Drummond of Hawthornden
The Revenge of Bussy D'Ambois – George Chapman
Purchas, his Pilgrimage; or, Relations of the World and the Religions observed in all Ages – Samuel Purchas
1614
Bartholomew Fair (play) – Ben Jonson
La Lira by Giambattista Marino
Fama fraternitatis Roseae Crucis oder Die Bruderschaft des Ordens der Rosenkreuzer – Johannes Valentinus Andreae
1615
Don Quixote, Part II – Miguel de Cervantes
El caballero de Olmedo (The knight from Olmedo) (play) – Lope de Vega
Confessio oder Bekenntnis der Societät und Bruderschaft Rosenkreuz – Johannes Valentinus Andreae
1616
Ben Jonson's Works
The Whole Works of Homer – George Chapman
Chymische Hochzeit Christiani Rosencreutz Anno 1459 – Johannes Valentinus Andreae
Rollo, Duke of Normandy (also known as The Bloody Brother) (?1616–30?) – John Fletcher, Ben Jonson, Philip Massinger, George Chapman (The drinking song)
1617
Warenar (play) by Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft
A Faire Quarrell (play) – Thomas Middleton and William Rowley
1618
History of Tythes – John Selden
Amends for Ladies (play) – Nathan Field
1619
A King and No King (play) – Beaumont and Fletcher
The Maid's Tragedy (play) – Beaumont and Fletcher
The Shoemaker's Holiday – Thomas Deloney
The Custome of the Countrey – John Fletcher and Philip Massinger
Reipublicae Christianopolitanae descriptio – Johannes Valentinus Andreae
1620
Philaster – Beaumont and Fletcher
1621
The Anatomy of Melancholy – Robert Burton
Women Beware Women – Thomas Middleton
El vergonzoso en palacio – Tirso de Molina
The Countess of Montgomery's Urania – Lady Mary Wroth
1622
The Heir (play) – Thomas May
The Historie of the Raigne of King Henry the Seventh – Francis Bacon
The French Disease – Richard Brome
The Beggar's Bush – John Fletcher
El tejedor de Segovia – Juan Ruiz de Alarcón
The Changeling – Thomas Middleton and William Rowley text
1623
L'Adone by Giambattista Marino
Love, honour and power (play) – Pedro Calderón de la Barca
The Duchess of Malfi – John Webster
First Folio – William Shakespeare
1624
Circe (poem) bu Lope de Vega
Nero Caesar, or Monarchie Depraved – Edmund Bolton
The Sun's Darling – John Ford
1625
De jure belli ac pacis by Hugo Grotius
Complete Essays – Francis Bacon
Les Bergeries – Racan
1626
El Buscón – Francisco de Quevedo
1627
England's schim (play) – Pedro Calderón de la Barca
The Bataile of Agincourt – Michael Drayton
First Steps up Parnassus – Michael Drayton
1628
Microcosmographie – John Earle
1629
The Roman Actor (play) – Philip Massinger
La Dama Duende (play) – Pedro Calderón de la Barca
The Tragedy of Albovine (play) – William D'Avenant
1630
The Conceited Pedlar – Thomas Randolph
1631
The punishment without vengeance (play) – Lope de Vega
1632
L'Allegro – John Milton
La Dorotea – Lope de Vega
The Fatal Dowry (play) – Nathan Field and Philip Massinger
Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems by Galileo Galilei
The Muses’ Looking-Glass by Thomas Randolph
1633
A New Way to Pay Old Debts (play) – Philip Massinger
Love's Sacrifice (play) – John Ford
The Gamester (play) – James Shirley
The Temple (poetry) – George Herbert
1634
Tottenham Court (play) – Thomas Nabbes
1636
Life is a dream (play) – Pedro Calderón de la Barca
Le Cid (play) – Pierre Corneille
1637
La Vega del Parnaso (Parnasos' river bank) – Lope de Vega
Discourse on the Method – René Descartes
1638
Two New Sciences by Galileo Galilei
Alcione (play) – Pierre du Ryer
1639
Argalus and Parthenia (play) – Henry Glapthorne
The City Match – Jasper Mayne
1640
Horace (play) – Pierre Corneille
The Bay Psalm Book, the first book printed in North America
Joseph's coloured Coat – Thomas Fuller
1641
Meditations on First Philosophy – René Descartes
Episcopacy by Divine Right – Joseph Hall
The Cardinall (play) – James Shirley (first extant edition, 1652)
A Joviall Crew (play) – Richard Brome (first extant edition, 1652)
1642
September: Playhouses closed in England by government order.
Religio Medici Sir Thomas Browne
Saul (play) by Pierre du Ryer
1644
Principles of Philosophy – René Descartes
Areopagitica by John Milton
1646
Andronicus or the Unfortunate Politician – Thomas Fuller
Pseudodoxia Epidemica or Vulgar Errors – Sir Thomas Browne
1647
Philosophical Poems – Henry More
1648
The Amorous War – Jasper Mayne
Hesperides by Robert Herrick (poet)
Padmavati – Alaol (in Bengali)
1649
Eikon Basilike – John Gauden
1650
Silex scintillans – Henry Vaughan
1651
El alcalde de Zalamea – Pedro Calderón de la Barca
Leviathan – Thomas Hobbes
Reliquiae Wottonianiae – Sir Henry Wotton (posthumous)
Jeune Alcidiane – Marin le Roy de Gomberville
1652
Brief Character of the Low Countries – Owen Feltham
Theophilia or Love's Sacrifice (poetry) – Edward Benlowes
The Cardinall (play) – James Shirley
1653
A History of New England – Edward Johnson
The Compleat Angler – Izaak Walton
Poems and Fancies – Margaret Cavendish
The Princess Cloria – Percy Herbert, 2nd Baron Powis
1654
Lucifer (play) – Joost van den Vondel
Parlhenissa, a novel – Roger Boyle, 1st Earl of Orrery
1655
L'Étourdi ou les Contretemps first play by Molière
1656
El gran teatro del mundo (World's great theatre) (play) – Pedro Calderón de la Barca
Nature's Pictures – Margaret Cavendish
Oceana by James Harrington
1657
Guárdate del agua mansa (Keep out from silent waters) – Pedro Calderón de la Barca
Katharina von Georgien (play) by Andreas Gryphius
1658
Hydriotaphia, Urn Burial – Sir Thomas Browne
The Garden of Cyrus -Sir Thomas Browne
1659
Sati Mayna O Lorchandrani – Alaol (in Bengali)
Lucasta – Richard Lovelace (posthumous)
Pharonnida – William Chamberlayne
1660
Tohfa – Alaol (in Bengali)
1661
by Samuel von Pufendorf
1662
A new edition of the Book of Common Prayer of the Church of England (this edition remains the officially authorised book to the present day).
1664
La Thébaïde (play) – Jean Racine
1665
Alexandre le Grand (Alexander the Great) (play) – Jean Racine
Memoires of François Bassompierre (posthumous)
Saptapaykar – Alaol (in Bengali)
1666
Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners by John Bunyan
1667
Paradise Lost by John Milton
Andromaque by Jean Racine
Annus Mirabilis, the Year of Wonders 1666 – John Dryden
Secret Love (play) – John Dryden
1668
Le Tartuffe – Molière
The Miser – Molière
Simplicius Simplicissimus – Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen
Cyprianus Anglicanus – Peter Heylin
Essay of Dramatick Poesie – John Dryden
Observations upon Experimental Philosophy – Margaret Cavendish
1669
Saifulmuluk O Badiujjamal – Alaol (in Bengali)
1670
Pensées by Blaise Pascal
The Conquest of Granada – John Dryden
1671
Madame de Sévigné writes her first letter
Samson Agonistes – John Milton
The Rehearsal (play) – George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham performed
Hayy ibn Yaqdhan by Ibn Tufail – translated into Latin by Edward Pococke the Younger as Philosophus Autodidactus
Sikandarnama – Alaol (in Bengali)
1672
Bajacet (play) by Jean Racine
Marriage à la mode by John Dryden
The Rehearsal (play) by George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham published
Hayy ibn Yaqdhan by Ibn Tufail – translated into Dutch by Johannes Bouwmeester
1674
Iphigénie (play) by Jean Racine
The Tragedy of Nero, Emperour of Rome (play) – Nathaniel Lee
1675
The Country Wife by William Wycherley
Gerania; a New Discovery of a Little Sort of People, anciently discoursed of, called Pygmies by Joshua Barnes
1676
The Man of Mode (play) – George Etherege
English-Adventures by a Person of Honor – Roger Boyle, 1st Earl of Orrery
1677
Phèdre – Jean Racine
Treatise of the Art of War – Roger Boyle, 1st Earl of Orrery
1678
All for Love – John Dryden
The True Intellectual System of the Universe – Ralph Cudworth
The Pilgrim's Progress by John Bunyan
Threnodia Carolina – Sir Thomas Herbert
1679
Anima Mundi – Charles Blount
1680
The Life and Death of Mr Badman – John Bunyan
1681
Miscellaneous Poems by Andrew Marvell (posthumous)
Absalom and Achitophel by John Dryden
1682
The Life of an Amorous Man (好色一代男, Kōshoku Ichidai Otoko) by Ihara Saikaku
1685
Five Women Who Loved Love (好色五人女, Kōshoku Gonin Onna) by Ihara Saikaku
1686
Hayy ibn Yaqdhan by Ibn Tufail – translated into English by George Ashwell
The Life of an Amorous Woman (好色一代女, Kōshoku Ichidai Onna) by Ihara Saikaku
1687
Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica - Isaac Newton
The Hind and the Panther – John Dryden
The Hind and the Panther Transversed to the Story of the Country and the City Mouse – Matthew Prior
Bellamira, or The Mistress (play) – Sir Charles Sedley
The Great Mirror of Male Love (The Encyclopedia of Male Love) (男色大鑑, Nanshoku Okagami) by Ihara Saikaku
1688
The Eternal Storehouse of Japan (日本永代蔵, Nippon Eitaigura) by Ihara Saikaku
1689
The Massacre of Paris (play) – Nathaniel Lee
Table Talk – John Selden (posthumous)
1690
Amphitryon, or the Two Socias – John Dryden
An Essay Concerning Human Understanding – John Locke
Memoires of the Navy by Samuel Pepys
1691
Athalie (play) – Jean Racine
1692
Reckonings that Carry Men Through the World or This Scheming World (世間胸算用, Seken Munazan'yō) by Ihara Saikaku
1693
The Impartial Critick – John Dennis
1694
The Fatal Marriage (play) – Thomas Southerne
1696
Louis de Rouvroy, Duc de Saint-Simon starts writings his Memoirs
1697
A New Voyage Round the World – William Dampier
1698
The Campaigners (play) – Thomas D'Urfey
1699
Dialogues of the Dead – William King and Charles Boyle
Births
1600 – Marin le Roy de Gomberville
1601 – Baltasar Gracián
1602 – Jean-Jacques Boissard
1603 – Pierre Corneille
1605 – Thomas Browne
1607 – Francisco de Rojas Zorrilla
1608 – Padre António Vieira/ John Milton
1609 – Jean Rotrou
1611 – William Cartwright; Thomas Urquhart
1613 – John Cleveland
1615 – Tanneguy Lefebvre
1617 – Ralph Cudworth
1620 – Lucy Hutchinson
1621 – Hans Jakob Christoph von Grimmelshausen
1622 – Molière
1623 – Blaise Pascal
1625 – Thomas Corneille
1626 – Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, marquise de Sévigné
1627 – John Flavel
1628 – Miguel de Molinos
1630 – Isaac Barrow
1631 – John Dryden
1632 – John Locke
1632 – Baruch Spinoza
1633 – Samuel Pepys
1639 – Thomas Ellwood
1640 – Aphra Behn
1642 – Isaac Newton
1643 – Gilbert Burnet
1644 – Matsuo Bashō
1646 – Gottfried Leibniz
1648 – Robert Barclay
1651 – William Dampier
1652 – Thomas Otway
1657 – Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle
1667 – Jonathan Swift
1668 – Alain-René Lesage
1675 – Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon
1681 – Robert Keith
1685 – George Berkeley
1689 – Samuel Richardson
1694 – Voltaire
1698 – Metastasio
Deaths
1600 – Richard Hooker (theologian)
1605 – John Stow
1607 – Sir Edward Dyer
1612 – Juan de la Cueva; Robert Armin
1615 – Mateo Alemán
1616 – William Shakespeare; Miguel de Cervantes; Francis Beaumont; Richard Hakluyt
1621 – Guillaume du Vair
1623 – William Camden
1624 – Stephen Gosson
1625 – John Fletcher; Thomas Lodge
1626 – Lancelot Andrewes; Samuel Purchas
1627 – Luis de Góngora
1631 – Michael Drayton; Guillén de Castro y Bellvis
1633 – Abraham Fraunce
1634 – George Chapman
1635 – Lope de Vega; Thomas Randolph; Richard Corbet; John Hall (son-in-law of Shakespeare)
1638 – Robert Aytoun
1639 – Juan Ruiz de Alarcón
1640 – Philip Massinger; Robert Burton
1641 – Augustine Baker
1643 – William Cartwright
1644 – Luis Vélez de Guevara; Francis Quarles
1645 – Francisco de Quevedo; William Lithgow
1647 – Francis Meres
1648 – Tirso de Molina; Alonso de Castillo Solórzano; George Abbot; Vincent Voiture
1650 – René Descartes
1658 – Baltasar Gracián; Pierre du Ryer
1660 – Thomas Urquhart
1661 – María de Zayas y Sotomayor
1662 – François le Métel de Boisrobert
1667 – Georges de Scudéry
1672 – Anne Bradstreet; Tanneguy Lefebvre
1673 – Molière
1674 – Marin le Roy de Gomberville
1676 – Hans Jakob Christoph von Grimmelshausen
1678 – Andrew Marvell
1679 – Thomas Hobbes
1681 – Pedro Calderón de la Barca
1682 – Thomas Browne
1685 – Thomas Otway
1688 – John Bunyan; Ralph Cudworth
1689 – Aphra Behn
1691 – Richard Baxter; John Flavel
1696 – Miguel de Molinos; Madame de Sévigné
Wikisource reference work
The First Half of the Seventeenth Century (1906) by Herbert J. C. Grierson. Periods of European Literature series, vol. 7. George Edward Bateman Saintsbury, ed. Edinburgh and London: William Blackwood and Sons.
See also
17th century in poetry
German literature of the Baroque period
French literature of the 17th century
Early Modern English literature
Baroque literature
Early Modern literature
16th century in literature
1700 in literature
18th century in literature
list of years in literature
External links
Bartleby - Table of Principal Dates
History of literature
Early Modern literature | [
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222881 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pint | Pint | The pint (, ; symbol pt, sometimes abbreviated as p) is a unit of volume or capacity in both the imperial and United States customary measurement systems. In both of those systems it is traditionally one eighth of a gallon. The British imperial pint is about 20% larger than the American pint because the two systems are defined differently. Almost all other countries have standardized on the metric system, so the size of what may be called a pint, from the French la pinte, varies depending on local custom.
The imperial pint (≈) is used in the United Kingdom and Ireland and to a limited extent in Commonwealth nations. In the United States, two kinds of pint are used: a liquid pint (≈) and a less-common dry pint (≈). All of the other former British colonies, such as Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand, converted to the metric system in the 1960s and 1970s; so, while the term may still be in common use in these countries, it may no longer refer to the British imperial pint once used throughout the British Empire.
Since the majority of countries in the world no longer use American or British imperial units, and most are non-English speaking, a "pint of beer" served in a tavern outside the United Kingdom and the United States may be measured by other standards. In Commonwealth countries it may be a British imperial pint of 568 ml, in countries serving large numbers of American tourists it might be a US liquid pint of 473 ml, in many metric countries it is a half-litre of 500 ml, or in some places it is another measure reflecting national and local laws and customs.
Name
Pint comes from the Old French word and perhaps ultimately from Vulgar Latin meaning "painted", for marks painted on the side of a container to show capacity. It is linguistically related, though greatly diverging in meaning, to Pinto – an Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese name for a person with a speckled or dark complexion, often used as a surname in these languages.
Definitions
Imperial pint
The imperial pint is equal to one eighth of an imperial gallon.
{|
|-
|1 imperial pint
|=
|align=right height=30| ||imperial gallon
|-
|||=
|align=right height=30| ||imperial quart
|-
|||=
|align=right| 4||imperial gills
|-
|||=
|align=right| 20||imperial fluid ounces
|-
|||=
|align=right|568.26125||millilitres (exactly)
|-
|||≈
|align=right|34.677429099||cubic inches
|-
|||≈
|align=right|1.2009499255||US liquid pints
|-
|||≈
|align=right|1.0320567435||US dry pints
|-
|||≈
|align=right|19.21519881||US fluid ounces
|-
|||≈
|align=right colspan=2 height=30|the volume of of water at
|}
US liquid pint
In the United States, the liquid pint is legally defined as one eighth of a liquid gallon of precisely 231 cubic inches.
{|
|-
|1 US liquid pint
|=
|align=right height=30|||US liquid gallon
|-
|||=
|align=right height=30|||US liquid quart
|-
|||=
|align=right|2||US cups
|-
|||=
|align=right|4||US fluid gills
|-
|||=
|align=right|16||US fluid ounces
|-
|||=
|align=right|128||US fluid drams
|-
|||=
|align=right|28.875||cubic inches (exactly)
|-
|||=
|align=right|473.176473||millilitres (exactly)
|-
|||≈
|align=right|0.83267418463||imperial pints
|-
|||≈
|align=right|0.85936700738||US dry pints
|-
|||≈
|align=right|16.65348369||imperial fluid ounces
|-
|||≈
|align=right colspan=2|the volume of of water at
|}
US dry pint
In the United States, the dry pint is one sixty-fourth of a bushel.
{|
|-
|rowspan=8 valign=top|1 US dry pint
|=
|
|-
|=
|
|-
|=
|
|-
|=
|
|-
|=
|
|-
|=
|
|-
|≈
|
|-
|≈
|
|}
Other pints
The United States dry pint is equal to one eighth of a United States dry gallon. It is used in the United States, but is not as common as the liquid pint.
A now-obsolete unit of measurement in Scotland, known as the Scottish pint, or joug, is equal to 1696 ml (2 pints 19.69 imp fl oz). It remained in use until the 19th century, surviving significantly longer than most of the old Scottish measurements.
The word pint is one of numerous false friends between English and French. They are not the same unit although they have the same linguistic origin. The French word pinte is etymologically related, but historically described a larger unit. The Royal pint (pinte du roi) was 48 French cubic inches (952.1 ml), but regional pints varied in size depending on locality and on commodity (usually wine or olive oil) varying from 0.95 l to over 2 l.
In Canada, the Weights and Measures Act (R.S. 1985) defines a pint in English as 1/8 of a gallon, but defines a pinte in French as 1/4 of a gallon. Thus, if you speak English and order "a pint of beer", servers are legally required to serve you 568 ml of beer, but if you speak French and order "une pinte de bière", they are legally required to serve an imperial quart (une pinte), which is 1136 ml, or twice as much. To order an imperial pint when speaking French in Canada, one must instead order une chopine de bière.
In Flanders, the word pintje, meaning 'little pint', refers only to a 250 ml glass of lager. Some West- and East-Flemish dialects use it as a word for beaker. The equivalent word in German, Pintchen, refers to a glass of a third of a litre in Cologne and the Rhineland.
In South Australia, ordering "a pint of beer" results in 425 ml (15 fl oz) being served. Customers must specifically request "an Imperial pint of beer" to get 570 ml (20 fl oz). Australians from other states often contest the size of their beers in Adelaide.
Equivalence
One US liquid pint of water weighs 1.04318 pounds (16.69081 ounces), which gives rise to a popular saying: "A pint's a pound, the world around".
However, the statement does not hold around the world because the British imperial pint, which was also the standard measure in Australia, India, Malaya, New Zealand, South Africa and other former British colonies, weighs 1.2528 pounds, giving the origin of a popular saying used in Commonwealth countries: "a pint of pure water weighs a pound and a quarter".
History
The pint is traditionally one eighth of a gallon. In the Latin of the apothecaries' system, the symbol O ( or ; plural or – reflecting the "eighth" concept in its syllable) was used for the pint. Because of the variety of definitions of a gallon, there have been equally many versions of the pint.
Britain's North American colonies adopted the British wine gallon, defined in 1707 as 231 cubic inches exactly (3 in × 7 in × 11 in) as their basic liquid measure, from which the US wet pint is derived; and the British corn gallon ( of a standard "Winchester" bushel of corn, or 268.8 cubic inches) as its dry measure, from which the US dry pint is derived.
In 1824, the British parliament replaced all the various gallons with a new imperial gallon based on ten pounds of distilled water at (277.42 cubic inches), from which the current UK pint is derived.
The various Canadian provinces continued to use the Queen Anne Winchester wine gallon as a basis for their pint until 1873, well after Britain adopted the imperial system in 1824. This made the Canadian pint compatible with the American pint, but after 1824 it was incompatible with the British pint. The traditional French used in Lower Canada (Quebec) was twice the size of the traditional English "pint" used in Upper Canada (Ontario), about 1 litre versus 0.5 litres. After four of the British provinces united in the Canadian Confederation in 1867, Canada legally adopted the British imperial system of measure in 1873, making Canadian liquid units incompatible with American ones from that year forward. In 1873, the French Canadian was defined as being one imperial quart or two imperial pints, while the imperial pint was legally called a in French Canada. Canadian imperial units of liquid measure remain incompatible with American traditional units to this day, and although the Canadian pint, quart, and gallon are still legal units of measure in Canada, they are still 20% larger than the American ones.
Historically, units called a pint (or the equivalent in the local language) were used across much of Europe, with values varying between countries from less than half a litre to over one litre. Within continental Europe, these pints were replaced with liquid measures based on the metric system during the 19th century. The term is still in limited use in parts of France, where means an imperial quart, which is 2 imperial pints, whereas a pint is —and Central Europe, notably some areas of Germany and Switzerland, where is colloquially used for roughly half a litre. In Spanish holiday resorts frequented by British tourists, 'pint' is often taken to mean a beer glass (especially a dimple mug). Half-pint 285 ml, and pint mugs , 570 ml, may therefore be referred to as ('half jar/jug') and ('large jar/jug').
Effects of metrication
In the British and Irish metrication processes, the pint was replaced by metric units as the legally defined primary unit of measure for trading by volume or capacity, except for the sale of draught beer and cider, and milk in returnable containers. The pint can still be used in those countries as a supplementary unit in all circumstances. UK legislation mandates that draught beer and cider must be sold in a third of a pint, two thirds of a pint or multiples of half a pint, which must be served in stamped, measured glasses or from government-stamped meters. For milk, if returnable containers are used, the pint can still be the principal unit used, however all other goods sold by volume must be sold by metric. Milk in returnable containers is considered a loose good instead of a packaged good, as it is sold by volume. Milk in plastic containers come in 1 pint sizes, but are required to display the metric equivalent on packaging. Many recipes published in the UK and Ireland give ingredient quantities in imperial, where the pint is often used as a unit for larger liquid quantities.
In Australia and New Zealand, a subtle change was made to 1-pint milk bottles during the conversion from imperial to metric in the 1970s. The height and diameter of the milk bottle remained unchanged, so that existing equipment for handling and storing the bottles was unaffected, but the shape was adjusted to increase the capacity from 568 ml to 600 ml—a conveniently rounded metric measure. Such milk bottles are no longer officially referred to as pints. However, the "pint glass" in pubs in Australia remains closer to the standard imperial pint, at 570 ml. It holds about 500 ml of beer and about 70 ml of froth, except in South Australia, where a pint is served in a 425 ml glass and a 570 ml glass is called an "imperial pint". In New Zealand, there is no longer any legal requirement for beer to be served in standard measures: in pubs, the largest size of glass, which is referred to as a pint, varies, but usually contains 425 ml.
After metrication in Canada, companies sold milk and other liquids in metric units so conversion issues could no longer arise. Draft beer in Canada, when advertised as a "pint", is legally required to be 568 ml (20 fluid ounces). With the allowed margin of error of 0.5 fluid ounces, a "pint" that is less than 554 ml of beer is an offence, though this regulation is often violated and rarely enforced. To avoid legal issues, many drinking establishments are moving away from using the term "pint" and are selling "glasses" or "sleeves" of beer, neither of which have a legal definition.
A 375 ml bottle of liquor in the US and the Canadian maritime provinces is sometimes referred to as a "pint" and a 200 ml bottle is called a "half-pint", harking back to the days when liquor came in US pints, fifths, quarts, and half-gallons. Liquor in the US has been sold in metric-sized bottles since 1980 although beer is still sold in US traditional units.
In France, a standard 250 ml measure of beer is known as ("a half"), originally meaning a half-pint.
Notes
References
External links
European Commission press release (IP/07/1297, 11 September 2007): Pints and miles will not disappear due to European Commission proposal
Imperial units
Units of volume
Alcohol measurement
Cooking weights and measures
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222882 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill%20Leeb | Bill Leeb | Wilhelm Anton "Bill" Leeb (born 21 September 1966, in Vienna, Austria) is an Austrian-Canadian electronic musician and record producer. He is best known for being a founding member of the industrial music group Front Line Assembly. Additionally, Leeb is known for his work with groups such as Noise Unit, Delerium, Intermix, and Skinny Puppy, among others.
Career
Leeb began his musical career with industrial band Skinny Puppy in 1985 under the pseudonym Wilhelm Schroeder, contributing bass synth and occasional backing vocals to a few of their recordings and concerts. He left in 1986 and formed his own industrial project Front Line Assembly with Michael Balch, and later Rhys Fulber and Chris Peterson. Though Front Line Assembly has had consistent underground success, Leeb's most widely known efforts are through his side project Delerium, which had a major hit in the late 1990s with "Silence". Leeb composed the soundtrack to the 1999 video game, Quake III Arena, of which the expansion pack, Team Arena, was composed by his band, Front Line Assembly.
In 2017, Leeb appeared as guest singer on the single A Shiver of Want, a release of John Fryer's project Black Needle Noise.
Musical projects in which Bill Leeb has participated in include:
Front Line Assembly
Delerium
Synæsthesia
Cyberaktif (with cEvin Key and Dwayne Goettel)
Noise Unit
Mediaeval Baebes
Intermix
Equinox
Skinny Puppy
Fauxliage
Pro>Tech
Dispute with Trent Reznor
In an interview with music magazine Spin in 1992, Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails made derogatory remarks about Front Line Assembly, calling them "a textbook case of a band" for industrial music and their music "monotonous, boring, uninspired bullshit". Before the release of the issue, Reznor sent Leeb an apology letter. Spin printed the letter, along with a letter from Leeb dismissing the notion that Reznor was "leading the industrial revolution in music" in one of their following issues.
Acting
In 1990, Leeb appeared in the trailer for the horror movie Chunk Blower together with Dwayne Goettel from Skinny Puppy, playing one of the victims of a killer. Due to the lack of funding, the movie was never made. Director Jim Van Bebber and Leeb would later use footage from the trailer in the video for the single "Virus".
Personal life
He has both Austrian and Canadian citizenship and speaks English as well as German. He moved to Kitimat, British Columbia, Canada with his family when he was 14. He was a high school student at Mount Elizabeth Secondary School. Leeb went to Camsoun College in Victoria, British Columbia to study journalism for two years. He lives in Vancouver.
Leeb was married to the Canadian artist Carylann Loeppky. Loeppky was part of the tour personnel on Front Line Assembly tours "designing and selling merchandise and put together a visual presentation for the live performance." She continued to create artwork for albums of Delerium.
References
1966 births
Living people
Canadian electronic musicians
Electronic body music musicians
New-age musicians
Austrian emigrants to Canada
Musicians from Vienna
Skinny Puppy members
Musicians from Vancouver
Canadian people of Austrian descent
Canadian industrial musicians
People from Kitimat
Front Line Assembly members
Delerium members
Noise Unit members
20th-century Canadian keyboardists | [
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222884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1700s%20in%20literature | 1700s in literature |
Events
1709 : Tatler founded by Richard Steele
New books and plays
1700: The Way of the World by William Congreve
1702: The Shortest Way with the Dissenters by Daniel Defoe
1703: Hymn to the Pillory by Daniel Defoe
1704: The Campaign by Joseph Addison; Miscellany Poems by William Wycherley
1705: The Mistake by Sir John Vanbrugh; The Gamester by Susanna Centlivre
1706: The Recruiting Officer (play) – George Farquhar
1707: Essay Concerning the Use of Reason – Anthony Collins; The Beaux' Stratagem – George Farquhar
Births
June 28, 1703 : John Wesley (died 1791)
April 22, 1707 : Henry Fielding (died 1754)
September 18, 1709 : Samuel Johnson (died 1784)
Deaths
May 12, 1700 : John Dryden (born 1631)
May 26, 1703 : Samuel Pepys (born 1633)
February 27, 1706 : John Evelyn (born 1620)
See also
List of years in literature
References
Literature | [
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222887 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abercrombie%20%28horse%29 | Abercrombie (horse) | Abercrombie (May 13, 1975 – November 14, 2000) was a bay Standardbred world-record-holding pacer and winner of the E. Roland Harriman Award for Harness Horse of the Year in 1978, who went on to become one of the sport's leading sires.
Bloodlines
By Silent Majority out of Bergdorf by Duane Hanover, he was sold at the Tattersalls auction for $9,500 to Keith Bulen and Shirley Mitchell. Abercrombie's dam, Bergdorf, was a leading broodmare; although he was her fastest foal, 10 of her 12 foals made it to the races.
Racing career
Jerry Landess was his first trainer, and Cecil Peacock, a full-time school bus driver, succeeded Landess as Abercrombie's trainer for his two-year-old season. When his talent became apparent he was turned over to Glen Garnsey, his trainer-driver. In 20 starts as a two-year-old Abercrombie won seven times and finished second and third three times each, earning $49,379; his fastest time that season was 1:56 at The Red Mile.
Abercrombie won 22 of his 33 races in 1978, including the Messenger Stakes, the Prix d'Été, and the Adios Stakes, and earned $703,260. His best time for the mile was 1:53 (then a world record which stood for three years), set as a 4-year-old in August 1979 at the Meadowlands Racetrack in East Rutherford, New Jersey.
At stud
Abercrombie retired in 1979 to become an important sire at Castleton Farm in Lexington, Kentucky (where he was syndicated for $3 million), helping to return the Adios line to prominence. As of May 2004, his offspring have won over $149 million. Abercrombie sired more than 1,700 foals; 11 of his offspring earned more than $1 million each (including Artsplace, Harness Horse of the Year in 1992, who earned $3,085,083), and 432 have earned over $100,000. Among Abercrombie's other well-known progeny are Life Sign, Armbro Emerson, Anniecrombie, Missisippin, Misfit, Kentucky Spur, Goliath Bayama, Dontgetinmyway, Albert Albert and Armbro Dallas. His descendants have been successful both on the track and in the breeding shed; of his 1,574 offspring who have raced, 1,120 have paced below 2:00 and 403 have taken marks below 1:55.
Abercrombie was inducted into the United States Harness Racing Hall of Fame in 1999. He died the following year, and is buried at the Castleton Farm horse cemetery.
References
1975 racehorse births
2000 racehorse deaths
Harness Horse of the Year winners
American Standardbred racehorses
United States Harness Racing Hall of Fame inductees
Harness racing in the United States
Messenger Stakes winners
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] |
222888 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban | Cuban | Cuban may refer to:
Something of, from, or related to Cuba, a country in the Caribbean
Cubans, people from Cuba, or of Cuban descent
Cuban exile, a person who left Cuba for political reasons, or a descendant thereof
Cuban citizen, a person who is part of the Cuban population, see Demographics of Cuba
Cuban Spanish, the dialect of Cuba
Cuban Americans, citizens of the United States who are of Cuban descent
Cuban cigar, often referred to as "Cubans"
Cuban culture
Cuban cuisine
Cuban sandwich
Cuban-eight, a type of aerobatic maneuver
People with the surname
Brian Cuban (born 1961), American lawyer and activist
Mark Cuban (born 1958), American entrepreneur
See also
Cuban Missile Crisis
List of Cubans
Cuban Boys, a British music act
Kuban (disambiguation)
Cubane
Language and nationality disambiguation pages | [
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222889 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidetoshi%20Nakata | Hidetoshi Nakata | is a Japanese former professional footballer who played as a midfielder. He is widely considered to be one of the greatest Japanese players of all time.
Nakata began his professional career in 1995 and won the Asian Football Confederation Player of the Year award in 1997 and 1998, the Scudetto with Roma in 2001, played for Japan in three World Cup tournaments (1998, 2002 and 2006) and competed in the Olympics twice (1996 and 2000). In 2005, he was made the Knight of the Order of the Star of Italian Solidarity, one of Italy's highest honors, for improving the country's image overseas. Nakata has also been involved in fashion, regularly attending runway shows and wearing designer clothing.
Nakata announced his retirement at age 29 on 3 July 2006, after a ten-year career that included seven seasons in the Italian Serie A and a season in the English Premier League. In March 2004, Pelé named Nakata in his FIFA 100, a list of the top living footballers at the time. Nakata was the only Japanese, and one of only two Asian footballers to be named on the list. In 2018, Nakata was added as an icon to the Ultimate Team on the FIFA video game FIFA 18.
Club career
Early career
Nakata began his professional career at age 18 in 1995, with J1 League side Bellmare Hiratsuka (now Shonan Bellmare). He played many matches as offensive midfielder from first season and the club won the champions in 1995 Asian Cup Winners' Cup first Asian title in club history. At the final against Al-Talaba, he scored a winning goal in the 81st minute. From 1996, he became a regular player and he was selected J.League Best XI in 1997. After the 1998 World Cup in France, Nakata was signed by Perugia in Italy's Serie A for 4 million U.S. dollars, becoming the second Japanese player ever to appear in the Italian top league after Kazuyoshi Miura had done it for Genoa four years earlier. In his first season in Italy, Nakata scored 10 goals, his single-season highest total.
Roma
In January 2000, after one and a half seasons at Perugia, Nakata moved to Roma for 42 billion lire, helping the team win the scudetto. The highlight of Nakata's career at Roma came on 6 May 2001 in the Serie A match against Juventus at Stadio Delle Alpi. After replacing Francesco Totti in the second half with Roma trailing 0–2, Nakata netted with a 30-yard goal beyond Juventus goalkeeper Edwin van der Sar's reach, with 11 minutes left in the match. He then helped Roma score the equalizer when his fierce drive from outside the box was parried by Van der Sar into the path of Vincenzo Montella, who scored for Roma in the last minute. The match ended with a 2–2 draw and Roma maintained a six-point margin at top of the league table.
Parma
In the summer of 2001, Nakata penned a four-year deal with Parma for a transfer fee of 55 billion lire, a world record payment for an Asian player which would not be broken for 14 years. He made his club debut on 8 August 2001 in their 0–2 defeat at Stadio Ennio Tardini against Lille in the first leg of the third round of the Champions League. More than one month later, on 23 September, Nakata scored his first goal for Parma in Serie A at home over Brescia, which also proved to be the winning goal of the match. Nakata played there for two and a half seasons, where he scored a crucial goal after coming on as a substitute in the first leg of the 2002 Coppa Italia Final against Juventus, which Parma eventually won.
Later years
In January 2004, Nakata joined Bologna where he played the remainder of the 2003–04 season before moving to Fiorentina, where he played the following season. In August 2005, Nakata moved to Premiership side Bolton Wanderers on loan. During his season at Bolton, which would be the last of his professional career, he scored once in the league, in a 2–0 win over West Bromwich Albion.
International career
After having represented U-17 Japan at the 1993 U-17 World Championship (where he scored a goal) and U-20 Japan at the 1995 U-20 World Championship (where he scored twice), Nakata was part of the U-23 Japan squads at the 1996 Olympics, where Japan upset Brazil, and at the 2000 Olympics. His senior national team debut came in May 1997 against South Korea.
He was a key member of the Japanese side that qualified for the 1998 World Cup, scoring five goals in qualification matches and setting up all three Japanese goals in the qualification play-off against Iran. He helped Japan reach the final of the 2001 Confederations Cup but left the national team before the final to join Roma for their final league matches. Nakata played in all four of Japan's matches at the 2002 World Cup, co-hosted by South Korea and Japan, scoring the second goal of a 2–0 first round win against Tunisia.
At the 2006 World Cup, Nakata played in all three matches for Japan, losing to Australia and Brazil, and drawing with Croatia. His performance against Croatia earned him a Man of the Match award. After the 2006 FIFA World Cup, on 3 July 2006, Nakata announced his retirement from professional football and the Japanese national team on his personal website "I decided half a year ago that I would retire from the world of professional football ... after the World Cup in Germany." Nakata wrote, "I will never again stand on the pitch as a professional player. But I will never give up football." In a 2014 interview in TMW Magazine, Nakata confirmed that he had retired at such a young age because he was no longer enjoying football, and wanted instead to see what was going on in the world.
Despite Nakata playing every match in Japan's first three World Cup appearances, he was not selected for the country's Asian Cup-winning squads in 2000 and 2004. In total, he was capped 77 times for Japan, scoring 11 goals, 9 of which came in official FIFA competitions.
Style of play
A quick, creative, hard-working, and offensive-minded central midfielder, with an eye for goal, Nakata was known for his technical ability, agility, vision, passing, and his ability to make attacking runs into the penalty area and score goals; he also possessed a powerful shot from outside the box.
Outside football
Outside football, Nakata has shown interest in fashion, attending runway shows, wearing designer clothing and sporting colorful haircuts. He dyed his hair blond for the 1998 World Cup, hoping to attract the attention of European scouts. Japanese hairstylist Aki Watanabe credits him as a trendsetter. Andrea Tenerani, photographer for GQ in Italy said of Nakata, "He's perfect; he's like a model. And he's totally obsessed with fashion." Calvin Klein designer Italo Zucchelli said, "(Nakata) plays with fashion like all of them now, but in a cooler, more sophisticated way than many others." He is one of the models featuring the Calvin Klein underwear campaign 2010. He was featured in the July 2007 US version of GQ with a 12-page spread on fall fashion. He was featured in GQ in his home country in December 2011.
Often regarded as a Japanese David Beckham, Nakata is an editor-at-large at Monocle magazine at the invitation of his friend Tyler Brûlé, who serves as the magazine's editor-in-chief. Nakata has cited the popular manga and anime series, Captain Tsubasa, as his primary inspiration in choosing football as a career. In recent years, he has also been an active supporter of Special Olympics football and participated in the 2010 Special Olympics Unity Cup in South Africa during the World Cup. Nakata was named a Global Ambassador for Special Olympics in 2014.
Towards the end of 2015, Nakata entered into a partnership with Kee Club in Hong Kong to open Koko, a Hong Kong-based restaurant that serves sakes created by Nakata himself. He has developed his own line of sake as well as creating his own mobile educational app, "Sakenomy". Expressing interest in educating the public about sake, Nakata stated, "People recognise brands of wine but not usually brands of sake. There is a lack of information and branding when it comes to sake. That’s why I thought I needed to create a brand that people can recognise and understand. My purpose is to expand the market for all sake not just my own. You can pair any type of cuisine with sake. It can go with French, Italian, even Chinese food, not just Japanese cuisine."
Media
Having been signed to sportswear company Nike, Nakata featured in Nike's "Secret Tournament" advertisement (branded "Scorpion KO") directed by Terry Gilliam, in the buildup to the 2002 World Cup in Korea and Japan. He appeared alongside other star football players from around the world, including Ronaldo, Ronaldinho, Luís Figo, Thierry Henry, Roberto Carlos and Francesco Totti, with former player Eric Cantona the tournament "referee". Nakata featured on the front cover of various Japanese editions of EA Sports’ FIFA video game series, including FIFA Football 2002. In 2018, Nakata was added as an icon to the Ultimate Team in FIFA 19.
In the 2012 video game Inazuma Eleven 2: Firestorm / Blizzard Nakata was added as a hidden playable player. He then served an important story role in Inazuma Eleven 3 and its respective anime series, where Nakata would serve as the captain of the Italian team Orpheus.
Career statistics
Club
International
Scores and results list Templatonia's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Nakata goal.
Honours
Bellmare Hiratsuka
Asian Cup Winners Cup: 1996
Roma
Serie A: 2000–01
Parma
Coppa Italia: 2001–02
Japan
Kirin Cup: 1997
Dynasty Cup: 1998
Individual
J. League All-Star Soccer: 1997
J. League Best XI: 1997
Japanese Footballer of the Year: 1997
Japan Professional Sports Grand Prize: 1997
Asian Footballer of the Year: 1997, 1998
Asian Player of the Month: May 1997, March 1998
Dynasty Cup MVP: 1998
AFC All Star Team: 1997, 1998, 1999
FIFA Confederations Cup Bronze Ball: 2001
FIFA Confederations Cup Best XI: 2001
FIFA World Cup All-Star Team: 2002 (Reserve)
J.League 20th Anniversary Team
FIFA 100
Golden Foot Legends Award: 2014
IFFHS Legends
AFC Opta All-time World Cup XI: 2020
Achievements
Nominated for Ballon d'Or: 1998, 1999, 2001
Nominated for FIFA World Player of the Year: 1998, 1999, 2001, 2002
Notes and references
External links
Hidetoshi Nakata at the Japan National Football Team Database
Career profile and stats at FootballDatabase.com
Player profile at official 2006 FIFA World Cup site
Hidetoshi Nakata Revealed, on CNN.com
1977 births
Living people
1998 FIFA World Cup players
2001 FIFA Confederations Cup players
2002 FIFA World Cup players
2003 FIFA Confederations Cup players
2005 FIFA Confederations Cup players
2006 FIFA World Cup players
A.S. Roma players
Association football people from Yamanashi Prefecture
Bologna F.C. 1909 players
Bolton Wanderers F.C. players
Expatriate footballers in England
Expatriate footballers in Italy
FIFA 100
Japanese Footballer of the Year winners
ACF Fiorentina players
Association football midfielders
Footballers at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Footballers at the 2000 Summer Olympics
J1 League players
Japan youth international footballers
Japan international footballers
Japanese expatriate footballers
Japanese expatriate sportspeople in Italy
Japanese expatriate sportspeople in England
Japanese footballers
Olympic footballers of Japan
Parma Calcio 1913 players
A.C. Perugia Calcio players
Premier League players
Serie A players
Shonan Bellmare players
Asian Footballer of the Year winners | [
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222892 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillaume-Mathieu%20Dumas | Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas | Mathieu, comte Dumas (23 November 1753 – 16 October 1837) was a French general.
Biography
Born in Montpellier, France, of a noble family, he joined the French army in 1773 and entered upon active service in 1780, as aide-de-camp to Rochambeau in the American Revolutionary War. He had a share in all the principal engagements that occurred during a period of nearly two years. On the conclusion of peace in 1783 he returned to France as a major.
During 1784 to 1786 Dumas explored the archipelago and the coasts of Turkey. He was present at the siege of Amsterdam in 1787, where he co-operated with the Dutch against the Prussians.
After the outbreak of the French Revolution (1789) he acted with Lafayette and the constitutional liberal party. The National Constituent Assembly entrusted him with the command of the escort which conducted King Louis XVI to Paris after the Flight to Varennes (June 1791). In 1791 as a maréchal de camp he was appointed to a command at Metz, where he rendered important service in improving the discipline of the troops.
Chosen a member of the Legislative Assembly in the same year by the département of Seine-et-Oise, he was in 1792 elected president of the Assembly. When the extreme republicans gained the ascendancy, however, he judged it prudent to make his escape to England. Returning after a brief interval, under the apprehension that his father-in-law would be held responsible for his absence, he arrived in Paris in the midst of the Reign of Terror, and had to flee to Switzerland.
Soon after his return to France he was elected a member of the Council of Ancients in the period of the Directory. After the coup of the 18th Fructidor (4 September 1797) Dumas, being proscribed as a monarchist, made his escape to Holstein, where he wrote the first part of his Précis des événements militaires (published anonymously at Hamburg, 1800).
Recalled to his native country when Bonaparte became First Consul (1799), Dumas took over the organisation of the "Army of Reserve" at Dijon. In 1805 he was nominated a councillor of state. He did good service at the Battle of Austerlitz (2 December 1805), and went in 1806 to Naples, where he became minister of war to Joseph Bonaparte.
On the transfer of Joseph to the throne of Spain (1808), Dumas rejoined the French army, with which he served in Spain during the campaign of 1808, and in Germany during that of 1809. After the Battle of Wagram (5–6 July 1809), Dumas participated in negotiating the armistice with Austria.
In 1810 he became grand officer of the Legion of Honour and a count of the Empire. In the Russian campaign of 1812 he held the post of intendant-general of the army, which involved the charge of the administrative department. The privations he suffered in the retreat from Moscow brought on a dangerous illness. Resuming, on his recovery, his duties as intendant-general, he took part in the battles of 1813, and was made prisoner after the capitulation of Dresden.
On the accession of Louis XVIII (1814), Dumas rendered his new sovereign important services in connection with the administration of the army. When Napoleon Bonaparte returned from Elba in the Hundred Days (1815), Dumas at first kept himself in retirement, but Joseph Bonaparte persuaded him to present himself to the Emperor, who employed him in organising the National Guard.
Obliged to retire after the restoration of Louis XVIII (1815), Dumas devoted his leisure to the continuation of his Précis des événements militaires, of which nineteen volumes, embracing the history of the war from 1798 to the peace of 1807, appeared between 1817 and 1826. A growing weakness of sight, ending in blindness, prevented him from carrying the work further, but he translated Napier's Peninsular War as a sort of continuation to it.
In 1818 Dumas returned to favour and became a member of the council of state, from which, however, he was excluded in 1822. After the July Revolution of 1830, in which he took an active part, Dumas was created a peer of France, and re-entered the council of state. He died in Paris on 16 October 1837.
Besides the Précis des événements militaires, which forms a valuable source for the history of the period, Dumas wrote Souvenirs du lieutenant-général Comte Mathieu Dumas (published posthumously by his son, Paris, 1839).
Sources
1753 births
1837 deaths
Military personnel from Montpellier
Counts of the First French Empire
French Republican military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars
French commanders of the Napoleonic Wars
French military personnel of the American Revolutionary War
Grand Officiers of the Légion d'honneur
Peers of France
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222894 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-tailed%20planigale | Long-tailed planigale | The long-tailed planigale (Planigale ingrami), also known as Ingram's planigale or the northern planigale, is the smallest of all marsupials, and one of the smallest of all mammals. It is rarely seen but is a quite common inhabitant of the blacksoil plains, clay-soiled woodlands, and seasonally flooded grasslands of Australia's Top End.
Taxonomy
The long-tailed planigale was described in 1906 by Oldfield Thomas, who placed it in the genus Phascogale. The species was moved in 1928 by Ellis Le Geyt Troughton, who created the genus Planigale for it and the other then-known species, the common planigale (P. maculata), and described the narrow-nosed planigale (P. tenuirostris). The species has since suffered some taxonomic confusion, having been referred to as Planigale subtilissima; there has also been some confusion concerning subspecies. Currently, three subspecies are recognised:
P. i. ingrami, found in the Northern Territory to Townsville, Queensland;
P. i. brunnea, found in the Richmond area of Queensland;
P. i. subtilissima, found in the Ord Victoria Plain and the Kimberley region of Western Australia.
Description
The long-tailed planigale has an extraordinary head shape. All planigales have a flattened head, much broader than it is deep. This smallest planigale takes that trend to an extreme: at just from top to bottom, the skull is one-fifth as deep as it is wide. The purpose, it seems, is to allow it to squeeze into the tiniest of soil cracks; to find its prey, perhaps to avoid predators, or more probably for both reasons. The clays and blacksoils of the Top End typically develop deep cracks as they dry after the monsoonal summer rains, which persist right through the eight-month dry season until the wet begins again, usually producing floods that force small creatures like the Long-tailed Planigale to seek refuge on high ground.
The head shape aside (which in any case is not obvious from all angles), the long-tailed planigale looks rather like a very small mouse with a long, bare tail. The muzzle is pointed, the fur a nondescript and variable brown, the hindlegs a little bigger than the forelegs, allowing it to stand semi-crouched on hindlegs and tail, rather like a tiny squirrel.
Combined head-body length varies from 55 to 65 mm, averaging 59 mm in both sexes, the tail length is similar. Average male weight is 4.2 grams, 4.3 grams for females; a really large specimen can reach almost 6 grams.
Diet
Like all members of the Dasyuromorphia, it is carnivorous, living on invertebrates and small vertebrates which they catch by energetic nocturnal hunting through leaf litter and in soil cracks.
By night it is an active and fearless hunter, preying mostly on insects and their larvae, small lizards, and young mammals almost as large as itself. With the larger prey like grasshoppers, an initial pounce is often insufficient and the planigale bites repeatedly until its prey no longer struggles. Usually, it eats only the soft parts, discarding the head and wings.
Reproduction
Breeding can take place at any time of year, but mostly during the wet season. Four to eight young are born, sometimes as many as 12 in southern populations; the young spend six weeks in the backward-facing pouch, and then about another six weeks hidden in a grassy nest under bark or other vegetation while the mother forages each night.
Distribution and habitat
The long-tailed planigale prefers floodplains and savannah woodlands with cracked clay soils, as well as riparian areas and blacksoil plains. It is found across northern Australia from the Pilbara through the Great Sandy Desert and the Kimberley region in Western Australia to the Barkly Tableland in the Northern Territory and Townsville in Queensland.
References
Dasyuromorphs
Mammals of Western Australia
Mammals of the Northern Territory
Mammals of Queensland
Marsupials of Australia
Mammals described in 1906
Taxa named by Oldfield Thomas | [
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222898 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron%20Crown%20Enterprises | Iron Crown Enterprises | Iron Crown Enterprises (ICE) is a publishing company that has produced role playing, board, miniature, and collectible card games since 1980. Many of ICE's better-known products were related to J. R. R. Tolkien's world of Middle-earth, but the Rolemaster rules system, and its science-fiction equivalent, Spacemaster, have been the foundation of ICE's business.
History
Early years and Rolemaster
In college in the late 1970s, while running a six-year Dungeons & Dragons campaign set in J.R.R. Tolkien's Middle-earth, Pete Fenlon, S. Coleman Charlton, and Kurt Fischer began to develop a set of unique house rules; after most of them had graduated from the University of Virginia in 1980, many of the group's principals decided to turn their rules into a business and formed Iron Crown Enterprises (ICE), named after a regalia of Middle-earth. Besides Fenlon and Charlton, the original ICE also included Richard H. Britton, Terry K. Amthor, Bruce Shelley, Bruce Neidlinger, Kurt Fischer, Heike Kubasch, Olivia Johnston, and a few others. The company originally only had a few full-time staff, relying on volunteer work from the other founders. But as income increased, it brought more on as employees.
ICE quickly published three products: Arms Law (1980), The Iron Wind (1980), and Manassas (1981). Arms Law was the first release of the house rules from the University of Virginia days, and thus became the start of Rolemaster, although at that time Rolemaster was not seen as a standalone RPG but was offered as an alternative combat system for AD&D. The Iron Wind was a system-generic campaign centered on a fantastic island, and although it was unsupplemented for years it would eventually be recognized as the first release in ICE's Loremaster campaign setting. Manassas was a Civil War era wargame set in ICE's home state of Virginia.
ICE began by publishing a series of rules supplements, beginning with "Arms Law", which were intended to serve as modular add-ons to other RPG systems offering greater detail. This was followed by "Spell Law" (1982) and Character/Campaign Law." In time, these supplements were tied together to form an RPG system of their own, Rolemaster. Concurrent with the rules supplements, ICE began releasing world campaign content materials in what was originally called the "Loremaster" series, beginning with "Iron Wind".
Middle-earth RPG line and expansion
Rolemaster had grown out of a Middle-earth game, so ICE approached Tolkien Enterprises seeking a license to The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, which Tolkien Enterprises granted because no one else had ever asked. Tolkien Enterprises signed an exclusive, worldwide license with ICE in 1982, and ICE started the Middle-earth line off with a generic sourcebook that could be used with AD&D or other games, called A Campaign and Adventure Guidebook for Middle-earth (1982).
The company enjoyed a sudden jump in status when it acquired the license to produce an official fantasy RPG based upon J. R. R. Tolkien's world of Middle-earth, which would come to be known as MERP ("Middle-earth Role Playing", 1982). According to some interpretations, at the time of its publication ICE's Middle-earth Role Playing was the second best selling fantasy RPG after TSR's Dungeons & Dragons.
ICE then added the science fiction RPGs Spacemaster (1985) and Cyberspace (1989) to its line. ICE also published a moderately successful space miniatures battle game called Silent Death (1990), based on Spacemaster but with simpler mechanics. Silent Death was released in two major editions, with supplemental books and a fair number of paintable lead miniatures. ICE also expanded its original Loremaster supplements into a full-blown fantasy world to support Rolemaster, called the Shadow World, supported by dozens of adventures and sourcebooks. ICE signed in 1986 a publication contract to take over Hero Games' production and distribution. Later with Hero Games staff leaving for other jobs, ICE took over the creative reins of Hero's products.
Iron Crown branched out into the solo gaming books under the Tolkien Quest (later called Middle-earth Quest, 1985-), Sherlock Holmes Solo Mysteries (1987-) and Narnia Solo Games (1988-) book lines. Unknown to ICE at the time, the Middle-earth Quest books violated ICE and Tolkien Enterprises' contract with Tolkien's book publishing licensee, George Allen & Unwin. (ICE and TE considered the books to be games, and so fall under their license, but the format came too close to being literary books). ICE was forced to recall and destroy the whole line of books, at devastating cost. Meanwhile, ICE sued the Narnia licensor as they turned out to not have the necessary rights to license Narnia to ICE. That company went bankrupt from the legal settlement and was unable to pay ICE their damages. ICE reached terms in 1988 for a gamebook license with the estate of J.R.R. Tolkien and George Allen & Unwin for four new Middle-earth Quest books, beginning with "Spy in Isengard". However, the solo game book market was going soft by this time. ICE canceled all solo game book lines, with dozens of books still in development. Returns were high on the Sherlock Holmes Solo Mysteries line. All this brought ICE to near bankruptcy in a "voluntary-type of receivership".
Middle-earth CCG and demise
With the rise of collectible card games, ICE released Middle-earth Collectible Card Game (1995-) and Warlords CCG (1997-). In 1997 ICE bailed out Mayfair Games, a publisher well known for Settlers of Catan board game.
Despite ICE's many successes and overcoming many setbacks over 17 years, in 1997 ICE suffered financial difficulties from a rapid decline in its distribution net; nearly 70% of ICE's distributors either went bankrupt or became moribund. There has been some debate over whether Tolkien Enterprises forced ICE into bankruptcy in order to get the gaming license in anticipation of the upcoming new movie franchise.
The company entered bankruptcy and filed for Chapter 7 in October 2000. This bankruptcy cost ICE the Middle-earth license, ending both the MERP and MECCG lines. Many of the authors and illustrators were not paid for substantial amounts of work.
Aurigas Aldebaron
In December 2001, ICE's assets were purchased by Aurigas Aldebaron LLLC, an intellectual property ownership company backed by several wealthy individuals. The new owners licensed the Iron Crown Enterprise name and other assets to Mjolnir LLC until 2011. Starting in January 2011, licensing was transferred to Guild Companion Publications Ltd.
In 2016 Aurigas Alderbaron merged with Guild Companion Publications Ltd to create a single company: Guild Companion Publications. This company both holds the Iron Crown Enterprises intellectual property and produces and sells Iron Crown products.
On January 9, 2017 Guild Companion Publications Limited officially changed its name to Iron Crown Enterprises Ltd.
Iron Crown Enterprises Ltd
Iron Crown Enterprises continues to produce products for its Rolemaster and High Adventure Role Playing (HARP) line including products set in the Shadow World.
Publications
Board games
Manassas (1980)
The Riddle of the Ring (1982)
The Battle of Five Armies (1984)
The Lonely Mountain - Lair of Smaug the Dragon (1984)
Cleric's Revenge (1985)
Star Strike (1988)
Armored Assault (1989)
The Hobbit Adventure (1994)
Solo gaming books
Tolkien Quest/Middle-earth Quest line
Night of the Nazgûl (1985)
The Legend of Weathertop (1985)
Rescue in Mirkwood (1986)
Murder at Minas Tirith (unpublished)
A Spy in Isengard (1988)
Treason at Helm's Deep (1988)
The Mines of Moria (1988)
Search for the Palantir (1989)
Sherlock Holmes Solo Mysteries line
Murder at the Diogenes Club (1987)
The Black River Emerald (1987)
Death at Appledore Towers (1987)
The Crown vs. Dr. Watson (1988)
The Dynamiters (1988)
The Royal Flush (1988)
Honor of the Yorkshire Light Artillery (1988)
Narnia Solo Games line
Return to Deathwater (1988)
Leap of the Lion (1988)
The Lost Crowns of Cair Paravel (1988)
Return of the White Witch (1988)
The Sorceress and the Book of Spells (1988)
Role-playing games
The Iron Wind (1981)
A Campaign and Adventure Guidebook for Middle-earth (1982)
Angmar (1982)
"Ardor in Southern Middle-earth" (1983)
Moria - The Dwarven City (1984)
MERP - Middle-earth Role Playing (1984)
Bree and the Barrow-Downs (1984)
Dark Mage of Rhudaur (1989)
Lords of Middle-Earth (1986)
Minas Tirith (1988)
Minas Ithil (1991)
Palantir Quest (1994)
Kin-Strife (1995)
Hands of the Healer (1997)
Rolemaster - A role playing game system.
Arms Law (1980)
Spell Law (1981)
Character Law (1982)
Claw Law (1982)
War Law (1991)
Sea Law (1994)
Rolemaster (1982)
Campaign Law (1984)
Rolemaster, second edition (1986)
Rolemaster Companion (1986)
Rolemaster second edition 2nd iteration (1989)
Outlaw - a historical setting source book for Rolemaster (1991)
At Rapier's Point - a historical setting source book for Rolemaster (1993)
Oriental Companion - a historical setting source book for Rolemaster (1993)
Shadow World: The Cloudlords of Tanara (1982, 2013)
Shadow World Master Atlas (4th Edition) (2003, 2011)
Shadow World Master Atlas (3rd Edition) (2001, 2011)
Shadow World powers of Light and Darkness (2003, 2011)
Demons on the Burning Night (1989, 2011)
Islands of the Oracle (1989, 2011)
Kingdom of the Desert Jewel (1989, 2011)
Quellbourne: Land of the Silver Mist (1989, 2011)
Shadow World: Haalkitaine & The Court of Rhakhaan (2019)
Shadow World: Jaiman : Land of Twilight (2018)
Shadow World: Eidolon: City in the Sky (2015)
Shadow World: Tales from the Green Gryphon Inn (2015)
Shadow World: Emer III (2014)
Spacemaster - An adaption of Rolemaster in a sci-fi setting. first edition (1985), second edition (1988)
Future Law (1985)
Tech Law (1985)
Action On Akaisha Outstation (1985)
Imperial Crisis (1985)
Spacemaster Companion (1986)
Lost Telepaths (1986)
Beyond The Core (1987)
The Cygnus Conspiracy (1987)
Tales From Deep Space (1988)
War on a Distant Moon (1988)
The Durandrium Find (1989)
Disaster on Adanis III (1989)
Raiders from the Frontier (1989)
Spacemaster Companion I (1990)
Dark Space (1990)
Aliens & Artifacts (1991)
Time Riders (1992)
Spacemaster Companion II (1994)
Cyberspace (1989)
Cyberspace Core Rulebook (1989)
Sprawlgangs & Megacorps (1990)
Edge-On (1990)
CyberRogues (1990)
The Body Bank (1990)
Death Valley Free Prison (1990)
Death Game 2090 (1990)
Cyberskelter (1991)
Chicago Arcology (1991)
Cyber Europe (1991, 2015)
Campaign Classics line - dual statted for Hero System and Rolemaster:
Robin Hood (1987)
Mythic Greece (1988)
Vikings (1989)
Pirates (1989)
Mythic Egypt (1990)
Arabian Nights (1994) (actually a "Rolemaster Genre Book" without Hero System stats)
Lord of the Rings Adventure Game (1991)
High Adventure Role Playing (2003, 2004, 2011)
HARP College of Magics (2004, 2013)
HARP Martial Law (2003, 2004, 2013)
HARP Loot (2016)
HARP Folkways (2017)
HARP A Wedding in Axebridge (2017)
Miniatures games
Silent Death (1990)
Bladestorm (1990)
Collectible card games
Middle-earth Collectible Card Game (1995)
Warlords Collectible Card Game (1997)
References
External links
Company Website
Game manufacturers
Role-playing game publishing companies
Companies that have filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy | [
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222900 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peoples%20Temple | Peoples Temple | The Peoples Temple of the Disciples of Christ, originally Peoples Temple Full Gospel Church and commonly shortened to Peoples Temple, was an American new religious organization which existed between 1954 and 1978. Founded in Indianapolis, Indiana, by Reverend Jim Jones, the Peoples Temple spread a message that combined elements of Christianity with communist and socialist ideology, with an emphasis on racial equality. After Jones moved the group to California in the 1960s and established several locations throughout the state, including its headquarters in San Francisco, the Temple forged ties with many left-wing political figures and claimed to have 20,000 members (though 3,000–5,000 is more likely).
The Temple is best known for the events of November 18, 1978, in Guyana, when 909 people died in a mass suicide and mass murder at its remote settlement, named "Jonestown", as well as the murders of U.S. Congressman Leo Ryan and members of his visiting delegation at the nearby Port Kaituma airstrip. The incident at Jonestown resulted in the greatest single loss of American civilian life in a deliberate act prior to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Because of the killings in Guyana, the Temple is regarded by scholars and by popular view as a destructive cult.
Before California
Indiana formation
Before he founded his church, Jim Jones had become enamored with communism and he was also frustrated by the harassment which communists were being subjected to in the U.S. during the Red Scare. This, among other things, provided a clerical inspiration for Jones; as he himself described it in a biographical recording:
Although Jones feared that he would end up being the victim of a backlash for being a communist, he was surprised when a Methodist superintendent (whom he had not met through the American Communist Party) helped him enter the church, despite his knowledge that Jones was a communist. In 1952, Jones became a student pastor in Sommerset Southside Methodist Church in Indianapolis, Indiana, but left that church because it barred him from integrating African-Americans into his congregation. In 1954, Jones founded his own church in a rented space in Indianapolis, at first, he named it the Community Unity Church.
Jones had previously observed a faith healing service at the Seventh Day Baptist Church, which led him to conclude that such healings could attract people, and generate income, which he could use to accomplish his social goals. Jones and the Temple's members knowingly faked healings because they found that the healings increased people's faith and generated financial resources which they could use to help the poor and finance the church. These "healings" involved the use of chicken livers and other animal tissue, which Jones (and confederate Temple members) claimed were cancerous tissues which had been removed from the bodies of the people who had been healed.
In 1955, Jones bought his first church building, located in a racially mixed Indianapolis neighborhood. He first named his church Wings of Deliverance, and later that year, he renamed it the Peoples Temple Full Gospel Church, the first time he used the phrase "Peoples Temple." Jones's healings and purported clairvoyant revelations attracted spiritualists.
Indianapolis expansion
In order to increase publicity, the Peoples Temple organized large religious "conventions" with other Pentecostal pastors, with Jones continuing to disguise the fact that he was using religion to further his political ideology. Those conventions drew as many as 11,000 attendees, as Jones and the other preachers conducted "healings" and impressed attendees by revealing private information—usually addresses, phone numbers, or Social Security numbers, which private detectives could easily discover beforehand. Jones and Temple members also drove through various cities in Indiana and Ohio on recruiting and fundraising efforts.
The Temple stressed egalitarian ideals, asking members to attend in casual clothes so poor members would not feel out of place, and providing shelter for the needy. While the Temple had increased its African-American membership from 15% to nearly 50%, in order to attempt further gains the Temple hired African-American preacher Archie Ijames (who had earlier given up organized religion). Pastor Ijames was one of the first to commit to Jones's socialist collective program. In 1959, the church joined the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), and was renamed the Peoples Temple Christian Church Full Gospel. This affiliation was a successful attempt to both raise the dwindling membership and restore the reputation of the organization.
In February 1960, the Temple opened a soup kitchen for the poor and expanded their social services to include rent assistance, job placement services, free canned goods, clothing, and coal for winter heating. Jones and his wife Marceline helped to increase the Temple's soup kitchen service to an average of about 2,800 meals per month. The Temple's public profile was further elevated when Jones was appointed to the Indianapolis Human Rights Commission. He engaged in public attempts to integrate businesses and was the subject of much local media coverage.
Changes and "religious communalism"
Jones had read extensively about Father Divine, the founder of the International Peace Mission movement. Jones and members of the Temple visited Divine several times, while Jones studied his writings and tape recordings of his sermons. The Temple printed Divine's texts for its members and began to preach that members should abstain from sex and only adopt children.
In 1959, Jones tested the new fiery rhetorical style that Divine had used in a sermon. His speech captivated members with lulls and crescendos, as Jones challenged individual members in front of the group. The speech also marked the beginning of the Temple's underlying "us versus them" message. Jones carefully wove in that the Temple's home for senior citizens was established on the basis "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need", quoting Karl Marx's Critique of the Gotha Program. He did so knowing that his Christian audience would recognize the similarities with text from the Acts of the Apostles (4:34–35) which stated: "distribution was made to each as any had need." Jones would repeatedly cite that passage to paint Jesus as a communist, while at the same time attacking much of the text of the Bible.
The Temple began tightening control over its organization, asking more of its members than did other churches. It required that members spend Thanksgiving and Christmas with its Temple "family" rather than with blood relatives, the beginning of a process to wean members from outside contact and redirect their lives toward a total commitment to the Temple and its goals. Jones began to offer a deal towards a socialist collective, which he referred to as "religious communalism", in which members would donate their material possessions to the Temple in exchange for the Temple meeting all those members' needs. Pastor Ijames was one of the first to commit.
The Temple had little luck converting most Midwesterners to communist ideals, even when disguised as religion. Admiring the 1959 Cuban Revolution, Jones traveled to the island nation in 1960 in an unsuccessful attempt to persuade poor black Cubans to move to his congregation in Indiana. The Temple's religious message transitioned during this period, to one treading between atheism and the subtle notion that Jones was a Christ-like figure. While Temple aides complained privately, Jones said that the new message was needed to foster members' dedication to the Temple's larger goals. He maintained such implications until the mid-to-late 1970s.
In 1961, Jones claimed he had had a vision in which Indianapolis and Chicago were destroyed in a nuclear attack, convincing aides that the Temple needed to look for a new location. A 1962 Esquire magazine article listed the nine safest places to be in a nuclear war, with Belo Horizonte, Brazil, topping the list because of its location and atmospheric conditions. Jones traveled through Brazil from 1962 through early 1963. He requested money from the Temple while in Rio de Janeiro, but the Temple lacked adequate funds for such a request because of shrinking finances in Jones's absence. Jones sent a preacher that had become a follower in Brazil back to Indiana to help stabilize the Temple. Jones returned to Indiana in 1963.
In California
Move to California
While he had always spoken of the social gospel's virtues, Jones did not reveal that his gospel was actually communism until the late 1960s. By then, he was openly revealing in Temple sermons his "Apostolic Socialism" concept. The concept often loosely mixed tenets of socialism. During this period, Jones preached to new members that the Holy Spirit was within them, but that Jones's healing power demonstrated that he was a special manifestation of "Christ the Revolution." He also preached that the U.S. was the Antichrist and capitalism "the Antichrist system."
Jones preached of an imminent nuclear holocaust, after which the surviving elect would create a new socialist Eden on earth. In 1965, he predicted this would occur on July 15, 1967. Accordingly, Jones preached that the Temple must move to Redwood Valley, California. In July 1965, he led approximately 140 members, half of whom were black, to Redwood Valley, and officially re-established his church there. The addition of deputy district attorney Timothy Stoen greatly increased the Temple's credibility in the area, quickly increasing membership.
Jones began deriding traditional Christianity as "fly away religion," and rejected the Bible as white men's justification to dominate women and enslave people of color. He authored a booklet he would distribute in the Temple, "The Letter Killeth", pointing out what he felt were the contradictions, absurdities, and atrocities in the Bible, but also stating that the Bible contained great truths. Jones preached that the "Divine Principle" equated with love, and love equated with socialism. He said the Bible contained beliefs about only a "Sky God" or "Buzzard God," who was no God at all.
Urban expansion
Because of limited expansion in the Redwood Valley-Ukiah area, it eventually seemed necessary to move the church's seat of power to an urban area. In 1970, the Temple began holding services in San Francisco and Los Angeles. It established permanent facilities in those cities in 1971 and 1972, respectively. In San Francisco, the Temple occupied a former Scottish Rite temple at 1859 Geary Boulevard; in Los Angeles, the Temple occupied the former building of the First Church of Christ, Scientist at 1366 S. Alvarado Street.
By 1972, the Temple called Redwood Valley the "mother church" of a "statewide political movement". From the start, the Los Angeles facility's primary purposes were to recruit members and to serve as a waystation for the Temple's weekly bus trips across California. The Temple set up permanent staff in Los Angeles and arranged bus trips there every other week. The substantial attendance and collections in Los Angeles helped support the Temple's inflated membership claims. The Los Angeles facility was larger than San Francisco's. Its central location at the corner of Alvarado and Hoover Streets permitted easy geographic access for a large black membership from Watts and Compton.
Recruiting drives in Los Angeles and San Francisco helped increase membership in the Temple from a few hundred to nearly 3,000 by the mid-1970s. Later, when the Temple's headquarters shifted from Redwood Valley to San Francisco, the Temple convinced many Los Angeles members to move north to its new headquarters.
Organizational structure
Although some descriptions of the Peoples Temple emphasize Jones's autocratic control over its operations, in reality, the Temple possessed a complex leadership structure with decision-making power unevenly dispersed among its members. Within that structure, Temple members were unwittingly and gradually subjected to sophisticated mind control and behavior modification techniques borrowed from post-revolutionary China and North Korea. The Temple tightly defined psychological boundaries that "enemies", such as "traitors" to the Temple, crossed at their own peril. While the secrecy and caution Jones demanded in recruiting led to decreased overall membership, they also helped him foster hero-worship of himself as the "ultimate socialist".
In the 1970s, the Temple established a more formal hierarchy for its socialistic model. At the top were the Temple's staff, a select group of predominantly college-educated white women that undertook the Temple's most sensitive missions. They necessarily acclimated themselves to an "ends justify the means" philosophy. The earliest member was Sandy Bradshaw, a socialist from Syracuse, New York. Others included Carolyn Layton, a communist since the age of 15 who had a child with Jones; Sharon Amos, who worked for the social services department; Patty Cartmell, Jones's secretary; and Teri Buford, a Navy brat turned pacifist. The group was often scorned as elitist within the egalitarian Temple organization and viewed as secret police.
The Temple's Planning Commission was its governing board. Membership quickly ballooned from 50 to over 100. During the week, members convened for meetings in various Redwood Valley locations, sometimes until dawn. The Planning Commission was responsible for the Temple's day-to-day operations, including key decision-making, financial and legal planning, and oversight. The Commission sat over various other committees, such as the Diversions Committee, which carried out tasks such as writing huge numbers of letters to politicians from fictional people mailed from various locations around the U.S., and the Mertles Committee, which undertook activities against defectors Al and Jeannie Mills.
A group of rank-and-file members, whom outsiders called the "troops", consisted of working-class members who were 70–80% black. They set up chairs for meetings, filled offering boxes, and did other tasks. Many of them were attracted to the Temple's quasi-socialist approach both because of the Temple's political education offers and because the Temple's highly passionate congregations still maintained the familiar forms of evangelical prayers and black gospels. Jones also surrounded himself with several dozen mostly white, privileged members in their twenties and thirties who had skills in law, accounting, nursing, teaching, music, and administration. This latter group carried out public relations, financial duties, and more mundane chores while bringing in good salaries from well-paying outside jobs.
Recruiting, faith healings, and fund raising
The Temple used ten to fifteen Greyhound-type bus cruisers to transport members up and down California freeways each week for recruitment and fundraising. Jones always rode in bus number seven, which contained armed guards and a special section lined with protective metal plates. He told members that the Temple would not bother scheduling a trip unless it could net $100,000, and the Temple's goal for annual net income from bus trips was $1 million.
Beginning in the 1970s, the bus caravan also traveled across the U.S. quarterly, including to Washington, D.C. In June 1973, Representative George Brown, Jr. entered a lengthy and laudatory description of the Temple into the Congressional Record. The Washington Post ran an August 18, 1973, editorial-page item stating that the 660 Temple visitors were the "hands down winners of anybody's tourists of the year award" after spending an hour cleaning up the Capitol grounds.
The Temple distributed pamphlets in cities along the route of these fundraising trips bragging of Jones's prowess at "spiritual healing" without mentioning the Temple's Marxist goals. Stops included large cities such as Houston, Detroit, and Cleveland. Temple members pretended to be locals and acted as shills in the various faked healings and "revelations". Local viewers did not realize they were in the minority in the audience. The weekly take from offerings and healing services was $15,000 to $25,000 in Los Angeles and $8,000 to $12,000 in San Francisco. There were smaller collections from trips around the "mother church" in Redwood Valley.
The Temple also set up Truth Enterprises, a direct mailing branch that sent out 30,000 to 50,000 mailers monthly to people who had attended Temple services or written to the Temple after listening to Temple radio programs. Donations were mailed in from all over the continental U.S., Hawaii, South America, and Europe. In addition to receiving donations, the Temple sold trinkets, such as pieces of Jones's robes, healing oil, Temple rings, key chains, and lockets. In peak periods, mailer revenue grossed $300 to $400 daily. This figure even surprised Jones.
Although Jones had earlier asked Temple members to destroy photos of him because he did not want members worshiping him as Catholics "worshiped plaster statues", Jeannie and Al Mills (who would later defect) convinced Jones to sell anointed and blessed photos to raise money. Jones worried that "they're gonna get me for mail fraud someday." In 1973, the Temple also formed Brotherhood Records, a subsidiary record label that produced music from the Temple's "large interracial youth choir and orchestra".
Size and scope
Despite exaggerated claims by the Temple of 20,000 or more members, one source claims its greatest actual registered membership was around 3,000. However, 5,000 individual membership card photos were located in Temple records after its dissolution. Regardless of its official membership, the Temple also regularly drew 3,000 people to its San Francisco services alone. Of particular interest to politicians was the Temple's ability to produce 2,000 people for campaign work or attendance in San Francisco on only six hours' notice.
By the mid-1970s, in addition to its locations in Redwood Valley, Los Angeles and San Francisco, the Temple had established satellite congregations in almost a dozen other California cities. Jones mentioned locations in San Francisco, Los Angeles, Ukiah, Bakersfield, Fresno, and Sacramento. The Temple also maintained a branch, college tuition program, and dormitory at Santa Rosa Junior College.
At the same time, Jones and his church earned a reputation for aiding the cities' poorest citizens, especially racial minorities, drug addicts, and the homeless. The Temple made strong connections to the California state welfare system. During the 1970s, the church owned and ran at least nine residential care homes for the elderly, six homes for foster children, and a state-licensed ranch for developmentally disabled persons. The Temple elite handled members' insurance claims and legal problems, effectively acting as a client-advocacy group. For these reasons, sociologist John Hall described the Temple as a "charismatic bureaucracy", oriented toward Jones as a charismatic leader, but functioning as a bureaucratic social service organization.
Kinsolving series
In 1972, the San Francisco Examiner and Indianapolis Star ran the first four parts of a seven-part story on the Temple by Lester Kinsolving, its first public exposé. Kinsolving reported on several aspects of church dealings, its claims of healings, and Jones's ritual of throwing Bibles down in church, yelling, "This black book has held down you people for 2,000 years. It has no power." Temple members picketed the Examiner, harassed the paper's editor, and threatened both the Examiner and the Star with libel suits. Both papers canceled the series after the fourth installment. Shortly thereafter, Jones made grants to newspapers in California with the stated goal of supporting the First Amendment.
Defections
Some defections occurred, most especially in 1973, when eight young members known as the "Gang of Eight" defected together. Because the Gang of Eight were aware of threats to potential defectors, they suspected Jones would send a search party to look for them. Their fears proved correct: Jones employed multiple search parties, including one which scanned highways from a rented airplane. The Gang of Eight drove three trucks loaded with firearms toward Canada, avoiding U.S. Highway 101. Because they feared taking firearms over the U.S.–Canada border, the group traveled instead to the hills of Montana, where they wrote a long letter documenting their complaints.
Former Temple member Jeannie Mills later wrote that Jones called thirty members to his home and forebodingly declared that, in light of the mass defection, "in order to keep our apostolic socialism, we should all kill ourselves and leave a note saying that because of harassment, a socialist group cannot exist at this time." Jones became furious, waving a pistol at the Planning Commission and referring to the Gang of Eight as "Trotskyite defectors" and "Coca-Cola revolutionaries". While the Temple did not execute the suicide plan Jones described, it did conduct fake suicide rituals in the years that followed.
San Francisco Temple
The move to San Francisco permitted Jones to be more open with his true political and theological leanings. By spring 1976, Jones openly admitted even to outsiders that he was an atheist. Despite the Temple's fear that the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) was investigating its religious tax exemption, Marceline admitted to The New York Times in 1977 that her husband, taking inspiration from Mao Zedong, was trying to achieve social change by mobilizing people through religion. She admitted that, "Jim used religion to try to get some people out of the opiate of religion" and had slammed the Bible on the table yelling, "I've got to destroy this paper idol!"
With the move into San Francisco, the Temple more strenuously emphasized that its members live communally. It stressed physical discipline of children first, and then adults. The San Francisco Temple also carefully vetted newcomers through an extensive observation process.
The Temple distinguished itself from most new religious movements with its overtly political message. It combined those genuine political sympathies with the perception that it could help turn out large numbers of votes to gain the support of a number of prominent politicians. Jones made it known after he moved to San Francisco that he was interested in politics, and legal changes in the way San Francisco elections were held strengthened the power of neighborhood groups and civic organizations such as the Temple.
After the Temple's voter mobilization efforts proved instrumental in George Moscone's run for mayor of San Francisco in 1975, he appointed Jones as Chairman of the San Francisco Housing Authority Commission. Jones and the Temple received the support of California political figures such as Moscone, Jerry Brown, Mervyn Dymally, Willie Brown, Art Agnos, and Harvey Milk. Willie Brown visited the Temple numerous times and spoke publicly in support of Jones, even after investigations and suspicions of cult activity. Jones and Moscone met privately with then-running mate Walter Mondale in San Francisco days before the 1976 presidential election. Jones also met First Lady Rosalynn Carter on multiple occasions, including a private dinner, and corresponded with her in letters.
Jones used his position at the Housing Authority to lead the fight against the eviction of tenants from San Francisco's International Hotel. The Temple further forged an alliance with San Francisco Sun Reporter publisher Carlton Goodlett and received frequent favorable mentions in that paper. It also received frequent favorable coverage from San Francisco Chronicle columnist Herb Caen and other local newspaper and television reporters.
However, the Temple aroused police suspicion after Jones praised the Symbionese Liberation Army, a radical Bay Area group, and its leaders attended San Francisco Temple meetings. Further suspicions were raised after the defection of Joyce Shaw and the mysterious death soon after of her husband, Bob Houston. After tension rose between the Temple and the Nation of Islam in San Francisco, the group held a large "spiritual" jubilee at the Los Angeles Convention Center attended by thousands, including prominent political figures, to heal the rift.
While the Temple forged media alliances, the move to San Francisco also opened the group to media scrutiny. When Jones and hundreds of Temple members fled to the Temple's Guyana settlement following media investigations, Mayor Moscone issued a press release stating that his office would not investigate the Temple. During this time, Milk spoke at Temple political rallies and wrote a letter to President Jimmy Carter after the investigations began, in which he accused Timothy Stoen, who by that point had defected from the Temple and was attempting to extricate relatives from Guyana, of telling "bold-faced lies".
Mass murder/suicide at Jonestown, Guyana
In 1974, the Peoples Temple signed a lease to rent land in Guyana. The community which was established on this piece of property was named the Peoples Temple Agricultural Project, its informal name was "Jonestown". The settlement had as few as fifty residents in early 1977.
Jones saw Jonestown as both a "socialist paradise" and a "sanctuary" from media scrutiny that had started with the Kinsolving articles. Former Temple member Tim Carter said the Temple moved to Jonestown because "in '74, what we saw in the United States was creeping fascism." Carter explained, "It was apparent that corporations, or the multinationals, were getting much larger, their influence was growing within the government, and the United States is a racist place." He said the Temple concluded that Guyana was "a place in a black country where our black members could live in peace", "it was a socialist government" and it was "the only English-speaking country in South America."
Increasing media scrutiny based on allegations by former members placed further pressure on Jones, especially after a 1977 article by Marshall Kilduff in New West magazine. Just before publication of the New West piece, editor Rosalie Wright telephoned Jones to read him the article. Wright explained that she was only doing so before publication because of "all the support letters we received on your behalf, from the Governor of California [Jerry Brown]" and others.
While still on the phone listening to the allegations contained in the article, Jones wrote a note to Temple members in the room with him that said, "We leave tonight. Notify Georgetown (Guyana)." After Jones left for Guyana, he encouraged Temple members to follow him there. The population grew to over 900 people by late 1978. Those who moved there were promised a tropical paradise free from the supposed wickedness of the outside world.
On November 17, 1978, Representative Leo Ryan, who was investigating claims of abuse within the Temple, visited Jonestown. During his visit, a number of Temple members expressed a desire to leave with him, and, on November 18, they accompanied Ryan to the local airstrip at Port Kaituma. There they were intercepted by self-styled Temple security guards who opened fire on the group, killing Ryan, three journalists, and one of the defectors as well as injuring nine others. A few seconds of gunfire from the incident were captured on video by NBC cameraman Bob Brown, one of the journalists killed in the attack.
That evening, in Jonestown, Jones ordered his congregation to drink a concoction of cyanide-laced, grape-flavored Flavor Aid. In all, 918 people died, including 276 children. It was the greatest single loss of American civilian life in a deliberate act until the events of September 11, 2001. This includes four that died at the Temple headquarters that night in the Guyanese capital of Georgetown.
Aftermath
The Temple's San Francisco headquarters was besieged by the national media and the relatives of the Jonestown victims. The mass killing became one of the best-known events in U.S. history as measured by the Gallup poll and appeared on the cover of several newspapers and magazines, including Time, for months afterward.
In addition, according to various press reports, after the Jonestown suicides, surviving Temple members in the U.S. announced their fears of being targeted by a "hit squad" which would be composed of Jonestown survivors. Similarly, in 1979, the Associated Press reported a U.S. Congressional aide's claim that there were "120 white, brainwashed assassins out from Jonestown awaiting the trigger word to pick up their hit."
Temple insider Michael Prokes, who had been ordered to deliver a suitcase which contained Temple funds which were supposed to be transferred to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, killed himself in March 1979, four months after the Jonestown incident. In the days leading up to his death, Prokes sent notes to several people, together with a thirty-page statement he had written about the Temple. Caen reprinted one copy in his Chronicle column. Prokes then arranged for a press conference in a Modesto, California motel room, during which he read a statement to the eight reporters who attended. He then excused himself, entered a restroom, and fatally shot himself in the head.
Before the tragedy, Temple member Paula Adams engaged in a romantic relationship with Guyana's Ambassador to the United States, Laurence "Bonny" Mann. Adams later married Mann. On October 24, 1983, Mann fatally shot both Adams and the couple's child, and then fatally shot himself. Defecting member Harold Cordell lost twenty family members on the evening of the poisonings. The Bogues family, which had also defected, lost its daughter Marilee (age 18), while defector Vernon Gosney lost his son Mark (age 5).
The mass suicide of the Peoples Temple has helped embed the idea that all new religious movements are destructive in the public's mind. Bryan R. Wilson argues against that point of view by pointing out that only four other such events have occurred within similar religious groups: the Branch Davidians, the Solar Temple, Aum Shinrikyo and Heaven's Gate.
Bankruptcy and dissolution
At the end of 1978, the Temple declared bankruptcy, and its assets went into receivership. In light of lawsuits, on December 4, 1978, Charles Garry, the corporation's attorney, petitioned to dissolve the Temple. The petition was granted in San Francisco Superior Court in January 1979. A few Temple members remained in Guyana through May 1979 in order to wrap up the movement's affairs, then they returned to the United States
The Temple's buildings in Los Angeles, Indianapolis, and Redwood Valley are all intact, as is the Temple's former Georgetown headquarters. Some former Temple buildings, such as the Los Angeles facility, are presently used by church congregations. The Temple's former San Francisco headquarters, located at 1859 Geary Boulevard, was destroyed in the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake; the site is now occupied by a Post Office branch.
See also
Mass suicide
Branch Davidians
Heaven's Gate
Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God
Order of the Solar Temple
Notes
References
Sources
Layton, Deborah. Seductive Poison. Anchor, 1999. .
Reiterman, Tim and John Jacobs. Raven: The Untold Story of Rev. Jim Jones and His People. Dutton, 1982. .
Further reading
Klineman, George and Sherman Butler. The Cult That Died. G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1980. .
Naipaul, Shiva. Black and White. London, 1980. .
Bebelaar, Judy and Ron Cabral. "And Then They Were Gone: Teenagers of Peoples Temple". Sugartown Publishing, 2018. .
External links
San Diego State University: Extensive site with source documents, list of dead, pictures
Audio Recording of Jonestown Suicide
Transcription of Suicide Tape
Isaacson, Barry. From Silver Lake to Suicide: One Family's Secret History of the Jonestown Massacre
605 Adults 304 Children, a 2019 short documentary filmed entirely by The Peoples Temple at Jonestown
1955 establishments in California
Apocalyptic groups
Cults
African-American history in San Francisco
Christian new religious movements
History of the San Francisco Bay Area
Massacres in Guyana
Post–civil rights era in African-American history
Religion in the San Francisco Bay Area
Religious organizations disestablished in 1978
Religious organizations established in 1955
Suicide in Guyana
Religious belief systems founded in the United States
1954 establishments in Indiana | [
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222902 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%BChrerbunker | Führerbunker | The Führerbunker () was an air raid shelter located near the Reich Chancellery in Berlin, Germany. It was part of a subterranean bunker complex constructed in two phases in 1936 and 1944. It was the last of the Führer Headquarters (Führerhauptquartiere) used by Adolf Hitler during World War II.
Hitler took up residence in the Führerbunker on 16 January 1945, and it became the centre of the Nazi regime until the last week of World War II in Europe. Hitler married Eva Braun there on 29 April 1945, less than 40 hours before they committed suicide.
After the war, both the old and new Chancellery buildings were levelled by the Soviets. The underground complex remained largely undisturbed until 1988–89, despite some attempts at demolition. The excavated sections of the old bunker complex were mostly destroyed during reconstruction of that area of Berlin. The site remained unmarked until 2006, when a small plaque was installed with a schematic diagram. Some corridors of the bunker still exist but are sealed off from the public.
Construction
The Reich Chancellery bunker was initially constructed as a temporary air-raid shelter for Hitler, who actually spent very little time in the capital during most of the war. Increased bombing of Berlin led to expansion of the complex as an improvised permanent shelter. The elaborate complex consisted of two separate shelters, the Vorbunker ("forward bunker"; the upper bunker), completed in 1936, and the Führerbunker, located lower than the Vorbunker and to the west-southwest, completed in 1944. They were connected by a stairway set at right angles and could be closed off from each other by a bulkhead and steel door. The Vorbunker was located beneath the cellar of a large reception hall behind the old Reich Chancellery at Wilhelmstrasse 77. The Führerbunker was located about beneath the garden of the old Reich Chancellery, north of the new Reich Chancellery building at Voßstraße 6. Besides being deeper under ground, the Führerbunker had significantly more reinforcement. Its roof was made of concrete almost thick. About 30 small rooms were protected by approximately of concrete; exits led into the main buildings, as well as an emergency exit up to the garden. The Führerbunker development was built by the Hochtief company as part of an extensive program of subterranean construction in Berlin begun in 1940.
Hitler's accommodations were in this newer, lower section, and by February 1945 it had been decorated with high-quality furniture taken from the Chancellery, along with several framed oil paintings. After descending the stairs into the lower section and passing through the steel door, there was a long corridor with a series of rooms on each side. On the right side were a series of rooms which included generator/ventilation rooms and the telephone switchboard. On the left side was Eva Braun's bedroom/sitting room (also known as Hitler's private guest room), an ante-chamber (also known as Hitler's sitting room), which led into Hitler's study/office. On the wall hung a large portrait of Frederick the Great, one of Hitler's heroes. A door led into Hitler's modestly furnished bedroom. Next to it was the conference/map room (also known as the briefing/situation room) which had a door that led out into the waiting room/ante-room.
The bunker complex was self-contained. However, as the Führerbunker was below the water table, conditions were unpleasantly damp, with pumps running continuously to remove groundwater. A diesel generator provided electricity, and well water was pumped in as the water supply. Communications systems included a telex, a telephone switchboard, and an army radio set with an outdoor antenna. As conditions deteriorated at the end of the war, Hitler received much of his war news from BBC radio broadcasts and via courier.
End of World War II
Hitler moved into the Führerbunker on 16 January 1945, joined by his senior staff, including Martin Bormann. Eva Braun and Joseph Goebbels joined them in April, while Magda Goebbels and their six children took residence in the upper Vorbunker. Two or three dozen support, medical, and administrative staff were also sheltered there. These included Hitler's secretaries (including Traudl Junge), a nurse named Erna Flegel, and Sergeant Rochus Misch, who was both bodyguard and telephone switchboard operator. Initially, Hitler continued to use the undamaged wing of the Reich Chancellery, where he held afternoon military conferences in his large study. Afterwards, he would have tea with his secretaries before returning to the bunker complex for the night. After several weeks of this routine, Hitler seldom left the bunker except for short strolls in the chancellery garden with his dog Blondi. The bunker was crowded, the atmosphere was oppressive, and air raids occurred daily. Hitler mostly stayed on the lower level, where it was quieter and he could sleep. Conferences took place for much of the night, often until 05:00.
On 16 April, the Red Army started the Battle of Berlin, and they started to encircle the city by 19 April. Hitler made his last trip to the surface on 20 April, his 56th birthday, going to the ruined garden of the Reich Chancellery where he awarded the Iron Cross to boy soldiers of the Hitler Youth. That afternoon, Berlin was bombarded by Soviet artillery for the first time.
Hitler was in denial about the dire situation and placed his hopes on the units commanded by Waffen-SS General Felix Steiner, the Armeeabteilung Steiner ("Army Detachment Steiner"). On 21 April, Hitler ordered Steiner to attack the northern flank of the encircling Soviet salient and ordered the German Ninth Army, south-east of Berlin, to attack northward in a pincer attack. That evening, Red Army tanks reached the outskirts of Berlin. Hitler was told at his afternoon situation conference on 22 April that Steiner's forces had not moved, and he fell into a tearful rage when he realised that the attack was not going to be carried out. He openly declared for the first time the war was lost—and he blamed his generals. Hitler announced that he would stay in Berlin until the end and then shoot himself.
On 23 April, Hitler appointed General of the Artillery Helmuth Weidling, commander of the LVI Panzer Corps, as the commander of the Berlin Defense Area, replacing Lieutenant-Colonel (Oberstleutnant) Ernst Kaether. The Red Army had consolidated their investment of Berlin by 25 April, despite the commands being issued from the Führerbunker. There was no prospect that the German defence could do anything but delay the city's capture. Hitler summoned Field Marshal Robert Ritter von Greim from Munich to Berlin to take over command of the Luftwaffe from Hermann Göring, and he arrived on 26 April along with his mistress, the test pilot Hanna Reitsch.
On 28 April, Hitler learned that Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler was trying to discuss surrender terms with the Western Allies through Count Folke Bernadotte, and Hitler considered this treason. Himmler's SS representative in Berlin Hermann Fegelein was shot after being court-martialed for desertion, and Hitler ordered Himmler's arrest. On the same day, General Hans Krebs made his last telephone call from the Führerbunker to Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, Chief of German Armed Forces High Command (OKW) in Fürstenberg. Krebs told him that all would be lost if relief did not arrive within 48 hours. Keitel promised to exert the utmost pressure on Generals Walther Wenck, commander of the Twelfth Army, and Theodor Busse, commander of the Ninth Army. Meanwhile, Bormann wired to German Admiral Karl Dönitz: "Reich Chancellery a heap of rubble." He said that the foreign press was reporting fresh acts of treason and "that without exception Schörner, Wenck and the others must give evidence of their loyalty by the quickest relief of the Führer".
That evening, von Greim and Reitsch flew out from Berlin in an Arado Ar 96 trainer. Field Marshal von Greim was ordered to get the Luftwaffe to attack the Soviet forces that had just reached Potsdamerplatz, only a city block from the Führerbunker. During the night of 28 April, General Wenck reported to Keitel that his Twelfth Army had been forced back along the entire front and it was no longer possible for his army to relieve Berlin. Keitel gave Wenck permission to break off the attempt.
Hitler married Eva Braun after midnight on 28–29 April in a small civil ceremony within the Führerbunker. He then took secretary Traudl Junge to another room and dictated his last will and testament. Hans Krebs, Wilhelm Burgdorf, Goebbels, and Bormann witnessed and signed the documents at approximately 04:00. Hitler then retired to bed.
Late in the evening of 29 April, Krebs contacted Jodl by radio: "Request immediate report. Firstly of the whereabouts of Wenck's spearheads. Secondly of time intended to attack. Thirdly of the location of the Ninth Army. Fourthly of the precise place in which the Ninth Army will break through. Fifthly of the whereabouts of General Rudolf Holste's spearhead." In the early morning of 30 April, Jodl replied to Krebs: "Firstly, Wenck's spearhead bogged down south of Schwielow Lake. Secondly, Twelfth Army therefore unable to continue attack on Berlin. Thirdly, bulk of Ninth Army surrounded. Fourthly, Holste's Corps on the defensive."
SS-Brigadeführer Wilhelm Mohnke, commander of the centre government district of Berlin, informed Hitler during the morning of 30 April that he would be able to hold for less than two days. Later that morning, Weidling informed Hitler that the defenders would probably exhaust their ammunition that night and again asked him for permission to break out. Weidling finally received permission at about 13:00. Hitler shot himself later that afternoon, at around 15:30, while Eva took cyanide. In accordance with Hitler's instructions, his and Eva's bodies were burned in the garden behind the Reich Chancellery. Goebbels became the new Head of Government and Chancellor of Germany (Reichskanzler) in accordance with Hitler's last will and testament. Reichskanzler Goebbels and Bormann sent a radio message to Dönitz at 03:15, informing him of Hitler's death, and that he was the new Head of State and President of Germany (Reichspräsident), in accordance with Hitler's last will and testament.
Krebs talked to General Vasily Chuikov, commander of the Soviet 8th Guards Army, at about 04:00 on 1 May, and Chuikov demanded unconditional surrender of the remaining German forces. Krebs did not have the authority to surrender, so he returned to the bunker. In the late afternoon, Goebbels had his children poisoned, and he and his wife left the bunker at around 20:30. There are several different accounts on what followed. According to one account, Goebbels shot his wife and then himself. Another account was that they each bit on a cyanide ampule and were given a coup de grâce immediately afterwards. Goebbels' SS adjutant Günther Schwägermann testified in 1948 that the couple walked ahead of him up the stairs and out to the Chancellery garden. He waited in the stairwell and heard the shots, then walked up the remaining stairs and saw the lifeless bodies of the couple outside. He then followed Joseph Goebbels' order and had an SS soldier fire several shots into Goebbels' body, which did not move. The bodies were then doused with petrol and set alight, but the remains were only partially burned and not buried.
Weidling had given the order for the survivors to break out to the northwest, and the plan got underway at around 23:00. The first group from the Reich Chancellery was led by Mohnke; they tried unsuccessfully to break through the Soviet rings and were captured the next day. Mohnke was interrogated by SMERSH, like others who were captured from the Führerbunker. The third breakout attempt from the Reich Chancellery was made around 01:00 on 2 May, and Bormann managed to cross the Spree. Artur Axmann followed the same route and reported seeing Bormann's body a short distance from the Weidendammer bridge.
At 01:00, the Soviet forces picked up a radio message from the LVI Panzer Corps requesting a cease-fire. Down in the Führerbunker, General Krebs and General Burgdorf committed suicide by gunshot to the head. The last defenders in the area of the bunker complex were French SS volunteers of the 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st French), and they remained at the bunker until the early morning of 2 May. The Soviet forces then captured the Reich Chancellery. General Weidling surrendered with his staff at 6:00, and his meeting with Chuikov ended at 8:23. Johannes Hentschel, the master electro-mechanic for the bunker complex, stayed after everyone else had either left or committed suicide, as the field hospital in the Reich Chancellery above needed power and water. He surrendered to the Red Army as they entered the bunker complex at 09:00 on 2 May. The bodies of Goebbels' six children were discovered on 3 May. They were found in their beds in the Vorbunker with the clear mark of cyanide shown on their faces.
Post-war events
The first post-war photos of the interior of the Führerbunker were taken in July 1945. On 4 July, American writer James P. O'Donnell toured the bunker after giving the Soviet guard a pack of cigarettes. Many soldiers, politicians, and diplomats visited the bunker complex in the following days and months. Winston Churchill visited the Reich Chancellery and bunker on 14 July 1945. On 11 December 1945, the Soviets allowed a limited investigation of the bunker grounds by the other Allied powers. Two representatives from each nation watched several Germans dig up soil; this included the site where Hitler's remains had been exhumed that May. Found during the dig were two hats identified as Hitler's, an undergarment with Braun's initials, and some reports to Hitler from Goebbels. The representatives planned to continue the work, but when they arrived the next morning, an NKVD armed guard met them and accused them of removing documents from the Chancellery. This was denied, but no further outside investigation was allowed until years later.
The outer ruins of both Chancellery buildings were levelled by the Soviets between 1945 and 1949 as part of an effort to destroy the landmarks of Nazi Germany. A detailed interior site investigation by the Soviets, including measurements, took place on 16 May 1946. Thereafter, the bunker largely survived, although some areas were partially flooded. In December 1947, the Soviets tried to blow up the bunker, but only the separation walls were damaged. In 1959, the East German government began a series of demolitions of the Chancellery, including the bunker. Because it was near the Berlin Wall, the site was undeveloped and neglected until 1988–89. During extensive construction of residential housing and other buildings on the site, work crews uncovered several underground sections of the old bunker complex; for the most part these were destroyed. Other parts of the Chancellery underground complex were uncovered, but these were ignored, filled in, or resealed.
Government authorities wanted to destroy the last vestiges of these Nazi landmarks. The construction of the buildings in the area around the Führerbunker was a strategy for ensuring the surroundings remained anonymous and unremarkable. The emergency exit point for the Führerbunker (which had been in the Chancellery gardens) was occupied by a car park.
On 8 June 2006, during the lead-up to the 2006 FIFA World Cup, an information board was installed to mark the location of the Führerbunker. The board, including a schematic diagram of the bunker, can be found at the corner of In den Ministergärten and Gertrud-Kolmar-Straße, two small streets about three minutes' walk from Potsdamer Platz. Rochus Misch, one of the last people living who was in the bunker at the time of Hitler's suicide, was on hand for the ceremony.
See also
Berghof
The Bunker – 1970 book
The Bunker – 1981 film
Downfall – 2004 film
Matsushiro Underground Imperial Headquarters
Nazi architecture
Presidential Emergency Operations Center
Stalin's bunker
Wolf's Lair
References
Informational notes
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Bunkermuzeum – English version: Guide to military museums of Europe
3D-stereoscopic images of Chancellery
Führer Headquarters
1940s in Berlin
Battle of Berlin
World War II sites in Germany
Continuity of government
Bunkers in Germany
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222904 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planigalinae | Planigalinae | The former subfamily Planigalinae contained the planigales and the ningauis: very small marsupial carnivores native to Australia which are, like the quolls, antechinuses, dibblers, Tasmanian devil, and many others, part of the biological order Dasyuromorphia: the carnivorous marsupials. The subfamily is now contained in the Sminthopsinae subfamily, and the two genera are split between two different tribes; the planigales are by themselves in their own tribe, while the ningaui are lumped with the dunnarts and the Kultarr.
There are 8 species in 2 genera. All members of the subfamily are very small, ranging from the paucident planigale at just over 10 grams to the smallest marsupial of all, the 4.3 gram long-tailed planigale. Most are about 8 grams, or about half the size of an average mouse.
Of the 8 species, two are from the tropical northern part of the continent, the other five from the arid or semi-arid centre. Four of the five planigales have been known for many years—John Gould described the common planigale in 1851—but the paucident planigale and all three ningauis were unknown to science until the 1970s and 1980s.
All 8 species are nocturnal carnivores which hunt a range of small creatures, typically insects, larvae, insect eggs, small lizards and the young of small mammals. Although tiny, they are very bold, at least some of the species regularly take prey larger than themselves. Even the widespread common planigale, which can be found in the outer suburbs of Brisbane is poorly known. Until the improvements in biochemical analysis methods towards the end of the 20th century, very little was known about the relationships between the smaller carnivorous marsupials: it is only in recent years that it has been possible to discover that the Planigalinae are a distinct group within the Dasyuromorphia.
Family Dasyuridae
Subfamily Dasyurinae: quolls, kowari, mulgara, kaluta, dibblers, pseudantechinuses, and the Tasmanian devil
Subfamily Phascogalinae: phascogales and antechinuses
Subfamily Sminthopsinae: dunnarts and the kultarr
SUBFAMILY PLANIGALINAE:
Genus Planigale
Giles' planigale (Planigale gilesi)
Long-tailed planigale (Planigale ingrami)
Common planigale (Planigale maculata)
New Guinean planigale (Planigale novaeguineae)
Narrow-nosed planigale (Planigale tenuirostris)
Genus Ningaui
Wongai ningaui (Ninguai ridei)
Pilbara ningaui (Ninguai timealeyi)
Southern ningaui (Ninguai yvonneae)
Dasyuromorphs
Marsupials of Australia | [
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