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223231 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Adams%20%28naval%20officer%29 | Samuel Adams (naval officer) | Samuel Adams (April 10, 1912 – June 5, 1942) was an officer in the United States Navy decorated for action in the Battle of Midway during World War II.
Biography
Born in Northampton, Massachusetts, Adams was appointed to the United States Naval Academy from the state's second Congressional district in 1931, and graduated in 1935 with an appointment to the rank of ensign. Adams was assigned to sea duty on battleships, serving aboard in June and July 1935 before being reassigned to until January 2, 1938. He was then accepted to flight school at NAS Pensacola, where he earned wings as a naval aviator on January 17, 1939.
Soon promoted to Lieutenant (j.g.), Adams was assigned to aircraft carrier duty, first aboard for one month (April–May 1939) and then with Bombing Squadron (VB) 5 aboard , from May 13, 1939 to the end of his career. While with Yorktown, Adams flew Northrop BT-1s, later transitioning with the rest of the squadron to the SBD Dauntless aircraft, flying escort for North Atlantic convoys until the U.S. entered the war.
After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Yorktown was sent to the Pacific theater. Adams took part in raids in the Gilbert and Marshall Islands. He led raids on land and sea targets in and around Jaluit on February 1, 1942, against shipping off New Guinea on March 10, and on the island of Tulagi on May 4. He participated in the Battle of the Coral Sea on May 7 and 8. During this period Adams was twice awarded the Navy Cross.
The six Japanese aircraft carriers that had played a crucial role in the attack on Pearl Harbor became a primary focus of U.S. naval efforts in the ensuing Pacific campaign. Four of these ships were part of a battle group involved in the Battle of Midway; three were set ablaze in that battle on June 4, 1942. The fourth, the Hiryū, remained unscathed. At about 2:40 P.M. local time on June 5, Adams and his wingman, Lt. Harlan Dickson, spotted her and her battle group, consisting of two battleships, three heavy cruisers and four destroyers. Under fire from a Zero fighter, Adams radioed the ships' location (31°15' N., 179°05' W., moving north at approximately 20 knots). Because of this, the U.S. battle group was able to put the Hiryū out of action, and inflict major damage on the rest of the battle group.
On June 5, Adams spotted the Japanese destroyer Tanikaze and attacked; his plane disappeared in the clouds and was never seen again, presumed downed by anti-aircraft fire from the destroyer. Also killed in the attack was Adams's radioman Joseph Karrol.
Adams was posthumously awarded a third Navy Cross for the mission in which he located the Hiryū.
Namesake
The U.S. Navy destroyer , which saw duty in the latter part of World War II, was named in his honor and christened by his widow, Mrs. Maude Ryan Adams.
See also
List of people who disappeared mysteriously at sea
References
Attribution
External links
1912 births
1940s missing person cases
1942 deaths
Aerial disappearances of military personnel in action
Aviators killed in aviation accidents or incidents
Missing in action of World War II
People from Northampton, Massachusetts
People lost at sea
Recipients of the Navy Cross (United States)
United States Naval Academy alumni
United States Naval Aviators
United States Navy officers
United States Navy personnel killed in World War II
Military personnel from Massachusetts | [
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5403278 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris%20Cozens | Chris Cozens | Chris Cozens (born 14 June 1982, in Bristol) is a freestyle swimmer from Great Britain.
Swimming career
He was a silver medallist in the 100 m freestyle (47.51) at the 2003 Summer Universiade in Daegu, South Korea. He studied at Loughborough University, and won the bronze medal in the 4×50 m freestyle relay at the 2005 European Short Course Championships in Trieste, Italy. Became the first British man under 48 seconds in the 100m Freestyle at the British Short Course Championships in Stockport 2003.
He is a two times winner of the British Championship in 100 metres freestyle (2003 and 2005).
References
External links
1982 births
Living people
English male freestyle swimmers
Sportspeople from Bristol
Alumni of Loughborough University
Swimmers at the 2006 Commonwealth Games
Universiade medalists in swimming
Universiade gold medalists for Great Britain
Universiade silver medalists for Great Britain
Medalists at the 2003 Summer Universiade
Medalists at the 2005 Summer Universiade
Commonwealth Games competitors for England | [
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223232 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Adams%20%28disambiguation%29 | Samuel Adams (disambiguation) | Samuel Adams (1722–1803) was a Boston leader in the era of the American Revolution.
Samuel Adams or Sam Adams may also refer to:
Politics
Samuel Adams (Arkansas politician) (1805–1850), acting Governor of Arkansas in 1844
Sam Adams (Oregon politician) (born 1963), mayor of Portland, Oregon
Samuel Hunter Adams (1878–1975), mayor of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Military and intelligence
Samuel Adams (Loyalist) (1730–1810), Loyalist officer in the Revolutionary War, physician, surgeon
Samuel Adams (naval officer) (1912–1942), United States naval officer
Samuel A. Adams (1934–1988), CIA analyst known for challenging official enemy troop estimates during the Vietnam War
Sports
Sam Adams (golfer) (born 1946), PGA Tour golfer
Sam Adams Sr. (1948–2015), American football player
Sam Adams (American football) (born 1973), American football player
Sam Adams (Canadian football) (1928–2015), Canadian football player
Sam Adams (footballer, born 1989), Ghanaian footballer
Other people
Samuel Adams Sr. (1689–1748), American brewer
Soren Sorensen Adams or Sam Adams (1879–1963), Danish-born American inventor of the Joy Buzzer and other novelties
Sam Adams (explorer) (1828–1915), surveyor of the American West
Samuel S. Adams (1937–2006), economic geologist
Samuel Hopkins Adams (1871–1958), American writer and investigative journalist
Samuel Adams (composer) (born 1985), American composer
Sammy Adams (born 1987), American rapper
Samuel Adams (priest) (1886–1856), Irish Anglican priest and Dean of Cashel
Samuel B. Adams (1853–1938), Supreme Court of Georgia judge
Other uses
Samuel Adams (beer), an American brand of beer
Sam Adams Award
See also
Adams (surname)
Adams, Samuel | [
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223235 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenchman%20%28disambiguation%29 | Frenchman (disambiguation) | A Frenchman is a French person.
Frenchman may also refer to:
Places
Frenchman, Nevada, an unincorporated community
Frenchman Bay, Maine
Frenchman Bay, within King George Sound (Western Australia)
Frenchman Butte, Saskatchewan, Canada
Frenchman Creek (disambiguation)
Frenchman Hills, Washington
Frenchman Island, New York
Frenchman Lake (California)
Frenchman Lake (Nova Scotia), Canada
Frenchman Lake (Yukon), Canada
Frenchman Mountain, Nevada
Frenchman's Pass, Aruba
Frenchman Range, a mountain range in Nevada
Frenchman River, Saskatchewan, Canada
Other uses
Nap Lajoie (1874-1959), American Hall-of-Fame Major League Baseball player nicknamed "The Frenchman"
The Merovingian, also known as "The Frenchman", a minor character in the Matrix series
"The Frenchman", an episode of the TV series Bonanza
See also
Scott LeDoux (1940-2011), American politician, heavyweight boxer and professional wrestler nicknamed "The Fighting Frenchman"
Frenchmans Bluff, a summit in Minnesota
Frenchmans Cap, a mountain in Tasmania, Australia
Frenchman's Cay, an island in the British Virgin Islands
Frenchman Flat, a hydrographic basin in Nevada
Frenchman Knob, a summit in Kentucky | [
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223239 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European%20Atomic%20Energy%20Community | European Atomic Energy Community | The European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom) is an international organisation established by the Euratom Treaty on 25 March 1957 with the original purpose of creating a specialist market for nuclear power in Europe, by developing nuclear energy and distributing it to its member states while selling the surplus to non-member states. However, over the years its scope has been considerably increased to cover a large variety of areas associated with nuclear power and ionising radiation as diverse as safeguarding of nuclear materials, radiation protection and construction of the International Fusion Reactor ITER.
It is legally distinct from the European Union (EU) although it has the same membership, and is governed by many of the EU's institutions; but it is the only remaining community organisation that is independent of the EU and therefore outside the regulatory control of the European Parliament. Since 2014, Switzerland has also participated in Euratom programmes as an associated state.
The United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the organisation on 31 January 2020. However, under the terms of the UK–EU Trade and Cooperation Agreement, the United Kingdom participates in Euratom as an associated state following the end of the transition period on 31 December 2020.
History
The Common Assembly proposed extending the powers of the European Coal and Steel Community to cover other sources of energy. However, Jean Monnet, ECSC architect and President, wanted a separate community to cover nuclear power. Louis Armand was put in charge of a study into the prospects of nuclear energy use in Europe; his report concluded that further nuclear development was needed to fill the deficit left by the exhaustion of coal deposits and to reduce dependence on oil producers. However, the Benelux states and Germany were also keen on creating a general single market, although it was opposed by France due to its protectionism, and Jean Monnet thought it too large and difficult a task. In the end, Monnet proposed the creation of separate atomic energy and economic communities to reconcile both groups.
The Intergovernmental Conference on the Common Market and Euratom at the Château of Val-Duchesse in 1956 drew up the essentials of the new treaties. Euratom would foster co-operation in the nuclear field, at the time a very popular area, and would, along with the EEC, share the Common Assembly and Court of Justice of the ECSC, but not its executives. Euratom would have its own Council and Commission, with fewer powers than the High Authority of the European Coal and Steel Community. On 25 March 1957, the Treaties of Rome (the Euratom Treaty and the EEC Treaty) were signed by the ECSC members and on 1 January 1958 they came into force.
To save on resources, these separate executives created by the Rome Treaties were merged in 1965 by the Merger Treaty. The institutions of the EEC would take over responsibilities for the running of the ECSC and Euratom, with all three then becoming known as the European Communities even if each legally existed separately. In 1993, the Maastricht Treaty created the European Union, which absorbed the Communities into the European Community pillar, yet Euratom still maintained a distinct legal personality.
The European Constitution was intended to consolidate all previous treaties and increase democratic accountability in them. The Euratom treaty had not been amended as the other treaties had, so the European Parliament had been granted few powers over it. However, the reason it had gone unamended was the same reason the Constitution left it to remain separate from the rest of the EU: anti-nuclear sentiment among the European electorate, which may unnecessarily turn voters against the treaty. The Euratom treaty thus remains in force relatively unamended from its original signing.
EU evolution timeline
This overall timeline includes the establishment and development of Euratom, and shows that currently it is the only former EC body that has not been incorporated into the EU.
Cooperation
Since 2014, Switzerland has participated in Euratom programmes as an associated state.
As of 1 January 2021, the United Kingdom participates in Euratom programmes as an associated state under the draft terms of the UK-EU Trade and Cooperation Agreement.
As of 2022, the community maintains Co-operation Agreements of various scopes with nine countries: Armenia, Australia, Canada, Japan, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, United States, Uzbekistan, and South Africa.
Withdrawal of the United Kingdom
The United Kingdom announced its intention to withdraw from the EAEC on 26 January 2017, following on from its decision to withdraw from the European Union. Formal notice to withdraw from the EAEC was provided in March 2017, within the Article 50 notification letter, where the withdrawal was made explicit. Withdrawal only became effective following negotiations on the terms of the exit, which lasted two years and ten months.
A report by the House of Commons Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy Committee, published in May 2017, questioned the legal necessity of leaving Euratom and called for a temporary extension of membership to allow time for new arrangements to be made.
In June 2017, the European Commission's negotiations task force published a Position paper transmitted to EU27 on nuclear materials and safeguard equipment (Euratom), titled "Essential Principles on nuclear materials and safeguard equipment". The following month, a briefing paper from the House of Commons Library assessed the implications of leaving Euratom.
In 2017, an article in The Independent questioned availability of nuclear fuel to the UK after 2019 if the UK were to withdraw, and the need for new treaties relating to the transportation of nuclear materials. A 2017 article in the New Scientist stated that radioisotope supply for cancer treatments would also need to be considered in new treaties.
UK politicians speculated that the UK could stay in Euratom. In 2017, some argued that this would require – beyond the consent of the EU27 – amendment or revocation of the Article 50 letter of March 2017.
The Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018, making provision for safeguards after withdrawal from Euratom, received royal assent on 26 June 2018.
The UK-EU Trade and Cooperation Agreement, outlining the UK's relationship with the European Union from 1 January 2021, makes provision for the United Kingdom's participation "as an associated country of all parts of the Euratom programme".
Achievements
In the history of European regulation, Article 37 of the Euratom Treaty represents pioneering legislation concerning binding transfrontier obligations with respect to environmental impact and protection of humans.
Presidents of the EAEC
The five member Commission was led by only three presidents while it had independent executives (1958–1967), all from France:
See also
EU Directorate General Joint Research Centre – often incorrectly referred to as Euratom due to EURATOM being its origin.
Energy Community
Energy policy of the European Union
History of the European Union
Institutions of the European Union
International Atomic Energy Agency
Nuclear energy in the European Union
The nuclear part of the Seventh Framework Programme for research and technological development, the European Union's chief instrument for funding research.
References
External links
Treaty establishing the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM)
Documents of the European Atomic Energy Community are consultable at the Historical Archives of the EU in Florence
History of the Rome Treaties Online collection by the CVCE
European Commission Fusion Research
European Commission Fission Research
International nuclear energy organizations
International organizations based in Europe
Energy policies and initiatives of the European Union
European Union and science and technology
Organizations established in 1958
Intergovernmental organizations established by treaty
1958 establishments in Europe
Radiation protection organizations | [
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223240 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content%20management | Content management | Content management (CM) is a set of processes and technologies that supports the collection, managing, and publishing of information in any form or medium. When stored and accessed via computers, this information may be more specifically referred to as digital content, or simply as content.
Digital content may take the form of text (such as electronic documents), images, multimedia files (such as audio or video files), or any other file type that follows a content lifecycle requiring management.
The process is complex enough to manage that several large and small commercial software vendors such as Interwoven and Microsoft offer content management software to control and automate significant aspects of the content lifecycle.
Process
Content management practices and goals vary by mission and by organizational governance structure.
News organizations, e-commerce websites, and educational institutions all use content management, but in different ways. This leads to differences in terminology and in the names and number of steps in the process.
For example, some digital content is created by one or more authors. Over time that content may be edited. One or more individuals may provide some editorial oversight, approving the content for publication.
Publishing may take many forms: it may be the act of "pushing" content out to others, or simply granting digital access rights to certain content to one or more individuals. Later that content may be superseded by another version of the content and thus retired or removed from use (as when this wiki page is modified).
Content management is an inherently collaborative process. It often consists of the following basic roles and responsibilities:
Creator – responsible for creating and editing content.
Editor – responsible for tuning the content message and the style of delivery, including translation and localization.
Publisher – responsible for releasing the content for use.
Administrator – responsible for managing access permissions to folders, collections and files, usually accomplished by assigning access rights to user groups or roles. Admins may also assist and support users in various ways.
Consumer, viewer or guest – the person who reads or otherwise consumes the content after it is published or shared.
A critical aspect of content management is the ability to manage versions of content as it evolves (see also version control). Authors and editors often need to restore older versions of edited products due to a process failure or an undesirable series of edits. Time-sensitive content may also require updates as the subject matter evolves over time.
Another equally important aspect of content management involves the creation, maintenance, and application of review standards. Each member of the content creation and review process has a unique role and set of responsibilities in the development or publication of the content. Each review team member requires clear and concise review standards. These must be maintained on an ongoing basis to ensure the long-term consistency and health of the knowledge base.
A content management system is a set of automated processes that may support the following features:
Import and creation of documents and multimedia material
Identification of all key users and their roles
The ability to assign roles and responsibilities to different instances of content categories or types
Definition of workflow tasks often coupled with messaging so that content managers are alerted to changes in content
The ability to track and manage multiple versions of a single instance of content
The ability to publish the content to a repository to support access
The ability to personalize content based on a set of rules
Increasingly, the repository is an inherent part of the system, and incorporates enterprise search and retrieval. Content management systems take the following forms:
Web content management system—software for web site management (often what content management implicitly means)
Output of a newspaper editorial staff organization
Workflow for article publication
Document management system
Single source content management system—content stored in chunks within a relational database
Variant management system—where personnel tag source content (usually text and graphics) to represent variants stored as single source "master" content modules, resolved to the desired variant at publication (for example: automobile owners manual content for 12 model years stored as single master content files and "called" by model year as needed)—often used in concert with database chunk storage (see above) for large content objects
Governance structures
Content management expert Marc Feldman defines three primary content management governance structures: localized, centralized, and federated—each having its unique strengths and weaknesses.
Localized governance
By putting control in the hands of those closest to the content, the context experts, localized governance models empower and unleash creativity. These benefits come, however, at the cost of a partial-to-total loss of managerial control and oversight.
Centralized governance
When the levers of control are strongly centralized, content management systems are capable of delivering an exceptionally clear and unified brand message. Moreover, centralized content management governance structures allow for a large number of cost-savings opportunities in large enterprises, realized, for example, (1) the avoidance of duplicated efforts in creating, editing, formatting, repurposing and archiving content, (2) through process management and the streamlining of all content related labor, and/or (3) through an orderly deployment or updating of the content management system.
Federated governance
Federated governance models potentially realize the benefits of both localized and centralized control while avoiding the weaknesses of both. While content management software systems are inherently structured to enable federated governance models, realizing these benefits can be difficult because it requires, for example, negotiating the boundaries of control with local managers and content creators. In the case of larger enterprises, in particular, the failure to fully implement or realize a federated governance structure equates to a failure to realize the full return on investment and cost savings that content management systems enable.
Implementation
Content management implementations must be able to manage content distributions and digital rights in content life cycle. Content management systems are usually involved with digital rights management in order to control user access and digital rights. In this step, the read-only structures of digital rights management systems force some limitations on content management, as they do not allow authors to change protected content in their life cycle. Creating new content using managed (protected) content is also an issue that gets protected contents out of management controlling systems. A few content management implementations cover all these issues.
See also
Content delivery
Content engineering
Content Management Interoperability Services
Content management system (CMS)
Digital asset management
Enterprise content management
Enterprise information management
Information architecture
List of content management systems
Single source publishing
Snippet management
Web content lifecycle
Web design
Website governance
References
External links
Technical communication
Data management
Content management systems
fr:Système de gestion de contenu | [
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] |
223242 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CM | CM | CM or its variants may refer to:
Arts and media
Gaming
Championship Manager, a popular football management simulation game
Chessmaster, a chess computer program series
Music
C minor, abbreviated Cm, a minor scale or chord based on C
CM (school), a youth and community music organisation
Common metre, abbreviated CM, a poetic metre frequently used in hymns
Other media
Correio da Manhã, a Portuguese daily newspaper
Science and technology
Computing
Configuration management, a systems engineering process for establishing and maintaining consistency
Connection Machine, series of supercomputers
Content management, technologies that support the collection, management, and publishing of information
CyanogenMod, alternative firmware for Android phones, rebranded as LineageOS
Medicine
Centromedian nucleus, a part of the thalamus
Chiari malformation, a narrowing of the skull which puts pressure on the cerebellum
Chylomicron, lipoprotein with extremely low density
Contingency management, a type of treatment where patients are rewarded (or, less often, punished) for their behavior
Physics and chemistry
Cm, the pitching moment coefficient in aerodynamics
Curium (Cm), a synthetic chemical element with atomic number 96
Units of measure
Centimetre (cm), a unit of length equal to one hundredth of a metre
Coulomb-metre (Cm), SI unit of electrical dipole moment
Centimorgan (cM), a unit for measuring genetic linkage
Other uses in science and technology
CM Draconis, an eclipsing binary system in the constellation of Draco
Apollo command module, a segment of the Apollo command and service module
Commercial message, Japanese abbreviation using Latin script
Condition monitoring, the process of monitoring a parameter of condition in machinery
Construction morphology, a theory of linguistic morphology
Organizations
Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce (TSX/NYSE: CM), a Canadian bank
CM (commerce), a mobile services company formerly called ClubMessage
Cooler Master, a Taiwan computer hardware manufacturer
Places
Cameroon, which has the ISO and FIPS country code "CM"
.cm, the country code top-level domain for Cameroon
CM postcode area, central Essex, England
Chiang Mai, Thailand
Northern Mariana Islands, formerly with the U.S. postal code "CM" (now "MP" to avoid confusion with Cameroon)
Titles and awards
Candidate Master, an international chess title
Certified Manager, an internationally recognized professional credential for managers and leaders
Certified Midwife, health care profession
Chaconia Medal of the Order of the Trinity, a national award of Trinidad and Tobago, post-nominal CM
Chief Minister, an appointed head of government.
Order of Canada Member, post-nominal letters C.M.
Congregation of the Mission, a Roman Catholic religious institute
Construction mechanic (United States Navy), a Seabee occupational rating in the U.S. Navy
Transportation
Chemins de fer du Morbihan, a metre gauge railway network in Brittany, France
CM Airlines, a domestic airline in Honduras
Copa Airlines, Panama City, Panama, IATA designator
Other uses
CM, number 900 in Roman numerals
Construction management/Construction manager
Contract manufacturer, a company that manufactures items for other companies
Contribution margin, a measure in management accounting
Cypro-Minoan syllabary, a form of writing used in Cyprus during the Late Bronze Age
Central midfielder, a position in association football
See also
CM&, a Colombian TV production company | [
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223243 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danny%20Rivera | Danny Rivera | Danny Rivera (born 27 February 1945) is a singer and songwriter born in San Juan whose career spans nearly 50 years. He is well known in Puerto Rico for his political activism. In 2008, Rivera acquired Dominican Republic citizenship.
After 12 years of work, Danny Rivera and Nelson González in 2014 finished work putting new life into the classical bolero - in Spanish. Rivera and González Hit the Heart of the Latin American Song Book on Obsesión (release 25 March 2014)
Musical career
Danny Rivera is often called “the national voice of Puerto Rico", but his passionate singing style is known in the Spanish-speaking world. In Latin America, he has been a familiar face on television since 1968. Over the course of fifty years, Rivera has recorded over seventy albums and is the only Puerto Rican to star at Carnegie Hall in four different decades (1979, 1989, 1999, 2010).
He was born of humble origins in one of the deepest Afro-Rican culture zones—Santurce, Puerto Rico, the home of many of the island's most popular musicians and now part of the modern metropolitan area of San Juan. Born on 27 February 1945 in the neighborhood of 23 Abajo, named for one of the stops on a now-defunct trolley line, his first experiences with singing were in the chorus of an evangelical church and in the bars of his neighborhood, and with the barriles (barrel drums) of the street-side bomba that is Puerto Rico’s strongest link to the era of plantation slavery.
He made his first professional impression as a big-band singer in 1968, in the Hotel San Juan with César Concepción’s orchestra, the finest of its day. Televised music festivals are important talent showcases in Latin America, and after Rivera was chosen as Revelation of the Year in the 1968 Popularity Festival, he became a familiar face in Puerto Rico through television appearances. With a repertoire that emphasized the bolero and looked to progressive song movements, he was an emblematic figure of the bohemia of the 1970s that based itself at the nightclub in Viejo San Juan called Ocho Puertas (Eight Doors).
After making his recording debut in 1968 ("Amor, Amor", with a group called The Clean Cuts), he began a string of hits that included "Porque yo te amo", "Fuiste mía un verano", "Manolo", "Mi viejo", "Yo y la rosa", and "Va cayendo una lágrima". In 1971 he had a superhit with a version of Roberto Carlos's "Jesucristo", followed up the next year with his album "Mi Hijo", which included two of his career-defining songs, "Tu pueblo es mi pueblo" and "Amada amante". For years after that, he recorded and concertized constantly, becoming an international star while maintaining a presence on Puerto Rican radio and TV.
He delved into the rich past of Puerto Rican music, something practically unheard of for Latin pop artists. He signed with the Venezuelan label TH in 1980, and his albums during this period are considered classics, including "Alborada", "Serenata" (with a song that became a standard of his, Don Felo's "Madrigal",) and "Danza para mi pueblo", an album of Puerto Rican danzas. He subsequently began his own label, DNA, producing among other titles "Así cantaba Cheíto González", volumes 1 and 2, and an album of Tito Rodríguez's ballads, "Inolvidable Tito". On 15 September 1987 he performed a successful duo concert with Michel Camilo at the Centro de Bellas Artes in San Juan, called "Danny regresa a Ocho Puertas" (Danny returns to Ocho Puertas)
As his work became increasingly socially, spiritually, and historically conscious, he continued recording and touring internationally, but found himself less in step with the Latin music industry. Still, in the late 1980s he signed with Sony Music and recorded the successful album "Amar o morir", as well as "Subiendo y bajando" with Gilberto Santa Rosa, but increasingly he devoted himself to his social projects.
Social activity
Rivera made international news in the summer of 2001 when he spent thirty days in the US federal prison at Guaynabo, Puerto Rico, accused of civil disobedience in demonstrating for the withdrawal of the US Navy from the Puerto Rican island of Vieques. Later that year his prison diary and poems were published in the book Enamorado de la paz: Diario en la Cárcel Federal (In Love with Peace: A Diary at the Federal Prison).
His commitment to a style of song that expresses both personal and social love led him naturally to Cuba, where he has been a frequent visitor. In 2004 he inaugurated the Cátedra Internacional de Artes Plásticas y Música (International School of Plastic and Musical Arts) in Havana. In collaboration with the Cuban Artists and Writers Union (UNEAC), he made a documentary about Puerto Rican cultural traces in eastern Cuba, published in the book "Ecos Boricuas en el Oriente de Cuba". In 2008 he became a naturalized citizen of the Dominican Republic in recognition of his work with the "Dajaos" – the people of the Dajabón area, on both sides of the Dominican / Haitian border.
In 2009, Rivera sang "Madrigal", "Tu pueblo es mi pueblo", and "Amar o morir" before 1.2 million listeners in Havana (almost all of them wearing all white) at the Paz Sin Fronteras concert organized by Juanes; the concert was seen throughout the hemisphere and in Europe by millions of television and online viewers, the biggest Latin music broadcast event ever.
In March 5, 2020, Danny Rivera was the featured singer on Norberto Vélez's YouTube channel titled "Sesiones Desde La Loma Ep. 6".
Discography
Mi Hijo (1972)
Danny Rivera en Concierto (1974) [2 LPs]
Canciones de Amor (1975)
Danny Rivera y Alborada (1976)
Para Toda la Vida (1977)
Danny Rivera (1977)
La Tierra Mia..! (1977)
Muy Amigos (1977)
Serenata (1979)
Danny Rivera (1980)
15 Grandes Éxitos (1982)
Por Amar Se Da Todo (1983)
Así Cantaba Cheito González (1984)
Controversia (1985)
Así Cantaba Cheito González, Vol. 2 (1985)
Inolvidable Tito, A Mi Me Pasa lo Mismo Que A Usted (1985)
Ofrenda (1986)
Amar o Morir (1987)
Mi Canción Es Paz (1987)
El Día Que Me Quieras (1988)
Los Niños Jesús Del Mundo (1988)
15 Éxitos (1990)
Canto a la Humanidad (1990)
Canciones de Amor (1990)
Mosaico Vol. 1 (1990)
20 Éxitos (1991)
Mosaico Vol. 2 (1991)
Tiempo al Tiempo (1992)
Cada Vez Otra Vez (1992)
Daniel (1993)
Muchachito (1993)
No Hay Distancia (1993)
Danza Para Mi Pueblo (1993)
16 Canciones de Amor (1993)
Como Si El Amor No Importara (1993)
En La Intimidad Con Guitarras (1993)
Brillantes (1994)
Caras Del Amor (1994)
Serie Platino (1994)
Hágase La Luz (1995)
Éxitos (1996)
Oro Romántico: 20 Grandes Éxitos (1996)
Borinquen Vive (1997)
Regalo De Amor y Paz (1999)
En Vivo Desde El Carnegie Hall (1999)
Latin Stars Series (2000)
Enamorado de la Paz (2002)
Quiere Nacer (2005)
Mi Tierra Me Llama (2007)
Corazón Jíbaro (2008)
Viva Nuestra Tradición (2009)
Renace en Navidad (2011)
20 Exitos Navideños (2011)
Romanza (2013)
Awards
The following is a list of Rivera's Grammy Awards nominations:
See also
List of Puerto Ricans
References
External links
Official web page
1945 births
Living people
Singers from San Juan, Puerto Rico
20th-century Puerto Rican male singers
Puerto Rican independence activists
20th-century Dominican Republic singers
Puerto Rican pop singers
Latin pop singers
Naturalized citizens of the Dominican Republic | [
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223245 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20W.%20Snow | John W. Snow | John William Snow (born August 2, 1939) is an American economist, attorney, and businessman who is the former CEO of CSX Corporation and served as the 73rd United States secretary of the treasury under U.S. President George W. Bush. He replaced Secretary Paul H. O'Neill on February 3, 2003 and was succeeded by Henry Paulson on July 3, 2006. Snow submitted a letter of resignation on May 30, 2006, effective "after an orderly transition period for my successor." Snow announced on June 29, 2006 that he had completed his last day on the job; Robert M. Kimmitt served as acting secretary until Paulson was sworn in. Snow has since worked as chairman of Cerberus Capital Management.
Early life and education
Snow was born in Toledo, Ohio, the son of Catherine (Howard), a school teacher, and William Dean Snow, a tax attorney. Snow attended high school at Gilmour Academy in Gates Mills, Ohio. He did his undergraduate studies at Kenyon College (where he was a member of the Delta Tau Delta fraternity) and the University of Toledo, from which he received a Bachelor of Arts in 1962. He received a Doctor of Philosophy in economics from the University of Virginia in 1965. He completed a Juris Doctor at the George Washington University Law School in 1967 and then worked at the Washington, D.C. law firm of Wheeler & Wheeler from 1967 to 1972.
Career
From 1965 to 1968, he was an assistant professor of economics at the University of Maryland, College Park.
Nixon and Ford administrations
In 1972 Snow left Wheeler & Wheeler and took up a position as assistant professor of law at the George Washington University Law School. During the three years he spent with the GWU Law School, Snow also held positions in the U.S. government. From 1972 to 1973, he served as assistant general counsel for the Department of Transportation. From 1973 to 1974, he was deputy assistant secretary for policy, plans and international affairs. From 1974 to 1975, he served as assistant secretary for governmental affairs in the Department of Transportation.
In 1975 Snow left GWU Law School and took up the full-time position of deputy undersecretary in the Department of Transportation. In 1976 he left this post when he was named as administrator of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.
With the election of Jimmy Carter, Snow departed public life in 1977. During his transition period out of public life, in Spring 1977, he served as a visiting professor of economics at the University of Virginia and as a visiting fellow at the American Enterprise Institute. In addition, he was named a Distinguished Fellow at the Yale School of Management from 1978 until 1980.
Railway industry
Snow's years with the Department of Transportation proved useful to him, as in 1977, he became the Vice President in charge of Governmental Affairs for Chessie System, a holding company that owned three American railroads: the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway, a.k.a. the C&O (for which the Chessie System was named); the Western Maryland Railway; and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad.
In 1980 Chessie System merged with another railroad holding company, Seaboard Coast Line Industries, to form CSX Corporation, and Snow became CSX's Senior Vice President-Corporate Services at their new headquarters in Richmond, Virginia. In 1984, he was promoted to Executive Vice President.
In 1985 CSX installed Snow as president and CEO of their B&O Railroad and he oversaw its merger with their C&O Railway in 1986. This created a new entity, CSX Transportation, headquartered in Jacksonville, Florida. Snow became the President and CEO of CSX Transportation. In 1988, Snow left CSX Transportation (the railroad) to become President and Chief Operating Officer of CSX Corporation (the holding company). As of April 1989 he was President and Chief Executive Officer of CSX. From 1991, he also served as CSX's chairman. He continued to hold all three posts until he was named Secretary of the Treasury in 2003. During Snow's tenure at CSX, deferred maintenance of the railroad's physical plant became prevalent. This is a common practice used by railroads to improve the bottom line for investors while the tracks themselves fall into disrepair. Miles of mainline were subjected to slow orders as a result, increasing the need for more locomotives and rail cars, and thus costing the company more money. CSX was forced to lease hundreds of locomotives to make up the difference further adding to the increased costs. This practice ended with Snow's successor, Michael Ward.
Part of CSX, CSX Lines was sold to the Carlyle Group in early 2003. After Snow left the company for the White House, CSX sold its international port operations to the UAE company, Dubai Transport.
Public service during time in the private sector
During Ronald Reagan's campaign for the presidency in 1980, Snow was a member of Governor Reagan's four-man advisory group on regulatory policy. Following his election victory, President-Elect Reagan named Snow as Vice Chairman of his Transportation Transition Team.
Snow would go on to serve on the White House Conference for a Drug-Free America; the Services Policy Advisory Committee of the U.S. Trade Representative; as Co-Chair of the National Commission on Financial Institution Reform, Recovery and Enforcement; the National Commission on Intermodal Transportation; the National Commission on Economic Growth and Tax Reform; as a Trustee of the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts; and as a Member of the Richmond City School Board.
He was the co-chairman of the Conference Board's Blue-Ribbon Commission on Public Trust and Private Enterprise. He also served as co-chairman of the National Commission on Financial Institution Reform, Recovery and Enforcement in 1992 that made recommendations following the savings and loan crisis.
From 1994 through 1996 he was Chairman of the Business Roundtable, a business policy group of 250 chief executive officers of the nation's largest companies, and played a major role in supporting passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement.
Further affiliations
Snow has served as a director for Bassett Furniture Industries, Inc.; Circuit City Stores, Inc.; NationsBank Corp.; Textron Inc.; USX Corporation; the U.S.-Japan Business Council; Verizon Communications; and the Association of American Railroads.
Snow was the founding Chairman of the Center for Energy and Economic Development (CEED), a coal and rail industry-funded advocacy organization. CEED was a predecessor organization to the American Coalition for Clean Coal Electricity (ACCCE).
He has served on the Board of Trustees of the Johns Hopkins University and the University of Virginia Darden School Foundation.
He has been a member of the Business Roundtable; the Executive Committee of The Business Council; the Virginia Business Council; and the National Coal Council.
On October 19, 2006, Snow was named chairman of Cerberus Capital Management.
On August 15, 2007, Snow was appointed the inaugural Newman Visiting Fellow at the Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia.
He joined the Board of Directors of Marathon Petroleum Corporation in 2011, when that company was spun off from Marathon Oil Corporation.<ref></http://www.marathonpetroleum.com/About_MPC/Corporate_Profile/Board_of_Directors/John_W_Snow/ ></ref>
Since 1992, Snow has been an avid supporter of Israel as he stated on Charleston, South Carolina's Good Morning Charleston television program.
Secretary of the Treasury
Snow was nominated as secretary of the Treasury by President George W. Bush on January 13, 2003 and unanimously confirmed by the U.S. Senate.
In July and August 2003, Snow and his colleagues, Labor Secretary Elaine Chao and Commerce Secretary Donald Evans, took a bus across the country on their Jobs and Growth Tour, aimed at promoting the benefits of the Bush Administration's tax cuts.
In January 2005, The Washington Post quoted a senior administration official as saying that Mr. Snow could "stay as long as he wants, provided it's not very long."
In May 2004, it was revealed that Snow's brokers had bought $10 million of debt issued by Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac on the day and day after Snow was sworn into office as Treasury Secretary. Snow claimed this was done without his knowledge in February 2003. When Snow found out, he divested the debt holdings. A Treasury ethics lawyer has found that the holdings did not represent a conflict of interest but had the potential to do so in the future.
On May 26, 2006, Snow announced that he would resign effective July 3. He said the White House would make an official statement the following week. On May 30, it was formally announced that Snow would leave this position. On this same day, it was announced that President George W. Bush had nominated Henry Paulson, CEO of Goldman Sachs, to replace Snow.
Snow was forced to resign when it was uncovered that Snow failed to pay income taxes on the $24 million of loan forgiveness he received while CEO of CSX Corporation. Bush stated publicly that he wanted a "new face" to head the Treasury Dept., even though the stock market grew 40% during Snow's tenure as secretary.
Current positions
In 2010, Snow joined Fosun International of China as an advisor to the board of directors.
He belongs to the IAG (International Consolidated Airlines Group S.A) board. IAG is the result of Iberia Líneas Aéreas de España S.A and British Airways Plc. merger.
In April 2016, he was one of eight former Treasury secretaries who called on the United Kingdom to remain a member of the European Union ahead of the June 2016 Referendum.
Personal life
Snow lives in Richmond, Virginia with his wife Carolyn. He has three children, Bradley Snow, Ian Snow and Chris Snow. He has eight grandchildren between Ian, Bradley, and Chris.
Snow's alma mater, Kenyon College, awarded him an honorary Doctor of Laws in 1993. He has also received the U.S. Department of Transportation Secretary's Outstanding Achievement Award and has been named a Distinguished Fellow by the Yale School of Management.
References
External links
White House Biography
Treasury Department Biography
1939 births
21st-century American politicians
20th-century American railroad executives
United States Secretaries of the Treasury
George W. Bush administration cabinet members
University of Maryland, College Park faculty
University of Maryland College of Behavioral and Social Sciences people
Living people
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad people
Businesspeople from Richmond, Virginia
Politicians from Toledo, Ohio
Miller Center Affiliates
George Washington University Law School alumni
Cerberus Capital Management
University of Toledo alumni
Ohio Republicans
American railroaders
American chief executives
Politicians from Richmond, Virginia | [
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223246 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Snow%20%28cricketer%29 | John Snow (cricketer) | John Augustine Snow (born 13 October 1941) is a retired English cricketer. He played for Sussex and England in the 1960s and 1970s. Snow was England's most formidable fast bowler between Fred Trueman and Bob Willis and played Test Matches with both of them at either end of his career. He is known for bowling England to victory against the West Indies in 1967–68 and Australia in 1970–71 and was a Wisden Cricketer of the Year in 1973.
Snow was involved in several on-field incidents stemming from his aggressive, short-pitched bowling. He was considered difficult to handle, had definite ideas on how and when he should bowl and was disciplined by both Sussex and England, but perfectly fitted the public image of a fiery fast bowler. His disdain for the cricketing authorities at Sussex and Lord's was aptly summed up in his autobiography Cricket Rebel as was his decision to play for Kerry Packer's World Series Cricket in 1977–79.
Early life
Snow was born in Peopleton, Worcestershire, the son of a Scottish vicar who took up a living in the Diocese of Worcester at the village of Elmley Castle. When he was born his grandfather, a cricket coach, rang his father in Scotland to announce that "It's a young cricketer!" and he was given a cricket bat to chew when he was a baby. He learned how to play in the three-acre grounds of the vicarage with his father, mother, grandfather and three sisters and later in village matches. Snow's rural childhood was completely unaffected by the war or rationing and he used to chop down trees for firewood, excellent exercise for the muscles needed for fast bowling (Frank Tyson was once a tree-feller).
First educated at Christ's Hospital, he moved to Chichester High School for Boys the year before his father became vicar at nearby Bognor Regis, where he was trained by the Warwickshire batsman Len Bates. Living in Sussex he joined the Bognor Colts, as had Peter May and David Sheppard before him, and had the great honour of being bowled by Frank Worrell when they played Antilles. He also began playing games for the Sussex Young Amateurs and Junior Marletts. As a teenager he had been a better batsman than a bowler, but as more boys wanted to bat than bowl he concentrated on the latter. He also played rugby throughout his teens, at full-back, but gave up the game in 1961 to concentrate on his cricket career. He attended Culham Teachers Training College near Abingdon, on a three-year course studying geography and physical education from 1963–65, including as part of his training taught at Woodingdean County Primary School in what is now East Sussex, but his studies suffered as he played more First Class Cricket.
Development and approach
Snow started his First Class Cricket and Test Match career as a fast-medium seam bowler. He tended to bowl chest-on, which enabled inswing but limited chances of lbw decisions and restricted his pace. It took him three years to control this habit, and he "finally began to sort it out" when he played club cricket, as well as coached, in South Africa (after he was not chosen for the 1965–66 Ashes tour of Australia). The process was helped by the less intense schedule in South Africa and the hard, fast and bouncy wickets.
His work resulted in a more classical sideways-on action, and "I became a bowler of genuine pace." The new style pleased the purists who referred to his "graceful, yet deadly, action", and "beautifully easy and controlled bowling method, slanting the ball into the batsman but also cutting it sharply off the pitch".
From beyond the boundary, it is difficult to gauge Snow's pace as Lindsay Hassett conceded. He appears to bowl his bumper appreciably faster than most of his fuller-length deliveries, but I do not believe even his faster bumper knocks at the door of the pace of bowlers I have named. His top pace, I consider, lies somewhere between that of Statham and Trueman...Snow's loping, almost lazy run, of course, is sinisterly deceptive. It is in that last stride, or last two strides, when that long, straight powerful arm gathers its impetus and either whips or coasts through, that the potential is born.
Richard Whitington
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Snow had the ability, like Charlie Griffith in the West Indies side of the 1960s, to drop the ball slightly short and get it to lift painfully into the batsmen's body". As a result, he struck several batsmen on the head, Greg Chappell at Hove in 1968 when he was playing for Somerset and the tailenders Garth McKenzie and Terry Jenner in the Sydney Tests of 1970–71. Ian Chappell said that he always found something new in his bowling repertoire whenever he began a new series against him.
Unlike Trueman and Statham, Snow had no regular new-ball partner, teaming up with David Brown, Jeff Jones, Alan Ward, Chris Old, Ken Shuttleworth, Peter Lever, Bob Willis, Geoff Arnold and others. Though his career overlapped that of Willis in 1971–76, injuries and selection problems prevented them from forming the impressive duo that they might have been.
In 1967 Snow jarred his back while bowling against India at Edgbaston. X-rays found that he had a sacroiliac joint abnormality which had become inflamed and that the only cure was traction and complete rest. As a result, Snow became very insistent that he not be overbowled and was frequently accused of "not trying" when he was too ill to field properly. Once Ted Dexter made him bowl throughout a session for Sussex and he took a week to recover. When not bowling Snow often lounged around the outfield – ignoring the game if he felt it wasn't going anywhere – but had a fine throwing arm when he wanted to use it.
Snow was conscious of conserving energy, and not being overbowled.Snow believes that both Andy Roberts,p41, and Dennis Lillee,p134, saw reduced effectiveness due to being overbowled, John Snow, 'Cricket Rebel' He usually bowled only fast-medium in run-of-the-mill county and tour games, and saved his fast bowling for Test Matches and when the mood took him on the pacey wickets at Hove. The best example is the Australian Tour of 1970–71 when he took 31 wickets (22.83) in the six tests, but only 7 wickets (71.57) in the six other first-class matches on the tour. Even in Tests "he varied his pace cleverly, rarely bowling flat-out for a whole over, but unleashing the odd very quick delivery.
Snow prepared mentally for big games."Test matches... require great mental effort," John Snow, 'Cricket Rebel', p120
County career with Sussex
Ideally a bowler of John Snow's tremendous pace should be used in short spells with adequate rest in between and he is usually more impressive and effective as a result. I knew this as well as he did but much as I wanted to help him, I had to be tough with John. Often I was forced to keep him on for lengthy spells because this was necessary for the team's success.
The Nawab of Pataudi, captain of Sussex
Snow was recommended to Sussex County Cricket Club by the Sussex player and coach Ken Suttle as a batsman because he was a "magnificent hitter of the ball", but that his bowling was "erratic and not very hopeful". He quickly developed as a fast seam bowler who could knock batsmen on the head with his short balls, but who batted at number ten. He first played first-class cricket in the Glamorgan vs Sussex match at Cardiff Arms Park as an amateur in 1961, taking 2/12 and 3/67 and making 12 in his only innings. However, it was not until 1964 that he won his county cap and became a regular in the Sussex side, by which time he had become a professional player. He helped Sussex to win the Gillette Cup Final against Worcestershire in 1963, taking 3/13 on his cup debut, and Warwickshire in 1964, when he took 2/28. In the 1960s Sussex had four seam bowlers and no spinners, which was excellent for the Gillette Cup and the green wicket at Hove, but not elsewhere. Snow believed this cost them the County Championship in 1963 (they came 4th) as several games drifted away on a turning wicket with only part-time spinners in the team. Once Snow was established in the side and a Test bowler he was used for long spells on unresponsive wickets and he gained a reputation for "not trying" and he occasionally refused to bowl. Snow berated "the Sussex committee for their lack of guidance, initiative, communication, drive and general handling, which affected the growth of the club and team spirit". They in turn were displeased that he saved his best bowling for England. Nevertheless, Snow took 883 wickets (21.30) for Sussex in 1961–77 and was by far their most successful bowler of the period.
1974 was his benefit season at Sussex. In 1975 he took his best First-class cricket bowling figures of 8/87 (11/112) playing for Sussex against Middlesex at Lord's.
England under M.J.K. Smith 1965
Snow made his Test debut against New Zealand under captain M.J.K. Smith at Lord's in the Second Test of 1965. It was Fred Trueman's last test and Snow's Sussex teammates Ted Dexter and wicket-keeper Jim Parks were also in the side. New Zealand had already slumped to 28–4 when Snow was brought on, but he got two wickets before lunch, the New Zealand captain John Reid caught behind by Parks and the wicket-keeper Artie Dick clean bowled. He strained a side muscle before the Third Test, but returned to play in the Second Test against South Africa at Trent Bridge. Here Graeme (126) and Peter Pollock (10/87) won the match and Snow (1/63 & 3/83) was dropped both for the last Test and the M.C.C. tour of Australia.
England under Brian Close 1966–67
In 1966 Gary Sobers' powerful West Indian team toured England and Snow was recalled after his 7/29 and 4/18 destroyed them before 10,000 people at Hove when Sussex beat the tourists by 9 wickets. He took 4/84 and 0/117 in the Third Test at Trent Bridge and 3/143 in the Fourth at Headingley but the West Indies won them both to go 3–0 up in the series and the formidable Brian Close was made captain for the final Test. Snow was initially dropped for The Oval, but was recalled due to the injury to the recalled John Price, then considered the fastest bowler in England. It was the turning point of his career as England collapsed to 166 for 7, before Tom Graveney 165 and John Murray 112 consolidated, but it still left England a little short of a commanding score until Snow hit eight boundaries in his 59 not out and added 128 with fellow bowler Ken Higgs, who made 63. This was two runs short of the then Test record for the tenth wicket, and is still a Test record for the last wicket between England and the West Indies. It remains as the all-time Test match record partnership between batsmen 10 and 11. They retired to the pavilion for a beer afterwards, but had their pints hurriedly replaced by teacups for their newspaper picture by officials concerned with the image of the game. Snow's 59 not out was the first test 50 by an England number 11 batsman and remained a record until Jimmy Anderson made 81 against India in 2014. Snow (2/66 & 3/40) removed the West Indian openers Conrad Hunte and Easton McMorris for 12 runs in the second innings, Brian Close caught Sobers off him for a first ball duck and England won a stunning victory by an innings and 34 runs. Sobers explained that "the ball from Snow bounced a bit but I suppose I was beaten by the speed more than anything. I didn't get hold of it properly, edged it into my body. It flew out to Brian and that was that". John Snow became a national hero and until 1973 was England's premier fast bowler and a regular player in the England Test team. This Test was the first of a run of 40 with only one defeat in 1966–71, of which Snow played 32. There was no tour in 1966–67 and in the summer of 1967 he took 13 wickets (30.00) against India and Pakistan, but missed the last two tests because of an inflammation of his sacroiliac joint.
England under Colin Cowdrey 1967–69
The West Indies 1967–68
Brian Close's forthright views had never been welcome at Lord's and the affable Colin Cowdrey returned to lead the M.C.C. tour of the West Indies in 1967–68. It was here that Snow really made his mark in international cricket. Although he was not picked for the first test, which was drawn, Snow had the advantage of being fully acclimatised by the Second Test. He took 7/49 at Jamaica, including in his haul the opener Steve Camacho, Rohan Kanhai, Gary Sobers (lbw for another first ball duck), Basil Butcher, David Holford, Charlie Griffith and Wes Hall as the West Indies were scuttled for 143. Rioting interrupted play when the crowd objected to Butcher's dismissal, even though he walked. Riot police and tear gas were used to restore order and the incident allowed the West Indies team to recover their poise against the now unsettled tourists. They made 391 following on (Snow 1/91) and England were reduced to 68/8 at the end of the last day, which was played before an empty stadium. Sobers decided to bat on a flat wicket at Barbados, but Snow (5/80) restricted them to 349. England made 449 and the home team batted out the game with 284/6, Snow claiming 3/39. Ironically England won the series at Trinidad with no help from Snow (0/68 and 1/29) thanks to a sporting declaration by Gary Sobers giving England two and three quarter hours to make 215 for victory, which they did for the loss of three wickets with three minutes to spare. Snow finished the series with 4/84 and 6/60 in Guyana, his 10/144 being his best Test figures and his only 10-wicket haul. Even so, England barely survived; 209–9 at stumps on the last day and staring defeat in the face as Gary Sobers (3/53) and Lance Gibbs (6/60) whirred through the overs. Snow played his part lasting 60 balls and 45 minutes before he was out for 1 on the last evening. Rohan Kanhai had repeatedly told him in 1966 that "We'll smash you all over the park when we get you on those wickets in the Caribbean", but Snow had taken 27 wickets (18.66) in four tests. This remains the most wickets taken by an England bowler in a series in the West Indies, though it was equalled by Angus Fraser in 1997–98 when he took 27 wickets (18.22) in six tests. Snow was instrumental in England's second series victory in the Caribbean, and they would have to wait 36 years for the next.
The Ashes 1968
In 1968 the Australians toured England and they retained The Ashes in a rain-sodden 1–1 draw. They beat England by 159 runs in the First Test at Old Trafford, Snow taking 4/94 on his Ashes debut, but England had only one spinner on a wicket that increasingly turned. In the next Test at Lord's, Australia were out for 78 (Snow 1/14) and followed on, but the match was drawn because of rain. It is also notable as the first of 27 consecutive Tests that England would play without loss in 1968–71, of which Snow was proud to play 22. At Headingley Keith Fletcher made his Test debut and dropped two catches in the slips off Snow (3/98), one to his right and one to his left. The final Test at The Oval was won by Derek Underwood with three minutes to spare after the ground was flooded, Snow and eight other close fielders almost playing "Ring a Ring o' Roses" round the luckless Australian batsman. Snow took 3/67 in the first innings and ended with 17 wickets (29.08), only Underwood with 20 wickets (15.10) taking more.
Pakistan 1968–69
Snow's second tour was to Ceylon then East and West Pakistan in 1968–69. The country was in a state of confusion, with armed students taking control of Dacca and insisting that the tour continue. The M.C.C. team were assured by the British High Commission that they would be safe even as they themselves were making plans for an emergency evacuation. Cowdrey asked Snow to give him a few overs at full stretch in the nets before the First Test to test his fitness, but Snow refused as he had not exercised for two days and bowled only medium pace. As a result, he was dropped "because of his attitude", but was recalled for the Second Test at Dacca where he took 4/70 in the first innings. The Tests were all drawn and the tour was abandoned when rioting broke out on the third day at Lahore and the stadium was set on fire. Snow took no more wickets, but caught a bout of dysentery, which required him to take medication for over a year.
England under Ray Illingworth 1969–73
Snow respected and appreciated Illingworth's captaincy.
The West Indies 1969
Colin Cowdrey snapped his Achilles tendon and the selectors made the surprise choice of Ray Illingworth as his replacement. Illingworth was another tough Yorkshireman, but had moved to Leicestershire as captain in 1969 after a contract dispute. He was seen as a caretaker captain, but made the job his own and kept it even after the old captain had recovered. He started well, with Snow taking 4/54 when the West Indies crashed to 147 all out at Old Trafford and lost by an innings. At Lord's the West Indies chose to bat and reached 324/5 before Snow took 5/114 to get them out for 380. Illingworth saved the English innings with a century to cement his place as captain and the Test ended in a thrilling draw with England needing 37 runs with three wickets in hand. It was here that Snow "penned in verse my feelings and impressions about what it is like to play at the headquarters of world cricket" in his poem "Lord's Test". In the Third Test at Headingley there was a problem when Illingworth asked Snow to "give me everything you've got" when the West Indians were 240/7 needing 303 to win, but Snow found the pitch lifeless, changed to medium-paced seamers, failed to take a wicket and Illingworth was not best pleased. England still won the Test by 30 runs and the series 2–0 and Snow was the chief wicket-taker with 15 (27.06) It the last time England would beat the West Indies for 31 years.
New Zealand 1969
For the First Test against New Zealand Snow was told by the chairman of the selectors Alec Bedser that he was dropped so that they could watch Alan Ward in a Test match, but Illingworth rang in the middle of the Essex vs Sussex match to tell Snow straight that he was dropped for disobeying his orders in the Test. Snow was particularly annoyed as a television firm had arranged to film him at Lord's to make a fifteen-minute programme with John Betjeman about Snow's poem "Lord's Test", which was now cancelled. The immediate recipients of Snow's wrath were Essex (6/20) and Hampshire (5/29 & 5/51) to give Sussex their first two wins of the season. He and Illingworth sorted out their differences and "I was to know exactly where I stood with him as did every other player who came under his captaincy". He was recalled for the Second and Third Tests, which were won easily, but Snow took only three wickets (51.33), but by dint of being out only once that summer he averaged 50.00 with the bat. In 1969–71 Snow would make 276 runs (34.50) in Tests, so could be regarded as an all-rounder.
The Rest of the World 1970
I am very proud of the 19 wickets I took against the Rest of the World, even though, laughably, they have now been officially deducted from my Test playing record. They were earned the hard way against the best batsmen in the world, each trying to upstage the rest ... It was tough, very tough, but the whole exercise provided ideal practice for the coming tour of Australia.
John Snow
South Africa had been due to tour in 1970, but this was cancelled due to the Basil d'Oliveira Affair and concerns over anti-apartheid demonstrations that had led to barbed wire at Lord's. Rather than send an unprepared team to Australia the Rest of the World XI was created from the overseas cricketers playing in the County Championship led by Gary Sobers. They could not be regarded as a national Test team and the matches were given the status of "unofficial Tests", but the runs scored and wickets taken were added to official Test statistics until it was decided by the I.C.C. that they should not count. England was beaten by what was arguably the strongest Test team ever assembled and did well to win one of the "Tests" and strongly contest two others. Snow took 19 wickets (35.84) with 4/120 at Edgbaston, 4/82 at Headingley and 4/81 at The Oval.
The Ashes 1970–71See main articles English cricket team in Australia in 1970–71 and 1970-71 Ashes seriesI have not met John Snow, the outstanding personality and most dominating cricketer of the 1970–71 Anglo-Australian series... To me, he is one of the most faithful and effective servants Nemesis ever employed... Never did he lose that aura of menace. When he loped in to bowl he wore malevolence like Mandrake wore a cloak... But for him, Redpath, Walters, Ian Chappell and probably even Paul Sheahan must have bloomed as most of them did against the West Indians in 1968–69.
Richard Whitington
The highlight of Snow's Test career was the tour of Australia in 1970–71 where he was easily the best bowler of either side, taking 31 wickets (22.83) to help England regain The Ashes. He was repeatedly warned over his short-pitched bowling, but the Australians had no real answer to Snow's pace and fire.
In the First Test at Brisbane, Bill Lawry won the toss and decided to bat on a good wicket, but became Snow's 100th Test victim, caught by Alan Knott for 4. Australia reached 418–3, but Snow took four late wickets to dismiss them for 433, ending with 6/114.
He took 4/143 in the Second Test at Perth, having Australia 17/3 before they rebuilt their innings. Both these Tests were draws, and the Third was abandoned, Snow playing in the first One Day International as a result.
The Fourth Test, at Sydney, proved decisive. In the second innings Snow took his best Test bowling of 7/40. He soon dismissed Ian Chappell, Ian Redpath and Greg Chappell. Australia were then overnight at 66/4. He then had Keith Stackpole caught out, followed by Rod Marsh for a duck. After Garth McKenzie retired hurt—hit in the face by a Snow bouncer—he bowled John Gleeson and Alan Connolly for ducks and Australia were all out for 116, Bill Lawry carrying his bat throughout the debacle. It was a superb piece of fast bowling from Snow, aggressive, hostile and decisive. England won by 299 runs, their biggest victory in Australia since 1936–37. They moved to 1–0 up in the series.
This margin was held until the Seventh and last Test, also held at Sydney.
The Snow–Jenner incident
At Sydney, Terry Jenner retired hurt when he ducked into a short delivery from Snow in the first innings. Umpire Lou Rowan warned the fast bowler for intimidatory bowling yet again, but Snow and Illingworth objected strongly, the captain saying "That's the only bouncer he's bowled" and that he would complain to the A.C.B. Rowan later said that Illingworth and Snow swore at him, which they denied. The bowler was loudly booed and "when he returned to his fielding position at long-leg Snow was pelted with bottles, cans and eaten pies".
Some of the crowd wanted to shake Snow's hand, but then he was grabbed by a drunk at Paddington Hill who was forced to let go by other spectators. In 1998 the eighty-year-old Trevor Guy told The Sydney Morning Herald that he was the man who had grabbed Snow in order to tell him what he thought about him hitting Jenner. Guy and Snow, in Australia for the 1998–99 Ashes series agreed that they had no hard feelings.
To avoid injury to his team, Illingworth took his men back to the dressing room without the permission of the umpires, an unprecedented move in Test cricket. The England manager Clark tried to push Illingworth back onto the field and Alan Barnes of the A.C.B. demanded that they return immediately or they would forfeit the match and the Ashes.p. 510, Frith A furious Illingworth said he would not return until the playing area had been cleared and the crowd had calmed down. Furthermore, he strongly objected to Clark's constantly siding with the Australians against his own team. It took seven minutes for the groundstaff to move the debris, during which one was hit on the head with a beer-can and had to be taken to hospital.
Jenner returned to bat at 235–8 and made a brave 30, last man out on 264 to give Australia a lead of 80 runs. England made 302 in their second innings and set Australia 223 to win. Snow took a wicket in his first over, but smashed his finger on the wooden boundary fence trying to catch a six off Keith Stackpole. He was taken to hospital for an operation under general anaesthetic to reconstruct his shattered finger bones. England's spinners did the job, dismissing Australia for 160 to win by 62 runs and regain the Ashes while Snow was on the operating table. He recovered in time to join in "the champagne-filled, beer-laden, hangover-inducing rejoicings of Sydney".
Snow's 31 wickets (22.83) was the most by an England bowler in Australia since Harold Larwood's 33 wickets (19.51) in 1932–33. No England bowler after Snow has taken 25 wickets in a Test series in Australia.
Trouble with management
Snow wrote that the series in Australia "emphasised the gulf between players and administrators" and "I was sick of the biased attitude and incompetence which was apparent in cricket administration". The M.C.C. tour manager was David Clark, described by Ray Illingworth as "an amiable, but somewhat ineffectual man". and there were soon divisions between him and the players.
After Snow had bowled more than 50 eight-ball overs in the First Test he was rested for the state match against Western Australia, but Clark insisted that he practice in the nets with the others. Snow bowled a couple of desultory overs and Clark berated him for five minutes after which Snow told him "that as far as my good conduct money was concerned he could swallow it" and went walkabout until the next day. Ray Illingworth smoothed things over, but after the Second Test Clark criticised both captains for cautious play, Snow for his short-pitched bowling and indicated that he would prefer to see Australia win 3–1 than see four more draws. The team only discovered this when they read the newspapers at the airport.
As a result, Illingworth effectively took over the running of the tour with the support of the players and Clark's influence declined. When the team returned to England Illingworth said that "all hell would break loose" if anyone was denied his good conduct bonus (as with Fred Trueman in the West Indies in 1953–54.), but this did not happen. However, Geoffrey Boycott and John Snow had to report to Lord's for a dressing down by the Secretary of the M.C.C. Billy Griffith for their behaviour.
Problems with umpires
<blockquote>I have never come across another umpire so full of his own importance, so stubborn, lacking in humour, unreasonable and utterly unable to distinguish between a delivery short of a length which rises around the height of the rib cage and a genuine bouncer which goes through head high, as Lou Rowan".
John Snow
Unbelievably after six Tests no Australian batsman had been given out lbw in the series, whereas five English wickets had fallen lbw, which was the clearest evidence of umpiring bias in the minds of the England players.
In the Fifth Test Max O'Connell made the worst decision in the series when he called "over" and turned to walk to square leg after Snow bowled the last ball of the first over. As a result, he missed Alan Knott catching Keith Stackpole and had to give him not out. This was his first over in Test cricket and Snow "could quite understand his actions which illustrate the pressure umpires are also under in a Test", and they were able to joke about it afterwards.
Snow had more problems with Lou Rowan, a policeman who was inclined to stand on his authority and retired at the end of the series. In 1972 he wrote The Umpire's Story which was highly critical of the England team, particularly of Illingworth and Snow. It even queried "was John Snow actually grabbed by a spectator who objected to Snow flattening an Australian batsman?" regardless of photographic evidence to the contrary. In return Snow devoted a whole chapter to "Bitter Rows with Umpire Rowan" in his autobiography Cricket Rebel. Rowan in particular warned Snow for his short-pitched bowling and Snow thought this was partisanship as Alan Thomson was not called to book when he bowled bouncers at Snow and six in one eight-ball over against Ray Illingworth. Snow was twice warned by Rowan for intimidatory bowling in the Second Test at Perth, but refused to accept that rib-high balls were intimidatory and continued to bowl them. As a result, Snow was given an official warning, which meant that he would not be allowed to bowl if he was warned again. Illingworth told him that this was to be his last over in any case and the fast bowler sent his last ball flying over the head of Doug Walters, turned to Rowan and said "Now that's a bouncer for you".
India 1971
Snow was exhausted after the long tour of Australia and apart from his broken finger he suffered from a strained back and shoulder. He was dropped from the Sussex County team because his "bowling performances, and more especially his fielding have been so lacking in effort that the selection committee had no alternative". However, instead of playing for the Sussex Second XI Snow was declared unfit by his doctor and missed the first half of the season and the Test series against Pakistan. He recovered to take 4/45 & 7/73 against Essex
Snow was then picked for the First Test against India at Lord's. He rescued the England first innings when he came in at 183/7 and made 73 to hoist the total up to 304. This was Snow's highest Test and equal highest First Class score, but Snow was disappointed not to realise his boyhood dream of a century at Lord's when he was caught off a Chandrasekhar googly.
The Snow–Gavaskar incident
India needed 183 to win in the fourth innings. Snow had the opener Ashok Mankad caught by Knott for 8 and India were 21–2 when Sunil Gavaskar was called for a quick single after hitting the ball to mid-wicket. Snow went for the ball and knocked him over, "I could imagine the horror on the faces of everybody watching the game from the committee room at Lord's". They were both uninjured, got up and continued with the game after Snow tossed Gavaskar's bat back to him. A similar incident had happened in Georgetown in 1967–68 with Clive Lloyd, but the 5'4" Indian received far more sympathy than the 6'4" West Indian who had nearly trampled Snow into the ground. From afar the incident had looked much worse and was replayed repeated on slow-motion television with a media furore and press demanding disciplinary action. The replay can be seen in the Indian episode of the BBC documentary Empire of Cricket and it certainly appears that Snow consciously barged into Gavaskar as he knocked him over. Many were more angry about the throwing of the bat back than the knocking him over in the first place.
At lunch when Snow returned to the dressing room he apologised to the chairman of selectors Alec Bedser, and had promised to do so to Gavaskar when an enraged Billy Griffith charged in and shouted "That's the most disgusting thing I've ever seen on the field". Illingworth took him out and Snow waited until he had calmed down before apologising to Gavaskar on the field after lunch. When he later saw the replay he said "Oh well, the scene's been far too quiet without me anyway". and realised he could not avoid being dropped for the Second Test.
You may be too young to remember, but in 1971, during a Test match, I collided with England fast bowler John Snow and lost my bat. Snow picked it up and handed it to me. But at the time, many papers wrote that Snow had flung the bat at me. It all depends on your point of view, or what you are trying to portray...
Sunil Gavaskar
That first test was rained off with India needing 38 runs to win, but with only two wickets in hand. Rain also caused the second test to be drawn.
Snow returned for the Third Test at The Oval and tore off Gavaskar's chain and medallion with a bouncer that zipped under his chin and made him fall over. He bowled the Indian for 6 in the first innings and had him lbw for a duck in the second, but this was not enough to prevent India winning the Test by four wickets and the series with it.
This was only the second Test defeat Snow had seen since he had become an England regular in 1966 and ended England's run of 27 Tests without loss.
The Ashes 1972
There was no tour in 1971–72 and in 1972 Ian Chappell's young team came to fight the England veterans of 1970–71. England won the One Day Prudential Trophy 2–1, Snow taking 3–35 at Lord's. Australia lost the First Test at Old Trafford by 89 runs thanks to Snow, who took 4/41 & 4/87. They fought back at Lord's where Bob Massie's outrageous swing bowling took 16–137. However, Snow took 5/57 to peg back the Australians to a 36 run lead in the first innings, but couldn't stop Australia's first win in The Ashes for 13 Tests. At Trent Bridge in the drawn Third Test Snow dismissed Ian Chappell, Greg Chappell, Doug Walters, Ross Edwards and Bob Massie with 5/92 in the first innings and Keith Stackpole, Greg Chappell and Walters with 3/94 in the second as England held out for a draw. Snow took only two wickets at Headingley as "Deadly" Derek Underwood spun England to an Ashes retaining victory with 10/82, but he was the second highest scorer in the England first innings, adding 104 with Ray Illingworth (57) before he was stumped for 48 and given a standing ovation by the Yorkshire crowd. With The Ashes safe England lost the Fifth Test at The Oval by 5 wickets, Snow taking only one wicket after a Lillee bouncer bruised his wrist in the first innings, leading to more accusations that he did not try in the Australian fourth innings run chase. Even so, he was easily the biggest England wicket-taker with 24 wickets (23.12). It was a sad ending for the England team, many feeling that this was the last series in which the veteran 1970–71 team would play together as some players neared retirement, while others were unpopular with the selectors. Snow was under no illusions "as long as I was taking wickets I was safe. If I missed out then I would be on the way out".
New Zealand 1973
Along with Ray Illingworth, Geoff Boycott and John Edrich, John Snow declined to tour India in 1972–73, wanting to rest his back for the summer and concerned about the dysentery he had caught in Pakistan in 1968–69. Tony Lewis led the team, but lost 2–1 and Illingworth was re-appointed captain against New Zealand in 1973. In the First Test at Trent Bridge Snow took 3/23 as New Zealand were shot out for 97 in the first innings and lost by 38 runs, but went for 2/104 in the second innings and 3/109 at Lord's before bouncing back with 2/52 and 3/34 in the innings victory at Headingley. Geoff Arnold took the most wickets with 16 (21.93) and Snow's 13 wickets (24.61) suffered in comparison, but he returned 4–32 in England's 5 wicket win in the One Day International at Swansea.
West Indies 1973
Rohan Kanhai returned with the West Indies for the second half of the summer and more than made up the previous two series defeats with a 2–0 victory. They won the First Test at The Oval by 158 runs, Snow, bowled for 0 & 1 by Keith Boyce and hit for 0/71 in the first innings, was described as lethargic by his critics. The wickets of Rohan Kanhai, Clive Lloyd and Gary Sobers in the second innings (3/62) could not save him and he was dropped. He was aged only 31, but it appeared to be the end of his Test career. England were due to tour the Caribbean in 1973–74, but Illingworth was sacked within minutes of losing the disastrous Third Test at Lord's by an innings and 226 runs and Mike Denness was appointed instead.
England under Mike Denness 1973–75
Missed England tours
Mike Denness asked for Snow to go to the West Indies in 1973–74, remembering his record 27 wickets (18.66) in 1967–68, but the chairman of selectors Alec Bedser overruled him because Snow "was not a good team man". Denness drew the series 1–1, beat India 3–0 and drew 0–0 with Pakistan in 1974. He expressly asked for Snow for the upcoming tour of Australia, but when "Alec accepted the managership in Australia Snow’s chances flew out the window". Denness lost heavily to the hostile pace of Dennis Lillee and Jeff Thomson and despite numerous injuries to batsmen and bowlers alike Snow was not sent as a replacement.
South Africa 1973–74
As he could not tour the West Indies Snow toured with D.H. Robin's XI in South Africa with John Edrich and John Gleeson under the leadership of Brian Close, who was a strong advocate of maintaining cricketing ties. Despite playing two "Tests" against a South African Invitation XI the tour did not produce the strong reaction encountered by the "Rebel" tours of the 1980s. Snow took 18 wickets (22.83) including 4/91 in the Durban "Test", they beat Natal and Eastern Province and drew the other games.
World Cup 1975
The inaugural World Cup was held in England in 1975
and Snow was recalled after the Australian disaster. He took 0/24 off 12 overs against India at Lord's in England's record 202-run victory, 4/11 against East Africa at Edgbaston, his best bowling in a One Day International, and 2/32 off 12 overs against Australia as England lost the semi-final at Headingley. His total of 6 wickets (10.83) was the third best average in the series and the best for England.
England and WSC under Tony Greig 1975–79
The Ashes 1975
South Africa had been due to tour in 1975, but that series had been cancelled years before and the Australians were asked to stay for a four Test series after the World Cup. Snow was recalled after almost two years for the First Test at Edgbaston and was the best England bowler with 3/86, but Australia won by an innings and it cost Denness the captaincy. He was replaced by Tony Greig, a combative 6'7" South African born all-rounder who had been Snow's Sussex team-mate since 1967 and county captain from 1972. He led England to three draws, starting in the Second Test at Lord's, though Snow took 4/66 to dismiss Alan Turner, Ian Chappell and Greg Chappell and have Australia reeling at 37/3 in their first innings.
As a conversation piece people have frequently asked me which of my many wickets has given me the most pleasure...I no longer stop to think. My answer does not concern one wicket but three. Those of Alan Turner and the Chappell brothers, Ian and Greg...I felt each one proved a point. That I was not over the hill as a Test fast bowler despite having been ignored for eight Test matches at home and two tours abroad. Each of these three batsman was well beaten by a good delivery, two out leg before and Ian Chappell caught behind. Down at leg after that opening spell I bloody nearly cried.
John Snow
Snow took 3/22 at Headingley and finished the series with 11 wickets (32.27), more than any other England player.
West Indies 1976
There was no England tour in 1975–76, but Snow toured Rhodesia with the International Cavaliers, taking 4–36 and hitting 36 not out in the second match at Salisbury. The West Indies toured England in 1976, and their captain Clive Lloyd took offence at Grieg's claim that he would make them "grovel" and the West Indies won the series 3–0 in the Guyanan's first great series victory. Viv Richards made an imperial 829 runs (118.32) and three centuries, but Snow still managed a haul of 15 wickets (28.20). Only Derek Underwood took more wickets for England – 17 wickets (37.11) - and only Bob Willis averaged less – 7 wickets (26.00). He was punished in the first innings at
Trent Bridge (1/123), but fought back in the second innings (4/53) with the wickets of Roy Fredericks, Viv Richards, Clive Lloyd and Bernard Julien. With England wanting a draw Snow slowed down the game by stuffing bread-crumbs in his pocket during lunch and scattering them over the wicket. Umpire Dickie Bird had to use his cap to scare away the pigeons that kept flying down to eat them. In the end the veterans John Edrich and Brian Close grimly held out for a draw amongst fast, short-pitched bowling. Snow struck again at Lord's with 4/68 as he and Underwood (5/39) shot the tourists out for 182, but asked to make 332 to win they held out for 241/6. Snow was dropped for the Third Test at Old Trafford, which England lost by 425 runs, but was recalled for his final Test at Headingley. Here he reduced the West Indians from 413–5 to 450 all out with 4/77, including his 200th Test wicket, Andy Roberts, but took only 2/82 in the second and England lost by 55 runs.
World Series Cricket 1977–79
Late in 1976 Snow got in trouble by wearing illegal advertising on his cricket clothing, and more when he published an autobiography Cricket Rebel, which was highly critical about the administration of Sussex County Cricket Club and the M.C.C. at Lord's. He called for better playing conditions, improved pay, four-day county matches and international umpires. He also married his wife Jenny, having delayed because "the wife of a regular Test cricketer has a pretty rough time... with the husband away half the summer and most winters". He still had a formidable reputation in Australia and was recruited by Tony Greig for Kerry Packer's World Series Cricket. The secret came out at a party held by Greig during the rain affected Sussex vs Australians match of 1977 and there was widespread condemnation by the press and cricketing authorities. Before the start of the 1978 season Snow and Greig had their Sussex contracts cancelled and successfully went to court with Mike Procter when the T.C.C.B. tried to ban them from First-class cricket. He did not play in any of the "Supertests", but was regular for the World XI and WSC Cavaliers in the one-day games, hitting 42 and taking 3/30 to help win the final against Australia at Canberra in 1977–78.
Later life
After World Series Cricket, and at the age of 38, Snow returned to play six Sunday League Cricket games and a Gillette cup match for Warwickshire taking 8 wickets (29.62), making 57 runs (57.00). Retiring from cricket he set up a successful travel agency with the money he made from Packer. Snow became a director of the Sussex Cricket Club, but resigned in 2009. and continues to play in charity matches.
Poetry
Snow published two volumes of poetry; Contrasts in 1971 by Fuller d'Arch Smith Limited and Moments and Thoughts in 1973 by Kaye and Ward Limited. Both collections are contained in his autobiography Cricket Rebel.
One poem "Lord's Test" "penned in verse my feelings and impressions about what it is like to play at the headquarters of world cricket" during the Test against the West Indies in 1969, where he took 5/114 in the first innings. A television firm heard of the poem and arranged to film him at Lord's in the First Test against New Zealand later that summer. They could then make a fifteen-minute programme about his poem with John Betjeman, but this was cancelled when Snow was dropped for ill-discipline.
Character and philosophy
Snow has agreed that he is an inward looking person but says: "I do not withdraw from other players off the field or regard myself as a loner." Asked if he was 'a man of moods', Snow said "Yes, I suppose to a certain extent I am. ... I get fed up and down in the mouth some days, but if I give the impression of being in a bad temper it is more often than not with myself."
Snow was active in reading, music, painting, and poetry. In July 1971 at the England team's Harrogate hotel during the fourth Test at Leeds, Basil d'Oliveira in an animated dinner table conversation said to Snow "The ultimate thing in life is to play for England." Snow replied quietly "The ultimate thing in life is death."
Snow was generous in helping other bowlers, including Imran Khan in a remodelling of his action to enable fast bowling (a similar change to the one Snow had himself undergone), and Dennis Lillee in bowling leg cutters.
Personal life
Snow married Jenny Matthews in 1976. He had known her for many years, but had delayed marrying because "the wife of a regular Test cricketer has a pretty rough time" due to time away touring and playing.
Statistics
In popular culture
John Snow is mentioned in a verse of the Roy Harper song When an Old Cricketer Leaves the Crease from the album HQ (1975) though the album was renamed after the song for its release in the United States. The song uses the sport of cricket as a metaphor for death and mentions Snow alongside another England cricketer from the time Geoffrey Boycott, both by first name only in the line "And it could be Geoff and it could be John". The song is dedicated to both of them.
Further reading
Peter Arnold, The Illustrated Encyclopaedia of World of Cricket, W.H. Smith, 1985
Dickie Bird with Keuth Lodge, My Autobiography, Hodder & Stoughton, 1997
Geoffrey Boycott, Boycott: The Autobiography, Pan Books, 2006
Ashley Brown, A Pictorial History of Cricket, Bison Books Ltd, 1988
Greg Chappell, Old Hands Showed The Way, Test Series Official Book 1986–87, The Clashes for the Ashes, Australia vs England, Playbill Sport Publication, 1986
Ian Chappell and Ashley Mallett, Hitting Out: The Ian Chappell Story, Orion, 2006
Bill Frindall, The Wisden Book of Test Cricket 1877–1978, Wisden, 1979
Colin Firth, Pageant of Cricket, The MacMillan Company of Australia,1987
Criss Freddi, The Guinness Book of Cricket Blunders, Guinness Publishing, 1996
Tony Greig, My Story, Stanley Paul, 1980
Ken Kelly and David Lemmon, Cricket Reflections: Five Decades of Cricket Photographs, Heinemann, 1985
Dennis Lillee, Lillee, My Life in Cricket, Methuen Australia, 1982
Dennis Lillee, Menace: the Autobiography, Headline Book Publishing, 2003
Brian Luckhurst and Mike Baldwin, Boot Boy to president, KOS Media, 2004
Adrian McGregor, Greg Chappell, Collins, 1985
Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi, Tiger's Tail, Stanley Paul, 1969
Ray Robinson, On Top Down Under, Cassell, 1975
Lou Rowan, The Umpires Story with an Analysis of the laws of cricket, Jack Pollard, 1972
John Snow, Cricket Rebel: An Autobiography, Hamlyn Publishing Ltd, 1976
Mike Stevenson, Illy: A Biography of Ray Illingworth, Midas Books, 1978
E.W. Swanton, Swanton in Australia with MCC 1946–1975, Fontana, 1977
E.W. Swanton (ed), The Barclays World of Cricket, Collins, 1986
Derek Underwood, Beating the Bat: An Autobiography, Stanley Paul, 1975
Richard Whitington, Captains Outrageous? Cricket in the seventies, Stanley Paul, 1972
Bob Willis, Lasting the Pace, Collins, 1985
DVD
David Steele, England Cricket Six of the Best: The Seventies, A Sharpe Focus Production for Green Umbrella, 2009 (showing Snow's 7/40 in the Fourth Test at Sydney in 1970–71, his 48 in the Fourth Test at Headingley in 1972 and his 3/22 in the Second Test at Headlingley in 1975)
References
External links
1941 births
Living people
People from Wychavon (district)
England One Day International cricketers
England Test cricketers
English cricketers of 1969 to 2000
English cricketers
People educated at Christ's Hospital
Sussex cricketers
Warwickshire cricketers
International Cavaliers cricketers
Cricketers at the 1975 Cricket World Cup
Wisden Cricketers of the Year
World Series Cricket players
People from Bognor Regis
Marylebone Cricket Club cricketers
D. H. Robins' XI cricketers
Sportspeople from Worcestershire | [
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223250 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miasma%20theory | Miasma theory | The miasma theory (also called the miasmatic theory) is an obsolete medical theory that held that diseases—such as cholera, chlamydia, or the Black Death—were caused by a miasma (, Ancient Greek for 'pollution'), a noxious form of "bad air", also known as night air. The theory held that epidemics were caused by miasma, emanating from rotting organic matter. Though
miasma theory is typically associated with the spread of contagious diseases, some academics in the early nineteenth century suggested that the theory extended to
other conditions as well, e.g. one could become obese by inhaling the odor of food.
The miasma theory was advanced by Hippocrates in the fourth century B.C. and accepted from ancient times in Europe and China. The theory was eventually abandoned by scientists and physicians after 1880, replaced by the germ theory of disease: specific germs, not miasma, caused specific diseases. However, cultural beliefs about getting rid of odor made the clean-up of waste a high priority for cities.
Etymology
The word miasma comes from ancient Greek and means 'pollution'.
The idea also gave rise to the name malaria (literally 'bad air') through medieval Italian.
Views worldwide
Miasma was considered to be a poisonous vapor or mist filled with particles from decomposed matter (miasmata) that caused illnesses. The miasmatic position was that diseases were the product of environmental factors such as contaminated water, foul air, and poor hygienic conditions. Such infection was not passed between individuals but would affect individuals within the locale that gave rise to such vapors. It was identifiable by its foul smell. It was also initially believed that miasmas were propagated through worms from ulcers within those affected by a plague.
Europe
In the 1st century BC, the Roman architectural writer Vitruvius described the potential effects of miasma (Latin nebula) from fetid swamplands when visiting a city:
The miasmatic theory of disease remained popular in the Middle Ages and a sense of effluvia contributed to Robert Boyle's Suspicions about the Hidden Realities of the Air.
In the 1850s, miasma was used to explain the spread of cholera in London and in Paris, partly justifying Haussmann's later renovation of the French capital. The disease was said to be preventable by cleansing and scouring of the body and items. Dr. William Farr, the assistant commissioner for the 1851 London census, was an important supporter of the miasma theory. He believed that cholera was transmitted by air, and that there was a deadly concentration of miasmata near the River Thames' banks. Such a belief was in part accepted because of the general lack of air quality in urbanized areas. The wide acceptance of miasma theory during the cholera outbreaks overshadowed the partially correct theory brought forth by John Snow that cholera was spread through water. This slowed the response to the major outbreaks in the Soho district of London and other areas. The Crimean War nurse Florence Nightingale (1820–1910) was a proponent of the theory and worked to make hospitals sanitary and fresh-smelling. It was stated in 'Notes on Nursing for the Labouring Classes' (1860) that Nightingale would "keep the air [the patient] breathes as pure as the external air."
Fear of miasma registered in many early nineteenth-century warnings concerning what was termed “unhealthy fog”. The presence of fog was thought to strongly indicate the presence of miasma. The miasmas were thought to behave like smoke or mist, blown with air currents, wafted by winds. It was thought that miasma didn't simply travel on air but changed the air through which it propagated; the atmosphere was infected by miasma, as diseased people were.
China
In China, miasma (; alternative names , ) is an old concept of illness, used extensively by ancient Chinese local chronicles and works of literature. Miasma has different names in Chinese culture. Most of the explanations of miasma refer to it as a kind of sickness, or poison gas.
The ancient Chinese thought that miasma was related to the environment of parts of Southern China. The miasma was thought to be caused by the heat, moisture and the dead air in the Southern Chinese mountains. They thought that insects’ waste polluted the air, the fog, and the water, and the virgin forest harbored a great environment for miasma to occur.
In descriptions by ancient travelers, soldiers, or local officials (most of them are men of letters) of the phenomenon of miasma, fog, haze, dust, gas, or poison geological gassing were always mentioned. The miasma was thought to have caused a lot of diseases such as the cold, influenza, heat strokes, malaria, or dysentery. In the medical history of China, malaria had been referred to by different names in different dynasty periods. Poisoning and psittacosis were also called miasma in ancient China because they did not accurately understand the cause of disease.
In the Sui dynasty, doctor Tsao Yuan-fung mentioned miasma in his book On Pathogen and Syndromes (諸病源候論). He thought that miasma in Southern China was similar to typhoid fever in Northern China. However, in his opinion, miasma was different from malaria and dysentery. In his book, he discussed dysentery in another chapter, and malaria in a single chapter. He also claimed that miasma caused various diseases, so he suggested that one should find apt and specific ways to resolve problems.
The concept of miasma developed in several stages. First, before the Western Jin Dynasty, the concept of miasma was gradually forming; at least, in the Eastern Han Dynasty, there was no description of miasma. During the Eastern Jin, large numbers of northern people moved south, and miasma was then recognized by men of letters and nobility. After the Sui and the Tang Dynasty, scholars-bureaucrats sent to be the local officials recorded and investigated miasma. As a result, the government became concerned about the severe cases and the causes of miasma by sending doctors to the areas of epidemic to research the disease and heal the patients. In the Ming Dynasty and Qing Dynasty, versions of local chronicles record different miasma in different places.
However, Southern China was highly developed in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The environment changed rapidly, and after the 19th century, western science and medical knowledge were introduced into China, and people knew how to distinguish and deal with the disease. The concept of miasma therefore faded out due to the progress of medicine in China.
Influence in Southern China
The terrifying miasma diseases in the southern regions of China made it the primary location for relegating officials and sending criminals to exile since the Qin-Han Dynasty. Poet Han Yu () of the Tang Dynasty, for example, wrote to his nephew who came to see him off after his banishment to the Chao Prefecture in his poem, En Route (左遷至藍關示姪孫湘):
The prevalent belief and predominant fear of the southern region with its "poisonous air and gases" is evident in historical documents.
Similar topics and feelings toward the miasma-infected south are often reflected in early Chinese poetry and records. Most scholars of the time agreed that the geological environments in the south had a direct impact on the population composition and growth. Many historical records reflect that females were less prone to miasma infection, and mortality rates were much higher in the south, especially for the men. This directly influenced agriculture cultivation and the southern economy, as men were the engine of agriculture production. Zhou Qufei (), a local magistrate from the Southern Song Dynasty described in his treatise, Representative Answers from the South: "... The men are short and tan, while the women were plump and seldom came down with illness," and exclaimed at the populous female population in the Guangxi region.
This inherent environmental threat also prevented immigration from other regions. Hence, development in the damp and sultry south was much slower than in the north, where the dynasties' political power resided for much of early Chinese history.
India
In India, there was also a miasma theory and the Indians take credit for being the first to put this miasma theory into clinical practice. The Indians invented paan, a gambir paste, that was believed to help prevent miasma; it was considered the first antimiasmatic application. This gambir tree is found in Southern India and Sri Lanka.
Developments from 19th century onwards
Zymotic theory
Based on zymotic theory, people believed vapors called miasmata (singular: miasma) rose from the soil and spread diseases. Miasmata were believed to come from rotting vegetation and foul water—especially in swamps and urban ghettos.
Many people, especially the weak or infirm, avoided breathing night air by going indoors and keeping windows and doors shut. In addition to ideas associated with zymotic theory, there was also a general fear that cold or cool air spread disease. The fear of night air gradually disappeared as understanding about disease increased as well as with improvements in home heating and ventilation. Particularly important was the understanding that the agent spreading malaria was the mosquito (active at night) rather than miasmata.
Contagionism versus miasmatism
Prior to the late 19th century, night air was considered dangerous in most Western cultures. Throughout the 19th century, the medical community was divided on the explanation for disease proliferation. On one side were the contagionists, believing disease was passed through physical contact, while others believed disease was present in the air in the form of miasma, and thus could proliferate without physical contact. Two members of the latter group were Dr. Thomas S. Smith and Florence Nightingale.
Thomas Southwood Smith spent many years comparing the miasmatic theory to contagionism.
Florence Nightingale:
The current germ theory accounts for disease proliferation by both direct and indirect physical contact.
Influence on sanitary engineering reforms
In the early 19th century, the living conditions in industrialized cities in Britain were increasingly unsanitary. The population was growing at a much faster rate than the infrastructure could support. For example, the population of Manchester doubled within a single decade, leading to overcrowding and a significant increase in waste accumulation. The miasma theory of disease made sense to the sanitary reformers of the mid-19th century. Miasmas explained why cholera and other diseases were epidemic in places where the water was stagnant and foul-smelling. A leading sanitary reformer, London's Edwin Chadwick, asserted that "all smell is disease", and maintained that a fundamental change in the structure of sanitation systems was needed to combat increasing urban mortality rates.
Chadwick saw the problem of cholera and typhoid epidemics as being directly related to urbanization, and he proposed that new, independent sewerage systems should be connected to homes. Chadwick supported his proposal with reports from the London Statistical Society which showed dramatic increases in both morbidity and mortality rates since the beginning of urbanization in the early 19th century. Though Chadwick proposed reform on the basis of the miasma theory, his proposals did contribute to improvements in sanitation, such as preventing the reflux of noxious air from sewers back into houses by using separate drainage systems in the design of sanitation. That led, incidentally, to decreased outbreaks of cholera and thus helped to support the theory.
The miasma theory was consistent with the observation that disease was associated with poor sanitation, and hence foul odours, and that sanitary improvements reduced disease. However, it was inconsistent with the findings arising from microbiology and bacteriology in the later 19th century, which eventually led to the adoption of the germ theory of disease, although consensus was not reached immediately. Concerns over sewer gas, which was a major component of the miasma theory developed by Galen, and brought to prominence by the "Great Stink" in London in the summer of 1858, led proponents of the theory to observe that sewers enclosed the refuse of the human bowel, which medical science had discovered could teem with typhoid, cholera, and other microbes.
In 1846, the Nuisances Removal and Diseases Prevention Act was passed to identify whether the transmission of cholera was by air or by water. The act was used to encourage owners to clean their dwellings and connect them to sewers.
Even though eventually disproved by the understanding of bacteria and the discovery of viruses, the miasma theory helped establish the connection between poor sanitation and disease. That encouraged cleanliness and spurred public health reforms which, in Britain, led to the Public Health Acts of 1848 and 1858, and the Local Government Act of 1858. The latter of those enabled the instituting of investigations into the health and sanitary regulations of any town or place, upon the petition of residents or as a result of death rates exceeding the norm. Early medical and sanitary engineering reformers included Henry Austin, Joseph Bazalgette, Edwin Chadwick, Frank Forster, Thomas Hawksley, William Haywood, Henry Letheby, Robert Rawlinson, John Simon, John Snow and Thomas Wicksteed. Their efforts, and associated British regulatory improvements, were reported in the United States as early as 1865.
Particularly notable in 19th century sanitation reform is the work of Joseph Bazalgette, chief engineer to London's Metropolitan Board of Works. Encouraged by the Great Stink, Parliament sanctioned Bazalgette to design and construct a comprehensive system of sewers, which intercepted London's sewage and diverted it away from its water supply. The system helped purify London's water and saved the city from epidemics. In 1866, the last of the three great British cholera
epidemics took hold in a small area of Whitechapel. However, the area was not yet connected to Bazalgette's system, and the confined area of the epidemic acted as testament to the efficiency of the system's design.
Years later, the influence of those sanitary reforms on Britain was described by Richard Rogers:
The miasma theory did contribute to containing disease in urban settlements, but did not allow the adoption of a suitable approach to the reuse of excreta in agriculture. It was a major factor in the practice of collecting human excreta from urban settlements and reusing them in the surrounding farmland. That type of resource recovery scheme was common in major cities in the 19th century before the introduction of sewer-based sanitation systems. Nowadays, the reuse of excreta, when done in a hygienic manner, is known as ecological sanitation, and is promoted as a way of "closing the loop".
Throughout the 19th century, concern about public health and sanitation, along with the influence of the miasma theory, were reasons for the advocacy of the then-controversial practice of cremation. If infectious diseases were spread by noxious gases emitted from decaying organic matter, that included decaying corpses. The public health argument for cremation faded with the eclipsing of the miasma theory of disease.
Replacement by germ theory
Although the connection between germ and disease was proposed quite early, it was not until the late 1800s that the germ theory was generally accepted. The miasmatic theory was challenged by John Snow, suggesting that there was some means by which the disease was spread via a poison or morbid material (orig: ) in the water. He suggested this before and in response to a cholera epidemic on Broad Street in central London in 1854. Because of the miasmatic theory's predominance among Italian scientists, the discovery in the same year by Filippo Pacini of the bacillus that caused the disease was completely ignored. It was not until 1876 that Robert Koch proved that the bacterium Bacillus anthracis caused anthrax, which brought a definitive end to miasma theory.
1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak
The work of John Snow is notable for helping to make the connection between cholera and typhoid epidemics and contaminated water sources, which contributed to the eventual demise of miasma theory. During the cholera epidemic of 1854, Snow traced high mortality rates among the citizens of Soho to a water pump in Broad Street. Snow convinced the local government to remove the pump handle, which resulted in a marked decrease in cases of cholera in the area. In 1857, Snow submitted a paper to the British Medical Journal which attributed high numbers of cholera cases to water sources that were contaminated with human waste. Snow used statistical data to show that citizens who received their water from upstream sources were considerably less likely to develop cholera than those who received their water from downstream sources. Though his research supported his hypothesis that contaminated water, not foul air, was the source of cholera
epidemics, a review committee concluded that Snow's findings were not significant enough to warrant change, and they were summarily dismissed. Additionally, other interests intervened in the process of reform. Many water companies and civic authorities pumped water directly from contaminated sources such as the Thames to public wells, and the idea of changing sources or implementing filtration techniques was an unattractive economic prospect. In the face of such economic interests, reform was slow to be adopted.
In 1855, John Snow made a testimony against the Amendment to the "Nuisances Removal and Diseases Prevention Act" that regularized air pollution of some industries. He claimed that:
In the same year, William Farr, who was then the major supporter of the miasma theory, issued a report to criticize the germ theory. Farr and the Committee wrote that:
Experiments by Louis Pasteur
The more formal experiments on the relationship between germ and disease were conducted by Louis Pasteur between 1860 and 1864. He discovered the pathology of the puerperal fever and the pyogenic vibrio in the blood, and suggested using boric acid to kill these microorganisms before and after confinement.
By 1866, eight years after the death of John Snow, William Farr publicly acknowledged that the miasma theory on the transmission of cholera was wrong, by his statistical justification on the death rate.
Anthrax
Robert Koch is widely known for his work with anthrax, discovering the causative agent of the fatal disease to be Bacillus anthracis. He published the discovery in a booklet as (The Etiology of Anthrax Disease, Based on the Developmental History of Bacillus Anthracis) in 1876 while working at in Wöllstein. His publication in 1877 on the structure of anthrax bacterium marked the first photography of a bacterium. He discovered the formation of spores in anthrax bacteria, which could remain dormant under specific conditions. However, under optimal conditions, the spores were activated and caused disease. To determine this causative agent, he dry-fixed bacterial cultures onto glass slides, used dyes to stain the cultures, and observed them through a microscope. His work with anthrax is notable in that he was the first to link a specific microorganism with a specific disease, rejecting the idea of spontaneous generation and supporting the germ theory of disease.
See also
Germ theory of disease
Airborne disease
Homeopathy
References
Further reading
External links
Prevailing theories before the germ theory
Cholera theories
Term definition
Obsolete medical theories
Superstitions
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223251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkineni%20Nageswara%20Rao | Akkineni Nageswara Rao | Akkineni Nageswara Rao (20 September 1923 – 22 January 2014), widely known as ANR, was an Indian actor and producer, known for his work predominantly in Telugu cinema. He starred in many landmark films in his seventy five-year career, becoming one of the most prominent figures in the history of Indian cinema. He is considered as one of the two pillars of Telugu Cinema along with N. T. Rama Rao. Nageswara Rao received seven state Nandi Awards, and five Filmfare Awards South. He is a recipient of the Dada Saheb Phalke Award, the highest Indian award in the field of cinema. He was also honoured with the Padma Vibhushan, India's second highest civilian award, for his contribution to the film industry.
Rao is known for his path-breaking work in biographical films; He essayed the Tamil saint Thondaradippodi Alvar in the 1954 film Vipra Narayana; Tenali Rama in the 1956 film Tenali Ramakrishna, which received the All India Certificate of Merit for Best Feature Film; Kalidas (the Sanskrit poet of Ujjain) in the 1960 film Mahakavi Kalidasu; the 12th Century Sanskrit poet Jayadeva of Bengal in the 1961 film Bhakta Jayadeva; the Kannada sculptor Amarashilpi Jakanachari in the 1964 film Amara Shilpi Jakkanna; the Marathi saint Tukaram in the 1971 film Bhakta Tukaram; Kabir in the 2006 film Sri Ramadasu; Valmiki in the 2009 film Sri Rama Rajyam. Similarly, Rao played many famous mythological figures such as Lord Vishnu in Chenchu Lakshmi; Narada in Bhookailas and Arjuna in Sri Krishnarjuna Yuddhamu.
Rao is also remembered for his performances in romantic dramas Laila Majnu (1949), Devadasu (1953), Anarkali (1955), Batasari (1961), Mooga Manasulu (1964), Prem Nagar (1971), Premabhishekam (1981) and Meghasandesham (1982), which was featured at the 9th International Film Festival of India, the 1983 Cannes Film Festival and the Moscow film festival. Rao also starred in the blockbusters Ardhangi (1955), Donga Ramudu (1955), Mangalya Balam (1958), Gundamma Katha (1962), Doctor Chakravarty (1964), Dharma Daata (1970) and Dussehra Bullodu (1971).
He was one of the instrumental figures in moving the Telugu cinema industry from Madras to Hyderabad in the early 1960s. He established Annapurna Studios in 1976 to provide infrastructural support to the Telugu film industry in Hyderabad. He later started the Annapurna International School of Film and Media within Annapurna Studios in 2011. Manam (2014) was the last film of Rao, who died on 22 January 2014 during the film's production phase. The film was a "befitting swansong", as he always famously said that he wanted to die acting. The film was screened at the 45th International Film Festival of India in the Homage to ANR section on 29 November 2014.
Early life and background
Akkineni Nageswara Rao was born into a lower-middle-class family on 20 September 1923 in Ramapuram, Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh. He was the youngest of five brothers. His parents Akkineni Venkatratnam and Akkineni Punnamma, were from the farming community. His formal education was limited to primary schooling due to his parents' poor economic condition.
From the paddy fields, he strode into the field of fine arts through theatre at the age of 10. He became a famous stage actor, specialising in playing female characters, since women at that time were mostly prohibited from acting. His most noted roles were in some of the famous dramas of the day: Harishchandra, Kanakatara, Vipranarayana, Telugu Talli, Aasajyoti and Satyanveshanam. The turning point of his career came when Ghantasala Balaramaiah, a prominent film producer at that time, discovered him by chance at the Vijayawada railway station. He was cast in the lead role of Rama in Seeta Rama Jananam. This was after his debut in a supporting role in the film Dharmapatni.
Career
From very humble beginnings, he went on to star in over 255 films, spanning the Telugu, Tamil and Hindi languages. A majority of his films were both commercial and critical successes.
Though he did the roles of mythological divine figures such as Rama, Krishna and many others, he was famously an agnostic.
He is fondly called Natasamrat by his fans. In 1953, Rao played the titular role in Devadasu (1953), which is based on the novel of the same name. Deccan Herald reported that several critics had considered Rao's portrayal to be the best among all language versions. Navaratri (1966) made Nageshwara Rao the second actor after Sivaji Ganesan to play nine different roles in a film.
Rao is known for his romanctic roles in films such as Laila Majnu (1949), Anarkali (1955), and Prema Nagar (1971). He also played several mythological characters in Mayabazar (1957), Mahakavi Kalidasu (1965), Bhakta Tukaram (1973), and Sri Ramadasu (2006).
He is fondly called Natasamrat by his fans. Some of his many commercially successful films are Maya Bazaar, Samsaram, Bratuku Theruvu, Aradhana, Donga Ramudu, Dr. Chakravarthi, Ardhaangi, Mangalya Balam, Illarikam, Shantinivasam, Velugu Needalu, Dasara Bullodu, Bharya Bhartalu, Dharmadata, Batasari and College Bullodu. Sitaramayyagari Manavaralu was released in 1991, almost 50 years after his debut, and was a huge success at the box office, despite the influx of younger stars.
Rao played an instrumental role in shifting the base of Telugu cinema from Madras to Hyderabad. During the later 70s, he made a point to work only in the films that were produced in Andhra Pradesh (except for Vijaya Vauhini Studios and Venus Studios films). In 1976. he established Annapurna Studios in Hyderabad as part of his efforts to provide the necessary infrastructure to produce films there.
Charity
Rao was very active in social service. Pointing to the sky, he once famously said, "If there's a presence there, I'm sure he'll want us to perform our earthly duties well and be a good human being rather than blindly worship him".
He set up the Akkineni Janmabhoomi trust to foster development in his home town, Ramapuram. He strove hard to have it realised under the Janmabhoomi programme during the TDP regime. He was instrumental in the construction of the Akkineni Varadhi (a bridge named after him), which improved his village's economy by facilitating easy connectivity. In Ramapuram, even safe drinking water was something which was unheard of until Akkineni's contribution towards the construction of a water filtration plant.
He instituted the Akkineni International Foundation in 2005 to honour those who contributed to the Film Industry. The Annapurna International School of Film and Media, founded by his family in 2011, was set up as a non-profit entity. Rao was generous towards educational institutions since the beginning of his career. Even though he didn't have the opportunity to fully complete his schooling, he understood the importance of education. He created scholarships at GITAM University (Vizag). He was the Chief Donor and President of the college at Gudivada, which was subsequently named Akkineni Nageswara Rao College after him. Apart from being a Life member of the board of the Andhra University, he was also adviser to its Department of Dramatics and Theatre Arts. He instituted gold medals for students who excelled in Acting and Direction. In 2012, he instituted the Akkineni Annapurna Educational Trust in memory of his wife Annapurna.
Personal life
Rao married Annapurna on 18 February 1949. Annapurna Studios (established 1985) is named after her, and she was also credited as presenter for several of the studio's productions. Annapurna died in 2011 after a prolonged illness. The couple had 5 children, namely, Nagarjuna, Venkat Rathnam, Saroja, Sathyavathi, and Naga Susheela.
Nagarjuna, a notable Telugu actor, was married to Lakshmi Daggubati, daughter of film producer D. Ramanaidu. They have a son, Naga Chaitanya, also an actor. The couple were later divorced, and Nagarjuna married Amala Mukherjee, who have a son Akhil Akkineni. Venkat is a film producer who also served as a director of Annapurna Studios. Sathyavathi is married to film producer Yarlagadda Surendra, who have two children, Sumanth and Supriya.
Death
On 19 October 2013, Rao was diagnosed with stomach cancer. He continued shooting for his final film Manam, two weeks after a major laparoscopic surgery, which some doctors feared he wouldn't survive. He had often said that he wished to act till his death, and Manam proved that. His last public appearance was befittingly at the foundation day celebrations of Annapurna Studios on 14 January 2014. Rao died a week later, on 22 January 2014. He was cremated on 23 January 2014, at Annapurna Studios with full state honours amid a 21-gun salute. Thousands were present to pay their last respects.
Awards and honours
Civilian honors
Padma Vibhushan (2011)
Padma Bhushan (1988)
Padma Shri (1968)
National Film Awards
Dada Saheb Phalke Award (1991)
Filmfare Awards South
Filmfare Best Film Award (Telugu) – Sudigundalu (1968) (shared with veteran Adurthi Subba Rao)
Best Actor – Telugu – Marapurani Manishi (1973)
Best Actor – Telugu – Aatma Bandhuvulu (1987)
Filmfare Lifetime Achievement Award – South (1988)
Best Actor – Telugu – Seetharamaiah Gari Manavaralu (1991)
Nandi Awards
Raghupathi Venkaiah Award (1989)
NTR National Award (1996)
Nandi Award for Best Actor
Dr. Chakravarthy (1964)
Antastulu (1965)
Sudigundalu (1967)
Meghasandesam (1982)
Bangaru Kutumbam (1994)
Other state honours
Kalidasu Kaustubh from Madhya Pradesh State
Appointed as an adviser to the State Film Development Corporation.
Tamil Nadu State Film Honorary Award – Arignar Anna Award in 1992
Filmography
References
External links
1923 births
2014 deaths
Andhra University alumni
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in arts
Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts
People from Krishna district
Dadasaheb Phalke Award recipients
Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan in arts
Indian male film actors
Indian male stage actors
Telugu male actors
Male actors in Tamil cinema
Nandi Award winners
Indian atheists
Male actors from Andhra Pradesh
Deaths from cancer in India
Telugu film producers
Film producers from Andhra Pradesh
20th-century Indian male actors
21st-century Indian male actors
Male actors in Telugu theatre
Indian agnostics | [
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] |
223252 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANR | ANR |
People
Akkineni Nageswara Rao, Great Telugu film actor.
Places
Akkineni Nageswara Rao College, sometimes called ANR College
Antwerp International Airport (IATA code)
Entities
Agence nationale de la recherche, a French funding agency for research
Alleanza Nazzjonali Repubblikana, a Maltese pressure group
Alliance Nationale Républicaine (National Republican Alliance), an Algerian political party
Americans for Nonsmokers' Rights, an American organization that lobbies in support of smoking bans
Asociación Nacional Republicana (National Republican Association), a Paraguayan political party
Australian National Railways Commission - Australian rail operator from 1975 until 1987
Agencja Nieruchomości Rolnych - Polish estate agency
Land use and planning
Approval Not Required (Under the Subdivision Control Law), a process for subdividing land in Massachusetts, USA, under MGL Chapter 41
Mathematics
Absolute neighborhood retract, a type of topological space (mathematics)
Military
Alaska NORAD Region, an alternate phrase for the Eleventh Air Force
Agence Nationale de Renseignements, a government intelligence agency of the Zaire
Aeronautica Nazionale Repubblicana, the air force of the Italian Social Republic during World War II
Music
Anew Revolution, a heavy metal band from Austin, Texas
Awesome New Republic, a two-piece indie band from Miami, Florida
Society
Adult Nursing Relationship, a type of erotic relationship (see Erotic lactation)
Technology
Active Noise Reduction, more commonly Active noise control
Ambiguous name resolution, a search algorithm for LDAP implemented in Microsoft's Active Directory
"Application not Responding", a message in Android operating system
Atmosphere Normale de Reference, a standard used with air compressors
Automatic Number-plate Recognition, more commonly ANPR (automatic number-plate recognition) | [
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223253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Cusack | John Cusack | John Paul Cusack (; born June 28, 1966) is an American actor, producer, screenwriter, and political activist. He began acting in films during the 1980s and has since starred in many films, including Sixteen Candles (1984), The Sure Thing (1985), Better Off Dead (1985), Stand by Me (1986), One Crazy Summer (1986), Tapeheads (1988), Say Anything... (1989), True Colors (1991), Bullets Over Broadway (1994), City Hall (1996), Grosse Pointe Blank (1997), Con Air (1997), Anastasia (1997), Being John Malkovich (1999), High Fidelity (2000), America's Sweethearts (2001), Serendipity (2001), Identity (2003), Runaway Jury (2003), Must Love Dogs (2005), The Ice Harvest (2005), The Contract (2006), Grace Is Gone (2007), 1408 (2007), Martian Child (2007), War, Inc. (2008), Hot Tub Time Machine (2010), The Frozen Ground (2013), Maps to the Stars (2014), and Cell (2016). He is the son of filmmaker Dick Cusack, and his older sisters are actresses Joan and Ann Cusack.
Early life
Cusack was born in 1966 in Evanston, Illinois into an Irish Catholic family, the son of writer-actor-producer and documentary filmmaker Richard J. Cusack (1925–2003), originally from New York City, and Ann Paula "Nancy" (née Carolan) Cusack, originally from Massachusetts, a former mathematics teacher and political activist. John's older siblings Ann and Joan are also actors. Cusack has two other siblings, Bill and Susie. The family moved from Manhattan, New York, to Illinois and were friends of activist Philip Berrigan. Cusack graduated from Evanston Township High School in 1984, where he met Jeremy Piven, and spent a year at New York University before dropping out, saying that he had "too much fire in his belly".
Career
Cusack began acting in films in the early 1980s. He made his breakout role in Rob Reiner's The Sure Thing (1985). He also starred in Cameron Crowe's directorial debut film, Say Anything... (1989). Cusack played a con artist in Stephen Frears' 1990 neo-noir film The Grifters. After establishing New Crime Productions, Cusack co-wrote the screenplay for and starred in George Armitage's crime film Grosse Pointe Blank (1997), in which he played an assassin who goes to his 10-year high school reunion to win back his high school sweetheart.
In Spike Jonze's fantasy film Being John Malkovich (1999), Cusack played a puppeteer who finds a portal leading into the mind of the eponymous actor, John Malkovich. The film was nominated for three Academy Awards, including Best Director (Jonze), Best Original Screenplay (Charlie Kaufman) and Best Supporting Actress (Catherine Keener). Cusack was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for his performance in High Fidelity (2000), based on Nick Hornby's novel. In Roland Emmerich's disaster film 2012 (2009), he played a struggling novelist who attempts to survive the apocalypse and save mankind. Cusack played Edgar Allan Poe in James McTeigue's biopic film The Raven (2012) and starred in David Cronenberg's Maps to the Stars (2014).
Later, he starred in video on demand films, including The Factory, The Numbers Station, The Frozen Ground, Drive Hard (2014), The Prince (2014), Reclaim (2014), Cell (2016), Arsenal (2017), Blood Money (2017) and Singularity (2017).
In 2014, Cusack criticized Hollywood saying the mega-corporations have stepped in with 50-producer movies, franchises are king, and stars are used as leverage. He called Hollywood, "a whorehouse and people go mad."
Political activism
Between 2005 and 2009, Cusack wrote blogs for The Huffington Post, which included an interview with Naomi Klein. He voiced his opposition to the war in Iraq and the Bush administration, calling the government's worldview "depressing, corrupt, unlawful, and tragically absurd". He also appeared in a June 2008 MoveOn.org advertisement, where he made the claim that George W. Bush and John McCain have the same governing priorities.
Cusack criticized the Obama administration for its drone policy in the Middle East and its support of the National Defense Authorization Act, and became one of the initial supporters of the Freedom of the Press Foundation in 2012. In June 2015, he stated in an interview with The Daily Beast that "when you talk about drones, the American Empire, the NSA, civil liberties, attacks on journalism and whistleblowers, [Obama] is as bad or worse than Bush". He later criticized the publication for misquoting him in order to make an interesting headline.
In 2015, Cusack, Daniel Ellsberg and Arundhati Roy met Edward Snowden, a fugitive from the US because of his leaks of classified information, at a Moscow hotel room. This meeting was converted into a book co-authored with Roy titled Things That Can and Cannot Be Said. The book is mainly a transcript of the conversation between Snowden, Roy, and Cusack, with photos and illustrations as well as a list of references.
Cusack endorsed Senator Bernie Sanders in his 2016 and 2020 presidential bids. He is a member of the Democratic Socialists of America.
He is anti-war, having tweeted, "Being anti-war — is pro-troops — pro-human".
Israeli–Palestinian conflict
During the 2014 Israel Gaza conflict, Cusack supported the Palestinians on social media. He tweeted from the region a number of pro-Gaza articles. One tweet read, "Bombing people who can't escape not [sic] defense – does not mean one supports Hamas means to be against murder as solution to political problem."
In 2018, after Lorde cancelled performances in Israel after a request from the BDS movement, Cusack was among more than a hundred writers, actors, director, and musicians who signed a letter defending Lorde's freedom of conscience.
Antisemitic incident
In June 2019, Cusack wrote a tweet featuring an image of a large fist with a blue Star of David crushing a small crowd of people next to a quote often misattributed to Voltaire: "To learn who rules over you, simply find out who you are not allowed to criticize". The quote is in reality a comment by the white supremacist and neo-Nazi Kevin Alfred Strom. In the tweet, Cusack added the words "Follow the money." He later blamed it on a "bot," then defended it, then apologized and deleted the tweet.
Personal life
Cusack trained in kickboxing under former world kickboxing champion Benny Urquidez for over twenty years. He began training under Urquidez in preparation for his role in Say Anything... and holds the rank of a level six black belt in Urquidez's Ukidokan Kickboxing system.
In March 2008, police arrested Emily Leatherman outside Cusack's Malibu, California home for stalking him. On October 10, 2008, Leatherman pleaded no contest and received five years' probation and mandatory psychiatric counseling, and was ordered to stay away from Cusack, his home, and business for the next ten years.
Cusack has never been married nor had children; when asked in a 2009 interview why this was the case, he answered, "Society doesn't tell me what to do."
Filmography
Film
Television
Awards and nominations
References
Further reading
Barnes, Henry (September 26, 2014). "John Cusack: 'Hollywood is a whorehouse and people go mad. The Guardian. Accessed February 27, 2015.
Robinson, Tasha (November 27, 2007). "John Cusack" (interview). The A.V. Club.
External links
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
1966 births
American anti–Iraq War activists
American bloggers
American film producers
American male kickboxers
American male film actors
American male screenwriters
American male television actors
American male voice actors
American people of Irish descent
Television producers from Illinois
Best Supporting Actor Genie and Canadian Screen Award winners
Cusack family (United States)
Evanston Township High School alumni
Living people
Male actors from Chicago
Male actors from Evanston, Illinois
Tisch School of the Arts alumni
Writers from Chicago
Screenwriters from Illinois
American male bloggers
Members of the Democratic Socialists of America
Former Roman Catholics | [
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223259 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Siro | San Siro | Stadio Giuseppe Meazza, commonly known as San Siro, is a football stadium in the San Siro district of Milan, Italy, which is the home of Internazionale and A.C. Milan. It has a seating capacity of 80,018, making it one of the largest stadiums in Europe, and the largest in Italy.
On 3 March 1980, the stadium was named in honour of Giuseppe Meazza, the two-time World Cup winner (1934, 1938) who played for Inter and briefly for Milan in the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s and served two stints as Inter's manager.
San Siro is a UEFA category four stadium. It hosted three games at the 1934 FIFA World Cup, six games at the 1990 FIFA World Cup, three games at the UEFA Euro 1980, and four European Cup finals, in 1965, 1970, 2001 and 2016. The stadium will also host the opening ceremony of the 2026 Winter Olympics of Milan and Cortina d'Ampezzo.
History
Construction of the stadium commenced in 1925 in the district of Milan named San Siro, with the new stadium originally named Nuovo Stadio Calcistico San Siro (San Siro New Football Stadium). The idea to build a stadium in the same district as the horse racing track belonged to the president of A.C. Milan at the time, Piero Pirelli. The architects designed a private stadium only for football, without athletics tracks which characterized Italian stadiums built with public funds. The inauguration was on 19 September 1926, when 35,000 spectators saw Inter defeat Milan 6–3. Originally, the ground was home and property of A.C. Milan. Finally, in 1947, Inter, who used to play in the Arena Civica downtown, became tenants and the two have shared the ground ever since.
From 1948 to 1955, engineers Armando Ronca and Ferruccio Calzolari developed the project for the second extension of the stadium, which was meant to increase the capacity from 50,000 to 150,000 visitors. Calzolari and Ronca proposed three additional, vertically arranged, rings of spectator rows. Nineteen spiralling ramps – each 200 metres long – gave access to the upper tiers. During construction, the realisation of the highest of the three rings was abandoned and the number of visitors limited to 100,000. Then for security reasons, the capacity was reduced to 60,000 seats and 25,000 standing.
On 2 March 1980 the stadium was named for Giuseppe Meazza (1910–1979), one of the most famous Milanese footballers. For a time, Inter fans called the stadium Stadio Meazza due to Meazza's stronger connections with Inter (14 years as a player, three stints as manager). However, in recent years both Inter and Milan fans have called the stadium simply San Siro.
The last major renovation for San Siro, which cost $60 million, was that of 1987–1990, for the 1990 FIFA World Cup. It was decided to modernize the stadium by increasing its capacity to 85,000 spectators and building a cover. The Municipality of Milan entrusted the work to the architects Giancarlo Ragazzi and Enrico Hoffer and to the engineer Leo Finzi. To increase capacity, a third ring was built (only in the two curves and in the west grandstand) which rests on eleven support towers surrounded by helical ramps that allow access to the public. Four of these eleven concrete towers were located at the corners to support a new roof, which has distinctive protruding red girders.
In 1996 a museum was opened inside the stadium charting A. C. Milan and Inter's story, with historical shirts, cups and trophies, shoes, art objects and souvenirs of all kinds on display to visitors.
Two Milan derby Champions League knockout ties have taken place at San Siro, in 2003 and 2005, with A.C. Milan winning both ties. The reaction of Inter's fans to impending defeat in the 2005 match (throwing flares and other objects at Milan players and forcing the match to be abandoned) earned the club a large fine and a four-game ban on spectators attending European fixtures there the following season.
Apart from being used by Milan and Inter, the Italian national team occasionally plays games there. It has also been used for the European Cup finals of 1965 (won by Inter), 1970 (won by Feyenoord), and the UEFA Champions League finals of 2001 (won by FC Bayern Munich) and 2016 (won by Real Madrid).
The stadium was also used for the home leg of three UEFA Cup finals in which Inter was competing (1991, 1994, 1997) when these were played over two legs. It was also used by Juventus for their 'home' leg in 1995 as they decided against playing their biggest matches at their own Stadio delle Alpi at the time. On each occasion, apart from 1991, the second leg was played at San Siro and the winners lifted the trophy there. However, the stadium has not yet been selected as the host stadium since the competition changed to a single-match final format in 1997–98.
San Siro has never hosted a final of the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, but was the host stadium for the 1951 Latin Cup, a four-team event won by A.C. Milan. The city was also the venue for the 1956 edition of the Latin Cup (also won by Milan), but those matches were played at Arena Civica.
Amid the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy, on 25 March, the Associated Press dubbed the UEFA Champions League match between Bergamo club Atalanta B.C. and Spanish club Valencia at San Siro on 19 February as "Game Zero". The match was the first time Atalanta has progressed to a Champions League round of 16 match, and had an attendance of over 40,000 people—about one third of Bergamo's population. By 24 March, almost 7,000 people in the province of Bergamo had tested positive for COVID-19, and more than 1,000 people had died from the virus—making Bergamo the most hard-hit province in all of Italy during the pandemic.
Potential replacement
On 24 June 2019, AC Milan and Internazionale announced their intention to build a new stadium to replace San Siro. The new 60,000 capacity stadium, which would be constructed next to San Siro, is anticipated to cost US$800 million and would be ready for the 2022–23 season. The design of the new stadium is said to be based upon the Mercedes-Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia, United States.
Giuseppe Sala, the current Mayor of Milan, and the comune of Milan asked for time and stressed that San Siro would be kept until at least the 2026 Winter Olympics and Winter Paralympics to be held in Milan and Cortina d'Ampezzo. The proposed project was also met with some skepticism and opposition by several fans of both teams.
On 26 September 2019, A. C. Milan and Internazionale released two potential designs for the new stadium next to the original ground, tentatively named the Nuovo Stadio Milano, designed by Populous and MANICA, respectively. On 22 May 2020, Italy's heritage authority raised no objections to demolishing San Siro.
International football matches
Italy national team
1934 FIFA World Cup
The stadium was one of the biggest venues of the 1934 FIFA World Cup and held three matches.
UEFA Euro 1980
The stadium was one of the four selected to host the matches during the UEFA Euro 1980.
1990 FIFA World Cup
The stadium was one of the venues of the 1990 FIFA World Cup and held six matches.
2021 UEFA Nations League Finals
The stadium was one of two selected to host the 2021 UEFA Nations League Finals matches.
Other sports
2026 Winter Olympics
Opening ceremony 6 February
Boxing
San Siro was the venue for the boxing match between Duilio Loi vs. Carlos Ortiz for the Junior Welterweight title in 1960.
Rugby union
The first and only top level rugby union match to be played at San Siro was a test match between Italy and New Zealand in November 2009. A crowd of 80,000 watched the event, a record for Italian rugby.
Concerts
Besides football, San Siro can be configured to hold many other events, particularly major concerts.
Transport connections
The stadium is located in the northwestern part of Milan and can be reached by underground via the dedicated San Siro subway station (at the end of line M5), located just in front of the stadium, or by tram, with line 16 ending right in front of the building. The Lotto subway station (line M1 and line M5) is about 15 minutes walk away from San Siro.
Stations nearby:
References
External links
AC Milan website
FC Internazionale Milano website
San Siro on Facebook
San Siro on Facebook (AC Milan)
San Siro on Facebook (FC Internazionale Milano)
San Siro at Google Maps
Stadium Guide Article
A.C. Milan
Inter Milan
Sports venues in Milan
Italian fascist architecture
1934 FIFA World Cup stadiums
1990 FIFA World Cup stadiums
Football venues in Italy
Rugby union stadiums in Italy
UEFA Euro 1980 stadiums
Museums in Milan
Sports venues completed in 1926
1925 establishments in Italy
Serie A venues
Venues of the 2026 Winter Olympics
Olympic stadiums | [
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] |
223260 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taranaki%20wars | Taranaki wars | The Taranaki wars were a series of conflicts in New Zealand's Taranaki Province in the 1860s which form a major part of the New Zealand Wars:
The First Taranaki War (1860–1861), also known as the North Taranaki War
The Second Taranaki War (1864–1866)
Titokowaru's War (1868–1869), which also took place in Taranaki
See also
New Zealand Wars | [
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] |
223261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miasma | Miasma | Miasma may refer to:
Miasma (Greek mythology), a contagious power that has an independent life of its own
Medicine
Miasma theory, bad air causing disease
Miasm, a specious cause of chronic disease
Music
Miasma (album), a 2005 album by The Black Dahlia Murder, or the title track
Miasma (EP), a 2001 EP by Hecate Enthroned
Miasma, a 1987 album by The Bevis Frond
"Miasma" (Ghost song), 2018 | [
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223265 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threesome | Threesome | In human sexuality, a threesome is commonly understood as "a sexual interaction between three people whereby at least one engages in physical sexual behaviour with both the other individuals". Though threesome most commonly refers to sexual activity involving three participants, it is also sometimes used to apply to a long-term domestic relationship, such as polyamory or a ménage à trois.
A threesome is a form of group sex which may occur in private situations, such as spontaneous sexual activity among three friends or in the context of casual sex or a hook up. Alternatively, it may take place in specific contexts or environments which allow for sex, such as swingers events, orgies or sex parties.
A threesome is a common element of sexual fantasy, and it is commonly depicted in pornography.
Types
The people in a threesome may be of any gender and sexual orientation. Each participant may engage in any type of sex act with one or both of the others, such as vaginal, anal or oral sex or mutual masturbation. One or more of the participants may engage in autoerotic sexual activity, such as masturbation, possibly without physical contact with the other participants. It is a matter of subjective definition whether participation of a third person without physical contact constitutes a threesome and this sort of sexual activity might instead be interpreted as voyeurism or cuckolding. Triolism is a term that encompasses both threesomes and cuckoldry, although its usage across literature is inconsistent.
Threesomes are sometimes described using shorthand to refer to who was involved in the threesome e.g. MMF (male, male, female); FFM (female, female, male); MMM (male, male, male); FFF (female, female, female).
Lucky Pierre is slang for a person performing both receptive and insertive anal and/or vaginal sex simultaneously during a threesome, being positioned between the two partners.
Academic research on threesomes
The first major academic work to address threesomes specifically was published in 1988, called: Threesomes: Studies in Sex, Power, and Intimacy by Arno Karlen. In the work, drawing mainly from interview data, Karlen outlined how threesomes were often viewed as qualitatively different to other forms of group sex. Other notable findings include that threesomes were often viewed by women as a safe way to explore their sexuality; they often consisted of a couple joined by a third person; and that the third person was not necessarily viewed or treated equally. Karlen also suggested that the societal view of threesomes cast those who engaged in them as radically different to other members of society:There is a common tendency to think of people who have been in threesomes as alien beings. Like swingers, homosexuals and others who deviate from basic sexual norms, they seem to many to have entered another social, psychological, and moral sphere.Research exploring rates of threesome engagement suggest that men have both higher levels of interest and participation in threesomes. One study soliciting responses to a sex survey via a British newspaper found that 34% of 1,862 men, and 15% of 2,905 women had experience of a threesome. From a nationally representative sample in the USA, 34.1% of men and 11.1% of women found a threesome to be at least somewhat appealing and 18% of men and 10% of women had engaged in one.
Sex positions
Threesome sexual activity may take place in a number of sex positions; for example, the following:
Media
Threesome scenes are featured in various films and TV series, including Summer Lovers (1982), Threesome (1994), American Psycho (2000), Zoolander (2001), Y Tu Mamá También (2001), Ken Park (2002), The Dreamers (2003), Kiss Me Again (2006), Shortbus (2006), Vicky Cristina Barcelona (2008), Shame (2011), 21 Jump Street (2012), On the Road (2012), Savages (2012), Spring Breakers (2012), Knock Knock (2015), Love (2015).
See also
Adultery
Bigamy
Bisexuality
Compersion
Open marriage
Orgy
Polygamy
References
External links
3 (number)
Group sex
Casual sex
Sex positions
Pornography terminology | [
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223268 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Royal%20Tenenbaums | The Royal Tenenbaums | The Royal Tenenbaums is a 2001 American comedy-drama film directed by Wes Anderson and co-written with Owen Wilson. It stars Danny Glover, Gene Hackman, Anjelica Huston, Bill Murray, Gwyneth Paltrow, Ben Stiller, Luke Wilson, and Owen Wilson. Ostensibly based on a nonexistent novel, and told with a narrative influenced by the writing of J. D. Salinger, it follows the lives of three gifted siblings who experience great success in youth, and even greater disappointment and failure in adulthood. The children's eccentric father Royal Tenenbaum (Hackman) leaves them in their adolescent years, then returns to them after they have grown, falsely claiming he has a terminal illness. He works on reconciling with his children and ex-wife (Huston).
With a variety of influences, including Louis Malle's 1963 film The Fire Within and Orson Welles' 1942 film The Magnificent Ambersons, the story involves themes of the dysfunctional family, lost greatness, and redemption. An absurdist and ironic sense of humor pervades the film, which features a soundtrack subsequently released in two albums.
The Royal Tenenbaums was shot in and around New York City, including a house in Harlem used for the Tenenbaum residence. The filmmakers went to efforts to distinguish the film's backgrounds from a recognizable New York, with fashions and sets combining the appearances of different time periods.
After debuting at the New York Film Festival, The Royal Tenenbaums received positive reviews from critics and was Anderson's most financially successful film until 2014's The Grand Budapest Hotel. Hackman won a Golden Globe for his performance, and the screenwriters were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. In 2016, it was included in BBC's 100 Greatest Films of the 21st Century.
Plot
Royal Tenenbaum explains to his three adolescent children, Chas, Margot, and Richie, that he and his wife, Etheline, are separating. Each of the children achieved great success at a young age. Chas is a math and business genius, from whom Royal steals money. Margot, who was adopted, was awarded a grant for a play that she wrote in the ninth grade. Richie is a tennis prodigy and artist who expresses his love for Margot through paintings. Royal regularly takes Richie on outings without the other children. Eli Cash is the Tenenbaums' neighbor and Richie's best friend. Also part of the Tenenbaum household is Pagoda, the trusted valet.
Twenty-two years later, Royal is kicked out of the hotel where he has been living. The children are in a post-success slump, with Richie traveling the world on a cruise ship, following a breakdown. He writes to Eli revealing his romantic love for Margot. Chas has become overprotective of his sons, Ari and Uzi, following his wife Rachael's death in a plane crash. Margot is married to neurologist Raleigh St. Clair, from whom she hides her smoking and her checkered past. Raleigh is conducting research on a subject named Dudley Heinsbergen.
Etheline's longtime accountant, Henry Sherman, proposes to her. Learning of Henry's proposal, Royal claims that he has stomach cancer to win back his wife's and children's affections. Etheline calls her children home, and Royal moves back in and sets up medical equipment in Richie's room. Royal learns of Chas' overprotective nature and takes his grandsons on an adventure involving shoplifting and dog fighting. On their return, Chas berates him for endangering his boys while Royal accuses Chas of having a nervous breakdown.
Eli, with whom Margot has been having an affair, tells her that Richie loves her. Royal discovers the affair and objects to Margot's treatment of Raleigh, who confides to Richie his suspicions of Margot having an affair. He and Richie hire a private investigator to surveil her. Meanwhile, Henry investigates Royal's cancer claim and discovers his hospital had closed, his doctor does not exist, and that his cancer medication is only candy. He confronts Pagoda, the servant, and gathers the family to tell them that Royal has been lying about his illness. Afterwards, Royal and Pagoda move out.
Richie and Raleigh get the private eye's report on Margot, which reveals her history of smoking and sexual promiscuity, including a previous marriage to a Jamaican recording artist. Both men take the news hard, with Richie going into a bathroom, shaving off his hair and beard, and slashing his wrists in an attempt of suicide. Dudley finds him and Raleigh rushes him to hospital. As the Tenenbaums sit in the waiting room, Raleigh confronts Margot and then leaves. Richie escapes and meets with Margot to confess his love. They share their secret love and they kiss.
Royal decides that he wants Etheline to be happy, and finally arranges for a divorce. Before Henry and Etheline's wedding, Eli, high on mescaline, crashes his car into the side of the house. Royal rescues Ari and Uzi, but the boys' dog, Buckley, is killed. Enraged, Chas chases Eli through the house and wrestles him to the ground. Eli and Chas agree that they both need psychiatric help. Chas thanks Royal for saving his sons and for buying them a Dalmatian from the responding firemen as a replacement for Buckley. Forty-eight hours later, Etheline and Henry are married in a judge's chambers.
Some time later, Margot releases a new play inspired by her family and past events, Raleigh publishes a book about Dudley's condition, Eli checks himself into a drug rehabilitation facility in North Dakota, and Richie begins teaching a junior tennis program. Chas becomes less overprotective of his children. Royal seems to have improved his relationship with all his children, and seems to be on better terms with Etheline. He has a heart attack and dies at the age of 68. Chas accompanies him in the ambulance on the way to the hospital, and is the only witness to his death. The family attends his funeral, where the epitaph dubiously reads that he "Died tragically rescuing his family from the wreckage of a destroyed sinking battleship."
Cast
The Royal Tenenbaums has an ensemble cast, led by Hackman. Alec Baldwin also serves as the narrator. The fictional family and performers are:
Production
Development
A starting point for the story's concept was the divorce of director Wes Anderson's mother and father, though the evolved story bore little resemblance to it. French director Louis Malle's works, such as his 1971 Murmur of the Heart, were an influence on Anderson, with The Royal Tenenbaums particularly drawing from The Fire Within (1963), where a suicidal man tries to meet his friends. A line from The Fire Within is translated into English and appears as "I'm going to kill myself tomorrow." Orson Welles' 1942 film The Magnificent Ambersons was also an influence, with Anderson acknowledging he may have subconsciously selected the main set for its reflection of Welles' production. E. L. Konigsburg's book From the Mixed-Up Files of Mrs. Basil E. Frankweiler, where the characters Claudia and Jamie run away to live in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, inspired the story of Margot and Richie hiding out in a museum. Having read the book, Anderson said it long stuck with him.
J. D. Salinger's characters in the 1961 book Franny and Zooey inspired much of the child prodigy material. The children of the Glass family in Salinger's work are precocious with an abundance of exceptional talents. Franny and Zooey also features characters wearing distinctive fashions and a character with the name Tannenbaum. "Tenenbaum" is the name of a family of Anderson's acquaintance.
The film Les Enfants Terribles (1950) by Jean-Pierre Melville partly inspired Richie and Margot's relationship. Other inspirations were one of Anderson's childhood friends who loved his sister, and Anderson's interest in the incest taboo; he acknowledged the relationship became more believable when the story was revised to make Margot adopted. In inventing the characters, Owen Wilson and Anderson also used neurologist Oliver Sacks as a model for Raleigh, while the notion of Eli writing Old Custer was based on Cormac McCarthy's style of storytelling. Wilson and Anderson completed the screenplay in two years, needing the extended time because of its complexity.
Casting
Gene Hackman was Anderson's choice for Royal, with Anderson saying, "It was written for him against his wishes". Etheline Tenenbaum was written with Anjelica Huston in mind. Hackman was hesitant about accepting the role, citing his lack of understanding of, or commonalities with Royal. Hackman's agent persuaded him to take the role, though his reluctance led to Michael Caine being considered for the part. Gene Wilder was also rumored to be a possible choice.
Hackman's decision to star made it easier to assemble a cast of high-profile actors to appear with him. However, Ben Stiller and Gwyneth Paltrow were available only for a limited time, requiring the shooting schedule to work around them. Following a nadir in his career with Larger Than Life and The Man Who Knew Too Little in the 1990s, Bill Murray had opted to focus on supporting parts in offbeat comedies, starting with Anderson's Rushmore and then The Royal Tenenbaums. Anderson discovered Stephen Lea Sheppard, who played Dudley, through his friend Judd Apatow, as he was acting in Apatow's television series, Freaks and Geeks.
Alec Baldwin was approached by Anderson to narrate the film, though Anderson reportedly told him at first that he actually didn't want the film to be narrated and wasn't going to use his voiceover for the finished film, as the producers were insisting him to have one. When Baldwin shared this story during the Tribeca Film Festival in 2021 while celebrating the film's 20th anniversary, Anderson replied that he never said that. Despite Baldwin's claims, The Wes Anderson Collection author Matt Zoller Seitz pointed out in his book that the narration was always present on the screenplay.
Filming
Around 250 sets were employed during photography, with art director Carl Sprague saying the crew avoided sites that would identify New York City, even altering street signs. The house used in the film is located near the famous Sugar Hill in the Hamilton Heights section of Harlem in Manhattan at 339 Convent Avenue. For the "quintessential New York story", Anderson went location scouting in May 2000, spotted the house and admired what he described as its "storybook quality". The owner, Willie Woods, was planning to remodel it, but agreed to delay the project for six months for principal photography. Anderson said the dalmatian mice that populate the house had their spots applied using a Sharpie.
The Waldorf-Astoria was used for the hotel scenes, while Central Park Zoo depicted a rain forest. A United States Navy training ship represented Richie's ship. The crew also added 10,000 square feet of AstroTurf at Forest Hills Stadium, to depict Richie's tennis match.
During production, Anderson gave Huston photographs of his mother who, like Etheline, was an archaeologist. Huston said, "Wes would send pictures of his mother in aviator jackets or on archaeological digs, and he very specifically wanted me to wear a certain locket. Finally, I asked him, 'Wes, am I playing your mother?'" Anderson replied this was not the case.
Anderson and Huston had a tense relationship with Hackman, who was not always amiable on set. On the first day Hackman and Huston appeared in a scene together, Huston had to slap him, and later said the slap was real and "I hit him a really good one. I saw the imprint of my hand on his cheek and I thought, he's going to kill me." During young Margot's birthday scene in the opening scenes, Huston's hair caught fire from a birthday candle. Anderson credited Kumar Pallana with extinguishing the blaze before Huston was seriously injured.
As shooting continued, the bird used for Mordecai was caught by a citizen of New Jersey, who demanded a price for its return. It was replaced instead by one more white in color.
Themes
Journalist Jesse Fox Mayshark wrote that, like the similarly-titled The Magnificent Ambersons, Anderson's story follows an older mother considering remarriage, creating a stir in the family. Professor Claire Perkins added that in The Royal Tenenbaums, this tension regarding a possible remarriage has minor class and racial elements, with Chas refusing to call Henry by his first name and Royal calling Henry an "old black buck". Royal also calls Henry "Coltrane" and speaks jive, drawing on racial stereotypes found in media. To the Magnificent Ambersons family-drama template, Mayshark wrote that Anderson added his "naturally redemptive instincts", stressing "forgiveness" over villainizing the guilty. Royal's "redemption" is a central theme. Professor Carl Plantinga assessed Royal's motives as shifting from "purely selfish" considerations to genuine hopes for reconciliation when he is removed from the home after his false illness is exposed. Perkins observed that before Royal's death, he had endeared himself to each Tenenbaum in some way. To do this, he had to force his way back into the family's lives as an intruder professing an intent to "make up for lost time". The prospect of Royal and Etheline rekindling their marriage is largely regarded as impossible, though she weeps at Royal's false terminal illness, and Royal inquires about her "love life". In the end, the "ritual community celebration signalling successful social integration" that is a staple of comedy endings comes in the form of Etheline's marriage to Henry rather than a remarriage to Royal, Plantinga wrote.
Academic Donna Kornhaber theorized that through adultery and pronouncements that "There are no teams", Royal had separated himself from the Tenenbaums; Royal's belief that he is not a Tenenbaum is signaled when he seconds Eli's sentiment that he "always wanted to be a Tenenbaum". However, Kornhaber added Royal may also view his family members as "external expressions of himself", and this explains why the title refers to them as Royal Tenenbaums.
Author Mark Browning also identified the dysfunctional family and family happiness as a key theme. Mayshark commented on the depiction of decline after genius, with all the characters being past the peak of their greatness and now being left "sad, individually and collectively". Browning assessed the Tenenbaum sons and daughter as child prodigies, with "clear-cut genius status". Ethel is not negligent as a mother, fostering her children's talents, though in dispensing money without question she may have spoiled them.
The children grow up hailed as a "family of geniuses", and when they face failure in adulthood, they turn to nostalgia, with academic Daniel Cross Turner remarking the word "nostalgia" literally means returning home in pain. The fact that the Tenenbaums dress alike as children and adults also reveals their nostalgia, and Turner connected Royal's nostalgia with Dudley's fictional Heinsbergen syndrome symptom, an inability to "tell time". Professor Whitney Crothers Dilley considered that confrontation between past reputation and the private reality is what moves Margot not to take the word "genius" lightly, and to deny she was ever a genius, despite Royal insisting people called her one. Although the film ends without any of the characters regaining their lost glory, they form new bonds, particularly between Royal and Chas, or realize secret desires, in the case of Richie and Margot.
Film Professor Christopher Robe commented on the loss of loved ones, particularly Royal's parents and Chas' wife Rachael, having an impact on the characters' depression. Royal's mother Helen O'Reilly Tenenbaum is rarely named, but her role in shaping Royal and guiding his behavior is profound, with Robe arguing this is signified by a shot of Royal under a painting of Helen in a World War II Red Cross outfit. Royal's father is never named, but Royal also misses him; Robe further hypothesized Chas alienating his sons after Rachael's death shows that family history is repeating itself.
Style
The storytelling has been described as "absurdist", ironic, and "whimsical". Mayshark wrote that literature shapes the narrative, which is presented as a book with chapters, a prologue and an epilogue. To the chapter-format of the story, Plantinga added that Baldwin's narration gives "exposition" that "should arouse courtesy" in the viewers for the characters. Commenting on the literary framework, Browning detailed how the first scene has the camera looking down on the book being checked out at the library, followed by the tone of J. D. Salinger's study of "disillusionment". Archaic dialogue with the feel of literature ("You've made a cuckold of me") is combined with crass, casual dialogue ("We can swing by her grave, too"). Film scholar Kim Wilkins also characterized lines such as "I'm very sorry for your loss. Your mother was a terribly attractive woman" as "deadpan", "Andersonian", and "unexpected expressions". Ethel also reveals her fondness for Royal's "little expressions", such as "true blue".
Mayshark added the style is "imaginatively visual", with detailed sets and an ambiguous time setting, featuring fashions from the 1960s to the present. Critic Amy Wallace placed it in Anderson's cinematic universe, where "the colors are brighter, the bookshelves are meticulously ordered, the bunk beds aren't just made – they look like you could bounce a silver dollar off them". Professor Dilley identified the setting with the New York City of the 1970s, matching the backdrop style to depictions of the city in the films The French Connection and Midnight Cowboy; this feel is heightened by music popular in the 1970s, by The Rolling Stones and Paul Simon. Dilley argued this depiction of a lost New York is connected to "literary history". Plantinga commented an "illustrative, intentionally artificial tableaux" begins immediately with Baldwin's narration.
Wes Anderson's brother Eric Chase Anderson sketched proposed appearances for the characters before shooting. The character Richie is presented as a tennis star with headbands and armbands, and sunglasses that virtually hide his face, until his "ritualistic" shaving scene reveals him. The appearance of Margot, played by Paltrow, was modeled after singer Nico. Chas, played by Stiller, appears in a red tracksuit, matching him with Ari and Uzi and suggesting "running away from sadness". The young performers playing Royal and Ethel's sons and daughter wear the same costumes as their adult counterparts, evoking "arrested development".
With the cinematography, Wes Anderson enjoyed keeping the camera mobile, providing new perspectives in a single take with no actual cut. Analyst Thomas Caldwell judged the cinematography as unusual, comprising "steady symmetrical medium shots" that help the viewer see the characters' emotional anguish more clearly, particularly in their eyes. Author Gustavo Mercado considered the medium shots a tool to give character and surroundings comparable levels of attention, and to communicate the character's eccentricities and activities. Mercado assessed the scene with Margot smoking in the bathroom to display "carefully chosen lighting, depth of field, wardrobe, body language, and ... composition". The opening credits use "medium close-up" shots with each character looking towards the direction of the camera, contributing to the literary narrative as a "Cast of Characters".
The paintings in Eli's apartment are by Mexican artist Miguel Calderón. Font designer Mark Simonson noted Anderson makes extensive use of typography, in particular Futura and its variation Futura Bold. For characters who are not biologically Tenenbaums, such as Raleigh, other typefaces are used, such as Helvetica on the covers of the character's books.
Soundtrack
Anderson declared The Royal Tenenbaums to be "the most complex, ambitious musical piece I've ever worked on". The soundtrack features rock songs from the 1960s through the 1990s. There have been two soundtrack album releases for the film, though not all of the songs used in the film appear on the albums. Songs used include: Paul Simon's "Me and Julio Down by the Schoolyard", Van Morrison's "Everyone", John Lennon's "Look at Me", Nick Drake's "Fly", the Mutato Muzika Orchestra version of the Beatles' "Hey Jude", "These Days" by Nico, and two songs by the Rolling Stones. Erik Satie's "Gymnopédie No. 1" is also used in the film, as is the iconic song of A Charlie Brown Christmas (1965) by Vince Guaraldi. According to the marketing of the film, particular musical instruments are matched with each character, with the association established in the introductory narration and continuing to the conclusion.
In 2002, the soundtrack was re-released containing the score, composed by Mark Mothersbaugh, along with more of the songs. The Rolling Stones' songs "She Smiled Sweetly" and "Ruby Tuesday" were omitted for lack of rights.
Release
The film premiered at the New York Film Festival on October 5, 2001, which had previously screened Anderson's Rushmore in 1998. Distributed by Touchstone Pictures, it opened in New York City and Los Angeles in December 2001. In February 2002, it was screened at the Berlin International Film Festival.
To mark a decade since its debut, Anderson and his stars returned to the New York Film Festival for a screening of The Royal Tenenbaums in fall 2011. After previously publishing a DVD edition, The Criterion Collection released a Blu-ray in Region A in 2012.
Reception
Box office
On its opening weekend, The Royal Tenenbaums made $276,891 in five theaters, or around $55,396 at each venue. By February 2002, it doubled Rushmores total gross at the U.S. box office.
The film finished its run on June 20, 2002, with a gross of $52,364,010 in North America. It made $19,077,240 in other territories, for a worldwide total of $71,441,250. With the final $70 million gross, it remained Anderson's most financially successful film when it returned to the New York Film Festival in 2011. The Grand Budapest Hotel surpassed it in 2014.
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 80% based on 210 reviews, and an average rating of 7.51/10. The site's critics consensus reads: "The Royal Tenenbaums is a delightful adult comedy with many quirks and a sense of poignancy. Many critics especially praised Hackman's performance.” On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 76 out of 100, based on 34 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C–" on an A+ to F scale.
At its premiere at the New York Film Festival, A.O. Scott wrote in The New York Times that it eventually won him over as charming, and that Hackman brought "quick precision and deep seriousness [that] nearly rescue[d] this movie from its own whimsy". Varietys Todd McCarthy described the film, "As richly conceived as the novel it pretends to be."
Richard Schickel of Time wrote, "As with Anderson's Rushmore, there's a certain annoying preciousness to this film—it's not so consistently wise or amusing as he thinks it is—but it has its moments". Roger Ebert awarded it three-and-a-half stars, admiring how viewers can be ambivalent toward the events in the story. The San Francisco Chronicles Mick LaSalle was enthusiastic, praising the film as "like no other, an epic, depressive comedy, with lots of ironic laughs and a humane and rather sad feeling at its core". Anthony Lane commented in The New Yorker on the setting, which did not truly feel like New York, but "a step-city, or a city-in-law", and said that "the communal oddity" gradually won him over. The New York Posts Lou Lumenick hailed it as "the year's best movie" and "possibly the most quintessential New York film since Manhattan". Peter Travers found all the cast great in different ways, while singling out Hackman. L.A. Weeklys Manohla Dargis wrote it had enough laughs to be classified as a comedy, but it contained "a deep vein of melancholia to its drollery". The Guardians Joe Queenan embraced it as a "bizarre redemption tale".
Some critics disagreed about the success of the film and its style. New Yorks Peter Rainer wrote, "Anderson is something of a prodigy himself, and he's riddled with talent, but he hasn't figured out how to be askew and heartfelt at the same time." In the Los Angeles Times, Kenneth Turan assessed the film as indulging too far in Anderson's vision, creating an unknown world. In his 2015 Movie Guide, Leonard Maltin gave it two-and-a-half stars out of four, complimenting the eccentricity, but finding no storyline.
Time listed Royal Tenenbaums in its Top 10 Troubled Genius Films list in 2009, comparing Anderson's characters to Salinger's, in an "ultimately touching package". In 2013, Time also named Henry Sherman as one of 10 memorable accountant characters in film history, citing his decency, success as an author and lack of confidence in his pursuit of Etheline. In 2014, The Huffington Post journalist Lisa Thomson evaluated it as one of Anderson's best films, and that finding laughs in divorce was a highlight. In 2017, Vanity Fair cited Richie's tennis meltdown scene as one of the best tennis scenes in cinema history, making an analogy to Björn Borg.
In 2008, a poll taken by Empire ranked The Royal Tenenbaums as the 159th greatest film ever made. A 2016 poll of international critics assembling BBC's 100 Greatest Films of the 21st Century also voted it one of the 100 greatest motion pictures since 2000. Hackman has received kudos for his performance. In 2015, IndieWire named Royal as Anderson's most memorable character, crediting Hackman for bringing the character beyond the director's norm; the same list also named Margot "the ur-Anderson female" character.
Accolades
The film received a nomination at the 74th Academy Awards for Best Original Screenplay. CNN reported that it had been considered as a possibility for nominations for Best Cinematography, Best Art Direction and Best Actor for Hackman. Hackman did win the Golden Globe for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy, but was unable to accept the award in person.
Legacy
The narration and the way the film follows each family member was reprised in Fox's critically acclaimed television sitcom Arrested Development. Jason Bateman, one of the show's stars, describes the show as "The Royal Tenenbaums shot like COPS". Arrested Development creator and head writer Mitchell Hurwitz said that when he saw The Royal Tenenbaums, he already had the idea for Arrested Development in mind and thought, "Well, that's it, I can't do that anymore", but subsequently changed his mind.
Alec Baldwin, the narrator, has effusively praised the film, including it in his Top 10 Criterion Collection and calling it "arguably one of the most original movies, in tone and style, since Robert Altman's M*A*S*H". He also modeled his performance of the character Jack Donaghy on the television series 30 Rock after Hackman's speech and movements as Royal Tenenbaum.
The Tenenbaums' style has been cited as an influence in fashion design, and Margot Tenenbaum has been described by Vogue as the "muse of the season" for Spring/Summer 2015 collections.
References
Bibliography
External links
2001 films
2001 comedy-drama films
Adultery in films
American comedy-drama films
American films
English-language films
Films about dysfunctional families
Films directed by Wes Anderson
Films featuring a Best Musical or Comedy Actor Golden Globe winning performance
Films produced by Barry Mendel
Films produced by Scott Rudin
Films produced by Wes Anderson
Films scored by Mark Mothersbaugh
Films set in New York City
Films shot in New York City
Films with screenplays by Wes Anderson
Films with screenplays by Owen Wilson
Media containing Gymnopedies
Self-harm in films
Touchstone Pictures films | [
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] |
223270 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Society%20of%20Arts%20and%20Sciences%20in%20Gothenburg | Royal Society of Arts and Sciences in Gothenburg | The Royal Society of Arts and Sciences in Gothenburg (, abbreviated KVVS and often known simply as Samhället) is a Swedish Royal Academy. Its predecessor was founded in Gothenburg in 1773 and the academy took its present name in 1778. The same year, Gustav III of Sweden gave it Royal Charter.
See also
Vega expedition
Sciences, Society Letters
18th century in Gothenburg | [
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] |
223271 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Physiographic%20Society%20in%20Lund | Royal Physiographic Society in Lund | The Royal Physiographic Society in Lund (), is one of the Royal Academies in Sweden. It was founded in Lund, on December 2, 1772, and received a Royal Charter by Gustav III, on March 6, 1778.
See also
Lund University
References
External links
Official website
Physiographic
Lund
1772 in Sweden | [
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223272 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Society%20of%20Sciences%20in%20Uppsala | Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala | The Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala (Swedish Kungliga Vetenskaps-Societeten i Uppsala), is the oldest of the royal academies in Sweden, having been founded in 1710. The society has, by royal decree of 1906, 50 Swedish fellows and 100 foreign.
Early members included Emanuel Swedenborg and Anders Celsius.
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences was founded in Stockholm 1739. Its founders, some of whom were members of the Uppsala academy, specifically wanted a different academy.
Historical sketch
The Academy was founded 1710 in Uppsala on the initiative of the university librarian Erik Benzelius (jr) (later archbishop) under the name of Collegium curiosorum. The name was changed to Societas Literaria Sueciae in 1719, when it received a royal charter in 1728 to Societas regia literaria et scientarium, and it was known from the mid 18th century as the Societas regia scientarum upsaliensis. All the Academy's publications were in the Latin language until 1863.
Structure
The Academy has 130 national members and 100 foreign members, belonging to one of the four "classes": the "Mathematical-Physical" class, the "Natural history-Medical" class, the "Historical-Archeological" class and the "Technical-Economical" class. All the sections are ruled by a single Presidium, which is formed by a president, a vice-president, a secretary, a vice-secretary and a treasurer: the king of Sweden is the Honorary President of the academy.
Prizes
The prizes awarded by the academy are as follows:
Linnaeus prize: the oldest prize awarded by the Academy, named after Carl Linnaeus: the prize was instituted upon a donation by Linnaeus widow, Sara E. Linnaeus, on 8 September 1803.
Celsius Gold Medal is the most prestigious prize awarded by the Academy, named after Anders Celsius. It was first awarded in 1961, and it is reserved to scientists working in mathematical and physical sciences, and as such, it is awarded upon decision by the "Mathematical-Physical class" of the Academy.
Bergstedt prize is the second oldest prize awarded by the Academy, instituted on 12 May 1827, upon a donation by the Secretary of State Erik Bergstedt.
Thalen prize was instituted in 1902 and is named after the physics professor Robert Thalén.
(Lilly and Sven) Thureus prize was instituted upon a donation from Lilly and Sven Thureus in 1971: originally it was a single prize, but at present it is awarded yearly upon decision by each one of the four classes of the Academy.
Benzeliusbelöningarna (Benzelius grants) is awarded yearly, named after Erik Benzelius the younger, instituted in 1980 and entirely founded by the Academy: it is meant as a grant to young researchers.
Notes
References
.
.
External links
.
Sciences, Society
Uppsala University | [
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223276 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alain%20Finkielkraut | Alain Finkielkraut | Alain Finkielkraut (, ; ; born 30 June 1949) is a French philosopher and public intellectual. He has written books and essays on a wide range of topics, many on the ideas of tradition and identitary nonviolence, including Jewish identity and antisemitism, French colonialism, the mission of the French education system in immigrant assimilation, and the Yugoslav Wars. He often appears on French television.
He joined the Department of French Literature in the University of California, Berkeley as an assistant professor in 1976, and from 1989 to 2014 he was professor of History of Ideas in the École Polytechnique department of humanities and social sciences. He was elected member of the Académie française (Seat 21) on 10 April 2014.
As a thinker, Finkielkraut defines himself as being "at the same time classical and romantic". Finkielkraut deplores what he sees as the deterioration of Western tradition through multiculturalism and relativism.
In 2010, he was involved in founding JCall, a left-wing advocacy group based in Europe to lobby the European Parliament on foreign policy issues concerning the Middle East and Israel in particular.
Life
Finkielkraut is the son of a Polish Jewish manufacturer of fine leather goods who survived the Auschwitz concentration camp.
Work
Finkielkraut studied modern literature at the École normale supérieure de Saint-Cloud. Broadly speaking, his ideas may be described as being in the same vein as those of Emmanuel Levinas and Hannah Arendt, a filiation he has repeatedly pointed out.
Finkielkraut first came to public attention when he and Pascal Bruckner co-authored a number of short but controversial essays intended to question the idea that a new emancipation was underway; these included The New Love Disorder (1977) (Le Nouveau Désordre amoureux) and At the Corner of the Street (1978) (Au Coin de la rue), as well as The Adventure (1979) (L'aventure). Finkielkraut then began publishing singly authored works on the public's betrayal of memory and our intransigence in the presence of events that, he argued, should move the public. This reflection led Finkielkraut to address post-Holocaust Jewish identity in Europe (The Imaginary Jew) (1983) (le Juif imaginaire). Seeking to promote what he calls a duty of memory, Finkielkraut also published The Future of a Negation: Reflexion on the Genocide Issue (1982) (Avenir d'une négation : réflexion sur la question du génocide) and later his comments on the Klaus Barbie trial, Remembering in Vain (La Mémoire vaine).
Finkielkraut feels particularly indebted to Emmanuel Levinas. In The Wisdom of Love (La Sagesse de l'amour), Finkielkraut discusses this debt in terms of modernity and its mirages. Finkielkraut continues his reflection on the matter in The Defeat of the Mind (1987) (La Défaite de la pensée) and The Ingratitude: Talks About Our Times (1999) (Ingratitude : conversation sur notre temps).
At the end of the 1990s, he founded with Benny Lévy and Bernard-Henri Lévy an at Jerusalem.
Essayist on society
In recent years, Alain Finkielkraut has given his opinion on a variety of topics in society, such as the Internet in The Internet, The Troubling Ecstasy (2001) (Internet, l'inquiétante extase). In the book Present Imperfect (2002) (L'Imparfait du présent), akin to a personal diary, he expresses his thoughts about various events in the world (especially the events of 11 September 2001).
Controversies
In 1995 Finkielkraut denounced the Cannes Film Festival's jury award, saying:
In recognizing "Underground", the Cannes jury thought it was honouring a creator with a thriving imagination. In fact, it has honoured a servile and flashy illustrator of criminal clichés. The Cannes jury ... praised a version of the most hackneyed and deceitful Serb propaganda. The devil himself could not have conceived so cruel an outrage against Bosnia, nor such a grotesque epilogue to Western incompetence and frivolity.
It was later revealed that Finkielkraut had not seen the film before writing his criticism.
His interview published in the Haaretz magazine in November 2005 in which he gave his opinion about the 2005 French riots stirred up much controversy. Finkielkraut's remarked that the France national football team was "black, black, black, which causes sneers all over Europe" (as opposed to the expression "black-blanc-beur"—meaning "Black, White, Arab"—coined after the 1998 World Cup victory to honor the African and Afro Caribbean, European and North African origins of the players), adding that "if you point this out in France, you are thrown in jail." He also denounced African-American Muslims, claiming that there is an "Islamization of the blacks" happening in both America and France.
Anti-Zionist filmmaker Eyal Sivan took legal action against Finkielkraut after the Frenchman said Sivan "is, if you will, one of the actors in this particularly painful, particularly alarming reality, the Jewish anti-Semitism that rages today."
In 2009, he was criticized for his comment on Roman Polanski sexual offence in which a 13-year-old girl was involved. Finkielkraut claimed that she was a "teenager", "not a child".
He has been criticized for his close friendship with Croatian president Franjo Tuđman and was accused by David Bruce MacDonald of supporting "a nation whose leader was a Holocaust revisionist, at the helm of an authoritarian government."
In August 2018, Finkielkraut expressed in an interview with The Times of Israel his worries for French Jews and the future of France: "The anti-Semitism we're now experiencing in France is the worst I've ever seen in my lifetime, and I'm convinced it's going to get worse".
On 16 February 2019, Finkielkraut was accosted on the street by a group of yellow vest protesters in Paris when they chanced on him in Boulevard du Montparnasse. A 36-year-old French convert to Islam was indicted after saying that Finkelkraut was "going to die". Finkelkraut had previously expressed his sympathy for the yellow vest movement. In April, Finkelkraut stated that he had been repeatedly accosted by street protestors and told reporters, "I can no longer show my face on the street".
In April 2019, IEP (Sciences Po) announced the cancellation of a forum where Finkielkraut was to be a speaker, due to threats by «antifas». Eugénie Bastié of Le Figaro denounced the cancellation as a "gangrenous" symptom of the Americanisation of French university life. The announcement was intended to mislead far-left protestors, and the lecture went on in a different location.
While on the French TV channel LCI, he commented on the Duhamel scandal involving incest with a 13-14 boy and his father-in-law. Finkielkraut analyzed the affair from a post-68 perspective and described the victim as a "teenager", as a result of which he was summarily fired within days by the French TV news network he was working for as a commentator.
Bibliography
The Religion of Humanity and the Sin of the Jews, essay in Azure magazine.
Reflections on the Coming Anti-Semitism, essay in Azure magazine.
Ralentir, mots-valises !, Seuil (1979)
Le nouveau désordre amoureux, Seuil (1977)
Au coin de la rue, l'aventure, Seuil (1979)
Petit fictionnaire illustré : les mots qui manquent au dico, Seuil (1981)
Le Juif imaginaire, Seuil (1981)
L'avenir d'une négation, Seuil (1982)
La sagesse de l'amour, Gallimard (1984)
La défaite de la pensée, Gallimard (1987)
La mémoire vaine, du Crime contre l'humanité, Gallimard (1989)
Comment peut-on être Croate ?, Gallimard (1992)
L'humanité perdue, Seuil (1996)
Le mécontemporain. Charles Péguy, lecteur du monde moderne, Gallimard (1992)
L'ingratitude. Conversation sur notre temps avec Antoine Robitaille, Gallimard (1999)
Une voix vient de l'autre rive, Gallimard (2000)
Internet, l'inquiétante extase, Mille et une nuits (2001)
Penser le XXe siècle, École Polytechnique (2000)
Des hommes et des bêtes, Tricorne (2000)
L'imparfait du présent. Pièces brèves, Gallimard (2002)
Enseigner les lettres aujourd'hui, Tricorne (2003)
Les battements du monde, Pauvert (2003)
Au nom de l'Autre. Réflexions sur l'antisémitisme qui vient, Gallimard (2003)
Nous autres, modernes : quatre leçons, Ellipses (2005)
Ce que peut la littérature, Stock (2006)
Entretiens sur la laïcité, Verdier (2006)
Qu'est-ce que la France, Stock (2007)
La querelle de l'école, Stock (2007)
Philosophie et modernité, École Polytechnique (2008)
Un cœur intelligent, Stock/Flammarion (2009)
« Pour une décence commune » in Regards sur la crise. Réflexions pour comprendre la crise… et en sortir, essay contributed to a collective work edited by Antoine Mercier, Paris, Éditions Hermann, 2010.
L'explication, conversation avec Aude Lancelin, with Alain Badiou, Nouvelles Éditions Lignes, 2010.
L'interminable écriture de l'Extermination, with Finkielkraut's direction, transcriptions of TV appearances on Répliques de France Culture, Stock, 2010.
Et si l'amour durait, Stock, 2011
L'identité malheureuse, Stock, 2013
La Seule Exactitude, Stock, 2015
En terrain miné, with Élisabeth de Fontenay, Stock, 2017
À la première personne, Gallimard, 2019
L'après littérature, Stock, 2021
References
External links
Official website of the Institute for Levinassian Studies, co-founded by Alain Finkielkraut, Bernard-Henri Lévy and Benny Lévy
“Voices on Antisemitism” Interview with Alain Finkielkraut from the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
1949 births
Living people
20th-century French essayists
20th-century French male writers
20th-century French philosophers
21st-century French essayists
21st-century French male writers
21st-century French philosophers
ENS Fontenay-Saint-Cloud-Lyon alumni
French Ashkenazi Jews
French male essayists
French people of Polish-Jewish descent
French Zionists
Jewish philosophers
Members of the Académie Française
Writers from Paris | [
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223278 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rest%20of%20the%20world%20in%20sports%20and%20games | Rest of the world in sports and games | Within sports and games played at the international competitive level, the Rest of the World refers to a team of players from many countries of origin that compete against a single individual or a team from a single group, such as a club or country.
Overview
As a Rest of the World team usually has little experience in playing together or working as a team, their ability is not usually considered indicative of their actual abilities, either individually or as members of their usual teams, and as such, games played against the rest of the world are not normally considered to show the true talent of either the rest of the world or the team competing against them. As a consequence, Rest of the World matches are usually played as one-off events either as friendly games or for a non-competitive special purpose, such as international aid or commemoration.
However, some such events can produce spectacular and intense games, such as the chess game between Garry Kasparov and the Rest of the World in 1999. The Russia (USSR) vs Rest of the World chess matches were also tightly contested.
Examples
In rugby league, the Other Nationalities team played from 1904 to 1975. In rugby union, the British and Irish Lions faced the Rest of the World XV in 1986.
In basketball, the NBA Rising Stars Challenge faces a Team USA versus a Team World since 2015.
Noted examples of Rest of the World teams in cricket included those organised to tour England in 1970 and Australia in 1971-2 in place of planned tour from South Africa abandoned because of political opposition due to the apartheid policy. Although the matches in 1970 were declared at the time to have official Test cricket status, this was subsequently withdrawn. A World XI also played against Australia in the 2005 ICC Super Series. The first class match in that series retains Test match status, a move which is controversial with some cricket statisticians. However the status is unlikely to be withdrawn in part because of the effect on noted cricket records; for instance without the wickets taken in this match, Muthiah Muralidaran would fall slightly short of 800 career test wickets. A world XI also competed in unofficial World Series Cricket in 1978-9.
An example of a Rest of the World team in soccer occurred on 8th August 1987 when such a side contested a match at Wembley stadium against a Football League XI to commemorate the centenary of the English football league. This comprised the last high-profile occasion on which Diego Maradona played on English soil. Although the game was sparsely attended the hostile reception of Maradona, just over a year after The Hand of God incident, was notable.
Golf
Two events in golf, one currently active and the other defunct, involve teams officially labeled "International" that are effectively "rest of the world" teams. The Presidents Cup in men's golf, held in odd-numbered years, features competition between a United States team and an "International" team made up of non-European players (Europeans compete against the US in even-numbered years in the Ryder Cup). The now-defunct Lexus Cup in women's golf was an annual competition that matched an Asia team against an "International" team drawn from all other nationalities.
Non-sporting usage
Outside sports and games, Rest of World (RoW) is also a term used to distinguish an unspecified but inclusive group of nations from one or more dominant players in the comparative analysis of markets, economies, military capabilities, and so forth, especially in graphs or charts to show the numbers representing the other countries.
The Federation of American Scientists, for instance, provides a list of RoW weapons systems, meaning systems belonging to nations other than the United States.
See also
World XI (association football)
World XI (cricket)
International XI women's cricket team
List of international rugby union teams
Other Nationalities rugby league team
:Category:Multi-national teams in international cricket
References
Figures of speech
Terminology used in multiple sports | [
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223289 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukkake | Bukkake | or is a sex act in which one participant is ejaculated on by multiple participants. It is often portrayed in pornographic films.
Bukkake videos are a relatively prevalent niche in contemporary pornographic films. Originating in Japan in the 1980s, the genre subsequently spread to North America and Europe, and crossed over into gay pornography.
Etymology
Bukkake is the noun form of the Japanese verb bukkakeru (ぶっ掛ける, to dash or sprinkle water), and means "to dash", "splash", or "heavy splash". The compound verb can be decomposed into a prefix and a verb: butsu (ぶつ) and kakeru (掛ける). Butsu is a prefix derived from the verb "buchi", which literally means "to hit", but the usage of the prefix is a verb-intensifier.
Kakeru in this context means to shower or pour. The word bukkake is often used in Japanese to describe pouring out a liquid with sufficient momentum to cause splashing or spilling. Indeed, bukkake is used in Japan to describe a type of dish where hot broth is poured over noodles, as in bukkake udon and bukkake soba.
History
There is a popular belief that links the origin of the practice to a form of punishment for adultery on women in medieval Japan. In fact, that description of its origin is false, mainly because the actual punishment for cheating wives was decapitation. Bukkake was first represented in pornographic films in the mid to late 1980s in Japan. According to one commentator, a significant factor in the development of bukkake as a pornographic form was the mandatory censorship in Japan where genitals must be pixelated by a "mosaic". One consequence of this is that Japanese pornography tends to focus more on the face and body of actresses rather than on their genitals. Since film producers could not show penetration, they sought other ways to depict sex acts without violating Japanese law and since semen did not need to be censored, a loophole existed for harder sex scenes. However, popularization of the act and the term for it has been credited to director Kazuhiko Matsumoto in 1998. The Japanese adult video studio Shuttle Japan registered the term "ぶっかけ/ＢＵＫＫＡＫＥ" as a trademark (No. 4545137) in January 2001.
The practice then spread from Japan to the United States and then Europe in the late 1990s. The appearance of bukkake videos was part of a trend towards "harder" pornography in the 1990s, preceded by a fashion for double penetration videos in the mid-1990s, and occurring in parallel to the appearance of gang bang videos towards the end of that decade. There was an economic advantage for Western pornographers to produce bukkake films since they only require one actress, and often amateur male performers whose pay rates are low. However, Western-style bukkake videos differ in some aspects from those in Japan; in Japanese bukkake videos, female performers are frequently dressed as office ladies or in school uniforms, and they are being humiliated, whereas women in Western-style bukkake videos are portrayed as enjoying the scene. Another Japanese variant of bukkake is gokkun, in which several men ejaculate into a container for the receiver to drink. Bukkake is less popular than some other porn niches in the West, possibly because the implicit subordination of the woman does not appeal to many consumers, and because cum shots are normally the climax of a scene, rather than the main events.
The genre has also spread to gay pornography, featuring scenes in which several men ejaculate on another man. "Lesbian bukkake" videos are also produced. The 17th World Congress of Sexology in Montreal in July 2005 included a presentation on bukkake.
Male viewers' motivation
American editor and publisher Russ Kick, quoting a sexologist, states that men enjoy a "sense of closure and finality about sex", something that watching other men ejaculate provides. The viewer identifies with the ejaculating men, experiencing a sense of vicarious pleasure.
Reception
A number of authors have described bukkake as premised on humiliation. Forensic psychologist Karen Franklin has described bukkake as symbolic group rape, characterising its primary purpose as the humiliation, degradation and objectification of women. Lisa Jean Moore and Juliana Weissbein view the use of ejaculation in bukkake as part of a humiliation ritual, noting that it generally does not involve any of the female participants experiencing orgasm.
Dines describes the money shot of a man ejaculating on the face or body of a woman, taken to a new extreme in bukkake through the involvement of multiple men, as "one of the most degrading acts in porn".
Tristan Taormino, feminist author and sex educator, has likened bukkake to a "gay circle jerk", noting the inconsistency between its billing as a heterosexual practice and the fact that it features a group of naked men standing in close proximity to each other, masturbating together.
Phillip Vannini, associate professor in the School of Communication and Culture at Royal Roads University, quotes "self-proclaimed net sex commentator" George Kranz, who views recent American interpretations of bukkake as a "significant advance in human behaviour", emphasising the lively, almost party-like atmosphere of American bukkake videos compared to the more subdued Japanese style.
See also
BDSM
Cum shot
Gokkun
Facial
Gang bang pornography
Group sex
Pornography in Japan
References
Japanese sex terms
Pornography terminology
Sexual acts
Ejaculation
Sexuality in Japan | [
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223294 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ari%20Behn | Ari Behn | Ari Mikael Behn (; , or ; 30 September 1972 – 25 December 2019) was a Norwegian author, playwright, and visual artist.
Known as Mikael Bjørshol until 1996, Behn achieved early literary success with his 1999 short story collection Trist som faen ("Sad as hell"), which sold about 100,000 copies. Following his marriage, he wrote four novels, two short story collections, one play and a book about his wedding, and took part in other creative and artistic endeavours such as the design of a china set named "Peacock". In the 2000s and 2010s his public activity and art were met with mixed reactions in Norway, and Behn acknowledged that many people regarded him as a "fool". From 2013 until his death he was active as a visual artist, painting in a neo-expressionist tradition inspired by Jean-Michel Basquiat. Behn's artwork, described as "highly narrative", was widely exhibited internationally in 2017–18.
From 2002 to 2017 he was married to Princess Märtha Louise, the elder child of King Harald V. Behn held no title or special status during the marriage, and remained a private citizen.
Background and early life
Behn was born as Ari Mikael Bjørshol in 1972 in Aarhus, Denmark, to Olav Bjørshol (b. 1952) and Marianne Rafaela Solberg (b. 1953), Norwegians who were both Waldorf teachers and who married in 1973. The family lived in Aarhus, then in Plymouth, England, where his father trained as a photographer, and then in Tennevoll in Northern Norway where his mother worked as a teacher at the local school from 1977 to 1978. In 1978 the family settled in Moss in South Norway. Bjørshol was baptized and confirmed in The Christian Community and attended the Waldorf School in Moss from 1979.
In 1983, his parents divorced and married a couple who had been among their friends, Jan Pahle and Tone Bjerke, who had previously been married to each other. Tone Bjerke had family connections to several prominent cultural figures; she was the daughter of the well-known poet André Bjerke, and her extended family included people like writer Jens Bjørneboe (father's cousin), actress Henny Moan (stepmother) and singer Ole Paus (stepmother's new partner). In the 2000s his parents divorced Pahle and Bjerke, and they married each other for the second time in 2007.
In the 1990s, he studied history and religion at the University of Oslo, from which he received a bachelor's degree.
Behn's original surname was Bjørshol and he was known by family and during his childhood and youth under the given name Mikael. In 1996, he changed his name to Ari Behn when he took his maternal grandmother's maiden name. The name Behn has German origin. He had two younger siblings, Anja Sabrina and Espen, neither of whom use the name Behn. In 2009, it was made public that Behn's de jure paternal grandfather, the Tromsø lawyer Bjarne Nikolai Bjørshol, was not his biological grandfather. Behn's father met his biological father, Terje Erling Ingebrigtsen (1933–2009), a retired car mechanic from Tromsø, for the first time, but Ingebrigtsen died before Behn had a chance to meet him.
Work
Behn was a founding member of Den Nye Vinen ("The New Wine"), an anarchist artist collective announced in Oslo in 1993 that included Bertrand Bisigye, Henning Braathen, and Per Heimly.
Behn achieved literary success in Norway with his first collection of short stories, titled Trist som faen ("Sad as hell"), in 1999. His work received several good reviews and sold more than 100,000 copies. As an author he is best known for his first book; he subsequently published four other novels to more mixed reviews.
Together with his wife, Princess Märtha, Behn wrote a book about their wedding in 2002. He also participated in various creative projects, for example, the design of a china set named "Peacock" for Magnor Glassverk, and he was a model for a clothing chain.
He also made TV documentaries, including a critical documentary on the Afghanistan War in 2002, titled Øst for krigen – invitert av Taliban.
Behn appeared in the comedy films Team Antonsen in 2004 and Long Flat Balls in 2006.
He was a freelance writer for several newspapers and magazines. In 2011 he co-hosted the award-winning TV series Ari og Per on NRK with his friend Per Heimly. The appeal of one episode of the show was attributed, in part, to the willingness of Behn and Heimly to be authentic and vulnerable participants on camera at an Ängsbacka festival. Behn and Heimly appeared together on a later TV program, "Ari and Per Solve World Problems" on TVNorge in 2013.
Behn was also a playwright; His first play, Treningstimen ("The Training Hour") debuted in 2011. Although the play was reported to have received a standing ovation from the audience on opening night, reviews overall were mixed.
From 2013, until his death, Behn was active as a painter in a neo-expressionist tradition; he cited Jean-Michel Basquiat as his most important inspiration. As a painter he achieved commercial success by Norwegian standards, and sold paintings for 5.7 million NOK in 2018. Behn exhibited his work internationally, including at Gabba Gallery's exhibit Borderless: Scandinavia in Los Angeles in 2018. Behn was paired with the Scandinavian painters Mikael Persbrandt and Espen Eiborg and artwork from the trio has been shown in over 60 international galleries since 2017.
Behn published Inferno in 2018 which detailed the aftermath of his divorce and included some of his struggles with mental health.
Marriage and family
On 24 May 2002, Behn married Princess Märtha Louise, the eldest child of King Harald V of Norway. Märtha Louise is a self-described clairvoyant who led her own alternative therapy center named Astarte Education/Soulspring, commonly known in Norway as the "angel school" (), which provided training in communication with angels and communication with the dead.
At the time of their wedding his wife was second in the line of succession to the Norwegian throne after her younger brother; from her birth in 1971 to 1990 she was not in the line of succession at all due to Norway's agnatic primogeniture succession. She was however 26th in the line of succession to the British throne at the time of her birth. Behn remained a private citizen and held no title, royal status or special privileges during the marriage; since 1814 Norway has no nobility and no concept of commoners, only citizens. They had three daughters, all of whom are also private citizens: Maud Angelica Behn (born 2003), Leah Isadora Behn (born 2005), and Emma Tallulah Behn (born 2008).
The family lived for a time in Islington, north London, in New York, and then in the Lommedalen valley outside Oslo.
On 5 August 2016, the Royal Court announced that Princess Märtha Louise and Behn had started divorce proceedings and intended to share custody of their three daughters. They were divorced in 2017.
At the time of his death Behn was in a relationship with lawyer Ebba Rysst Heilman.
Reception and press coverage
Around the turn of the century Behn and some of his friends, among them photographer Per Heimly, declared themselves to be "The New Wine." During the early 2000s Behn was often portrayed in Norwegian media as a pretentious poseur. He was known for "harsh public feuds" with critics and artists and was often the subject of ridicule in the media. In 2001 he famously challenged critic Kjetil Rolness to a duel with pistol or sword. Even his relative Ole Paus called him "Prins Kvaps von und zu Quasi" [roughly: Prince Fool von und zu Fake] in 2002. In later years Behn was reconciled with many of his critics from this period, and public reception became less critical in the late 2010s after he became active as a visual artist. In his final novel Inferno Behn commented on how he was viewed in Norway: "I also design tableware and wine glasses, I joke with my own position as a public figure in the media. I am a clown, in worst case. In best case, I am a debater and public figure. To many people I am a fool." Art historian Øivind Lorentz Storm Bjerke said that Behn "is sometimes portrayed as a merry amateur who suddenly decided to try his hand at art, but this is not correct [...] he is part of a group of visual artists who lack formal training, but who are active in different art forms."
Behn made headlines in Norwegian newspapers in the autumn of 2006, when he revealed that he voted for the Norwegian Labour Party. His friendship with the former Minister of Culture and Labour leader Trond Giske attracted criticism from newspapers and politicians.
In January 2009, Behn received massive media coverage in the Norwegian press after going on a "personal vendetta" against former palace official Carl-Erik Grimstad, accusing him of spreading tabloid nonsense regarding Behn and his family.
Following his death Behn was widely praised for his personal qualities, and described as a caring, colourful personality.
In December 2017, Behn said that the actor Kevin Spacey had groped his genitals in 2007, at a nightclub during the afterparty for the Nobel Peace Prize concert; however he said he didn't feel violated by the incident and that he "had a wonderful time" at the party; Behn said on the talkshow Skavlan: "I didn't experience it as sexual harassment [...] for me it was a compliment." Following his death American media portrayed him as a "Spacey accuser", although he had not accused Spacey of wrongdoing or been involved in any legal cases against Spacey, and conspiracy theories focusing on the incident circulated on the Internet; Norwegian commentators pointed out that Behn had regarded the incident as a minor, entertaining anecdote, and accused American media of fostering conspiracy theories by blowing the incident out of proportion. Media studies scholar Gunn Enli described American coverage of Behn's death and its focus on the Spacey incident "taken out of context" as a "distorted version of reality."
Behn was the subject of a documentary series that followed him during a difficult period around the time of his divorce. The three-episode series, titled Ari Behn og halve kongeriket ("Ari and the Half Kingdom"), was produced for TV3. Prior to the release of the series, Behn and members of his family made clear that they did not support the final content and withheld their approval. TV3 aired the docuseries in 2018 despite the objections of Behn, his family, and his legal representatives. After Behn's death, TV3 withdrew web access to the series on the day preceding his funeral.
Death
Behn died at his home in Lommedalen on 25 December 2019. A statement from his family said Behn had died by suicide. He had struggled with alcoholism and mental health problems. In a 2009 interview he said he was chronically depressed and lonely.
The swift public announcement by the Norwegian royal family following his death was noted as unusually open and forthright; King Harald V, Queen Sonja, and other members of his former wife's family as well as his own family expressed their sorrow at his death in statements released to the public. His funeral was held at Oslo Cathedral on 3 January 2020.
Ari Behn's publisher said that Behn left behind a completed manuscript for a children's book which he had written with his eldest daughter Maud Angelica. It is uncertain whether the book will be published.
His resting place is the Cemetery of Our Saviour.
Honours
National honours
: Recipient of the Medal of the 100th Anniversary of the Birth of King Olav V
: Recipient of the Royal House Centenary Medal
: Recipient of the King Harald V Silver Jubilee Medal
Foreign honours
: Knight Grand Officer of the Order of the Crown
: Recipient of the 70th Birthday Medal of King Carl XVI Gustaf
Bibliography
Trist som faen ("Sad as Hell"), 1999, collection of short stories, 93 pages, .
Fra hjerte til hjerte ("From Heart to Heart"), 2002 in collaboration with wife Märtha Louise, is a book about their wedding, .
Bakgård ("Backyard"), 2003, .
Entusiasme og raseri ("Enthusiasm and Rage"), a roman à clef published in October 2006, .
Vivian Seving etc., 2009, .
Talent for lykke ("Talent for Happiness"), 2011, collection of short stories, 96 pages, .
Tiger i Hagen ("Tiger in the Garden"), 2015, collection of short stories, 96 pages, .
Inferno, 2018, novel with paintings, 118 pages, .
References
External links
Official Website
Memorialpage for Ari Behn
1972 births
2019 deaths
20th-century Norwegian male writers
Norwegian male short story writers
People from Aarhus
People from Moss, Norway
Recipients of the Order of the Crown (Netherlands)
Suicides in Norway
Waldorf school alumni
21st-century Norwegian male writers
University of Oslo alumni
Norwegian painters
20th-century Norwegian short story writers
21st-century Norwegian short story writers
2019 suicides
Painters who committed suicide | [
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223298 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitivity | Transitivity | Transitivity or transitive may refer to:
Grammar
Transitivity (grammar), a property of verbs that relates to whether a verb can take direct objects
Transitive verb, a verb which takes an object
Transitive case, a grammatical case to mark arguments of a transitive verb
Logic and mathematics
Transitive group action
Transitive relation, a binary relation in which if A is related to B and B is related to C, then A is related to C
Syllogism, a related notion in propositional logic
Intransitivity, properties of binary relations in mathematics
Arc-transitive graph, a graph whose automorphism group acts transitively upon ordered pairs of adjacent vertices
Edge-transitive graph, a graph whose automorphism group acts transitively upon its edges
Vertex-transitive graph, a graph whose automorphism group acts transitively upon its vertices
Transitive set a set A such that whenever x ∈ A, and y ∈ x, then y ∈ A
Topological transitivity property of a continuous map for which every open subset U''' of the phase space intersects every other open subset V'', when going along trajectory
Other
Transitive Corporation, a computer software firm that developed QuickTransit cross-platform virtualization
Transitive dependency, a functional dependency of database management which holds by virtue of transitive relation
See also
Intransitive (disambiguation) | [
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223301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdul-Wahab%20Mirjan | Abdul-Wahab Mirjan | Abdul-Wahab Mirjan (1909 – March 15, 1964) () served as Prime Minister of Iraq from 1957 to 1958 at the time of that country's short-lived union with Jordan, which was formalized on February 14, 1958. A relative newcomer to the Iraqi government, Mirjan first joined the cabinet in 1947. He resigned, less than a month after the federation was declared, in favor of Nuri al-Said. He survived the republican coup later that year and died in 1964. He was known, along with his father Abdul-Razzak Mirjan, as being compassionate to his country; Abdul-Razzak Mirjan and his cousin Abdul-Abbas Mirjan donated a number of valuable assets, such as Mirjan Hospital in Hilla province (Babylon) and a large number of houses for the poor people of Iraq.
Abdul-Wahab, son of Abdul-Razzaq, son of Jawad, son of Mahmood AL Mirjan, came from a renowned family in Al-Hilla, where he was born in 1909. He graduated from the College of Law in Baghdad in 1932 and was appointed Justice of the Peace in Suweira (January 1938). However, he resigned after a short period, devoting himself to his law practice and the management of his estates. In September 1942 he was elected President of Al-Hilla Chamber of Agriculture.
In March 1947 he was elected member of the Iraqi lower house Chamber of Deputies of Iraq, representing Al-Hilla Liwa’ (province) and was re-elected in the following year. He was re-elected to the Chamber of Deputies in all subsequent terms until the revolution of 1958.
He was appointed Minister of Economy in Muzahim al-Pachachi's cabinet (26 June 1948). He was elected president of the Chamber of Deputies on first of December 1948 and re-elected to a new term as chamber president on first of December 1949.
After that he was appointed Minister of Communications and Public Works and acting Minister of Finance in Nuri al-Said's eleventh cabinet (16 September 1950); then Minister of Finance (25 December 1950) and president of the Chamber of Deputies for the third time (first of December 1951), remaining in this office until the Chamber was dissolved on 27 October 1952.
In Al-Madfai's sixth cabinet (29 January 1953) he undertook the Communications and Public Works portfolio, retaining his position in Al-Madfai's seventh cabinet (7 May 1953) until he resigned on 21 May 1953.
He was elected president of the Chamber of Deputies for the fourth time on first December 1953, remaining until the Chamber was dissolved on 29 April 1954.
He was re-elected the president of the new Chamber which convened on 26 July 1954; but the Chamber was immediately dissolved on 3 August 1954.
He participated in Nuri al-Said's twelfth cabinet as Minister of Agriculture (3 August 1954), then was elected another time to the presidency of the Chamber of Deputies on 16 September 1954; was re-elected as the chamber president on first of December 1954; again on first of December 1955 and on first of December 1956. He became Minister of Communications and Public Works in Al-Ayoubi's third cabinet (20 June 1957); then president of the Chamber of Deputies (first of December 1957). He undertook the office of Prime Minister and acting Minister of Defence on 15 December 1957, remaining until 2 March 1958.
On 10 May 1958 he was re-elected president of the Chamber of Deputies, remaining in this position until the revolution of 14 July 1958.
Subsequent to the revolution he was detained for a short period then released. He got terminally ill and died in Baghdad on the morning of Sunday 15 March 1964.
Mr. Mirjan was a paragon of kindness, with a pristine soul and an affable character. He attained the highest government positions within ten years, which added to his modesty and tranquility. When first elected member of the Chamber of Deputies in March 1947, Khalid Al-Durra, one of the members of the upper echelon of Al-Hilla and a distinguished lawyer there, described him in Al-Wadi magazine: “Abdul-Wahab is a sincerely patriotic young man; undoubtedly desiring to work for his country’s eminence and progress. He is clean handed, clean spoken and loved by those who knew him ...”
References
1909 births
1964 deaths
Prime Ministers of Iraq
Presidents of the Chamber of Deputies of Iraq
Government ministers of Iraq | [
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223302 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vuosaari | Vuosaari | Vuosaari () is a neighbourhood in the City of Helsinki, Finland. It is located by the sea in East Helsinki and with its area of 15.38 km2 is geographically the largest district in the city. It also has two Helsinki Metro stations, Rastila and Vuosaari
Vuosaari is one of the fastest-growing areas in Helsinki. The number of inhabitants has been increasing rapidly since early 1990s and it continues to grow as new residential areas are being built. As of 2020, the population was 38 961. Finnish and Sámi language speakers consisted 68,7 %, Swedish speakers 4,5 % and people speaking foreign languages 26,8 % of the population.
Among other things, Vuosaari is noted for its nature and large, relatively unspoilt recreational seashore areas. One of these is Uutela, a popular nature park located in the southeastern corner of Vuosaari. The continual planning of new residential zones has in fact raised criticism, as many people would rather preserve Vuosaari's closeness to nature.
Vuosaari is the location of a new major seaport in Helsinki, the Vuosaari Harbour.
As of 2005, 7.7% of the population of Vuosaari are foreign citizens and 11.6% were born outside of Finland. This has given the neighbourhood an overtly multi-cultural image in Finnish folklore, even though the percentage is higher in many other places in the Capital Region.
The two natural gas power plants of Helsingin Energia, the power utility of the city of Helsinki, are located in Vuosaari.
History
Vuosaari has been populated continuously since the Iron Age. The first written record of the inhabitants of the area comes from a document dating back to Magnus IV of Sweden in the 14th century. By the 16th century, Vuosaari had regained its connection to the mainland and the former island had two Rustholl-mansions, Nordsjö and Rastböle respectively, several small villages and a military shipyard. Officers from Suomenlinna built houses on the peninsulas. This process was further amplified after a regular steam boat connection between Helsinki and Vuosaari was established in the 19th century. Of military historical interest is that Russians built fortifications here in 1917. During the Second World War, Vuosaari was used as a decoy Helsinki to divert the bombs away from the city. This was done by lighting bonfires and concentrating anti-aircraft guns on the island. Later, during the fast construction phase in the 1990s, this led to halts on building sites, as unexploded aerial bombs were discovered hidden in the ground.
After the war, most of the lands in Vuosaari were owned by Oy Saseka Ab, a brick and stone company that had its factory on the island. Big lots of underdeveloped land at a close proximity to the capital prompted Saseka to start a zoning and building process to increase the value of land there. The Asuntosäästäjät Union (lit. apartment-savers) started to build houses in the 1960s, thus creating what colloquially is now known as Old Vuosaari. Some of Finland's most famous architects participated in the planning, most notably Viljo Revell. Vuosaari was incorporated into Helsinki in 1966.
As the first real influx of refugees and immigrants to Helsinki coincided with the building of Meri-Rastila in the beginning of the 1990s, the quarter quickly became home to an above average population of recent immigrants by Finnish standards. Russians, Estonians, Kurds and Somalis still form the basis of the immigrant population there - some 11% of the total population. The main street in Meri-Rastila was colloquially renamed to Mogadishu Avenue, which subsequently became the title of a Finnish television series that sought to deal with the intercultural differences between immigrants and native Finns from a comic point of view.
Aku Louhimies's 2012 film is named after the district.
References
External links
http://www.vuosaari.net/
http://www.vuosaari.fi/
Vuosaari at Google Maps (Satellite photos/map) | [
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223305 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uutela | Uutela | Uutela () is a nature park in Vuosaari, Helsinki, Finland. It is surrounded by the sea on three sides, and as one of Helsinki's best-preserved nature parks, Uutela attracts visitors from all over the Helsinki capital area. You can get there by taking the subway to Vuosaari and then either walk or take the bus 90K. Uutela has a small idyllic marina where people keep their boats, right next to which is cafe Kampela which offers traditional pancakes and salmon soup. This area is known for hikers and outdoor people because of its landscape and vegetation.
Uutela is large enough to contain Skatta farm - one of several farms within the boundaries of Helsinki. The farm is known for having previously been inhabited by the artist Miina Äkkijyrkkä, but it is now rented to Suomen Setlementtisäätiö.
References
External links
Uutela Nature Trail - photos
Parks in Helsinki
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223307 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonnell%20F2H%20Banshee | McDonnell F2H Banshee | The McDonnell F2H Banshee (internally, the McDonnell Model 24) was an American single-seat carrier-based jet fighter aircraft deployed by the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps from 1948 to 1961. It was one of the primary American fighters used during the Korean War, and was the only jet-powered fighter deployed by the Royal Canadian Navy. The aircraft's name is derived from the banshee of Irish mythology.
Design and development
The Banshee was a development of the FH Phantom, and planning started before the Phantom entered production. McDonnell engineers intended the aircraft to be a modified Phantom that shared many parts with the earlier aircraft, but it soon became clear that the need for heavier armament, greater internal fuel capacity, and other improvements would make the idea infeasible.
The new aircraft would use much larger and more powerful engines, a pair of newly developed Westinghouse J34 turbojets, nearly doubling the total thrust from compared to the Phantom but since the larger engines still had to fit within the wing roots, this required a larger and thicker wing. The more powerful engines used more fuel, so the fuselage had to be enlarged and strengthened to increase the fuel capacity. The Navy was replacing the obsolete World War II machine guns with cannon, four of which were mounted under the nose where pilots would not be blinded by muzzle flash when firing at night, a problem with the Phantom. The Banshee incorporated an ejection seat, which the Phantom lacked, and a large number of improvements to other aircraft systems. The cockpit was pressurized and air-conditioned, and the flaps, landing gear, folding wings, canopy, and air brakes were electrically rather than pneumatically operated. The front of the windscreen was bulletproof glass that was electrically heated to prevent frost.
The Banshee had a "kneeling" nose landing gear with of a pair of small wheels forward of the regular nosewheel. The regular nosewheel would be retracted so the aircraft rested on the smaller wheels. It could taxi with its nose down, redirecting the hot jet blast up to enhance safety, and to allow parked aircraft to be tucked under each other to save space. This was usually removed from later variants as it was found to be of little use and caused deck handling problems.
A mockup was completed in April 1945, designated XF2D-1. The project survived the end of war cancellations, but development slowed down and the first of three prototypes was not completed until late 1946. Its first flight was on 11 January 1947, from Lambert Field, St. Louis, Missouri. During the first test flight, the aircraft demonstrated a climb rate of , twice that of the F8F Bearcat, the Navy's primary fleet defense interceptor. It was redesignated XF2H-1 in 1947, after the Navy ordered an unrelated jet fighter from Douglas, which had previously been assigned the manufacturer's letter D. 56 were ordered in May 1947. In August 1949 an F2H-1 set a US Navy jet fighter altitude record of , but it wasn't enough to beat the reached by a de Havilland Vampire on March 23, 1948.
Similarities to the FH-1 meant that McDonnell was able to complete the first F2H-1 in August 1948, a mere three months after the last FH-1 was built. Compared to the XF2D-1, the F2H was larger all around and fuel capacity was increased to . The empennage was new, the dorsal fin was reduced and dihedral was eliminated from the horizontal stabilizers. The wing and tail were reduced in thickness to increase the critical Mach number and different airfoil sections were used. The F2H-1 was retrofitted with engines as they became available.
Although the Navy was satisfied with the F2H-1, it was the more capable F2H-2 that was most widely used. With Westinghouse J34-WE-34 thrust engines, it had significantly improved performance. The wings were strengthened to add provision for wingtip fuel tanks but unlike those of the contemporary Grumman F9F Panther, the Banshee's wingtip tanks were detachable.
Two armament pylons were added under each inboard and outboard wing, for a total of eight, allowing the aircraft to carry of stores, consisting of up to four bombs and four unguided rockets. The "kneeling" nose gear was omitted from the F2H-2 and most subsequent Banshee variants.
The F2H-2 was the basis for three sub-variants.
The F2H-2B had strengthened wings and an additional pylon adjacent to the intake on the port side to allow it to carry a Mark 7 nuclear bomb or a Mark 8 nuclear bomb. To compensate for the increased load, the F2H-2B was fitted with stiffer landing gear struts and a pilot-switchable aileron power boost.
The latter was necessary to control the roll to the left when a heavy nuclear bomb was carried. One cannon was removed to provide room for the electronics needed to arm the weapon. 25 F2H-2Bs were built.
The F2H-2N was the US Navy's first carrier-based jet night fighter, making its first flight on February 3, 1950, although only 14 would be built. It had a longer nose that housed a Sperry Corporation AN/APS-19 radar which required that the cannons be moved back to make room. An F2H-2N was returned to McDonnell to serve as the prototype for the enlarged F2H-3. Some F2H-2Ns retained the "kneeling" nose feature of the earlier F2H-1.
The F2H-2P photo-reconnaissance version had six cameras in a longer nose and was the US Navy's first jet-powered carrier-based reconnaissance aircraft. First flight was on Oct 12 1950 and 90 were built. The pilot could rotate the cameras in both vertical and horizontal planes, and the aircraft could carry a pair of underwing pods that each contained 20 flash cartridges for night photography. The camera bay was electrically heated. The F2H-2P was a valuable photo-reconnaissance asset due to its long range for a jet aircraft, high ceiling of , and speed that made it difficult to intercept even by other jet aircraft. As a result, the F2H-2P was responsible for supplying roughly 40% of the USAF Fifth Air Force's daytime reconnaissance needs.
The F2H-3 was an all-weather fighter, with a larger diameter Westinghouse AN/APQ-41 radar fitted in an longer fuselage which also increased its internal fuel load by over 50%, to . This allowed the detachable wingtip fuel tanks to be reduced to each, and due to the increased internal capacity, these were now seldom needed. The cannons were moved back, away from the nose to accommodate the larger diameter radar while allowing for an increased ammunition capacity. The horizontal stabilizers were lowered from the fin to the fuselage and were given dihedral, and on all but the first aircraft, large triangular fillets were added to the leading edges. The weapons load was increased to and AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles would be cleared for use. The F2H-3 also added provisions for aerial refueling consisting of as-needed bolt-on, in-flight refueling probe that replaced the upper port cannon. 250 were built, with the first flight being made on March 29 1952.
An F2H-3P reconnaissance variant was proposed to replace the F2H-2P but was not built.
The final variant to be produced was the F2H-4. It had a Hughes AN/APG-37 radar and slightly more powerful Westinghouse J34-WE-38 engines that increased the aircraft's service ceiling to . The F2H-4 was externally indistinguishable from the F2H-3.
McDonnell also created at least 48 proposals, including a long range escort fighter (Model 24H), a two-seat night fighter (Model 24N), a two-seat trainer (Model 24P), a two seat interceptor (Model 24Q), several single seat interceptors (models 24R & 24S), multiple variants with lengthened fuselages, alternate wings and tails, swept wings (model 24J, and others) and afterburners (model 24K, 24L and others), and various engine (model 24W, and others) and radar installations (model 24Y, and others), few of which were built. Plans for adding afterburners were canceled after a test aircraft suffered extensive damage to the wing and tail after the afterburners were lit.
Production ended on 24 September 1953 after 895 aircraft had been delivered. Under the 1962 unified designation system surviving F2H-3 and F2H-4 were redesignated F-2C and F-2D respectively while F2H-1 and F2H-2 (F-2A and F-2B) had already been retired. No Banshee flew under the new designations as the last examples were already in storage when the new designations came into effect.
Operational history
US Navy and Marine Corps
US Navy and Marine pilots often referred to the F2H as the "Banjo". The F2H-2 served during the Korean War with the US Navy's Task Force 77 and the Marine Corps.
Due to its good performance at high altitude, the F2H-2 initially proved its worth as an escort fighter for the USAF bombers supporting United Nations Command (UNC) ground forces.
From mid-1950, the F2H-2 had negligible exposure to hostile aircraft over Korea, due to several factors. During the opening weeks of the war, the North Korean air force had been almost completely annihilated by UNC fighter units. Later, North Korea and its allies were unable to operate from airfields near combat zones in South Korea, forcing them to operate out of air bases in China. As a result of their air superiority throughout most of 1950, UNC squadrons were able to carry out ground attack missions instead, especially close air support and interdiction of North Korean army supply lines.
The Banshee, like most naval jets of its generation, had a serious handicap. Naval air services, including the USN, had resisted faster, swept wing designs from fears that poor low speed flight characteristics made them unsafe to operate from aircraft carriers. Consequently, the Banshee was almost slower than the latest land-based fighters. Their obsolescence was reinforced by the introduction of the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 in November 1950. Most UNC air combat missions, such as patrols over "MiG Alley", were undertaken by North American F-86 Sabres of the USAF Far East Air Force. Consequently, F2H fighters operated most of the war beyond the range of enemy fighters. Banshee pilots scored no victories, while three F2H-2s were lost to anti-aircraft gunfire.
The F2H-2P flew reconnaissance missions during the Korean War, primarily with the USMC. At that time of the war, surface-to-air missiles had not yet been deployed and few enemy aircraft had radar, while AA guns were ineffective against fast, high-altitude targets. Air defense was still largely visual, and so a lone high-flying F2H-2P was almost impossible for ground forces to shoot down. The aircraft was in demand for its invaluable battlefield photography. F2H-2Ps had USAF fighter escorts when in areas frequented by enemy fighters. Despite being deployed constantly throughout the war, only two F2H-2Ps were lost to radar-directed AA gunfire, and suffered no air-to-air losses.
The USN deployed the radar-equipped F2H-3 and F2H-4 for all-weather fleet defense after the Korean War as a stopgap measure until the swept wing Grumman F-9 Cougar and McDonnell F3H Demon, and delta wing Douglas F4D Skyray could be deployed. Later Banshee variants were only briefly on the front lines and saw no action. Similarly, the F2H-2P was superseded by the F9F-8P (later RF-9J) variant of the F9F Cougar and the F8U-1P (later RF-8A) variant of the Vought F8U Crusader as these aircraft became available.
In 1954, a Banshee flew coast-to-coast, nonstop without refueling, approximately from NAS Los Alamitos, California to NAS Cecil Field, Florida, in approximately four hours.
During the Korean War, the US was concerned about the lack of intelligence available should there be a war in Europe involving the Soviet Union, in particular on the location of airfields. The US Navy's "Operation Steve Brody", with four F2H-2P photo reconnaissance Banshees were to fly from a carrier on routine maneuvers off Greece and fly north, photographing Russian territory bordering the Black Sea. In May 1952, this was presented to Secretary of Defense Robert A. Lovett, but Lovett cancelled it.
Later, in 1955, fears of a possible Chinese invasion of Taiwan resulted in Marine F2H-2Ps making 27 overflights of possible Chinese staging areas without incident, escorted by Marine fighter Banshees based in South Korea.
Royal Canadian Navy
In 1951, the RCN drafted a $40 million deal for 60 new Banshees to replace obsolete Hawker Sea Furies. Unfortunately, due to fiscal wrangling in the Parliament of Canada, the purchase was not approved until after Banshee production had ended in 1953. The RCN acquired 39 second-hand US Navy F2H-3s for $25 million which were delivered from 1955 to 1958. They would be flown from or as NORAD interceptors from shore bases.
In order to improve the Banshee as an interceptor, the RCN equipped their aircraft with AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles. The RCN conducted sea trials of the Sidewinder in November 1959, during which several remotely piloted drones were downed.
Although initially well-liked by its Canadian pilots for its flying qualities, the Banshee began to suffer from problems. The RCN would eventually lose 12 of its original 39 Banshees to accidents, a loss rate of 30.8%. One Banshee and its pilot were lost after an inflight failure of the folding wing mechanism, and another Banshee suffered a brake failure and rolled off the carrier's deck into the ocean, drowning its pilot.
Banshee utilization fell as the RCN shifted to anti-submarine warfare (ASW), which didn't anticipate aerial attacks, and so there was little need for the Banshee. Also, due to its small size no room was left for Banshees when Bonaventure was carrying enough Grumman CS2F Trackers for around-the-clock ASW patrols, so it regularly operated without them. The Canadian military was also under pressure to reduce its budget, and the obsolescent Banshees were expensive to maintain as their age and punishing carrier service, and the harsh North Atlantic were taking their toll. Having been the only jet-powered carrier-based fighters deployed by the RCN, the last examples were retired without replacement in September 1962.
Banshees were the primary aircraft of the short-lived RCN Grey Ghosts aerobatic team. The team's name was a play on the Banshee name and the RCN color scheme. The RCN was too small to dedicate aircraft for airshows, so the team flew available operational Banshees for each show.
Aside from the three former RCN Banshees that survive, upon their retirement, RCN Banshees were cut up for scrap or burned in firefighting exercises.
Variants
XF2H-1 (XF2D-1) Prototype aircraft (originally designated XF2D-1), three built.
F2H-1 (F-2A) Single-seat fighter version, two 3,000 lbf (1,400 kgf) Westinghouse J34-WE-22 turbojet engines. Initial production version, 56 built.
F2H-2 (F-2B) Improved version with detachable wingtip fuel tanks, eight underwing weapons pylons for 1,580 lb (454 kg) stores capability, 3,250 lbf (1,475 kgf) Westinghouse J34-WE-34 turbojet engines. Second production version, 308 built.
F2H-2B Single-seat fighter-bomber version, strengthened portside weapons pylon for 3,230 lb (1,465 kg) Mark 8 nuclear bomb, 25 built.
F2H-2N Single-seat night fighter version with APS-19 radar housed in lengthened nose, 14 built.
F2H-2P Single-seat photo-reconnaissance version with lengthened nose housing six cameras, 89 built.
F2H-3 (F-2C) Single-seat all-weather fighter version, lengthened fuselage, redesigned tail, increased fuel capacity, eight underwing weapons pylons for 3,000 lb (1,361 kg) bomb load, APQ-41 radar in enlarged nose. 250 built. Redesignated as F-2C in 1962.
F2H-3P Proposed photo-reconnaissance version of the F2H-3; not built.
F2H-4 (F-2D) Improved all-weather fighter version, thrust Westinghouse J34-WE-38 turbojet engines, APG-37 radar, otherwise similar to F2H-3. Final production version, 150 built. Redesignated as F-2D in 1962.
F2H-5 Unofficial designation for unbuilt proposed swept-wing version with wings, tail and afterburners similar to those of the XF-88 Voodoo;
Operators
Royal Canadian Navy (F2H-3)
870 Naval Air Squadron
871 Naval Air Squadron
VX-10 (Test Squadron)
United States Navy
VX-3 (Evaluation) (F2H-1, F2H-4)
VF-11 (F2H-2, F2H-4)
VF-12 (F2H-2)
VF-22 (F2H-2, F2H-4)
VF-23 (F2H-3)
VF-31 (F2H-3)
VF-41 (F2H-3)
VF-52 (F2H-3)
VF-62 (F2H-2, F2H-2P)
VF-92 (F2H-3, F2H-4)
VF-101 (F2H-1, F2H-2B)
VF-114 (F2H-3)
VF-141 (F2H-3)
VF-152 (F2H-3)
VF-171 (F2H-1, F2H-2)
VF-172 (F2H-1, F2H-2, F2H-2B, F2H-4)
VC-3 (F2H-3)
VC-4 (F2H-2B, F2H-2N, F2H-3, F2H-4)
VC-61 (F2H-2P)
VC-62 (F2H-2P)
United States Marine Corps
VMF-114
VMF-122 (F2H-2)
VMF-214 (F2H-4)
VMF-224 (F2H-2)
VMF(N)-533 (F2H-4)
VMJ-1 (F2H-2P)
VMJ-2 (F2H-2P)
Aircraft on display
Surviving examples are on display in private collections and at several naval air stations and marine corps air stations in the United States as well as in Canada.
Canada
F2H-3
BuNo 126334 – The Military Museums, in Calgary, Alberta.
BuNo 126402 – Shearwater Aviation Museum in Shearwater, Nova Scotia.
BuNo 126464 – Canada Aviation Museum in Ottawa, Ontario.
United States
F2H-2
BuNo 124988 – Flying Leatherneck Aviation Museum, MCAS Miramar, California.
BuNo 125052 – USS Lexington Museum, Corpus Christi, Texas.
BuNo 127693 – NAS Oceana Air Park at NAS Oceana, Virginia.
F2H-2P
BuNo 125690 – Pima Air & Space Museum, adjacent to Davis-Monthan AFB in Tucson, Arizona.
BuNo 126673 – National Naval Aviation Museum at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida.
BuNo 128885 – Howell Park in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
F2H-4
BuNo 127663 – National Naval Aviation Museum at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida. Painted as F2H-3 126419.
Specifications (F2H-3)
Popular culture
The aircraft played a central role in the 1953 James A. Michener novel The Bridges at Toko-Ri although the 1955 movie adaptation used F9F Panthers for flight scenes.
See also
References
Notes
Bibliography
Andrade, John. U.S.Military Aircraft Designations and Serials since 1909. Midland Counties Publications, 1979,
Baugher, Joe. "McDonnell F2D-1/F2H-1 Banshee." Joe Baugher's Encyclopedia of American Military Aircraft, 3 September 2003. Retrieved: 23 January 2011.
Francillon, René J. McDonnell Douglas Aircraft since 1920. London: Putnam, 1979. .
"McDonnell Banshee." Shearwater Aviation Museum Aircraft History, 2009. Retrieved: 1 March 2009.
"McDonnell Banshee Serial Number 1263334." Naval Museum of Alberta, 2009. Retrieved: 1 March 2009.
Mesko, Jim. FH Phantom/F2H Banshee in action. Carrollton, Texas, USA: Squadron/Signal Publications, Inc, 2002. .
Mills, Carl. Banshees in the Royal Canadian Navy. Willowdale, Ontario: Banshee Publication, 1991. .
Polmar, Norman. "Historical Aircraft – The Flying Banshee". USNI Naval History, January 2010.
Standard Aircraft Characteristics: F2H-3,-4 Banshee. Washington, D.C.: United States Navy, 01 May 1951.
Thomason, Tommy H. U.S. Naval Air Superiority: Development of Shipborne Fighters 1943–1962. North Branch, MN: Specialty Press, 2007. .
Wagner, Ray. American Combat Planes. New York: Doubleday, Third edition, 1982. .
Wilson, Stewart. Combat Aircraft since 1945. Fyshwick, Australia: Aerospace Publications, 2000. .
External links
RCN Banshee 126402 at Shearwater Aviation Museum
McDonnell F2H Banshee
McDonnell F2H Banshee
McDonnell aircraft
Cruciform tail aircraft
Twinjets
Low-wing aircraft
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223309 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainz-Bingen | Mainz-Bingen | Mainz-Bingen is a district (Kreis) in the east of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from north clockwise) Rheingau-Taunus, the district-free cities Wiesbaden and Mainz, the districts Groß-Gerau, Alzey-Worms, Bad Kreuznach, and Rhein-Hunsrück.
History
During the French occupation under Napoleon the district was part of the departement Donnersberg (fr.:Mont-Tonnerre). After the Congress of Vienna, the area north of the Nahe river went to the Prussian Rhine province, the biggest part however became part of the Grand Duchy of Hesse and was called Rhenish Hesse. In 1835 the Mainz district was created when the province Rheinhessen was abolished. In 1852 the Oppenheim district was created, and took some of the area of the Mainz district; in 1938 this district was abolished again. The current area of the district was formed in 1969, when the districts of Mainz and Bingen were merged.
Geography
The main river in the district is the Rhine, which marks the border of the district to the east. In Bingen the river Nahe enters the Rhine, after flowing a short part through the district. The flanks of the Hunsrück mountains in the west of the district to the Rhine valley are used for wine production. The southern part of the district is part of the Rheinhessische Hügellandschaft, its gentle hills and the good climate make it a farming area for vegetables, especially asparagus, and cherries.
Coat of arms
The district coat of arms might be described thus: Per pale gules a wheel spoked of six argent and sable a lion rampant Or armed, langued and crowned of the first, in a chief of the last an eagle displayed of the third armed, langued and beaked of the first. The charges in the coat of arms show the three historic states which influenced the district. In the chief (horizontal band at the top) is the Imperial eagle, on the dexter (armsbearer’s right, viewer’s left) side the Wheel of Mainz, and on the sinister (armsbearer’s left, viewer’s right) side the lion of the Electorate of the Palatinate (Kurpfalz). The coat of arms was designed by Dr. Hans Leitermann of Mainz, and was granted in 1970.
Towns and municipalities
Festivals and cultural events
Beneath the typical regional carnival with parades and in nearly every village or municipality there are a number of wine festivals, like the Bodenheimer Albansfest, the Guntersblumer Kellerwegfest, the Ingelheimer Rotweinfest, the wine presentation on the Roten Hang in Nierstein or the feast of the young wine in Gau-Algesheim.
References
External links
Official website (German)
Germany at one view
city population
Districts of Rhineland-Palatinate
Mainz
1969 establishments in West Germany | [
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223315 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar%20population | Stellar population | During 1944, Walter Baade categorized groups of stars within the Milky Way into stellar populations.
In the abstract of the article by Baade, he recognizes that Jan Oort originally conceived this type of classification in 1926:
Baade noticed that bluer stars were strongly associated with the spiral arms and yellow stars dominated near the central galactic bulge and within globular star clusters. Two main divisions were defined as
Population I and
Population II,
with another newer division called
Population III added in 1978;
they are often simply abbreviated as Pop. I, Pop. II, and Pop. III.
Between the population types, significant differences were found with their individual observed stellar spectra. These were later shown to be very important, and were possibly related to star formation, observed kinematics, stellar age, and even galaxy evolution in both spiral or elliptical galaxies. These three simple population classes usefully divided stars by their chemical composition or metallicity.
By definition, each population group shows the trend where decreasing metal content indicates increasing age of stars. Hence, the first stars in the universe (very low metal content) were deemed Population III, old stars (low metallicity) as Population II, and recent stars (high metallicity) as Population I. The Sun is considered Population I, a recent star with a relatively high 1.4 percent metallicity. Note that astrophysics nomenclature considers any element heavier than helium to be a "metal", including chemical non-metals such as oxygen.
Stellar development
Observation of stellar spectra has revealed that stars older than the Sun have fewer heavy elements compared to the Sun. This immediately suggests that metallicity has evolved through the generations of stars by the process of stellar nucleosynthesis.
Formation of the first stars
Under current cosmological models, all matter created in the Big Bang was mostly hydrogen (75%) and helium (25%), with only a very tiny fraction consisting of other light elements such as lithium and beryllium. When the universe had cooled sufficiently, the first stars were born as Population III stars without any contaminating heavier metals. This is postulated to have affected their structure so that their stellar masses became hundreds of times more than that of the Sun. In turn, these massive stars also evolved very quickly, and their nucleosynthetic processes created the first 26 elements (up to iron in the periodic table).
Many theoretical stellar models show that most high-mass Population III stars rapidly exhausted their fuel and likely exploded in extremely energetic pair-instability supernovae. Those explosions would have thoroughly dispersed their material, ejecting metals into the interstellar medium (ISM), to be incorporated into the later generations of stars. Their destruction suggests that no galactic high-mass Population III stars should be observable. However, some Population III stars might be seen in high-redshift galaxies whose light originated during the earlier history of the universe. None have been discovered; however, scientists have found evidence of an extremely small ultra metal-poor star, slightly smaller than the Sun, found in a binary system of the spiral arms in the Milky Way. The discovery opens up the possibility of observing even older stars.
Stars too massive to produce pair-instability supernovae would have likely collapsed into black holes through a process known as photodisintegration. Here some matter may have escaped during this process in the form of relativistic jets, and this could have distributed the first metals into the universe.
Formation of the observable stars
The oldest observed stars, known as Population II, have very low metallicities; as subsequent generations of stars were born they became more metal-enriched, as the gaseous clouds from which they formed received the metal-rich dust manufactured by previous generations. As those stars died, they returned metal-enriched material to the interstellar medium via planetary nebulae and supernovae, enriching further the nebulae out of which the newer stars formed. These youngest stars, including the Sun, therefore have the highest metal content, and are known as Population I stars.
Chemical classification by Baade
Population I stars
Population I, or metal-rich, stars are young stars with the highest metallicity out of all three populations, and are more commonly found in the spiral arms of the Milky Way galaxy. The Sun is an example of a metal-rich star and is considered as an intermediate Population I star, while the solar-like Mu Arae is much richer in metals.
Population I stars usually have regular elliptical orbits of the galactic centre, with a low relative velocity. It was earlier hypothesized that the high metallicity of Population I stars makes them more likely to possess planetary systems than the other two populations, because planets, particularly terrestrial planets, are thought to be formed by the accretion of metals. However, observations of the Kepler Space Telescope data have found smaller planets around stars with a range of metallicities, while only larger, potential gas giant planets are concentrated around stars with relatively higher metallicity—a finding that has implications for theories of gas giant formation. Between the intermediate Population I and the Population II stars comes the intermediary disc population.
Population II stars
Population II, or metal-poor, stars are those with relatively little of the elements heavier than helium. These objects were formed during an earlier time of the universe. Intermediate Population II stars are common in the bulge near the centre of the Milky Way, whereas Population II stars found in the galactic halo are older and thus more metal-deficient. Globular clusters also contain high numbers of Population II stars.
A characteristic of Population II stars is that despite their lower overall metallicity, they often have a higher ratio of "alpha elements" (elements produced by the alpha process, namely O, Ne, etc.) relative to Fe as compared to Population I stars; current theory suggests this is the result of Type II supernovas being more important contributors to the interstellar medium at the time of their formation, whereas Type Ia supernova metal-enrichment came at a later stage in the universe's development.
Scientists have targeted these oldest stars in several different surveys, including the HK objective-prism survey of Timothy C. Beers et al. and the Hamburg-ESO survey of Norbert Christlieb et al., originally started for faint quasars. Thus far, they have uncovered and studied in detail about ten ultra metal poor (UMP) stars (such as Sneden's Star, Cayrel's Star, BD +17° 3248) and three of the oldest stars known to date: HE0107-5240, HE1327-2326 and HE 1523-0901. Caffau's star was identified as the most metal-poor star yet when it was found in 2012 using Sloan Digital Sky Survey data. However, in February 2014 the discovery of an even lower metallicity star was announced, SMSS J031300.36-670839.3 located with the aid of SkyMapper astronomical survey data. Less extreme in their metal deficiency, but nearer and brighter and hence longer known, are HD 122563 (a red giant) and HD 140283 (a subgiant).
Population III stars
Population III stars are a hypothetical population of extremely massive, luminous and hot stars with virtually no metals, except possibly for intermixing ejecta from other nearby Population III supernovae. Such stars are likely to have existed in the very early universe (i.e., at high redshift), and may have started the production of chemical elements heavier than hydrogen that are needed for the later formation of planets and life as we know it.
The existence of Population III stars is inferred from physical cosmology, but they have not yet been observed directly. Indirect evidence for their existence has been found in a gravitationally lensed galaxy in a very distant part of the universe. Their existence may account for the fact that heavy elements – which could not have been created in the Big Bang – are observed in quasar emission spectra. They are also thought to be components of faint blue galaxies. These stars likely triggered the universe's period of reionization, a major phase transition of the hydrogen gas composing most of the interstellar medium. Observations of the galaxy UDFy-38135539 suggest it may have played a role in this reionization process. The European Southern Observatory discovered a bright pocket of early population stars in the very bright galaxy Cosmos Redshift 7 from the reionization period around 800 million years after the Big Bang, at . The rest of the galaxy has some later redder Population II stars. Some theories hold that there were two generations of Population III stars.
Current theory is divided on whether the first stars were very massive or not. One possibility is that these stars were much larger than current stars: several hundred solar masses, and possibly up to 1,000 solar masses. Such stars would be very short lived and last only 2–5 million years. Such large stars may have been possible due to the lack of heavy elements and a much warmer interstellar medium from the Big Bang. Conversely, theories proposed in 2009 and 2011 suggest the first star groups might have consisted of a massive star surrounded by several smaller stars. The smaller stars, if they remained in the birth cluster, would accumulate more gas and could not survive to the present day, but a 2017 study concluded that if a star of 0.8 solar masses () or less was ejected from its birth cluster before it accumulated more mass, it could survive to the present day, possibly even in our Milky Way galaxy.
Analysis of data of extremely low-metallicity Population II stars such as HE0107-5240, which are thought to contain the metals produced by Population III stars, suggest that these metal-free stars had masses of 20 to 130 solar masses. On the other hand, analysis of globular clusters associated with elliptical galaxies suggests pair-instability supernovae, which are typically associated with very massive stars, were responsible for their metallic composition. This also explains why there have been no low-mass stars with zero metallicity observed, although models have been constructed for smaller Population III stars. Clusters containing zero-metallicity red dwarfs or brown dwarfs (possibly created by pair-instability supernovae) have been proposed as dark matter candidates, but searches for these types of MACHOs through gravitational microlensing have produced negative results.
Detection of Population III stars is a goal of NASA's James Webb Space Telescope. New spectroscopic surveys, such as SEGUE or SDSS-II, may also locate Population III stars.
See also
Lists of astronomical objects
Lists of stars
Notes
References
Further reading
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223316 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows%20Hardware%20Engineering%20Conference | Windows Hardware Engineering Conference | The Windows Hardware Engineering Community (WinHEC) is a series of technical conferences and workshops, where Microsoft elaborates on its hardware plans for Windows devices.
The WinHEC from 1992 to 2008, which stood for Windows Hardware Engineering Conference, was an annual software and hardware developer-oriented trade show and business conference, where Microsoft elaborated on its hardware plans for Microsoft Windows-compatible PCs. From 2008 to 2015, WinHEC was then replaced in Microsoft's schedule by the Professional Developers Conference, later merged into the Build conference.
On September 26, 2014, Microsoft announced that WinHEC will be returning in 2015 in the form of multiple conferences held throughout the year. The first conference is going to be held in Shenzhen, China on March 18 to 19. The industry has changed quite a bit since Microsoft last held WinHEC event, with innovation happening at a much quicker pace and across more geographically diverse locations. Because of that, Microsoft is evolving WinHEC to be more than a single annual conference. Looking ahead, WinHEC will consist of technical conferences and smaller, more frequent, topic focused workshops that are local to the hardware ecosystem hubs. The WinHEC acronym has changed its meaning to the Windows Hardware Engineering Community.
On December 17, 2014, Microsoft announced that registration is open for the first of its re-launched WinHEC summit, taking place March 18–19, 2015 in Shenzhen, China. The company also announced that Terry Myerson, Executive Vice President of the Operating Systems Group will keynote the event. They will discuss advancements in the Windows platform that make it easier for companies to build devices powered by Windows as well as Microsoft’s growing investments in the Shenzhen and China ecosystem.
Audience
WinHEC will stay true to its strong technical roots. The agenda will be packed with executive keynotes, deep technical training sessions, hands-on labs, and opportunities for Q&A on topics across the spectrum of Windows-based hardware. For executives, engineering managers, engineers and technical product managers at OEMs, ODMs, IHVs, and IDHs who are working with or want to work with Windows technologies
Events
1992 – San Francisco, California. March 1–3, 1992
1993 – San Jose, California. March 1–3, 1993
1994 – San Francisco, California. February 23–25, 1994
1995 – San Francisco, California. March 20–22, 1995
1996 – San Jose, California. April 1–3, 1996
1997 – San Francisco, California. April 8–10, 1997
1998 – Orlando, Florida. March 25–27, 1998
1999 – Los Angeles, California. April 7–9, 1999
2000 – New Orleans, Louisiana. April 25–27, 2000
2001 – Anaheim, California. March 26–28, 2001.
Announcement of the availability of Windows XP Beta 2, which includes the first public beta of Internet Explorer 6.
2002 – Seattle, Washington. April 16–18, 2002.
2003 – New Orleans, Louisiana. May 6–8, 2003.
Bill Gates keynote; demonstrated "Athens" PC concept, discussed 64-bit computing, uptake of Windows XP.
Initial Windows Longhorn demonstrations and discussions, focusing on a new Desktop Composition Engine (which later became known as the Desktop Window Manager)
2004 – Seattle, Washington. May 4–7, 2004.
Discussion of Longhorn release timeline and upcoming service packs for Windows XP and Windows Server 2003
Updated Athens concept PC design, named "Troy" based on a Longhorn user interface
2005 – Washington State Convention and Trade Center, Seattle, Washington. April 25–27, 2005.
Bill Gates gave a keynote speech on various topics including Windows "Longhorn" (known later as Windows Vista) and 64-bit computing.
2006 – Washington State Convention and Trade Center, Seattle, Washington. May 23–25, 2006. Attendance of more than 3,700.
Microsoft announced the release of beta 2 of Windows Vista, Windows Server "Longhorn" and Microsoft Office 2007.
The Free Software Foundation staged a protest outside the venue, wearing yellow hazmat suits and handing out pamphlets claiming that Microsoft products are "Defective by Design" because of the Digital Rights Management technologies included in them.
2007 – Los Angeles Convention Center, Los Angeles, California. May 15–17, 2007.
2008 – Los Angeles Convention Center, Los Angeles, California. November 4–6, 2008.
Immediately following PDC 2008, held at the same venue, October 27–30.
Focusing on the then upcoming Windows 7.
2015 – Grand Hyatt Shenzhen Hotel, Shenzhen, China. March 18–19, 2015.
Microsoft released the source of the Windows Driver Frameworks.
Focused on Windows 10.
References
External links
Main
2006
Press materials from WinHEC 2006
Online videos etc. from WinHEC 2006
2005
WinSuperSite show report for WinHEC 2005
WinHEC 2005: Microsoft's 64 Bit Promises
Microsoft conferences | [
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223318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassiodorus | Cassiodorus | Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator (c. 485 – c. 585), commonly known as Cassiodorus (), was a Roman statesman, renowned scholar of antiquity, and writer serving in the administration of Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths. Senator was part of his surname; not his rank. He also founded a monastery, Vivarium, where he spent the last years of his life.
Life
Cassiodorus was born at Scylletium, near Catanzaro in Calabria, Italy. Some modern historians speculate that his family was of Syrian origin based on his Greek name. His ancestry included some of the most prominent ministers of the state extending back several generations. His great-grandfather held a command in the defense of the coasts of southern Italy from Vandal sea-raiders in the middle of the fifth century; his grandfather appears in a Roman embassy to Attila the Hun, and his father (who bore the same name) served as Count of the sacred largesses and count of the private estates to Odovacer before transferring his allegiance to Theodoric, under whom he rose to an even higher position, that of Praetorian Prefect, which held, under the Gothic kings, the same influence that it had previously in the court of Rome.
Cassiodorus began his career under the auspices of his father, about in his twentieth year, when the latter made him his consiliarius upon his own appointment to the Praetorian Prefecture. In the judicial capacity of the prefect, he held absolute right of appeal over any magistrate in the empire (or Gothic kingdom, later) and the consiliarius served as a sort of legal advisor in cases of greater complexity. Evidently, therefore, Cassiodorus had received some education in the law. During his working life he worked as quaestor sacri palatii c. 507–511, as a consul in 514, then as magister officiorum under Theoderic, and later under the regency for Theoderic's young successor, Athalaric. Cassiodorus kept copious records and letterbooks concerning public affairs. At the Gothic court his literary skill, which seems mannered and rhetorical to modern readers, was so esteemed that when in Ravenna he was often entrusted with drafting significant public documents. His culminating appointment was as praetorian prefect for Italy, effectively the prime ministership of the Ostrogothic civil government and a high honor to finish any career. Cassiodorus also collaborated with Pope Agapetus I in establishing a library of Greek and Latin texts which were intended to support a Christian school in Rome.
James O'Donnell notes:
[I]t is almost indisputable that he accepted advancement in 523 as the immediate successor of Boethius, who was then falling from grace after less than a year as magister officiorum, and who was sent to prison and later executed. In addition, Boethius' father-in-law (and step-father) Symmachus, by this time a distinguished elder statesman, followed Boethius to the block within a year. All this was a result of the worsening split between the ancient senatorial aristocracy centered in Rome and the adherents of Gothic rule at Ravenna. But to read Cassiodorus' Variae one would never suspect such goings-on.
There is no mention in Cassiodorus' selection of official correspondence of the death of Boethius.
Athalaric died in early 534, and the remainder of Cassiodorus' public career was dominated by the Byzantine reconquest and dynastic intrigue among the Ostrogoths. His last letters were drafted in the name of Vitiges. Around 537–38, he left Italy for Constantinople, from where his successor was appointed, where he remained for almost two decades, concentrating on religious questions. He notably met Junillus, the quaestor of Justinian I there. His Constantinopolitan journey contributed to the improvement of his religious knowledge.
Cassiodorus spent his career trying to bridge the 6th-century cultural divides: between East and West, Greek culture and Latin, Roman and Goth, and between an orthodox people and their Arian rulers. He speaks fondly in his Institutiones of Dionysius Exiguus, the calculator of the Anno Domini era.
In his retirement, he founded the monastery of Vivarium on his family estates on the shores of the Ionian Sea, and his writings turned to religion.
Monastery at Vivarium
Cassiodorus' Vivarium "monastery school" was composed of two main buildings: a coenobitic monastery and a retreat, for those who desired a more solitary life. Both were located on the site of the modern Santa Maria de Vetere near Squillace. The twin structure of Vivarium was to permit coenobitic monks and hermits to coexist. The Vivarium appears not to have been governed by a strict monastic rule, such as that of the Benedictine Order. Rather Cassiodorus' work Institutiones was written to guide the monks' studies. To this end, the Institutiones focus largely on texts assumed to have been available in Vivarium's library. The Institutiones seem to have been composed over a lengthy period of time, from the 530s into the 550s, with redactions up to the time of Cassiodorus' death. Cassiodorus composed the Institutiones as a guide for introductory learning of both "divine" and "secular" writings, in place of his formerly planned Christian school in Rome:I was moved by divine love to devise for you, with God's help, these introductory books to take the place of a teacher. Through them I believe that both the textual sequence of Holy Scripture and also a compact account of secular letters may, with God's grace, be revealed.The first section of the Institutiones deals with Christian texts, and was intended to be used in combination with the Expositio Psalmorum. The order of subjects in the second book of the Institutiones reflected what would become the Trivium and Quadrivium of medieval liberal arts: grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. While he encouraged study of secular subjects, Cassiodorus clearly considered them useful primarily as aids to the study of divinity, much in the same manner as St. Augustine. Cassiodorus' Institutiones thus attempted to provide what Cassiodorus saw as a well-rounded education necessary for a learned Christian, all in uno corpore, as Cassiodorus put it.
The library at Vivarium was still active c. 630, when the monks brought the relics of Saint Agathius from Constantinople, dedicating to him a spring-fed fountain shrine that still exists. However, its books were later dispersed, the Codex Grandior of the Bible being purchased by the Anglo-Saxon Ceolfrith when he was in Italy in 679–80, and taken by him to Wearmouth Jarrow, where it served as the source for the copying of the Codex Amiatinus, which was then brought back to Italy by the now aged Ceolfrith. Despite the demise of the Vivarium, Cassiodorus' work in compiling classical sources and presenting a sort of bibliography of resources would prove extremely influential in Late Antique Western Europe.
Educational philosophy
Cassiodorus devoted much of his life to supporting education within the Christian community at large. When his proposed theological university in Rome was denied, he was forced to re-examine his entire approach to how material was learned and interpreted. His Variae show that, like Augustine of Hippo, Cassiodorus viewed reading as a transformative act for the reader. It is with this in mind that he designed and mandated the course of studies at the Vivarium, which demanded an intense regimen of reading and meditation. By assigning a specific order of texts to be read, Cassiodorus hoped to create the discipline necessary within the reader to become a successful monk. The first work in this succession of texts would be the Psalms, with which the untrained reader would need to begin because of its appeal to emotion and temporal goods. By examining the rate at which copies of his Psalmic commentaries were issued, it is fair to assess that, as the first work in his series, Cassiodorus's educational agenda had been implemented to some degree of success.
Beyond demanding the pursuit of discipline among his students, Cassiodorus encouraged the study of the liberal arts. He believed these arts were part of the content of the Bible, and some mastery of them—especially grammar and rhetoric—necessary for a complete understanding of it. These arts were divided into trivium (which included rhetoric, idioms, vocabulary and etymology) and quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. He also encouraged the Benedictine monks to study the medical texts of that era, the known herbals and texts of Hippocrates, Dioscorides and Galen.
Classical connections
Cassiodorus is rivalled only by Boethius in his drive to preserve and explore classical literature during the 6th century AD. He found the writings of the Greeks and Romans valuable for their expression of higher truths where other arts failed. Though he saw these texts as vastly inferior to the perfect word of Scripture, the truths presented in them played to Cassiodorus' educational principles. Thus he is unafraid to cite Cicero alongside sacred text, and acknowledge the classical ideal of good being part of the practice of rhetoric.
His love for classical thought also influenced his administration of Vivarium. Cassiodorus connected deeply with Christian neoplatonism, which saw beauty as concomitant with the Good. This inspired him to adjust his educational program to support the aesthetic enhancement of manuscripts within the monastery, something which had been practiced before, but not in the universality that he suggests.
Classical learning would by no means replace the role of Scripture within the monastery; it was intended to augment the education already under way. It is also worth noting that all Greek and Roman works were heavily screened to ensure only proper exposure to text, fitting with the rest of the structured learning.
Lasting impact
Cassiodorus' legacy is quietly profound. Before the founding of Vivarium, the copying of manuscripts had been a task reserved for either inexperienced or physically infirm devotees, and was performed at the whim of literate monks. Through the influence of Cassiodorus, the monastic system adopted a more vigorous, widespread, and regular approach to reproducing documents within the monastery. This approach to the development of the monastic lifestyle was perpetuated especially through German religious institutions.
This change in daily life also became associated with a higher purpose: the process was not merely associated with disciplinary habit, but also with the preservation of history. During Cassiodorus' lifetime, theological study was on the decline and classical writings were disappearing. Even as the victorious Ostrogoth armies remained in the countryside, they continued to pillage and destroy Christian relics in Italy. Cassiodorus' programme helped ensure that both classical and Christian literature were preserved through the Middle Ages.
Despite his contributions to monastic order, literature, and education, Cassiodorus' labors were not well acknowledged. After his death he was only partially recognized by historians of the age, including Bede, as an obscure supporter of the Church. In their descriptions of Cassiodorus, medieval scholars have been documented to change his name, profession, place of residence, and even his religion. Some chapters from his works have been copied into other texts, suggesting that he may have been read, but not generally known.
Criticism
The works not assigned as a part of Cassiodorus' educational program must be examined critically. Because he had been working under the newly dominant power of the Ostrogoths, the writer demonstrably alters the narrative of history for the sake of protecting himself. The same could easily be said about his ideas, which were presented as non-threatening in their approach to peaceful meditation and its institutional isolationism.
Works
Laudes (very fragmentary published panegyrics on public occasions)
Chronica (ending at 519), uniting all world history in one sequence of rulers, a union of Goth and Roman antecedents, flattering Goth sensibilities as the sequence neared the date of composition
Gothic History (526–533), a lengthy and multi-volume work, survives only in Jordanes' abridgment Getica, which must be considered a separate work and is the only surviving ancient work about the Goths' early history
Variae epistolae (537), Theoderic's state papers. Editio princeps by M. Accurius (1533). English translations by Thomas Hodgkin The Letters of Cassiodorus (1886); S.J.B. Barnish Cassiodorus: Variae (Liverpool: University Press, 1992)
Expositio psalmorum (Exposition of the Psalms)
De anima ("On the Soul") (540)
Institutiones divinarum et saecularium litterarum (543–555)
De artibus ac disciplinis liberalium litterarum ("On the Liberal Arts")
Codex Grandior (a version of the Bible)
De orthographia ( 580), a compilation of the works of eight grammarians to act as a guide to proper spelling. It is the last known work by Cassiodorus, completed when he was 93 years old.
References
Sources
Barnish, S.J. Roman Responses to an Unstable World: Cassiodorus' Variae in Context in: Vivarium in Context 7–22 (Centre Leonard Boyle: Vicenza 2008).
O'Donnell, James J. (1969). Cassiodorus University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
O'Donnell, James J. (1979 and 1995). Cassiodorus (Berkeley: University of California Press). Online e-text, 1995 Post-Print.
External links
Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon life, works, critical editions, translations and comprehensive bibliography on Cassiodorus.
James J. O'Donnell's Cassiodorus webpage: an assessment of Cassiodorus' cultural predicament
Opera omnia vol. 1, Joannes Garetius, ed., Rouen, 1679. (Google Books)
Opera omnia vol. 2, Joannes Garetius, ed., Rouen, 1679. (Google Books)
History of the Christian Church/A.D. 590–1073 by Philip Schaff at 'ccel.org'
History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire — Volume 4 by Gibbon at Project Gutenberg.
Cassiodorus – Catholic Encyclopedia article
Site of the Vivarium of Cassiodorus – An account of survey and recognition at the proposed archaeological site of Vivarium (Coscia di Staletti', Catanzaro, Calabria).
Societas internationalis pro Vivario for the study of Cassiodorus and his times
The fountain of Cassiodorus A spring situated at the Coscia di Staletti on the grounds of the monastery of Cassiodorus, with a grotto, formerly a site of pagan worship and eventually Christianized by the addition of two large crosses.
Vivarium in Context. Book description and reviews of the essays by Sam J. Barnish and Lellia Cracco Ruggini.
480s births
580s deaths
5th-century Italo-Roman people
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6th-century Latin writers
6th-century Byzantine writers
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People of the Ostrogothic Kingdom
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School founders
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6th-century Byzantine scientists | [
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223321 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worse%20is%20better | Worse is better | Worse is better (also called the New Jersey style) is a term conceived by Richard P. Gabriel in an essay of the same name to describe the dynamics of software acceptance. It refers to the argument that software quality does not necessarily increase with functionality: that there is a point where less functionality ("worse") is a preferable option ("better") in terms of practicality and usability. Software that is limited, but simple to use, may be more appealing to the user and market than the reverse.
As to the oxymoronic title, Gabriel calls it a caricature, declaring the style bad in comparison with "The Right Thing". However he also states that "it has better survival characteristics than the-right-thing" development style and is superior to the "MIT Approach" with which he contrasted it.
The essay was included into the 1994 book The UNIX-HATERS Handbook, and has been referred to as the origin of the notion of a conceptual split between developers on the east and west coasts of the United States.
Origin
Gabriel was a Lisp programmer when he formulated the concept in 1989, presenting it in his essay "Lisp: Good News, Bad News, How to Win Big". A section of the article, titled "The Rise of 'Worse is Better, was widely disseminated beginning in 1991, after Jamie Zawinski found it in Gabriel's files at Lucid Inc. and emailed it to friends and colleagues.
Characteristics
New Jersey style
In The Rise of Worse is Better, Gabriel claimed that "Worse-is-Better" (also the "New Jersey style" or "east coast") is a model of software design and implementation which has the characteristics (in approximately descending order of importance):
Simplicity The design must be simple, both in implementation and interface. It is more important for the implementation to be simple than the interface. Simplicity is the most important consideration in a design.
Correctness The design should be correct in all observable aspects. It is slightly better to be simple than correct.
Consistency The design must not be overly inconsistent. Consistency can be sacrificed for simplicity in some cases, but it is better to drop those parts of the design that deal with less common circumstances than to introduce either complexity or inconsistency in the implementation.
Completeness The design must cover as many important situations as is practical. All reasonably expected cases should be covered. Completeness can be sacrificed in favor of any other quality. In fact, completeness must be sacrificed whenever implementation simplicity is jeopardized. Consistency can be sacrificed to achieve completeness if simplicity is retained; especially worthless is consistency of interface.
The MIT approach
Gabriel contrasted his philosophy with what he called the "MIT/Stanford style of design" or "MIT approach" (also known as the "west coast" approach or "the Right Thing"), which he described as:
Simplicity The design must be simple, both in implementation and interface. It is more important for the interface to be simple than the implementation.
Correctness The design must be correct in all observable aspects. Incorrectness is simply not allowed.
Consistency The design must be consistent. A design is allowed to be slightly less simple and less complete to avoid inconsistency. Consistency is as important as correctness.
Completeness The design must cover as many important situations as is practical. All reasonably expected cases must be covered. Simplicity is not allowed to overly reduce completeness.
Gabriel argued that early Unix and C, developed by Bell Labs, are examples of the worse-is-better design approach. He also calls them "the ultimate computer viruses".
Effects
Gabriel argued that "Worse is better" produced more successful software than the MIT approach: As long as the initial program is basically good, it will take much less time and effort to implement initially and it will be easier to adapt to new situations. Porting software to new machines, for example, becomes far easier this way. Thus its use will spread rapidly, long before a program developed using the MIT approach has a chance to be developed and deployed (first-mover advantage). Once it has spread, there will be pressure to improve its functionality, but users have already been conditioned to accept "worse" rather than the "right thing":
Gabriel credits Jamie Zawinski for excerpting the worse-is-better sections of "Lisp: Good News, Bad News, How to Win Big" and e-mailing them to his friends at Carnegie Mellon University, who sent them to their friends at Bell Labs, "who sent them to their friends everywhere." He apparently connected these ideas to those of Richard Stallman and saw related ideas that are important in the design philosophy of Unix, and more generally in the open-source movement, both of which were central to the development of Linux.
In December 2000 Gabriel answered his earlier essay with one titled Worse Is Better Is Worse under the pseudonym Nickieben Bourbaki (an allusion to Nicolas Bourbaki), while also penning Is Worse Really Better?, applying the concept to C++'s success in the field of object-oriented programming despite the existence of more elegant languages designed around the concept.
The UNIX-HATERS Handbook includes Worse is Better as an appendix, and frames the concept in terms of worse-is-better in the form of Unix being "evolutionarily superior" to its competition.
See also
Gresham's Law
Less is more
Minimum viable product
Perfect is the enemy of good
Progressive disclosure
Satisficing
References
English phrases
Software development philosophies
Software design
Programming principles
Quality management | [
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223325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software%20design | Software design | Software design is the process by which an agent creates a specification of a software artifact intended to accomplish goals, using a set of primitive components and subject to constraints. Software design may refer to either "all the activity involved in conceptualizing, framing, implementing, commissioning, and ultimately modifying complex systems" or "the activity following requirements specification and before programming, as ... [in] a stylized software engineering process."
Software design usually involves problem-solving and planning a software solution. This includes both a low-level component and algorithm design and a high-level, architecture design.
Overview
Software design is the process of envisioning and defining software solutions to one or more sets of problems. One of the main components of software design is the software requirements analysis (SRA). SRA is a part of the software development process that lists specifications used in software engineering. If the software is "semi-automated" or user centered, software design may involve user experience design yielding a storyboard to help determine those specifications. If the software is completely automated (meaning no user or user interface), a software design may be as simple as a flow chart or text describing a planned sequence of events. There are also semi-standard methods like Unified Modeling Language and Fundamental modeling concepts. In either case, some documentation of the plan is usually the product of the design. Furthermore, a software design may be platform-independent or platform-specific, depending upon the availability of the technology used for the design.
The main difference between software analysis and design is that the output of a software analysis consists of smaller problems to solve. Additionally, the analysis should not be designed very differently across different team members or groups. In contrast, the design focuses on capabilities, and thus multiple designs for the same problem can and will exist. Depending on the environment, the design often varies, whether it is created from reliable frameworks or implemented with suitable design patterns. Design examples include operation systems, webpages, mobile devices or even the new cloud computing paradigm.
Software design is both a process and a model. The design process is a sequence of steps that enables the designer to describe all aspects of the software for building. Creative skill, past experience, a sense of what makes "good" software, and an overall commitment to quality are examples of critical success factors for a competent design. It is important to note, however, that the design process is not always a straightforward procedure; the design model can be compared to an architect's plans for a house. It begins by representing the totality of the thing that is to be built (e.g., a three-dimensional rendering of the house); slowly, the thing is refined to provide guidance for constructing each detail (e.g., the plumbing lay). Similarly, the design model that is created for software provides a variety of different views of the computer software. Basic design principles enable the software engineer to navigate the design process. Davis suggests a set of principles for software design, which have been adapted and extended in the following list:
The design process should not suffer from "tunnel vision." A good designer should consider alternative approaches, judging each based on the requirements of the problem, the resources available to do the job.
The design should be traceable to the analysis model. Because a single element of the design model can often be traced back to multiple requirements, it is necessary to have a means for tracking how requirements have been satisfied by the design model.
The design should not reinvent the wheel. Systems are constructed using a set of design patterns, many of which have likely been encountered before. These patterns should always be chosen as an alternative to reinvention. Time is short and resources are limited; design time should be invested in representing (truly new) ideas by integrating patterns that already exist (when applicable).
The design should "minimize the intellectual distance" between the software and the problem as it exists in the real world. That is, the structure of the software design should, whenever possible, mimic the structure of the problem domain.
The design should exhibit uniformity and integration. A design is uniform if it appears fully coherent. In order to achieve this outcome, rules of style and format should be defined for a design team before design work begins. A design is integrated if care is taken in defining interfaces between design components.
The design should be structured to accommodate change. The design concepts discussed in the next section enable a design to achieve this principle.
The design should be structured to degrade gently, even when aberrant data, events, or operating conditions are encountered. Well-designed software should never "bomb"; it should be designed to accommodate unusual circumstances, and if it must terminate processing, it should do so in a graceful manner.
Design is not coding, coding is not design. Even when detailed procedural designs are created for program components, the level of abstraction of the design model is higher than the source code. The only design decisions made at the coding level should address the small implementation details that enable the procedural design to be coded.
The design should be assessed for quality as it is being created, not after the fact. A variety of design concepts and design measures are available to assist the designer in assessing quality throughout the development process.
The design should be reviewed to minimize conceptual (semantic) errors. There is sometimes a tendency to focus on minutiae when the design is reviewed, missing the forest for the trees. A design team should ensure that major conceptual elements of the design (omissions, ambiguity, inconsistency) have been addressed before worrying about the syntax of the design model.
Design concepts
The design concepts provide the software designer with a foundation from which more sophisticated methods can be applied. A set of fundamental design concepts has evolved. They are as follows:
Abstraction - Abstraction is the process or result of generalization by reducing the information content of a concept or an observable phenomenon, typically in order to retain only information which is relevant for a particular purpose. It is an act of Representing essential features without including the background details or explanations.
Refinement - It is the process of elaboration. A hierarchy is developed by decomposing a macroscopic statement of function in a step-wise fashion until programming language statements are reached. In each step, one or several instructions of a given program are decomposed into more detailed instructions. Abstraction and Refinement are complementary concepts.
Modularity - Software architecture is divided into components called modules.
Software Architecture - It refers to the overall structure of the software and the ways in which that structure provides conceptual integrity for a system. Good software architecture will yield a good return on investment with respect to the desired outcome of the project, e.g. in terms of performance, quality, schedule and cost.
Control Hierarchy - A program structure that represents the organization of a program component and implies a hierarchy of control.
Structural Partitioning - The program structure can be divided into both horizontally and vertically. Horizontal partitions define separate branches of modular hierarchy for each major program function. Vertical partitioning suggests that control and work should be distributed top down in the program structure.
Data Structure - It is a representation of the logical relationship among individual elements of data.
Software Procedure - It focuses on the processing of each module individually.
Information Hiding - Modules should be specified and designed so that information contained within a module is inaccessible to other modules that have no need for such information.
In his object model, Grady Booch mentions Abstraction, Encapsulation, Modularisation, and Hierarchy as fundamental software design principles. The acronym PHAME (Principles of Hierarchy, Abstraction, Modularisation, and Encapsulation) is sometimes used to refer to these four fundamental principles.
Design considerations
There are many aspects to consider in the design of a piece of software. The importance of each consideration should reflect the goals and expectations that the software is being created to meet. Some of these aspects are:
Compatibility - The software is able to operate with other products that are designed for interoperability with another product. For example, a piece of software may be backward-compatible with an older version of itself.
Extensibility - New capabilities can be added to the software without major changes to the underlying architecture.
Modularity - the resulting software comprises well defined, independent components which leads to better maintainability. The components could be then implemented and tested in isolation before being integrated to form a desired software system. This allows division of work in a software development project.
Fault-tolerance - The software is resistant to and able to recover from component failure.
Maintainability - A measure of how easily bug fixes or functional modifications can be accomplished. High maintainability can be the product of modularity and extensibility.
Reliability (Software durability) - The software is able to perform a required function under stated conditions for a specified period of time.
Reusability - The ability to use some or all of the aspects of the preexisting software in other projects with little to no modification.
Robustness - The software is able to operate under stress or tolerate unpredictable or invalid input. For example, it can be designed with resilience to low memory conditions.
Security - The software is able to withstand and resist hostile acts and influences.
Usability - The software user interface must be usable for its target user/audience. Default values for the parameters must be chosen so that they are a good choice for the majority of the users.
Performance - The software performs its tasks within a time-frame that is acceptable for the user, and does not require too much memory.
Portability - The software should be usable across a number of different conditions and environments.
Scalability - The software adapts well to increasing data or added features or number of users.
Modeling language
A modeling language is any artificial language that can be used to express information, knowledge or systems in a structure that is defined by a consistent set of rules. These rules are used for interpretation of the components within the structure. A modeling language can be graphical or textual. Examples of graphical modeling languages for software design are:
Architecture description language (ADL) is a language used to describe and represent the software architecture of a software system.
Business Process Modeling Notation (BPMN) is an example of a Process Modeling language.
EXPRESS and EXPRESS-G (ISO 10303-11) is an international standard general-purpose data modeling language.
Extended Enterprise Modeling Language (EEML) is commonly used for business process modeling across a number of layers.
Flowcharts are schematic representations of algorithms or other step-wise processes.
Fundamental Modeling Concepts (FMC) is modeling language for software-intensive systems.
IDEF is a family of modeling languages, the most notable of which include IDEF0 for functional modeling, IDEF1X for information modeling, and IDEF5 for modeling ontologies.
Jackson Structured Programming (JSP) is a method for structured programming based on correspondences between data stream structure and program structure.
LePUS3 is an object-oriented visual Design Description Language and a formal specification language that is suitable primarily for modeling large object-oriented (Java, C++, C#) programs and design patterns.
Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a general modeling language to describe software both structurally and behaviorally. It has a graphical notation and allows for extension with a Profile (UML).
Alloy (specification language) is a general purpose specification language for expressing complex structural constraints and behavior in a software system. It provides a concise language base on first-order relational logic.
Systems Modeling Language (SysML) is a new general-purpose modeling language for systems engineering.
Service-oriented modeling framework (SOMF)
Design patterns
A software designer or architect may identify a design problem which has been visited and perhaps even solved by others in the past. A template or pattern describing a solution to a common problem is known as a design pattern. The reuse of such patterns can help speed up the software development process.
Technique
The difficulty of using the term "design" in relation to software is that in some senses, the source code of a program is the design for the program that it produces. To the extent that this is true, "software design" refers to the design of the design. Edsger W. Dijkstra referred to this layering of semantic levels as the "radical novelty" of computer programming, and Donald Knuth used his experience writing TeX to describe the futility of attempting to design a program prior to implementing it:
Usage
Software design documentation may be reviewed or presented to allow constraints, specifications and even requirements to be adjusted prior to computer programming. Redesign may occur after review of a programmed simulation or prototype. It is possible to design software in the process of programming, without a plan or requirement analysis, but for more complex projects this would not be considered feasible. A separate design prior to programming allows for multidisciplinary designers and subject-matter experts (SMEs) to collaborate with highly skilled programmers for software that is both useful and technically sound.
See also
Aspect-oriented software development
Bachelor of Science in Information Technology
Design
Design rationale
Graphic design
Interaction design
Icon design
Outline of software
Outline of software development
Outline of software engineering
Search-based software engineering
Software Design Description (IEEE 1016)
Software development
User experience
User interface design
Web design
Zero One Infinity
References
^
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223328 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghoul | Ghoul | Ghoul (, ) is a demon-like being or monstrous humanoid originating in pre-Islamic Arabian religion, associated with graveyards and consuming human flesh. In modern fiction, the term has often been used for a certain kind of undead monster.
By extension, the word ghoul is also used in a derogatory sense to refer to a person who delights in the macabre or whose profession is linked directly to death, such as a gravedigger or graverobber.
Early etymology
Ghoul is from the Arabic ghūl, from ghāla, "to seize". In Arabic, the term is also sometimes used to describe a greedy or gluttonous individual. See also the etymology of gal and gala: "to cast spells," "scream," "crow," and its association with "warlike ardor," "wrath," and the Akkadian "gallu," which refer to demons of the underworld.
The term was first used in English literature in 1786 in William Beckford's Orientalist novel Vathek, which describes the ghūl of Arabic folklore. This definition of the ghoul has persisted until modern times with ghouls appearing in popular culture.
Folklore
In Arabic folklore, the ghul is said to dwell in cemeteries and other uninhabited places. A male ghoul is referred to as ghul while the female is called ghulah. A source identified the Arabic ghoul as a female creature who is sometimes called Mother Ghoul (ʾUmm Ghulah) or a relational term such as Aunt Ghoul. She is portrayed in many tales luring hapless characters, who are usually men, into her home where she can eat them.
Some state that a ghoul is a desert-dwelling, shapeshifting demon that can assume the guise of an animal, especially a hyena. It lures unwary people into the desert wastes or abandoned places to slay and devour them. The creature also preys on young children, drinks blood, steals coins, and eats the dead, then taking the form of the person most recently eaten. One of the narratives identified a ghoul named Ghul-e Biyaban, a particularly monstrous character believed to be inhabiting the wilderness of Afghanistan and Iran.
It was not until Antoine Galland translated One Thousand and One Nights into French that the Western concept of ghouls was introduced into European society. Galland depicted the ghoul as a monstrous creature that dwelled in cemeteries, feasting upon corpses.
Ghouls () were also adopted into Iranian folklore.
A ghoul is also a name for a female ghost.
Islamic theology
Ghoul are not mentioned in the Quran, but in hadith. While some consider the ghoul to be a type of jinn, other exegetes of the Quran (tafsir) conjectured that the ghouls are burned devils. Accordingly, the shayatin (devils) once had access to the heavens, where they eavesdropped, and returned to Earth to pass hidden knowledge to the soothsayers. When Jesus was born, three heavenly spheres were forbidden to them. With the arrival of Muhammad, the other four were forbidden. The marid among the shayatin continued to rise to the heavens, but were burned by comets. If these comets didn't burn them to death, they were deformed and driven to insanity. They then fell to the deserts and were doomed to roam the earth as ghouls.
In one hadith it is said, lonely travelers can escape a ghoul's attack by repeating the call to prayer (Ezan). When reciting the Verse of the Throne, a ghoul might decide to convert to Islam. The ghoul could appear in male and female shape, but usually appears female to lure on male travelers to devour them. Al-Masudi reports that on his journey to Syria, Umar slayed a ghoul with his sword. According to Tarikh al-Tabari, the rebellious (maradatuhum) among the devils and the ghouls have been chased away to the deserts and mountains and valleys, a long time ago.
See also
Lists of legendary creatures
Bogeyman
Vrykolakas
Ghoul (miniseries)
References
Arabian legendary creatures | [
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223333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline%20Chariot-Dayez | Caroline Chariot-Dayez | Caroline Chariot-Dayez (born Brussels, 11 September 1958) is a Belgian hyperrealistic painter.
Although interested in painting from a very early age, she studied philosophy in order to understand what painting is. She was deeply influenced by the French phenomenologist Maurice Merleau-Ponty, who wrote extensively on perception, vision, embodiment, and painting.
Her life has been an ongoing interaction between philosophy, which she teaches, and painting. Until the age of forty, she was reluctant to show her paintings in public (with the exception of an appearance on the Belgian Broadcasting Corporation programme "The Arts at Large" in 1995).
She lives and works in Brussels.
Exhibitions
March 1999 - Galerie Elian Lisart - Brussels
November 2000 - Galerie Tempera - Brussels (Place Royale-Koningsplein)
December 2000 - Linéart - Ghent
February 2001 - Galerie Brûlée - Strasbourg
March–August 2001 - Galerie Tempera - Brussels (Place Royale-Koningsplein)
2002 - Galerie Brulée, Strasbourg
2002 - Galerie Arcadia, Lille, 2002
2003 - Collins and Hastie Gallery, London
2005 - Galerie Visconti, Paris
April 2006 - Lars Bolander, New York City "The Fold"
2007 - Tessenderloo Group, Brussels
March–April 2009 - Cathedral of Brussels, Brussels
Bibliography
"Caroline Chariot-Dayez", Editions Art in Belgium, Lasne, 2005.
References
External links
Home page
Caroline Chariot-Dayez, Review Painting
"Caroline Chariot-Dayez", Daily Motion
1958 births
Living people
Artists from Brussels
Belgian women painters
20th-century Belgian women artists
20th-century Belgian painters
21st-century Belgian painters
21st-century Belgian women artists | [
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223338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swimsuit | Swimsuit | A swimsuit is an item of clothing designed to be worn by people engaging in a water-based activity or water sports, such as swimming, diving and surfing, or sun-orientated activities, such as sun bathing. Different types may be worn by men, women, and children. A swimsuit can be described by various names, some of which are used only in particular locations, including swimwear, bathing suit, swimming costume, bathing costume, swimming suit, swimmers, swimming togs, bathers, cossie (short for "costume"), or swimming trunks for men, besides others.
A swimsuit can be worn as an undergarment in sports that require a wetsuit such as water skiing, scuba diving, surfing, and wakeboarding. Swimsuits may also be worn to display the wearer's physical attributes, as in the case of beauty pageants or bodybuilding contests, and glamour photography and magazines like the annual Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue featuring models and sports personalities in swimsuits.
There is a very wide range of styles of modern swimsuits available, which vary as to body coverage and materials. The choice of style may depend on community standards of modesty, as well as current fashions, and personal preferences. The choice will also consider the occasion, for example whether it is to be worn for a passive occasion such as sunbathing or for an activity such as surfing or swimsuit competition. Swimwear universally cover at least the wearer′s crotch area. For males, swimwear today usually exposes the chest, while swimsuits for females usually cover at least the nipples, except in the case of a topless swimsuit.
Materials
Rayon began to be used in the 1920s in the manufacture of tight-fitting swimsuits, but its durability, especially when wet, proved problematic, with jersey and silk also sometimes being used.
In the 1930s, new materials were being developed and used in swimwear, particularly latex and nylon, and swimsuits gradually began hugging the body, especially women's swimsuits.
Some companies have started to focus on recycled materials for their swimwear. They are working with companies that transform fishnets, nylon waste, and recovered plastic from shorelines, waterways and coastal communities into textile components.
Swimsuit styles
In Western culture, men's swimsuit styles include boardshorts, jammers, swim trunks, briefs AKA "speedos", thongs, and g-strings, in order of decreasing lower body coverage, and women's swimsuits include one-piece, bikinis, or thongs. While they go through many trends in pattern, length, and cut, there is not much modification to the original variety of suit. A recent innovation is the burqini, favored by some Muslim women, which covers the whole body and head (but not face) in a manner similar to a diver's wetsuit. These are an updated version of full-body swimwear, which has been available for centuries, but conforms with Islam's traditional emphasis on modest dress. In Egypt, the term "Sharia swimsuit" is used to describe full-body swimwear.
Unisex styles
Women's swimsuits
Men's swimsuits
Body coverage
Swimsuits can be skin-tight or loose-fitting. They are often lined with another layer of fabric if the outer fabric becomes transparent when wet.
Swimsuits range from designs that almost completely cover the body to designs that expose almost all of the body. The choice of swimsuit will depend on personal and community standards of modesty and on considerations such as how much or how little sun protection is desired, and prevailing fashions. Almost all swimsuits cover the genitals and pubic hair, while most except thongs or g-string (also called Brazilians) cover much or all of the buttocks.
Most swimsuits in western culture leave at least the head, shoulders, arms, and lower part of the leg (below the knee) exposed. Women's swimsuits generally cover at least the areola and bottom half of the breasts.
Both men and women may sometimes wear swimsuits covering more of the body when swimming in cold water (see also wetsuit and dry suit). In colder temperatures, swimsuits are needed to conserve body heat and protect the body core from hypothermia.
Competitive swimwear
Swimwear and hygiene
Germs, bacteria, and mold can grow very quickly on wet bathing suits. Medical professionals warn that wearing damp swimwear for long periods of time can cause a number of infections and rashes in children and adults, and warn against sharing bathing suits with others. They suggest that changing out of a wet bathing suit right away can help prevent vaginal infections, itching and/or jock itch.
In public swimming pools in France for reasons of hygiene, it is only permitted to wear closer fitting styles of swimwear. Men, for instance, must wear "Speedo"-style bathing suits and not baggy shorts or trunks.
History
Pre-20th century
In classical antiquity swimming and bathing were done naked. There are Roman murals which show women playing sports and exercising wearing two-piece suits covering the areas around their breasts and hips in a fashion remarkably similar to the present-day bikini. However, there is no evidence that they were used for swimming. All classical pictures of swimming show nude swimmers.
In various cultural traditions one swims, if not in the nude, in a version in suitable material of a garment or undergarment commonly worn on land, e.g. a loincloth such as the Japanese man's .
In the United Kingdom, until the mid-19th century there was no law against nude swimming, and each town was free to make its own laws. For example, the Bath Corporation official bathing dress code of 1737 prescribed, for men:
It is Ordered Established and Decreed by this Corporation that no Male person above the age of ten years shall at any time hereafter go into any Bath or Baths within this City by day or by night without a Pair of Drawers and a Waistcoat on their bodies.
In rivers, lakes, streams and the sea, men swam in the nude, where the practice was common. Those who did not swim in the nude stripped to their underwear. The English practice of men swimming in the nude was banned in the United Kingdom in 1860. Drawers, or caleçons as they were called, came into use in the 1860s. Even then there were many who protested against them and wanted to remain in the nude. Francis Kilvert described men's bathing suits coming into use in the 1870s as "a pair of very short red and white striped drawers".
Female bathing costumes were derived from those worn at Bath and other spas. It would appear that until the 1670s, nude female bathing in the spas was the norm, and that after that time women bathed clothed. Celia Fiennes gave a detailed description of the standard ladies' bathing costume in 1687:
The Ladyes go into the bath with Garments made of a fine yellow canvas, which is stiff and made large with great sleeves like a parson's gown; the water fills it up so that it is borne off that your shape is not seen, it does not cling close as other linning, which Lookes sadly in the poorer sort that go in their own linning. The Gentlemen have drawers and wastcoates of the same sort of canvas, this is the best linning, for the bath water will Change any other yellow.
The Bath Corporation official bathing dress code of 1737 prescribed, for women:
No Female person shall at any time hereafter go into a Bath or Baths within this City by day or by night without a decent Shift on their bodies.
The Expedition of Humphry Clinker was published in 1771 and its description of ladies' bathing costume is different from that of Celia Fiennes a hundred years earlier:
The ladies wear jackets and petticoats of brown linen, with chip hats, in which they fix their handkerchiefs to wipe the sweat from their faces; but, truly, whether it is owing to the steam that surrounds them, or the heat of the water, or the nature of the dress, or to all these causes together, they look so flushed, and so frightful, that I always turn my eyes another way.
Penelope Byrde points out that Smollett's description may not be accurate, for he describes a two-piece costume, not the one piece shift or smock that most people describe and is depicted in contemporary prints. His description does, however, tally with Elizabeth Grant's description of the guide's costume at Ramsgate in 1811. The only difference is in the fabric the costumes are made of. Flannel, however, was a common fabric for sea bathing costumes as many believed the warmer fabric was necessary in cold water.
In the 18th century women wore "bathing gowns" in the water; these were long dresses of fabrics that would not become transparent when wet, with weights sewn into the hems so that they would not rise up in the water. The men's swim suit, a rather form-fitting wool garment with long sleeves and legs similar to long underwear, was developed and would change little for a century.
In the 19th century, the woman's double suit was common, comprising a gown from shoulder to knees plus a set of trousers with leggings going down to the ankles.
In the Victorian era, popular beach resorts were commonly equipped with bathing machines designed to avoid the exposure of people in swimsuits, especially to people of the opposite sex.
In the United States, beauty pageants of women in bathing costumes became popular from the 1880s. However, such events were not regarded as respectable. Beauty contests became more respectable with the first modern "Miss America" contest held in 1921, though less respectable beauty contests continued to be held.
20th century
The 1907 Sydney bathing costume protests were carried out in Australia after an ordinance was proposed that would have required males to wear a skirt-like tunic. In 1935, a similar ordinance was proposed, requiring males to wear the Spooner bathing costume instead of the 'disgraceful' swim trunks.
In 1907, the swimmer Annette Kellerman from Australia visited the United States as an "underwater ballerina", a version of synchronized swimming involving diving into glass tanks. She was arrested for indecent exposure because her swimsuit showed arms, legs and the neck. Kellerman changed the suit to have long arms and legs and a collar, still keeping the close fit that revealed the shapes underneath. She later starred in several movies, including one about her life. She marketed a line of bathing suits and her style of one-piece suits came to be known as "the Annette Kellerman". The Annette Kellerman was considered the most offensive style of swimsuit in the 1920s and became the focus of censorship efforts.
Despite opposition from some groups, the form-fitting style proved popular. It was not long before swimwear started to shrink further. At first arms were exposed and then legs up to mid-thigh. Necklines receded from around the neck down to around the top of the bosom. The development of new fabrics allowed for new varieties of more comfortable and practical swimwear.
Due to the figure-hugging nature of these garments, glamour photography since the 1940s and 1950s has often featured people wearing swimsuits. This type of glamour photography eventually evolved into swimsuit photography exemplified by the annual Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue. Beauty contests also required contestants to wear form-fitting swimsuits.
The first bikinis appeared just after World War II. Early examples were not very different from the women's two pieces common since the 1920s, except that they had a gap below the breast line allowing for a section of bare midriff. They were named after Bikini Atoll, the site of several nuclear weapons tests, for their supposed explosive effect on the viewer.
Through the 1950s, it was thought proper for the lower part of the bikini to come up high enough to cover the navel. From the 1960s on, the bikini shrank in all directions until it sometimes covered little more than the nipples and genitalia, although less revealing models giving more support to the breasts remained popular. At the same time, fashion designer Rudi Gernreich introduced the monokini, a topless suit for women consisting of a modest bottom supported by two thin straps. Although not a commercial success, the suit opened eyes to new design possibilities. In the 1980s the thong or "tanga" came out of Brazil, said to have been inspired by traditional garments of native tribes in the Amazon. However, the one-piece suit continued to be popular for its more modest approach.
Men's swimsuits developed roughly in parallel to women's during this period, with the shorts covering progressively less. Eventually racing-style "speedo" suits became popular—and not just for their speed advantages. Thong, g-string and bikini style suits are also worn. Typically these are more popular in more tropical regions; however, they may also be worn at public swimming pools and inland lakes. But in the 1990s, longer and baggier shorts became popular, with the hems often reaching to the knees. Often called boardshorts and swim trunks, these were often worn lower on the hips than regular shorts.
Alternatives to swimsuits
Since the early twentieth century a naturist movement has developed in western countries that seeks a return to non-sexual nakedness when swimming and during other appropriate activities. Some women prefer to engage in water or sun activities with their torso uncovered. The practice is often described as "toplessness" or "topfreedom". In some places around the world, nude beaches have been set aside for people who choose to engage in normal beach activities in the nude.
As an alternative to a swimsuit, some people wear trousers, underpants, or a T-shirt either as a makeshift swimsuit or because they prefer regular clothes over swimsuits. Using a T-shirt can also provide extra protection against sunburn. This practice may be more accepted at beaches than at swimming pools, which tend not to permit the use of regular clothes as swimwear because regular clothes are unlined, may become translucent, and may be perceived as unclean.
Swimsuit outside the water
Swimsuits can also be worn outside the water for example, fashion or doing activities such as sunbathing or in some cases skateboarding or other physical activities.
See also
1907 Sydney bathing costume protests
Bikini in popular culture
List of swimwear manufacturers
Women's beachwear fashion
References
External links
17th-century fashion
18th-century fashion
19th-century fashion
20th-century fashion
History of clothing (Western fashion)
History of fashion
Sportswear
Swimming equipment | [
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223339 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophanes | Xenophanes | Xenophanes of Colophon (; ; c. 570 – c. 478 BC) was a Greek philosopher, theologian, poet, and critic of religious polytheism. Xenophanes is seen as one of the most important Pre-Socratic philosophers. Eusebius quoting Aristocles of Messene says that Xenophanes was the founder of a line of philosophy that culminated in Pyrrhonism. This line begins with Xenophanes and goes through Parmenides, Melissus of Samos, Zeno of Elea, Leucippus, Democritus, Protagoras, Nessos of Chios, Metrodorus of Chios, Diogenes of Smyrna, Anaxarchus, and finally Pyrrho. It had also been common since antiquity to see Xenophanes as the teacher of Zeno of Elea, the colleague of Parmenides, and generally associated with the Eleatic school, but common opinion today is likewise that this is false.
Xenophanes was born in the city of Colophon in Ionia. He lived a life of travel after fleeing Ionia at the age of 25 when the Persians took over. He continued to travel throughout the Greek world for another 67 years and ultimately ended up in the Greek colonies of what is now Italy and Sicily. Some scholars say he lived in exile in Sicily. Knowledge of his views comes from fragments of his poetry, surviving as quotations by later Greek writers. To judge from these, his elegiac and iambic poetry criticized and satirized a wide range of ideas, including Homer and Hesiod, the belief in the pantheon of anthropomorphic gods and the Greeks' veneration of athleticism. He is the earliest Greek poet who claims explicitly to be writing for future generations, creating "fame that will reach all of Greece, and never die while the Greek kind of songs survives."
Life
Xenophanes was a native of Colophon, a city in Ionia (now western Turkey). Some say he was the son of Orthomenes, others the son of Dexius. He is said to have flourished during the 60th Olympiad (540–537 BC). His surviving work refers to Thales, Epimenides, and Pythagoras, and he himself is mentioned in the writings of Heraclitus and Epicharmus. In a fragment of his elegies, he describes the Median invasion as an event that took place in his time, possibly referring to the expedition of Harpagus against the Greek cities in Ionia (546/5 BC). He left his native land as a fugitive or exile and went to the Ionian colonies in Sicily, Zancle and Catana. He probably lived for some time in Elea (founded by the Phocaeans in the 61st Olympiad 536–533 BC), since he wrote about the foundation of that colony.
According to an elegy reputedly composed when he was 92 years old, he left his native land at the age of 25 and then lived 67 years in other Greek lands.
Poems
According to biographer Diogenes Laërtius, Xenophanes wrote in hexameters and also composed elegies and iambics against Homer and Hesiod. Laertius also mentions two historical poems concerning the founding of Colophon and Elea, but of these, only the titles have been preserved. There is no good authority that says that Xenophanes wrote a philosophical poem. The Neoplatonist philosopher Simplicius writes that he had never met with the verses about the earth stretching infinitely downwards (fr. 28), even though he had access to many philosophical works. Several of the philosophical fragments are derived from commentators on Homer. It is thus likely that the philosophical remarks of Xenophanes were expressed incidentally in his satires. The satires are called Silloi by late writers, and this name may go back to Xenophanes himself, but it may originate in the fact that the Pyrrhonist philosopher Timon of Phlius, the "sillographer" (3rd century BC), put much of his own satire upon other philosophers into the mouth of Xenophanes, one of the few philosophers Timon praises in his work.
Philosophy
Recent research has revealed the originality of his philosophical quests which were underestimated in previous years. Of particular importance, Xenophanes casts doubt on Greek myths which portray the gods as petty and immoral and cites the fact that human beings create gods in their own image in an attempt to reform Greek religion.
Epistemology
Xenophanes denied that a criterion of truth exists. He is credited with being one of the first philosophers to distinguish between true belief and knowledge, which he further developed into the prospect that you can know something but not really know it. Due to the lack of whole works by Xenophanes, his views are difficult to interpret, so that the implication of knowing being something deeper ("a clearer truth") may have special implications, or it may mean that you cannot know something just by looking at it. It is known that the most and widest variety of evidence was considered by Xenophanes to be the surest way to prove a theory.
His epistemology, which is still influential today, held that there actually exists a truth of reality, but that humans as mortals are unable to know it. Hence his views are considered a precursor to Pyrrhonism and subsequent Western philosophical skepticism. He summed up his view in these quotes:
The gods have not, of course, revealed all things to mortals from the beginning;
but rather, seeking in the course of time, they discover what is better.
Yet, with respect to the gods and what I declare about all things, no man has seen what is clear nor ever will any man know it. Nay, for e’en should he chance to affirm what is really existent, he himself knoweth it not; for all is swayed by opining.
Karl Popper read Xenophanes as saying that it is possible to act only on the basis of working hypotheses—we may act as if we knew the truth, as long as we know that this is extremely unlikely. Xenophanes' views then might serve as a basis of critical rationalism.
Xenophanes concluded from his examination of fossils that water once must have covered all of the Earth's surface. This use of evidence was an important step in advancing from simply stating an idea to backing it up by evidence and observation.
There is one fragment dealing with the management of a feast, another which denounces the exaggerated importance attached to athletic victories, and several which deny the humanized gods of Homer. Arguments such as these made Xenophanes infamous for his attacks on "conventional military and athletic virtues of the time" and well known to side with the intellectual instead.
Theology
Xenophanes' surviving writings display a skepticism that became more commonly expressed during the fourth century BC. He satirized traditional religious views of his time as human projections. He aimed his critique at the polytheistic religious views of earlier Greek poets and of his own contemporaries: "Homer and Hesiod," one fragment states, "have attributed to the gods all sorts of things that are matters of reproach and censure among men: theft, adultery, and mutual deception." Xenophanes is quoted in Clement of Alexandria, arguing against the conception of gods as fundamentally anthropomorphic:
But if cattle and horses and lions had handsor could paint with their hands and create works such as men do,horses like horses and cattle like cattlealso would depict the gods' shapes and make their bodiesof such a sort as the form they themselves have....Ethiopians say that their gods are snub–nosed [σιμούς] and blackThracians that they are pale and red-haired.
Other passages quoted by Clement of Alexandria that argue against the traditional Greek conception of gods include:
"One god, greatest among gods and humans,like mortals neither in form nor in thought."
"But mortals think that the gods are bornand have the mortals' own clothes and voice and form".
Regarding Xenophanes' theology five key concepts about God can be formed. God is: beyond human morality, does not resemble human form, cannot die or be born (God is divine thus eternal), no divine hierarchy exists, and God does not intervene in human affairs. While Xenophanes is rejecting Homeric theology, he is not questioning the presence of a divine entity, rather his philosophy is a critique on Ancient Greek writers and their conception of divinity.
Xenophanes espoused a belief that "God is one, supreme among gods and men, and not like mortals in body or in mind." He maintained there was one greatest God. God is one eternal being, spherical in form, comprehending all things within himself, is the absolute mind and thought, therefore is intelligent, and moves all things, but bears no resemblance to human nature either in body or mind.
God moves all things, but he is thought to be immobile, characterized by oneness (B23) and unicity, eternity (B26) and a spiritual nature which is bodiless and isn't anthropomorfic (B14, B15, B16). He has a free will and is the Highest Good, he embodies the beauty of the moral perfection and of the absence of sin.
The Orphism religion and the Pythagorean philosophy introduced into the Greek spirituality the notions of guilt and pureness, causing a dichotomyic belief between the divine soul and the mortal body. This doctrine is in contrast with the traditional religions as espoused by Homer and Hesiod.
The thought of Xenophanes was summarized as monolotraous and pantheistic by the ancient doxographies of Aristotle, Cicero, Diogenes Laertius, Sextus Empiricus, and Plutarch. More particularly, the Methaphysics of Aristotle referred that for him "the All is God" (Metaph. 986b=A19). Differently from the human creatures, God has the power to give "immediate execution" (in Greek: to phren) and make effective his cognitive faculty (in Greek: nous).
Xenophanes is considered by some to be a precursor to Parmenides and Spinoza. Because of his development of the concept of a "one god greatest among gods and men" that is abstract, universal, unchanging, immobile and always present, Xenophanes is often seen as one of the first monotheists, in the Western philosophy of religion, although the quotation that seems to point to Xenophanes' monotheism also refers to multiple "gods" who the supreme God is greater than. Physicist and philosopher Max Bernhard Weinstein specifically identified Xenophanes as one of the earliest pandeists.
Metaphysics
Xenophanes wrote about two extremes predominating the world: wet and dry or water (ὕδωρ) and earth (γῆ). These two extreme states would alternate between one another, and with the alternation human life would become extinct, then regenerate (or vice versa depending on the dominant form). The idea of alternating states and human life perishing and coming back suggests he believed in the principle of causation, another distinguishing step that Xenophanes takes away from Ancient philosophical traditions to ones based more on scientific observation. The argument can be considered a rebuke to Anaximenes' air theory. A detailed account of the wet and dry form theory is found in Hippolytus' Refutation of All Heresies.
He also holds that there is an infinite number of worlds, not overlapping in time.
See also
On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias
Notes
Bibliography
Editions
E. Zeller, Die Philosophie der Griechen, 1st Volume, p. 378-395, Tübingen, 1856
A. Fairbanks, The First Philosophers of Greece, p. 65-85, New York, 1898 (cf. Hanover Historical Texts)
H. Diels and W. Kranz (eds.), Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, pp. 38–58, 1st Edition, Berlin, 1903 (6th Ed. is considered standard work and reprinted unaltered; much superior to Kirk/Raven)
G. S. Kirk, J. E. Raven, and M. Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers, Chapter 5, 2nd Edition, Cambridge, 1983
M. R. Wright, The Presocratics - the main fragments in Greek, Bristol, 1985 (cf. Xenophanes of Colophon by Giannis Stamatellos)
B. Gentili and C. Prato (eds.), Poetarum Elegiacorum Testimonia et Fragmenta 1, Leipzig 1988 (best Greek text available)
J.H. Lesher (ed.), Xenophanes. Fragments, Toronto 1992 (best English edition and translation)
Secondary scholarship
J. Lesher, Presocratic Contributions to the Theory of Knowledge, 1998
U. De Young, "The Homeric Gods and Xenophanes' Opposing Theory of the Divine", 2000
W. Drechsler and R. Kattel, "Mensch und Gott bei Xenophanes", in: M. Witte, ed., Gott und Mensch im Dialog. Festschrift für Otto Kaiser zum 80. Geburtstag, Berlin – New York 2004, 111-129
H. Fränkel, "Xenophanesstudien", Hermes 60 (1925), 174-192
E. Heitsch, Xenophanes und die Anfänge kritischen Denkens. Mainzer Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur, Abh. d. Geistes- und Sozialwiss. Kl., 1994, H. 7
W. Jaeger, The Theology of the Early Greek Philosophers, Gifford Lectures 1936, repr. Westport, Ct. 1980
K. Jaspers, The Great Philosophers 3, New York etc. 1993
R. Kattel, "The Political Philosophy of Xenophanes of Colophon", Trames 1(51/46) (1997), 125-142
O. Kaiser, "Der eine Gott und die Götter der Welt", in: Zwischen Athen und Jerursalem. Studien zur griechischen und biblischen Theologie, ihrer Eigenart und ihrem Verhältnis, Berlin - New York 2003, 135-152
Richard D. McKirahan, Xenophanes of Colophon. Philosophy Before Socrates. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1994
K. Ziegler, "Xenophanes von Kolophon, ein Revolutionär des Geistes", Gymmasium 72 (1965), 289-302
Further reading
Classen, C. J. 1989. "Xenophanes and the Tradition of Epic Poetry". In Ionian Philosophy. Edited by K. Boudouris, 91–103. Athens, Greece: International Association for Greek Philosophy.
Graham, D. W. 2010. The Texts of the Early Greek Philosophers: The Complete Fragments and Selected Testimonies of the Major Presocratics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
Granger, H. 2007. "Poetry and Prose: Xenophanes of Colophon". Transactions of the American Philological Association 137:403–433.
Granger, H. 2013. "Xenophanes’ Positive Theology and his Criticism of Greek Popular Religion". Ancient Philosophy 33:235–271
Mansfeld, J. 1987. "Theophrastus and the Xenophanes Doxography". Mnemosyne 40:286–312.
Warren, J. 2007. Presocratics. Stocksfield, UK: Acumen.
External links
Xenophanes of Colophon by Giannis Stamatellos
Xenophanes of Colophon - Primary and secondary resources (link broken, June 9, 2019, archived page)
470s BC deaths
570s BC births
6th-century BC Greek people
6th-century BC philosophers
6th-century BC poets
5th-century BC Greek people
5th-century BC philosophers
5th-century BC poets
Ancient Colophonians
Ancient Greek elegiac poets
Ancient Greek epistemologists
Ancient Greek metaphysicians
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History of philosophy
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Iambic poets
Intellectual history
Natural philosophers
Philosophers of ancient Ionia
Philosophers of religion
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Presocratic philosophers
Pyrrhonism
Satirists
Skepticism
Greek social commentators
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Writers about religion and science | [
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223352 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternator | Alternator | An alternator is an electrical generator that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy in the form of alternating current. For reasons of cost and simplicity, most alternators use a rotating magnetic field with a stationary armature. Occasionally, a linear alternator or a rotating armature with a stationary magnetic field is used. In principle, any AC electrical generator can be called an alternator, but usually the term refers to small rotating machines driven by automotive and other internal combustion engines.
An alternator that uses a permanent magnet for its magnetic field is called a magneto. Alternators in power stations driven by steam turbines are called turbo-alternators. Large 50 or 60 Hz three-phase alternators in power plants generate most of the world's electric power, which is distributed by electric power grids.
History
Alternating current generating systems were known in simple forms from the discovery of the magnetic induction of electric current in the 1830s. Rotating generators naturally produced alternating current but, since there was little use for it, it was normally converted into direct current via the addition of a commutator in the generator. The early machines were developed by pioneers such as Michael Faraday and Hippolyte Pixii. Faraday developed the "rotating rectangle", whose operation was heteropolar – each active conductor passed successively through regions where the magnetic field was in opposite directions. Lord Kelvin and Sebastian Ferranti also developed early alternators, producing frequencies between 100 and 300 Hz.
The late 1870s saw the introduction of first large scale electrical systems with central generation stations to power Arc lamps, used to light whole streets, factory yards, or the interior of large warehouses. Some, such as Yablochkov arc lamps introduced in 1878, ran better on alternating current, and the development of these early AC generating systems was accompanied by the first use of the word "alternator". Supplying the proper amount of voltage from generating stations in these early systems was left up to the engineer's skill in "riding the load". In 1883 the Ganz Works invented the constant voltage generator that could produce a stated output voltage, regardless of the value of the actual load. The introduction of transformers in the mid-1880s led to the widespread use of alternating current and the use of alternators needed to produce it. After 1891, polyphase alternators were introduced to supply currents of multiple differing phases. Later alternators were designed for various alternating current frequencies between sixteen and about one hundred hertz, for use with arc lighting, incandescent lighting and electric motors. Specialized radio frequency alternators like the Alexanderson alternator were developed as longwave radio transmitters around World War 1 and used in a few high power wireless telegraphy stations before vacuum tube transmitters replaced them.
Principle of operation
A conductor moving relative to a magnetic field develops an electromotive force (EMF) in it (Faraday's Law). This EMF reverses its polarity when it moves under magnetic poles of opposite polarity. Typically, a rotating magnet, called the rotor turns within a stationary set of conductors wound in coils on an iron core, called the stator. The field cuts across the conductors, generating an induced EMF (electromotive force), as the mechanical input causes the rotor to turn.
The rotating magnetic field induces an AC voltage in the stator windings. Since the currents in the stator windings vary in step with the position of the rotor, an alternator is a synchronous generator.
The rotor's magnetic field may be produced by permanent magnets, or by a field coil electromagnet. Automotive alternators use a rotor winding which allows control of the alternator's generated voltage by varying the current in the rotor field winding. Permanent magnet machines avoid the loss due to magnetizing current in the rotor, but are restricted in size, due to the cost of the magnet material. Since the permanent magnet field is constant, the terminal voltage varies directly with the speed of the generator. Brushless AC generators are usually larger than those used in automotive applications.
An automatic voltage control device controls the field current to keep output voltage constant. If the output voltage from the stationary armature coils drops due to an increase in demand, more current is fed into the rotating field coils through the voltage regulator (VR). This increases the magnetic field around the field coils which induces a greater voltage in the armature coils. Thus, the output voltage is brought back up to its original value.
Alternators used in central power stations also control the field current to regulate reactive power and to help stabilize the power system against the effects of momentary faults. Often there are three sets of stator windings, physically offset so that the rotating magnetic field produces a three phase current, displaced by one-third of a period with respect to each other.
Synchronous speeds
One cycle of alternating current is produced each time a pair of field poles passes over a point on the stationary winding. The relation between speed and frequency is , where is the frequency in Hz (cycles per second). is the number of poles (2, 4, 6, …) and is the rotational speed in revolutions per minute (r/min). Very old descriptions of alternating current systems sometimes give the frequency in terms of alternations per minute, counting each half-cycle as one alternation; so 12,000 alternations per minute corresponds to 100 Hz.
The output frequency of an alternator depends on the number of poles and the rotational speed. The speed corresponding to a particular frequency is called the synchronous speed for that frequency. This table gives some examples:
Classifications
Alternators may be classified by method of excitation, number of phases, the type of rotation, cooling method, and their application.
By excitation
There are two main ways to produce the magnetic field used in the alternators, by using permanent magnets which create their own persistent magnetic field or by using field coils. The alternators that use permanent magnets are specifically called magnetos.
In other alternators, wound field coils form an electromagnet to produce the rotating magnetic field.
A device that uses permanent magnets to produce alternating current is called a permanent magnet alternator (PMA). A permanent magnet generator (PMG) may produce either alternating current, or direct current if it has a commutator.
Direct-connected direct-current (DC) generator
This method of excitation consists of a smaller direct-current (DC) generator fixed on the same shaft with the alternator. The DC generator generates a small amount of electricity just enough to excite the field coils of the connected alternator to generate electricity. A variation of this system is a type of alternator which uses direct current from a battery for initial excitation upon start-up, after which the alternator becomes self-excited.
Transformation and rectification
This method depends on residual magnetism retained in the iron core to generate weak magnetic field which would allow a weak voltage to be generated. This voltage is used to excite the field coils for the alternator to generate stronger voltage as part of its build up process. After the initial AC voltage buildup, the field is supplied with rectified voltage from the alternator.
Brushless alternators
A brushless alternator is composed of two alternators built end-to-end on one shaft. Until 1966, alternators used brushes with rotating field. With advancement in semiconductor technology, brushless alternators are possible. Smaller brushless alternators may look like one unit but the two parts are readily identifiable on the large versions. The larger of the two sections is the main alternator and the smaller one is the exciter. The exciter has stationary field coils and a rotating armature (power coils). The main alternator uses the opposite configuration with a rotating field and stationary armature. A bridge rectifier, called the rotating rectifier assembly, is mounted on the rotor. Neither brushes nor slip rings are used, which reduces the number of wearing parts. The main alternator has a rotating field as described above and a stationary armature (power generation windings).
Varying the amount of current through the stationary exciter field coils varies the 3-phase output from the exciter. This output is rectified by a rotating rectifier assembly, mounted on the rotor, and the resultant DC supplies the rotating field of the main alternator and hence alternator output. The result of all this is that a small DC exciter current indirectly controls the output of the main alternator.
By number of phases
Another way to classify alternators is by the number of phases of their output voltage. The output can be single phase, or polyphase. Three-phase alternators are the most common, but polyphase alternators can be two phase, six phase, or more.
By rotating part
The revolving part of alternators can be the armature or the magnetic field. The revolving armature type has the armature wound on the rotor, where the winding moves through a stationary magnetic field. The revolving armature type is not often used. The revolving field type has magnetic field on the rotor to rotate through a stationary armature winding. The advantage is that then the rotor circuit carries much less power than the armature circuit, making the slip ring connections smaller and less costly; only two contacts are needed for the direct-current rotor, whereas often a rotor winding has three phases and multiple sections which would each require a slip-ring connection. The stationary armature can be wound for any convenient medium voltage level, up to tens of thousands of volts; manufacture of slip ring connections for more than a few thousand volts is costly and inconvenient.
Cooling methods
Many alternators are cooled by ambient air, forced through the enclosure by an attached fan on the same shaft that drives the alternator. In vehicles such as transit buses, a heavy demand on the electrical system may require a large alternator to be oil-cooled. In marine applications water-cooling is also used. Expensive automobiles may use water-cooled alternators to meet high electrical system demands.
Specific applications
Electric generators
Most power generation stations use synchronous machines as their generators. Connection of these generators to the utility grid requires synchronization conditions to be met.
Automotive alternators
Alternators are used in modern automobiles to charge the battery and to power the electrical system when its engine is running.
Until the 1960s, automobiles used DC dynamo generators with commutators. With the availability of affordable silicon diode rectifiers, alternators were used instead.
Diesel electric locomotive alternators
In later diesel electric locomotives and diesel electric multiple units, the prime mover turns an alternator which provides electricity for the traction motors (AC or DC).
The traction alternator usually incorporates integral silicon diode rectifiers to provide the traction motors with up to 1,200 volts DC.
The first diesel electric locomotives, and many of those still in service, use DC generators as, before silicon power electronics, it was easier to control the speed of DC traction motors. Most of these had two generators: one to generate the excitation current for a larger main generator.
Optionally, the generator also supplies head end power (HEP) or power for electric train heating. The HEP option requires a constant engine speed, typically 900 r/min for a 480 V 60 Hz HEP application, even when the locomotive is not moving.
Marine alternators
Marine alternators used in yachts are similar to automotive alternators, with appropriate adaptations to the salt-water environment. Marine alternators are designed to be explosion proof (ignition protected) so that brush sparking will not ignite explosive gas mixtures in an engine room environment. They may be 12 or 24 volt depending on the type of system installed. Larger marine diesels may have two or more alternators to cope with the heavy electrical demand of a modern yacht. On single alternator circuits, the power may be split between the engine starting battery and the domestic or house battery (or batteries) by use of a split-charge diode (battery isolator) or a voltage-sensitive relay. Due to the high cost of large house battery banks, Marine alternators generally use external regulators. Multistep regulators control the field current to maximize the charging effectiveness (time to charge) and battery life. Multistep regulators can be programed for different battery types. Two temperature sensors can be added, one for the battery to adjust charging voltage and an over-temperature sensor on the actual alternator to protect it from overheating.
Radio alternators
High frequency alternators of the variable-reluctance type were applied commercially to radio transmission in the low-frequency radio bands. These were used for transmission of Morse code and, experimentally, for transmission of voice and music. In the Alexanderson alternator, both the field winding and armature winding are stationary, and current is induced in the armature by virtue of the changing magnetic reluctance of the rotor (which has no windings or current carrying parts). Such machines were made to produce radio frequency current for radio transmissions, although the efficiency was low.
See also
Bottle dynamo
Dynamo
Electric generator
Engine-generator
Folsom Powerhouse State Historic Park
Hub dynamo
Induction generator, using regular induction (asynchronous) motor
Jedlik's dynamo
Linear alternator
Magneto
Polyphase coil
Revolving armature alternator
Single-phase generator
Flux switching alternator
References
External links
White, Thomas H.,"Alternator-Transmitter Development (1891–1920)". EarlyRadioHistory.us.
Alternators at Integrated Publishing (TPub.com)
Wooden Low-RPM Alternator, ForceField, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
Understanding 3 phase alternators at WindStuffNow
Alternator, Arc and Spark. The first Wireless Transmitters (G0UTY homepage)
Electrical generators
Energy conversion | [
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223356 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power%20inverter | Power inverter | A power inverter, inverter or invertor is a power electronic device or circuitry that changes direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC). The resulting AC frequency obtained depends on the particular device employed. Inverters do the opposite of "converters" which were originally large electromechanical devices converting AC to DC.
The input voltage, output voltage and frequency, and overall power handling depend on the design of the specific device or circuitry. The inverter does not produce any power; the power is provided by the DC source.
A power inverter can be entirely electronic or may be a combination of mechanical effects (such as a rotary apparatus) and electronic circuitry.
Static inverters do not use moving parts in the conversion process.
Power inverters are primarily used in electrical power applications where high currents and voltages are present; circuits that perform the same function for electronic signals, which usually have very low currents and voltages, are called oscillators. Circuits that perform the opposite function, converting AC to DC, are called rectifiers.
Input and output
Input voltage
A typical power inverter device or circuit requires a stable DC power source capable of supplying enough current for the intended power demands of the system. The input voltage depends on the design and purpose of the inverter. Examples include:
12 V DC, for smaller consumer and commercial inverters that typically run from a rechargeable 12 V lead acid battery or automotive electrical outlet.
24, 36 and 48 V DC, which are common standards for home energy systems.
200 to 400 V DC, when power is from photovoltaic solar panels.
300 to 450 V DC, when power is from electric vehicle battery packs in vehicle-to-grid systems.
Hundreds of thousands of volts, where the inverter is part of a high-voltage direct current power transmission system.
Output waveform
An inverter may produce a square wave, modified sine wave, pulsed sine wave, pulse width modulated wave (PWM) or sine wave depending on circuit design. Common types of inverters produce square waves or quasi-square waves. One measure of the purity of a sine wave is the total harmonic distortion (THD). A 50% duty pulse square wave is equivalent to a sine wave with 48% THD. Technical standards for commercial power distribution grids require less than 3% THD in the wave shape at the customer's point of connection. IEEE Standard 519 recommends less than 5% THD for systems connecting to a power grid.
There are two basic designs for producing household plug-in voltage from a lower-voltage DC source, the first of which uses a switching boost converter to produce a higher-voltage DC and then converts to AC. The second method converts DC to AC at battery level and uses a line-frequency transformer to create the output voltage.
Square wave
This is one of the simplest waveforms an inverter design can produce and is best suited to low-sensitivity applications such as lighting and heating. Square wave output can produce "humming" when connected to audio equipment and is generally unsuitable for sensitive electronics.
Sine wave
A power inverter device which produces a multiple step sinusoidal AC waveform is referred to as a sine wave inverter. To more clearly distinguish the inverters with outputs of much less distortion than the modified sine wave (three step) inverter designs, the manufacturers often use the phrase pure sine wave inverter. Almost all consumer grade inverters that are sold as a "pure sine wave inverter" do not produce a smooth sine wave output at all, just a less choppy output than the square wave (two step) and modified sine wave (three step) inverters. However, this is not critical for most electronics as they deal with the output quite well.
Where power inverter devices substitute for standard line power, a sine wave output is desirable because many electrical products are engineered to work best with a sine wave AC power source. The standard electric utility provides a sine wave, typically with minor imperfections but sometimes with significant distortion.
Sine wave inverters with more than three steps in the wave output are more complex and have significantly higher cost than a modified sine wave, with only three steps, or square wave (one step) types of the same power handling. Switch-mode power supply (SMPS) devices, such as personal computers or DVD players, function on modified sine wave power. AC motors directly operated on non-sinusoidal power may produce extra heat, may have different speed-torque characteristics, or may produce more audible noise than when running on sinusoidal power.
Modified sine wave
The modified sine wave output of such an inverter is the sum of two square waves one of which is phase shifted 90 degrees relative to the other. The result is three level waveform with equal intervals of zero volts; peak positive volts; zero volts; peak negative volts and then zero volts. This sequence is repeated. The resultant wave very roughly resembles the shape of a sine wave. Most inexpensive consumer power inverters produce a modified sine wave rather than a pure sine wave.
The waveform in commercially available modified-sine-wave inverters resembles a square wave but with a pause during the polarity reversal. Switching states are developed for positive, negative and zero voltages. If the waveform is chosen to have its peak values for half of the cycle time, the peak voltage to RMS voltage ratio is the same as for a sine wave. The DC bus voltage may be actively regulated, or the "on" and "off" times can be modified to maintain the same RMS value output up to the DC bus voltage to compensate for DC bus voltage variations. By changing the pulse width, the harmonic spectrum can be changed. The lowest THD for a three-step modified sine wave is 30% when the pulses are at 130 degrees width of each electrical cycle. This is slightly lower than for a square wave.
The ratio of on to off time can be adjusted to vary the RMS voltage while maintaining a constant frequency with a technique called pulse-width modulation (PWM). The generated gate pulses are given to each switch in accordance with the developed pattern to obtain the desired output. The harmonic spectrum in the output depends on the width of the pulses and the modulation frequency. It can be shown that the minimum distortion of a three-level waveform is reached when the pulses extend over 130 degrees of the waveform, but the resulting voltage will still have about 30% THD, higher than commercial standards for grid-connected power sources. When operating induction motors, voltage harmonics are usually not of concern; however, harmonic distortion in the current waveform introduces additional heating and can produce pulsating torques.
Numerous items of electric equipment will operate quite well on modified sine wave power inverter devices, especially loads that are resistive in nature such as traditional incandescent light bulbs. Items with a switch-mode power supply operate almost entirely without problems, but if the item has a mains transformer, this can overheat depending on how marginally it is rated.
However, the load may operate less efficiently owing to the harmonics associated with a modified sine wave and produce a humming noise during operation. This also affects the efficiency of the system as a whole, since the manufacturer's nominal conversion efficiency does not account for harmonics. Therefore, pure sine wave inverters may provide significantly higher efficiency than modified sine wave inverters.
Most AC motors will run on MSW inverters with an efficiency reduction of about 20% owing to the harmonic content. However, they may be quite noisy. A series LC filter tuned to the fundamental frequency may help.
A common modified sine wave inverter topology found in consumer power inverters is as follows:
An onboard microcontroller rapidly switches on and off power MOSFETs at high frequency like ~50 kHz. The MOSFETs directly pull from a low voltage DC source (such as a battery). This signal then goes through step-up transformers (generally many smaller transformers are placed in parallel to reduce the overall size of the inverter) to produce a higher voltage signal. The output of the step-up transformers then gets filtered by capacitors to produce a high voltage DC supply. Finally, this DC supply is pulsed with additional power MOSFETs by the microcontroller to produce the final modified sine wave signal.
More complex inverters use more than two voltages to form a multiple-stepped approximation to a sine wave. These can further reduce voltage and current harmonics and THD compared to an inverter using only alternating positive and negative pulses; but such inverters require additional switching components, increasing cost.
Near sine wave PWM
Some inverters use PWM to create a waveform that can be low pass filtered to re-create the sine wave. These only require one DC supply, in the manner of the MSN designs, but the switching takes place at a far faster rate, typically many KHz, so that the varying width of the pulses can be smoothed to create the sine wave. If a microprocessor is used to generate the switching timing, the harmonic content and efficiency can be closely controlled.
Output frequency
The AC output frequency of a power inverter device is usually the same as standard power line frequency, 50 or 60 hertz. The exception is in designs for motor driving, where a variable frequency results in a variable speed control.
Also, if the output of the device or circuit is to be further conditioned (for example stepped up) then the frequency may be much higher for good transformer efficiency.
Output voltage
The AC output voltage of a power inverter is often regulated to be the same as the grid line voltage, typically 120 or 240 VAC at the distribution level, even when there are changes in the load that the inverter is driving. This allows the inverter to power numerous devices designed for standard line power.
Some inverters also allow selectable or continuously variable output voltages.
Output power
A power inverter will often have an overall power rating expressed in watts or kilowatts. This describes the power that
will be available to the device the inverter is driving and, indirectly, the power that will be needed from the DC source.
Smaller popular consumer and commercial devices designed to mimic line power typically range from 150 to 3000 watts.
Not all inverter applications are solely or primarily concerned with power delivery; in some cases the frequency and
or waveform properties are used by the follow-on circuit or device.
Batteries
The runtime of an inverter powered by batteries is dependent on the battery power and the amount of power being drawn from the inverter at a given time. As the amount of equipment using the inverter increases, the runtime will decrease. In order to prolong the runtime of an inverter, additional batteries can be added to the inverter.
Formula to calculate inverter battery capacity:Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Load (In Watts) X Usage Time (in hours) / Input Voltage (V)When attempting to add more batteries to an inverter, there are two basic options for installation:
Series configurationIf the goal is to increase the overall input voltage to the inverter, one can daisy chain batteries in a series configuration. In a series configuration, if a single battery dies, the other batteries will not be able to power the load.
Parallel configuration If the goal is to increase capacity and prolong the runtime of the inverter, batteries can be connected in parallel. This increases the overall ampere hour (Ah) rating of the battery set. If a single battery is discharged though, the other batteries will then discharge through it. This can lead to rapid discharge of the entire pack, or even an over-current and possible fire. To avoid this, large paralleled batteries may be connected via diodes or intelligent monitoring with automatic switching to isolate an under-voltage battery from the others.
Applications
DC power source usage
An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries or fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage; in particular it can operate AC equipment designed for mains operation, or rectified to produce DC at any desired voltage.
Uninterruptible power supplies
An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) uses batteries and an inverter to supply AC power when mains power is not available. When mains power is restored, a rectifier supplies DC power to recharge the batteries.
Electric motor speed control
Inverter circuits designed to produce a variable output voltage range are often used within motor speed controllers.
The DC power for the inverter section can be derived from a normal AC wall outlet or some other source. Control and
feedback circuitry is used to adjust the final output of the inverter section which will ultimately determine the
speed of the motor operating under its mechanical load. Motor speed control needs are numerous and include
things like: industrial motor driven equipment, electric vehicles, rail transport systems, and power tools.
(See related: variable-frequency drive )
Switching states are developed for positive, negative and zero voltages as per the patterns given in the switching Table 1. The generated gate pulses are given to each switch in accordance with the developed pattern and thus the output is obtained.
In refrigeration compressors
An inverter can be used to control the speed of the compressor motor to drive variable refrigerant flow in a refrigeration or air conditioning system to regulate system performance. Such installations are known as inverter compressors. Traditional methods of refrigeration regulation use single-speed compressors switched on and off periodically; inverter-equipped systems have a variable-frequency drive that control the speed of the motor and thus the compressor and cooling output. The variable-frequency AC from the inverter drives a brushless or induction motor, the speed of which is proportional to the frequency of the AC it is fed, so the compressor can be run at variable speeds—eliminating compressor stop-start cycles increases efficiency. A microcontroller typically monitors the temperature in the space to be cooled, and adjusts the speed of the compressor to maintain the desired temperature. The additional electronics and system hardware add cost to the equipment, but can result in substantial savings in operating costs. The first inverter air conditioners were released by Toshiba in 1981, in Japan.
Power grid
Grid-tied inverters are designed to feed into the electric power distribution system. They transfer synchronously with the line and have as little harmonic content as possible. They also need a means of detecting the presence of utility power for safety reasons, so as not to continue to dangerously feed power to the grid during a power outage.
Synchronverters are inverters that are designed to simulate a rotating generator, and can be used to help stabilize grids. They can be designed to react faster than normal generators to changes in grid frequency, and can give conventional generators a chance to respond to very sudden changes in demand or production.
Large inverters, rated at several hundred megawatts, are used to deliver power from high voltage direct current transmission systems to alternating current distribution systems.
Solar
A solar inverter is a balance of system (BOS) component of a photovoltaic system and can be used for both grid-connected and off-grid systems. Solar inverters have special functions adapted for use with photovoltaic arrays, including maximum power point tracking and anti-islanding protection.
Solar micro-inverters differ from conventional inverters, as an individual micro-inverter is attached to each solar panel. This can improve the overall efficiency of the system. The output from several micro-inverters is then combined and often fed to the electrical grid.
In other applications, a conventional inverter can be combined with a battery bank maintained by a solar charge controller. This combination of components is often referred to as a solar generator.
Induction heating
Inverters convert low frequency main AC power to higher frequency for use in induction heating. To do this, AC power is first rectified to provide DC power. The inverter then changes the DC power to high frequency AC power. Due to the reduction in the number of DC sources employed, the structure becomes more reliable and the output voltage has higher resolution due to an increase in the number of steps so that the reference sinusoidal voltage can be better achieved. This configuration has recently become very popular in AC power supply and adjustable speed drive applications. This new inverter can avoid extra clamping diodes or voltage balancing capacitors.
There are three kinds of level shifted modulation techniques, namely:
Phase Opposition Disposition (POD)
Alternative Phase Opposition Disposition (APOD)
Phase Disposition (PD)
HVDC power transmission
With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high voltage DC power is transmitted to another location. At the receiving location, an inverter in a static inverter plant converts the power back to AC. The inverter must be synchronized with grid frequency and phase and minimize harmonic generation.
Electroshock weapons
Electroshock weapons and tasers have a DC/AC inverter to generate several tens of thousands of V AC out of a small 9 V DC battery. First the 9 V DC is converted to 400–2000 V AC with a compact high frequency transformer, which is then rectified and temporarily stored in a high voltage capacitor until a pre-set threshold voltage is reached. When the threshold (set by way of an airgap or TRIAC) is reached, the capacitor dumps its entire load into a pulse transformer which then steps it up to its final output voltage of 20–60 kV. A variant of the principle is also used in electronic flash and bug zappers, though they rely on a capacitor-based voltage multiplier to achieve their high voltage.
Miscellaneous
Typical applications for power inverters include:
Portable consumer devices that allow the user to connect a battery, or set of batteries, to the device to produce AC power to run various electrical items such as lights, televisions, kitchen appliances, and power tools.
Use in power generation systems such as electric utility companies or solar generating systems to convert DC power to AC power.
Use within any larger electronic system where an engineering need exists for deriving an AC source from a DC source.
Frequency conversion - if a user in (say) a 50 Hz country needs a 60 Hz supply to power equipment that is frequency-specific, such as a small motor or some electronics, it is possible to convert the frequency by running an inverter with a 60 Hz output from a DC source such as a 12V power supply running from the 50 Hz mains.
Circuit description
Basic design
In one simple inverter circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer through the center tap of the primary winding. A relay switch is rapidly switched back and forth to allow current to flow back to the DC source following two alternate paths through one end of the primary winding and then the other. The alternation of the direction of current in the primary winding of the transformer produces alternating current (AC) in the secondary circuit.
The electromechanical version of the switching device includes two stationary contacts and a spring supported moving contact. The spring holds the movable contact against one of the stationary contacts and an electromagnet pulls the movable contact to the opposite stationary contact. The current in the electromagnet is interrupted by the action of the switch so that the switch continually switches rapidly back and forth. This type of electromechanical inverter switch, called a vibrator or buzzer, was once used in vacuum tube automobile radios. A similar mechanism has been used in door bells, buzzers and tattoo machines.
As they became available with adequate power ratings, transistors and various other types of semiconductor switches have been incorporated into inverter circuit designs. Certain ratings, especially for large systems (many kilowatts) use thyristors (SCR). SCRs provide large power handling capability in a semiconductor device, and can readily be controlled over a variable firing range.
The switch in the simple inverter described above, when not coupled to an output transformer, produces a square voltage waveform due to its simple off and on nature as opposed to the sinusoidal waveform that is the usual waveform of an AC power supply. Using Fourier analysis, periodic waveforms are represented as the sum of an infinite series of sine waves. The sine wave that has the same frequency as the original waveform is called the fundamental component. The other sine waves, called harmonics, that are included in the series have frequencies that are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency.
Fourier analysis can be used to calculate the total harmonic distortion (THD). The total harmonic distortion (THD) is the square root of the sum of the squares of the harmonic voltages divided by the fundamental voltage:
Advanced designs
There are many different power circuit topologies and control strategies used in inverter designs. Different design approaches address various issues that may be more or less important depending on the way that the inverter is intended to be used. For example, an electric motor in a car that is moving can turn into a source of energy and can, with the right inverter topology (full H-bridge) charge the car battery when decelerating or braking. In a similar manner, the right topology (full H-bridge) can invert the roles of "source" and "load", that is, if for example the voltage is higher on the AC "load" side (by adding a solar inverter, similar to a gen-set, but solid state), energy can flow back into the DC "source" or battery.
Based on the basic H-bridge topology, there are two different fundamental control strategies called basic frequency-variable bridge converter and PWM control. Here, in the left image of H-bridge circuit, the top left switch is named as "S1", and others are named as "S2, S3, S4" in counterclockwise order.
For the basic frequency-variable bridge converter, the switches can be operated at the same frequency as the AC in the electric grid (60 Hz in the U.S.). However, it is the rate at which the switches open and close that determines the AC frequency. When S1 and S4 are on and the other two are off, the load is provided with positive voltage and vice versa. We could control the on-off states of the switches to adjust the AC magnitude and phase. We could also control the switches to eliminate certain harmonics. This includes controlling the switches to create notches, or 0-state regions, in the output waveform or adding the outputs of two or more converters in parallel that are phase shifted in respect to one another.
Another method that can be used is PWM. Unlike the basic frequency-variable bridge converter, in the PWM controlling strategy, only two switches S3, S4 can operate at the frequency of the AC side or at any low frequency. The other two would switch much faster (typically 100 KHz) to create square voltages of the same magnitude but for different time duration, which behaves like a voltage with changing magnitude in a larger time-scale.
These two strategies create different harmonics. For the first one, through Fourier Analysis, the magnitude of harmonics would be 4/(pi*k) (k is the order of harmonics). So the majority of the harmonics energy is concentrated in the lower order harmonics. Meanwhile, for the PWM strategy, the energy of the harmonics lie in higher-frequencies because of the fast switching. Their different characteristics of harmonics leads to different THD and harmonics elimination requirements. Similar to "THD", the conception "waveform quality" represents the level of distortion caused by harmonics. The waveform quality of AC produced directly by H-bridge mentioned above would be not as good as we want.
The issue of waveform quality can be addressed in many ways. Capacitors and inductors can be used to filter the waveform. If the design includes a transformer, filtering can be applied to the primary or the secondary side of the transformer or to both sides. Low-pass filters are applied to allow the fundamental component of the waveform to pass to the output while limiting the passage of the harmonic components. If the inverter is designed to provide power at a fixed frequency, a resonant filter can be used. For an adjustable frequency inverter, the filter must be tuned to a frequency that is above the maximum fundamental frequency.
Since most loads contain inductance, feedback rectifiers or antiparallel diodes are often connected across each semiconductor switch to provide a path for the peak inductive load current when the switch is turned off. The antiparallel diodes are somewhat similar to the freewheeling diodes used in AC/DC converter circuits.
Fourier analysis reveals that a waveform, like a square wave, that is anti-symmetrical about the 180 degree point contains only odd harmonics, the 3rd, 5th, 7th, etc. Waveforms that have steps of certain widths and heights can attenuate certain lower harmonics at the expense of amplifying higher harmonics. For example, by inserting a zero-voltage step between the positive and negative sections of the square-wave, all of the harmonics that are divisible by three (3rd and 9th, etc.) can be eliminated. That leaves only the 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th etc. The required width of the steps is one third of the period for each of the positive and negative steps and one sixth of the period for each of the zero-voltage steps.
Changing the square wave as described above is an example of pulse-width modulation. Modulating, or regulating the width of a square-wave pulse is often used as a method of regulating or adjusting an inverter's output voltage. When voltage control is not required, a fixed pulse width can be selected to reduce or eliminate selected harmonics. Harmonic elimination techniques are generally applied to the lowest harmonics because filtering is much more practical at high frequencies, where the filter components can be much smaller and less expensive. Multiple pulse-width or carrier based PWM control schemes produce waveforms that are composed of many narrow pulses. The frequency represented by the number of narrow pulses per second is called the switching frequency or carrier frequency. These control schemes are often used in variable-frequency motor control inverters because they allow a wide range of output voltage and frequency adjustment while also improving the quality of the waveform.
Multilevel inverters provide another approach to harmonic cancellation. Multilevel inverters provide an output waveform that exhibits multiple steps at several voltage levels. For example, it is possible to produce a more sinusoidal wave by having split-rail direct current inputs at two voltages, or positive and negative inputs with a central ground. By connecting the inverter output terminals in sequence between the positive rail and ground, the positive rail and the negative rail, the ground rail and the negative rail, then both to the ground rail, a stepped waveform is generated at the inverter output. This is an example of a three level inverter: the two voltages and ground.
More on achieving a sine wave
Resonant inverters produce sine waves with LC circuits to remove the harmonics from a simple square wave. Typically there are several series- and parallel-resonant LC circuits, each tuned to a different harmonic of the power line frequency. This simplifies the electronics, but the inductors and capacitors tend to be large and heavy. Its high efficiency makes this approach popular in large uninterruptible power supplies in data centers that run the inverter continuously in an "online" mode to avoid any switchover transient when power is lost.
(See related: Resonant inverter)
A closely related approach uses a ferroresonant transformer, also known as a constant voltage transformer, to remove harmonics and to store enough energy to sustain the load for a few AC cycles. This property makes them useful in standby power supplies to eliminate the switchover transient that otherwise occurs during a power failure while the normally idle inverter starts and the mechanical relays are switching to its output.
Enhanced quantization
A proposal suggested in Power Electronics magazine utilizes two voltages as an improvement over the common commercialized technology, which can only apply DC bus voltage in either direction or turn it off. The proposal adds intermediate voltages to the common design. Each cycle sees the following sequence of delivered voltages: v1, v2, v1, 0, −v1, −v2, −v1, 0.
Three-phase inverters
Three-phase inverters are used for variable-frequency drive applications and for high power applications such as HVDC power transmission. A basic three-phase inverter consists of three single-phase inverter switches each connected to one of the three load terminals. For the most basic control scheme, the operation of the three switches is coordinated so that one switch operates at each 60 degree point of the fundamental output waveform. This creates a line-to-line output waveform that has six steps. The six-step waveform has a zero-voltage step between the positive and negative sections of the square-wave such that the harmonics that are multiples of three are eliminated as described above. When carrier-based PWM techniques are applied to six-step waveforms, the basic overall shape, or envelope, of the waveform is retained so that the 3rd harmonic and its multiples are cancelled.
To construct inverters with higher power ratings, two six-step three-phase inverters can be connected in parallel for a higher current rating or in series for a higher voltage rating. In either case, the output waveforms are phase shifted to obtain a 12-step waveform. If additional inverters are combined, an 18-step inverter is obtained with three inverters etc. Although inverters are usually combined for the purpose of achieving increased voltage or current ratings, the quality of the waveform is improved as well.
Size
Compared to other household electric devices, inverters are large in size and volume. In 2014, Google together with IEEE started an open competition named Little Box Challenge, with a prize money of $1,000,000, to build a (much) smaller power inverter.
History
Early inverters
From the late nineteenth century through the middle of the twentieth century, DC-to-AC power conversion was accomplished using rotary converters or motor-generator sets (M-G sets). In the early twentieth century, vacuum tubes and gas-filled tubes began to be used as switches in inverter circuits. The most widely used type of tube was the thyratron.
The origins of electromechanical inverters explain the source of the term inverter. Early AC-to-DC converters used an induction or synchronous AC motor direct-connected to a generator (dynamo) so that the generator's commutator reversed its connections at exactly the right moments to produce DC. A later development is the synchronous converter, in which the motor and generator windings are combined into one armature, with slip rings at one end and a commutator at the other and only one field frame. The result with either is AC-in, DC-out. With an M-G set, the DC can be considered to be separately generated from the AC; with a synchronous converter, in a certain sense it can be considered to be "mechanically rectified AC". Given the right auxiliary and control equipment, an M-G set or rotary converter can be "run backwards", converting DC to AC. Hence an inverter is an inverted converter.
Controlled rectifier inverters
Since early transistors were not available with sufficient voltage and current ratings for most inverter applications, it was the 1957 introduction of the thyristor or silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) that initiated the transition to solid state inverter circuits.
The commutation requirements of SCRs are a key consideration in SCR circuit designs. SCRs do not turn off or commutate automatically when the gate control signal is shut off. They only turn off when the forward current is reduced to below the minimum holding current, which varies with each kind of SCR, through some external process. For SCRs connected to an AC power source, commutation occurs naturally every time the polarity of the source voltage reverses. SCRs connected to a DC power source usually require a means of forced commutation that forces the current to zero when commutation is required. The least complicated SCR circuits employ natural commutation rather than forced commutation. With the addition of forced commutation circuits, SCRs have been used in the types of inverter circuits described above.
In applications where inverters transfer power from a DC power source to an AC power source, it is possible to use AC-to-DC controlled rectifier circuits operating in the inversion mode. In the inversion mode, a controlled rectifier circuit operates as a line commutated inverter. This type of operation can be used in HVDC power transmission systems and in regenerative braking operation of motor control systems.
Another type of SCR inverter circuit is the current source input (CSI) inverter. A CSI inverter is the dual of a six-step voltage source inverter. With a current source inverter, the DC power supply is configured as a current source rather than a voltage source. The inverter SCRs are switched in a six-step sequence to direct the current to a three-phase AC load as a stepped current waveform. CSI inverter commutation methods include load commutation and parallel capacitor commutation. With both methods, the input current regulation assists the commutation. With load commutation, the load is a synchronous motor operated at a leading power factor.
As they have become available in higher voltage and current ratings, semiconductors such as transistors or IGBTs that can be turned off by means of control signals have become the preferred switching components for use in inverter circuits.
Rectifier and inverter pulse numbers
Rectifier circuits are often classified by the number of current pulses that flow to the DC side of the rectifier per cycle of AC input voltage. A single-phase half-wave rectifier is a one-pulse circuit and a single-phase full-wave rectifier is a two-pulse circuit. A three-phase half-wave rectifier is a three-pulse circuit and a three-phase full-wave rectifier is a six-pulse circuit.
With three-phase rectifiers, two or more rectifiers are sometimes connected in series or parallel to obtain higher voltage or current ratings. The rectifier inputs are supplied from special transformers that provide phase shifted outputs. This has the effect of phase multiplication. Six phases are obtained from two transformers, twelve phases from three transformers and so on. The associated rectifier circuits are 12-pulse rectifiers, 18-pulse rectifiers and so on...
When controlled rectifier circuits are operated in the inversion mode, they would be classified by pulse number also. Rectifier circuits that have a higher pulse number have reduced harmonic content in the AC input current and reduced ripple in the DC output voltage. In the inversion mode, circuits that have a higher pulse number have lower harmonic content in the AC output voltage waveform.
Other notes
The large switching devices for power transmission applications installed until 1970 predominantly used mercury-arc valves.
Modern inverters are usually solid state (static inverters). A modern design method features components arranged in an H bridge configuration.
This design is also quite popular with smaller-scale consumer devices.
See also
CCFL inverter
Distributed inverter architecture
Electrical power converter
Electronic oscillator
Pallet inverter
Push–pull converter
Space vector modulation
Switched-mode power supply (SMPS)
Synchronverter
Uninterruptible power supply
Variable-frequency drive
Z-source inverter
References
Further reading
Ulrich Nicolai, Tobias Reimann, Jürgen Petzoldt, Josef Lutz: Application Manual IGBT and MOSFET Power Modules, 1. Edition, ISLE Verlag, 1998, PDF-Version
External links
Example of three-level PWM single phase power inverter design (full-bridge)
inverter battery
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223358 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AAR | ISO 3166-2:AR | ISO 3166-2:AR is the entry for Argentina in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Argentina, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 1 city and 23 provinces. The city Buenos Aires is the capital of the country and has special status similar to the provinces.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Argentina. The second part is a letter, originally used in vehicle registration plates (the letters I and O are not used since they could be mistaken as 1 and 0 respectively and were left out of license plates), and currently used in postal codes.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:
See also
Subdivisions of Argentina
FIPS region codes of Argentina
UN/LOCODE:AR
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: AR
Provinces of Argentina, Statoids.com
2:AR
ISO 3166-2
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223361 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear%20regulator | Linear regulator | In electronics, a linear regulator is a system used to maintain a steady voltage. The resistance of the regulator varies in accordance with both the input voltage and the load, resulting in a constant voltage output. The regulating device is made to act like a variable resistor, continuously adjusting a voltage divider network to maintain a constant output voltage and continually dissipating the difference between the input and regulated voltages as waste heat. By contrast, a switching regulator uses an active device that switches on and off to maintain an average value of output. Because the regulated voltage of a linear regulator must always be lower than input voltage, efficiency is limited and the input voltage must be high enough to always allow the active device to drop some voltage.
Linear regulators may place the regulating device in parallel with the load (shunt regulator) or may place the regulating device between the source and the regulated load (a series regulator). Simple linear regulators may only contain as little as a Zener diode and a series resistor; more complicated regulators include separate stages of voltage reference, error amplifier and power pass element. Because a linear voltage regulator is a common element of many devices, single-chip regulators ICs are very common. Linear regulators may also be made up of assemblies of discrete solid-state or vacuum tube components.
Despite their name, linear regulators are non-linear circuits because they contain non-linear components (such as Zener diodes, as shown below in the simple shunt regulator) and because the output voltage is ideally constant (and a circuit with a constant output that doesn't depend on its input is a non-linear circuit.)
Overview
The transistor (or other device) is used as one half of a voltage divider to establish the regulated output voltage. The output voltage is compared to a reference voltage to produce a control signal to the transistor which will drive its gate or base. With negative feedback and good choice of compensation, the output voltage is kept reasonably constant. Linear regulators are often inefficient: since the transistor is acting like a resistor, it will waste electrical energy by converting it to heat. In fact, the power loss due to heating in the transistor is the current multiplied by the voltage difference between input and output voltage. The same function can often be performed much more efficiently by a switched-mode power supply, but a linear regulator may be preferred for light loads or where the desired output voltage approaches the source voltage. In these cases, the linear regulator may dissipate less power than a switcher. The linear regulator also has the advantage of not requiring magnetic devices (inductors or transformers) which can be relatively expensive or bulky, being often of simpler design, and cause less electromagnetic interference. Some designs of linear regulators use only transistors, diodes and resistors, which are easier to fabricate into an integrated circuit, further reducing their weight, footprint on a PCB, and price.
All linear regulators require an input voltage at least some minimum amount higher than the desired output voltage. That minimum amount is called the dropout voltage. For example, a common regulator such as the 7805 has an output voltage of 5 V, but can only maintain this if the input voltage remains above about 7 V, before the output voltage begins sagging below the rated output. Its dropout voltage is therefore 7 V − 5 V = 2 V. When the supply voltage is less than about 2 V above the desired output voltage, as is the case in low-voltage microprocessor power supplies, so-called low dropout regulators (LDOs) must be used.
When the output regulated voltage must be higher than the available input voltage, no linear regulator will work (not even a Low dropout regulator). In this situation, a boost converter or a charge pump must be used. Most linear regulators will continue to provide some output voltage approximately the dropout voltage below the input voltage for inputs below the nominal output voltage until the input voltage drops significantly.
Linear regulators exist in two basic forms: shunt regulators and series regulators. Most linear regulators have a maximum rated output current. This is generally limited by either power dissipation capability, or by the current carrying capability of the output transistor.
Shunt regulators
The shunt regulator works by providing a path from the supply voltage to ground through a variable resistance (the main transistor is in the "bottom half" of the voltage divider). The current through the shunt regulator is diverted away from the load and flows directly to ground, making this form usually less efficient than the series regulator. It is, however, simpler, sometimes consisting of just a voltage-reference diode, and is used in very low-powered circuits where the wasted current is too small to be of concern. This form is very common for voltage reference circuits. A shunt regulator can usually only sink (absorb) current.
Series regulators
Series regulators are the more common form; they are more efficient than shunt designs. The series regulator works by providing a path from the supply voltage to the load through a variable resistance, usually a transistor (in this role it is usually termed the series pass transistor); it is in the "top half" of the voltage divider - the bottom half being the load. The power dissipated by the regulating device is equal to the power supply output current times the voltage drop in the regulating device. For efficiency and reduced stress on the pass transistor, designers try to minimize the voltage drop but not all circuits regulate well once the input (unregulated) voltage comes close to the required output voltage; those that do are termed Low Dropout regulators, A series regulator can usually only source (supply) current, unlike shunt regulators.
Simple shunt regulator
The image shows a simple shunt voltage regulator that operates by way of the Zener diode's action of maintaining a constant voltage across itself when the current through it is sufficient to take it into the Zener breakdown region. The resistor R1 supplies the Zener current as well as the load current IR2 (R2 is the load). R1 can be calculated as , where is the Zener voltage, and IR2 is the required load current.
This regulator is used for very simple low-power applications where the currents involved are very small and the load is permanently connected across the Zener diode (such as voltage reference or voltage source circuits). Once R1 has been calculated, removing R2 will allow the full load current (plus the Zener current) through the diode and may exceed the diode's maximum current rating, thereby damaging it. The regulation of this circuit is also not very good because the Zener current (and hence the Zener voltage) will vary depending on and inversely depending on the load current. In some designs, the Zener diode may be replaced with another similarly functioning device, especially in an ultra-low-voltage scenario, like (under forward bias) several normal diodes or LEDs in series.
Simple series regulator
Adding an emitter follower stage to the simple shunt regulator forms a simple series voltage regulator and substantially improves the regulation of the circuit. Here, the load current IR2 is supplied by the transistor whose base is now connected to the Zener diode. Thus the transistor's base current (IB) forms the load current for the Zener diode and is much smaller than the current through R2. This regulator is classified as "series" because the regulating element, viz., the transistor, appears in series with the load.
R1 sets the Zener current (IZ) and is determined as where, VZ is the Zener voltage, IB is the transistor's base current, K = 1.2 to 2 (to ensure that R1 is low enough for adequate IB) and where, IR2 is the required load current and is also the transistor's emitter current (assumed to be equal to the collector current) and hFE(min) is the minimum acceptable DC current gain for the transistor.
This circuit has much better regulation than the simple shunt regulator, since the base current of the transistor forms a very light load on the Zener, thereby minimising variation in Zener voltage due to variation in the load. Note that the output voltage will always be about 0.65 V less than the Zener due to the transistor's VBE drop. Although this circuit has good regulation, it is still sensitive to the load and supply variation. This can be resolved by incorporating negative feedback circuitry into it. This regulator is often used as a "pre-regulator" in more advanced series voltage regulator circuits.
The circuit is readily made adjustable by adding a potentiometer across the Zener, moving the transistor base connection from the top of the Zener to the pot wiper. It may be made step adjustable by switching in different Zeners. Finally it is occasionally made microadjustable by adding a low value pot in series with the Zener; this allows a little voltage adjustment, but degrades regulation (see also capacitance multiplier).
Fixed regulators
"Fixed" three-terminal linear regulators are commonly available to generate fixed voltages of +3.3 V, and plus or minus 5 V, 6 V, 9 V, 12 V, or 15 V, when the load is less than 1.5 A.
The "78xx" series (7805, 7812, etc.) regulate positive voltages while the "79xx" series (7905, 7912, etc.) regulate negative voltages. Often, the last two digits of the device number are the output voltage (e.g., a 7805 is a +5 V regulator, while a 7915 is a −15 V regulator). There are variants on the 78xx series ICs, such as 78L and 78S, some of which can supply up to 2 A.
Adjusting fixed regulators
By adding another circuit element to a fixed voltage IC regulator, it is possible to adjust the output voltage. Two example methods are:
A Zener diode or resistor may be added between the IC's ground terminal and ground. Resistors are acceptable where ground current is constant, but are ill-suited to regulators with varying ground current. By switching in different Zener diodes, diodes or resistors, the output voltage can be adjusted in a step-wise fashion.
A potentiometer can be placed in series with the ground terminal to increase the output voltage variably. However, this method degrades regulation, and is not suitable for regulators with varying ground current.
Variable regulators
An adjustable regulator generates a fixed low nominal voltage between its output and its adjust terminal (equivalent to the ground terminal in a fixed regulator). This family of devices includes low power devices like LM723 and medium power devices like LM317 and L200. Some of the variable regulators are available in packages with more than three pins, including dual in-line packages. They offer the capability to adjust the output voltage by using external resistors of specific values.
For output voltages not provided by standard fixed regulators and load currents of less than 7 A, commonly available adjustable three-terminal linear regulators may be used. The LM317 series (+1.25 V) regulates positive voltages while the LM337 series (−1.25 V) regulates negative voltages. The adjustment is performed by constructing a potential divider with its ends between the regulator output and ground, and its centre-tap connected to the 'adjust' terminal of the regulator. The ratio of resistances determines the output voltage using the same feedback mechanisms described earlier.
Single IC dual tracking adjustable regulators are available for applications such as op-amp circuits needing matched positive and negative DC supplies. Some have selectable current limiting as well. Some regulators require a minimum load.
Protection
Linear IC voltage regulators may include a variety of protection methods:
Current limiting such as constant-current limiting or foldback
Thermal shutdown
Safe operating area protection
Sometimes external protection is used, such as crowbar protection.
Using a linear regulator
Linear regulators can be constructed using discrete components but are usually encountered in integrated circuit forms. The most common linear regulators are three-terminal integrated circuits in the TO-220 package.
Common voltage regulators are the LM78xx-series (for positive voltages) and LM79xx-series (for negative voltages). Robust automotive voltage regulators, such as LM2940 / MIC2940A / AZ2940, can handle reverse battery connections and brief +50/-50V transients too. Some Low-dropout regulator (LDO) alternatives, such as MCP1700 / MCP1711 / TPS7A05 / XC6206, have a very low quiescent current of less than 5 µA (approximately 1,000 times less than the LM78xx series) making them better suited for battery-powered devices.
Common fixed voltages are 1.8 V, 2.5 V, 3.3 V (for low-voltage CMOS logic circuits), 5 V (for transistor-transistor logic circuits) and 12 V (for communications circuits and peripheral devices such as disk drives).
In fixed voltage regulators the reference pin is tied to ground, whereas in variable regulators the reference pin is connected to the centre point of a fixed or variable voltage divider fed by the regulator's output. A variable voltage divider such as a potentiometer allows the user to adjust the regulated voltage.
See also
Brokaw bandgap reference
List of LM-series integrated circuits
Low-dropout regulator
Voltage regulator
References
External links
ECE 327: Procedures for Voltage Regulators Lab — Gives schematics, explanations, and analyses for Zener shunt regulator, series regulator, feedback series regulator, feedback series regulator with current limiting, and feedback series regulator with current foldback. Also discusses the proper use of the LM317 integrated circuit bandgap voltage reference and bypass capacitors.
ECE 327: Report Strategies for Voltage Regulators Lab — Gives more-detailed quantitative analysis of behavior of several shunt and series regulators in and out of normal operating ranges.
ECE 327: LM317 Bandgap Voltage Reference Example — Brief explanation of the temperature-independent bandgap reference circuit within the LM317.
"Zener regulator" at Hyperphysics
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223364 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shave | Shave | Shave may refer to:
to shave refers to the act of shaving
Shave (surname)
Shave (magazine), a periodical magazine
"Shave", a song by Enon from their 2003 album Hocus Pocus
Severe Hazards Analysis and Verification Experiment, a database of storm impact based on telephone surveys | [
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223366 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parametric%20statistics | Parametric statistics | Parametric statistics is a branch of statistics which assumes that sample data comes from a population that can be adequately modeled by a probability distribution that has a fixed set of parameters. Conversely a non-parametric model does not assume an explicit (finite-parametric) mathematical form for the distribution when modeling the data. However, it may make some assumptions about that distribution, such as continuity or symmetry.
Most well-known statistical methods are parametric. Regarding nonparametric (and semiparametric) models, Sir David Cox has said, "These typically involve fewer assumptions of structure and distributional form but usually contain strong assumptions about independencies".
Example
The normal family of distributions all have the same general shape and are parameterized by mean and standard deviation. That means that if the mean and standard deviation are known and if the distribution is normal, the probability of any future observation lying in a given range is known.
Suppose that we have a sample of 99 test scores with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 1. If we assume all 99 test scores are random observations from a normal distribution, then we predict there is a 1% chance that the 100th test score will be higher than 102.33 (that is, the mean plus 2.33 standard deviations), assuming that the 100th test score comes from the same distribution as the others. Parametric statistical methods are used to compute the 2.33 value above, given 99 independent observations from the same normal distribution.
A non-parametric estimate of the same thing is the maximum of the first 99 scores. We don't need to assume anything about the distribution of test scores to reason that before we gave the test it was equally likely that the highest score would be any of the first 100. Thus there is a 1% chance that the 100th score is higher than any of the 99 that preceded it.
History
Parametric statistics was mentioned by R. A. Fisher in his work Statistical Methods for Research Workers in 1925, which created the foundation for modern statistics.
See also
Aggregated distribution
All models are wrong
Inverse problem
Parametric model
Sufficient statistic
References
Statistical inference | [
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223369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonparametric%20statistics | Nonparametric statistics | Nonparametric statistics is the branch of statistics that is not based solely on parametrized families of probability distributions (common examples of parameters are the mean and variance). Nonparametric statistics is based on either being distribution-free or having a specified distribution but with the distribution's parameters unspecified. Nonparametric statistics includes both descriptive statistics and statistical inference. Nonparametric tests are often used when the assumptions of parametric tests are violated.
Definitions
The term "nonparametric statistics" has been imprecisely defined in the following two ways, among others.
Applications and purpose
Non-parametric methods are widely used for studying populations that take on a ranked order (such as movie reviews receiving one to four stars). The use of non-parametric methods may be necessary when data have a ranking but no clear numerical interpretation, such as when assessing preferences. In terms of levels of measurement, non-parametric methods result in ordinal data.
As non-parametric methods make fewer assumptions, their applicability is much wider than the corresponding parametric methods. In particular, they may be applied in situations where less is known about the application in question. Also, due to the reliance on fewer assumptions, non-parametric methods are more robust.
Another justification for the use of non-parametric methods is simplicity. In certain cases, even when the use of parametric methods is justified, non-parametric methods may be easier to use. Due both to this simplicity and to their greater robustness, non-parametric methods are seen by some statisticians as leaving less room for improper use and misunderstanding.
The wider applicability and increased robustness of non-parametric tests comes at a cost: in cases where a parametric test would be appropriate, non-parametric tests have less power. In other words, a larger sample size can be required to draw conclusions with the same degree of confidence.
Non-parametric models
Non-parametric models differ from parametric models in that the model structure is not specified a priori but is instead determined from data. The term non-parametric is not meant to imply that such models completely lack parameters but that the number and nature of the parameters are flexible and not fixed in advance.
A histogram is a simple nonparametric estimate of a probability distribution.
Kernel density estimation provides better estimates of the density than histograms.
Nonparametric regression and semiparametric regression methods have been developed based on kernels, splines, and wavelets.
Data envelopment analysis provides efficiency coefficients similar to those obtained by multivariate analysis without any distributional assumption.
KNNs classify the unseen instance based on the K points in the training set which are nearest to it.
A support vector machine (with a Gaussian kernel) is a nonparametric large-margin classifier.
The method of moments with polynomial probability distributions.
Methods
Non-parametric (or distribution-free) inferential statistical methods are mathematical procedures for statistical hypothesis testing which, unlike parametric statistics, make no assumptions about the probability distributions of the variables being assessed. The most frequently used tests include
History
Early nonparametric statistics include the median (13th century or earlier, use in estimation by Edward Wright, 1599; see ) and the sign test by John Arbuthnot (1710) in analyzing the human sex ratio at birth (see ).
See also
CDF-based nonparametric confidence interval
Parametric statistics
Resampling (statistics)
Semiparametric model
Notes
General references
Bagdonavicius, V., Kruopis, J., Nikulin, M.S. (2011). "Non-parametric tests for complete data", ISTE & WILEY: London & Hoboken. .
Gibbons, Jean Dickinson; Chakraborti, Subhabrata (2003). Nonparametric Statistical Inference, 4th Ed. CRC Press. .
also .
Hollander M., Wolfe D.A., Chicken E. (2014). Nonparametric Statistical Methods, John Wiley & Sons.
Sheskin, David J. (2003) Handbook of Parametric and Nonparametric Statistical Procedures. CRC Press.
Wasserman, Larry (2007). All of Nonparametric Statistics, Springer. .
Statistical inference
Robust statistics
Mathematical and quantitative methods (economics) | [
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223373 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Labor%20Relations%20Board | National Labor Relations Board | The National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) is an independent agency of the federal government of the United States with responsibilities for enforcing U.S. labor law in relation to collective bargaining and unfair labor practices. Under the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 it supervises elections for labor union representation and can investigate and remedy unfair labor practices. Unfair labor practices may involve union-related situations or instances of protected concerted activity. The NLRB is governed by a five-person board and a General Counsel, all of whom are appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate. Board members are appointed to five-year terms and the General Counsel is appointed to a four-year term. The General Counsel acts as a prosecutor and the Board acts as an appellate quasi-judicial body from decisions of administrative law judges.
The NLRB is headquartered at 1015 Half St. SE, Washington, D.C., with over 30 regional, sub-regional and residential offices throughout the United States.
History
1933–1935: First collective bargaining organization 'National Labor Board'
The history of the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) can be traced to enactment of the National Industrial Recovery Act in 1933. Section 7(a) of the act protected collective bargaining rights for unions, but was difficult to enforce. The NLRB was not given monitoring powers. A massive wave of union organizing was punctuated by employer and union violence, general strikes, and recognition strikes. The National Industrial Recovery Act was administered by the National Recovery Administration (NRA). At the outset, NRA Administrator Hugh S. Johnson believed that Section 7(a) would be self-enforcing, but the tremendous labor unrest proved him wrong. On August 5, 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt announced the establishment of the National Labor Board, under the auspices of the NRA, to implement the collective bargaining provisions of Section 7(a).
The National Labor Board (NLB) established a system of 20 regional boards to handle the immense caseload. Each regional board had a representative designated by local labor unions, local employers, and a "public" representative. All were unpaid. The public representative acted as the chair. The regional boards could hold hearings and propose settlements to disputes. Initially, they lacked authority to order representation elections, but this changed after Roosevelt issued additional executive orders on February 1 and February 23, 1934.
The NLB, too, proved ineffective. Congress passed Public Resolution No. 44 on June 19, 1934, which empowered the president to appoint a new labor board with authority to issue subpoenas, hold elections, and mediate labor disputes. On June 29, President Roosevelt abolished the NLB and in Executive Order 6763 established a new, three-member National Labor Relations Board.
Lloyd K. Garrison was the first Chairman of the National Labor Relations Board (often referred to by scholars the "First NLRB" or "Old NLRB"). The "First NLRB" established organizational structures which continue at the NLRB in the 21st century. This includes the regional structure of the board; the use of administrative law judges and regional hearing officers to initially rule on cases; an appeal process to the national board; and the use of expert staff, organized into various divisions, at the national level. Formally, Garrison established the:
Executive Office, which handled administrative activities of the national and regional boards, field staff, and Legal Division. It was overseen by an Executive Secretary.
Examining Division, national staff which conducted field investigations and assisted the regional boards with adjudications, hearings, and representative elections.
Information Division, which provided the press and public with news.
Legal Division, which assisted the Department of Justice in seeking compliance with board decisions in the courts, or in responding to suits brought about by board decisions.
Research Division, which studied decisions of the regional boards so that a comprehensive labor law might be developed, and studied the economics of each case.
Within a year, however, most of the jurisdiction of the "First NLRB" was stripped away. Its decisions in the automobile, newspaper, textile, and steel industries proved so volatile that Roosevelt himself often removed these cases from the board's jurisdiction. Several federal court decisions further limited the board's power. Senator Robert F. Wagner (D – NY) subsequently pushed legislation through Congress to give a statutory basis to federal labor policy that survived court scrutiny. On July 5, 1935, a new law—the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA, also known as the Wagner Act)—superseded the NIRA and established a new, long-lasting federal labor policy. The NLRA designated the National Labor Relations Board as the implementing agency.
1935–1939: Constitutionality, communism, and organizational changes
The first Chairman of the "new" NLRB was J. Warren Madden, professor of the University of Pittsburgh School of Law. Madden largely confirmed the previous structure of the "first NLRB" by formally establishing five divisions within the agency:
Administrative Division: Oversaw all administrative activities of national and regional boards and their finances; led by Secretary
Economic Division: Analyzed economic evidence in cases; made studies of economics of labor relations for use by board and courts; supervised by Chief Industrial Economist; also known as the Technical Service Division
Legal Division: Handled NLRB either decisions appealed to courts or cases in which NLRB sought enforcement of its decisions; overseen by General Counsel (hired by NLRB board); comprised two subdivisions:
Litigation Section: Advised national and regional boards, prepared briefs, worked with Justice Department
Review Section: Analyzed regional hearings and decisions; issued interpretations of law; prepared forms; drafted regulations
Publications Division: Handled all press and public inquiries; published decisions of national and regional boards and their rules and regulations; overseen by Director of Publications
Trial Examining Division: Held hearings before the national board; overseen by Chief Trial Examiner
Benedict Wolf served as first Secretary of the NLRB, Charles H. Fahy the first General Counsel, and David J. Saposs the first Chief Industrial Economist. Wolf resigned in mid-1937, and Nathan Witt, an attorney in the Legal Division, was named Secretary in October.
The Economic Division was a critical one for the NLRB. Cause-and-effect was one of the fundamental assumptions of the National Labor Relations Act, and for the causes of labor unrest to be understood economic analysis was needed. From the start, the Economic Division undertook three important tasks: 1) Gather economic data in support of cases before the courts; 2) Conduct general studies of labor relations to guide the board in formulating decisions and policies; and 3) Research the history of labor relations (the history of written agreements, whether certain issues were historically part of collective bargaining, how unions functioned internally, trends in employer activities, trends in collective bargaining, whether certain employer actions led to labor disputes, etc.) so that the board could educate itself, the courts, Congress, and the public about labor relations. The first function proved critical to the survival of the NLRB. It was the Economic Division's data and analysis, more than then NLRB's legal reasoning, which proved critical in persuading the Supreme Court to sustain the Wagner Act in NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel. The Court even cited several Economic Division studies in its decision. In the wake of Jones & Laughlin Steel, many labor relations experts outside the agency concluded that economic analysis was "an accepted fact" essential to the proper functioning of the agency. The Economic Division did, too. It asked Madden to pair an economist with an attorney in every important case, and prepared outline of the economic data needed to support each case in case it went before the courts.
During his time on the NLRB, Madden was often opposed by the American Federation of Labor (AFL), which believed that Madden was using the NLRA and the procedures and staff of the NLRB to favor the AFL's primary competitor, the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). The NLRB and NLRA were also under intense pressure from employers, the press, congressional Republicans, and conservative Democrats.
The NLRB's Economic Division proved critical in pushing for a congressional investigation into employer anti-union activities, and ensuring that investigation was a success. The Economic Division was deeply aware of employer use of labor spies, violence, and company unions to thwart union organizing, and quietly pressed for a congressional investigation into these and other tactics. Senator Robert M. La Follette, Jr. took up the suggestion, on June 6, 1936, the Senate Committee on Education and Labor established a Subcommittee Investigating Violations of Free Speech and the Rights of Labor chaired by La Follette. Better known as the "La Follette Committee", the subcommittee held extensive hearings for five years and published numerous reports. The committee uncovered extensive evidence of millions of company dollars used to pay for spies and fifth columnists within unions, exposed the culpability of local law enforcement in acts of violence and murder against union supporters (particularly in the Harlan County War), revealed the wide extent of illegal blacklisting of union members, and exposed the use of armed strikebreakers and widespread stockpiling of tear gas, vomit gas, machine guns, mortars, and armor by corporations to use against strikers. Some of the evidence the committee used was provided by the Economic Division, and the investigation proved critical for a time in defending the agency from business and congressional attack.
The biggest issue the NLRB faced was constitutional. The Justice Department and NLRB legal staff wanted the Supreme Court to rule as quickly as possible on the constitutionality of the NLRA. But the Board and Justice Department also realized that the Court's Lochner era legal philosophy made it unlikely for the Court to uphold the Act. Subsequently, Madden strove to resolve minor cases before they could become court challenges, and worked to delay appeals as long as possible until the best possible case could be brought to the Court. This legal strategy paid off. The Supreme Court upheld the NLRA in National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation, 301 U.S. 1 (1937). Afterward, Madden continued to strategically guide the NLRB's legal efforts to strengthen the federal courts' view of the NLRA and the board's actions. Because of the efforts of Madden and NLRB General Counsel Charles H. Fahy, the Supreme Court reviewed only 27 cases between August 1935 and March 1941, even though the board had processed nearly 5,000 cases since its inception. The Supreme Court enforced the NLRB's rulings in 19 cases without modifying them, enforced them with modification in six more, and denied enforcement in two cases. Additionally, the Board won all 30 injunction and all 16 representation cases before the lower courts, a rate of success unequalled by any other federal agency.
AFL opposition to the "Madden Board" grew after decisions in Shipowners' Ass'n of the Pacific Coast, 7 NLRB 1002 (1938), enf'd American Federation of Labor v. National Labor Relations Board, 308 U.S. 401 (1940) (awarding a longshoremen's unit to the CIO rather than the AFL), and American Can Co., 13 NLRB 1252 (1939) (unit's history of collective bargaining outweighs desire of workers to form craft-only unit).
The AFL began pushing for an investigation into the NLRB, and this investigation led to allegations of communist influence within the agency. In June 1938, the House Un-American Activities Committee (led by Chairman Martin Dies, Jr. [D-TX]) heard testimony from AFL leader John P. Frey, who accused Madden of staffing the NLRB with communists. The allegations were true, in at least one case: Nathan Witt, the NLRB's executive secretary and the man to whom Madden had delegated most administrative functions, was a member of the Communist Party of the United States. These allegations and discoveries significantly damaged the agency's support in Congress and with the public.
A second investigation into the NLRB led to organizational changes at the board. On July 20, 1939, Republicans and conservative Democrats formed a coalition to push through the House of Representatives a resolution establishing a Special Committee to Investigate the National Labor Relations Board (the "Smith Committee"), chaired by conservative, anti-labor Rep. Howard W. Smith (D-VA). On March 7, 1940, the Smith Committee proposed legislation to abolish the NLRB, reconstitute it, and radically amend the NLRA. President Roosevelt opposed the bill, although he conceded that perhaps the Board's membership should be expanded to five from three. The Smith bill won several early tests in the House, which also voted to substantially cut the NLRB's budget. Smith won a vote in the House Rules Committee permitting him to bring his bill to the floor for a vote. In an attempt to defuse the legislative crisis, Madden fired 53 staff and forced another five to resign, and decentralized the NLRB's trial process to give regional directors and field agents more authority. But the House still passed the Smith bill by a vote of 258 to 129 on June 7, 1940. To protect the NLRB, Roosevelt convinced Senator Elbert D. Thomas, Chairman of the Senate Committee on Education and Labor, to hold no hearings or votes on the bill, and the legislation died.
The Smith Committee investigation had a lasting effect on labor law in the U.S., and was the basis for the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947. Madden's term on the NLRB came to an end after just four years. On November 15, 1940, President Roosevelt nominated Harry A. Millis to the NLRB and named him chairman, and nominated Madden to a seat on the U.S. Court of Claims.
1940–1945: The Economics Division and World War II
Another major structural change occurred at the same time that Madden left the NLRB. The Smith committee's anti-communist drive also targeted David J. Saposs, the NLRB Chief Industrial Economist. Saposs had been surreptitiously assessed by members of the Communist Party USA for membership, and rejected as a prospect. But Smith and others attacked Saposs as a communist, and Congress defunded his division and his job on October 11, 1940. Although the Smith committee's investigation proved critical, the disestablishment of the Economic Division was due to many reasons—both internal and external to the NLRB, and only some of which involved allegations of communist infiltration. As historian James A. Gross observed:.
The Division was eliminated for all kinds of reasons which had nothing to do with the merits and importance of its work: political pressures and maneuverings, jealousy and empire building between and among lawyers and economists inside the Board, opposition to leftist ideologies, a personal attack on the Chief Economist, David Saposs, and a mighty hostility to the administrative process.
The loss of the Economic Division was a major blow to the NLRB. It had a major tactical impact: Economic data helped the NLRB fulfill its adjudicatorial and prosecutorial work in areas such as unfair labor practices (ULPs), representation elections, and in determining remedial actions (such as reinstatement, back pay awards, and fines). Economic data also undermined employer resistance to the agency by linking that opposition to employer ULPs. The loss also left the board dependent on the biased information offered by the parties in dispute before it, leading to poor decision-making and far less success in the courts. It also had a major strategic impact: It left the board unable to determine whether its administration of the law was effective or not. Nor could the board determine whether labor unrest was a serious threat to the economy or not. As labor historian Josiah Bartlett Lambert put it: "Without the Economic Research Division, the NLRB could not undertake empirical studies to determine the actual impact of secondary boycotts, jurisdictional strikes, national emergency strikes, and the like." The Economic Division was critical to a long-range NLRB process to lead to the long-term evolution of industrial labor relations in the U.S., but that goal had to be abandoned. Most importantly, however, the evisceration of the Economic Division struck at the fundamental purpose of federal labor law, which was to allow experts to adjudicate labor disputes rather than use a legal process. With this data and analysis, widespread skepticism about the board's expertise quickly spread through Congress and the courts. It also left the board largely unable to engage in rulemaking, forcing it to make labor law on an inefficient, time-consuming case-by-case basis. As of 1981, NLRB was still the only federal agency forbidden to seek economic information about the impact of its activities.
The second Chairman of the NLRB, Harry A. Millis, led the board in a much more moderate direction. Lacking an economic division to give it ammunition to fight with Millis deliberately made the NLRB dependent on Congress and the executive branch for its survival. Millis made a large number of organizational changes. He stripped the office of Secretary of its power, set up an Administrative Division to supervise the 22 regional offices, initiated a study of the Board's administrative procedures, and genuinely delegated power to the regional offices. He removed casehandling and regional office communication from the jurisdiction of the Office of the Secretary and created a Field Division. He also adopted procedures requiring the board made its decisions based solely on the trial examiner's report, authorized NLRB review attorneys to review trial examiner report, required decisions to be drafted ahead of time and distributed for review, authorized review attorneys to revise drafts before a final decision was issued, required trial examiners to emphasize findings of fact and to address points of law, and began holding board meetings when there were differences of opinion over decisions.
Millis eliminated the Review Division's decisive role in cases, which had been established under Madden and Witt. Madden and Witt had adopted a highly centralized Board structure so that (generally speaking) only the cases most favorable to the board made it to the courts. The centralized structure meant that only the strongest cases made it to national board, so that the board could apply all its economic and legal powers to crafting the best decision possible. This strategy enabled the NLRB to defend itself very well before the Supreme Court. But Madden and Witt had held on to the centralized strategy too long, and made political enemies in the process. Millis substituted a decentralized process in which the board was less a decision-maker and more a provider of services to the regions. Many of the changes Millis instituted were designed to mimic requirements placed on other agencies by the Administrative Procedure Act.
American entry into World War II on December 8, 1941, significantly changed the NLRB. On January 12, 1942, President Roosevelt created the National War Labor Board (NWLB), which displaced the NLRB as the main focus of federal labor relations for the duration of the war. The NWLB was given the authority to "finally determine" any labor dispute which threatened to interrupt war production, and to stabilize union wages and benefits during the war. Although Roosevelt instructed the NWLB not to intrude on jurisdiction exercised by the NLRB, the War Labor Board refused to honor this request. From 1942 to 1945, Millis tried to secure a jurisdictional agreement with NWLB Chairman George W. Taylor. But these discussions proved fruitless, and Millis broke them off in June 1945. The NWLB also heavily raided the NLRB for staff, significantly hindering NLRB operations.
Additional changes came with the passage of the War Labor Disputes Act (WLDA) on June 25, 1943. Enacted over Roosevelt's veto after 400,000 coal miners, their wages significantly lower due to high wartime inflation, struck for a $2-a-day wage increase, the legislation (in part) required the NLRB to issue a ballot outlining all the collective bargaining proposals and counter-proposals, wait 30 days, and then hold a strike vote. The War Labor Disputes Act proved very burdensome. The NLRB processed 2,000 WLDA cases from 1943 to the end of 1945, of which 500 were strike votes. The act's strike vote procedures did little to stop strikes, however, and Millis feared unions were using the referendums to whip up pro-strike feelings among their members. Millis also believed the law's strike vote process permitted more strikes to occur than the NLRB would have allowed under its old procedures. There were so many strike vote filings in the six months after the war ended that NLRB actually shut down its long-distance telephone lines, cancelled all out of town travel, suspended all public hearings, and suspended all other business to accommodate the workload. By early 1945, Millis was in ill health. He resigned from the NLRB on June 7, 1945, and Paul M. Herzog was named his successor.
1947–1965: Taft-Hartley
A major turning point in the history of the NLRB came in 1947 with passage of the Taft-Hartley Act. Disruptions caused by strikes during World War II as well as the huge wave of strikes that followed the end of the war fueled a growing movement in 1946 and 1947 to amend the NLRA to correct what critics saw as a pro-labor tilt in federal law. Drafted by the powerful Republican Senator Robert A. Taft and the strongly anti-union Representative Fred A. Hartley, Jr., the Taft-Hartley Act banned jurisdictional strikes, wildcat strikes, political strikes, secondary boycotts, secondary picketing, mass picketing, union campaign donations made from dues money, the closed shop, and unions of supervisors. The act also enumerated new employer rights, defined union-committed ULPs, gave states the right to opt out of federal labor law through right-to-work laws, required unions to give an 80-days' strike notice in all cases, established procedures for the President to end a strike in a national emergency, and required all union officials to sign an anti-Communist oath. Organizationally, the act made the General Counsel a presidential appointee, independent of the board itself, and gave the General Counsel limited powers to seek injunctions without referring to the Justice Department. It also banned the NLRB from engaging in any mediation or conciliation, and formally enshrined in law the ban on hiring personnel to do economic data collection or analysis.
In August 1947, Robert N. Denham became the NRLB's general counsel. He held "conservative views" and wielded "considerable influence" on labor-management relations and interpretations of the newly passed Taft-Hartley Act. In 1950, US President Harry S. Truman fired Denham (New York Times: "left at the behest of the President"). While NLRB general counsel, Denham received considerable news coverage as a "quasi-Republican." Nominated by US President Harry S. Truman, Denham received unanimous approval by the US Senate Labor Committee. He received "full and independent powers to investigate violations, file complaints and prosecute offenders before the board." In August 1947, he supported an "Anti-Red Affidavit Rule" and so sided with US Senator Robert A. Taft. In October 1947, the NRLB overruled him, which meant that top officers of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) would not have to sign an anti-Communist oath per the Taft-Hartley Act.
Herzog publicly admitted the need for some change in the NLRA, but privately he opposed the proposed Taft-Hartley amendments. He felt the communist oath provisions were unconstitutional, that the amendments would turn the NLRA into a management weapon, that creation of an independent General Counsel would weaken the NLRB, and that the law's dismantling of the agency's economic analysis unit deprived the NLRB of essential expertise. Nonetheless, Congress overrode Truman's veto of the Taft-Hartley Act on June 23, 1947, and the bill became law.
The Taft-Hartley Act fundamentally changed the nature of federal labor law, but it also seriously hindered the NLRB's ability to enforce the law. The loss of the mediation function left the NLRB unable to become involved in labor disputes, a function it had engaged in since its inception as the National Labor Board in 1933. This hindered the agency's efforts to study, analyze, and create bulwarks against bad-faith collective bargaining; reduced its ability to formulate national labor policy in this area; and left the agency making labor law on an ineffective, time-consuming case-by-case basis. The separation of the General Counsel from supervision by the national board also had significant impact on the agency. This separation was enacted against the advice of the Justice Department, contradicted the policy Congress had enacted in the Administrative Procedure Act of 1946, and ignored Millis' extensive internal reforms. The change left the NLRB as the only federal agency unable to coordinate its decision-making and legal activities, and the only agency exempted in this manner under the Administrative Procedure Act. The separation of the General Counsel was not discussed by the committee or by any witnesses during the legislation's mark-up. Indeed, there was no basis for it at all in the public record. It was, in the words of sociologist Robin Stryker, "little-noted" and "unprecedented."
The anti-communist oath provisions generated extensive public debate, and generated disputes before the Supreme Court several times. The Taft-Hartley oath first reached the court in American Communications Ass'n v. Douds, , in which the court held 5-to-1 that the oath did not violate the First Amendment, was not an ex post facto law or bill of attainder in violation of Article One, Section 10, and was not a "test oath" in violation of Article Six. The issue again came before the court in Garner v. Board of Public Works, , in which the court unanimously held that a municipal loyalty oath was not an ex post facto law or bill of attainder. It came before the court yet a third time in Wieman v. Updegraff, . This time, the outcome was radically different. The Supreme Court unanimously ruled that state loyalty oath legislation violated the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In 1965, the Supreme Court held 5-to-4 that the anti-communist oath was a bill of attainder in United States v. Brown, . The Supreme Court essentially overturned Douds, but did not formally do so.
1966–2007: Expansion of jurisdiction
In 1974, Congress amended the National Labor Relations Act to protect employees of non-profit hospitals and allow the Board to adjudicate their claims. The 1935 Wagner Act had protected non-profit hospital workers, but the Taft-Hartley Act removed those protections in 1947. Congress had expressed concern about the impact of potential labor strikes on patient care, but decided that the proposed legislation was an appropriate compromise.
In July 1987, the Board began work on a comprehensive regulation for collective-bargaining units in health care organizations. The Board held 14 days of hearings and considered testimony from 144 witnesses and over 1,800 public comments, and finally issued the rule in April 1989. The rule was challenged in court and ultimately reached the Supreme Court, which unanimously upheld the rule in April 1991.
2007–2014: Lack of quorum and legal challenges
From December 2007 to mid-July 2013, the agency never had all five members, and not once did it operate with three confirmed members, creating a legal controversy. Three members' terms expired in December 2007, leaving the NLRB with just two members—Chairman Wilma B. Liebman and Member Peter Schaumber. President George W. Bush refused to make some nominations to the Board and Senate Democrats refused to confirm those which he did make.
On December 28, 2007, just before the Board lost its quorum, the four members agreed to delegate their authority to a three-person panel per the National Labor Relations Act. Only Liebman and Schaumber remained on the Board, but the Board concluded that the two constituted a quorum of the three-person panel and thus could make decisions on behalf of the Board. Liebman and Schaumber informally agreed to decide only those cases which were in their view noncontroversial and on which they could agree, and issued almost 400 decisions between January 2008 and September 2009.
In April 2009, President Obama nominated Craig Becker (Associate General Counsel of the Service Employees International Union), Mark Gaston Pearce (a member on the Industrial Board of Appeals, an agency of the New York State Department of Labor), and Brian Hayes (Republican Labor Policy Director for the Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor and Pensions) to fill the three empty seats on the NLRB.
The U.S. Courts of Appeals for the First, Second, and Seventh Circuits upheld the two-member NLRB's authority to decide cases, while the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit rejected its authority. In September 2009, the Justice Department asked the U.S. Supreme Court to immediately hear its appeal from the Seventh Circuit's decision in New Process Steel, L.P. v. NLRB and settle the dispute, given the high stakes involved. The Supreme Court granted certiorari in October and agreed to decide the issue.
Becker's nomination appeared to fail on February 8, 2010, after Republican Senators (led by John McCain) threatened to filibuster his nomination. President Obama said he would consider making recess appointments to the NLRB due to the Senate's failure to move on any of the three nominations. On March 27, 2010, Obama recess appointed Becker and Pearce.
On June 17, 2010, the Supreme Court ruled in New Process Steel, L. P. v. NLRB that the two-member Board had no authority to issue decisions, invalidating all rulings made by Liebman and Schaumber.
On June 22, 2010, a voice vote in the Senate confirmed Pearce to a full term, allowing him to serve until August 27, 2013. The same day, the Senate confirmed Republican nominee Brian Hayes of Massachusetts by voice vote. Effective August 28, 2011, Pearce was named chairman to replace Democrat Wilma Liebman, whose term had expired. Becker's term, as a recess appointee, ended on December 31, 2011. Hayes' term ended on December 16, 2012.
On January 4, 2012, Obama announced recess appointments to three seats on the board: Sharon Block, Terence F. Flynn, and Richard Griffin. The appointments were criticized by Republicans, including the House Speaker John Boehner, as unconstitutional and "a brazen attempt to undercut the role of the Senate to advise and consent the executive branch on appointments." Although made as recess appointments, critics questioned their legality, arguing that Congress had not officially been in recess as pro forma sessions had been held. Former U.S. attorney general Edwin Meese stated that in his opinion, since the appointments were made when the Senate was "demonstrably not in recess," they represented "a constitutional abuse of a high order." On January 12, 2012, the U.S. Justice Department released a memo stating that appointments made during pro forma sessions are supported by the Constitution and precedent.
On January 25, 2013, in Noel Canning v. NLRB, a panel of the D.C. Circuit ruled that President Obama's recess appointments were invalid as they were not made during an intersession recess of the Senate, and the President moved to fill them during the same recess. On May 16, 2013, in National Labor Relations Board v. New Vista Nursing and Rehabilitation, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit became the second federal appellate court to rule that the recess appointments to the NLRB were unconstitutional. In a split decision, it also found that the March 27, 2010 recess appointment of Craig Becker was unconstitutional.
On July 14, 2013, Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid threatened to exercise the "nuclear option" and allow a simple majority (rather than a supermajority) of the Senate to end a filibuster. This threat to end the filibuster's privileged position in the Senate was intended to end Republican filibustering of NLRB nominees. On July 16, 2013, President Obama and Senate Republicans reached an agreement to end the impasse over NLRB appointees. Obama withdrew the pending nominations of Block and Griffin, and submit two new nominees: Nancy Schiffer, associate general counsel at the AFL-CIO, and Kent Hirozawa, chief counsel to NLRB Chairman Mark Gaston Pearce. Republicans agreed not to oppose a fourth nominee, to be submitted in 2014.
On July 30, 2013, the Senate confirmed all five of Obama's nominees for the NLRB: Kent Hirozawa, Harry I. Johnson III, Philip A. Miscimarra, Mark Gaston Pearce and Nancy Schiffer. Johnson and Miscimarra represented the Republican nominees for the board. Pearce was confirmed for a second five-year term.
On June 26, 2014, in National Labor Relations Board v. Noel Canning, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously ruled that President Obama's recess appointments to the NLRB in 2013 were unconstitutional, affirming the D.C. Circuit's decision in Noel Canning v. NLRB.
Nancy Schiffer's term ended on December 15, 2014. She was succeeded by Lauren McFerran on December 16, 2014. Harry I. Johnson III's term ended on August 27, 2015.
Structure
In 1947, the Taft–Hartley Act created a formal administrative distinction between the Board and the General Counsel of the NLRB. In broad terms, the General Counsel is responsible for investigating and prosecuting unfair labor practice claims and for the general supervision of the NLRB field offices. The General Counsel is appointed by the President to a four-year term and independent from the Board; it has limited independence to argue for a change in the law in presenting cases to the Board. The General Counsel oversees four divisions: the Division of Operations Management, the Division of Administration, the Division of Advice, and the Division of Enforcement Litigation.
The Board, on the other hand, is the adjudicative body that decides the unfair labor practice cases brought to it. Once the Board has decided the issue, it is the General Counsel's responsibility to uphold the Board's decision, even if it is contrary to the position it advocated when presenting the case to the Board. The Board is also responsible for the administration of the Act's provisions governing the holding of elections and resolution of jurisdictional disputes. It is a reactive and not a proactive power. The NLRB rarely promulgates administrative rules.
The Board has more than thirty regional offices. The regional offices conduct elections, investigate unfair labor practice charges, and make the initial determination on those charges (whether to dismiss, settle, or issue complaints). The Board has jurisdiction to hold elections and prosecute violations of the Act in Puerto Rico and American Samoa.
Jurisdiction
The Board's jurisdiction is limited to private sector employees and the United States Postal Service; other than Postal Service employees, it has no authority over labor relations disputes involving governmental, railroad and airline employees covered by the Adamson Railway Labor Act, or agricultural employees. On the other hand, in those parts of the private sector its jurisdictional standards are low enough to reach almost all employers whose business has any appreciable impact on interstate commerce.
Processing of charges
Charges are filed by parties against unions or employers with the appropriate regional office. The regional office will investigate the complaint. If a violation is believed to exist, the region will take the case before an Administrative Law Judge who will conduct a hearing. The decision of the Administrative Law Judge may be reviewed by the five member Board. Board decisions are reviewable by United States Courts of Appeals. The Board's decisions are not self-executing: it must seek court enforcement in order to force a recalcitrant party to comply with its orders. (For greater detail on this process see the entry for unfair labor practice.)
General Counsel
Lafe Solomon was named Acting General Counsel on June21, 2010. His nomination was sent to the Senate on January5, 2011. Solomon's authority came into question on August13, 2013, when Judge Benjamin Settle for the United States District Court for the Western District of Washington denied a petition for injunctive relief, ruling that Solomon had not been properly appointed under the Federal Vacancies Reform Act of 1998 (FVRA). Although other district courts had enforced Solomon's requests, Settle's decision called into question all of Solomon's activity since June21, 2010, focusing on subsections (a)(1) and (2) of the FVRA; some pundits claimed that Solomon's appointment was allowed under subsection (a)(3). President Obama withdrew Solomon's nomination.
On July31, 2013, President Obama nominated former NLRB nominee Richard Griffin as General Counsel, calling Griffin "a kind of prosecutor at the board" who would fill "one of the most critical roles at the agency." The Senate approved Griffin's nomination on October29, 2013, by a vote of 55 to 44.
Peter B. Robb was nominated by President Donald J. Trump in September2017 and was confirmed by the U.S. Senate on November8, 2017. He was sworn in as General Counsel of the National Labor Relations Board on November 17, 2017, for a four-year term. Immediately following President Joe Biden's inauguration on January20, 2021, the White House sent a letter to Robb requesting his resignation. Just hours later, Robb refused, replying that he "respectfully decline[s] to resign" because the "removal of an incumbent General Counsel... is unprecedented" and "would set an unfortunate precedent for the labor relations of this country." He was fired that evening. In response, Representative Virginia Foxx (R–NC) said that the "outrageous ultimatum... is unacceptable and flouts the National Labor Relations Act, while Representative Andy Levin (D–MI) called Robb a "toxic figure in the NLRB" who "worked to undermine its mission." Supporters of the firing argued that it was legal, citing the recent Supreme Court decision in Seila Law LLC v. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (2020). The general counsel had never been fired previously.
On January 25, 2021, President Biden appointed Peter Sung Ohr, a veteran employee of the NLRB, to serve as Acting General Counsel. On February 17, 2021, Biden nominated Jennifer Abruzzo, a former Acting General Counsel of the NLRB, to serve as the new General Counsel. Her nomination was confirmed by the Senate on July 21, 2021, in a 51–50 vote, with Vice President Harris breaking the tie in her favor. Her four-year team in office began on July 22, 2021.
Board members
Current board members
Each seat is named for the first board member to hold the position. The Smith Seat was originally held by Edwin S. Smith (D), the Madden Seat was originally held by J. Warren Madden (D), the Carmody Seat was originally held by John M. Carmody (D), the Murdock Seat was originally held by Abe Murdock (D), and the Gray Seat was originally held by J. Copeland Gray (R).
Recent appointments
Donald Trump’s appointments
On January 25, 2017, President Donald Trump appointed Philip Miscimarra the acting Chairman of the NLRB. Miscimarra's term expired on December 16, 2017. Marvin Kaplan succeeded him as NLRB Chairman on December 21, 2017. Kaplan was replaced as chairman in April 2018 by John F. Ring, who currently holds that position.
President Trump announced on March 2, 2020, that he would renominate Republican Marvin Kaplan and Democrat Lauren McGarity McFerran to seats on the board. On July 29, 2020, Kaplan was confirmed by the Senate by a vote of 52–46 to a second term of five years expiring August 27, 2025, and McFerran was confirmed by the Senate by a vote of 53–42 to a second term of five years expiring December 16, 2024.
Joe Biden's appointments
On January 20, 2021, President Joe Biden appointed current Democratic member Lauren McFerran as chair of the NLRB.
Biden subsequently nominated Gwynne Wilcox to fill the then vacant Carmody seat on the board and David Prouty to replace William Emanuel as holder of the Smith seat when the latter's term expires in August 2021. Both nominees have strong ties to organized labor and have represented unions. They received Senate confirmation on 28 July 2021.
Past board members
Chairpersons
The President designates one member of the board to serve as chairman. Chairmen serve at the pleasure of the President, and the President can designate another member as chairman at any time.
The Chairman's powers are limited. The Chairman, like other Board Members, has a chief legal counsel and a legal staff. Except for certain limited and purely administrative functions (such as being the recipient of appeals or Freedom of Information Act requests), one former NLRB Chairman has said "the chairmanship—given the authority of the general counsel to appoint regional staff and recommend regional directors to the entire Board (not just to the chairman)—is more like a bully pulpit than a position of authority." The Chairman does, however, work with the Office of Management and Budget to craft the NLRB's budget proposal to Congress, may propose to the Board changes to NLRB procedures and guidance manuals, and may propose that the Board engage in rulemaking.
From 1935 to 1953, it was customary for the Chairman (like all Members of the NLRB) to be a neutral career government employee rather than an advocate of either labor unions or management. President Dwight Eisenhower's appointment of Guy Farmer in 1953 broke this two-decade-old tradition (Farmer was a management attorney). Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson both returned to the tradition of appointing neutral third parties to the position of Board Chairman, but President Richard M. Nixon appointed a management-side attorney. The Board as a whole was under intense Congressional scrutiny from its inception until the 1960s. This ended in the 1960s and 1970s, but resumed in the 1980s. Subsequent appointments to the position of Chairman have been heavily partisan and from either a strongly pro-union or pro-management position.
See also
Federal Labor Relations Authority
Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service (United States)
List of Chairmen of the National Labor Relations Board
NLRB election procedures
Subpoena ad testificandum
Subpoena duces tecum
Title 29 of the Code of Federal Regulations
Union organizer
Notes
References
Fischer, Fredric H.; Brent, Garren; and Truesdale, John C., eds. How to Take A Case Before the NLRB. 8th ed. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of National Affairs, 2008.
Gould IV, William B. Labored Relations: Law, Politics, and the NLRB. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2001.
External links
National Labor Relations Board official website
National Labor Relations Board in the Federal Register
Government agencies established in 1935
History of labor relations in the United States
Labor relations boards
New Deal agencies | [
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] |
223374 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tor%20%28fish%29 | Tor (fish) | Tor is a genus of cyprinid fish commonly known as mahseers.
Species
The currently recognized species in this genus are:
Tor ater T. R. Roberts, 1999
Tor dongnaiensis H. Đ. Hoàng, H. M. Phạm, J.-D. Durand, N. T. Trần & P. D. Phan, 2015 (Dongnai mahseer)
Tor douronensis (Valenciennes, 1842) (semah)
Tor hemispinus Y. R. Chen & X. L. Chu, 1985
Tor khudree (Sykes, 1839) (black mahseer)
Tor kulkarnii Menon, 1992 (dwarf mahseer)
Tor laterivittatus W. Zhou & G. H. Cui, 1996
Tor malabaricus Jerdon, 1849 (Malabar mahseer)
Tor mosal (F. Hamilton, 1822)
Tor mekongensis H. Đ. Hoàng, H. M. Phạm, J.-D. Durand, N. T. Trần & P. D. Phan, 2015 (Mekong mahseer)
Tor polylepis W. Zhou & G. H. Cui, 1996
Tor putitora (F. Hamilton, 1822) (Himalayan mahseer)
Tor cf. putitora largest known species of cavefish
Tor remadevii Kurup & Radhakrishnan, 2007 (orange-finned mahseer)
Tor sinensis H. W. Wu, 1977 (Chinese mahseer)
Tor tambra (Valenciennes, 1842)
Tor tambroides (Bleeker, 1854) (Malayan mahseer, empurau)
Tor tor (F. Hamilton, 1822) (red-finned mahseer)
Tor yingjiangensis Z. M. Chen & J. X. Yang, 2004
References
Cyprinidae genera
Cyprinid fish of Asia
Taxa named by John Edward Gray | [
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223376 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapeze%20%281975%20album%29 | Trapeze (1975 album) | Trapeze, also known as Trapeze 1975, is the fifth studio album by English hard rock band Trapeze. Recorded with producer Steve Smith at Island Studios, London, it was released in 1975 by Warner Bros. Records. The album was preceded by the release of one single, a cover version of "On the Sunny Side of the Street", originally recorded by Frank Sinatra.
Reception
Music website AllMusic awarded Trapeze two out of five stars. Writer Dave Thompson described the album as "a dour little disc, desperately missing the funk infusions of Glenn Hughes and, for the most part, overshadowed even by its disappointing predecessor". Thompson identified opening track "Star Breaker" as "probably the best" song on Trapeze, but summarised the release as "lumpen rock by rote, dull and dismissed by all but the most desperately faithful".
Track listing
Personnel
Musical personnel
Mel Galley – guitar, vocals
Rob Kendrick – guitar
Pete Wright – bass
Dave Holland – drums
Glenn Hughes – vocals on tracks 3 and 10
Additional personnel
Steve Smith – production
Phill Brown – engineering
Bobby Hata – mastering
Seabrook Graves Aslett – artwork
References
1975 albums
Trapeze (band) albums
Warner Records albums | [
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223389 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedanta | Vedanta | Vedanta (; , ), also Uttara Mīmāṃsā, is one of the six (āstika) schools of Hindu philosophy. Literally meaning "end of the Vedas", Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from, or were aligned with, the speculations and philosophies contained in the Upanishads, specifically, knowledge and liberation. Vedanta contains many sub-traditions on the basis of a common textual connection called the Prasthanatrayi: the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita.
All Vedanta schools, in their deliberations, concern themselves with, but differ in their views regarding, ontology, soteriology and epistemology. The main traditions of Vedanta are:
Bhedabheda (difference and non-difference), as early as the 7th century CE, or even the 4th century CE. Some scholars are inclined to consider it as a "tradition" rather than a school of Vedanta.
Dvaitādvaita or Svabhavikabhedabheda (dualistic non-dualism), founded by Nimbarka in the 7th century CE
Achintya Bheda Abheda (inconceivable one-ness and difference), founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534 CE), propagated by Gaudiya Vaishnava
Advaita (monistic), most prominent Gaudapada (~500 CE) and Adi Shankaracharya (8th century CE)
Vishishtadvaita (qualified monism), prominent scholars are Nathamuni, Yāmuna and Ramanuja (1017–1137 CE)
Akshar Purushottam Darshan (Akshar and Purushottam), founded by Swaminarayan (1781-1830 CE), rooted in Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita
Tattvavada (Dvaita) (realistic point of view or dualism), founded by Madhvacharya (1199–1278 CE). The prominent scholars are Jayatirtha (1345-1388 CE), and Vyasatirtha (1460–1539 CE)
Suddhadvaita (purely non-dual), founded by Vallabha (1479–1531 CE)
Modern developments in Vedanta include Neo-Vedanta, and the growth of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. All of these schools, except Advaita Vedanta and Neo-Vedanta, are related to Vaishavism and emphasize devotion, regarding Vishnu or Krishna or a related manifestation, to be the highest Reality. While Advaita Vedanta attracted considerable attention in the West due to the influence of Hindu modernists like Swami Vivekananda, most of the other Vedanta traditions are seen as discourses articulating a form of Vaishnava theology.
Etymology and nomenclature
The word Vedanta is made of two words :
Veda (वेद) - refers to the four sacred vedic texts.
Anta (अंत) - this word means "End".
The word Vedanta literally means the end of the Vedas and originally referred to the Upanishads. Vedanta is concerned with the or knowledge section of the vedas which is called the Upanishads. The denotation of Vedanta subsequently widened to include the various philosophical traditions based on to the Prasthanatrayi.
The Upanishads may be regarded as the end of Vedas in different senses:
These were the last literary products of the Vedic period.
These mark the culmination of Vedic thought.
These were taught and debated last, in the Brahmacharya (student) stage.
Vedanta is one of the six orthodox (āstika) schools of Indian philosophy. It is also called Uttara Mīmāṃsā, which means the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry'; and is often contrasted with Pūrva Mīmāṃsā, the 'former enquiry' or 'primary enquiry'. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā deals with the karmakāṇḍa or ritualistic section (the Samhita and Brahmanas) in the Vedas.
Vedanta philosophy
Common features
Despite their differences, all schools of Vedanta share some common features:
Vedanta is the pursuit of knowledge into the Brahman and the Ātman.
The Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutras constitute the basis of Vedanta ( together known as Prasthanatrayi), providing reliable sources of knowledge (Sruti Śabda in Pramana);
Brahman, c.q. Ishvara (God), exists as the unchanging material cause and instrumental cause of the world. The only exception here is that Dvaita Vedanta does not hold Brahman to be the material cause, but only the efficient cause.
The self (Ātman/Jiva) is the agent of its own acts (karma) and the recipient of the consequences of these actions.
Belief in rebirth and the desirability of release from the cycle of rebirths, (mokṣa).
Rejection of Buddhism and Jainism and conclusions of the other Vedic schools (Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, and, to some extent, the Purva Mimamsa).
Prasthanatrayi (the Three Sources)
The Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutras constitute the basis of Vedanta. All schools of Vedanta propound their philosophy by interpreting these texts, collectively called the Prasthanatrayi, literally, three sources.
The Upanishads, or Śruti prasthāna; considered the Sruti, the "heard" (and repeated) foundation of Vedanta.
The Brahma Sutras, or Nyaya prasthana / Yukti prasthana; considered the reason-based foundation of Vedanta.
The Bhagavad Gita, or Smriti prasthāna; considered the Smriti (remembered tradition) foundation of Vedanta.
The Brahma Sutras attempted to synthesize the teachings of the Upanishads. The diversity in the teaching of the Upanishads necessitated the systematization of these teachings. This was likely done in many ways in ancient India, but the only surviving version of this synthesis is the Brahma Sutras of Badarayana.
All major Vedantic teachers, including Shankara, Bhaskara, Ramanuja, Madhva, Nimbarka, and Vallabha have composed commentaries not only on the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras, but also on the Bhagavad Gita. The Bhagavad Gita, due to its syncretism of Samkhya, Yoga, and Upanishadic thought, has played a major role in Vedantic thought.
Metaphysics
Vedanta philosophies discuss three fundamental metaphysical categories and the relations between the three.
Brahman or Ishvara: the ultimate reality
Ātman or Jivātman: the individual soul, self
Prakriti/Jagat: the empirical world, ever-changing physical universe, body and matter
Brahman / Ishvara – Conceptions of the Supreme Reality
Shankara, in formulating Advaita, talks of two conceptions of Brahman: The higher Brahman as undifferentiated Being, and a lower Brahman endowed with qualities as the creator of the universe.
Parā or Higher Brahman: The undifferentiated, absolute, infinite, transcendental, supra-relational Brahman beyond all thought and speech is defined as parā Brahman, nirviśeṣa Brahman or nirguṇa Brahman and is the Absolute of metaphysics.
Aparā or Lower Brahman: The Brahman with qualities defined as aparā Brahman or saguṇa Brahman. The saguṇa Brahman is endowed with attributes and represents the personal God of religion.
Ramanuja, in formulating Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, rejects nirguṇa – that the undifferentiated Absolute is inconceivable – and adopts a theistic interpretation of the Upanishads, accepts Brahman as Ishvara, the personal God who is the seat of all auspicious attributes, as the One reality. The God of Vishishtadvaita is accessible to the devotee, yet remains the Absolute, with differentiated attributes.
Madhva, in expounding Dvaita philosophy, maintains that Vishnu is the supreme God, thus identifying the Brahman, or absolute reality, of the Upanishads with a personal god, as Ramanuja had done before him. Nimbarka, in his dvaitadvata philosophy, accepted the Brahman both as nirguṇa and as saguṇa. Vallabha, in his shuddhadvaita philosophy, not only accepts the triple ontological essence of the Brahman, but also His manifestation as personal God (Ishvara), as matter and as individual souls.
Relation between Brahman and Jiva / Atman
The schools of Vedanta differ in their conception of the relation they see between Ātman / Jivātman and Brahman / Ishvara:
According to Advaita Vedanta, Ātman is identical with Brahman and there is no difference.
According to Vishishtadvaita, Jīvātman is different from Ishvara, though eternally connected with Him as His mode. The oneness of the Supreme Reality is understood in the sense of an organic unity (vishistaikya). Brahman / Ishvara alone, as organically related to all Jīvātman and the material universe is the one Ultimate Reality.
According to Dvaita, the Jīvātman is totally and always different from Brahman / Ishvara.
According to Shuddhadvaita (pure monism), the Jīvātman and Brahman are identical; both, along with the changing empirically observed universe being Krishna.
Epistemology
Pramana
Pramāṇa (Sanskrit: प्रमाण) literally means "proof", "that which is the means of valid knowledge". It refers to epistemology in Indian philosophies, and encompasses the study of reliable and valid means by which human beings gain accurate, true knowledge. The focus of Pramana is the manner in which correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows or does not know, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired. Ancient and medieval Indian texts identify six pramanas as correct means of accurate knowledge and truths:
Pratyakṣa (perception)
Anumāṇa (inference)
Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy)
Arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances)
Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof)
Śabda (scriptural testimony/ verbal testimony of past or present reliable experts).
The different schools of Vedanta have historically disagreed as to which of the six are epistemologically valid. For example, while Advaita Vedanta accepts all six pramanas, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita accept only three pramanas (perception, inference and testimony).
Advaita considers Pratyakṣa (perception) as the most reliable source of knowledge, and Śabda, the scriptural evidence, is considered secondary except for matters related to Brahman, where it is the only evidence. In Vishistadvaita and Dvaita, Śabda, the scriptural testimony, is considered the most authentic means of knowledge instead.
Theories of cause and effect
All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of Satkāryavāda, which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as Samkhya, support Parinamavada, the idea that the world is a real transformation (parinama) of Brahman. According to , "the Brahma Sutras espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins". In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, Vivartavada, which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (vivarta) transformation of its cause, Brahman.
Overview of the main schools of Vedanta
The Upanishads present an associative philosophical inquiry in the form of identifying various doctrines and then presenting arguments for or against them. They form the basic texts and Vedanta interprets them through rigorous philosophical exegesis to defend the point of view of their specific sampradaya. Varying interpretations of the Upanishads and their synthesis, the Brahma Sutras, led to the development of different schools of Vedanta over time.
Vinayak Sakaram Ghate of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute has done a comparative analysis of the Brahma Sutra commentaries of Nimbarka, Ramanuja, Vallabha, Adi Shankara and Madhvacharya in detail and has written the conclusion that Nimbarka's and Ramanuja's balanced commentaries give the closest meaning of the Brahma_Sutras taking into account of both kinds of Sutras, those which speak of oneness and those which speak of difference. According to Gavin Flood, while Advaita Vedanta is the "most famous" school of Vedanta, and "often, mistakenly, taken to be the only representative of Vedantic thought," and Shankara a Saivite, "Vedanta is essentially a Vaisnava theological articulation," a discourse broadly within the parameters of Vaisnavism." Within the Vaishnava traditions four sampradays have special status, while different scholars have classified the Vedanta schools ranging from three to six as prominent ones.
Bhedabheda, as early as the 7th century CE, or even the 4th century CE. Some scholars are inclined to consider it as a "tradition" rather than a school of Vedanta.
Dvaitādvaita or Svabhavikabhedabheda (Vaishnava), founded by Nimbarka in the 7th century CE
Achintya Bheda Abheda (Vaishnava), founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534 CE), propagated by Gaudiya Vaishnava
Advaita (monistic), many scholars of which most prominent are Gaudapada (~500 CE) and Adi Shankaracharya (8th century CE)
Vishishtadvaita (Vaishnava), prominent scholars are Nathamuni, Yāmuna and Ramanuja (1017–1137 CE)
Akshar-Purushottam Darshan, based on the teachings of Swaminarayan (1781-1830 CE) and rooted in Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita; propagated most notably by BAPS
Tattvavada (Dvaita) (Vaishnava), founded by Madhvacharya (1199–1278 CE). The prominent scholars are Jayatirtha (1345-1388 CE), and Vyasatirtha (1460–1539 CE)
Suddhadvaita (Vaishnava), founded by Vallabha (1479–1531 CE)
Bhedabheda Vedanta (difference and non-difference)
Bhedābheda means "difference and non-difference" and is more a tradition than a school of Vedanta. The schools of this tradition emphasize that the individual self (Jīvatman) is both different and not different from Brahman. Notable figures in this school are Bhartriprapancha, Nimbārka (7th century) who founded the Dvaitadvaita school, Bhāskara (8th–9th century), Ramanuja's teacher Yādavaprakāśa, Chaitanya (1486–1534) who founded the Achintya Bheda Abheda school, and Vijñānabhikṣu (16th century).
Dvaitādvaita Vedanta
Nimbārka (7th century) sometimes identified with Bhāskara, propounded Dvaitādvaita. Brahman (God), souls (chit) and matter or the universe (achit) are considered as three equally real and co-eternal realities. Brahman is the controller (niyanta), the soul is the enjoyer (bhokta), and the material universe is the object enjoyed (bhogya). The Brahman is Krishna, the ultimate cause who is omniscient, omnipotent, all-pervading Being. He is the efficient cause of the universe because, as Lord of Karma and internal ruler of souls, He brings about creation so that the souls can reap the consequences of their karma. God is considered to be the material cause of the universe because creation was a manifestation of His powers of soul (chit) and matter (achit); creation is a transformation (parinama) of God's powers. He can be realized only through a constant effort to merge oneself with His nature through meditation and devotion.
Achintya-Bheda-Abheda Vedanta
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486 – 1533) was the prime exponent of Achintya-Bheda-Abheda. In Sanskrit achintya means 'inconceivable'. Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents the philosophy of "inconceivable difference in non-difference", in relation to the non-dual reality of Brahman-Atman which it calls (Krishna), svayam bhagavan. The notion of "inconceivability" (acintyatva) is used to reconcile apparently contradictory notions in Upanishadic teachings. This school asserts that Krishna is Bhagavan of the bhakti yogins, the Brahman of the jnana yogins, and has a divine potency that is inconceivable. He is all-pervading and thus in all parts of the universe (non-difference), yet he is inconceivably more (difference). This school is at the foundation of the Gaudiya Vaishnava religious tradition. The ISKCON or the Hare Krishnas also affiliate to this school of Vedanta Philosophy.
Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism)
Advaita Vedanta (IAST ; Sanskrit: अद्वैत वेदान्त), propounded by Gaudapada (7th century) and Adi Shankara (8th century), espouses non-dualism and monism. Brahman is held to be the sole unchanging metaphysical reality and identical to the individual Atman. The physical world, on the other hand, is always-changing empirical Maya. The absolute and infinite Atman-Brahman is realized by a process of negating everything relative, finite, empirical and changing.
The school accepts no duality, no limited individual souls (Atman / Jivatman), and no separate unlimited cosmic soul. All souls and their existence across space and time are considered to be the same oneness. Spiritual liberation in Advaita is the full comprehension and realization of oneness, that one's unchanging Atman (soul) is the same as the Atman in everyone else, as well as being identical to Brahman.
Vishishtadvaita Vedanta (qualified non-dualism)
Vishishtadvaita, propounded by Ramanuja (11–12th century), asserts that Jivatman (human souls) and Brahman (as Vishnu) are different, a difference that is never transcended. With this qualification, Ramanuja also affirmed monism by saying that there is unity of all souls and that the individual soul has the potential to realize identity with the Brahman. Vishishtadvaita, like Advaita, is a non-dualistic school of Vedanta in a qualified way, and both begin by assuming that all souls can hope for and achieve the state of blissful liberation. On the relation between the Brahman and the world of matter (Prakriti), Vishishtadvaita states both are two different absolutes, both metaphysically true and real, neither is false or illusive, and that saguna Brahman with attributes is also real. Ramanuja states that God, like man, has both soul and body, and the world of matter is the glory of God's body. The path to Brahman (Vishnu), according to Ramanuja, is devotion to godliness and constant remembrance of the beauty and love of the personal god (bhakti of saguna Brahman).
Akshar Purushottam Darshan
Akshar Purushottam Darshan, propounded by Swaminarayan (1781-1830 CE) and rooted in Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita, asserts that Parabrahman (Purushottam, Narayana) and Aksharbrahman are two distinct eternal realities. Adherents believe that they can achieve moksha, or freedom from the cycle of birth and death, by becoming aksharrup (or brahmarup), that is, by attaining qualities similar to Akshar (or Aksharbrahman) and worshipping Purushottam (or Parabrahman; the supreme living entity; God).
Tattvavada Vedanta (Dvaita)(dualism)
Tattvavada, propounded by Madhvacharya (13th century), is based on the premise of realism or realistic point of view. The term Dvaita which means dualism was later applied to Madhvacharya's philosophy. Atman (soul) and Brahman (as Vishnu) are understood as two completely different entities. Brahman is the creator of the universe, perfect in knowledge, perfect in knowing, perfect in its power, and distinct from souls, distinct from matter. In Dvaita Vedanta, an individual soul must feel attraction, love, attachment and complete devotional surrender to Vishnu for salvation, and it is only His grace that leads to redemption and salvation. Madhva believed that some souls are eternally doomed and damned, a view not found in Advaita and Vishishtadvaita Vedanta. While the Vishishtadvaita Vedanta asserted "qualitative monism and quantitative pluralism of souls", Madhva asserted both "qualitative and quantitative pluralism of souls".
Shuddhādvaita Vedanta (pure nondualism)
Shuddhadvaita (pure non-dualism), propounded by Vallabhacharya (1479–1531 CE), states that the entire universe is real and is subtly Brahman only in the form of Krishna. Vallabhacharya agreed with Advaita Vedanta's ontology, but emphasized that prakriti (empirical world, body) is not separate from the Brahman, but just another manifestation of the latter. Everything, everyone, everywhere – soul and body, living and non-living, jiva and matter – is the eternal Krishna. The way to Krishna, in this school, is bhakti. Vallabha opposed renunciation of monistic sannyasa as ineffective and advocates the path of devotion (bhakti) rather than knowledge (jnana). The goal of bhakti is to turn away from ego, self-centered-ness and deception, and to turn towards the eternal Krishna in everything continually offering freedom from samsara.
History
The history of Vedanta can be divided into two periods: one prior to the composition of the Brahma Sutras and the other encompassing the schools that developed after the Brahma Sutras were written. Until the 11th century, Vedanta was a peripheral school of thought.
Before the Brahma Sutras (before the 5th century)
Little is known of schools of Vedanta existing before the composition of the Brahma Sutras (400–450 CE). It is clear that Badarayana, the writer of Brahma Sutras, was not the first person to systematize the teachings of the Upanishads, as he quotes six Vedantic teachers before him – Ashmarathya, Badari, Audulomi, Kashakrtsna, Karsnajini and Atreya. References to other early Vedanta teachers – Brahmadatta, Sundara, Pandaya, Tanka and Dravidacharya – are found in secondary literature of later periods. The works of these ancient teachers have not survived, but based on the quotes attributed to them in later literature, Sharma postulates that Ashmarathya and Audulomi were Bhedabheda scholars, Kashakrtsna and Brahmadatta were Advaita scholars, while Tanka and Dravidacharya were either Advaita or Vishistadvaita scholars.
Brahma Sutras (completed in the 5th century)
Badarayana summarized and interpreted teachings of the Upanishads in the Brahma Sutras, also called the Vedanta Sutra, possibly "written from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint." Badarayana summarized the teachings of the classical Upanishads and refuted the rival philosophical schools in ancient India. The Brahma Sutras laid the basis for the development of Vedanta philosophy.
Though attributed to Badarayana, the Brahma Sutras were likely composed by multiple authors over the course of hundreds of years. The estimates on when the Brahma Sutras were complete vary, with Nakamura in 1989 and Nicholson in his 2013 review stating, that they were most likely compiled in the present form around 400–450 CE. Isaeva suggests they were complete and in current form by 200 CE, while Nakamura states that "the great part of the Sutra must have been in existence much earlier than that."
The book is composed of four chapters, each divided into four-quarters or sections. These sutras attempt to synthesize the diverse teachings of the Upanishads. However, the cryptic nature of aphorisms of the Brahma Sutras have required exegetical commentaries. These commentaries have resulted in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own commentary.
Between the Brahma Sutras and Adi Shankara (5th–8th centuries)
Little with specificity is known of the period between the Brahma Sutras (5th century CE) and Adi Shankara (8th century CE). Only two writings of this period have survived: the Vākyapadīya, written by Bhartṛhari (second half 5th century,) and the Kārikā written by Gaudapada (early 6th or 7th century CE).
Shankara mentions 99 different predecessors of his school in his commentaries. A number of important early Vedanta thinkers have been listed in the Siddhitraya by Yamunācārya (c. 1050), the Vedārthasamgraha by Rāmānuja (c. 1050–1157), and the Yatīndramatadīpikā by Śrīnivāsa Dāsa. At least fourteen thinkers are known to have existed between the composition of the Brahma Sutras and Shankara's lifetime.
A noted scholar of this period was Bhartriprapancha. Bhartriprapancha maintained that the Brahman is one and there is unity, but that this unity has varieties. Scholars see Bhartriprapancha as an early philosopher in the line who teach the tenet of Bhedabheda.
Gaudapada, Adi Shankara (Advaita Vedanta) (6th–9th centuries)
Influenced by Buddhism, Advaita vedanta departs from the bhedabheda-philosophy, instead postulating the identity of Atman with the Whole (Brahman),
Gaudapada
Gaudapada (c. 6th century CE), was the teacher or a more distant predecessor of Govindapada, the teacher of Adi Shankara. Shankara is widely considered as the apostle of Advaita Vedanta. Gaudapada's treatise, the – also known as the or the – is the earliest surviving complete text on Advaita Vedanta.
Gaudapada's relied on the Mandukya, Brihadaranyaka and Chhandogya Upanishads. In the , Advaita (non-dualism) is established on rational grounds (upapatti) independent of scriptural revelation; its arguments are devoid of all religious, mystical or scholastic elements. Scholars are divided on a possible influence of Buddhism on Gaudapada's philosophy. The fact that Shankara, in addition to the Brahma Sutras, the principal Upanishads and the Bhagvad Gita, wrote an independent commentary on the proves its importance in literature.
Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara (788–820), elaborated on Gaudapada's work and more ancient scholarship to write detailed commentaries on the Prasthanatrayi and the . The Mandukya Upanishad and the have been described by Shankara as containing "the epitome of the substance of the import of Vedanta". It was Shankara who integrated Gaudapada work with the ancient Brahma Sutras, "and give it a locus classicus" alongside the realistic strain of the Brahma Sutras.
A noted contemporary of Shankara was Maṇḍana Miśra, who regarded Mimamsa and Vedanta as forming a single system and advocated their combination known as Karma-jnana-samuchchaya-vada. The treatise on the differences between the Vedanta school and the Mimamsa school was a contribution of Adi Shankara. Advaita Vedanta rejects rituals in favor of renunciation, for example.
Early Vaishnavism Vedanta (7th–9th centuries)
Early Vaishnava Vedanta retains the tradition of bhedabheda, equating Brahman with Vishnu or Krishna.
Nimbārka and Dvaitādvaita
Nimbārka (7th century) sometimes identified with Bhāskara, propounded Dvaitādvaita or Bhedābheda.
Bhāskara and Upadhika
Bhāskara (8th–9th century) also taught Bhedabheda. In postulating Upadhika, he considers both identity and difference to be equally real. As the causal principle, Brahman is considered non-dual and formless pure being and intelligence. The same Brahman, manifest as events, becomes the world of plurality. is Brahman limited by the mind. Matter and its limitations are considered real, not a manifestation of ignorance. Bhaskara advocated bhakti as dhyana (meditation) directed toward the transcendental Brahman. He refuted the idea of Maya and denied the possibility of liberation in bodily existence.
Vaishnavism Bhakti Vedanta (11th–16th centuries)
The Bhakti movement of late medieval Hinduism started in the 7th-century, but rapidly expanded after the 12th-century. It was supported by the Puranic literature such as the Bhagavata Purana, poetic works, as well as many scholarly bhasyas and samhitas.
This period saw the growth of Vashnavism Sampradayas (denominations or communities) under the influence of scholars such as Ramanujacharya, Vedanta Desika, Madhvacharya and Vallabhacharya. Bhakti poets or teachers such as Manavala Mamunigal, Namdev, Ramananda, Surdas, Tulsidas, Eknath, Tyagaraja, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and many others influenced the expansion of Vaishnavism. These Vaishnavism sampradaya founders challenged the then dominant Shankara's doctrines of Advaita Vedanta, particularly Ramanuja in the 12th century, Vedanta Desika and Madhva in the 13th, building their theology on the devotional tradition of the Alvars (Shri Vaishnavas), and Vallabhacharya in the 16th century.
In North and Eastern India, Vaishnavism gave rise to various late Medieval movements: Ramananda in the 14th century, Sankaradeva in the 15th and Vallabha and Chaitanya in the 16th century.
Ramanuja (Vishishtadvaita Vedanta) (11th–12th centuries)
Rāmānuja (1017–1137 CE) was the most influential philosopher in the Vishishtadvaita tradition. As the philosophical architect of Vishishtadvaita, he taught qualified non-dualism. Ramanuja's teacher, Yadava Prakasha, followed the Advaita monastic tradition. Tradition has it that Ramanuja disagreed with Yadava and Advaita Vedanta, and instead followed Nathamuni and Yāmuna. Ramanuja reconciled the Prasthanatrayi with the theism and philosophy of the Vaishnava Alvars poet-saints. Ramanuja wrote a number of influential texts, such as a bhasya on the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita, all in Sanskrit.
Ramanuja presented the epistemological and soteriological importance of bhakti, or the devotion to a personal God (Vishnu in Ramanuja's case) as a means to spiritual liberation. His theories assert that there exists a plurality and distinction between Atman (souls) and Brahman (metaphysical, ultimate reality), while he also affirmed that there is unity of all souls and that the individual soul has the potential to realize identity with the Brahman. Vishishtadvaiata provides the philosophical basis of Sri Vaishnavism.
Ramanuja was influential in integrating Bhakti, the devotional worship, into Vedanta premises.
Madhva (Tattvavada or Dvaita Vedanta)(13th–14th centuries)
Tattvavada or Dvaita Vedanta was propounded by Madhvacharya (1238–1317 CE). He presented the opposite interpretation of Shankara in his Dvaita, or dualistic system. In contrast to Shankara's non-dualism and Ramanuja's qualified non-dualism, he championed unqualified dualism. Madhva wrote commentaries on the chief Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutra.
Madhva started his Vedic studies at age seven, joined an Advaita Vedanta monastery in Dwarka (Gujarat), studied under guru Achyutrapreksha, frequently disagreed with him, left the Advaita monastery, and founded Dvaita. Madhva and his followers Jayatirtha and Vyasatirtha, were critical of all competing Hindu philosophies, Jainism and Buddhism, but particularly intense in their criticism of Advaita Vedanta and Adi Shankara.
Dvaita Vedanta is theistic and it identifies Brahman with Narayana, or more specifically Vishnu, in a manner similar to Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta. But it is more explicitly pluralistic. Madhva's emphasis for difference between soul and Brahman was so pronounced that he taught there were differences (1) between material things; (2) between material things and souls; (3) between material things and God; (4) between souls; and (5) between souls and God. He also advocated for a difference in degrees in the possession of knowledge. He also advocated for differences in the enjoyment of bliss even in the case of liberated souls, a doctrine found in no other system of Indian philosophy.
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (Achintya Bheda Abheda) (16th century)
Achintya Bheda Abheda (Vaishnava), founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534 CE), was propagated by Gaudiya Vaishnava. Historically, it was Chaitanya Mahaprabhu who founded congregational chanting of holy names of Krishna in the early 16th century after becoming a sannyasi.
Modern times (19th century – present)
Swaminarayan and Akshar-Purushottam Darshan (19th century)
The Akshar-Purushottam Darshan, which is rooted in Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita, was founded in 1801 by Swaminarayan (1781-1830 CE), and is contemporarily most notably propagated by BAPS. Due to the commentarial work of Bhadreshdas Swami, the Akshar-Purushottam teachings were recognized as a distinct school of Vedanta by the Shri Kashi Vidvat Parishad in 2017 and by members of the 17th World Sanskrit Conference in 2018. Swami Paramtattvadas describes the Akshar-Purushottam teachings as "a distinct school of thought within the larger expanse of classical Vedanta," presenting the Akshar-Purushottam teachings as a seventh school of Vedanta.
Neo-Vedanta (19th century)
Neo-Vedanta, variously called as "Hindu modernism", "neo-Hinduism", and "neo-Advaita", is a term that denotes some novel interpretations of Hinduism that developed in the 19th century, presumably as a reaction to the colonial British rule. writes that these notions accorded the Hindu nationalists an opportunity to attempt the construction of a nationalist ideology to help unite the Hindus to fight colonial oppression. Western orientalists, in their search for its "essence", attempted to formulate a notion of "Hinduism" based on a single interpretation of Vedanta as a unified body of religious praxis. This was contra-factual as, historically, Hinduism and Vedanta had always accepted a diversity of traditions. asserts that the neo-Vedantic theory of "overarching tolerance and acceptance" was used by the Hindu reformers, together with the ideas of Universalism and Perennialism, to challenge the polemic dogmatism of Judaeo-Christian-Islamic missionaries against the Hindus.
The neo-Vedantins argued that the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy were perspectives on a single truth, all valid and complementary to each other. sees these interpretations as incorporating western ideas into traditional systems, especially Advaita Vedanta. It is the modern form of Advaita Vedanta, states , the neo-Vedantists subsumed the Buddhist philosophies as part of the Vedanta tradition and then argued that all the world religions are same "non-dualistic position as the philosophia perennis", ignoring the differences within and outside of Hinduism. According to , neo-Vedanta is Advaita Vedanta which accepts universal realism:
A major proponent in the popularization of this Universalist and Perennialist interpretation of Advaita Vedanta was Vivekananda, who played a major role in the revival of Hinduism. He was also instrumental in the spread of Advaita Vedanta to the West via the Vedanta Society, the international arm of the Ramakrishna Order.
Criticism of Neo-Vedanta label
writes that the attempts at integration which came to be known as neo-Vedanta were evident as early as between the 12th and the 16th century−
Matilal criticizes Neo-Hinduism as an oddity developed by West-inspired Western Indologists and attributes it to the flawed Western perception of Hinduism in modern India. In his scathing criticism of this school of reasoning, says:
Influence
According to , the Vedanta school has had a historic and central influence on Hinduism:
Frithjof Schuon summarizes the influence of Vedanta on Hinduism as follows:
Gavin Flood states,
Hindu traditions
Vedanta, adopting ideas from other orthodox (āstika) schools, became the most prominent school of Hinduism. Vedanta traditions led to the development of many traditions in Hinduism. Sri Vaishnavism of south and southeastern India is based on Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta. Ramananda led to the Vaishnav Bhakti Movement in north, east, central and west India. This movement draws its philosophical and theistic basis from Vishishtadvaita. A large number of devotional Vaishnavism traditions of east India, north India (particularly the Braj region), west and central India are based on various sub-schools of Bhedabheda Vedanta. Advaita Vedanta influenced Krishna Vaishnavism in the northeastern state of Assam. The Madhva school of Vaishnavism found in coastal Karnataka is based on Dvaita Vedanta.
Āgamas, the classical literature of Shaivism, though independent in origin, show Vedanta association and premises. Of the 92 Āgamas, ten are (dvaita) texts, eighteen (bhedabheda), and sixty-four (advaita) texts. While the Bhairava Shastras are monistic, Shiva Shastras are dualistic. finds the link between Gaudapada's Advaita Vedanta and Kashmir Shaivism evident and natural. Tirumular, the Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta scholar, credited with creating "Vedanta–Siddhanta" (Advaita Vedanta and Shaiva Siddhanta synthesis), stated, "becoming Shiva is the goal of Vedanta and Siddhanta; all other goals are secondary to it and are vain."
Shaktism, or traditions where a goddess is considered identical to Brahman, has similarly flowered from a syncretism of the monist premises of Advaita Vedanta and dualism premises of Samkhya–Yoga school of Hindu philosophy, sometimes referred to as Shaktadavaitavada (literally, the path of nondualistic Shakti).
Influence on Western thinkers
An exchange of ideas has been taking place between the western world and Asia since the late 18th century as a result of colonization of parts of Asia by Western powers. This also influenced western religiosity. The first translation of Upanishads, published in two parts in 1801 and 1802, significantly influenced Arthur Schopenhauer, who called them the consolation of his life. He drew explicit parallels between his philosophy, as set out in The World as Will and Representation, and that of the Vedanta philosophy as described in the work of Sir William Jones. Early translations also appeared in other European languages. Influenced by Śaṅkara's concepts of Brahman (God) and māyā (illusion), Lucian Blaga often used the concepts marele anonim (the Great Anonymous) and cenzura transcendentă (the transcendental censorship) in his philosophy.
Similarities with Spinoza's philosophy
German Sanskritist Theodore Goldstücker was among the early scholars to notice similarities between the religious conceptions of the Vedanta and those of the Dutch Jewish philosopher Baruch Spinoza, writing that Spinoza's thought was
Max Müller noted the striking similarities between Vedanta and the system of Spinoza, saying,
Helena Blavatsky, a founder of the Theosophical Society, also compared Spinoza's religious thought to Vedanta, writing in an unfinished essay,
See also
Badarayana
Monistic idealism
List of teachers of Vedanta
Self-consciousness (Vedanta)
Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism
Notes
References
Sources
Printed sources
—OR—
.
,
Web sources
Further reading
Comparative analysis of commentaries on Vedanta Sutras. https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.283844/2015.283844.The-Vedanta.pdf
- Resources to help with the Study and Practice of Vedanta.
External links
Āstika
Consciousness
Dualism in cosmology
Hindu philosophical concepts
Metaphilosophy
Movements in ancient Indian philosophy
Nondualism
Philosophical movements
Philosophical schools and traditions
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223391 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Hutchinson%20%28governor%29 | Thomas Hutchinson (governor) | Thomas Hutchinson (9 September 1711 – 3 June 1780) was a businessman, historian, and a prominent Loyalist politician of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the years before the American Revolution. He has been referred to as "the most important figure on the loyalist side in pre-Revolutionary Massachusetts". He was a successful merchant and politician, and was active at high levels of the Massachusetts government for many years, serving as lieutenant governor and then governor from 1758 to 1774. He was a politically polarizing figure who came to be identified by John Adams and Samuel Adams as a proponent of hated British taxes, despite his initial opposition to Parliamentary tax laws directed at the colonies. He was blamed by Lord North (the British Prime Minister at the time) for being a significant contributor to the tensions that led to the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War.
Hutchinson's Boston mansion was ransacked in 1765 during protests against the Stamp Act, damaging his collection of materials on early Massachusetts history. As acting governor in 1770, he exposed himself to mob attack in the aftermath of the Boston massacre, after which he ordered the removal of troops from Boston to Castle William. Letters of his calling for abridgement of colonial rights were published in 1773, further intensifying dislike of him in the colony. He was replaced as governor in May 1774 by General Thomas Gage, and went into exile in England, where he advised the government on how to deal with the colonists.
Hutchinson had a deep interest in colonial history, collecting many historical documents. He wrote a three-volume History of the Province of Massachusetts Bay whose last volume, published posthumously, covered his own period in office. Historian Bernard Bailyn wrote of Hutchinson, "If there was one person in America whose actions might have altered the outcome [of the protests and disputes preceding the American Revolutionary War], it was he." Scholars use Hutchinson's career to represent the tragic fate of the many Loyalists marginalized by their attachment to an outmoded imperial structure at a time when the modern nation-state was emerging. Hutchinson exemplifies the difficulties experienced by Loyalists, paralyzed by his ideology and his dual loyalties to America and Britain. He sacrificed his love for Massachusetts to his loyalty to Great Britain, where he spent his last years in unhappy exile.
Early life
Thomas Hutchinson was born on 9 September 1711 in the North End of Boston, the fourth of twelve children of Thomas and Sarah Foster Hutchinson. He was descended from early New England settlers, including Anne Hutchinson and her son Edward Hutchinson, and his parents were both from well-to-do merchant families. His father was involved in the family mercantile trade but was also active in political, military, and charitable circles and served on the provincial council. His younger brother was Foster Hutchinson.
Young Thomas entered Harvard College at twelve, graduating in 1727. His father introduced him to the business world early, and he displayed remarkable business acumen. According to the autobiographical sketch of his childhood, Hutchinson turned a modest gift from his father of "five quintals of fish" into between £400 and £500 by the time he was 21. In 1732, he received some exposure to politics when he accompanied Governor Jonathan Belcher on a voyage to Casco Bay for negotiations with the Abenaki of Maine, then part of Massachusetts. The voyage was made in a vessel of which Hutchinson was part owner. In 1734, he married Margaret Sanford, a granddaughter of Rhode Island Governor Peleg Sanford. The Sanford and Hutchinson families had a long history of business and personal connections; Margaret, in fact, was his third cousin. The marriage secured a political alliance between Hutchinson and Andrew and Peter Oliver which lasted long after Margaret's death. Margaret Sanford's sister Mary (1713-1773) was the second wife of Andrew Oliver. Likewise, a daughter of Thomas Hutchinson married a son of Peter Oliver. The Oliver brothers were also related to Massachusetts governor Jonathan Belcher and to New Hampshire lieutenant governors William Partridge and George Vaughan (Harvard Class of 1696). The couple had twelve children, only five of whom survived to adulthood before Margaret died in 1754 from complications of childbirth.
Legislator and councillor
In 1737 Hutchinson entered politics, being elected as a Boston selectman, and later in the year, to a seat in the General Court (the provincial assembly). He spoke out against the province's practice of issuing bills of credit (as a form of paper currency), whose inflationary drop in value wrought havoc in the economy. This position was unpopular with the populist party in the province, and Hutchinson was voted out in the 1739 election. He was sent to England as an agent to plead on behalf of property owners affected by King George II's decision concerning the boundary line between Massachusetts and New Hampshire which significantly favored New Hampshire. Hutchinson's embassy was unsuccessful, although he returned with a bequest to Harvard for the construction of a new chapel; Holden Chapel, built with these funds, still stands today.
In 1742, Hutchinson was again elected to the General Court, where he served until 1749, being the body's speaker from 1746 to 1749. His continued advocacy of currency reforms so annoyed the populist faction that the need to guard his properties in Boston and Milton from possible mob action was discussed. When the British government was convinced to refund the province's expense for mounting the 1745 Louisbourg expedition, Hutchinson seized upon the idea of using the massive payment (about £180,000 in gold and silver) to retire the province's paper currency. Despite significant opposition, Hutchinson successfully navigated a bill implementing the idea through the assembly's general court in 1749; it received the agreement of the Governor's Council, and also the signature of Governor William Shirley. Many of the bill's opponents were pleasantly surprised when the exchange of paper for specie did not cause any financial shocks, and Hutchinson's popularity soared.
Despite the success, Hutchinson was voted out of the assembly in 1749. He was, however, immediately appointed to the Governor's Council. In 1749 he headed a commission to arrange a treaty with the Indians in the District of Maine, which was then part of Massachusetts, and he served on boundary commissions to settle disputes with Connecticut and Rhode Island. In 1752 he was appointed judge of probate and a justice of the Common Pleas. Following the outbreak of the French and Indian War in 1754, he was a delegate to the Albany Convention. In that meeting he took a leading part in the discussions, working with Benjamin Franklin to draft a plan for colonial union. Hutchinson agreed with Franklin that the present disunity endangered the British colonies and that decisive action must be taken to knit the too-often-competing colonies into a coherent whole. Most important, the report drafted by Hutchinson concluded that the colonies must be encouraged to establish "a Union of His Majesty's several governments on the continent, that so their councils, treasure, and strength may be employed in due proportion against their common enemy".
Hutchinson's wife died quite suddenly in 1754; Hutchinson thereafter threw himself into his work. His work was not entirely of a political nature: in a humanitarian streak he supported Acadian refugees who had been expelled from their Nova Scotia homelands, even though this support of Roman Catholics did not gain him friends in Protestant Massachusetts. He was also sensitive to the needs of the military men involved in the war, often giving aid to needy families of veterans.
Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts
When Governor Shirley's political opponents engineered his recall in 1756, Hutchinson sought and received the endorsement of the British military leader Lord Loudoun to succeed Shirley as governor. During this time Hutchinson was the leading politician in the province due to the age and infirmity of Lieutenant Governor Spencer Phips. Hutchinson's application was unsuccessful, but he did receive an appointment as lieutenant governor in 1758, serving under Thomas Pownall. Hutchinson's relationship with Pownall was awkward, for Pownall was at the center of political activities that dislodged Governor Shirley, under whose patronage Hutchinson had risen in power and influence. Pownall cultivated relations with the populist factions in the state and sought to remove the influence of Shirley supporters, sometimes asking Hutchinson to turn against people he (Hutchinson) had earlier supported. This Hutchinson refused to do since he saw these actions as harming the province's stability and taking place at "the caprice of the governor". Pownall, whose mistrust of Hutchinson was reciprocated, requested to leave to return to England in late 1759. The political opposition of Shirley supporters and the death of some of his leading populist supporters may have contributed to this decision. He departed the province on 3 June 1760, leaving Hutchinson as acting governor. Several months later Pownall's replacement, Francis Bernard, arrived to take the reins of power.
Writs of assistance
One of Bernard's early acts was the appointment of Hutchinson instead of James Otis Sr., as Chief Justice of the Massachusetts Superior Court of Judicature. This action by itself turned the province's populists, whose vocal leaders included Otis and his son James Jr., against both Hutchinson and Bernard, with long term consequences to Hutchinson's reputation. Hutchinson, with no legal training, had not sought the post, and some emerging legal thinkers, notably a rising young lawyer named John Adams, were also outraged.
In 1761 Hutchinson brought upon himself a storm of protest and criticism by issuing writs of assistance, documents that authorized essentially arbitrary searches by customs officials. Although some had been issued (ironically over Hutchinson's objections) in earlier years, the writs he authorized were in some cases renewals of existing writs necessitated by the accession of King George III to the throne. Adams and the Otises seized on the issue to rail against his monopolization of power (since he was also a lieutenant governor and sat on the council) and lack of legal qualifications for the post of chief justice.
Taxes and the Stamp Act
When the Sugar Act was being discussed in Parliament in 1763, proposals were put forward to send Hutchinson to England to represent the colony's opposition to the proposal. Governor Bernard, however, objected to sending the sitting lieutenant governor, and the bill was enacted. Much colonial protest followed, and Hutchinson agreed with vocal opponents like the Otis (who around this time began using the phrase "no taxation without representation") that the law harmed the Massachusetts economy. In the ensuing debates, however, differences emerged between Hutchinson and others over Parliament's supremacy and the feasibility of having formal colonial representation there, which were exacerbated by the personal animosity that had developed between Hutchinson and the Otis. Led by James Otis, Jr. and Oxenbridge Thacher, the anti-Parliament faction seized on every minor dispute to rail against Hutchinson and his faction's monopolization of power. Hutchinson was at first dismissive of these ongoing political attacks, believing that his opponents were either misguided or misled. Biographer Andrew Walmsley observes that Hutchinson at this stage seriously underestimated the impact of these attacks in building a coherent opposition to crown control, and in the damage, it was doing to his own reputation.
In debates leading up to the passage of the 1765 Stamp Act, both Hutchinson and Bernard quietly warned London not to proceed. Hutchinson in particular wrote that "It cannot be good to tax the Americans ... You will lose more than you gain." Hutchinson's letters even shaped the political discourse in Parliament. Isaac Barre, a prominent Member of Parliament, drew heavily on the themes presented in Hutchinson's letters: he proclaimed that "Your oppressions planted them. . . . They grew by your neglect. . . . They have nobly taken up arms in your defense" on the floor of Parliament in opposition to the Stamp Act. When the assembly met to draft a petition to London on the matter in October 1764, Hutchinson opposed the inclusion of the radicals' language, and eventually pushed through a more moderate statement of opposition. However, the Massachusetts petition was seen as weak in comparison to those prepared by other colonies, and Hutchinson was claimed to be secretly seeking to promote the Stamp Act. He was also accused of "treachery" and "betraying his country". News of the act's passage propelled one of the most vocal opponents of Parliamentary supremacy, Samuel Adams, into a larger role in provincial politics. Hutchinson privately supported calls for its repeal, but his unwillingness to publicly oppose the act merely provided additional fuel for his opponents.
Mob violence
Hutchinson's brother-in-law, colonial secretary Andrew Oliver, was given the job of "stamp master", with responsibility for implementing the act in the province. Although Hutchinson apparently had no hand in this assignment, his opponents were quick to accuse him of further duplicity. His attempts to explain his position only fuelled the opposition, who recounted his early unpopular acts and questioned his motives in those deeds. On 13 August 1765, mobs descended on Oliver's home and office, ransacking both. The next night Hutchinson's Boston mansion was surrounded, and the crowd demanded that he formally deny arguing in favor of the Stamp Act in his correspondence with London. He refused, and only the intervention of a moderate leader prevented any action that night.
Twelve days later, on the evening of 26 August, a mob again formed outside of his mansion, and this time they would not be denied. Described by one architectural historian as "the first developed example of provincial Palladianism in New England," the house was broken into (Hutchinson and his family narrowly escaping) and systematically ransacked. The house finishings (wainscoting and other decorative woodwork) were effectively destroyed, and even the building's cupola was taken down in violence that lasted the entire night. The family silver, furniture, and other items were stolen or destroyed (although some items were eventually returned), and Hutchinson's collection of historically important manuscripts was scattered. Hutchinson was then working on the final volume of his three-volume history of the Massachusetts Bay colony. Many pages of the work were lost that night and had to be recreated. Hutchinson's detailed inventory (reprinted by biographer James Kendall Hosmer) valued the damage done at more than £2,200, and he eventually received over £3,100 from the province for his troubles. Hutchinson and his family temporarily took refuge at Castle William, and thereafter took up primary residence at Hutchinson's estate in Milton.
Governor of Massachusetts
Because of the controversy over the Stamp Act, the radical faction came to control both the assembly and the governor's council in 1766, and Hutchinson was denied a seat on the governor's council. Amid increased furor after the passage of the 1767 Townshend Acts, Governor Bernard requested and received British Army troops to protect crown officials. Letters written by Bernard describing conditions in the province were acquired by the radical opposition and published, leading to his recall. Bernard left for England on 1 August 1769, leaving Hutchinson as acting governor. Hutchinson was unsuccessful in his attempts to distance himself from the unpopular Bernard administration, and he continued to be attacked in the assembly and the local press. Despite this, he continued to lobby for a formal appointment as governor. He categorically refused to again serve as lieutenant governor under another governor, preferring instead a posting elsewhere, or to resign the lieutenant governorship.
Hutchinson was still acting governor when protests over the Townshend taxes erupted into the Boston Massacre on 5 March 1770, when British soldiers fired into a crowd, killing five people. Hutchinson went to the scene in the aftermath of the shooting and promised that justice would be applied fairly. He had all of the British soldiers involved in the incident arrested the next day, but ongoing unrest in the city compelled him to request the withdrawal of British troops from the city to Castle William. Hutchinson was able to postpone the trial for almost 6 months to allow anger to settle and for Adams to prepare a solid case. The soldiers were eventually tried, and two were convicted of manslaughter, although their sentences were reduced. The episode shook Hutchinson's confidence in his ability to manage affairs in the province, and he penned a resignation letter.
Governor Bernard had, in the meantime, taken up Hutchinson's cause in London. In March 1771 Hutchinson's commission as governor arrived in Boston, having been approved by the king while his resignation letter was going the other way. (Colonial Secretary Lord Hillsborough rejected his resignation.) The instructions sent with the commission were fairly strict and left Hutchinson's relatively little room to maneuver politically. Instructions that particularly galled Samuel Adams included one restricting the meetings of the governor's council, and another limiting the appointment of colonial agents to individuals having the governor's approval.
One of Hutchinson's instructions was to relocate the provincial assembly from Boston to Cambridge, where it would be less under the influence of radical Boston politics. This modest demand, accomplished by executive order, resulted in howls of complaint of gubernatorial arbitrariness in the assembly, and an exchange of arguments, rebuttals, and counterarguments between Hutchinson and the assembly that ran for thousands of pages and lasted until 1772. The nature of the affair furthered the radical cause, whose proponents painted Hutchinson's action as a bold and devious attempt to further the executive prerogative. The radicals were further outraged when Hutchinson announced in 1772 that his salary, which had previously been subject to appropriation by the assembly, would be paid by the crown instead. This was seen by the radicals as a further usurpation of power that rightfully belonged in the province. Written debates with the assembly extended to the role of Parliament in governing the policies, and further deepened the divide between it and Hutchinson. They also raised flags elsewhere in the colonies and in England, where observers noted that Hutchinson's arguments had effectively driven moderates in the province to join with the political hardliners.
Letters affair and Tea Party
The Massachusetts debate reached a pitch in 1772 when Hutchinson, in a speech to the assembly, argued that either the colony was wholly subject to Parliament, or that it was effectively independent. The assembly's response, authored by John Adams, Samuel Adams, and Joseph Hawley, countered that the colonial charter granted autonomy. In England the colonial secretary, Lord Dartmouth, insisted to colonial agent Benjamin Franklin that the Massachusetts assembly retract its response. Franklin had acquired a packet of letters, written in the late 1760s by Hutchinson and other colonial officials, from which he concluded that Hutchinson and Oliver had mischaracterized the situation in the colonies, and thus misled Parliament. Believing that wider knowledge of these letters would focus colonial anger away from Parliament and at those who had written the misleading letters, Franklin sent the letters to Thomas Cushing, the speaker of the Massachusetts assembly, in December 1772. He insisted to Cushing that they not be published or widely circulated, because he was not "at liberty to make the letters public". The letters came into the hands of Samuel Adams, then serving as the clerk of the assembly, who engineered their publication in June 1773. Franklin's belief was only partially vindicated: the publication of the letters unleashed a torrent of vitriol against Hutchinson, but did nothing to lessen opposition to Parliamentary policy: instead the opposition saw the letters as confirmation of a conspiracy against their rights. The letters were reprinted throughout the colonies, and Hutchinson was burned in effigy in places as far away as Philadelphia during the uproar.
Hutchinson's letters, written between 1767 and 1769 to Thomas Whately, a retired former leading member of the British government, included the observation that colonists couldn't have the full rights they would have in the home country, essentially requiring an "abridgment of what are called English liberties". He made no specific proposals on how the colonial government should be reformed, writing in a letter that was not among those published, "I can think of nothing but what will produce as great an evil as that which it may remove or will be of a very uncertain event." Letters by Andrew Oliver, in contrast, specifically proposed that the governor's council, whose members were then elected by the assembly with the governor's consent, be changed to one whose members were appointed by the crown.
Although much of what Hutchinson wrote in the letters was not particularly new, Samuel Adams masterfully manipulated the contents and implications of some of the statements by Hutchinson and Oliver to suggest they were conspiring with officials in London to deprive the colonists of their rights. Hutchinson was defended in print by provincial attorney general Jonathan Sewall, who claimed that Hutchinson was not actually expressing desired changes in the state of affairs but ruminating instead on possible consequences of present conditions.
The Massachusetts assembly drafted a petition to the Board of Trade demanding Hutchinson's removal from office, and Hutchinson, concerned with the effect the letter publication and the assembly petition would have in London, requested permission to come to England to defend himself. The letter authorizing his return did not reach Boston until November 1773, too late for him to depart that year; his request and the assembly's petition would not be heard until early 1774.
In the meantime, Parliament had repealed most of the Townshend taxes (keeping only the one on tea), and passed the Tea Act, which authorized the British East India Company to ship tea directly to the colonies, eliminating colonial merchants from its supply chain and undercutting the price of smuggled Dutch tea. This caused colonial merchants all over the North American colonies to organize opposition to the deliveries of the company's tea. In Massachusetts the arrival of ships carrying tea in November 1773 brought about a crisis since duties were to be paid on dutiable cargo within twenty days of a ship's arrival. Hutchinson and his sons were among the businessmen to whom the company had consigned its tea, although Hutchinson disclaimed any official role in the choice of the consignee. Other cargo was unloaded from the ships, but armed protestors patrolled the docks to ensure the tea was not landed. Hutchinson took a hard line, refusing to allow the tea ships to leave the harbor despite citywide protests that the tea is sent back to England, and insisting that the duty be paid and the tea landed. When the twenty-day deadline arrived on 16 December, protestors (some in Indian disguise) boarded the ships that night, and dumped the tea into the harbor.
Hutchinson justified the hardline stance that contributed to the crisis by claiming it was his duty as governor to uphold the revenue laws, while American opponents such as James Bowdoin observed that he could have just as easily refused to accept the tea when it was clear that popular sentiment would make it impossible to land the tea. British critics complained that he should have asked the British troops in Boston to intervene. After it became known that other tea ships sent to North America had turned back, Hutchinson continued to justify his actions in letters to England, anticipating hearings on the matter once he arrived there.
When the Board of Trade met to consider the assembly's petition to recall Hutchinson, it also discussed the tea party. Franklin, as colonial agent, was forced to listen to a barrage of criticism and was dismissed as colonial postmaster general. The assembly's petition was dismissed as "groundless" and "vexatious", but Hutchinson's request for leave was granted. In May 1774 General Thomas Gage arrived in Boston to take over as governor, and to implement the "Coercive Acts" Parliament had passed as punishment for the tea party. Hutchinson, believing he would only be away from Massachusetts temporarily, sailed for England on 1 June 1774.
Exile
Upon his arrival in London, Hutchinson was granted an audience with the king, who questioned him on affairs in North America, and he was well received by Rockingham, Dartmouth, and Lord North, the prime minister. In his interview with North he expressed dismay at the terms of the Massachusetts Government Act and sought to establish a basis for the eventual repeal of the Boston Port Act, whose enactment by Governor Gage had a crippling effect on the province's economy. One part of the Government Act, the appointment by the crown of the governor's council, was something he had long opposed without formal hearings on the matter, but even colonial authorities sympathetic to his view believed events had by 1774 gone too far for the British political establishment to support alternatives. At the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in April 1775 his Milton mansion was seized for use as an army barracks, and a trunk containing copies of much of his correspondence fell into rebel hands.
As the war progressed, Hutchinson was criticized by the Whigs in Parliament, which he answered in an unpublished manuscript. He continued to be treated favorably by the king, but was compelled to refuse the offer of a baronetcy because most of his fortune was lost due to his exile, and became marginalized from power as the prosecution of the war took center stage. On 4 July 1776, Hutchinson was awarded an honorary doctorate of law by Oxford University. His enemies in Massachusetts continued to attack his reputation, and his exile made it impossible to effectively dispute the charges they made. His properties, like those of other exiled Loyalists, were seized and sold off by the state; his Milton home was eventually purchased by James and Mercy Otis Warren (the latter being the sister of his long-time enemy James Otis, Jr.)
Bitter and disillusioned about his forced exile, and grieving the loss of his daughter Peggy in 1777, Hutchinson continued to work on his history of the colony which was the fruit of many decades of research. Two volumes were published in his lifetime: Volume 1 of the History of Massachusetts appeared in 1764, and Volume 2 in 1767. The third volume would be published posthumously, and included his own tenure as lieutenant governor and governor. At the same time, he worked to complete a history of the Hutchinson family, in which he encapsulated details on political affairs not found elsewhere. He suffered a stroke and died at Brompton in west London on 3 June 1780, aged 68, and was buried in Croydon Minster in south London.
Legacy and memory
Because of his central role as the main focal point for the opposition to the royal rule, Hutchinson's reputation in America was generally quite poor. He was often seen as a traitor to his native Massachusetts and the cause of freedom. John Adams was characteristically harsh in his assessment of him, calling him "avaricious" and describing him as a "courtier" who manipulated those at higher levels of power to achieve his aims. He was also criticized by British political figures: Thomas Pownall continued to disagree with Hutchinson after the latter's exile, Francis Bernard (despite working on Hutchinson's behalf) disapproved of some of his actions, and Lord North believed the publication of his letters to be responsible for the outbreak of the war.
Biographers in the 20th century have, however, rehabilitated his reputation, seeking to explain how and why he came to be demonized in this way. In recent decades historians have typically portrayed Hutchinson as a tragic figure torn between his rulers in London and his people in Massachusetts. Barbara Tuchman, for example, portrays Hutchinson as an "ill-fated" and "tragic figure". British scholar David Kenneth Fieldhouse says his tragedy emerged because he was "a victim of the clash of two ideologies, his own archaic and static, that of his opponents contemporary and dynamic". Carl L. Becker, a prominent American historian wrote: "Nothing would have pleased him [Hutchinson] more than that New England should have shown its emancipation from provincialism by meriting the goodwill of the King. His irritation with America in general and Boston, in particular, was the irritation of a proud and possessive father with a beloved but wayward child who fails to do him credit in high places." Bailyn has changed his own interpretation over the years. In the 1970s he saw Hutchinson as a bewildered pragmatist. By 2004 he portrayed Hutchinson as a premodern thinker locked in an old mindset at a time when Enlightenment ideas were taking hold thanks to thinkers such as Adam Smith and Tom Paine.
Remnants of Hutchinson's country estate in Milton have been preserved. The main piece, a parcel of land known as Governor Hutchinson's Field, is owned by The Trustees of the Reservations and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It is open to the public, and nearby property features a ha-ha constructed for Hutchinson in 1771. The ha-ha is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and both properties are part of the Milton Hill Historic District. Boston, which had landmarks named after the Hutchinson family, took pains upon his departure to rename them.
In popular culture
In the 2015 miniseries Sons of Liberty, Hutchinson is portrayed by Sean Gilder.
Publications
the First volume of Hutchinson's History
Second volume of Hutchinson's History
Commentary on the United States Declaration of Independence
Third volume of Hutchinson's History, published posthumously
Notes
References
Further reading
Becker, Carl. "Thomas Hutchinson" in Dictionary of American Biography (1934)
Calhoon, Robert M. "Hutchinson, Thomas" American National Biography (1999) https://doi.org/10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0100438
Freiberg, Malcolm> "Thomas Hutchinson: The First Fifty Years (1711-1761)" William and Mary Quarterly 15#1 (1958), pp. 35–55 online
Hattem, Michael D. "The Historiography of the American Revolution" Journal of the American Revolution (2013) online
Shipton, C. K. "Hutchinson, Thomas" in Sibley's Harvard graduates: biographical sketches of those who attended Harvard College vol 8 (1951), 149–217
Tyler, John W. and Elizabeth Dubrulle (eds.), The Correspondence of Thomas Hutchinson: Volume 1: 1740-1766. Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 2014.
1711 births
1780 deaths
American Loyalists from Massachusetts
British historians
American people of English descent
Harvard College alumni
Harvard College Loyalists in the American Revolution
Colonial governors of Massachusetts
Lieutenant Governors of colonial Massachusetts
Justices of the Massachusetts Superior Court of Judicature
Members of the colonial Massachusetts Governor's Council
Members of the colonial Massachusetts House of Representatives
People from colonial Boston
People from Milton, Massachusetts
18th-century American politicians | [
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223394 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audouin%27s%20gull | Audouin's gull | Audouin's gull (Ichthyaetus audouinii) is a large gull restricted to the Mediterranean and the western coast of Saharan Africa and the Iberian Peninsula. The genus name is from Ancient Greek ikhthus, "fish", and aetos, "eagle", and
the specific audouinii and the English name are after the French naturalist Jean Victoire Audouin.
It breeds on small islands colonially or alone, laying 2–3 eggs on a ground nest. As is the case with many gulls, it has traditionally been placed in the genus Larus.
In the late 1960s, this was one of the world's rarest gulls, with a population of only 1,000 pairs. It has established new colonies, but remains rare with a population of about 10,000 pairs.
This species, unlike many large gulls, rarely scavenges, but is a specialist fish eater, and is therefore strictly coastal and pelagic. This bird will feed at night, often well out to sea, but also slowly patrols close into beaches, occasionally dangling its legs to increase drag.
The adult basically resembles a small European herring gull, the most noticeable differences being the short stubby red bill and "string of pearls" white wing primary tips, rather than the large "mirrors" of some other species. The legs are grey-green. It takes four years to reach adult plumage.
This species shows little tendency to wander from its breeding areas, but there were single records in the Netherlands and England in May 2003, and one spent from December 2016 to April 2017 in Trinidad.
The Audouin's gull is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies.
References
External links
Audouin's gull
Birds of Southern Europe
Birds of North Africa
Birds of West Africa
Audouin's gull
Taxobox binomials not recognized by IUCN
Taxa named by Charles Payraudeau | [
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223396 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laridae | Laridae | Laridae is a family of seabirds in the order Charadriiformes that includes the gulls, terns and skimmers. It includes around 100 species arranged into 22 genera. They are an adaptable group of mostly aerial birds found worldwide.
Taxonomy
The family Laridae was introduced (as Laridia) by the French polymath Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1815. Historically, Laridae were restricted to the gulls, while the terns were placed in a separate family, Sternidae, and the skimmers in a third family, Rynchopidae. The noddies were traditionally included in Sternidae. In 1990 Charles Sibley and Jon Ahlquist included auks and skuas in a broader family Laridae.
A molecular phylogenetic study by Baker and colleagues published in 2007 found that the noddies in the genus Anous formed a sister group to a clade containing the gulls, skimmers and the other terns. To create a monophyletic family group, Laridae was expanded to include the genera that had previously been in Sternidae and Rynchopidae.
Baker and colleagues found that the Laridae lineage diverged from a lineage that gave rise to both the skuas (Stercorariidae) and auks (Alcidae) before the end of the Cretaceous in the age of dinosaurs. They also found that the Laridae themselves began expanding in the early Paleocene, around 60 million years ago. The German palaeontologist Gerald Mayr has questioned the validity of these early dates and suggested that inappropriate fossils were used in calibrating the molecular data. The earliest charadriiform fossils date only from the late Eocene, around 35 million years ago.
Anders Ödeen and colleagues investigated the development of ultraviolet vision in shorebirds, by looking for the SWS1 opsin gene in various species; as gulls were the only shorebirds known to have developed the trait. They discovered that the gene was present in the gull, skimmer and noddy lineages but not the tern lineage. They also recovered the noddies as an early lineage, though the evidence was not strong.
For the complete list of species, see the article List of Laridae species.
Noddies
Genus Anous (5 species)
Genus Gygis (white tern)
Skimmers
Genus Rynchops (3 species)
Gulls
Genus Creagrus (swallow-tailed gull)
Genus Rissa (kittiwakes) (2 species)
Genus Pagophila (ivory gull)
Genus Xema (Sabine's gull)
Genus Chroicocephalus (11 species)
Genus Hydrocoloeus (little gull)
Genus Rhodostethia (Ross's gull)
Genus Leucophaeus (5 species)
Genus Ichthyaetus (6 species)
Genus Larus (24 species)
Terns
Genus Gelochelidon (2 species)
Genus Hydroprogne (Caspian tern)
Genus Thalasseus (8 species)
Genus Sternula (7 species)
Genus Onychoprion (4 species)
Genus Sterna (13 species)
Genus Chlidonias (4 species)
Genus Phaetusa (large-billed tern)
Genus Larosterna (Inca tern)
Distribution and habitat
The Laridae have spread around the world, and their adaptability has likely been a factor. Most have become much more aerial than their ancestor, which was likely some form of shorebird.
Notes
References
Further reading
Grant, Peter J. (1986) Gulls: a guide to identification
Howell, Steve N. G. and Jon Dunn (2007) Gulls of the Americas
Olsen, Klaus Malling & Larsson, Hans (1995): Terns of Europe and North America. Christopher Helm, London.
External links
Seabirds
Bird families
Taxa named by Constantine Samuel Rafinesque | [
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223397 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larus | Larus | Larus is a large genus of gulls with worldwide distribution (by far the greatest species diversity is in the Northern Hemisphere).
Many of its species are abundant and well-known birds in their ranges. Until about 2005–2007, most gulls were placed in this genus, but this arrangement is now known to be polyphyletic, leading to the resurrection of the genera Ichthyaetus, Chroicocephalus, Leucophaeus, and Hydrocoloeus (this last had been recognized more often than the other genera) for several species traditionally included in Larus.
They are in general medium to large birds, typically grey or white, often with black markings on their heads or wings. They have stout, longish bills and webbed feet.
The taxonomy of the large gulls in the herring and lesser black-backed complex is very complicated, with different authorities recognising between two and eight species.
Taxonomy
The genus Larus was introduced in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae. The genus name is from Ancient Greek laros (λάῥος) or Latin larus, which appears to have referred to a gull or other large seabird. The type species is the great black-backed gull (Larus marinus).
Species
The genus contains 24 species.
Fossils
Fossils of Larus gulls are known from the Middle Miocene, about 20-15 million years ago; allocation of earlier fossils to this genus is generally rejected. Biogeography of the fossil record suggests that the genus evolved in the northern Atlantic and spread globally during the Pliocene, when species diversity seems to have been highest, as with most seabirds.
Larus sp. (Middle Miocene of Grund, Austria)
Larus sp. (Middle Miocene of Romania)
Larus sp. (Late? Miocene/Early Pliocene of Lee Creek Mine, U.S.) - several species
Larus elmorei (Early/Middle Pliocene of Bone Valley, southeastern U.S.)
Larus lacus ( Late Pliocene of Pinecrest, southeastern U.S.)
Larus perpetuus (Late Pliocene of Pinecrest, southeastern U.S.)
Larus sp. (San Diego Late Pliocene of the southwestern U.S.)
Larus oregonus (Late Pliocene - Late Pleistocene of the west-central U.S.)
Larus robustus (Late Pliocene - Late Pleistocene of the west-central U.S.)
Larus sp. (Late Pleistocene of Lake Manix western U.S.)
"Larus" raemdonckii (Early Oligocene of Belgium) is now at least tentatively believed to belong in the procellariiform genus Puffinus. "L." elegans (Late Oligocene?/Early Miocene of St-Gérand-le-Puy, France) and "L." totanoides (Late Oligocene?/Early Miocene of southeastern France) are now in Laricola, while "L." dolnicensis (Early Miocene of the Czech Republic) was actually a pratincole; it is now placed in Mioglareola.
The Early Miocene "Larus" desnoyersii (southeastern France) and "L." pristinus (John Day Formation, Willow Creek, U.S.) probably do not belong in this genus; the former may be a skua.
Ring species
The circumpolar group of Larus gull species has often been cited as a classic example of the ring species. The range of these gulls forms a ring around the North Pole. The European herring gull, which lives primarily in Great Britain and Northern Europe, can hybridize with the American herring gull (living in North America), which can also interbreed with the Vega or East Siberian gull, the western subspecies of which, Birula's gull, can hybridize with Heuglin's gull which, in turn, can interbreed with the Siberian lesser black-backed gull (all four of these live across the north of Siberia). The last is the eastern representative of the lesser black-backed gulls back in northwestern Europe, including Great Britain. However, the lesser black-backed gulls and herring gull are sufficiently different that they rarely interbreed; thus, the group of gulls forms a continuum except in Europe, where the two lineages meet. However, a recent genetic study has shown that this example is far more complicated than presented here, and probably does not constitute a true ring species.
See also
Hybridisation in gulls
References
Bird genera
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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223400 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slack | Slack | Slack may refer to:
Places
Slack, West Yorkshire, a village in Calderdale, England
The Slack, a village in County Durham, England
Slack (river), a river in Pas-de-Calais department, France
Slacks Creek, Queensland, a suburb of Logan City, Queensland, Australia
Science and technology
File slack, a kind of computer internal fragmentation
Slack bus, an electrical power regulating system used to conduct load flow studies
Slack (project management), the time that a task in a project network can be delayed without delaying subsequent tasks or the overall project
Slack (software), a team communication tool that can be used for collaboration
Slack variable, a mathematical concept
Slackware, a Linux distribution
Slack tub, used by a blacksmith to quench hot metal
People
Andrew Slack (born 1955), Australian rugby union player
Charlie Slack (1931–2020), American basketball player
George Slack (1874–1950), American politician
Shanon Slack (born 1984), American mixed martial artist
Other uses
Resource slack, the level of availability of a resource to a business
Slack, the central belief of the parody religion Church of the SubGenius
Slack coal, fragments of coal and coal dust; for example used in the Birchills Power Station
Slackness or slack, lyrics of a crude or bawdy nature in dancehall music
Slacks or trousers
Slack, the valley or trough between dunes
Slack action, free movement due to loose couplings between railway cars
See also
SLAC (disambiguation)
Slacks (disambiguation)
Slacker, a person who habitually avoids work or lacks work ethic | [
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223403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3ACH | ISO 3166-2:CH | ISO 3166-2:CH is the entry for Switzerland in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
The abbreviation is derived from Latin name for Switzerland, (English: Helvetic Confederation).
Currently for Switzerland, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 26 cantons.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Switzerland. The second part is two letters, currently used in vehicle registration plates.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
ISO 639-1 codes are used to represent subdivision names in the following administrative languages:
(de): German
(fr): French
(it): Italian
(rm): Romansh
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:
See also
Subdivisions of Switzerland
FIPS region codes of Switzerland
NUTS codes of Switzerland
Comparison of ISO, FIPS, and NUTS codes of the cantons of Switzerland
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: CH
Cantons of Switzerland, Statoids.com
2:CH
ISO 3166-2
Switzerland geography-related lists | [
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223405 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coraciidae | Coraciidae | Coraciidae is a family of Old World birds, which is known as rollers because of the aerial acrobatics some of these birds perform during courtship or territorial flights. Rollers resemble crows in size and build, and share the colourful appearance of kingfishers and bee-eaters, blues and pinkish or cinnamon browns predominating. The two inner front toes are connected, but not the outer one.
They are mainly insect eaters, with Eurystomus species taking their prey on the wing, and those of the genus Coracias diving from a perch to catch food items from on the ground, like giant shrikes.
Although living rollers are birds of warm climates in the Old World, fossil records show that rollers were present in North America during the Eocene. They are monogamous and nest in an unlined hole in a tree or in masonry, and lay 2–4 eggs in the tropics, 3–6 at higher latitudes. The eggs, which are white, hatch after 17–20 days, and the young remain in the nest for approximately another 30 days.
Taxonomy and systematics
The roller family Coraciidae was introduced (as Coracinia) by the French polymath Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1815. It is one of nine families in the order Coraciiformes, which also includes the motmots, bee-eaters, todies, ground-rollers, cuckoo roller and three families of kingfishers. Apart from the ground-rollers, these families do not appear to be particularly closely related to the rollers, and the Coraciiformes are therefore probably polyphyletic. The Coraciiformes family gets its scientific name for Latin coracium, "like a raven", and the English name "roller" from the aerial acrobatics some of these birds perform during courtship or territorial flights.
A molecular phylogenetic study by Ulf Johansson and collaborators published in 2018 found that the azure dollarbird (Eurystomus azureus) was nested in a clade containing subspecies of the Oriental dollarbird (Eurystomus orientalis).
Genera
The roller family has two extant genera as follows:
Description
Rollers can be identified as medium-sized birds with strong, slightly hooked beaks and stocky bodies, often with brightly colored plumage. Rollers resemble crows in size and build, ranging from 25 to 27 centimetres (10–11 in) in length. They share the colourful appearance of kingfishers and bee-eaters, blues and pinkish or cinnamon browns predominating. The rollers are similar in general morphology to their relatives in the order Coraciiformes, having large heads on short necks, bright plumage, weak feet and short legs. The two inner front toes are connected, but not the outer one. The weakness of the feet and legs is reflected in their behaviour, rollers do not hop or move along perches and seldom use their feet other than for occasional lurching leaps along the ground pursuing escaping prey. The bill is robust, and is shorter yet broader in the genus Eurystomus, sometimes known as the broad-billed rollers. The broad-billed rollers have brightly coloured bills, whereas those of the Coracias (or true) rollers are black. Other differences between the two genera are in wing length; the more aerial Eurystomus rollers have longer wings (and shorter feet still) than the Coracias rollers, this reflects differences in their foraging ecology. Their calls are "repeated short, gruff caws".
Distribution and habitat
The rollers are found in warmer parts of the Old World. Africa has most species, and is believed to be where the family originated. This is supported by the fact that the related ground-rollers are found on Madagascar. The European roller is completely migratory, breeding in Europe and wintering in Africa, and the dollarbird also leaves much of its breeding range in winter. Other species are sedentary or short-range migrants.
These are birds of open habitats with trees or other elevated perches from which to hunt.
Behavior
Breeding
Rollers are noisy and aggressive when defending their nesting territories, which they patrol while displaying their striking plumage. Intruders are attacked with intimidating rolling dives. They are monogamous and nest in an unlined hole in a tree or in masonry, and lay 2–4 eggs in the tropics, 3–6 at higher latitudes. The eggs, which are white, hatch after 17–20 days, and the young remain in the nest for approximately another 30 days. Egg laying is staggered at one-day intervals so that if food is short only the older larger nestlings get fed. The chicks are naked, blind and helpless when they hatch.
Feeding
Coracias rollers are watch-and wait hunters. They sit in a tree or on a post before descending on their prey and carrying it back to a perch in the beak before dismembering it. They take a wide range of terrestrial invertebrates, and small vertebrates such as frogs, lizards, rodents and young birds. They will take items avoided by many other birds, such as hairy caterpillars, insects with warning colouration and snakes.
Eurystomus rollers hunt on the wing, swooping on flying beetles, crickets and other insects which are crushed by their broad deep beaks and eaten on the wing. The azure roller and dollarbird will hunt huge swarms of termites and flying ants which appear after thunderstorms. Tens or hundreds of these rollers may be attracted to large swarms.
References
Cited text
External links
Roller videos on the Internet Bird Collection
The distribution, status and places to see the roller in northeast Spain
Roller From Turkey
Extant Eocene first appearances
Taxa named by Constantine Samuel Rafinesque
Bird families | [
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223407 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switched-mode%20power%20supply | Switched-mode power supply | A switched-mode power supply (switching-mode power supply, switch-mode power supply, switched power supply, SMPS, or switcher) is an electronic power supply that incorporates a switching regulator to convert electrical power efficiently.
Like other power supplies, an SMPS transfers power from a DC or AC source (often mains power, see AC adapter) to DC loads, such as a personal computer, while converting voltage and current characteristics. Unlike a linear power supply, the pass transistor of a switching-mode supply continually switches between low-dissipation, full-on and full-off states, and spends very little time in the high dissipation transitions, which minimizes wasted energy. A hypothetical ideal switched-mode power supply dissipates no power. Voltage regulation is achieved by varying the ratio of on-to-off time (also known as duty cycles). In contrast, a linear power supply regulates the output voltage by continually dissipating power in the pass transistor. This higher power conversion efficiency is an important advantage of a switched-mode power supply.
Switched-mode power supplies can also be substantially smaller and lighter than a linear supply because the transformer can be much smaller. This is because it operates on the switching frequency which ranges from several hundred kHz to several MHz in contrast to the 50-60Hz which is typical for the mains AC frequency. Despite the reduction in size, the power supply topology itself and the requirement for electromagnetic interference (EMI) suppression in commercial designs result in a usually much greater component count and corresponding circuit complexity.
Switching regulators are used as replacements for linear regulators when higher efficiency, smaller size or lighter weight are required. They are, however, more complicated; switching currents can cause electrical noise problems if not carefully suppressed, and simple designs may have a poor power factor.
History
1836 Induction coils use switches to generate high voltages.
1910An inductive discharge ignition system invented by Charles F. Kettering and his company Dayton Engineering Laboratories Company (Delco) goes into production for Cadillac. The Kettering ignition system is a mechanically switched version of a fly back boost converter; the transformer is the ignition coil. Variations of this ignition system were used in all non-diesel internal combustion engines until the 1960s when it began to be replaced first by solid-state electronically switched versions, then capacitive discharge ignition systems.
1926 On 23 June, British inventor Philip Ray Coursey applies for a patent in his country and United States, for his "Electrical Condenser". The patent mentions high frequency welding and furnaces, among other uses.
Electromechanical relays are used to stabilize the voltage output of generators. See Voltage regulator#Electromechanical regulators.
c. 1936 Car radios used electromechanical vibrators to transform the 6 V battery supply to a suitable B+ voltage for the vacuum tubes.
1959 The MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) is invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs. The power MOSFET later became the most widely used power device for switching power supplies.
1959 Transistor oscillation and rectifying converter power supply system is filed by Joseph E. Murphy and Francis J. Starzec, from General Motors Company
1960s The Apollo Guidance Computer, developed in the early 1960s by the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory for NASA's ambitious moon missions (1966-1972), incorporated early switched mode power supplies.
c. 1967 Bob Widlar of Fairchild Semiconductor designs the µA723 IC voltage regulator. One of its applications is as a switched mode regulator.
1970 Tektronix starts using High-Efficiency Power Supply in its 7000-series oscilloscopes produced from about 1970 to 1995.
1970 Robert Boschert develops simpler, low cost circuits. By 1977, Boschert Inc. grows to a 650-person company. After a series of mergers, acquisitions, and spin offs (Computer Products, Zytec, Artesyn, Emerson Electric) the company is now part of Advanced Energy.
1972 HP-35, Hewlett-Packard's first pocket calculator, is introduced with transistor switching power supply for light-emitting diodes, clocks, timing, ROM, and registers.
1973 Xerox uses switching power supplies in the Alto minicomputer
1976 Robert Mammano, a co-founder of Silicon General Semiconductors, develops the first integrated circuit for SMPS control, model SG1524. After a series of mergers and acquisitions (Linfinity, Symetricom, Microsemi), the company is now part of Microchip Technology.
1977 Apple II is designed with a switching mode power supply. "Rod Holt ... created the switching power supply that allowed us to do a very lightweight computer".
1980 The HP8662A synthesized signal generator went with a switched mode power supply.
Explanation
A linear power supply (non-SMPS) uses a linear regulator to provide the desired output voltage by dissipating excess power in ohmic losses (e.g., in a resistor or in the collector–emitter region of a pass transistor in its active mode). A linear regulator regulates either output voltage or current by dissipating the excess electric power in the form of heat, and hence its maximum power efficiency is voltage-out/voltage-in since the volt difference is wasted.
In contrast, a SMPS changes output voltage and current by switching ideally lossless storage elements, such as inductors and capacitors, between different electrical configurations. Ideal switching elements (approximated by transistors operated outside of their active mode) have no resistance when "on" and carry no current when "off", and so converters with ideal components would operate with 100% efficiency (i.e., all input power is delivered to the load; no power is wasted as dissipated heat). In reality, these ideal components do not exist, so a switching power supply cannot be 100% efficient, but it is still a significant improvement in efficiency over a linear regulator.
For example, if a DC source, an inductor, a switch, and the corresponding electrical ground are placed in series and the switch is driven by a square wave, the peak-to-peak voltage of the waveform measured across the switch can exceed the input voltage from the DC source. This is because the inductor responds to changes in current by inducing its own voltage to counter the change in current, and this voltage adds to the source voltage while the switch is open. If a diode-and-capacitor combination is placed in parallel to the switch, the peak voltage can be stored in the capacitor, and the capacitor can be used as a DC source with an output voltage greater than the DC voltage driving the circuit. This boost converter acts like a step-up transformer for DC signals. A buck–boost converter works in a similar manner, but yields an output voltage which is opposite in polarity to the input voltage. Other buck circuits exist to boost the average output current with a reduction of voltage.
In a SMPS, the output current flow depends on the input power signal, the storage elements and circuit topologies used, and also on the pattern used (e.g., pulse-width modulation with an adjustable duty cycle) to drive the switching elements. The spectral density of these switching waveforms has energy concentrated at relatively high frequencies. As such, switching transients and ripple introduced onto the output waveforms can be filtered with a small LC filter.
Advantages and disadvantages
The main advantage of the switching power supply is greater efficiency (up to 96%) than linear regulators because the switching transistor dissipates little power when acting as a switch.
Other advantages include smaller size, lower noise, and lighter weight from the elimination of heavy line-frequency transformers, and comparable heat generation. Standby power loss is often much less than transformers. The transformer in a switching power supply is also smaller than a traditional line frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz depending on region) transformer, and therefore requires smaller amounts of expensive raw materials, like copper.
Disadvantages include greater complexity, the generation of high-amplitude, high-frequency energy that the low-pass filter must block to avoid electromagnetic interference (EMI), a ripple voltage at the switching frequency and the harmonic frequencies thereof.
Very low cost SMPSs may couple electrical switching noise back onto the mains power line, causing interference with devices connected to the same phase, such as A/V equipment. Non-power-factor-corrected SMPSs also cause harmonic distortion.
SMPS and linear power supply comparison
There are two main types of regulated power supplies available: SMPS and linear. The following table compares linear regulated and unregulated AC-to-DC supplies with switching regulators in general:
Theory of operation
Input rectifier stage
If the SMPS has an AC input, then the first stage is to convert the input to DC. This is called rectification. An SMPS with a DC input does not require this stage. In some power supplies (mostly computer ATX power supplies), the rectifier circuit can be configured as a voltage doubler by the addition of a switch operated either manually or automatically. This feature permits operation from power sources that are normally at 115 V or at 230 V. The rectifier produces an unregulated DC voltage which is then sent to a large filter capacitor. The current drawn from the mains supply by this rectifier circuit occurs in short pulses around the AC voltage peaks. These pulses have significant high frequency energy which reduces the power factor. To correct for this, many newer SMPS will use a special PFC circuit to make the input current follow the sinusoidal shape of the AC input voltage, correcting the power factor. Power supplies that use active PFC usually are auto-ranging, supporting input voltages from , with no input voltage selector switch.
An SMPS designed for AC input can usually be run from a DC supply, because the DC would pass through the rectifier unchanged. If the power supply is designed for and has no voltage selector switch, the required DC voltage would be (115 × √2). This type of use may be harmful to the rectifier stage, however, as it will only use half of diodes in the rectifier for the full load. This could possibly result in overheating of these components, causing them to fail prematurely. On the other hand, if the power supply has a voltage selector switch, based on the Delon circuit, for 115/230 V (computer ATX power supplies typically are in this category), the selector switch would have to be put in the position, and the required voltage would be (230 × √2). The diodes in this type of power supply will handle the DC current just fine because they are rated to handle double the nominal input current when operated in the mode, due to the operation of the voltage doubler. This is because the doubler, when in operation, uses only half of the bridge rectifier and runs twice as much current through it.
Inverter stage
This section refers to the block marked chopper in the diagram.
The inverter stage converts DC, whether directly from the input or from the rectifier stage described above, to AC by running it through a power oscillator, whose output transformer is very small with few windings, at a frequency of tens or hundreds of kilohertz. The frequency is usually chosen to be above 20 kHz, to make it inaudible to humans. The switching is implemented as a multistage (to achieve high gain) MOSFET amplifier. MOSFETs are a type of transistor with a low on-resistance and a high current-handling capacity.
Voltage converter and output rectifier
If the output is required to be isolated from the input, as is usually the case in mains power supplies, the inverted AC is used to drive the primary winding of a high-frequency transformer. This converts the voltage up or down to the required output level on its secondary winding. The output transformer in the block diagram serves this purpose.
If a DC output is required, the AC output from the transformer is rectified. For output voltages above ten volts or so, ordinary silicon diodes are commonly used. For lower voltages, Schottky diodes are commonly used as the rectifier elements; they have the advantages of faster recovery times than silicon diodes (allowing low-loss operation at higher frequencies) and a lower voltage drop when conducting. For even lower output voltages, MOSFETs may be used as synchronous rectifiers; compared to Schottky diodes, these have even lower conducting state voltage drops.
The rectified output is then smoothed by a filter consisting of inductors and capacitors. For higher switching frequencies, components with lower capacitance and inductance are needed.
Simpler, non-isolated power supplies contain an inductor instead of a transformer. This type includes boost converters, buck converters, and the buck–boost converters. These belong to the simplest class of single input, single output converters which use one inductor and one active switch. The buck converter reduces the input voltage in direct proportion to the ratio of conductive time to the total switching period, called the duty cycle. For example, an ideal buck converter with a 10 V input operating at a 50% duty cycle will produce an average output voltage of 5 V. A feedback control loop is employed to regulate the output voltage by varying the duty cycle to compensate for variations in input voltage. The output voltage of a boost converter is always greater than the input voltage and the buck–boost output voltage is inverted but can be greater than, equal to, or less than the magnitude of its input voltage. There are many variations and extensions to this class of converters but these three form the basis of almost all isolated and non-isolated DC to DC converters. By adding a second inductor the Ćuk and SEPIC converters can be implemented, or, by adding additional active switches, various bridge converters can be realized.
Other types of SMPSs use a capacitor–diode voltage multiplier instead of inductors and transformers. These are mostly used for generating high voltages at low currents (Cockcroft-Walton generator). The low voltage variant is called charge pump.
Regulation
A feedback circuit monitors the output voltage and compares it with a reference voltage. Depending on design and safety requirements, the controller may contain an isolation mechanism (such as an opto-coupler) to isolate it from the DC output. Switching supplies in computers, TVs and VCRs have these opto-couplers to tightly control the output voltage.
Open-loop regulators do not have a feedback circuit. Instead, they rely on feeding a constant voltage to the input of the transformer or inductor, and assume that the output will be correct. Regulated designs compensate for the impedance of the transformer or coil. Monopolar designs also compensate for the magnetic hysteresis of the core.
The feedback circuit needs power to run before it can generate power, so an additional non-switching power-supply for stand-by is added.
Transformer design
Any switched-mode power supply that gets its power from an AC power line (called an "off-line" converter) requires a transformer for galvanic isolation. Some DC-to-DC converters may also include a transformer, although isolation may not be critical in these cases. SMPS transformers run at high frequency. Most of the cost savings (and space savings) in off-line power supplies result from the smaller size of the high frequency transformer compared to the 50/60 Hz transformers formerly used. There are additional design tradeoffs.
The terminal voltage of a transformer is proportional to the product of the core area, magnetic flux, and frequency. By using a much higher frequency, the core area (and so the mass of the core) can be greatly reduced. However, core losses increase at higher frequencies. Cores generally use ferrite material which has a low loss at the high frequencies and high flux densities used. The laminated iron cores of lower-frequency (<400 Hz) transformers would be unacceptably lossy at switching frequencies of a few kilohertz. Also, more energy is lost during transitions of the switching semiconductor at higher frequencies. Furthermore, more attention to the physical layout of the circuit board is required as parasitics become more significant, and the amount of electromagnetic interference will be more pronounced.
Copper loss
At low frequencies (such as the line frequency of 50 or 60 Hz), designers can usually ignore the skin effect. For these frequencies, the skin effect is only significant when the conductors are large, more than in diameter.
Switching power supplies must pay more attention to the skin effect because it is a source of power loss. At 500 kHz, the skin depth in copper is about – a dimension smaller than the typical wires used in a power supply. The effective resistance of conductors increases, because current concentrates near the surface of the conductor and the inner portion carries less current than at low frequencies.
The skin effect is exacerbated by the harmonics present in the high speed pulse-width modulation (PWM) switching waveforms. The appropriate skin depth is not just the depth at the fundamental, but also the skin depths at the harmonics.
In addition to the skin effect, there is also a proximity effect, which is another source of power loss.
Power factor
Simple off-line switched mode power supplies incorporate a simple full-wave rectifier connected to a large energy storing capacitor. Such SMPSs draw current from the AC line in short pulses when the mains instantaneous voltage exceeds the voltage across this capacitor. During the remaining portion of the AC cycle the capacitor provides energy to the power supply.
As a result, the input current of such basic switched mode power supplies has high harmonic content and relatively low power factor. This creates extra load on utility lines, increases heating of building wiring, the utility transformers, and standard AC electric motors, and may cause stability problems in some applications such as in emergency generator systems or aircraft generators. Harmonics can be removed by filtering, but the filters are expensive. Unlike displacement power factor created by linear inductive or capacitive loads, this distortion cannot be corrected by addition of a single linear component. Additional circuits are required to counteract the effect of the brief current pulses. Putting a current regulated boost chopper stage after the off-line rectifier (to charge the storage capacitor) can correct the power factor, but increases the complexity and cost.
In 2001, the European Union put into effect the standard IEC/EN61000-3-2 to set limits on the harmonics of the AC input current up to the 40th harmonic for equipment above 75 W. The standard defines four classes of equipment depending on its type and current waveform. The most rigorous limits (class D) are established for personal computers, computer monitors, and TV receivers. To comply with these requirements, modern switched-mode power supplies normally include an additional power factor correction (PFC) stage.
Types
Switched-mode power supplies can be classified according to the circuit topology. The most important distinction is between isolated converters and non-isolated ones.
Non-isolated topologies
Non-isolated converters are simplest, with the three basic types using a single inductor for energy storage. In the voltage relation column, D is the duty cycle of the converter, and can vary from 0 to 1. The input voltage (V1) is assumed to be greater than zero; if it is negative, for consistency, negate the output voltage (V2).
When equipment is human-accessible, voltage limits of ≤ 30 V (r.m.s.) AC or ≤ 42.4 V peak or ≤ 60 V DC and power limits of 250 VA apply for safety certification (UL, CSA, VDE approval).
The buck, boost, and buck–boost topologies are all strongly related. Input, output and ground come together at one point. One of the three passes through an inductor on the way, while the other two pass through switches. One of the two switches must be active (e.g., a transistor), while the other can be a diode. Sometimes, the topology can be changed simply by re-labeling the connections. A 12 V input, 5 V output buck converter can be converted to a 7 V input, −5 V output buck–boost by grounding the output and taking the output from the ground pin.
Likewise, SEPIC and Zeta converters are both minor rearrangements of the Ćuk converter.
The neutral point clamped (NPC) topology is used in power supplies and active filters and is mentioned here for completeness.
Switchers become less efficient as duty cycles become extremely short. For large voltage changes, a transformer (isolated) topology may be better.
Isolated topologies
All isolated topologies include a transformer, and thus can produce an output of higher or lower voltage than the input by adjusting the turns ratio. For some topologies, multiple windings can be placed on the transformer to produce multiple output voltages. Some converters use the transformer for energy storage, while others use a separate inductor.
Flyback converter logarithmic control loop behavior might be harder to control than other types.
The forward converter has several variants, varying in how the transformer is "reset" to zero magnetic flux every cycle.
Chopper controller:
The output voltage is coupled to the input thus very tightly controlled
Quasi-resonant zero-current/zero-voltage switch
In a quasi-resonant zero-current/zero-voltage switch (ZCS/ZVS) "each switch cycle delivers a quantized 'packet' of energy to the converter output, and switch turn-on and turn-off occurs at zero current and voltage, resulting in an essentially lossless switch." Quasi-resonant switching, also known as valley switching, reduces EMI in the power supply by two methods:
By switching the bipolar switch when the voltage is at a minimum (in the valley) to minimize the hard switching effect that causes EMI.
By switching when a valley is detected, rather than at a fixed frequency, introduces a natural frequency jitter that spreads the RF emissions spectrum and reduces overall EMI.
Efficiency and EMI
Higher input voltage and synchronous rectification mode makes the conversion process more efficient. The power consumption of the controller also has to be taken into account. Higher switching frequency allows component sizes to be shrunk, but can produce more RFI. A resonant forward converter produces the lowest EMI of any SMPS approach because it uses a soft-switching resonant waveform compared with conventional hard switching.
Failure modes
For failure in switching components, circuit board and so on read the failure modes of electronics article.
Power supplies which use capacitors suffering from the capacitor plague may experience premature failure when the capacitance drops to 4% of the original value. This usually causes the switching semiconductor to fail in a conductive way. That may expose connected loads to the full input volt and current, and precipitate wild oscillations in output.
Failure of the switching transistor is common. Due to the large switching voltages this transistor must handle (around for a mains supply), these transistors often short out, in turn immediately blowing the main internal power fuse.
Precautions
The main filter capacitor will often store up to long after the power cord has been removed from the wall. Not all power supplies contain a small "bleeder" resistor to slowly discharge this capacitor. Any contact with this capacitor may result in a severe electrical shock.
The primary and secondary sides may be connected with a capacitor to reduce EMI and compensate for various capacitive couplings in the converter circuit, where the transformer is one. This may result in electric shock in some cases. The current flowing from line or neutral through a resistor to any accessible part must, according to , be less than for IT equipment.
Applications
Switched-mode power supply units (PSUs) in domestic products such as personal computers often have universal inputs, meaning that they can accept power from mains supplies throughout the world, although a manual voltage range switch may be required. Switch-mode power supplies can tolerate a wide range of power frequencies and voltages.
Due to their high volumes mobile phone chargers have always been particularly cost sensitive. The first chargers were linear power supplies, but they quickly moved to the cost effective ringing choke converter (RCC) SMPS topology, when new levels of efficiency were required. Recently, the demand for even lower no-load power requirements in the application has meant that flyback topology is being used more widely; primary side sensing flyback controllers are also helping to cut the bill of materials (BOM) by removing secondary-side sensing components such as optocouplers.
Switched-mode power supplies are used for DC to DC conversion as well. In automobiles where heavy vehicles use a nominal cranking supply, 12 V for accessories may be furnished through a DC/DC switch-mode supply. This has the advantage over tapping the battery at the 12 V position (using half the cells) that all the 12 V load is evenly divided over all cells of the 24 V battery. In industrial settings such as telecommunications racks, bulk power may be distributed at a low DC voltage (from a battery back up system, for example) and individual equipment items will have DC/DC switched-mode converters to supply whatever voltages are needed.
A common use for switched-mode power supplies is as extra-low-voltage sources for lighting, and for this application they are often called "electronic transformers".
Terminology
The term switch mode was widely used until Motorola claimed ownership of the trademark SWITCHMODE for products aimed at the switching-mode power supply market and started to enforce their trademark. Switching-mode power supply, switching power supply, and switching regulator refer to this type of power supply.
See also
Auto transformer
Boost converter
Buck converter
Conducted electromagnetic interference
DC to DC converter
Inrush current
Joule thief
Leakage inductance
Resonant converter
Switching amplifier
Transformer
Vibrator (electronic)
Notes
References
Further reading
Application Note giving an extensive introduction in Buck, Boost, CUK, Inverter applications. (download as PDF from http://www.linear.com/designtools/app_notes.php)
External links
Switching Power Supply Topologies Poster - Texas Instruments
Load Power Sources for Peak Efficiency, by James Colotti, published in EDN 1979 October 5
Power supplies
Power electronics
Electric power conversion
Voltage regulation | [
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223415 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahseer | Mahseer | Mahseer is the common name used for the genera Tor, Neolissochilus, Naziritor and Parator in the family Cyprinidae (carps). The name is, however, more often restricted to members of the genus Tor. The range of these fish is from Vietnam in the north and China in the south, through Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and across southern Asia including the Indian Peninsula, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Afghanistan. They are commercially important game fish, as well as highly esteemed food fish. Mahseer fetch high market price, and are potential candidate species for aquaculture. Several of the larger species have suffered severe declines, and are now considered threatened due to pollution, habitat loss, overfishing and increasing concern about the impacts of unregulated release of artificially bred stock of a very limited number of species.
The taxonomy of the mahseers is confusing due to the morphological variations they exhibit. In developing strategies for aquaculture and propagation assisted rehabilitation of mahseer species, resolution of taxonomic ambiguities is needed and adherence to IUCN stocking guidelines must be followed.
Mahseers inhabit both rivers and lakes, with most species believed to ascend into rapid streams with rocky bottoms for breeding. Like other types of carps, they are omnivorous, eating not only algae, crustaceans, insects, frogs, and other fish, but also fruits that fall from trees overhead.
The first species from this group were scientifically described by Francis Buchanan-Hamilton in 1822, and first mentioned as an angling challenge by the Oriental Sporting Magazine in 1833, soon becoming a favorite quarry of British anglers living in India.
The golden mahseer Tor putitora was previously believed to be the largest member of the group and one of the largest cyprinids; it has been known to reach in length and in weight, although specimens of this size are rarely seen nowadays.
Currently, the largest of the mahseer is Tor remadevii, which is known to grow to in excess of 120lb. In 2011, UK angler Ken Loughran landed a fish that was too heavy for the 120lb scales being used. This fish was claimed as a 'World record' at 130lb 10oz, although the weighing process used is in doubt.
In addition to being caught for sport, mahseer are also part of commercial fishing and ornamental or aquarium fish.
Etymology
The Hindi and Kumaoni name of mahāsir, mahāser, or mahāsaulā is used for a number of fishes of the group. Several sources of the common name mahseer have been suggested: It has been said to be derived from Sanskrit, while others claim it is derived from Indo-Persian, mahi- fish and sher- tiger or "tiger among fish" in Persian. Alternatively, mahā-śalka, meaning large-scaled, is suggested, as the scales are so large that Francis Buchanan mentions that playing cards were made from them at Dacca. Another theory by Henry Sullivan Thomas suggests mahā-āsya: great mouth. The name mahasher is commonly used in Urdu, Punjabi, and Kashmiri languages in Pakistan for this fish and is said to be made up of two local words: maha = big and sher = lion, as it ascends in the hilly rivers and streams of Himalaya courageously. Sadhale and Nene translate the Sanskrit word mahashila, as used in some texts as "stone-like", interpreting that to mean a powerful fish.
It is also found in Nepal, where it is called sahar. In Assam it is called pithia. (British anglers in India called them the Indian salmon.)
In Indonesia/Malaysia, it is often called ikan (fish) kelah.
Some local names of mahseer
Species
Sen and Jayaram restrict the term mahseer to members of the genus Tor. However, the species of genus Neolissochilus and the genera Naziritor and Parator are also called mahseers due to their large-sized scales and other similarities.
Scientists now try to use the terms 'true mahseer' for species within Tor, and 'lesser mahseers' for species within Neolissochilus, Naziritor and Parator.
Genus Tor
The genus Tor includes:
Tor ater, Roberts, 1999
Tor barakae, Arunkumar & Basudha, 2003, Barakae mahseer
Tor douronensis, Valenciennes, 1842, Semah mahseer or river carp. Synonymous with Tor tambra
Tor hemispinus, Chen & Chu, 1985
Tor kulkarnii, Menon, 1992, dwarf mahseer, uncertain as only one specimen found till now
Tor khudree, Sykes, 1839, black mahseer, Deccan mahseer, or blue-finned mahseer
Tor laterivittatus, Zhou & Cui, 1996
Tor macrolepis, Heckel, 1838, uncertain species
Tor malabaricus, Jerdon, 1849, Malabar mahseer
Tor mosal, Hamilton, 1822, copper mahseer
Tor mussullah, Sykes, 1839, erroneously called humpback mahseer
Tor polylepis, Zhou & Cui, 1996
Tor progeneius, McClelland, 1839, Jungha mahseer
Tor putitora, Hamilton, 1822, Himalayan mahseer or golden mahseer
Tor qiaojiensis, Wu, 1977
Tor remadevii, Madhusoodana & Radhakrishnan, 2007, orange-finned mahseer or hump-backed mahseer
Tor sinensis, Wu, 1977, Chinese mahseer
Tor soro, Valenciennes, 1842 now reassigned to Neolissochilus soroides
Tor streeteri, Myers, 1927
Tor tambra, Valenciennes, 1842, Javan mahseer, red mahseer (ikan kelah merah)
Tor tambroides, Bleeker, 1854, Malayan mahsheer (erroneous), Sumatran mahseer
Tor tor, Hamilton, 1822, red-finned mahseer, short-gilled mahseer, or deep-bodied mahseer
Tor yingjiangensis, Chen & Yang, 2004
Tor yunnanensis, (Wang, Zhuang & Gao, 1982)
Genus Neolissochilus
The genus Neolissochilus includes:
Neolissochilus baoshanensis, (Chen & Yang, 1999)
Neolissochilus benasi, (Pellegrin & Chevey, 1936)
Neolissochilus blythii, (Day, 1870)
Neolissochilus compressus, (Day, 1870)
Neolissochilus dukai, (Day, 1878)
Neolissochilus hendersoni, (Herre, 1940)
Neolissochilus heterostomus, (Chen & Yang, 1999)
Neolissochilus hexagonolepis, (McClelland, 1839), chocolate mahseer
Neolissochilus hexastichus, (McClelland, 1839), brown mahseer
Neolissochilus longipinnis, (Weber & de Beaufort, 1916)
Neolissochilus namlenensis, (Nguyen & Doan, 1969)
Neolissochilus nigrovittatus, (Boulenger, 1893)
Neolissochilus paucisquamatus, (Smith, 1945)
Neolissochilus soroides, (Duncker, 1904)
Neolissochilus spinulosus, (McClelland, 1845)
Neolissochilus stevensonii, (Day, 1870)
Neolissochilus stracheyi, (Day, 1871)
Neolissochilus subterraneus, Vidthayanon & Kottelat, 2003
Neolissochilus sumatranus, (Weber & de Beaufort, 1916)
Neolissochilus theinemanni, (Ahl, 1933)
Neolissochilus tweediei, (Herre & Myers, 1937) junior synonym of Neolissochilus soroides
Neolissochilus vittatus, (Smith, 1945)
Genus Naziritor
The genus Naziritor includes:
Naziritor zhobensis, Mirza, 1967, Balochi mahseer
Naziritor chelynoides, McClelland, 1839, Dark mahseer
Genus Parator
The genus Parator includes: one single species
Parator zonatus, Lin, 1935, Tri-lobed lip barbel
Historical references
Researchers working at sites from the Harappan era or Indus Valley Civilisation, found collections of pottery decorated with fish motifs as well as fish bones left in midden pits. Hora describes his interpretation of each of the species depicted on the painted pots, which include most of the species common today in the Indus basin, including mahseer. During his work on the remains of fish bones, renowned ethnoarchaeologist Dr William R. Belcher discovered that while fish, including large species like Indian major carps and various catfish, comprised a substantial element of the diets of this 3300-1300 BCE civilisation, bones of mahseer were extremely rare. It has been suggested that this is the first known instance of mahseer being ‘revered’ or singled out from other fish species as ‘God’s fish’.
During the later period of the Chalukya dynasty, under the Western Chalukya Empire, King Someshvara III describes fishing in the rivers and seas around his kingdom, which include many areas that are inhabited by the mahseer species Tor remadevii, Tor malabaricus and Tor khudree. The king includes “mahashila”, a “large river fish(es) of the scaly type.” He then goes on to describe the best methods of Angling for the various fish species to be encountered in his kingdom, including how to prepare baits for each. There is a further description of how to prepare the fish for cooking and eating.
Many of the most detailed descriptions of mahseer begin to appear during the British colonisation of India, in particular, during the British Raj of 1857 to 1947. Many of those stationed in India enjoyed angling for mahseer, which they compared to the thrill of catching a salmon ‘back home’. Indeed, Henry Sullivan Thomas, author of one of the first books on angling in the colonies said “the mahseer shows more sport for its size than a salmon.” They also produced guidebooks and penned letters to sporting journals such as The Field and Fishing Gazette.
H.S. Thomas also gives a description of south Indian followers of Hinduism equating mahseer with Matsya, one of the incarnations of the god Vishnu and responsible for saving Manu from the flood. This tale is common in many of the classic Hindu texts, with the first reference being in the Shatapatha Brahmana, part of the Vedas body of works dated from 1500-400 BCE.
In heraldry (and other official representations)
Mahseer was an important symbol in the heraldry of certain Muslim-ruled former princely states of the Subcontinent such as Baoni, Bhopal, Kurwai and Rampur. Dost Mohammad Khan's son Yar Mohammad received from Nizam-ul-Mulk the insignia of the Maha Muratib (the dignity of the Fish). The insignia became part of the Bhopal State's coat of arms.
The Mahseer fish as an emblem of the highest honour in royalty is allegedly from Persian origin and was adopted by the courts of Oudh and the Paigah nobles of Hyderabad State, being later passed down to other states of the area.
In India, many states have adopted mahseer as their State Fish. Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir and Uttarakhand all have the golden mahseer, Nagaland has the 'Chocolate mahseer', Neolissochilus hexagonolepis as their State Fish, Odisha has the fish known as 'Mahanadi mahseer', Tor mosal mahanadicus as its State Fish. The southern state of Karnataka is considering changing its State Fish from Carnatic carp to the IUCN Red Listed Critically Endangered Tor remadevii.
There have been calls for Tor tambra, the 'Java mahseer' known locally as emperau, to be adopted as the national fish of Malaysia.
Conservation issues for mahseer
Translocation movements of mahseer within India have been happening since the 1850s, at least. During this period, the integrity and identity of species was poorly understood, which may have caused unintentional issues of Hybridisation between species or competition from Invasive species.
Among the best documented areas where fish movements have been used for reasons of improving angling sport, or attempting to augment declining stocks are the Lakes of Kumaon hills. The Kumaon lakes in Uttarakhand, Bhimtal Lake, Nainital Lake, Naukuchiatal Lake and Sattal Lake, were stocked with mahseer in 1858 by Sir H. Ramsey, with stock brought from the rivers Gaula and Kali. According to Walker in his 'Angling in the Kumaon Lakes', the Bhimtal stocking was less successful, until a second batch of fish were introduced in 1878.
Dr Raj, Fisheries Development Officer in United Provinces, in his 1945 report on the decline of mahseer stocks in the lakes says:
“From all reports these isolated lakes had hardly any fish in them before the introduction of mahseer.”
This is clearly a misunderstanding of the history of mahseer in the lakes, as Walker earlier says:
“When I first angled in Nainital Lake, in 1863 and 1864, there were comparatively few large mahsir in it; there were shoals of the lake fish (Barbus Chilinoides) and many small trout (Barilius Bola). A morning's catch would include a couple of small mahsir, eight or nine ' lake-fish' and two or three trout. Gradually the mahsir have reduced the numbers of the other fish until it is a rare circumstance to catch a ‘lake-fish’ with the fly, and I have not for many years seen a single trout, although I heard of one being caught last year by a troller.”
The inference must be that the introductions of mahseer into the lakes caused the unexpected decline of several native fish stocks, either due to competition, or by direct predation and that the earlier fish stocks were notable.
In Himachal Pradesh, golden mahseer is depleting at a fast rate from the state even though it was categorised as an endangered species by the National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources as early as 1992.
In common with most areas within the geographic range of mahseers, the factors leading to this situation are mainly anthropogenic distortion of rivers due to the construction of river valley projects, multipurpose dams, shrinking habitat, poaching and other stock exploitation, and widespread introduction of invasive species.
Intentional stocking of mahseers in the trans-Himalayan region have been taking place for several years. It has been reported that the Teesta River in Sikkim and West Bengal has been stocked with hundreds of thousands of golden mahseer every year since at least 2014 in a drive to promote angling in the region. That the fish stocks continue to decline suggests that the policy needs to be reviewed and more efforts devoted to improving habitat as the first priority.
Revision of all mahseer species
In May 2019, Mahseer Trust and collaborators published a major revision paper. This paper includes the latest IUCN Red Listing status and validity of 16 species of the Tor genus. Following this publication, fresh impetus into understanding the ecology of wild populations and establishing more secure species identities will allow coherent conservation programmes to be enacted, and fish currently listed Data Deficient to be accorded with relevant threat status.
Conferences
Over several decades, concerned organisations have arranged conferences to debate issues around mahseer conservation. Among the early events was the Kuala Lumpur Conference of 2005, and in 2014, WWF-India convened a forum in Delhi. Both of these events looked at many issues specific to mahseer, and typical outputs included measures to investigate greater understanding of mahseer ecology.
In 2017, Mahseer Trust convened a different kind of event, by including representatives to discuss all aspects of both the fish and the river habitat in which they live. This unique conference included sessions aired live on social media, with a final question and answer session reaching 6,000 viewers.
December 2018 saw the First International Conference, in Paro, Bhutan. The output booklet is available to download here http://mahseerconference.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/IMC-FULL-CONFERENCE-BOOK.pdf
Among the many recommendations were increased research into the ecology of wild mahseer and ensuring artificial breeding of mahseer is done under strict control using IUCN guidelines.
IMC2 was held in Chiang Mai, Thailand, in February 2020.
Roundtable workshops on the final day agreed to produce outputs, including papers, white paper proposals and outreach media, in the following areas of concern:
What is a mahseer? Considering taxonomy.
Value of recreational angling. Setting standards.
Impacts of invasive species. Ways to ensure enforcement.
Developing outreach and education. To share messages and programmes.
References
Other sources
Nautiyal, Prakash, ed. 1994. Mahseer: The Game Fish. Natural History, Status and Conservation Practices in India and Nepal. Rachna.
Silas, E. G., Gopalakrishnan, A., John, L., and Shaji, C. P.. 2005. Genetic identity of Tor malabaricus (Jerdon) (Teleostei: Cyprinidae) as revealed by RAPD markers. Indian journal of fish. 52(2): 125–140.
Rainboth, W. J. 1985. Neolissochilus, a new group of South Asia Cyprinid fishes. Beaufortia. 35(3): 25–35.
Mirza, M. R., and Javed, M. N. 1985. A note on Mahseer of Pakistan with the description of Naziritor, a new subgenus (Pisces: Cyprinidae). Pakistan Journal of Zoology. 17: 225–227.
Arunkumar; & Ch. Basudha. 2003. Tor barakae, a new species of mahseer fish (Cyprinidae: Cyprininae) from Manipur, India. Aquacult. 4(2): 271–276.
Ambak, M.A., Ashraf, A.H. and Budin, S. 2007. Conservation of the Malaysian Mahseer in Nenggiri Basin through Community Action. In: Mahseer, The Biology, Culture and Conservation. Malaysian Fisheries Society Occasional Publication No.14, Kuala Lumpur 2007:217–228
National Agricultural Technology Project, 2004. Germplasm inventory, evaluation and gene banking of freshwater fishes. World Bank funded Project MM, No: 27/28/98/NATP/MM-III, 18-32p. National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow India.
External links
http://www.mahseertrust.org
Golden Mahseer
Mahseer information
Deccan Mahseer
Mahseer Research Centre – India
Fish of Asia
Cyprininae
Fish common names
Indian culture
Fish in heraldry
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223416 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrossocheilus | Acrossocheilus | Acrossocheilus is a genus of ray-finned fishes in the family Cyprinidae, native to freshwater in China, Taiwan, Laos, and Vietnam. They are fairly small, no more than in standard length.
Species
There are currently 26 recognized species of this genus. Four species have sometimes been moved to Masticbarbus, but it has yet to be widely accepted. Some species from Southeast Asia have been moved to Neolissochilus.
Acrossocheilus aluoiensis (H. D. Nguyễn, 1997)
Acrossocheilus baolacensis V. H. Nguyễn, 2001
Acrossocheilus beijiangensis H. W. Wu & R. D. Lin, 1977
Acrossocheilus clivosius (S. Y. Lin, 1935)
Acrossocheilus fasciatus (Steindachner, 1892)
Acrossocheilus hemispinus (Nichols, 1925)
Acrossocheilus ikedai (Harada, 1943)
Acrossocheilus iridescens (Nichols & C. H. Pope, 1927)
Acrossocheilus jishouensis J. Zhao, X. L. Chen & W. W. Li, 1997
Acrossocheilus kreyenbergii (Regan, 1908)
Acrossocheilus lamus (Đ. Y. Mai, 1978)
Acrossocheilus longipinnis (H. W. Wu, 1939)
Acrossocheilus macrophthalmus V. H. Nguyễn, 2001
Acrossocheilus malacopterus E. Zhang, 2005
Acrossocheilus microstoma Pellegrin & Chevey, 1936
Acrossocheilus monticola (Günther, 1888)
Acrossocheilus multistriatus Z. J. Lan, B. P. Chan & J. Zhao, 2014
Acrossocheilus paradoxus (Günther, 1868)
Acrossocheilus parallens (Nichols, 1931)
Acrossocheilus rendahli (S. Y. Lin, 1931)
Acrossocheilus spinifer L. Y. Yuan, Z. Q. Wu & E. Zhang, 2006
Acrossocheilus wenchowensis K. F. Wang, 1935
Acrossocheilus wuyiensis S. H. Wu & H. X. Chen, 1981
Acrossocheilus xamensis Kottelat, 2000
Acrossocheilus yalyensis V. H. Nguyễn, 2001
Acrossocheilus yunnanensis (Regan, 1904)
References
Cyprinidae genera
Freshwater fish of Asia | [
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223418 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angling | Angling | Angling is a method of fishing by means of a fish hook or "angle". The hook is attached to a fishing line, which is usually manipulated via a fishing rod, although rodless techniques such as handlining also exist. Modern fishing rods are usually fitted with a fishing reel that functions as a cranking device for storing, retrieving and releasing out the line, although Tenkara fishing and cane pole fishing are two rod-angling methods that do not use a reel. The hook itself can be additionally weighted with a tackle called a sinker, and is typically dressed with an appetizing bait to attract the fish, but sometimes an inedible fake bait known as a lure with multiple attached hooks is used in place of a single hook with bait. A bite indicator, such as a float or a quiver tip, is often used to relay underwater status of the hook to the surface.
When angling, the fisherman (known as the angler) will first throw (i.e. "cast") the hook to a chosen area of water, and then patiently wait for fish to attack and eat the hookbait. It is also not uncommon for the angler to scatter some loose bait (groundbait) around the spot before even casting the hook, in order to better attract fish with scents. If a fish has swallowed the hook (i.e. "strike"), it will anchor inside the fish mouth and the fish in turn becomes firmly tethered to the fishing rod via the fishing line. Once the fish is hooked, any struggles and attempts to escape will pull along the line, causing the bite indicator to signal the angler, who jerks the rod to further secure the hook anchorage and then tries to retrieve the line back, pulling the fish closer in the process. During the line retrieval, the angler will carefully monitor the line tension to avoid snapping. With stronger and feistier fish, the angler might need to temporarily halt or even reverse the line retrieval in order to prolong the struggle time and tire out the fish (i.e. "walking" the fish), before dragging it near enough to eventually lift it out of the water (known as "landing") for a successful catch. Sometimes a hand net (known as a "landing net") is used to make fetching the fish from the water easier.
Angling is the principal method of sport fishing, but commercial fisheries also use angling methods such as longlining or trolling. Catch and release angling is increasingly practiced by recreational fishermen. In many parts of the world, size limits apply to certain species, meaning fish below and/or above a certain size must, by law, be released alive after capture.
The species of sport fish pursued by anglers vary with geography. Among the many species of saltwater fish that are caught for sport globally are billfish (swordfish, sailfish and marlin), tuna and grouper, while cod and bass are popular targets in Europe. In North America the most popular freshwater fish species include bass, northern pike/muskellunge, walleye, yellow perch, trout and anadromous salmon, tilapia, and panfishes such as crappie, bluegill and sunfish. In Europe, many anglers fish for species such as carp, pike, bream, tench, rudd, roach, European perch, catfish and barbel.
Tackles
Hook
The use of the hook in angling is descended, historically, from what would today be called a "gorge." The word "gorge", in this context, comes from the French word meaning "throat." Gorges were used by ancient peoples to capture fish and animals like seal, walrus and birds. A gorge was a long, thin piece of bone or stone attached by its midpoint to a thin line. The gorge would be baited so that it would rest parallel to the lay of the line. When the game would swallow the bait, a tug on the line would cause the gorge to orient itself at right angles to the line, thereby sticking in the fish or animal's throat or gullet. Gorges evolved into the modern fishing hook which is a J shaped wire with a loop on one end and a sharp point on the other. Most hooks have a barb near the point to prevent a fish from unhooking itself while being reeled in. Some laws and regulations require hooks to be barbless. This rule is commonly implemented to protect populations of certain species. A barbed hook could kill a fish if it were to penetrate the gills.
Line
Rod
Reel
Bite indicator
Baits
Which of the various techniques an angler may choose is dictated mainly by the target species and by its habitat. In angling, two type of baits are used: groundbait, which is thrown separately into the water to serve as an "appetizer" and attract distant fish closer; and hookbait, which is actually attached to the fishing hook to entice the fish into swallowing. In colloquial usage, the word "bait" refers specifically to hookbaits, which can be further separated into two main categories: natural or artificial baits.
Natural baits
Natural baits are things that are present within the fish's natural diet. The natural bait angler, with few exceptions, will use a common prey species of the target fish as an attractant. The natural bait used may be alive (known as a live bait) or dead, and a bait made of portions of a dead bait are known as a cutbait. Common natural baits for both fresh and saltwater fishing include worms, leeches, minnows, frogs, salamanders, octopus/squid, insects, prawn, crayfish and even crabs. Natural baits are effective due to the real texture, odour and colour of the bait presented.
The common earthworm is a universal live bait for freshwater angling. Grubs and maggots are also excellent bait when trout fishing. Grasshoppers, crickets, bees and even ants are also used as bait for trout in their season, although many anglers believe that trout or salmon roe is superior to any other bait.
Crayfish, which are preyed upon by a variety of ray-finned fishes, are also commonly used as bait, either live or with only the tail meat. They are popular for catching catfish, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, striped bass, perch and pike. However, studies had confirmed that introducing crayfish outside of their home range has led to various ecological problems of them becoming invasive species. Transporting crayfish as live bait has also contributed to the spread of zebra mussels, which are known to attach themselves onto crayfish, in various waterways throughout Europe and North America.
Spreading diseases
The capture, transportation and culture of bait fish can spread damaging organisms between ecosystems, endangering them. In 2007 several American states enacted regulations designed to slow the spread of fish diseases, including viral hemorrhagic septicemia, by bait fish. Because of the risk of transmitting Myxobolus cerebralis (whirling disease), trout and salmon should not be used as bait.
Anglers may increase the possibility of contamination by emptying bait buckets into fishing venues and collecting or using bait improperly. The transportation of fish from one location to another can break the law and cause the introduction of fish alien to the ecosystem.
Artificial baits
Artificial baits are baits that are not directly acquired via natural means. These can be edible fish food that are either commercially purchased (e.g. boilies) or prepared food such as cutlets or doughballs made from various mixtures (e.g. rice, semolina, cornmeal, bread, peas and fishmeal, etc.), which can be used to attract omnivorous or herbivorous fish. In lakes in southern climates such as Florida, panfish such as sunfish will even take household bread or pet food as bait. These bread bait is prepared from a small amount of bread, often moistened by saliva, balled up to a small size that is bite size to small fish.
Artificial baits made of inedible materials (e.g. wood, metal, silicone rubber, plastics, etc) are known as lures, which are designed to imitate a live prey (shad, worm, frog, insect, crayfish, etc.) that entice predatory fish to strike. Lures typically do not release any scents and rely solely on looks and sounds/vibrations to attract fish. Some fishing lures may or may not even resemble prey in looks, and may require special movements to impart an enticing presentation to the target fish, for example in fly fishing and topwater fishing. Many anglers prefer to fish solely using lures, as these relies more on the user's rod and reel actions to successfully attract fish and are thus more interactive and exciting. A common way to fish a soft plastic worm is the Texas Rig or the Carolina Rig.
Techniques
The main rod angling techniques are float fishing, bottom fishing and lure fishing.
Float fishing
Float fishing is the most common method of angling, using a fishing line attached with a float (or "bobber" in the United States), which floats at the water surface and suspends the baited hook at a predetermined depth. Due to buoyancy, the float can carry the hook to otherwise inaccessible areas of water by drifting in the prevailing current. When the fish bites and swallows the hook, the float also serves as a visual bite indicator for any forces exerted on the fishing line, as the fisherman can then see it being pulled underwater and/or sideways.
Bottom fishing
Bottom fishing, also called legering in the United Kingdom, uses a weighted tackle called a sinker tied to the end of the fishing line to keep the baited hook close to the bottom of the water, in order to target groundfishes such as sucker, bream, catfish and crappie. The sinker can also be used to add momentum to the hook and help casting the line to a further distance. The method can be used both with handlining and rod fishing, and can be done both from boats and from the land. Specialized fishing rods called "donkas" are also commonly used for bottom fishing, and a quiver tip (sometimes coupled with a jingle bell) is used instead as the bite indicator.
Some sinkers are replaced by feeders, which is designed to contain and release groundbaits to help attract fish towards the hook.
Lure fishing
Lure fishing uses a type of artificial bait known as lure, which is usually made from inedible materials and does not emit any scent, instead using prey-like appearances, movements, vibrations, bright reflections and flashy colors to attract and entice predatory fish into striking. Many lures are equipped with more than one hooks to better anchor into the fish's mouth, though some hookless lures are used to bait the fish nearer so it can be captured via other means such as spearing, netting/trapping or capturing by hand. In addition to rod angling, handlining, longlining and trolling also employ lure fishing.
When lure fishing recreationally, the fisherman repeatedly casts out the lure afar and then gradually retrieves the line, pulling the lure across the water in the process and creating vibrations, turbulent splashes and/or a popping action, which imitating a small aquatic prey such as a baitfish. A skilled angler can explore many possible hiding places for fish through lure casting such as under logs and on flats. No bite indicator is used, and when the lure catches the attention of a game fish and successfully results in biting/swallowing the lure, the angler can detect it by watching and feeling any vibrations, rod bending and changes in line tension. Lure fishing also typically uses special fishing reels known as spinning reels.
Laws and regulations
Laws and regulations managing angling vary greatly, often regionally, within countries. These commonly include permits (licences), closed periods (seasons) where specific species are unavailable for harvest, restrictions on gear types, and quotas.
Laws generally prohibit catching fish with hooks other than in the mouth (foul hooking, "snagging" or "jagging") or the use of nets other than as an aid in landing a captured fish. Some species, such as bait fish, may be taken with nets, and a few for food. Sometimes, (non-sport) fish are considered of lesser value and it may be permissible to take them by methods like snagging, bow and arrow, or spear. None of these techniques fall under the definition of angling since they do not rely upon the use of a hook and line.
Fishing seasons
Fishing seasons are set by countries or localities to indicate what kinds of fish may be caught during sport fishing (also known as angling) for a certain period of time. Fishing seasons are enforced to maintain ecological balance and to protect species of fish during their spawning period during which they are easier to catch.
Slot limits
Slot limits are put in action to help protect certain fish in a given area. They generally require anglers to release captured fish if they fall within a given size range, allowing anglers to keep only smaller or larger fish. Slot limits vary from lake to lake depending on what local officials believe would produce the best outcome for managing fish populations.
Catch and release
Although most anglers keep their catch for consumption, catch and release fishing is increasingly practiced, especially by fly anglers. The general principle is that releasing fish allows them to survive, thus avoiding unintended depletion of the population. For species such as marlin, muskellunge, and bass, there is a cultural taboo among anglers against taking them for food. In many parts of the world, size limits apply to certain species, meaning fish below a certain size must, by law, be released. It is generally believed that larger fish have a greater breeding potential. Some fisheries have a slot limit that allows the taking of smaller and larger fish, but requiring that intermediate sized fish be released. It is generally accepted that this management approach will help the fishery create a number of large, trophy-sized fish. In smaller fisheries that are heavily fished, catch and release is the only way to ensure that catchable fish will be available from year to year.
The practice of catch and release is criticised by some who consider it unethical to inflict pain upon a fish for purposes of sport. Some of those who object to releasing fish do not object to killing fish for food. Adherents of catch and release dispute this charge, pointing out that fish commonly feed on hard and spiky prey items, and as such can be expected to have tough mouths, and also that some fish will re-take a lure they have just been hooked on, a behaviour that is unlikely if hooking were painful. Opponents of catch and release fishing would find it preferable to ban or to severely restrict angling. On the other hand, proponents state that catch-and-release is necessary for many fisheries to remain sustainable, is a practice that generally has high survival rates, and consider the banning of angling as not reasonable or necessary.
In some jurisdictions, in the Canadian province of Manitoba, for example, catch and release is mandatory for some species such as brook trout. Many of the jurisdictions which mandate the live release of sport fish also require the use of artificial lures and barbless hooks to minimise the chance of injury to fish. Mandatory catch and release also exists in the Republic of Ireland where it was introduced as a conservation measure to prevent the decline of Atlantic salmon stocks on some rivers. In Switzerland, catch and release fishing is considered inhumane and was banned in September 2008.
Barbless hooks, which can be created from a standard hook by removing the barb with pliers or can be bought, are sometimes resisted by anglers because they believe that increased fish escapes. Barbless hooks reduce handling time, thereby increasing survival. Concentrating on keeping the line taut while fighting fish, using recurved point or "triple grip" style hooks on lures, and equipping lures that do not have them with split rings can significantly reduce escapement.
Tournaments and derbies
Sometimes considered within the broad category of angling is where contestants compete for prizes based on the total length or weight of a fish, usually of a pre-determined species, caught within a specified time (fishing tournaments). Such contests have evolved from local fishing contests into large competitive circuits, where professional anglers are supported by commercial endorsements. Professional anglers are not engaged in commercial fishing, even though they gain an economic reward. Similar competitive fishing exists at the amateur level with fishing derbies. In general, derbies are distinguished from tournaments; derbies normally require fish to be killed. Tournaments normally deduct points if fish can not be released alive.
Motivation
A ten-year-long survey of US fishing club members, completed in 1997, indicated that motivations for recreational angling have shifted from relaxation, an outdoor experience and the experience of the catch, to the importance of family recreation. Anglers with higher family incomes fished more frequently and were less concerned about obtaining fish as food.
A German study indicated that satisfaction derived from angling was not dependent on the actual catch, but depended more on the angler's expectations of the experience.
A 2006 study by the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries tracked the motivations of anglers on the Red River. Among the most often stated responses were the fun of catching fish, the experience, to catch a lot of fish or a very large fish, for challenge, and adventure. Use as food was not investigated as a motive.
See also
Bamboo fly rods
Bibliography of fly fishing
Gaff
Piscatorial Society
Tailrace fishing
Trolling (fishing)
Trout worms
References
External links
Project Gutenberg: The Compleat Angler
How to fish taken from the Boy's Own Book of Outdoor Sports (early 1900s)
Recreational fishing
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223419 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Gage | Thomas Gage | General Thomas Gage (10 March 1718/192 April 1787) was a British Army general officer and colonial official best known for his many years of service in North America, including his role as British commander-in-chief in the early days of the American Revolution.
Being born to an aristocratic family in England, he entered military service, seeing action in the French and Indian War, where he served alongside his future opponent George Washington in the 1755 Battle of the Monongahela. After the fall of Montreal in 1760, he was named its military governor. During this time he did not distinguish himself militarily, but proved himself to be a competent administrator.
From 1763 to 1775 he served as commander-in-chief of the British forces in North America, overseeing the British response to the 1763 Pontiac's Rebellion. In 1774 he was also appointed the military governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, with instructions to implement the Intolerable Acts, punishing Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party. His attempts to seize military stores of Patriot militias in April 1775 sparked the Battles of Lexington and Concord, beginning the American Revolutionary War. After the Pyrrhic victory in the June Battle of Bunker Hill, he was replaced by General William Howe in October 1775, and returned to Great Britain.
Early life
Thomas Gage was born on 10 March 1718/19 at Firle and christened 31 March 1719 at Westminster St James, Middlesex, England, son of Thomas Gage, 1st Viscount Gage, and Benedicta Maria Teresa Hall. Firle Place, Firle, Sussex, is where the Gage family had been seated since the 15th century. His father, Thomas Gage, 1st Viscount Gage, was a noted nobleman given titles in Ireland. Thomas Gage (the elder) had three children, of whom Thomas was the second. The first son, William Hall Gage, 2nd Viscount Gage, was born 6 January 1717/18 and christened 29 January 1717/18, also at Westminster St James. In 1728 Gage began attending the prestigious Westminster School where he met such figures as John Burgoyne, Richard Howe, Francis Bernard, and George Germain. Despite the family's long history of Catholicism, Viscount Gage had adopted the Anglican Church in 1715. During his school years Thomas the younger became firmly attached to the latter church; he eventually developed a dislike for the Roman Catholic Church that became evident in later years.
After he left Westminster School in 1736, there are no records of Gage's activities until he joined the British Army, eventually receiving a commission as ensign. His early duties consisted of recruiting in Yorkshire. In January 1741 he purchased a lieutenant's commission in the 1st Northampton Regiment, where he stayed until May 1742, when he transferred to Battereau's Regiment with the rank of captain-lieutenant. Gage received promotion to captain in 1743, and saw action in the War of the Austrian Succession with British forces in Flanders, where he served as aide-de-camp to the Earl of Albemarle in the Battle of Fontenoy. He saw further service in the Second Jacobite Uprising, which culminated in the 1746 Battle of Culloden. From 1747 to 1748, Gage saw action under Albemarle in the Low Countries. In 1748 he purchased a major's commission and transferred to the 55th Foot Regiment (which was later renumbered to the 44th). The regiment was stationed in Ireland from 1748 to 1755; Gage was promoted to lieutenant colonel in March 1751.
During his early service years, he spent leisure time at White's Club, where he was a member, and occasionally travelled, going at least as far as Paris. He was a popular figure in the army and at the club, even though he neither liked alcohol nor gambled very much. His friendships spanned class and ability. Charles Lee once wrote to Gage, "I respected your understanding, lik'd your manners and perfectly ador'd the qualities of your heart." Gage also made some important political connections, forming relationships with important figures like Lord Barrington, the future Secretary at War, and Jeffery Amherst, a man roughly his age who rose to great heights in the French and Indian War.
In 1750, Gage became engaged to a "lady of rank and fortune, whom he persuaded to yield her hand in an honourable way". The engagement was eventually broken, leaving Gage broken-hearted. In 1753, both Gage and his father stood for seats in Parliament. Both lost in the April 1754 election, even though his father had been a Member of Parliament for some years prior. They both contested the results, but his father died soon after, and Gage withdrew his protest in early 1755, as his regiment was being sent to America following the outbreak of the French and Indian War.
French and Indian War
In 1755 Gage's regiment was sent to North America as part of General Edward Braddock's expeditionary force, whose objective was the expulsion of French forces from the Ohio Country, territory disputed between French and British colonies where there had been military clashes in 1754. On this expedition Gage's regiment was in the vanguard of the troops when they came upon a company of French and First Nations people who were trying to set up an ambush. This skirmish began the Battle of the Monongahela, in which Braddock was mortally wounded, and George Washington distinguished himself for his courage under fire and his leadership in organising the retreat. The commander of the 44th, Colonel Sir Peter Halkett, was one of many officers killed in the battle and Gage, who temporarily took command of the regiment, was slightly wounded. The regiment was decimated, and Captain Robert Orme (General Braddock's aide-de-camp) levelled charges that poor field tactics on the part of Gage had led to the defeat; as a result of his accusations Gage was denied permanent command of the 44th Regiment. Gage and Washington maintained a somewhat friendly relationship for several years after the expedition, but distance and lack of frequent contact likely cooled the relationship. By 1770, Washington was publicly condemning Gage's actions in asserting British authority in Massachusetts.
Creation of the light infantry
In the summer of 1756 Gage served as second-in-command of a failed expedition to resupply Fort Oswego, which fell to the French while the expedition was en route. The following year, he was assigned to Captain-General John Campbell Loudoun in Halifax, Nova Scotia, where a planned expedition against Louisbourg turned back when confronted by a larger French fleet.
In December 1757, Gage proposed to Loudoun the creation of a regiment of light infantry that would be better suited to woodland warfare. Loudoun approved the plan before he was recalled that month, also recommending Gage to the king for promotion to full colonel. Gage spent the winter in New Jersey, recruiting for the newly raised 80th Regiment of Light-Armed Foot, the "first definitely light-armed regiment in the British army." While it is uncertain exactly when he met the Kembles, his choice of the Brunswick area may well have been motivated by his interest in Margaret Kemble, a well-known beauty of the area, a descendant of the Schuyler family, and the granddaughter of New York Mayor Stephanus Van Cortlandt. Recruiting and courtship were both successful. By February 1758 Gage was in Albany, preparing for that year's campaign, and he and Margaret were married on 8 December of that year.
The campaign for which Gage went to Albany culminated in the disastrous Battle of Carillon, in which 16,000 British forces were defeated by barely 4,000 French forces. Gage, whose regiment was in the British vanguard, was again wounded in that battle, in which the British suffered more than 2,000 casualties. Gage, who had been brevetted a brigadier general for the 1758 campaign, received in 1759 a full promotion to the position, largely through the political manoeuvring of his brother, Lord Gage.
Failure to act against La Galette
The new brigadier general was placed in command of the Albany post, serving under Major General Jeffery Amherst. In 1759, shortly after capturing Ticonderoga without a fight, General Amherst learned of the death of General John Prideaux whose expedition had captured Fort Niagara. Amherst then ordered Gage to take Prideaux's place, and to take Fort de La Présentation (also known as Fort La Galette) at the mouth of the Oswegatchie River on Lake Ontario. When Amherst learned that the French had also abandoned Fort St. Frédéric, he sent a messenger after Gage with more explicit instructions to capture La Galette and then, if at all possible, to advance on Montreal.
When Gage arrived at Oswego, which had been captured in July by troops under Frederick Haldimand's command, he surveyed the situation, and decided that it was not prudent to move against La Galette. Expected reinforcements from Fort Duquesne had not arrived, the French military strength at La Galette was unknown, and its strength near Montreal was believed to be relatively high. Gage, believing an attack on La Galette would not gain any significant advantage, decided against action, and sent Amherst a message outlining his reasons. Although there was no immediate censure from either Amherst or the government, Amherst was incensed at the failure, and Gage's troops were in the rear of Amherst's army in the 1760 expedition that resulted in Montreal's surrender.
Early governorship
After the French surrender, Amherst named Gage the military Governor of Montreal, a task Gage found somewhat thankless, because it involved the minute details of municipal governance along with the administration of the military occupation. He was also forced to deal with civil litigation, and manage trade with the First Nations in the Great Lakes region, where traders disputed territorial claims, and quarrelled with the First Nations. Margaret came to stay with him in Montreal and that is where his first two children, Harry, the future 3rd Viscount Gage, and Maria Theresa, were born. In 1761, he was promoted to major general, and in 1762, again with the assistance of his brother, was placed in command of the 22nd Regiment, which assured a command even in peacetime.
By all accounts, Gage appeared to be a fair administrator, respecting people's lives and property, although he had a healthy distrust of the landowning seigneurs and of the Roman Catholic clergy, who he viewed as intriguers for the French. When peace was announced following the 1763 Treaty of Paris, Gage began lobbying for another posting, as he was "very much [tired] of this cursed Climate, and I must be bribed very high to stay here any longer". In October 1763 the good news arrived that he would act as commander-in-chief of North America while Amherst was on leave in Britain. He immediately left Montreal, and took over Amherst's command in New York on 17 November 1763. When he did so, he inherited the job of dealing with the Indian uprising known as Pontiac's Rebellion.
Pontiac's Rebellion
Following the conquest of New France, Amherst, who had little respect for people of the First Nations, instituted policies that severely hampered British-Indian relations, principally forbidding the sale of ammunition to them. Combined with widespread concern about British expansion into their territories, this prompted the tribes of the Ohio Country and the formerly French Pays d'en Haut to rise against the British. In May 1763, under the leadership of the Ottawa leader Pontiac, they launched a series of attacks on lightly garrisoned British frontier forts, successfully driving the British from some, threatening others, and also terrorising the settlers in those areas.
Hoping to end the conflict diplomatically, Gage ordered Colonel John Bradstreet and Colonel Henry Bouquet out on military expeditions and also ordered Sir William Johnson to engage in peace negotiations. Johnson negotiated the Treaty of Fort Niagara in the summer of 1764 with some of the disaffected tribes, and Colonel Bouquet negotiated a cease-fire of sorts in October 1764, which resulted in another peace treaty finalised by Johnson in 1765. In 1765, the 42nd Royal Highland Regiment finally got through to Fort Cavendish, the last fort still in French hands. The conflict was not fully resolved until Pontiac himself travelled to Fort Ontario and signed a formal treaty with Johnson in July 1766.
Securing his position
When General Amherst left North America in 1763, it was on a leave of absence from his position as commander-in-chief. In 1764, Amherst announced that he had no intention of returning to North America, at which point Gage's appointment to that post was made permanent. (Amherst retained posts as governor of Virginia and colonel of the 60th Foot, positions he only gave up in 1768 when he was required to actually go to Virginia or give up the post.) Intrigues of other high-ranking officers, especially Robert Monckton and his supporters, for his offices, continued throughout his tenure as commander-in-chief. Gage was promoted to lieutenant general in 1771. In 1767 Gage ordered the arrest of Major Robert Rogers, the former leader of Rogers' Rangers who Gage had come to dislike and distrust during the war. The arrest was based on flimsy evidence that Rogers might have been engaging in a treasonous relationship with the French; he was acquitted in a 1768 court martial.
Gage spent most of his time as commander-in-chief, the most powerful office in British America, in and around New York City. Although Gage was burdened by the administrative demands of managing a territory that spanned the entirety of North America east of the Mississippi River, the Gages clearly relished life in New York, actively participating in the social scene. One way he did this was by joining the American Philosophical Society in 1768 through his election. Although his position gave him the opportunity to make financial arrangements that might have lined the pockets of high-ranking officers at the expense of the military purse, there is little evidence that he engaged in any significant improper transactions. In addition to the handsome sum of £10 per day as commander-in-chief, he received a variety of other stipends, including his colonel's salary, given for leading his regiment. These funds made it possible to send all of the Gage children (at least six of whom survived to adulthood) to school in England.
If Gage did not dip his hand unnecessarily in the public till, he did engage in the relatively common practices of nepotism and political favouritism. In addition to securing advantageous positions for several people named Gage or Kemble, he also apparently assisted in the placement of some of his friends and political supporters, or their children.
Rising colonial tension
During Gage's administration, political tensions rose throughout the American colonies. As a result, Gage began withdrawing troops from the frontier to fortify urban centres like New York City and Boston. As the number of soldiers stationed in cities grew, the need to provide adequate food and housing for these troops became urgent. Parliament passed the Quartering Act of 1765, permitting British troops to be quartered in vacant houses, barns, and outbuildings, but not private residences.
Gage's thoughts on the reasons for colonial unrest played an important role in furthering the unrest. He at first believed that the popular unrest after the 1765 Stamp Act was primarily due to a small number of colonial elites, led by those in Boston. In 1768 he recommended the deployment of two regiments to occupy Boston, a move that further inflamed the city. Among the troops quartered in the city was the 29th Regiment of Foot, which had previously clashed with colonists in Quebec and New York, and had a reputation for poor discipline. This occupation eventually led to the Boston Massacre in 1770. Later that year he wrote that "America is a mere bully, from one end to the other, and the Bostonians by far the greatest bullies."
Gage later came to change his opinion about the source of the unrest, believing that democracy was a significant threat. He saw the movement of colonists into the interior, beyond effective Crown control, and the development of the town meeting as a means of local governance as major elements of the threat, and wrote in 1772 that "democracy is too prevalent in America". He believed that town meetings should be abolished and recommended that colonisation should be limited to the coastal areas where British rule could be enforced.
Governor of Massachusetts Bay
Gage returned to Britain in June 1773 with his family and thus missed the Boston Tea Party in December of that year. The British Parliament reacted to the Tea Party with a series of punitive measures against Massachusetts known in the colonies as the Intolerable Acts. Some of the terms of those acts, for example the option to remove political trials to England, originated with Gage, and measures such as curbing the activities of town meetings and withholding representative government from the Ohio Country also show his influence. With his military experience and relative youth (Massachusetts governor Thomas Hutchinson was then 62 years old and unpopular, and the equally unpopular lieutenant governor Andrew Oliver was 67 in 1773 and died in March 1774), Gage, a popular figure on both sides of the Atlantic, was deemed the best man to handle the brewing crisis and enforce the Parliamentary acts.
In early 1774, he was appointed military governor of Massachusetts, replacing Hutchinson. He arrived from Britain in early May, first stopping at Castle William on Castle Island in Boston Harbour. He then arrived in Boston on 13 May 1774, having been carried there by . His arrival was met with little pomp and circumstance, but was generally well received at first as Bostonians were happy to see Hutchinson go. Local attitudes toward him rapidly deteriorated as he began implementing the various acts, including the Boston Port Act, which put many people out of work, and the Massachusetts Government Act, which formally rescinded the provincial assembly's right to nominate members of the Governor's Council, though it retained the elected General Court. Gage dissolved the assembly in June 1774 after he discovered the Massachusetts representatives were sending delegates to the extralegal Continental Congress. He called for new elections to be held as per the Massachusetts Government Act, but his authority was undermined by the representatives who refused to meet with the new, appointed Governor's Council. He attempted to buy off political leaders in Massachusetts, notably Benjamin Church and Samuel Adams. With the former he was successful—Church secretly supplied him with intelligence on the activities of rebel leaders—but Adams and other rebel leaders were not moved.
In September 1774 Gage withdrew his garrisons from New York City, New Jersey, Philadelphia, Halifax and Newfoundland and brought all under his wing in Boston together with a large British naval presence under the control of Admiral Samuel Graves. He also sought to strictly enforce army directives calling for the confiscation of war-making materials. In September 1774, he ordered a mission to remove provincial gunpowder from a magazine in what is now Somerville, Massachusetts. This action, although successful, caused a huge popular reaction known as the Powder Alarm, resulting in the mobilization of thousands of provincial militiamen who marched towards Cambridge, Massachusetts. Although the militia soon dispersed, the show of force on the part of the provincials had a lasting effect on Gage, and he subsequently grew more cautious in his actions. The rapid response of the provincials was in large part due to Paul Revere and the Sons of Liberty. The Sons of Liberty kept careful watch over Gage's activities and successfully warned others of future actions before Gage could mobilise his British regulars to execute them. A Committee of Safety was also tasked with sounding the alarm for local militias if Gage were spotted sending significant numbers of British troops outside of Boston.
Gage was criticised for allowing groups like the Sons of Liberty to exist. One of his officers, Lord Percy, remarked, "The general's great lenity and moderation serve only to make them [the colonists] more daring and insolent." Gage himself wrote after the Powder Alarm, "If force is to be used at length, it must be a considerable one, and foreign troops must be hired, for to begin with small numbers will encourage resistance, and not terrify; and will in the end cost more blood and treasure." Edmund Burke described Gage's conflicted relationship by saying in Parliament, "An Englishman is the unfittest person on Earth to argue another Englishman into slavery."
American Revolutionary War
On 14 April 1775 Gage received orders from London to take decisive action against the Patriots. Given intelligence that the militia had been stockpiling weapons at Concord, Massachusetts, he ordered detachments of regulars from the Boston garrison to march there on the of 1902 night of 18 April to confiscate them. A brief skirmish in Lexington scattered colonial militia forces gathered there, but in a later standoff in Concord, a portion of the British force was routed by a stronger colonial militia contingent. When the British left Concord following their search (which was largely unsuccessful, as the colonists, with advance warning of the action, had removed most of the supplies), arriving colonial militia engaged the British column in a running battle all the way back testown, Boston|Charlestown]]. The Battles of Lexington and Concord resulted in 273 total casualties for the British and 93 for the American rebels.
The British expedition to Lexington and Concord was supposed to have been a "profound secret," but nevertheless Sons of Liberty leader Joseph Warren found out about it. He then dispatched Paul Revere and William Dawes to warn the colonists, which resulted in the Battle of Lexington and Concord, and starting the American Revolutionary War. Gage had told his plans to only his second-in-command and "one other person." There is evidence to suggest that the other person was his wife, Margaret Kemble Gage, who was an American, and that she may have passed on this information to Warren.
Following Lexington and Concord, thousands of colonial militia surrounded the city, beginning the Siege of Boston. At first, the rebels (led mainly by Massachusetts General Artemas Ward) faced some 4,000 British regulars, who were bottled up in the city. British Admiral Samuel Graves commanded the fleet that continued to control the harbour. On 25 May, 4,500 reinforcements arrived in the city, along with three more generals: Major General William Howe and Brigadiers John Burgoyne and Henry Clinton.
On 14 June, Gage issued a proclamation, believed to have been written by Burgoyne but distributed in Gage's name, granting a general pardon to all who would demonstrate loyalty to the crown—with the notable exceptions of John Hancock and Samuel Adams. Gage also worked with the newly arrived generals on a plan to break the grip of the besieging forces. They would use an amphibious assault to take control of the unoccupied Dorchester Heights, which would be followed up by an attack on the rebel camp at Roxbury. They would then seize the heights on the Charlestown peninsula, including Breed's Hill and Bunker Hill. This would allow the British to eventually take the colonial headquarters at Cambridge. The colonists were warned of these plans, and seized the initiative. On the night of 16–17 June, they fortified Breed's Hill, threatening the British position in Boston. On 17 June 1775, British forces under General Howe seized the Charlestown Peninsula at the Battle of Bunker Hill. It was a Pyrrhic victory; Britain won but suffered more than 1,000 casualties without significantly altering the state of the siege. Henry Clinton called it "[a] dear bought victory, another such would have ruined us", while other officers noted that nothing had been gained in the victory. Gage himself wrote the Secretary at War:
These people show a spirit and conduct against us they never showed against the French….They are now spirited up by a rage and enthusiasm as great as ever people were possessed of and you must proceed in earnest or give the business up. A small body acting in one spot will not avail, you must have large armies making diversions on different sides, to divide their force. The loss we have sustained is greater than we can bear. Small armies cannot afford such losses, especially when the advantage gained tends to do little more than the gaining of a post.
Return to Great Britain
On 25 June 1775, Gage wrote a dispatch to Great Britain, notifying Lord Dartmouth of the results of the battle on 17 June. Three days after his report arrived in England, Dartmouth issued the order recalling Gage and replacing him with William Howe. The rapidity of this action is likely attributable to the fact that people within the government were already arguing for Gage's removal, and the battle was just the final straw. Gage received the order in Boston on 26 September, and set sail for England on 11 October.
The nature of Dartmouth's recall order did not actually strip Gage of his offices immediately. William Howe temporarily replaced him as commander of the forces in Boston, while General Guy Carleton was given command of the forces in Quebec. Although King George wanted to reward his "mild general" for his service, Gage's sole reward after Lord George Germain (who succeeded Dartmouth as the Secretary of State for North America) formally gave his command to Howe in April 1776 was that he retained the governorship of Massachusetts.
On the Gages' return to England, the family eventually settled into a house on Portland Place in London. Although he was presumably given a friendly reception in his interview with a sympathetic King George, the public and private writings about him and his fall from power were at times vicious. One correspondent wrote that Gage had "run his race of glory ... let him alone to the hell of his own conscience and the infamy which must inevitably attend him!" Others were kinder; New Hampshire Governor Benning Wentworth characterised him as "a good and wise man ... surrounded by difficulties."
Gage was briefly reactivated to duty in April 1781, when Amherst appointed him to mobilise troops for a possible French invasion. The next year, Gage assumed command of the 17th Light Dragoons. He was promoted to full general on 20 November 1782, and later transferred to command the 11th Dragoons.
Final years and legacy
As the war machinery was reduced in the mid-1780s, Gage's military activities declined. He supported the efforts of Loyalists to recover losses incurred when they were forced to leave the colonies, notably confirming the activities of Benjamin Church to further his widow's claims for compensation. He received visitors at Portland Place and at Firle, including Frederick Haldimand and Thomas Hutchinson. His health began to decline early in the 1780s.
Gage died at Portland Place on 2 April 1787, and was buried in the family plot at Firle. His wife survived him by almost 37 years. His son Henry inherited the family title upon the death of Gage's brother William, and became one of the wealthiest men in England. His youngest son, William Hall Gage, became an admiral in the Royal Navy, and all three daughters married into well-known families.
Gagetown, New Brunswick was named in his honour; the Canadian Forces base CFB Gagetown consequently reflects his name.
In 1792, the Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada, John Graves Simcoe, renamed the archipelago of islands in the mouth of the St. Lawrence River for the victorious generals of the Conquest of Canada: Wolfe Island, Amherst Island, Howe Island, Carleton Island, and Gage Island. The last is now known as Simcoe Island.
In popular culture
In the 2015 miniseries Sons of Liberty, Gage is portrayed by Marton Csokas.
Arms
See also
Viscount Gage
Further reading
Middleton, Richard (2007). Pontiac's War: Its Causes Course and Consequences. New York: Routledge. . .
Notes
(paperback).
(Paperback: )
References
External links
Official
Thomas Gage papers at the William L. Clements Library
General information
1719 births
1787 deaths
11th Hussars officers
17th Lancers officers
British America army officers
British Army generals
British Army personnel of the American Revolutionary War
British Army personnel of the Jacobite rising of 1745
British Army personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession
British Army personnel of the French and Indian War
British officials in the American Revolution
Burials in East Sussex
Cheshire Regiment officers
Colonial governors of Massachusetts
Thomas
Governors of Montreal
People educated at Westminster School, London
Younger sons of viscounts
People from Firle | [
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223420 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Ignorant | Steve Ignorant | Steve Ignorant (born Steven Williams in 1957) is a singer and artist.
Career
Steve Ignorant was born in Stoke-on-Trent but grew up in Dagenham, East London. He later lived at Dial House, which since 1967 has been a self-sustaining anarchist-pacifist intentional community in Epping Forest, Essex; it was here where he met Penny Rimbaud, one of the founders of the Dial House project.
Ignorant and Rimbaud went on to co-founded the anarcho-punk band Crass in 1977. After Crass stopped performing in 1984, he has worked with other groups including Conflict, Schwartzeneggar, Stratford Mercenaries, and Current 93 as well as being an occasional solo performer.
He is also a sculptor, and has worked as a traditional Punch and Judy performer using the name Professor Ignorant. In recent years he has developed an interest in the history of traditional London music hall performance. Ignorant is vegetarian.
On 24 and 25 November 2007 he performed Crass's entire The Feeding of the 5000 live at the Shepherd's Bush Empire, backed by guest musicians. Other members of Crass were not involved in these concerts. "I acknowledge and respect Steve's right to do this", Rimbaud said, "but I do regard it as a betrayal of the Crass ethos". Ignorant had a different view; "I don't have to justify what I do. (...) Plus, most of the lyrics are still relevant today. And remember that three-letter word, 'fun'?"
In 2010 Ignorant announced plans to do a tour called "The Last Supper", performing Crass songs from the period 1977–1982 with largely the same band that performed with him at Shepherd's Bush, including Gizz Butt, Bob Butler and Spike Smith. In August 2010 Ignorant and Rimbaud took to the stage together to be interviewed by John Robb on the literacy stage at the Rebellion Festival in Blackpool where they informed the large crowd that Rimbaud has now given him his blessing to perform Crass material live.
On 19 November 2011, Ignorant performed "The Last Supper" at the Shepherd's Bush Empire where he was joined on stage by Rimbaud and Eve Libertine. This was the last time Crass songs were performed live by him until his 2020 tour.
In 2010 Southern Records published The Rest Is Propaganda, Ignorant's autobiography co-written with Steve Pottinger.
He moved to the Norfolk coast in 2007 where he volunteers as a lifeboatman.
In 2019, Ignorant announced plans to tour England in 2020 with a full band performing an all-Crass set.
Slice of Life
While stranded in Sydney, Australia after a tour, Steve Ignorant, Carol Hodge and Pete Wilson came up with an idea for a new band, a more contemplative band backed by acoustic instruments. Thus Slice of Life was born. They performed for the first time at Wellingborough, UK on 25 October 2013. Lucas Martin joined the band on upright bass in 2015. Music publisher Wipeout Music says of the group, "Steve opens both heart and soul when reflecting on life and then reminds us just why we should never give up on this world or on each other with his poems and songs that make us think about the world around us and reminds us just why we should still care."
The band has recorded several albums.
Love and a Lamp Post (2014)
Live at the Forum 2015 (2016)
Don't Turn Away (2019)
They also released an extended single, Just Another, in 2017.
See also
Animal rights and punk subculture
References
External links
Stratford Mercenaries' website
Steve Ignorant's Slice of Life Facebook Page
Anarcho-punk musicians
English anti-fascists
Crass members
English anarchists
English male singers
Living people
English punk rock singers
British punk rock singers
People from Stoke-on-Trent
People from Dagenham
1957 births
Anti-consumerists
Musicians from Staffordshire
Musicians from Essex | [
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223426 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3ABI | ISO 3166-2:BI | ISO 3166-2:BI is the entry for Burundi in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Burundi, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 18 provinces.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Burundi. The second part is two letters.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998. ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013.
The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:
See also
Subdivisions of Burundi
FIPS region codes of Burundi
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: BI
Provinces of Burundi, Statoids.com
2:BI
ISO 3166-2
Burundi geography-related lists | [
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223430 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monito%20del%20monte | Monito del monte | The monito del monte or colocolo opossum, Dromiciops gliroides, also called chumaihuén in Mapudungun, is a diminutive marsupial native only to southwestern South America (Argentina and Chile). It is the only extant species in the ancient order Microbiotheria, and the sole New World representative of the superorder Australidelphia (all other New World marsupials are members of the paraphyletic "Ameridelphia"). The species is nocturnal and arboreal, and lives in thickets of South American mountain bamboo in the Valdivian temperate rain forests of the southern Andes, aided by its partially prehensile tail. It eats primarily insects and other small invertebrates, supplemented with fruit.
Taxonomy and etymology
Dromiciops gliroides is the sole extant member of the order Microbiotheria. It was first described by British zoologist Oldfield Thomas in 1894. The generic name Dromiciops is based on the resemblance of the monito del monte to the eastern pygmy possum (Cercartetus nanus), one of the synonyms of which is Dromicia nana. The specific name gliroides is a combination of the Latin glis, gliris ("dormouse", more generally "rodent") and Greek oides ("similar to"). The name australis in a synonym (D. australis) refers to the southern distribution of the animal. The common name monito del monte is Spanish for "mountain monkey", or "monkey of the mountains".
In his 1943 Mammals of Chile, American zoologist Wilfred Hudson Osgood identified two subspecies of the monito del monte:
Dromiciops gliroides australis F. Philippi, 1893: It occurs in the Valdivian temperate rain forest in southcentral Chile.
Dromiciops gliroides gliroides Thomas, 1894: It occurs in the northeastern Chiloé Island.
Phylogeny and biogeography
South American marsupials have long been suspected to be ancestral to those of Australia, consistent with the fact that the two continents were connected via Antarctica in the early Cenozoic. Australia's earliest known marsupial is Djarthia, a primitive mouse-like animal that lived in the early Eocene about 55 million years ago (mya). Djarthia had been identified as the earliest known australidelphian, and this research suggested that the monito del monte was the last of a clade that included Djarthia. This relationship suggests that the ancestors of the monito del monte might have reached South America by back-migration from Australia. The time of divergence between the monito del monte and Australian marsupials was estimated to have been 46 mya.
However, in 2010, analysis of retrotransposon insertion sites in the nuclear DNA of a variety of marsupials, while confirming the placement of the monito del monte in Australidelphia, also clarified that its lineage is the most basal of that superorder. The study further confirmed that the most basal of all marsupial orders are the other two South American lineages (Didelphimorphia and Paucituberculata, with the former probably branching first). This conclusion indicates that Australidelphia arose in South America (along with the ancestors of all other living marsupials), and probably reached Australia in a single dispersal event after Microbiotheria split off. Fossils of another Eocene australidelphian, the microbiotherian Woodburnodon casei, have been described from the Antarctic peninsula, and fossils of a related early Eocene woodburnodontid have been found in Patagonia.
Habitat
Monitos del monte live in the dense forests of highland Argentina and Chile, mainly in trees, where they construct spherical nests of water-resistant colihue leaves. These leaves are then lined with moss or grass, and placed in well-protected areas of the tree, such as underbrush, tree cavities, or fallen timber. The nests are sometimes covered with grey moss as a form of camouflage. These nests provide the monito del monte with some protection from cold, both when it is active and when it hibernates.
Morphology
Monitos del monte are small marsupials that look like mice. Dromiciops have the same dental formula as Didelphids: , a total of 50 teeth. Their size ranges from . They have short and dense fur that is primarily brown-gray with patches of white at their shoulders and back, and their underside is more of a cream or light gray color. Monitos del monte also have distinct black rings around their eyes. Their small furred ears are well-rounded and their rostrums are short. The head to body length is around , and their tail length is between . Their tails are somewhat prehensile and mostly furred with the exception of of the underside. The naked underside of their tails may contribute to increasing friction when the mammal is on a tree. The base of their tails also functions as a fat storage organ which they use during winter hibernation. In a week, Monitos del monte can store enough fat to double their body size.
Sexual dimorphism
At the end of the summer, female Monitos del monte tend to be larger and heavier than males. The tails of the sexes also vary in size during this time; females have a thicker tail, which is where they store fat; the difference suggests that females need more energy than males during hibernation. The sexual dimorphism is only seen during this time and not year-round.
Reproduction
Monitos del monte have a monogamous mating system. The females have well-formed, fur-lined pouch containing four teats. They normally reproduce in the spring once a year and can have a litter size varying from one to five. They can feed a maximum of four offspring, so if there are five young, one will not survive. When the young are mature enough to leave the pouch, approximately five months, they are nursed in a distinctive nest. They are then carried on the mother's back. The young remain in association with the mother after weaning. Males and females both reach sexual maturity after two years.
Habits
The monito del monte is adapted to arboreal life; its tail and paws are prehensile. It is largely nocturnal and, depending on the ambient and internal temperature, and on the availability of food, it spends much of the day in a state of torpor. Such behaviour enables it to survive periods of extreme weather and food shortage, conserving energy instead of foraging to no effect.
The animal covers its nest with moss for concealment, and for insulation and protection from bad weather.
Diet
Monitos del monte are primarily insectivores. They eat insects and other invertebrates they find on the branches of trees and cracks in bark, but during the summer they eat large quantities of fruit, especially mistletoe fruit.
Seed-dispersing role
A study performed in the temperate forests of southern Argentina showed a mutualistic seed dispersal relationship between D. gliroides and Tristerix corymbosus, also known as the loranthacous mistletoe. The monito del monte is the sole dispersal agent for this plant, and without it the plant would likely become extinct. The monito del monte eats the fruit of T. corymbosus, and germination takes place in the gut. Scientists speculate that the coevolution of these two species could have begun 60–70 million years ago.
Conservation
For the past few years the number of Dromiciops has declined, and the species is now classified as "near threatened". Many factors contribute to the decline:
The monito del monte is not the only organism which will be affected if it becomes endangered. Dromiciops illustrate parasite-host specificity with the tick Ixodes neuquenensis. This tick can only be found on the monito del monte, so it depends on the survival of this nearly endangered mammal. T. corymbosus also depends on the survival of this species, because without the seed dispersal agency of the monito del monte, it would not be able to reproduce.
Little conservation effort is being undertaken at the moment, but there are ecological studies being conducted in the Chiloé Island that might help future conservation efforts. Dromiciops has been found in the Los Ruiles National Reserve and the Valdivian Coastal Reserve, which are protected areas in Chile.
References
Sources
Microbiotheriidae
Mammals described in 1894
EDGE species
Marsupials of South America
Marsupials of Argentina
Mammals of Patagonia
Mammals of the Andes
Marsupials of Chile
Taxa named by Oldfield Thomas | [
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223431 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skatepark | Skatepark | A skatepark, or skate park, is a purpose-built recreational environment made for skateboarding, BMX, scooter, wheelchair, and aggressive inline skating. A skatepark may contain half-pipes, handrails, funboxes, vert ramps, stairsets, quarter pipes, ledges, spine transfers, pyramids, banked ramps, full pipes, pools, bowls, snake runs, and any number of other objects.
History
The first skatepark in the world, Surf City, opened for business at 5140 E. Speedway in Tucson, Arizona on September 3, 1965. Patti McGee, Women's National Champion, attended the grand opening. The park had concrete ramps and was operated by Arizona Surf City Enterprises, Inc. A skatepark for skateboarders and skaters made of plywood ramps on a half-acre lot in Kelso, Washington, USA opened in April 1966. It was lighted for night use. California's first skatepark, the Carlsbad Skatepark opened on March 3, 1976. The World Skateboard Championships were held here on April 10, 1977. It operated until 1979, when it was buried intact beneath a layer of dirt for more than two decades, before being destroyed in 2005. The current Carlsbad Skatepark is in a different location. The East Coast's first skatepark, Ocean Bowl Skate Park, in Ocean City, Maryland, USA, opened the first week of June, 1976. Due to time, wear and the current needs of skaters, the old bowl and ramp were torn down in the Fall of 1997 and the new park opened in July 1998.
The Sandy Hills Skate Park, in Lansdowne, Maryland is the oldest operating municipal skate park in the United States. In 1999 the City of Hermosa Beach, California opened a small skatepark at the site of the first skateboard competition. The competition held at the Pier Avenue Junior High School (now a City museum) was organized by Dewey Weber across the street from his surf and skateboard shop. Makaha Skateboards was a sponsor of the competition. In 1987 an all wooden indoor skate park opened in Bristol, CT called CT Bike that is still in business today over 20 years later. CT Bike is where Tony Hawk made his debut when he was just a young boy on his first East Coast tour. The indoor skate park today is still operated by the same family who built the park despite a fire that threatened the park in 1988.
In more extreme climates, parks were built indoors, often using wood or metal. By the end of the 1970s, the popularity of skateboarding had waned, and the original parks of the era began to close. A downturn in the overall skateboard market in the 1980s, coupled with high liability insurance premiums, contributed to the demise of the first wave of skateparks. Some second-generation parks, such as Upland, California's Pipeline, survived into the 1980s. However, few of the private parks of the 1970s remain, with the notable exception of Kona Skatepark in Jacksonville, Florida, United States. However, many public parks of that era can still be found throughout Western Europe, Australia and New Zealand.
The modern skatepark designs of the Pacific Northwest can be traced back to Burnside Skatepark, a DIY "barge build" beneath the Burnside Bridge in Portland, Oregon. Skateboarders used an area populated primarily by the city's "undesirable elements" to create a skatepark, building one section at a time. The process is called "design/build" (D/B), and is a characteristic of many skateparks today. The design/build process ensures that adjacent skatepark features are harmonious and rideable, allowing skateboarders to create endless "lines" to ride among the many features.
Skate parks, related obstacles/ramps and locations designed for extreme sport utilization have made their way into the media over time, such as with the aforementioned Burnside Skatepark being included in the movie Free Willy.
Public skateparks have had a resurgence in the US, made possible by legislation such as California's 1998 law stating that skateboarding is an inherently "Hazardous Recreational Activity" (HRA), and therefore municipalities and their employees may not be held liable for claims of negligence resulting in skateboarders' injuries.
Street skating has blurred the line between skateparks and street spots. Some cities are starting to put in skate spots/plazas with features that would not have been classically designed for skateboarding, but can be skated by street skaters legally. In some instances, street spots that were not originally designed for skateboarding have been converted into sanctioned skate plazas.
There is also an emerging movement of making art and sculpture skate-able. This provides additional legal skate spots that blend well with other city art and landscape features. Skate-able art allows for the creation of thriving multi-use areas, as installations often become picturesque destinations for skaters and non-skaters alike.
Types
Unlike organized sports, like basketball or football, skateboarding has no set arena or rules and skateparks have no standard design template. Each skatepark is designed specifically to provide unique challenges to its users. There are, however, three main categories of skatepark design: bowl, street plaza and flow parks.
Bowl parks are designed to emulate and improve upon the pool skating experience. Skaters in bowl parks can move around the park without taking their feet off the board to push. The curved walls of bowls allow skaters to ride around and across the bowl in addition to the back and forth skating you might see on a traditional half pipe. Bowls and bowl parks come in an endless variety of shapes and sizes but most bowls are between 3' and 12’ deep.
Street plaza parks are the favorite of the vast majority of skaters and they are designed to emulate and improve upon the street skating experience. Obstacles in a street plaza are styled to look like natural street terrain such as stairs, railings, planters and benches. Skaters will push off with their feet to gain momentum in a street plaza. The first public outdoor skate plaza is the Vancouver Skate Plaza, built in 2004 by New Line Skateparks.
Flow parks (or Park style) combine elements of both bowl parks and street plazas. In a well designed flow park a skater can pump around the parks curved walls such as quarter pipes, pump bumps and bowl corners without taking their feet off to push. They can use that speed to hit street obstacles such as stairs, railings and benches.
Skateparks may be privately or publicly owned. Privately owned skateparks usually have admission fees, while publicly owned skateparks are generally free. Many privately owned skateparks are indoors, usually in warehouses, roller rinks or buildings with high ceilings, especially in areas with snowy winters. Public skateparks are usually outdoors.
Skatepark construction can be divided into two major categories — prefabricated and custom built concrete. Prefabricated parks can be made of wood, plastic, sheet metal, and concrete. Most are designed and built by playground equipment manufacturers who present these parks as a cost-effective alternative to custom-designed concrete skateparks. In reality, custom built concrete skateparks can be quite cost competitive with prefabricated skate ramps.
According to an editor of Transworld Skateboarding magazine, concrete parks are now "pretty much the industry standard" as they require fewer repairs and less maintenance.<ref>Porstner, Donna, "Curve appeal / Area's new skate park opens", news article in The Advocate of Stamford, Connecticut, July 13, 2007, pp 1, A6</ref>
Elements
Quarter pipe – Literal quarter of a pipe. There is usually a narrow metal rod running the length of the top edge; this is called the coping. There may also be a flat platform connected to it at the top; this is called the deck. Quarter pipes have "transitions" which is the size of the radius of the ramps riding surface.
Half pipe – Two Quarter Pipes facing each other (half of a pipe). A smaller halfpipe that is less than 8–10 feet can be referred to as a "mini ramp"
Bowl – a completely enclosed area of quarterpipes that curve in corners. The curve placement and opposing quarterpipe placement can manifest in any fashion.
Deck – The flat elevated area used as a staging area above ramps and bowls.
Spine – Two quarter pipes placed back to back, that do not contain a deck. Spines may exist in bowls and half-pipes
Extension – extensions in quarter pipe or halfpipe ramps.
Escalator – sloping increases or decreases in quarterpipe or halfpipe ramp.
Flat – The flat lower areas between transitions, usually at grade.
Vert wall – A vertical wall above, and sometimes slightly behind, a quarter pipe.
Bank – These can vary in angle but are simply wedge ramps for traversing obstacles, i.e. elevated flats. They may contain curvature at the tops or on sides.
Hip – Essentially two quarter pipes or banks forming an angle.
Funbox – A combination of banks, flats, rails, kickers, etc. connected to each other to form mini gaps.
Pyramid – Funbox-type ramp made from four banks put in a square pyramid shape, usually surrounding a flat.
Launcher/Kicker – A curved bank a rider uses to launch into the air.
Roll-in – A long sloping ramp used to gain speed.
Step-up/Eurobox – A funbox type ramp consisting of a bank with a flat at the top and a second, higher flat after it; in other words a bank-to-flat setup with a section removed from the bank part.
Wall-box – In an indoor skatepark, this is a funbox built against the wall of the park; in an outdoor skatepark, it is a funbox with a wall splitting it down the middle.
Pool – Usually an actual swimming pool that has been drained out for skateboarding.
Foam Pit – A pile of foam pads to land safely into while learning tricks, usually found after a launch ramp.
Flatbar – A rail set level with ground.
Sloped rail – A rail set at an angle.
Kinked rail – A rail with two flat sections, one higher than the other, and a sloped section in the middle connecting them.
Stair – A simple staircase.
Handrail – A rail going with a staircase, either extended from the staircase or off an adjacent wall
Kidney bowl – a bowl roughly in the shape of a human kidney
Egg bowl – a bowl shaped like an egg
Cradle – Spherical bowl turned on its side, typically connected with a bowl. Enables inverted and over-vert carving
Notable skateparksSee also :Category:Skateparks''
Alamosa Skatepark Environment – Albuquerque, New Mexico.
Bro Bowl – One of the last skateparks of the 70s, and one of the oldest skateparks in the U.S.; First public skatepark in Florida Tampa, Florida.
Burnside Skatepark – Portland, Oregon featured in Tony Hawk video games and the movies, Free Willy and Paranoid Park.
Concrete Wave Country – Nashville's first public skatepark.
etnies Skatepark, Lake Forest, CA – Largest free skatepark in California.
FDR Skatepark – Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Harrow Skate Park – Harrow, UK
Livingston Skate Park - Livingston, West Lothian, Scotland
Lee and Joe Jamail Skatepark – in-ground public facility in Houston, Texas.
Louisville Extreme Park – Louisville, Kentucky.
Monster Skatepark, Sydney Olympic Park
Possum Creek – Gainesville, Florida.
Shaw Millennium Skatepark (Calgary, Alberta, Canada) – One of the world's largest outdoor skateparks, designed by Spectrum Skateparks with Landplan associates.
The Palm Springs Skatepark contains a replica of the Nude Bowl, which is the most popular feature in the park.
Pedlow Skate Park – Encino, California great for pool skating, more than .
Playing Place, Cornwall, UK
Rampworx skatepark – The largest indoor venue in the UK, covering and located in Liverpool.
The Rom
Santa Maria Skate Park – Fletcher Park. 700 Southside Pkwy, Santa Maria, California.
Skatepark of Tampa – Skatepark in Tampa and home of the annual Tampa Pro.
Skatopia – Anarchist Skatepark in Rutland, Ohio
Stockwell Skatepark – South London, UK
Turf Skatepark – Built in 1979, included five concrete pools in an indoor/outdoor facility in Milwaukee, Wisconsin (defunct since 1996).
Pyongyang Skatepark, the first skatepark in North Korea.
Gallery of Skateparks
See also
List of skateparks
References | [
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223434 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colocolo%20%28disambiguation%29 | Colocolo (disambiguation) | Colocolo, colo-colo, Colo-Colo, or Colo Colo may refer to:
Colocolo (tribal chief), 16th century Mapuche leader and Chilean folk hero.
Colo Colo (mythology), evil rat-like creature from Mapuche mythology.
Colocolo (Leopardus colocolo), a South American cat native to Chile.
Colo-Colo, a football team from Macul, Santiago, Chile.
Colo Colo de Futebol e Regatas, a football team from Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil.
Colo-colo (condiment), hot and spicy condiment the cuisine of the Maluku archipelago, Indonesia.
Colocolo opossum (Dromiciops gliroides), or monito del monte, a South American marsupial.
Qulu Qulu, Hispanicized Colo Colo, an archaeological site in Peru
Chilean ship Colo Colo various
See also
Colo (disambiguation) | [
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223435 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cam%20Fella | Cam Fella | Cam Fella (May 14, 1979 – May 9, 2001) was a bay pacing horse by Most Happy Fella out of Nan Cam by Bret Hanover. He was trained and driven originally by Doug Arthur and later by Pat Crowe. His best time for the mile was 1:53.1. Cam Fella was purchased as a 2-year-old by the two Norms, Norm Clements and Norm Faulkner. He earned the nickname "The Pacing Machine" in a career wherein he became the richest standardbred of all time.
1981 season
In 1981, as a two-year-old, Cam Fella won three of eleven starts and was sold to Norm Clements and Norm Faulkner for US$140,000 after winning the Valedictory series final in his final start for the year. He earned only $17,588 for the year.
1982 season
Cam Fella had won 12 of 14 starts for the year, including the Hopeful Pace and New Faces, before his first major win in the Cane Pace as a supplemental entry. In eliminations for the Meadowlands Pace, Cam Fella could finish only seventh and did not progress to the final. It was to be the last time in his career he did not finish in the first three placings.
Although he won the Cane Pace, he did not have an opportunity to take the Triple Crown as he was not eligible to start in the Little Brown Jug. In October he proved himself to be the top 3yo pacer in North America by winning the Messenger Stakes. In the first heat he tied the track record for 3yos, winning in 1.57 3/5, before beating Icarus Lobell and Soky's Atom in the final heat in 1.59 after a mid-race duel with Little Brown Jug winner Merger. As in the Cane Pace, he was a supplemental entry to the Messenger. His final start for 1982 came in November when he won the Provincial Cup at Windsor Raceway in 1.55.4, which tied the track record for his age. It was his 28th win from 33 starts for the year. The track reported its highest attendance since Niatross started there in 1980 and strong wagering, which had become typical for a race night featuring Cam Fella.
He also won the Queen City Pace, Prix d'Été, Confederation Cup Pace and Sophomore Pace in Canada and time trialed in 1.54 at The Red Mile. The Prix d'Été was the richest race in Canada at the time. For his exploits Cam Fella was named Harness Horse of the Year in both Canada and the United States for a season in which he started 33 times for 28 wins and 2 second places and had earnings of $879,723.
1983 season
After a slow start to 1983, Cam Fella won two of three legs of the World Cup series at The Meadowlands, including a two-length win in the final in 1.55 on a wet track. Once Cam Fella began winning in 1983, he continued winning until the end of his career at season's end by going on a 28-race unbeaten streak. During the streak he won the Graduate and Driscoll Finals at The Meadowlands, the Canadian Pacing Derby, American National, Stewart Fraser Memorial, Frank Ryan Memorial, Blue Bonnets Challenge, Gold Cup and all three legs of the US Pacing Championship. In the Summer Championship at The Meadowlands in July, It's Fritz was given a strong chance of beating Cam Fella by bettors; however, Cam Fella won in 1.54.2, ending a five-race winning sequence for his opponent. His wins in the US Pacing Championship leg and American National both broke the Sportsman's Park track record, and his win in the US Pacing Championship leg at Roosevelt Raceway set a track record of 1.56.2.
By the end of 1983, Cam Fella had won 30 of 36 starts for the year and was voted Harness Horse of the Year for a second time. His final start came at Greenwood Raceway, Toronto, in December. It was his 28th consecutive win.
1983 Mohawk Raceway Horse Named: PERFECT OUT, Beats CAM FELLA.
Refer To You Tube Video!
Stud career
Cam Fella began stud duty in 1984 and had an illustrious career siring 1,002 foals who earned $106.7m in prize money. His offspring included such notable horses as Eternal Camnation, Presidential Ball, Precious Bunny, Cam's Card Shark and Camluck, all of whom have been inducted into the Living Hall of Fame or elected as Hall of Fame Immortals, as well as $2m earners Goalie Jeff and Camtastic and fastest Standardbred of all time Cambest. He was the leading sire in North America in 1993 and 1995, and his son Camluck and grandson Bettor's Delight (by Cam's Card Shark) have both also been the leading sire.
Cam Fella was a ridgling, meaning he had only one descended testicle, and his stud career ended when he was gelded as a result of testicular cancer. Following his stud career, he was taken on a tour of racetracks to raise money for charity, drawing large crowds. He was euthanized on May 9, 2001. A small residential street in Toronto near the former Greenwood Raceway is named "Cam Fella Lane" in his honour.
References
External links
Hall of Champions - Accomplishments, Career Records, Pedigree
1979 racehorse births
2001 racehorse deaths
American Standardbred racehorses
American Champion harness horses
Harness Horse of the Year winners
Canadian Standardbred racehorses
Canadian Horse Racing Hall of Fame inductees
United States Harness Racing Hall of Fame inductees
Cane Pace winners
Messenger Stakes winners | [
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223438 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbiotheria | Microbiotheria | Microbiotheria is an australidelphian marsupial order that encompasses two families, Microbiotheriidae and Woodburnodontidae, and is represented by only one extant species, the monito del monte, and a number of extinct species known from fossils in South America, Western Antarctica, and northeastern Australia.
Although once thought to be members of the order Didelphimorphia (the order that contains the Virginia opossum), an accumulation of both anatomical and genetic evidence in recent years has led to the conclusion that microbiotheres are not didelphids at all, but are instead most closely related to the Australasian marsupials; together, the microbiotheres and the Australian orders form the clade Australidelphia which are now thought to have first evolved in the South American region of Gondwana.
Biogeography
The oldest microbiothere currently recognised is Khasia cordillerensis, based on fossil teeth from Early Palaeocene deposits at Tiupampa, Bolivia. Numerous genera are known from various Palaeogene and Neogene fossil sites in South America. A number of possible microbiotheres, again represented by isolated teeth, have also been recovered from the Middle Eocene La Meseta Formation of Seymour Island, Western Antarctica. Finally, several undescribed microbiotheres have been reported from the Early Eocene Tingamarra Local Fauna in northeastern Australia; if this is indeed the case, then these Australian fossils have important implications for understanding marsupial evolution and biogeography. The distant ancestors of the monito del monte, it is thought, remained in what is now South America while others entered Antarctica and eventually Australia during the time when all three continents were joined as part of Gondwana.
References
External links
Mikko's Phylogeny Archive
Entry in Encyclopedia of Life
Mammal orders
Extinct animals of Antarctica
Taxa named by Florentino Ameghino
Extant Danian first appearances | [
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223439 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AGE | ISO 3166-2:GE | ISO 3166-2:GE is the entry for Georgia in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Georgia, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 2 autonomous republics, 1 city, and 9 regions. The city Tbilisi is the capital of the country and has special status equal to the regions.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Georgia. The second part is two letters.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Notes
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:
Codes before Newsletter I-2
See also
Subdivisions of Georgia
FIPS region codes of Georgia
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: GE
Regions of Georgia, Statoids.com
Districts of Georgia, Statoids.com
2:GE
ISO 3166-2
Georgia (country) geography-related lists | [
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223440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prelude%20%28music%29 | Prelude (music) | A prelude ( or ; ; ; ) is a short piece of music, the form of which may vary from piece to piece. While, during the Baroque era, for example, it may have served as an introduction to succeeding movements of a work that were usually longer and more complex, it may also have been a stand-alone piece of work during the Romantic era. It generally features a small number of rhythmic and melodic motifs that recur through the piece. Stylistically, the prelude is improvisatory in nature. The prelude also may refer to an overture, particularly to those seen in an opera or an oratorio.
History
The first preludes to be notated were organ pieces that were played to introduce church music, the earliest surviving examples being five brief praeambula in the Ileborgh Tablature of 1448. These were closely followed by freely composed preludes in an extemporary style for the lute and other Renaissance string instruments, which were originally used for warming up the fingers and checking the instrument's tuning and sound quality, as in a group of pieces by Joan Ambrosio Dalza published in 1508 under the heading tastar de corde (in Italian, literally, "testing of the strings").
Keyboard preludes started appearing in the 17th century in France: unmeasured preludes, in which the duration of each note is left to the performer, were used as introductory movements in harpsichord suites. Louis Couperin (c.1626–1661) was the first composer to embrace the genre, and harpsichord preludes were used until the first half of the 18th century by numerous composers including Jean-Henri d'Anglebert (1629–1691), Élisabeth Jacquet de la Guerre (1665–1729), François Couperin (1668–1733) and Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683–1764), whose very first printed piece (1706) was in this form. The last unmeasured preludes for harpsichord date from the 1720s.
The development of the prelude in 17th century Germany led to a sectional form similar to keyboard toccatas by Johann Jakob Froberger or Girolamo Frescobaldi. Preludes by northern German composers such as Dieterich Buxtehude (c.1637–1707) and Nikolaus Bruhns (c.1665–1697) combined sections of free improvised passages with parts in strict contrapuntal writing (usually brief fugues). Outside Germany, Abraham van den Kerckhoven (c.1618–c.1701), one of the most important Dutch composers of the period, used this model for some of his preludes. Southern and central German composers did not follow the sectional model and their preludes remained improvisational in character with little or no strict counterpoint.
During the second half of the 17th century, German composers started pairing preludes (or sometimes toccatas) with fugues in the same key; Johann Pachelbel (c.1653–1706) was one of the first to do so, although Johann Sebastian Bach's (1685–1750) "prelude and fugue" pieces are much more numerous and well-known today. Bach's organ preludes are quite diverse, drawing on both southern and northern German influences. Most of Bach's preludes were written in the theme and variation form, using the same theme motif with imitation, inversion, modulation, or retrogression of the theme as well as other techniques involved in this baroque form.
Johann Caspar Ferdinand Fischer was one of the first German composers to bring the late 17th-century French style to German harpsichord music, replacing the standard French ouverture with an unmeasured prelude. Fischer's Ariadne musica is a cycle of keyboard music which consists of pairs of preludes and fugues; the preludes are quite varied and do not conform to any particular model. Ariadne musica served as a precursor to Johann Sebastian Bach's The Well-Tempered Clavier, two books of 24 "prelude and fugue" pairs each. Bach's preludes were also varied, some akin to Baroque dances, others being two- and three-part contrapuntal works not unlike his inventions and sinfonias. Bach also composed preludes to introduce each of his English Suites.
The Well-Tempered Clavier influenced many composers in the coming centuries, some of whom wrote preludes in sets of 12 or 24, sometimes with the intention of utilizing all 24 major and minor keys as Bach had done. Frédéric Chopin (1810–1849) wrote a set of 24 preludes, Op. 28, often composed in a simple ternary form, which liberated the prelude from its original introductory purpose and allowed it to serve as an independent concert piece. While other pianist-composers, including Muzio Clementi, Johann Nepomuk Hummel and Ignaz Moscheles, had previously published collections of preludes for the benefit of pianists unskilled at improvisatory preluding, Chopin's set renewed the genre.
Chopin's set served as a model for other collections of 24 or 25 piano preludes in the major and minor keys, including those by Charles-Valentin Alkan (Op. 31 for piano or organ), Ferruccio Busoni (Op. 37, BV 181), César Cui (Op. 64), Stephen Heller (Op. 81), and Alexander Scriabin (Op. 11). Claude Debussy (1862–1918) wrote two books of impressionistic piano preludes which, unusually in this genre, carry descriptive titles. Chopin's conception of the prelude as an unattached character piece expressing a mood rather than a specific musical programme extended into the 20th century with works by composers such as George Antheil, George Gershwin, Alberto Ginastera, Dmitry Kabalevsky, Bohuslav Martinů, Olivier Messiaen, Sergei Rachmaninoff (who also completed an entire set), Giacinto Scelsi and Karol Szymanowski.
Preludes were also incorporated by some 20th-century composers into Baroque-inspired suites: such "attached" preludes include Maurice Ravel's Le tombeau de Couperin (1914/17) and Arnold Schoenberg's Suite for piano, Op. 25 (1921/23), both of which begin with an introductory prelude (Schoenberg's choral introduction to the Genesis Suite is a rare case of an attached prelude written in the 20th century without any neo-baroque intent). As well as a series of unattached piano preludes (Op. 2), Dmitri Shostakovich composed a set of 24 Preludes and Fugues in the tradition of Bach's The Well Tempered Clavier.
Some avant-garde composers have also produced unattached preludes. John Cage's brief Prelude for Meditation is written for prepared piano, while François-Bernard Mâche's Prélude (1959) and Branimir Sakač's Aleatory Prelude (1961) call on electronic resources and aleatoric techniques.
Notable collections of preludes
J.C.F. Fischer's Ariadne musica (1702), contained 20 preludes and fugues in 19 different keys.
Johann Sebastian Bach wrote the two volumes of The Well-Tempered Clavier (1722, 1744). Both volumes contain 24 preludes (and associated fugues) proceeding up the chromatic scale with alternating parallel major and minor keys (C major and C minor; C major and C minor; D major and D minor; etc.).
Ludwig van Beethoven wrote two preludes, Op. 39, as a teenager; each one cycles through all of the major keys of the piano.
York Bowen wrote a set of 24 preludes, his Op. 102, in 1938. It is in all major and minor keys and was published posthumously.
Casimir Ney wrote a collection of 24 Preludes in all major and minor keys for solo viola from 1849–53.
Frédéric Chopin wrote 24 Preludes, Op. 28, which cycle through all of the major and minor keys. The odd numbered preludes are in major keys, starting with C major, and each is followed by a prelude in the relative minor key. The paired preludes proceed through the circle of fifths (C major and A minor; G major and E minor; D major and B minor; etc.). Most can be played as stand-alone pieces.
Alexandre-Pierre François Boëly wrote many Préludes, op.20, op.22, op.33 (1803 - 1857)
Julian Cochran wrote three volumes of preludes, many with an Impressionistic character, and increasing in complexity and length through each volume.
Charles-Valentin Alkan wrote a set of 25 Preludes, Op. 31, published in 1847. His key scheme differs from Chopin's in that the major keys ascend chromatically and are followed by their respective minor subdominants, though Alkan also starts on C major. The last piece returns to C major, hence the additional prelude (a device Alkan repeated in the Esquisses, Op. 63, and that César Cui employed in his own 25 Preludes, Op. 64). As a further distinction between his and Chopin's sets, Alkan provides programmatic titles for several of his preludes, including the most famous of the set, La chanson de la folle au bord de la mer (The Song of the Madwoman by the Seashore).
Felix Blumenfeld composed a set of 24 Preludes, Op. 17 in 1892, following Chopin's key scheme, as well as a set of four, Op. 12.
Alexander Scriabin wrote 24 Preludes, Op. 11 in 1896, and numerous shorter sets of preludes. He followed the same pattern as the Chopin preludes.
Sergei Rachmaninoff, wrote a prelude, Op. 3, No. 2, in 1892 followed by Ten Preludes, Op. 23 (1903) and Thirteen Preludes, Op. 32 (1910) for a total of twenty-four preludes in all the major and minor keys; he also composed a Prelude in D minor, without opus number, in 1917 (there is yet another among his early unpublished works).
Florent Schmitt wrote two books of Préludes, book 1, 3 préludes op. 3 (1890 - 95), book 2,10 Préludes op. 5 (1896).
Claude Debussy wrote two books of 12 Préludes, Book 1 (1910) and Book 2 (1913), for a total of 24 preludes. The title of the prelude is given at the end of the piece, while a Roman numeral serves as the heading.
Gabriel Fauré wrote 9 Préludes for piano (1909 - 1910).
Marcel Dupré's excursions in the genre include a set of six Preludes for piano (1916) and eight short Preludes on Gregorian themes for organ (1948), in addition to two sets of three Preludes and fugues for organ (1912 and 1938).
Louis Vierne wrote 12 Préludes for piano, op. 36 (1914 - 1915)
Olivier Messiaen's set of eight piano Preludes (1929) developed from the Impressionism of Debussy's piano music.
Manuel María Ponce: 24 Preludes for guitar, composed in the 1920s.
Bohuslav Martinů: set of eight piano Préludes (1929).
Paul Hindemith wrote Ludus Tonalis (1940), a Prelude, 11 interludes, and a postlude, all separated by 12 fugues.
Dmitri Kabalevsky wrote many Préludes for piano, op. 1, op. 5, op. 20, op. 38, op. 61 (1943 - 1944)
Alberto Ginastera wrote a cycle of 12 American Preludes (Doce Preludios Americanos) (1946).
Dmitri Shostakovich wrote a cycle of 24 Preludes and Fugues, Op. 87 in 1951, as well as an earlier set of 24 Preludes, Op. 34 (1933), for piano.
Nikolai Kapustin has written 24 Preludes in Jazz Style, Op. 53, and later a set of 24 Preludes and Fugues, Op. 82.
Heitor Villa-Lobos wrote 5 Preludes for guitar (1940), which have become popular repertory pieces. A sixth prelude is lost.
Edvard Lieber composed Prelude to Jackson Pollock's 'Autumn Rhythm' (1977) to an eponymous Pollock painting, and 24 de Kooning Preludes (1978) to 24 de Kooning paintings. Both works fused the prelude form with the art of painting.
Sergio Antonio del Rio wrote a Prelude for his teacher Elsa Berner, Preludio a Elsa Berner, (1982) for piano, published in Fabian Norman Verlag 2009.
Lera Auerbach wrote three full sets of 24 Preludes, which cycle through all of the major and minor keys, for piano solo, violin and piano, and cello and piano respectively (2003).
See also
Chorale prelude
Overture
Music written in all major and/or minor keys
Prelude and fugue
Taqsim
References
Further reading
Howat, Roy. The Art of French Piano Music: Debussy, Ravel, Faure, Chabrier. 2009. Print.
A.B. Wenk : Claude Debussy and Twentieth-Century Music (Boston, 1983)
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223441 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNBC | CNBC | CNBC is an American pay television business news channel owned by NBCUniversal News Group, a division of NBCUniversal, with both indirectly owned by Comcast. Headquartered in Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, the network primarily carries business day coverage of U.S. and international financial markets. Following the end of the business day and on non-trading days, CNBC primarily carries financial and business-themed documentaries and reality shows.
CNBC was established on April 17, 1989, as a joint venture between NBC and Cablevision as the Consumer News and Business Channel. Two years later, in 1991, the network acquired its main competitor, the Financial News Network, a move which expanded both its distribution and its workforce. Cablevision subsequently sold its stake to NBC, giving NBC sole ownership. As of February 2015, CNBC is available to approximately 93,623,000 pay television households (80.4% of households with television) in the United States. In 2007, the network was ranked as the 19th-most valuable cable channel in the United States, worth roughly $4 billion.
In addition to the domestic U.S. feed, various localized versions of CNBC also operate, serving different regions and countries. NBCUniversal is the owner, or a minority stakeholder, or even a licensor, in many of these versions.
History
CNBC had its beginnings in 1979 as the Satellite Program Network (SPN), showing a low-budget mix of old movies, instructional and entertainment programs. The channel later changed its name to Tempo Television. After initially signing a letter of intent to acquire Tempo, NBC eventually opted for a deal to lease the channel's transponder in June 1988. On this platform, and under the guidance of Tom Rogers, the channel was relaunched on April 17, 1989, as the Consumer News and Business Channel. NBC and Cablevision initially operated CNBC as a 50–50 joint venture, choosing to headquarter the channel in Fort Lee, New Jersey.
CNBC had considerable difficulty getting cable carriage at first, as many providers were skeptical of placing it alongside the longer-established Financial News Network. By the winter of 1990, CNBC was only in 17 million homes – less than half of FNN's potential reach – despite having the muscle of NBC standing behind it. The original financial television concept predates both CNBC and FNN, as several independent TV stations commenced financial programming starting in the late 1960s (WCIU Chicago & KWHY Los Angeles); as Gene Inger, a Registered Investment Advisor, pioneered financial programming in several cities; notably San Francisco, Miami / Fort Lauderdale; then his part-owned WWHT Channel 68 Newark (serving the NY market). Mr. Inger (never part of FNN) disengaged operationally after the sale of Channel 68 to Miami-based Wometco; and today Channel 68 is an Univision property. (Inger was a guest on CNBC for years and as of 2019 provides online commentary from Florida.)
However, around this time, FNN encountered serious financial difficulties. After a protracted bidding war with a Dow Jones–Westinghouse Broadcasting consortium (the former's assets would be used to build a rival channel almost two decades later), CNBC acquired FNN for $154.3 million on May 21, 1991 and immediately merged the two operations, hiring around 60 of FNN's 300-strong workforce (Meanwhile, other former FNN's workforce has been hired by another rival channel from Bloomberg L.P. named Bloomberg Television). The deal increased the distribution of the newly enlarged network to over 40 million homes. Cablevision sold its 50% stake to NBC upon completion of the deal. In 2002, Cablevision would sell its 50 percent shares in Bravo to NBC for 74 billion. With the full name "Consumer News and Business Channel" dropped, the network's daytime business programming was branded "CNBC/FNN Daytime," although this was phased out by 1992.
Roger Ailes was hired as the president of CNBC in 1993, tasked by NBC CEO Bob Wright with turning around the struggling network. Under Ailes' leadership from 1993 through 1995, the $400 million network doubled in value, and its revenues tripled. In addition, Ailes oversaw the launch of a 1994 spin-off channel from CNBC, called "America's Talking." Ailes left CNBC and America's Talking in late 1995 when Microsoft and NBC created a joint venture to reprogram America's Talking as MSNBC.
CNBC grew during the 1990s, launching Asian and European versions of the channel in 1995 and 1996 respectively. In 1997, CNBC formed a strategic alliance with Dow Jones, including content sharing with Dow Jones Newswires and The Wall Street Journal and the rebranding of the channel as "a service of NBC Universal and Dow Jones". CNBC's international channels were then merged into a 50-50 joint venture with their Dow Jones-owned rivals, London-based EBN (European Business News) and Singapore-based ABN (Asia Business News) in 1998, while ratings grew on the U.S. channel until the new millennium's dot-com bubble burst in 2000.
In 2003, CNBC moved its world headquarters from 2200 Fletcher Avenue, Fort Lee to 900 Sylvan Avenue (Route 9W) in Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, which features completely digital video production and studios made by PDG Ltd of Beeston, Nottinghamshire and the FX Group of Ocoee, Florida.
NBC Universal reacquired full control of loss-making CNBC Europe and CNBC Asia from Dow Jones at the end of 2005. The licensing agreement between Dow and CNBC U.S. remained intact, however.
CNBC provides business news programming on weekdays from 5:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m., Eastern Time, while broadcasting talk shows, investigative reports, documentaries, infomercials, and other programs at all other times. A rolling ticker provides real-time updates on share prices on the NYSE, NASDAQ, and AMEX, as well as market indices, news summaries, and weather updates by NBC meteorologists (prior to March 27, 2006, all of CNBC's weather reports were provided by AccuWeather). A rotating top band of the screen rotates provides real-time updates on index and commodity prices from world markets.
On October 13, 2014, coincidentally the 11th anniversary of CNBC's relocation to its current facilities in Englewood Cliffs, NJ, CNBC switched to a full 16:9 letterbox presentation, in line with its Asian and European siblings (see "On-air presentation" below for more information). As of January 4, 2016, the network's 480i standard definition feed now shows the same 16:9 HD feed on its 4:3 picture, due to the application of the AFD #10 flag.
Programming
Current shows
CNBC provides a variety of programs throughout the business day. Live programming is broadcast on weekdays from 5:00 a.m. until 8:00 p.m. and provides reports on U.S. businesses, updates of stock market indices and commodities prices, interviews with CEOs and business leaders, and commentary from many investment professionals. The following is the usual weekday "business day" (term used by CNBC hosts and announcers) lineup (as of October 2020, all times Eastern):
Worldwide Exchange: Brian Sullivan
Squawk Box: Joe Kernen, Rebecca Quick, and Andrew Ross Sorkin
Squawk on the Street: Carl Quintanilla, David Faber, Jim Cramer, and Morgan Brennan
TechCheck: Carl Quintanilla, Jon Fortt, and Deirdre Bosa
Fast Money Halftime Report: Scott Wapner
The Exchange: Kelly Evans
Power Lunch: Melissa Lee, Tyler Mathisen, and Kelly Evans
Closing Bell: Sara Eisen and Wilfred Frost
Fast Money: Melissa Lee (host), Pete Najarian, Guy Adami, Tim Seymour, and Karen Finerman (panelists)
Options Action: Melissa Lee (host), seen on Fridays only
Mad Money: Jim Cramer
The News with Shepard Smith: Shepard Smith
CNBC Prime
On September 17, 2007, the network has also run hourly CNBC.com News Now update segments during business day programming. These short bulletins, which are around 30 seconds in length (similar to ESPN's SportsCenter Right Now), air before the start of the network's programs from Squawk on the Street through The Kudlow Report. The CNBC.com News Now update segments were discontinued as of early 2010. These bulletins were reintroduced in 2015 and were renamed CNBC News Update. They are aired hourly, on the half-hour between 10:30 a.m. and 4:30 p.m. The bulletins are read by Sue Herera.
CNBC also produced Nightly Business Report, a 30-minute weeknight business newscast distributed to U.S. public television stations. Launched in 1979, CNBC assumed production of the series in 2013 and ended production in December 2019. NBR was hosted by CNBC personalities Sue Herera and Bill Griffeth.
On August 24, 2020, CNBC announced that it would premiere a new evening news program hosted by former Fox News Channel anchor Shepard Smith, The News with Shepard Smith, on September 30. The then-upcoming program was described as being "non-partisan" and "fact-based".
Primetime and weekend business programming
CNBC's breakout hit among its original series is Mad Money. Hosted by money manager Jim Cramer, the hour-long show gives stock advice to viewers who call to the program. The show also has a popular segment called "The Lightning Round". In August 2007, Cramer's on-air tirade about the weakening economy, which was seen during the "Stop Trading" segment on Street Signs, received national attention and helped galvanize widespread support for the Federal Reserve Board to cut interest rates.
On January 24, 2007, the network launched a long-anticipated monthly newsmagazine called Business Nation, which is anchored by award-winning journalist David Faber. Each edition of the program covers three stories; a mixture of profiles, investigative pieces and features. The format of the show is structured similarly to HBO's Real Sports.
Other special or weekend programming includes CNBC on Assignment (for example, The Age of Wal-Mart), Cover to Cover, The Suze Orman Show and On the Money. Documentaries featured as part of its CNBC Originals slate have included Marijuana Inc: Inside America's Pot Industry (2009), Trash Inc: The Secret Life of Garbage (2010), Supermarkets Inc: Inside a $500 Billion Money Machine (2011), Customer (Dis)Service (2012), UPS/FedEX: Inside the Package Wars (2012), and Love @ First Byte: The Secret Science of Online Dating (2012).
In May 2010, CNBC announced that it would be adding business and financial-themed movies to its Friday night lineup under the name "CNBC Cinema."
In the fall of 2011, CNBC began to brand its primetime lineup under the title CNBC Smart. Continuing its focus on documentaries focusing on business, CNBC marketed Smart as "the place where the who's who comes to learn the what's what." Since 2013, CNBC regularly shows one Premier League game at 10:00 p.m. ET.
CNBC Prime
On March 5, 2013, CNBC rebranded its primetime lineup once again as CNBC Prime, a move first announced on January 7 of the same year. Hoping to attract a more mainstream audience, the Prime block introduced business-themed reality series to the lineup with the series premieres of The Car Chasers and Treasure Detectives. CNBC planned to launch at least eight new series through the Prime block throughout 2013. Among the original reality programs airing on CNBC Prime include American Greed, Restaurant Startup, Blue Collar Millionaires, Jay Leno's Garage, The Profit, West Texas Investors Club, and Secret Lives of the Super Rich.
In 2016, CNBC announced two new reality series including Cleveland Hustles and a spin-off of The Profit titled The Partner. In 2018, CNBC announced other new series in development, such as BYOB: Be Your Own Boss, Deadly Rich (a true crime series focusing on the wealthy), Staten Island Hustle, a revival of former NBC game show Deal or No Deal, as well as renewals for American Greed, Jay Leno's Garage, and Secret Lives of the Super Rich.
Non-business programming
CNBC has experimented with non-business programming during primetime hours with a mixed record of success, including a talk show hosted by Dennis Miller. The channel has at times rebroadcast several NBC programs, including Late Night with Conan O'Brien, Deal or No Deal, The Apprentice, The Apprentice: Martha Stewart, and 1 vs. 100. Until 2017, CNBC participated in USA Network's coverage of the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show due to conflicts with WWE Raw.
Former programming
Weekly, weekend and other programming
National Geographic Explorer (moved to MSNBC and then to the National Geographic Channel)
Louis Rukeyser's Wall Street (ended its run on December 31, 2004 at Louis Rukeyser's request due to illness)
Market Week with Maria Bartiromo (renamed After Hours with Maria Bartiromo and then Special Report with Maria Bartiromo—cancelled in 2004)
Tim Russert (moved to MSNBC)
American Le Mans Series races (inaugural 1999 season only, as part of agreement with NBC Sports)
Senior PGA Tour golf (moved to Golf Channel)
Personalities and coverage
Much of CNBC's on-air talent has been with the network for some time: Sue Herera and Scott Cohn joined CNBC at its inception,. Some personalities who joined CNBC from FNN in 1991, such as Bill Griffeth and Joe Kernen, are also still with the channel. CNBC's best known personality, Closing Bell host Maria Bartiromo, made regular appearances on other NBC News broadcasts such as The Today Show and anchored the syndicated Wall Street Journal Report before she left for Fox Business Network. Other CNBC hosts such as Jim Cramer are featured on other NBCUniversal programming.
Ratings
There is a fairly clear long-term correlation between the performance of global stock markets and the audience ratings of CNBC. The network had a difficult time attracting viewers in the first half of the decade, but has seen viewership increase from a 2005 bottom to record highs in 2008, coinciding with the subprime mortgage crisis. CNBC continues to possess the wealthiest audience (in terms of average income) of any television channel in the United States.
During the late 1990s and early 2000s, CNBC's ratings were increasing sharply along with the stock market, often beating those of CNN during market hours. In 2000, daytime viewership of the network peaked at 343,000, around the time the Nasdaq Composite crossed 5000. However, when the dot-com bubble began to burst later that year, CNBC's viewing figures declined in tandem. The network's ratings steadily fell quarter after quarter, year after year, until bottoming in Q1 2005, with an average viewership of 134,000 during the day. From the bottom, the network, along with the markets, rebounded significantly – average daytime viewership (6:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m.) reached a 7-year high of 310,000 viewers in the first quarter of 2008. Coinciding with the extreme market volatility of the ongoing global economic crisis, ratings hit an all-time high of 416,000 in Q3. Although the figures remain considerably less than those achieved by Fox News and CNN today, it has still had a 210% increase in viewership since the beginning of 2005. Despite the viewership slump at the turn of the decade, CNBC has remained extremely profitable: average annual revenues top $510 million while profits for the network exceeded $333 million in 2007, making CNBC a cash cow for NBC Universal and its parent company, Comcast. CNBC is the second most profitable of NBC Universal's thirteen cable channels in the United States, behind only the USA Network.
The network often sees large spikes in viewership on days of major market moves. During the week of February 27, 2007, when the Dow Jones Industrial Average had its seventh-largest loss ever, CNBC's continuing coverage of events resulted in its best ratings week since the market crash after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, with Kudlow & Company, Mad Money, and Fast Money recording their best ratings ever in the coveted 25-54 demographic. When the financial crisis wreaked havoc in the worldwide equity markets, CNBC recorded some of the highest ratings in the network's two-decade history. For the week ending September 19, 2008, the network averaged 502,000 viewers during the "business day" (defined by the network as 5 a.m. to 7 p.m.). During this week, Squawk Box, Closing Bell, Fast Money, Mad Money and Kudlow & Company recorded their best viewership figures ever. On September 29, 2008, when the markets faced their worst single session performance since the crash of 1987, CNBC saw its best ratings day ever, with an average 726,000 viewers tuning into the network during the business day.
While daytime viewership has rebounded from its 2005 lows, primetime ratings remain weak relative to those of other news networks and CNBC continues to try and rejuvenate its evening lineup. Along with developing new program formats such as Fast Money and Mad Money, the network operates a "checkerboard" programming approach, airing various genres of shows including documentaries, town-hall style discussions and repeats of some NBC output.
When discussing the network's ratings, CNBC management and press releases regularly suggest that considerable viewership, particularly during the daytime, is done "out of home" in places such as offices, restaurants, fitness centers, financial institutions, and hotel rooms. As this demographic is not covered by Nielsen ratings, CNBC claims that the network's true viewership is considerably higher than what is measured.
On January 6, 2015, CNBC partnered with Cogent Research to calculate the viewership of its business day programming by surveying financial advisers and investors, with the goal of providing a more accurate measurement of the network's out-of-home viewership; Nielsen will still be used to track the viewership of its entertainment programming.
On-air presentation
Ticker
The CNBC Ticker is a computer simulation of ticker tape shown on the lower part of the screen during the network's live weekday business programming and on weekends during replays of Options Action (a Friday options trader's debate program following Fast Money that airs from 5:30 p.m. to 6:00 p.m. ET, with the same crew as Fast Money), from 6:00 a.m. to 6:30 a.m. ET (albeit with the ticker hidden during the commercial breaks), containing security and index symbols along with movements in their value, updated every 20 minutes, despite being advertised as "Real-Time".
Flippers
At the right of the screen above the ticker, three vertically stacked "flippers", provides index and commodity prices (although during commercial breaks, the flippers relocate to the top of the ticker in a horizontal fashion to make room for the commercials themselves, which in turn, grow to four, except during the 30 minutes to the opening and closing bells, and during trading, where a bigger rectangular box, covering part of the ticker, usually shows the current trading status for the Dow Jones Industrial Average, and the fourth flipper is replaced by the CNBC bug with the current time of the six different time zones). On weekdays, the flippers are hidden during the commercial break leading to, and including the last segment of Fast Money and throughout Mad Money, as the latter show uses different graphics which cover up the space (the three flippers however, remain in the right atop the ticker during weekend 6am ET replays of Options Action).
Music
The music used from October 2003 to December 2005 was produced by 615 Music of Nashville, Tennessee. This music (though only edited versions of the arrangements for Street Signs and Closing Bell) continues as of February 2009 to be used by CNBC Europe, although CNBC Asia ceased using it in March 2007. CNBC Europe continued also to use "CNBC Anthem" (a.k.a. "Bold & Grand"), which was composed by Edd Kalehoff and used by CNBC U.S. between 2000 and 2002. For its main channel ident used until a relaunch on September 30, 2008, the anthem was remixed, adding the NBC chimes to the music. However, it is still used for its "Europe Update" segments during U.S. programming. The current music package is composed by James Ryan of Rampage Music New York, a company that has also created music for co-owned WNBC, also in New York City. Ryan also composed the network's 2002 music package. Willie Wilcox composed the themes for The Big Idea, Mad Money, Conversations with Michael Eisner and currently Fast Money.
Announcer
CNBC's main voice-over announcer during business-day programming since 1998 is Jim Birdsall, who also works for NFL Films, and was the narrator in the commercials for pizza chain CiCi's Pizza. In addition, Birdsall is the main station announcer for KING-TV, the Tegna-owned NBC affiliate station in Seattle. The signature voice for CNBC Prime is Brian Lee. Lee also covers business-day announcer duties when Birdsall is absent.
The voice-over announcer for CNBC Europe is UK-based Philip Banks.
2014 picture format change to 16:9
On October 13, 2014, CNBC switched to a full 16:9 letterbox picture, in line with its Asian and European siblings (both of which did the same thing on March 31 of that same year). As a result, both of the network's standard-definition and high-definition feeds now show the same 16:9 format. CNBC also updated its graphics package, replacing what had been used since March 1, 2010. The "flippers", which appeared across the top of the screen from December 19, 2005 to October 10, 2014, were moved back to the lower right of the screen. Its lower third are now similar to CNBC Asia and CNBC Europe, the former updated its own graphics package on February 9, 2015, with CNBC Europe following suit exactly a month later (March 9, 2015). In breaking news mode, the background color is changed from blue to red.
The graphics are designed by Sweden-based Magoo 3D studios.
Partnerships
Dow Jones & Company
Since December 1997, the network has held a strategic alliance with the publishing and financial information firm Dow Jones & Company. Under the agreement, CNBC has extensive access to the journalism of such outlets as MarketWatch, The Wall Street Journal, Dow Jones Newswires and Barron's, with their reporters and editorial staff making frequent appearances on the channel. Some former CNBC programs have included Dow Jones branding, while the network currently produces and syndicates the weekly Wall Street Journal Report with Maria Bartiromo. CNBC's current deal with Dow Jones expired in 2012, and its continuation has been the subject of some uncertainty following the 2007 acquisition of Dow by News Corporation, parent company of rival financial network Fox Business until the channel was spun off to 21st Century Fox in 2013 and eventually to Fox Corporation in 2019, which had been started just two months prior and whose resources have been used to build up Fox Business. News Corporation CEO Rupert Murdoch has stated that the current agreement "covers actual news and access to reporters on business news" only, and that Fox and Dow Jones are free to cooperate on other issues.
Other content partnerships
CNBC has also held a content deal with The New York Times since January 2008, which has widely been seen as an attempt by both parties to take on increased competition from News Corporation. Under the agreement, CNBC has access to the business coverage of the Times, while video from CNBC.com is featured on the Times website. The station's video clips and other content are also distributed through Yahoo! Finance and, as of May 2008, AOL Money & Finance.
The network's live market prices, economic data and other statistics are largely provided by Thomson Reuters (Reuters and Thomson Financial prior to their 2008 merger). Since September 2006, CNBC has operated its own stock market index in conjunction with London's FTSE Group. The FTSE CNBC Global 300 includes the fifteen largest companies from each of the sectors of the Industry Classification Benchmark as well as the thirty largest companies from emerging markets. Calculated continuously from 9 p.m. through to 4:10 p.m. ET each trading day, the index is referenced throughout the network's live programming, particularly on Worldwide Exchange.
The channel also maintains the "CNBC Investor Network", a series of webcam connections to the trading rooms of various independent financial institutions across the United States. The scheme was launched on October 22, 2007 and allows participating traders and strategists to appear on the network during the business day.
Other products
International channels
CNBC has operated international versions of the channel since 1995, when CNBC Asia originally launched. CNBC Europe followed in 1996. On December 9, 1997, Dow Jones & Company and NBC announced the merger of their international business news channels. This resulted in a merger of CNBC Europe with Dow Jones' European Business News, and likewise of CNBC Asia with Asia Business News. From then (until January 2006) the international CNBC services carried the tagline "A Service of NBC (Universal) and Dow Jones" (or depending on other local partners, a variation of this tagline). Correspondents from Dow Jones Newswires contribute to the channels. On December 31, 2005, the sale by Dow Jones of its interests in the international CNBC channels took effect. On January 1, 2006, the "A Service of NBC Universal and Dow Jones" tagline was removed from the international CNBC channels, in line with this.
In 2007, CNBC Asia dropped the word "Asia" from its channel idents, on September 30, 2008, CNBC Europe similarly dropped the word "Europe" from its logo. This means the three major CNBC channels: U.S., Europe, and Asia are all known on-screen as simply CNBC.
CNBC Europe is headquartered in London, and CNBC Asia is headquartered in Singapore.
Besides CNBC Europe and CNBC Asia, the network also operates a number of local business news channels in association with other companies. These channels include Class CNBC in Italy, CNBC-e in Turkey, CNBC Arabiya in the UAE, Nikkei CNBC in Japan, CNBC TV18, CNBC Awaaz, and CNBC Baazar(A special Gujarati Language channel) in India, CNBC Pakistan in Pakistan and TVN CNBC in Poland.
CNBC Europe and CNBC Asia are rebranded in some parts of the world with tickers containing local financial information. Examples include CNBC Nordic, CNBC Singapore, CNBC Hong Kong and CNBC Australia (CNBC Australia and Singapore also produce five-minute updates at 12:55 p.m., 5:55 p.m. and 9:55 p.m. for free-to-air network, SBS TV).
In North America, CNBC World airs business programming from CNBC Europe and CNBC Asia, as well as weekly magazine programs provided by CNBC TV18 and the United Nations.
In Canada, CNBC can be seen with almost identical programming to its U.S. counterpart. However, due to Canadian programming rights, the 9:00 p.m. slot which had shown television programming in the past such as Deal or No Deal, The Apprentice, 1 vs. 100, and Heads Up Poker, as well as any and all Olympic Games coverage that the channel continues to carry, are replaced by CNBC World programming. This leads to program blackout problems. For example,The Apprentice 5 that aired April 23, 2006, was assumed to not be available anywhere for Canadians due to these blackouts. While the first airing at 9:00 p.m. ET was blacked out, the second airing at midnight ET was accidentally shown.
CNBC Africa was launched on June 1, 2007. With roughly $600 million spent on advertising in South Africa alone, the network saw a business opportunity. The network has bureaus in Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa and it produces nine hours of local (African) programming per business day.
The launch of the Korean language channel SBS-CNBC in January 2010 marked the fifteenth CNBC-branded channel worldwide.
On January 10, 2016, CNBC and Trans Media announced a strategic partnership that will see the creation of the Indonesian language channel CNBC Indonesia.
CNBC Audio
CNBC business news and market reports are updated hourly and available on demand on Smart Speakers including Amazon Echo devices with Alexa, Google Home and app devices with Google Assistant, and on Apple Siri voice interfaces including iPhones. Many CNBC TV shows such as Mad Money and American Greed are available as podcasts for on-demand listening. Original content podcasts include "Strange Success" with Jane Wells, "Speakeasy" with John Harwood, and "Fort Knox" with Jon Fortt.
Website and mobile apps
CNBC offers a website, which was run by MSN from 2001 to 2006. It also offers mobile apps for iPad/iOS, Apple TV, and Android.
It offers an online subscription service, CNBC Pro, whereby users can watch streaming media from CNBC TV online.
CNBC’s online video operations generated an all-time high of 1.92 billion total digital video starts across platforms in 2020.
High definition television channel
CNBC HD, a 1080i high-definition television simulcast of CNBC, was launched on October 10, 2007. It first launched on DirecTV.
Physical stores
CNBC has a licensing partnership with Paradies Lagardère to operate retail locations in United States airports branded as CNBC News, CNBC Express, and CNBC SmartShop. The stores sell CNBC-branded merchandise as well as snacks and drinks.
Criticism
CNBC has been criticized for allegedly amplifying bull and bear markets, particularly in the run-up to the Dot-com bubble and the subprime crisis. In response to these criticisms, CNBC anchors have pointed to the size of the market and noted that influencing it is "a little out of our reach."
Jon Stewart on Comedy Central's The Daily Show has been a vocal critic of CNBC and some of its personalities, beginning after comments were made by Rick Santelli. Despite the lack of direct comments by the network, several personalities have defended their predictions and comments.
CNBC was accused by the Obama administration of "cable chatter"—the excessive and sometimes brutal discussion on a particular topic, often one-sided.
Jim Cramer's stock picks on his CNBC show Mad Money were found by Barron's magazine in 2007 to have underperformed the S&P 500 stock index over the previous two years. Barron's stated that "his picks haven't beaten the market. Over the past two years, viewers holding Cramer's stocks would be up 12% while the Dow rose 22% and the S&P 500 16%." CNBC disputed the magazine's findings.
Sports programming
See also
Bloomberg Television
Fox Business Network
References
External links
24-hour television news channels in the United States
Business-related television channels
CNBC global channels
English-language television stations in the United States
NBCUniversal networks
Peabody Award winners
Television channels and stations established in 1989
Television stations in New Jersey
Companies based in Bergen County, New Jersey
U.S. Route 9W
Former General Electric subsidiaries
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
Sirius XM Radio channels | [
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223449 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobitidae | Cobitidae | Cobitidae, also known as the True loaches, is a family of Old World freshwater fish. They occur throughout Eurasia and in Morocco, and inhabit riverine ecosystems. Today, most "loaches" are placed in other families (see below). The family includes about 260 described species. New species are being described regularly.
Description and ecology
The body forms of the Cobitidae tend to be vermiform – worm-shaped, long and thin. Most true loaches do not have true scales, and like many other Cypriniformes or catfishes, they have barbels at their mouths (usually three to six pairs). Some other traits typically found in this family are a small bottom-facing mouth suited to their scavenging benthic lifestyle, an erectile spine below the eye, and a single row of pharyngeal (throat) teeth.
True loaches are mostly scavengers and are omnivorous, usually not very picky about their food. They may eat aquatic crustaceans, insects, and other small invertebrates, as well as scraps of organic detritus. Many live in eutrophic waters of generally poor quality and feed on tubifex worms and similar benthos associated with such habitat. Some of these loaches have adapted to low oxygen levels in warm, muddy rivers or dirty ponds by being able to gulp up atmospheric oxygen. Some species, particularly from the genera Cobitis and especially Misgurnus, are sensitive to changing air pressure. They change their behavior accordingly, and as these changes in activity are usually followed by a change in weather, they are commonly known as "weather fishes" or "weather loaches".
Some Cobitidae have been introduced to foreign lands, where they may pose problems to local wildlife as invasive species. Other true loaches, many of them migratory fish, have been seriously affected by habitat destruction, chemical pollution, and damming, and are considered threatened species today. Some migratory species are popular aquarium fish and since they are very hard to raise in captivity, overfishing has seriously depleted once-common stocks in several cases.
Systematics
The other "loaches" used to be included in this family, but nowadays are recognized as well-distinct members of the order Cypriniformes. Together with the suckers (Catostomidae), the "loaches" made up the superfamily Cobitoidea. However, the sucking loaches (Gyrinocheilidae) were easily recognizable as relatives of the suckers.
Eventually, the hillstream loaches, though more similar to the true loaches than the other two presumed Cobitoidea, were recognized as distinct enough to be better regarded a family in their own right - Balitoridae. And as it seems the "sucking Cobitoidea" are quite distant indeed, perhaps even markedly closer to the Cyprinidae, thus the old superfamily Catostomoidea warrants revalidation. Finally, the puzzling mountain carps were most often considered the distinct family Psilorhynchidae in recent times. In a number of systematic schemes, though, they were placed in the Balitoridae (or Balitorinae, when these were included in the Cobitidae). In fact, they seem to be loach-like carps and belong in the Cyprinidae.
In 2012, Maurice Kottelat reviewed the loaches and elevated the former subfamily Botiinae to its own family, Botiidae, and established the family Serpenticobitidae for the genus Serpenticobitis.
Use by humans
Some true loaches are popular as food fish in East Asian countries such as Japan. These are of importance in the fisheries or being raised in aquaculture. Small species may occasionally be caught for bait.
As aquarium fish
Many of the more brightly colored species are popular with freshwater aquarists, so are therefore of importance in the aquarium trade. Some Cobitidae often encountered in aquarium trade include:
Dojo loach, Misgurnus anguillicaudatus
Horseface loach, Acantopsis choirorhynchus
Kuhli loach, Pangio kuhlii
See also
List of fish families
References
Fish of Europe
Fish of Asia
Ray-finned fish families | [
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223452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-2%3AID | ISO 3166-2:ID | ISO 3166-2:ID is the entry for Indonesia in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Indonesia, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for two levels of subdivisions:
7 geographical units (which are major islands or island groups)
32 provinces, 1 capital district, and 1 special region
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Indonesia. The second part is two letters.
Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Geographical units
Provinces, capital district and special region
Notes
Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998. ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013.
The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:
See also
Subdivisions of Indonesia
FIPS region codes of Indonesia
External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: ID
Provinces of Indonesia, Statoids.com
2:ID
ISO 3166-2
Indonesia geography-related lists | [
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223454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadraphonic%20sound | Quadraphonic sound | Quadraphonic (or Quadrophonic and sometimes Quadrasonic) sound – equivalent to what is now called 4.0 surround sound – uses four audio channels in which speakers are positioned at the four corners of a listening space. The system allows for the reproduction of sound signals that are (wholly or in part) independent of one another.
Four channel quadraphonic surround sound can be used to recreate the highly realistic effect of a three-dimensional live concert hall experience in the home. It can also be used to enhance the listener experience beyond the directional limitations of ordinary two channel stereo sound. Quadraphonic audio was the earliest consumer product in surround sound. Since it was introduced to the public in the early 1970s many thousands of quadraphonic recordings have been made.
Quadraphonic sound was a commercial failure when first introduced due to a variety of technical issues and format incompatibilities. Four channel audio formats can be more expensive to produce than standard two-channel stereo. Playback requires additional speakers and amplifier channels. It may also require specially designed decoding equipment.
The introduction of home cinema products in the 1990s were first intended for movie sound, but also brought multi-channel music reproduction into popularity again. By this time new digitally based formats had been created. Many four channel recordings from the 1970s have been reissued in modern surround sound systems such as Super Audio CD, DTS, Dolby Digital, DVD-Audio and Blu-ray. Multichannel home audio reproduction has experienced a revival since 2000 and new four channel recordings have also been released to the public since this time.
A quadraphonic system will reproduce left front, left rear, right front, and right rear audio signals in each of four separate speakers. Reproduction in the rear speakers should be of the same quality or almost the same quality as the front speakers. Ideally, it is preferred to use four identical speakers.
History
The first machines used for 4-channel sound recording were analog reel-to-reel tape recorders. These were developed for use by audio engineers in professional studios during the 1950s in Germany by Telefunken and also by Ampex in the United States. Such machines appeared in some European electronic-music studios by 1954.
Early attempts to reproduce four channel sound for home playback began with audio laboratory engineers in the late 1960s. Producer Thomas Mowrey, initially working at the Eastman School of Music, was one of the pioneers of classical quadraphonic recording. He later made quadraphonic productions for Deutsche Grammophon and other labels in the early 1970s, however many of these were released only as stereo recordings.
A small number of quadraphonic recordings were introduced to the American consumer market by Vanguard Records in June 1969 on reel-to-reel tape. The most popular medium used to market recordings to the public during the 1970s was the vinyl LP phonograph record. Quadraphonic recordings on 8-track tape were also popular in the 1970s, particularly among car audio enthusiasts.
In the 1970s specialized hardware systems were marketed by major electronic manufacturers to the public for decoding 4-channel recordings. These decoders were often sold as separate electronic components. Decoders were also available as built in features of some audio receivers or amplifiers sold during the 1970s.
Many quadraphonic recordings in the 1970s used "matrix" technologies to encode and decode 4-channels of audio information in a 2-channel medium, usually an LP. The poor decode performance of early matrix formats was the main reason for their disappearance once improved matrix systems arrived. The later matrix systems were based on work by Peter Scheiber. His basic formula utilized 90° phase-shift circuitry to enable enhanced 4–2–4 matrix systems to be developed, of which the two main leaders were Columbia's SQ and Sansui's QS Systems.
The three most popular quadraphonic LP formats in the 1970s were SQ (Stereo Quadraphonic), QS (Regular Matrix) and CD-4 (Compatible Discrete 4) / Quadradisc.
With Scheiber and Martin Willcocks, Jim Fosgate developed the Tate II 101 SQ decoder, which produced a very accurate sound field by using gain riding and the Haas effect to mask decoding artifacts. It used custom, hand-assembled and ‑calibrated circuitry with components sorted to 1%, for exact performance. Sansui's QSD-series decoders and QRX-series receivers were very good, even synthesizing left-right stereo into a ⋂ horseshoe topology. However, all these came too late in the game and were too expensive or difficult to procure for public purchase, to rescue matrix quad.
By the early 2000s more sophisticated "discrete" multichannel systems had mostly replaced matrix technologies, while providing a higher level of performance and full channel independence. Today, software can be used to take the place of hardware decoding. Modern software algorithms are capable of more accurate decoding performance than the earlier hardware technologies.
All of the multichannel audio systems in common use today are digital systems. Digital multichannel audio has been available for the home starting with the introduction of surround sound movies using Dolby Digital and DTS in the 1990s. The most common digital media capable of reproducing surround sound music today are Super Audio CD, DVD, and Blu-ray. All of these are capable of playing high-resolution audio with multiple channels.
Quadraphonic audio mixing
The audio mixing process for four channel sound is different than for stereo versions of the same recording. Most studio equipment is designed for stereo only, so specialized multichannel mixing consoles and playback systems must be available.
For classical music, producers have typically preferred an effect where the orchestra appears in stereo in the front channels, but with the natural reverberation or "echo" of the concert hall in front and rear speakers all around the listener. Some live concert recordings of popular music have also been mixed this way. Though done occasionally, it is rare to find classical recordings with placement of primary or solo instruments in the rear channels.
A few classical recordings have been made from a perspective in which the listener appears to be seated in the middle of the orchestra. One example is the 1973 Columbia Masterworks recording of Béla Bartók's Concerto for Orchestra, conducted by Pierre Boulez. The original four channel recording was released on matrix LP and 8-track tape, and reissued on the SACD format by Dutton Vocalion in 2018. Notes supplied with the recording indicate the direction from which each group of instruments can be heard.
Pop, rock and jazz music producers have tended to employ a mixing style with a relatively high degree of musical separation between the four channels. This type of recording may place musical sounds in the rear channels that are of equal importance to the front channels. It can expand on the listener's sense of direction and spaciousness in a way similar to what happened when recording engineers introduced stereo recording. In some four channel recordings sounds move in full rotation around the listener.
Mixing engineers can also aim for a hybrid effect between styles. While quadraphonic effects have sometimes been considered artificial, musical enjoyment can be dramatically enhanced by more fully involving the listener.
Consumer quadraphonic audio formats
LP phonograph records
Quadraphonic audio reproduction on vinyl phonograph records was problematic. As technologies advanced rapidly during the 1970s several different solutions were proposed to reproduce four channel sound from LPs. Some of these systems were much more successful than others. The simplest systems were "derived" (2–2–4) formats. These were soon followed by much more sophisticated "matrix" (4–2–4) formats, and finally, by the most advanced "discrete" (4–4–4) formats.
Derived (2–2–4) formats
Derived (2–2–4) formats are simple and inexpensive electronic solutions that add or extract rear "ambience" or "reverberation" sound channels from stereo records. There is no precise placement of individual instruments in the rear channels.
DY / Dynaquad (1969)
Hafler circuit (1969)
системы ABC (Quadra ABC – briefly used only in the Soviet Union) (1981)
Matrix (4–2–4) formats
With matrix formats four channels are converted (encoded) down to two channels. These are then passed through a two-channel transmission medium (usually an LP record) before being decoded to four channels and presented to four speakers. To transmit four individual audio signals in a stereo-compatible manner, there must be four simultaneous linear equations to reproduce the original four audio signals at the output.
These systems used matrix decoding technology to recover four channels from the two channels recorded on the record. Matrix systems can have a significant level of channel independence but not full channel separation.
EV / Stereo-4 (1970)
DY / Dynaquad (used as an encoding format on some records) (1971)
SQ / Stereo Quadraphonic (1971)
QS (Quadraphonic Sound)/ RM (Regular Matrix) (1971)
Matrix quadraphonic recordings can be played in two channels on conventional stereo record players. There are varying levels of stereo and mono compatibility in these systems. The term compatible indicates that:
A single-channel (mono) system will reproduce all four audio signals in its one speaker.
two-channel (stereo) system will reproduce the left front and left rear audio signals in the left speaker and the right front and right rear signals in the right speaker.
This 4:2:4 process could not be accomplished without some information loss. That is to say, the four channels produced at the final stage were not truly identical to those with which the process had begun. In order for the effect to work as intended a recording engineer needed to be specially trained for working in each of these formats. Special mixing rules for matrix recording minimize the technological limitations inherent in matrix formats and mask or eliminate undesired side effects.
EV-4/Stereo-4 and Dynaquad (DY)
The first of these were basic systems with relatively poor performance developed by Electro-Voice (EV-4/Stereo-4) and Dynaco (Dynaquad (DY)). A so-called matrix format, it utilized four sound channels which were "encoded" into two stereo album tracks. These were then "decoded" into the original four sound channels. But with poor decode performance, these systems failed to match the accuracy or channel independence of later matrix formats.
The original systems (DY and EV-4) suffered from low front left-right separation (around 12 dB) and a poor rear left-right separation of 2 dB. The decoders were designed more to give an effect rather than accurate decoding, which was mainly due to limitations in both systems. Since both systems were very closely related mathematically, users only needed one decoder of either system to playback albums of both systems.
The differences between the early and late matrix systems were so vast, it made decoding DY/EV-4 with either SQ or QS decoders with accuracy impossible; the results often being a "smeared" or poorly defined sound stage, which could be vastly different from what was intended by the producer or recording engineer.
QS Regular Matrix and SQ Quadraphonic
Improved systems based on Peter Scheiber's work on utilizing 90-degree phase-shift circuitry came later, namely the QS and SQ systems.
The first of these, known as QS, was developed by Sansui Electric. A so-called matrix format, it utilized four sound channels, which were "encoded" into two stereo album tracks. These were then "decoded" into the original four sound channels. The QS system debuted in the United States in March 1971 and was improved by their Vario-Matrix system in 1973.
The second, SQ, was developed and marketed by Columbia Records and Sony and entered the US market in April 1971. The SQ format was also used by companies such as EMI in Great Britain, who pressed several SQ album releases. The sound separation of the SQ system was greatly improved by the introduction of SQ Full Logic decoding in 1975 using the Motorola chips MC1312, MC1314 & MC1315.
Both SQ and QS had significant support from major record companies and hardware manufacturers during the 1970s. They also achieved notable sales and market penetration. Unfortunately, due to the similarities in name and technology these could easily be confused by the public.
Discrete (4–4–4) formats
Discrete reproduction describes a quadraphonic system in which all four channels are fully independent of each other. As its name suggests, with discrete formats the original four audio channels are passed through a four-channel transmission medium and presented to a four-channel reproduction system and fed to four speakers. This is defined as a 4–4–4 system.
CD-4 (Compatible Discrete 4) / Quadradisc (1972)
UD-4 / UMX / BMX (1974)
Discrete phonograph systems use a specialized demodulator to decode four fully independent sound channels. This allowed for full channel separation. Such systems could be prone to reduced record life. However, more durable vinyl formulations were quickly developed to work around this problem and nearly all discrete LPs use special vinyl. When discrete quadraphonic LPs are played on conventional stereo record players the entire music program can be heard in stereo.
CD-4 or Quadradisc
The third major format for four-channel vinyl LPs, known as CD-4 or Quadradisc, was devised by the Japanese JVC Corporation along with its US counterpart RCA Records.
This quadraphonic format was first marketed in the United States in May 1972. A fully discrete system, it eschewed matrix technologies in favor of a more sophisticated method. As with stereo records, the system uses 2 main left and right audio channels, and this is what allows CD-4 to maintain compatibility with conventional stereo playback. CD-4 also adds 2 additional "difference" audio channels to the main channels. The difference signals are encoded in ultrasonic carrier frequencies in the range of 30 kHz, which is above the audible range. CD-4 requires a specialized phono cartridge with a "Shibata" stylus to read these additional high frequencies. The combined signals are then sent to a special demodulator for four channel decoding. The demodulator converts the ultrasonic signals back into the audible range and uses the difference channels to separate rear audio information from the main channels. Because the CD-4 system maintains four independent signals throughout the process it can accurately reconstruct the intended four channel sound field.
UD-4 / UMX / BMX
UD-4/UMX was developed by Nippon/Columbia (Denon). This is a hybrid discrete/matrix system. Only 35 to 40 items are encoded in this format and it was marketed only in the UK, Europe, and Japan.
The short-lived system suffered from incompatibility with regular stereo playback due to phase differences between the left and right channels. UD-4 was less critical in its setup than CD-4 because the carriers did not have to handle frequencies as high as those found in the CD-4 system.
Tape formats
Q4 / quadraphonic reel to reel (1969)
Quad-8 (Q8) / quadraphonic 8-track (1970)
Quadraphonic systems based on tape were also introduced, based on new equipment capable of playing four discrete channels. These recordings are all discrete 4–4–4 recordings released in reel-to-reel and 8-track cartridge formats. Specially designed four channel machines were required to play these recordings. They are not compatible with stereo players.
Quadraphonic open reel tape (Q4)
In these systems all four available tracks were recorded on the tape running in the same direction. Pre-recorded four channel reel-to-reel tapes were recorded at 7 and 1/2 inches per second (IPS), which is the fastest speed used for consumer grade reel-to-reel machines. By comparison stereo pre-recorded reel-to-reel tapes have 2 different programs with each running the opposite direction. Many stereo tapes were recorded at only 3 and 3/4 IPS, which is half of the full speed. The slower speed results in significantly poorer sound quality.
Quadraphonic 8-track tape (Quad-8 and Q8)
RCA Records followed, in April 1970, with its announcement of a four-channel version of the 8-track tape, named Quad-8 or Quadraphonic 8-track tape (later shortened to just Q8). These eventually appeared in staggered releases (70 Tapes) split by Oct., Nov., & Dec. 1970.
The format was almost identical in appearance to stereo 8-tracks, except for a small sensing notch in the upper left corner of the cartridge. This signaled a quadraphonic 8-track player to combine the odd tracks as audio channels for program 1, and the even tracks as channels for program 2. The format was not backward-compatible with stereo or mono players; although quadraphonic players would play stereo 8-tracks, playing quadraphonic tapes on stereo players resulted in hearing only one-half the channels at a time.
The last release in the quadraphonic 8-track format was in 1978, although most had stopped appearing by the end of 1976.
Radio broadcast formats
There were some experiments done with radio broadcasts (e.g., a Cliff Richard concert by the BBC, whose earliest quadraphonic broadcast was in July 1974), but they were short-lived.
One radio series, Double Exposure, was briefly syndicated throughout the United States to various FM stations; it was made up of jazz, rock and pop music which had been commercially released in one of the quadraphonic record or tape systems.
One of the longest-lived radio broadcasts was WQSR-FM "Quad 102½" in Sarasota, Florida. Throughout most of the 1970s this station broadcast a signal which could be tuned as two separate stations with conventional stereo receivers.
San Francisco classical music station KKHI-FM broadcast the San Francisco Opera in "compatible" (that is, matrix-encoded) quadraphonic format during the 1970s, as did Chicago station WFMT's live "Chicago Lyric Opera" broadcasts.
KRMH-FM ("Good Karma Radio")(San Marcos/Austin, Texas) broadcast in "Quad Stereo" in the early 1970s from its studios and transmitter near Buda, Texas.
WWWW-FM (W4-QUAD 106.7) (Detroit) broadcast quadraphonic sound in 1974. It also referred to itself as "Quadzilla". Howard Stern was a DJ at W4 early in his career.
KEXL-FM ("KEXL 104.5") (San Antonio, Texas) broadcast in "Quadraphonic" in the early to mid 1970s from its studios in a high-rise office building off Main Plaza.
Sacramento station KWOD 106.5, named after the format, broadcast briefly beginning in 1977.
Regional station of Polskie Radio in Wroclaw had two experimental broadcasts a week at the end of the 1970.
Matrix H
Matrix H was developed by BBC engineers in 1977 to carry quadraphonic sound via FM radio in a way which would be most compatible with existing mono and stereo receivers.
Quadraphonic test programmes were made for BBC Radio 3 and BBC Radio 4, including plays and The Proms.
The existing matrix formats were tested first. The "H" has no meaning; they called the first matrix assessed Matrix A, and then worked through the alphabet. Matrix H emerged as the best solution for mono compatibility and radio transmission, yet there was no specific commercially available decoder for it.
The BBC later cooperated with the developers of Ambisonics to produce BBC/NRDC System HJ. This was based on tolerance zones designed to include modified versions of both Matrix H and the prototype two-channel encoding of Ambisonics, known as System 45J. Subsequently, the Nippon-Columbia UMX matrix was brought into the standard, leading to the final UHJ name now associated with Ambisonics.
Universal SQ
In 1976, Ben Bauer integrated matrix and discrete systems into USQ, or Universal SQ (others had also done this with their quad systems).
It was a hierarchical 4–4–4 discrete matrix which used the SQ matrix as the baseband for discrete quadraphonic FM broadcasts using additional difference signals called "T" and "Q".
For a USQ FM broadcast, the additional "T" modulation was placed at 38 kHz in quadrature to the standard stereo difference signal and the "Q" modulation was placed on a carrier at 76 kHz.
For standard two-channel SQ Matrix broadcasts, CBS recommended that an optional pilot-tone be placed at 19 kHz in quadrature to the regular pilot-tone to indicate SQ encoded signals and activate the listener's logic decoder.CBS argued that the SQ system should be selected as the standard for quadraphonic FM because, in FCC listening tests of the various four-channel broadcast proposals, the 4:2:4 SQ system, decoded with a CBS Paramatrix decoder, outperformed 4:3:4 (without logic) as well as all other 4:2:4 (with logic) systems tested, approaching the performance of a discrete master tape within a very slight margin. At the same time, the SQ "fold" to stereo and mono was preferred to the stereo and mono "fold" of 4:4:4, 4:3:4 and all other 4:2:4 encoding systems.
Live concerts
In 1967 the rock group Pink Floyd performed the first-ever surround-sound rock concert at Games for May, a lavish affair at London's Queen Elizabeth Hall, where the band debuted its custom-made quadraphonic speaker system. The control device they had made, the Azimuth Co-ordinator, is now displayed at London's Victoria and Albert Museum, as part of their Theatre Collections gallery.
Format comparisons
In 1976, Mike Thorne created the vinyl album Quadrafile, with the same music recorded on all four sides, but in four different quadraphonic formats (QS, SQ, CD-4, and UD-4).
See also
Ambisonics
Ambiophonics
Azimuth Co-ordinator
Four-channel Compact Disc Digital Audio
Matrix decoder
Multitrack recording
Octophonic sound
References
External links
Mark Anderson. Quadraphonic discography
List of quadraphonic 8-tracks
QuadrophonicQuad
SurroundSound – Quad and surround music discussion group
Quadraphonic website by Wendy Carlos
Hafler circuit
Dolby surround
1970s Surround Sound Audio
RCA Quadradisc discography
Quadraphonic.info – Articles, manuals, quadraphonic information
Sound production technology
Surround sound | [
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223459 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony%20McAuliffe | Anthony McAuliffe | Anthony Clement "Nuts" McAuliffe (July 2, 1898 – August 10, 1975) was a senior United States Army officer who earned fame as the acting commander of the 101st Airborne Division defending Bastogne, Belgium, during the Battle of the Bulge in World War II. He is celebrated for his one-word reply to a German surrender ultimatum: "Nuts!"
After the battle, McAuliffe was promoted and given command of the 103rd Infantry Division, which he led from January 1945 to July 1945. In the post-war era, he was commander of United States Army Europe.
Early life and military career
McAuliffe was born in Washington, D.C., on July 2, 1898. He attended West Virginia University from 1916 to 1917. He was a member of the West Virginia Beta chapter of Sigma Phi Epsilon Fraternity during his time at West Virginia University. He enrolled at West Point in 1917. McAuliffe was part of an accelerated program and graduated shortly after the end of World War I, in November 1918. During this time, he visited Europe for a short time and toured several battlefields. Assigned to field artillery, he graduated from the Artillery School in 1920. For the next 16 years, McAuliffe carried out typical peacetime assignments. By 1935, he had been promoted to the rank of Captain. Later, he was chosen to attend the United States Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth. In June 1940, McAuliffe graduated from the United States Army War College. Just before the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor in December 1941, he was promoted again, temporarily becoming a lieutenant colonel with the Supply Division of the War Department General Staff. While in this position, McAuliffe supervised the development of such new technology as the bazooka and the jeep.
World War II
Brigadier General McAuliffe commanded the division artillery of the 101st Airborne Division when he parachuted into Normandy on D-Day. He also landed by glider in the Netherlands during Operation Market Garden.
In December 1944, the German army launched the surprise attack that became the Battle of the Bulge. Major General Maxwell D. Taylor, commander of the 101st Airborne Division, was attending a staff conference in the United States at the time. During Taylor's absence, McAuliffe commanded the 101st and its attached troops. At Bastogne, the 101st was besieged by a far larger force of Germans under the command of General Heinrich Freiherr von Lüttwitz.
"NUTS!"
On December 22, 1944, von Lüttwitz dispatched a party, consisting of a major, a lieutenant, and two enlisted men under a flag of truce to deliver an ultimatum. Entering the American lines southeast of Bastogne (occupied by Company F, 2nd Battalion, 327th Glider Infantry), the German party delivered the following to Gen. McAuliffe:.
According to those present when McAuliffe received the German message, he read it, crumpled it into a ball, threw it in a wastepaper basket, and muttered, "Aw, nuts". The officers in McAuliffe's command post were trying to find suitable language for an official reply when Lt. Col. Harry Kinnard suggested that McAuliffe's first response summed up the situation pretty well, and the others agreed. The official reply was typed and delivered by Colonel Joseph Harper, commanding the 327th Glider Infantry, to the German delegation. It was as follows:
The German major appeared confused and asked Harper what the message meant. Harper said, "In plain English? Go to hell." The choice of "Nuts!" rather than something earthier was typical for McAuliffe. Captain Vincent Vicari, his personal aide at the time, recalled that "General Mac was the only general I ever knew who did not use profane language. 'Nuts' was part of his normal vocabulary."
The artillery fire did not materialize, although several infantry and tank assaults were directed at the positions of the 327th Glider Infantry. In addition, the German Luftwaffe attacked the town, bombing it nightly. The 101st held off the Germans until the 4th Armored Division arrived on December 26 to provide reinforcement.
Post-Bastogne
For his actions at Bastogne, McAuliffe was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross by General Patton on December 30, 1944 with official orders processed on January 14, 1945. He later received the Army Distinguished Service Medal twice, the Silver Star and the Legion of Merit.
Immediately after Bastogne, McAuliffe was promoted to Major General and given command of the 103rd Infantry Division on January 15, 1945, his first divisional command assignment, which he retained until July 1945. Under McAuliffe, the 103rd reached the Rhine Valley, March 23, and engaged in mopping up operations in the plain west of the Rhine River. In April 1945, the division was assigned to occupational duties until April 20, when it resumed the offensive, pursuing a fleeing enemy through Stuttgart and taking Münsingen on April 24. On April 27, elements of the division entered Landsberg, where Kaufering concentration camp, a subcamp of Dachau, was liberated. The 103rd crossed the Danube River near Ulm on April 26. On May 3, 1945, the 103rd captured Innsbruck, Austria, with little to no fighting. It then seized the Brenner Pass and met the 88th Infantry Division of the U.S. Fifth Army at Vipiteno, Italy, thereby joining the Italian and Western European fronts.
Post-war
Following the war, McAuliffe held many positions, including Chief Chemical Officer of the Army Chemical Corps, and G-1, Head of Army Personnel. He returned to Europe as Commander of the Seventh Army in 1953, and Commander-in-Chief of the United States Army Europe in 1955. He was promoted to four-star general in 1955.
While still in the service, McAuliffe attended the premiere of Battleground in Washington D.C. on November 9, 1949. The film did not depict McAuliffe directly, but did show a scene of the Germans presenting their surrender demands and their confusion on receiving McAuliffe's reply.
Retirement
In 1956, McAuliffe retired from the army. He worked for American Cyanamid Corporation from 1956 to 1963 as vice president for personnel. He began a program to teach employees to maintain contact with local politicians. The company subsequently required all branch managers to at least introduce themselves to local politicians. McAuliffe also served as chairman of the New York State Civil Defense Commission from 1960 to 1963.
After his retirement from American Cyanamid in 1963, McAuliffe resided in Chevy Chase, Maryland, until his death on August 10, 1975, age 77. He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery.
Dates of rank
Awards and decorations
McAuliffe's decorations include the following:
Badges
Decorations
Unit award
Service medals
Foreign awards
Memorials
The central square of Bastogne, Belgium, is named Place Général McAuliffe. A Sherman tank, pierced by a German 88 mm shell, stands in one corner.
A southern extension of Route 33 in eastern Northampton County, Pennsylvania, completed in 2002, was named the Gen. Anthony Clement McAuliffe 101st Airborne Memorial Highway.
The new headquarters building for the 101st Airborne Division, which opened in 2009 at Fort Campbell, Kentucky, is named McAuliffe Hall.
A room at the Thayer Hotel at West Point has been dedicated to General McAuliffe.
References
External links
"NUTS!" Revisited
Generals of World War II
|-
|-
|-
1898 births
1975 deaths
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Operation Overlord people
People from Chevy Chase, Maryland
Military personnel from Washington, D.C.
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Silver Star
United States Army generals
United States Military Academy alumni
West Virginia University alumni
Military personnel from Maryland
United States Army generals of World War II | [
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223463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeGEM | FreeGEM | FreeGEM released in 1999 is a windowing system based on Digital Research's GEM which was first released in 1985. GEM stands for "Graphics Environment Manager".
Overview
FreeGEM is the free software/open source version of GEM developed after Caldera Thin Clients released the GEM code under the terms of the GNU GPL-2.0-only free software license in April 1999. Caldera Thin Clients owned the source code to GEM through Caldera's purchase of the remaining Digital Research assets from Novell on 23 July 1996, who had acquired Digital Research in June 1991.
FreeGEM code works on almost every version of DOS, and runs on almost every IBM compatible PC. One can download all the FreeGEM binaries and source code in one package through the OpenGEM SDK. The OpenGEM SDK also contains language bindings, documentation, and compilers. There are additional FreeGEM resources available through John C. Elliott's GEM website.
OpenGEM is a popular FreeGEM distribution. Other distributions include Owen's FreeGEM Distribution.
OpenGEM
OpenGEM is a non-multitasking 16-bit graphical user interface (GUI) for DOS. It is an extended distribution of FreeGEM that includes features of the original Digital Research GEM.
OpenGEM is intended to provide a simple to install and use GUI system and windowing framework for the FreeDOS operating system.
Caldera Thin Clients (later known as Lineo), who owned the source code to GEM through Caldera's purchase of the remaining Digital Research assets from Novell on 23 July 1996, released the source to GEM under the terms of GPL-2.0-only in April 1999. OpenGEM was developed by Shane Martin Coughlan in collaboration with the FreeGEM Developer team, and is free software released under the terms of the GPL-2.0-only. OpenGEM versions 3 through 6 are hosted on SourceForge and on the FreeDOS website.
OpenGEM has not been actively developed since 2008 but is feature-complete as a basic GUI and includes a full SDK for future third-party development or extension.
Compatibility
OpenGEM works with FreeDOS Beta 9 and above, DR DOS 5.0 and above, MS-DOS 3.3 and above, PC DOS 3.3 and above, REAL/32, and DOSBox 0.65. OpenGEM will function on Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows 98SE, and Windows ME. It is not known to work with Windows NT, Windows 2000 and Windows XP or later.
See also
ViewMAX
QEMU
GEM character set
References
External links
GEM Development mailing list
John C. Elliott's GEM site
FreeGEM file site
Owen's FreeGEM Distribution
OpenGEM on GitHub
OpenGEM on the FreeDOS site
OpenGEM on the SourceForge site
1985 software
DOS software
File managers
Free windowing systems
GEM software
Windowing systems | [
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223464 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udine | Udine | Udine ( , ; ; ) is a city and comune in north-eastern Italy, in the middle of the Friuli Venezia Giulia region, between the Adriatic Sea and the Alps (Alpi Carniche). Its population was 100,514 in 2012, 176,000 with the urban area.
Names and etymology
Udine was first attested in medieval Latin records as Udene in 983 and as Utinum around the year 1000. The origin of the name Udine is unclear. It has been tentatively suggested that the name may be of pre-Roman origin, connected with the Indo-European root *odh- 'udder' used in a figurative sense to mean 'hill'. The Slovene name Videm (with final -m) is a hypercorrection of the local Slovene name Vidan (with final -n), based on settlements named Videm in Slovenia. The Slovene linguist Pavle Merkù characterized the Slovene form Videm as an "idiotic 19th-century hypercorrection."
History
Udine is the historical capital of Friuli. The area has been inhabited since the Neolithic age, and is believed to have been settled by Illyrians.
Based on an old Hungarian legend, Attila (?–453), the leader of the Huns, built a hill there, when besieging Aquileia, because he needed a winter quarters billet: he instructed his soldiers to bring soil in their helmets and shields, because the landscape was too flat, without any hill. He established the town there, and built a square-shape tower.
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the area increased in importance after the decline of Aquileia and afterwards of Cividale also. In AD 983 Udine was mentioned for the first time, with the donation of the Utinum castle by emperor Otto II to the Patriarchs of Aquileia, then the main feudal lords of the region. In 1223, with the foundation of the market, the city became finally the most important in the area for economy and trade, and also became the Patriarch's seat.
In 1420, it was conquered by the Republic of Venice. In 1511, it was the seat of a short civil war, which was followed by an earthquake and a plague. Udine remained under Venetian control until 1797, being the second largest city in the state. After the short French domination which ensued, it was part of the Austrian-puppet Lombardy-Venetia Kingdom, and was included in the newly formed Kingdom of Italy in 1866.
During World War I, before the defeat in the battle of Caporetto, Udine became the seat of the Italian High Command and was nicknamed "Capitale della Guerra" ("War Capital"). After the battle, it was occupied by the Germans in 1917 and Austrians in 1918 until after the Battle of Vittorio Veneto in 1918. After the war it was made capital of a short-lived province (Provincia del Friuli) which included the current provinces of Gorizia, Pordenone and Udine. After September 8, 1943, when Italy surrendered to the Allies in World War II, the city was under direct German administration, which ceased in April 1945.
Geography
Climate
Udine has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cfa). Precipitation is abundant all year round with spring and fall being the wettest seasons. The highest temperature recorded was on July 21, 2006 while the lowest temperature recorded was on December 19, 2009.
Demographics
In 2007, there were 97,880 people residing in Udine itself (whereas the greater area has a population double its size), located in the province of Udine, Friuli Venezia Giulia, of whom 46.9% were male and 53.1% were female. Minors (children ages 18 and younger) totalled 14.36 percent of the population compared to pensioners who number 24.27 percent. This compares with the Italian average of 18.06 percent (minors) and 19.94 percent (pensioners). The average age of Udine residents is 47 compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Udine grew by 1.48 percent, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.56 percent. The current birth rate of Udine is 9.13 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births.
The nearby area close to the border has a Slovene population estimated at about 2,000. A 1475 document mentions Slovene as the language of the "lower class" in the town, and the Udine Manuscript of 1458 contains Slovene vocabulary. Alasia da Sommaripa's Italian-Slovenian dictionary was printed in Udine in 1607.
However, the Slovenian minority is not officially recognized by the Municipality and the Slovenian language is not taught in any city state educational institution, nor in neighboring municipalities. Udine, on the other hand, is one of the municipalities in Friuli where the Friulian language is taught.
, 90.90% of the population was of Italian descent. The largest immigrant group came from other European nations (particularly those from Albania and Romania): 5.37%, followed by sub-Saharan Africa (mostly from Ghana): 1.65%, and North African: 0.77%.
Government
Main sights
The old residence of the patriarchs of Aquileia, the palazzo Patriarcale, was erected by Giovanni Fontana in 1517 in place of the older one destroyed by an earthquake in 1511. Under the Austrians it was used as a prison. A recension of the Visigothic code of laws, called the Breviary of Alaric, was formerly preserved In the cathedral archives, in a manuscript known as the Codex Utinensis, which was printed before it was lost.
In the 1550s, Andrea Palladio erected some buildings in Udine. The Oratorio della Purità has 18th-century frescoes by Giambattista Tiepolo and his son Giandomenico.
The church dedicated to St. Mary of the Castle is probably the oldest in Udine, judging from extant fragments dating back to the Lombard era. It lost its parish status in 1263, when it was annexed to the larger parish of Saint'Odorico (now the cathedral). It has been renovated many times over the centuries: the façade, for example, was entirely rebuilt after the 1511 Idrija earthquake. Its three naves preserve the suggestive atmosphere of silence and contemplation, which is often found in old churches. The Venetian Governor, Tommaso Lippomano, commissioned the Venetian Gothic portico with steps and ramps leading down the hill in 1487.
In the principal square (Piazza della Libertà) stands the town hall (Loggia del Lionello) built in 1448–1457 in the Venetian-Gothic style opposite a clock tower (Torre dell'Orologio) resembling that of the Piazza San Marco at Venice. It was begun in 1448 on a project by Nicolò Lionello, a local goldsmith, and was rebuilt following a fire in 1876. The new design was projected by the architect Andrea Scala.
Opposite the Loggia del Lionello is the Loggia di San Giovanni, a Renaissance structure designed by Bernardino da Morcote. Other noteworthy monuments in the square are the Fountain by Giovanni Carrara, an architect from Bergamo (1542); the Columns bearing the Venetian Lion and the Statue of Justice (1614), the statues of Hercules and Cacus and the Statue of Peace (1819) which was donated to Udine by Emperor Francis I to commemorate the peace Treaty of Campoformido.
The Cathedral of Udine is an imposing edifice whose construction started in 1236, on a Latin cross-shaped plan with three naves and chapels along the sides. The church was consecrated in 1335 as Santa Maria Maggiore. At the beginning of the 18th century a radical transformation project involving both the exterior and the interior was undertaken at the request and expense of the Manin family. The Baroque interior has monumental dimensions and contains many works of art by Tiepolo, Amalteo, and Ludovico Dorigny. On the ground floor of the bell tower (built from 1441 over the ancient baptistry) is a chapel which is completely adorned with frescoes by Vitale da Bologna (1349).
The centre of Udine is dominated by the castle, built by the Venetians from 1517 over a Lombard fortification ruined by an earthquake in 1511. The current Renaissance appearance dates from the intervention of Giovanni da Udine, who finished the works starting from 1547. The castle houses one of the most ancient Parliament Halls of Europe.
Other points of interest
Orto Botanico Friulano, a botanical garden
Parco Botanico Friulano "Cormor", a park and botanical garden
Tempio Ossario dei Caduti d'Italia, 1931 church
Culture
Udine has a university, the University of Udine. The archbishop's palace and the Museo Civico have quite important paintings.
The city has a theater, the Teatro Giovanni da Udine.
Important festivals include the wine-and-food September festival, Friuli D.O.C., the national literary prize for non-fiction Premio Friuli Storia and the biggest European festival of popular East Asian cinema, the Far East Film Festival, in April.
Asteroid 33100 Udine was named in honour of the city.
Along with Italian, Friulian is often spoken in Udine, as well as a variant of Venetian (called Venetin) that is however in decline.
Museums
Civici musei e gallerie di storia e arte (since 1906) with Museo Archeologico, Galleria d'Arte Antica, Galleria dei Disegni e delle Stampa, Museo Friulano della Fotografia, Fototeca e Collezioni Risorgimentali
Museo di Arte Moderna e Contemporanea
Museo etnografico del Friuli (Palazzo Giacomelli)
Gallerie del Progetto
Museo del Duomo di Udine
Museo diocesano e gallerie del Tiepolo
Economy
Udine is important for commerce, with several commercial centers in the hinterland. There are also iron and mechanical industries (Danieli and ABS are the most important).
Transport
With 7,600,000 travelling people every year, Udine railway station is the most important station in Friuli Venezia Giulia. Train services operate to Venice, Treviso, Trieste, Gemona del Friuli, Tarvisio, Cividale del Friuli, Padua, Bologna, Rome, Verona and Milan. International trains operate to Vienna and Munich.
Gallery
Sport
The main football club in the city is Udinese Calcio, founded in 1896, who, as of 2021, have played in every Serie A season since the 1995–96 season. Their ground, the Stadio Friuli, was a venue at the 1990 FIFA World Cup.
The local basketball team, APU GSA, played in the second national league, the LegaDue.
Notable people
Luigi De Agostini (born 1961), footballer
Afro Basaldella (1912–1976), painter
Giuseppe Battiston (born 1968), actor
Enzo Bearzot, (1927–2010), national football trainer
Mario Benedetti, (1955–2020), poet
Girolamo di Bernardino, 16th-century painter of frescoes
Bernardino Blaceo, 16th-century painter
Emanuele Blandamura (born 1979), boxer
Sebastiano Bombelli (1635-1719), Baroque and Rococò painter
José Bragato, (1915–2017), cellist and composer
Carlo Caneva (1845–1922), major general
Luca Carlevarijs, (1663–1730), painter
Elena Cecchini (born 1992), cyclist
Davide Cecotti (born 1973), professional football player
Andrea Centazzo (born 1948), drummer and composer
Bruno Chizzo (1916–1969), footballer
Giovanni da Udine, (1487–1564), painter (Renaissance)
Raimondo D'Aronco, (1857–1932), architect
Mario David (1934–2005), football player and coach.
Alfredo Foni (1911–1985), football player and coach.
Fabio Frittelli, (1966–2013), better known by his pseudonym Mo-Do, an Italian musician
Massimo Giacomini, (born 1939), former footballer and sports commentator
Andrea Chiopris Gori, (born 1977), former footballer
Francesco Janich (1937–2019), footballer
Dalila Di Lazzaro (born 1953), actress and model
Ernesto Lomasti, (1959–1979), mountaineer
Guido Macor, (born 1932), retired footballer
Fabio Masotti (born 1974), cyclist
Alberto Mazzucato (1813–1877), composer and music teacher
Tina Modotti (1896–1942), photographer, actress, revolutionary
Francesco Pavona (1695–1777), Baroque painter
Daniele Petri (born 1980), Italian darts player
Nicola Pezzetta (born 1963), artist and architect
Luigi Pio Tessitori, (1887–1919), indologist, linguist
Alessandro Piu (born 1996), footballer
Bruno Pizzul, (born 1938), sports journalist and footballer
Bruno Sacco (born 1933), car designer
Alessia Tuttino (born 1983), footballer
Elena Valentinis (1396–1458), Roman Catholic Blessed professed religious
Glauco Venier (born 1962), jazz pianist and composer
Giuseppe Virgili (1935–2016), Italian footballer (striker)
Alessandro Zanni, (born 1984), rugby union player
International relations
Twin towns – sister cities
Udine is twinned with:
Albacete, Spain
Esslingen am Neckar, Germany
Maribor, Slovenia
Neath Port Talbot, Wales, United Kingdom
Schiedam, Netherlands
Vienne, France
Villach, Austria
Windsor, Canada
Yaoundé, Cameroon
Friendship
Bikaner, India
Klagenfurt, Austria
Óbuda-Békásmegyer, Hungary
Piotrków Trybunalski, Poland
Resistencia, Argentina
Velenje, Slovenia
References
Further reading
External links
Udine homepage
Udine on Italia.it
Udine, Italy: a cultural guide by Sunday Telegraph
983 establishments
Udine
10th-century establishments in Italy
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223465 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glengormley | Glengormley | Glengormley () is the name of a townland (of 215 acres) and electoral ward in County Antrim, Northern Ireland. Glengormley is within the urban area of Newtownabbey and the Antrim and Newtownabbey Borough Council area. It is also situated in the civil parish of Carnmoney and the historic barony of Belfast Lower.
Location
The original settlement grew up in the mid-19th century, around a junction of the roads linking Belfast with Antrim and Ballyclare.
The wider suburban area of Glengormley borders North Belfast, Carnmoney and Mallusk. It is a popular residential area, include developments in 1995 - 2005 which have seen an expansion upwards from the village to the Hightown Road.
Glengormley is approximately six miles from Belfast; the sixth milestone from the city centre is located on the Ballyclare Road beside Glengormley High School.
Geography
As the lowest pass through the Belfast hills from the northern prospect, Glengormley is also traversed by major communication arteries including the Belfast to Derry railway line (served by Mossley West halt) and the M2 motorway.
As a main conduit for commuters, the townland experiences chronic congestion problems during peak times of the day, particularly on the A6 or Antrim Road. The M2 motorway runs close by and is accessible from the Sandyknowes Roundabout located at the end of the A6, with slip roads to the M2 northbound and southbound carriageways. The A8(M) motorway, which links Belfast with the port town of Larne and the main road into the Mallusk and Hydepark Industrial Estates as well as many other B roads are also accessible from Sandyknowes.
Despite being technically a glen (the area is in the valley between Cave Hill and Carnmoney Hill), Glengormley sits at 700 feet above sea level, and has a climate noticeably colder than the adjacent Lagan valley area. The cold and windy weather may be explained by the 'tunnel' of natural features running from the Antrim coast to the edge of Glengormley on the Hightown Road. The 'tunnel' can be seen from the Cavehill Country Park entrance at Hightown Road, looking north towards Slemish.
History
From Victorian times to the 1930s, Glengormley was often the final destination on the leisure trail for working-class Belfast citizens escaping the city grime. The three main stops on the trail were Belfast Castle, Belfast Zoo, and the dance hall in Glengormley, opposite the present day Glen Inn. The journey was made by tram or trolley bus or train. The Belfast Street Tramway Company replaced carts with horse-drawn trams and the Cavehill and Whitewell Tramway company ran a steam tramway from Glengormley into Belfast.
Sentry Hill was an early 19th-century farmhouse on the hill above Glengormley and Corr's Corner in Newtownabbey, Co Antrim. It was the home of William Fee McKinney - a prosperous farmer and meticulous collector of farming, church and other records and artefacts. They were a member of the Linen Hall library and the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society. They were secretary of Carnmoney Presbyterian Church for 62 years.
Leisure
Glengormley is within walking distance of the Cavehill Country Park and Belfast Zoo. The expansive Valley Park provides a safe cycling route to the North Shore coastal cycle path and onwards to central Belfast.
At the Southern end of Glengormley there is a 6 screen cinema, 10 pin bowling alleys, three snooker halls (two at the southern end and one at the northern end) and some commercial premises.
Sports
Glengormley also hosts a Gaelic Athletic Association club located on the hightown road, St Enda's/ Naomh Éanna, Glengormley Amateur Boxing Club and a Mixed Martial Arts club, ZKJ.
Commercial
Glengormley hosts major commercial complexes in the Mallusk Enterprise Park, including Royal Mail, Henderson's group, Diageo; (Baileys global supply) and Marks and Spencer distribution centre for Ireland. At peak times, Translink Metro and Ulsterbus buses to Belfast pass through Glengormley approximately every ten minutes, and take approximately twenty to thirty minutes to reach the city centre via the A6 Antrim Road, A2 Shore Road and the M2 motorway with Translink's express service. Belfast is accessed by car via the Antrim Road or M2 motorway.
Transport
Translink Metro Route 1 and Routes 2A/B pass through the village as well as Ulsterbus Route 120 to Ballymena via Antrim Route 153 to Ballyclare and Newtownabbey town service 367 From Northcott Shopping centre to Greenisland Estate via Glengormley village and O'Neill road which connects to the Abbeycentre and Whiteabbey village.
Translink Metro route 1 starts at Queen Street which goes up the Antrim Road and passes Belfast Zoo into Glengormley. From Glengormley the routes split to serve neighbouring local areas.
Translink Metro routes 2A/B also start at Queen street and operate via Shore road with route 2A serving whitewell Road, Glengormley, Carnmoney Road and Prince Charles Way to Fairview Road. Route 2B serves the Abbeycentre, Whitewell Road, Glengormley, Ballyclare Road and Manse Road which also ends at Fairview Road.
Route 1A serves Carnmoney Road, Princes Charles Way, Beverley Road, Fairview Road, Ballyfore Road, Doagh Road and terminates at Glenville (Newtownabbey bus depot).
Route 1B serves Antrim Road, Jubilee Way (Tesco), Ballyclare Road, Ballyearl Drive, Ballyearl Way, Milewater Drive and terminates at New Mossley (Manse Way).
Route 1C serves Antrim Road, Jubilee Way (Tesco), Ballyclare Road, Ballyearl Drive, Ballyearl Way, Milewater Drive, Campbell Road, Beverley Road, Fairview Road, Ballyfore Road, Doagh Road and terminates at Glenville (Newtownabbey bus depot).
Route 1D serves Ballyclare Road, Ballyearl Drive, Ballyearl Way, Milewater Drive, Campbell Road, Carnmoney Road North, The Glade and terminates at Mossley West Train Station.
Route 1E serves Hightown Road, Mallusk Road, Mallusk Industrial Estate, Mallusk Cemetery, Old Coach Road and terminates at Roughfort.
Route 1F serves Antrim Road, Sandyknowes Park, Scullions Road, Mallusk Industrial Estate, Aylesbury Place and terminates at Blackrock (Hydepark Road).
Route 1G serves Antrim Road, Sandyknowes Park, Ballyhenry Road, Ballyclare Road, Ballyearl Drive and terminates at Ballyearl Way.
Route 1J serves Hightown Road, Mallusk Road and terminates at Royal Mail (Enterprise Way).
Demographics
At the time of the 2001 UK census:
21.4% were under 16 years old and 21.7% were aged 60 and over;
47.1% of the population were male and 52.9% were female;
40.3% were from a Catholic community background and 56.1% were from a 'Protestant and Other Christian (including Christian related)' community background;
29.4% of persons aged 16 and over were single (never married);
37.8 years was the average age of the population; and
the population density was 60.3 persons per hectare.
At the 2011 census:
19.93% were aged under 16 years and 17.94% were aged 65 and over;
46.88% of the usually resident population were male and 53.12% were female; and
37 years was the average (median) age of the population.
43.78% belong to or were brought up in the 'Catholic religion' and 47.89% belong to or were brought up in a 'Protestant and Other Christian religions'
Points of interest
The Crown and Shamrock pub on the Antrim Road in Glengormley is one of the oldest pubs in County Antrim and has been made famous by the film "Middletown" where many of the scenes were filmed.
Famous residents
Stephen Boyd (1931–1977) — actor, co-starred as Messala with Charlton Heston in Ben-Hur (1959), Fantastic Voyage (1966) and many other films, was born in nearby Whitehouse and lived in Glengormley.
Padraic Fiacc — lived in Glengormley.
Derek Mahon — Irish poet who lived in Glengormley. One of his best-known poems is entitled Glengormley.
Bill Neely — TV reporter, 3 time BAFTA winner & Emmy winner, NBC News Chief Global Correspondent, grew up in Glengormley.
Jeremy McWilliams — former GP motorcycle racer.
Craig Cathcart — footballer; plays for Watford and Northern Ireland.
Tommy Daly - lead vocalist for Irish heavy metal band Conjuring Fate
Steve Moore — lead guitarist with heavy metal band, Stormzone, lives in Glengormley.
Andrew Mitchell (footballer, born 1992) — footballer; played for Rangers, former pupil of Glengormley High School.
Victoria McLaughlin (singer born 1971) — first ever BBC Choirgirl of the Year 1986. Also first winner of The John McCormack Golden Voice of Athlone 1992. Former student at Glengormley High School.
Adam Keefe (ice hockey) — ice hockey player; coach; Belfast Giants. Former player and current coach of the Belfast Giants ice hockey team (2017–present)
Colin Patrick Hynds - Elmfield, footballer with Glen Star and Captain of Hightown road CBS School GAA team 1978, played for St Endas GAA and picked for NI schools in the late 1970s.
References
Townlands of County Antrim
Wards of Northern Ireland
Civil parish of Carnmoney | [
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223468 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver%20box | Silver box | A silver box is a modified DTMF keypad that adds four additional keys. This gives four columns of four keys each (16 total) instead of three columns (in the standard 12-pushbutton handset).
In the now-obsolete Autovon phone system these keys, used to set priority of a military call, were the red buttons in the photo on the right. Autovon included four precedence levels: Routine (no special tone), Priority (D), Immediate (C) and Flash (B) with Flash Override (A) as a capability. Each had the ability to interrupt lower-priority calls in progress if all trunks were busy. Each was activated using a button in an additional column of the keypad:
A (697+1633Hz): Flash Override (FO)
B (770+1633Hz): Flash (F)
C (852+1633Hz): Immediate (I)
D (941+1633Hz): Priority (P)
Autovon was replaced in the early 1990s by the Defense Switched Network; much of its infrastructure is now dismantled. Amateur radio equipment continues to be manufactured with 16-key DTMF keypads, keeping extra tones available for on-air use to control remote apparatus such as radio repeater stations. These tone pairs (labelled A, B, C, D) are rarely used.
Conversion of twelve-button keypads was usually accomplished with the addition of a toggle switch and a crystal that switched one column of a standard phone keypad into the "fourth column" used to generate 1633 Hz as the higher of the two tones output on a keypress.
Modern phones with an integrated circuit based DTMF generator can frequently be modified by simply soldering a wire from the 1633 Hz leg to a switch that toggles between that leg and the 1477 Hz leg for the rightmost column of keys.
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223470 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malappuram%20district | Malappuram district | Malappuram () is one of the 14 districts in the Indian state of Kerala, with a coastline of . It is the most populous district of Kerala, which is home to around 13% of the total population of the state. The district was formed on 16 June 1969, spanning an area of about . It is the third-largest district of Kerala by area, as well as the largest district in the state bounded by Western Ghats and Arabian Sea to the two sides. Malappuram is the third major contributing district to the Gross State Domestic Product of Kerala as of 2019, after Ernakulam and Thiruvananthapuram. The district is divided into seven Taluks - Eranad, Kondotty, Nilambur, Perinthalmanna, Ponnani, Tirur, and Tirurangadi. Economically booming towns in Malappuram district include Malappuram, Manjeri, Tirur, Ponnani, Perinthalmanna, Kottakkal, Nilambur, Parappanangadi, Tanur, Kondotty, Valanchery, Tirurangadi, Chemmad, Edappal, Wandoor, Areekode, Edakkara, Chungathara, Kalikavu, and Puthanathani. Having 12 municipalities in total, the district has the second-highest number of Municipal towns in the state lying just behind Ernakulam (13).
Three of Kerala's six longest rivers, namely Chaliyar, Kadalundi River, and Bharathappuzha (River Ponnani), and their tributaries, flow through the district. The high ranges on the eastern border of district forms a continuation of the Nilgiri Mountain Ranges of Western Ghats, which is also shared by the neighbouring Nilgiris district of Tamil Nadu. A portion of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve lies in Nilambur Taluk of Malappuram district. The 2,554 m high Mukurthi peak, which is situated in the border of Nilambur Taluk and Ooty Taluk, and is also the fifth-highest peak in South India as well as the third-highest in Kerala after Anamudi (2,696 m) and Meesapulimala (2,651 m), is the highest point of elevation in Malappuram district. It is also the highest peak in Kerala outside the Idukki district. The 2,383 high Anginda peak, which is located closer to Malappuram-Palakkad-Nilgiris district border is the second-highest peak. Vavul Mala, a 2,339 m high peak situated on the trijunction of Nilambur Taluk of Malappuram, Wayanad, and Thamarassery Taluk of Kozhikode districts, is the third-highest point of elevation in the district. The midland area of the district is also characterised by several undulating smaller hills, which gently slope towards west. The coastal Taluks contain coconut-fringed sandy beaches, Mangroves, estuaries, backwaters, Kole Wetlands, and canals. As of 2003, Malappuram has the least suicide rate among the districts of Kerala (13.3), which is much lesser than the state average (32.8).
Malayalam is the most spoken language. The district has witnessed significant emigration, especially to the Arab states of the Persian Gulf during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s, and its economy depends significantly on remittances from a large Malayali expatriate community. Malappuram was the first e-literate as well as the first cyber literate district of India. Malappuram metropolitan area is the fourth largest urban agglomeration in Kerala after Kochi, Calicut, and Thrissur urban areas and the 25th largest in India with a total population of 1.7 million. 44.2% of the district's population reside in the urban areas according to the 2011 census of India. Being home to 4 important universities in the state which includes the University of Calicut, Malappuram is an important hub of higher education in Kerala. Notable people from the district include Azhvanchery Thamprakkal (the titular head of all Nambudiris in Kerala), Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan (The father of modern Malayalam literature), E. M. S. Namboodiripad (The first Chief Minister of Kerala), Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri (an eminent 16th century Sanskrit poet), Zainuddin Makhdoom II (the first historian of Kerala), Moyinkutty Vaidyar (the most renowned Mappila Paattu poet), Vallathol Narayana Menon (the founder of Kerala Kalamandalam), Uroob (one of the prominent novelists of Malayalam), Vaidyaratnam P. S. Warrier (The founder of Arya Vaidya Sala), Poonthanam Nambudiri (one of the first poets of modern Malayalam literature), Kuttikrishna Marar (one of the most prominent literary critics of Malayalam), Sukumaran (a prominent actor of Malayalam and the father of Prithviraj Sukumaran and Indrajith Sukumaran), Sithara Krishnakumar (playback singer), Artist Namboothiri (a prominent painter), M. G. S. Narayanan (historian), Gopinath Muthukad (motivational speaker), and many of the members of medieval Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics, and numerous prominent writers of Malayalam literature.
The port towns of Ponnani, Tanur (Vettathunad), and Parappanangadi (Parappanad), were three among the major ports in the Malabar Coast during the medieval period. During the early medieval period, the district was home to two of the four major kingdoms that ruled Kerala. Perumpadappu was the hometown of the Kingdom of Cochin, which is also known as Perumbadappu Swaroopam, and Nediyiruppu was the hometown of the Zamorin of Calicut, which is also known as Nediyiruppu Swaroopam. Besides, the original headquarters of the Palakkad Rajas were also at Athavanad in the district. The district was also home to the historic Kingdom of Tanur, Parappanad, and Valluvanad. During the colonial era, Malappuram became the headquarters of European and British troops and it later became the headquarters of the Malabar Special Police (M.S.P) formerly known as Malappuram Special Force formed in 1885, which is also the oldest armed police battalion in the state. The modern Malayalam literature as well as the Arabi Malayalam script took their shape on the bank of Bharathappuzha river, Kadalundi River, and Tirur River, mainly in the Taluks of Tirur and Ponnani. The oldest Teak plantation of world at Conolly's plot is situated at Chaliyar valley in Nilambur. The oldest Railway line in the state was laid from Tirur to Chaliyam in 1861, passing through Tanur, Parappanangadi, and Vallikkunnu. The second railway line in the state was also laid in the same year from Tirur to Kuttippuram via Tirunavaya. The Nilambur–Shoranur line, also laid in the colonial era, is one among the shortest and picturesque Short Gauge Railway Lines in India. Angadipuram Laterite has a position in the global history of mining. Arya Vaidya Sala, one of the largest Ayurvedic medicinal brands of the world is headquartered at Kottakkal, about 10 km away from Malappuram.
Etymology
The term, Malappuram, which means "over the hill" in Malayalam, derives from geography of Malappuram, the administrative headquarters of the district. The midland area of district is characterised by several undulating hills such as Arimbra hills, Amminikkadan hills, Oorakam Hill, Cheriyam hills, Pandalur hills, and Chekkunnu hills, all of which lie away from the Western Ghats. However, the coconut-fringed sandy coastal plain is an exception for the general hilly nature.
Formation
Until the formation of Malappuram district in 1969, the Taluks of Eranad, Kondotty, Nilambur, Tirur, and Tirurangadi were included in the Kozhikode district, while the Taluks of Perinthalmanna and Ponnani formed part of Palakkad district. At that time, the city of Malappuram which separates Eranad Taluk and Tirur Taluk from Perinthalmanna Taluk was located right at the border of Kozhikode and Palakkad districts.
Earlier, Malappuram had been one of the five divisions of the Malabar District, besides Thalassery, Kozhikode, Palakkad, and Fort Cochin divisions, during the British Raj. Eranad (Manjeri) and Valluvanad (Perinthalmanna) Taluks were included in the Malappuram Division of British Malabar. However following the formation of the state of Kerala in 1956, Thalassery division was reshaped into Kannur district, Kozhikode division into Kozhikode district, and Palakkad division into Palakkad district, whereas the Fort Cochin division, was merged with Ernakulam district. However, the Malappuram division was divided between the districts of Kozhikode and Palakkad. At that time, Kozhikode district had two revenue divisions, Kozhikode and Malappuram. Malappuram Revenue Division of Kozhikode district included the Taluks of Eranad and Tirur.
Eranad was also the largest Taluk in Kerala at that time which had extended up to the Nilgiri Mountains, and Tirur was the largest coastal Taluk in Kerala containing the coastal belt between Ponnani-Purathur port (where Bharathappuzha River and Tirur River merge together to join Arabian Sea), and Beypore-Chaliyam port (where Chaliyar and Kadalundi River merge with the sea) having major towns such as Chaliyam, Feroke, Ramanattukara, Kadalundi, Vallikkunnu, Parappanangadi, Tirurangadi, Tanur, Tirur, Athavanad, Tirunavaya, Kuttippuram, Valanchery, and Purathur.)
In 1960, P. K. Bapputty, who was the Gram Panchayat president of Kuruva at the time, put forward a proposal to reorganize the erstwhile Malappuram Division into a new district. Kuruva was only about 10 km away from Malappuram, while it was about 80 km away from Palakkad, the district headquarters at that time. Subsequently, P. Abdul Majeed, who was the MLA of Mankada Constituency presented the proposal in Kerala Legislative Assembly. Finally the district was formed on 16 June 1969 by incorporating the following regions of the erstwhile districts of Kozhikode and Palakkad:
Later, Kottakkal and Ponmala villages were transferred from Eranad Taluk to Tirur Taluk. Nilambur and Kondotty Taluks were carved out from Eranad, and Tirurangadi Taluk was carved out from Tirur.
History
The remains of pre-historic symbols including Dolmens, Menhirs, and Rock-cut caves have found from various parts of district. Rock-cut caves have found from Puliyakkode, Thrikkulam, Oorakam, Melmuri, Ponmala, Vallikunnu, and Vengara. The ancient maritime port of Tyndis, which was then a centre of trade with Ancient Rome, is roughly identified with Ponnani, Tanur, and Kadalundi-Vallikkunnu-Chaliyam-Beypore region. Tyndis was a major center of trade, next only to Muziris, between the Cheras and the Roman Empire. Pliny the Elder (1st century CE) states that the port of Tyndis was located at the northwestern border of Keprobotos (Chera dynasty). The region, which lies north of the port at Tyndis, was ruled by the kingdom of Ezhimala during Sangam period. According to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a region known as Limyrike began at Naura and Tyndis. However the Ptolemy mentions only Tyndis as the Limyrike'''s starting point. The region probably ended at Kanyakumari; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-day Malabar Coast. The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at around 50,000,000 sesterces. Pliny the Elder mentioned that Limyrike was prone by pirates. The Cosmas Indicopleustes mentioned that the Limyrike was a source of peppers.Das, Santosh Kumar (2006). The Economic History of Ancient India. Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd. p. 301. The River Bharathappuzha (River Ponnani) had importance since Sangam period (1st-4th century CE), due to the presence of Palakkad Gap which connected the Malabar coast with Coromandel coast through inland.
The Kurumathur inscription found near Areekode dates back to 871 CE. Three inscriptions written in Old Malayalam those date back to 932 CE, those were found from Triprangode (near Tirunavaya), Kottakkal, and Chaliyar, mention the name of Goda Ravi of Chera dynasty. The Triprangode inscription states about the agreement of Thavanur. Several inscriptions written in Old Malayalam those date back to 10th century CE, have found from Sukapuram near Edappal, which was one of the 64 old Nambudiri villages of Kerala.
Descriptions about the rulers of Eranad and Valluvanad regions can be seen in the Jewish copper plates of Bhaskara Ravi Varman (around 1000 CE) and Viraraghava copper plates of Veera Raghava Chakravarthy (around 1225 CE). The Zamorin of Calicut originally belonged to Nediyiruppu at Kondotty in Eranad before he shifted his seat to the neighbouring Kozhikode. Eranad was ruled by a Samanthan Nair clan known as Eradis, similar to the Vellodis of neighbouring Valluvanad and Nedungadis of Nedunganad. The rulers of Eranad were known by the title Eralppad/Eradi. It was the ruler of Eranad (Eradi of Nediyiruppu) who established the kingdom of Calicut and developed Kozhikode as a major port city in the Malabar Coast. Just after that, the rulers of Parappanad (Parappanangadi) and the Vettathunadu (Tanur) became vassals of Zamorin. The Parappanad royal family is a cousin dynasty of Travancore royal family. Besides, a larger portion of Valluvanad Kovilakams (Nilambur, Manjeri, Malappuram, Kottakkal, and Ponnani) also became vassals of the Zamorin.
The original headquarters of the Perumbadappu Swaroopam, who later became the Kingdom of Cochin, was at Chithrakoodam in Vanneri, Perumpadappu, which is located 10 km south to Puthuponnani, in Ponnani taluk. When Perumpadappu came under the kingdom of the Zamorin of Calicut, the rulers of Perumpadappu fled to Kodungallur, and later they moved to Kochi, where they established the Kingdom of Cochin. By 1250-1300 CE, almost whole of the district came under the rule of Zamorin.
The Mamankam festival, which had a special political importance in the medieval Kerala, was held at Tirunavaya, which lies on the northern bank of the river Bharathappuzha, in the district. The rivalry that existed between the Nambudiris in the Nambudiri villages of Panniyoor and Chowwara (Sukapuram) was also of great political importance in medieval Kerala. Panniyoor is situated opposite to Kuttippuram town while Sukapuram lies in Edappal. The Zamorins found themselves intervened in the so-called Koormatsaram between Nambudiris of Panniyurkur and Chovvarakur. In the most recent event, the Thirumanasseri Nambudiri had assaulted and burned the nearby rival village. The rulers of Valluvanadu and Perumpadappu came to help the Chovvaram and raided Panniyur simultaneously. Thirumanasseri Nadu was overran by its neighbours on south and east. The Thirumanasseri Nambudiri appealed to the Zamorin for help, and promised to cede the port of Ponnani, where the river Bharathappuzha merges with Arabian Sea, to Zamorin as the price for his protection. Thirumanassery Nambudiri, the Koya of Kozhikode, and ruler of Vettathunadu supported the Zamorin. Zamorin, looking for such an opportunity, gladly accepted the offer. In his military campaigns into Valluvanadu, the Zamorin received unambiguous assistance from the Muslim Middle Eastern sailors of Beypore, Chaliyam, Tanur, and Kodungallur, and the Koya of Kozhikode. As a reward by the Zamorin, the port at Ponnani became an important trade and cultural centre of middle eastern sailors. It seems that the Muslim judge of Kozhikode offered all help in "money and material" to the Samoothiri to strike at Tirunavaya. The Zamorin continued his conquest to Valluvanadu and conquered the regions of Kottakkal, Malappuram, Manjeri, and Nilambur. It was thus that Perumpadappu and a larger portion of Valluvanad came under the rule of Zamorin. Thus Zamorin became the Raksha Purusha of Mamankam, and the ruler of Tirunavaya, neighbouring Triprangode, and Ponnani.
Under the Zamorin, the regions included in the district emerged as major centres of foreign maritime trade in medieval Kerala. The Zamorin earned a greater part of his revenue by taxing the spice trade through his ports. Major ports in the kingdom of Zamorin included Parappanangadi, Tanur, and Ponnani.Kunhali. V. "Calicut in History" Publication Division, University of Calicut (Kerala), 2004 Parappanangadi (Barburankad), Tirurangadi (Tiruwarankad), Tanur, and Ponnani (Funan) were also important among the trade settlements under the rule of the Zamorin, according to the 16th-century historical work Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen. Thrikkavil Kovilakam in Ponnani served as a second home for Zamorin. Ponnani acted as the naval headquarters of his kingdom. Malappuram was the headquarters of Para Nambi, who was a local chieftain of the Zamorin. Other Kovilakams of Zamorin included the Kizhakke Kovilakam at Kottakkal, Manjeri Kovilakam at Manjeri, and Nilambur Kovilakam at Nilambur. Parappanad Kovilakam at Parappanangadi and Tanur Kovilakam at Tanur were vassal royal houses of the Zamorin. However the Mankada Kovilakam at Mankada near Angadipuram was the seat of ruling family of the Valluvanad Rajas. Azhvanchery Mana, which was the headquarters of Azhvanchery Thamprakkal, who was the supreme head of the Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala, is located at Athavanad near Kuttippuram, in Tirur Taluk. Azhvanchery Thamprakkal and the lord of Kalpakanchery in Kingdom of Tanur were usually present at the Ariyittu Vazhcha (Coronation) of a new Zamorin. The Arabs had the monopoly of trade in the early Middle Ages. The original headquarters of the Palakkad Rajas were also at Athavanad.
The squadron of Vasco da Gama left Portugal in 1497, rounded the Cape and continued along the coast of East Africa, where a local pilot was brought on board who guided them across the Indian Ocean, reaching Calicut in May 1498. At the time of the arrival of Vasco da Gama and his Portuguese fleet at Calicut, the Zamorin of Calicut was residing at Ponnani. The Zamorin had provided the Portuguese all facilities for trade. However, the Portuguese provocations on the Arab properties lead to a conflict between the Zamorin and the Portuguese. Furthermore, Ponnani, which was the second headquarters of the Zamorin, was an important target of the Portuguese. The ruler of the Kingdom of Tanur, who was a vassal to the Zamorin of Calicut, sided with the Portuguese, against his overlord at Kozhikode. As a result, the Kingdom of Tanur (Vettathunadu) became one of the earliest Portuguese Colonies in India. The ruler of Tanur also sided with Cochin. Many of the members of the royal family of Cochin in 16th and 17th centuries were selected from Vettom. However, the Tanur forces under the king fought for the Zamorin of Calicut in the Battle of Cochin (1504). However, the allegiance of the Mappila merchants in Tanur region still stayed under the Zamorin of Calicut. Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, who is considered as the father of modern Malayalam literature, was born at Tirur (Vettathunadu) during Portuguese period. The medieval Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics that flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries, was also primarily based in Vettathunadu (Tirur region)
In 1507, the Portuguese Viceroy Francisco de Almeida raided Ponnani and started building a fortress there in 1585. The district witnessed several battles between Kozhikode naval chiefs, known as the Kunhali Marakkars, and the Portuguese for the monopoly in spice trade. The Kunjali Marakkars are credited with organizing the first naval defense of the Indian coast. Tanur town was one of the earliest Portuguese colonies in the Indian subcontinent. The towns of Ponnani and Parappanangadi were burnt by the Portuguese in the years 1525 and 1573-74 respectively. Some of the kings of Kingdom of Cochin in 16th century CE, when Cochin became a major power on the Malabar coast, were usually selected from the royal family of Kingdom of Tanur. Portuguese were expelled from Kingdom of Tanur with the Battle at Chaliyam fort of 1571. Chaliyam was the northern border of Vettathunadu. During that battle, the Zamorin received unambigious assistance from the Mappilas of Ponnani, Tanur, and Parappanangadi.
The Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen written by Zainuddin Makhdoom II (born around 1532) in Ponnani during 16th-century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala, written by a Keralite. It is written in Arabic and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of Kunjali Marakkar alongside the Zamorin of Calicut from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonize Malabar coast. It was first printed and published in Lisbon. A copy of this edition has been preserved in the library of Al-Azhar University, Cairo.A G Noorani. Islam in Kerala.
Books In 1532 with the help of the ruler of Tanur, a chapel was built at Chaliyam, together with a house for the commander, barracks for the soldiers, and store-houses for trade. Diego de Pereira, who had negotiated the treaty with the Zamorin, was left in command of this new fortress, with a garrison of 250 men; and Manuel de Sousa had orders to secure its safety by sea, with a squadron of twenty-two vessels. The Zamorin soon repented of having allowed this fort to be built in his dominions, and used ineffectual endeavours to induce the ruler of Parappanangadi, Caramanlii (King of Beypore?) (Some records say that the ruler of Tanur was also with them ) to break with the Portuguese, even going to war against them. In 1571, the Portuguese were defeated by the Zamorin forces in the battle at Chaliyam Fort. The continuous wars lead by the Portuguese on one side and the Zamorin who had the support of the Arab merchants, and the local Nair and Mappila forces on the other side, ultimately lead to the decline of Arab monopoly of foreign trade in the coastal towns. Unmindful of Portuguese opposition, the Zamorin entered into a treaty with the Dutch East India Company on 11 November 1604. This was followed by another treaty in 1608, which confirmed the earlier treaty and the Dutch assured assistance to Zamorin in expelling the Portuguese. The rise of the Dutch monopoly caused the Portuguese dominance also to decline. The cultural renaissance followed by the unrest of the 16th century produced the poets such as Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan and Poonthanam Nambudiri, who were instrumental in the development of Malayalam literature into the current form, and Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri, who was also a member of the medieval Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.
By the middle of 17th century, the Dutch had monopoly of foreign trade in the ports of Kerala, except for small English factories at Ponnani and Kozhikode. Though the arrival of William Keeling in 1650 was a beginning for the monopoly of the British East India Company in the region, they weren't able to establish supremacy until 1792. During the 18th century, the de facto Mysore kingdom rulers Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan unified all smaller feudal states in the Northern Kerala and they were made part of the Kingdom of Mysore. For a short span of time in 1766, Manjeri was the headquarters of Sultan Hyder Ali. When the Samutiri Kovilakam at Calicut was besieged by the Mysore Sultan Haidar 'Ali (18th century AD), the Zamorin sent his family members to Thrikkavil Kovilakam at Ponnani. The Battle of Tirurangadi was a series of engagements that took place between the British army and Tipu Sultan between 7 and 12 December 1790 at Tirurangadi, during the Third Anglo-Mysore War. In 1792, Tipu Sultan was defeated by English East India Company through Third Anglo-Mysore War, and the Treaty of Seringapatam was agreed. As per this treaty, most of the Malabar Region, including the present-day Malappuram district, was integrated into the English East India Company. The Koyi Thampurans of Travancore belongs to Parappanad Royal Family. It was from this family that the consorts of the Rani's Travancore family were usually selected. The oldest teak plantation of the world at Conolly's plot is just from Nilambur town. It was named in memory of Henry Valentine Conolly, the then district collector of Malabar. The first railway line in the state started its function from Tirur to Chaliyam on 12 March 1861, with the oldest railway station at Tirur.
The district was the venue for many of the Mappila revolts (uprisings against the British East India Company in Kerala) between 1792 and 1921. It is estimated that there were about 830 riots, large and small, during this period. During 1841-1921 there were more than 86 revolts against the British officials alone. The district was included in the subdistricts of Eranad, Valluvanad, and Ponnani in South Malabar during the British rule. The Malabar Special Police was headquartered at Malappuram. MSP is also the oldest armed police battalion in the state. The British had established Haig Barracks on the top of Malappuram city, at the bank of the Kadalundi River, to station their forces.
The Malabar district political conference of Indian National Congress held at Manjeri on 28 April 1920 strengthened Indian independence movement and national movement in British Malabar. That conference declared that the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms were not able to satisfy the needs of British India. It also argued for land reform to seek solutions for the problems caused by the tenancy that existed in Malabar. However, the decision widened the drift between extremists and moderates within the Congress. The conference resulted in the dissatisfaction of landlords with the Indian National Congress. It caused the leadership of the Malabar district Congress Committee to come under the control of the extremists who stood for labourers and the middle class.
Malabar Rebellion was the last and important among the revolts. The Battle of Pookkottur adorns an important role in the rebellion.Karim KK Muhammed Abdul, Variam Kunnath Kunjahammed Haji, Kalima Books, Kozhikkode 1992 (Malayalam) During the rebellion, a Mappila gang under the leadership of Odayappurath Chekkutty from Kalpakanchery protected the Kizhake Kovilakam (a seat of the ruling family of the Zamorin of Calicut) and the Arya Vaidya Sala at Kottakkal. Vaidyaratnam P. S. Warrier, who is also the founder of renowned Arya Vaidya Sala and Kottakkal Natya Sangham at Kottakkal, provided the entire shelter and protection for the orphaned Mappila families when the British army arrested Mappila household men. After the army, police, and British authorities fled, declaration of independence took place over 200 villages in Eranad, Valluvanad, Ponnani, and Kozhikode taluks by 28 August 1921. However less than six months after the declaration of autonomy, the East India Company reclaimed the territory and annexed it to the British Raj. The Wagon tragedy (1921) is still a saddening memory of the Malabar rebellion, where 64 prisoners died on 20 November 1921.
The erstwhile Madras presidency became Madras State following the independence of India in 1947. Malappuram revenue division was one of the five revenue divisions in the erstwhile Malabar District with the jurisdiction of Eranad (Manjeri) and Valluvanad (Perinthalmanna) Taluks. The other four revenue divisions in the Malabar district were Thalassery, Kozhikode, Palakkad, and Fort Cochin. On 1 November 1956, the state of Kerala was formed on linguistic basis. The district of Malappuram was formed with four subdistricts (Eranad, Perinthalmanna, Tirur, and Ponnani), four towns, fourteen developmental blocks, and 95 Gram panchayats at the time. Later, Tirur Taluk was bifurcated to form Tirurangadi Taluk, and Eranad Taluk was trifurcated to form two more Taluks namely Nilambur and Kondotty. The University of Calicut, which is also the second-oldest existing university in Kerala, and the Calicut International Airport, which is also the second-oldest existing airport in the state, started functioning at Tenhipalam and Karipur, in the years 1968 and 1988, respectively. In the 1970s, the oil reserves in the Persian Gulf countries were opened to commercial extraction and thousands of unskilled workers migrated to the gulf. They sent money home, supporting the rural economy, and by the late 20th century, the region attained First World health standards and near-universal literacy.
Geography
Bounded by Kozhikode district to the northwest, Wayanad district to the northeast, Nilgiri hills to the east, Palakkad district to the southeast, Thrissur district to the southwest, and Arabian Sea to the west, Malappuram has a total geographical area of 3,554 km2, which ranks third in the state in terms of area. The district possesses 9.15% of the total area of the state. The district is located at 75°E - 77°E longitude and 10°N - 12°N latitude on the geographical map. Similar to other parts of Kerala, Malappuram also has a coastal area (lowland) bounded by Arabian Sea on the west, a midland at the centre, and a hilly area (highland), bounded by Western Ghats on the east. Unlike other districts of Kerala, hilly areas are widely seen in the midland area too. The 2,554 m high Mukurthi peak, which is situated in the border of Nilambur Taluk and Ooty Taluk, and is also the fifth-highest peak in South India as well as the third-highest in Kerala after Anamudi (2,696 m) and Meesapulimala (2,651 m), is the highest point of elevation in Malappuram district. It is also the highest peak in Kerala outside the Idukki district. The 2,383 high Anginda peak, which is located closer to Malappuram-Palakkad-Nilgiris district border is the second-highest peak. Vavul Mala, a 2,339 m high peak situated on the trijunction of Nilambur Taluk of Malappuram, Wayanad, and Thamarassery Taluk of Kozhikode districts, is the third-highest point of elevation in the district.
Border Taluks
Malappuram district shares its border with the following 12 Taluks of 5 districts.
Wayanad district: Vythiri Taluk.
Kozhikode district: Kozhikode and Thamarassery Taluks.
Nilgiris district: Pandalur, Gudalur, Ooty, and Kundah Taluks.
Palakkad district: Pattambi, Ottapalam, and Mannarkkad Taluks.
Thrissur district: Chavakkad and Kunnamkulam Taluks.
Topography
On the basis of topography, geology, soils, climate, and natural vegetation, the district is divided into 5 sub-micro regions:
Malappuram coast
Malappuram undulating plain
Chaliyar river basin
Nilambur forested hills
Perinthalmanna undulating uplands.
The Malappuram coast lies all along the coastal tract of Malappuram from Vallikunnu at the north to Perumpadappu at the south. It makes its boundaries with the Kozhikode coast to the north, Malappuram undulating plain to the east, the Thrissur coast to the south, and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west. The region is drained by the major rivers like Chaliyar, Kadalundi, Bharathappuzha, Tirurpuzha, etc. canals and backwaters. The region is coconut-fringed. The coastal plain slopes towards the west very gently. The major towns including Ponnani, Edappal, Tirur, Tanur, Tirurangadi, and Parappanangadi lies in this region. The maximum height of this region is located at Kalpakanchery village (104 m) in Tirur Taluk.
The Malappuram undulating plain, lying parallel to the coast, makes it boundaries with Nadapuram-Mavur undulating plains to the north, Chaliyar river basin, and Perinthalmanna undulating uplands to the east, Pattambi undulating plain to the south and Malappuram coast to the west. Nenmini hill (478 m) at Kannamangalam is the highest point and the Vazhayur in the northern part (95 m) is the lowest in the region. A few hills and slopes are seen here.
The Chaliyar River Basin makes its boundaries by Nilambur forested hills to its north and east, Perinthalmanna undulating uplands to the south, and Malappuram undulating plain to its east. It falls under the middle course of Chaliyar and has ups and downs in the form of isolated hills.
The Nilambur forested hills, also referred to as the Nilambur valley in colonial records, make its boundary with Kozhikode forested hills and Wayanad forested hills to the north, Tamil Nadu to the east, Mannarkad-Palakkad forested hills to the south, and the Chaliyar river basin to the west. It is a part of the Western Ghats. Several peaks having an elevation of more than 1000m from the sea level are seen here. The highest altitude of this region is at Mukurthi (2594 m), which lies east of the Karimpuzha Wildlife Sanctuary on the border of Kerala with Tamil Nadu. The lowest point is located at Mampad (115 m). The hilly forested area of Nilambur forms a part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
The Perinthalmanna undulating uplands make its boundary with Chaliyar river basin to the north, Mannarkad-Palakkad forested hills to the east, Palakkad Gap to the south, and Malappuram undulating plain to the west. A number of small isolated hills are seen here. Kodikuthimala is one among them. The Kadalundi River drains this region. The maximum height of the region is 610 m at Makkaraparamba.
Coastline
Malappuram ranks fifth in the length of coastline among the districts of Kerala having a coastline of 70 km (11.87% of the total coastline of the state). The coastal belt of Malappuram lies in three municipal towns, namely Tanur, Ponnani, and Parappanangadi, and eight Gram panchayats namely Vallikkunnu, Tanalur, Niramaruthur, Vettom, Mangalam, Purathur, Veliyankode, and Perumbadappu. Ponnani, Tanur, Parappanangadi, and Kootayi, all of which lie in the western part of the district, are the major fishing centres. The sea coast of the district is filled with marine wealth. Apart from being a favourite destination of the Arab traders earlier, Ponnani was also a captivating destination for many Muslim spiritual leaders, who were instrumental in the propagation of Islam here. The port city is also known as The Little Mecca of Malabar as well as The City of Gold coins. During the months of February/April, thousands of migratory birds arrive here. Located close to Ponnani is Biyyam Kayal, a placid, green-fringed waterway with a water sports facility. The Conolly Canal meets with Arabian sea at Puthuponnani. The coastal town of Tanur was the capital of the Kingdom of Vettathunad in the early medieval period, and is known for Keraladeshpuram Temple. Parappanangadi was the seat of the ruling families of Parappanad kingdom in the early medieval period.
Rivers
Major rivers flowing through the district are Chaliyar, Kadalundi River, Bharathappuzha, and Tirur River. Chaliyar has a total length of about 168 km. and a drainage area of . It passes through Nilambur, Mampad, Edavanna, Areekode, and Vazhakkad in district and then flows through Kozhikode-Malappuram district border and empties itself into the Arabian sea at Chaliyam. Several larger and smaller tributaries of Chaliyar are there in the valley of Nilambur Taluk. Karimpuzha, the largest tributary of Chaliyar, and Thuthapuzha, one of the largest tributaries of Bharathappuzha, and Olipuzha, one of the largest tributaries of the Kadalundi River, also flow through district. Kadalundi River passes through Melattur, Pandikkad, Manjeri, Malappuram, Panakkad, Parappur, Vengara, Tirurangadi, Parappanangadi, Vallikkunnu, and empties itself into Arabian sea at Kadalundi Nagaram in Vallikkunnu on the northwestern border of the district. It is formed by the confluence of the Olippuzha River and the Veliyar River. The Kadalundi River originates from the Western Ghats at the western border of the Silent Valley and flows through the district. Olippuzha and Veliyar merge together to form Kadalundi River near Melattur. Kadalundi River passes through Eranad and Valluvanad regions. It has a length of 130 km, with a catchment area of and a total runoff of 2189 million cubic feet. Bharathappuzha has a total length of 209 km. It flows as its tributary Thuthapuzha River through Thootha, Elamkulam, Pulamanthole in Malappuram-Palakkad district border, and joins the main river at Pallippuram. Then it again reaches the district from Thiruvegappura reaching at Kuttippuram after flowing through some neighbouring districts. Then it entirely flows through the district. Bharathappuzha empties itself into the Arabian Sea at Ponnani. Tirunavaya, Kuttippuram, Triprangode, Irimbiliyam, Thavanur, and Ponnani are some important towns on the bank of Bharathappuzha. Tirur River is 48 km long. It joins with Bharathappuzha at Padinjarekara near Ponnani. Besides these large rivers, the district has a small river called Purapparamba River, which is just 8 km long. It is connected to major rivers via Conolly Canal. Several larger and smaller tributaries and streams of the major rivers described above also flows through the district.
Four estuaries are there - Padinjarekara Azhimukham at Purathur where the rivers Bharathappuzha and Tirur River merge to join Arabian Sea, Puthuponnani promontary where Conolly Canal flows into the sea, Purappuzha Azhimukham at Tanur, and Kadalundi Nagaram Azhimukham at Vallikkunnu in the northwestern border of the district. The backwaters like Biyyam, Veliyankode, Manur, and Kodinhi, lie in the coastal Taluks. Ponnani Canal was constructed for the transportation of goods from Ponnani to Tirur railway station during British Raj. Here is a description about the Ponnani Canal by Basel Mission employees at Kodakkal.
Climate
The temperature of the district is almost steady throughout the year. It has a tropical climate. It gets significant rainfall in most of the months, with a short dry season. According to Köppen and Geiger, this climate is classified as Am. The average annual temperature in Malappuram is 27.3 °C. In a year, the average rainfall is . Summer usually runs from March until May; the monsoon begins in June and ends in September. Malappuram receives both southwest and northeast monsoons. Winter is from December to February.
Flora and fauna
The district contains a diverse wildlife and a number of small hills, forests, rivers, and streams flowing to the west, backwaters and paddy, areca nut, cashew nut, pepper, ginger, pulses, coconut, banana, tapioca, tea, and rubber plantations. Conolly's plot, the world's oldest teak plantation, is located at Nilambur. Nilambur is also known for Teak Museum. Bamboo trees are widely seen near to the Nilambur Teak Plantations. A bioresource natural park is associated with the Teak Museum. In the old administrative records of the Madras Presidency, it is recorded that the most remarkable plantation owned by Government in the erstwhile Madras Presidency was the Teak plantation at Nilambur planted in 1844.
Out of the 3,554 km2 area of district, (29%) constitutes forest area. It may be denser or less dense. The northeastern part of district has a vast forest area of . In this, is reserved forests and the rest is vested forests. Of these, 80% is deciduous whereas the rest is evergreen. The forest area is mainly concentrated in Nilambur subdistrict, which shares its boundary with the hilly district of Wayanad, Western Ghats, and the hilly areas (Nilgiris) of Tamil Nadu. Trees like teak, rosewood, and mahogany are seen in Nilambur forest area. Bamboo hills are widely seen in the forest. Karimpuzha wildlife sanctuary in the district is the largest wildlife sanctuary in the state. The New Amarambalam Reserved Forest, which is a part of the Karimpuzha Wildlife Sanctuary, has a variety of fauna. A variety of animals including elephants, deer, tigers, blue monkeys, bears, boars, rabbits, birds, and reptiles are found in forests. Forest products like honey, medicinal herbs, and spices are also collected from here. Nedumkayam Rainforest also exists in the Nilambur valley. Forests are protected by two divisions- Nilambur north and Nilambur south. The Kerala Forest Research Institute has a subcentre at Nilambur. Important types of fish found in the coastal and inland areas of the district include Prawn, Oil Sardine, Silver belly, Shark, Catfish, Mackerel, Skate, Chemba, Soll fish, Seer fish, and Ribbonfish.
Nilambur Teak is the first forest produce to get its own GI tag. Tirur Vettila, a type of Betel found in Tirur, has also obtained GI tag. About 50 Acre of Mangroves forest is found in Vallikkunnu, located in coastal area of the district. Mangroves are widely seen in the other coastal regions too. Kadalundi Bird Sanctuary lies in Vallikkunnu Grama Panchayat of the district. Kadalundi-Vallikkunnu community reserve is the first community reserve in Kerala. It has now been declared as an eco-tourism centre. A bird sanctuary at Padinjarekkara estuary in Purathur was proposed in 2010. Tirunavaya is known for its lotus fields.
Administration
The headquarters of the district administration is at Uphill, Malappuram. The district administration is headed by the District collector. He is assisted by five deputy collectors with responsibility for general matters, land acquisition, revenue recovery, land reforms, and elections. Additional District Magistrate in the rank of Deputy Collector (General) provides support to District Collector in all the administrative activities.
Malappuram revenue district has two divisions- Tirur and Perinthalmanna. For sake of rural administration, 94 Gram Panchayats are combined in 15 Block Panchayats, which together form the Malappuram District Panchayat. Besides this in order to perform urban administration better, 12 municipal towns are there.
For the representation of Malappuram in Kerala Legislative Assembly, there are 16 assembly constituencies in district. These are included in 3 Lok Sabha constituencies. Malappuram has the highest number of assembly constituencies in state. Of these, Eranad, Nilambur and Wandoor assembly constituencies together form a part of Wayanad (Lok Sabha constituency), whereas Tirurangadi, Tanur, Tirur, Kottakkal, Thavanur and Ponnani are included in Ponnani (Lok Sabha constituency). The remaining seven assembly constituencies together form Malappuram (Lok Sabha constituency).
The district is further divided into 138 villages which together form 7 subdistricts.
Revenue divisions
Ponnani, Tirur, and Tirurangadi subdistricts lie in the coastal region. Perinthalmanna, Eranad, and Kondotty lie in midland whereas the Nilambur subdistrict lies on the high range. The subdistricts of Ponnani, Tirur, Tirurangadi, and Kondotty are included in the Tirur revenue division whereas the remaining three combine to form the Perinthalmanna revenue division. Nilambur is the largest subdistrict in Kerala. Besides the Civil Station at Malappuram to coordinate the district-level administration, there are Mini-Civil Stations at Manjeri, Nilambur, Perinthalmanna, Tirurangadi, Tanur, Tirur, Kuttippuram, and Ponnani to coordinate the Taluk-level administrative activities. The Taluk administration is headed by a Tehsildar.
Political divisions
Local governance
The rural district is divided into 94 Gram Panchayats which are included in 15 blocks namely Areekode, Kalikavu, Kondotty, Kuttippuram, Malappuram, Mankada, Nilambur, Perinthalmanna, Perumpadappu, Ponnani, Tanur, Tirur, Tirurangadi, Vengara, and Wandoor. These blocks combine to form the Malappuram district Panchayat, which is the apex district body of rural governance. Out of 32 wards to the district Panchayat, the UDF won 27 in the 2020 elections, while LDF won the remaining 5. Malappuram District Panchayat is the largest district Panchayat as well as the largest local body in the state. The 94 Gram Panchayats are again divided into 1,778 wards. Census towns (small towns with urban features) also come under the jurisdiction of Gram Panchayats. Though the draft notifications for the formation of new Gram Panchayats namely Anamangad, Ananthavoor, Arakkuparamba, Ariyallur, Chembrassery, Elankur, Karipur, Kootayi, Kurumbalangode, Marutha, Pang, Vaniyambalam, and Velimukku were published in 2015, they are yet to be formed. With their formation, the number of Gram Panchayats in the district will become 106.
For the ease of urban administration, 12 municipalities (Statutory towns) are there in the district. These municipalities are divided into 479 wards from which a representative is elected from each for a duration of five years.
The District Planning Committee of Malappuram consists of two members from municipalities, 10 members from the District Panchayat, and one Panchayat-nominated member besides a Chairman and a Secretary. The Chairman post is reserved for a District Panchayat ex-officio and the secretary post for a District Collector ex-officio.
State legislature
16 out of the 140 members for the Kerala Legislative Assembly are elected from the district. In the 2021 elections, UDF won 12 of them, while the LDF bagged the remaining seats.
Parliament
Law and Order
The judicial headquarters of the district is at Manjeri. 24 courts function under Manjeri judicial district including Manjeri, Malappuram, Tirur, Perinthalmanna, Parappanangadi, Ponnani, and Nilambur. The headquarters of Malabar Special Police (formed in 1884), a Paramilitary unit under Kerala Police, is at Malappuram. It is also the oldest armed police battalion in the state. The Malappuram Police Unit is subdivided into 3 Sub Divisions and 34 Police Stations.
Malappuram Police District, along with Palakkad, Thrissur city, and Thrissur rural police districts, comes under the jurisdiction of Thrissur Range Police. The District Police Office, District Special Branch, District Crime Records Bureau, District 'C' Branch, Narcotic Cell, District Police Control Room, Cyber Cell, Women Cell, and Telecommunication Unit are at Malappuram. The coastal police station is at Ponnani whereas the District Armed Reserve Camp is situated at Padinhattummuri. The traffic Units of Malappuram police unit are centered at Malappuram, Manjeri, Kondotty, Perinthalmanna, and Tirur.
Economy
The Gross District Value Added (GDVA) of the district in the fiscal year 2018-19 is estimated as ₹ 698.37 billion, and the growth in GDVA, compared to that in the previous year was 11.30%. The district ranks third in GDVA among the districts of Kerala, after Ernakulam and Thiruvananthapuram, as of 2018–19. The Net District Value Added (NDVA) of the district in the year 2018-19 was ₹ 631.90 billion and the annual growth rate was 11.59%. The Per capita GDVA is calculated as ₹ 154,463 in the fiscal year. The growth rate of GDVA was 18.12% in 2017–18, 9.49% in 2016–17, 7.86% in 2015–16, 8.83% in 2014–15, 14.08% in 2013–14, and 9.70% in 2012–13. It shows a zigzag trend.
The economy of Malappuram significantly depends upon the emigrants. Malappuram has the most emigrants in the state. According to the 2016 economic review report published by the Government of Kerala, every 54 per 100 households in the district are emigrant households. Most of them work in the Middle East. They are major contributors to the district economy. The headquarters of KGB is situated at Malappuram.
Economic minerals
Laterite stone is widely seen in midland area of the district. The Angadipuram Laterite has gained recognition as a National Geo-heritage Monument. Archean Gneiss is the most seen geological formation of the district. Quartz magnetite, which is seen in Porur is one among the minerals found in the district having economical importance. Quartz gneisses are seen in the regions of Nilambur, Edavanna, and Pandikkad. Garneliforus Quartz is seen in the areas of Manjeri and Kondotty. Charnockite rocks are found in Nilambur and Edavanna. Dykes consisting of plagioclase, feldspar, and pyroxene in typical laterite texture are there at Manjeri. Deposits of good quality iron ore have reported from Eranad region. The deposits of lime shells have found from the coastal areas of Ponnani and Kadalundinagaram. The coastal sands of Ponnani and Veliyankode contain a high amount of heavy minerals, ilmenite and monazite. Kaolinite have been found from the Taluks of Ponnani and Perinthalmanna. The deposits of Ball clay have found from Thekkummuri village. Parts of Nilambur subdistrict are included in the hidden goldfields of Wayanad. The Nilambur Taluk, along with the adjoining regions of Wayanad and Attappadi Valley are known for natural Gold fields. Explorations done at the valley of the river Chaliyar in Nilambur has shown reserves of the order of 2.5 million cubic meters of placers with 0.1 gram per cubic meter of gold. Bauxite was discovered from some parts of the district like Kottakkal, Parappil, Oorakam, and Melmuri. Karuvarakundu, which means Place of the Blacksmith, derives its name from iron-ore cutting and blacksmithy.
Industries
Kodakkal Tile Factory at Tirunavaya, established in 1887, was the second tile factory in India. The first tile factory in India was at Feroke, which was then part of Eranad Taluk. According to the census conducted in 2011, there are 10,629 industrial units registered under SSI/MMSE, and 396 units among these are promoted by Scheduled castes, 83 by Scheduled tribes, and the remaining units by general category. About 1,000 people are aided annually under a self-employment program. There are KINFRA food-processing and IT industrial estates in Kakkancherry near Tenhipalam, INKEL SME Park at Malappuram for Small and Medium Industries and a rubber plant and industrial estate at Payyanad in Manjeri. INKEL Greens, spread over 168 acres at Malappuram, contains an industrial zone, 'SME Park', and an educational zone, 'Educity'.
MALCOSPIN (Malappuram Spinning Mills Limited) is one of the oldest industrial establishments in the district under the state government. Wood-related industries are common in Kottakkal, Edavanna, Vaniyambalam, Karulai, Nilambur and Mampad. Sawmills, furniture manufacturers and timber trade were the most important businesses in the district until the last decades. Tirur is a major regional trading centre for electronics, mobile phones and other gadgets. Employees' State Insurance has its branch office at Malappuram. KELTRON Electro Ceramics (KELCERA) at Kuttippuram, KELTRON tool room at Kuttippuram, Edarikode Textiles at Edarikode, KSRTC body workshop at Edappal, MALCOTEX (Malabar Co-operative Textiles Limited) at Athavanad, and KELTEX (Kerala Hi-Tech Textile Cooperative Limited) at Athavanad, are other major industrial centres under public sector. The Kerala State Detergents and Chemicals Ltd. and the Kerala State Wood Industries Ltd. have their headquarters at Kuttippuram and Nilambur respectively. Popees baby care, one of the largest baby clothes manufacturer brands in the world, is primarily based at Malappuram.
Agriculture
Coconut, palms and paddy are mainly found in the Malappuram coast. Cashew, coconut, and tapioca are seen in the undulating plain. Rubber, cashew, pepper, and coconut are the important vegetation found in the Chaliyar river basin. Nilambur valley contain the cultivation of a wide variety of species. Teak is mostly seen in the region. Perinthalmanna undulating uplands contain the cultivation of species coconut, palm trees, pepper, rubber, and cashew. This region is drained by the Kadalundi River. Besides casual crops, species like mango, jackfruit, banana, etc. are also cultivated. The general hilly nature of the district supports terrace farming. A portion of the Thrissur-Ponnani Kole Wetlands lie in Ponnani taluk of the district, which is favourable for highly productive cultivation of paddy.
According to the statistics of 2016–17, the gross cropped area was 237,860 hectares, while the net cropped area was 173,178 hectares. The cropping intensity of the district is 137 hectares. The most produced uncountable crop in 2016-17 was tapioca (185,880 Metric Tonnes), followed by banana (58,564 MT), and rubber (40,000 MT). 878 million coconuts and 19 million jackfruits were produced in 2016–17. However, the land use was maximum for the cultivation of coconut (102,836 hectares), followed by rubber (42,770 hectares), and areca nut (18,379 hectares). An agricultural research station functions at Anakkayam. The Seed Garden Complex at Munderi, is said to be one of the biggest farms in Asia. State seed farms are there at Chokkad, Thavanur, and Anakkayam. A district agricultural farm functions at Chungathara and a coconut nursery functions at Parappanangadi. The KCAET at Thavanur is the only agricultural engineering institute in the state.
Transportation
Roads
Malappuram is well connected by roads. There are four KSRTC stations in district. 2 National highways pass through district- NH 66 and NH 966. NH 66 reaches the district through Ramanattukara and connects the cities/towns including Tirurangadi, Kakkad, Kottakkal, Valanchery, Kuttippuram, and Ponnani and goes out from district through Chavakkad. Major cities/towns those are connected through NH 966 include Kondotty (Karipur Airport), Malappuram, and Perinthalmanna. The State Highways in the district are SH 23 (Shornur-Perinthalmanna), SH 28 (Malappuram-Vazhikadavu), SH 34 (Quilandy-Edavanna), SH 39 (Perumbilavu-Nilambur), SH 53 (Mundur-Perinthalmanna), Hill Highway, SH 60 (Angadipuram-Cherukara), SH 62 (Guruvayur-Ponnani), SH 65 (Parappanangadi-Areekode), SH 69 (Thrissur-Kuttipuram), SH 70 (Karuvarakundu - Melattur), SH 71 (Tirur-Manjeri), SH 72 (Malappuram - Tirurangadi), and SH 73 (Valanchery-Nilambur). The length of road maintained by Kerala PWD in district is 2,680 km. Out of this, 2,305 km constitute district roads. The remaining 375 km consists of State Highways. The Nadukani Churam Ghat Road connects Malappuram with Nilgiris.
The Nadukani-Parappanangadi Road connects the coastal area of Malappuram district with the easternmost hilly border at Nadukani Churam bordering Nilgiris district of Tamil Nadu, near Nilambur. Beginning from Parappanangadi, It passes through other major towns such as Tirurangadi, Malappuram, Manjeri, and Nilambur, before reaching the Nadukani Ghat Road.
The first modern kind of road in the district was laid in eighteenth century by Tipu Sultan. The road from Tirur to Chaliyam via Tanur, Parappanangadi, and Vallikkunnu was projected by him. Tipu had also projected the roads from Malappuram to Thamarassery, from Malappuram to Western Ghats, from Feroke to Kottakkal via Tirurangadi, and from Kottakkal to Angadipuram.
Railways
Total length of railway line that passes through the district is 142 km. The railway in the district comes under the Palakkad Railway Division, which is one of the six divisions under the Southern Railway. The history of railways in Kerala traces back to the district. The oldest railway station in the state is at Tirur. The stations at Tanur, Parappanangadi, and Vallikkunnu also form parts of the oldest railway line in the state laid from Tirur to Chaliyam. The line was inaugurated on 12 March 1861. In the same year, it was extended from Tirur to Kuttippuram via Tirunavaya. Later, it was further extended from Kuttippuram to Pattambi in 1862, and was again extended from Pattambi to Podanur in the same year. The current Chennai-Mangalore railway line was later formed as an extension of the Beypore - Podanur line thus constructed.
The Nilambur–Shoranur line is among the shortest as well as picturesque broad gauge railway lines in India. It was laid by the British in colonial era for the transportation of Nilambur Teak logs into United Kingdom through Kozhikode. The Nilambur–Nanjangud line is a proposed railway line, which connects Nilambur with the districts of Wayanad, Nilgiris, and Mysore. Guruvayur-Tirunavaya Railway line is another proposed project. The Ministry of Railways has included the railway line connecting Kozhikode-Malappuram-Angadipuram in its Vision 2020 as a socially desirable railway line. Multiple surveys have been done on the line already. Indian Railway computerized reservation counter is available at Friends Janasevana Kendram, Down Hill. Reservation for any train can be done from here. Malappuram city is served by the railway stations at Angadipuram ( away), Tirur, and Parappanangadi (both 26 km, 40-minute drive away).
Airport
Malappuram is served by Calicut International Airport located at Karipur, about 25 kilometre away from Malappuram City. The airport started operation in April 1988. It has two terminals, one for domestic flights and another for international flights. The airport serves as an operating base for Air India Express and operates Hajj Pilgrimage services to Medina and Jeddah from Kerala. Domestic flight services are available to major cities including Bangalore, Chennai, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Goa, Kochi, Thiruvananthapuram, Mangalore and Coimbatore while International flight services connects Malappuram with Dubai, Jeddah, Riyadh, Sharjah, Abu Dhabi, Al Ain, Bahrain, Dammam, Doha, Muscat, Salalah and Kuwait. There are direct buses to the airport for transportation. Other than buses, Taxis, Auto Rickshaws available for transportation.
According to the statistics provided by the Airports Authority of India in 2019–20, it is the 17th busiest airport in the country and the third-busiest in the state.
Demography
Population
According to the 2018 Statistics Report, the district had a population of 4,494,998, which is roughly equal to the population of Mauritania or the US state of Kentucky. 12.98% of the total population of Kerala resides in Malappuram. It is the most populous district in Kerala and also the 50th most populous of India's 640 districts, with a population density of . Its population-growth rate from 2001 to 2011 was 13.39 per cent. According to the 2011 Census of India, Malappuram has a sex ratio of 1098 women to 1000 men, and its literacy rate is 93.57 per cent, which is almost equal to the average literacy rate of the state (93.91%). Out of the total Malappuram population for 2011 census, 44.18 percent lives in the urban regions of district. In 2011, children under 0-6 formed 13.96 percent of the total population, compared to the 15.21 percent in 2001. Child Sex Ratio as per census 2011 was 965 compared to 960 of census 2001. According to the census 2011, only 0.02% of the total population of the district is houseless.
Ponnani municipality is most densely populated local body in the district having 3,646 residents per square kilometre, which is followed by the municipalities of Tanur (3,568/sq.km) and Tirur (3,387/sq.km), as of census conducted in the year 2011. The least densely populated local bodies are located in the eastern hilly region. Chaliyar has the least with only 167 residents per square kilometre, which is followed by the Gram panchayats of Karulai (177/sq.km) and Chungathara (280/sq.km). Among the Taluks, Tirurangadi is most densely populated while Nilambur has the least density of population. The Malappuram metropolitan area has a population of 1.7 million. According to a report published by The Economist in January 2020, Malappuram is the fastest growing metropolitan area in the world.
Urban structure
The Malappuram Urban Agglomeration (UA) is the 4th most populous UA in the state. Malappuram is placed 25th in the list of most populous urban agglomerations in India. The total urban population of the entire district is 44.18% of district's population. The metropolitan area of Malappuram includes Abdu Rahiman Nagar, Alamkode, Ariyallur, Chelembra, Cheriyamundam, Cherukavu, Edappal, Irimbiliyam, Kalady, Kannamangalam, Kodur, Kondotty, Koottilangadi, Kottakkal, Kuttippuram, Manjeri, Maranchery, Moonniyur, Naduvattom, Nannambra, Neduva, Oorakam, Othukkungal, Pallikkal Bazar, Parappur, Perumanna, Peruvallur, Ponnani, Ponmundam, Tanalur, Tenhipalam, Thalakkad, Thennala, Tirunavaya, Tirur, Tirurangadi, Triprangode, Valanchery, Vazhayur, and Vengara.
Healthcare
Modern medicine, Ayurveda, and Homeopathy are available in the district. A general hospital, 3 district hospitals, and 6 Taluk hospitals are functioning under the Government of Kerala for Allopathy. The Government Medical College, Manjeri, established in 2013, is the apex medical college in the district. A network of local health centers function under the public sector. It includes 66 Primary Health Centres, 20 All-time functioning primary health centers, 20 Community health centers, and 2 TBC's. 5 Major public health centers, 77 mini public health centers, and 565 sub-centers are there. 3 Leprosy control units, 2 Filaria control units, etc. also function under the public sector. The total bed strength of government hospitals is 1500. Many private hospitals with super-specialty units are also there in the district under Allopathy.
The Govt Ayurveda Research Institute for Mental Disease at Pottippara near Kottakkal is the only government Ayurvedic mental hospital in Kerala. It is also the first of its type under the public sector in the country. Kottakkal is also home to the Arya Vaidya Sala, the renowned Ayurvedic health center. Under the government sector, a district Ayurvedic hospital functions at Edarikode. Government Ayurvedic hospitals also function in Manjeri, Velimukku, Perinthalmanna, Malappuram, Vengara, Kalpakanchery, Thiruvali, and Chelembra. Homeopathic hospitals under public sector function at Malappuram, Manjeri, Wandoor, and Kuttippuram.[ Many hospitals function under the private sector.
As of 2003, Malappuram has the least suicide rate among the districts of Kerala (13.3), which is much lesser than the state average (32.8).
Education
The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts, including series expansion for trigonometric functions. The Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics was based at Vettathunadu (Tirur region).
The district has the most schools in Kerala as per the school statistics of 2019–20. There are 898 Lower primary schools, 363 Upper primary schools, 355 High schools, 248 Higher secondary schools, and 27 Vocational Higher secondary schools in the district. Hence there are 1620 schools in the district. Besides these, there are 120 CBSE schools and 3 ICSE schools.
554 government schools, 810 Aided schools, and 1 unaided school, recognised by the Government of Kerala have been digitalised. In the academic year 2019–20, the total number of students studying in the schools recognised by Government of Kerala is 739,966 - 407,690 in the aided schools, 245,445 in the government schools, and 86,831 in the recognised unaided schools.
The district plays a significant role in the higher education sector of the state. It is home to two of the main universities in the state- the University of Calicut centered at Tenhipalam which was established in 1968 as the second university in Kerala, and the Thunchath Ezhuthachan Malayalam University centered at Tirur which was established in the year 2012. AMU Malappuram Campus, one of the three off-campus centres of Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) is situated in Cherukara, which was established by the AMU in 2010. An off-campus of the English and Foreign Languages University functions at Panakkad. The district is also home to a subcentre of Kerala Agricultural University at Thavanur, and a subcentre of Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit at Tirunavaya. The headquarters of Darul Huda Islamic University is at Chemmad, Tirurangadi. INKEL Greens at Malappuram provides an educational zone with the industrial zone. Eranad Knowledge City at Manjeri is a first of its kind project in the state.
Religions
The areas that come under the Malappuram district have been multi-ethnic and multi-religious since the early medieval period.
The centuries of trade across the Arabian Sea has given Malappuram a cosmopolitan population. Religions practised in district include Islam, Hinduism, Christianity, and other minor religions. Malappuram is one of the two districts with a Muslim majority in South India, the other being Lakshadweep district. Most of Christians in the district are descendants of Saint Thomas Christians who migrated from Northern Travancore to Malabar in the 20th century (Malabar Migration).
Languages
The principal language used in the district is Malayalam. Arabi Malayalam script, also known as Ponnani Script, was used widely in the district in the past centuries. Minority Dravidian languages are Allar (around 350 speakers) and Aranadan, (around 200 speakers). Tamil is spoken by a small fraction of the people. According to the census 2011, the percents of the mother tongue of the total population is as follows:
Malayalam - 99.46%
Tamil - 0.26%
Hindi - 0.07%
Bangla - 0.06%
Other languages - 0.15%
Culture
The currently adopted Malayalam alphabet was first accepted by Thunchath Ezhuthachan, who was born at Tirur and is known as the father of the modern Malayalam language. Tirur is the headquarters of the Malayalam Research Centre. Moyinkutty Vaidyar, the most renowned Mappila paattu poet was born at Kondotty. He is considered as one of the Mahakavis (a title for 'great poet') of Mappila songs.
Besides Thunchath Ezhuthachan and Moyinkutty Vaidyar, the renowned writers of Malayalam including Achyutha Pisharadi, Alamkode Leelakrishnan, Edasseri Govindan Nair, K. P. Ramanunni, Kuttikrishna Marar, Kuttippuram Kesavan Nair, Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri, N. Damodaran, Nandanar, Poonthanam Nambudiri, Pulikkottil Hyder, Uroob, V. C. Balakrishna Panicker, Vallathol Gopala Menon, and Vallathol Narayana Menon were natives of the district. M. Govindan, M. T. Vasudevan Nair, and Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri were the writers hailed from Ponnani Kalari based at Ponnani. Nalapat Narayana Menon, Balamani Amma, V. T. Bhattathiripad, and Kamala Surayya, also hail from the erstwhile Ponnani taluk.
Malappuram was also the main centre of Mappila Paattu literature in the state. Besides Moyinkutty Vaidyar and Pulikkottil Hyder, several Mappila Paattu poets including Kulangara Veettil Moidu Musliyar (popularly known as Chakkeeri Shujayi), Chakkeeri Moideenkutty, Manakkarakath Kunhikoya, Nallalam Beeran, K. K. Muhammad Abdul Kareem, Balakrishnan Vallikunnu, Punnayurkulam Bapu, Veliyankode Umar Qasi, etc., chose Malappuram as their working platform.
The district has also given its own deposits to Kathakali, the classical art form of Kerala, and Ayurveda. Kottakkal Chandrasekharan, Kottakkal Sivaraman, and Kottakkal Madhu are famous Kathakali artists hailed from Kottakkal Natya Sangam established by Vaidyaratnam P. S. Warrier in Kottakkal. The Veṭṭathunāṭu rulers, who had the control over parts of present-day Tirurangadi, Tirur, and Ponnani Taluks, were noted patrons of arts and learning. A Veṭṭathunāṭu Raja (r. 1630–1640) is said to have introduced innovations in the art form Kathakali, which has come to be known as the "Veṭṭathu Tradition". Thunchath Ezhuthachchan and Vallathol Narayana Menon hail from Vettathunad. Vallathol Narayana Menon is also considered as the resurrector of Kathakali in the modern period through the establishment of Kerala Kalamandalam at Cheruthuruthi. Vazhenkada Kunchu Nair, a major Kathakali trainer, and Sankaran Embranthiri and Tirur Nambissan, who were among the most popular Kathakali singers, were also from Malappuram. Kalamandalam Kalyanikutty Amma, who played a major role in resurrecting Mohiniyattam in the modern Kerala, hails from Tirunavaya in the district. Mrinalini Sarabhai, an Indian classical dancer, hailed from erstwhile Ponnani taluk. Arya Vaidya Sala at Kottakkal is one of the largest Ayurvedic medicinal networks in the world. Zainuddin Makhdoom II, the first known Keralite historian, also hails from the district.
Kerala Varma Valiya Koyi Thampuran (Kerala Kalidasan), Raja Raja Varma (Kerala Panini) and Raja Ravi Varma (Famous Painter) are from different branches of Parappanad Royal Family, who later migrated from Parappanangadi to Harippad, Changanassery, Mavelikkara and Kilimanoor. According to some scholars, the ancestors of Velu Thampi Dalawa also belong to Vallikkunnu near Parappanangadi. The Chief Editor of the daily "The Hindu" (1898 to 1905) and Founder Chief Editor of "The Indian Patriot" Divan Bahadur C. Karunakara Menon (1863–1922) was also from Parappanangadi. O. Chandu Menon wrote his novels Indulekha and Saradha while he was the judge at Parappanangadi Munciff Court. Indulekha is also the first Major Novel written in Malayalam language. K. Madhavan Nair, the founder of Mathrubhumi Daily, comes from Malappuram. Ponnani region was the working platform of K. Kelappan, popularly known as Kerala Gandhi, A. V. Kuttimalu Amma, and Mohammed Abdur Rahiman, and several other freedom fighters. Other independence activists from Ponnani taluk included Lakshmi Sehgal, V. T. Bhattathiripad, and Ammu Swaminathan. The ashes of Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Lal Bahadur Shastri, were deposited in Kerala at Tirunavaya, on the bank of the river Bharathappuzha. K. Madhavanar, who was the translator of Mahatma Gandhi's autobiography into Malayalam, was also a native of Malappuram.
Ponnani's trade relations with foreign countries since ancient times paved the way for a cultural exchange. Persian-Arab art forms and North Indian culture came to Ponnani that way. There were resonances in the language as well. This is how the hybrid language Arabi-Malayalam came to be. Many poems have been written in this hybrid language. Qawwali and Ghazals from Hindustani, who came here as part of their cultural exchange, still thrive in Ponnani. EK Aboobacker, Main and Khalil Bhai (Khalil Rahman) are some of the famous Qawwali singers of Ponnani.
The headquarters of the Azhvanchery Thamprakkal, who were considered as the supreme religious head of Kerala Nambudiri Brahmins, was at Athavanad. The original headquarters of the Palakkad Rajas were also at Athavanad. Several aristocratic Nambudiri Manas are present in the Taluks of Tirur, Perinthalmanna, and Ponnani. Tirunavaya, the seat of the medieval Mamankam festival, is also present in the district. Perumpadappu, the ancestral headquarters of the Kingdom of Cochin, and Nediyiruppu, the ancestral headquarters of the Zamorin of Calicut, are also present in the district. The Kunhali Marakkars had close relationship with the port towns of Ponnani, Tanur, and Parappanangadi. Some of the kings of Kingdom of Cochin in 16th century CE, when Cochin became a major power on the Malabar Coast, were usually borrowed from the royal family of Kingdom of Tanur. Many of the consorts of the queens of Travancore were usually selected from the Parappanad Royal family. E. M. S. Namboodiripad, the first Chief Minister of Kerala, hails from Perinthalmanna in the district. Angadipuram and Mankada, the seats of the ruling families of the medieval Kingdom of Valluvanad, lie adjacent to Perinthalmanna.
During the medieval period, the district was a centre of Vedic as well as Islamic studies. It is believed that Malik Dinar had visited the port town of Ponnani. The Valiya Juma Masjid at Ponnani was one of the largest Islamic studies centre in Asia during the medieval period. Parameshvara, Nilakantha Somayaji, Jyeṣṭhadeva, Achyutha Pisharadi, and Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri, who were the main members of the Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics hailed from Tirur region. The Arabi Malayalam script, otherwise known as the Ponnani script, took its birth during the late 16th century and early 17th century. The script was widely used in the district during the last centuries.
Playwrights and actors from the district include K. T. Muhammed, Nilambur Balan, Nilambur Ayisha, Adil Ibrahim, Aneesh G. Menon, Aparna Nair, Baby Anikha, Dhanish Karthik, Hemanth Menon, Rashin Rahman, Ravi Vallathol, Sangita Madhavan Nair, Shwetha Menon, Sooraj Thelakkad, etc. Sukumaran, who is also the father of two notable actors as well as playback singers of Malayalam film industry namely Prithviraj Sukumaran and Indrajith Sukumaran, also was a native of the district. Playback singers including Krishnachandran, Parvathy Jayadevan, Shahabaz Aman, Sithara Krishnakumar, Sudeep Palanad, and Unni Menon also hail from the district. The district has also produced some notable film producers, lyricists, cinematographers, and directors including Aryadan Shoukath, Deepu Pradeep, Hari Nair, Iqbal Kuttippuram, Mankada Ravi Varma, Muhammad Musthafa, Muhsin Parari, Rajeev Nair, Salam Bappu, Shanavas K Bavakutty, Shanavas Naranippuzha, T. A. Razzaq, T. A. Shahid, Vinay Govind, and Zakariya Mohammed. Most notable painters from district include Artist Namboothiri, K. C. S. Paniker, and T. K. Padmini. Another painter Akkitham Narayanan was from Kumaranellur. M. G. S. Narayanan, one among the most notable historians of Kerala, also hail from here. Social reformers from the district include Veliyankode Umar Khasi (1757-1852), Chalilakath Kunahmed Haji, E. Moidu Moulavi, and Sayyid Sanaullah Makti Tangal (1847 - 1912).
Cuisine
The centuries of maritime trade has given the Malappuram a cosmopolitan cuisine. The cuisine is a blend of traditional Kerala, Persian, Yemenese and Arab food culture. One of the main elements of this cuisine is Pathiri, a pancake made of rice flour. Variants of Pathiri include Neypathiri (made with ghee), Poricha Pathiri (fried rather than baked), Meen Pathiri (stuffed with fish), and Irachi Pathiri (stuffed with beef). Spices like Black pepper, Cardamom, and Clove are widely used in the cuisine of Malappuram. The main item used in the festivals is the Malabar style of Biryani. Sadhya is also seen in marriage and festival occasions. Ponnani region of the district has a wide variety of indigenous dishes. Snacks such as Arikadukka, Chattipathiri, Muttamala, Pazham Nirachathu, and Unnakkaya have their own style in Ponnani. Besides these, other common food items of Kerala are also seen in the cuisine of Malappuram. The Malabar version of Biryani, popularly known as Kuzhi Mandi in Malayalam is another popular item, which has an influence from Yemen.
Media Malayala Manorama, Mathrubhumi, Madhyamam, Chandrika, Deshabhimani, Suprabhaatham, and Siraj dailies have their printing centres in and around the Malappuram city. The Hindu has an edition and printing press at Malappuram. A few periodicals-monthlies, fortnightlies and weeklies-mostly devoted to religion and culture are also published. Almost all Malayalam channels and newspapers have their bureau at Up Hill. There are so many local cable visions and their regional media. Malappuram Press Club is also situated at Uphill adjacent to Municipal Town Hall. Doordarshan has two major relay stations in the district at Malappuram and Manjeri. The government of India's Prasar Bharati National Public Service Broadcaster has an FM station in the district (AIR Manjeri FM), broadcasting on 102.7 Mhtz. Even without any private FM stations, Malappuram, Ponnani, and Tirur find their own places in the ten towns with the highest radio listenership in India.
Sports
Malappuram is often known as The Mecca of Kerala Football. Malappuram District Sports Complex & Football Academy is situated at Payyanad in Manjeri. MDSC Stadium was selected as one of two stadiums, along with the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, to host the group stages of the 2013–14 Indian Federation Cup. The stadium hosted groups B and D. Kottappadi Football Stadium is a historic football stadium. Other major stadiums include the Rajiv Gandhi Municipal Stadium at Tirur, and the Perinthalmanna Cricket Stadium at Perinthalmanna. A synthetic track is there along with the Tirur Municipal Stadium. Malabar Premier League was initiated in 2015 to strengthen football in the district. The Calicut University Synthetic Track at Tenhipalam is the apex synthetic track in the district. It is associated with the C. H. Muhammad Koya Stadium at Tenhipalam. Other major stadiums of district include those at Areekode, Kottakkal, and Ponnani. A football hub to internationalise the eight major football stadiums of district is proposed. The construction works of two new stadium complexes are being processed in Tanur and Nilambur.
Places of Interest
Adyanpara Falls- a waterfall at Kurumbalangode.
Anginda peak - A 2,383 m high peak near Karuvarakundu.
Arimbra Hills, also known as 'Mini-Ooty'. At a height of 1050 feet above the sea level.
Arya Vaidya Sala - known for its heritage and expertise in the Indian traditional medicine system of Ayurveda.
Ayyapanov Waterfalls - A waterfall at Puthanathani, Athavanad.
Bharathappuzha - The second-longest river in Kerala. Also known in the names River Ponnani, Nila and Perar.
Biyyam Kayal- A backwater lake at Ponnani
Chaliyar - The fourth-longest river in Kerala. Conolly's plot, the world's oldest Teak plantation is located on the valley adjacent to Chaliyar.
Chamravattom Regulator-cum-Bridge - The largest regulator-cum bridge of Kerala connecting Tirur Taluk with Ponnani port.
Chekkunnu Mala - A misty green hill near to Chaliyar at Edavanna.
Cherumb eco-tourist village - An eco-village at Karuvarakundu
Kadalundi Bird Sanctuary - a dwelling of more than a hundred species of native birds and over 60 species of migratory birds
Kadalundi-Vallikkunnu community reserve - The first community reserve in Kerala and an eco-tourism spot.
Kakkadampoyil - A hilly village on the bank of Cherupuzha.
Keralamkundu waterfalls - Located 1500 ft above the sea level in Karuvarakundu.
Kodikuthimala - At Amminikadan hills, Perinthalmanna. Also known as Mini-Ooty.
Kollam Kolli Waterfalls - A waterfall near Areekode.
Kottakkunnu - At the middle of Malappuram city. Also known as The Marine Drive of Malappuram. An old fort, a water-park, and ancient murals are seen here.
Kuttippuram bridge - One of the largest as well as oldest bridges built over the river Bharathappuzha, and plays a major role in connecting the Malabar region with the erstwhile Travancore-Cochin via road.
Mukurthi - The fifth-highest peak in South India (2,554 m away from sea level).
Nadukani Churam - A Ghat Road at the northeastern end of Nilambur Taluk, which connects Malappuram district with the hilly district of Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu.
Nedumkayam Rainforest - A part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Known for its greenery.
New Amarambalam Reserved Forest - A wildlife sanctuary near to Nilambur.
Nilambur Kovilakam - The headquarter of the Nilambur royal family.
Nilambur-Shoranur line - one of the shortest broad-gauge railway lines in India with greenery.
Noor Lake - A lake at Tirur.
Oorakam Hill - A mount near Malappuram.
Poorappuzha River - A scenic coastal tributary of Kadalundi River in Vallikkunnu-Parappanangadi-Tanur area.
Padinjarekara Azhimukham beach - Two rivers (The Tirur River and the Bharathappuzha) joins with the Arabian sea at here. A beach, an estuary, and a centre of migratory birds at Purathur, opposite to the port of Ponnani.
Paloor Kotta Falls - A waterfall adjacent to the Paloor fort built by Tipu Sultan near Perinthalmanna.
Parappanangadi beach - A beach in the coastal town of Parappanangadi.
Paravanna beach - A scenic beach at Vettom.
Ponnani beach - A beach in Ponnani.
Poonathanam Illam - The birthplace of 16th century Malayalam poet Poonthanam Nambudiri near Perinthalmanna.
Poorappuzha Azhimukham - An estuary at Tanur.
Silent Valley National Park - Located near Karuvarakundu.
Tanur beach - A beach at Tanur.
Teak Museum - The world's first teak plantation in Nilambur.
Thunchan Parambu - It is the birthplace of Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, who is known as the father of modern Malayalam language.
Tirur River - A coconut-fringed green river flowing through Tirur Taluk. Mangrove plantations and Kadavus are seen on its bank.
Unity hill viewpoint - A viewpoint at Manjeri.
Unniyal beach - A beach at Niramarutur.
Vakkad beach - Between Tirur and Ponnani.
Vallikunnu beach - A coconut-fringed beach in the northwestern coast of district.
Vavul Mala - A 2,339 m elevated mountain range near Chungathara.
Notable people
Demand of bifurcation
For a few years, the demand to create a new coastal district called Tirur district, centered at Tirur is being strengthened. They argue that it is imperative from the development perspective to split the district, with double the population and size of the Alappuzha district, into two. No other district in Kerala has seven subdistricts, 94 Village Panchayats, and 12 municipalities together. As for its extent, if one travels from Perumbadappu which borders Thrissur district to Vazhikkadavu bordering Tamil Nadu, normally it takes more than three hours to cover that distance of 115 km. They also point out that the problems in the health and educational sectors that require solutions are not trivial. The issue was raised again by the IUML MLA K. N. A. Khader in 2019. The demand is to bifurcate the existing Malappuram district into two districts by carving out a new one called Tirur district from it. Kerala Congress (M) campaigns for a new district centred at Edappal. Some people including Veteran Congress leader Aryadan Muhammad, and IUML district secretary U. A. Latheef oppose the bifurcation of Malappuram.
However, the demand was rejected by the two successive governments who ruled Kerala in 2013 and in 2019. But the studies regarding the bifurcation of the district are still in the consideration of the Government of Kerala.
See also
Malappuram metropolitan area
Malappuram
Administration of Malappuram
Education in Malappuram
History of Malappuram
List of people from Malappuram
Transportation in Malappuram
References
Further reading
Manorama Yearbook 1995 (Malayalam Edition) .
Manorama Yearbook 2003'' (English Edition) .
External links
Districts of Kerala
1969 establishments in Kerala | [
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223473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Son%20of%20perdition | Son of perdition | The son of perdition (Greek: ὁ υἱός τῆς ἀπωλείας, ho huios tēs apōleias) is a phrase associated with a demoniacal title that appears in the New Testament in the Gospel of Saint John and in the Second Epistle to the Thessalonians .
New Testament
The two occurrences of the Greek phrase have traditionally been translated consistently in English Bibles from the Wycliffe Bible, following the Latin Vulgate which has "filius perditionis" (son of perdition) in both instances. However this is not the case in all languages; for example the Luther Bible renders the use in John as "das verlorene Kind" (the lost child), but the use in 2 Thessalonians as "das Kind des Verderbens" (the child of corruption).
John 17:12
In Jesus, in reference to Judas Iscariot, says that of all his disciples, none has been lost except the "son of perdition".
The New International Version translates the phrase as "the one doomed to destruction." D. A. Carson suggests that this verse refers both to Judas' character and to his destiny.
Various Old Testament origins have been suggested for "that the scripture might be fulfilled." These traditionally include Psalm 41:9 "Yea, mine own familiar friend, in whom I trusted, which did eat of my bread, hath lifted up his heel against me." Also Psalm 109:8 "Let his days be few; and let another take his office." which is interpreted by Peter in Acts 1:16-20 as having been prophetic of Judas.
2 Thessalonians 2:3
In 2 Thessalonians , Paul referred to "the son of perdition".
He appears to equate this image with the Man of Sin.
Some scholars and theologians down through history, including Hippolytus, Luther, Wesley, Manton, Schaff, et al, say that first "Son of Perdition" reference is to Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the man who attacked the Second Temple in Jerusalem and defiled it by sacrificing a pig on the altar, erecting a statue of Zeus as himself in the temple, raiding the Temple treasury and minting coins saying "Theos Epiphanes" (God manifest), etc. Even those theologians who advocate an interpretation of Daniel that includes the Roman Empire in their analysis recognize Antiochus as a prototype.
Revelation
Some theologians and scholars also consider "the beast that goes into perdition" mentioned in Revelation and to be references to the son of perdition."
Derivation
Similar uses of "son" occur in Hebrew, such as "sons of corruption" (Isaiah 1:4 בָּנִים מַשְׁחִיתִים banim mashchitim), however the exact Hebrew or Greek term "son of perdition" does not occur in Jewish writings prior to the New Testament.
According to some modern biblical criticism New Testament writers derived the "son of perdition" (and "man of sin") concepts from Daniel and 1 Maccabees 2:48 "And they did not surrender the horn to the sinner." et al. John related the "Son of Perdition" concepts by language, referring to "the star that fell from heaven" Revelation by two names, one Greek, and the other Hebrew. (Revelation ) The Greek name is "Apollyon" (Greek: Aπολλυων), from the Greek root word "apollumi" (Greek:απολλυμι). It refers to utter loss, eternal destruction, and disassociation." [Strong's 622] The Hebrew name is "Abaddon" (Greek: Aβαδδων), from the Aramaic root word "'abad", which means the same thing as the Greek root word. Strong's 07 Daniel says that the eventual destiny of the "great beast" is to be slain, and his body "destroyed" ('abad), and given to the eternal flames (generally accepted by religious scholars to be a reference to hell).
Matthew Henry wrote:
See also
Son of perdition (Mormonism)
References
Christian terminology
Judas Iscariot
New Testament words and phrases | [
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223482 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bart%20the%20General | Bart the General | "Bart the General" is the fifth episode of the first season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on Fox in the United States on February 4, 1990. In the episode, Bart Simpson enlists Grampa's help to battle local bully Nelson Muntz. Bart unites the neighborhood children against Nelson and defeats him. The episode was directed by David Silverman and was the first to be written by John Swartzwelder.
Plot
Bart gets into a fight with Nelson Muntz, the school bully, after Nelson's friends stomp on a box of cupcakes that Lisa baked for Miss Hoover's birthday party. Nelson beats up Bart after school and warns him to expect the same pummeling the next day. Marge encourages Bart to reason with Nelson, but Homer urges him to bend the rules and fight dirty. Bart follows Homer's advice and gets beaten up again. He turns to the toughest member of the Simpson family, Grampa, who introduces him to Herman, the crazed one-armed proprietor of an army surplus store called Herman's Military Antiques. After Herman teaches him military tactics, Bart declares war on Nelson and his gang of bullies.
Bart enlists Nelson's other victims — nearly all of his friends and classmates — and trains them for combat. Herman commands from Bart's tree house as Bart leads his forces into battle. After they ambush Nelson and his minions, they commence saturation bombing with water balloons. Nelson's thugs surrender and Nelson is taken prisoner. He threatens to beat up Bart as soon as he is untied. Herman drafts an armistice which states that Nelson will retain his honorary position and name but not hold any actual power. After Bart and Nelson sign the treaty, Marge serves cupcakes and peace prevails.
Production
This episode was running too long to use the normal opening sequence and therefore did not feature a chalkboard gag or a couch gag. Instead, it just cut to an image of the Simpson house. David Silverman was the director and was somewhat stressed, because he was doing storyboards for this episode while also directing "Bart the Genius". Originally, he had planned to use the song "War" by Edwin Starr in the episode. The plans were dropped when they decided the song did not really fit the story. John Swartzwelder wrote the episode, being his first work on the show. The episode had problems with the censors, who did not want the characters to say "family jewels" on prime time television. The producers ignored the notes and "family jewels" remained in the episode. This act of attempted censorship was reflected in the part where Grampa Simpson writes a letter complaining of how sexualized television has become and gives a list of words he never wants to hear on television again, one of which is the phrase "family jewels".
Two new characters were introduced in this episode. The first, Nelson Muntz, remains a frequently used recurring character. Voice actress Dana Hill was originally assigned to play Nelson and was present at the table read, but not at the recording session (for unknown reasons). Nancy Cartwright was then assigned the role. The second character, Herman, has been used far less. The design of Herman, with the exception of his missing arm, was inspired by writer John Swartzwelder. His voice, as performed by Harry Shearer, was partly inspired by George H. W. Bush. The original idea for Herman was for him to have a differing story for the loss of his arm with every appearance.
Cultural references
The episode featured several references to war films. Several lines of dialogue, Bart slapping one of his soldiers for "being a disgrace", and the music was lifted directly from the film Patton from 1970 composed by Jerry Goldsmith. Fox owned the rights to this film, so it was no problem to use the soundtrack. The marching sequence and the silhouettes of the children climbing the jungle gym against the setting sun are a nod to Stanley Kubrick's 1987 film Full Metal Jacket. The Longest Day from 1962 is also referenced. The episode parodies the famous sailor kissing a girl in Times Square photograph taken on V-J Day, where a random boy in a sailor suit kisses Lisa, before she slaps him in the face. Bart concludes the episode by saying the only "good wars" are the American Revolution, World War II, and the Star Wars trilogy.
Reception
In its original American broadcast, "Bart the General" finished 31st place in the weekly ratings for the week of January 29 – February 4, 1990 with a Nielsen rating of 14.3. It was the highest-rated show on Fox that week.
Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics. The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, said: "Some good lines and setpieces aside - we love Bart's fantasy of death at Nelson's hands - this episode nevertheless feels a bit unsure of itself, particularly towards the end." In a DVD review of the first season David B. Grelck rated the episode a3 (of 5) and called it "another episode that helped to propel Bart's popularity into the stratosphere..."
Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review that the episode "remains a primitive example of The Simpsons, but it's a reasonably amusing and entertaining experience", adding that the episode "lacks the subtlety and cleverness found on later episodes, but it was onto something". Matt Groening notes on the commentary track that he finds it strange how controversial this episode seemed at the time of its release. Today, they would go a lot further and to him this episode now seems harmless. The episode's reference to Full Metal Jacket was named the eleventh greatest film reference in the history of the show by Nathan Ditum of Total Film.
Use in scientific research
"Bart the General" and Seinfeld's "The Tape" were used in a Dartmouth College experiment to study brain activity in relation to humorous moments in television shows. The results were published in a 2004 issue of the academic journal Neurolmage. The researchers noted, "During moments of humor detection, significant [brain] activation was noted in the left posterior middle temporal gyrus... and left inferior frontal gyrus."
Home release
The episode was released first on home video in the United Kingdom, as part of a VHS release titled The Simpsons Collection; the episode was paired with season one episode "There's No Disgrace Like Home". It was released in the US on the VHS release The Best of The Simpsons, Vol. 2 (1997), paired with "Moaning Lisa". It was later re-released in the US in a collector's edition boxed set of the first three volumes of The Best of The Simpsons collections. It was re-released in the UK as part of VHS boxed set of the complete first season, released in November 1999. The episode's debut on the DVD format was as a part of The Simpsons season one DVD set, which was released on September 25, 2001. Groening, Brooks, and Silverman participated in the DVD's audio commentary. A digital edition of the series' first season was published December 20, 2010 in the United States containing the episode, through Amazon Video and iTunes.
References
External links
The Simpsons (season 1) episodes
1990 American television episodes
Television episodes about revenge
Television episodes about bullying
Television shows written by John Swartzwelder
Television episodes about wars | [
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223485 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camrose%2C%20Alberta | Camrose, Alberta | Camrose ( ) is a city in central Alberta, Canada that is surrounded by Camrose County. Located along Highway 13 it had its beginnings as a railroad hub.
History
The area around Camrose was first settled by Europeans around 1900. At that time the nearby settlement of Wetaskiwin was a major centre for pioneers; typically, it was the last stopping-off point before they set out in search of nearby land. The site that was to be Camrose was about a day's journey from Wetaskiwin along the railroad, which made it a popular place on the route of pioneers. Soon businessmen and other settlers arrived to stay. The settlers came primarily from Scandinavian countries, such as Norway and Sweden, and many settlers also came from the United States. At that time the settlement was known as the hamlet of Stoney Creek. In 1904, Stoney Creek began receiving mail service, its first businesses began to open, and its first Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) officer (Constable "Blue" Smith) arrived.
On May 4, 1905, the community was incorporated as the Village of Camrose. There is no factual evidence about the reason for the choice of the name Camrose, but it is generally thought that it was named after the Village of Camrose in Pembrokeshire, South Wales. On December 11, 1906, Camrose was incorporated as a town.
In 1906, Camrose opened its first newspaper, The Camrose Mail, which was replaced in 1908 by the Camrose Canadian, which was published until 2018. In March 1907 the town erected a building for town administration, which also held its first police and fire station. In May 1907, it spent $10,000 on its schoolhouse. In October 1907 men from Alberta Government Telephones set up Camrose's first telephone exchange, and by 1908 about fifty residents had telephone access. 1911 saw the construction of Camrose's first power plant.
From 1905 to 1914, there was a great deal of railway construction in the Camrose area. Camrose became a bit of a railroad hub, sitting on railways that connected to Edmonton and Calgary, as well as many of the smaller towns in central Alberta, such as Vegreville, Stettler, Drumheller, and Wetaskiwin. By 1914, twelve passenger trains came through Camrose daily. In those days the growth of Camrose was strongly linked with the railway.
On June 26, 1912, the first building of the Camrose Lutheran College (known as Augustana University College from 1991 to 2004) was opened. Today the campus continues as the Augustana Faculty of the University of Alberta.
During World War II, the Camrose Fairgrounds were converted to an army training grounds. About ten H-Shaped huts were built, as were mess quarters, a medical building and a storehouse. Thousands of Canadian boys came to Camrose to receive their basic training.
Camrose became a city on January 1, 1955. By 1958, Camrose had converted the old post office into the new city hall. In 1954, however, Camrose had sold the old town hall to the federal government, so in the interim the city council met for almost three years in the hall of the local Methodist Church.
Camrose has continued to expand, even as the significance of the railroads waned. It is now stretching out along Highway 13, and is becoming a major stop for travellers along that road. With the advent of the Big Valley Jamboree in Camrose it has become even more oriented towards tourism and hospitality.
Camrose was host to an Alberta Music Camp for upwards of 40 years, named MusiCamrose, until it later changed to MusiCamp Alberta, now hosted in Red Deer. It celebrated its 50th anniversary in the summer of 2007. It was founded by Peterkin.
On October 26, 2005, a single lottery ticket worth $54,000,000 (the second largest in Canadian history) was sold in Camrose. The ticket belonged to 17 oil industry workers.
In August 2006, Camrose held a Founders Day when four men were inducted as founding fathers of Camrose.
Geography
Camrose is situated about from Edmonton, the capital of Alberta. Highway 13 runs through its centre. Camrose is located in a transitory region of Alberta, between prairie and boreal forest, known as aspen parkland. It is a major economic centre for many small farming communities in the surrounding area. The Stoney Creek runs through the city and flows into the Battle River south of the city.
Climate
Camrose has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb) and falls into the NRC Plant Hardiness Zone 3b. Summers are warm with moderate rainfall while winters can be long and cold.
Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the City of Camrose recorded a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.
In the 2016 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the City of Camrose recorded a population of 18,742 living in 8,055 of its 8,520 total private dwellings, a change of from its 2011 population of 17,286. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2016.
The population of the City of Camrose according to its 2016 municipal census is 18,044, a change of from its 2014 municipal census population of 18,038.
The primary ancestries are Scandinavian (26.3%), German (25.6%), English (20.2%), Scottish (17.6%), Irish (14.4%), and Aboriginal (3.5%).
English is the first language of 90% of the population. About 2.1% of residents said German, 1.1% said Ukrainian, 1.0% said French, and 0.7% said Spanish was their first language. The next most common languages were Chinese and Dutch at 0.6% each, followed by Danish and Norwegian at 0.4% each, Swedish at 0.3%, and Lao at 0.2%.
The 2001 census found 85% of residents identified as Christian, while 14% had no religious affiliation. For specific denominations Statistics Canada found that 24% of residents identified as Roman Catholic, while 20% identified as Lutheran, and 19% identified with the United Church of Canada. Among the less numerous denominations, 4% identified as Anglican, and about 2% each identified as Baptist and Pentecostal.
Sports and recreation
The Camrose Recreation Centre, a multi-purpose sporting facility, officially opened on September 28, 2007. The complex includes the 2,500 seat Encana Arena (home of the Camrose Kodiaks of the AJHL and the Augustana Vikings of the ACAC), and the 300+ seat Border Paving arena. The facility also boasts a three lane fitness track, fitness centre, physiotherapy clinic, physiotherapy lab, children's play room, meeting rooms, offices, and food and beverage facilities. Attached to this facility is the Max McLean Arena (former home of the Viking Cup, the Vikings and the Kodiaks), as well as the Camrose Aquatic Centre and curling rink.
Other recreational facilities include the Camrose Community Centre (walking track and indoor soccer centre), spray park, Camrose Skate Park, Kinsmen Park (which includes tennis courts, three fastball fields, football field, beach volleyball courts, a 2.2 km walking path), and Rudy Swanson Park, home to various soccer facilities and recreational groups.
Camrose has a large urban trail system which winds through Stoney Creek Valley. The total trail length is approximately 10.2 km.
Camrose is also home to a wide variety of sports clubs including figure skating, baseball, football, fastball, hockey and swimming to name a few. The Camrose Ski Club, founded in 1911, is the oldest cross-country ski club in Canada, and has produced many elite level athletes including several Olympians.
Parks
Camrose is known colloquially as the "Rose City" due to the large number of wild roses which grow in the surrounding parklands. Developed to withstand the Alberta climate, the Camrose Rose was introduced to the city in 1995. Local rose grower Jerry Twomey bred and patented this variety of rose to honour his birthplace. The variety may be seen on display at the Bill Fowler Centre.
Jubilee Park is often used by the community, located in a valley and featuring barbecue shelters, a wandering stream and wide open space.
Mirror Lake sits in the centre of the city. Once a reservoir for the electrical plants which powered the city, the man-made lake was later home to two species of swan: the trumpeter and the Polish mute. The City of Camrose provided a winter shelter to the clipped birds. These swans called Camrose home for over twenty years. In September 2019, City Council voted to end the swan program due primarily to ethical concerns of keeping wild animals confined for five to six months a year, as well as managing offspring and trading the birds every three years.
Mirror Lake Park is the focal point of the Camrose urban parks system. Located on the edge of Mirror Lake, it is the home of the Bill Fowler Centre which contains the Chamber of Commerce office and the Tourist Information Centre. The Bill Fowler Centre features a nature mural, carved out of red brick. The mural features many of the animals which are indigenous to the Mirror Lake area.
Mirror Lake flows from Stoney Creek, which wanders through the city, and provides a river valley for viewing wildlife through paved walking paths.
Government
The current mayor in Camrose is Norman Mayer, and Malcolm Boyd is the city's manager. The Camrose City Council is made up of the mayor and eight elected councillors, all at large. The current MP is Damien Kurek, and the current MLA is Jackie Lovely.
Camrose Police Service
The Camrose Police Service (CPS) is the municipal law enforcement agency for the City of Camrose. Planning for Camrose's first municipal police service began in 1955 after incorporating as a city. The CPS officially began operating on July 1, 1956 with Howard Martin serving as its first chief of police. Its current chief of police is Dean LaGrange.
Infrastructure
Camrose is served by Camrose Airport.
Camrose's water supply comes from nearby Driedmeat Lake.
Education
Secondary
Three authorities provide secondary schooling in Camrose, including the Battle River School Division (BRSD), Conseil Scolaire Centre-Nord (CSCN) and Elk Island Catholic Schools (EICS). The BRSD operates 37 schools in Camrose and the surrounding area. EICS operates one elementary school (St. Patrick Catholic School) and one junior/senior high-school (Our Lady of Mount Pleasant Catholic School).
Post-secondary
The primary post-secondary institution in Camrose is the Augustana Faculty of the University of Alberta (formerly known as Augustana University College). Established in 1910 by Norwegian settlers, under the name Camrose Lutheran College.
In 2006, the university celebrated its first fourth generation graduate.
Camrose also hosts the Canadian Lutheran Bible Institute, and formerly Gardner College (previously known as Gardner Bible College and Alberta Bible Institute).
Media
Camrose is served by two local papers. Formerly, the weekly Camrose Canadian, was published up until August 9, 2018 when its parent company announced that it was ceasing production. The weekly Camrose Booster and the small daily, Camrose Morning News. There is also a local Christian paper published monthly called "Crosswalk".
Camrose is also home to two radio stations. The first is AM station 840 CFCW. Despite having a studio in West Edmonton Mall, CFCW still has its main broadcast studio in Camrose.
The second station is the much-newer FM station, New Country 98.1. Both stations are owned by Stingray Radio.
Sister cities
The City of Camrose has twinning agreements with several similar communities in Canada and around the world. These relationships are developed in part with a mind toward promoting goodwill, education, economic and tourist benefits.
Kamifurano, Hokkaido, Japan – 1984
Warwick, Queensland, Australia – 1974
Saguenay, Quebec, Canada (formerly Chicoutimi) – 1978
Kentville, Nova Scotia, Canada – 1980
Notable people
Tyler Bouck, retired professional hockey player
Scott Ferguson, retired professional hockey player
Josh Green, retired professional hockey player
Deena Hinshaw, Alberta Chief Medical Officer
Kenneth E. Iverson (1920–2004), computer scientist
Karl Stollery, professional hockey player
References
Further reading
External links
1905 establishments in Alberta
Cities in Alberta
Populated places established in 1905 | [
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223491 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilization%20II | Civilization II | Sid Meier's Civilization II is a turn-based strategy video game in the Civilization series, developed and published by MicroProse. It was released in 1996 for PCs, and later ported to the PlayStation by Activision.
Players build a civilization from a primitive tribe, competing with rival computer- or human (in some editions)-controlled civilizations. They manage cities and units in a quest to assure their civilization's dominance—either by conquering all other civilizations or by manufacturing advanced space technology.
Civilization II was a commercial hit, with sales of around three million units by 2001, and has won numerous awards and placements on "best games of all time" lists. It was followed by Civilization III.
Gameplay
As a turn-based strategy game, Civilization II realistically models the historical development of human civilization. A player, when creating a game, may pick one of 21 historical civilizations or a custom-named civilization. The computer will intelligently control multiple rival civilizations. Only a single-player mode was available until the release of the Multiplayer Addon.
The game takes place on a map made of tiles. A human player may generate a random map based on his specifications, or opt for a pre-made map. Different terrain types, special resources and improvements such as irrigation are present on different tiles. Players begin with one or a few units, including settlers to found their first cities, in 4000 BC. All of the map is unexplored except the starting units' immediate vicinity, and exploration is a top early-game priority.
Cities occupy one tile and harvest yields from nearby tiles: food, trade and production. They may build units, city improvements or wonders of the world. Typically, each civilization will constantly expand by founding new cities until all of the map is settled. Analogous to chess pieces, the many different units vary in their functions, mirroring historical types of soldiers and occupations. Units occupy one tile at a time and may move every turn. Most of them can attack others in battle; a minority have non-military functions.
After civilizations make contact, they begin diplomatic relations. In war, a civilization may conquer another civilization's cities. When all of a player's cities are conquered, he is permanently removed from the game. To end war, two players may promise peaceful relations.
Scientific research is a focal point of the game. Players begin with primitive technology and hence limited possible actions. Grouped by eras from ancient to modern, civilization advances, both scientific and societal, offer numerous advantages.
There are three paths to victory: conquering all other civilizations, building a spaceship that reaches the Alpha Centauri star system using advanced technology, and otherwise surviving until 2020 AD. A player's score is calculated after finishing the game.
Other featuresCivilization II supports mods that customize game graphics or mechanics. "Scenarios" are preset game files that emulate historical, fictional or other situations.
Differences from CivilizationCivilization II is similar to its predecessor Civilization, with some changes to and additions of units, civilizations, world wonders, tile "specials" and technologies. Entirely new concepts include diplomatic reputation and production waste. The world map was changed from a top-down view to an isometric representation. The artificial intelligence for the human player's opponents was also improved.
DevelopmentCivilization II was designed by Brian Reynolds, Douglas Caspian-Kaufman and Jeff Briggs. Following the success of Civilization, the ongoing development of a sequel was kept secret for years. The game was publicly announced when the team was in the final stage of tweaking and balancing. The game's working title was Civilization 2000. Asked about Sid Meier's involvement in the project, Reynolds replied, "We sat down and brainstormed about it and hashed out ideas, that's about it." Emulating the recently released Doom, Reynolds implemented support for modding despite Meier's fear that customers would blame the company for poor-quality mods.
Meier commented, "Civilization greatly favored the military approach to achieving victory. We've now adjusted the balance to make trade and diplomacy a more integral part of the game".
Release
The game was re-released on December 9, 1998 as Civilization II: Multiplayer Gold Edition, which bundled the two prior expansion packs and added options for multi-player games, among other tweaks. The Multiplayer Gold Edition was included in the Civilization Chronicles box set released in 2006.
Expansion sets
There were two expansion packs that slowly added more features to the game. The first, Conflicts in Civilization, included 20 new scenarios: 12 created by the makers of the game, and eight "Best of the Net" by fans. It also added an enhanced macro language for scenario scripting with advanced programming features such as variable typing and network features, which was considered widely unnecessary. Due to a programming bug, the Encarta-style Civilopedia was disabled from the game.
The second expansion was Civ II: Fantastic Worlds. It also added new scenarios that had many unique settings such as one scenario dealing with colonization of Mars, and one scenario called Midgard that had Elven, Goblin, Merman, and other civilizations from fantasy. There are also some scenarios based on other MicroProse games such as X-COM, Master of Orion and Master of Magic "Jr." scenarios. Fantastic Worlds also contains a new scenario editor that allowed users to edit the statistics and icons used for units, city improvements, terrain, and technologies, as well as creating event triggers and other enhancements to the game.
Remake
The remake Civilization II: Test of Time was released in 1999, following Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri. Test of Time has a new palette and user interface, and new features such as animated units, a playable Alpha Centauri to settle and new campaign modes.
Reception
SalesCivilization II placed second on PC Data's monthly computer game sales chart for April 1996. The game secured position 3 for the next four months, before dropping to #5 in September. It exited PC Data's top 10 in December, after remaining there for an additional two months. In the United States, Civilization II was the third-best-selling computer game of the first six months of 1996, and the fifth-highest seller of the year as a whole. Worldwide, its sales surpassed 400,000 copies by August, reached 500,000 in September and topped 600,000 by November. In the United States alone, it sold 482,522 units and earned $21.1 million by the end of 1996.
By mid-January 1997, global sales of Civilization II had surpassed 720,000 copies. It finished 20th on PC Data's monthly chart for March, and was the United States' 17th-highest-selling computer game of the year's first half. The game had topped its predecessor's 850,000 sales that August, and continued to sell "over 20,000 units a month" by November, according to Microprose. Civilization II reached 1.2 million units sold by April 1998; Terry Coleman of Computer Gaming World wrote that sales were "still going strong" at that time. In the United Kingdom alone, the game sold 160,000 units by 1999. It also received a "Gold" award from the Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland (VUD) in August 1998, for sales of at least 100,000 units across Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Civilization II Gold alone sold 171,495 copies in the United States by September 2000, according to PC Data.
In August 2001, Jeff Briggs of Firaxis estimated that Civilization II had sold "about 3 million" copies. Meier said that he was "wrong on all counts" about opposing mod support; "The strength of the modding community is, instead, the very reason the series survived".
Critical reviews
On release, a reviewer for Next Generation ventured that Civilization II "may be one of the most balanced and playable games ever released." He especially praised the added depth of the combat, diplomatic relations, and trade over the original Civilization, which he said was one of the best games ever released for PC. Computer Gaming World gave it the Strategy Game of the Year award, and PC Gamer US named it the overall game of the year, calling it and its predecessor "perhaps the finest strategy games ever made." Civilization II was nominated as Computer Games Strategy Plus 1996 game of the year, although it lost to Tomb Raider. However, it won the magazine's award for the best turn-based strategy game of the year. It also won a Spotlight Award for Best PC/Mac Game. Macworld Michael Gowan wrote, "Hard-core strategists will enjoy this game's complexity."Next Generation reviewed the PlayStation version of the game, rating it five stars out of five, and stated that "Overall, Civ II remains one of strategy gaming's finest hours and is a welcome addition on PlayStation. For those who are willing, it's a game of limitless possibilities."
In 2007, Civilization II was ranked as third in IGN's list of the 100 greatest video games of all time, having previously rated it at number 15 in 2003. In 2012, G4tv ranked it as the 62nd top video game of all time. Polish web portal Wirtualna Polska ranked it as the most addictive game "that stole our childhood". The journal article "Theoretical Frameworks for Analysing Turn-Based Computer Strategy Games" deemed it "significant and influential". In Ted Friedman's essay "Civilization and its Discontents: Simulation, Subjectivity, and Space" from the collection Discovering Discs: Transforming Space and Genre on CD-ROM, he argues that the game "simultaneously denies and de-personalizes the violence in the history of 'exploration, colonization, and development". Computer Shopper deemed it a "worthy successor" to Civilization, and "arguably the finest multiplayer game ever created". In anticipation to the launch of Civilization III, New Straits Times described Civilization II as "the best turn-based empire- building strategy game". Baltimore Afro-American was "obsessed with the game". Tribune Business News deemed it an "old favorite". The game was the fourth bestseller in October 1996 and the 3rd bestseller in December 1997. PC Games argued that the game "cemented the franchise's place in videogame history."
In 1998, PC Gamer declared it the 2nd-best computer game ever released, and the editors called it "intelligent, engrossing and entertaining beyond compare, it's one of the finest artistic achievements of the last decade".
Legacy
Several other games have been heavily inspired by Civilization II. In 2006, an N-Gage version of Civilization was released, based on Civilization II and its successor III. The open-source game Freeciv has a "ruleset" that is virtually identical to II's mechanics.
In 2011, researchers at the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory and the University College London published the results of a machine learning system playing Civilization II, in its Freeciv implementation, which used the text from its official game manual to guide its strategy. The linguistically informed player outperformed its language-unaware counterpart, winning over 78% of games when playing against the built-in AI, a 27% absolute improvement. The same group also showed that their "non-linear Monte-Carlo search wins 80% of games against the handcrafted, built-in AI".
In June 2012, the Reddit user "Lycerius" posted details of his decade-long Civilization II game, since dubbed "The Eternal War". The viral story spread to many blogs and news sites. The game closely mimicked social conditions in the dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, with three superpowers engaged in perpetual multiple-front total warfare.
Notes
References
External links
Official website
Civilization II at MobyGames
Civilization II – entry on the Civilization Wiki, a non-Wikipedia-affiliated wiki dedicated to the video game series Civilization''. The website offers comprehensive coverage of gameplay.
1996 video games
4X video games
Alpha Centauri in fiction
2
Historical simulation games
Classic Mac OS games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Play-by-email video games
PlayStation (console) games
Top-down video games
Turn-based strategy video games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games scored by Jeff Briggs
Video games scored by Kevin Manthei
Video games using procedural generation
Video games with expansion packs
Video games with isometric graphics
Windows games
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223492 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Davenport%20%28inventor%29 | Thomas Davenport (inventor) | Thomas Davenport (9 July 1802 – 6 July 1851) was a Vermont blacksmith who constructed the first American DC electric motor in 1834.
Davenport was born in Williamstown, Vermont. He lived in Forest Dale, a village near the town of Brandon.
As early as 1834, he developed a battery-powered electric motor. He used it to operate a small model car on a short section of track, paving the way for the later electrification of streetcars.
Davenport's 1833 visit to the Penfield and Taft iron works at Crown Point, New York, where an electromagnet was operating, based on the design of Joseph Henry, was an impetus for his electromagnetic undertakings. Davenport bought an electromagnet from the Crown Point factory and took it apart to see how it worked. Then he forged a better iron core and redid the wiring, using silk from his wife's wedding gown.
With his wife Emily and colleague Orange Smalley, Davenport received the first American patent on an electric machine in 1837, U. S. Patent No. 132. He used his electric motor in 1840 to print The Electro-Magnetic and Mechanics Intelligencer - the first newspaper printed using electricity.
In 1849, Charles Grafton Page, the Washington scientist and inventor, commenced a project to build an electromagnetically powered locomotive, with substantial funds appropriated by the US Senate. Davenport challenged the expenditure of public funds, arguing for the motors he had already invented. In 1851, Page's full sized electromagnetically operated locomotive was put to a calamity-laden test on the rail line between Washington and Baltimore.
Further reading
Post, R. C. (1976). Physics, Patents, and Politics: A Biography of Charles Grafton Page. New York: Science History Publications.
Michael Brian Schiffer, 2008. Power Struggles: Scientific Authority and the Creation of Practical Electricity Before Edison, Cambridge MA: MIT Press.
Frank Wicks. "The Blacksmith's Motor. Electricity, magnetism, and motion: A self-taught Vermonter pointed the direction for lighting the world." Mechanical Engineering, July 1999.
Patent 132. (direct link)
Smalley and Davenport's shop. http://www.uvm.edu/~histpres/SD/hist.html
The invention of the electric motor 1800-1854: Thomas Davenport
References
External links
1802 births
1851 deaths
19th-century American inventors
American blacksmiths
Vermont culture
American railroad pioneers
People associated with electricity
People from Williamstown, Vermont
People from Salisbury, Vermont | [
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223493 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlton%20Television | Carlton Television | Carlton Television (now part of the non-franchised ITV London region) was the ITV franchise holder for London and the surrounding counties from 9.25am every Monday to 5.15pm every Friday. The company is now managed with London Weekend Television as a single entity (ITV London), but the two companies are still separately licensed. The station is owned and operated by ITV plc under the licensee of "ITV Broadcasting Limited". Carlton has been branded on air as "ITV1" since 28 October 2002, and as "ITV" since 14 January 2013. Carlton legally exists as Carlton Broadcasting Limited, currently listed on Companies House as a dormant company, and its previous subsidiary Carlton UK Television Limited which is now known as ITV Consumer Limited and legally operates ITV plc's websites. As Carlton's name has no relation to its region, its on-screen identity has been completely removed (along with those of HTV, LWT and GMTV). Other regions have kept their original company name as a region name and in their local news name.
Formation
Carlton Television was originally set up by Michael Green's Carlton Communications to bid for an ITV franchise after Green failed to buy into Thames Television, the London franchise, in 1985. On 16 October 1991, Carlton won the "Channel 3" franchise to broadcast to London during weekdays from January 1993, as a result of winning the silent auction used to renegotiate the new ITV franchises. Thames bid £32.5M, while Carlton Television placed a bid of £43.2M and CPV-TV placed a bid of £45.3M. CPV-TV was the highest bidder, but was eliminated for failing the quality threshold; since both Thames and Carlton were deemed to have passed the quality threshold, the franchise was awarded to Carlton for having submitted the higher cash bid of the remaining two companies. Some commentators consequently speculated that Thames had fallen victim to a "government vendetta", whilst others felt that the auction had been won fairly.
Carlton did not buy Thames' studios, instead having its headquarters in St Martin's Lane in the West End and opting to rent transmission space at LWT's London studios. Also, unlike Thames which was both a production company and a broadcaster, Carlton chose to commission all of its programming from independent production companies.
Launch
Carlton started broadcasting at the stroke of midnight on 1 January 1993 (straight after the closedown of Thames), with the station's first programme A Carlton New Year, produced jointly by The Pozzitive Production Company and Michael Hurll Television, and presented by Chris Tarrant. Aptly, its first commercial break featured an advert for the Vauxhall Carlton.
Broadcasting
In May 1994, the Independent Television Commission criticised a number of ITV stations as part of its review for the first 12 months of the new franchise in 1993. Carlton Television was condemned for providing a wide range of 'unimpressive and very disappointing' programmes for the ITV network, which were 'neither distinctive nor noticeable high quality'. This criticism came after Carlton and Granada secretly planned to axe News at Ten in the chase for ratings, a move which was foiled by the ITC. Carlton, angered by this criticism, responded: 'In the first year, Carlton launched 43 brand new series and 20 new single programmes, sustained audience levels and played a full part in ITV network; successes far outweighed failures.' A few days later, Carlton won two awards from the Royal Television Society's 'programme and tech awards' in London; Margie Clarke was named 'Best Female Presenter' for Carlton's The Good Sex Guide; while Old Bear Stories won the Children's Entertainment award.
During a 1994 review, ITC commented that Carlton had made improvements, in its factual and drama output, while its children's programmes were 'impressive', but more remained to be achieved. In 1995, its regional programming was regarded as high quality but with few innovations; The Good Sex Guide was guilty of breaching taste and decency requirements with little educational classifications, which resulted in the company receiving two written warnings from the ITC. Once again, in 1997, Carlton was criticised for failing to ensure its programming complied with the programmes code, while the number of formal interventions from the ITC had increased from four in 1995 to eight; but its regional programming continued to be of high quality. In 1998, Carlton escaped receiving any criticism from the ITC.
Factual inaccuracy in 1996 documentary
Carlton found itself at the centre of a major controversy about truthfulness in broadcast journalism in May 1998, when The Guardian carried a series of articles alleging the wholesale fabrication of a much-garlanded 1996 documentary, The Connection, which had purported to film the route by which heroin was smuggled into the United Kingdom from Colombia. An internal inquiry at Carlton found that the allegations made by The Guardian were in large part correct, and the-then industry regulator, the ITC, punished Carlton with a record fine of £2-million. for multiple breaches of the UK's broadcasting codes The scandal led to an impassioned debate about the accuracy of documentary production.
Expansion
Changes in legislation concerning media ownership enabled Carlton to buy out many of the other ITV stations, including Central Independent Television, Westcountry, and part of HTV (via Granada), as well as the rights to the archives of ITC Entertainment and its former sister company ATV. Rank Film Distributors, including its library of 740 films, was purchased by Carlton in 1997 for £65 million. HTV was the only region owned by Carlton not to be subject to a full on-screen rebrand as 'Carlton'. Both 'HTV West' and 'HTV Wales' stayed with their then-current idents; however, upon Carlton's purchase, the animated introduction and music to the idents were replaced by the sequences and audio in use with Carlton's graphical package. However, the logo and end-board of the ident remained unchanged, using the generic hearts look of 1999. Carlton also did not acquire most of HTV's production facilities; these were retained by Granada.
The ITC archive is financially lucrative, since it includes such popular series as Thunderbirds, The Prisoner, and The Saint, as well as such feature films as On Golden Pond. Carlton released much of the Rank library on video and DVD via its own label in the UK, and via A & E Home Video, Acorn Media, MGM Home Entertainment, and Lions Gate Home Entertainment in the USA. A large number of these films were screened on Carlton's digital movie channel, Carlton Cinema; however, it closed in March 2003. The merger with Granada led to the use of the Carlton name falling into disuse, and Carlton Video became part of Granada Ventures.
ITV Digital
In 1997, Carlton formed a partnership with Granada and BSkyB to bid for some of the multiplexes for the new digital terrestrial network. In June of that year, it was successful in its application, and began the service, OnDigital, under the condition BSkyB withdrew from the group.
Merger and unification
In September 2002, Carlton and Granada, having now acquired all the franchises in England and Wales, made the decision to remove all regional idents, continuity and branding, and replace them with the single brand, ITV1. English regional idents were to only precede regional programming, and regional announcements were pre-recorded from London (Wales gets on-screen recognition prior to all programming, see ITV1 Wales). Unlike Granada-owned regions, Carlton used dual-branding on its regional idents with the Carlton logo, so the Carlton Westcountry and Carlton Central regions were simply known as ITV1 Carlton. Granada-owned franchises preferred simply to place text of the region name under the ITV1 logo. This went on until December 2003, when Carlton dropped the practice, resulting in changing the brands from Carlton Central to ITV1 for Central England, from Carlton Westcountry to ITV1 for the Westcountry. The HTV regions were re-branded ITV1 Wales and ITV1 West of England in 2002.
On 2 February 2004, Carlton Communications plc merged with Granada plc, creating ITV plc, which now owns all of the ITV franchises in England and Wales under the ITV1 brand (Wales still uses its own on-screen identity as ITV1 Wales, but now also uses English ITV1 continuity since 16 January 2006). The three English Carlton ITV regions were reverted to their previous names: ITV1 for Central England again became ITV1 Central, ITV1 West of England became ITV1 West and ITV1 for the Westcountry became ITV1 Westcountry, prior to regional programming in their respective areas.
ITV London
Since 28 October 2002, Carlton Television (in common with all the other ITV companies, except Scottish Television, Grampian Television, Ulster Television and Channel Television) has been known on air simply as ITV1 (London Weekdays). Unlike London Weekend Television, Carlton Television did not note the last day (25 October 2002) of its regional identity on-air. However, the Carlton brand continued to be seen on production captions until 2004. Since Carlton and London Weekend Television now use identical presentation and logos, the division between the London weekday and weekend franchises is now invisible, although the old LWT - now ITV1 (London Weekends) - does have London Weekend Weather, which is sponsored by a different company to that of London Weekdays.
With the merger of Carlton and Granada, Carlton Television and LWT are now run as a single entity (ITV London), with a single management team appointed to both companies. Both continue to have a separate legal existence however, and still have separate licences, although this is now just a formality.
Upon merger, Carlton lost recognition to programmes made by their companies, which became branded as Granada and the relevant area, for example, all programmes made in London became branded as Granada London. From 16 January 2006, all programmes produced by any ITV plc owned region were branded as ITV Productions and in 2009 this became ITV Studios.
Studios
Carlton was a publisher broadcaster who never made any of its own programming itself. Carlton productions that required studio space were booked at Lenton Lane when Carlton bought Central Independent Television in 1994, obtaining the company's Nottingham studios and gained the in-house production arm. The studios were booked by independent production companies.
Carlton was originally based in a small office building in St. Martin's Lane in Central London, with transmission being provided by London News Network, a company jointly owned with LWT and based at The London Studios that also provided a seven-day news service.
Following the creation of ITV plc in 2004, Carlton's office in St Martin's Lane was vacated and the operations transferred to The London Studios, albeit as part of the ITV plc operations housed there. ITV London's news operation moved to ITN on 1 March 2004. The transmission operation moved to the HD Technicolor Playout Centre at Chiswick.
Identity
Launch ident
Carlton's on-screen identity was launched on 1 January 1993 with an ident package featuring London personalities. These people, who lived and worked in the capital would appear against a brightly coloured background with the Carlton logo in the top left corner, and would say the phrase, "This is Carlton, television for London", or other variations of the theme. In excess of sixty idents were produced and used from 1993. This was replaced by a single montage of individuals used from later on in the year until 1 September 1995.
1995
On 4 September 1995, a new in-house look was launched featuring changing backgrounds of colours with a translucent Carlton logo in the centre of the screen, becoming opaque and white at the end of the ident. These idents lasted until 22 November 1996, but were deemed not exciting or brash enough for Carlton executives.
1996
Lambie-Nairn devised the new set on 25 November 1996, featuring the Carlton logo against a brightly coloured background and various animations occurring. This could be interaction between other letters in the name, letters being replaced by objects, or the letters becoming part of something larger, such as a crossword of places in London. Thirty sequences were produced, including some designed especially to introduce certain programmes, and versions for Central were also introduced two years later on 20 April 1998.
These idents were used until 3 September 1999.
1999
On 6 September 1999, Carlton's boldest rebrand yet occurred, and it was also to be its last. While Granada and UNM regions were about to adopt the "Hearts" generic look, Carlton refused the look and instead adopted a package that related back to the Hearts, but put their own distinct take on it. Lambie-Nairn was once again commissioned, and a dozen idents were produced and were used depending on the programme to go before it. The idents featured opening films featuring a heart shape, before a star shaped light is emitted from the heart shape, before the screen changes to the Carlton logo, now with added star in top right corner, against a spinning stars background of different colours, with ITV logo beneath. This look has received criticism, not concerning the idents themselves, but because these idents replaced the brands used by both Central and Westcountry. It was later reached Wales, with the Carlton hearts retained, but without the star and the ending was of the spinning ITV Hearts from 1999 with the 1993 HTV logo.
Continuity announcers
Carlton used a number of continuity announcers throughout the years.
Hilary Holden (1994–1997)
Mark Lipscomb (1993–2002) (only Thames continuity announcer to work for its successor franchisee)
David Allan (1995–2002)
Graham Bannerman (1993–2002)
Adrian Finighan (1993)
Fiona Goldman (1993–2002)
Erica Longdon (2000–2002)
John McKenzie (2000–2002) (previously at Granada)
Peter Tompkins (2000–2002)
Productions
Network
Some notable Carlton commissions are listed below:
99-1 (1994–95)
Alphabet Castle (1993–95)
Anybody's Nightmare (2001)
Bananas in Pyjamas (1992)
Babes in the Wood (1998–99)
Bad Blood (1999)
The Beat (1993–95)
Bertie and Elizabeth (2002)
Body and Soul (1993)
Bodyguards (1996–97)
Bramwell (1995–98)
The Brief (2004–05)
Brighton Belles (1993–94)
Catchphrase (1994–2002; previously produced by TVS/Meridian between 1986 and 1993)
Class Act (1994–95)
The Clive James Show (1995–97)
Crazy Cottage (1996–98)
The Chrystal Rose Show (1993–96)
Dave Allen (TV series) (1993)
Element of Doubt (1996)
Fortysomething (2003)
Family Fortunes (1999–2002)
Frank Stubbs Promotes (1993–94)
Frontiers (1996)
The Good Sex Guide (1993–94)
Goodnight Mister Tom (1998)
Good Sex Guide Abroad (1995)
Grizzly Tales for Gruesome Kids
Head over Heels (1993)
Heat of the Sun (1998)
Into The Blue (1997)
The Hypnotic World of Paul McKenna (1993–97)
Is It Legal? (1995–96; the series moved to Channel 4 in 1998, though still produced by Hartswood Films)
Lose A Million (1993)
Loved by You (1997–98)
Mad for It (1998–2000)
Michael Ball (1993–95)
Mike and Angelo (1993–2000, previously produced by Thames Television from 1989 to 1991)
Mopatop's Shop (1999–2005, Co-Produced with the Jim Henson Company)
Monsignor Renard (2000)
Moving Story (1994–95)
Murder in Suburbia (2004–05)
Noah's Ark (1997–98)
Old Bear Stories (1993–97)
Police Camera Action! (1994–2002)
Pollyanna (2003)
Pump It Up (1999–2000)
The Railway Children (2000)
Rebecca (1997)
Starstreet (2001–02)
A Statement of Affairs (1993)
Storyline (1993)
Talking Telephone Numbers (1994–97)
Terror Towers (1994–96)
Timbuctoo (1997)
The 10%ers (1994–96)
The Big Story (1993–97)
The Little Picture Show (1993–95)
The Unforgettable (2000–02)
The Unknown Soldier (1998)
Too Good to be True (2003)
TV's Naughtiest Blunders (2000–2005)
Tots TV (1993-1998, previously networked by Central until 1996)
The Treasure Seekers (1996)
Schofield's TV Gold (1993–98)
Scavengers (1994–95)
Sharman (1995–96)
Sport in Question (1993 regional only, 1994–96 networked) Transylvania Pet Shop (1994–97)
The Vault (2002–04)
The Vice (1999–2003)
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? (1998, co-produced with Celador)
Wilderness (1996)
A Woman's Guide to Adultery (1993)
Regional
Big City (1993–95)
Blues and Twos (1993–98)
Carlton Country (1996–2003)
Carlton Debate (1996–2002)
Capital Futures (1994)
Capital Lives (1995)
Carlton People (1994–99)
Carlton Sport (1993–2004)
Capital Woman (1993–97)
Crown And Country (1996–2000)
First Edition (1997–2004)
Going Underground (1993)
One in 5 Million (1993–95)
Revelations (1995–96; a co-production with Central and Granada Television)
The Frost Programme (1993)
The Sports Show (1998–2000)
The Tube (2003–05)
Who Cares Wins (1994)
For other details about local news and non-news programmes for London, see London News Network''.
Other ventures
Between 1996 and 2003, Carlton owned a number of extra channels, carried initially on analogue cable, and also later on their flagship platform, ONdigital too, although none of them ever made it onto Sky Digital. However, three closed in 2000; and all five were closed by 2003. Most were closed due to funding issues and lack of loyal viewership. They all time-shared on three EPG positions. Carlton Food Network and Carlton Select shared a channel, Carlton Kids, Carlton World, and another channel named 'RAW!' shared the second. Carlton Cinema received an EPG position of its own, but would be periodically closed down to provide bandwidth for "On Sport 2" during the ONdigital days.
Carlton Cinema
Carlton Cinema was the Carlton channel which showed classic movies, but also unusually for a movie channel, cartoons. This ceased transmission on 31 March 2003, the last of the five Carlton channels to do so.
Carlton Select
Carlton Select was the main entertainment channel from Carlton, and broadcast both in the UK and Africa. It time-shared with the Carlton Food Network, and ceased transmission in March 2000.
Carlton World
Carlton World was a general entertainment and factual channel broadcast in the evenings, with sister channel Carlton Kids broadcast in the daytime. This ceased transmission in 2000.
Carlton Kids
Carlton Kids was a children's channel and showed most of all of Carlton's children's imports, and programming from Carlton's regions. Time-shared with Carlton World, it ceased transmission in 2000.
Carlton Food Network
Carlton Food Network was the Carlton channel devoted to cookery, and time-shared with Carlton Select. It was later re-branded "Taste CFN", and ceased transmission in late 2001.
References
External links
ITV plc at itv.com
Carlton Screen Advertising
Carlton Television at TVARK
ITV (TV network)
ITV franchisees
Television in London
Television channels and stations established in 1993
Television channels and stations disestablished in 2002 | [
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223496 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapping | Tapping | Tapping, where a string is fretted and set into vibration as part of a single motion of being tapped onto the fretboard, with either hand, as opposed to the standard technique of fretting with one hand and picking with the other.
Tapping is the primary technique intended for such as the Chapman Stick.
Description
Tapping is an extended technique, executed by using either hand to 'tap' the strings against the fingerboard, thus producing legato notes. Tapping generally incorporates pull-offs or hammer-ons. For example, a right-handed guitarist might press down abruptly ("hammer") onto fret twelve with the index finger of the right hand and, in the motion of removing that finger, pluck ("pull") the same string already fretted at the eighth fret by the little finger of their left hand. This finger would be removed in the same way, pulling off to the fifth fret. Thus the three notes (E, C and A) are played in quick succession at relative ease to the player.
While tapping is most commonly observed on electric guitar, it may apply to almost any string instrument, and several instruments have been created specifically to use the method. The Bunker Touch-Guitar (developed by Dave Bunker in 1958) is designed for the technique, but with an elbow rest to hold the right arm in the conventional guitar position. The Chapman Stick (developed in the early 1970s by Emmett Chapman) is an instrument designed primarily for tapping, and is based on the Free Hands two-handed tapping method invented by Chapman in 1969 where each hand approaches the fretboard with the fingers aligned parallel to the frets. The Hamatar, Mobius Megatar, Box Guitar, and Solene instruments were designed for the same method. The NS/Stick and Warr Guitar are also built for tapping, though not exclusively. The harpejji is a tapping instrument which is played on a stand, like a keyboard, with fingers typically parallel to the strings rather than perpendicular. All of these instruments use string tensions less than a standard guitar, and low action to increase the strings' sensitivity to lighter tapping.
Some guitarists may choose to tap using the sharp edge of their pick instead of fingers to produce a faster, more rigid flurry of notes closer to that of trilling, with a technique known as pick tapping. Guitarist John "5" Lowery has been known to use it, and has nicknamed it a "Spider-Tap".
History
Tapping has existed in some form or another for centuries. Niccolò Paganini (1782-1840) used similar techniques on the violin, striking the string with a bouncing bow articulated by left-hand pizzicato. Paganini considered himself a better guitarist than violinist, and in fact wrote several compositions for guitar, most famously the "Grand Sonata for Violin and Guitar." His guitar compositions are rarely performed in modern times, though his violin compositions enjoy multiple performances. Some musicologists believe he wrote his 37 violin sonatas on guitar and then transcribed them for violin. Well known to frequent taverns, Paganini was likely exposed to gypsy guitar techniques from Romani, "gypsies." He preferred playing his guitar for tavern customers instead of concert hall audiences.
Similar to two-hand tapping, selpe technique is used in Turkish folk music on the instrument called the bağlama.
Tapping techniques and solos on various stringed acoustic instruments such as the banjo have been documented in film, records, and performances throughout the early 20th century. Various musicians have been suggested as the originators of modern two-hand tapping. While one of the earliest players known to use the technique was Roy Smeck (who used a tapping style on a ukulele in the 1932 film Club House Party), electric pickup designer Harry DeArmond developed a two-handed method as a way of demonstrating the sensitivity of his pickups. His friend Jimmie Webster, a designer and demonstrator for Gretsch guitars, made recordings in the 1950s using DeArmond's technique, which he described in the instructional book Touch Method for Electric and Amplified Spanish Guitar, published in 1952.
Vittorio Camardese developed his own two-handed tapping in the early 1960s, and demonstrated it in 1965 during an Italian television show.
Tapping was occasionally employed by many 1950s and 1960s jazz guitarists such as Barney Kessel, who was an early supporter of Emmett Chapman.
In August 1969, Chapman developed a new way of two-handed tapping with both hands held perpendicular to the neck from opposite sides, thus enabling equal counterpoint capabilities for each hand. To maximize the technique, Chapman designed a 9-string long-scale electric guitar which he called "the Electric Stick" (and later refined as the Chapman Stick), the most popular dedicated tapping instrument. Chapman's style aligns the right-hand fingers parallel to the frets, as on the left hand, but from the opposite side of the neck. His discovery led to complete counterpoint capability, and a new instrument, the Chapman Stick, and to his "Free Hands" method. Chapman influenced several tapping guitarists, including Steve Lynch of the band Autograph, and Jennifer Batten.
The tapping technique began to be taken up by rock and blues guitarists in the late 1960s. One of the earliest such players was Canned Heat guitarist Harvey Mandel, whom Ritchie Blackmore claims to have seen using tapping onstage as early as 1968 at the Whisky a Go Go. George Lynch has corroborated this, mentioning that both he and Eddie Van Halen saw Mandel employ "a neo-classic tapping thing" at the Starwood in West Hollywood during the 1970s. Mandel would use extensive two-handed tapping techniques on his 1973 album Shangrenade. Another early example of the tapping technique can be heard in Terry Kath's "Free Form Guitar" from Chicago's debut album in 1969.
Randy Resnick (of the band Pure Food and Drug Act, which at one time also featured Mandel) used two-handed tapping techniques extensively in his performances and recordings between 1969 and 1974. Resnick was mentioned in the Eddie Van Halen biography for his contribution to the two-handed tapping technique. In reference to Resnick's playing with Richard Greene And Zone at the Whisky a Go-Go in 1974, Lee Ritenour mentioned in Guitar Player magazine January 1980 that "Randy was the first guitarist I ever saw who based his whole style on tapping." Resnick also recorded using the technique in 1974 on the John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers album Latest Edition and has said that he was attempting to duplicate the legato of John Coltrane's "Sheets of Sound".
Steve Hackett of Genesis also claims to be an inventor of tapping as early as 1971.
Some players such as Stanley Jordan, Paul Gilbert, Buckethead, and Steve Vai were notably skilled in the use of both hands in an almost piano-like attack on the fretboard.
In the mid 1970s two-handed tapping started to break into the mainstream, when Frank Zappa started incorporating it into his songs, and performing them to large TV audiences. Eddie Van Halen went on to popularize the two-handed tapping technique in the late 1970s. Van Halen claims that his own inspiration came from Jimmy Page: "I think I got the idea of tapping watching (Page) do his "Heartbreaker" solo back in 1971… He was doing a pull-off to an open string and I thought… I can do that, but what if I use my finger as the nut and move it around?"
Techniques
Two-handed tapping
Tapping can be used to play polyphonic and counterpoint music on a guitar, making available eight (and even nine) fingers as stops. For example, the right hand may fret the treble melody while the left hand plays an accompaniment. Therefore, it is possible to produce music written for a keyboard instrument, such as J.S. Bach's Two-part Inventions.
The main disadvantage to tapping is reduced range of timbre, and in fact it is common to use a compressor effect to make notes more similar in volume. As tapping produces a "clean tone" effect, and since the first note usually sounds the loudest (unwanted in some music like jazz), dynamics are a main concern with this technique, though Stanley Jordan and many Stick players are successful in this genre.
Depending on the orientation of the player's right hand, this method can produce varying degrees of success at shaping dynamics. Early experimenters with this idea, like Harry DeArmond, his student Jimmie Webster, and Dave Bunker, held their right hand in a conventional orientation, with the fingers parallel with the strings. This limits the kind of musical lines the right hand can play. The Chapman method puts the fingers parallel to the frets.
One-handed tapping
One-handed tapping, performed in conjunction with normal fingering by the fretting hand, facilitates the construction of note intervals that would otherwise be impossible using one hand alone. It is often used as a special effect during a shredding solo. With the electric guitar, in this situation the output tone itself is usually overdriven — although it is possible to tap acoustically — with drive serving as a boost to further amplify the non-picked (and thus naturally weaker) legato notes being played.
The overall aim is to maintain fluidity and synchronization between all the notes, especially when played at speed, which can take extensive practice to master.
Tapped harmonics
Tapped harmonics are produced by holding a note with a player's fretting hand, and tapping twelve frets down from that note with the player's tapping hand (i.e. the note on the 4th fret of the A string is tapped on the 16th fret of the A string). Rather than hammering-on and pulling-off with the right hand, harmonics are produced by hitting the fret with a finger. This method of tapping can be heard in Van Halen's songs "Women In Love" and "Dance the Night Away". Early Metallica bassist Cliff Burton also utilized tapped harmonics on bass guitar on his noted instrumental piece "(Anesthesia) Pulling Teeth".
See also
Steve Hackett
Megatar
Niccolò Paganini
Billy McLaughlin
Jorge Pescara
Enver İzmaylov
Eddie Van Halen
References
External links
Basic info about Tapping Instruments in Spanish & English
Guitar performance techniques
Heavy metal performance techniques | [
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223497 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20Anderson | Ian Anderson | Ian Scott Anderson (born 10 August 1947) is a Scottish musician, singer and songwriter best known for his work as the lead vocalist, flautist, acoustic guitarist and leader of the British rock band Jethro Tull. He is a multi-instrumentalist who, in addition to flute and acoustic guitar, plays keyboards, electric guitar, bass guitar, bouzouki, balalaika, saxophone, harmonica and a variety of whistles. His solo work began with the 1983 album Walk into Light; since then he has released another five works, including the sequel to the Jethro Tull album Thick as a Brick (1972) in 2012, titled Thick as a Brick 2.
Early life
Ian Anderson was born in Dunfermline, Fife, Scotland, the youngest of three brothers. His father, James Anderson, ran the RSA Boiler Fluid Company in East Port, Dunfermline. Anderson's family moved to Edinburgh when he was three. He was influenced by his father's big band and jazz records and the emergence of rock music, but was disenchanted with the "showbiz" style of early American rock and roll stars like Elvis Presley.
His family moved in 1959 to Blackpool, England, where he was educated at Blackpool Grammar School. In a 2011 interview, Anderson said he was asked to leave grammar school for refusing to submit to corporal punishment (permitted at that time). He studied fine art at Blackpool College of Art from 1964 to 1966 while living in Lytham St Annes.
Career
Early career
While a teenager, Anderson took a job as a sales assistant at Lewis's department store in Blackpool, then as a vendor on a news stand.
In 1963, he formed The Blades from among school friends: Michael Stephens (guitar), John Evan (keyboards), Jeffrey Hammond (bass) and Barriemore Barlow (drums). This was a soul and blues band, with Anderson on vocals, guitar and harmonica; he had yet to take up the flute. They played their first show at the Holy Family Church Hall in North Shore.
In late 1967, Anderson was still holding down a day job, namely cleaning the Ritz Cinema in Luton, including the toilets, in the mornings, "which took me half the day" he said in a later interview. He took an old, chipped urinal from the cinema storeroom and had it for a time after leaving the job. It was not, however, the urinal which "was bolted to the side of John Evan's Hammond organ on stage" and figured in early 1970s Tull performances.
At this time Anderson abandoned his ambition to play electric guitar, allegedly because he felt he would never be "as good as Eric Clapton". As he himself tells it in the introduction to the video Nothing Is Easy: Live at the Isle of Wight 1970, he traded his electric guitar in for a flute which, after some weeks of practice, he found he could play fairly well in a rock and blues style. According to the sleeve notes for the first Tull album, This Was (1968), he had been playing the flute only a few months when the album was recorded. His guitar practice did not go to waste either, as he continued to play acoustic guitar, using it as a melodic and rhythmic instrument. As his career progressed, he added soprano saxophone, mandolin, keyboards and other instruments to his arsenal.
His tendency to stand on one leg while playing the flute came about by accident, as he had been inclined to stand on one leg while playing the harmonica, holding the microphone stand for balance. Anderson was known for his famous one-legged flute stance, and was once referred to as a "deranged flamingo". This stance is on many album covers of Jethro Tull. During a long stint at the Marquee Club, a journalist described him, wrongly, as standing on one leg to play the flute, when in fact he was originally playing the harmonica on one leg. He decided to live up to the reputation, albeit with some difficulty. His early attempts are visible in The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus (1968) film appearance of Jethro Tull. This was referenced in the facetious liner notes for Thick as a Brick in a quote about "the one-legged pop flautist, Ian Anderson".
Later career
Anderson already wished to start a solo career in 1980, when Jethro Tull was going to take a break after John Glascock's death. He wrote the album A as a solo record, but had JT's Martin Barre participation, and Dave Pegg on bass. Record company pressure forced the record to be released under the Jethro Tull name. His first official solo album was Walk into Light, in 1983, in which Peter-John Vettese played an important role in the electronic direction of the music.
In the 1990s he began working with simple bamboo flutes. He uses techniques such as over-blowing and hole-shading to produce note-slurring and other expressive techniques on this otherwise simple instrument. Anderson said that around this time his daughter began taking flute lessons and noticed his fingering was incorrect, prompting him to relearn his extensive catalog with the right fingering. In 1995, Anderson released his second solo album, Divinities: Twelve Dances with God, an instrumental work composed of twelve flute-heavy pieces pursuing varied themes with an underlying motif. The album was recorded with Jethro Tull keyboard player Andrew Giddings and orchestral musicians. Anderson released two further song-based solo albums, The Secret Language of Birds in 2000 and Rupi's Dance in 2003. In 2003, Anderson recorded a composition called "Griminelli's Lament", in honour of his friend, the Italian flutist Andrea Griminelli.
In 2011, with the end of Jethro Tull touring, and the question of his friend Derek Shulman (whatever happened to Gerald Bostock?), Anderson begun to produce a sequel to Thick as a Brick (1972), titled Thick as a Brick 2 or TAAB2, was released on 3 April 2012. It is billed as being performed by Jethro Tull's Ian Anderson instead of being a Jethro Tull album proper. Anderson toured performing both albums in their entirety. A trailer for TAAB2 was posted on YouTube.
Anderson released a new album, Homo Erraticus, in May 2014. He described it as a progressive rock concept album blending rock, folk, and metal music. Peaking at No. 14 in the UK Albums Chart it is his most successful ever solo album.
In September 2017, Anderson announced plans for a tour to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of This Was, and a new studio album in 2019. The band line-up includes Anderson, Hammond, Opahle, O'Hara, and Goodier (all musicians of Anderson's solo band since 2012), with Barre absent from the lineup.
On 2 January 2018, Ian Anderson published a New Year post on jethrotull.com, including a picture of Anderson with the caption "IA in the studio working on a new album for release March 2019. Shhhh; keep it a secret..."
On 1 June 2018, Parlophone Records released a new (50-track) career collection celebrating the Jethro Tull's 50th anniversary featuring all 21 Tull albums, named 50 for 50. In the notes of the 50 for 50 booklet it stated that the new album scheduled for 2019 (and later pushed back to 2020, then 2022) would be a solo record by Ian Anderson and not a new album by Jethro Tull. However, that turned out not to be true; the band released The Zealot Gene, the first Jethro Tull studio album in 19 years (and the first with all new, original material in 23 years), on 28 January 2022.
Recognition
In 1973, Anderson appeared, along with several other artists, on the cover of Time, for an article about new directions in early 1970s music.
In recognition of his lifelong contribution to popular music, Anderson received two honours in 2006: the Ivor Novello Award for International Achievement and an honorary Doctorate of Literature at Heriot-Watt University, on 11 July 2006
Anderson was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2008 New Year Honours for services to music.
He was awarded an Honorary Doctorate (Doctor of Letters) from Abertay University in July 2011.
At the 2013 Progressive Music Awards, Anderson was presented with the "Prog God" award.
Musical collaborations and other work
Anderson produced Steeleye Span's 1974 album Now We Are Six, as well as appearing on and producing Steeleye Span member Maddy Prior's first solo album Woman in the Wings (1978), for which Jethro Tull made most instrumental contributions.
Anderson appeared as a guest on the song "All Along You Knew" from The Big Prize (1985), the second album by Canadian rock band Honeymoon Suite. This followed Jethro Tull's 1984 tour, on which Honeymoon Suite was one of the opening acts. Also in 1984, Anderson, along with Martin Barre, Dave Pegg and Peter-John Vettese recorded album A Classic Case with the London Symphony Orchestra, performing a selection of music from Jethro Tull. He was also a DJ on radio station Planet Rock, presenting his own two-hour show Under the Influence. He also appeared on stage with Joe Bonamassa playing Jethro Tull song "A New Day Yesterday" at the Hammersmith Apollo in May 2010.
Anderson plays flute on the Men Without Hats song "On Tuesday" from their album Pop Goes the World (1987), and on the Blackmore's Night song "Play, Minstrel, Play" from their debut album Shadow of the Moon (1997).
Anderson plays flute on the 1998 Roy Harper album The Dream Society. Anderson has acknowledged Harper as having a strong influence upon him.
Anderson performs as a special guest on two Uriah Heep live albums: Acoustically Driven (2001) and Electrically Driven (2001), on both performing the same two songs of Uriah Heep repertoire: "Circus" and "Blind Eye".
Anderson plays flute on the track "Portmeirion" on Fairport Convention's 2001 album XXXV. Anderson has performed with Fairport Convention at their annual Cropredy Festival on several occasions since the mid-1980s, when their bass player Dave Pegg was also a member of Jethro Tull.
Anderson played flute and sang lead vocals on a version of "The Thin Ice" for the 2005 album Back Against the Wall, an all-star tribute album covering Pink Floyd's The Wall in its entirety.
In April 2011, Anderson performed a flute duet with astronaut Cady Coleman, during her mission aboard the International Space Station, in honour of the 50th anniversary of the first manned spaceflight by Yuri Gagarin.
Anderson played the flute on the track "Cannonball" by The Darkness on their 2012 album, Hot Cakes. He played the flute on the track "Cry to the World" by Renaissance on their 2013 album, Grandine il vento. He also played the flute on "The Ocean at the End", the title track from The Tea Party's 2014 album.
He contributed flute on the song "Black Cherry Pie", the third single from JEFF the Brotherhood's 2015 album, Wasted on the Dream.
On 24 March 2017 the studio album Jethro Tull – The String Quartets by Anderson was released, featuring the Carducci String Quartet, conducted by John O'Hara.
The official video for Marc Almond's song 'Lord of Misrule', taken from his 2020 album Chaos and a Dancing Star was released on YouTube on 29 November 2019, featuring Ian Anderson playing flute throughout.
Family and personal life
Anderson is the youngest of three brothers. The oldest of the three, Robin, became administrator of Scottish Ballet in 1973.
From 1970 to 1974, Anderson was married to Jennie Franks, a photographer who is credited with some of the lyrics to the first couple of verses of the song "Aqualung".
Anderson married Shona Learoyd in 1976, described by Rolling Stone magazine as a "beautiful convent-educated daughter of a wealthy wool manufacturer". She had studied ballet for 10 years, though when Anderson met her she was working as a press officer at Jethro Tull's record label at the time, Chrysalis Records. She later became involved with the band's on-stage special effects.
The couple have lived in a 16th-century redbrick farmhouse on the Pophleys Estate in Radnage, England, in Kilmarie House on their Strathaird Estate on the Isle of Skye in Scotland, as well as a short time in Montreux, Switzerland. They currently live in Wiltshire, England, and have another house in Switzerland, near Montreux. They have two children: James Duncan Anderson, also a musician; and Gael, who works in the film industry and is married to actor Andrew Lincoln, star of the US TV drama series The Walking Dead.
Anderson is a survivor of deep vein thrombosis, and has done several public service announcements to raise awareness of the disease.
Anderson lists his interests as protecting wild cats, especially those that have been rescued from harsh captivity; cameras, chiefly Leicas; and Indian cuisine.
Anderson describes himself as being "somewhere between deist and pantheist" religiously, according to his foreword to the pamphlet for his 2006 St Brides charity concerts for the homeless.
During a video interview for The Big Interview with Dan Rather in May 2020, Anderson said he was suffering from the incurable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) after being diagnosed a number of years previously. He went on to state his belief that a likely cause of this condition has been the use of on-stage smoke machines in live performances throughout his long career. Anderson continued medication to treat the condition, avoided areas of high pollution to avoid exacerbation of the disease, and practised breathing exercises to keep his lungs fit, stating that COPD had otherwise not yet affected his day-to-day routine.
Other business activities
Anderson has owned several salmon farms in the UK and Chile. His Strathaird concern, based on his estate on the Isle of Skye, operated until the late 1990s, when parts of it were sold off.
Anderson is a director of four companies: Jethro Tull Production Limited, Calliandra Productions Limited, Ian Anderson Limited, and the Ian Anderson Group of Companies Limited.
Solo discography
Studio albums
Live albums
Collaboration
Jethro Tull – The String Quartets (BMG, 2017) with the Carducci String Quartet
As guest
Honeymoon Suite: The Big Prize (Warner Music Canada, 1986); Anderson plays flute on "All Along You Knew"
Men Without Hats: Pop Goes The World (Mercury Records, 1987); Anderson plays flute on the track "On Tuesday"
The Six and Violence: Lettuce Prey (Fist Records, 1990); Anderson plays on "Bursting Bladder" and "Theological Guns"
Blackmore's Night: Shadow of the Moon (Edel, 1997); Anderson plays flute on "Play Minstrel Play"
James Taylor Quartet: Room at the Top (Sanctuary Records, 2002); Anderson plays flute on "Free"
Magellan: Hundred Year Flood (Magna Carta Records, 2002); Anderson plays flute on "Family Jewels"
Silverwood Quartet: The Classic Rock Album (2005); Anderson plays flute on "Bourrée"
Billy Sherwood: Back Against the Wall (Cleopatra Records, 2005); Anderson plays flute and sings lead vocals on "Thin Thin Ice" and plays flute on "Is There Anybody Out There?"
Various Artists: Asia and Progressive Rock Friends (2008); Anderson sings and plays flute on "The Thin Ice"
Eric Brooke: The Road to Here (2011); Anderson plays flute on "O.K.(Live) "
Saori Jo: Home 2.17 AM (2012); Anderson plays flute on "Fairy World"
Unnur Birna: Sunshine (2013); Anderson plays flute on "Sunshine"
Anna Phoebe: Between the Shadow and the Soul (2014); Anderson plays flute on "A Moment's Deception"
Boris Grebenshchikov: Salt (2014); Anderson plays flute on "Любовь во время войны"
Renaissance: Symphony of Light (2014); Anderson plays flute on "Cry to the World"
Tiles: Pretending 2 Run (Laser's Edge, 2016); Anderson plays flute on "Midwinter"
Helen Andrews: Circling Highs, Unravelling Lows (2016); Anderson plays flute on "Behind the Glass"
John Cooper Clarke & Hugh Cornwell: This Time It's Personal (2016); Anderson plays flute on "MacArthur Park"
Tim Bowness: Lost in the Ghost Light (2017); Anderson plays flute on "Distant Summers"
Tinkara: Cuori di ossigeno (2017); Anderson plays flute on "Maldamore"
Steeleye Span: Est'd 1969 (2019); Anderson plays flute on "Old Matron"
Heather Findlay: Wild White Horses (2019); Anderson plays flute on "Winner"
Mandoki Soulmates: Living in the Gap + Hungarian Pictures (2020); Anderson sings and plays flute on "Let the Music Show You the Way"
Louise Patricia Crane: Deep Blue (Peculiar Doll Records, 2020); Anderson plays flute on "Snake Oil" and "Ophelia"
Steve Bailey: Carolina (2020); Anderson plays flute on "Bourrée"
Robby Steinhardt: Not In Kansas Anymore / A Prog Opera (2021); Anderson plays flute and pennywhistle on "Pizzacato (A Slice For Baby Boy Flynn)"
References
External links
: Jethro Tull - The Official Website of the Legendary Classic Rock Band
Ian Anderson's biography by Stephen Thomas Erlewine, discography and album reviews, credits & releases at AllMusic.com
Ian Anderson's discography, album releases & credits at Discogs.com
Ian Anderson's solo albums to be listened as stream at Play.Spotify.com
Jethro Tull (band) members
Angel Records artists
Anglo-Scots
British rock flautists
British folk rock musicians
20th-century Scottish male singers
Scottish male singer-songwriters
Scottish baritones
Scottish flautists
Scottish rock guitarists
Scottish male guitarists
Scottish folk musicians
Scottish multi-instrumentalists
Scottish rock singers
21st-century Scottish male singers
Chrysalis Records artists
EMI Records artists
Island Records artists
People educated at Blackpool Grammar School
Progressive rock guitarists
Progressive rock musicians
Members of the Order of the British Empire
Ivor Novello Award winners
People from Blackpool
People from Dunfermline
Musicians from Edinburgh
1947 births
Living people
British deists
Pantheists | [
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223498 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War%20Admiral | War Admiral | War Admiral (May 2, 1934 – October 30, 1959) was a champion American Thoroughbred racehorse who is the fourth winner of the American Triple Crown. He was also the 1937 Horse of the Year and well known as the rival of Seabiscuit in the 'Match Race of the Century' in 1938. War Admiral won 21 of his 26 starts with earnings of $273,240 and was the leading sire in North America for 1945. He was also an outstanding broodmare sire whose influence is still felt today in descendants such as Triple Crown winners American Pharoah and Justify.
Background
War Admiral raced as a homebred for Samuel D. Riddle, who also owned Man o' War. War Admiral was foaled at Faraway Farm in Lexington, the offspring of Man o' War and Brushup. Man o' War was widely regarded as the greatest American racehorse of his time, but Brushup never won a race. They were bred together six times, producing five undistinguished fillies and one Triple Crown winner.
War Admiral inherited his father's talent, but did not resemble him physically. At , or 15.3 he was smaller than Man o' War's height of 16.3 hands. War Admiral's dark brown coat was inherited from his dam, who also contributed to War Admiral's smaller size as she was under 15 hands. Because of his size, one of War Admiral's nicknames was The Mighty Atom. Others referred to him simply as The Admiral.
Most sources say that War Admiral also inherited his sire's fiery temperament, which manifested chiefly in his reluctance to load in the starting gate. Away from the crowds though, he was more relaxed and given to taking long naps. His groom called him sweet, and his trainer, George Conway, found him more like his dam in terms of personality. Conway was in a position to know as he had been stable foreman to Louis Feustel while the latter trained Man o' War. Conway stayed with Riddle after Feustel's retirement, and trained several of Man o' War's most successful offspring. War Admiral's regular jockey was Charles Kurtsinger.
Racing career
1936: Two-year-old season
As a two-year-old in 1936, War Admiral won three of six races including the Great American Stakes and Eastern Shore Handicap. However, the star of this crop was then considered to be Pompoon, who defeated War Admiral in the National Stallion Stakes. War Admiral was rated at 121 pounds on the Experimental Free Handicap, seven pounds below two-year-old champion Pompoon and seventh overall.
1937: Three-year-old season
In 1937, War Admiral started his three-year-old campaign by winning two races at Havre de Grace, including the Chesapeake Stakes. Riddle then made a fateful decision. In 1920, Man o' War was not entered in the Kentucky Derby as Riddle did not like racing outside of New York and Maryland, and also felt the distance of the Derby was too great for three-year-olds so early in the season. For War Admiral, Riddle made an exception and made the trip west to Churchill Downs in Louisville. War Admiral went off as the favorite, and, despite delaying the start for several minutes, won in wire-to-wire fashion with Pompoon lengths back in second. Neville Dunn, sports editor for the Lexington Herald, wrote, "A little brown horse that takes after his mammy in size but runs like his daddy charged to victory in the 63rd Kentucky Derby… and he won so easily, so effortlessly, that 65,000 fans nudged one another in the ribs and said, 'I told you so! I told you that War Admiral could run like Man o' War.'"
The Preakness Stakes was held just a week later. After again acting up at the start, War Admiral went to the lead early but had trouble negotiating the turns. Pompoon saved ground along the rail and closed alongside War Admiral as they exited the last turn. The two horses dueled down the stretch with War Admiral finally prevailing by a head.
On June 5, War Admiral faced six rivals in the Belmont Stakes, going off as the 4-5 favorite. He was particularly fractious at the start, repeatedly breaking through the barrier. After delaying the start for eight minutes, he stumbled leaving the gate. He quickly recovered his stride and won the race by three lengths with "speed to spare". His time of 2:28 tied the American Record for miles, while breaking Man o' War's track record by a fifth of a second. War Admiral thus became the fourth winner of the American Triple Crown. But the victory came at a price: War Admiral had struck the quarter of his right front fore-foot when stumbling at the gate, which left a gaping wound. During the race, his jockey did not notice that anything was amiss. But when led into the winner's circle, his connections found that his belly and legs were covered with blood.
The injury was severe enough to cause War Admiral to miss the summer racing season. He returned in October to win three more races, including the Washington Handicap and the inaugural Pimlico Special. All told, in 1937 War Admiral won eight of eight races including the Triple Crown. He was the unanimous selection as Champion 3-Year-Old, and also earned the title of Horse of the Year in a close battle with Seabiscuit, the Champion older horse.
1938: Four-year-old season
In 1938, War Admiral won eight major races, including the Whitney Handicap and Jockey Club Gold Cup. He is linked forever with the year-older Seabiscuit, who was a grandson of Man o' War and the preeminent horse based in the western U.S. Seabiscuit's owner, Charles Howard, brought his horse across country to give Seabiscuit the chance to prove himself to the eastern racing establishment. Seabiscuit and War Admiral almost faced each other several times that summer but for one reason or another, they never met. Finally, a meeting was arranged for November 1, 1938, in the Pimlico Special in what was billed as The Match Race of the Century. Samuel Riddle asked that the race be run without a starting gate in light of War Admiral's problematic history. With War Admiral's early speed, he was widely seen to have a tactical advantage in a match race and went off as the favorite. However, Seabiscuit's trainer had secretly conditioned his horse to bolt at the sound of a starting bell, which resulted in Seabiscuit getting the all-important early lead. Seabiscuit won by four lengths and broke the track record.
War Admiral raced twice more, winning the Rhode Island Handicap in 1938 and a race at Hialeah in February 1939 before an injury prompted his retirement.
Stud career
War Admiral stood at Faraway Farm until 1958, when the executors of Riddle's estate sold the remaining portion of the farm. War Admiral was then moved to Hamburg Place, where he died in 1959.
War Admiral was the leading American sire in 1945 and the leading juvenile sire in 1948. Before his 1959 death, War Admiral sired 40 stakes winners. Major winners sired by War Admiral include champion Blue Peter, Bee Mac, Navy Page, Cold Command, and Admiral Vee. As a sire, War Admiral is perhaps best known for his success with daughters of La Troienne. This cross produced the champion filly and Horse of the Year Busher (ranked #40 in Blood-Horse magazine List of the Top 100 U.S. Racehorses of the 20th Century), as well as stakes winners Searching, Busanda and Mr. Busher.
Although War Admiral's sire line no longer exists, he remains a significant influence in modern pedigrees due to his daughters. He was the Leading broodmare sire of 1962 and 1964. Descendants in the female line include the likes of Swaps, Buckpasser, and Numbered Account, as well as two Triple Crown winners, Seattle Slew and Affirmed. Other descendants of note include Dr. Fager, Alysheba, Cigar and Zenyatta. War Admiral's name appears eight times in the pedigree of the 2015 Triple Crown winner, American Pharoah.
Race record
An asterisk before the odds means War Admiral was the post time favorite
Source: Daily Racing Form Past Performances
Honors and awards
War Admiral was elected to the Hall of Fame in the same year as arch-rival Seabiscuit. In The Blood-Horse ranking of the top 100 US thoroughbred champions of the 20th Century, War Admiral was ranked #13, with Seabiscuit as #25.
In 1937, Riddle commissioned equine artist Martin Stainforth to paint War Admiral's portrait, a version of which can be found in the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame.
War Admiral is buried alongside his sire at the foot of the Man o' War statue in the Kentucky Horse Park.
In popular culture
The 2003 movie Seabiscuit features the match race between Seabiscuit and War Admiral. The film portrays War Admiral at 18 hands even though War Admiral and Seabiscuit were about the same size with Seabiscuit standing at 15.2 hands and outweighing War Admiral
Pedigree
See also
Hillenbrand, Laura. Seabiscuit: An American Legend, (2001), Random House
References
External links
The War Admiral-Seabiscuit match at about.com
War Admiral overview at Thoroughbred Times
War Admiral biography at Thoroughbred Champions
Article about the Seabiscuit-War Admiral match race
1934 racehorse births
1959 racehorse deaths
Racehorses trained in the United States
Horse racing track record setters
Racehorses bred in Kentucky
Kentucky Derby winners
Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing winners
American Thoroughbred Horse of the Year
United States Thoroughbred Racing Hall of Fame inductees
Belmont Stakes winners
Preakness Stakes winners
United States Champion Thoroughbred Sires
American Champion Thoroughbred broodmare sires
Thoroughbred family 11-g
Godolphin Arabian sire line | [
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223499 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane%20Wilde | Jane Wilde | Jane Francesca Agnes, Lady Wilde (née Elgee; 27 December 1821 – 3 February 1896) was an Irish poet under the pen name Speranza and supporter of the nationalist movement. Lady Wilde had a special interest in Irish folktales, which she helped to gather and was the mother of Oscar Wilde and Willie Wilde.
Biography
Personal life
Jane was the last of the four children of Charles Elgee (1783–1824), the son of Archdeacon John Elgee, a Wexford solicitor, and his wife Sarah (née Kingsbury, d. 1851). Her father died when she was three years old which meant she was largely self-educated. Even so, she is said to have mastered 10 languages by the age of 18. Her great-grandfather was an Italian who had come to Wexford in the 18th century.
On 12 November 1851 she married Sir William Wilde, an eye and ear surgeon (and also a researcher of folklore), in St. Peter's church in Dublin, and they had three children: William Charles Kingsbury Wilde (26 September 1852 – 13 March 1899), Oscar Fingal O'Flahertie Wills Wilde (16 October 1854 – 30 November 1900), and Isola Francesca Emily Wilde (2 April 1857 – 23 February 1867). Her eldest son William Wilde became a journalist and poet, her younger son Oscar Wilde became a prolific and famous writer, and her daughter Isola Wilde died in childhood of a fever. Jane was the grandmother of Oscar's sons Cyril and Vyvyan Holland, and of Willie's daughter Dorothy Wilde.
When her husband died in 1876, the family discovered that he was virtually bankrupt. Jane Wilde - now Lady Wilde, following the knighting of her husband in 1864 - joined her sons, Willie and Oscar, in London in 1879, where she was making a name for himself in literary circles. She lived with her older son in poverty, supplementing their meagre income by writing for fashionable magazines and producing books based on the research of her late husband into Irish folklore. She wrote several books including 'Ancient legends, mystic charms, and superstitions of Ireland' (1887). Her poems are said to have influenced her son Oscar's own work. For example, his 'Ballad of Reading Gaol' has been compared to her poem 'The Brothers' (based on a true story of a trial and execution in the 1798 Rebellion).
In January 1896 Lady Wilde contracted bronchitis and, dying, asked for permission to see Oscar, who was imprisoned in Reading Gaol. Her request was refused. It was claimed that her "fetch" (i.e. her apparition) appeared in Oscar's prison cell as she died at her home, 146 Oakley Street, Chelsea, on 3 February 1896. Her funeral was held on 5 February at Kensal Green Cemetery in London. It was paid for by Oscar, as her older son, Willie Wilde, was penniless. She was buried anonymously in common ground without a headstone. In 1996 she was memoralised in the form of a plaque on the grave of Sir William Wilde in Dublin as 'Speranza of The Nation, writer, translator, poet and nationalist, author of works on Irish folklore, early advocate of equality for women, and founder of a leading literary salon'. In 1999, a monument to her, in the form of a Celtic cross, was erected at Kensal Green Cemetery by the Oscar Wilde Society. (It is located at grid square 147 – Cambridge Avenue South (near Canalside), set back 20 metres from the curved path – opposite SQ.148.)
Activist
Lady Wilde was the niece of Charles Maturin and wrote for the Young Ireland movement of the 1840s, publishing poems in The Nation under the pseudonym of Speranza. Her works included pro-Irish independence and anti-British writing; she was sometimes known as "Speranza of the Nation". Charles Gavan Duffy was the editor when "Speranza" wrote commentary calling for armed revolution in Ireland. The authorities at Dublin Castle shut down the paper and brought Charles Duffy to court but he refused to name the person who had written the offending article. "Speranza" reputedly stood up in court and claimed responsibility for the article. While the confession was ignored by the authorities, they permanently shut the newspaper down.
Jane was an early advocate of women's rights, and campaigned for better education for women. She invited the suffragist Millicent Fawcett to her home to speak on female liberty. She praised the passing of the Married Women's Property Act of 1883, which prevented a woman from having to enter marriage 'as a bond slave, disenfranchised of all rights over her fortune'.
Scandals
In 1864 Sir William and Lady Wilde were at the centre of a sensational Dublin court case regarding a young woman called Mary Travers, the daughter of a colleague of Sir William's and a long time patient. Travers claimed that Sir William had drugged her with chloroform and raped her in 1862; when Lady Wilde wrote a letter to Travers's father contesting the allegations, Mary sued her for libel. Mary Travers won the case, although she was only awarded a farthing for damages plus costs. The costs, however, amounted to £2,000.
Biographies
In 1911 the American-born writer Anna de Brémont, who claimed to have had a close friendship with Lady Wilde, published a memoir entitled Oscar Wilde and His Mother.
Mother of Oscar: The Life of Jane Francesca Wilde, Joy Melville, John Murray (1994)
Wilde's Women: How Oscar Wilde Was Shaped by the Women He Knew, Eleanor Fitzsimons, Gerald Duckworth & Co Ltd (16 Oct 2015)
A Critical Biography of Lady Jane Wilde, 1821?-1896, Irish Revoltionist, Humanist, Scholar and Poet, Karen Sasha Anthony Tipper, Edwin Mellen Press (2002)
References
External links
Ancient Legends, Mystic Charms, and Superstitions of Ireland by Lady Wilde
Poems by "Speranza" (Lady Wilde), 1864 – scan of a copy found in the Alumnae Library of Elms College
Poems by "Speranza" (Lady Wilde), 18—at Project Gutenberg
Poems by Speranza, 2nd ed. – transcription at Victorian Women Writers Project (indiana.edu/vwwp)
Works by Lady Wilde at Project Gutenberg
1821 births
1896 deaths
19th-century Irish women writers
19th-century Irish writers
19th-century pseudonymous writers
Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery
Irish folklorists
Irish people of Italian descent
Oscar Wilde
People from Wexford, County Wexford
Protestant Irish nationalists
Pseudonymous women writers | [
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223501 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emily%20Davenport | Emily Davenport | Emily Goss Davenport (April 29, 1810 in Brandon, Vermont – October 5, 1862 in Brandon, Vermont) was an American inventor from Vermont, United States. Emily, with her husband Thomas Davenport, invented an electric motor and electric locomotive circa 1834.
Throughout the process of invention, Emily kept detailed notes and actively contributed to the process. Needing to insulate the motor's iron core, Davenport cut her wedding dress into strips of silk to insulate the wire windings. She is also credited with the idea of using mercury as a conductor, enabling the motor to function for the first time.
References
Further reading
1810 births
1862 deaths
19th-century American inventors
People from Brandon, Vermont
Women inventors | [
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223503 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammer-on | Hammer-on | A hammer-on is a playing technique performed on a stringed instrument (especially on a fretted string instrument, such as a guitar) by sharply bringing a fretting-hand finger down on to the fingerboard behind a fret, causing a note to sound. This technique is the opposite of the pull-off.
Passages in which a large proportion of the notes are performed as hammer-ons and pull-offs instead of being plucked or picked in the usual fashion are known in classical terminology as legato phrases. The sound is smoother and more connected than in a normally picked phrase, due to the absence of the necessity to synchronize the plucking of one hand with the fingering on the fingerboard with the other hand; however, the resulting sounds are not as brightly audible, precisely due to the absence of the plucking of the string, the vibration of the string from an earlier plucking dying off.
The technique also facilitates very fast playing because the picking hand does not have to move at such a high speed, and coordination between the hands only has to be achieved at certain points. Multiple hammer-ons and pull-offs together are sometimes also referred to colloquially as "rolls", a reference to the fluid sound of the technique.
A hammer-on is usually represented in guitar tablature (especially that created by computer) by a letter h.
A rapid series of alternating hammer-ons and pull-offs between a single pair of notes is called a trill.
The term hammer-on was first invented and popularized by Pete Seeger in his book How to Play the 5-String Banjo. Seeger also invented the term pull-off.
In the Banjo tutor book "Ellis's Thorough School For 5 String Banjo" published prior to 1900, the term 'Hammer on' is used to describe the action of performing an embellishment called 'the Shake'. The description is "The Shake, which is marked 'tr', is played in the following manner. Strike(pick) the first note only with the right hand & the remainder of the passage with the 2nd finger of the left hand, by 'hammering on' the string while it is vibrating". In the same tutor book, the action 'pull off' is termed the 'snap'.
See also
Tapping
Guitar picking
Shredding
References
Guitar performance techniques | [
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223504 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylloxera | Phylloxera | Grape phylloxera is an insect pest of commercial grapevines worldwide, originally native to eastern North America. Grape phylloxera (Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (Fitch 1855) belong to the family Phylloxeridae, within the order Hemiptera, bugs); originally described in France as Phylloxera vastatrix; equated to the previously described Daktulosphaera vitifoliae, Phylloxera vitifoliae. The insect is commonly just called phylloxera (; from , leaf, and , dry).
These almost microscopic, pale yellow sap-sucking insects, related to aphids, feed on the roots and leaves of grapevines (depending on the phylloxera genetic strain). On Vitis vinifera, the resulting deformations on roots ("nodosities" and "tuberosities") and secondary fungal infections can girdle roots, gradually cutting off the flow of nutrients and water to the vine. Nymphs also form protective galls on the undersides of grapevine leaves of some Vitis species and overwinter under the bark or on the vine roots; these leaf galls are typically only found on the leaves of American vines.
American vine species (such as Vitis labrusca) have evolved to have several natural defenses against phylloxera. The roots of the American vines exude a sticky sap that repels the nymph form by clogging its mouth when it tries to feed from the vine. If the nymph is successful in creating a feeding wound on the root, American vines respond by forming a protective layer of tissue to cover the wound and protect it from secondary bacterial or fungal infections.
Currently there is no cure for phylloxera and unlike other grape diseases such as powdery or downy mildew, there is no chemical control or response. The only successful means of controlling phylloxera has been the grafting of phylloxera-resistant American rootstock (usually hybrid varieties created from the Vitis berlandieri, Vitis riparia and Vitis rupestris species) to more susceptible European vinifera vines.
Biology
Phylloxera has a complex life-cycle of up to 18 stages, that can be divided into four principal forms: sexual form, leaf form, root form, and winged form.
The sexual form begins with male and female eggs laid on the underside of young grape leaves. The male and female at this stage lack a digestive system, and once hatched, they mate and then die. Before the female dies, she lays one winter egg in the bark of the vine's trunk. This egg develops into the leaf form. This nymph, the fundatrix (stem mother), climbs onto a leaf and lays eggs parthenogenetically in a leaf gall that she creates by injecting saliva into the leaf. The nymphs that hatch from these eggs may move to other leaves, or move to the roots where they begin new infections in the root form. In this form they perforate the root to find nourishment, infecting the root with a poisonous secretion that stops it from healing. This poison eventually kills the vine. This nymph reproduces by laying eggs for up to seven more generations (which also can reproduce parthenogenetically) each summer. These offspring spread to other roots of the vine, or to the roots of other vines through cracks in the soil. The generation of nymphs that hatch in the autumn hibernate in the roots and emerge next spring when the sap begins to rise. In humid areas, the nymphs develop into the winged form, else they perform the same role without wings. These nymphs start the cycle again by either staying on the vine to lay male and female eggs on the bottom side of young grape leaves, or flying to an uninfected vine to do the same.
Many attempts have been made to interrupt this life cycle to eradicate phylloxera, but it has proven to be extremely adaptable, as no one stage of the life cycle is solely dependent upon another for the propagation of the species.
Fighting the "phylloxera plague"
In the late 19th century the phylloxera epidemic destroyed most of the vineyards for wine grapes in Europe, most notably in France. Phylloxera was introduced to Europe when avid botanists in Victorian England collected specimens of American vines in the 1850s. Because phylloxera is native to North America, the native grape species are at least partially resistant. By contrast, the European wine grape Vitis vinifera is very susceptible to the insect. The epidemic devastated vineyards in Britain and then moved to the European mainland, destroying most of the European grape growing industry. In 1863, the first vines began to deteriorate inexplicably in the southern Rhône region of France. The problem spread rapidly across the continent. In France alone, total wine production fell from 84.5 million hectolitres in 1875 to only 23.4 million hectolitres in 1889. Some estimates hold that between two-thirds and nine-tenths of all European vineyards were destroyed.
In France, one of the desperate measures of grape growers was to bury a live toad under each vine to draw out the "poison". Areas with soils composed principally of sand or schist were spared, and the spread was slowed in dry climates, but gradually phylloxera spread across the continent. A significant amount of research was devoted to finding a solution to the phylloxera problem, and two major solutions gradually emerged: grafting cuttings onto resistant rootstocks and hybridization.
Response
By the end of the 19th century, hybridization became a popular avenue of research for stopping phylloxera. Hybridization is the breeding of Vitis vinifera with resistant species. Most native American grapes are naturally phylloxera resistant (Vitis aestivalis, rupestris, and riparia are particularly so, while Vitis labrusca has a somewhat weak resistance to it) but have aromas that are off-putting to palates accustomed to European grapes. The intent of the cross was to generate a hybrid vine that was resistant to phylloxera but produced wine that did not taste like the American grape. The hybrids tend not to be especially resistant to phylloxera, although they are much hardier with respect to climate and other vine diseases. The new hybrid varieties have never gained the popularity of the traditional ones. In the EU they are generally banned or at least strongly discouraged from use in quality wine, although they are still in widespread use in much of North America, such as Missouri, Ontario, and upstate New York.
Grafting with resistant rootstock
Use of a resistant, or tolerant, rootstock, developed by Charles Valentine Riley in collaboration with J. E. Planchon and promoted by T. V. Munson, involved grafting a Vitis vinifera scion onto the roots of a resistant Vitis aestivalis or other American native species. This is the preferred method today, because the rootstock does not interfere with the development of the wine grapes (more technically, the genes responsible for the grapes are not in the rootstock but in the scion), and it furthermore allows the customization of the rootstock to soil and weather conditions, as well as desired vigor.
Not all rootstocks are equally resistant. Between the 1960s and the 1980s in California, many growers used a rootstock called AxR1. Even though it had already failed in many parts of the world by the early twentieth century, it was thought to be resistant by growers in California. Although phylloxera initially did not feed heavily on AxR1 roots, within twenty years, mutation and selective pressures within the phylloxera population began to overcome this rootstock, resulting in the eventual failure of most vineyards planted on AxR1. The replanting of afflicted vineyards continues today.
Many have suggested that this failure was predictable, as one parent of AxR1 is in fact a susceptible V. vinifera cultivar. But the transmission of phylloxera tolerance is more complex, as is demonstrated by the continued success of 41B, an F1 hybrid of Vitis berlandieri and Vitis vinifera. The full story of the planting of AxR1 in California, its recommendation, the warnings, financial consequences, and subsequent recriminations remains to be told. Modern phylloxera infestation also occurs when wineries are in need of fruit immediately, and choose to plant ungrafted vines rather than wait for grafted vines to be available.
The use of resistant American rootstock to guard against phylloxera also brought about a debate that remains unsettled to this day: whether self-rooted vines produce better wine than those that are grafted. Of course, the argument is essentially irrelevant wherever phylloxera exists. Had American rootstock not been available and used, there would be no V. vinifera wine industry in Europe or most places other than Chile, Washington State, and most of Australia. Cyprus was spared by the phylloxera plague, and thus its wine stock has not been grafted for phylloxera resistant purposes.
Aftermath
The only European grapes that are natively resistant to phylloxera are the Assyrtiko grape which grows on the volcanic island of Santorini, Greece, although it is not clear whether the resistance is due to the rootstock itself or the volcanic ash on which it grows; and the Juan Garcia grape variety, autochthonous to the medieval village of Fermoselle in Spain. The Juan Garcia variety remained—untouched by phylloxera—sheltered on the vineyards planted on the man-made land terraces along the mountainous skirts on the gigantic and steep Duero Arribes / Douro River Canyon, where the microclimatic conditions discourage the growth of phylloxera.
To escape the threat of phylloxera, wines have been produced since 1979 on the sandy beaches of Provence’s Bouches-du-Rhône, which extends from the coastline of the Gard region to the waterfront village of Saintes Maries de la Mer. The sand, sun and wind in this area has been a major deterrent to phylloxera. The wine produced here is called "Vins des Sables" or "wines of the sands". In the same department, where the canal irrigation system built by the Romans still partly persists to this day, winter flooding is also practiced where possible, for instance south of the city of Tarascon. Flooding the vineyards for 50 days kills all the nymphs that overwinter in the roots or the bark at the bottom of the plant.
Some regions were so blighted by phylloxera that they never recovered, and instead the producers switched crops entirely. The island of Mallorca is one example, where almonds now substitute for vines.
Vines that survived phylloxera
According to wine critic and author Kerin O'Keefe, thanks to tiny parcels of vineyards throughout Europe which were inexplicably unscathed, some vineyards still exist as they were before the phylloxera devastation.
So far, most Chilean wine has remained phylloxera free. It is isolated from the rest of the world by the Atacama Desert to the north, the Pacific Ocean to the west, and the Andes Mountains to the east. Phylloxera has also never been found in several wine-growing regions of Australia, including Western Australia and South Australia. The Riesling of the Mosel region has also remained untouched by phylloxera; the parasite is unable to survive in the slate soil.
Until 2005, three tiny parcels of ungrafted Pinot noir that escaped phylloxera were used to produce Bollinger Vieilles Vignes Françaises, one of the rarest and most expensive Champagnes available. In 2004, one of the parcels, Croix Rouge in Bouzy, finally succumbed to phylloxera and was replanted with grafted rootstock.
A rare vintage port is made from ungrafted vines grown on a small parcel, called Nacional, in the heart of the Quinta do Noval estate. No explanation has been found as to why this plot survived while others succumbed.
Another vineyard unaffected by the phylloxera is the Lisini estate in Montalcino in Italy, a half-hectare vineyard of Sangiovese with vines dating back to the mid-1800s. Since 1985, the winery has produced a few bottles of Prefillossero (Italian for "before the phylloxera"). The wine has a following, including Italian wine critic Luigi Veronelli who inscribed on a bottle of the 1987 at the winery that drinking Prefillossero was like listening to ‘the earth singing to the sky’.
Jumilla in southeastern Spain is an important area of ungrafted vineyards, mainly from Monastrell grapes. Those vineyards, however, are not immune to the insect, which is slowly advancing and destroying the Pie Franco vineyard of the Casa Castillo estate, planted in 1942, i.e., when phylloxera had already been in the region for five decades.
Large swaths of vineyards on the slopes of Sicily's volcano Mount Etna also remain free of phylloxera. Some vines are more than one-hundred-fifty years old, predating the phylloxera infestation in Sicily (1879–1880). Part of the reason for this is the high concentration of silica sand and very low (less than 3%) concentration of clay in the volcanic soils. In this environment (> 400m AMSL), the surface water from heavy bouts of rain seals the soil so perfectly that it imprisons the insects, effectively drowning them before they are able to thrive.
Bien Nacido Vineyard in Santa Maria Valley AVA of Santa Barbara, CA is a phylloxera-free vineyard. Despite being planted on its own roots, with UC Davis virus-free clones, the vineyard has never been affected by phylloxera. The high percentage of sand in the soil creates a mostly uninhabitable substrate for phylloxera. While Bien Nacido has not been affected, there is a potential, as all of the vines are true Vitis vinifera without scions or grafting. Many of the old vines were planted in 1973 and fall within the blocks G, N, Q and W. The wines of Bien Nacido Estate have a high percentage of these ungrafted and phylloxera-free vines within the cuvée.
Colares vineyards, native to the Portuguese region of Sintra are grown on 3-4 metres of sand, and are therefore unaffected by Phylloxera.
References
Further reading
Boubals, Denis, "Sur les attaques de Phylloxera des racines dans le monde", Progres Agricole et Viticole, Montpellier, 110:416-421, 1993.
Campbell, Christy, "The Botanist and the Vintner: How Wine Was Saved for the World", Algonquin Books, 2005.
Ordish, George, "The Great Wine Blight", Pan Macmillan, 1987.
Powell, Kevin, "Grape phylloxera: An Overview". In Root feeders An Ecosystem perspective (Eds S.N. Johnson & P.J. Murray) CAB International 2008.
Benheim, Devin et al., "Grape phylloxera (Daktulosphaira vitifoliae) – a review of potential detection and alternative management options", Annals of Applied Biology, Volume 161, Issue 2, pages 91–115, September 2012
External links
Web page of the Phylloxera and Grape Industry Board of South Australia
The Vine's Enemy: A profile of phylloxera drawn from the 2nd edition of The Oxford Companion to Wine
Phylloxeridae
Grape pest insects
Insects in culture
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223506 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pull-off | Pull-off | A pull-off is a stringed instrument playing and articulation technique performed by plucking or "pulling" the finger that is grasping the sounding part of a string off the fingerboard of either a fretted or unfretted instrument. This intermediate- to advanced playing technique is done using the tip of a finger or fingernail on the fretting hand. Pull-offs are done to facilitate the playing of embellishments and ornaments such as grace notes. Pull-offs may be notated in sheet music or improvised by the performer, depending on the musical style and context.
Performance and effect
A pull-off is performed on a string which is already vibrating; when the fretting finger is pulled off (exposing the string either as open or as stopped by another fretting finger "lower" on the same string, with "lower" meaning in a position that is lower in pitch) the note playing on the string changes to the new, longer vibrating length of the string. Pull-offs are performed on both fretted instruments (e.g., electric guitar) and unfretted instruments (e.g., violin). They are used to sound grace notes with the transition from one note to the other sounding gentler and less percussive because the string is not picked or bowed again by the typical picking/bowing hand to produce the sound of the second note.
In the transition between the initial and final notes, the string may vibrate in an inharmonic manner for several cycles if it is plucked with the fretting finger, because the string is being plucked in a part of the string not usually used for plucking. The result, a slight "quack" sound, may be particularly audible when the interval of the pull-off is large. This transition also consumes some of the vibrational energy in the sounded string, with the effect that the second note is generally much quieter than the original. On a low-pitched string that is being bowed on a stopped note, say, at the halfway point of the vibrating string length, the player may left-hand flick the string immediately prior to sounding the deep-pitched open string to help the string "speak". Without the left-hand "flick", there could be a half-second delay in the sounding of the deep fundamental.
Acoustic versus electric instruments
On most acoustic instruments, this means the second note has little sustain. As a result, in acoustic music, pull-offs are primarily used as an embellishment. Performers of plucked instruments tend to use "pull-offs" when playing grace notes, usually in conjunction with multiple hammer-ons and strumming or picking to produce a rapid, rippling effect. In rock and heavy metal music, electric guitars are often performed with overdriven amplifiers and/or guitar effects such as distortion pedals and compression pedals are used, which add substantial sustain to the sound. With this type of electronic gear and a powerful instrument amplifier nearing the threshold of feedback, pull-offs can even be used to play sustained notes.
In a variation of the technique, often called a "flick-off", the pulling-off finger is dragged slightly across the face of the string while performing the pull-off. This results in the string being gently sounded, either by the player's finger callus or by their fretting-finger fingernail. This increases the volume and sustain of the pulled-off note, although the sound of the fretting finger dragging over the string may be audible on both an amplified instrument and on a brightly strung acoustic instrument.
Left-hand pizzicato
Classical music of the late romantic period features numerous applications of the technique to bowed string instruments such as the violin, viola, cello, and double bass. In the classical context, the term is referred to as left-handed pizzicato.
When a player switches from arco (bowing) to regular pizzicato, the player normally requires a short pause to switch his or her bowing hand into pizzicato position and pluck the string. With left-hand pizzicato, though, a string player can play a pizzicato note immediately following a bowed note; thus, left-hand pizzicato provides a means to intersperse pizzicato notes into rapid passages of bowed notes. The string on which the note is played may be either open or stopped (fingered); the only requirement for using the technique on a stopped string is that the finger stopping the string be lower than the finger plucking the string.
Left-hand pizzicato appears most prominently in violin "virtuoso pieces" such as Pablo de Sarasate's Zigeunerweisen and Paganini's 24th Caprice.
Etymology
The term pull-off was invented and popularized by Pete Seeger in his book How to Play the 5-String Banjo. Seeger also invented the term hammer-on.
Sources
Guitar performance techniques | [
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223508 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beehive | Beehive | A beehive is an enclosed structure in which some honey bee species of the subgenus Apis live and raise their young. Though the word beehive is commonly used to describe the nest of any bee colony, scientific and professional literature distinguishes nest from hive. Nest is used to discuss colonies that house themselves in natural or artificial cavities or are hanging and exposed. Hive is used to describe an artificial/man-made structure to house a honey bee nest. Several species of Apis live in colonies, but for honey production the western honey bee (Apis mellifera) and the eastern honey bee (Apis cerana) are the main species kept in hives.
The nest's internal structure is a densely packed group of hexagonal prismatic cells made of beeswax, called a honeycomb. The bees use the cells to store food (honey and pollen) and to house the brood (eggs, larvae, and pupae).
Beehives serve several purposes: production of honey, pollination of nearby crops, housing supply bees for apitherapy treatment, and to try to mitigate the effects of colony collapse disorder. In America, hives are commonly transported so that bees can pollinate crops in other areas. A number of patents have been issued for beehive designs.
Honey bee nests
Honey bees use caves, rock cavities and hollow trees as natural nesting sites. In warmer climates they may occasionally build exposed hanging nests; members of other subgenera have exposed aerial combs. The nest is composed of multiple honeycombs, parallel to each other, with a relatively uniform bee space. It usually has a single entrance. Western honey bees prefer nest cavities approximately 45 litres in volume and avoid those smaller than 10 or larger than 100 litres. Western honey bees show several nest-site preferences: the height above ground is usually between and , entrance positions tend to face downward, equatorial-facing entrances are favored, and nest sites over from the parent colony are preferred. Bees usually occupy nests for several years.
The bees often smooth the bark surrounding the nest entrance, and coat the cavity walls with a thin layer of hardened plant resin called propolis. Honeycombs are attached to the walls along the cavity tops and sides, but small passageways are left along the comb edges. The basic nest architecture for all honeybees is similar: honey is stored in the upper part of the comb; beneath it are rows of pollen-storage cells, worker-brood cells, and drone-brood cells, in that order. The peanut-shaped queen cells are normally built at the lower edge of the comb.
Ancient hives
Bees were kept in human-made hives in Egypt in antiquity. The walls of the Egyptian sun temple of Nyuserre Ini from the 5th Dynasty, dated earlier than 2422 BC, depict workers blowing smoke into hives as they remove honeycombs. Inscriptions detailing the production of honey are found on the tomb of Pabasa from the 26th Dynasty (c. 650 BC), and describe honey stored in jars, and cylindrical hives.
The archaeologist Amihai Mazar cites 30 intact hives that were discovered in the ruins of the city of Rehov (2,000 residents in 900 BC, Israelites and Canaanites). This is evidence that an advanced honey industry existed in Israel, approximately 4,000 years ago. The beehives, made of straw and unbaked clay, were found in orderly rows, with a total of 150 hives, many broken. Ezra Marcus from the University of Haifa said the discovery provided a glimpse of ancient beekeeping seen in texts and ancient art from the Near East. An altar decorated with fertility figurines was found alongside the hives and may indicate religious practices associated with beekeeping. While beekeeping predates these ruins, this is the oldest apiary yet discovered.
Traditional hives
Traditional beehives simply provided an enclosure for the bee colony. Because no internal structures were provided for the bees, the bees created their own honeycomb within the hives. The comb is often cross-attached and cannot be moved without destroying it. This is sometimes called a fixed-frame hive to differentiate it from the modern movable-frame hives. Harvest generally destroyed the hives, though there were some adaptations using extra top baskets which could be removed when the bees filled them with honey. These were gradually supplanted with box hives of varying dimensions, with or without frames, and finally replaced by newer modern equipment.
Honey from traditional hives was typically extracted by pressing – crushing the wax honeycomb to squeeze out the honey. Due to this harvesting, traditional beehives typically provided more beeswax, but far less honey, than a modern hive.
Four styles of traditional beehives are mud hives, clay/tile hives, skeps, and bee gums.
Mud hives
Mud hives are still used in Egypt and Siberia. These are long cylinders made from a mixture of unbaked mud, straw, and dung.
Clay hives
Clay tiles were the customary homes of kept bees in the eastern end of the Mediterranean. Long cylinders of baked clay were used in ancient Egypt, the Middle East and to some extent in Greece, Italy and Malta. They sometimes were used singly, but more often stacked in rows to provide some shade, at least for those not on top. Keepers would smoke one end to drive the bees to the other end while they harvested honey.
Skeps
Skeps, baskets placed open-end-down, have been used to house bees for some 2000 years. Believed to have been first used in Ireland, they were initially made from wicker plastered with mud and dung but after the Middle Ages, almost all were made of straw. In northern and western Europe, skeps were made of coils of grass or straw. In its simplest form, there is a single entrance at the bottom of the skep. Again, there is no internal structure provided for the bees and the colony must produce its own honeycomb, which is attached to the inside of the skep.
Skeps have two disadvantages: beekeepers cannot inspect the comb for diseases and pests, and honey removal is difficult and often results in the destruction of the entire colony. To get the honey beekeepers either drove the bees out of the skep or, by using a bottom extension called an eke or a top extension called a cap, sought to create a comb with only honey in it. Quite often the bees were killed, sometimes using lighted sulfur, to allow the honeycomb to be removed. Skeps could also be squeezed in a vise to extract the honey.
As of 1998, most US states prohibited the use of skeps because they cannot be inspected for disease and parasites.
Later skep designs included a smaller woven basket (cap) on top over a small hole in the main skep. This cap acted as a crude super, allowing some honey to be extracted with less destruction of brood and bees. In England, such an extension piece consisting of a ring of about 4 or 5 coils of straw placed below a straw beehive to give extra room for brood rearing was called an eke, imp or nadir. An eke was used to give just a bit of extra room, or to "eke" some more space, a nadir is a larger extension used when a full story was needed beneath.
The term is derived from Old Norse skeppa, "basket". A person who made such woven beehives was called a "skepper", a surname that still exists in western countries. In England the thickness of the coil of straw was controlled using a ring of leather or piece of cow's horn called a "girth" and the coils of straw could be sewn together using strips of briar. Likenesses of skeps can be found in paintings, carvings and old manuscripts. The skep is often used on signs as an indication of industry ("the busy bee").
In the late 18th century, more complex skeps appeared with wooden tops with holes in them over which glass jars were placed. The comb would then be built in the glass jars, making the designs commercially attractive.
In the eastern United States, especially in the southeast, sections of hollow trees were used until the 20th century. These were called "gums" because they often were from black gum (Nyssa sylvatica) trees.
Sections of the hollow trees were set upright in "bee yards" or apiaries. Sometimes sticks or crossed sticks were placed under a board cover to give an attachment for the honeycomb. As with skeps, the harvest of honey from these destroyed the colony. Often the harvester would kill the bees before even opening their nest. This was done by inserting a metal container of burning sulfur into the gum.
Natural tree hollows and artificially hollowed tree trunks were widely used in the past by beekeepers in Central Europe. For example, in Poland such a beehive was called a barć and was protected in various ways from unfavorable weather conditions (rain, frost) and predators (woodpeckers, bears, pine martens, forest dormice). Harvest of honey from these did not destroy the colony, as only a protective piece of wood was removed from the opening and smoke was used to temporarily pacify the bees.
Bee gums are still used by beekeepers today, for bee species including Apis mellifera mellifera whose honey output is less than that of the more productive honeybee. Unlike most beehives (which are optimized for Apis mellifera and Apis cerana), the bee gum allows housing of other bee species. The bee gum allows the bees themselves to organize their nest.
Part of the reason why bee gums are still used is that this allows the producers of the honey to distinguish themselves from other honey producers and to ask a higher price for the honey. An example where bee gums are still used is Mont-Lozère, France, although in Europe they are referred to as log hives. The length of these log hives used is shorter than bee gums; they are hollowed out artificially and cut to a specific size.
Modern hives
The earliest recognizably modern designs of beehives arose in the 19th century, though they were perfected from intermediate stages of progress made in the 18th century.
Intermediate stages in hive design were recorded for example by Thomas Wildman in 1768/1770, who described advances over the destructive old skep-based beekeeping so that the bees no longer had to be killed to harvest the honey. Wildman, for example, fixed a parallel array of wooden bars across the top of a straw hive or skep (with a separate straw top to be fixed on later) "so that there are in all seven bars of deal" [in a hive] "to which the bees fix their combs". He also described using such hives in a multi-story configuration, foreshadowing the modern use of supers: he described adding (at the proper time) successive straw hives below, and eventually removing the ones above when free of brood and filled with honey, so that the bees could be separately preserved at the harvest for the following season. Wildman also described a further development, using hives with "sliding frames" for the bees to build their comb, foreshadowing more modern uses of movable-comb hives. Wildman acknowledged the advances in knowledge of bees previously made by Swammerdam, Maraldi, and de Reaumur – he included a lengthy translation of Reaumur's account of the natural history of bees – and he also described the initiatives of others in designing hives for the preservation of bee-life when taking the harvest, citing in particular reports from Brittany dating from the 1750s, due to Comte de la Bourdonnaye.
In 1814 Petro Prokopovych, the founder of commercial beekeeping in Ukraine, invented one of the first beehive frames which allowed an easier honey harvest.
The correct distance between combs for easy operations in beehives was described in 1845 by Jan Dzierżon as 1½ inches from the center of one top bar to the center of the next one. In 1848, Dzierżon introduced grooves into the hive's side walls replacing the strips of wood for moving top bars. The grooves were , the spacing later termed bee space. The Langstroth hive was the first successful top-opened hive with movable frames. The Langstroth hive was however a direct descendant of Dzierżon's hive designs.
Hives can be vertical or horizontal. There are three main types of modern hive in common use worldwide:
the Langstroth hive
the top-bar hive
the Warre hive
Most hives have been optimized for Apis mellifera and Apis cerana. Some other hives have been designed and optimized for some meliponines such as Melipona beecheii. Examples of such hives are the Nogueira-Neto hive and the UTOB hive.
Vertical hives
Langstroth hives
The key innovation of this type of hive was the use of vertically hanging frames on which bees build their comb. The modern Langstroth hive consists of:
Bottom board: this has an entrance for the bees.
Boxes containing frames for brood and honey: the lowest box for the queen to lay eggs, and boxes above where honey is stored
Inner cover and top cap providing weather protection
Named for their inventor, Rev. Lorenzo Langstroth, Langstroth hives are probably the most commonly used. Langstroth patented his design in the United States on October 5, 1852 originally for comb honey production, but it has become the standard style hive for many of the world's beekeepers, both professional and amateurs.
A common feature of Langstroth hives is the use of specific bee spaces between frames and other parts so that bees are not likely to glue together nor fill these spaces with burr comb (comb joining adjacent frames). The sizes of hive bodies (rectangular boxes without tops or bottoms placed one on top of another) and internal frames are relatively well defined for a particular style. Langstroth hive bodies are rectangular in shape and can be made from a variety of materials that can be stacked to expand the usable space for the bees.
Inside the boxes, frames are hung parallel to each other. Langstroth frames are thin rectangular structures made of wood or plastic and typically have a plastic or wax foundation on which the bees draw out the comb. The frames hold the beeswax honeycomb formed by the bees. Eight or ten frames side by side (depending on the size of the box) will fill the hive body and leave the right amount of bee space between each frame and between the end frames and the hive body.
Langstroth frames can be reinforced with wire, making it possible to spin the honey out of the comb in a centrifuge. As a result, the empty frames and comb can be returned to the beehive for re-filling by the bees. Creating honeycomb involves a significant energy investment, conservatively estimated at 6.25 kilograms of honey needed to create 1 kilogram of comb in temperate climates. Reusing comb can thus increase the productivity of a beekeeping enterprise.
This class of hives includes several other styles, which differ mainly in the size and number of frames used. These include:
BS National hive: This smaller version of the Langstroth class of hive is designed for the less prolific and more docile Buckfastleigh bee strain and for standard dimension parts. It is based on square boxes (460 mm side), with a 225 mm standard/brood box, and shallow 150 mm Supers typically used for honey. The construction of the boxes is relatively complicated (eight pieces), but strong and with easy-to-hold handles. The boxes take frames of 432 mm length, with a relatively long lug (38 mm) and a comb width of 355 mm.
BS Commercial hive: A variation with the same cross-sectional dimensions as a BS National hive (460 mm x 460 mm), but deeper brood box (267 mm/10.5") and supers intended for more prolific bees. The internal structure of the boxes is also simpler, resulting in wider frames (406 mm/16") with shorter handles or lugs. Some find these supers too heavy when full of honey and therefore use National supers on top of a Commercial brood box.
Rose Hive: A hive and method of management developed by Tim Rowe, it is a variation on the BS National hive. The Rose hive maintains the same cross-sectional dimensions of the National hive (460 mm x 460 mm), but opts for a single depth box of 190 mm (7.5"). The single box and frame size are used for both brood and honey supers. Standardizing on one size reduces complexity and allows for the movement of brood or honey frames to any other position in the hive. A queen excluder is avoided, allowing the queen freedom to move where she wants. Boxes are added to the hive above the brood and below the supers. The colony can expand during large nectar flow and retract to lower portions of the hive as the colony shrinks in the fall. When collecting honey, brood and honey frames can be relocated up or down the hive, as needed.
Smith hive
Segeberger Beute (German)
D.E. hive
Frankenbeute (German)
Normalmass (German)
Dadant hive: Developed by Charles Dadant (developed in the US in 1920 from the Dadant-Blatt hive)
Hyper Hyve: Designed by Mike James and incorporates an insulated hive with integrated monitoring.
Warré hives
The Warré hive was invented by the village priest Émile Warré, and is also called "ruche populaire" (fr) or "The People's Hive" (en). It is a modular and storied design similar to a Langstroth hive. The hive body is made of boxes stacked vertically; however, it uses top bars for comb support instead of full frames similar to a Top-Bar Hive, as a general rule. The popularity of this hive is growing among 'sustainable-practice' beekeepers.
The Warre hive differs from other stacked hive systems in one fundamental aspect: when the bees need more space as the colony expands, the new box is "nadired". i.e. positioned underneath the existing box(es). This serves the purpose of warmth retention within the brood nest of the hive, considered vital to colony health.
WBC hives
The WBC, invented by and named after William Broughton Carr in 1890, is a double-walled hive with an external housing that splays out towards the bottom of each frame covering a standard box shape hive inside. The WBC is in many respects the 'classic' hive as represented in pictures and paintings, but despite the extra level of insulation for the bees offered by its double-walled design, many beekeepers avoid it, owing to the inconvenience of having to remove the external layer before the hive can be examined.
CDB hives
In 1890, Charles Nash Abbott (1830–1894), advisor to Ireland's Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction, designed a new Congested Districts Board (CDB) hive in Dublin, Ireland. It was commissioned by the Irish Congested District Board which provided support for rural populations until its absorption in the department of Agriculture.
AZ hives
One of the most famous Slovenian beekeepers was Anton Žnideršič (1874–1947). He developed the AZ hive house and hive box widely used today in Slovenia.
Horizontal hives
Top-bar hives
The top-bar or Kenya hives were developed as a lower-cost alternative to the standard Langstroth hives and equipment. They are becoming very popular in the US due to their alignment with the organic, treatment-free philosophies of many new beekeeping devotees in the United States. They are also popular, owing to their simplicity and low cost, in developing countries. Top-bar hives have movable comb and make use of the concept of bee space.
The top-bar hive is so named because the bees draw their comb from a top bar suspended across the top of a cavity and not inside a full rectangular frame with sides and a bottom bar. The beekeeper does not provide foundation wax (or provides only a small starter piece of foundation) for the bees to build from. The bees build the comb so it hangs down from the top bar. This is in keeping with the way bees build wax in a natural cavity.
The hive body of a common style of a top-bar hive is often shaped like an inverted trapezoid. Unlike the Langstroth design, this style of a top-bar hive is expanded horizontally, not vertically. The top-bar design is a single, much longer box, with the bars hanging in parallel. This common style is sometimes referred to as a horizontal top bar hive or hTBH.
Because top bars are used as opposed to frames, the honey is usually extracted by crushing and straining rather than centrifuging. Because the bees have to rebuild their comb after the honey is harvested, a top-bar hive yields a beeswax harvest in addition to honey. The bees store most of their honey separately from the areas where they are raising the brood. For this reason, bees are not killed when harvesting from a top-bar hive.
Variations:
Dartington long deep (DLD) hive: Being derived from fixing two Deep National hives back-to-back, the DLD can take up to 21 14 × 12 inch frames. It is possible to have two colonies in the brood box, eg ‘swarm’ and ‘parent’, separated by a loose Divider Board, as there is an entrance at either end. It has half-size honey supers, which take six frames that are lighter than full supers and are correspondingly easier to lift than 12-frame National supers. The Dartington was originally developed by Robin Dartington so that he could keep bees on his London rooftop.
Beehaus: A proprietary design for a beehive launched in 2009 based on the Dartington long deep. It is a hybrid of the top-bar hive and a Langstroth hive.
Long box hive
The long box hive is a single story hive utilizing fully enclosed frames (per the dimensions of Langstroth hives or deeper by variation) but is worked horizontally in the manner of Kenya/Tanzanian top-bar hives. This non-stacked style had higher popularity a century ago in the Southeast United States but faded from use due to lack of portability. With the recent popularity of horizontal top-bar hives, the long box hive is gaining renewed but limited utilization. Alternative names are "new idea hive", "single story hive", "Poppleton hive", or simply "long hive".
Symbolism
The beehive is a commonly used symbol in various human cultures. In Europe, it was used by the Romans as well as in heraldry. Most heraldic representation of beehives is in the form of a skep. Bees (and beehives) have some symbols often associated with them though it is not universal:
In modern times, it is a key symbol in Freemasonry. In masonic lectures, it represents industry and co-operation, and as a metaphor cautioning against intellectual laziness, warning that "he that will so demean himself as not to be endeavoring to add to the common stock of knowledge and understanding, maybe deemed a drone in the hive of nature, a useless member of society, and unworthy of our protection as Masons."
The beehive appears on the 3rd Degree emblems on the Tracing Board of Royal Cumberland No. 41, Bath and is explained as such:
The beehive is also used with similar meaning by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, informally known as Mormons. From Latter-day Saint usage, it has become one of the State symbols of Utah (see Deseret).
Relocation and destruction
Relocation
Beekeepers and companies may remove unwanted honey bee nests from structures to relocate them into an artificial hive. This process is called a "cut out".
Destruction
Animal destruction
Black bears destroy hives in their quest for honey and protein rich larvae. Grizzly bears will also eat beehives and are harder to dissuade from taking several beehives.
Hives erected by humans as a defense for their crops against elephants are sometimes destroyed by elephants. These hives are hung on a single metal wire that encircles the crop field of some farms in African elephant territory. The installation is called a BeeHive Fence and was conceived by Lucy King.
Human destruction
Humans have historically destroyed nests and hives of honey-producing bee species in order to obtain honey and beeswax and other bee products.
Humans may also determine that a beehive must be destroyed in the interest of public safety or in the interest of preventing the spread of bee diseases. The U.S. state of Florida destroyed the hives of Africanized honey bees, in 1999. The state of Alaska has issued regulations governing the treatment of diseased beehives via burning followed by burial, fumigation using ethylene oxide or other approved gases, sterilization by treatment with lye, or by scorching. In New Zealand and the United Kingdom, the treatment of hives infected with the disease American foulbrood with antibiotics is prohibited, and beekeepers are required by law to destroy such colonies and hives with fire.
See also
Apidictor
References
External links
American Beekeeping History – The Bee Hive at John's Beekeeping Notebook
Beekeeping tools
Buildings and structures used to confine animals
Shelters built or used by animals
Masonic symbolism
Ukrainian inventions | [
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223515 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jersey%20cattle | Jersey cattle | The Jersey is a British breed of small dairy cattle from Jersey, in the British Channel Islands. It is one of three Channel Island cattle breeds, the others being the Alderney – now extinct – and the Guernsey. It is highly productive – cows may give over 10 times their own weight in milk per lactation; the milk is high in butterfat and has a characteristic yellowish tinge.
The Jersey adapts well to various climates and environments, and unlike many breeds originating in temperate climates, these cows can tolerate heat very well. It has been exported to many countries of the world; in some of them, including Denmark, France, New Zealand, and the United States, it has developed into an independent breed. In Nepal, it is used as a draught animal.
History of the breed
As its name implies, the Jersey was bred on the British Channel Island of Jersey. It apparently descended from cattle stock brought over from the nearby Norman mainland, and was first recorded as a separate breed around 1700.
The breed was isolated from outside influence for over 200 years, from 1789 to 2008.
Before 1789, cows would be given as dowry for inter-island marriages between Jersey and Guernsey. This was, however, not widespread.
In 1789, imports of foreign cattle into Jersey were forbidden by law to maintain the purity of the breed, although exports of cattle and semen have been important economic resources for the island. The restriction on the import of cattle was initially introduced to prevent a collapse in the export price. The United Kingdom levied no import duty on cattle imported from Jersey. Cattle were being shipped from France to Jersey and then shipped onward to England to circumvent the tariff on French cattle. The increase in the supply of cattle, sometimes of inferior quality, was bringing the price down and damaging the reputation of Jersey cattle. The import ban stabilised the price and enabled a more scientifically controlled programme of breeding to be undertaken.
Sir John Le Couteur studied selective breeding and became a Fellow of the Royal Society; his work led to the establishment of the Royal Jersey Agricultural and Horticultural Society in 1833. At that time, the breed displayed greater variation than it does today, with white, dark brown, and mulberry beasts. However, since the honey-brown cows sold best, the breed was developed accordingly. In 1860, 1,138 cows were exported via England, the average price being £16 per head. By 1910, over 1,000 head were exported annually to the United States alone. It is now the fastest-growing dairy breed in the world.
On 1866, at the annual general meeting of the Royal Jersey Agricultural and Horticultural Society, H.G. Shepard noted in his history that "it was resolved – on the motion of Col. Le Couteur, that the Hon. Secretary be hereby invited to open and to carry on a "herd book" in which the pedigree of bulls, cows, and heifers shall be entered for reference to all the members of the Society." In 1869 for the first time, prizes were awarded at the society's shows for herd book stock cattle.
The States of Jersey took a census of stock in 1866, and Jersey then supported 12,037 head of cattle, of which 611 were bulls.
In July 2008, the States of Jersey took the historic step of ending the ban on imports, and allowing the import of bull semen from any breed of cattle, although only semen that is genetically pure enables the resultant progeny to be entered in the Jersey Herd Book. For many decades, each of the 12 parishes in Jersey would hold cattle shows in the spring, summer, and autumn, followed in turn by the main shows held by the Royal Jersey Agricultural and Horticultural Society, where the best of the parish shows would compete. The colour of the rosette secured by a prize-winning cow was said to determine its export value. Today, the RJAHS holds two shows a year, where usually five or six of the remaining 23 herds compete against each other for the top prizes. A Jersey cattle show is also held in Jersey, by the West Show Association.
In February 2010, semen from an impure breed Jersey bull had been imported into the island despite strict laws and checks, and 100 cows had been impregnated with the semen. Their offspring will not be recorded in the Jersey Herd Book.
Jersey cattle were exported to the United States from about 1850. A breed society, the American Jersey Cattle Club, was formed in 1868. In the USA, a distinction is sometimes made between the "American Jersey", which is comparatively coarse and large and has been selectively bred mainly for milk yield, and the original or "Island" type; the latter may also be called "Miniature Jersey".
Characteristics
The Jersey is small. Cows in the island weigh some and stand about at the withers; bulls weigh some . Factors contributing to the popularity of the breed have been their greater economy of production, due to:
The ability to carry a larger number of effective milking cows per unit area due to lower body weight, hence lower maintenance requirements, and superior grazing ability
Calving ease and a relatively lower rate of dystocia, leading to their popularity in crossbreeding with other dairy and even beef breeds to reduce calving related injuries
High fertility
High butterfat (4.84%) and protein (3.95%), and the ability to thrive on locally produced feed
Jerseys occur in all shades of brown, from light tan to almost black. They are frequently fawn in colour. All purebred Jerseys have a lighter band around their muzzles, a dark switch (long hair on the end of the tail), and black hooves, although in recent years, colour regulations have been relaxed to allow a broadening of the gene pool.
The cows are calm and docile; bulls may be unpredictable or aggressive.
Jersey cattle have a greater tendency towards postparturient hypocalcaemia (or "milk fever") in dams, and tend to have frail calves that require more attentive management in cold weather than other dairy breeds due to their smaller body size (which results in an increased surface area-to-mass ratio, increasing heat loss).
Famous Jersey cows
Brown Bessie, the famous champion butter cow of the Chicago World's Fair dairy test, averaged over 18 kg (40 lb) of milk a day for five months, and made 1.3 kg (3 lb) of butter a day.
Huronia Centurion Veronica 20J EX-97% is a well-known show cow of the Jersey breed. In 2003, she was sold for $85,000 at public auction. She was the 2006 World Dairy Expo Supreme Champion. She has also been named the All-American Grand Champion Jersey.
Mainstream Barkley Jubilee holds the top two records for milk production for a Jersey cow. She produced 49,250 lb of milk after calving at 3 years and 6 months of age, and 55,590 lb after calving at 4 years and 8 months old.
Lily Flagg, raised in Northeast Huntsville, Alabama, champion butterfat and milk producer of 1892. She produced a record 1047 lb, 3/4 oz of butter, as well as 11,339 lb of milk. Her owner threw a party in her honour, going so far as to paint his house "butter yellow" for the occasion. She was a "Cow worth Kissing", her value to the community was so high.
Duncan Belle, sired by Highland Magic Duncan, was named the winner of the 2000 Great Cow Contest. This came after she was named the Reserve Grand Champion of the All-American show in 1993. She was also named All-Canadian cow between 1991 and 1993.
Evie, who played the titular role in the 2019 film First Cow.
Musqie Iatola Martha EX-97% is one of the most elite show cow in the Jersey Breed. She is a three time Royal Agriculture Winter Fair Supreme Champion and a two time World Dairy Expo Reserve Supreme Champion as well as a World Dairy Expo Supreme Champion in 2016. She is the youngest cow of any breed to achieve the EX 97 score. She has also been All American cow in 2015.
References
Further reading
Balleine's History of Jersey, Marguerite Syvret and Joan Stevens (1998)
Butterfat in Relation to the Jersey Breed, Boston, E. J. and H. L. Webb, WJCB, 1954.
A Short History on the Origins of Jersey Cattle, Boston Eric, WJCB, 1965
Cattle
Cattle breeds originating in the Channel Islands
Dairy cattle breeds | [
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223517 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G6 | G6 | G6, G.VI, G.6 or G-6 may refer to:
International politics
G6 (EU), the six largest European Union members
Group of Six, a 1975 international summit which led to the G7 and G8
44th G7 summit, referred to as the "G6+1" or just "G6" due to a significant internal conflict with the United States
Transportation
G6 Beijing–Lhasa Expressway, a highway in China
Land
G6 howitzer, a South African self-propelled howitzer
Ford G6, an automobile manufactured by the Ford Motor Company of Australia
Mazda G6 engine, a piston engine made by Mazda
Pontiac G6, a mid-size car that was produced under the Pontiac brand of American automaker General Motors
Vossloh G6, shunting locomotive
Air
Caudron G.6, a 1916 French reconnaissance aircraft
Bf 109 G-6, Variant of a World War 2 German fighter aircraft
Gulfstream G650, a business jet aircraft
Other
G6, the third note in the whistle register
G6 star, a subclass of G-class stars
Group 6 element of the periodic table
G6, a square on a chessboard or a move of a pawn to that square in algebraic chess notation
LG G6, a smartphone manufactured by LG
Moto G6, a smartphone by Motorola Mobility
Samsung Galaxy S6, a smartphone by Samsung Mobile
Like a G6, a song by Far East Movement | [
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