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223524 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichfield%20Cathedral | Lichfield Cathedral | Lichfield Cathedral in Lichfield, Staffordshire, England, is the only medieval English cathedral with three spires. The Anglican Diocese of Lichfield covers Staffordshire, much of Shropshire, and parts of the Black Country and West Midlands. The current Bishop of Lichfield, Michael Ipgrave, was appointed in 2016. It is a Grade I listed building.
Overview
The cathedral is dedicated to St Chad and Saint Mary. Its internal length is , and the breadth of the nave is . The central spire is high and the western spires are about . The stone is sandstone and came from a quarry on the south side of Lichfield. The walls of the nave lean outwards slightly, due to the weight of stone used in the ceiling vaulting; some 200–300 tons of which was removed during renovation work to prevent the walls leaning further.
Lichfield suffered severe damage during the English Civil War in which all of the stained glass was destroyed. In spite of this the windows of the Lady Chapel contain some of the finest medieval Flemish painted glass in existence. Dating from the 1530s it came from the Abbey of Herkenrode in Belgium, in 1801, having been purchased by Brooke Boothby when that abbey was dissolved during the Napoleonic Wars. It was sold on to the cathedral for the same price. There are also some fine windows by Betton and Evans (1819), and many fine late 19th century windows, particularly those by Charles Eamer Kempe.
The Lichfield Gospels, also known as the Book of Chad, are the gospels of Matthew and Mark, and the early part of Luke, written mainly in Latin with some text in early Welsh and dating from around 730. There were originally two volumes but one went missing around the time of the English Civil War. It is closely related in style to the Lindisfarne Gospels. The manuscript is on display in the Chapter House from Easter to Christmas.
The Cathedral Close is one of the most complete in the country and includes a medieval courtyard which once housed the men of the choir. The three spires are often referred to as the "Ladies of the Vale".
History of the cathedral
Early history and elevation to Archbishopric
When Chad was made Bishop of Mercia in 669, he moved his see from Repton to Lichfield, possibly because this was already a holy site, as the scene of martyrdoms during the Roman period. The first cathedral to be built on the present site was in 700, when Bishop Headda built a new church to house the bones of St Chad, which had become a sacred shrine to many pilgrims when he died in 672. Offa, King of Mercia, seemed to resent his own bishops paying allegiance to the Archbishop of Canterbury in Kent who, whilst under Offa's control, was not of his own kingdom of Mercia. Offa therefore created his own archbishopric in Lichfield, who presided over all the bishops from the Humber to the Thames. All this began in 786, with the consent of Pope Adrian. The Pope's official representatives were received warmly by Offa and were present at the Council of Chelsea (787), often called 'the contentious synod', where it was proposed that the Archbishopric of Canterbury be restricted in order to make way for Offa's new archbishop. It was vehemently opposed, but Offa and the papal representatives defeated Archbishop Jaenbert, installing Higbert as the new Archbishop of Lichfield. Pope Adrian sent Higbert the pallium, denoting his support for this move. In gratitude, Offa promised to send an annual shipment of gold to the pope for alms and supplying the lights in St. Peter's church in Rome. However, The Archbishopric of Lichfield lasted for only 16 years, ending soon after Offa's death, when it was restored to Archbishop Aethelheard of Canterbury.
Starting in 1085 and continuing through the twelfth century the original wooden Saxon church was replaced by a Norman cathedral made from stone, and this was in turn replaced by the present Gothic cathedral begun in 1195. It was completed by the building of the Lady Chapel in the 1330s. The Choir dates from 1200, the Transepts from 1220 to 1240 and the Nave was started in 1260. The octagonal Chapter House, which was completed in 1249 and is one of the most beautiful parts of the cathedral with some charming stone carvings, houses an exhibition of the cathedral's greatest treasure, the Lichfield Gospels, an 8th-century illuminated manuscript.
Devastation of the English Civil War
There were three great sieges of Lichfield during the period 1643–1646 as the cathedral close was surrounded by a ditch and defensive walls, which made it a natural fortress. The cathedral authorities with a certain following were for Charles I, but the townsfolk generally sided with Parliament, and this led to the fortification of the close in 1643. Robert Greville, 2nd Baron Brooke, led an assault against it, but was killed by a deflected bullet from John Dyott (known as 'dumb' because he was a deaf mute) who along with his brother Richard Dyott had taken up a position on the battlements of the central cathedral spire on 2 March 1643. Brooke's deputy John Gell, took over the siege. The Royalist garrison surrendered to Gell two days later.
In April of the same year (1643) Prince Rupert led an Royalist expeditionary force from Oxford to recapture Lichfield. The siege started on 8 April. During the second assault Rupert's engineers detonated what is thought to be the first explosive mine to be used in England to breach the defences. Unable to defend the Close, Colonel Russell, the parliamentary commander of the garrison, surrendered on terms to Rupert on 21 April.
The cathedral suffered extensive damage: the central spire was demolished, the roofs ruined and all the stained glass smashed. Bishop Hacket began the restoration of the cathedral in the 1660s, aided by substantial funds donated by the restored monarch, but it was not until the 19th century that the damage caused by the Civil War was fully repaired. Up until the 19th century, on top of an ornamented gable, between the two spires, stood a colossal figure of Charles II, by William Wilson. Today it stands just outside the south doors.
Victorian restoration
Although the 18th century was a golden age for the City of Lichfield, it was a period of decay for the cathedral. The 15th-century library, on the north side of the nave, was pulled down and the books moved to their present location above the Chapter House. Most of the statues on the west front were removed and the stonework covered with Roman cement. At the end of the century James Wyatt organised some major structural work, removing the High Altar to make one worship area of Choir and Lady Chapel and adding a massive stone screen at the entrance to the Choir. Francis Eginton painted the east window and was commissioned by the chapter to do other work in the cathedral.
The ornate west front was extensively renovated in the Victorian era by George Gilbert Scott. It includes a remarkable number of ornate carved figures of kings, queens and saints, working with original materials where possible and creating fine new imitations and additions when the originals were not available. Between 1877 and 1884 the empty niches on the west front were given new statues, most carved by Robert Bridgeman of Lichfield: the statue of Queen Victoria on the north side of the central window was carved by her daughter, Princess Louise.
Wyatt's choir-screen had utilised medieval stone-work which Scott in turn used to create the clergy's seats in the sanctuary. The new metal screen by Francis Skidmore and John Birnie Philip to designs by Scott himself is a triumph of High Victorian art, as are the fine Mintons tiles in the choir, inspired by the medieval ones found in the Choir foundations and still seen in the Library.
Lichfield Angel
In February 2003, an eighth-century sculpted panel of the Archangel Gabriel was discovered under the nave of the cathedral. The 600mm tall panel is carved from limestone, and originally was part of a stone chest, which is thought to have contained the relics of St Chad. The panel was broken into three parts but was still otherwise intact and had traces of red pigment from the period. The pigments on the Lichfield Angel correspond closely to those of the Lichfield Gospels which have been dated to around 730AD. The Angel was first unveiled to the public in 2006, when visitor numbers to the cathedral trebled. After being taken to Birmingham for eighteen months for examination, it is now exhibited in the cathedral.
COVID-19 pandemic
On Friday 15 January 2021, while closed to services during the COVID-19 pandemic, Lichfield Cathedral became the first place of worship in England to accommodate the vaccination programme in the United Kingdom.
Dean and chapter
As of 7 December 2020:
Dean: Adrian Dorber (since 24 September 2005 installation)
Canon Precentor: Andrew Stead (Canon since September 2013; Precentor since Easter 2017; previously Treasurer and school chaplain)
Canon Custos: Jan McFarlane (Canon Residentiary and honorary assistant bishop since 3 April 2020)
Canon Chancellor: Gregory Platten (since 5 July 2020 collation)
Canon Treasurer: vacant (since Stead's 2017 move)
The additional role of Vice Dean has been vacant since Anthony Moore's resignation in 2017.
Lay Chapter
Bryan Ramsell
Anne Parkhill
Margaret Harding
Peter Durrant
Music
Organists
Notable organists of Lichfield Cathedral include the 17th-century composer Michael East, and the musical educator and choral conductor William Henry Harris who conducted at the coronations of both Elizabeth II and George VI
Priest Vicars Choral
The Precentor's Vicar: Vacant
The Dean's Vicar: Vacant
The Chancellor's Vicar: Vacant
The Treasurer's Vicar: Vacant
Lay Vicars Choral and Choristers
The Choir has eight Lay Vicars Choral on staff and in 2021 reduced the full time equivalents from 9 to 6. In the front rows Lichfield has 18 boy Choristers and up to 18 girl Choristers.
Burials
Chad of Mercia, Bishop of the Northumbrians, later Bishop of the Mercians and Lindsey People, and Saint (c. 634–672) — originally buried in the Church of Saint Mary which became part of the cathedral
Geoffrey de Muschamp, Bishop of Coventry (1198–1208)
William de Cornhill, Bishop of Coventry (1214–1223)
Alexander de Stavenby, Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield (1224–1238)
Hugh de Pateshull, Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield (1239–1241)
Roger Weseham, Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield (1245–1256)
Walter Langton, Lord High Treasurer of England and Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield (1296–1321)
Henry Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey, KG, GCB, GCH, PC (1768- 1854), cavalry officer during the Battle of Waterloo.
George Augustus Selwyn, Bishop of Lichfield (1868–1878), first Anglican Bishop of New Zealand (1841–1858) and Primate of New Zealand (1858–1868)
See also
Architecture of the medieval cathedrals of England
Bishops of Lichfield
English Gothic architecture
Lichfield Cathedral School
Lichfield Gospels
List of cathedrals in the United Kingdom
List of Grade I listed buildings in Staffordshire
Grade I listed churches in Staffordshire
Listed buildings in Lichfield
List of the Bishops of the Diocese of Lichfield and its precursor offices
Mercian Trail
Citations
General references
External links
Lichfield Cathedral website
Manuscripts of Lichfield Cathedral—Digital facsimiles of the St Chad Gospels and Cathedral's Wycliffe New Testament; includes overlay viewer, multispectral images, historical images (going back to 1887), collation, and presently sixteen interactive 3D and RTI renderings—University of Oklahoma
Anglican cathedrals in England
Anglo-Saxon cathedrals
Burial sites of the House of Icel
Churches in Lichfield
Diocese of Lichfield
English Gothic architecture in Staffordshire
Former Roman Catholic churches in England
Grade I listed cathedrals
Grade I listed churches in Staffordshire
Pre-Reformation Roman Catholic cathedrals
Tourist attractions in Staffordshire | [
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223526 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burton%20upon%20Trent | Burton upon Trent | Burton upon Trent, also known as Burton-on-Trent or simply Burton, is a market town in Staffordshire, England, close to the border with Derbyshire. In 2011, it had a population of 72,299. The demonym for residents of the town is Burtonian. Burton is southwest of Derby, northwest of Leicester, west-southwest of Nottingham and south of the southern entrance to the Peak District National Park.
Burton is known for its brewing. The town grew up around Burton Abbey. Burton Bridge was also the site of two battles, in 1322 when Edward II defeated the rebel Earl of Lancaster and 1643 when royalists captured the town during the First English Civil War. William Lord Paget and his descendants were responsible for extending the manor house within the abbey grounds and facilitating the extension of the River Trent Navigation to Burton. Burton grew into a busy market town by the early modern period.
The town is served by Burton-on-Trent railway station. The town was also the start and terminus of the now defunct South Staffordshire Line which linked it to Lichfield, Walsall, Dudley and Stourbridge.
History
Rykneld Street, a Roman road, ran north-east through what later became the parish of Burton, linking camps at Letocetum (Wall), near Lichfield and Derventio (Little Chester) near Derby.
Between 666 and 669 Wilfrid, the pro-Roman bishop of York, exercised episcopal functions in Mercia, whose Christian king, Wulfhere, gave him land in various places, on which he established monasteries. Burton was almost certainly one of the sites: the name Andresey given to an island in the river Trent near the parish church means "Andrew's isle" and refers to a church there dedicated to St Andrew. The island is associated with the legend of St Modwen or Modwenna, an Irish abbess. It is likely that any surviving religious house would have been destroyed during the Danish incursion into the area in 874. Place names indicate Scandinavian influence, and several personal names of Scandinavian origin were still used in the area in the early 12th century. In 1003 a Benedictine abbey was established on a new site on the west bank of the Trent at Burton by Wulfric Spott, a thegn. He is known to have been buried in the abbey cloister in 1010, alongside his wife.
Burton Abbey was mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086, where it was said to control lands in Appleby Magna in Leicestershire, and Mickleover, Winshill, Stapenhill, Coton in the Elms, Ca(u)ldwell (in Stapenhill Parish) and Ticknall, all then in Derbyshire. The monastery was the most important in Staffordshire and by the 1530s had the highest revenue. It is known that there were frequent Royal visits to the abbey, including those by William I, Henry II and Edward I. In the 12th and 13th centuries,streets were laid out off the west side of High Street, the earliest being New Street, which stretched from the abbey gates towards the line of Ryknild Street. Horninglow Street at the north end of High Street was part of a major east-west route using the bridge over the river.
A royal charter was granted on 12 April 1200 by King John to the Abbot to hold a market in Burton every Thursday. This charter was later renewed by King Henry III and King Edward IV. There were four annual fairs for trade in horses, cattle and produce: on Candlemas Day, 5 April, Holy Thursday, and 29 October (the feast of St Modwen) although as in other British towns this practice has died out.
While Burton's great bridge over the Trent was in poor repair by the early 16th century, it served as "a comen passage to and fro many countries to the grett releff and comfort of travellyng people", according to the abbot. The bridge was the site of two battles, first in 1322 when Edward II defeated the rebel Earl of Lancaster and also in 1643 when the Royalists captured the town during the First English Civil War.
Under Henry VIII the abbey was dissolved in 1539, to be refounded in 1541 as a collegiate church for a dean (who had been the last abbot) and four prebendaries. It was again dissolved in 1545 and granted to Sir William Paget. Paget began planning to expand the Manor House within the abbey precincts, known to have existed since at least 1514, into a grand mansion. To provide the materials for this project, the old abbey buildings were to be cannibalised. There were major alterations to the house over the next three centuries. Sir William died in 1563.
In 1585 it was suggested that Mary, Queen of Scots might stay at Burton while Tutbury Castle was cleaned, but it was said that it was "a ruinous house, the buildings scattered and adjoining a very poor town, full of bad neighbours". The Paget family was implicated in Catholic plots against Queen Elizabeth I, the manor house along with most of the family estates were confiscated, with the Manor House leased to Richard Almond in 1612. Parts of the abbey church may have been retained for parish use, however these were demolished and replaced by a new church in 1719–1726. Some fragments remain of the chapter house nearby, but little of the rest remains. Two buildings were converted to residential use—a part known as the Manor House and the former Infirmary. The Infirmary became known as The Abbey and is now an inn.
Canals and breweries
The Paget family's lands and title were restored to them by James I in 1602 and they owned considerable estates around Burton for over 150 years. In 1699, William Lord Paget obtained an Act of Parliament to extend navigation on the River Trent from Nottingham up to Burton, but nothing was immediately done. In 1711 Lord Paget leased his rights to George Hayne, who in 1712 opened the River Trent Navigation and constructed a wharf and other buildings in the precinct of the old abbey. This led to the development of Burton as the major town for brewing and exporting beer, as it allowed Burton beer to be shipped to Hull, and on to the Baltic Sea and Prussia, as well as to London, where it was being sold in 1712. A number of breweries opened in the second half of the 18th century. The Napoleonic blockade badly affected overseas trade, leading to some consolidation and a redirection of the trade to London and Lancashire via canals. When Burton brewers succeeded in replicating the pale ale produced in London, the advantage of the water's qualities, in a process named Burtonisation allowed the development of the trade of Burton India Pale Ale (an ale specially brewed to keep during the long sea voyage to India). New rail links to Liverpool enabled brewers to export their beer throughout the British Empire.
Burton came to dominate the brewing trade, and at its height one quarter of all beer sold in Britain was produced here. In the second half of the 19th century there was a growth in native breweries,supplemented by outside brewing companies moving into the town, so that over 30 breweries were recorded in 1880. However at the beginning of the 20th century there was a slump in beer sales, causing many breweries to fail; the industry suffered from the Liberal government's anti-drinking attitudes. This time no new markets were found and so the number of breweries shrank by closure and consolidation from 20 in 1900 to 8 in 1928. After further mergers and buy-outs, just three main breweries remained by 1980: Bass, Ind Coope and Marston's.
Burton was home to the Peel family, who played a significant role in the Industrial Revolution. The family home is still visible in the town as Peel House on Lichfield Street. Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II visited the town on 3 July 2002 during her Golden Jubilee celebrations.
Governance
Burton is the administrative centre for the borough of East Staffordshire and forms part of the Burton constituency. The local Member of Parliament (MP) is the Conservative Party's Kate Griffiths, who has represented the Burton constituency since December 2019. The Conservatives took the seat from Labour in the 2010 general election with an 8.7% swing.
Burton was incorporated as a municipal borough in 1878. The incorporated area was split between the counties of Staffordshire and Derbyshire – the Local Government Act 1888 incorporated the entirety of the borough in Staffordshire, including the former Derbyshire parishes of Stapenhill and Winshill. It became a county borough in 1901, having reached the 50,000 population required.
It never substantially exceeded the population of 50,000, and at a population of 50,201 in the 1971 census was the smallest county borough in England after Canterbury. The Local Government Commission for England recommended in the 1960s that it be demoted to a non-county borough within Staffordshire, but this was not implemented. Under the Local Government Act 1972, the town became on 1 April 1974, an unparished area in the new district of East Staffordshire.
The town became entirely parished on 1 April 2003, when the parishes of Anglesey, Branston, Brizlincote, Burton, Horninglow and Eton, Shobnall, Stapenhill, and Winshill were created. Burton parish itself only covers the town centre, with the other parishes covering various suburbs.
Geography
Burton is about north west of London, about 30 miles north east of Birmingham, the UK's second largest city and about 23 miles east of the county town Stafford. It is at the easternmost border of the county of Staffordshire with Derbyshire, its suburbs and the course of the River Trent forming part of the county boundary. It is also near the south-eastern terminus of the Trent and Mersey Canal.
Burton lies within the northern boundary of the National Forest.
The town centre is on the western bank of the River Trent in a valley bottom; its average elevation is about 50 metres above sea level; the village of Winshill and the suburb of Stapenhill rise to 130 m and 100 m respectively.
Burton became a centre for the brewing industry due in part to the quality of the local water, which contains a high proportion of dissolved salts, predominantly caused by the gypsum in the surrounding hills. This allowed a greater proportion of hops, a natural preservative, to be included in the beer, thereby allowing the beer to be shipped further afield. Much of the open land within and around the town is protected from chemical treatment to help preserve this water quality.
Region
There is some confusion as to whether Burton is in the West Midlands or the East Midlands, even though the entire urban centre is southwest of the River Dove, which forms the Derbyshire/Staffordshire boundary. Being situated in Staffordshire, the town officially lies within the West Midlands region. Several factors contribute to the ambiguity of the town's status. The local vernacular shares more similarities with East Midlands English than West Midlands English; the town was formerly within the East Midlands Utility (electricity/gas) areas and has Derby postcodes (DE13-DE15). However, it is served by the BBC Midlands (West Midlands) region based in Birmingham and before consolidation exercises formed part of the ITV Central (West) region, again based in Birmingham.
Green belt
The suburbs of Winshill, Brizlincote and Stapenhill to the southeast of the town lie along a green-belt area, in place to stop uncontrolled development which could cause Burton to, in time, merge with neighbouring Swadlincote. The majority of this green belt lies in Derbyshire, with small tracts within Staffordshire.
Demography
The town had an estimated population of 43,784 in the 2001 Census. Stapenhill and Winshill were treated separately and together had a further population of 21,985 according to this source. According to the 2001 census, 71% of the town's population identify themselves as Christian, 12% as atheist or agnostic and 8.5% as Muslim.
In the 2011 Census, the population of the town, now treated wholly, came to 72,299.
Economy
Brewing
For centuries brewing was Burton's major trade, and it is still an important part of its economy.
The town is currently home to eight breweries; Coors Brewers Ltd: formerly Bass Brewers Ltd, and now the UK arm of Molson Coors Brewing Company – which produces Carling and Worthington Bitter; Marston's, Thompson and Evershed plc, bought by Wolverhampton & Dudley Breweries now renamed Marstons plc. The Marston's Brewery produces its own brands, draught Marston's Pedigree, draught Hobgoblin and also draught Bass under licence from InBev.
Burton Bridge Brewery is based in Bridge Street, with six pubs in and around Burton. It produces a number of traditional beers including Bridge Bitter, Stairway to Heaven, Damson Porter and Golden Delicious. Tower Brewery is a microbrewery off Wharf Road. Old Cottage Brewery is based in Hawkins Lane. Its beers include Oak Ale and Halcyon Daze. Black Hole Brewery is based at the Imex Centre. Gates Brewery microbrewery is in Reservoir Road.
Burton is also the corporate headquarters of the pub operators Punch Taverns plc and Spirit Pub Company, which were spun out of Bass in 1997. In addition, the White Shield microbrewery remains open alongside the National Brewery Centre (formerly the Bass Museum of Brewing).
A by-product of the brewing industry is the Marmite factory in the town. The original Marmite factory (now demolished) was at the corner of Cross Street and Duke Street before they moved to the current factory on Wellington Road in the 1960s. The production of Marmite has in turn generated the production of Bovril. Both are owned by multinational company Unilever.
Burton is also home to CAMRA's National Breweriana Auction that takes place each October in the Town Hall.
Manufacturing
Eatough's (sometimes Etough's) was a shoemaking firm from Leicestershire that opened a factory in Burton Road, Branston in 1920. It was the first British shoe factory to introduce music in the workplace (1936), and washable children's sandals ('Plastisha' 1957), but it closed in 1989 as a result of competition from cheap imports.
Briggs of Burton (formerly S. Briggs & Co.) is a Burton-based brewery and process engineering company established in 1732 by Samuel Briggs. Famous for its manufacturing innovation and craftsmanship across the world, Briggs moved from its works in New Street to Derby Street having taken over its rival Robert Morton DG in 1988. The former site is now occupied by the Octagon Shopping Centre.
Established in 1740, Thornewill and Warham was a metal hardware and industrial metalwork manufacturer, later an engineering company that became a notable producer of steam engines and railway locomotives. It also constructed two footbridges across the River Trent in Burton. It too was acquired by S. Briggs & Co, in 1929.
Retail
A market has been held on Thursdays in Burton since a charter was granted to the abbot by King John on 12 April 1200. Burton today has an indoor and an outdoor market, which are owned by East Staffordshire Borough Council. In 2011 the council contracted out responsibility for market stall rentals to private letting agency Quarterbridge. The Market Hall was built in 1883 from designs by Dixon & Moxon of Barnsley and opens from Tuesday to Saturday. A fish market was added to the hall in 1925. The outdoor market is held every Thursday, Friday and Saturday from 8.30am until 4pm. A farmer's market is held in the market square on the last Friday of every month.
The Coopers Square shopping centre is the principal shopping area, opened in 1970 by the Princess Alexandra but since considerably upgraded with a roof being added in the mid-1990s. The older Riverside Shopping Centre (known as Bargates) is now demolished.
An additional shopping centre is the Octagon Centre on New Street, constructed in the mid-1980s. There is another, much smaller shopping centre, Burton Place Shopping Centre, which was built in 1986 and originally known as Worthington Walk. Also located in the town centre is Middleway Retail Park, which includes a Cineworld multiplex cinema, Mecca Bingo, Matalan and restaurants, including Bella Italia and Nando's.
In 2005 a report by the New Economics Foundation rated Burton at 13.3 out of 60 for "individuality", putting it in the top ten clone towns in England, because of the large number of chain stores in the town centre. Since then events such as a French market have been organised to bring more footfall into the town centre.
Services
At one time Nord Anglia Education had its office at Nord House in Burton-upon-Trent.
Media services include Burton Mail and Capital Mid-Counties broadcasting on 102.4 FM from Winshill Water Tower.
Burton upon Trent power station in Wetmore Road generated electricity for the town, including the tram system, until it closed in 1976.
Distribution and warehousing
Due to Burton's relative location in the centre of England and its transport links which allow easy access to Birmingham (the second largest UK city), Derby, Nottingham, Leicester and other locations, there are a significant number of warehouses based in Burton (and nearby Fradley Park).
Notable businesses with distribution centres and warehouses include B&Q, Boots, Hobbycraft, Holland & Barrett, DHL, Waterstones, Clipper and Amazon.
Culture and community
Culture
The main venue for live theatre and other performing and visual arts is The Brewhouse, which is run by East Staffordshire Council. During the 1970s and 1980s a number of well known rock bands appeared at the 76 Club nightclub in Burton, including Dire Straits and the Sex Pistols.
Bloodstock Open Air is an annual festival of heavy metal music, which takes place in August and has been held at Catton Hall in Walton-on-Trent, 8 miles south-west of Burton since 2005.
Burton Operatic Society is a musical theatre company based in Burton and produces two productions each year. The town was also home to the Burton School of Speech and Drama on Guild Street where many professional and amateur actors and actresses learned their craft. Following the closure of the school in July 1984, its in-house amateur company, the Little Theatre Players, continued life as an independent amateur drama company called The Little Theatre Company. LTC currently stages at least four productions a year in the town: two plays, a musical and a youth production.
Burton has one of the oldest amateur radio clubs in the UK. It was formed in 1919, although there were enthusiasts of wireless telegraphy in Burton well before the First World War. One of the founder members of the club was F. V. A. Smith, call sign XSR, (X = experimental station). Smith was licensed on 3 July 1914 and one month later, he received a message from the Marconi spark transmitter at Poldhu in Cornwall, being sent to London, on the eve of the outbreak of war. The message, which has survived and is in the present club archives, was announcing the mobilisation of Russian, French and Belgian troops.
The Statutes Fair takes place in the town every year on the first Monday and Tuesday after Michaelmas (29 September). This is usually on the first Monday/Tuesday in October but can occasionally fall on 30 September/1 October as in 2002. The fair occupies the Market Place and parts of High Street, New Street and Lichfield Street for two days.
Community facilities
The local Sea Cadet unit is TS (Training Ship) Modwena alongside the River Trent and road bridge. The town's Air Training Corps unit is No 351 (Burton-upon-Trent) Squadron. The local Army Reserve unit is F (Fire Support) Company, 4 Mercian Regiment, an infantry unit at Coltman House Army Reserve Centre, Hawkins Lane; the unit was formerly a volunteer brigade of the North Staffordshire Regiment.
Landmarks
The town's connection with the brewing industry is celebrated in The Burton Cooper, a bronze sculpture by James Walter Butler. It was commissioned in 1977 and depicts a local craftsman making a barrel. It originally stood opposite the market and – despite opposition from many townspeople – was moved to its present location inside the Coopers Square Shopping Centre in 1994.
The National Brewery Centre (previously Coors Visitor Centre & the Museum of Brewing, before that it was the Bass Museum of Brewing), which celebrates the town's brewing heritage is its biggest tourist attraction. Claymills Pumping Station on the north side of Burton is a restored Victorian sewage pumping station, adjacent to the modern sewage works. Until 2005/2006 one of Burton's most distinguishable landmarks was Drakelow Power Station just south of Burton on the opposite side of the River Trent. The chimneys, boiler-house building and cooling towers have since been demolished.
The former Magistrates' Court is a distinctive neo-classical domed building in a commanding position facing Guild Street. It was built by Richard Kershaw to designs by Henry Beck and opened in 1909.
Finney's post, part of an ornate mediaeval oak post which once stood at the corner of the Market Place and High Street, is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.
The Horninglow Street drill hall dates back to the early 19th century.
Transport
River
Burton now lies on both sides of the River Trent. Historically there was just one bridge over the river, Burton Old bridge (which carries the A511) and there was a small ferry that operated from "time immemorial". This was eventually replaced by the Ferry Bridge. A second road crossing of the Trent is St Peter's Bridge (which carries the A5189) was opened in 1985.
Road
The A38, which passes slightly north of the town connects Burton to Birmingham via Lichfield (South-West) and Derby (North-East). The A444 links traffic to Coventry and the M42 motorway and the A511 links traffic to Leicester. The A5121 carries traffic through the middle of Burton connecting to the A38, A5189 and A511 respectively. The A5189 runs (West-East) across Burton and connects the A444 through Burton and across the River Trent.
Rail
The town is served by Burton-on-Trent railway station, which is accessed from the bridge on Borough Road. The station has two platforms, (Platform One for Derby, Nottingham and the North), (Platform Two for Tamworth, Birmingham and the South). The station is situated on the Cross Country Route between the principal cities of Derby and Birmingham.
The station's operator is East Midlands Railway, although no East Midlands Railway trains call there. All of services are provided by CrossCountry, with trains between Cardiff Central, Birmingham and Nottingham as well as longer-distance services to destinations such as Bristol Temple Meads, Leeds and Newcastle. Burton is positioned at the southern terminus of the aborted Ivanhoe line.
The station utilises the PlusBus scheme where train and 'bus tickets can be bought together at a saving.
Bus
The town had its own municipal buses operated by Burton Corporation Transport and later East Staffordshire District Council after 1974. This was taken over by Stevensons of Uttoxeter in the mid-1980s and in turn was absorbed by Arriva Midlands in the late 1990s.
Midland Classic currently operate the majority of buses in the town to outlying areas such as Uttoxeter, Horninglow, Edge Hill, Stapenhill, Queen's Hospital Burton, Winshill, Stretton, Abbots Bromley, Tatenhill, Wetmore, Branston, Lichfield, Ashby-de-la-Zouch and East Midlands Airport having taken over the local depot of Arriva Midlands at Wetmore Road in August 2016.
Arriva Midlands continue to operate service 29 to Coalville and Leicester along with service X38 to Derby, jointly run with trentbarton who also run the villager V1 and V3 services to Derby.
Religious sites
The mother church of Burton is St Modwen's, a Georgian building which replaced the former Burton Abbey's church. Other Anglican parish churches built to serve the expanding population include Holy Trinity, St Mark's, Winshill, St Paul's, St John the Divine, Horninglow, St Chad's, All Saints and St Mary's, Stretton.
There are five mosques in Burton, three Bareilvi or Sufi, one Deobandi and one Salafi.
There is a Sikh Gurdwara established in St Chad's Community Centre.
Although there was a small Jewish community in Burton in the early half of the 20th century, there is no record of a synagogue being established. There was however a close relationship with the community in Derby, whose minister acted as visiting teacher and shochet.
Education
Burton & South Derbyshire College (BSDC) is a general further education college and is situated in the town centre. It attracts approximately 13,000 students from Burton and the surrounding towns and villages. It delivers a wide range of courses for all ages including 14- to 19-year-olds, adults into part-time study, employer training and higher education. Recently a 'university centre' has been developed within the college to enable students to study on franchised higher education courses, but is not in itself a university.
The University of Wolverhampton's School of Health and Wellbeing has a presence at Burton Health Education Centre located at the Queen's Hospital, which specialises in nursing.
Sport
Since the establishment of the Football League in 1888, Burton has been represented by four separate clubs in the League, two of which played in the league simultaneously in the 1890s. Burton Swifts became members of the Football League in 1892, and were joined by Burton Wanderers in 1894. Swifts played at Peel Croft, whilst Wanderers home ground was Derby Turn. Wanderers left the League in 1897, and the two clubs merged to form Burton United in 1901, with the new club playing at Peel Croft. United were voted out of the Football League in 1907, and folded in 1910. Burton All Saints were then left as the town's main club, becoming Burton Town in 1924, but folded in 1940. In 1950 Burton Albion were founded. Having moved from Eton Park to the Pirelli Stadium in 2005, Albion became the town's fourth Football League club in 2009 after winning the Football Conference. The team now play in League 1, the third tier of the English football league system, following relegation in 2017–18, after two years in The Championship. Burton is also the location of the St George's Park National Football Centre, which opened in 2012.
The Burton & District Cricket League has many notable clubs, including Burton Cricket Club, Dunstall Cricket Club, Abbott's Bromley, Yoxall and Lichfield Cricket Club.
Burton Rugby Football Club, one of the oldest rugby union clubs in the country, was established in 1870, when it played both association and rugby football rules. It did not adopt rugby union only rules until 1876.
The town is also home to the Burton Canoe Club on the banks of the River Trent. It has recently expanded and built its own clubhouse. Also along the River Trent in Burton are Burton Leander Rowing Club, which was founded in 1847 (and is one of the oldest rowing clubs in the country), and Trent Rowing Club, founded in 1863.
Burton Hockey Club was established in 1899. The club promotes and supports seven men's teams, four ladies' teams, and a popular and successful youth academy. Home matches are played at Shobnall Leisure Complex in the shadows of Marstons Brewery, Shobnall Road. The club has also been recognised as working towards providing a Safe, Effective and Child Friendly club environment, and as such has been awarded the England Hockey Club's First Accreditation, (EH id: 1180).
Burton is home to the Powerhouse Gym International All-Round Weightlifting team, which was set up in 1985 by Steve Gardner (former World All-Round Weightlifting Champion – inducted into the IAWA (UK) Hall of Fame in 2000). The club trains All-Round Weightlifters, including powerlifting and Olympic weightlifting and is affiliated to the International All-Round Weightlifting Association. The Burton club hosted the 2008 IAWA World Championships.
Notable people
Early times
Robert Sutton (1544–1587 in Stafford) a Roman Catholic priest and martyr, beatified in 1987.
Edward Wightman (c.1580–1612), a General Baptist, last religious martyr to be burnt at the stake for 'heresy' in England.
Daniel Watson (c.1617–1683) an English lawyer and politician, a captain of dragoons in the Derbyshire cavalry, a J.P. and he acquired and lived in Nether Hall
18th C.
Isaac Hawkins Browne FRS (1705–1760) politician, poet, and MP for Much Wenlock 1744–1754, friend of Samuel Johnson
William Bass, (1717–1787) founder of the brewery business of Bass & Co in Burton in 1777
John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent, (1735–1823) Admiral of the Fleet studied at Burton Grammar School from 1745 to 1749.
Sir Jeffry Wyatville RA (1766–1840) an English architect and garden designer, made alterations and extensions to Chatsworth House and Windsor Castle.
19th C.
Michael Arthur Bass, 1st Baron Burton (1837–1909), industrialist, politician and philanthropist, member of the Bass brewing dynasty.
John Gretton, 1st Baron Gretton CBE, VD, TD, PC, JP, DL (1867–1947) businessman, Conservative MP for Burton 1918–1943 and gold medallist at the 1900 Summer Olympics
Sir William Bass, 2nd Baronet (1879–1952) a British racehorse owner and supporter of the early British film industry
Arthur Mayger Hind (1880–1957), art historian and Keeper of the Department of Prints, British Museum, 1933–1945
William Harold Coltman VC, DCM & Bar, MM & Bar (1891–1974) recipient of the Victoria Cross
Lieutenant Colonel James Herbert Porter (1892–1973); creator of Newcastle Brown Ale
Oswald Mosley (1896–1980), leader of the British Union of Fascists.
20th C.
Mabel Mercer (1900–1984), Jazz and Cabaret singer
Rosalyn Boulter (1916–1997), actress, George Formby's co-star in George In Civvy Street as well as many British films
Phil Seamen, (1926–1972), jazz drummer, who played and recorded with many famous jazz musicians
Sir Stanley Clarke CBE, (1933–2004) businessman (St. Modwen Properties plc) and racecourse owner
Philip Bond, (1934–2017) actor, played Albert Frazer in the 1970s BBC nautical drama The Onedin Line
Christine Grahame MSP (born 1944), SNP politician and Deputy Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament
David Macaulay, (born 1946), illustrator and writer
Anthony Hardy, (1951–2020) convicted serial murderer
Alastair Yates (1952–2018) former Sky News and BBC News journalist
Brigadier Mike Stone (born 1953) a retired British Army officer, former Director of Information of the British Army and former Chief Information Officer of the Ministry of Defence
Joe Jackson, (born 1954) an English musician and singer-songwriter
Nicholas Whittaker, (born 1957), author, journalist and former pupil of Burton Grammar School
Paul Harvey (born 1960) a British musician and Stuckist artist
Andrew Bridgen MP (born 1964), Conservative Party MP for North West Leicestershire. Brexiteer.
Alison Lapper MBE (born 1965) an English artist, member of the Association of Mouth and Foot Painting Artists of the World
Andrew Griffiths MP (born 1970) Conservative for Burton
Paddy Considine, (born 1973), actor, film director, screenwriter, and musician
Anna Passey, (born 1984), actress
Nathan Dawe (born 1994) DJ and producer
The Leisure Society (formed 2009) rock band formed by Nick Hemming
Luca Gallone , (born 1996) magician
Sport
Arthur Girling (1807–1849) a cricketer who played for the North of England cricket team and Manchester
Adrian Capes (1873–1955) and Arthur Capes (1875–1945) footballing brothers, over 640 pro appearances between them
Francis Pickering (1891–1966), professional footballer who played as a forward
George Newberry (1917–1978) a track cyclist, bronze medallist in the 4.000m team pursuit at the 1952 Summer Olympics
David Nish, (born 1947) former Leicester City and Derby County footballer who broke the British transfer record in 1972.
Vic Halom (born 1948) a former footballer, played 452 pro games and stood for Parliament in Sunderland North in 1992
Mark Holtom (born 1958) a retired English 110 m hurdler, who competed in the 1980 and 1984 Summer Olympics
Neville Brown (born 1966) a British former boxer, British middleweight champion 1993–1998
Mark Sale (born 1972) an English former professional footballer who played 321 pro games, now a first team coach under Gary Rowett with Stoke City
Darren Stride (born 1975) a former professional footballer, captained Burton Albion for 12 years and played 654 games
Tracey Hallam (born 1975) a former English badminton player, competed in the 2004 and 2008 Summer Olympics
Beth Rodford (born 1982) a British rower, she participated in the 2008 and 2012 Summer Olympics in London
Peter Hickman, (born 1987) English professional motorcycle racer.
Lewin Nyatanga, (born 1988), professional footballer plays for Northampton Town F.C. (on loan from Barnsley).
Emily Simpkins (born 1990) an English footballer who plays as a midfielder for Brighton & Hove Albion W.F.C.
Frazer Clarke (born 1991) a British professional boxer who won a bronze medal at the 2020 Summer Olympics.
Kane Hemmings (born 1991) an English professional footballer who plays as a striker for Burton Albion F.C.
Max Bird (born 2000) an English professional footballer who plays as a defensive midfielder for Derby County F.C.
References
Notes
Bibliography
Joseph Addison in The Spectator in 1712 recorded visiting Vauxhall Gardens where he drank a glass of Burton ale.
In the poem "Terence, this is stupid stuff" from A.E. Housman's A Shropshire Lad, the speaker asks the question, "Say, for what were hop-yards meant, / Or why was Burton built on Trent?" referring to the town's history of beer brewing.
Further reading
Burton-on-Trent, Its History, Its Waters and Its Breweries by W Molyneux. Published by Trubner, 1869.
History of Burton upon Trent by CH Underhill. Published by Tresises, Burton, 1941.
County Borough, the History of Burton upon Trent 1901–1974. Part 1, Edwardian Burton by Denis Stuart. Published by The Charter Trustees of Burton upon Trent, 1975.
County Borough, the History of Burton upon Trent 1901–1974. Part 2, 1914–1974 by Denis Stuart. Published by The Charter Trustees of Burton upon Trent, 1977.
Deus Nobiscum, A History of Burton Grammar School by GE Radford. Published by GE Radford, 1973.
A Brief History of St Modwen's, the Parish Church of Burton-upon-Trent by Ernest Aldington Hunt. Published by British Publishing Co, Gloucester, 1973.
The Development of Industry in Burton-upon-Trent by CC Owen. Published by Phillimore, Chichester, 1978.
Charters of Burton Abbey by PH Sawyer. Published by Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1979.
External links
Burton Local History
Burton upon Trent Local Community Site
Love Burton History previously Burton 2000
Market towns in Staffordshire
Borough of East Staffordshire
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223529 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River%20Trent | River Trent | The River Trent is the third-longest river in the United Kingdom. Its source is in Staffordshire on the southern edge of Biddulph Moor. It flows through and drains most of the metropolitan central and northern Midlands south and east of its source north of Stoke-on-Trent. The river is known for dramatic flooding after storms and spring snowmelt, which in past times often caused the river to change course.
The river passes through Stoke-on-Trent, Stone, Rugeley, Burton upon Trent and Nottingham before joining the River Ouse at Trent Falls to form the Humber Estuary, which empties into the North Sea between Hull in Yorkshire and Immingham in Lincolnshire. The wide Humber estuary has often been described as the boundary between the Midlands and the north of England.
Name
The name "Trent" is possibly from a Romano-British word meaning "strongly flooding". More specifically, the name may be a contraction of two Romano-British words, tros ("over") and hynt ("way"). This may indeed indicate a river that is prone to flooding. However, a more likely explanation may be that it was considered to be a river that could be crossed principally by means of fords, i.e. the river flowed over major road routes. This may explain the presence of the Romano-British element rid (cf. Welsh rhyd, "ford") in various place names along the Trent, such as Hill Ridware, as well as the Old English‐derived ford. Another translation is given as "the trespasser", referring to the waters flooding over the land. According to Koch at the University of Wales, the name Trent derives from the Romano-British Trisantona, a Romano-British reflex of the combined elements *tri-sent(o)-on-ā- (through-path-augmentative-feminine-) ‘great thoroughfare’. A traditional but almost certainly wrong opinion is that of Izaak Walton, who states in The Compleat Angler (1653) that the Trent is "... so called from thirty kind of fishes that are found in it, or for that it receiveth thirty lesser rivers."
Course
The Trent rises within the Staffordshire Moorlands district, near the village of Biddulph Moor, from a number of sources including the Trent Head Well. It is then joined by other small streams to form the Head of Trent, which flows south, to the only reservoir along its course at Knypersley. Downstream of the reservoir it passes through Stoke-on-Trent and merges with the Lyme, Fowlea and other brooks that drain the six towns of the Staffordshire Potteries to become the River Trent. On the southern fringes of Stoke, it passes through the landscaped parkland of Trentham Gardens.
The river then continues south through the market town of Stone, and after passing the village of Salt, it reaches Great Haywood, where it is spanned by the 16th-century Essex Bridge near Shugborough Hall. At this point the River Sow joins it from Stafford. The Trent now flows south-east past the town of Rugeley until it reaches Kings Bromley where it meets the Blithe. After the confluence with the Swarbourn, it passes Alrewas and reaches Wychnor, where it is crossed by the A38 dual carriageway, which follows the route of the Roman Ryknild Street. The river turns north-east where it is joined by its largest tributary, the Tame (which is at this point actually the larger, though its earlier length shorter) and immediately afterwards by the Mease, creating a larger river that now flows through a broad floodplain.
The river continues north-east, passing the village of Walton-on-Trent until it reaches the large town of Burton upon Trent. The river in Burton is crossed by a number of bridges including the ornate 19th-century Ferry Bridge that links Stapenhill to the town. To the north-east of Burton the river is joined by the River Dove at Newton Solney and enters Derbyshire, before passing between the villages of Willington and Repton where it turns directly east to reach Swarkestone Bridge. Shortly afterwards, the river becomes the Derbyshire-Leicestershire border, passing the traditional crossing point of King's Mill, Castle Donington, Weston-on-Trent and Aston-on-Trent.
At Shardlow, where the Trent and Mersey Canal begins, the river also meets the Derwent at Derwent Mouth. After this confluence, the river turns north-east and is joined by the Soar before reaching the outskirts of Nottingham, where it is joined by the Erewash near the Attenborough nature reserve and enters Nottinghamshire. As it enters the city, it passes the suburbs of Beeston, Clifton and Wilford; where it is joined by the Leen. On reaching West Bridgford it flows beneath Trent Bridge near the cricket ground of the same name, and beside The City Ground, home of Nottingham Forest, until it reaches Holme Sluices.
Downstream of Nottingham it passes Radcliffe on Trent, Stoke Bardolph and Burton Joyce before reaching Gunthorpe with its bridge, lock and weir. The river now flows north-east below the Toot and Trent Hills before reaching Hazelford Ferry, Fiskerton and Farndon. To the north of Farndon, beside the Staythorpe Power Station the river splits, with one arm passing Averham and Kelham, and the other arm, which is navigable, being joined by the Devon before passing through the market town of Newark-on-Trent and beneath the town's castle walls. The two arms recombine at Crankley Point beyond the town, where the river turns due north to pass North Muskham and Holme to reach Cromwell Weir, below which the Trent becomes tidal.
The now tidal river meanders across a wide floodplain, at the edge of which are located riverside villages such as Carlton and Sutton on Trent, Besthorpe and Girton. After passing the site of High Marnham power station, it becomes the approximate boundary between Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire and reaches the only toll bridge along its course at Dunham on Trent. Downstream of Dunham the river passes Church Laneham and reaches Torksey, where it meets the Foss Dyke navigation which connects the Trent to Lincoln and the River Witham. Further north at Littleborough is the site of the Roman town of Segelocum, where a Roman road once crossed the river.
It then reaches the town of Gainsborough with its own Trent Bridge. The river frontage in the town is lined with warehouses, that were once used when the town was an inland port, many of which have been renovated for modern use. Downstream of the town the villages are often named in pairs, representing the fact that they were once linked by a river ferry between the two settlements. These villages include West Stockwith and East Stockwith, Owston Ferry and East Ferry, and West Butterwick and East Butterwick. At West Stockwith the Trent is joined by the Chesterfield Canal and the River Idle and soon after enters Lincolnshire fully, passing to the west of Scunthorpe. The last bridge over the river is at Keadby where it is joined by both the Stainforth and Keadby Canal and the River Torne.
Downstream of Keadby the river progressively widens, passing Amcotts and Flixborough to reach Burton upon Stather and finally Trent Falls. At this point, between Alkborough and Faxfleet the river reaches the boundary with Yorkshire and joins the River Ouse to form the Humber which flows into the North Sea.
Migration of course in historic times
Unusually for an English river, the channel altered significantly during historic times, and has been described as being similar to the Mississippi in this respect, especially in its middle reaches, where there are numerous old meanders and cut-off loops. An abandoned channel at Repton is described on an old map as 'Old Trent Water', records show that this was once the main navigable route, with the river having switched to a more northerly course in the 18th century. Farther downstream at Hemington, archaeologists have found the remains of a medieval bridge across another abandoned channel. Researchers using aerial photographs and historical maps have identified many of these palaeochannel features, a well-documented example being the meander cutoff at Sawley. The river's propensity to change course is referred to in Shakespeare's play Henry IV, Part 1:
Henry Hotspur's speech complaining about the river has been linked to the meanders near West Burton, however, given the wider context of the scene, in which conspirators propose to divide England into three after a revolt, it is thought that Hotspur's intentions were of a grander design, diverting the river east towards the Wash such that he would benefit from a much larger share of the divided Kingdom. Downstream of Burton upon Trent, the river increasingly trends northwards, cutting off a portion of Nottinghamshire and nearly all of Lincolnshire from his share, north of the Trent. The idea for this scene, may have been based on the disagreement regarding a mill weir near Shelford Manor, between local landowners Gilbert Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, and Sir Thomas Stanhope which culminated with a long diversion channel being dug to bypass the mill. This took place in 1593 so would have been a contemporary topic in the Shakespearean period.
Prehistory
During the Pleistocene epoch (1.7 million years ago), the River Trent rose in the Welsh hills and flowed almost east from Nottingham through the present Vale of Belvoir to cut a gap through the limestone ridge at Ancaster and thence to the North Sea. At the end of the Wolstonian Stage (c. 130,000 years ago) a mass of stagnant ice left in the Vale of Belvoir caused the river to divert north along the old Lincoln river, through the Lincoln gap, along what is now the course of the Witham. During a following glaciation (Devensian, 70,000 BC) the ice held back vast areas of water – called Glacial Lake Humber – in the current lower Trent basin. When this retreated, the Trent adopted its current course into the Humber.
Catchment
The Trent basin covers a large part of the Midlands, and includes the majority of the counties of Staffordshire, Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire and the West Midlands; but also includes parts of Lincolnshire, South Yorkshire, Warwickshire and Rutland. The catchment is located between the drainage basins of the Severn and its tributary the Avon to the south and west, the Weaver to the north-west, the tributaries of the Yorkshire Ouse to the North and the basins of the Welland, Witham and Ancholme to the east.
A distinctive feature of the catchment is the marked variation in the topography and character of the landscape, which varies from the upland moorland headwaters of the Dark Peak, where the highest point of the catchment is the Kinder Scout plateau at ; through to the intensively farmed and drained flat fenland areas that exist alongside the lower tidal reaches, where ground levels can equal sea level. These lower reaches are protected from tidal flooding by a series of floodbanks and defences.
Elsewhere there is a distinct contrast between the open limestone areas of the White Peak in the Dove catchment, and the large woodland areas, including Sherwood Forest in the Dukeries area of the Idle catchment, the upland Charnwood Forest, and the National Forest in the Soar and Mease drainage basins respectively.
Land use is predominantly rural, with some three-quarters of the Trent catchment given over to agriculture. This ranges from moorland grazing of sheep in the upland areas, through to improved pasture and mixed farms in the middle reaches, where dairy farming is important. Intensive arable farming of cereals and root vegetables, chiefly potatoes and sugar beet occurs in the lowland areas, such as the Vale of Belvoir and the lower reaches of the Trent, Torne and Idle.
Water level management is important in these lowland areas, and the local watercourses are usually maintained by internal drainage boards and their successors, with improved drainage being assisted by the use of pumping stations to lift water into embanked carrier rivers, which subsequently discharge into the Trent.
The less populous rural areas are offset by a number of large urbanised areas including the conurbations of Stoke-on-Trent, Birmingham and the surrounding Black Country in the West Midlands; and in the East Midlands the major university cities and historical county seats of Leicester, Derby and Nottingham. Together these contain the majority of the 6 million people who live in the catchment.
The majority of these urban areas are in the upper reaches of either the Trent itself, as is the case with Stoke, or its tributaries. For example, Birmingham lies at the upper end of the Tame, and Leicester is located towards the head of the Soar. Whilst this is not unique for an English river, it does mean that there is an ongoing legacy of issues relating to urban runoff, pollution incidents, and effluent dilution from sewage treatment, industry and coal mining. Historically, these issues resulted in a considerable deterioration in the water quality of both the Trent and its tributaries, especially the Tame. To bring clean water to the West Midlands, Birmingham Corporation created a large reservoir chain and aqueduct system to bring water from the Elan Valley.
Geology
Underlying the upper reaches of the Trent, are formations of Millstone Grit and Carboniferous Coal Measures which include layers of sandstones, marls and coal seams. The river crosses a band of Triassic Sherwood sandstone at Sandon, and it meets the same sandstone again as it flows beside Cannock Chase, between Great Haywood and Armitage, there is also another outcrop between Weston-on-Trent and King's Mill.
Downstream of Armitage the solid geology is primarily Mercia Mudstones, the course of the river following the arc of these mudstones as they pass through the Midlands all the way to the Humber. The mudstones are not exposed by the bed of the river, as there is a layer of gravels and then alluvium above the bedrock. In places, however the mudstones do form river cliffs, most notably at Gunthorpe and Stoke Lock near Radcliffe on Trent, the village being named after the distinctive red coloured strata.
The low range of hills, which have been formed into a steep set of cliffs overlooking the Trent between Scunthorpe and Alkborough are also made up of mudstones, but are of the younger Rhaetic Penarth Group.
In the wider catchment the geology is more varied, ranging from the Precambrian rocks of the Charnwood Forest, through to the Jurassic limestone that forms the Lincolnshire Edge and the eastern watershed of the Trent. The most important in terms of the river are the extensive sandstone and limestone aquifers that underlie many of the tributary catchments. These include the Sherwood sandstones that occur beneath much of eastern Nottinghamshire, the Permian Lower Magnesian limestone and the carboniferous limestone in Derbyshire. Not only do these provide baseflows to the major tributaries, the groundwater is an important source for public water supply.
Sand, gravels and alluvium deposits that overlie the mudstone bedrock occur almost along the entire length of the river, and are an important feature of the middle and lower reaches, with the alluvial river silt producing fertile soils that are used for intensive agriculture in the Trent valley. Beneath the alluvium are widespread deposits of sand and gravel, which also occur as gravel terraces considerably above the height of the current river level. There is thought to be a complex succession of at least six separate gravel terrace systems along the river, deposited when a much larger Trent flowed through the existing valley, and along its ancestral routes through the water gaps at Lincoln and Ancaster.
This ‘staircase’ of flat topped terraces was created as a result of successive periods of deposition and subsequent down cutting by the river, a product of the meltwater and glacially eroded material produced from ice sheets at the end of glacial periods through the Pleistocene epoch between 450,000 and 12,000 years BP. Contained within these terraces is evidence of the mega fauna that once lived along the river, the bones and teeth of animals such as the woolly mammoth, bison and wolves that existed during colder periods have all been identified. Another notable find in a related terrace system near Derby from a warmer interglacial period, was the Allenton hippopotamus.
The lower sequences of these terraces have been widely quarried for sand and gravel, and the extraction of these minerals continues to be an important industry in the Trent Valley, with some three million tonnes of aggregates being produced each year. Once worked out, the remaining gravel pits which are usually flooded by the relatively high water table have been reused for a wide variety of purposes. These include recreational water activities, and once rehabilitated, as nature reserves and wetlands.
During the end of the last Devensian glacial period the formation of Lake Humber in the lowest reaches of the river, meant that substantial lake bed clays and silts were laid down to create the flat landscape of the Humberhead Levels. These levels extend across the Trent valley, and include the lower reaches of the Eau, Torne and Idle. In some areas, successive layers of peat were built up above the lacustrine deposits during the Holocene period, which created lowland mires such as the Thorne and Hatfield Moors.
Hydrology
The topography, geology and land use of the Trent catchment all have a direct influence on the hydrology of the river. The variation in these factors is also reflected in the contrasting runoff characteristics and subsequent inflows of the principal tributaries. The largest of these is the River Tame, which contributes nearly a quarter of the total flow for the Trent, with the other significant tributaries being the Derwent at 18%, Soar 17%, the Dove 13%, and the Sow 8%. Four of these main tributaries, including the Dove and Derwent which drain the upland Peak District, all join within the middle reaches, giving rise to a comparatively energetic river system for the UK.
Rainfall
Rainfall in the catchment generally follows topography with the highest annual rainfall of and above occurring over the high moorland uplands of the Derwent headwaters to the north and west, with the lowest of , in the lowland areas to the north and east. Rainfall totals in the Tame are not as high as would be expected from the moderate relief, due to the rain shadow effect of the Welsh mountains to the west, reducing amounts to an average of for the tributary basin.
The average for the whole Trent catchment is which is significantly lower than the average for United Kingdom at and lower than that for England at .
Like other large lowland British rivers, the Trent is vulnerable to long periods of rainfall caused by sluggish low pressure weather systems repeatedly crossing the basin from the Atlantic, especially during the autumn and winter when evaporation is at its lowest. This combination can produce a water-logged catchment that can respond rapidly in terms of runoff, to any additional rainfall. Such conditions occurred in February 1977, with widespread flooding in the lower reaches of the Trent when heavy rain produced a peak flow of nearly at Nottingham. In 2000 similar conditions occurred again, with above average rainfall in the autumn being followed by further rainfall, producing flood conditions in November of that year.
Another meteorological risk, although one that occurs less often, is that related to the rapid melting of snow lying in the catchment. This can be a result of a sudden rise in temperature after a prolonged cold period, or when combined with extensive rainfall. Many of the largest historical floods were caused by snowmelt, but the last such episode occurred when the bitter winter of 1946-7 was followed by a rapid thaw due to rain in March 1947 and caused severe flooding all along the Trent valley.
At the other extreme, extended periods of low rainfall can also cause problems. The lowest flows for the river were recorded during the drought of 1976, following the dry winter of 1975/6. Flows measured at Nottingham were exceptionally low by the end of August, and were given a drought return period of greater than one hundred years.
Discharge
The river's flow is measured at several points along its course, at a number of gauging stations. At Stoke-on-Trent in the upper reaches, the average flow is only , which increases considerably to , at Great Haywood, as it includes the flow of the upper tributaries draining the Potteries conurbation. At Yoxall, the flow increases to due to the input of larger tributaries including the Sow and Blithe. At Drakelow upstream of Burton the flow increases nearly three-fold to , due to the additional inflow from the largest tributary the Tame. At Colwick near Nottingham, the average flow rises to , due to the combined inputs of the other major tributaries namely the Dove, Derwent and Soar. The last point of measurement is North Muskham here the average flow is , a relatively small increase due to the input of the Devon, and other smaller Nottinghamshire tributaries.
The Trent has marked variations in discharge, with long term average monthly flows at Colwick fluctuating from in July during the summer, and increasing to in January.
During lower flows the Trent and its tributaries are heavily influenced by effluent returns from sewage works, especially the Tame where summer flows can be made up of 90% effluent. For the Trent this proportion is lower, but with nearly half of low flows being made up of these effluent inflows, it is still significant. There are also baseflow contributions from the major aquifers in the catchment.
Average monthly flows of Trent in cubic metres per second measured at Colwick (Nottingham).
Sediment
In the lower tidal reaches the Trent has a high sediment load, this fine silt which is also known as ‘warp', was used to improve the soil by a process known as warping, whereby river water was allowed to flood into adjacent fields through a series of warping drains, enabling the silt to settle out across the land. Up to of deposition could occur in a single season, and depths of have been accumulated over time at some locations. A number of the smaller Trent tributaries are still named as warping drains, such as Morton warping drain, near Gainsborough.
Warp was also used as a commercial product, after being collected from the river banks at low tide, it was transported along the Chesterfield Canal to Walkeringham where it was dried out and refined to be eventually sold as a silver polish for cutlery manufacturers.
Floods
The Trent is widely known for its tendency to cause significant flooding along its course, and there is a well documented flood history extending back for some 900 years. In Nottingham the heights of significant historic floods from 1852 have been carved into a bridge abutment next to Trent Bridge, with flood marks being transferred from the medieval Hethbeth bridge that pre-dated the existing 19th-century crossing. Historic flood levels have also been recorded at Girton and on the churchyard wall at Collingham.
One of the earliest recorded floods along the Trent was in 1141, and like many other large historical events was caused by the melting of snow following heavy rainfall, it also caused a breach in the outer floodbank at Spalford. Some of the earliest floods can be assessed by using Spalford bank as a substitute measure for the size of a particular flood, as it has been estimated that the bank only failed when flows were greater than , the bank was also breached in 1403 and 1795.
Early bridges were vulnerable to floods, and in 1309 many bridges were washed away or damaged by severe winter floods, including Hethbeth Bridge. In 1683 the same bridge was partially destroyed by a flood that also meant the loss of the bridge at Newark. Historical archives often record details of the bridge repairs that followed floods, as the cost of these repairs or pontage had to be raised by borrowing money and charging a local toll.
The largest known flood was the Candlemas flood of February 1795, which followed an eight-week period of harsh winter weather, rivers froze which that meant mills were unable to grind corn, and then followed a rapid thaw. Due to the size of the flood and the ice entrained in the flow, nearly every bridge along the Trent was badly damaged or washed away. The bridges at Wolseley, Wychnor and the main span at Swarkestone were all destroyed. In Nottingham, residents of Narrow Marsh were trapped by the floodwaters in their first floor rooms, boats were used to take supplies to those stranded. Livestock was badly affected, 72 sheep drowned in Wilford and ten cows were lost in Bridgford. The vulnerable flood bank at Spalford was breached again, floodwaters spreading out across the low-lying land, even reaching the River Witham and flooding Lincoln. Some were flooded for a period of over three weeks.
A description of the breach was given as follows:
The bank is formed upon a plain of sandy nature, and when it was broken in 1795, the water forced an immense breach, the size of which may be judged from the fact that eighty loads of faggots and upwards of four hundred tons of earth were required to fill up the hole, an operation which took several weeks to complete.
The flood bank was subsequently strengthened and repaired, following further floods during 1824 and 1852.
The principal flood of the 19th century and the second largest recorded, was in October 1875. In Nottingham a cart overturned in the floodwaters near the Wilford Road and six people drowned, dwellings nearby were flooded to a depth of . Although not quite as large as 1795 this flood devastated many places along the river, at Burton upon Trent much of the town was inundated, with flooded streets and houses, and dead animals floating past in the flood. Food was scarce, "in one day 10,000 loaves had to be sent into the town and distributed gratuitously to save people from famine". In Newark the water was deep enough to allow four grammar school boys to row across the countryside to Kelham. The flood marks at Girton show that this flood was only lower than that of 1795, when the village was flooded to a depth of .
On 17–18 March 1947 the Trent overtopped its banks in Nottingham. Large parts of the city and surrounding areas were flooded with 9,000 properties and nearly a hundred industrial premises affected some to first floor height. The suburbs of Long Eaton, West Bridgford and Beeston all suffered particularly badly. Two days later, in the lower tidal reaches of the river, the peak of the flood combined with a high spring tide to flood villages and 2,000 properties in Gainsborough. River levels dropped when the floodbank at Morton breached, resulting in the flooding of some of farmland in the Trent valley.
Flooding on the Trent can also be caused by the effects of storm surges independently of fluvial flows, a series of which occurred during October and November 1954, resulting in the worse tidal flooding experienced along the lower reaches. These floods revealed the need for a tidal protection scheme, which would cope with the flows experienced in 1947 and the tidal levels from 1954, and subsequently the floodbanks and defences along the lower river were improved to this standard with the works being completed in 1965. In December 2013, the largest storm surge since the 1950s occurred on the Trent, when a high spring tide combined with strong winds and a low pressure weather system, produced elevated tidal river levels in the lower reaches. The resulting surge overtopped the flood defences in the area near Keadby and Burringham, flooding 50 properties.
The fifth largest flood recorded at Nottingham occurred in November 2000, with widespread flooding of low-lying land along the Trent valley, including many roads and railways. The flood defences around Nottingham and Burton constructed during the 1950s, following the 1947 event, stopped any major urban flooding, but problems did occur in undefended areas such as Willington and Gunthorpe, and again at Girton where 19 houses were flooded.
The flood defences in Nottingham that protect 16,000 homes and those in Burton where they prevent 7,000 properties from flooding were reassessed after this flood, and were subsequently improved between 2006 and 2012.
History of navigation
Nottingham seems to have been the ancient head of navigation until the Restoration, due partly to the difficult navigation of the Trent Bridge. Navigation was then extended to Wilden Ferry, near to the more recent Cavendish Bridge, as a result of the efforts of the Fosbrooke family of Shardlow.
Later, in 1699, the baron William Paget (Lord Paget), who owned coal mines and land in the area, obtained an Act of Parliament to extend navigation up to Fleetstones Bridge, Burton, despite opposition from the people of Nottingham. Lord Paget seems to have funded the work privately, building locks at King's Mill and Burton Mills and several cuts and basins. The Act gave him absolute control over the building of any wharves and warehouses above Nottingham Bridge. Lord Paget leased the navigation and the wharf at Burton to George Hayne, while the wharf and warehouses at Wilden were leased by Leonard Fosbrooke, who held the ferry rights and was a business partner of Hayne. The two men refused to allow any cargo to be landed which was not carried in their own boats, and so created a monopoly.
In 1748, merchants from Nottingham attempted to end this monopoly by landing goods on the banks and into carts, but Fosbrooke used his ferry rope to block the river, and then created a bridge by mooring boats across the channel, and employing men to defend them. Hayne subsequently scuppered a barge in King's Lock, and for the next eight years goods had to be transhipped around it. Despite a Chancery injunction against them, the two men continued with their action. Hayne's lease expired in 1762, and Lord Paget's son, the Earl of Uxbridge, gave the new lease to the Burton Boat Company.
The Trent and Mersey Canal was authorised by Act of Parliament in 1766, and construction from Shardlow to Preston Brook, where it joined the Bridgewater Canal, was completed by 1777. The canal ran parallel to the upper river to Burton upon Trent, where new wharfs and warehouses at Horninglow served the town, and the Burton Boat Company were unable to repair the damaged reputation of the river created by their predecessors. Eventually in 1805, they reached an agreement with Henshall & Co., the leading canal carriers, for the closure of the river above Wilden Ferry. Though the river is no doubt legally still navigable above Shardlow, it is probable that the agreement marks the end of the use of that stretch of the river as a commercial navigation.
The lower river
The first improvement of the lower river was at Newark, where the channel splits into two. The residents of the town wanted to increase the use of the branch nearest to them, and so an Act of Parliament was obtained in 1772 to authorise the work. Newark Navigation Commissioners were created, with powers to borrow money to fund the construction of two locks, and to charge tolls for boats using them. The work was completed by October 1773, and the separate tolls remained in force until 1783, when they were replaced by a one-shilling (5p) toll whichever channel the boats used.
Users of the Trent and Mersey Canal, the Loughborough Canal and the Erewash Canal next demanded major improvements to the river down to Gainsborough, including new cuts, locks, dredging and a towing path suitable for horses. The Dadfords, who were engineers on the Trent and Mersey Canal, estimated the cost at £20,000, but the proposal was opposed by landowners and merchants on the river, while the Navigator, published in 1788, estimated that around 500 men who were employed to bow-haul boats would have lost their jobs. Agreement could not be reached, and so William Jessop was asked to re-assess the situation. He suggested that dredging, deepening, and restricting the width of the channel could make significant improvements to the navigable depth, although cuts would be required at Wilford, Nottingham bridge and Holme. This proposal formed the basis for an Act of Parliament obtained in 1783, which also allowed a horse towing path to be built. The work was completed by September 1787, and dividends of 5 per cent were paid on the capital during 1786 and 1787, increasing to 7 per cent, the maximum allowed by the Act, after that. Jessop carried out a survey for a side cut and lock at Sawley in 1789, and it was built by 1793.
At the beginning of the 1790s, the Navigation faced calls for a bypass of the river at Nottingham, where the passage past Trent Bridge was dangerous, and the threat of a canal running parallel to the river, which was proposed by the Erewash and the Trent and Mersey Canal companies. In order to retain control of the whole river, they supported the inclusion of the Beeston Cut in the bill for the Nottingham Canal, which prevented the Erewash Canal company from getting permission to build it, and then had the proposal removed from the Nottingham Canal company's bill in return for their support of the main bill. The parallel canal was thwarted in May 1793, when they negotiated the withdrawal of the canal bill by proposing a thorough survey of the river which would result in their own legislation being put before parliament. William Jessop performed the survey, assisted by Robert Whitworth, and they published their report on 8 July 1793. The major proposals included a cut and lock at Cranfleet, where the River Soar joins the Trent, a cut, locks and weirs at Beeston, which would connect with the Nottingham Canal at Lenton, and a cut and lock at Holme Pierrepont. An Act of Parliament was obtained in 1794, and the existing proprietors subscribed the whole of the authorised capital of £13,000 (equivalent to £ in ), themselves.
The aim of the improvements was to increase the minimum depth from to . By early 1796, the Beeston cut was operational, with the Cranfleet cut following in 1797, and the Holme cut in 1800, with the whole works being finished by 1 September 1801. The cost exceeded the authorised capital by a large margin, with the extra being borrowed, but the company continued to pay a 7 per cent dividend on the original shares and on those created to finance the new work. In 1823 and again in 1831, the Newark Navigation Commissioners proposed improvements to the river, so that larger vessels could be accommodated, but the Trent Navigation Company were making a good profit, and did not see the need for such work.
Competition
The arrival of the railways resulted in significant change for the company. Tolls were reduced to retain the traffic, wages were increased to retain the workforce, and they sought amalgamation with a railway company. The Nottingham and Gainsborough Railway offered £100 per share during 1845, but this was rejected. Tolls decreased from £11,344 (equivalent to £ in ), during 1839 to £3,111 (equivalent to £ in ), in 1855. Many of the connecting waterways were bought by railway companies, and gradually fell into disrepair. In an attempt to improve the situation, the company toyed with the idea of cable-hauled steam tugs, but instead purchased a conventional steam dredger and some steam tugs. The cost of improvements was too great for the old company, and so an Act of Parliament was obtained in 1884 to restructure the company and raise additional capital. Failure to raise much of the capital resulted in another Act being obtained in 1887, with similar aims and similar results. A third Act of 1892 reverted the name to the Trent Navigation Company, and this time, some improvements were performed.
With traffic still between 350,000 and 400,000 tonnes per year, Frank Rayner became the engineer in 1896, and the company were persuaded that major work was necessary if the navigation was to survive. The engineer for the Manchester Ship Canal, Sir Edward Leader Williams, was commissioned to survey the river, while negotiations with the North Staffordshire Railway, who owned the Trent and Mersey Canal and had maintained its viability, ensured that some of the clauses from previous Acts of Parliament did not prevent progress. A plan to build six locks between Cromwell and Holme, and to dredge this section to ensure it was wide and deep was authorised by an Act of Parliament obtained in 1906. Raising finance was difficult, but some was subscribed by the chairman and vice-chairman, and construction of Cromwell Lock began in 1908. The Newark Navigation Commissioners financed improvements to Newark Town lock at the same time, and dredging of the channel was largely funded by selling the 400,000 tonnes of gravel removed from the river bed. At , Cromwell lock could hold a tug and three barges, and was opened on 22 May 1911. The transport of petroleum provided a welcome increase to trade on the river, but little more work was performed before the beginning of the First World War.
Modernisation
Increased running costs after the First World War could not be met by increasing the tolls, as the company had no statutory powers to do so, and so suggested that the Ministry of Transport should take over the navigation, which they did from 24 September 1920. Tolls were increased, and a committee recommended improvements to the river. Nottingham Corporation invested some £450,000 on building the locks authorised by the 1906 Act, starting with Holme lock on 28 September 1921, and finishing with Hazelford lock, which was formally opened by Neville Chamberlain on 25 June 1926. A loan from Nottingham Corporation and a grant from the Unemployment Grants Committee enabled the company to rebuild Newark Nether lock, which was opened on 12 April 1926.
During the early 1930s, the company considered enlarging the navigation above Nottingham, in conjunction with improvements to the River Soar Navigation, between Trent Lock and Leicester. There were also negotiations with the London and North Eastern Railway, who were responsible for the Nottingham Canal between Trent Lock and Lenton. Plans for new larger locks at Beeston and Wilford were abandoned when the Trent Catchment Board opposed them. The Grand Union refused to improve the Soar Navigation, because the Trent Navigation Company could not guarantee 135,000 tons of additional traffic. The company also considered a plan to reopen the river to Burton, which would have involved the rebuilding of Kings Mills lock, and the construction of four new locks. An extra set of gates were added to Cromwell lock in 1935, effectively creating a second lock, while the Lenton to Trent Lock section was leased from the LNER in 1936, and ultimately purchased in 1946.
Frank Rayner, who had been with the company since 1887, and had served as its engineer and later general manager since 1896, died in December 1945. Sir Ernest Jardine, who as vice-chairman had partly funded the first lock at Cromwell in 1908, died in 1947, and the company ceased to exist in 1948 when the waterways were nationalised. The last act of the directors was to pay a 7.5 per cent dividend on the shares in 1950. Having taken over responsibility for the waterway, the Transport Commission enlarged Newark Town lock in 1952, and the flood lock at Holme was removed to reduce the risk of flooding in Nottingham. More improvements followed between 1957 and 1960. The two locks at Cromwell became one, capable of holding eight Trent barges, dredging equipment was updated, and several of the locks were mechanised. Traffic increased from 620,000 tonnes during 1951 to 1,017,356 tonnes during 1964, but all of this was below Nottingham. Commercial carrying above Nottingham ceased during the 1950s, to be replaced by pleasure cruising.
Although commercial use of the river has declined, the lower river between Cromwell and Nottingham can still take large motor barges up to around in length with a capacity of approx 300 tonnes. Barges still transport gravel from pits at Girton and Besthorpe to Goole and Hull.
Navigation today
The river is legally navigable for some below Burton upon Trent. However, for practical purposes, navigation above the southern terminus of the Trent and Mersey Canal (at Shardlow) is conducted on the canal, rather than on the river itself. The canal connects the Trent to the Potteries and on to Runcorn and the Bridgewater Canal.
Down river of Shardlow, the non-tidal river is navigable as far as the Cromwell Lock near Newark, except in Nottingham (Beeston Cut & Nottingham Canal) and just west of Nottingham, where there are two lengths of canal, Sawley and Cranfleet cuts. Below Cromwell lock, the Trent is tidal, and therefore only navigable by experienced, well-equipped boaters. Navigation lights and a proper anchor and cable are compulsory. Associated British Ports, the navigation authority for the river from Gainsborough to Trent Falls, insist that anyone in charge of a boat must be experienced at navigating in tidal waters.
Between Trent Falls and Keadby, coastal vessels that have navigated through the Humber still deliver cargoes to the wharves of Grove Port, Neap House, Keadby, Gunness and Flixborough. Restrictions on size mean that the largest vessels that can be accommodated are long and 4,500 tonnes.
The use of a maritime pilot on the Trent is not compulsory for commercial craft, but is suggested for those without any experience of the river. Navigation can be difficult, and there have been a number of incidents with ships running aground and in one case, striking Keadby Bridge. The most recent occurrence involved the Celtic Endeavour being aground near Gunness for ten days, finally being lifted off by a high tide.
Trent Aegir
At certain times of the year, the lower tidal reaches of the Trent experience a moderately large tidal bore (up to high), commonly known as the Trent Aegir (named after the Norse sea god). The Aegir occurs when a high spring tide meets the downstream flow of the river. The funnel shape of the river mouth exaggerates this effect, causing a large wave to travel upstream as far as Gainsborough, Lincolnshire, and sometimes beyond. The Aegir cannot travel much beyond Gainsborough as the shape of the river reduces the Aegir to little more than a ripple, and weirs north of Newark-on-Trent, Nottinghamshire, stop its path completely.
The literal North/South divide
The Trent historically marked the boundary between Northern England and Southern England. For example, the administration of royal forests was subject to a different justice in eyre north and south of the river, and the jurisdiction of the medieval Council of the North started at the Trent. In addition to this, the University of Oxford was formerly divided into a northern nation and a southern nation, the former consisting of English people north of the River Trent and the Scots and the latter consisting of English people south of the Trent, the Irish, and the Welsh.
Some traces of the former division remain: the Trent marks the boundary between the provinces of two English Kings of Arms, Norroy and Clarenceux. This divide was also described in Michael Drayton's epic topographical poem, Poly-Olbion, The Sixe and Twentieth Song, 1622:
Pollution history
It is not clear when pollution first became an issue for the River Trent, but in the late 1880s, it had a thriving salmon fishery, with the river producing an annual catch of some 3,000 fish, a decade later, this had fallen to 100. The collapse of the fishery was due to the rapid population increase of the towns that developed following the Industrial Revolution. The tipping point being the introduction of piped water and a basic sewer network, which meant that effluent, which was previously stored in cesspits, was carried away through drains into the nearest brook.
This was a particular problem in Stoke-on-Trent and the growing towns of the Potteries. Due to the relatively small size of the Trent and its tributaries such as the Fowlea Brook, which drained these towns, the river and brooks were unable to dilute the inflow of domestic sewage and soon became overwhelmed and badly polluted.
At the downstream end of the Potteries was Trentham Hall, here pollution became so bad that the owner, the Duke of Sutherland, made a claim against the local Fenton council in 1902. He also took out an injunction against the council to prevent the ongoing contamination causing a "most foul and offensive stench", the river not even being suitable to water grazing cattle on the estate.
Although he provided land for a sewage works nearby at Strongford, the problems continued such that in 1905 the Levenson-Gower family left Trentham altogether and moved to their other properties, including Dunrobin Castle in Scotland.
Until the outbreak of the Second World War, the main source of pollution continued to be the Potteries, although there was contamination from the Tame and other lower tributaries it was not as prominent. During the 1950s, however, the same problem of effluent dilution that occurred in Stoke began to become significant in Birmingham and the Black Country. Domestic effluent and polluting discharges from the metal working industries in the upper reaches, combined to affect the whole length of the tributary River Tame.
The Tame pollution also reached the Trent as well, with one of the worse affected reaches being that downstream of the confluence with the Tame through Burton, this being exacerbated by its late introduction of sewage treatment, and the substantial wastewater arising from the breweries in the town. Angling clubs in Burton used the Dove or local lakes for fishing, as the Trent through the town was absent of any fish. Downstream, the inflow of cleaner water from the Dove and then the Derwent meant that conditions improved enough to allow recreational coarse fishing in the lower reaches.
The pollution of the "Trent catchment was probably at its worst in the late 1950s", this being the result of the ongoing industrialisation of the urban areas, combined with the interruption and under investment caused by two world wars, which lead to only piecemeal improvements of the sewerage treatment infrastructure taking place. One effect of this pollution was that the upper and middle reaches were completely devoid of any fish life.
John Jennings, the local MP for Burton highlighted these problems in a speech to the House when he stated in 1956, that as in previous years the river had been declared unsafe for swimming on advice from the medical officer, and how its unhealthy condition affected a local rowing club.
From the 1960s onwards, there were gradual but steady improvements to the inadequate sewage works and sewers built during the Victorian era in the urban areas, but this was expensive, and took time to complete. The changes were helped by the introduction of more stringent pollution control legislation, which required industrial waste to be discharged to sewers, and the formation of the Trent River Authority, which had new duties relating to managing water quality issues. Other changes, such as the replacement of town gas with natural gas, saw the end of the polluting and toxic coal tar emissions to rivers in 1963.
In 1970, Mr Jennings again raised the issue of pollution through Burton, the River Tame continuing to be a source of the problem, and further improvements were promised. The responsibility for sewage treatment works still belonged primarily to local authorities, which often meant an uncoordinated approach and a proliferation of small works. In 1974, these works were transferred to the regional water authorities, with the Severn Trent Water Authority taking over the role for the Trent catchment. This led to increased investment, the closure of older and smaller works, with sewage treatment being combined at larger modern works such as Strongford and Minworth.
The economic recession in the 1970s meant that there was a considerable contraction of heavy industrial sectors, reducing pollution loadings from factories and foundries. Later improvements such as the series of purification lakes that were constructed on the Tame in the 1980s, which allowed contaminated sediment to settle out from the river, also reduced pollution levels, and lessened the impact of first flush runoff events in the lower Tame and the middle Trent.
The improvements in water quality along the Trent were recorded through the chemical monitoring of the river from the 1950s. Polluting substances such as ammonia showed a reduction, as did the biochemical oxygen demand, an indicator of the contamination present in the river. There were corresponding increases in dissolved oxygen, an indicator of a healthy river environment.
The programme of monitoring also extended to taking biological samples, and one of the first biotic indices used for assessing the ecological rather than the chemical quality of rivers was developed by the local river board in the 1960s. Using invertebrates as an indicator of pollution levels, it was appropriately named the Trent Biotic index.
By 2004, it was reported that the Trent was cleaner than it had been in the last 70–80 years, and that episodic incidents of pollution had also reduced considerably since the 1970s. The river remains vulnerable to these pollution events, such as the one that occurred in October 2009 when an accidental release of cyanide from a factory into the sewer system in Stoke-on-Trent, affected the treatment works at Strongford. This resulted in the release of raw sewage and the chemical into the river, killing thousands of fish, and posing a health risk to river users as far south as Burton.
Although now considered cleaner, there are still problems with diffuse pollution from agricultural runoff and urban areas, as well as point source contamination from sewage works. The improvements that have taken place mean that the Trent can be used for public water consumption. Riverside lakes near Shardlow act as a reserve water source for Nottingham and Derby, and water is also abstracted at Torksey and Newton-on-Trent for supplies in Lincolnshire.
Wildlife and ecology
Artificial changes along the Trent, due to navigation, farming, mineral extraction and drainage works, mean that much of the riparian landscape has been altered, reducing the amount of natural habitat. The river channel links the remaining, but fragmented wetland areas and nature reserves, providing a refuge for native and migrant species. These include wildfowl and wading birds that use the Trent Valley as a migration corridor, with the river also being used as a wildlife route by mammals such as otters and non-native American mink. It forms part of the Severn-Trent flyway, a route used by migratory birds to cross Great Britain.
Additional nature conservation areas were created beside the river in the 20th century, when a number of disused gravel pits, were rehabilitated as nature reserves. One of the most important of these is Attenborough Nature Reserve, a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) which is visited by wildfowl such as Eurasian wigeon and common teal. Wading birds such as Eurasian oystercatcher and great bittern have also been observed at the reserve; as have kingfishers, reed warblers and water rails.
Other managed wetland sites along the river include Beckingham Marshes, Croxall Lakes, Drakelow, and Willington Gravel Pits. At Besthorpe near Newark, breeding pairs of little egrets and grey herons have been observed.
The Trent valley also links together other SSSI and local nature reserves, which have varying habitats not only for birds, but also mammals, insects and fish, a good example is the tributary River Mease where the entire watercourse has been designated both as a SSSI and a European special area of conservation.
One of the more unusual ecological sites is Pasturefields nature reserve near Hixon, an inland saltmarsh, which is a rare habitat for the UK. A vestige of the saline marshes created by the brine springs that seep from the groundwater of the Mercia mudstones, the reserve contains salt tolerant species normally found on the coast, such as sea plantain, arrowgrass and milkwort.
Improvements in water quality and subsequent fish stocks, in combination with the ban on the use of certain persistent pesticides have meant that otters have now returned to the Trent system, having been absent as recently as the 1980s. A survey in 2003 showed a doubling in the number of sites where evidence, such as spraints and footprints of these elusive animals were found. They have also now been sighted at locations such as Wolseley, Willington, and Attenborough. Seals have been reported up to near the head of the tidal section at Newark.
Fishing
Evidence of fishing along the Trent can be traced back to the Neolithic period, with the possible remnants of a fish weir discovered in the abandoned river channels at Hemington. More definitive finds from the medieval period were also found at this site and near Colwick. These consisted of V shaped alignments of stakes; wattle panels and a large wicker trap and demonstrate that passive fishing techniques were in use on the river.
The Domesday catalogue showed that there were many successful mills and fisheries along the Trent. Mills were important locations for fish and eel traps, the eels being caught during ‘quill time’ between mid-August and early September. Written records show that in the 12th century landlords were paid in salmon, in lieu of rent at Burton upon Trent.
In the 17th century Izaak Walton described the River Trent as 'One of the finest rivers in the world and the most abounding with excellent salmon and all sorts of delicate fish.' A list composed in 1641 for the Trent, contained thirty types of fish and other species including those that migrated from the sea such as shad, smelt, salmon and flounder, and riverine species such as trout, grayling, perch and pike.
The largest of those listed was the sturgeon, which at one time were caught in the Trent as far upstream as King's Mill, but only in low numbers. Particular examples included one of taken near Donington castle in 1255, and another at King's Mill of in 1791. The last known catch was in 1902 near Holme, the fish was and weighed .
The effluent and industrial pollution of the early 20th century, led to a rapid decline in fish stocks, large stretches of the river became fishless and species such as salmon almost disappeared. As water quality improved from the 1960s onwards, fish numbers recovered, and recreational coarse fishing became more popular.
By the 1970s the Trent was regarded as 'one of the most productive rivers in the British Isles'. by anglers, who would travel from South Yorkshire and other surrounding areas, to fish the Trent as their local rivers still remained badly polluted and were absent of fish.
Analysis of catch returns from 1969 to 1985, showed that the fish caught most often by anglers were barbel, bream, bleak, carp, chub, dace, eel, gudgeon, perch, and roach. Over the study period the returns revealed that there was a variation in the species caught, with a shift from roach and dace based catches, to one of chub and bream, a change that was perceived by anglers to represent a ‘serious detriment’ to the fishery. This led to comments that the river had become ‘too clean for its fish’, and its popularity, especially for match fishing, declined from the mid 1980s. Competition from other fisheries such as well stocked ponds and lakes with better amenities and more consistent catches of fish also meant a reduction in the appeal of fishing the Trent.
Recreational fishing is still popular, although anglers no longer line the banks as they once did. There are many fishing clubs that use the river, with catches including barbel, bream, carp, chub, dace, pike, and roach.
Salmon, a species that became virtually extinct due to historic pollution, have been progressively reintroduced on the tributaries since 1998, with thousands of salmon parr being released into the Dove and its tributary the Churnet each year. Returning adult salmon have been seen leaping over weirs on the river and in 2011 a large salmon weighing over was caught at an undisclosed location, and was 'thought to be the biggest caught on the Trent in the last thirty years'.
Places along the Trent
Cities and towns on or close to the river include:
Stoke-on-Trent
Stone
Rugeley
Burton upon Trent
Castle Donington
Long Eaton
Beeston
Nottingham
Newark-on-Trent
Gainsborough
Crossing the Trent
Prior to the mid-18th century there were few permanent crossings of the river with only four bridges downstream of the Tame confluence: the old medieval bridges at Burton, Swarkestone, Nottingham (known as Hethbeth Bridge) and Newark, all first built by 1204. There were, however, over thirty ferries that operated along its course, and numerous fords, where passage was possible, their locations indicated by the suffix ‘ford’ in many riverside place-names such as Hanford, Bridgford, and Wilford.
Glover noted in 1829 that all three types of crossing were still in use on the Derbyshire section of the Trent, but that the fords were derelict and dangerous. These fording points only allowed passage across the river when water levels were low; when the river was in flood a long detour could be required. He reported that they could be treacherous to the unwary, since there were few gauges to show if the river had become too deep to cross, and that they were rarely used except by locals who knew them well. One of the earliest known fords was the crossing at Littleborough, constructed by the Romans it was paved with flagstones, and supported by substantial timber pilings. The importance of these fords was demonstrated by their inclusion in the 1783 navigation Act, which limited any dredging at these sites so that they remained less than deep.
Ferries often replaced these earlier fording points, and were essential where the water was too deep, such as the tidal section of the lower river. As they were a source of income, they were recorded in the Domesday Book at a number of locations including Weston on Trent and Fiskerton, both of which were still in operation in the middle of the 20th century. The ferry boats used along the Trent ranged in size from small rowing boats, to flat decked craft that could carry livestock, horses, and in some case their associated carts or wagons.
Bridges over the river were created in Saxon times at Nottingham at least (and for a time just north of Newark at Cromwell, although it is not known how long that bridge site lasted), and formed major centres of trade and military importance. King Edward fortified the Nottingham bridge in 920, while a notable battle took place at Burton's bridge in 1322, and another in 1643. The medieval bridges of Burton and Nottingham survived relatively intact until the 1860s, when both were replaced and demolished. The central arches of the medieval Swarkestone bridge were knocked out by the great flood of 1795 and rebuilt, but the bridge's more rural location allowed large portions of the medieval bridge to survive and remain in use today. Crossing a wide flood plain, the bridge is almost long, a laborious project to allow flood waters to pass under it. At Newark, the last bridge on the Trent until modern times, the bridge was rebuilt in 1775. At least one other medieval attempt was made to bridge the Trent near Wilden at Hemington, but this was gone long before the end of the Middle Ages. The complex of three bridges provides evidence of attempts to keep a crossing open over slightly more than two hundred years from 1097, with three bridges constructed on the same site but felled by scouring, floods and course migration of the river to the south eroding the bridgehead. The bridge was probably gone by around 1311 when nearby Wilden ferry, near Shardlow was first recorded, and the site thereafter went without a bridge until Cavendish Bridge opened around 1760. As no archive sources record that the Hemington bridge existed, there may have been other medieval bridge projects now forgotten. (Until the late 18th century, a long period of stagnation for economic and technical reasons limited the number of bridges over the Trent; it has been noted that relatively few bridges were constructed in England on new sites anywhere between around 1250–1300 and 1750.) Cavendish Bridge was itself damaged beyond repair by a flood in March 1947, requiring a temporary Bailey bridge to be used until a new concrete span was constructed in 1957.
When bridge construction resumed, toll bridges were often constructed on the site of ferry routes. Such was the case at Willington, Gunthorpe and Gainsborough.
At Stapenhill near Burton, there were similar calls for a new bridge, a tally of usage showed that the foot ferry was being used 700 times per day. The new Ferry Bridge was opened in 1889, although it needed the financial support of the brewer and philanthropist Michael Bass to pay for the construction, and later in 1898 to purchase the existing ferry rights so that it became free of tolls.
The toll bridges were mostly bought out by the county councils in the 19th century following government reforms, one of the earliest being Willington in 1898, the first toll free crossing was marked by a procession across the bridge and a day of celebration.
The only toll bridge that remains across the Trent is at Dunham, although it is free to cross on Christmas and Boxing Day.
Power stations
The tall chimneys and concave shaped cooling towers of the many power stations are a dominant and familiar presence within the open landscape of the Trent valley, which has been widely used for power generation since the 1940s.
The primary reason for locating so many generating stations beside the Trent was the availability of sufficient amounts of cooling water from the river. This combined with the nearby supplies of fuel in the form of coal from the Nottinghamshire and Yorkshire coalfields, and the existing railway infrastructure meant that a string of twelve large power stations were originally constructed along its banks. At one time these sites provided a quarter of the electricity needs of the UK, giving rise to the epithet 'Megawatt Valley'.
Once these early stations reached the end of their functional life, they were usually demolished, although in some cases the sites have been retained and redeveloped as gas fired power stations.
In downstream order, the power stations that continue to use, or have used the river as their source of cooling water are: Meaford, Rugeley, Drakelow, Willington, Castle Donington, Ratcliffe-on-Soar, Wilford, Staythorpe, High Marnham, Cottam, West Burton and Keadby.
The three largest remaining coal-fired stations at Ratcliffe, Cottam and West Burton still use domestic coal supplies, although this is now being replaced by imported coal brought by ship from abroad.
There is one hydroelectric power station on the river, Beeston Hydro at Beeston Weir.
Recreation on the Trent
Along with other major rivers in the Midlands, the Trent is widely used for recreational activities, both on the water and along its riverbanks. The National Watersports Centre at Holme Pierrepont, near Nottingham combines facilities for many of these sports, including rowing, sailing and whitewater canoeing.
The Trent Valley Way created in 1998 as a long-distance footpath, enables walkers to enjoy the combined attractions of ‘the river’s rich natural heritage and its history as an inland navigation’. Extended in 2012, the route now runs from Trent Lock in the south through to Alkborough where the river meets the Humber. It combines riverside and towpath sections, with other paths to villages and places of interest in the wider valley.
Historically swimming in the river was popular, in 1770 at Nottingham there were two bathing areas on opposite banks at Trent Bridge which were improved in 1857 with changing sheds and an assistant. Similar facilities were present in 1870 on the water meadows at Burton-on-Trent, which also had its own swimming club. Open water swimming still takes place at locations including Colwick Park Lake adjacent to the river, with its own voluntary lifeguards. The first person to swim the entire swimmable length of the Trent was Tom Milner, who swam over nine days in July 2015.
Rowing clubs have existed at Burton, Newark and Nottingham since the mid-1800s, with various regattas taking place between them, both on the river and on the rowing course at the national watersports centre.
Both whitewater and flat water canoeing is possible on the Trent, with published guides and touring routes being listed for the river. There is a canoe slalom course at Stone, a purpose built artificial course at Holme Pierrepont, and various weirs including those at Newark and Sawley are all used for whitewater paddling. Various canoe and kayak clubs paddle on the river including those at Stone, Burton, and Nottingham.
Established in 1886 the Trent valley sailing club is one of two clubs that use the river for dingy sailing, regattas, and events. There are also a number of clubs that sail on the open water that has been created as a result of flooded gravel workings which include Hoveringham, Girton, and Attenborough.
Organised trips on cruise boats have long been a feature of the Trent, at one time steam launches took passengers from Trent Bridge to Colwick Park, similar trips run today but in reverse, starting from Colwick and passing through Nottingham they use boats known as the Trent Princess and Trent Lady. Others trips run from Newark castle, and two converted barges; the Newark Crusader and Nottingham Crusader, provide river cruises for disabled people via the St John Ambulance Waterwing scheme.
Tributaries
Although Spenser endowed 'The beauteous Trent' with 'thirty different streams' the river is joined by more than twice that number of different tributaries, of which the largest in terms of flow is the Tame which drains most of the West Midlands, including Birmingham and the Black Country. The second and third largest are the Derwent and the Dove respectively; together these two rivers drain the majority of Derbyshire and Staffordshire, including the upland areas of the Peak District.
The River Soar which drains the majority of the county of Leicestershire, could also be considered as the second largest tributary, as it has a larger catchment area than the Dove or Derwent, but its discharge is significantly less than the Derwent, and lower than the Dove.
In terms of rainfall the Derwent receives the highest annual average rainfall, whereas the Devon, which has the lowest average rainfall is the driest catchment of those tabulated.
List of tributaries
Alphabetical listing of tributaries, extracted from the Water Framework Directive list of water bodies for the River Trent:
See also
List of rivers of Great Britain
Trent River Authority
Trent Valley Line
Trent Valley Way
List of fish in the River Trent
List of crossings of the River Trent
Trent River (Ontario)
Bibliography
Notes
References
External links
Photographs along the Trent in Nottingham from Nottingham21
Catchment Tributaries of the River Trent English Heritage and University of Birmingham research project.
Predictive Modelling of Multi-Period Geoarchaeological Resources at a River Confluence English Heritage, University of Birmingham and University of Exeter research project.
Trent Valley GeoArchaeology
River Trent through Nottingham. Pictures & slide show.
Rivers of Derbyshire
Rivers of Lincolnshire
Rivers of Nottinghamshire
Rivers of Staffordshire
River navigations in the United Kingdom | [
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] |
223532 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promontory%20Point%20%28Utah%29 | Promontory Point (Utah) | Promontory Point is the cape or southernmost point of the peninsula formed where the Promontory Mountains project into the northern Great Salt Lake in southeastern Box Elder County, Utah, United States.
Description
The cape is northwest of the west end of Fremont Island in Weber County. The Lucin Cutoff passes north of the point of the cape.
The unincorporated community of Promontory and its location, Promontory Summit, are also frequently referred to as "Promontory Point". Promontory Summit is the site where the First Transcontinental Railroad was completed and is located about north–northwest of the cape, near the north end of the Promontory Mountains.
See also
References
External links
Cliffs of the United States
Great Salt Lake
Headlands of the United States
Landforms of Box Elder County, Utah | [
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223539 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One%20Froggy%20Evening | One Froggy Evening | One Froggy Evening is a 1955 American Technicolor animated musical short film written by Michael Maltese and directed by Chuck Jones, with musical direction by Milt Franklyn. The short, partly inspired by a 1944 Cary Grant film entitled Once Upon a Time involving a dancing caterpillar in a small box, marks the debut of Michigan J. Frog. This popular short contained a wide variety of musical entertainment, with songs ranging from "Hello! Ma Baby" and "I'm Just Wild About Harry", two Tin Pan Alley classics, to "Largo al Factotum", Figaro's aria from the opera Il Barbiere di Siviglia. The short was released on December 31 (New Year's Eve), 1955 as part of Warner Bros.' Merrie Melodies series of cartoons.
In 1994, it was voted of The 50 Greatest Cartoons of all time by members of the animation field. In 2003, the United States Library of Congress deemed the film "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant", and selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry.
The film is included in the Looney Tunes Golden Collection: Volume 2 DVD box set (Disc 4), along with an audio commentary, optional music-only audio track (only the instrumental, not the vocal), and a making-of documentary, It Hopped One Night: A Look at "One Froggy Evening". It was also attached to the theatrical release of Little Giants in 1994 and was subsequently featured on that film's VHS release.
Plot
A mid-1950s construction worker involved in the demolition of the "J. C. Wilber Building" pries off the top of the cornerstone and finds a metal box within. The unnamed man opens the box and finds, along with a commemorative document dated April 16, 1892, a live frog inside which can sing and dance, complete with top hat and cane. After the frog suddenly performs a musical number there on the spot, the man sees an opportunity to cash in on the frog's anthropomorphic talents and sneaks away from the demolition site with the frog and the box under his arm.
Every attempt the man makes to exploit the frog fails due to the revelation that the frog will perform for its owner and its owner alone; when any other individual becomes present, the frog immediately stops and devolves into an ordinary croaking frog. Remaining unaware of this reality, the man first takes the frog to a talent agent. After getting kicked out due to the frog's apparent inability to act, he uses all of his life savings to rent an abandoned theater to showcase the frog on his own (he is only able to get an audience with the promise of "Free Beer"). The frog performs atop a high wire behind the closed curtain, but as the curtain begins rising, he winds down the song and, by the time he is fully revealed to the crowd, he has again reverted to being an ordinary frog, resulting in the man being pelted with rotten vegetables by the booing crowd.
As a result of these failures, the man is now homeless and living on a park bench, where the frog still performs only for him. A policeman overhears the singing and approaches the man, who points to the frog as the singer. But when the frog again presents itself as ordinary, the policeman arrests the man for disturbing the peace and is committed to a psychiatric hospital along with the frog who continues serenading the hapless patient. Following his release, the now haggard and destitute man, still carrying the box with the frog inside, notices the construction site where he originally found the box and happily dumps it into the new cornerstone for the future "Tregoweth Brown Building" before running away, overjoyed to be finally getting rid of what has become his burden.
The cartoon's timeline then jumps to 2056, a century later. The Brown Building is itself being demolished using futuristic tools, and the box with the frog is discovered again by a 21st-century demolition man who, after also envisioning a cash bonanza, absconds with the frog, thus starting the cycle anew.
Production notes
The cartoon has no spoken dialogue or vocals except by the frog. The frog had no name when the cartoon was made, but Chuck Jones later named him Michigan J. Frog after the song "The Michigan Rag", which was written for the cartoon. Jones and his animators studied real-life frogs to achieve the successful transition from an ordinary frog to a high-stepping entertainer. The character became the mascot of The WB television network in the 1990s. In a clip shown in the DVD specials for the Looney Tunes Golden Collection, Jones states that he started calling the character "Michigan Frog" in the 1970s. During an interview with writer Jay Cocks, Jones decided to adopt "J" as the Frog's middle initial, after the interviewer's name.
Sequel
In 1995, Chuck Jones reprised Michigan J. Frog in a cartoon titled Another Froggy Evening, with Jeff McCarthy providing the frog's voice. In Another Froggy Evening, Michigan is implied to be immortal, with men from the Stone Age (during the erection of Stonehenge), Roman Empire, and colonial-era America all determined to profit off the singing frog (still reliant upon the same early 20th-century tunes) but failing. Finally, just as Michigan is about to be eaten by the only man not interested in his singing (a starving man deserted on an island), he is abducted by Marvin the Martian, who understands the frog's language and ends up singing a duet with him as the cartoon ends.
Inspirations
The premise of One Froggy Evening has some similarity to that of the 1944 Columbia Pictures film Once Upon a Time starring Cary Grant in which a dancing caterpillar is kept in a shoebox. It was common for Warner Bros. to parody scenes from well-known live action films for its Merrie Melodies productions. Once Upon a Time, in turn, was based on "My Client Curley", a 1940 radio play adapted by Norman Corwin from a magazine story by Lucille Fletcher. Ol' Rip, a horned toad "discovered" in an 1897 time capsule inside the cornerstone of the Eastland County, Texas courthouse in 1928, is also said to have inspired the premise.
Some of the Frog's physical movements are evocative of ragtime-era greats such as Bert Williams, who was known for sporting a top hat and cane, and performing the type of flamboyant, high-kick cakewalk dance steps demonstrated by the Frog in Hello! Ma Baby. Williams was also a prominent figure in The Frogs club.
The cartoon also had a sequel in an episode of the Warner Bros. series Tiny Toon Adventures, with the Frog falling into Hamton J. Pig's possession. Another cameo of Michigan J. Frog was in an episode of Animaniacs when a scene from Macbeth is recreated. Michigan J. Frog, wearing his top hat, is placed into a boiling cauldron along with other cartoon characters.
Reception
Film critic Jay Cocks said that the short "comes as close as any cartoon ever has to perfection" in a 1973 Time profile of Chuck Jones. In the 2000 documentary film Chuck Jones: Extremes & Inbetweens – A Life in Animation, filmmaker Steven Spielberg called the short "the Citizen Kane of the animated short".
In 1994, it was voted of The 50 Greatest Cartoons of all time by members of the animation field.
Songs featured
About half of the songs performed by the frog were written after he was presumably sealed into the cornerstone, dated 1892.
"Hello! Ma Baby"
Words and Music by Ida Emerson and Joseph E. Howard (1899)
"The Michigan Rag"
Words and Music by Milt Franklyn, Michael Maltese, and Chuck Jones, written for the cartoon
"Come Back to Éireann"
Words and Music by Claribel (pseudonym of Charlotte Alington Barnard) (1866)
"I'm Just Wild About Harry"
Words and Music by Eubie Blake and Noble Sissle, written for the musical Shuffle Along (1921)
"Throw Him Down, McCloskey"
Words and Music by John W. Kelly (1890)
"The Michigan Rag" reprise
"Won't You Come Over To My House"
Words by Harry Williams
Music by Egbert Van Alstyne (1906)
"Largo al factotum"
Composed by Gioachino Rossini for the opera The Barber of Seville (1816)
"Please Don't Talk About Me When I'm Gone"
Words and Music by Sidney Clare, Sam H. Stept, and Bee Palmer (1930)
"Hello! Ma Baby" reprise
See also
Entombed animal
Ol' Rip the Horned Toad, said to be the original inspiration for the cartoon
References
External links
One Froggy Evening essay by Craig Kausen on the National Film Registry website
Details and credits for One Froggy Evening
The Songs of One Froggy Evening
One Froggy Evening essay by Daniel Eagan in America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry, A&C Black, 2010 , pages 509-510
1955 films
1955 animated films
1955 short films
1950s American animated films
1950s animated short films
1955 musical comedy films
American films
American musical comedy films
Short films directed by Chuck Jones
Films set in 1955
Films set in 2056
Merrie Melodies short films
United States National Film Registry films
Films scored by Milt Franklyn
Animated films about animals
Animated films about reptiles and amphibians
Films about frogs
Films with screenplays by Michael Maltese
1950s Warner Bros. animated short films | [
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223540 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitby%2C%20Ontario | Whitby, Ontario | Whitby is a town in Durham Region. Whitby is located in Southern Ontario east of Ajax and west of Oshawa, on the north shore of Lake Ontario, and is home to the headquarters of Durham Region. It had a population of 128,377 at the 2016 census. It is approximately east of Scarborough, and it is known as a commuter suburb in the eastern part of the Greater Toronto Area. While the southern portion of Whitby is predominantly urban and an economic hub, the northern part of the municipality is more rural and includes the communities of Ashburn, Brooklin, Myrtle, Myrtle Station, and Macedonian Village.
History
Whitby Township (now the Town of Whitby) was named after the seaport town of Whitby, Yorkshire, England.
When the township was originally surveyed in 1792, the surveyor, from the northern part of England, named the townships east of Toronto after towns in northeastern England: York, Scarborough, Pickering, Whitby and Darlington. The original name of "Whitby" is Danish, dating from about 867 AD when the Danes invaded Britain. It is a contraction of "Whitteby", meaning "White Village". The allusion may be to the white lighthouse on the pier at Whitby, Yorkshire, and also at Whitby, Ontario.' Although settlement dates back to 1800, it was not until 1836 that a downtown business centre was established by Whitby's founder Peter Perry.
Whitby's chief asset was its fine natural harbour on Lake Ontario, from which grain from the farmland to the north was first shipped in 1833. In the 1840s, a road was built from Whitby Harbour to Lake Simcoe and Georgian Bay, to bring trade and settlement through the harbour to and from the rich hinterland to the north. The Town of Whitby was chosen as the seat of government for the newly formed County of Ontario in 1852, and incorporated in 1855. The remainder of Whitby Township remained a separate municipality, although the eastern half surrounding Oshawa was incorporated as the new Township of East Whitby in 1857. In the 1870s, a railway, the "Port Whitby and Port Perry Railway", was constructed from Whitby harbour to Port Perry, and later extended to Lindsay as the "Whitby, Port Perry and Lindsay Railway".
Whitby is also the site of Trafalgar Castle School, a private girls' school founded in 1874. The building, constructed as an Elizabethan-style castle in 1859–62 as a private residence for the Sheriff of Ontario County, is a significant architectural landmark and Whitby's only provincial historic site marked with a plaque. The school celebrated its 125th anniversary in 1999.
During the Second World War, Whitby was the location of Camp X, a secret spy training facility established by Sir William Stephenson, the "Man Called Intrepid". Although the buildings have since been demolished, a monument was unveiled on the site of Camp X in 1984 by Ontario's Lieutenant Governor John Black Aird. Following the War, Soviet dissenter Igor Gouzenko was taken to the facility with his wife to live in secretive protective custody after fleeing Ottawa, Ontario.
Amalgamation
In 1968, the Town of Whitby and Township of Whitby amalgamated to form the current municipality. Planning for the construction of a town hall intended to centralize municipal staff working in satellite offices began in 1970 under mayor Des Newman. Construction began on the Raymond Moriyama designed building in 1975; it was opened by Mayor Jim Gartshore on January 8, 1977.
Municipal boundaries were not changed during the 1974 formation of Durham Region and remain to this day. Today, Whitby is the seat of government in Durham Region. It is commonly considered part of the Greater Toronto Area, although statistically it belongs to the greater Oshawa Metropolitan Area. They are both in the eastern part of the Golden Horseshoe region.
Geography
Whitby borders Ajax to the west, Pickering to the northwest, the Township of Scugog to the north, and Oshawa to the east. Since at least the mid-1990s, the development of subdivisions to accommodate population growth has proceeded in a mostly northward direction.
Demographics
Like much of Durham Region, demographics in Whitby are characterized mainly by rapid population growth. The 2006 census population of the town is 111,184 inhabitants, compared with the 2001 Statistics Canada total of 87,413. This represents population growth of over 27.2% in five years. The number of inhabitants has more than doubled since 1986, when Whitby had a census population of 45,819 people.
According to the 2006 Census, approximately 17.0% of Whitby's population is classified as visible minority, with Black (6.1%), South Asian (3.3%) and Chinese (1.9%) populations forming the largest individual groups. 2011 Census data show that English is the mother tongue of 83.7% of the residents of Whitby, while native speakers of French make up 1.7% of the population. Of immigrant languages, only Italian is the mother tongue of more than 1% of the population (1.4%).
The median household income in 2015 for Whitby was $103,809.
Local government
The Town's Council includes the Mayor, four Regional Councillors and four Town Councillors elected on the basis of one per ward. They sit on both the Town and Durham Regional Councils, as does the mayor. The members elected as of the 2018 municipal election are:
Mayor: Don Mitchell
Regional Councillors:
Elizabeth Roy
Chris Leahy
Steve Yamada
Rhonda Mulcahy
Town Councillors:
North Ward 1: Steve Lee
West Ward 2: Deidre Newman
Centre Ward 3: JoAnne Alexander
East Ward 4: Maleeha Shahid
Regional Chair: John Henry
Whitby is also home to the headquarters buildings of Durham Region and the Durham District School Board.
Emergency services
Whitby is policed by the Durham Regional Police's Central West Division. There is also a detachment of the Ontario Provincial Police located in Town, mainly to patrol area provincial highways within Durham Region. Whitby Fire & Emergency Services provides firefighting services from five fire stations and ambulance/emergency medical services are provided by Durham Region EMS at the Whitby Paramedic Station (also as EMS Headquarters).
Economy
Many residents commute to work in other Greater Toronto Area communities. Whitby itself is home to a steel mill operated by Gerdau Ameristeel, a retail support centre operated by Sobeys, and a major Liquor Control Board of Ontario warehouse. Other companies present in Whitby include pharmaceutical manufacturer Patheon, Lear Corporation, Automodular Assemblies, McGraw-Hill Ryerson, and several others.
Education
Public education in Whitby is provided via the Durham District School Board, which also has its headquarters in Whitby. There are twenty-four elementary schools and five secondary schools: Anderson Collegiate Vocational Institute, Brooklin High School, Donald A Wilson Secondary School, Henry Street High School and Sinclair Secondary School.
The Durham Catholic District School Board oversees public Catholic education in Durham Region. There are twelve Catholic elementary schools and two secondary schools; Father Leo J. Austin Catholic Secondary School and All Saints Catholic Secondary School.
Full French language education is provided by the Conseil scolaire catholique MonAvenir. There is one elementary school in Whitby, École élémentaire catholique Jean-Paul II (JK-grade 6), as well as a high-school, École secondaire catholique St-Charles Garnier (grades 7-12) which services all of Durham region.
As noted above, Whitby is home to Trafalgar Castle School, an independent school for women that offers grades 5 through 12 in a university preparatory programme. Built in 1859 by the flamboyant Sheriff of Ontario County, Nelson Gilbert "Iron" Reynolds, Trafalgar Castle remains a unique Canadian treasure. The school had opened its doors in 1874 and was called "Ontario Ladies' College" until the late 70s, after which it changed its name to "Trafalgar Castle".
There are also a number of Montessori schools offering programmes for early elementary grades.
Whitby is also the site of the Skills Training Centre of Durham College. The main campus of the college is located in Oshawa, as is Ontario Tech University.
Health care
Although Whitby is one of the 100 largest cities/towns in Canada, it lacks a full-service hospital. The town was served by the Whitby General Hospital until 1998, when Durham hospitals were amalgamated by the Lakeridge Health Corporation, Under the amalgamated system, the hospital became Lakeridge Health Whitby and is a specialized health centre, with the closest full-service hospitals being Lakeridge Health Oshawa, Markham Stouffville Hospital in Markham and the Rouge Valley Health System, Ajax and Pickering campus in Ajax.
The Ontario Shores Centre for Mental Health Sciences is located on the lakefront. It was originally called the Whitby Psychiatric Hospital, then Whitby Mental Health Centre.
Transportation
Ontario Highway 401 runs through the south end of Whitby, with interchanges at Brock Street and Thickson Road. Ontario Highway 407 was opened in Whitby in 2016. The toll highway passes between Brooklin and the urban portion of the town. Ontario Highway 412, connecting the 401 with the 407, also opened to traffic in the same year. Another toll highway, 412 is a north–south route located just east of the Whitby-Ajax boundary.
The southern terminus of Highway 12 is also located in Whitby. It originally extended from Highway 401 northward as part of Brock Street, but this portion was downloaded to Durham Region in 1997. The southern terminus is now located just south of Brooklin at Highway 407. Finally, Highway 7 runs east–west between Brooklin and the City of Pickering. At Brooklin, the road changes to a north–south alignment and is multiplexed with Highway 12 to the northern boundary of the Town.
Four railways pass through Whitby. The Toronto-Montreal corridor main lines of the Canadian National Railway and Canadian Pacific Railway both pass east–west through the south end of town. A second CP line running from Toronto to Havelock also passes through the northern part of Whitby. Via Rail trains travel through Whitby, but the nearest station is in Oshawa. Finally, GO Transit provides frequent service via its Lakeshore East line, which (in Whitby) runs parallel to the CN tracks. A GO Station is located in Town.
Local transit services are provided by the region-wide Durham Region Transit. Prior to the Regional service, the Town provided its own service. GO Transit buses also connect Whitby with Durham Region (including Port Perry and Beaverton to the north) and areas further afield.
Whitby Harbour, an important factor in the development of the Town, is now home to a 430-berth recreational marina.
The closest international airport is Toronto Pearson International Airport, located 65 kilometres to the west in Mississauga.
Media
Whitby is served by the Whitby This Week newspaper, part of the Metroland Media Group. Several other papers have been published in the town over the years, including the Whitby Free Press, which ran from 1971 to 1996. Other GTA media outlets also serve the area.
Cultural assets
Camp X
Durham Council for the Arts
Whitby Brass Band
Whitby Courthouse Theatre
Whitby Heritage Day
Whitby Public Library
Station Gallery
Lynde House Museum
Sports
Whitby's most famous sporting team is the Whitby Dunlops, a celebrated ice hockey squad that captured the world championship in 1958 at Oslo, Norway. This team featured long-time president of the Boston Bruins, Harry Sinden and former mayor of Whitby, Bob Attersley. The Dunlops were revived in 2004 as part of the Eastern Ontario Senior Hockey League.
The Whitby Yacht Club, which offers racing, cruising, social, and sail training programs on Whitby Harbour overlooking the Lake Ontario, was founded in 1966.
Lacrosse is also a prominent sport in Whitby. The Brooklin Redmen Senior A lacrosse club is one of the most successful in Canadian sporting history, while the Junior A Whitby Warriors have been awarded the Minto Cup four times since 1984.
Whitby is also home to the Iroquois Park Sports Centre, one of the largest minor sports centres in North America. The facility includes six icepads, a swimming pool named for local Olympian Anne Ottenbrite, six tennis courts, five ball diamonds, three batting cages, a skatepark, a soccer pitch, The Sports Garden Cafe restaurant and the Whitby Sports Hall of Fame. Whitby also developed the McKinney Sports complex which boasts three ice pads, two tennis courts and a skatepark, and Luther Vipond Arena in Brooklin, with one ice pad. These 3 sport complexes hold many sporting events.
In 2008, the OJHL relocated a team to Whitby to play out of the Iroquois Complex, known as the Whitby Fury.
Notable people
David Ayres, NHL hockey goalie and Zamboni driver.
John Wilson Bengough, political cartoonist
Kat Burns and Kyle Donnelly of the band Forest City Lovers
Drake Caggiula, hockey player for the Chicago Blackhawks
Lorne Edgar Campbell, outlaw biker.
Caroline Nichols Churchill, American feminist, author, and editor
Chuck Coles, singer/songwriter for the Organ Thieves, southern and soul-influenced experimental hard rock band
A. J. Cook, actress
Neil Crone, actor and writer for local newspaper, stars on kid's television show Really Me
Dave Devall, weather reporter for CFTO-TV
Jim Flaherty, late member of the House of Commons of Canada and Minister of Finance
Adam Foote, NHL player for Colorado Avalanche, Stanley Cup winner, Olympic Gold Medallist and former member of Team Canada
Hamar Greenwood, Chief Secretary for Ireland 1920–1922
Zack Greer, plays for the Denver Outlaws in the MLL and the Colorado Mammoth of the NLL.
Jay Harrison, hockey player, currently an unrestricted free agent.
Hello Beautiful, band
May Irwin, businesswoman, pioneer film actress, singer and star of vaudeville, participant in first screen kiss in cinematic history in Thomas Edison's 1896 film The Kiss
k-os, rapper, singer, songwriter and record producer
John LaFontaine, member of the Saskatchewan Rush of the NLL
Priscilla Lopes-Schliep, bronze medallist in the hurdles at the 2008 Olympics
Andrew Martin, WWE wrestler, best known by his ring name, Test
Leslie McFarlane, writer of the Hardy Boys novels
Lori Melien, Olympic Bronze Medallist swimmer
Aaron Milton (born 1992), Canadian football player
Andrea Muizelaar, winner of Canada's Next Top Model
James Neal, NHL hockey player for the Edmonton Oilers
Joe Nieuwendyk, NHL hockey player, Stanley Cup winner, Olympic Gold Medallist and former member of Team Canada, Hockey Hall of Fame Inductee (2011)
Anne Ottenbrite, Olympic Gold Medallist swimmer
J. F. Paxton (1857–1936), Canadian ice hockey administrator
Thomas Paxton, Ontario politician, businessman, sheriff
Keith Primeau, former NHL player
Wayne Primeau, former NHL player
Protest The Hero, progressive metal band
Gavin Prout, National Lacrosse League player with Colorado Mammoth
Paul Ranger, NHL player for Tampa Bay Lightning and Toronto Maple Leafs
Liam Reddox, hockey player
Gary Roberts, former NHL player
Sid Ryan, President of the Ontario Federation of Labour
O. J. Santiago, NFL football player
Tyler Seguin, ice hockey player for the Dallas Stars
Kailen Sheridan, pro soccer player, Olympian, alternate goalkeeper of the Rio 2016 team
J. Torres, comic book writer
Kristina Vaculik, member of the London 2012 Olympic artistic gymnastics team, who helped Canada place fifth in the team finals
Kelita Zupancic, Judoka and Olympian, member of the London 2012 Canadian Olympic Judo team also World Ranked No. 1 in 2013
Sister cities
Feldkirch, Vorarlberg, Austria
Longueuil, Canada
Whitby, UK
See also
Camp X
Cullen Gardens and Miniature Village (a major tourist attraction, now closed)
Whitby GO Station
Whitby Public Library
Whitby Psychiatric Hospital
References
Ed McPherson 'The Whitby Yacht Club: 25 years in the making' Whitby, Ont. : Whitby Yacht Club, c1992.
External links
Lower-tier municipalities in Ontario
Populated places on Lake Ontario in Canada
Towns in Ontario | [
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223561 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pickering%2C%20Ontario | Pickering, Ontario | Pickering (2016 population 91,771) is a city located in Southern Ontario, Canada, immediately east of Toronto in Durham Region. For centuries, it fell under the stewardship of the Iroquoian-speaking Wyandotte.
Beginning in the 1770s, the area was settled by primarily ethnic British colonists. An increase in population occurred after the American Revolutionary War, when the Crown resettled Loyalists and encouraged new immigration. Many of the smaller rural communities have been preserved and function as provincially significant historic sites and museums. The city also includes the development of Durham Live, a multi-billion-dollar casino complex.
History
Early period
This was Aboriginal territory for thousands of years. The Wyandot (called the Huron by Europeans), who spoke an Iroquoian language, were the historical people living here in the 15th century. Archeological remains of a large village have been found here, known as the Draper Site. Later, the Wyandot moved northwest to Georgian Bay, where they established their historic homeland. There they encountered French explorers in the early 17th century, followed by missionaries and fur traders.
The first recorded history of this area was made in 1669, when French Jesuit missionary François de Salignac de la Mothe-Fénelon noted reaching what he called the Seneca (more likely Onondaga) village of Gandatsetiagon, on the shores of Frenchman's Bay (for whom it would be named). The Onondaga (and the Seneca) were among the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy. The Onondaga (and other Iroquois) generally occupied territory to the south and west of Lakes Ontario and Erie in present-day New York, extending into Pennsylvania and the Ohio Valley, where they maintained hunting grounds. (The Seneca were located farther west, near Seneca Lake among the Finger Lakes. Fenelon wintered at the village and started missionary work with this people.)
European settlement
The British took over Canada in 1763 following defeat of the French in the Seven Years' War, known in Colonial America as the French and Indian War. They likely completed survey of the township about 1776; British colonial settlers were steadily migrating into the area from eastern areas of Canada. The town was named after Pickering, North Yorkshire.
In the 1813 census, Pickering had 180 residents — 40 more than neighbouring Scarborough. A large influx of Quaker immigrants from the eastern United States arrived in the early 1810s. The main thoroughfare at this time was the Kingston Road, which cut through the south of the township on its way from York (now Toronto) east to Kingston.
Pickering was represented in the Mackenzie Rebellion of 1837. One of the leaders, Peter Matthews, had formerly been one of the most prominent members of the community.
Twentieth century
In 1941, the southeastern portion of the township became the independent town of Ajax. Ontario County, Ontario became Durham Region in 1974, and some of the town lines were modified. As a result, Pickering Village, one of the population centres of the original township, became part of Ajax, along with its secondary school.
Geography
The city covers an area of 231 square kilometres (89 sq mi) with an elevation of 89 metres (292 ft).
Toronto, Markham, and Rouge Park border Pickering on the west; Ajax and Whitby border Pickering on the east; and Lake Ontario forms Pickering's southern boundary.
Communities
The southern part of the city is mainly suburban, with industrial areas restricted to the area around Pickering Nuclear Generating Station. Most of the suburban areas were built as subdivisions after World War II, starting in the area around Frenchman's Bay. Prior to the war, the few suburban areas in the township were the communities of Dunbarton, Fairport Beach, Liverpool Market, and Rouge Hill. Squires Beach, located by the lakeshore in the southeast part of the city, is now a ghost town as the area was cleared from 1966 to make way for the construction of the Pickering Nuclear Generating Station. The only home standing in Squires Beach was built by Timothy Rogers in 1842 and relocated to Montgomery Park Road. Squires Beach Road is now cut off from the lake by a waste water treatment plant.
The northern part of the municipality is mainly rural, primarily used for agricultural purposes. However, a number of residential developments are found in this area, and the locally controversial Seaton area also falls within this part of the city. The primary rural communities in Pickering are Claremont, Brougham, and Whitevale; a number of smaller communities exist throughout northern Pickering, such as Greenwood. John Diefenbaker, a Prime Minister of Canada, lived in Greenwood for a number of years.
The abandoned ghost town of Altona is located there. Cherrywood, another hamlet in Pickering, is one of the few areas that are protected within the Greenbelt.
The communities of Kinsale in the northeast and Green River on the York-Durham town line are other small communities in Pickering, with a population each of between 50–100 people. Most of these communities were founded in the 1700s and 1800s and have churches and historic estates that have been restored through government funding. Dixie is a small rural community situated in rural Pickering, with more contemporary buildings.
The film industry has been very active in communities such as Whitevale, since the 1980s, due to the quality of the historical buildings and untouched nature of the landscape. The television shows Hannibal (2013–2015) Suits (2011–2019), and American Gods (2017) have filmed extensively in Whitevale and in other locations in Pickering.
Nautical Village is located at Frenchman's Bay and features entertainment, a playground, a boardwalk, restaurants, shops and an art gallery.
Demographics
Pickering had rapid growth in the post-war period through the second half of the twentieth century. Toronto's continuing growth resulted in more people also moving into Pickering for suburban housing. Between 1996 and 2001, the municipality experienced a growth rate of 10.3 percent (78,989 people to 87,139). Population growth has slowed considerably in recent years, growing only slightly between the 2001 and 2016 census.
The lower population growth in the early 21st century is the result of the city's development restrictions on land in the northern portion of its area, in an effort to contain sprawl. Negotiations are ongoing to permit development in this area. The city has estimated that by 2031, Pickering will be home to 190,000 residents. The province of Ontario has designated Pickering as one of two municipalities in Durham Region that are urban growth centres, planned to receive more development and population.
According to the 2016 census, English is the mother tongue of 73.9% of the population, followed by Urdu (2.4%), Tagalog (Filipino) (1.7%), Tamil (1.6%), Italian (1.3%), Persian (Farsi) (1.3%), French (1.2%), Arabic (1.2%), and Spanish (1.1%), reflecting 20th century and later immigration. The most commonly known languages among the population are English (98.9%), French (7.4%), Urdu (3.5%), Tagalog (Filipino) (2.3%), Hindi (2.2%), Tamil (2.0%), Italian (1.9%), Spanish (1.8%), Arabic (1.8%), Persian (Farsi) (1.7%), Punjabi (1.6%), and Gujarati (1.5%).
Economy
Pickering is home to the Pickering Nuclear Generating Station, an eight-reactor facility with a capacity of 4,120 megawatts. The first station, Pickering A, opened with four reactors in 1971. Ontario Power Generation, the plants' operator, is the largest single employer in the city. In 2001, the wind-powered OPG 7 Commemorative Turbine was opened on the generating station site. The nuclear power plant is expected to start decommissioning in 2024.
A number of manufacturers are also located in the city. Major employers include Yorkville Sound (audio equipment), the Canadian headquarters of Purdue Pharma (pharmaceuticals and health & beauty products), Hubbell Canada (electrical equipment), PSB Speakers – Lenbrook (stereo equipment) and Eco-Tec Inc. (industrial water purification and chemical recovery systems).
Pickering is a founding member of the Durham Strategic Energy Alliance or DSEA. The nucleus of the DSEA is primarily Pickering businesses, such as Ontario Power Generation, Veridian, Siemens/Trench, Tetra Tech WEI, AECL, Intellimeter, Areva and Eco-Tec Inc.
The city is the location of the head office of the Municipal Property Assessment Corporation. MPAC performs value assessment for property tax purposes for all municipalities in Ontario. In 2012 Search Engine People, Canada's largest Internet-marketing company, moved to Pickering's downtown.
In 2006, Profit magazine recognized Pickering as one of the top 10 cities in Canada for growing a business.
In 2013, the Region of Durham released its Business Count (Employment Survey), which indicated that Pickering has the most jobs amongst Durham Region municipalities, with 29,000+ positions. This figure represents a near 1/3 ratio of jobs to residents.
With the implementation of Seaton and downtown intensification, the Province of Ontario's planning anticipates the creation of 40,000 new jobs for Pickering over the next two decades.
Pickering has planned a downtown intensification program, which includes new condominium developments around the Pickering GO station and Pickering Town Centre. Pickering Town Centre is a two-story mall located in Pickering. An enclosed pedestrian bridge constructed over the 14 lanes of highway 401 was a recent development that has contributed to Pickering's push for more density downtown. The project Durham Live in south Pickering received approval for construction in 2017. It will include a water park, film studio, five star hotel, performing arts theater and possibly a casino.
Government
The city council consists of a mayor, three regional councillors, and three city councillors. The mayor and regional councillors sit on the council and also represent the city at Durham Regional Council. The city councillors sit on city council only. Pickering is divided into three wards of roughly equal population, with one city councillor and one regional councillor elected to represent each ward, in what are known as single-member districts.
The current mayor, Dave Ryan, has held the mayoralty since 2003.
Infrastructure
Transportation
Transit service began in Pickering with the Bay Shores dial-a-bus, which began in 1970–1973. In 2001 Pickering Transit merged with former Ajax Transit to form the Ajax-Pickering Transit Authority (APTA). In 2006, the regional transit system Durham Region Transit took over operations in the Durham Regional Municipality.
The Pickering GO station offers public rail transit on an east-west axis. In 2012, Pickering's landmark bridge opened – connecting the Pickering GO station to the City's downtown core.
Durham Regional Roads serve the city, north and south. Highway 401 runs near the south end of Pickering and Highway 407 ETR runs through the mid-north of the City.
Pickering Airport was a planned second major airport for the Greater Toronto Area. Lands were expropriated in north Pickering in 1972 but the plan was stopped. As of 2021 no firm plans for the airport exist.
Emergency services
Police services in Pickering are provided by the Durham Regional Police from a division office located in the eastern section of the city. Officers from this location also patrol Ajax. Pickering Fire Services operates from four stations with a force of all full-time firefighters. Claremont Fire Hall is now fully staffed by full-time firefighters 24 hours a day, seven days a week. Ambulance/emergency medical services are provided by Durham Region.
Education
Pickering is served by the Durham District School Board, the Durham Catholic District School Board, the Conseil scolaire Viamonde and the Conseil scolaire de district catholique Centre-Sud. As of early 2007, the public board operates 17 elementary schools and two secondary schools, Dunbarton High School and Pine Ridge Secondary School (Pickering High School was previously located in Pickering, but was transferred to Ajax when the city boundaries were changed). The Catholic board runs eight elementary schools and one secondary school, Saint Mary Catholic Secondary School. The French public school board operates École Ronald-Marion, which serves both elementary and secondary students.
Blaisdale Montessori School, a private school chain, has several locations throughout Pickering serving children from preschool age to grade 8. There is also a private elementary and junior high school there called Montessori Learning Centre. Also serving the Durham Region is Durham Secondary Academy and Middle School, an inspected private high school and middle school for grades 5 to 12.
In September 2012, the Durham College/Centennial College Joint Learning Site opened at the north terminus of the pedestrian bridge. The Joint Learning Site offers primarily graduate certificate programs, with a number of complementary courses and classes. At the time of its opening, it was the only public post-secondary institution in the Province of Ontario with a direct connection to public transit.
Gallery
Notable people
Andy Andreoff, NHL player
Bromley Armstrong, civil rights activist
Sheri Kershaw, Canadian musician, singer and songwriter
Andrea Lewis, singer, actor and songwriter
Bree Williamson, actress best known for her role as Jessica Buchanan on soap opera One Life to Live
Cory Joseph, NBA player for the Sacramento Kings
Mark Holland, politician
Chris Van Vliet, journalist
Craig Hutchison, Olympic swimmer
Dale Goldhawk, journalist and consumer rights advocate
Daniel David Palmer, the founder of chiropractic
Denis T. O'Connor, former Roman Catholic archbishop of Toronto
Ernie Coombs, children's entertainer, better known as Mr. Dressup
Glenn Clark, former National Lacrosse League player and former head coach of the Toronto Rock
Glenn Healy, former NHL goalie, member of 1994 Stanley Cup Champion New York Rangers
Ilona Duczynska, Polish-Hungarian communist revolutionary, active in Hungary, Austria, England and Canada
Jaime Peters, professional soccer player who plays midfield for Ipswich Town in the United Kingdom
Karl Polanyi, professor of economics at Columbia University and author of The Great Transformation
Kristen Holden-Ried, actor
Laura Creavalle, Guyanese-born Canadian/American professional bodybuilder
Neil Young, rock singer-songwriter, spent part of his early years in Pickering, living on Brock Road
Nikkita Holder, Olympic track and field athlete
Paul Peschisolido, professional soccer player who played in England as a striker and was the Manager of Burton Albion F.C.
Perdita Felicien, Olympic track and field athlete
Sarah Slean, singer
Sean Avery, former NHL forward
Shawn Mendes, singer and songwriter
Shelley-Ann Brown, Olympic silver-medalist
Spider Jones, former professional boxer, media/radio personality, currently with CFRB radio
Tony Sharpe, Olympic bronze medalist in the 4 x 100 metre relay at the 1984 Summer Olympics
Tyler Stewart, Barenaked Ladies drummer/singer
Manafest, christian Rap Rock musician
Yannick Carter, Canadian Football League linebacker and special teamer for the Hamilton Tiger-Cats
Drake Caggiula, NHL player for the Buffalo Sabres
In popular culture
Film
The 1957 CBC/Hollywood production of the classic television show Hawkeye and the Last of the Mohicans was filmed in Pickering. A farm at the corner of Valley Farm Rd. and 3rd Concession, owned by Arthur Gottlieb, was the setting for the 25-episode series.
The 1979 film The Black Stallion was shot at a farm on Sideline 34 in north Pickering near Altona.
The Canadian television show Paradise Falls first season was filmed in the village of Whitevale, as was David Cronenberg's film The Dead Zone.
The 1994 comedy The Ref, with Denis Leary and Kevin Spacey, was filmed in part at Port Pickering Marina, on Frenchman's Bay.
The 1995 family/adventure film Salt Water Moose, starring Timothy Dalton and Lolita Davidovitch, was filmed in and around Frenchman's Bay.
The 1998 comedy/action film The Big Hit, with Mark Wahlberg, Lou Diamond Phillips, Avery Brooks, Christina Applegate and Elliott Gould, was partly filmed in Pickering near Petticoat Creek.
The 2003 two-part mini-series Lives of the Saints, based on Nino Ricci's award-winning trilogy co-starring Sophia Loren, filmed scenes on a farm just north of Pickering.
Pickering Museum Village has been used as a setting in Road to Avonlea, Little Men, and the films Anne of Green Gables and Lantern Hill.
The final scene in Boondock Saints 2: All Saints' Day was filmed in Pickering.
See also
List of townships in Ontario
Literature
Wood, William Robertson (1911). Past years in Pickering: Sketches of the History of the Community. Retrieved at the website "Our Roots – Nos Racines", University of Calgary/Université Laval.
References
External links
Cities in Ontario
Lower-tier municipalities in Ontario
Populated places on Lake Ontario in Canada
Populated places established in 1791
1791 establishments in Canada | [
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223578 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterborough%2C%20Ontario | Peterborough, Ontario | Peterborough ( ) is a city on the Otonabee River in Ontario, Canada. According to the 2016 Census, the population of the City of Peterborough was 81,032. The population of the Peterborough Census Metropolitan Area (CMA), which includes the surrounding Townships of Selwyn, Cavan Monaghan, Otonabee-South Monaghan, and Douro-Dummer, was 121,721 in 2016. In 2016, Peterborough ranked 32nd among the country's 35 census metropolitan areas according to the CMA in Canada. The current mayor of Peterborough is Diane Therrien.
Peterborough is known as the gateway to the Kawarthas, "cottage country", a large recreational region of the province. It is named in honour of Peter Robinson, an early Canadian politician who oversaw the first major immigration to the area. The city is the seat of Peterborough County.
Peterborough's nickname in the distant past was "The Electric City" as it was the first town in Canada to use electric streetlights. It also underscores the historical and present-day importance of technology and manufacturing as an economic base of the city, which has operations from large multi-national companies such as Siemens, Rolls-Royce Limited, and General Electric, and more local businesses such as Merit Precision Ltd., Dynacast and Bryston. Electricity was one of the reasons Quaker Oats moved to the city, and as part of PepsiCo remains a major fixture in the downtown area. However, over the years the number of major manufacturing plants has declined, and General Electric closed its last remaining facility in 2018. As a result, employment has been shifting toward the service industries and tourism is now the leading industry in the area.
History
Pre-European settlement era
Woodland Natives inhabited the area circa 1000 BCE – 1000 CE, followed by Iroquois and Mississaugas circa 1740 CE. Two of the more prominent sites surviving from this time are the petroglyphs at Petroglyphs Provincial Park and Serpent Mounds. The petroglyphs are located northeast of Peterborough and are believed to have been carved by the Algonquin people between 900 and 1400 CE. The Serpent Mounds are located near Keene, approximately southeast of Peterborough in Otonabee-South Monaghan township, in an area first inhabited sometime before 10 CE.
In 1615, Samuel de Champlain travelled through the area, coming down from Lake Chemong and portaging down a trail, which is approximated by present-day Chemong Road, to the Otonabee River and stayed for a brief time near the present-day site of Bridgenorth, just north of Peterborough.
19th century
In 1818, Adam Scott settled on the west shore of the Otonabee River. The following year he began construction of a sawmill and gristmill, establishing the area as Scott's Plains. The mill was located at the foot of present-day King Street and was powered by water from Jackson Creek. This location, adjacent to the Ontario government Ministry of Natural Resources building, and Peterborough's Millennium Park may have been the site of landfall for a portage which connects in a direct line with Bridgenorth. The site has an Ojibway name "Nogojiwanong" which means "the place at the end of the rapids".
The year 1825 marked the arrival of Irish immigrants from the city of Cork to Scott's Plains. In 1822, the British Parliament had approved an experimental emigration plan to transport poor Irish Catholic families to Upper Canada.
Peter Robinson, a member of the Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada and a prominent businessman from York, Upper Canada was the man who took on the emigration plan of 1825. Scott's Plains was renamed Peterborough in his honour. Robinson interviewed families and individual males to make the long voyage. These families had to meet specific criteria in order to be eligible for the voyage. The specifics required for Robinson's settlers were that they had to be Catholic, poor and with a knowledge of farming. Males had to be less than forty-five years of age and in good health and families were unrelated. The majority of the Irish emigrants were chosen from Fermoy, North Cork.
Robinson was urged by landlords to remove the "pauper and undesirables". He resisted and stated that he had "no wish. to hold out a bounty to persons of bad character. but as Robinson travelled through the countryside they became flesh and blood 'people of a good sort' he called them, 'bred to farming. I found them much more intelligent than I expected. Most of them could read and write'".
Thomas Poole, a nineteenth century writer, wrote that all 2024 passengers boarded nine ships in June 1825, with everything they owned, from Cork across the Atlantic Ocean to Quebec City. The journey took 30 days to cross the Atlantic and on board the ship they were provided with bunks and food rations. Hard tack or ship biscuits were one of the many foods that were made to provide energy for the passengers. Hard tack was very easy to make and could be stored for months without spoiling. After the settlers landed in Quebec City they travelled further down the St-Lawrence River eventually reaching Lachine where they boarded a bateau. Heading west to Kingston and ultimately to Kingston and Cobourg. They camped in tents in Cobourg for several weeks until Peter Robinson joined them to lead them up to their final destination. The long voyage across the ocean was enough to weaken the emigrants but having to camp out in tents in the mid-summer heat brought on several other complications. Nearly all of the settlers experienced fever and ague, and several perished from it. Even faced with these hardships they forged ahead and put their trust in Peter Robinson, the man leading them to their settlement in Peterborough.
In 1845, Sandford Fleming, inventor of Standard Time and designer of Canada's first postage stamp, moved to the city to live with Dr. John Hutchison and his family, staying until 1847. Dr. Hutchison was one of Peterborough's first resident doctors.
By 1846, the community was flourishing, with a population of about 2000. A stone jail and court house had been built and there were seven churches and various government offices. There was a fire company, two newspapers and a post office that received mail daily. Industry included two grist mills, two saw mills, one brewery, one ashery, two distilleries, three foundries, three tanneries and tradesmen of various types worked here. One school and one bank agency were operating.
Peterborough was incorporated as a town in 1850, with a population of 2,191.
Beginning in the late 1850s, a substantial canoe building industry grew up in and around Peterborough. The Peterborough Canoe Company was founded in 1893, with the factory being built on the site of the original Adam Scott mill. By 1930, 25% of all employees in the boat-building industry in Canada worked in the Peterborough area.
Peterborough would also see extensive industrial growth as one of the first places in the country to begin generating hydro-electrical power (even before the plants at Niagara Falls). Companies like Edison General Electric Company (later Canadian General Electric) and America Cereal Company (later to become Quaker Oats, and in 2001 PepsiCo, Inc.), opened to take advantage of this new cheap resource.
20th century and onwards
The first major events of the 20th century in Peterborough occurred in 1904. The first occurrence was the completion of the Peterborough Lift Lock on July 9, eight years after construction was initially approved. To this day, many landmarks in Peterborough memorialize Richard Rogers, conceptual father of the Lift Lock, such as Rogers Cove on Little Lake and Rogers Street in the eastern part of the city.
In 1905, Peterborough was incorporated as a city on Dominion Day, with a population of about 14,300. The city's flag and coat of arms were adopted later, in 1951.
In the 1970s, the Ontario Government helped sponsor the building of Peterborough Square with the aid of the Ontario Downtown Renewal Programme (ODRP). The mall was anchored by an Eaton's store until the collapse of the Eaton's chain of stores in the late 1990s; it now houses offices, stores and a food court. The provincial government relocated the central office of the Ministry of Natural Resources to 300 Water Street, kitty corner from Peterborough Square. In 2008, a new regional hospital officially opened in Peterborough.
Geography
Peterborough is situated in Central Ontario within the Kawartha Lakes region. Peterborough lies in the St. Lawrence Lowlands ecoregion, just south of the Canadian Shield and approximately north of Lake Ontario. The city is sited on a series of rapids in the Otonabee River, approximately halfway between the river's source (Katchewanooka Lake) and its mouth (Rice Lake). The city completely surrounds the only lake on the Otonabee, Little Lake, and the Trent Canal runs along the eastern edge of the city, connecting Little Lake to a section of the Otonabee above the rapids.
Topography
Peterborough's topography is largely defined by land formations created by the receding Wisconsian glaciers 10,000–15,000 years ago. The South End and Downtown portions of the city sit on what was the bottom of the glacial Lake Peterborough—part of a glacial spillway created when glacial meltwaters from ancient Lake Algonquin (now Lake Huron) travelled south to ancient Lake Iroquois (now Lake Ontario). This area of relatively low and flat relief (approximately above sea level) is prone to flooding, exemplified in the major flood that occurred on July 15, 2004. The ground elevation rises to the west, north, and east where a large upland area (the Peterborough Drumlin field) defines the landscape. Much of the land in the north and west ends of the city rises to above sea level, with Tower Hill, at above sea level, being the highest point. Armour Hill, another prominent drumlin located in east city, forms the physical obstacle that the Trent-Severn Waterway ascends by way of the Peterborough Lift Lock. The Oak Ridges Moraine is located approximately south of the city.
Climate
Peterborough has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb) with four distinct seasons. It lies in a transitional zone between areas to the south, which have a milder winter climate, and areas to the north (within the Canadian Shield), where the winters are snowier and sharply colder. Peterborough's Hardiness zone is 5b. Peterborough's climate can be quite unpredictable and vary greatly from one part of the city to another due to the effects of the Oak Ridges Moraine and changes in elevation. In the south end and areas south of the city, the Moraine acts as a barrier for weather patterns moving off Lake Ontario, reducing precipitation. In the north and west ends of Peterborough the effects of the Moraine are not as prominent, at times creating slightly cooler temperatures and more precipitation than the more southern parts of the city and county.
The highest temperature ever recorded in Peterborough was on July 11, 1936. The coldest temperature ever recorded was on December 21, 1871.
Significant weather events
In 2004, Peterborough experienced a flood which caused much damage to the city and surrounding areas. On July 15, 2004, the sewage treatment plant recorded of water as opposed to the average. The city recorded of debris added to landfills due to the amount of damage caused by excessive rain and wind.
Demographics
As of the Canada 2016 Census, there were 81,032 people and 36,785 dwellings in the city. This is an increase from 78,777 residents as at the Canada 2011 Census, a growth rate of 2.9%. This is less than both Ontario's overall growth rate (4.6%) and Canada's growth rate (5.0%). The population density of the city was . The resident population 14 years or younger made up 14.6% of the general population, while 22.3% were 65 or older. The median age for the city was 43.6. Peterborough's population is approximately 87.9% white, 6.1% visible minorities and 6% Indigenous as of 2016. Of the visible minorities only three groups represent more than 1% of the population: 1.7% South Asian, 1.0% Chinese, and 1.0% Black.
The population of Peterborough's CMA, which consists of the City of Peterborough as well as the surrounding townships of Selwyn, Douro-Dummer, Otonabee-South Monaghan and Cavan-Monaghan; stood at 121,721 in 2016. This makes it the 33rd largest metropolitan area in Canada (14th in Ontario). The population increased from 118,975 in 2011 for a growth rate of 2.3%. Communities within Peterborough's CMA include Millbrook, Bridgenorth and Lakefield. The population density of Peterborough (CMA) averaged , compared with an average of for the province.
Economy
Service industries are now the primary employers but manufacturing is still an important sector along with food processing, automotive supplies, electronics, aerospace and life sciences/biotechnology. General Electric (since 1892) closed its operations in the city in 2018 but Quaker Oats still employs 700. The city is also a 'bedroom' community for workers commuting to Oshawa and East Toronto. In spite of rapidly increasing home prices in spring 2017, homes are more affordable than in many other areas, including Durham.
The Peterborough Regional Health Centre is the largest employer, with about 2,000 employees in 2017. School boards, local government, Trent University and the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources are other large employers.
Companies like General Electric, which employed about 6,000 people at its peak, had a major impact on the growth of the city. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) of the early 1990s saw a major shift in trading patterns for many Canadian companies. Other innovations like just-in-time delivery and pressure to produce ever cheaper goods impacted some of the large multi-nationals in the 1970s and 1980s.
In recent years the city's economy has struggled with high unemployment rates. Its unemployment rate often led the country for census metropolitan areas in Canada. However, by December 2017, the rate was roughly on par with the national average at under 5%.
A New York Times report in January 2018 provided a detailed summary of the changes in the city's economy as major manufacturing operations closed their Peterborough plants over the years. However, the report offered another perspective, from mayor Daryl Bennett, who explained that there has been a shift toward employment in smaller manufacturing plants and in service industries, leading to a moderate level of unemployment. He added that the shift away from manufacturing had started well before the NAFTA free trade agreements. The president of the Unifor union local was less optimistic. "The guy that runs a lathe or a guy that runs a C.N.C. machine or a guy that winds large motors — they’re skilled guys. But where are they going to get a job as far as government jobs in town?. they’re in their mid-40s, mid-50s and they’ve been tradesmen their whole lives." The report concluded with a comment from a local businessman who said of those who previously worked for major manufacturers, "It’s totally discouraging, I feel so badly for them. There’s just not places for those people to work. It’s crazy what’s going on here."
A local news outlet commented on the New York Times piece, indicating that the author had failed to mention plans for the new $24-million Canadian Canoe Museum, a new casino, the new Peterborough Library, the VentureNorth building in the downtown area, the development of lands at Trent University, and other economic development activities.
A credit union economic analysis provided this conclusion of the metropolitan area's near future, in February 2017: "A moderate but improving growth environment is foreseen for the region and the Peterborough CMA in 2017 and 2018. The region’s shift to service-producing industries will continue as in other regions in Ontario and a growing portion of service industries will become export-oriented".
The draft of the Peterborough's official plan (2016) indicates that the city will promote economic development and competitiveness by:a) providing for an appropriate mix of employment uses including
industrial, commercial and public service uses to meet long-term needs as identified in Schedule 3 of the Growth Plan;
b) providing opportunities for a diversified economic base, including maintaining a range and choice of suitable sites for employment uses which support a wide range of economic activities and ancillary uses, and take into account the needs of existing and future businesses
c) planning for, protecting and preserving employment areas for current and future uses;
d) ensuring the necessary infrastructure is provided to support current and forecasted employment needs;
e) cooperating with existing and prospective businesses that further the economic goals and objectives of this plan; and,
f) providing a suite of incentives that facilitate business growth in the community.Peterborough is a major shopping destination for the region and is home to three shopping centres: Peterborough Square, located at George and Simcoe Streets; Portage Place at 1154 Chemong Road; and Lansdowne Place at 645 Lansdowne Street West. Walmart, Costco, Sobey's and Real Canadian Superstore have large operations in Peterborough, drawing customers from the surrounding area. As in other cities in Canada, Sears (in Landsdowne Place) closed its store in early 2018 because of bankruptcy.
Attractions
Peterborough and the Kawarthas offer several attractions. The region is host to an array of museums, cultural exhibitions, indoor and outdoor galleries and theatres, Aboriginal heritage attractions and historical sites, as well as an arts community.
While many buildings in Peterborough that would have served as examples of the city's heritage and architectural style have been lost over the years due to renovations and modernization, some examples such as the YMCA building do still stand today as designated architectural landmarks.
The Peterborough Museum & Archives is home to a diverse collection of artifacts. It was established in 1897 and moved to its present site on Armour Hill in 1967. The Archives collection includes items from Catharine Parr Traill, the original Peter Robinson papers, the Park Studio Fonds and the Balsillie collection of Roy Studio Images, over 300,000 film and glass plate negatives dating back to 1896.
Walter Seymour Allward designed a municipal cenotaph, the Peterborough Memorial (1929), Valour Defeating Barbarism.
The Trent-Severn Waterway passes through Peterborough and includes the Peterborough Lift Lock, the world's largest hydraulic lift lock, which opened in 1904. It was for many years the world's highest hydraulic lift lock with a rise of .
Del Crary Park is a large urban greenspace on Little Lake, located in close proximity to downtown Peterborough. Free outdoor events and concerts are held here during the summer months, including the international Peterborough Musicfest (formerly Festival of Lights & Little Lake Musicfest), Wednesday and Saturday evenings from June through August. The Art Gallery of Peterborough, opened in 1974, is situated on the shore of Little Lake beside Del Crary Park and features 1,300 pieces from around the world.
On Little Lake, there is a fountain called Centennial Fountain that runs from May to October yearly. This fountain has lights that are put on at dusk and is considered a local and tourist attraction.
Peterborough offers a cruise type-sightseeing option called Liftlock and River Boat Cruise. This cruise boat takes passengers through the Peterborough Liftlock while broadcasting various facts about the city's sights and history. The cruise operates daily from mid-May to mid-October every year.
Showplace Performance Centre is a 647-seat performance facility located downtown that opened in 1996. The Canadian Canoe Museum, located on Monaghan Road, is a national heritage centre that explores the canoe's enduring significance to the peoples of North America.
Jackson Park contains old-growth forest with trees up to 250 years old. The 4.5 ha old-growth forest can be visited from the parking area at the north end of Monaghan Rd.
The Riverview Park & Zoo is a zoo operated by the Peterborough Utilities Group at the north end of Water Street. In addition to its animal exhibits, the zoo features a miniature train ride and the park contains a disc golf course.
The Peterborough Skateboard park is one of the largest skateboard parks in Ontario. It includes several half-pipes as well as multiple ramps and rails. Its construction was sponsored by West 49.
The 'Wall Of Honour' monument was recently unveiled in Confederation Park across from City Hall on North George Street. It contains the names of the 11,300 servicemen and women from the Peterborough area who served in Canada's Armed Forces in World War I, World War II and the Korean War.
Peterborough also contains Wild Water & Wheels Amusement Park.
Downtown
Peterborough's downtown is home to locally owned shops and restaurants including music stores, fine dining and jewellery stores.
Sports and recreation
Peterborough has many sports and recreational opportunities.
Peterborough's junior level hockey team, the Peterborough Petes of the Ontario Hockey League, were established in 1956 and have become the longest continuously operating team in the league. They have participated in the Memorial Cup tournament nine times in their history and won it once. The Petes have produced a record number of National Hockey League (NHL) players such as Eric Staal, Jordan Staal, Cory Stillman, Chris Pronger, Steve Yzerman, Bob Gainey, Mike Ricci, Larry Murphy, Tie Domi, Mickey Redmond, and coaches such as Scotty Bowman, Roger Neilson, Mike Keenan, Gary Green and Dick Todd. They have also graduated 96 players who have played 100 or more games in the NHL.
The Peterborough Memorial Centre, constructed in 1956, is the home of the Peterborough Petes as well as the Peterborough Lakers and was named in honour of the many war veterans who came from the region. It is located at the east of the exhibition grounds at the corner of Lansdowne and George Streets. In 2003, the Memorial Centre was renovated adding 24 box suites, improved concessions, a licensed restaurant, new seats, boards, scoreboard and air conditioning.
The city also has a youth women's hockey team called the Peterborough Ice Kats. Box lacrosse is also popular in the area. Teams include the Major Series Lacrosse Peterborough Sr. A Lakers and the Peterborough Jr. Lakers, who hold a Junior A record of 12 Canadian Minto Cup championships.
A portion of the Trent-Severn Canal below the lift lock is flooded and maintained for skating each winter.
Peterborough also participated in an Olympics-like competition with sister city Ann Arbor, Michigan: the Arborough Games were held annually (later biennially), rotating between the cities starting in 1983. It ended, due to a lack of volunteers, after the 2000 edition.
Peterborough is home to a rowing club with programs for learning to row, recreational rowing, as well as competitive regattas. This club is home to Trent University Rowing as well as hosts many secondary school teams in the area. This club was established in 1977 and is located along the shores of the Otonabee River in the north end of the city.
Beavermead Campground is located on Little Lake at the centre of Peterborough. Beavermead Campground has 98 individual campsites, 46 un-serviced and 52 serviced. Beavermead has rental options for kayaks and a supervised swimming area. There are multiple athletic fields and public washrooms on the grounds. Beavermead Park hosts the Soul Beach Volleyball program that facilitates games and recreation during the summer months.
Peterborough is home to The Rotary Greenway Trail, a stretch of trail with benches, historic, environmental and ecological signage. The Jackson Creek Kiwanis trail is a stretch of the Trans-Canada Trail located in Jackson Park. The Parkway Trail travels between Jackson Park and Riverview Park and Zoo.
In 2021, Electric City FC was founded to play in the semi-professional League1 Ontario, with the potential to move up to a professional division in the future.
PYSC (The Peterborough Youth Soccer Club) offers recreational and competitive soccer for children ages 4 to 18.
Government
Peterborough is a single-tier municipality governed by a mayor-council system. The Mayor of Peterborough, incumbent Diane Therrien, is elected by direct popular vote to serve as the chief executive of the city. The Peterborough, Ontario City Council is a unicameral legislative body, comprising the mayor and ten city councillors representing five geographical wards of the city. The present wards are as follows;
Peterborough City Hall at 500 George Street North in downtown Peterborough houses the municipal government and also the central offices of Peterborough Social Services. The municipal budget for 2008 for the city is projected to be $190.9 million, an increase from 2007's actual expenditures of $185.4 million, or 2.9%.
Prior to the city being separated from it, the city was also the seat of Peterborough County. The Peterborough County Court House is located at 470 Water Street and was built between the years of 1838 and 1840 and still holds a portion of the county's offices.
At the provincial level, the riding is held by Dave Smith of the Ontario Progressive Conservative Party, who has held it since the 2018 Ontario election.
In 2014, MP Dean Del Mastro was found guilty of overspending on his 2008 election campaign. This trial and guilty verdict led to his resignation.
Crime
Peterborough's crime rate in 2013 was 4,489 crimes per 100,000 people, a 3% reduction from 2012, according to Statistics Canada. That was the 19th highest crime rate out of Canada's 34 census metropolitan areas. (Peterborough's CMA includes the city and four surrounding townships.)
Peterborough had the sixth lowest crime severity rate in 2013 out of Canada's 34 census metropolitan areas, according to Statistics Canada. Peterborough's crime severity index of 54.4 is a 14% reduction compared to the 2012 rate. Only Toronto, Ottawa, Quebec City, Barrie and Guelph had lower crime severity indexes, according to the survey. None of the census metropolitan areas had increases in crime severity in 2013. The crime severity index is calculated by Statistics Canada and takes into account both the volume and severity, based on average sentences for offenders, of police-reported crime in Canada. Nationally the CSI was down 9% in 2013 compared to 2012 and is 36% lower than 10 years ago.
In 2011, Peterborough had the highest rate of hate crimes reported in Canadian cities. However, in recent years Peterborough has been found to have a relatively low crime rate. In November 2015, Peterborough gained nationwide notoriety after an arson took place at the Masjid Al-Salaam mosque. The resulting community response raised over $110,000 for repairs in less than two days The mosque has since been rebuilt and reopened.
Infrastructure
Roads and highways
Peterborough is served by provincial Highway 115, a freeway that connects the city to Toronto via Highway 401 and Highway 407 East. Provincial Highway 7, part of the Trans-Canada Highway, connects to Lindsay heading west and eventually to Ottawa heading east. Other Provincial Highways important to Peterborough are Highway 7A, which junctions onto Highway 115 just southwest of the city, and Highway 28, which routes from Highway 7 just east of the city to Lakefield and on further north.
The area is also served by numerous county roads.
There are four road bridges that cross the Otonabee River within the city limits of Peterborough. The most northerly one is the Nassau Mills Road Bridge near Trent University. The next most northerly bridge is the Parkhill Road Bridge. The Hunter Street Bridge crosses the river just north of Little Lake, linking East City with the downtown core. The most southerly bridge is the Lansdowne Street Bridge. In addition, Highway 115 crosses the river near the southern edge of the city. There are also numerous other bridges which cross the Trent Canal (notably the crossing at the lift lock which actually passes under the canal), Jackson Creek and the other minor creeks in the city. There are also numerous other river crossings throughout the CMA, the longest of which is the James A. Gifford Causeway, which crosses Chemong Lake linking Bridgenorth with Ennismore.
Public transit in the city of Peterborough is currently run by Peterborough Transit, providing a total of 12 regular and 5 express routes throughout the city. Peterborough Transit's hub is a central terminal located on Simcoe Street in the city's downtown core. GO Transit established a bus service from Peterborough to Oshawa starting September 5, 2009.
Railways
Peterborough is served by Canadian Pacific Railway. No passenger services currently exist, but the federal government plans to reinstate them although little significant progress has been made. Then-MP Dean Del Mastro lobbied for passenger rail to be brought back to the small city, and there has been government funding put aside for a Peterborough–Toronto rail link; however, as of 2014 there had been no significant progress.
The Peterborough's disused railway station is historically significant for its association with the early development of the Canadian Pacific Railway and its predecessor the Ontario and Quebec Railway.
Air and water transportation
Peterborough Airport is located off Highway 115, just south of the city. It is primarily a recreation and business airport, offering no scheduled flights by any airlines. It has two ashphalt runways, one and the other . The airport services approximately 25,000–30,000 aircraft movements per year.
Otonabee River and Trent Canal are part of the Trent-Severn Waterway, providing a link from Lake Ontario to Lake Huron. The canal runs through the very eastern portion of the city and is home to the Peterborough Lift Lock, formerly the highest hydraulic boat lift in the world. The Peterborough Marina is located on Little Lake near where Jackson Creek drains into the lake, beside Del Crary Park and just east of George Street. It contains 90 slips for docking and a host of amenities.
Utilities
Peterborough is served by the Peterborough Utilities Group (PUG), formerly the Peterborough Utilities Commission, which provides electricity and water to the city and its residents. It is currently entirely owned by the City of Peterborough. They have been in operation for over 90 years. The PUG has recently started expanding outside of city water and electricity distribution and have begun to develop and operate electricity generation (notably the 8 MW Trent Rapids hydroelectric project [2010] and the 10 MW Lily Lake Solar Farm [2011], which capitalize on the Province of Ontario's feed-in tariff program), telecom services, energy equipment rentals, and commercial metering services both in Peterborough and throughout the province. Natural gas for heating is provided locally by Enbridge Inc.
Healthcare
Peterborough is home to the Peterborough Regional Health Centre (PRHC), which serves Peterborough, Peterborough County, Northumberland County, the City of Kawartha Lakes, Haliburton County and Hastings County. It is located at 1 Hospital Drive and, prior to the completion of its new facility in June 2008, also provided some services from the old St. Joseph's site at 384 Rogers Street. The PRHC is part of the Central East Local Health Integration Network, provides 400 beds and houses one of the busiest emergency departments in Ontario. Peterborough is home to four methadone clinics and many centres for addiction treatment and counselling.
Education
See also the category Schools in Peterborough, Ontario
School boards in Peterborough
The Kawartha Pine Ridge District School Board (KPRDSB) is the public English language school board that serves the local area. Its headquarters are located at 1994 Fisher Drive, Peterborough. Over 35,000 students attend its schools and it encompasses almost 7,000 square kilometres, taking the place of the former Peterborough County Board of Education and Northumberland-Clarington Board of Education. It stretches from the north of Peterborough County south to Lake Ontario, and from Hastings County in the east to the City of Kawartha Lakes and the City of Oshawa in the west. As of 2010, the KPRDSB operates 82 elementary schools, 15 secondary schools and four adult learning centres serving both the urban area and the outlying rural communities. Of those, 16 elementary schools, five secondary schools and one adult learning centre are located within the city. The Board offers a French Immersion program where students learn French and English through elementary and secondary school; in Peterborough, five elementary schools and one high school host this program.
The Peterborough Victoria Northumberland and Clarington Catholic District School Board is the Separate English language school board for the region. It is headquartered at 1355 Lansdowne Street West, Peterborough, and presently operates 33 elementary schools and five secondary schools. Of these, nine elementary and two secondary schools operate within the city.
The Conseil scolaire de district catholique Centre-Sud is the Separate French language school board for the South-Central region of Ontario, which includes Peterborough. It presently operates 41 elementary schools and eight secondary schools, of which the only school in Peterborough is the elementary school Monseigneur-Jamot.
Post-secondary institutions
Trent University
Established in 1964, Trent University is a small liberal arts- and science-oriented institution. Trent's academic focus is on environmental, cultural and science studies. The main Symons Campus of Trent, located in the city's far north end, is approximately , over half of which is a part of Trent's Nature Areas, an ecologically diverse wild-life nature reserve.
Trent University operates largely through its colleges: Champlain, Lady Eaton, Catharine Parr Traill, Otonabee, Peter Gzowski and Julian Blackburn. Each college has its own residence halls, dining room and student government, except for Catharine Parr Traill (which consists only of part-time students and is located near downtown Peterborough) and Julian Blackburn (which is mostly administrative).
Fleming College
Established in 1967, Fleming College (formerly Sir Sandford Fleming College), is a multidisciplinary institution with two primary campuses within the city of Peterborough:
Sutherland Campus is located on Brealey Drive in the city's west end, and has recently undergone a massive expansion. The new St. Joseph's at Fleming is the first long-term care facility to be built on a college or university campus. In 2005, the Peterborough Sport & Wellness Centre was constructed to accommodate the college's athletic needs.
McRae Campus was located in a renovated textile mill located on McDonnel Street near Monaghan Road. Formerly the School of Continuing Education and Skilled Trades, the campus closed in 2014 when the Kawartha Trades and Technology Centre opened on the Sutherland Campus.
The college also operates satellite campuses in nearby Lindsay, Cobourg and Haliburton.
Kawartha Lakes Bible College
Kawartha Lakes Bible College (KLBC) is a small evangelical Bible college affiliated with the Plymouth Brethren. The school opened in 1973, and moved to its current location in 2001.
Master's College and Seminary
Master's College and Seminary is a Pentecostal Christian institution of higher education that consists of an on-campus bible college, a church-based seminary, and a global distance education program. The school has partnerships with Trent University and Tyndale University College and Seminary.
Public library system
The Peterborough Mechanics Institute, established in 1868, housed a subscription library that allowed members who paid a fee to borrow books. Mechanics Institutes were established across Ontario to make education universal and accessible to all citizens. In Peterborough, the Institute and the Library were located on Water Street. In May 1895, the Mechanics Institute became the Peterborough Public Library. The library remained on Water Street.
Later, the Peterborough Public Library received funding from the Andrew Carnegie Foundation and the new Carnegie Library located on George Street opened in 1911. This building is currently the Carnegie Wing of City Hall.
In February 1949, a branch library opened in the south end of Peterborough. It was situated above a hardware store and was a room measuring 50 by 20 feet. It was divided into two sections—one for children, the other for adults.
The DelaFosse Branch Library opened officially on December 1, 1965. The Peterborough Examiner declared that this branch at 729 Park Street S., made "south end residents the envy of the rest of the city." Currently, it holds a recreational reading collection of approximately 14,000 hardcover and paperback books for all ages. Recent additions to the collection include a variety of multimedia including CDs, DVDs, CD-ROMs and CD audio books. This branch library is named in honour of Frederick Montague de la Fosse, who was the Chief Librarian of Peterborough Public Library from 1910 to 1946.
The Main Library at 345 Aylmer Street N. opened on September 2, 1980. The new library was built on the site of the old fire hall and had about triple the floor space of the old Carnegie building. The opening ceremonies were held on September 17 and featured Dr. Robertson Davies, Master of Massey College, University of Toronto, as the keynote speaker.
The Main Library is a full-service library with a well-stocked and current circulating collection of books, CD audio books, CD Music, DVDs and magazines. In addition to encyclopedias and dictionaries, the Reference Collection includes a local history collection, government documents, electronic resources and microforms selected to answer the information needs of the community. The Main Library was used in the filming of the 2008 American science fiction film Jumper.
Media
Peterborough is home to a disproportionately large number of radio stations compared to centres closer to Toronto. This is due in part to Peterborough's central location in a valley. Peterborough is also home to a single television station, CHEX-DT, which is the local Global O&O; as well as TVCogeco, a local cable television channel operated by Cogeco Cable. Peterborough has two main newspapers, the Peterborough Examiner, which publishes six days a week except Sunday; and Peterborough This Week, which publishes every Wednesday and Friday. A non-political publication called SNAP Peterborough is published monthly with sections for home, business, sporting events, etc. with a main focus on providing friendly and photographic news.
Sister cities
Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States since 1983.
Notable people
Sandford Fleming originally came to the town in the late 1840s with his first impression finding it to be "rather a poor little place". However, since, there have been a number of people of note, including athletes, musicians, authors and more who made Peterborough their home. Two of particular note are Catherine Parr Traill, the author of The Backwoods of Canada, who was an early settler, and Lester B. Pearson, the former Prime Minister, who attended local school PCVS.
See also
Coat of arms of Peterborough, Ontario
Notes
References
External links
1850 establishments in Canada
1905 establishments in Ontario
Cities in Ontario
Populated places established in 1819
Populated places established in 1850
Single-tier municipalities in Ontario
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] |
223580 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome%20Richardson | Jerome Richardson | Jerome Richardson (November 15, 1920 – June 23, 2000) was an American jazz musician, tenor saxophonist, and flute player, who also played soprano sax, alto sax, baritone sax, clarinet, bass clarinet, alto flute and piccolo. He played with Charles Mingus, Lionel Hampton, Billy Eckstine, the Thad Jones/Mel Lewis Big Band, Kenny Burrell, and later with Earl Hines' small band.
Richardson was born in Oakland, California, United States, and died in Englewood, New Jersey of heart failure at the age of 79.
Discography
As leader
Midnight Oil (New Jazz, 1959)
Roamin' with Richardson (New Jazz, 1959)
Going to the Movies (United Artists, 1962)
Groove Merchant (Verve, 1967)
Jazz Station Runaway (TCB, 1997)
As sideman
1955: Oscar Pettiford: Another One (Bethlehem)
1955: Kenny Clarke: Bohemia After Dark (Savoy)
1955: Ernie Wilkins: Flutes & Reeds (Savoy) with Frank Wess
1955: Nat Adderley: That's Nat (Savoy)
1955: Sarah Vaughan: In the Land of Hi-Fi (Mercury)
1955: Hank Jones: Bluebird (Savoy)
1955: Jimmy Cleveland: Introducing Jimmy Cleveland and His All Stars (EmArcy)
1956: Cannonball Adderley: In the Land of Hi-Fi with Julian Cannonball Adderley
1956: Kenny Burrell: All Night Long (Prestige)
1956: Oscar Pettiford: The Oscar Pettiford Orchestra in Hi-Fi (ABC-Paramount)
1957: Quincy Jones: This Is How I Feel About Jazz (ABC-Paramount)
1957: Phineas Newborn, Jr.: Phineas Newborn, Jr. Plays Harold Arlen's Music from Jamaica (RCA Victor)
1957: Oscar Pettiford: The Oscar Pettiford Orchestra in Hi-Fi Volume Two (ABC-Paramount)
1957: The Three Playmates - The Three Playmates with George Barrow, Jerome Richardson, Budd Johnson, Sam Price, Kenny Burrell, Joe Benjamin, Bobby Donaldson, Ernie Wilkins (arranger) (Savoy Records, 1957)
1958: Gene Ammons: The Big Sound (Prestige), Groove Blues (Prestige)
1958: Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis: The Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis Cookbook (Prestige), The Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis Cookbook, Vol. 2 (Prestige), The Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis Cookbook Volume 3 (Prestige), Smokin' (Prestige)
1958: Betty Carter: I Can't Help It
1958: Abbey Lincoln: It's Magic (Riverside)
1958: Ray Brown: This Is Ray Brown
1958: Jimmy Cleveland: A Map of Jimmy Cleveland (Mercury)
1958: Helen Merrill: You've Got a Date with the Blues (MetroJazz)
1959: Tiny Grimes: Tiny in Swingville (Swingville)
1959: Jimmy Cleveland: Rhythm Crazy (EmArcy)
1959: Dinah Washington: What a Diff'rence a Day Makes!
1959: Joe Wilder: The Pretty Sound (Columbia)
1959: Ruth Brown: Miss Rhythm (Atlantic)
1959: Ahmed Abdul-Malik: East Meets West (RCA Victor)
1959: Quincy Jones: The Birth of a Band!, The Great Wide World of Quincy Jones (Mercury)
1959: Billy Taylor: Billy Taylor with Four Flutes (Riverside)
1960: Randy Weston: Uhuru Afrika (Roulette)
1960: Quincy Jones: I Dig Dancers (Mercury)
1960: Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis: Trane Whistle (Prestige)
1961: Benny Golson: Pop + Jazz = Swing (Audio Fidelity)
1961: Etta Jones: So Warm (Prestige)
1961: Billy Taylor: Kwamina (Mercury)
1961: Cannonball Adderley: African Waltz (Riverside)
1962: Junior Mance: The Soul of Hollywood (Jazzland)
1962: Blue Mitchell: A Sure Thing
1962: Milt Jackson: Big Bags
1962: Harry Belafonte: Midnight Special
1962: Quincy Jones: Big Band Bossa Nova
1962: Quincy Jones: The Quintessence
1962: Charles Mingus: The Complete Town Hall Concert (Blue Note)
1962: Etta Jones: Love Shout (Prestige), Hollar! (Prestige)
1963: Buddy Emmons: Steel Guitar Jazz (Mercury)
1963: Lalo Schifrin and Bob Brookmeyer: Samba Para Dos (Verve)
1963: Charles Mingus: Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus (Impulse!)
1963: Charles Mingus: The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady (Impulse!)
1964: Lalo Schifrin: New Fantasy (Verve)
1964: Cal Tjader: Warm Wave (Verve)
1964: Quincy Jones: Quincy Jones Explores the Music of Henry Mancini, Golden Boy (Mercury)
1964: J. J. Johnson: J.J.! (RCA Victor)
1965: Milt Jackson: Ray Brown / Milt Jackson with Ray Brown (Verve)
1965: Quincy Jones: Quincy Plays for Pussycats (Mercury)
1965: Lalo Schifrin: Once a Thief and Other Themes (Verve)
1965: J. J. Johnson: Goodies (RCA Victor)
1965: Jimmy Smith: Monster (Verve)
1965: Sonny Stitt: Broadway Soul (Colpix)
1965: Shirley Scott: Latin Shadows (Impulse!)
1965: J. J. Johnson: Broadway Express (RCA Victor)
1966: Oliver Nelson: Oliver Nelson Plays Michelle (Impulse!)
1966: Cal Tjader: Soul Burst (Verve)
1966: Oliver Nelson: Happenings with Hank Jones (Impulse!)
1966: Shirley Scott: Roll 'Em: Shirley Scott Plays the Big Bands (Impulse!)
1966: Les McCann: Les McCann Plays the Hits (Limelight)
1966: Jimmy Smith: Got My Mojo Workin', Hoochie Coochie Man (Verve)
1966: Jimmy McGriff: The Big Band (Solid State)
1966: Manny Albam: The Soul of the City (Solid State)
1966: Chico Hamilton: The Further Adventures of El Chico (Impulse!)
1966: Oliver Nelson: Encyclopedia of Jazz (Verve)
1966: Oliver Nelson: The Sound of Feeling (Verve)
1966: Clark Terry: Mumbles (Mainstream)
1966: J. J. Johnson: The Total J.J. Johnson (RCA Victor)
1966: Johnny Hodges: Blue Notes (Verve)
1967: Johnny Hodges: Don't Sleep in the Subway (Verve)
1967: Sylvia Syms: For Once in My Life (Prestige)
1967: Jimmy McGriff: A Bag Full of Blues (Solid State)
1967: Kai Winding: Penny Lane & Time (Verve)
1967: Antônio Carlos Jobim: Wave (A&M/CTI)
1968: Stan Getz: What the World Needs Now: Stan Getz Plays Burt Bacharach and Hal David (Verve, 1968)
1968: Earl Coleman: Manhattan Serenade
1968: David "Fathead" Newman: Bigger & Better (Atlantic)
1968: Stanley Turrentine: Always Something There
1968: Nat Adderley: You, Baby
1968: Kenny Burrell: Blues - The Common Ground (Verve)
1968: Sonny Stitt: Parallel-a-Stitt (Roulette)
1968: Nat Adderley: Calling Out Loud
1969: Dizzy Gillespie: It's My Way (Solid State)
1969: Sonny Stitt: Come Hither (Solid State)
1969: Walter Wanderley: Moondreams (A&M/CTI)
1969: Dizzy Gillespie: Cornucopia (Solid State)
1969: Kenny Burrell: Night Song (Verve)
1969: Roy Ayers: Daddy Bug (Atlantic)
1969: Milton Nascimento - Courage (A&M/CTI)
1969: George Benson - Tell It Like It Is (A&M/CTI)
1969: George Benson: ‘’The Other Side of Abbey Road (A&M/CTI)
1969: Herbie Hancock: The Prisoner (Blue Note)
1969: Phil Woods: Round Trip (Verve)
1970: Mose Allison: Hello There, Universe (Atlantic)
1970: Quincy Jones: Gula Matari (A&M)
1970: Johnny Hodges: 3 Shades of Blue (Flying Dutchman)
1970: Leon Thomas: The Leon Thomas Album (Flying Dutchman)
1970: The Thad Jones / Mel Lewis Orchestra: Consummation
1970: Billy Butler: Yesterday, Today & Tomorrow (Prestige)
1971: Stanley Turrentine: Salt Song (CTI)
1971: Gene Ammons: Free Again (Prestige)
1971: Reuben Wilson: Set Us Free
1972: Quincy Jones: The Hot Rock OST (Prophesy)
1972: Steely Dan: Can't Buy a Thrill
1973: Lalo Schifrin: Enter the Dragon (soundtrack) (Warner Bros.)
1973: Kenny Burrell: Both Feet on the Ground (Fantasy)
1973: Bee Gees: Life in a Tin Can
1974: Kenny Burrell: Up the Street, 'Round the Corner, Down the Block (Fantasy)
1974: Moacir Santos: Saudade (Blue Note)
1975: Kenny Burrell: Ellington Is Forever (Fantasy)
1975: Horace Silver: Silver 'n Brass (Blue Note)
1975: Oliver Nelson: Skull Session (RCA/Flying Dutchman), Stolen Moments (East Wind)
1975: Richard "Groove" Holmes: Six Million Dollar Man, (RCA/Flying Dutchman)
1975: Moacir Santos: Carnival of the Spirits
1975: Kenny Burrell: Sky Street, Ellington Is Forever Volume Two (Fantasy)
1975: Gino Vannelli: Storm at Sunup (A&M)
1976: Bobby Bland, B. B. King - Bobby Bland and B. B. King Together Again...Live
1976: Wade Marcus: Metamorphosis
1976: Carmen McRae: Can't Hide Love
1976: Zoot Sims: Hawthorne Nights (Pablo)
1976: Milt Jackson: Feelings (Pablo)
1976: Lee Ritenour: First Course
1977: Dizzy Gillespie: Free Ride (Pablo)
1977: Benny Golson: Killer Joe (Columbia)
1977: Quincy Jones: Roots (A&M)
1979: The Crusaders: Street Life
1979: Earth, Wind & Fire: I Am
1980: Kenny Burrell: Heritage (AudioSource)
1981: Gerald Wilson: Lomelin (Discovery)
1990: Joey DeFrancesco: Where Were You? (Columbia)
1991: Clifford Jordan: Down Through the Years (Milestone)
1992: Jimmy Heath: Little Man Big Band (Verve)
References
External links
Obituary – JazzHouse.org
1920 births
2000 deaths
Musicians from Oakland, California
American jazz saxophonists
American male saxophonists
American jazz flautists
Verve Records artists
20th-century American musicians
20th-century British musicians
20th-century saxophonists
Jazz musicians from California
20th-century American male musicians
American male jazz musicians
The Thad Jones/Mel Lewis Orchestra members
Orchestra U.S.A. members | [
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223595 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarington | Clarington | Clarington (2016 population 92,013) is a lower-tier municipality in the Regional Municipality of Durham in Ontario, Canada. It was incorporated in 1973 as the town of Newcastle with the merging of the town of Bowmanville and the townships of Clarke and Darlington. In 1993, the town was renamed Clarington, a portmanteau of the names of the two former townships. Bowmanville is the largest community in the municipality and is the home of the municipal offices.
Clarington is part of the Oshawa census metropolitan area in the eastern end of the Greater Toronto Area (GTA). Major employers in Clarington include the Darlington Nuclear Generating Station, General Motors Canada, and several medium to large-sized manufacturing businesses. Most residents commute for work in Durham Region or Toronto.
Clarington was a candidate location to host ITER in 2001, but the bid was withdrawn two years later.
Local government
Clarington is governed by an elected municipal council consisting of a mayor, and local councillors representing each of the municipality's four wards. In addition, two regional councillors each represent a pair of wards. The mayor and the regional councillors sit on both Clarington Council and Durham Region Council.
The current council was elected on October 22, 2018.
Demographics
According to the Canada 2011 Census from Statistics Canada there were 84,548 people living in Clarington, and its population in 2006 was 77,820, representing an increase of 8.6%. The 2011 Census counted 30,797 housing units and 29,880 being occupied.
2011 Census data show that Clarington has one of the highest proportions of residents that have English as their mother tongue within the GTA (91.2%). French is the native language for 1.8% of the population of Clarington. No other language has more than 1% of native speakers (Dutch with 0.8% - 695 native speakers - tops the pack of immigrant languages).
Climate
Environment Canada operates a weather station in Bowmanville. Under the Köppen climate classification Bowmanville has a humid continental climate with warm summers and cold winters. Unlike many other locations on similar latitudes on the eastern half of the North American continent the winters are relatively mild, with cold extremes being moderated by the proximity to Lake Ontario. In spite of this the average low is around in January. Summers are normally moderately warm with averages of around during the day but with nights cooling off rapidly to fall below on many occasions.
Communities
The municipality of Clarington consists of several urban communities, including Bowmanville, Courtice, Newcastle and Orono; as well as several rural communities such as Bond Head, Brownsville, Burketon, Clarke, Crooked Creek, Enfield, Enniskillen, Gaud Corners, Hampton, Haydon, Kendal, Kirby, Leskard, Maple Grove, Mitchell Corners, New Park, Newtonville, Port Darlington, Port Granby, Salem, Solina, Starkville, Taunton (east portion; west portion split with Oshawa along Townline Road), Tyrone, West Side Beach and Wilmot Creek.
Canadian Tire Motorsport Park
A major attraction in the municipality is the Canadian Tire Motorsport Park (formerly Mosport Park), a multi-track facility located north of Bowmanville that features a 2.459-mile (4.0 km), 10-turn road course; a half-mile paved oval; a 2.4 km advanced driver and race driver training facility and a 1.4 km kart track (Mosport International Karting). It was also a host of the Canadian Grand Prix of Formula One before the event was moved to a circuit in Montreal in the 1970s.
Canadian Tire Motorsport Park (CTMP) was also the location of three major music festivals held between 1970 and 1980. The Strawberry Fields Festival held August 7–9, 1970 featured Alice Cooper, Jethro Tull, Grand Funk Railroad, Procol Harum, Ten Years After, Lighthouse, Crowbar and Sly and the Family Stone. John Lennon was to be the headline act, bidding to gain exposure for his peace campaign, but after months of planning he backed out due to differences with the show's promoter. However, the event still used the title of The Beatles' 1967 single of the same name. Led Zeppelin were booked to play but also backed out.
Canada Jam was held August 26, 1978 and the Heatwave Festival was held August 23, 1980.
CTMP was home to Republic Live's Boots and Hearts Music Festival, which first opened in the summer of 2012. In 2015, the event was abruptly moved to Burl's Creek Event Grounds, near Barrie.
Durham York Energy Centre
Clarington is home a 20 MW energy-from-waste (EFW) generation unit that opened in early 2016 that will take waste (140000 tonnes per year) for Durham and York Regions to burn to generate electricity.
Co-developed by Durham and York Region costed $295 million Canadian to build was built (and operated) by American-based Covanta. The unit will sell and send electricity onto Hydro One's distribution network.
Attractions
Clarington is home to five Christmas parades. It has more Santa Claus/Christmas parades than any other town-sized municipality in Canada . The parades are run in: Bowmanville, Newcastle, Courtice, Orono, and Enniskillen/Tyrone. The latter parade is organized by "T.H.E.E. Farmer's Parade of Lights", which is a special Christmas parade put on by the farmers from the communities of Tyrone, Haydon, Enniskillen and Enfield.
Enniskillen which is located in the northern part of Clarington, was the birthplace of Samuel McLaughlin. Mr. McLaughlin started the McLaughlin Motor Car Co. in 1904 and was one of the first major automobile manufacturers in Canada, which evolved into General Motors of Canada. Enniskillen is home to the Enniskillen General Store which opened in 1840 and stills operates today.
Clarington was home to the Bowmanville Zoo, until its closure in 2016. The Clarington Family Outdoor Adventure Park has since opened on the same property as the former Bowmanville Zoo, under the same ownership.
Clarington is home to Jungle Cat World.
Clarington Museums & Archives is the local museum in the municipality.
Clarington is also home to Brimacombe, a ski resort located near Kirby, Ontario.
Notable residents
Enniskillen was the childhood home of pharmacist and chemist John J. McLaughlin who would go on to invent Canada Dry and his brother Samuel McLaughlin who would go on to create the forerunner of GM Canada in Oshawa
See also
List of townships in Ontario
References
External links
Lower-tier municipalities in Ontario
Municipalities in Ontario
Populated places on Lake Ontario in Canada | [
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223598 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durango%20%28disambiguation%29 | Durango (disambiguation) | Durango is a state in Mexico.
Durango may also refer to:
Arts, media, and entertainment
Durango (film), a 1999 drama film
"Durango" (instrumental), by JJ Cale
The Durango Kid (film), a 1940 western film
Electronics
Durango Systems Corporation, a US computer company in the 1970s
Team Durango, a British radio control car brand
Durango, the development code name of Microsoft's Xbox One game console
Places
Durango City (Victoria de Durango), capital city of Durango, Mexico
Durango, Biscay, a city in Spain
Durango, Colorado, United States
Durango, Iowa, United States
Durango, Texas, United States
Schools
Durango High School (Colorado), United States
Durango High School (Nevada), United States
Sports
Durango (racing team), an Italian auto racing team
Alacranes de Durango, a Mexican football club
Transportation
Vehicles
Dodge Durango, an American mid-size SUV
Ford Durango, an American coupe utility
Durango 95, pseudonym of the Probe 16 car featured in the film A Clockwork Orange
Durango-class patrol vessel, operated by the Mexican Navy
Roads and routes
Durango Drive, a major in north–south road in the Las Vegas Valley, Nevada, United States
Stations
Durango (Mexico City Metrobús), a BRT station in Mexico City
Other uses
Durango root (Datisca glomerata), a herb
Durango Station, a casino in Las Vegas, Nevada, United States | [
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223606 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9%20Luis%20Ram%C3%ADrez | José Luis Ramírez | José Luis Ramírez (born December 3, 1958) is a retired Mexican boxer. He was a two-time World Lightweight Champion.
Career
A native of Huatabampo, Sonora and a resident of Culiacán, Ramírez made his professional debut on March 25, 1973 at the age of 15. He climbed slowly but steadily on boxing's rankings. In 1978, as a Featherweight, a 19 year old Ramírez lost by knockout for the only time in his career to legendary three time former world champion Rubén Olivares in two rounds.
After his move in weight to the Lightweights, 21-year-old Ramírez accumulated a record of 67-2, and met another boxing legend inside a ring, when he fought Alexis Argüello. Ramírez dropped Argüello for the first time in his career in round six, but lost a disputed ten round split decision in Miami. He then faced Ray Mancini for the North American Lightweight belt, and lost a 12 round decision in Ohio. By then, Ramírez and Julio César Chávez were gymmates and friends.
Ramírez won his following 10 bouts and on May 1, 1983, he was given the chance at becoming world Lightweight champion for the first time, when he fought Puerto Rican Edwin "El Chapo" Rosario at the Coliseo Roberto Clemente in San Juan, Puerto Rico, for the World Boxing Council's championship. Ramírez lost a close 12 round unanimous decision, but on November 3, of 1984, he and Rosario had a rematch, also in San Juan. After rising from two knockdowns, Ramírez rallied back to stagger Rosario in the third round. With Rosario pinned against a corner and Ramírez attacking, referee Steve Crosson stopped the bout in round four, after Ramírez had landed 17 straight punches, making Ramírez a world Lightweight champion for the first time, by a technical knockout. The fight was named the 1984 Ring Magazine fight of the year.
Ramírez then went into training for a defense against Héctor Camacho, another boxer from Puerto Rico. The fight was postponed when Camacho suffered a broken ankle during a pick up basketball game, but it finally came off on August 10, 1985. On his first fight telecast on HBO Boxing, Ramírez was dropped in round three and lost a 12 round unanimous decision.
Ramírez, a culturally intellectual person, moved to Paris soon after. There, he re-grouped, and was able to regain the WBC's world championship when Camacho left it vacant in 1987, by edging out Terrence Alli with another close but unanimous 12 round decision. In his first title defense, he defeated former champion Cornelius Boza-Edwards by fifth round knock out. In his second defense, he was awarded a 12 round split decision victory against future multiple world champion Pernell Whitaker. The consensus among both media and fans was that Whitaker deserved to win the fight.
Back in Mexico, he and Chávez were neighbors. Chávez had lifted the World Boxing Association's world Lightweight championship by beating Rosario, and a unification bout between the two friends and neighbors was planned. Ramírez, who is a godfather to one of Chávez's sons, lost an 11 round technical decision to Chávez on October 29 of 1988, which marked the last day he would be a world champion.
In 1989, he tried to win the International Boxing Federation's belt from Whitaker, in Virginia, but he lost a 12 round decision. Then, in 1990, he returned to France, where he lost to Juan Martin Coggi by a decision in 12 for the WBA's world Jr. Welterweight title in Ajaccio. After that bout, he retired.
Ramírez was a member of the less recognized, defunct World Boxing Hall of Fame in California, not to be confused with the more widely recognized International Boxing Hall of Fame in Canastota. In 2003, Ring magazine placed Ramirez on their list of the 100 greatest punchers of all time.
His boxing record is 102–9 (82 KOs). Seven of Ramirez's nine career losses came against future Hall Of Fame members.
Professional boxing record
See also
List of lightweight boxing champions
List of WBC world champions
List of Mexican boxing world champions
References
External links
1958 births
Lightweight boxers
Living people
Mexican male boxers
Boxers from Sonora
People from Huatabampo
Southpaw boxers
World boxing champions
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] |
223607 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Characteristics%20of%20common%20wasps%20and%20bees | Characteristics of common wasps and bees | While observers can easily confuse common wasps and bees at a distance or without close observation, there are many different characteristics of large bees and wasps that can be used to identify them.
See also
Schmidt sting pain index
Notes and references
Further reading
External links
What's Buzzin' in My Garden?
Differences between wasps and bees poster
Bees
Wasps
Scientific comparisons | [
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223608 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Thomas%2C%20Ontario | St. Thomas, Ontario | St. Thomas is a city in southwestern Ontario, Canada. It gained its city charter on March 4, 1881. The city is also the seat for Elgin County, although it is independent of the county.
At the time of the 2021 Census, the population of the city was 42,918.
History
The city, located at the intersection of two historical roads, was first settled in 1810. It was named the seat of the new Elgin County in 1844 and was incorporated as a village in 1852, then as a town in 1861. In 1881 St. Thomas became a city. It was named after Thomas Talbot who helped promote the development of this region during the early 19th century.
The founder of the settlement that became St. Thomas was Capt. Daniel Rapelje, descendant of a Walloon family settled in New Amsterdam, now New York City, at its inception in the seventeenth century. In 1820, Rapelje, the town's first settler, divided his land into town lots suitable for a village. Owner of the New England Mill, Rapelje subsequently donated two acres of land for the building of Old St. Thomas Church.
In 1871, the developing village of Millersburg, which included these lands east of the London and Port Stanley Railway, amalgamated with St. Thomas.
In the late 19th century and early 20th century several railways were constructed through the city, and St. Thomas became an important railway junction. A total of 26 railways have passed through the city since the first railway was completed in 1856. In the 1950s and 1960s, with the decline of the railway as a mode of transportation, other industry began to locate in the city, principally primary and secondary automotive manufacturing.
Jumbo the circus elephant, said to be the world's biggest elephant at the time, died here on September 15, 1885, shortly after being hit by a locomotive. There is a life-sized commemorative statue that was erected in 1985.
In 1824, Charles Duncombe and John Rolph established the first medical school in Upper Canada, in St. Thomas, under the patronage of Colonel Thomas Talbot. Duncombe's house now forms part of The Elgin Military Museum complex. Between 1881 and 1988 the city had a private woman's school operating called Alma College which was destroyed by fire in 2008.
St. Thomas' late 19th- early 20th century architecture includes the Elgin County Court House, Wellington Street public school, Myrtle St. School (demolished in 2014), Balaclava St. School, Elmdale School and its city hall, most designated heritage properties and all designed by former resident Neil R. Darrach.
Government
Joe Preston is the current mayor of St. Thomas. The City Council consists of the mayor and seven City Councillors, all elected at large, meaning Councillors are elected on a citywide basis.
Military
31 Combat Engineer Regiment (The Elgins) was created in 1997 when the former Elgin Regiment (RCAC) was re-roled from an armour tasking. The regiment had been associated with St. Thomas since its creation; St. Thomas is currently home to one of its two component field squadrons. St. Thomas Armoury is a recognized Federal Heritage building 1992 on the Register of the Government of Canada Heritage Buildings.
Demographics
According to the 2011 census, St. Thomas had a population of 37,905 people in 2011, which was an increase of 5.6% from the 2006 census count. The median household income in 2016 for St. Thomas was $71,356.75
95.5% of the population is white, 1.2% Indigenous, and 3.3% visible minorities.
Religious affiliation is 52.1% Protestant, 21% Catholic, 22.1% No affiliation and 4.8% Other.
By the time of the 2016 Census, the population had increased to 41,813. Over 10,000 of these people were age 60 or over.
Education
Fanshawe College has a satellite campus in St. Thomas. Catholic schools are controlled by the London District Catholic School Board and public schools are controlled by the Thames Valley District School Board. Arthur Voaden Secondary School, Central Elgin Collegiate Institute and Parkside Collegiate Institute are the three public high schools. St. Joseph's High School is a Catholic high school. There are two independent Christian elementary schools, Kings Academy and St. Thomas Community Christian School.
Economy
The local economy has been dominated by automotive manufacturing, with two plants operated by Magna International, the Ford St. Thomas Assembly in nearby Talbotville, and a Sterling Trucks assembly plant. However, the 2008 global recession that impacted the auto sector ultimately trickled down to the city; the Sterling plant closed in March 2009, and the Ford plant closed in late 2011 for a loss of 1,400 jobs. A number of other, smaller auto parts plants also closed as a result, putting thousands more out of work. This had a domino effect on the other part manufacturers in town, such as Lear Seating. One automotive materials supplier, A. Schulman, had previously closed its local manufacturing plant in 2008, one of the first actions of a new CEO installed in January.
Masco Canada's consolidation of their Canadian operations into the former Sterling Truck assembly plant in 2010 and Toyota supplier Takumi Stamping Canada's expansion in the same year brought over 500 jobs to St. Thomas.
A report in June 2019 indicated that a plant for cross-laminated timber (CLT) would be built in town, providing over 60 jobs. The estimated cost of the automated plant was $32 million.
The town's Economic Development Corporation has attracted film crews, particularly to the former psychiatric hospital (the Regional Mental Health Centre) on Sunset Drive as a location for filming. A January 2020 report indicated that productions filming in the town have included The Boys, Guillermo del Toro's Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark and most recently, a film featuring Jason Momoa that was planning to film in town, frequently outdoors, from February to June 2020.
Transportation
St. Thomas is accessible via Ontario Highway 3 and Ontario Highway 4, the latter of which provides access to London, Highway 401 and Highway 402.
Local Motion - Railway City Transit, which includes both conventional bus service and paratransit, is owned by the city and staffed and operated by Voyageur Transportation.
The city is served by the St. Thomas Municipal Airport (YQS), just east in the Municipality of Central Elgin. There are no scheduled flights; the airport is used for general aviation only. A bi-annual large-scale air show takes place at the St. Thomas Municipal Airport.
From 1978 to 1979 Canada Southern Railway Station served as the only Canadian stop for the short-lived Amtrak Niagara Rainbow route.
Media
St. Thomas has several media outlets based in the city. The St. Thomas Times-Journal is the city's newspaper, owned by Sun Media (Quebecor).
The St. Thomas - Elgin Weekly News is a weekly newspaper published in St. Thomas, that is distributed for free to all residents of St. Thomas and Elgin County. The Elgin County Market is a weekly publication that is also distributed for free to all residents of St. Thomas and Elgin County, it features various local business flyers and advertisements.
Rogers Cable operates a local community channel consisting mostly of local and dedicated volunteers. CFPL-DT, branded as CTV Two London, covers many news stories from St. Thomas.
St. Thomas's only local commercial radio station, CKZM-FM 94.1 FM was launched on May 20, 2011. Also a low-power FM radio station — VF8016, 90.1 MHz — broadcasts religious activities from Faith Baptist Church of St. Thomas. CFHK-FM, branded as 103.1 Fresh FM, is also licensed to St. Thomas, although its programming originates from London and targets all of southwestern Ontario.
Establish Media is the newest media outlet based in St. Thomas. They produce digital content which they distribute primarily through social channels.
Sports
There is a dragway called St. Thomas Raceway Park. The dragway is located a reasonable distance away from the town and minutes east of the historical community of Sparta.
Climate
Parks
There are two major parks in the city: Pinafore Park in the south, beside Pinafore Lake; and Waterworks Park in the north, which is straddled by Kettle Creek and the Waterworks Reservoir nearby.
The Trans Canada Trail goes through St. Thomas, with a pavilion located in Jonas Street Park.
The Lions Club Dog Park is located at the far west end of main street, at 25 Talbot Road. The park is managed by the St. Thomas Dog Owners Association (STDOA) in partnership with the City of St. Thomas. The park is open from dawn to dusk, daily.
The Kettle Creek Dog Park, opened in July 2014, is located just north of St Thomas, off Highbury on Mapleton Line, 200 metres beyond Dan Paterson Conservation Area. The park is open daily from dawn to dusk and boasts a large fenced in park, a fenced-in area for small dogs and a separate fenced-in area for one-on-one play. The park is managed by Kettle Creek Conservation Authority in partnership with STDOA, the Municipality of Central Elgin and the City of St Thomas.
V.A. Barrie Park, located on Sunset Drive, and Waterworks Park include popular Disc Golf courses.
Cultural activities
The Elgin Military Museum is located in the west end of St. Thomas. While the museum recounts the stories of Elgin County residents from the War of 1812 to Afghanistan, it also includes two M113 Armoured Personnel Carriers and a collection of some 600 UN and NATO badges described by one appraiser as "the best collection I have seen outside of the UN in New York". In late 2009, The Elgin Military Museum began the process to acquire the Cold War Oberon Class Submarine HMCS Ojibwa, The submarine is planned to be stationed outside of St. Thomas in Port Burwell.
The Elgin County Railway Museum is located in central St. Thomas.
St. Thomas is also home to the North America Railway Hall of Fame, which is located in the CASO train station. The station was built in the 1870s and was a centre of travel between New York City and Chicago. It is located on Talbot Street downtown.
The Elgin Theatre Guild is located at 40 Princess Avenue, and is home to a thriving community theatre, as well as hosting small musical groups. The building is a former church, built in 1907 by architect Neil Darrach. In 2001, St. Thomas City Council designated 40 Princess Avenue as a building of historic and architectural value in the City of St. Thomas.
St. Thomas is home to the Railway City Brewing Company, one of 29 members of the Ontario Craft Brewers.
St. Thomas' sister city is Bowling Green, OH.
Heritage buildings
As a county seat and major railway junction, St. Thomas was an important and vibrant town in early Ontario. As such, the city has a significant number of pre-1914 heritage buildings.
Public
St. Thomas Town Hall, 1899 (545 Talbot St.)
Elgin County Courthouse, 1898 (4 Wellington St.)
St. Thomas Carnegie Library, 1904 (9 Mondamin St.)
Elgin County Registry Office, 1874 (Gladstone Ave.)
St. Thomas Armoury, 1901 (40 Wilson Ave.)
Public Utilities Commission Building, 1916 (36 St. Catherine St.)
Religious
St. Thomas Anglican, 1823 (55 Walnut St)
Trinity Anglican, 1877 (55 Southwick St.)
St. John's Anglican, 1909 (20 Flora St.)
Knox Presbyterian, 1883 (55 Hincks St.)
Alma Street Presbyterian, 1891 (94 Kains St.)
Central Methodist, 1897 (135 Wellington St.)
Holy Angels Roman Catholic, 1911 (502 Talbot Street)
Centre Street Baptist, 1879 (28 Southwick St.)
Church of Christ, 1906 (40 Princess Ave.)
Education
Wellington Street Public School, 1898 (50 Wellington St.)
Balaclava Street School, 1898 (20 Balaclava St.)
Arthur Voaden Vocational School, 1925 (41 Flora St.)
Transportation
St. Thomas Station (Canada Southern Ry.), 1871 (750 Talbot St.)
Lost heritage
Alma College, 1881 (96 Moore St.) – burned down 2008
Myrtle Street School, 1903 (43 Myrtle St.) – demolished 2014
Amasa Wood Hospital, 1891 (45 Pearl St.)– demolished 1953
St. Thomas Collegiate Institute, 1902 (35 Elysian St.) – demolished 1967
First Methodist, 1873 (26 St George St.) – burned down 1946
St. Thomas Post Office, 1883 (403 Talbot St.)– demolished 1958
Notable people
Gopal Bhatnagar, cardiac surgeon, entrepreneur and public health advocate
Mary Ann Cunningham (1841-1930), social reformer and temperance activist
Bob Emslie, (1859–1943) pitcher in Major League Baseball who also had a long career as an umpire
Cory Emmerton, professional ice hockey player (Detroit Red Wings, Grand Rapids Griffins, Kingston Frontenacs)
Jean Chamberlain Froese, obstetrician
Jack Graney, professional baseball player and broadcaster, namesake of the Jack Graney Award
Paul Hackman (1953–1992), guitarist and songwriter from the rock band Helix
Libby Hague, artist
Dell Henderson, Hollywood actor of 304 films, director of 208 films and writer of 35
Mitchell Hepburn (1896–1953), Premier of Ontario 1934–1942
Dave Hudson, former professional ice hockey player (New York Islanders, Kansas City Scouts, Colorado Rockies)
D. J. Kennington, NASCAR driver
Rachel McAdams, Oscar-nominated Hollywood actress
Greg McKegg, professional ice hockey player for the Boston Bruins
Stephen Ouimette, actor, director widely known for his work at the Stratford Festival
Stephen J. Peters, politician, MPP for Elgin—Middlesex—London, former Minister of Labour (Ontario) and Minister of Agriculture and Food (Ontario), Speaker of the Ontario Legislature 2007–2011.
Philip Francis Pocock, former Catholic archbishop of Toronto
Janet and Greta Podleski, bestselling cookbook authors (Looneyspoons, Crazy Plates, Eat, Shrink & Be Merry!), Food Network hosts and Reader's Digest columnists
Joe Preston, entrepreneur and member of parliament representing Elgin—Middlesex—London riding
Helen Shaver, actress, director, producer (The Amityville Horror, The Color of Money, Judging Amy)
Ned Sparks, (1883–1957) character actor, well known for his deadpan expression and deep gravelly voice
David Shaw, former professional ice hockey player
Kenneth J. Summers, commander of Operation Friction
Joe Thornton, professional ice hockey player (Florida Panthers, Toronto Maple Leafs, San Jose Sharks, Boston Bruins, Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds, St. Thomas Stars)
Aaron Walpole, third-place finisher in the third season of Canadian Idol
Kari-Lynn Winters, children's book author, dramatist, literacy educator
John Wise (Ontario), PC (1935–2013), dairy cattle farmer and Federal Minister of Agriculture
Marline Yan (1993-), actress and singer
See also
Coat of arms of St. Thomas, Ontario
Port Stanley Terminal Rail
References
External links
Cities in Ontario
Single-tier municipalities in Ontario | [
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223630 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobold | Kobold | A kobold (occasionally cobold) is a sprite. Having spread into Europe with various spellings including "goblin" and "hobgoblin", and later taking root and stemming from Germanic mythology, they survived into modern times in German folklore.
Although usually invisible, a kobold can materialize in the form of an animal, a fire, a human being, and a candle. The most common depictions of kobolds show them as humanlike figures the size of small children. Kobolds who live in human homes wear the clothing of peasants; those who live in mines are hunched and ugly; kobolds who live on ships smoke pipes and wear sailor clothing.
Legends tell of three major types of kobolds. Most commonly, the creatures are household spirits of ambivalent nature; while they sometimes perform domestic chores, they play malicious tricks if insulted or neglected. Famous kobolds of this type include King Goldemar, Heinzelmann, and Hödekin. In some regions, kobolds are known by local names, such as the Galgenmännlein of southern Germany and the Heinzelmännchen of Cologne. Another type of kobold haunts underground places, such as mines. A third kind of kobold, the Klabautermann, lives aboard ships and helps sailors.
Kobold beliefs are evidence of the survival of pagan customs after the Roman Catholicization of Germany, or merely that the legends of them have lived on as stories. Belief in kobolds dates to at least the 13th century, when German peasants carved kobold effigies for their homes. Such pagan practices may have derived from beliefs in the mischievous kobalos (pl. kobaloi) (Ancient Greek: Κόβαλος, plural: Κόβαλοι) of ancient Greece which was a sprite, a mischievous creature fond of tricking and frightening mortals, even robbing Heracles/Hercules. Greek myths depict the kobaloi as impudent, thieving, droll, idle, mischievous, gnome-dwarfs, and as funny, little tricksy elves of a phallic nature. Depictions of kobaloi are common in ancient Greek art. Other similar sprites include the household lares and penates of ancient Rome, or native German beliefs in a similar room spirit called kofewalt (whose name is a possible rootword of the modern kobold or a German dialectal variant). Kobold beliefs mirror legends of similar creatures in other regions of Europe, and scholars have argued that the names of creatures such as goblins and kabouters derive from the same roots as kobold. This may indicate a common origin for these creatures, or it may represent cultural borrowings and influences of European peoples upon one another. Similarly, subterranean kobolds may share their origins with creatures such as gnomes and dwarves and the aquatic Klabautermann with similar water spirits.
The name of the element cobalt comes from the creature's name, because medieval miners blamed the sprite for the poisonous and troublesome nature of the typical arsenical ores of this metal (cobaltite and smaltite) which polluted other mined elements.
Origins and etymology
The kobold's origins are obscure. Sources equate the domestic kobold with creatures such as the English boggart, hobgoblin and pixy, the Scottish brownie, and the Scandinavian nisse or tomte; while they align the subterranean variety with the Norse dwarf and the Cornish knocker. Irish historian Thomas Keightley argued that the German kobold and the Scandinavian nis predate the Irish fairy and the Scottish brownie and influenced the beliefs in those entities, but American folklorist Richard Mercer Dorson discounted this argument as reflecting Keightley's bias toward Gotho-Germanic ideas over Celtic ones.
Kobold beliefs represent the survival of pagan customs into the Roman Catholic and modern eras and offer hints of how pagan Europeans worshipped in the privacy of their homes. Religion historian Otto Schrader has suggested that kobold beliefs derive from the pagan tradition of worshipping household deities thought to reside in the hearth fire. Alternatively, Nancy Arrowsmith and George Moorse have said that the earliest kobolds were thought to be tree spirits. According to 13th-century German poet Conrad of Würzburg, medieval Germans carved kobolds from boxwood and wax and put them "up in the room for fun". Mandrake root was another material used. People believed that the wild kobold remained in the material used to carve the figure. These kobold effigies were high and had colourful clothing and large mouths. One example, known as the monoloke, was made from white wax and wore a blue shirt and black velvet vest. The 17th century expression to laugh like a kobold may refer to these dolls with their mouths wide open, and it may mean "to laugh loud and heartily". These kobold effigies were stored in glass and wooden containers. German mythologist Jacob Grimm has traced the custom to Roman times and has argued that religious authorities tolerated it even after the Germans had been Christianised.
Several competing etymologies for kobold have been suggested. In 1908, Otto Schrader traced the word to kuba-walda, meaning "the one who rules the house". According to this theory, the root of the word is chubisi, the Old High German word for house, building, or hut, and the word akin to the root of the English 'cove'. The suffix -old means "to rule". Classicist Ken Dowden has identified the kofewalt, a spirit with powers over a single room, as the antecedent to the term kobold and to the creature itself. He has drawn parallels between the kobold and the Roman lares and penates and the Anglo-Saxon cofgodas, "room-gods". Linguist Paul Wexler has proposed yet another etymology, tracing kobold to the roots koben ("pigsty") and hold ("stall spirit").
Grimm has provided one of the earlier and more commonly accepted etymologies for kobold, tracing the word's origin through the Latin cobalus to the Greek koba'los, meaning "rogue". The change to the word-final -olt is a feature of the German language used for monsters and supernatural beings. Variants of kobold appear as early as the 13th century. The words goblin and gobelin, rendered in Medieval Latin as gobelinus, may in fact derive from the word kobold or from kofewalt. Related terms occur in Dutch, such as kabout, kabot, and kaboutermanneken. Citing this evidence, British antiquarian Charles Hardwick has argued that the house kobold and similar creatures, such as the Scottish bogie, French goblin, and English Puck, all descend from the Greek kobaloi, creatures "whose sole delite consists in perplexing the human race, and evoking those harmless terrors that constantly hover round the minds of the timid." In keeping with Grimm's definition, the kobaloi were spirits invoked by rogues. Similarly, British writer Archibald Maclaren has suggested that kobold beliefs descend from the ancient Roman custom of worshipping lares, household gods, and penates, gods of the house and its supplies.
Another class of kobold lives in underground places. Folklorists have proposed that the mine kobold derives from the beliefs of the ancient Germanic people. Scottish historical novelist Walter Scott has suggested that the Proto-Norse based the kobolds on the short-statured Finns, Lapps, and Latvians who fled their invasions and sought shelter in northern European caves and mountains. There they put their skills at smithing to work and, in the beliefs of the proto-Norse, came to be seen as supernatural beings. These beliefs spread, becoming the kobold, the Germanic gnome, the French goblin and the Scottish bogle. In contrast, Humorists William Edmonstoune Aytoun and Theodore Martin (writing as "Bon Gaultier") have proposed that the Norse themselves were the models for the mine kobold and similar creatures, such as dwarfs, goblins, and trolls; Norse miners and smiths "were small in their physical proportions, and usually had their stithies near the mouths of the mines among the hills." This gave rise to myths about small, subterranean creatures, and the stories spread across Europe "as extensively as the military migrations from the same places did".
German writer Heinrich Smidt believed that the sea kobolds, or Klabautermann, entered German folklore via German sailors who had learned about them in England. However, historians David Kirby and Merja-Liisa Hinkkanen dispute this, claiming no evidence of such a belief in Britain. An alternate view connects the Klabautermann myths with the story of Saint Phocas of Sinope. As that story spread from the Black Sea to the Baltic Sea. Scholar Reinhard Buss instead sees the Klabautermann as an amalgamation of early and pre-Christian beliefs mixed with new creatures.
Characteristics
Kobolds are spirits and, as such, part of a spiritual realm. However, as with other European spirits, they often dwell among the living. Although kobold is the general term, tales often give names to individuals and classes of kobolds. The name Chim is particularly common, and other names found in stories include Chimmeken, King Goldemar, Heinzchen, Heinze, Himschen, Heinzelmann, Hödekin, Kurd Chimgen, Walther, and Wolterken. Local names for kobolds include Allerünken, Alraune, Galgenmännlein (in southern Germany), Glucksmännchen, Heinzelmännchen (in Cologne), Hütchen, and Oaraunle. The Heinzelmännchen are a class of kobolds from Cologne, and the Klabautermann is a kobold from the beliefs of fishermen and sailors of the Baltic Sea. Many of these names are modifications of common German given names, such as Heinrich (abbreviated to Heinze), Joachim, and Walther.
Kobolds may manifest as animals, fire, human beings, and objects. Fiery kobolds are also called drakes, draches, or puks. A tale from the Altmark, recorded by Anglo-Saxon scholar Benjamin Thorpe in 1852, describes the kobold as "a fiery stripe with a broad head, which he usually shakes from one side to the other..." A legend from the same period taken from Pechüle, near Luckenwald, says that the kobold flies through the air as a blue stripe and carries grain. "If a knife or a fire-steel be cast at him, he will burst, and must let fall what which he is carrying." Some legends say the fiery kobold enters and exits a house through the chimney. Legends dating to 1852 from western Uckermark ascribe both human and fiery features to the kobold; he wears a red jacket and cap and moves about the air as a fiery stripe. Such fire associations, along with the name drake, may point to a connection between kobold and dragon myths.
Kobolds who live in human homes are generally depicted as humanlike, dressed as peasants, and standing about as tall as a four-year-old child. A legend recorded by folklorist Joseph Snowe from a place called Alte Burg in 1839 tells of a creature "in the shape of a short, thick-set being, neither boy nor man, but akin to the condition of both, garbed in a party-coloured loose surcoat, and wearing a high-crowned hat with a broad brim on his diminutive head." The kobold Hödekin (also known as Hüdekin and Hütchen) of Hildesheim wore a little hat down over his face (Hödekin means "little hat"). Another type of kobold known as the Hütchen is said to be tall, with red hair and beard, and clad in red or green clothing and a red hat and may even be blind. Yet other tales describe kobolds appearing as herdsmen looking for work and little, wrinkled old men in pointed hoods. Some kobolds resemble small children. According to dramatist and novelist X. B. Saintine, kobolds are the spirits of dead children and often appear with a knife that represents the means by which they were put to death. Heinzelmann, a kobold from the folklore of Hudermühlen Castle in the region of Lüneburg, appeared as a beautiful boy with blond, curly hair to his shoulders and dressed in a red silk coat. His voice was "soft and tender like that of a boy or maiden."
Legends variously describe mine kobolds as 0.6 metre-tall (2-ft) old men dressed like miners to short, bent creatures with ugly features, including, in some tales, black skin. In 1820, Spiritualist Emma Hardinge Britten recorded a description of mine kobolds from a Madame Kalodzy, who stayed with peasants named Dorothea and Michael Engelbrecht:
We were about to sit down to tea when Mdlle. Gronin called our attention to the steady light, round, and about the size of a cheese plate, which appeared suddenly on the wall of the little garden directly opposite the door of the hut in which we sat.
Before any of us could rise to examine it, four more lights appeared almost simultaneously, about the same shape, and varying only in size. Surrounding each one was the dim outline of a small human figure, black and grotesque, more like a little image carved out of black shining wood, than anything else I can liken them to. Dorothea kissed her hands to these dreadful little shapes, and Michael bowed with great reverence. As for me and my companions, we were so awe-struck yet amused at these comical shapes, that we could not move or speak until they themselves seemed to flit about in a sort of wavering dance, and then vanish, one by one.
The same informant claimed to later have seen the kobolds first-hand. She described them as "diminutive black dwarfs about two or three feet in height, and at that part which in the human being is occupied by the heart, they carry the round luminous circle first described, an appearance which is much more frequently seen than the little black men themselves." The Heinzelmännchen of Cologne resemble short, naked men, and the Klabautermann, a kobold from the beliefs of fishermen and sailors of the Baltic Sea, typically appears as a small, pipe-smoking humanlike figure wearing a yellow nightcap-style sailor's hat and a red or grey jacket.
Other kobolds appear as animals. Folklorist D. L. Ashliman has reported kobolds appearing as wet cats and hens, and Arrowsmith and Moorse mention kobolds in the shape of bats, cats, roosters, snakes, and worms. Thorpe has recorded that the people of Altmark believed that kobolds appeared as black cats while walking the earth. The kobold Heinzelmann could appear as a black marten and a large snake.
Most often, kobolds remain completely invisible. Although King Goldemar (or Goldmar), a famous kobold from Castle Hardenstein, had hands "thin like those of a frog, cold and soft to the feel", he never showed himself. The master of Hundermühlen Castle, where Heinzelmann lived, convinced the kobold to let him touch him one night. The kobold's fingers were childlike, and his face was like a skull, without body heat. One legend tells of a female servant taking a fancy to her house's kobold and asking to see him. The kobold refuses, claiming that to look upon him would be terrifying. Undeterred, the maid insists, and the kobold tells her to meet him later—and to bring along a pail of cold water. The kobold waits for the maid, nude and with a butcher knife in his back. The maid faints at the sight, and the kobold wakes her with the cold water. In one variant, the maid sees a dead baby floating in a cask full of blood; years before, the woman had born a bastard child, killed it, and hidden it in such a cask. Legends tell of those who try to trick a kobold into showing itself being punished for the misdeed. For example, Heinzelmann tricked a nobleman into thinking that the kobold was hiding in a jug. When the nobleman covered the jug's mouth to trap the creature, the kobold chided him:
If I had not heard long ago from other people that you were a fool, I might now have known it of myself, since you thought I was sitting in an empty jug, and went to cover it up with your hand, as if you had me caught. I don't think you worth the trouble, or I would have given you, long since, such a lesson, that you should remember me long enough. But before long you will get a slight ducking.
When a man threw ashes and tares about to try to see King Goldemar's footprints, the kobold cut him to pieces, put him on a spit, roasted him, boiled his legs and head, and ate him. The Heinzelmänchen of Cologne marched from the city and sailed away when a tailor's wife strewed peas on the stairs to trip them so she could see them. In 1850, Keightley noted that the Heinzelmänchen "[had] totally disappeared, as has been everywhere the case, owing to the curiosity of people, which has at all times been the destruction of so much of what was beautiful in the world."
House spirits
Domestic kobolds are linked to a specific household. Some legends claim that every house has a resident kobold, regardless of its owners' desires or needs. The means by which a kobold enters a new home vary from tale to tale. One tradition claims that the kobold enters the household by announcing itself at night by strewing wood chips about the house and putting dirt or cow manure in the milk cans. If the master of the house leaves the wood chips and drinks the soiled milk, the kobold takes up residence. The kobold Heinzelmann of Hundermühlen Castle arrived in 1584 and announced himself by knocking and making other sounds. Should someone take pity on a kobold in the form of a cold, wet creature and take it inside to warm it, the spirit takes up residence there. A tradition from Perleberg in northern Germany says that a homeowner must follow specific instructions to lure a kobold to his house. He must go on St John's Day between noon and one o'clock, into the forest. When he finds an anthill with a bird on it, he must say a certain phrase, which causes the bird to transform into a small person. The figure then leaps into a bag carried by the homeowner, and he can then transfer the kobold to his home. Even if servants come and go, the kobold stays.
House kobolds usually live in the hearth area of a house, although some tales place them in less frequented parts of the home, in the woodhouse, in barns and stables, or in the beer cellar of an inn. At night, such kobolds do chores that the human occupants neglected to finish before bedtime: They chase away pests, clean the stables, feed and groom the cattle and horses, scrub the dishes and pots, and sweep the kitchen. Other kobolds help tradespeople and shopkeepers. A Cologne legend recorded by Keightley claims that bakers in the city in the early 19th century never needed hired help because, each night, the kobolds known as Heinzelmänchen made as much bread as a baker could need. Similarly, biersal, kobolds who live in breweries and the beer cellars of inns or pubs, bring beer into the house, clean the tables, and wash the bottles, glasses and casks. One such legend, first appearing late in the 19th century, concerns a house spirit named Hödfellow that resided at the Fremlin's Brewery in Maidstone, Kent, England who was wont to either assist the company's workers or hinder their efforts depending on whether he was being paid his share of the beer. This association between kobolds and work gave rise to a saying current in 19th-century Germany that a woman who worked quickly "had the kobold".
A kobold can bring wealth to his household in the form of grain and gold. A legend from Saterland and East Friesland, recorded by Thorpe in 1852, tells of a kobold called the Alrûn. Despite standing only about a foot tall, the creature could carry a load of rye in his mouth for the people with whom he lived and did so daily as long as he received a meal of biscuits and milk. The saying to have an Alrûn in one's pocket means "to have luck at play". However, kobold gifts may be stolen from the neighbours; accordingly, some legends say that gifts from a kobold are demonic or evil. Nevertheless, peasants often welcome this trickery and feed their kobold in the hopes that it continue bringing its gifts. A family coming into unexplained wealth was often attributed to a new kobold moving into the house.
Kobolds bring good luck and help their hosts as long as the hosts take care of them. The kobold Heinzelmann found things that had been lost. He had a rhyme he liked to sing: "If thou here wilt let me stay, / Good luck shalt thou have alway; / But if hence thou wilt me chase, / Luck will ne'er come near the place." Three famous kobolds, King Goldemar, Heinzelmann, and Hödekin, all gave warnings about danger to the owners of the home in which they lived. Heinzelmann once warned a colonel to be careful on his daily hunt. The man ignored the advice, only to have his gun backfire and shoot off his thumb. Heinzelman appeared to him and said, "See, now, you have got what I warned you of! If you had refrained from shooting this time, this mischance would not have befallen you." The kobold Hödekin, who lived with the bishop of Hildesheim in the 12th century, once warned the bishop of a murder. When the bishop acted on the information, he was able to take over the murderer's lands and add them to his bishopric.
In return, the family must leave a portion of their supper (or beer, for the biersal - see Hödfellow) to the spirit and must treat the kobold with respect, never mocking or laughing at the creature. A kobold expects to be fed in the same place at the same time each day, or in the case of the Hütchen, once a week and on holidays. One tradition says that their favourite food is grits or water-gruel. Tales tell of kobolds with their own rooms; the kobold Heinzelmann had his own chamber at the castle, complete with furnishings. and King Goldemar was said to sleep in the same bed with Neveling von Hardenberg. He demanded a place at the table and a stall for his horses. Keightley relates that maids who leave the employ of a certain household must warn their successor to treat the house kobold well.
Legends tell of slighted kobolds becoming quite malevolent and vengeful, afflicting errant hosts with supernatural diseases, disfigurements, and injuries. Their pranks range from beating the servants to murdering those who insult them. One holyman visited the home of Heinzelmann and refused to accept the kobold's protests that he was a Christian. Heinzelmann threatened him, and the nobleman fled. Another nobleman refused to drink to the kobold's honour, which prompted Heinzelmann to drag the man to the ground and choke him near to death. When a kitchen servant got dirt on the kobold Hödekin and sprayed him with water each time he appeared, Hödekin asked that the boy be punished, but the steward dismissed the behaviour as a childish prank. Hodeken waited for the servant to go to sleep and then strangled him, tore him limb from limb, and threw him in a pot over the fire. The head cook rebuked the kobold for the murder, so Hodeken squeezed toad blood onto the meat being prepared for the bishop. The cook chastised the spirit for this behaviour, so Hodeken threw him over the drawbridge into the moat. According to Lüthi, these abilities reflect the fear of the people who believe in them. Thomas Keightley has attributed the feats of kobolds to "ventriloquism and the contrivances of servants and others."
Archibald Maclaren has attributed kobold behaviour to the virtue of the homeowners; a virtuous house has a productive and helpful kobold; a vice-filled one has a malicious and mischievous pest. If the hosts give up those things to which the kobold objects, the spirit ceases its annoying behaviour. Heinzelmann punished vices; for example, when the secretary of Hudenmühlen was sleeping with the chamber maid, the kobold interrupted a sexual encounter and hit the secretary with a broom handle. King Goldemar revealed the secret transgressions of clergymen, much to their chagrin. Joseph Snowe has related the tale of a kobold at Alte Burg: When two students slept in the mill in which the creature lived, one of them ate the offering of food the miller had left the kobold. The student who had left the meal alone felt the kobold's touch as "gentle and soothing", but the one who had eaten its food felt that "the fingers of the hand were pointed with poisoned arrowheads, or fanged with fire." Even friendly kobolds are rarely completely good, and house kobolds may do mischief for no particular reason. They hide things, push people over when they bend to pick something up, and make noise at night to keep people awake. The kobold Hödekin of Hildesheim roamed the walls of the castle at night, forcing the watch to be constantly vigilant. A kobold in a fishermen's house in Köpenick on the Wendish Spree reportedly moved sleeping fishermen so that their heads and toes lined up. King Goldemar enjoyed strumming the harp and playing dice. One of Heinzelmann's pranks was to pinch drunken men to make them start fights with their companions. Heinzelmann liked his lord's two daughters and scared away their suitors so that the women never married.
Folktales tell of people trying to rid themselves of mischievous kobolds. In one tale, a man with a kobold-haunted barn puts all the straw onto a cart, burns the barn down, and sets off to start anew. As he rides away, he looks back and sees the kobold sitting behind him. "It was high time that we got out!" it says. A similar tale from Köpenick tells of a man trying to move out of a kobold-infested house. He sees the kobold preparing to move too and realises that he cannot rid himself of the creature. The lord of the Hundermühlen Castle disliked Heinzelmann and tried to escape him by taking up residence with his family and retinue elsewhere. Nevertheless, the invisible kobold travelled along with them as a white feather, which they discovered when they stayed at an inn.
Why do you retire from me? I can easily follow you anywhere, and be where you are. It is much better for you to return to your own estate, and not be quitting it on my account. You see well that if I wished it I could take away all you have, but I am not inclined to do so.
Exorcism by a Christian priest works in some tales; the bishop of Hildesheim managed to exorcise Hödekin from the castle. Even this method is not fool-proof, however; when an exorcist tried to drive away Heinzelmann, the kobold tore up the priest's holy book, strewed it about the room, attacked the exorcist, and chased him away. Insulting a kobold may drive it away, but not without a curse; when someone tried to see his true form, Goldemar left the home and vowed that the house would now be as unlucky as it had been fortunate under his care. Actions a Hütchen considers insulting include giving him clothing, rushing him in his work, burning the house down, and leaving a wagon wheel in front of it.
Mine spirits
Medieval European miners believed in underground spirits. The kobold filled this role in German folklore and is similar to other creatures of the type, such as the English bluecap, Cornish knocker and the Welsh coblynau. Stories of subterranean kobolds were common in Germany by the 16th century. Superstitious miners believed the creatures to be expert miners and metalworkers who could be heard constantly drilling, hammering, and shoveling. Some stories claim that the kobolds live in the rock, just as human beings live in the air.
Legends often paint underground kobolds as evil creatures. In medieval mining towns, people prayed for protection from them. They were blamed for the accidents, cave-ins, and rock slides that plagued human miners. One favoured kobold prank was to fool miners into taking worthless ore. For example, 16th-century miners sometimes encountered what looked to be rich veins of copper or silver, but which, when smelted, proved to be little more than a pollutant and could even be poisonous. These ores caused a burning sensation to those who handled them. Miners tried to appease the kobolds with offerings of gold and silver and by insisting that fellow miners treat them respectfully. Nevertheless, some stories claim that kobolds only returned such kindness with more poisonous ores. Miners called these ores cobalt after the creatures from whom they were thought to come. In 1735, Swedish chemist Georg Brandt isolated a substance from such ores and named it cobalt rex. In 1780, scientists showed that this was in fact a new element, which they named cobalt.
Tales from other parts of Germany make mine kobolds beneficial creatures, at least if they are treated respectfully. Nineteenth-century miners in Bohemia and Hungary reported hearing knocking in the mines. They interpreted such noises as warnings from the kobolds to not go in that direction. Other miners claimed that the knocks indicated where veins of metal could be found: the more knocks, the richer the vein. In 1884, spiritualist Emma Hardinge Britten reported a story from a Madame Kalodzy, who claimed to have heard mine kobolds while visiting a peasant named Michael Engelbrecht: "On the three first days after our arrival, we only heard a few dull knocks, sounding in and about the mouth of the mine, as if produced by some vibrations or very distant blows..." Kobolds are sometimes portrayed as being indifferent to human miners, so long as they are left alone. In these depictions, they are content to simply mine ore themselves, collect it, and haul it away by windlass.
Water spirits
The Klabautermann (also spelt Klaboterman and Klabotermann) is a creature from the beliefs of fishermen and sailors of Germany's north coast, the Netherlands, and the Baltic Sea, and may represent a third type of kobold or possibly a different spirit that has merged with kobold traditions. Belief in the Klabautermann dates to at least the 1770s. According to these traditions, Klabautermanns live on ships and are generally beneficial to the crew. For example, a Klabautermann will pump water from the hold, arrange cargo, and hammer at holes until they can be repaired. The creatures are thought to be especially useful in times of danger, preventing the ship from sinking. The Klabautermann is associated with the wood of the ship on which it lives. It enters the ship via the wood used to build it, and it may appear as a ship's carpenter.
The Klabautermann's benevolent behaviour lasts as long as the crew and captain treat the creature respectfully. A Klabautermann will not leave its ship until it is on the verge of sinking. To this end, superstitious sailors in the 19th century demanded that others pay the Klabautermann respect. Ellett has recorded one rumour that a crew even threw its captain overboard for denying the existence of the ship's Klabautermann. Heinrich Heine has reported that one captain created a place for his ship's Klabautermann in his cabin and that the captain offered the spirit the best food and drink he had to offer. Klabautermanns are easily angered. Their ire manifests in pranks such as tangling ropes and laughing at sailors who shirk their chores.
The sight of a Klabautermann is an ill omen, and in the 19th century, it was the most feared sight among sailors. According to one tradition, they only appear to those about to die. Another story recorded by Ellett claims that the Klabautermann only shows itself if the ship is doomed to sink.
In media
German writers have long borrowed from German folklore and fairy lore for both poetry and prose. Narrative versions of folktales and fairy tales are common, and kobolds are the subject of several such tales. Kobolds appear in a number of other works. For example, in his Bible, Martin Luther translates the Hebrew lilith in Isaiah 34:14 as kobold. In Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Faust, the kobold represents the Greek element of earth:
Similarly, a kobold is musically depicted in Edvard Grieg's lyric piece, opus 71, number 3. Likewise, kobold characters such as Pittiplatsch and Pumuckl appear in German popular culture. Der Kobold, Op. 3, is also Opera in Three Acts with text and music by Siegfried Wagner; his third opera and it was completed in 1903.
Kobolds also appear in many modern fantasy-themed games like Clash of Clans, usually as a low-power or low-level enemy. They exist as a non-playable race in the World of Warcraft video game series, and also feature in tabletop games such as Magic: The Gathering. In Dungeons & Dragons, the kobold appears as an occasionally playable race of lizard-esque beings: in Might and Magic games (notably Heroes VII) they are depicted as being mouse-dwarf hybrids. The anime franchise Record of Lodoss War depicts kobolds as dog-like based on earlier versions of Dungeons & Dragons, resulting in many Japanese media depictions doing the same.
See also
Kobold (Dungeons & Dragons)
Notes
References
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Fairies
Tutelary deities
Goblins
Pixies
Gnomes
Elves
Mining folklore
German legendary creatures
Household deities
Sprites (folklore) | [
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223632 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iman%20%28model%29 | Iman (model) | Iman Abdulmajid (born Zara Mohamed Abdulmajid; , 25 July 1955) is a Somali fashion model, actress and entrepreneur. A muse of the designers Gianni Versace, Thierry Mugler, Calvin Klein, Donna Karan and Yves Saint Laurent, she is also noted for her philanthropic work. She was married to rock musician David Bowie from 1992 until his death in 2016.
Early life
Iman was born Zara Mohamed Abdulmajid in Mogadishu. She was later renamed Iman at her grandfather's urging. Iman is the daughter of Mariam and Mohamed Abdulmajid. Her father, a diplomat, was the Somali ambassador to Saudi Arabia, and her mother was a gynecologist. She has four siblings: two brothers and two sisters.
Iman lived with her grandparents during her formative years. At age four she was sent to boarding school in Egypt, where she spent most of her childhood and adolescence. Following political unrest in Somalia, Iman's father moved the family back to the country. At his behest, she and her mother and siblings subsequently traveled to Kenya and were later joined by her father and younger sister. She briefly studied political science at the University of Nairobi in 1975.
Career
Modeling
While still at university, Iman was discovered by the American photographer Peter Beard, and moved to the United States to begin a modeling career. Her first modeling assignment was for Vogue a year later in 1976. She soon appeared on the cover of some of the world’s most prestigious magazines, establishing herself as a supermodel.
With her long neck, tall stature, slender figure, fine features, and copper-toned skin, Iman was an instant success in the fashion world, though she herself insists that her looks are merely typically Somali. She became a muse to many prominent designers, including Halston, Gianni Versace, Calvin Klein, Issey Miyake and Donna Karan. She was a favourite of Yves Saint-Laurent, who once described her as his "dream woman".
Iman has worked with many notable photographers, including Helmut Newton, Richard Avedon, Irving Penn, and Annie Leibovitz.
Iman credits the nurturing she received from various designers with having given her the confidence to succeed in an era when individuality was valued and model-muses were often an integral part of the creative process.
She is represented by TESS Management in London.
Business
Iman Cosmetics
After almost two decades of modeling, Iman started her own cosmetics firm in 1994, focusing on difficult-to-find shades for women. Based on her years of experience mixing her own formulations for make-up artists to use on her, she was closely involved with the final product and also acted as the commercial face of the company.
Iman Cosmetics was a $25-million-a-year business by 2010. It is centered on $14.99 foundations in four formulations and 14 shades, and is among the top-selling foundation brands on Walgreens website.
In spring 2012, Iman signed fellow Somali designers Ayaan and Idyl Mohallim, founders of the Mataano fashion company, as brand ambassadors for her cosmetics line.
In fall 2021, Iman released her signature fragrance, "Love Memoir." The color of the amber bottle is a nod to the sunsets she and her husband enjoyed. The shape of the bottle is a mimic of two stones, which references to a spiritual ritual where you place flat stones to guide people who come after you. The tradition is also connected to healing from grief. Imam has done this ritual around her and David’s property.
Global Chic
Due to her marketability and high profile, Iman was approached in 2007 by the CEO of the Home Shopping Network (HSN) to create a clothing design line. Inspired by her childhood in Egypt and modeling time with Halston, Iman's first collection introduced embroidered, one-size-fits-all caftans. Today, her Global Chic collection is one of four best-selling items among more than 200 fashion and jewelry brands on HSN, having evolved into a line of affordable accessories.
Cinema
Iman appeared as a character named Martia in Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country (1991). She plays the role of a Star Trek Chameloid alien, a shape-shifter who can take on different forms. Various actors play this character in different guises, but Iman plays the form in which the character principally appears in the film.
Television
Iman appeared in two episodes of Miami Vice, playing Dakotah in Back in the World (1985) and Lois Blyth in Love at First Sight (1988). She also had a guest role as Mrs. Montgomery on The Cosby Show (1985). In 1988, she appeared as Marie Babineaux in an episode of In the Heat of the Night.
In the mid-2000s, Iman spent two years as the host of Bravo TV's fashion-themed show, Project Runway Canada. In November 2010, along with her friend and colleague, designer Isaac Mizrahi, Iman also began hosting the second season of The Fashion Show. Bravo started the series to replace its former hit Project Runway that has now moved to the Lifetime network.
Film
Iman first featured in the 1979 British film The Human Factor, and had a bit part in the 1985 Oscar-winning film Out of Africa starring Robert Redford and Meryl Streep. She then portrayed Nina Beka in the 1987 thriller No Way Out with Kevin Costner, and Hedy in the Michael Caine comedy Surrender the same year. During her first year in Hollywood, in 1991, Iman worked on several film productions. Among these was the Tim Hunter-directed Lies of the Twins and Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country, where she played a shapeshifting alien. Iman also took on some comedic roles. In 1991 she appeared in The Linguini Incident opposite her then-fiancé David Bowie. She had a smaller part in the 1991 comedy House Party 2 and in the 1994 comedy/romance film Exit to Eden.
Video games
Iman made a cameo appearance alongside her husband David Bowie in the 1999 Windows 9x and Dreamcast 3D adventure game, Omikron: The Nomad Soul, developed by the video game company, Quantic Dream. In the game, she appears as one of the numerous Omikronian citizens the player can "reincarnate" into.
Philanthropy
In addition to running her global beauty company, Iman is also actively involved in a number of charitable endeavors. Since September 2019, Iman has held the role of CARE's first-ever Global Advocate, where she works alongside CARE to support its mission to create a world where poverty has been overcome and all people live with dignity and security. She is also currently a spokesperson for the Keep a Child Alive program, and works closely with the Children's Defense Fund. She also serves as an Ambassador for Save the Children, and has been active in raising awareness of their relief services in the greater East Africa region. Additionally, Iman works with the Enough Project to end the global trade in conflict minerals. She played a key part in the public campaign against blood diamonds through her termination of her contract with the diamonds conglomerate De Beers over a conflict of ethics.
Awards
Over the course of her long modeling and philanthropic career, Iman has received many awards. On 7 June 2010, she received a Fashion Icon lifetime achievement award from the Council of Fashion Designers of America (CFDA), a special prize reserved for "an individual whose signature style has had a profound influence on fashion". Iman selected her friend, actress and former model Isabella Rossellini, to present the award. Wearing a gown designed by Giambattista Valli with four giant diamond bracelets on each arm, Iman thanked her parents "for giving me a neck longer than any other girl on any go-see anywhere in the world".
Personal life
Iman is Muslim. She has credited how her faith has helped her through the dark times. She is fluent in five languages: Somali, Arabic, Italian, French, and English.
Iman was first married at age 18 to Hassan, a young Somali entrepreneur and Hilton hotelier executive. The marriage ended a few years later when she moved to the United States to pursue a modeling career.
In 1977, Iman dated American actor Warren Beatty. Later that year, she became engaged to American basketball player Spencer Haywood, and they married soon after. Their daughter, Zulekha Haywood, was born in 1978; in February 1987, the couple divorced.
In 1990, Iman met English musician David Bowie on a surprise blind date set up by a friend in Los Angeles. The friend was hairdresser Teddy Antolin, who invited Iman to a party. When she arrived at the restaurant, there were only four attendees: Antolin, Antolin's boyfriend, Iman, and Bowie. At the end of the evening, Bowie had offered to drive her home, and she stated, "No, I'm going to drive my car." He invited her to tea the next day and Iman learned he didn't drink tea. They went to a nearby coffee shop.
On 24 April 1992, Iman married David Bowie in a private ceremony in Lausanne, Switzerland. The wedding was then solemnized in Florence, Italy on 6 June. Bowie named his instrumental piece 'Abdulmajid' after her, which was later converted into a symphony by Philip Glass. Their daughter, Alexandria Zahra Jones, was born 15 August 2000 at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York City. Iman is also stepmother to Bowie's son from a previous marriage, Duncan Jones. Both children bear Bowie's legal surname. Iman and her family resided primarily in Manhattan and London. When Bowie died on 10 January 2016, she wrote in tribute to him that "the struggle is real, but so is God."
Bibliography
I Am Iman (2001)
The Beauty of Color (2005)
One Love Lost: A True Story (2005)
Filmography
See also
Mononymous person
References
External links
– official site
Iman Cosmetics
1955 births
Living people
Ethnic Somali people
African-American Muslims
American cosmetics businesspeople
American fashion businesspeople
American film actresses
Participants in American reality television series
People from Mogadishu
Somalian actresses
Somalian emigrants to the United States
Somalian expatriates in the United Kingdom
Somalian fashion designers
Somalian female models
Somalian Muslims
Muslim models
Women fashion designers
21st-century American women | [
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] |
223637 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disruptor | Disruptor | Disruptor may refer to:
Disruptor (comics), multiple DC Comics characters
Disruptor (software), an open-source software technology
Disruptor (Star Trek weapon), a weapon in television series Star Trek
Disruptor (video game), is a video game for the Sony PlayStation
Disruptor Records, an American record label
Endocrine disruptor, chemicals that interfere with endocrine systems
Photonic Disruptor, a model of the dazzler non-lethal directed radiation weapon
Projected water disruptor, a type of bomb disposal equipment
A catalyst of disruptive innovation
See also
Disruption | [
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223685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certificate | Certificate | Certificate may refer to:
Birth certificate
Marriage certificate
Death certificate
Gift certificate
Certificate of authenticity, a document or seal certifying the authenticity of something
Certificate of deposit, or CD, a financial product commonly offered to consumers by banks, thrift institutions and credit unions
Computing
Authorization certificate or attribute certificate
Certificate (complexity), a string that certifies the answer to a computation
Public key certificate, an electronic document used in cryptography
Academic qualification
Academic certificate
Medical certificate
Professional certification, a vocational award
A confirmation that a person has passed a Test (assessment) to prove competence
Global Assessment Certificate is a university preparation and foundation studies program
Graduate certificate
Australia
Higher School Certificate (New South Wales), a school qualification in New South Wales, Australia
Victorian Certificate of Education, a school qualification in Victoria, Australia
Certificates awarded by TAFE colleges, see
Ireland
Junior Certificate, a qualification attained by school students
Irish Leaving Certificate, a higher qualification attained by school students
National Certificate, an older higher education qualification
Higher Certificate, a newer higher education qualification
Certificate (HETAC), a subdegree qualification offered by the Higher Education and Training Awards Council
Hong Kong
Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination
United Kingdom
Certificate of Higher Education, awarded after one year full-time study at a university or other higher education institution
Other uses
The Certificate, a 1967 novel by Isaac Bashevis Singer
See also
Certificate of Achievement (disambiguation)
Certification
Academic degree
Motion picture rating system
ka:ატესტატი
nl:Certificaat (verklaring) | [
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223720 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%20C.%20Gillette | King C. Gillette | King Camp Gillette (January 5, 1855 – July 9, 1932) was an American businessman. He invented a best-selling version of the safety razor. Several models were in existence before Gillette's design. Gillette's innovation was the thin, inexpensive, disposable blade of stamped steel. Gillette is erroneously credited with inventing the so-called razor and blades business model in which razors are sold cheaply to increase the market for blades. However, Gillette Safety Razor Company adopted the business model from its competitors.
Biography
The Gillette paternal ancestors were French Huguenots who sought refuge in England in the late 16th century. One or two generations later, in 1630, Nathan Gillette sailed from England to the newly founded Massachusetts Bay Colony in North America.
King Camp Gillette was born on January 5, 1855, in Fond du Lac, Wisconsin, and raised in Chicago, Illinois. His family survived the Great Chicago Fire of 1871.
While working as a salesman for the Crown Cork and Seal Company in the 1890s, Gillette saw bottle caps, with the cork seal he sold, thrown away after the bottle was opened. This made him recognize the value in basing a business on a product that was used a few times, then discarded. Men shaved with straight razors that needed sharpening every day using a leather strop. As existing, relatively expensive razor blades dulled quickly and needed continuous sharpening, a razor whose blade could be thrown away when it dulled would meet a real need and likely be profitable.
Safety razors had been developed in the mid-19th century, but still used a forged blade. In the 1870s, the Kampfe Brothers introduced a type of razor along these lines. Gillette improved these earlier safety-razor designs and introduced the high-profit-margin stamped razor blade made from carbon steel sheet. Gillette's razor retailed for a substantial $5 (equivalent to $ in ) – half the average working man's weekly pay – yet sold by the millions.
The most difficult part of development was engineering the blades, as thin, cheap steel was difficult to work and sharpen. This accounts for the delay between the initial idea and the product's introduction. Steven Porter, a machinist working with Gillette, used Gillette's drawings to create the first disposable razor blade that worked. William Emery Nickerson, an expert machinist and partner of Gillette, changed the original model, improving the handle and frame so that it could better support the thin steel blade. Nickerson designed the machinery to mass-produce the blades, and he received patents for hardening and sharpening the blades. (Nickerson was later elected to Gillette's board of directors.)
To sell the product, Gillette founded the American Safety Razor Company on September 28, 1901 (changing the company's name to Gillette Safety Razor Company in July 1902). Gillette obtained a trademark registration (0056921) for his portrait and signature on the packaging. Production began in 1903, when he sold a total of 51 razors and 168 blades.
The second year, he sold 90,884 razors and 123,648 blades, thanks in part to Gillette's low prices, automated manufacturing techniques, and good advertising. Sales and distribution were handled by a separate company, Townsend and Hunt, which was absorbed by the parent company for $300,000 in 1906. By 1908, the corporation had established manufacturing facilities in the United States, Canada, Britain, France, and Germany. Razor sales reached 450,000 units and blade sales exceeded 70 million units in 1915. In 1917, when the U.S. entered World War I, the company provided all American soldiers with a field razor set, paid for by the government. Gillette vetoed a plan to sell the patent rights in Europe, believing correctly that Europe would eventually provide a very large market. Gillette and John Joyce, a fellow director, battled for control of the company. Gillette eventually sold out to Joyce, but his name remained on the brand. In the 1920s, as the patent expired, the Gillette Safety Razor Company emphasized research to design ever-improved models, realizing that even a slight improvement would induce men to adopt it.
He was almost bankrupt due to spending large amounts of money on property, and to his having lost much of the value of his corporate shares as a result of the Great Depression.
Gillette died on July 9, 1932, in Los Angeles, California. He was interred in the lower levels of the Begonia Corridor in the Great Mausoleum located at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California.
Personal life
Gillette was also a Utopian Socialist. He published a book titled The Human Drift (1894) which advocated that all industry should be taken over by a single corporation owned by the public, and that everyone in the US should live in a giant city called Metropolis powered by Niagara Falls. A later book, World Corporation (1910) was a prospectus for a company set up to create this vision. He offered Theodore Roosevelt the presidency of the company, with a fee of one million dollars. (Roosevelt declined the offer.) Gillette's last book, The People's Corporation (1924), was written with Upton Sinclair and later inspired Glen H. Taylor.
Gillette was initiated to the York Rite of Freemasonry, till his elevation to the highest degree of Grand Master.
Gillette married Alanta "Lantie" Ella Gaines (Oct. 12, 1868 – Aug. 28, 1951) in 1890. They had one child, King Gaines Gillette (Nov. 18, 1891 – June 18, 1955).
In his later life he traveled extensively and was universally recognized from his picture on the packets of razor blades. People were surprised that he was a real person rather than just a marketing image. A Gillette company history stated that in non-English speaking countries people would often ask for "the kind with the Man's Face" blades.
Around 1922 or 1923, he built a residence at 324 West Overlook Road, in "The Mesa" district of Palm Springs. A main home and guest house. The homes, sitting on of land, are what remain of the original estate.
Sometime in the late 1920s, Gillette was known as a frequent guest of Nellie Coffman, proprietor of the Desert Inn in Palm Springs, California. He was often seen wandering about the grounds and lobby in a tattered old bathrobe. When Coffman was asked why she allowed such a lowlife to hang out at her establishment, she responded, "Why that is King C. Gillette. He has practically kept this place in the black the last few years."
Legacy
The company continues in the present day as the Gillette brand of Procter & Gamble.
Gillette is widely credited with creating the "razor-razor blade business model." Some peers in the marketing industry quote him as one of the innovators who revolutionized the freebie marketing ideas. The Gillette Company continued to thrive and sell products under a variety of brand names including Gillette, Braun, Oral-B, and Duracell. In 2005, the Gillette company was sold to Procter & Gamble for US$57 billion. It is now known as Global Blades & Razors, with the Gillette (brand), a business unit of Procter & Gamble.
King Gillette Ranch
King Gillette purchased property for a large ranch in the Santa Monica Mountains near Calabasas in Southern California in 1926. The master plan and new buildings on the ranch were designed and built for Gillette in the late 1920s by renowned architect Wallace Neff. The architectural style was Spanish Colonial Revival. After his death, his wife sold the home to Clarence Brown, an MGM film director who held A-List Hollywood parties at the ranch. In 1952, Bob Hope bought the property, immediately giving it to the Claretian Order of the Catholic Church, which operated a seminary on the grounds for 25 years. In 1970 Thomas Aquinas College rented the property from the Claretian Order later moving their campus to Santa Paula in 1977, Elizabeth Clare Prophet, founder of the Church Universal and Triumphant, purchased the property in 1978, and ran her New Age church at the site until 1986 when Soka University of America (SUA) bought the land.
In 1990, SUA announced plans to build a future liberal arts college on campus and plans to expand the facility over the next 25 years to an enrollment of as many as 5,000 students. SUA began making plans to expand the campus infrastructure to accommodate living quarters and classrooms for the proposed expansion, but ran into opposition from some local residents, the Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy, environmentalists, and government representatives. Opponents sought to protect the Chumash ancestral site, the natural habitats and ecology, and the expansive open space viewshed within the Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area, and to prevent a development of unprecedented urban density adjacent to Malibu Creek State Park.
In 1992, the Mountains Recreation and Conservation Authority (MRCA), a joint-powers authority associated with the Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy, resorted to its powers of eminent domain to condemn the core parcel comprising the university and thereby halted SUA’s plans for expansion. SUA appealed the eminent domain action. The legal debate continued for the remainder of the decade. Soka University was prevented from developing any expansion plans at the Calabasas property and began looking for alternative sites to build a larger campus.
After the university moved to a purpose-built campus, the King Gillette ranch was collaboratively purchased for $35 million by the Mountains Recreation and Conservation Authority, National Park Service, Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy and California State Parks, who then made it available for public use. Those agencies are also funding an $8.4 million visitor's center on the property.
On June 30, 2007, the King Gillette Ranch opened to the public as a park. The ranch is situated adjacent to Malibu Creek State Park in the Santa Monica Mountains, at 26800 West Mulholland Highway in Calabasas, California.
Since 2008, the ranch has been used for the NBC reality show The Biggest Loser. The ranch was also featured in the 2019 Ratched Netflix series and in the 2021 The Starling movie with Melissa McCarthy.
Works
Books
The Human Drift. New Era Publishing Co. (1984)
The Ballot Box (1897).
World Corporation. New England Newspaper Company (1910).
The People's Corporation., with Upton Beall Sinclair. Boni and Liveright (1924). .
References
Further reading
Magill, Frank N. Great Events from History II: Business and Commerce Series, volume 1:1897–1923 (1994) pp. 75–79, historiography
External links
issued November 15, 1904, for Safety Razor
King Gillette Ranch Park
Australian Patent, no.12813 (week ending 30 September 1903). trove.nla.gov.au
Kampfe Brothers razors (complete with patent dates)
1855 births
1932 deaths
American inventors
American socialists
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)
Businesspeople from Chicago
People from Fond du Lac, Wisconsin
People from Calabasas, California
Businesspeople from Palm Springs, California
Santa Monica Mountains
Utopian socialists
American people of French descent
Huguenots | [
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223789 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard%20and%20Jan%20Mayen | Svalbard and Jan Mayen | Svalbard and Jan Mayen (, ISO 3166-1 alpha-2: SJ, ISO 3166-1 alpha-3: SJM, ISO 3166-1 numeric: 744) is a statistical designation defined by ISO 3166-1 for a collective grouping of two remote jurisdictions of Norway: Svalbard and Jan Mayen. While the two are combined for the purposes of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) category, they are not administratively related. This has further resulted in the country code top-level domain being issued for Svalbard and Jan Mayen, and ISO 3166-2:SJ. The United Nations Statistics Division also uses this code, but has named it Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands.
Svalbard is an archipelago in the Arctic Ocean under the sovereignty of Norway, but is subject to the special status granted by the Svalbard Treaty. Jan Mayen is a remote island in the Arctic Ocean; it has no permanent population and is administrated by the County Governor of Nordland. Svalbard and Jan Mayen have in common that they are the only integrated parts of Norway not allocated to counties. While a separate ISO code for Svalbard was proposed by the United Nations, it was the Norwegian authorities who took initiative to include Jan Mayen in the code. Its official language is Norwegian.
Constituents
Svalbard
Svalbard is an archipelago in the Arctic about midway between mainland Norway and the North Pole. The group of islands range from 74° to 81° north latitude, and from 10° to 35° east longitude. The area is and there were 2,572 residents in 2009. Spitsbergen is the largest island, followed by Nordaustlandet and Edgeøya. The administrative center is Longyearbyen, and other settlements, in addition to research outposts, are the Russian mining community of Barentsburg, the research community of Ny-Ålesund and the mining outpost of Sveagruva.
The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 recognizes Norwegian sovereignty, and the 1925 Svalbard Act made Svalbard a full part of the Kingdom of Norway. The archipelago is administrated by the Governor of Svalbard, which is subordinate to the Norwegian Ministry of Justice and Public Security. Unlike the rest of Norway (including Jan Mayen), Svalbard is a free economic zone and a demilitarized zone, and is not part of the Schengen Area nor the European Economic Area.
Jan Mayen
Jan Mayen is a volcanic island in the Arctic Ocean located at the border of the Norwegian Sea and the Greenland Sea. The single island covers an area of and is dominated by the tall Beerenberg volcano. The island's only population is a combined military and meteorological outpost that operated a LORAN-C transmitter at Olonkinbyen. The Norwegian Meteorological Institute annexed the island for Norway in 1922. On 27 February 1930, the island was made de jure a part of the Kingdom of Norway. Since 1994, the island has been administrated by the County Governor of Nordland, with some authority delegated to the station commander. Before 1994 the Governor of Svalbard administered Jan Mayen.
Application
The ISO designation is congruent with an equivalent United Nations Statistics Division category and users of these classification systems may in some cases report separately for "Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands" instead of rolling up this information into the "Norway" category. Neither Svalbard nor Jan Mayen have their own flag or coat of arms, and the flag of Norway is used for both of them, both alone and as a group.
An attempt to change the ISO code to just "Svalbard" has previously failed because of opposition from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. However, for statistics use within population and trade, "Svalbard and Jan Mayen" essentially means just "Svalbard".
ISO 3166-2
ISO 3166-2:SJ is the entry for Svalbard and Jan Mayen in ISO 3166-2, a system for assigning codes to subnational administrative divisions. However, further subdivision for Svalbard and Jan Mayen occurs under Norway's entry, ISO 3166-2:NO:
Svalbard
Jan Mayen
The hierarchical administrative subdivision codes for Svalbard is SJ.SV and for Jan Mayen is SJ.JM.
Top-level domain
By virtue of the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code SJ, Svalbard and Jan Mayen were grouped together and allocated the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) . Norid, who also administrated the Norway's ccTLD, was given the responsibility for the .sj and Bouvet Island's domain in 1997. Policy prohibits any registration with either of the domains, as institutions connected to Svalbard can use the domain. Norwegian authorities do not want to commercialize the domain resources, and therefore will not be sold to a third party.
References
Bibliography
Geography of Jan Mayen
Geography of Svalbard
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223796 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%20key%20certificate | Public key certificate | In cryptography, a public key certificate, also known as a digital certificate or identity certificate, is an electronic document used to prove the validity of a public key. The certificate includes information about the key, information about the identity of its owner (called the subject), and the digital signature of an entity that has verified the certificate's contents (called the issuer). If the signature is valid, and the software examining the certificate trusts the issuer, then it can use that key to communicate securely with the certificate's subject. In email encryption, code signing, and e-signature systems, a certificate's subject is typically a person or organization. However, in Transport Layer Security (TLS) a certificate's subject is typically a computer or other device, though TLS certificates may identify organizations or individuals in addition to their core role in identifying devices. TLS, sometimes called by its older name Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), is notable for being a part of HTTPS, a protocol for securely browsing the web.
In a typical public-key infrastructure (PKI) scheme, the certificate issuer is a certificate authority (CA), usually a company that charges customers to issue certificates for them. By contrast, in a web of trust scheme, individuals sign each other's keys directly, in a format that performs a similar function to a public key certificate.
The most common format for public key certificates is defined by X.509. Because X.509 is very general, the format is further constrained by profiles defined for certain use cases, such as Public Key Infrastructure (X.509) as defined in .
Types of certificate
TLS/SSL server certificate
The Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocol – as well as its outdated predecessor, the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) protocol – ensure that the communication between a client computer and a server is secure. The protocol requires the server to present a digital certificate, proving that it is the intended destination. The connecting client conducts certification path validation, ensuring that:
The subject of the certificate matches the host name (not to be confused with the domain name) to which the client is trying to connect.
A trusted certificate authority has signed the certificate.
The Subject field of the certificate must identify the primary host name of the server as the Common Name. A certificate may be valid for multiple host names (e.g., a domain and its subdomains.) Such certificates are commonly called Subject Alternative Name (SAN) certificates or Unified Communications Certificates (UCC). These certificates contain the Subject Alternative Name field, though many CAs also put them into the Subject Common Name field for backward compatibility. If some of the host names contain an asterisk (*), a certificate may also be called a wildcard certificate.
Once the certification path validation is successful, the client can establish an encrypted connection with the server.
Internet-facing servers, such as public web servers, must obtain their certificates from a trusted, public certificate authority (CA).
TLS/SSL client certificate
Client certificates authenticate the client connecting to a TLS service, for instance to provide access control. Because most services provide access to individuals, rather than devices, most client certificates contain an email address or personal name rather than a host name. In addition, the certificate authority that issues the client certificate is usually the service provider to which client connects because it is the provider that needs to perform authentication.
While most web browsers support client certificates, the most common form of authentication on the Internet is a username and password pair. Client certificates are more common in virtual private networks (VPN) and Remote Desktop Services, where they authenticate devices.
Email certificate
In accordance with the S/MIME protocol, email certificates can both establish the message integrity and encrypt messages. To establish encrypted email communication, the communicating parties must have their digital certificates in advance. Each must send the other one digitally signed email and opt to import the sender's certificate.
Some publicly trusted certificate authorities provide email certificates, but more commonly S/MIME is used when communicating within a given organization, and that organization runs its own CA, which is trusted by participants in that email system.
Self-signed and root certificates
A self-signed certificate is a certificate with a subject that matches its issuer, and a signature that can be verified by its own public key.
For most purposes, such a self-signed certificate is worthless. However, the digital certificate chain of trust starts with a self-signed certificate, called a "root certificate," "trust anchor," or "trust root." A certificate authority self-signs a root certificate to be able to sign other certificates.
An intermediate certificate has a similar purpose to the root certificate; its only use is to sign other certificate. However, an intermediate certificate is not self-signed. A root certificate or another intermediate certificate need to sign it. An end-entity or leaf certificate is any certificate that cannot sign other certificates. For instance, TLS/SSL server and client certificates, email certificates, code signing certificates, and qualified certificates are all end-entity certificates.
Other certificates
EMV certificate: EMV is a payment method based on a technical standard for payment cards, payment terminals and automated teller machines (ATM). EMV payment cards are preloaded with a card issuer certificate, signed by the EMV certificate authority to validate authenticity of the payment card during the payment transaction.
Code-signing certificate: Certificates can validate apps (or their binaries) to ensure they were not tampered with during delivery.
Qualified certificate: A certificate identifying an individual, typically for electronic signature purposes. These are most commonly used in Europe, where the eIDAS regulation standardizes them and requires their recognition.
Role-based certificate: Defined in the X.509 Certificate Policy for the Federal Bridge Certification Authority (FBCA), role-based certificates "identify a specific role on behalf of which the subscriber is authorized to act rather than the subscriber’s name and are issued in the interest of supporting accepted business practices."
Group certificate: Defined in the X.509 Certificate Policy for the Federal Bridge Certification Authority (FBCA), for "cases where there are several entities acting in one capacity, and where non-repudiation for transactions is not desired."
Common fields
These are some of the most common fields in certificates. Most certificates contain a number of fields not listed here. Note that in terms of a certificate's X.509 representation, a certificate is not "flat" but contains these fields nested in various structures within the certificate.
Serial Number: Used to uniquely identify the certificate within a CA's systems. In particular this is used to track revocation information.
Subject: The entity a certificate belongs to: a machine, an individual, or an organization.
Issuer: The entity that verified the information and signed the certificate.
Not Before: The earliest time and date on which the certificate is valid. Usually set to a few hours or days prior to the moment the certificate was issued, to avoid clock skew problems.
Not After: The time and date past which the certificate is no longer valid.
Key Usage: The valid cryptographic uses of the certificate's public key. Common values include digital signature validation, key encipherment, and certificate signing.
Extended Key Usage: The applications in which the certificate may be used. Common values include TLS server authentication, email protection, and code signing.
Public Key: A public key belonging to the certificate subject.
Signature Algorithm: This contain a hashing algorithm and an encryption algorithm. For example "sha256RSA" where sha256 is the hashing algorithm and RSA is the encryption algorithm.
Signature: The body of the certificate is hashed (hashing algorithm in "Signature Algorithm" field is used) and then the hash is encrypted (encryption algorithm in the "Signature Algorithm" field is used) with the issuer's private key.
Example
This is an example of a decoded SSL/TLS certificate retrieved from SSL.com's website. The issuer's common name (CN) is shown as SSL.com EV SSL Intermediate CA RSA R3, identifying this as an Extended Validation (EV) certificate. Validated information about the website's owner (SSL Corp) is located in the Subject field. The X509v3 Subject Alternative Name field contains a list of domain names covered by the certificate. The X509v3 Extended Key Usage and X509v3 Key Usage fields show all appropriate uses.
Certificate:
Data:
Version: 3 (0x2)
Serial Number:
72:14:11:d3:d7:e0:fd:02:aa:b0:4e:90:09:d4:db:31
Signature Algorithm: sha256WithRSAEncryption
Issuer: C=US, ST=Texas, L=Houston, O=SSL Corp, CN=SSL.com EV SSL Intermediate CA RSA R3
Validity
Not Before: Apr 18 22:15:06 2019 GMT
Not After : Apr 17 22:15:06 2021 GMT
Subject: C=US, ST=Texas, L=Houston, O=SSL Corp/serialNumber=NV20081614243, CN=www.ssl.com/postalCode=77098/businessCategory=Private Organization/street=3100 Richmond Ave/jurisdictionST=Nevada/jurisdictionC=US
Subject Public Key Info:
Public Key Algorithm: rsaEncryption
RSA Public-Key: (2048 bit)
Modulus:
00:ad:0f:ef:c1:97:5a:9b:d8:1e ...
Exponent: 65537 (0x10001)
X509v3 extensions:
X509v3 Authority Key Identifier:
keyid:BF:C1:5A:87:FF:28:FA:41:3D:FD:B7:4F:E4:1D:AF:A0:61:58:29:BD
Authority Information Access:
CA Issuers - URI:http://www.ssl.com/repository/SSLcom-SubCA-EV-SSL-RSA-4096-R3.crt
OCSP - URI:http://ocsps.ssl.com
X509v3 Subject Alternative Name:
DNS:www.ssl.com, DNS:answers.ssl.com, DNS:faq.ssl.com, DNS:info.ssl.com, DNS:links.ssl.com, DNS:reseller.ssl.com, DNS:secure.ssl.com, DNS:ssl.com, DNS:support.ssl.com, DNS:sws.ssl.com, DNS:tools.ssl.com
X509v3 Certificate Policies:
Policy: 2.23.140.1.1
Policy: 1.2.616.1.113527.2.5.1.1
Policy: 1.3.6.1.4.1.38064.1.1.1.5
CPS: https://www.ssl.com/repository
X509v3 Extended Key Usage:
TLS Web Client Authentication, TLS Web Server Authentication
X509v3 CRL Distribution Points:
Full Name:
URI:http://crls.ssl.com/SSLcom-SubCA-EV-SSL-RSA-4096-R3.crl
X509v3 Subject Key Identifier:
E7:37:48:DE:7D:C2:E1:9D:D0:11:25:21:B8:00:33:63:06:27:C1:5B
X509v3 Key Usage: critical
Digital Signature, Key Encipherment
CT Precertificate SCTs:
Signed Certificate Timestamp:
Version : v1 (0x0)
Log ID : 87:75:BF:E7:59:7C:F8:8C:43:99 ...
Timestamp : Apr 18 22:25:08.574 2019 GMT
Extensions: none
Signature : ecdsa-with-SHA256
30:44:02:20:40:51:53:90:C6:A2 ...
Signed Certificate Timestamp:
Version : v1 (0x0)
Log ID : A4:B9:09:90:B4:18:58:14:87:BB ...
Timestamp : Apr 18 22:25:08.461 2019 GMT
Extensions: none
Signature : ecdsa-with-SHA256
30:45:02:20:43:80:9E:19:90:FD ...
Signed Certificate Timestamp:
Version : v1 (0x0)
Log ID : 55:81:D4:C2:16:90:36:01:4A:EA ...
Timestamp : Apr 18 22:25:08.769 2019 GMT
Extensions: none
Signature : ecdsa-with-SHA256
30:45:02:21:00:C1:3E:9F:F0:40 ...
Signature Algorithm: sha256WithRSAEncryption
36:07:e7:3b:b7:45:97:ca:4d:6c ...
Usage in the European Union
In the European Union, (advanced) electronic signatures on legal documents are commonly performed using digital signatures with accompanying identity certificates. However, only qualified electronic signatures (which require using a qualified trust service provider and signature creation device) are given the same power as a physical signature.
Certificate authorities
In the X.509 trust model, a certificate authority (CA) is responsible for signing certificates. These certificates act as an introduction between two parties, which means that a CA acts as a trusted third party. A CA processes requests from people or organizations requesting certificates (called subscribers), verifies the information, and potentially signs an end-entity certificate based on that information. To perform this role effectively, a CA needs to have one or more broadly trusted root certificates or intermediate certificates and the corresponding private keys. CAs may achieve this broad trust by having their root certificates included in popular software, or by obtaining a cross-signature from another CA delegating trust. Other CAs are trusted within a relatively small community, like a business, and are distributed by other mechanisms like Windows Group Policy.
Certificate authorities are also responsible for maintaining up-to-date revocation information about certificates they have issued, indicating whether certificates are still valid. They provide this information through Online Certificate Status Protocol (OCSP) and/or Certificate Revocation Lists (CRLs). Some of the larger certificate authorities in the market include IdenTrust, DigiCert, and Sectigo.
Root programs
Some major software contain a list of certificate authorities that are trusted by default. This makes it easier for end-users to validate certificates, and easier for people or organizations that request certificates to know which certificate authorities can issue a certificate that will be broadly trusted. This is particularly important in HTTPS, where a web site operator generally wants to get a certificate that is trusted by nearly all potential visitors to their web site.
The policies and processes a provider uses to decide which certificate authorities their software should trust are called root programs. The most influential root programs are:
Microsoft Root Program
Apple Root Program
Mozilla Root Program
Oracle Java root program
Adobe AATL Adobe Approved Trust List and EUTL root programs (used for document signing)
Browsers other than Firefox generally use the operating system's facilities to decide which certificate authorities are trusted. So, for instance, Chrome on Windows trusts the certificate authorities included in the Microsoft Root Program, while on macOS or iOS, Chrome trusts the certificate authorities in the Apple Root Program. Edge and Safari use their respective operating system trust stores as well, but each is only available on a single OS. Firefox uses the Mozilla Root Program trust store on all platforms.
The Mozilla Root Program is operated publicly, and its certificate list is part of the open source Firefox web browser, so it is broadly used outside Firefox. For instance, while there is no common Linux Root Program, many Linux distributions, like Debian, include a package that periodically copies the contents of the Firefox trust list, which is then used by applications.
Root programs generally provide a set of valid purposes with the certificates they include. For instance, some CAs may be considered trusted for issuing TLS server certificates, but not for code signing certificates. This is indicated with a set of trust bits in a root certificate storage system.
Website security
The most common use of certificates is for HTTPS-based web sites. A web browser validates that an HTTPS web server is authentic, so that the user can feel secure that his/her interaction with the web site has no eavesdroppers and that the web site is who it claims to be. This security is important for electronic commerce. In practice, a web site operator obtains a certificate by applying to a certificate authority with a certificate signing request. The certificate request is an electronic document that contains the web site name, company information and the public key. The certificate provider signs the request, thus producing a public certificate. During web browsing, this public certificate is served to any web browser that connects to the web site and proves to the web browser that the provider believes it has issued a certificate to the owner of the web site.
As an example, when a user connects to https://www.example.com/ with their browser, if the browser does not give any certificate warning message, then the user can be theoretically sure that interacting with https://www.example.com/ is equivalent to interacting with the entity in contact with the email address listed in the public registrar under "example.com", even though that email address may not be displayed anywhere on the web site. No other surety of any kind is implied. Further, the relationship between the purchaser of the certificate, the operator of the web site, and the generator of the web site content may be tenuous and is not guaranteed. At best, the certificate guarantees uniqueness of the web site, provided that the web site itself has not been compromised (hacked) or the certificate issuing process subverted.
A certificate provider can opt to issue three types of certificates, each requiring its own degree of vetting rigor. In order of increasing rigor (and naturally, cost) they are: Domain Validation, Organization Validation and Extended Validation. These rigors are loosely agreed upon by voluntary participants in the CA/Browser Forum.
Validation levels
Domain validation
A certificate provider will issue a domain-validated (DV) certificate to a purchaser if the purchaser can demonstrate one vetting criterion: the right to administratively manage the affected DNS domain(s).
Organization validation
A certificate provider will issue an organization validation (OV) class certificate to a purchaser if the purchaser can meet two criteria: the right to administratively manage the domain name in question, and perhaps, the organization's actual existence as a legal entity. A certificate provider publishes its OV vetting criteria through its certificate policy.
Extended validation
To acquire an Extended Validation (EV) certificate, the purchaser must persuade the certificate provider of its legal identity, including manual verification checks by a human. As with OV certificates, a certificate provider publishes its EV vetting criteria through its certificate policy.
Until 2019, major browsers such as Chrome and Firefox generally offered users a visual indication of the legal identity when a site presented an EV certificate. This was done by showing the legal name before the domain, and a bright green color to highlight the change. Most browsers deprecated this feature providing no visual difference to the user on the type of certificate used. This change followed security concerns raised by forensic experts and successful attempts to purchase EV certificates to impersonate famous organizations, proving the inefficiency of these visual indicators and highlighting potential abuses.
Weaknesses
A web browser will give no warning to the user if a web site suddenly presents a different certificate, even if that certificate has a lower number of key bits, even if it has a different provider, and even if the previous certificate had an expiry date far into the future. Where certificate providers are under the jurisdiction of governments, those governments may have the freedom to order the provider to generate any certificate, such as for the purposes of law enforcement. Subsidiary wholesale certificate providers also have the freedom to generate any certificate.
All web browsers come with an extensive built-in list of trusted root certificates, many of which are controlled by organizations that may be unfamiliar to the user. Each of these organizations is free to issue any certificate for any web site and have the guarantee that web browsers that include its root certificates will accept it as genuine. In this instance, end users must rely on the developer of the browser software to manage its built-in list of certificates and on the certificate providers to behave correctly and to inform the browser developer of problematic certificates. While uncommon, there have been incidents in which fraudulent certificates have been issued: in some cases, the browsers have detected the fraud; in others, some time passed before browser developers removed these certificates from their software.
The list of built-in certificates is also not limited to those provided by the browser developer: users (and to a degree applications) are free to extend the list for special purposes such as for company intranets. This means that if someone gains access to a machine and can install a new root certificate in the browser, that browser will recognize websites that use the inserted certificate as legitimate.
For provable security, this reliance on something external to the system has the consequence that any public key certification scheme has to rely on some special setup assumption, such as the existence of a certificate authority.
Usefulness versus unsecured web sites
In spite of the limitations described above, certificate-authenticated TLS is considered mandatory by all security guidelines whenever a web site hosts confidential information or performs material transactions. This is because, in practice, in spite of the weaknesses described above, web sites secured by public key certificates are still more secure than unsecured http:// web sites.
Standards
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Computer Security Division provides guidance documents for public key certificates:
SP 800-32 Introduction to Public Key Technology and the Federal PKI Infrastructure
SP 800-25 Federal Agency Use of Public Key Technology for Digital Signatures and Authentication
See also
Authorization certificate
Pretty Good Privacy
References
Public-key cryptography
Key management
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223797 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapeze | Trapeze | A trapeze is a short horizontal bar hung by ropes or metal straps from a ceiling support. It is an aerial apparatus commonly found in circus performances. Trapeze acts may be static, spinning (rigged from a single point), swinging or flying, and may be performed solo, double, triple or as a group act.
The name of the apparatus reflects the trapezoid shape made by the horizontal bar, ropes and ceiling support.
History
The art of trapeze performance is reported to have been developed by Jules Léotard, a young French acrobat and aerialist, in Toulouse in the mid-1800s. He invented the flying trapeze, practising over his father's swimming pool. The name was applied in French () from the resemblance of the apparatus to a trapezium or irregular four-sided figure.
But if you find a copy of a book published twenty years earlier in 1839 (and so before Léotard was born) you will find mention of the trapeze in there. The word “trapeze” is also to be found in the Caledonian Mercury newspaper during a review of Roland’s book. But the latter gives no further information.
Types of trapeze
Static trapeze refers to a trapeze act in which the performer moves around the bar and ropes, performing a wide range of movements including balances, drops, hangs while the bar itself stays generally static. The difficulty on a static trapeze is making every move look effortless. It is like dance, in that most people of a reasonable level of strength can get onto the trapeze bar for the first time and perform some basic tricks, but an experienced artist will do them with much more grace and style.
Swinging trapeze (or swinging single trapeze) refers to an act performed on a trapeze swinging in a forward–backward motion. The performer builds up swing from a still position, and uses the momentum of the swing to execute the tricks. Usually tricks on a swinging trapeze are thrown on the peaks of the swing and involve dynamic movements that require precise timing. Most of the tricks begin with the performer sitting or standing on the bar and end with the performer catching the bar in his/her hands or in an ankle hang (hanging by the ankles by bracing them between the rope and the bar). This act requires a great deal of strength, grace, and flexibility. The trapeze bar is weighted and often has cable inside the supporting ropes for extra strength to withstand the dynamic forces of the swing.
Flying trapeze refers to a trapeze act where a performer, or "flyer," grabs the trapeze bar and jumps off a high platform, or pedestal board, so that gravity creates the swing. The swing's parts are the "force out" (sometimes called the "cast out") at the far end of the first swing, the beat back and the rise (also known as "seven") as the performer swings back above the pedestal board, and then the trick is thrown at the far end of the second swing. The performer often releases the bar and is caught by another performer, the "catcher," who hangs by their knees on another trapeze, or sometimes on a cradle, which can be either stationary or also swinging. People of any size are able to execute basic trapeze maneuvers. Flying trapeze is generally done over a net, or occasionally over water. However, some smaller rigs, usually created for teaching purposes, use mats instead of a net.
In the UK, many outdoor education centres offer an activity known as 'leap of faith'. This activity invites participants to climb to the top of a narrow pole and jump, arms outstretched, to grab a trapeze bar. Similar to the flying trapeze, gravity creates the swing. In this type of activity, participants are attached via rope and harness and an added challenge to get your legs over the trapeze can be included.
Washington trapeze (also known as head trapeze or heavy trapeze) refers to a variation on static and swinging trapeze where the aerialist performs various headstand skills on the bar, which is typically much heavier than a normal trapeze bar and has a small (about 4-inch round) headstand platform on it. The trapeze is supported by wire cables rather than ropes, and the apparatus will often be lifted and lowered during the act.
Dance trapeze (also known as single-point trapeze) refers to a trapeze used by many modern dance companies in aerial dance. The ropes of the trapeze are often both attached to a single swivel, allowing the trapeze to spin in either small or large circles.
Double trapeze (also known as the French trapeze) is a variation on the static trapeze, and features two performers working together on the same trapeze to perform figures and bear each other's weight. It can also be performed swinging, in which case the act is called swinging double trapeze.
Multiple trapeze refers to a number of different shapes and sizes of trapeze, including double trapeze, triple trapeze and larger multiples designed for use by multiple simultaneous flyers. Shaped trapezes are apparatuses that can take virtually any shape imaginable.
Duplex trapeze refers to any trapeze with two layers of hand bars, one on top of the other, such that acrobats can jump from the upper bar and land (or be caught by a catcher) on the lower.
Further reading
Sharon McCutcheon, Geoff Perrem. Circus in Schools Handbook. Tarook Publishing, 2004. ()
Hovey Burgess, Judy Finelli. Circus Techniques. Brian Dube, 1989. ()
Carrie Heller. Aerial Circus Training and Safety Manual. National Writers Press, 2004. ()
Jayne C. Bernasconi and Nancy E. Smith. Aerial Dance. United States: Human Kinetics, 2008. () View at Google Books
Elena Zanzu, M.A. Il Trapezio Oscillante: Storie di Circo nell'Aria. (The Swinging Trapeze: Histories of the Circus in the Air.) Bologna University, Italy, 2004–2005. Language: Italian.
References
External links
European Federation of Professional Circus Schools (FEDEC)
Desiree Belmarez. "Trapeze Tests Grace and Style." Denver Post. August 24, 2007.
The physics of the flying trapeze
Bloomington once capital of 'aerial kingdom' – Pantagraph (Bloomington, Illinois newspaper)
Fred and Harry Green – "The Flying LaVans" – McLean County Museum of History
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223815 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chendamangalam | Chendamangalam | Chendamangalam (or Chennamangalam) is a small town and a panchayat in Paravur Taluk, Ernakulam district in the state of Kerala, India.
Location
It is about 23 km from Ernakulam. It has three rivers, seven inlets, hillocks and large expanses of green plain. The historic city of Kodungallur is about 9 km from the village.
Attractions
The Paliam Palace, residence of the Paliath Achans, hereditary Prime Ministers to the former Maharajas of Kochi, is one of the architectural splendours of Kerala. The Palace is over 450 years old and houses a collection of historic documents and relics.
History
The hillocks at Kottayil Kovilakam are unique as the site of a Hindu temple, a Syrian Christian church, a mosque and a restored Jewish synagogue, all within 1 km of each other. The synagogue was built in 1614 AD and is in a peaceful wooded area. In the courtyard behind the synagogue, it is possible to find old Jewish graves, including one of a Jewish woman, dated 1264 AD.
The Jews arrived in Chendamangalam after the destruction of the second temple and the final desolation of Jerusalem in (AD 69) and founded a colony. They moved to Fort Kochi in 1341 AD after the Great flood. All the 8 synagogues in Kerala built during the recent centuries — located at Chendamangalam, Paravoor, Mala, Kochi and Ernakulam — have similar traditional architectural features:
a central bimah of brass or silver metal on a concrete or stone base
an ark on the western wall
a balcony above the eastern entry to the sanctuary that is used by the reader on certain holidays.
a women's gallery behind the balcony, with a stairway leading up to it, usually from outside the building.
Also here are remains of the Vypeenakotta Seminary built for Syrians in the 16th century by the Portuguese. Adjacent to the seminary is an old Syrian Catholic Church built in 1201. It is also the site of the first printing press in India.
Chendamangalam was part of Kanayanur taluk, of the erstwhile Cochin State. The panchayat was formed in 1914. Bordered by rivers on the north, east and south, it is a meeting place of cultural diversity. Jews, Christians, Muslims and several of the distinct Hindu castes lived here harmoniously. The presence of immigrant communities like Konkinis (Gowda Saraswatha Brahmins) Moopans (Kudumbis) and the craftsmen categories viz. Kallasari (masons), Marassari (carpenters), Moosari (moulders), Kollan (blacksmiths), Thattan (goldsmiths), Chalian (weavers), and Kusavan (potters) to this day reminds of past industrial and business importance.
The Jewish community migrated to Israel in the 1950s and 1960s. Their synagogue is presently maintained by the archaeology department. There is also an abandoned Jewish cemetery behind the mosque, about 400 m from the synagogue, which has not been restored yet.
Mar Sleeva Church was established in 1075. The special fortified construction of the old block of the church is believed to have been constructed at the time of Tippu Sultan's invasion of Malabar.
Paliyam satyagraha resulted in the temple entry proclamation in Cochin State. Mattachanda (Barter Market), an annual fair conducted every year on the eve of Vishu, is reminiscent of past history when people came from near and far to buy their domestic needs such as food ingredients, condiments, cutlery, pottery and furniture in exchange for their agricultural produce or hand made products, even though now all transactions are in cash.
From 1663 to 1809, Prime Ministers of Cochin, Paliath Achans, resided at Chendamangalam.
Places of Worship
Chendamangalam Synagogue
Sree Venugopala Krishna Swami Devasthan was established in 1900 AD at Chennamangalam (earlier known as Jayantha mangalam), the main deity is Venugopalakrishna Swamy. The main idol is Shila Vigrah of Venugopalakrishna Swamy. There is also an Utsav idol of the Lord and the idols of Garuda and Hanuman at His feet. The temple celebrates a six-day-long annual festival in the month of Vaisakh. Sree Venugopla KrishnaSwami Dewasthan
Holy Cross Church, Kottayil Kovilakam
St. Sebastian's, Gothuruth
St. Threasa at Little Flower Church (koottukad) feast
Little Flower Church, Kuttukad
St. Sebastian Chappel, Paruvathuruth
Chendamangalam Juma Masjid
Parayil Ayyappa Temple, Vadakkumpuram, an ancient temple
Kunnathuthali Sree Mahadeva Temple
Kuttikkattu Bhagavathy Temple
Kangolikattu Madapathi Temple
Kokkattu Nagayekshi Temple
Sree Krishna Swamy temple, Kottayil Kovilakam
Kottattal Bhagavathy Temple
Paliyam Bhagavati Temple, Chendamangalam
Palayam Sree Krishna Temple
Ayyappa Temple
Demographics
India census, Chendamangalam had a population of 28,133. Males constitute 48% of the population and females 52%. Chendamangalam has an average literacy rate of 86%, higher than the national average of 59.5%; with male literacy of 87% and female literacy of 85%. 10% of the population is under 6 years of age.
Education
St. Sebastians HSS, Gothuruth
Paliam Govt. HSS, Chendamangalam
Dharmaposhani Sabha School, V P Thuruth
Santacruz LP School, Kootukad
Govt. LP School, Chendamangalam
St. Joseph's High school, Chathedam
St. Mary's LP School, Chendamangalam
O.L.M.S, Kurumbathuruth
H.I.J.P School, Chathedam
Health
Gothuruth PHC
Localities
Chendamangalam, Gothuruth, Kottayilkovilakam, Vadakkumpuram, Karimbadam, Kochangady, Kurumbathuruth, Valiya Pazhampilly Thuruth, C P Thuruth, Kizhakkumpuram, Thekkumpuram, Chathedam, Manakodam, Kootukad, Kadalvathuruth, Palathuruth, Kunjvarathurth, Bharanimuku, Kottatal.
Places of interest
Kottayil Kovilakam
Jew Market
The synagogue has been restored and has an exhibit open to visitors from 9:30 to 5:00 during the week. Chendamangalam Synagogue
See also
North Paravur
Ernakulam district
References
Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2001
All articles containing potentially dated statements
Cities and towns in Ernakulam district
Tourism in Kerala
Suburbs of Kochi
Neighbourhoods in Kochi | [
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223819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auf%20Wiedersehen%2C%20Pet | Auf Wiedersehen, Pet | Auf Wiedersehen, Pet () is a British comedy-drama television programme about seven British construction workers who leave the United Kingdom to search for employment overseas. In the first series, the men live and work on a building site in Düsseldorf. The series was created by Franc Roddam after an idea from Mick Connell, a bricklayer from Stockton-on-Tees, and mostly written by Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais, who also wrote The Likely Lads, Whatever Happened to the Likely Lads? and Porridge. It starred Tim Healy, Kevin Whately, Jimmy Nail, Timothy Spall, Christopher Fairbank, Pat Roach and Gary Holton, with Noel Clarke replacing Holton for series three and four and the two-part finale. The series were broadcast on ITV in 1983–1984 and 1986. After a sixteen-year gap, two series and a Christmas special were shown on BBC One in 2002 and 2004.
In 2000, series 1, set in Germany, was ranked number #46 on the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes in a list compiled by the British Film Institute. In 2015, the 1980s series was voted ITV's Favourite TV Programme of all Time in a Radio Times readers' poll in order to celebrate the 60th anniversary of the station. The show was the subject of the first episode of the BBC documentary series Drama Connections in 2005.
Series 1: 1983–1984
The first series, co-produced by Witzend Productions and Central Television for ITV in 1983, is the story of seven out-of-work construction workers from various parts of England who are forced to look for work in West Germany, although its initial emphasis is on three bricklayers from Newcastle upon Tyne making the journey to Germany, with the others being introduced along the way. (The title refers to their farewells to their wives and girlfriends - "Auf Wiedersehen" being German for "Farewell" or "Goodbye", or more literally "See you later", and "Pet" being a North-East English term of endearment).
They find work on a German building site in Düsseldorf but despite promises of hostel accommodation, are forced to live in a small hut that reminds them of a World War II POW camp. The rest of the series is driven by the interactions and growing friendships between the various characters. Barry (Timothy Spall), an electrician from the Black Country, is an obsessive bore; Neville (Kevin Whately), one of the Geordie bricklayers, is an insecure young newlywed; fellow Geordie Oz (Jimmy Nail), another bricklayer, is aggressive and jingoistic; and London joiner Wayne (Gary Holton) is a womaniser. The third Geordie is Dennis (Tim Healy), a bricklayer who, being older, more experienced and generally more mature than the others, becomes the de facto leader of the group. The others are Bristolian bricklayer Bomber (Pat Roach) and Scouse ex-con plasterer Moxey (Fairbank). Over the course of 13 episodes the "Magnificent Seven" enjoy comic, dramatic, and romantic adventures, until a change in German tax laws forces them to return home.
The "building site" used for most of the filming was a set created on the backlot of the former ATV Elstree Studios at Borehamwood in Hertfordshire (then owned by Central). After its sale to the BBC in 1984, the "Albert Square" set of EastEnders was built there. Such was the attention to detail that the producers imported thousands of bricks from West Germany as these were slightly bigger than those used on English building sites.
The show was one of the first to use lightweight video cameras, including the Philips LDK 14S, on location in drama production. Previously used in Electronic News Gathering they were more versatile and cheaper to use than studio-based cameras. Interior scenes (such as those in the bar) were shot in studios at Borehamwood. Some location filming was conducted in Hamburg, despite the fact that the series was set in Düsseldorf. In these scenes most of the cars' registration numbers begin with HH denoting Hamburg (HH = Hansestadt Hamburg).
The location sequences in Hamburg and Düsseldorf actually only lasted 10 days. The Intercontinental hotel which Dennis, Wayne and Barry visit in episode 7 titled Private Lives, was the same hotel in which the cast and crew stayed while filming there.
In the last episode of the series, "When The Boat Goes Out", the hut on the site where the gang live accidentally catches fire and burns down. The ruins shown on the end credits were the actual ruins of the hut that was used for filming.
In 2000, the first series was ranked #46 on the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes, in a list compiled by the British Film Institute. It is the only series of the show to make the list.
Series 2: 1986
The second series of 13 episodes in 1986 saw the boys reunited, initially to help Barry complete extensive building work on his new home in Wolverhampton. Dennis is working for a crooked businessman, Ally Fraser (played by Bill Paterson), to whom he owes money. Dennis encourages the rest of the gang to help renovate a country manor house owned by Fraser, Thornely Manor, but they end up falling foul of the locals. Fraser then invites the boys to Spain to refurbish his swimming pool at his Spanish villa. Once in Spain, the gang are mistaken for criminals themselves and the series ends with them fleeing the Spanish police in a motor yacht, together with Barry's new wife, who had only expected a wedding at sea.
The second series had several on-set problems. Actor Gary Holton died before some of the final indoor scenes were filmed, and the scripts had to be reworked to explain Wayne's absence from these indoor scenes. Examples of this include various characters enquiring about Wayne's whereabouts, only to be told that he was chatting up a girl in the next room or that he had gone away for the day. A double was used in other scenes, such as one where Bomber manhandles Wayne away from Ally's girlfriend in a nightclub. The transmission of the final episode of Series 2 (Quo Vadis Pet) saw an introduction by Tim Healy dedicating the episode to Holton.
Executive producer Allan McKeown fell out with Jimmy Nail during filming, as he felt his ego was out of control at this time and would often ask for his lines to be changed. In his autobiography, Nail said he was glad to be done with filming not just because of Holton's death but because he felt the second series lacked the gritty edge of the first series, something Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais later said they agreed with. On the audio commentary for series two, Clement said the series was much more contrived in getting and keeping the gang together, and La Frenais said he felt the gang weren't trapped together enough like they were in Germany in the hut. In particular, he felt the Spanish episodes were too luxurious for the gang: instead of sleeping rough, having arguments, and clashing with the Spanish locals, they were often seen relaxing in summer clothes, and occasionally had female partners tagging along, which reduced the impact of the series.
Despite these concerns, the ratings remained high throughout. The episode titled "Marjorie Doesn't Live Here Anymore", which Clement and La Frenais described as their favourite in the second series because it was "drab and grey looking", and "added some meat to Oz's character", was not only the most watched episode of the show's run but drew in the highest audience percentage out of all the channels on the night of its screening, with sixteen million viewers.
Location scenes in the UK were shot around the villages of Caunton, Nottinghamshire, Redmile, Leicestershire and Denton, Lincolnshire. Roundhill Primary School, Beeston, Nottinghamshire was used as the location for 'Walker Street Middle School'. Some scenes were also filmed in West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire. Location shooting in Newcastle lasted for four days at the end of August 1985. Studio scenes were filmed at Central's new studios in Nottingham, replacing those at Borehamwood.
In 1988, ITV decided to use Auf Wiedersehen, Pet against EastEnders, the BBC's twice-weekly soap that had grown considerably in popularity since its launch in 1985. The original episodes had been shown in a late evening slot and hence were very adult in content; ITV wanted to show them during family viewing time, and also in a 30-minute slot. Consequently, they cut each 50-minute episode into two 25-minute ones, thus turning the 26 episodes of the first two series into 52. The shows had to be further edited to remove adult language and sexual references to make them suitable for the desired family-viewing timeslot, and hence the plots often became confusing as key scenes were removed and much of the humour was lost. From 5 April 1988, the edited shows began an ITV network run, slotted on Tuesdays and Thursdays at 7.30pm in direct competition with EastEnders on BBC-1. There were viewer complaints about the editing, and after a few weeks Thames and TVS both opted out of the run and instead showed the original uncut episodes at 10.30pm on Mondays. The majority of ITV regions stayed with the edited run until its natural end in September.
Educating Oz Sketch
The Dennis and Oz characters were reunited for a one-off educational sketch for Tyne Tees in 1986. Made at the height of the AIDS epidemic, it consists of two known authorities discussing HIV/AIDS transmission and prevention in a TV studio, but cuts back and forth to a skit set in a pub, where Dennis and Oz are watching the broadcast, and are themselves discussing the issues over a pint of beer. In the conversation, Dennis becomes increasingly frustrated at Oz's typically ignorant views towards sexual fidelity, safe sex practices, homosexuality and drug abuse. Eventually the two experts enter the pub for real and then explain the issues to Oz directly, who eventually takes heed.
Series 3: 2002
Sketches written and performed for the Sunday for Sammy charity concerts inspired Clement and Le Frenais to revive the series. In 2002 the show was revived, this time as a six-part series produced by Ziji Productions for BBC One. The original writers and all of the surviving cast returned, joined by Noel Clarke as Wayne's son Wyman. The characters all appeared to have moved on: Moxey was no longer a wanted criminal; Oz had given up drinking; Barry ran a seemingly successful business exporting out of date food and Lada cars back to Russia (in reality smuggling drugs into the country, a fact Barry was unaware of); Neville and his wife Brenda, ran a building company called Nevenda Homes supplying pre-built homes from Scandinavia to DIY home builders. Dennis, however, was now a taxi driver whose biggest fare was on Tuesdays and Fridays driving a drug dealer around the area. The series' storyline revolves around a plan by corrupt politician Jeffrey Grainger (played by Bill Nighy), whom Oz had met in prison, to dismantle the Middlesbrough Transporter Bridge (a real-life industrial landmark) and sell it for reconstruction in the Far East. Persuading Oz to get the old gang back together to dismantle the bridge, he then plans to cheat them out of their share of the profits, until a Native American from Arizona named Joe Saugus (played by Gordon Tootoosis) arrives to buy the bridge for the benefit of his tribe's casino after seeing an advert placed online by Oz. The lads fly to his reservation to reconstruct the bridge.
Each episode except the first featured a re-cap of the previous episode's events in a voiceover from Dennis, a feature not continued in the fourth series.
The special-effects depicting the dismantling of the bridge were so realistic that many people believed it was really being removed, forcing the BBC to add a caption to the final episode reassuring them that it was still there. Middlesbrough Council also issued a press release stating that the bridge remained in situ.
Despite some initial scepticism that the revival would not work, the show was an immediate hit. It won the National Television Award for Best Drama, and a British Comedy Award for Best Comedy Drama. In a later television documentary, original executive producer Allan McKeown stated that he had been deeply disapproving of the series' revival and requested that it not be titled Auf Wiedersehen, Pet. However this was refused and he fell out with La Frenais as a result, though they later reconciled.
Comic Relief sketch
Some of the cast made an appearance on Comic Relief's Red Nose Day 2003, in which they find a suitcase full of money in a Miami hotel room and assume it belongs to a drug dealer who wants to shoot them but actually belongs to U2 who invite them to their penthouse.
Series 4: 2004
A fourth series of six episodes was aired on BBC One from 4 January to 8 February 2004. The characters now work as building subcontractors for the British Embassy after a building job in Moscow goes badly wrong and are given a tip off from a friend of Oz who tells them about specialised embassy work. The team are posted to Havana to completely refurbish the British ambassador's new residence. They also carry out some unofficial building work for Oz's Cuban girlfriend's family.
Neville was reluctantly recruited as a spy for British Intelligence before they left UK and was duped into working for Tarquin Pearce, the press liaison officer at the Embassy, Oz falls in love with prima ballerina Ofelia Ortiz, Barry finds himself in prison on the edge of a nervous breakdown, Moxey becomes a guinea pig trainer and Dennis ends up in a relationship with Wyman's mother.
Despite extensive negotiations between the BBC and the Cuban Government, it was not possible to obtain permission to film in Cuba, so the series was filmed in the Dominican Republic.
Au Revoir: The two-part special
Two one-hour episodes were shot in Bangkok and Chiang Mai in July - August 2004, and broadcast on BBC 1 on 27 and 28 December. (The episodes had no on-screen titles, but were listed as "Au Revoir" on the official BBC episode guide.) Shooting in Bangkok took place partly in the red-light district Soi Cowboy. Pat Roach, although suffering from cancer, had hoped to appear in the mini-series, but was not well enough and died in July. Instead, Dennis reads a letter from Bomber to the rest of the group while they are dining in a restaurant, where he explains his reasons for not having joined them. The group lift their glasses and drink a toast: "To Bomber!".
The story sees the remaining six working in a British Embassy somewhere in central Africa that is about to be overrun by rioters. Most of them escape uninjured, except for Oz who sustains a painful injury to the rectum protecting a female staff member (while they are having sex) from a bomb.
The boys then move on to Laos and later Thailand, where Barry's Russian ex-wife, Tatiana, turns up to announce that she is carrying his child following a brief "reconciliation" back in the UK. After working for the Australian embassy Neville accompanies Barry and Tatiana for a journey upon the Eastern and Oriental Express in which they meet, by coincidence, Tarquin Pearce. During a stopover on this trip, Barry is kidnapped and held by guerrillas in a village in the jungle. When the others find out and follow they are also captured. They end up being imprisoned in a bamboo hut but are treated kindly by the local villagers. Eventually, Dennis has an idea (inspired by the film The Bridge on the River Kwai) to build a washhouse for the villagers to keep their minds occupied during their ordeal. After obtaining the guerrilla leader's satellite phone whilst he is asleep Neville manages to call for help to Brenda, and as a result the army and the Australian embassy locate them. It turns out that the man who arranged their kidnapping was Neville's corrupt handler, Tarquin Pearce (from Series 4). Deprived of their hostages, the guerrillas decide to take Tarquin hostage instead.
In the final scenes Dennis, Neville and Oz ask the embassy to give them an assignment in a nice peaceful country, and return to Germany once more. On the ferry from England, Neville is asked what Brenda said to him when he told her he was heading off to Germany, he replied that she said "Auf Wiedersehen... pet." Following a dedication to Pat Roach, the closing credits of the final episode are accompanied by the opening theme tune from Series 1.
Characters
Main cast
Dennis Longridge Patterson
Dennis (Tim Healy) is the co-opted leader of the "Magnificent Seven". When introduced, he is in the middle of divorcing his wife Vera. He later has an affair with a German on-site secretary named Dagmar, played by Brigitte Kahn. In series two, he is working for a Newcastle upon Tyne gangster, Ally Fraser, to whom he has fallen in debt. Dennis has two children and can sometimes be short-tempered, but is basically a thoughtful man of high moral standards and has good people skills. At the opening of the third series, he is driving a mini-cab for a living and supplementing his income, much to his own shame, by working as a drug-dealer's driver.
Neville Hope
Neville (Kevin Whately) is often under the thumb of his wife, Brenda. Honest and hard-working, he constantly worries about the welfare of his wife and three children, and his heart is in Newcastle. He married young and has no regrets, although by the third series he is suffering from a mid-life crisis. In series four Neville comes of age working secretly for British Intelligence in Cuba.
Leonard Jeffrey "Oz" Osborne
In the original series, Oz (Jimmy Nail) was a loud, belligerent, abrasive, heavy-drinking Geordie lout who showed no fidelity towards his wife or any concern for his son. He had a xenophobic attitude to Germans, and later to Turks and Spaniards. His major passions in life were drinking and supporting Newcastle United football club. At the end of the second series, he wins the Spanish lottery and spends much of his new-found wealth on presents for his friends, but has squandered all his money by the beginning of the third series, in which he re-unites his five surviving pals at his own phoney funeral as a ruse to reunite the entire team. By this time the character has substantially reformed, becoming more mature and thoughtful and less violent, and is prepared to lead his friends off on new adventures overseas. His son, Rod, has grown up, is a singer and is gay, which at first horrifies Oz. After going to see him perform on two occasions, Oz's maturity and new-found reformed nature wins through.
Barry Spencer Taylor
Barry (Timothy Spall) is a bright, well-meaning West Midlander from the Black Country (he mentions connections with West Bromwich and Wolverhampton and has a poster of Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. on the wall of his office). He is an electrician with a large vocabulary and a motorbike, and is also dull, bumbling and bashful. His tendency to inadvertently bore others and to look on the bleak side of things are mocked by his mates, but they retain some affection for him. He has been married twice, first to a local girl named Hazel (played by Melanie Hill), who left him for another woman, which is found out in the third series. He then later marries the glamorous Russian Tatiana played by Branka Katic. Both marriages end in divorce, but at the end of the special two part series he is reconciled with Tatiana especially now that she is expecting Barry's child, a result of an encounter back in UK.
Albert Arthur Moxey
Moxey (Christopher Fairbank) is the only character not introduced in the first episode. He is a Scouse plasterer with bad acne and originally a stutter, although he has clearly had it cured by the time of the third series. Despite his friendly exterior, Moxey has a dark side: he is a convicted - albeit reformed - arsonist and does try to explain that it is more of a mental illness and that he always tries to ensure that no-one is in the building to be burned (Series three). At the beginning of the second series, he absconds from an open prison, and is thereafter on the run under the aliases "Brendan Mulcahy" and "Francis Fogarty". During series three it emerges that he is now free from prison but that the local police need Moxey's help to gather information against Moxey's corrupt employer, Mickey Startup. He emigrates to Australia in the final episode of the special two part series with his new Australian girlfriend.
Brian "Bomber" Busbridge
Bomber (Pat Roach) is an easy-going 6'5" West Country brickie, heavily built and extremely strong, with a bushy beard. He occasionally works as a jobber in professional wrestling promotions. He follows Bristol City F.C. although he is seen wearing a Bristol Rovers blue and white quartered shirt in series 4. One of the older brickies, he is quiet but friendly, well liked by his workmates, and is often the voice of reason and good sense. When the lads find themselves in trouble they often turn to Bomber for help, even Oz. He loves his wife and children but has an unfortunate habit of spending his earnings on gambling and prostitutes.
Wayne Winston Norris
Wayne (Gary Holton) describes himself as a . A Londoner, he is a carpenter (or "chippy") by trade and has an obsession for women which often lands him and his friends in trouble. Initially without transport he relied on friends for lifts but by series 2 he has bought a red BMW 520. At the end of the first series, Wayne marries Christa, (played by Lysette Anthony), a secretary at the building site. The actor Gary Holton died in 1985 after overdosing on drugs and before the filming of the second series finished. Often, Wayne's absence in the second series is explained in dialogue with phrases like "He's gone to town to look for girls". The series was not filmed in chronological order, so he is present in the final episode yet absent during earlier scenes. The last episode is dedicated to Gary Holton.
Wyman Ian Norris
Wyman (Noel Clarke) is Wayne's illegitimate son and is introduced in series three at the "funeral for Oz" where they find out that Wayne died from a congenital heart problem a few years previously. Wyman is a DJ but then decides to join the gang to try to make some money on the bridge job, and to find out more about his father who he never knew. In later episodes, when the gang work for the OED, Wyman works as a general labourer.
Supporting cast
The wives, girlfriends and exes
Julia Tobin as Brenda Elizabeth Hope: Wife of Neville (Series 1–4 & Special)
Lysette Anthony as Christa Norris: Girlfriend of Wayne. Later wife, then ex-wife (Series 1 & mentions in Series 2)
Caroline Hutchison as Vera Patterson: First Wife later Ex-Wife of Dennis (Series 1)
Brigitte Kahn as Dagmar: Girlfriend of Dennis (Series 1)
Sheila Reid as Patsy Busbridge: Wife of Bomber (Series 1)
Su Elliot as Marjorie Osborne: Wife, later ex-Wife of Oz (Series 1 & 2)
Maya Woolfe as Uli (Series 1): A German woman who Oz falls in love with. Oz tells her he has his own construction business to impress her, and she tells him that she is a beauty consultant, but actually works at a massage parlour for her Turkish boyfriend, as Bomber discovers.
Melanie Hill as Hazel Taylor: 1st Wife of Barry (Series 2)
Madelaine Newton as Christine Chadwick: Girlfriend of Dennis (Series 2). An Ex-wife was mentioned in series 3, but she was not specifically named as Christine.
Lesley Saint John as Vicky: Girlfriend of Ally Fraser and then Oz (Series 2)
Branka Katic as Tatiana Taylor: 2nd Wife of Barry (Series 3–4 & Special)
Georgina Lightning as Lainie Proudfoot: Girlfriend, later common-law wife, of Bomber (Series 3)
Josefina Gabrielle as Ofelia Ortiz: Ex-Girlfriend of Oz (Series 4)
Zoë Eeles as Tina: Ex-Girlfriend of Wyman Norris (Series 4): was the assistant of Tarquin Pearce and a love interest for Wyman Norris. It is speculated that she has had a sexual relationship with Tarquin. Tina and Wyman's romance ended when the Lads completed their work in Cuba.
Series 1
Michael Sheard as Herr Gerhardt Grunwald (Series 1): The site manager. His first name is only mentioned in the novel adaptations.
Peter Birch as Herr Hans Ulrich (Series 1): Grunwald's chargehand. His first name is only mentioned in the novel adaptations.
Michael Elphick as Magowan (Series 1): A violent alcoholic thug who was always looking for trouble, yet was never fired for his antics as he was one of the best bricklayers on site. Most of the lads feared him, except Oz, who got on well with him and Bomber, who was too big for Magowan to intimidate. When he was evicted from the hostel for assaulting staff, Oz invited Magowan to stay in the hut, much to the dismay of the other lads. By the time the lads had left Germany, Magowan had finally been imprisoned for his aggressive behaviour.
Lucinda Edmonds as Tracy Busbridge (Series 1): Bomber's sixteen year old daughter who runs away from home to find her dad, unaware he has gone back to England to find her. She tries to make a move on Wayne, but he rebuffs her under threat of castration from Dennis.
Ray Winstone as Colin Latham (Series 1): was a soldier who went on the run following a rough time with some of his fellow soldiers. He met the Lads when they visited the Country in Germany, and he went to work with them in Düsseldorf. Dennis and Neville later persuaded him to return to the army, and he remained in touch with Neville via letters.
Des Young as Hedley Irwin (Series 1): A steelworker from Darlington who Dennis and Neville meet in hospital. Hedley tells them he has lived in Germany since the war and was in the army before being cashiered for marrying a German woman. He dies in hospital, and Dennis and Neville think Hedley should be buried in England.
Norah Fulton as Mabel Hilton (Series 1): Hedley's sister, married to Bob (James Ottoway). Wayne visits her and tells her that Hedley has passed on. She reveals that Hedley was court-martialled for selling headlamps to the Russians, and that he was married before he left England.
Ray Knight as the barman (Series 1): The barman at the pub where the Lads spend most of their spare time.
Series 2
Bill Paterson as Alasdair "Ally" Fraser (Series 2): Dennis' boss. Fraser is a businessman in the Newcastle area, with businesses including a sauna, casino and a nightclub. Fraser is widely regarded as a villain by the Geordie characters and it becomes known at the end of the series when he is residing in Marbella that he is wanted by the police back in the UK.
Val McLane as Norma (series 2): is Dennis Patterson's older sister. She let Dennis live at her house when he divorced his wife Vera. She disapproved of her brother's association with Ally Fraser. She was also close to Brenda and Neville Hope. She wasn't happy when Moxey and Oz began sleeping in her front room. She was not seen nor mentioned after Series 2 in the series per se, however Val McClane appeared in character as Norma at the 2006 Sunday for Sammy charity variety show at The Sage, Gateshead. The character of Norma was quickly added to the scripts shortly after filming on the second series began to replace Dennis' wife Vera, when actress Caroline Hutchison (who was originally set to reprise her role and had attended script read-throughs and rehearsals) was diagnosed with cancer and was subsequently unable to appear.
James Booth as Kenny Ames (Series 2): The former owner of Thornley Manor. Ames is living in exile in Marbella as he is wanted by the police for his criminal activities, which include a pornography empire. Ames is an associate of Ally Fraser.
Bryan Pringle as Arthur Pringle (Series 2): the snobbish, grumpy landlord of the lads' local when they were staying in Derbyshire. He was often irritated by the lads, especially Oz and Wayne. He seems to dislike Wayne the most, due to Wayne seducing his daughter Carol, and as punishment, he bans Wayne and the rest of the lads from his pub. But after it is revealed that he once attended a sex party hosted by Kenny Ames, he is blackmailed into lifting the ban.
Catherine Rabett as Carol Pringle (Series 2)
Kevin Lloyd as Harry Blackburn (Series 2): A plumber and Country & Western enthusiast from Derby. He is always dressed in cowboy gear and drives a Nissan Patrol
Ying Tong John as Big Baz (Series 2): Ally Fraser's minder. Although he appears to be hard man, he has been beaten by both Bomber and Oz, with Bomber breaking his nose and hand and Oz stunning him.
John Bowler as Howard Radcliffe (Series 2): Architect on the Thornley Manor refurbishment.
James Bate as Malcolm Hallwood (Series 2). Ally Fraser's solicitor. In early drafts of the scripts, the character was called Malcolm Harbottle.
Simon Smith as Trevor (Series 2): Barry's apprentice.
Barry Hollinshead as Rodney Osborne (Series 2): Oz's ten-year-old son.
Mark Stobbart as Rodney Osborne (Series 3): Now grown up and reunited again with Oz. Oz is pleased to discover Rod is a professional singer, but is shocked to learn he is a drag artist and is homosexual.
Eric Mason as Terry Leather (Series 2). The character was based, in part, on Ronnie Knight. Leather is a member of the criminal fraternity living in exile in Marbella.
Stephen Tiller as Nick Wheeler (Series 2): A hack journalist who thinks The Lads are the "Sheffield Payroll" gang, and after speaking to Signor Fuentes and Kenny Ames, sends his report back to the English press, much to the ire of Ally Fraser.
Kenny Ireland and Bernard Martin as Sid Payne and Ronnie Williams (Series 2): A pair of journalists trying to rubbish Nick Wheeler's story. An altercation at the beach with Oz, Wayne and Bomber doesn't get them anywhere. They get into Ally's villa, where Dennis tells them they are on a reunion from their time in Dusseldorf.
Patrick Godfrey and Georgine Anderson as Geoffrey and Pauline Oxlade (Series 2): A retired couple, neighbours of Ally Fraser. The Lads mistake their villa for Fraser's and go for a skinny dip in their pool.
Ricardo Montez as Signor Fuentes (Series 2): The Spanish policeman who investigates The Lads when they mistakenly dive into a swimming pool belonging to the Oxlades. Fuentes later appears in the final episode to investigate Ally Fraser's abuse of Vicky. Montez then reappears in Series 4 as the Grandfather of Ofelia Ortiz who idolises Fidel Castro.
Joseph Long as Carlos (Series 2): The barman at the Bella Vista hotel. The Lads' drinking into the early hours forcing Carlos to remain at the bar convinces his wife he has another woman. By the final episode, his wife has left him.
Series 3
Bill Nighy as Jeffrey Grainger (Series 3): A disgraced politician who met Oz in prison. Grainger is a member of the consortium responsible for the demolition of the Middlesbrough Transporter Bridge. Grainger is shown to make media appearances to promote his autobiography in which he claims he is a reformed character, however, it is clear that his business dealings are dishonest.
Emily Bruni as Sarah (Series 3): Grainger's personal assistant and later love interest of Oz.
Liz White as Lorraine (Series 3): Neville's secretary whom he fantasizes over during his mid-life crisis.
Michael Angelis as Mickey Startup (Series 3): Moxey's employer at his nightclub. Startup is a Liverpudlian criminal, involved in human trafficking and sexual slavery.
Zelda Tinska as Irena (Series 3): A young woman brought into the country illegally with her two brothers and several others. She is separated from her brothers by Mickey Startup who wants her to work in his brothel. She escapes to search for her brothers who are working on the demolition of the bridge.
John Kazek as Yorgo (Series 3): An eastern European gangmaster who supplies illegal labour for the bridge demolition.
Gordon Tootoosis as Joe Saugus (Series 3): A Native American chief who travels to the UK to procure the bridge, to be rebuilt on his reservation to bring trade to his casino.
Aleksandar Mikich as Dhori (Series 3): Irena's brother.
Dragan Mićanović as Kadi (Series 3): Originally introduced as Barry's brother-in-law and business partner, it is revealed he is in fact Tatiana's lover and he has been using the business as a front for a drug smuggling operation.
Series 4
Javier Alcina as Raúl Ortiz (Series 4)
Sandra James-Young as Chrissie (Series 4): Wyman's mother
Caroline Harker as Pru Scott-Johns (Series 4)
Clive Russell as Gary Turnbull (Series 4)
Alexander Hanson as Tarquin Pearce (Series 4 & special)
David Cheung as Michael Goy (Series 4)
Hector Then as Neville's Minder (Series 4)
Music
The opening and closing credits for the first two series were each accompanied by songs performed by Joe Fagin. In series one "Breakin' Away", written by David Mackay and Ian La Frenais, accompanied the opening credits. Ken Ashby collaborated with Mackay on "That's Livin' Alright", a song that closed each episode. The songs were released as a 7" single, and reached number three in the UK Singles Chart in January 1984. It was reissued in 1995 when the show was repeated on Channel 4. With new lyrics by Jimmy Lawless, Fagin released a special version of "That's Livin' Alright" for England's national football team's 2006 FIFA World Cup campaign. "That's England Alright" was released on 5 June 2006.
Mackay and La Frenais also collaborated on "Get it Right", the song used for the opening credits of series two. Like the first series, Ken Ashby collaborated with Mackay for series two's closing credits song, "Back With the Boys Again". The two tracks were released together as a double-sided single, but only reached number 53 in the UK charts in April 1986.
The tradition of using two separate songs was broken when the BBC revived the show. Instrumental music opened each episode of the third series. However, the closing credits were accompanied by Mark Knopfler's song "Why Aye Man", taken from his album The Ragpicker's Dream. Incidental music was used for the fourth series and for the special. However, when the character of Dennis reveals a photograph of all of the original group taken in Germany, "Breakin' Away" begins and continues over the final credits of the show.
A CD is now available entitled 'The Best of Auf Wiedersehen, Pet One & Two' and contains 29 tracks of vocal music and instrumentals.
Commercial availability and repeat broadcasts
Auf Wiedersehen, Pet is available on DVD in the UK and US as boxsets and single discs with three episodes on each. The show was largely repeated on ITV1 and ITV4 but the show has not been re-run on these channels since 2008. The programme was shown on Men & Motors for a while, but the channel has since closed. In June 2012, Digital Channel Yesterday picked up the rights to repeat the first three series of the show; these were then shown at 10 am and 4 pm on Weekdays. Yesterday had to edit the third series' episodes to fit into their timing schedules; therefore instead of them being 60 minutes in length they were reduced to 45 minutes. This was not apparent with the repeats of the first two series. In January 2013, Yesterday bought the fourth series but, again due to timing, these were also edited from 60 to 45 minutes, meaning several parts of the storyline been cut. From July 2013, Drama picked up the rights to rerun the series as part of its schedules. In January 2017, it was repeated on Yesterday again. In January 2021, series 1 and 2 were added to the UK’s BritBox and series 3 to 5 were added to the BBC’s iPlayer.
Home releases
The Complete First Series was released in a Carry - Case Boxed Set on 27 May 2002 by Carlton.
The Complete Second Series was released in a Boxset on 8 July 2002 by Carlton.
The Complete Series 1 & 2 Boxset was released on 7 October 2002 by Carlton.
The Complete Brand New Series was released on DVD & VHS on 18 November 2002 by VCI.
The Complete Fourth Series was released on DVD on 9 February 2004 by VCI.
The Special was Released on DVD on 10 January 2005 by VCI.
The Complete Series 1 & 2 was re-issued by ITV Studios Home Entertainment on 1 September 2008.
References
External links
Auf Wiedersehen, Pet Fansite
1983 British television series debuts
2004 British television series endings
1980s British comedy-drama television series
2000s British comedy-drama television series
BBC television comedy
BBC television dramas
English-language television shows
ITV comedy
ITV television dramas
Television series produced at Pinewood Studios
Television shows produced by Central Independent Television
Television series by Fremantle (company)
Television series by ITV Studios
Television shows set in Newcastle upon Tyne
Television shows set in North Rhine-Westphalia
Television shows set in Spain
Television shows set in the West Midlands (county)
Television shows set in Nottinghamshire
Television shows set in Yorkshire
Television shows shot at ATV Elstree Studios | [
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223827 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabrales%20cheese | Cabrales cheese | Cabrales (Spanish: queso de Cabrales) is a blue cheese made in the artisan tradition by rural dairy farmers in Asturias, Spain. This cheese can be made from pure, unpasteurized cow’s milk or blended in the traditional manner with goat and/or sheep milk, which lends the cheese a stronger, spicier flavor.
All of the milk used in the production of Cabrales must come exclusively from herds raised in a small zone of production in Asturias, in the mountains of the Picos de Europa.
Production
The milk is first heated and curdled by the addition of rennet. The whey is removed from the curds, which are then packed into cylindrical molds called arnios, salted and left to cure and harden. After the initial curing period of around two weeks, the Cabrales is then aged a further two to five months in natural caves in the limestone mountains of the area. The cheeses are placed on wooden shelves known as talameras, where they are periodically turned and cleaned. Relative humidity in these caves is typically 90% and the temperature is a cool , conditions favoring the development of penicillium molds that produce blue-green veins throughout the cheese.
Cabrales has a strong flavor, sometimes quite acidic, which can be very complex when made with mixed milks. Like Gorgonzola and Roquefort, it is a famous blue cheese whose name is protected by European law.
Marketing
Traditionally, Cabrales was sold wrapped in the moist leaves of Acer pseudoplatanus (Sycamore Maple), but nowadays regulations require that commercially produced Cabrales be sold in a dark-green-colored aluminum foil with the registered official stamp of the PDO Queso de Cabrales. Within the production zone it is still possible to encounter Cabrales cheese with the traditional maple leaf wrapping, although it is only ever produced in small batches and not approved for export, as it is ineligible for DO status. The same is true of other Spanish blue cheeses, also traditionally leaf-wrapped, such as Valdeón and Picón Bejes-Tresviso.
A 5.78 lb (2.62 kg) cheese from the Valfríu cheese factory set a Guinness World Record in August 2018 when it sold for €14,300 at auction. In 2020, the same cheese variety set a new world record as it was sold for €20,500 at auction.
See also
Blue cheese
Spanish cheeses
References
Further reading
Klöcker, Harald. Culinaria Spain. Cologne: Könemann Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, 1998. p 208.
External links
Translation of official Spanish DO information
Cabrales info at cheeses.com
Cheeses with designation of origin protected in the European Union
Spanish cheeses
Asturian cuisine
Cow's-milk cheeses
Sheep's-milk cheeses
Goat's-milk cheeses
Blue cheeses
Spanish products with protected designation of origin
Picos de Europa | [
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223834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice%20wine | Ice wine | Ice wine (or icewine; ) is a type of dessert wine produced from grapes that have been frozen while still on the vine. The sugars and other dissolved solids do not freeze, but the water does, allowing for a more concentrated grape juice to develop. The grapes' must is then pressed from the frozen grapes, resulting in a smaller amount of more concentrated, very sweet juice. With ice wines, the freezing happens before the fermentation, not afterwards. Unlike the grapes from which other dessert wines are made, such as Sauternes, Tokaji, or Trockenbeerenauslese, ice wine grapes should not be affected by Botrytis cinerea or noble rot, at least not to any great degree. Only healthy grapes keep in good shape until the opportunity arises for an ice wine harvest, which in extreme cases can occur after the New Year, on a northern hemisphere calendar. This gives ice wine its characteristic refreshing sweetness balanced by high acidity. When the grapes are free of Botrytis, they are said to come in "clean".
Ice wine production is risky (the frost may not come at all before the grapes rot or are otherwise lost) and requires the availability of a large enough labour force to pick the whole crop within a few hours, at a moment's notice, on the first morning that is cold enough. This results in relatively small amounts of ice wine being made worldwide, making ice wines generally expensive.
Ice wine production is limited to that minority of the world's wine-growing regions where the necessary cold temperatures can be expected to be reached with some regularity. Canada is the world's largest producer of ice wines, producing a greater volume of ice wine than all other countries combined, followed by Germany.
History
There are indications that frozen grapes were used to make wine in Roman times. Pliny the Elder (AD 23 – 79) wrote that certain grape varieties were not harvested before the first frost had occurred. The poet Martial recommended that grapes should be left on the vine until November or until they were stiff with frost. Details as to the winemaking and description of these wines are unknown. It cannot be completely ruled out that the descriptions refer to dried grape wines, a common style of wine in Roman times, where the raisin-like grapes were harvested late enough for the first frost to have fallen. In either case, the method seems later to have been forgotten. Wine from Chiomonte in the Val di Susa was popular in Roman times and this town still today produces one of Italy's few ice wines.
It is believed that the first post-Roman ice wine was made in Franconia in 1794. Better documentation exists for an ice-wine harvest in Dromersheim close to Bingen in Rheinhessen on February 11, 1830. The grapes were of the 1829 vintage. That winter was harsh and some wine growers had the idea to leave grapes hanging on the vine for use as animal fodder. When it was noticed that these grapes yielded very sweet must, they were pressed and an ice wine was produced. Sweet wines produced from late harvested grapes were well-established as the most valued German wine style by the early 19th century, following the discovery of Spätlese at Schloss Johannisberg in Rheingau in 1775, and the subsequent introduction of the Auslese designation. These wines would usually be produced from grapes affected by noble rot. Thus, is a more recent German wine style than the botrytised wines.
Germany
Throughout the 19th century and until 1960, harvests were a rare occurrence in Germany. Only six 19th-century vintages with harvests have been documented, including 1858, the first at Schloss Johannisberg. There was little effort to systematically produce these wines during this period, and their production was probably the rare result of freak weather conditions. It was the invention of the pneumatic bladder press which made the production of ice wine practical and led to a substantial increase in the frequency and quantity of production.
Production of a number of German ice wines began to increase in 1961, and the wine increased in popularity in the following years. The production has been assisted by other technological inventions in the form of electric lighting driven by portable generators (to assist harvest in the cold hours of early-morning darkness, before sunrise and the grapes thaw), and remotely-controlled temperature alarms. After re-thawing, the grapes will spoil quickly since ice crystals destroy cell walls. Thus, the harvest must be completed within a few hours on the first morning that is cold enough. Plastic films are used for "packaging" the vines during the waiting period between ripeness and first frost to protect the ripe grapes from being eaten by wildlife.
Canada
Ice wine was first produced in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia by German immigrant Walter Hainle in 1972. This ice wine was the result of an early and unexpected frost, and yielded of wine, which Hainle originally did not intend to sell, although he did so in 1978.
In 1983, Niagara-based wineries Inniskillin's and Reif Estate Winery, as well as Hillebrand, and Pelee Island Winery, two wineries with Austrian winemakers situated in another part of Ontario, all left grapes on their vines in an attempt to produce ice wine. Inniskillin and Reif lost their entire crop to hungry birds, while Hillebrand and Pelee Island were able to harvest a minuscule amount of frozen grapes. In 1984, Inniskillin winery was the first winery in Canada to produce ice wine for commercial purposes, produced in 1984 under the direction of the winery's Austrian-born co-owner Karl Kaiser, often being mentioned as Canada's first ice wine. Kaiser used nets to protect his vines and was able to produce Inniskillin's first ice wine. This wine was made from Vidal grapes and was labelled "Eiswein".
After ice wine production established a commercial footing, Canadian ice wine quickly became popular with domestic consumers and reviewers. Other Canadian producers and regions picked up the idea since harsh Canadian winters lend themselves to large-scale production. The international breakthrough of Canadian ice wine came in 1991, when Inniskillin's 1989 Vidal ice wine won the at Vinexpo. The Canadian trend towards increased cultivation of Vitis vinifera (European) grape varieties in the 1990s expanded the palette of varieties available to be bitten by frost. By the early 2000s, Canada was established as the largest producer of ice wine in the world. In 2001, the EU allowed the importation of Canadian ice wine hence recognizing the standard equivalency.
Ice wine producers
Canada
In contrast to most other wine-producing regions, Canada, particularly the Niagara Peninsula, consistently undergoes freezing in winter and has become the world's largest ice wine producer. As a result, Canada produces a greater volume of ice wine than all other countries combined. Approximately 90 per cent of all ice wine produced in Canada originate from Ontario-based wineries, with wineries in Ontario producing approximately of ice wine in 2016. However, it is also produced in all other wine growing provinces of Canada, including British Columbia, Quebec, and Nova Scotia. Ice wine production is regulated by the Vintners Quality Alliance in the provinces of British Columbia and Ontario. If the sugar level in the grapes measures less than 35° Brix, then they may not be used for ice wine, a minimum considerably higher than that of German Eiswein. These grapes are often downgraded to a lower designation, such as Special Select Late Harvest or Select Late Harvest. Canadian rules were further tightened in British Columbia in 2000 after a producer dealt with the mild winter of 1999 by moving grapes up to the mountains to seek freezing temperatures.
Though Pelee Island Winery and Hillebrand were Canada's first commercial ice wine producers, starting production in 1983, Inniskillin Wines is considered the most widely known Canadian ice wine producer as the first Canadian winery to win a major international award, the Grand Prix d’Honneur at 1991 Vinexpo in France, with their 1989 Vidal Icewine (which was technically an illegal import into the EU), placing Canadian ice wines on the world stage. Pillitteri Estates Winery has emerged in the 2000s as the world's largest estate ice wine producer. In November 2006, Canadian producer Royal DeMaria released five cases of Chardonnay ice wine with a half-bottle price set at C$ 30,000, making it the world's most expensively priced wine.
Europe
The most famous (and expensive) ice wines are German Eiswein, but ice wine is also made in European countries such as Austria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Georgia, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland at least in smaller quantity. Eiswein is part of the Prädikatswein quality category in the German wine classification. The French language term Vin de glace is part of the wine classification in Luxembourg, but not in France, but is sometimes found on the rare bottles of ice wine produced in Alsace. In most of France, the climate is too warm for ice wine production.
Japan
The Furano region of Central Hokkaido, Japan, produces an ice wine each winter at the Furano Winery. Because such a small amount can be made each year, it is produced in limited batches and sold only at the cellar door, 3.3 kilometres from Furano Station. The Furano Wine ice wine is produced only in red.
United States
Northern Michigan wineries continue to follow the German laws that govern what wine qualifies as ice wine, which dictates that ice wine must be picked only when the grapes are frozen on the vine. In 2002, six Michigan wineries produced over 13,000 half-bottles of ice wine, a record at that time.
A growing number of wineries near Lake Erie, especially in Pennsylvania, New York, and Ashtabula County, Ohio, also produce ice wine.
The US law for ice wines specifies that grapes must be naturally frozen. The TTB (Tax and Trade Bureau) regulations state that "Wine made from grapes frozen after harvest may not be labeled with the term 'ice wine' or any variation thereof, and if the wine is labeled to suggest it was made from frozen grapes, the label must be qualified to show that the grapes were frozen postharvest."
Production
Natural ice wines require a hard freeze (by law in Canada ) or colder, and in Germany or colder), to occur sometime after the grapes are ripe, which means that the grapes may hang on the vine for several months following the normal harvest. If a freeze does not come quickly enough, the grapes may rot and the crop will be lost. If the freeze is too severe, no juice can be extracted. Vineland Winery in Ontario once broke their pneumatic press in the 1990s while pressing the frozen grapes because they were too hard (the temperature was close to ). The longer the harvest is delayed, the more fruit will be lost to wild animals and dropped fruit. Since the fruit must be pressed while it is still frozen, pickers often must work at night or very early in the morning, harvesting the grapes within a few hours, while cellar workers must work in unheated spaces.
The high sugar level in the must leads to a slower-than-normal fermentation. It may take months to complete the fermentation (compared to days or weeks for regular wines) and special strains of yeasts should be used. Because of the lower yield of grape musts and the difficulty of processing, ice wines are significantly more expensive than table wines. They are often sold in half-bottle volume (375 ml) or the even smaller 200ml bottle. New World wineries in particular sometimes bottle 200 ml and 50 ml gift packages.
Requirements
The minimum must weight requirements for ice wine is as follows, in the measures used in the respective country:
For German Eiswein, 110 to 128 degrees Oechsle, the same as for Beerenauslese, depending on the region (wine growing zone) and grape variety.
For Austrian Eiswein, 25 degrees KMW, the same as for Beerenauslese, corresponding to 127 °Oechsle.
For Canadian Ice wine, 35 degrees Brix, corresponding to 153.5 °Oechsle.
For Luxembourg Vin de glace, 120 °Oechsle.
Cryoextraction
In Austria, Germany, the US, and Canada, the grapes must freeze naturally to be called ice wine. In other countries, some winemakers use cryoextraction (mechanical freezing) to simulate the effect of a frost and typically do not leave the grapes to hang for extended periods as is done with natural ice wines.
Cryoextraction is the process by which grapes are frozen with refrigeration and pressed. Winemakers subject grapes to temperatures around 20 degrees Fahrenheit (or −7 degrees Celsius), and press them while still frozen. Ice crystals remain in the press, while concentrated juice flows out. The resulting wine resembles ice wine. The process of freeze distillation is similar in its concentrating effects, although it occurs after fermentation.
These non-traditional wines are sometimes referred to as "icebox wines". An example is Bonny Doon's Vin de Glacière or King Estate's Vin Glace (made from Oregon Pinot gris grapes). German wine law entirely bans post-harvest freezing methods, even if not labeled "Eiswein".
Grape varieties
Typical grapes used for ice wine production are Riesling, considered to be the noblest variety by German winemakers; Vidal, highly popular in Ontario, Canada; and the red grape Cabernet Franc. Many vintners, especially from the New World, are experimenting with making ice wine from other varieties: whites such as Seyval blanc, Chardonnay, Kerner, Gewürztraminer, Chenin blanc, Pinot blanc, and Ehrenfelser, or reds such as Merlot, Pinot noir, and even Cabernet Sauvignon. Pillitteri Estates Winery from the Niagara-on-the-Lake region of Ontario claim to be the first winery in the world producing Shiraz (Syrah) ice wine with the 2004 vintage, Semillion, and Sangiovese in 2007.
Ice wines from white varieties tend to be pale yellow or light gold in color when they are young and can maderise (acquiring a deep amber-golden color) as they age. The red varieties tend to have a light burgundy or even pink color like that of rosé wines, since the steeping of the skins in the pressed liquid typically used in red wine making is obviously not possible in ice wine production.
Characteristics
Even though it is normal for residual sugar content in ice wine to run from 180 g/L up to as high as 320 g/L (with a mean in the 220 g/L range), ice wine is very refreshing (as opposed to cloying) due to high acidity. (The titratable acidity in ice wine is almost always above 10 g/L.)
Ice wine usually has a slightly lower alcohol content than regular table wine. Some Riesling ice wines from Germany have an alcohol content as low as 6%. Ice wines produced in Canada usually have higher alcohol content, between 8 and 13 per cent. In most years, ice wines from Canada generally have higher brix degree (must weight) compared to those from Germany. This is largely due to the more consistent winters in Canada. Must with insufficient brix level cannot be made into ice wine, and is thus often sold as "special select late harvest" or "select late harvest" at a fraction of the price that true ice wine commands.
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Icewine at IceWine.info
Ice wine at Wines of Canada
Wine Country Ontario Icewine
Canadian alcoholic drinks
Dessert wine
German wine | [
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223841 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-Men%20%28TV%20series%29 | X-Men (TV series) | X-Men (also known as X-Men: The Animated Series) is an animated superhero television series which debuted on October 31, 1992, in the United States on the Fox Kids Network. X-Men was Marvel Comics' second attempt at an animated X-Men TV series after the pilot, X-Men: Pryde of the X-Men, was not picked up. A revival of the series, entitled X-Men '97, is set to be released on Disney+ in 2023.
The X-Men animated series is currently available on the Disney+ streaming service, which launched on November 12, 2019.
Production
In 1991, Margaret Loesch became head of Fox Children's Network. Having championed the Pryde of the X-Men pilot in 1989, she was quick to set up an order for 13 episodes of X-Men. Saban Entertainment was contracted to produce the show and hired a small studio Graz Entertainment to produce the episodes as it did not have sufficient staff at the time to handle production in house. Graz employed the creative staff, wrote and designed each episode, and drew the storyboards. The voice work was done using Canadian studios and South Korean studio AKOM was hired to animate the episodes. X-Men was originally to premiere over the Labor Day weekend in September; due to production delays, it was pushed to the end of October. When the animation team AKOM turned in the first episode, it contained hundreds of animation errors, which AKOM refused to fix. Because of time constraints, the episode was aired in an unfinished form. The second episode was turned in just before a deadline, with 50 scenes missing and only a single day reserved for editing. The "Night of the Sentinels" two-part episode originally aired as a "sneak preview" on October 31.
Because of the production delays and animation errors in these two episodes, Fox threatened to sever AKOM's contracts. When Fox re-aired the pilot in early 1993, the errors were corrected. The series earned top ratings throughout its first season, and was renewed for a second season of 13 episodes. Throughout the series run, producers had to deal with quality control issues including attempts to cut costs, requests to change the tone of the series to something more child-friendly as well to integrate toys being sold into the show.
The show was originally planned to run for 65 episodes. Given its success and Marvel's bankruptcy, Saban funded the additional eleven episodes at a much reduced budget. Philippine Animation Studio Inc. and Hong Ying Animation also contributed some of the animation for this series.
Synopsis
The show features X-Men similar in look and line-up to the early 1990s X-Men drawn by Jim Lee (specifically, the Blue Team established in the early issues of X-Men (vol. 2)), composed of Cyclops, Wolverine, Rogue, Storm, Beast, Gambit, Jubilee, Jean Grey, Professor X, as well as an original character, Morph (an adaptation of previous X-Men member Changeling).
The series deals with social issues, including divorce ("Proteus"), Christianity ("Nightcrawler" and "Bloodlines"), the Holocaust ("Enter Magneto", "Deadly Reunions", "Days of Future Past" and "The Phalanx Covenant") and AIDS hysteria ("Time Fugitives"), and feelings of loneliness ("No Mutant Is an Island"). Television was satirized in the episodes "Mojovision" and "Longshot".
X-Men crossed over with the animated series Spider-Man, when Spider-Man seeks out the X-Men's help to stave off his progressing mutation. In the abbreviated form of the Secret Wars storyline, the Beyonder and Madame Web selected Spider-Man to lead a team of heroes including Storm against a group of villains. An earlier draft of "Secret Wars" involved all of the X-Men, but transporting the voice cast from Canada to Los Angeles, where production for the Spider-Man animated series was based, had been too costly in previous crossovers, so the episode was re-written to include only Storm, whose actress, Iona Morris, lived in Los Angeles. Hulk and She-Hulk were excluded from the episodes because the Incredible Hulk animated series featuring the characters was airing on rival network UPN.
The first season of the show brought the X-Men into conflict with human conspirators building mutant-exterminating Sentinel robots, Magneto and his attempts to instigate a human-mutant war, and the powerful mutant Apocalypse's plans to eradicate the weak, both human and mutant alike. Other storylines including X-Men member Morph's death at the hands of Sentinels, Beast's incarceration, and an assassination attempt on US senator Kelly by Apocalypse's minions to turn human sentiment against the mutants.
The second season sees Cyclops and Jean get married and become the targets of Mister Sinister, who hopes to use the genetically perfect combination of their DNA to create an army of obedient mutants. Morph returns, having been rescued by Sinister and brainwashed into forcing the X-Men apart. The season also features the growing rift between humans and mutants, spearheaded by the Friends of Humanity, an anti-mutant group who lead the persecution of all mutants. Apocalypse also returns, developing a deadly plague to be blamed on mutants, fueling mutant hatred. A parallel narrative of Professor X and Magneto being lost in the Savage Land runs throughout this season.
The third season focuses on the cosmic force, the Phoenix, which merges with Jean Grey and eventually turns her into the malevolent and powerful Dark Phoenix. The season also introduced the Shi'ar Empire who want to stop the Dark Phoenix, including Lilandra and Gladiator. Other storylines include the introduction of Wolverine's former lover turned mercenary, Lady Deathstrike, former X-Men member Iceman, and the villainous Shadow King.
Adaptations
Although the majority of the series' stories are original, a number of storylines and events from the comics are loosely adapted in the series, such as:
Season 1
The two-part Pilot episode "Night of the Sentinels" features "The Mutant Registration Act" which was first used in "Days of Future Past" from Uncanny X-Men #141 (January, 1981) by writer Chris Claremont and writer/artist John Byrne. Also the battle at the shopping mall is adapted from Jubilee's first appearance in the story "Ladies' Night" from Uncanny X-Men #244 (May, 1989) by writer Chris Claremont and artist Marc Silvestri. In that story, Jubilee is attacked by the M-Squad and is rescued by female X-Men and the final sequence wherein Jubilee arrives at the X-Mansion is based on a similar sequence when Kitty Pryde first arrived at the X-Mansion following the funeral for Phoenix in "Elegy" from X-Men #138 (October, 1980) by writer Chris Claremont and writer/artist John Byrne.
The episode, "Enter Magneto", features a confrontation at a missile base: this is largely based on the X-Men's first battle with Magneto, as told in their 1963 debut story "X-Men" from X-Men #1 (September, 1963) by writer Stan Lee and artist Jack Kirby.
"Captive Hearts" is loosely based on events depicted in "Catacombs" and "Dancin' in the Dark" from Uncanny X-Men #169-170 (May–June, 1983) by writer Chris Claremont and artist Paul Smith, except that the X-Man kidnapped by The Morlocks in those stories was Angel, rather than Cyclops.
In the episode "Slave Island", Genosha's treatment of mutants as slave labour is adapted from "Welcome to Genosha"/"Busting Loose"/"Who's Human?"/"Gonna be a Revolution" from Uncanny X-Men #235-#238 (October–November, 1989) by writer Chris Claremont and artists Rick Leonardi and Marc Silvestri. However, the premise of how the Genoshan's enslaved mutants is greatly retooled, likely to be more appropriate for children's television.
In the episode "The Unstoppable Juggernaut", The Juggernaut's origins is adapted from the story "The Origin of Professor X!" from X-Men #12 (July, 1965) by Writer Stan Lee and artists Jack Kirby and Alex Toth. Also, the X-Men clashing with Juggernaut at the bank is adapted loosely from the story "Juggernaut's Back in Town" from Uncanny X-Men #194 by writer Chris Claremont and artist John Romita Jr., particularly the portions where the X-Men are staking out the bank before the Juggernaut attacks and the origin of Colossus is adapted from Deadly Genesis! in Giant-Size X-Men #1 (May, 1975) by Writer Len Wein and artist Dave Cockrum.
"The Cure" features a flashback to Rogue's origins detailing her kiss with Cody Robbins, which is adapted from "Public Enemy" from Uncanny X-Men #185 (September, 1984) by writer Chris Claremont and artist John Romita Jr.
Apocalypse's creation of his Four Horsemen in "Come the Apocalypse" is very loosely adapted from Issues #10 "Falling Angel!", #12 "Boom Boom Boom!", #15 "Whose Death is it, Anyway?", #19 "All Together Now!" and #24 "Masks" from X-Factor by writer Louise Simonson artists Walter Simonson and Marc Silvestri.
The first part of the 2-part episode story "Days of Future Past" is loosely based on X-Men #141 (January, 1981) by writer Chris Claremont and writer/artist John Byrne, the first part of the "Days of Future Past" story arc. The entire story was retooled to fit the continuity established in the animated series, however some original elements remained such as Wolverine leading a resistance against the Sentinels. However Bishop's role as a tracker of Mutant rebels is reminiscent of Rachel Summer's role as a Hound, likely adapted from Uncanny X-Men #189. Similarly, Bishop's betrayal of the Sentinels and travel back in time is adapted from Kate Pryde's similar stunt in X-Men #141 (January, 1981) by Chris Claremont and writer/artist John Byrne. Nimrod's appearance and battle with the X-Men is likely adapted from "Raiders of the Lost Temple!" in Uncanny X-Men #191 (March, 1985) and 194 (June, 1985) by writer Chris Claremont and artist John Romita Jr. Also, Bishops' assertion that Gambit betrayed the X-Men is adapted from "Bishop to King's Five!" from Uncanny X-Men #287 (April, 1992) by writers Jim Lee, Scott Lobdell and artist John Romita Jr., wherein Bishop's future the X-Men were apparently killed by one of their own, and as Gambit was the only survivor Bishop long suspected him of betraying the X-Men.
The second part of "Days of Future Past" is adapted from "Mind Out of Time" from Uncanny X-Men #142 (February, 1981) by Chris Claremont and writer/artist John Byrne, wherein the X-Men prevent the Brotherhood of Evil Mutants from assassinating Senator Robert Edward Kelly. The story was altered to fit the continuity of the animated series, wherein Bishop takes the place of Kate Pryde, however it deviates from the original story when Magneto abducts Kelly.
The entire Sentinel plot from the episode "The Final Decision", including Master Mold forcing Trask to do his bidding is adapted from "Among Us Stalk... the Sentinels"/"Prisoners of the Mysterious Master Mold!"/"The Supreme Sacrifice!" from X-Men #14-16 (November, 1965–January, 1966) by writer Stan Lee and artists Jack Kirby & Jay Gavin. Whilst Scott's marriage proposal to Jean and Mister Sinister's interest, which is explored fully in Season 2, is very loosely adapted on "Inferno, Part the Fourth: Ashes!" from Uncanny X-Men #243 (April, 1989) by writer Chris Claremont and artist Marc Silvestri, among other issues where Sinister manipulated Scott's marriage to Madelyne Pryor for his own twisted ends.
Season 2
The episode "Whatever It Takes" features a flashback depicting Mjnari's birth is based on the story "Life-Death II: From the Heart of Darkness" from Uncanny X-Men #198 (October, 1985) by writer Chris Claremont and artist Barry Windsor-Smith. In that story, Storm discovered Shani's tribe after losing her mutant powers, and resuscitated Shani's (unnamed) son as in this episode. The story also featured a tribal elder named MjNari, who chose to die when Shani's son was born, so that the tribe would not become too numerous for its resources.
The episode "Repo Man" is based on "Shoot-Out at the Stampede!" from Uncanny X-Men #121 (May, 1979) by writer Chris Claremont, Writer/artist John Byrne and artist Terry Austin. The episode is also based on the "Weapon X" story from Marvel Comics Presents #72-84 (March–September 1991) by writer/artist Barry Windsor-Smith.
The episode "X-Ternally Yours" is based upon the "Gambit" 4 issue mini-series featuring "Tithing"/"Honor Amongst Thieves"/"The Benefactress"/"Thief of Time" (which was published literally around the same time that episode first aired) (December, 1993–March, 1994) by Writer Howard Mackie, artists Lee Weeks and Klaus Janson. Though in the comics Gambit's brother is named Henri instead of Bobby.
In "Time Fugitives (parts 1 & 2)" features a variation of the "Legacy Virus" story line where it was the creation of Apocalypse, who had created the virus with the aid of Graydon Creed and the Friends of Humanity, infecting innocent people and claiming that mutants were the ones who had caused the plague. In an attempt to stop the plague, Bishop came back from the future to destroy Apocalypse's work before the virus could move on to mutants, but as a result vital antibodies that would allow the mutant race to survive future plagues were never created. Traveling back from even further in the future, Cable was able to come up with a compromise that allowed both Bishop's and his own missions to succeed; although the plague never made the jump to mutants on a large-scale basis, Cable nevertheless ensured that Wolverine would be infected, thus creating the necessary antibodies while not killing any mutants thanks to Wolverine's healing factor.
Parts of the episode "A Rogue's Tale" are based on "Rogue Redux" in Uncanny X-Men #269 (October, 1990) by writer Chris Claremont and artists Jim Lee and Art Thibe. Whilst other parts of the episode are based on "By Friends – Betrayed!" in Avengers Annual #10 (August, 1981) by writer Chris Claremont and artists Michael Golden and Armando Gil.
Season 3
"The Phoenix Saga (Part 1): Sacrifice" is loosely based on "My Brother, My Enemy!" from Uncanny X-Men #97 (February, 1976) by writer Chris Claremont and artists Dave Cockrum & Sam Grainger. The story is also based on "Deathstar, Rising!"/"Greater Love Hath No X-Man..." from Uncanny X-Men #99-100 (June/August 1976) and "Phoenix Unleashed!" from Uncanny X-Men #105 (June, 1977) all by writer Chris Claremont and artist Dave Cockrum.
"The Phoenix Saga (Part 2): The Dark Shroud" is loosely based on "Like a Phoenix, from the Ashes" from Uncanny X-Men #101 (October, 1976) by writer Chris Claremont and artist Dave Cockrum. As well as "Dark Shroud of the Past!" from Uncanny X-Men #106 (August, 1977) by writers Chris Claremont & Bill Mantlo and artist Dave Cockrum & William Robert Brown.
"The Phoenix Saga (Part 3): The Cry of the Banshee" is loosely based on "Who Will Stop the Juggernaut?"/"The Fall of the Tower"/"The Gentleman's Name is Magneto" from Uncanny X-Men #102-104 (December, 1976-April, 1977) by writer Chris Claremont and artists Dave Cockrum & Sam Grainger.
"The Phoenix Saga (Part 4): The Starjammers" is loosely based on "Where No X-Man Has Gone Before!" from Uncanny X-Men #107 (October, 1977) by writer Chris Claremont and artists Dave Cockrum and Dan Green.
"The Phoenix Saga (Part 5): Child of Light" is loosely based on "Armageddon Now" from Uncanny X-Men #108 (December, 1977) by Writer Chris Claremont and artists John Byrne & Terry Austin.
"The Dark Phoenix Saga (Part 1): Dazzled" is both based heavily and loosely on different areas, of the storylines "Dazzler"/"Run for Your Life!"/ "And Hellfire is Their Name!" from Uncanny X-Men #130-132 (February–April, 1980) written by Chris Claremont & John Byrne, with art by John Byrne & Terry Austin.
"The Dark Phoenix Saga (Part 2): The Inner Circle" is based on "Wolverine: Alone!" in Uncanny X-Men #133 (May, 1980) & "Too Late, the Heroes!" in #134 Uncanny X-Men (June, 1980). The battle with the Inner Circle follows the original comics very closely, with Beast taking the role of Nightcrawler (when juggling Shaw), and Rogue taking the role of Colossus (tearing the arm off Pierce). The comic was created by writers Chris Claremont & John Byrne, with art by John Byrne & Terry Austin.
"The Dark Phoenix Saga (Part 3): The Dark Phoenix" is based on "Dark Phoenix" from Uncanny X-Men #135 (July, 1980) and "Child of Light and Darkness!" in Uncanny X-Men #136 (August, 1980) by writers Chris Claremont & John Byrne, with art by John Byrne & Terry Austin.
"The Dark Phoenix Saga (Part 4): The Fate of the Phoenix" is based on the comic of the same name ("The Fate of the Phoenix!") from Uncanny X-Men #137 (September, 1980) by writers Chris Claremont & John Byrne, with art by John Byrne & Terry Austin.
The episode "Orphan's End" is based on "Reunion" in Uncanny X-Men #154 and "First Blood" in Uncanny X-Men #155 by writer Chris Claremont and artist Dave Cockrum.
Season 4
The "One Man's Worth" two-parter is an original story, greenlit and designed for the TV series in January, 1994. In a reversal of the usual book-to-TV origin, this story became the basis and inspiration for the crossover series of books Age of Apocalypse , which was published in 1995–96. Many character designs in the Age of Apocalypse, most prominently that of the alternate Forge, were first created for the TV series. Because of the length of time it takes to animate an ambitious episode (sometimes a full year), these two creations are often placed in the wrong order. Bob Harras, supervisor of the X-books in the mid-90s and advisor to the TV series, had access to the full "One Man's Worth" story and designs by early May, 1994. The Age of Apocalypse books followed eight months later.
"Sanctuary (Part 1)" is loosely based on "Rubicon" from X-Men (Vol 2) #1 (October, 1991) and "Firestorm" from X-Men (Vol 2) #2 (November, 1991) from the X-Men: Legacy series and the "Fatal Attractions" crossover storyline. The comic book story was written by writer Chris Claremont and writer/artist Jim Lee with artist Scott Williams.
"Sanctuary (Part 2)" is loosely based on "Fallout!" from X-Men (Vol 2) #3 (December, 1991) from the X-Men: Legacy series and the "Fatal Attractions" crossover storyline. The comic book story was written by Chris Claremont and writer/artist Jim Lee with art by Scott Williams.
The episode "Weapon X, Lies, & Videotape" is loosely based on the story-lines "The Shiva Scenario Part 1: Dreams of Gore, Phase 1"/"Shiva Scenario Part 2: Dreams of Gore: Phase Two"/"The Shiva Scenario Part 3: Dreams of Gore: Phase 3" from Wolverine #48–50 (November, 1992-January 1993) which were all written by Larry Hama with art by Marc Silvestri. There was also a bit of the story-lines "Nightmare Quest!"/"Reunion!"/"Bastions of Glory!"/"What Goes Around..." from issues #61-64 (September–December 1992) thrown in, (though the robot Talos is called "Shiva" there, and the Weapon X project has more members) these issues were written by Larry Hama with art by Mark Texeira.
Season 5
The two-part final season opener "Phalanx Covenant" was adapted from the comic of the same name (September–October 1994) with Beast as the central character. The Phalanx were conceived to be fully alien and not mutant hating humans who were infected with the technology, becoming more like the Technarchy, with Cameron Hodge working along with them serving much the same role as in the comics. During the two-parter, Beast teams up with Warlock, Forge (part of X-Factor), Mr Sinister, Amelia Voght (who was working on Muir Island at the time) and Magneto.
The episode "Jubilee's Fairytale Theater" is based on "Kitty's Fairy Tale" from Uncanny X-Men #153 (January, 1982) by writer Chris Claremont and artist Dave Cockrum. The comic featured Kitty Pryde telling a fairytale to Illyana Rasputina, whilst the series replaced Kitty Pryde with Jubilee and Illyana Rasputina with random school children.
The episode "Old Soldiers" is loosely based on "Madripoor Knights" from Uncanny X-Men #268 (September, 1990) by writer Chris Claremont and artists Jim Lee & Scott Williams. It tells the tale of Logan, while acting as a special operative for Canada, teaming up with Captain America and the Howling Commandos during World War II to rescue someone who had been captured by Red Skull. Logan would use detachable metal claws to scale the side of a mountain and then comment how he liked them.
Voice cast
The series' voice acting was recorded in Toronto studios, with Dan Hennessey serving as voice director. Toronto voice actors had been already used for the 1960s Marvel Comics cartoons.
Principal cast
Dr. Henry Phillip "Hank" McCoy / Beast (George Buza): His mutation covers his body in fur and morphs his body, granting him superhuman strength and agility to complement his genius mind. He spends most of the first season imprisoned for destroying the government's records of registered mutants, which was being abused by Henry Gyrich and Bolivar Trask. Buza would later appear in a small role in the 2000 live action film, playing a truck driver at the start of the film.
Jubilation Lee / Jubilee (Alyson Court): The newest and youngest member of the X-Men, she is close to Wolverine. Jubilee sees Gambit similar to a father figure. She is still getting used to her powers, which are the ability to generate firework-like explosions. Court and Dodd had been neighbors when Court was still a child and Dodd was already a well-known actor in Canada. Court attributes their characters' chemistry to being previously acquainted with one another. Originally another voice actor had been cast as Jubilee, but Court was cast when the original voice was deemed too sweet and innocent sounding for the role.
Jean Elaine Grey / Phoenix (Catherine Disher): A telekinetic and telepath. She is in a longstanding relationship with Cyclops, and they marry at the end of the fourth season, when she is captured by Apocalypse in the time space continuum. Disher had originally auditioned for the part of Storm.
James "Logan" Hawlett / Wolverine (Cal Dodd): A hot headed mutant with a regenerative healing factor, heightened senses, an adamantium-laced skeleton that render his bones virtually indestructible, and retractable claws capable of cutting virtually anything. He was attracted to Jean Grey, but decided not to come against Scott Summers.
Eric Magnus Lensherr / Magneto (David Hemblen): Has the power to control metal. While he is initially introduced as an antagonist, he becomes more of an anti-hero in later seasons, helping them defeat other villains including Master Mold, Mister Sinister, Apocalypse, and Phalanx.
Ororo Munroe / Storm (Iona Morris (1992–1993), Alison Sealy-Smith (1993–1997)): She is able to control the weather, using it to injure her foes or fly and is third in command of the X-Men. Storm has to remain in constant control of her emotions, as they are linked to her powers; if she let loose, she would call horrific weather conditions that would put lives in jeopardy.
Remy Etienne LeBeau / Gambit (Chris Potter (1992–1996), Tony Daniels (1997)): He can charge virtually any object with explosive energy, turning them into bombs; they only explode once he lets go of the object. He also wields a staff for close combat, and for when he's out of playing cards to throw. Potter was cast while filming Kung Fu: The Legend Continues in Toronto; unfamiliar with the X-Men, his co-star David Carradine was a big fan of the comics. Potter later auditioned for the role of Cyclops in the 2000 film. Gambit is in a romantic relationship with Rogue, and is a father figure for Jubilee.
Prof. Charles Francis Xavier / Professor X (Cedric Smith): The founder and leader of the X-Men and a powerful telepath. Throughout the series, he fights for mutant rights while teaching his students the importance of never giving into temptation or lose sight of what really matters.
Scott Summers / Cyclops (Norm Spencer): The field commander of the X-Men who's eyes can emit a powerful burst of energy that can cause devastating damage. Generally stiff, he has expressed doubts to his own leadership from time to time. He often fights with Logan over his girlfriend, Jean Grey, whom he eventually marries towards the end of the series.
Anne Marie / Rogue (Lenore Zann): She possesses the uncontrollable ability to absorb the memories, powers and energy of those she touches; however, if Rogue holds onto someone too long, their consciousness will be trapped in her subconscious. She has permanently absorbed the superhuman strength, durability and flight of Carol Danvers / Ms. Marvel who was left comatose due to this. She is in a romantic relationship with Gambit.
Additional cast
Philip Akin: Lucas Bishop / Bishop
Lawrence Bayne: Nathan Summers / Cable, Christopher Summers / Corsair, Steve Rogers / Captain America, Fabian Cortez
Rick Bennett: Cain Marko / Juggernaut, Piotr Rasputin / Colossus (first time)
Nigel Bennett: Jason Wyngarde / Master Mind
James Blendick: En Sabah Nur / Apocalypse (second time)
Christopher Britton: Mister Sinister
Lally Cadeau: Dr. Moira MacTaggert, Phalanx Nexus
Robert Cait: Fred Dukes / Blob, Colossus (second time)
Len Carlson: Senator Robert Kelley, additional voices
Randall Carpenter: Raven Darkholme / Mystique (Season 1)
John Colicos: En Sabah Nur / Apocalypse (first time), High Evolutionary
Rod Coneybeare: Avalanche
Jennifer Dale: Raven Darkholme / Mystique (most of series)
Adrian Egan: Samuel Guthrie / Cannon Ball
Barry Flatman: James Hudson / Vindicator, Henry Peter Gyrich
David Fox: Sentinels, Master Mold
Don Francks: Graydon Creed Sr. / Sabretooth, Eugene Milton Judd / Puck
Catherine Gallant: Famine
Paul Haddad: Quicksilver / Pietro Maximoff, Arkon, Kiyoek, additional voices.
Graham Haley: St. John Allerdyce / Pyro
Brett Halsey: Bolivar Trask
Dan Hennessey: Ruckus, Sunder
Rebecca Jenkins: Heather Hudson
Lorne Kennedy: Apocalypse (third time)
Judy Marshak: Plague / Pestilence
George Merner
Jim Millington: War
Stephen Ouimette: Warren Worthington III / Angel / Archangel, Cameron Hodge / Phalanx
Ross Petty: Ape
Jeremy Ratchford: Sean Cassidy / Banshee
Rob Rubin: Morph
John Stocker: Grayson Creed Jr., Leech
Stuart Stone: Kevin MacTaggert / Proteus
Marc Strange: Forge
Kay Trembley: Annalee, Shard Bishop / Shard
Rod Wilson: Gorgeous George
Other versions
The original opening sequence features the X-Men demonstrating their mutant abilities to a now very distinctive instrumental theme (written by Ron Wasserman). This intro is used throughout the first four seasons. A modified version is eventually introduced in season five, episode one ("Phalanx Covenant, Part One"). In this new intro, the beginning of the theme is slightly changed. When UPN began airing repeats on Sunday mornings, an alternate credits sequence was used: a high-quality Japanese-animated version of the original opening. This modified version occasionally appears in the digital streaming release of the show, which was used for re-runs on Toon Disney.
X-Men originally aired on TV Tokyo from 1994 through 1995. For the TV Tokyo dub of the series, the intro was replaced with a new, Japanese-animated sequence as well as a new theme called "Rising" (ライジング), by the band Ambience (アンビエンス). Starting with episode 42, a second new intro was used, featuring the song "Dakishimetai Dare Yori Mo" (抱きしめたい誰よりも...). The end credits sequence was also changed: it featured shots of American X-Men comic books set to the song "Back to You" (バック･トウ･ユー), also by Ambience.
The TV Tokyo dub was directed by Yoshikazu Iwanami and featured scripts rewritten to include a more humorous, self-satirical tone as well as an emphasis on comical adlibbing (a hallmark of Iwanami's dubbing style). Episodes were edited for time so that new segments could be added to the end which promoted the X-Men: Children of the Atom video game from Capcom. The dub actors would pretend to play the game as their characters and make humorous asides and remarks. X-Men was dubbed a second time in the early 2000s for broadcast on Toon Disney (Japan). This dub was more faithful to the original English scripts and episodes were not cut for time. The Toon Disney version used the original American intro and end credits rather than the unique ones created for the TV Tokyo version.
Two versions of the episode "No Mutant is an Island" exist with completely different animation. The first version was aired for Toon Disney re-runs and can be seen in digital streaming services such as Amazon Video, aired on Fox Kids in the United States, and uses the remixed intro theme from Season 5. The second version is available on region 1 DVD, aired on Fox Kids overseas, and uses the default intro theme from Seasons 1–4.
Reception
The show was both acclaimed and commercially successful. Along with Batman: The Animated Series, the series success helped launch numerous comic book shows in the 1990s.
In its prime, X-Men garnered very high ratings for a Saturday morning cartoon, and like Batman: The Animated Series, it received wide critical praise for its portrayal of many different storylines from the comics. Haim Saban credits the success of the series in assisting him to sell his next project to Fox, the live action series, Mighty Morphin Power Rangers.
X-Men reached a viewership of over households.
The show has been hailed as a pioneer in crafting mature, serialized storylines for an animated series, as well as paving the way for the 2000 X-Men feature film. In 2009, IGN ranked X-Men as the 13th greatest animated show of all time in their Top 100 list.
Legacy
Revival
By 2019, there were talks ongoing with Disney+ to revive the series. In November 2021, it was announced that a revival titled X-Men '97 will premiere on the service in 2023, which will continue the plot of the original series. Beau DeMayo will serve as head writer, with most of the surviving cast members of the original series reprising their roles, including Dodd, Zann, Buza, Disher, Potter, Sealy-Smith, Hough, and Britton. They will be joined by Jennifer Hale, Anniwaa Buachie, Ray Chase, Matthew Waterson, JP Karliak, Holly Chou, Jeff Bennett, and A.J. Locascio; Court will not be reprising her role as Jubilee, but will instead voice another character as she asked for Jubilee to be voiced by an Asian actress. The series will be produced by Marvel Studios, but it is not set in the company's Marvel Cinematic Universe.
Comics
X-Men Adventures X-Men Adventures was a comic book spin-off of the animated series. Beginning in November 1992, it adapted the first three seasons of the show; in April 1996, it became Adventures of the X-Men, which contained original stories set within the same continuity. The comic book lasted until March 1997, shortly after the show's cancellation by the Fox Network.
Volume 5 of the Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe A-Z Hardcovers lists the X-Men cartoon as part of the Marvel multiverse, inhabiting Earth-92131. Also, the plague-infested future that Bishop tried to prevent in Season 2 is listed as Earth-13393 while Cable's release of the immediate cure of the plague is listed as Earth-121893.
Bibliography:
X-Men Adventures vol. 1 (1992–94) (15 issues)
X-Men Adventures vol. 2 (1994–95) (13 issues)
X-Men Adventures vol. 3 (1995–96) (13 issues)
Adventures of the X-Men (1996–97) (12 issues)
X-Men '92
The comic book series X-Men '92, one of the many tie-in titles for Marvel's 2015 Secret Wars event and later was released in its second volume as a continuous series in early 2016, starring members of the TV show's reality.
In January 2022 Marvel announced a new series inspired by the cartoon, X-Men '92: House of XCII'''. Scheduled for pubblication in April of that same year, the series will explore an alternate universe where the events of Jonathan Hickman's House of X and Powers of X happened decades earlier, in the '90s of the original show.
Books
Previously on X-Men
In 2017, series developer and showrunner Eric Lewald released the book Previously on X-Men: The Making of an Animated Series, which features his interviews with 36 of the staff and voice cast behind the TV series, as well as Lewald's personal experiences on the series' development and production.
X-Men: The Art and Making of The Animated Series
In 2020, Eric Lewald and Julia Lewald released the book X-Men: The Art and Making of The Animated Series, which features previously unseen concept art, storyboards, character models, background layouts, animation cels, and other production/promotional materials, along with new interviews with the series principal artists and production staff.
Video games
X-Men Cartoon Maker: The PC game X-Men Cartoon Maker was a recreational software package that allowed the user to create animations with a minimal level of sophistication by utilizing a library of backdrops, animations and sound effects from the show. Wolverine and Storm (voice-only) help you out.
Capcom's VS. Series: The characters in the series were licensed by Capcom and were the inspiration for the video game X-Men: Children of the Atom, which in turn would be the basis for the Marvel vs. Capcom sub-series of video games. Most of the voice actors who did the voices in the series reprised their roles for the video game. Capcom would continue to use these characters long after the show was cancelled before eventually losing the rights to create Marvel-based games to Electronic Arts in 2001. Capcom, however, would reacquire the rights in 2008 and released Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds in 2011.
In film
The series was credited for being responsible for the beginning development of the 2000 X-Men film. The show's broadcasting network (Fox Kids) owner 20th Century Fox was impressed by the success of the TV show, and producer Lauren Shuler Donner purchased the film rights for them in 1994. The film's success led to the beginning of a film franchise which includes a series of sequels, prequels, and spin-offs for two decades up to 2020, when the series came to an end due to Disney's acquisition of Fox, with the character rights reverting to Marvel Studios to gain control of these characters. The subsequent 2022 Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) film Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness consequentially featured Patrick Stewart (who portrayed Professor Charles Xavier / Professor X in Fox's X-Men film series) portraying a live-action version of the character from X-Men: The Animated series, ahead of its Marvel Studios-produced revival, X-Men '97.
Lawsuit
In 2019, Hungarian immigrant Zoltan Krisko filed a lawsuit against Marvel Entertainment, Haim Saban, Shuki Levy, UMG Recordings, the current distributor of Disney Music Group and Fox Corporation. He claims the song was plagiarized from the theme song to the 1984–91 Hungarian action-adventure television series Linda'', which was composed by Gyorgy Vukan.
References
Notes
Sources
External links
DRG4's X-Men the Animated Series Page
Marvel Animation Page Presents: X-Men
X-Men TV series cast
1990s American animated television series
1992 American television series debuts
1997 American television series endings
1990s Canadian animated television series
1992 Canadian television series debuts
1997 Canadian television series endings
American children's animated action television series
American children's animated adventure television series
American children's animated science fantasy television series
American children's animated superhero television series
Canadian children's animated action television series
Canadian children's animated adventure television series
Canadian children's animated science fantasy television series
Canadian children's animated superhero television series
Fox Kids original programming
Television shows based on Marvel Comics
Animated television series based on Marvel Comics
Television shows adapted into comics
X-Men television series
UPN Kids
Jetix original programming
Television series about alien visitations
Works by Len Wein
Television series by Saban Entertainment
English-language television shows
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223845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannequin | Mannequin | Mannequin (also called a manikin, dummy, lay figure, or dress form) refers to an often articulated doll used by artists, tailors, dressmakers, window-dressers and others especially to display or fit clothing and show off different fabrics and textiles. Previously, the English term referred to human models and muses (a meaning which it still retains in French and other European languages); the meaning as a dummy dating from the start of World War II.
Mannequin is also used for life-sized dolls with simulated airways used in the teaching of first aid, CPR, and advanced airway management skills such as tracheal intubation and for human figures used in computer simulation to model the behavior of the human body. During the 1950s, mannequins were used in nuclear tests to help show the effects of nuclear weapons on humans.
Mannequin comes from the French word mannequin, which had acquired the meaning "an artist's jointed model", which in turn came from the Flemish word manneken, meaning "little man, figurine", referring to late Middle Ages practice in Flanders whereby public display of even women's clothes was performed by male pages (boys).
History
Shop mannequins are derived from dress forms used by fashion houses for dress making. The use of mannequins originated in the 15th century, when miniature "milliners' mannequins" were used to demonstrate fashions for customers. Full-scale, wickerwork mannequins came into use in the mid-18th century. Wirework mannequins were manufactured in Paris from 1835.
Shop display
The first female mannequins, made of papier-mâché, were made in France in the mid-19th century. Mannequins were later made of wax to produce a more lifelike appearance. In the 1920s, wax was supplanted by a more durable composite made with plaster.
Modern day mannequins are made from a variety of materials, the primary ones being fiberglass and plastic. The fiberglass mannequins are usually more expensive than the plastic ones, tend to be not as durable, but are significantly more impressive and realistic. Plastic mannequins, on the other hand, are a relatively new innovation in the mannequin field and are built to withstand the hustle of customer foot traffic usually witnessed in the store they are placed in.
Mannequins are used primarily by retail stores as in-store displays or window decoration. However, many online sellers also use them to display their products for their product photos (as opposed to using a live model). While the classic female mannequin has a smaller to average breast size, manufacturers are now selling “sexy/busty mannequins” and “voluptuous female mannequins” with 40DDs and Barbie doll-sized waists.
Use by artists
Historically, artists have often used articulated mannequins, sometimes known as lay figures, as an aid in drawing draped figures. The advantage of this is that clothing or drapery arranged on a mannequin may be kept immobile for far longer than would be possible by using a living model.
Medical education
Anatomical models such as ivory manikins were used by doctors in the 17th-century to study medical anatomy and as a teaching aid for pregnancy and childbirth. Each figure could be opened up to reveal internal organs and sometimes fetuses. There are only 180 known surviving ancient medical manikins worldwide.
Today, medical simulation mannequins, models or related artefacts such as SimMan, the Transparent Anatomical Manikin or Harvey are widely used in medical education. These are sometimes also referred to as virtual patients. The term manikin refers exclusively to these types of models, though mannequin is often also used.
In first aid courses, manikins may be used to demonstrate methods of giving first aid (e.g., resuscitation). Fire and coastguard services use mannequins to practice life-saving procedures. The mannequins have similar weight distribution to a human. Special obese mannequins and horse mannequins have also been made for similar purposes.
Over-reliance on mass-produced mannequins has been criticized for teaching medical students a hypothetical "average" that does not help them identify or understand the significant amount of normal variation seen in the real world.
In popular culture
Mannequins were a frequent motif in the works many early 20th-century artists, notably the Metaphysical painters Giorgio de Chirico, Alberto Savinio and Carlo Carrà.
Shop windows displaying mannequins were a frequent photographic subject for Eugene Atget.
Mannequins are a common theme in horror and science fiction. Mannequins can be disturbing (perhaps due in part to the uncanny valley effect), especially when not fully assembled. The Twilight Zone episode "The After Hours" (1960) involves mannequins taking turns living in the real world as people. In the Doctor Who serial Spearhead from Space (1970), an alien intelligence attempts to take over Earth with killer plastic mannequins called Autons. Mannequins come to life and attack the living in "The Trevi Collection" (episode 14 of the television series Kolchak: The Night Stalker). Abandoned nuclear test sites consisting of entire towns populated by mannequins appear in such films as Kalifornia (1993), Mulholland Falls (1996), and the remake of The Hills Have Eyes (2006).
The romantic comedy film Mannequin (1987) is a story of a window dresser (played by Andrew McCarthy) who falls in love with a mannequin that comes to life (played by Kim Cattrall).
The cast of the satirical Japanese television series The Fuccons/Oh! Mikey consists entirely of inanimate mannequins with voices dubbed in.
Four mannequins can be seen on the cover of the album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band by The Beatles. All were wax dummies modeled after the members of the band.
The music video for the hit single "The Sun Always Shines on T.V." by a-ha features the band performing in a church full of mannequins.
Commercials for the clothing store Old Navy sometimes use inanimate mannequins with voices dubbed in.
Al Snow had/has a sidekick/tag-team partner/opponent named "Head" that was a long haired female mannequin head. In addition to being a one-time WWE Hardcore Champion, Head was often used as a weapon or spoken to as a moral compass.
EDM duo FEMM consists of two “living mannequins” and the duo's persona is that of an agency trying to “end the suffering of mannequins worldwide”.
Military use
Military use of mannequins is recorded amongst the ancient Chinese, such as at the Battle of Yongqiu. The besieged Tang army lowered scarecrows down the walls of their castles to lure the fire of the enemy arrows. In this way, they renewed their supplies of arrows. Dummies were also used in the trenches in World War I to lure enemy snipers away from the soldiers.
A CIA report describes the use of a mannequin ("Jack-in-the-Box") as a countersurveillance measure, intended to make it more difficult for the host country's counterintelligence to track the movement of CIA agents posing as diplomats. A "Jack-in-the-Box" – a mannequin representing the upper half of a human – would quickly replace a CIA agent after he left the car driven by another agent and walked away, so that any counterintelligence officers monitoring the agent's car would believe that he was still in the car.
See also
Agalmatophilia, sexual attraction to mannequins
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation
Crash test dummy
Fusion Specialties, a large mannequin manufacturer
Ivan Ivanovich - dummy used in Vostok spacecraft test flights
Mannequin Challenge - a viral Internet video trend
Model
Resusci Anne
Sex doll
Mary Brosnan (mannequin designer)
References
Further reading
The Recycling and Reuse of Mannequins - See 'Mannakin'
Gross, Kenneth - The Dream of the Moving Statue (Penn State Press 1992, )
Verstappen, Stefan. The Thirty-six Strategies of Ancient China. 1999.
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223847 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rambling%20Willie | Rambling Willie | Rambling Willie (April 18, 1970 - August 24, 1995) was a harness racing horse, more specifically a bay pacing gelding sired by Rambling Fury and out of Meadow Belle by Meadow Gold.
Rambling Willie was born on a farm in Monroeville, Indiana.
He did not race at age two and as three-year-old was purchased by driver/trainer Robert Farrington for $15,000 who later gifted 50% of the horse to his wife Vivian and sold the other half to Paul Siebert.
He won 128 races in 305 starts, both records, and won the U. S. Pacing Championship in 1976. At the 1975 Canadian Pacing Derby he tied for first in a dead heat with Pickwick Baron, and won outright in 1976 and 1977, setting a best time for the mile of 1:54.3, a world record at the time.
Rambling Willie was "put down" in 1995 because of laminitis (an often fatal hoof disease) and was buried in the Kentucky Horse Park in Lexington, Kentucky where he had resided, on permanent exhibition, in the Park's "Hall of Champions", representing the Standardbred breed.
Awards and recognition
He was voted North American aged pacer of the year in 1975, 1976, and 1977, and he retired in 1983 as the leading Standardbred money winner of all time, earning over $2 million. Most of his earnings came from "overnight" invitational races and "late closer" events that carried only a fraction of the dollar amounts of the traditional two- and three-year-old stakes events that make up the vast majority of the earnings of virtually every other record money-winning racehorse. To this day, considering inflation, his earnings from age 4 and up have not been surpassed in North America.
Rambling Willie sustained "bowed tendons" in both front legs early in his ten-plus-year racing career, as well as other nagging injuries expected in a racehorse competing for so long a period. While racing at Hollywood Park Racetrack in California, he suffered such a severe bout of colic that he was operated on in a last effort to save him, euthanasia being the only alternative. Hollywood Park was inundated with letters and calls from his fans for weeks afterward, and the track released frequent bulletins as his condition progressed. The horse recovered and months later won at long odds.
Rambling Willie was inducted into the United States Harness Racing Hall of Fame in 1997 and into the Indiana Standardbred Hall of Fame in 2003. Upon the horse's death, Bob Farrington, his retired Hall of Fame driver and trainer, was asked what he had seen in Willie that others missed during the early part of his career. Farrington replied in the words of legendary Thoroughbred trainer "Sunny" Jim Fitzsimmons, "The most important thing about a racehorse, you can't see."
A biography of the horse was published: Rambling Willie: The Horse that God Loved! ().
References
External links
Kentucky Horse Park biography
Biography, from an Indiana harness racing website
1970 racehorse births
1995 racehorse deaths
American Standardbred racehorses
Racehorses bred in Indiana
United States Harness Racing Hall of Fame inductees
Harness racing in the United States | [
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223851 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exarch | Exarch | An exarch (;
from Ancient Greek ἔξαρχος exarchos) was the holder of any of various historical offices, some of them being political or military and others being ecclesiastical.
In the late Roman Empire and early Byzantine Empire, an exarch was a governor of a particular territory. From the end of the 3rd century or early 4th, every Roman diocese was governed by a vicarius, who was titled "exarch" in eastern parts of the Empire, where the Greek language and the use of Greek terminology dominated, even though Latin was the language of the imperial administration from the provincial level up until the 440s (Greek translations were sent out with the official Latin text). In Greek texts, the Latin title is spelled βικάριος (). The office of exarch as a governor with extended political and military authority was later created in the Byzantine Empire, with jurisdiction over a particular territory, usually a frontier region at some distance from the capital Constantinople.
In the Eastern Christian Churches (Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Catholic), the term exarch has three distinct uses: a metropolitan who holds the office of exarch is the deputy of a patriarch and holds authority over bishops of the designated ecclesiastical region (thus, a position between that of patriarch and regular metropolitan); or an auxiliary or titular bishop appointed to be exarch over a group of the faithful not yet large enough or organized enough to be constituted an eparchy or diocese (thus the equivalent of a vicar apostolic); or a priest or deacon who is appointed by a bishop as his executive representative in various fields of diocesan administration (in the Byzantine Empire, executive exarchs were usually collecting diocesan revenues for local bishops).
Political exarchs
In the civil administration of the Byzantine Empire the exarch was, as stated above, the imperial governor of a large and important region of the Empire. The Exarchates were a response to weakening imperial authority in the provinces and were part of the overall process of unification of civil and military offices, initiated in early form by Justinian I, which would lead eventually to the creation of the Thematic system by either the Emperor Heraclius or Constans II.
After the dissolution of the Western Empire in the late fifth century, the Eastern Roman Empire remained stable through the beginning of the Middle Ages and retained the ability for future expansion. Justinian I reconquered North Africa, Italy, Dalmatia and finally parts of Spain for the Eastern Roman Empire. However, this put an incredible strain on the Empire's limited resources. Subsequent emperors would not surrender the re-conquered land to remedy the situation. Thus the stage was set for Emperor Maurice to establish the Exarchates to deal with the constantly evolving situation of the provinces.
In Italy the Lombards were the main opposition to Byzantine power. In North Africa the Amazigh or Berber princes were ascendant due to Roman weakness outside the coastal cities. The problems associated with many enemies on various fronts (the Visigoths in Spain, the Slavs and Avars in the Balkans, the Sassanid Persians in the Middle East, and the Amazigh in North Africa) forced the imperial government to decentralize and devolve power to the former provinces.
The term Exarch most commonly refers to the Exarch of Italy, who governed the area of Italy and Dalmatia, still remaining under Byzantine control after the Lombard invasion of 568. The exarchate's seat was at Ravenna, whence it is known as the "Exarchate of Ravenna". Ravenna remained the seat of the Exarch until the revolt of 727 over Iconoclasm. Thereafter, the growing menace of the Lombards and the split between eastern and western Christendom that Iconoclasm caused made the position of the Exarch more and more untenable. The last Exarch was killed by the Lombards in 751.
A second exarchate was created by Maurice to administer northern Africa, formerly a separate praetorian prefecture, the islands of the western Mediterranean and the Byzantine possessions in Spain. The capital of the Exarchate of Africa was Carthage. An emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, Heraclius, was the son of the exarch of Africa before Heraclius replaced the usurper emperor Phocas in 610. Phocas had revolted under emperor Maurice who had appointed Heraclius' father as exarch of Africa. The exarchate proved both financially and militarily strong, and survived until the Arab Muslim conquest of Carthage in 698.
Ecclesiastical exarchs
Early tradition
The term 'exarch' entered ecclesiastical language at first for a metropolitan (an archbishop) with jurisdiction not only for the area that was his as a metropolitan, but also over other metropolitans within local political dioceses. Since imperial vicarius (governor of a political diocese) was often called "exarch" in eastern, Greek speaking parts of the Empire, it became customary for the metropolitans of the diocesan capitals (Ephesus in the Diocese of Asia, Heraclea in the Diocese of Thrace and Caesarea in the Diocese of Pontus) also to use the title "exarch" in order to emphasize their precedence and primatial status over other metropolitans within local political dioceses.
The Council of Chalcedon (451), which gave special authority to the see of Constantinople as being "the residence of the emperor and the Senate", in its canons spoke of diocesan "exarchs", placing all metropolitans in dioceses of Asia, Thrace and Pontus (including metropolitans-exarchs of Ephesus, Heraclea and Caesarea) under the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Constantinople. Metropolitans-exarchs of Ephesus tried to resist the supreme jurisdiction of Constantinople, but eventually failed since imperial government supported the creation of a centralized Patriarchate.
When the proposed government of universal Christendom by five patriarchal sees (Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem, known as the pentarchy), under the auspices of a single universal empire, was formulated in the legislation of Emperor Justinian I (527–565), especially in his Novella 131, and received formal ecclesiastical sanction at the Council in Trullo (692), the name "patriarch" became the official one for the heads of major autocephalous churches, and the title of "exarch" was further demoted by naming all metropolitans as "patriarchal exarchs" in their ecclesiastical provinces. The advance of Constantinople put an end to privileges of three older, original exarchates, which fell back to the state of ordinary metropolitan sees.
Local ecclesiastical development in some regions also included the title of exarch. Since the Church of Cyprus was declared autocephalous (431), its Primate received the title of Exarch of Cyprus. On a similar principle the Archbishop of Mount Sinai and Raithu is an exarch, though in this case, as in that of Cyprus, modern Eastern Orthodox usage generally prefers the title "Archbishop".
Eastern Orthodox Churches
In modern ecclesiastical practice of the Eastern Orthodox Church, the title of exarch was often used to designate the highest hierarchical office under the rank of patriarch. When Russian Patriarch Adrian of Moscow died in 1700, Emperor Peter the Great abolished the patriarchal office and appointed Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky as exarch and head of the Most Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church.
After imperial Russia annexed Georgia (the eastern part in 1801, and the western part in 1810), the ancient Georgian Orthodox Church (autocephalous since 750, whose head was since 1008 styled Catholicos-Patriarchs) was reorganized into the Georgian Exarchate, and the newly appointed Exarch of Georgia (since 1817 always an ethnic Russian) sat in the Russian Holy Synod at St. Petersburg. Since the entire region of the Caucasus fell under Russian rule, the jurisdiction of the Georgian Exarchate was expanded, encompassing the territories of modern-day Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. On 7 April 1917, the Georgian Patriarchate was restored for the Archbishops of Mtsheta and Tbilisi, with the style Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia, and the title Exarch of Georgia was extinguished, but only for the Georgian part of the Exarchate. The Russian Orthodox Church and its exarch Platon (Rozhdestvensky) kept their jurisdiction over non-Georgian parts of the Caucasian region, and for those territories the Caucasian Exarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church was created in the summer of 1917, with metropolitan Platon as Exarch of the Caucasus. In the spring of 1918, he was succeeded by metropolitan Cyril (Smirnov) as new Exarch of the Caucasus, but after his transfer to another post in the spring of 1920 no new exarch was appointed.
On 28 February 1870 the twenty-year-old struggle between Greeks and Bulgarians for control of the Orthodox Church in Bulgaria culminated when the Ottoman Sultan Abdulaziz created an independent Bulgarian ecclesiastical organization, known as the Bulgarian Exarchate. The Orthodox Church in Bulgaria had now become independent of the Greek-dominated Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. The Bulgarian Exarch, who resided in Constantinople, became the most famous bearer of the title of exarch; his adherents throughout region were called exarchists, as opposed to the Greek patriarchists. The ensuing struggle, waged especially in Macedonia, was not only religious but had a conspicuous political dimension of a contention between competing Greek and Bulgarian national aims. For more information see Bulgarian Exarchate and Bulgarian Orthodox Church.
In 1921, eparchies of the Russian Orthodox Church in Ukraine were reorganized as the Ukrainian Exarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church, headed by patriarchal exarch with seat in Kiev. The Ukrainian Exarchate existed until 1990 when it was granted a higher degree of ecclesiastical autonomy within the Moscow Patriarchate. In 1989, an autonomous Belarusian Exarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church was formed, with jurisdiction over eparchies in Belarus.
During the 20th century, the pentarchy-number principle, already abandoned in the case of Bulgaria (10th century), Serbia (14th century) and Russia (16th century), gave way to the desire of the now politically independent Orthodox nations to see their sovereignty reflected in ecclesiastical autonomy – autocephaly – and the symbolic title to crown it: a 'national' Patriarch. For example, Bulgarian Exarchate was raised to the rank of Patriarchate in 1953.
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the office of exarch can be also given to a special deputy of a Patriarch, with jurisdiction over a community outside the home territory of the Patriarchate. Thus, in the United States there are Exarchs representing, among others, the Serbian, Romanian, Bulgarian and Jerusalem Patriarchs. The style of the Exarchs of the Patriarchate of Jerusalem is "Exarch of the Holy Sepulcher".
The Mexican Orthodox parishes in five deaneries (Mexico City, D.F., State of Mexico, State of Jalisco, State of Veracruz and State of Chiapas) of the Orthodox Church in America are governed as the "Exarchate of Mexico", currently under the leadership of Bishop Alejo of Mexico City.
The third officer of the court of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, who examines marriage cases (analogous to the Catholic defensor matrimonii), is called the Exarch.
Oriental Orthodox Churches
The Oriental Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch currently has under his authority an Exarch in India, known by the ancient title Maphrian, although he is popularly referred to as Catholicos. This is not to be confused with the autocephalous Catholicate of the East, which is also located in India.
Latin Church
Historically, there have been a very few cases of the civil title of Exarch granted by the civil authority to prelates of the Latin Church, as when Emperor Frederick I named the Archbishop of Lyon as Exarch of Burgundy in 1157.
However, the ecclesiastical title of Exarch has disappeared in the Western Catholic Church, being replaced by the terms "Primate" (ranking above metropolitan archbishop) and "Apostolic Vicar" (ranking below suffragan bishop).
Modern Eastern Catholic Churches
In Eastern Catholic Churches (of Eastern tradition but in full communion with the Bishop of Rome, the Pope), the ecclesiastical title of Exarch is in common use, just as with its Orthodox counterparts.
These Churches are, in general, not identified with a particular liturgical rite. Thus, no fewer than fourteen of them use the same Byzantine Rite, mostly in one or other of only two languages, Greek and Church Slavonic, but they maintain their distinct identities. Because of population shifts, half or so of these Churches have not just exarchates but full-scale eparchies (bishoprics) or even archeparchies (archdioceses) outside their original territory.
Apostolic exarchs
Apostolic exarch is usually a consecrated bishop of a titular see to whom the Pope, as Bishop of the Roman See of the Apostle Peter, has entrusted the pastoral care of the faithful of an autonomous Eastern Catholic particular Church sui iuris in an area, not raised to the rank of eparchy (diocese), that is situated outside the home territory of an Eastern Catholic Church. The office of apostolic exarch thus corresponds to what in the Latin Church is called an apostolic vicar. Apostolic exarchates are generally exempt (immediately subject to the Holy See), with limited oversight by the patriarch, major archbishop or metropolitan in chief of the particular Eastern Church. If there is no metropolitan in a particular Eastern Catholic church, apostolic exarchates in their territories are directly subjected to Rome. For example, the Byzantine Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Serbia belongs to the Byzantine Catholic Church of Croatia and Serbia, but since there is no metropolitan in that church, the Apostolic Exarch of Serbia is directly subjected to the Holy See.
Patriarchal exarchs
A patriarchal exarch is appointed in those Eastern Catholic churches whose head is styled as patriarch. This office is often (not always) given to a consecrated bishop of a titular see. Their appointments are limited to the traditional territory of their church, with main task of governing the region not yet raised to the rank of eparchy (diocese). They may be suffragan to an archdiocese or archeparchy of the Eastern Catholic Church, or be immediately subject to the Patriarch.
Archiepiscopal exarchs
Archiepiscopal exarch is appointed in those Eastern Catholic churches whose head is styled as Major Archbishop. The office of archiepiscopal exarch is also usually given to a consecrated bishop of a titular see. Appointment of archiepiscopal exarchs is limited to the traditional territory of their particular church. They also may be suffragans to an archdiocese or archeparchy of their Eastern Catholic Church, or be immediately subject to the Major Archbishop.
Coadjutor exarchs
In particular cases, usually because of illness or some other problem, an exarch of any rank can be assisted by the appointment of a colleague who is called coadjutor exarch. The position of coadjutor exarch towards his superior exarch is similar to the position of Latin coadjutor bishop towards his superior diocesan bishop. Coadjutor exarchs are appointed with rights of succession. For example, in 1993 titular Bishop Christo Proykov of Briula was appointed Coadjutor to Apostolic Exarch of Sofia, Methodius Stratiev, and when the latter died in 1995 the coadjutor exarch succeeded him as the new Apostolic Exarch.
Auxiliary exarchs
In practice, exarch of any rank can be additionally assisted by an auxiliary exarch, who is appointed in order to help the exarch in administration of his exarchate. Position of auxiliary exarch towards his superior exarch is similar to position of Latin auxiliary bishop towards his superior diocesan bishop. Auxiliary exarchs are appointed without the rights of succession.
List of Eastern Catholic exarchates
The following Eastern Catholic exarchates can be found in the 2006 Annuario Pontificio and newer sources. The Apostolic Exarchates are exempt, i.e. immediately subject to the Holy See, rather than to their Patriarch or other head of the particular Church
Byzantine Rite
Greek Byzantine Catholic Church:
Greek Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Greece in Athens
Greek Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Istanbul (alias Constantinople; Turkey)
Melkite (Greek) Catholic Church:
Melkite Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Argentina
Melkite Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Venezuela
Russian Greek Catholic Church:
Russian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Harbin (China)
Russian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Russia
Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church:
Ruthenian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Czech Republic
Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church:
Ukrainian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Germany and Scandinavia for Germany and Scandinavia (Finland, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark)
Ukrainian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Italy
Antiochian Rite
Maronite Church:
Maronite Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Colombia
Syriac (Syrian) Catholic Church :
Syrian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate for Canada
Syriac Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Venezuela
Armenian Rite
Armenian Catholic Church:
Armenian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Latin America
Armenian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Mexico
Patriarchal Exarchates
Armenian Rite
Armenian Catholic Church:
Armenian Catholic Patriarchal Exarchate of Damascus (Syria)
Armenian Catholic Patriarchal Exarchate of Jerusalem and Amman (Palestine, Israel and Jordan)
Byzantine Rite
Melkite (Greek) Catholic Church:
Melkite Catholic Patriarchal Exarchate of Iraq
Melkite Catholic Patriarchal Exarchate of Istanbul (Turkey)
Melkite Catholic Patriarchal Exarchate of Kuwait
Antiochian Rite
Maronite Church:
Maronite Catholic Patriarchal Exarchate of Jerusalem and Palestine (Palestine, Israel)
Maronite Catholic Patriarchal Exarchate of Jordan
Syriac (Syrian) Catholic Church:
Syriac Catholic Patriarchal Exarchate of Bassorah and the Gulf (Iraq, Kuwait etc.)
Syriac Catholic Patriarchal Exarchate of Jerusalem (Palestine, Israel and Jordan)
Syriac Catholic Patriarchal Exarchate of Turkey
Archiepiscopal Exarchates
Byzantine Rite
Ukrainian (Greek) Catholic Church, in Ukraine:
Ukrainian Catholic Archiepiscopal Exarchate of Donetsk
Ukrainian Catholic Archiepiscopal Exarchate of Kharkiv
Ukrainian Catholic Archiepiscopal Exarchate of Lutsk
Ukrainian Catholic Archiepiscopal Exarchate of Odessa
Ukrainian Catholic Archiepiscopal Exarchate of Krym (Crimea), on the Russian-annexed Crimea, with cathedral see at Simferopol
Former Eastern Catholic Exarchates
(probably still incomplete)
Former Eastern Catholic Exarchates in the Old World
in Europe – Byzantine Rite Bulgarian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Sofia (1926–2019, elevated to Eparchy in 2019)
Greek Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Turkey of Europe (now of Istanbul)
Hungarian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Miskolc (Hungary; promoted to eparchy)
Apostolic Exarchate of Łemkowszczyzna
Ukrainian Catholic Archiepiscopal Exarchate of Donetsk-Kharkiv (Ukraine; split in both named cities)
Ukrainian Catholic Archiepiscopal Exarchate of Lutsk-Volyn (Ukraine; split in ?)
Ukrainian Catholic Archiepiscopal Exarchate of Odessa-Crimea (Ukraine; split in both named parts)
Apostolic Exarchate of Serbia and Montenegro (2003–2013)
Byzantine Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Serbia (2013–2018, elevated as Eparchy in 2018)
Apostolic Exarchate of Macedonia (2001-2018, elevated as an Eparchy in 2018)in Asia – Armenian Rite Armenian Catholic Patriarchal Exarchate of Jerusalem (Palestine, Israel and Jordan, now 'Jerusalem and Amman')
Armenian Catholic Patriarchal Exarchate of Syria (suppressed)in Asia – Antiochian Rite Syrian Catholic Patriarchal Exarchate of Lebanon (national; suppressed)
Syro-Malankara Catholic Exarchate in the United States (USA; promoted Eparchy of St. Mary, Queen of Peace, of the United States of America and Canada)in Asia – Syro-Oriental Rite Syro-Malabar Apostolic Exarchate of Chanda (India; promoted eparchy)in Africa – Alexandrian Rite Apostolic Exarchate of Addis Abbeba (Ethiopic Catholic; promoted Metropolitanate sui iuris)
Apostolic Exarchate of Asmara (Eritrean Catholic)in Africa – Antiochian Rite
Maronite Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Western and Central Africa
Former Eastern Catholic Exarchates in the New World 'in the Americas – Antiochian Rite Maronite Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of the USAin the Americas – Armenian Rite Armenian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Latin America and Mexico
Armenian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of the USA and Canadain the Americas – Byzantine Rite Romanian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of the USA (US and Canada)
Ruthenian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of the USA
Melkite Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of the USA
Ukrainian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Canada
Ukrainian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Central Canada
Ukrainian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Eastern Canada
Ukrainian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Edmonton (Canada)
Ukrainian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Manitoba (Canada)
Ukrainian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Saskatoon (Canada)
Ukrainian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Stamford (US)
Ukrainian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Toronto (Canada)
Ukrainian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of the USA
Ukrainian Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Western Canadain the Americas – Syro-Oriental Rite'''
Chaldean Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of the USA
Syro-Malabar Catholic Church:
Syro-Malabar Catholic Apostolic Exarchate of Canada
References
Sources
External links
Giga-Catholic Information: Rites - Apostolic Exarchates - Patriarchal Exarchates - Archiepiscopal Exarchates
WorldStatesmen- Religious Organisations
Gubernatorial titles
Byzantine administrative offices
Ecclesiastical titles
Eastern Christian ecclesiastical offices | [
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223854 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%20Open%20%28golf%29 | U.S. Open (golf) | The United States Open Championship, commonly known as the U.S. Open, is the annual open national championship of golf in the United States. It is the third of the four major championships in golf, and is on the official schedule of both the PGA Tour and the European Tour. Since 1898 the competition has been 72 holes of stroke play (4 rounds on an 18-hole course), with the winner being the player with the lowest total number of strokes. It is staged by the United States Golf Association (USGA) in mid-June, scheduled so that, if there are no weather delays, the final round is played on the third Sunday. The U.S. Open is staged at a variety of courses, set up in such a way that scoring is very difficult, with a premium placed on accurate driving. As of 2020, the U.S. Open awards a $12.5 million purse, the largest of all four major championships.
History
The first U.S. Open was played on October 4, 1895, on a nine-hole course at the Newport Country Club in Newport, Rhode Island. It was a 36-hole competition and was played in a single day. Ten professionals and one amateur entered. The winner was Horace Rawlins, a 21-year-old Englishman, who had arrived in the U.S. earlier that year to take up a position at the host club. He received $150 cash out of a prize fund of $335, plus a $50 gold medal; his club received the Open Championship Cup trophy, which was presented by the USGA.
In the beginning, the tournament was dominated by experienced British players until 1911, when John J. McDermott became the first native-born American winner. American golfers soon began to win regularly and the tournament evolved to become one of the four majors.
Since 1911, the title has been won mostly by players from the United States. Since 1950, players from only six countries other than the United States have won the championship, most notably South Africa, which has won five times since 1965. A streak of four consecutive non-American winners occurred from 2004 to 2007 for the first time since 1910. These four players, South African Retief Goosen (2004), New Zealander Michael Campbell (2005), Australian Geoff Ogilvy (2006) and Argentine Ángel Cabrera (2007), are all from countries in the Southern Hemisphere. Northern Ireland's Graeme McDowell (2010) became the first European player to win the event since Tony Jacklin of England in 1970; three more Europeans won in the next four editions, making it only three American wins in the 11 tournaments from 2004 to 2014.
U.S. Open play is characterized by tight scoring at or around par by the leaders, with the winner usually emerging at around even par. A U.S. Open course is seldom beaten severely, and there have been many over-par wins (in part because par is usually set at 70, except for the very longest courses). Normally, an Open course is quite long and will have a high cut of primary rough (termed "Open rough" by the American press and fans); undulating greens (such as at Pinehurst No. 2 in 2005, which was described by Johnny Miller of NBC as "like trying to hit a ball on top of a VW Beetle"); pinched fairways (especially on what are expected to be less difficult holes); and two or three holes that are short par fives under regular play would be used as long par fours during the tournament (often to meet that frequently used par of 70, forcing players to have accurate long drives). Some courses that are attempting to get into the rotation for the U.S. Open will undergo renovations to develop these features. Rees Jones is the most notable of the "Open Doctors" who take on these projects; his father Robert Trent Jones had filled that role earlier. As with any professional golf tournament, the available space surrounding the course (for spectators, among other considerations) and local infrastructure also factor into deciding which courses will host the event.
Qualification
The U.S. Open is open to any professional, or to any amateur with a USGA Handicap Index not exceeding 1.4. Players (male or female) may obtain a place by being fully exempt or by competing successfully in qualifying. The field is 156 players.
About half of the field is made up of players who are fully exempt from qualifying. The current exemption categories are:
Winners of the U.S. Open for the last ten years
Winner and runner-up from the previous year's U.S. Amateur and winners of the previous year's U.S. Junior Amateur and U.S. Mid-Amateur
The runner-up from the U.S. Amateur, the winner of the U.S. Junior Amateur, and U.S. Mid-Amateur must remain an amateur.
The winner of the U.S. Amateur, however, may turn professional after winning the U.S. Amateur and retain his eligibility.
Winner of the previous year's Amateur Championship
The previous year's Mark H. McCormack Medal winner for the top-ranked amateur golfer in the world
Winners of each of Masters Tournament, Open Championship and PGA Championship for the last five years
Winners of the last three Players Championships
Winner of the current year's BMW PGA Championship
Winner of the last U.S. Senior Open
Players who win multiple U.S. PGA Tour events during the time between tournaments, provided the tournaments each offer 500 or more points to the winner, and are not opposite-field events.
In the year after the Olympic golf tournament, the reigning men's gold medalist
Top 10 finishers and ties from the previous year's U.S. Open
Players who qualified for the previous year's Tour Championship
The top 60 in the Official World Golf Ranking (OWGR) as of two weeks before the start of the tournament
The top 60 in the OWGR as of the tournament date
The top player in the PGA Tour second-tier developmental series points, based on combined points from the Regular Season and Finals, from the previous season (starting in 2023).
Special exemptions selected by the USGA
All remaining spots after the second top 60 OWGR cutoff date filled by alternates from qualifying tournaments.
The exemptions for amateurs apply only if the players remain amateurs as of the tournament date, except for the U.S. Amateur champion. On August 5, 2019, the USGA announced a rule change stating a player may turn professional and still retain his U.S. Open exemption. Note that this tournament typically takes place after the collegiate season has ended, so players may turn professional immediately after their last collegiate event (typically the end of the NCAA final of their senior year) in order to maximize the number of FedEx Cup points they may score before the August cutoff to avoid qualifying school.
Before 2011, the sole OWGR cutoff for entry was the top 50 as of two weeks before the tournament. An exemption category for the top 50 as of the tournament date was added for 2011, apparently in response to the phenomenon of golfers entering the top 50 between the original cutoff date and the tournament (such as Justin Rose and Rickie Fowler in 2010).
Through 2011, exemptions existed for leading money winners on the PGA, European, Japanese, and Australasian tours, as well as winners of multiple PGA Tour events in the year before the U.S. Open. These categories were eliminated in favor of inviting the top 60 on the OWGR at both relevant dates. Starting with the 2012 championship, an exemption was added for the winner of the current year's BMW PGA Championship, the European Tour's equivalent of The Players Championship.
Potential competitors who are not fully exempt must enter the Qualifying process, which has two stages. Firstly there is Local Qualifying, which is played over 18 holes at more than 100 courses around the United States. Many leading players are exempt from this first stage, and they join the successful local qualifiers at the Sectional Qualifying stage, which is played over 36 holes in one day at several sites in the U.S., as well as one each in Europe and Japan. There is no lower age limit and the youngest-ever qualifier was 14-year-old Andy Zhang of China, who qualified in 2012 after Paul Casey withdrew days before the tournament.
USGA special exemptions
The USGA has granted a special exemption to 34 players 52 times since 1966. Players with multiple special exemptions include: Arnold Palmer (1978, 1980, 1981, 1983, 1994), Seve Ballesteros (1978, 1994), Gary Player (1981, 1983), Lee Trevino (1983, 1984), Hale Irwin (1990, 2002, 2003), Jack Nicklaus (1991, 1993, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000), Tom Watson (1993, 1996, 2000, 2003, 2010).
Irwin won the 1990 U.S. Open after accepting a special exemption. In the 2016, a special exemption was extended to former champion Retief Goosen (2001, 2004). In 2018, a special exemption was extended to former U.S. Open champions Jim Furyk (2003) and Ernie Els (1994, 1997).
Prizes
The purse at the 2017 U.S. Open was $12 million, and the winner's share was $2.16 million. The European Tour uses conversion rates at the time of the tournament to calculate the official prize money used in their Race to Dubai (€10,745,927 in 2017).
In line with the other majors, winning the U.S. Open gives a golfer several privileges that make his career much more secure if he is not already one of the elite players of the sport. U.S. Open champions are automatically invited to play in the other three majors (the Masters, The Open Championship (British Open), and the PGA Championship) for the next five years. They are also automatically invited to play in The Players Championship for the next five years, and they are exempt from qualifying for the U.S. Open itself for 10 years.
Winners may also receive a five-year exemption on the PGA Tour, which is automatic for regular members. Non-PGA Tour members who win the U.S. Open have the choice of joining the PGA Tour either within 60 days of winning, or prior to the beginning of any one of the next five tour seasons.
Finally, U.S. Open winners receive automatic invitations to three of the five senior majors once they turn 50; they receive a five-year invitation to the U.S. Senior Open and a lifetime invitation to the Senior PGA Championship and Senior British Open.
The top 10 finishers at the U.S. Open are fully exempt from qualifying for the following year's Open, and the top four are automatically invited to the following season's Masters.
Playoff format
Up to 2017, the U.S. Open retained a full 18-hole playoff the following day (Monday). If a tie existed after that fifth round, then the playoff continued as sudden-death on the 91st hole. The U.S. Open advanced to sudden-death three times (1990, 1994, 2008), most recently when Tiger Woods defeated Rocco Mediate on the first additional playoff hole in 2008. Before sudden-death was introduced in the 1950s, additional 18-hole rounds were played (1925, 1939, and 1946) to break the tie. When the playoff was scheduled for 36 holes and ended in a tie, as in 1931, a second 36-hole playoff was required.
Since 2018, the USGA adopted a two-hole aggregate playoff format, after consulting fans, players and media partners. Sudden death will still be played if the playoff ends tied.
Champions
(a) denotes amateur
Summary by course, state and region
The eighteenth state to host the tournament was Washington in 2015, followed by Wisconsin in 2017.
Records
Oldest champion: Hale Irwin in 1990 at .
Youngest champion: John McDermott in 1911 at 19 years, 315 days.
Oldest player to make the cut: Sam Snead in 1973 at 61 years old. He tied for 29th place.
Most victories: 4 by Willie Anderson 1901, 1903–1905; Bobby Jones 1923, 1926, 1929–30; Ben Hogan 1948, 1950–51, 1953; Jack Nicklaus 1962, 1967, 1972, 1980. NOTE: Hogan also won the 1942 Hale America National Open which was held jointly by the USGA, PGA and Chicago GA for the benefit of the Navy Relief Society and the USO.
Most consecutive victories: 3 by Willie Anderson 1903–1905.
Most consecutive victorious attempts: 3 by Ben Hogan 1948, 1950–51
Most consecutive attempts in top 2: 5 by Bobby Jones 1922–1926
Most consecutive attempts in top 5: 6 by Willie Anderson 1901–1906
Most consecutive attempts in top 10: 16 by Ben Hogan 1940–1956 (next highest streak 7)
Most runner-up finishes: Phil Mickelson – 6 (1999, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2009, 2013)
Most consecutive Opens started: 44 by Jack Nicklaus from 1957 to 2000.
Largest margin of victory: 15 strokes by Tiger Woods, 2000. This is the all-time record for all majors.
Lowest score for 36 holes: 130 – Martin Kaymer (65–65), rounds 1–2, 2014.
Lowest score for 54 holes: 199 – Rory McIlroy (65–66–68), rounds 1–3, 2011; Louis Oosthuizen (66-66-67), rounds 2–4, 2015.
Lowest score for 72 holes: 268 – Rory McIlroy (65–66–68–69), rounds 1–4, 2011.
Most strokes under par for 72 holes: 16-under (268) by Rory McIlroy, 2011; 16-under (272) by Brooks Koepka, 2017.
Most strokes under par at any point in the tournament: 17 by Rory McIlroy, final round, 2011.
Lowest score for 18 holes: 63 – Johnny Miller, 4th round, 1973; Jack Nicklaus, 1st, 1980; Tom Weiskopf, 1st, 1980; Vijay Singh, 2nd, 2003; Justin Thomas, 3rd, 2017; Tommy Fleetwood, 4th, 2018.
Lowest score for 18 holes in relation to par: −9 Justin Thomas, 3rd round, 2017.
All four rounds under par (golfers who did not win the tournament in italics):
Lee Trevino, 1968 (69–68–69–69, par 70)
Tony Jacklin, 1970 (71–70–70–70, par 72)
Lee Janzen, 1993 (67–67–69–69, par 70)
Curtis Strange, 1994 (70–70–70–70, par 71)
Rory McIlroy (65–66–68–69, par 71) and Robert Garrigus (70–70–68–70), 2011
Brooks Koepka (67–70–68–67, par 72), Charley Hoffman (70–70–68–71), and Brandt Snedeker (70–69–70–71), 2017
All four rounds under 70: Trevino, 1968; Janzen, 1993; McIlroy, 2011.
Most frequent venues:
9 Opens: Oakmont Country Club – 1927, 1935, 1953, 1962, 1973, 1983, 1994, 2007, 2016
7 Opens: Baltusrol Golf Club – 1903, 1915, 1936, 1954, 1967, 1980, 1993
6 Opens:
Oakland Hills Country Club – 1924, 1937, 1951, 1961, 1985, 1996
Pebble Beach Golf Links – 1972, 1982, 1992, 2000, 2010, 2019
Winged Foot Golf Club – 1929, 1959, 1974, 1984, 2006, 2020
5 Opens:
Olympic Club – 1955, 1966, 1987, 1998, 2012
Merion Golf Club – 1934, 1950, 1971, 1981, 2013
Shinnecock Hills Golf Club – 1896, 1986, 1995, 2004, 2018
4 Opens:
Myopia Hunt Club – 1898, 1901, 1905, 1908
Inverness Club – 1920, 1931, 1957, 1979
There is an extensive records section on the official U.S. Open website.
Broadcasting
Beginning with the 2020 tournament, NBCUniversal holds domestic television rights (with coverage on NBC and Golf Channel), having taken over the remainder of the 12-year deal with the USGA signed by Fox Sports in 2013 that gave it exclusive rights to USGA championships from 2015 through 2026. With the postponed 2020 U.S. Open Championship presenting a significant scheduling challenge due to its other fall sports commitments, Fox had held discussions with the USGA over broadcasting the tournament on their cable network FS1 or partnering with NBC. Ultimately, the issues led the network to transfer the final seven years of its contract entirely.
Coverage was previously televised by NBC and ESPN through 2014. NBC's first period as rightsholder began in 1995; ABC held the broadcast rights from 1966 through 1994.
In Australia, from 2015 Fox Sports Australia is the exclusive broadcaster of the U.S. open until 2018.
Future sites
Pinehurst No. 2 is also slated to host in 2035, 2041 and 2047.
Oakmont Country Club is also slated to host in 2034, 2042, and 2049.
Merion Golf Club is also slated to host in 2050.
See also
Golf in the United States
Notes
References
External links
United States Golf Association (USGA) official website
USGA photo store
Men's major golf championships
Recurring sporting events established in 1895
Annual sporting events in the United States
1895 establishments in Rhode Island | [
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223857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost%20%28disambiguation%29 | Cost (disambiguation) | Cost is the value of money that has been used to produce something and is therefore no longer available.
Cost may also refer to:
Economics
Economic cost, an overview of cost in the field of economics
Opportunity cost, the cost of something measured by the inability to spend the money elsewhere
Historical cost, also known as accounting cost, the original value of an economic item
Variable cost, costs of doing business that increase or decrease with the amount of revenue, such as labor and fuel
Fixed cost, costs of doing business that do not change, such as rent and administration
Total cost, fixed plus variable cost
Average cost, the total cost of production divided by the number of items produced
Average fixed cost
Average variable cost
Marginal cost, the decrease in costs resulting from producing more items
Cost curve, a graph of the cost of production as a function of the number of items produced
Other uses
Cost, Texas, an unincorporated community in the United States
Biological cost
Court costs
Costs (English law)
Costs (album), a 2011 album from Gideon
European Cooperation in Science and Technology, abbreviated COST, a European intergovernmental organization
Costco NASDAQ ticker symbol
The Cost (album), the sixth studio album by The Frames
The Cost (band), an American punk rock group
"The Cost" (The Wire), a 2002 television episode
The Cost (film), a 1920 American silent drama film | [
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223861 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Wreford-Brown | Charles Wreford-Brown | Charles Wreford-Brown (9 October 1866 – 26 November 1951) was an English sportsman. He captained the England national football team and was a county cricketer during the Victorian age, and later acted as a sports legislator during the 20th century. Wreford-Brown is usually credited with inventing the term soccer as an abbreviation for association football.
Upbringing and amateur status
Wreford-Brown was born in Bristol went to Charterhouse School before studying at Oriel College, Oxford. Given his privileged economic status at the time of the rise in the popularity of football, Wreford-Brown was one of a select few who were able to play sports for no monetary gain whatsoever.
The educated belief in the purity of a noble athletic spirit untainted by the corrupting influence of money was embodied within the rise of the Corinthian football club who Wreford-Brown played for in the 1890s. Indeed, in 1906 Wreford-Brown was one of the leading figures in the movement to create the Amateur Football Alliance in London in order to keep the amateur game separate from the Football Association, an organisation that the amateur clubs found to be increasingly driven by the financial gain of the professional clubs.
Sporting Achievement
He was a keen sportsman at the University of Oxford and played both cricket and football for the university. He also later played cricket for Gloucestershire. His younger brother, Oswald (who died during the first World War in 1916) and son Anthony would, like him, also play for first-class cricket but none were stand-outs with the willow.
However it is as a footballer that he is more recognised. He first played as a goalkeeper but played initially as a stop-gap but later as the mainstay centre-half for the Old Carthusians (the club for ex-Charterhouse boys) (appearing against them in the 1896 London Charity Cup final, Clifton Association (the Association which took in Bristol and its environs and with whom he played in the inaugural Gloucestershire Cup), as well as the Corinthians and captained England twice against Wales in 1894 and 1895 (when the team consisted entirely of amateur players).
Steve Bloomer, one of the leading "players" (professionals) on the England team, recorded in a memoir that, as captain, the patrician Wreford-Brown on one occasion took to the field with a deep pocket in his shorts filled with gold sovereigns and pressed one of the coins into the hand of each professional goalscorer after the man had netted.
Corinthian FC
Charles Wreford-Brown was a leading figure for the era's most prominent football club, Corinthian FC. A constant figure throughout the club's golden era, he played 161 games for the club, scoring 8 goals. In 1894, Corinthian FC became the only club still to this day, to ever fully represent the England National side, and Charles Wreford-Brown would Captain the side. He would too, when the extraordinary feat was repeated a year later.
Corinthian FC were strict amateurs who believed in fair play and who had the "Corinthian Spirit" named in their honour. They are the team credited with having popularised the sport around the world with many tours and with them, Wreford-Brown travelled to S.Africa, USA, Canada, Sweden & Denmark.
A strong defender, Wreford-Brown played in some of the club's famous victories over professional opponents such as Liverpool, Southampton, Sunderland and Spurs.
Legislator
He was first appointed to the council of The Football Association to represent the Old Carthusians in 1892 but soon after served as the representative for Oxford University, a position he held until his death some 59 years later. He later became Chairman of the International Selection Committee for England within the Football Association.
He was in attendance at the first meeting of the Athenian League on 27 May 1914. He served as a vice-president of the FA from 1941 until his death in 1951, under Sir Stanley Rous, secretary of the Association. They have been credited with guiding the Association toward a more educated position, promoting youth coaching and training just before hostilities in 1939.
He was also a keen chess player. In 1924, in Paris Charles Wreford-Brown participated in unofficial Chess Olympiad. He took part in the 1933 British Chess Championship, though he had to drop out through illness after two rounds (he had won the first game and drawn the second).
References
External links
Bibliography
Further reading
1866 births
1951 deaths
Cricketers from Bristol
England international footballers
English footballers
Clifton Association F.C. players
Oxford University A.F.C. players
Corinthian F.C. players
English cricketers
Gloucestershire cricketers
Oxford University cricketers
People educated at Charterhouse School
Alumni of Oriel College, Oxford
Footballers from Bristol
Old Carthusians F.C. players
Association football defenders
Charles
Lord Hawke's XI cricketers
English chess players | [
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223865 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonari | Carbonari | The Carbonari () was an informal network of secret revolutionary societies active in Italy from about 1800 to 1831. The Italian Carbonari may have further influenced other revolutionary groups in France, Spain, Brazil, Uruguay and Russia. Although their goals often had a patriotic and liberal basis, they lacked a clear immediate political agenda. They were a focus for those unhappy with the repressive political situation in Italy following 1815, especially in the south of the Italian Peninsula. Members of the Carbonari, and those influenced by them, took part in important events in the process of Italian unification (called the Risorgimento), especially the failed Revolution of 1820, and in the further development of Italian nationalism. The chief purpose was to defeat tyranny and to establish a constitutional government. In the north of Italy other groups, such as the Adelfia and the Filadelfia, were associate organizations.
Organization
The Carbonari were a secret society divided into small covert cells scattered across Italy. Although agendas varied, evidence suggests that despite regional variations, most of them agreed upon the creation of a liberal, unified Italy. The Carbonari were anti-clerical in both their philosophy and programme. The Papal constitution Ecclesiam a Jesu Christo and the encyclical Qui pluribus were directed against them. The controversial document Alta Vendita, which called for a liberal or modernist takeover of the Catholic Church, was attributed to the Sicilian Carbonari.
History
Origins
Although it is not clear where they were actually established, they first came to prominence in the Kingdom of Naples during the Napoleonic wars. Although some of the society's documents claimed that it had origins in medieval France, and that its progenitors were under the sponsorship of Francis I of France during the sixteenth century, this claim cannot be verified by outside sources. Although a plethora of theories has been advanced as to the origins of the Carbonari, the organization most likely emerged as an offshoot of Freemasonry, as part of the spread of liberal ideas from the French Revolution. They first became influential in the Kingdom of Naples (under the control of Joachim Murat) and in the Papal States, the most resistant opposition to the Risorgimento.
As a secret society that was often targeted for suppression by conservative governments, the Carbonari operated largely in secret. The name Carbonari identified the members as rural “charcoal-burners”; the place where they met was called a “Barack”, the members called themselves “good cousin” while people who did not belong to the Carbonari were “Pagani”. There were special ceremonies to initiate the members.
The aim of the Carbonari was the creation of a constitutional monarchy or a republic; they wanted also to defend the rights of common people against all forms of absolutism. Carbonari, to achieve their purpose, talked of fomenting armed revolts.
The membership was separated into two classes—apprentice and master. There were two ways to become a master: through serving as an apprentice for at least six months or by already being a Freemason upon entry. Their initiation rituals were structured around the trade of charcoal-selling, suiting their name.
In 1814 the Carbonari wanted to obtain a constitution for the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies by force. The Bourbon king, Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies, was opposed to them. The Bonapartist Joachim Murat had wanted to create a united and independent Italy. In 1815 Ferdinand I found his kingdom swarming with them. Society in the Regno comprised nobles, officers of the army, small landlords, government officials, peasants, and priests, with a small urban middle class. Society was dominated by the Papacy. On 15 August 1814, Cardinals Ercole Consalvi and Bartolomeo Pacca issued an edict forbidding all secret societies, to become members of these secret associations, to attend their meetings, or to furnish a meeting-place for such, under severe penalties.
1820 and 1821 uprisings
The Carbonari first arose during the resistance to the French occupation, notably under Joachim Murat, the Bonapartist King of Naples. However, once the wars ended, they became a nationalist organization with a marked anti-Austrian tendency and were instrumental in organizing revolutions in Italy in 1820–1821 and 1831.
The 1820 revolution began in Naples against King Ferdinand I. Riots, inspired by events in Cádiz, Spain that same year, took place in Naples, bandying anti-absolutist goals and demanding a liberal constitution. On July 1, two officers, Michele Morelli and Joseph Silvati (who had been part of the army of Murat under Guglielmo Pepe) marched towards the town of Nola in Campania at the head of their regiments of cavalry.
Worried about the protests, King Ferdinand agreed to grant a new constitution and the adoption of a parliament. The victory, albeit partial, illusory, and apparent, caused a lot of hope in the peninsula and local conspirators, led by Santore di Santarosa, marched toward Turin, capital of the Kingdom of Sardinia and 12 March 1821 obtained a constitutional monarchy and liberal reforms as a result of Carbonari actions. However, the Holy Alliance did not tolerate such revolutionary compromises and in February 1821 sent an army that defeated the outnumbered and poorly equipped insurgents in the south. In Piedmont, King Vittorio Emanuele I, undecided what to do, abdicated in favor of his brother Charles Felix of Sardinia; but Charles Felix, more resolute, invited an Austrian military intervention. On April 8, the Habsburg army defeated the rebels, and the uprisings of 1820–1821, triggered almost entirely by the Carbonari, ended up collapsing.
On September 13, 1821, Pope Pius VII with the bull Ecclesiam a Jesu Christo condemned the Carbonari as a Freemason secret society, excommunicating its members.
Among the principal leaders of the Carbonari, Morelli and Silvati were sentenced to death; Pepe went into exile; Federico Confalonieri, Silvio Pellico and Piero Maroncelli were imprisoned.
1831 uprisings
The Carbonari were beaten but not defeated; they took part in the revolution of July 1830 that supported the liberal policy of King Louis Philippe of France on the wings of victory for the uprising in Paris. The Italian Carbonari took up arms against some states in central and northern Italy, particularly the Papal States and Modena.
Ciro Menotti was to take the reins of the initiative, trying to find the support of Duke Francis IV of Modena, who pretended to respond positively in return for granting the title of King of Italy, but the Duke made the double play and Menotti, virtually unarmed, was arrested the day before the date fixed for the uprising. Francis IV, at the suggestion of the Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, had condemned him to death, along with many others among Menotti's allies. This was the last major effort by the secret group.
Aftermath
In 1820, the Neapolitan Carbonari once more took up arms, to wring a constitution from King Ferdinand I. They advanced against the capital from Nola under a military officer and the Abbot Minichini. They were joined by General Pepe and many officers and government officials, and the king took an oath to observe the Spanish constitution in Naples. The movement spread to Piedmont, and Victor Emmanuel resigned the throne in favor of his brother Charles Felix. It was only through the intervention of Austria. The Carbonari secretly continued their agitation against Austria and the governments in a friendly connection with it. They formed a Vendita. Pope Pius VII issued a general condemnation of the secret society of the Carbonari. The association lost its influence by degrees and was gradually absorbed into the new political organizations that sprang up in Italy; its members became affiliated especially with Mazzini's "Young Italy". From Italy, the organization was carried to France where it appeared as the Charbonnerie, which, was divided into verses. Members were especially numerous in Paris. The chief aim of the association in France also was political, namely, to obtain a constitution in which the conception of the sovereignty of the people could find expression. From Paris, the movement spread rapidly through the country, and it was the cause of several mutinies among the troops; it lost its importance after several conspirators were executed, especially as quarrels broke out among the leaders. The Charbonnerie took part in the Revolution, 1830; after the fall of the Bourbons, its influence rapidly declined. After this a Charbonnerie démocratique was formed among the French Republicans; after 1841, nothing more was heard of it. Carbonari was also to be found in Spain, but their numbers and importance were more limited than in the other Romance countries.
In 1830, Carbonari took part in the July Revolution in France. This gave them hope that a successful revolution might be staged in Italy. A bid in Modena was an outright failure, but in February 1831, several cities in the Papal States rose and flew the Carbonari tricolor. A volunteer force marched on Rome but was destroyed by Austrian troops who had intervened at the request of Pope Gregory XVI. After the failed uprisings of 1831, the governments of the various Italian states cracked down on the Carbonari, who now virtually ceased to exist. The more astute members realized they could never take on the Austrian army in open battle and joined a new movement, Giovane Italia ("Young Italy") led by the nationalist Giuseppe Mazzini. Independent from French Philadelphians were instead the homonymous carbonara group born in Southern Italy, especially in Puglia [3] and in the Cilento, between 1816 and 1828. In Cilento, in 1828, an insurrection of Philadelphia, who called for the restoration of the Neapolitan Constitution of 1820, was fiercely repressed by the director of the Bourbon police Francesco Saverio Del Carretto: among the atrocities, we remember the destruction of the village of Bosco.
This defeat made it clear to many Carbonari (such as Giuseppe Mazzini, one of the most acute Carbonari leaders) that militarily, especially if alone, they could not compete with Austria, one of the greatest powers of the Old Continent. They founded a new secret society called Young Italy in which many members would trace their origins and inspiration to the Carbonari. Rapidly declining in influence and members, the Carbonari practically ceased to exist, although the official history of this important company had continued, wearily, until 1848.
Prominent members
Prominent members of the Carbonari included:
Gabriele Rossetti
Amand Bazard
Silvio Pellico (1788–1854) and Pietro Maroncelli (1795–1846)
both were imprisoned by the Austrians for years, many of which they spent in Spielberg fortress in Brno, Southern Moravia. After his release, Pellico wrote the book Le mie prigioni, describing in detail his ten-year ordeal. Maroncelli lost one leg in prison and was instrumental in translating and editing of Pellico's book in Paris (1833).
Giuseppe Mazzini
Marquis de Lafayette (hero of the American and French Revolutions),
Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (the future French emperor Napoleon III) Almost certain but highly disputed.
French revolutionary Louis Auguste Blanqui.
Lord Byron
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Legacy
In Portugal
The Portuguese Carbonari () was first founded there in 1822 but was soon disbanded.
A new organization of the same name and claiming to be its continuation was founded in 1896 by Artur Augusto Duarte da Luz de Almeida. This organization was active in efforts to educate the people and was involved in various antimonarchist conspiracies. Most notably, Carbonária members were active in the assassination of King Charles I and his heir, Prince Louis Philip in 1908. Carbonária members also played a part in the 5 October 1910 revolution that deposed the Constitutional Monarchy and implemented the republic. One commonality among them was their hostility to the Church and they contributed to the republic's anticlericalism.
Elsewhere in Europe
Two results of great importance in the progress of the European Revolution (Revolutions of 1848) proceeded from the events that occurred at Naples in 1820-21. One was the reorganization of the Carbonari, consequent upon the publicity given to their organization when it had brought about the revolution (and the secrecy in which it had hitherto been enveloped was no longer deemed necessary); the other was the extension of the organization beyond the Alps. When the Neapolitan revolution had been effected, the Carbonari emerged from their mystery, published their constitution statutes, and ceased to conceal their program and their cards of membership.
In particular, the dispersion of the Carbonari leaders had, at the same time, the effect of extending their influence in France. General Guglielmo Pepe proceeded to Barcelona when the counter-revolution was imminent at Naples and his life was no longer safe there; and to the same city went several of the Piedmontese revolutionists when the country was Austrianized after the same lawless fashion. The dispersion of Scalvini and Ugoni that took refuge at Geneva and others of the proscribed that proceeded to London added to the progress which Carbonarism was making in France, suggested to General Pepe the idea of an international secret society, which would combine for a common purpose the advanced political reformers of all the European States.
South America
Giuseppe Garibaldi has been called the "Hero of the Two Worlds" because of his military enterprises in Brazil, Uruguay and Europe. In 1836, Garibaldi took up the cause of Republic of Rio Grande do Sul in its attempt to separate from the Empire of Brazil, joining the rebels known as the Ragamuffins in the Ragamuffin War (1835-1845). In 1841, Garibaldi moved to Montevideo, Uruguay. In 1842, he took command of the Uruguayan fleet and raised an "Italian Legion" of soldiers for the Uruguayan Civil War (1839-1851). He aligned his forces with a faction composed of the Uruguayan Colorados and the Argentine Unitarios. This faction received support from the French and British Empires in their struggle against the forces of the Uruguayan Government and Argentine Federales.
In literature
The story Vanina Vanini by Stendhal involved a hero in the Carbonari and a heroine who became obsessed with this. It was made into a film in 1961.
Robert Louis Stevenson's story "The Pavilion on the Links" features the Carbonari as the villains of the plot.
Katherine Neville's novel The Fire features the Carbonari as part of a plot involving a mystical chess service.
In Wilkie Collins' "The Woman in White" the character of Professor Pesca is a member of 'The Brotherhood', an organization placed contemporaneously with, and similarly featured as, the Carbonari. Clyde Hyder suspects that the model for Prof. Pesca was Gabriele Rossetti, who was a member of the Carbonari, as well as an Italian teacher resident in London during the 1840s.
Anton Felix Schindler's biography of Beethoven "Beethoven, as I Knew Him" states that his close connection with the composer was begun in 1815 when the latter requested an account of Schindler's involvement with a riot of Napoleon's supporters in Vienna, who were agitating against the Carbonari uprisings. Schindler was arrested and lost a year at college. Beethoven was sympathetic and, as a result, became a close friend of Schindler.
The Carbonari are mentioned prominently in the Sherlock Holmes short story "The Adventure of the Red Circle" (1911), written by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle.
The Carbonari are also mentioned briefly in the book "Resurrection Men" by T. K. Welsh, in which the main character's father is a member of the secret organization.
They feature in Tim Powers' The Stress of Her Regard as opponents of the vampire-backed Austrian Empire.
Mr. Settembrini's grandfather in Thomas Mann's The Magic Mountain is said to be Carbonari.
The Carbonari are mentioned in The Hundred Days by Patrick O'Brian, part of the Aubrey-Maturin series.
Umberto Eco's The Cemetery of Prague mentions the Carbonari, with the main character joining them as a spy.
Also in Carmen Mola's "La Bestia", Planeta Prize 2021, Spain
Film adaptations
Vanina Vanini, by Roberto Rossellini (1961), adaptation of Stendhal's novel of the same name.
Nell'anno del Signore, by Luigi Magni (1969).
Allonsanfan, by the Taviani brothers (1973).
Holy Protector
The members of Carboneria recognize Theobald of Provins as the patron saint of the coal miners (as well as the conciers). In fact, for example, Felice Orsini's father,who belonged to Carboneria, wanted to give him the name of Orso Teobaldo Felice.
See also
Committee of Union and Progress
Communist League
Notes
References
Reinerman, Alan. "Metternich and the Papal Condemnation of the" Carbonari", 1821." Catholic Historical Review 54#1 (1968): 55-69. in JSTOR
Shiver, Cornelia. "The Carbonari." Social Science (1964): 234-241. in JSTOR
Spitzer, Alan Barrie. Old hatreds and young hopes: the French Carbonari against the Bourbon Restoration (Harvard University Press, 1971).
Attribution:
External links
Anti-Catholicism in Italy
Anti-Catholicism in France
Anti-Catholicism in Portugal
Anti-Catholicism
Anti-clericalism
Secret societies in Italy
Secret societies in France
Freemasonry-related controversies | [
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223867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren%20A.%20Bechtel | Warren A. Bechtel | Warren Abraham Bechtel (September 12, 1872 – August 28, 1933) was the founder of the Bechtel Corporation, the largest construction company in the United States as of 2017.
Early life
Warren was born September 12, 1872, in Freeport, Illinois, as the fifth child of Elizabeth (Bentz) and John Moyer Bechtel in a family of two boys and five girls. In 1891, Warren graduated from Peabody High School in Peabody, Kansas. In 1897, Warren married Clara Alice West, from Aurora, Indiana, whom he had met while she visited her uncle (E.F. Davison) in Peabody.
Career
In 1898, Bechtel and his wife moved from their farm near Peabody, Kansas, to the Oklahoma Territory to construct railroads with his own team of mules. Bechtel moved his family frequently between construction sites around the Western United States for the next several years and eventually moved to Oakland, California, in 1904, where he worked as the superintendent on the Western Pacific Railroad. In 1906, W. A. Bechtel won his first subcontract to build part of the Oroville-to-Oakland section of the Western Pacific Railroad. The same year, he bought his own steam shovel, becoming a pioneer of the new technology. He painted "W.A. Bechtel Co." on the side of the steam shovel, effectively establishing Bechtel as a company though it was not yet incorporated.
Over the next 20 years, Bechtel built a sizable contracting business that specialized in railroad and highway building. One of Bechtel's earliest major contracts was grading the site of the Oroville, California, depot for the Western Pacific Railroad, then under construction. In 1919, Warren Bechtel and his partners (including his brother Arthur) built the Klamath Highway in California, and in 1921, Warren Bechtel partners won a contract to build the water tunnels for the Caribou Hydroelectric Facility in that state. In 1925, Warren, his sons Warren Jr, Stephen, Kenneth (Ken), and his brother Arthur (Art) joined to incorporate as W.A. Bechtel Company. In 1926, the new company won its first major contract, the Bowman Lake dam in Nevada County, California. The firm would later partner with other companies to form Six Companies, Inc. to help engineer the famous Hoover Dam over the Colorado River, still considered the largest civil engineering project in US history.
Death
Bechtel died of an accidental insulin overdose on a business visit to Moscow, Soviet Union, in 1933.
Legacy
His son, Stephen D. Bechtel Sr., took over the firm upon his father's death.
The Bechtel Corporation is still owned and operated by the Bechtel family. Its current CEO is Brendan Bechtel.
References
External links
Bechtel Corporation history
Obituary of Warren A. Bechtel; Peabody Gazette-Herald; October 12, 1933.
Obituary of Arthur V. Bechtel; Peabody Gazette-Herald; June 20, 1946. Some history about the involvement of his brother in the Bechtel company.
Six Companies, Now Single Unit, Ready to Sign Contract for Hoover Dam; newspaper article; 1931, includes photo of W.A. Bechtel Sr, S.D. Bechtel, K.K. Bechtel.
1872 births
1933 deaths
People from Freeport, Illinois
People from Peabody, Kansas
People from the San Francisco Bay Area
Bechtel
American company founders
American construction businesspeople
20th-century American businesspeople
Burials at Mountain View Cemetery (Oakland, California)
accidental deaths in the Soviet Union | [
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223873 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Bechtel%20Sr. | Stephen Bechtel Sr. | Stephen Davison Bechtel (September 24, 1900 – March 14, 1989) was the son of Clara Alice West and Warren A. Bechtel, founder of the Bechtel Corporation. He was the president of the company from 1933 to 1960.
Early life
He graduated from Oakland Technical High School in 1918, and served with the 20th Engineers, part of the American Expeditionary Force sent to assist France in World War I. In 1919, after the war, he attended the University of California, Berkeley for one year and left to work for his father's company full-time. In 1923, Bechtel married Laura Adeline Peart, a Berkeley alumna, who would help her husband build the family-owned business into one of the world's largest engineering and construction firms.
Bechtel Company
In 1925, Warren A. Bechtel, his sons Warren Jr, Stephen Sr, Kenneth (Ken), and his brother Arthur (Art) joined to incorporate as W.A. Bechtel Company. Stephen Sr. became vice-president of Bechtel in 1925 and became president in 1933, when his father, Warren A. Bechtel, died suddenly while traveling to the Soviet Union. That came at a critical time for the company: concrete was being poured for the Hoover Dam, Bechtel's largest project. Stephen became president and saw the company through the construction of the dam.
Over the next 30 years, Stephen expanded Bechtel into a huge and successful engineering company with operations all over the world. He handed the presidency of the company over to his son, Stephen Jr. in 1960 but stayed on as the chairman until 1969.
Berkeley awarded Bechtel an honorary degree in Agricultural Science in 1954, and in 1980, it completed construction of the Bechtel Engineering Center, which was named in his honor.
In 1976, Bechtel received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.
Death and legacy
Stephen Bechtel died in 1989, and he is buried in Mountain View Cemetery in Oakland, California.
Stephen was named by Time magazine as one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century.
The undergraduate engineering center of the University of California, Berkeley was named the "Bechtel Engineering Center."
The Faculty of Engineering and Architecture at the American University of Beirut (AUB) is named "The Bechtel Engineering Building" after its donor, Stephen Bechtel.
References
Herman, Arthur. Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II, Random House, New York, NY. .
External links
Time magazine profile of Stephen Bechtel
About the faculty of engineering and architecture at AUB
Stephen Bechtel's biography on company web-site
Six Companies, Now Single Unit, Ready to Sign Contract for Hoover Dam; newspaper article; unknown date, includes photo of W.A. Bechtel Sr, S.D. Bechtel, K.K. Bechtel.
1900 births
1989 deaths
American technology chief executives
Bechtel
American construction businesspeople
University of California, Berkeley alumni
American company founders
20th-century American businesspeople
Stanford University trustees
Burials at Mountain View Cemetery (Oakland, California)
American University of Beirut | [
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223876 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index%20of%20biology%20articles | Index of biology articles | Biology is the study of life and its processes. Biologists study all aspects of living things, including all of the many life forms on earth and the processes in them that enable life. These basic processes include the harnessing of energy, the synthesis and duplication of the materials that make up the body, the reproduction of the organism and many other functions. Biology, along with chemistry and physics is one of the major disciplines of natural science.
A
ABO blood groups – abscisic acid – absorption spectrum – abyssal zone – acetylcholine – acetyl CoA – acid – acid precipitation – acoelomate – acrosome – actin – action potential – active site – adaptive radiation – address-message concept – adenosine 5'-triphosphate – adenylyl cyclase – adrenal glands – adrenodoxin – aerobic organism – age structure – agonist – AIDS – albumin – aldehydes – aldosterone – algae – allantois – allele – allometry – allopatric speciation – allosteric binding site – allosteric effector – allosteric enzyme – allosteric site – allozyme – alpha helix – amino acid – aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases – amino group – amniocentesis – amniotes – amphipathic molecule – anabolism – anaerobic organism – anaerobic respiration – androgens – anemia – aneuploidy – angiosperm – anther – anthrax – antibiotic – antibody – anticodon – antidiuretic hormone – antigen – apical dominance – apical meristem – apolipoprotein – apoplast – apoptosis – aquaporins – Archaea – archegonium – arteriosclerosis – artery – arthritis – ascus – asexual reproduction – atomic number – ATP – ATP synthase – atrioventricular valve – atrium – autoimmune disease – autonomic nervous system – autosome – auxins – axillary bud – axon
B
bacteria – bacteriochlorin – bark – Barr body – basal body – basal metabolic rate – base – base pair – basement membrane – basidiomycetes – basidium – B cell – benthic zone – beta sheet – binary fission – binding site – bioassay – biodiversity – bioenergetics – biogeochemical cycles – biological magnification – bioluminescence – biome – biopolymers – biosphere – blood – blood-brain barrier – blotting – bond energy – book lungs – bottleneck effect – Bowman capsule – brain stem – bronchiole – Brønsted acid – Brønsted base – Brownian movement – bryophytes – bubonic plague – budding – bulk flow
C
C3 plant – C4 plant – calcitonin – calmodulin – calorie – Calvin cycle – cancer – capillary – capsid – carbohydrate – carbon fixation – carboxyl group – cardiac muscle – cardiac output – cardiovascular system – carotenoids – cartilage – catabolism – catabolite activator protein – catalyst – catecholamine – celiac disease – cell – cell cycle – cell-mediated immunity – cell membrane – cellular respiration – cellulose – central nervous system – centriole – centrosome – cerebellum – cerebral cortex – cerebrum – chaperonin – chemiosmosis – chemoautotroph – chemoheterotroph – chemoreceptor – chirality – chi-square test – chitin – chlamydospore – chlorophyll – chloroplast – cholera – cholesterol – chromatin – chromophore – chromosome – chytrid – circadian rhythm – cloning vector – closed circulatory system – cobalamin – codominance – codon – coenzyme – cofactor – collagen – collecting duct – commensalism – competitive exclusion principle – competitive inhibitor – complementary DNA – complement system – condensation reaction – conidium – cork cambium – corpus luteum cortex – cotransport – cotyledons – covalent bond – crossing over – cuticle – cyanobacteria – cyclic AMP – cyclin – cyclin-dependent kinase – cytochrome – cytochrome-c oxidase – cytochrome P-450 – cytokines – cytoplasm – cytotoxic T cell
D
dalton – Darwinian fitness – Darwinism – decomposers – dehydrogenase – deletion – denaturation – dendrite – dengue – denitrification – deoxyribonucleic acid – deoxyribose – depolarization – desmosome – deuterostomes – diabetes mellitus – diastole – diffusion – digestion – dihybrid cross – dikaryon – dikaryotic – disaccharide – DNA ligase – DNA methylation – DNA polymerase – double circulation – double helix – Down syndrome – drupe – duodenum – dynein
E
ecdysone – ecological niche – ecology – ecosystem – effector cell – electrochemical gradient – electron – electron acceptor – electronegativity – electron transport chain – enantiomer
F
facilitated diffusion – FADH – FADH2 – fat – feedback inhibition – Fehling solution – female – fermentation (biochemistry) – fetus – Fick's law of diffusion – fitness – fitness landscape – flagellum – flavin adenine dinucleotide – flavine – flaviviridae – flower – fluid mosaic model – food web – foot and mouth disease – fossil – Francis Crick – Francis Galton – free energy – fundamental niche – fungi –
G
G3P – gall – gall-inducing insect – gamete – gametophyte – gastrula – gel electrophoresis – gene – genetic drift – gene duplication – gene pool – genetic code – genetic equilibrium – genetic fingerprint – genetic recombination – genetics – gene regulatory network – genetic carrier – gene therapy – genome – genome project – genomics – genotype – geologic time – George W. Beadle – glucose – glycolipid – glycolysis – glycome – glycomics – glycoprotein – glycoprotein – Gobind Khorana – Golgi apparatus – Gondwana – gradient – gravitational biology – gravitropism – Gregor Mendel – ground tissue – growth curve – Guthrie test
H
habitat – HACEK organism – halobacteria – haploid – Hardy–Weinberg principle – heart – Hela cell – helper T cell – Hepadnaviridae – hepatitis B – herbivore – heredity – hereditary disease – hermaphrodite – herpetology – Hershey–Chase experiment – heterochromatin – heterotroph – heterozygote – Hfr cell – hibernation – hierarchy of life – Hill reaction – His tag – histone – homeobox – homeostasis – homologous recombination – homology – homoplasy – homozygote – homunculus – horizontal gene transfer – hormone – host – household gene – human – Human Genome Project – humoral immunity – hybrid (biology) – hybridization – hydrolysis – hydrolytic enzyme – hygiene – hyperpolarization (biology)
I
ichthyology – immune cell – immune system – immunology – inbreeding – inducibility – infectious disease carrier – infertility – inner matrix – insect – insectivores – insulin – intermediate filament – intermembrane space – interphase – intestine – intron – invasive species – ion channel – isoenzyme – isotonic (exercise physiology)
J
James Watson – Jean-Baptiste Lamarck – joint
K
K-selection – Kary Mullis – karyoplasm – karyotype – keratin – keystone species – kidney – kinesiology – kinetic energy – Klinefelter syndrome – knock-out mouse – Konrad Lorenz – Krebs cycle (or citric acid cycle) – kwashiorkor
L
Lac repressor –
lactic acid autotroph –
lagging strand –
lambda phage –
larva –
leading strand –
leaf –
White blood cells –
lichen –
life form –
life –
light reactions –
limbic system –
limnology –
Lineweaver-Burke-diagram –
lipase –
lipid –
liver –
locus –
long-term potentiation –
Louis Pasteur –
lung –
Lynn Margulis –
Lyon hypothesis –
lysis –
lysozyme –
lytic cycle
M
macroecology – macroevolution – macromolecules – major histocompatibility complex (MHC) – malaria – male – Malpighi layer – monophyletic – marburg virus – Marcello Malpighi – Marfan syndrome – marine biology – mass extinction – mathematical biology – mating – Max Delbrück – meiosis – membrane transporter – memory – memory cell – Mendelian inheritance – meristem – Mesowear – metabolism – metaphase – metapopulation – metazoa – Michaelis-Menten kinetics – microbe – microbiology – microevolution – microfilament – microsatellite – microscope – microtubules – Miller–Urey experiment – mimicry – Mitchell hypothesis – mitochondrial membrane – mitochondrion – mitosis – mitotic spindle – modern evolutionary synthesis – molecular biology – molecular clock – molecular evolution – molecular genetics – molecular phylogeny – mollusc – monoclonal antibody – morphogenesis – morphometrics – morula – MRI – MTT assay – Muller's ratchet – multiresistance – muscle – mutagen – mutation – mutational meltdown – Mutualism (biology) – mycology – myosin
N
NAD – NADH – NADPH – natural environment – natural selection – nephron – nervous system – neural plate – neural tube – neuron – neuroscience – neurospora crassa – neurotransmitter – neurula – neutral theory of molecular evolution – niche – nitrogen cycle – non-competitive inhibition – non-cyclic electron flow – nondisjunction – N-terminus – nuclear lamina – nucleolus – nucleon – nucleoside – nucleosome – nucleotide – nutrition
O
Okazaki fragment – olfaction – oncogene – operator (biology) – operon – organ – organelle – organism – origin of life – Oscar Hertwig – osmosis – osmoregulation – Oswald Avery – outbreak – outline of biochemical techniques – ovalbumine – ovary – ovum – oxidation – oxidative decarboxylation – oxidative phosphorylation
P
Pangaea – paleontology – parallel evolution – paraphyletic – parasitism – parasitology – parthenogenesis – passive transport – Patau syndrome – paternity test – PCR – PCR mutagenesis – pentose phosphate pathway – peptide – peptide bond – peripheral protein – peroxisome – Pfeffer cell – phage – phagocytosis – phenotype – phloem – phospholipid – phospholipid bilayer – phosphorylation – photobiology – photolysis – photon – photophosphorylation – photorespiration – photosynthesis – photosynthesis – photosystem I – photosystem II – phycobilin – phycobiliprotein – phycocyanin – phycology – phylogenetics – phylogeny – phylogenetic tree – physiology – pigment – placenta – plankton – plant – plantae – plant physiology – plant sexuality – plasma membrane – plasmid – plasmolysis – plastid – plate tectonics – point mutation – pollenizer – pollination – pollinator – polymerase chain reaction – polypeptide – polyploidy – polysaccharide – population – population dynamics – population ecology – population genetics – potential energy – predation – pregnancy – primary nutritional groups – primary structure – primer – prion – prokaryote – prometaphase – promoter – prophage – prophase – proprioception – proteasome – protein biosynthesis – protein – protein translocation – proteolysis – proteome – proteomics – protist – protista – proton pump – protozoa – pseudopod – pteridophyte – Punnett square – purine – punctuated equilibrium – pyrimidine – pyruvate oxidation –
Q
quaternary structure
R
r-selection – radiobiology – receptor (biochemistry) – receptor (immunology) – recombination – Red Queen – redox reaction – redox system – reduction – reflex – Renal corpuscle – repeats – replication bubble – repressor – reproduction – reproductive system – respiration (physiology) – restriction enzyme – retrovirus – reverse genetics – RFLP – Rh blood group system – ribosome – RNA – RNA virus – Robert Koch – root – rough ER – RuBP – Rudolf Steiner –
S
saprobe – sarcoplasmic reticulum – scientific classification – secondary metabolite – secondary structure – second messenger – seed – seed plant – selection – sequencing – serum – semen – Sewall Wright – sexual reproduction – sexual selection – shigella – shoot – signal transduction – silk – Sir Charles Lyell – sister chromatid – skeleton – skin cell – sleep – smooth ER – sociobiology – speciation – species – Hans Spemann – sperm – spermatid – spermatogenesis – spermiogenesis – spliceosome – splicing – spore – sporophyte – SSRI – starch – stem – stem cell – Stem cell chip – sticky end – stoma – stomach – streptomycin – structural biology – structural gene – substrate – substrate-level phosphorylation – surface area-to-volume ratio – symbiosis – symbiogenesis – synapomorphy – synapse – syngamy – systematics – systems biology
T
T cell – taphonomy – taxis – taxon – taxonomy – telomere – telophase – tertiary structure – testate amoebae – testes – Theodor Bilharz – Theodor Boveri – thermocline – thermoregulation – Thomas Hunt Morgan – Thomas Malthus – thylakoid – Tobacco mosaic virus – tobacco mosaic virus – torpor – Trait (biological) – transcription – transcription factor – transcriptional regulation – transformation – transgressive phenotype – transport vesicle – transposon – Traube cell – trophic level – tropism – tubulin – tumor – turgor – Turner syndrome – twin
U
urea cycle
V
vaccine – vacuole – varicella-zoster virus – vascular cambium – vascular tissue – vein – vertebrate – vesicle – vesicular stomatitis virus – vestibular system – vicariance – virology – viral classification – virus – viral evolution – visible light – vision – vitamin
W
water cycle –
wavelength –
welfare biology –
Wobble base pair –
wood
X
xanthophyll –
X chromosome –
xenobiology –
X-ray diffraction –
xylem
Y
Y chromosome –
yellow fever
Z
zona pellucida –
zoology –
zygote
See also
List of biochemistry topics
List of molecular biology topics
List of evolutionary biology topics
List of biologists
List of biological websites
List of gene families
Biology topics | [
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223880 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitshill | Nitshill | Nitshill () is a district on the south side of Glasgow. It is bordered by South Nitshill to the south, Darnley to the east, Crookston and Roughmussel to the north-west, Hurlet to the west and Househillwood and Priesthill to the north, with the Pollok district and the Silverburn Centre beyond. An area of open ground to the south-west of Nitshill forms the boundary between Glasgow and the town of Barrhead in East Renfrewshire.
Nitshill was originally a coal mining village; the Victoria Colliery in the area was the scene of one of Scotland's worst mining disasters on 15 March 1851, in which 61 men and boys died.
History
The village fell within the county of Renfrewshire until 1926, when it was incorporated into the City of Glasgow. The change in local government was mainly related to education and community services such as roads, water, sewerage and housing.
Consisting of just a few streets prior to its incorporation into Glasgow, Nitshill grew on a small scale with cottage flats prior to World War II, after which it was substantially expanded to accommodate people relocated during the Glasgow slum clearances in the 1950s and 1960s.
The wider area, sited on the main Glasgow-Kilmarnock road and rail networks and including the post-WWII housing schemes of South Nitshill and Craigbank (as well as Priesthill in some reckonings), became
increasingly marked by multiple socio-economic issues. However, there has been a move towards improving the district with the regeneration/demolition of much of the housing and schools, and the building of The Glasgow Museums Resource Centre, a purpose-built museum storage facility and visitor centre (technically located within South Nitshill) which houses the Nitshill Open Museum. There is one small tower block in the area, adjacent to the shopping precinct, the only such structure in that part of Glasgow (over 200 were constructed across the city).
Part of the city's Greater Pollok ward, Nitshill is classed as a low socio-economic area. Studies have confirmed a strong association between deprivation and crime. It is no surprise, therefore, to find that the highest rates of crime in residential areas in Glasgow are to be found in the most deprived areas of the city. This link was highlighted in a report relating to a knife murder committed by a bar manager in a Nitshill pub in 2010.
Nitshill railway station is on the Glasgow South Western Line and has a memorial to the former station clerk John Meikle, killed in action in France in 1918, aged 19, and awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross. The railway line is the southern boundary of Nitshill proper (South Nitshill has a close association with the older part, and residents of the modern developments at Parkhouse further south also make use of the local amenities on Nitshill Road) while the northern limit is the Levern Water.
The poet and folk singer Jock Purdon was born and grew up in Nitshill.
Victoria coal pit disaster
On 15 March 1851, an explosion at the Victoria coal pit killed 61 of the 63 men and boys in the mine at the time. Two survivors were rescued 45 hours after the explosion. A memorial to the disaster stands off the main road at Nitshill station, beside the local war memorial.
See also
Glasgow tower blocks
References
Robert Macleod, Charles Rennie Mackintosh, Country Life Books 1968
External links
Nitshill at Gazetteer for Scotland
Community News: Nitshill Kennishead Darnley, Glasgow Housing Association (2016)
Glasgow Museums Resource Centre & Nitshill Open Museum
Areas of Glasgow | [
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223886 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Custody | Custody | Custody may refer to:
Government and law
Child custody, a description of the legal relationship between a parent (or guardian) and child
Custody and repatriation, a Chinese administrative procedure 1982–2003
Legal custody, a legal term in England and Wales for a person held under the law
Arrest or police custody, a lawful holding of a person by removing their freedom of liberty
Remand (detention), otherwise known as remanded in custody
Imprisonment (Terminology varies, but in common law, detention before charge is referred to as custody and continued detention after conviction is referred to as imprisonment.)
Organizations and enterprises
Custodian bank, a specialized financial institution responsible for safeguarding a firm's or individual's financial assets
Custos (Franciscans), often referred to as custody, the institution of the Franciscan Order of the Catholic Church
Arts, entertainment, and media
Films
Custody (1988 film), Australian TV film featuring Peter Carroll
Custody (2000 film), American comedy film starring Linda Larkin
Custody (2007 film), American Lifetime TV film starring Rob Morrow
Custody (2016 film), American courtroom drama film
Custody (2017 film), French film
Television
"Custody" (Flashpoint), a 2009 episode of Flashpoint
"Custody" (Law & Order), an episode of Law & Order
See also
Custodian (disambiguation) | [
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223889 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelfth%20Night%20%28band%29 | Twelfth Night (band) | Twelfth Night are an English neo-progressive rock band of the 1980s, reformed between 2007 and 2012 and again in 2014. The BBC has described them as Reading's biggest band of the 1980s.
History
Formation
The seeds of Twelfth Night were sown when guitarist Andy Revell and drummer Brian Devoil joined forces on 23 February 1978 to win a talent competition at Reading University. The road crew included Geoff Mann as backdrop painter, and Rick Battersby as dry ice engineer. Devoil's previous musical experience was of various local bands in Reading, including Trash with whom he recorded a single "Priorities" released by Polydor in October the previous year. Revell's previous bands (in Bournemouth) included Joe Soap and The Bubbles and Abraxas. Later in 1978, Clive Mitten wandered into a rehearsal and asked for a job. Devoil described Mitten as being very good in creating opportunities, convincing them when he said "you need a bass player". Mitten had previously played with local bands in Brighton, including Luna Hare.
Twelfth Night
Following a couple of gigs as the "Andy Revell Band", the band changed their name to Twelfth Night. In March 1979, the band completed its first recording which resulted in the 'legendary' Skan demo (Line-up: Devoil, Mitten, Revell). Later, during the Summer, they played one notable gig: a Midsummer Rock Concert at Reading University where friend Mann guested on vocals. After a couple of open-air concerts in the summer, the band retired to Mann's parents' home in Manchester for rehearsals taking Battersby with them. While there they played a gig in Salford to an audience of 10 year olds.
When Battersby and Mann joined the band it was their first musical venture, although Battersby had previously been classically trained in the piano. However, Mann decided to remain in Manchester to paint and work with a close friend, Peter Lawrence, in a two-piece "off the wall" band called the "God Stars". So Twelfth Night, having decided to forge ahead as an instrumental band, started gigging in earnest early in 1980. These early gigs were mainly pubs in the Home Counties.
Coming to notice
The band's first publicly available material was released in January 1980. This was an album featuring live versions of Fur Helene and Encore along with studio tracks Freddie Hepburn and Sequences. It was only available as a cassette and was named The First Tape Album. Their first major breakthrough came when music paper "Musicians Only" voted this tape its "Demo of the Week". This was followed by an ecstatic gig review and full page article - the band's first national press.
To find a vocalist, the band advertised in Melody Maker and during that summer recruited American singer Electra MacLeod.
Electra added lyrics to a number of previously instrumental pieces, notably "The Cunning Man", "Abacus", "Keep The Aspidistra Flying" and "Sequences". Live recordings of this line-up remain unreleased.
The band, with Electra, recorded a second cassette album (known variously as Twelfth Night, The Electra Tapes and Early Material) which was released to coincide with an autumn tour. However, this did not work out and Electra left during November 1980. Despite this, a single, jokingly named "The First 7" Album" (TN001) was released that December featuring Electra's vocal contribution to "The Cunning Man" and a newly recorded short version of "Fur Helene".
Following Electra's departure the band quickly recorded a live album, Live at the Target (TN002). This album was released in February 1981 and was promoted by extensive live dates on a couple of which support was provided by "God Stars". This tour included the band's first gigs at the Marquee Club, London.
Success
The album Live at the Target was recorded over two days in January. This led to a publishing deal with Neptune - signed in March 1981 - and the initial success of the album prompted Pinnacle Records to offer a distribution deal which meant the band had product available nationally for the first time. It appeared in both Heavy Metal and Hippy charts in both Melody Maker and Sounds.
Once again the summer saw them searching for a vocalist. One track recorded with Reading vocalist Ian Lloyd-Jones in May 1981 was intended as a single, but did not materialise.
Eventually they recruited Mann once again and opened the Reading festival in August 1981, being only the second local band to appear at the event (after A.F.T. in 1976 who released one LP on Charisma that same year). Mann's own version of Sequences, debuted at Reading, would soon become a live staple and, ultimately, perhaps the best-loved Twelfth Night song.
After this they disappeared into the studio to demo some new songs. Some of the tracks from these demos were released on an LP length tape early in December 1981. Entitled Smiling at Grief (TN003) it also included Fur Helene Part II, one of the earliest tracks written in 1978 and not previously released. During this period Battersby left the band to pursue some solo projects. By this time, Live At The Target had also enjoyed significant sales in America, Scandinavia and Europe.
The band spent most of 1982 writing and recording the Fact and Fiction (TN006) album. Commenced in May it wasn't finally finished and released until December. Mitten doubled on keyboards in Battersby's absence and a few gigs were done as a four-piece that autumn.
During the summer, an offer to appear on TV came "out of the blue" and so the band performed East of Eden on the first ever David Essex Showcase. It was screened on BBC1 on 26 June 1982.
Two tracks which didn't find room on the Fact and Fiction album, Eleanor Rigby and East of Eden were released on single (REV009) in October 1982. Battersby then rejoined in December 1982, completing the line-up for the Fact and Fiction Tour which began in January 1983 and included the band's first headline gig at the Marquee. Bullet & Pinnacle Records took over distribution of the new album.
A new epic track, "The Collector", was performed and demoed during the first half of 1983.
In August 1983, the band once again performed at the Reading Festival. CBS records seemed poised to offer a recording deal after four demos were recorded for CBS the previous May.
Departure of Mann
In November 1983, Mann left after two sell-out gigs at the Marquee, which were recorded for a live album, Live and Let Live. Mann commenced a solo career, and was replaced by vocalist/songwriter Andy Sears (ex Canis Major, Isis, Rapid Apple, and Silva) in December.
Consolidation
In January 1984, the band began an extensive period of touring with Andy Sears, coinciding with the release of the Live And let Live LP on the Music For Nations label (Cat. No. MFN18). Highlights included a slot supporting Pallas at Hammersmith Odeon, London, in March and several more gigs at the band's second home the Marquee Club - including one which was filmed. This concert went out "live" in several European countries and was recorded for subsequent broadcast in the UK as part of a series: "Live From London". Twelfth Night's performance has never been broadcast, but was later released on video entitled "The Creep Show" and a DVD "Live From London".
Immediately after touring the band signed a management and publishing deal with Hit and Run Music, joining Genesis and Peter Gabriel amongst others at the company.
While most of summer 1984 was spent preparing new material, including a major new song Take A Look, the band broke cover in July to play their first major London headline at the Dominion Theatre. It was a great success with some 1,500 people attending. In August the band travelled to Liverpool to record the Art and Illusion album with Gil Norton (of "Echo & the Bunnymen" fame) producing. Soon after its release in October it reached No. 83 in the national chart. The tour saw the band playing much larger venues than before and included the Dominion Theatre again and what turned out to be their only gig outside the UK, in Marburg, Germany.
1985 started with a couple of special birthday gigs at the Marquee under the pseudonym Jan Six and the Cryptk Clues which sold out in advance through the fan club. Most of the rest of the first half of the year was spent writing new material, some of which was tried out during the Corner of the World tour in May.
It seemed that the band were at last going to get a major record deal when Charisma Records decided to sign them. In July, however, the company went bust. Not dispirited the band played a charity gig (Wycombe Live Aid) followed by three consecutive nights at the Marquee - their 14th, 15th and 16th successive sell-out gigs there.
By September the band had selected the songs for the next album and began pre-production with producer John L. Walters. Recording of the album began November, and in December the band signed a major record deal with Virgin Records, who had by now taken over Charisma. The album was premiered at a special "showcase" concert at the Marquee in April 1986.
In May another special concert, this time at the London Town and Country Club, was filmed by the BBC, with Blue Powder Monkey being subsequently shown on "Old Grey Whistle Test". The concert was also recorded for Radio 1, but was not eventually broadcast. In June, Virgin released Shame as a single b/w Blue Powder Monkey. In July the album Twelfth Night was released, followed soon after by second single Take a Look b/w Blondon Fair. Though receiving critical acclaim the overall sales of the album were disappointing, though it went straight in at No. 1 in Reading's local chart. Before the end of the year the band once again played Hammersmith Odeon in London.
Departure of Sears and Mitten
Andy Sears left the band in late 1986, severely disappointed with the complete lack of direction and promotional strategy displayed by Virgin. Sears was replaced by Martyn Watson from Pookah Makes Three. After initial rehearsals as a five-piece, Clive Mitten also left early in 1987 to run a recording studio. The contract with Virgin was terminated shortly after. The band continued briefly as a four-piece with Watson doubling on bass. The last set of songs written by Revell, Devoil, Battersby and Watson received a one-off live airing when the band supported Geoff Mann at one of his Marquee gigs. Following this, Twelfth Night quietly split.
Interregnum
In 1988, during one of the frequent calls between band members the subject of the unrecorded song The Collector was discussed. Mitten offered studio time, and so in May the "original" line-up (Revell, Devoil, Mitten, Mann and Battersby) reunited to record the song, along with a new version of Love Song. After careful deliberation the band offered a compilation of these and others to M.F.N in the form of the album Collector's Item which was finally released in early 1991.
Geoff Mann died of cancer in February 1993. In 1996, Andy Sears went to live in Spain, where he became actively involved in various projects, including an appearance at the Tiana festival (Barcelona), originally planned as a Twelfth Night reunion. In 2006, Sears was invited to supply all the backing vocals for a new Galadriel album, Calibrated Collision Course, released in December 2008.
In the period since the band's demise, a number of archive live recordings have become officially available from Brian Devoil's archives and a new compilation album, Voices in the Night was released in 2007.
Reunion
Quite unexpectedly in June 2007, Clive Mitten and Andy Sears announced a one-off gig performing Twelfth Night material to take place in November 2007. By July, it had been confirmed that they would be billed as Twelfth Night, and in September, a 2nd gig was added and both Andy Revell and Brian Devoil were revealed as part of the line-up, with Mark Spencer (formerly the vocalist in 80s prog band LaHost, Andy Sears' one time flatmate, and an old friend of the band) replacing Rick Battersby. The band were invited to headline the 10th Tiana Festival in Barcelona in May 2008 - their second only concert outside of the UK, the previous being a concert in Germany in 1984. Additional gigs were added in the UK, and at one of these, Geoff Mann's son James was invited by Andy Sears to accompany him on Love Song.
Play On, the official history of the band, was published in December 2009, just as the band announced their next gig: as headliners of the Progeny Festival in May 2010. Five other dates were subsequently announced, along with a revised line-up that included Roy Keyworth (guitar) and Dean Baker (keyboards) from the UK band Galahad in place of the unavailable Andy Revell.
In 2010, Twelfth Night were invited to headline the Friday night of the V Night of The Prog festival at Loreley, with Marillion headlining the Saturday night. Despite horrendous technical problems, the band were extremely well received.
MMX, a new live double DVD and CD, was released in November 2010 and represents the band's first 'new' material since 1986. Sears toured extensively as a solo artist in 2011.
From 2012 the band effectively split into two: founder members Devoil, Mitten and Revell, with Spencer and Baker, performed several dates as The Cryptic Clues. Spencer also joined Baker and Keyworth as the bassist in Galahad. Meanwhile, Twelfth Night (now with Devoil, Sears, Keyworth, Baker and newcomer Andy Faulkner) performed at the final edition of North East Art Rock Festival in June 2012. This was Sears' last performance, who confirmed his departure in November 2012 in order to compose new material and pursue other musical projects.
The Cryptic Clues performed a 'farewell' gig in London in December 2012, preceded by a warm-up gig as special guests at Danfest 2 at the Leicester Musician. The Cryptic Clues line-up was officially billed as Twelfth Night in a one-off gig in London in May 2014.
Devoil, Revell and Spencer, with guests, recorded a new studio version of the band's most famous song Sequences in 2018, released on 11 November 2018.
Personnel
Members
Dean Baker - keyboards (2010, 2012, 2014, 2018)
Rick Battersby - keyboards (1979-1981, 1982-1987, 1988)
Brian Devoil - drums (1978-1987, 1988, 2007-2008, 2010, 2012, 2014, 2018)
Andy Faulkner - bass (2012, 2018)
Roy Keyworth - guitar (2010, 2012)
Geoff Mann - vocals (1979, 1981-1983, 1988; died 1993)
Electra McLeod - vocals (1980)
Clive Mitten - bass, keyboards, guitar (1978-1987, 1988, 2007-2008, 2010, 2012, 2014)
Andy Revell - guitar (1978-1987, 1988, 2007-2008, 2012, 2014, 2018)
Andy Sears - vocals, keyboards, guitar (1983-1986, 2007-2008, 2010, 2012)
Mark Spencer - guitar, bass, keyboards, vocals (2007-2008, 2010, 2012, 2014, 2018)
Martyn Watson - vocals, bass (1986-1987)
Lineups
Timeline
Recordings by Different Line-ups
Discography
Tapes
Skan: March 1979
The First Tape Album: January 1980
Early Material: October 1980
Smiling at Grief: January 1982, re-released on CD in 1997 with 4 bonus tracks, in 2009 as the Definitive Edition with 14 additional tracks and in 2022 with all new (re)mixes from the original master tapes
Albums
Studio
Fact and Fiction: December 1982, re-released on CD in 2002 with 7 bonus tracks; re-released again on CD in 2018 as the Definitive Edition with 31 bonus tracks
Art and Illusion: October 1984, re-released on CD in 2003 with 7 bonus tracks; re-released again on CD in 2010 as the Definitive Edition with 12 bonus tracks
Twelfth Night XII: July 1986, re-released on CD in 2005 with 6 bonus tracks
Sequences: November 2018
Live
Live at the Target: February 1981, re-released on CD in 2004 with 3 bonus tracks, re-released as the Definitive Edition in 2012 with 9 different bonus tracks
Live and Let Live: January 1984, re-released on CD in 1996 with 3 bonus tracks, re-released as the Definitive Edition in 2012 with 7 additional bonus tracks
MMX: November 2010
A Night to Remember: November 2019
Compilations
Collector's Item: 1991, reissued with some different tracks 2001
Voices in the Night: 2007, live and studio recordings from 1980 to 1997
Nice Enough To... Join In?: 2020 bandcamp sampler
All You Can... Eat?: 2020 bandcamp sampler
Archive releases
Smiling at Grief ... Live: March 2003, live recording from 1981
A Midsummer's Night Dream: 2005, live recording from 1980
Corner of the World Tour: 2005, live recording from 1985
Live From London: 2005, live recording from 1984
Entropy: 2006, live recording from 1981
Flashbacks: 2006, live recording from 1983
Night Vision: 2006, live recording from 1984
The Skan Demos / The First Tape Album: 2013, live recordings from 1979 and studio recordings from 1980
Virgin on the Ridiculous: 2020, outtakes, demos and live tracks from 1984 to 1986
Singles
The Cunning Man / Für Helene I: 7" single December 1980
East of Eden / Eleanor Rigby: 7" single 1982
Shame / Shame (ful mix): 7" and 12" single June 1986
Take a Look (part 4) / Blondon Fair (short version) 7" single August 1986
Take a Look (part 4) / Blondon Fair (long version) / Take A Look (album version) 12" single August 1986
DVDs
Reading Rock ’83: April 2010, live recording from 1983
Live From London: live recording from 1984, previously released on VHS as The Creepshow
Play On Archive: 2009, live and studio recordings from 1978 to 2008
MMX: November 2010
A Night to Remember: November 2019
References
External links
Fact and Fiction, Yahoo Groups site
English progressive rock groups | [
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223890 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanacross%20language | Tanacross language | Tanacross (also Transitional Tanana) is an endangered Athabaskan language spoken by fewer than 60 people in eastern Interior Alaska.
Overview
The word Tanacross (from "Tanana Crossing") has been used to refer both to a village in eastern Alaska and to an ethnolinguistic group. The modern village of Tanacross is accessible by a short access road from the Alaska Highway, and some speakers now reside in the regional center of Tok, located approximately ten miles east of the village on the highway. In addition several speakers now reside in the nearest commercial center of Fairbanks, located two hundred miles downstream from Tanacross village and accessible by all-weather highway.
Tanacross is the ancestral language of the Mansfield-Kechumstuk and Healy Lake-Joseph Village bands of Tanana Athabaskan people, whose ancestral territory encompassed an area bounded by the Goodpaster River to the west, the Alaska Range to the south, the Fortymile and Tok rivers to the east, and the Yukon Uplands to the north.
In the late nineteenth century trading posts were established at Tanana Crossing, a ford along the Eagle Trail, directly across the Tanana River from the present-day village of Tanacross. A telegraph station followed in 1902, and an Episcopal mission in 1909. Both the Mansfield-Kechumstuk and Healy Lake-Joseph Village bands eventually settled in Tanana Crossing, eventually shortened to Tanacross (McKennan 1959). The village was relocated across the river to its present location in the early 1970s, and most present-day Tanacross speakers live in or near the village of Tanacross.
Etymology
The name Tanacross has only recently been applied to the language and still has limited currency outside academic circles. Many other linguonyms have been used. Wrangell's 1839 wordlist refers to the language as the “Copper River Kolchan”, though Wrangell certainly had no notion of the linguistic geography of the Tanacross region. The first extensive ethnographic research in the area was conducted by McKennan in 1929-30, who excludes Tanacross from his map of what he labels as the Upper Tanana region (1959: 16). However, McKennan later appears to lump Tanacross and Upper Tanana together under the label Upper Tanana, noting:
“In considering the Tanana River as a whole, however, the [Tanana] Crossing and Upper Tanana natives should be lumped together, for between the Crossing and Healy River occur a whole series of rapids which today make navigation exceedingly dangerous and in earlier days practically prevented it.” (23)
McKennan mistakenly assumes that the Tanana River was a major transportation corridor, when in fact the various Tanacross bands have never had a true riverine culture, having only settled on the Tanana River in the twentieth century. The rapids referred to by McKennan serve as a barrier to salmon migration and remove a major incentive for river settlement (de Laguna & McClellan 1960). In contrast, land travel in this region is relatively easy, and extensive networks of trails connect the villages of the Tanacross region. Many of these trails are still used for hunting access. And at least until the construction of the Alaska Highway in 1942, foot and sled travel between Healy Lake, Mansfield and Kechumstuk was extremely common (Ellen Demit, p.c.).
Osgood (1936) uses the term Tanana for the entire region of the Tanana River drainage below the Tok River to the confluence of the Tanana and Yukon rivers. Shinen (1958), who recorded a word list from Mary Charlie and Oscar Isaac in Tanacross village, refers to the language as the “Nabesna dialect”, and Shinen's term was repeated in Hoijer (1963). Nabesna was actually Osgood's preferred term for Upper Tanana, so Shinen appears to have followed McKennan in lumping Tanacross and Upper Tanana together but adopted Osgood's linguonym. Shinen's list is clearly of Tanacross, not Upper Tanana origin. De Laguna & McClellan (1960) use the term Tanacross language, but only in a restricted sense referring to the language of Tanacross village proper. Krauss originally included Tanacross with Lower Tanana, but after a more extensive linguistic survey of the region in the 1960s, he began using the term “Transitional Tanana”, recognizing the distinction between Tanacross and the remainder of Tanana (Krauss, p.c.). As the significance of this distinction grew to justify a language rather than dialect boundary, the name Tanacross was applied to the Tanacross linguistic region, appearing for example in Krauss’ 1973 survey of the Athabaskan languages. The preferred self-designation for the language is simply “Indian”, though “Native Language” is sometimes used in more formal contexts. The term “Athabaskan” is disliked. The indigenous word neò/aòneg, usually translated as ‘our language’, is also sometimes heard, though this is likely a neologism.
Tanacross is part of a large language/dialect complex, and the Tanacross linguistic region is bordered by several other closely related Athabaskan languages. To the northwest is Han, spoken in Eagle and across the Canada–US border in Dawson and Moosehide. To the east is the language known by the geographic term Upper Tanana, spoken in the villages of Tetlin, Northway, Scottie Creek, Beaver Creek, and (formerly) Chisana. Tanacross and Upper Tanana share a high degree of mutual intelligibility, though the tonal patterns (with the exception of the Tetlin dialect, which is apparently toneless) are reversed. To the south near the headwaters of the Copper River in Mentasta is the Ahtna language. The Mentasta dialect of Ahtna is the most divergent of the four main Ahtna dialects and shares many lexical and phonological features with Tanacross rather than with the other Ahtna dialects. McKennan remarks:
“The Tanana Crossing people have always been in much closer contact with the Indians of Copper River, the valley of the Tok [River] leading to the easy Mentasta Pass and thence down Slana River to the Copper. The Upper Tanana natives maintain that the Crossing dialect is much more similar to that of the Copper River than is their own.” (23)
Dialectology
Until very recently Lower Tanana was spoken at Salcha (), just west of the Tanacross language area near the mouth of the Salcha River. As might be expected, Salcha shares many features with Healy Lake, the westernmost dialect of Tanacross, though the two are readily distinguished as separate languages (in particular by the presence of high marked tone in Healy Lake). With the passing of the Salcha dialect, the nearest Lower Tanana villages are located more than one hundred miles downstream at Nenana and Minto, and the linguistic boundary between Tanacross and Lower Tanana is now even more distinct.
The Tanacross linguistic region is geographically small by Alaska Athabaskan standards and hence contains little dialectal variation. A small number of phonological features distinguish two major dialects. The Mansfield ()-Kechumstuk () (MK) dialect of Tanacross ( - ″The Mansfield People's Language″, referring to the traditional village of Mansfield (), north of Tanacross) was formerly spoken at Mansfield Lake () and Kechumstuk, until those bands combined and later moved to Tanacross village. This is the dialect spoken in Tanacross village and the dialect upon which this study is based. Unless indicated otherwise reference to Tanacross language should be assumed to mean the MK dialect. A second dialect of Tanacross is spoken by the Healy Lake-Joseph Village bands at Healy Lake () and Dot Lake () to the west, and formerly at Joseph Village, and is linguistically distinguished by the retention of schwa suffixes.
Status
As with all of the Athabaskan languages of Alaska, Tanacross is extremely endangered. Although most children have passive understanding of simple commands and phrases, most fluent speakers of Tanacross are at least fifty years old. Only among the oldest speakers is Tanacross the language of daily communication. Based on the age of the youngest speakers, Krauss (1997) estimates 65 speakers out of a total population of 220. In spite of the relatively small number of speakers, the percentage of speakers out of the total population is quite high for an Alaska Athabaskan language. Outside Tanacross village proper the percentage is much lower. Although 1990 census figures place the combined populations of Dot Lake and Healy Lake at 117, Kari (p.c.) estimates fewer than four speakers at Healy Lake and perhaps two or three at Dot Lake.
In spite of its small size (population 140) and proximity to predominantly non-native community of Tok, Tanacross village maintains its own school, where Tanacross literacy is sometimes taught. In addition, most households in the village contain at least one fluent Tanacross speaker.
Recently there has been an increase in interest in language revitalization, particularly among middle aged adults. A Tanacross Language Workshop was conducted in 1990, and several training sessions were held at the Yukon Native Language Centre in Whitehorse throughout the 1990s. These training sessions resulted in Native Language teaching certification for at least one speaker. Tanacross language classes are planned at the University of Alaska regional center in Tok.
Phonology
Tanacross is one of four Athabaskan tone languages spoken in Alaska. The others are Gwichʼin, Han, and Upper Tanana. Tanacross is the only Alaska Athabaskan language to exhibit high tone as a reflex of Proto-Athabaskan constriction.
Vowels
There are six phonemic vowels:
The vowels , , , and may be distinguished for length, indicated in the practical orthography by doubling the vowel. The reduced vowel is indicated via the letter . Thus, the practical orthography does not distinguish short from .
Vowels may be marked for high (á), rising (ǎ), falling (â) or extra-high (á́) tone. Low tone is unmarked.
Consonants
The consonants of the Tanacross practical orthography are shown below. This practical orthography follows standard Athabaskan conventions, in particular, stops and affricates are grouped together phonologically. Also, voiceless unaspirated stops/afficates consonants are indicated using, for the most part, the IPA symbols for voiced consonants, while voiceless aspirated consonants are indicated using the IPA symbols for voiceless consonants. Note that in coda position the unaspirated/aspirated distinction reverts to a voiceless/voiced distinction, providing further motivation for the choice of symbols in the practical orthography.
Semi-voiced fricatives
One of the distinguishing features of Tanacross is the presence of so-called semi-voiced fricatives, a unique type of segment which appear to begin voiceless and transition to fully voiced. Acoustically, semi-voiced fricatives are characterized by lower intensity of high-frequency frication. Semi-voiced fricatives occur in stem-initial position in lieu of fully voiced fricatives. Even though they are essentially allophonic variants of the voiced fricatives, semi-voiced fricatives are indicated in the practical orthography via an underscore beneath the corresponding voiceless segment.
Relationship to other languages
Tanacross is a member of the Athabaskan family of languages, a well-established genetic grouping whose members occupy three discontinuous areas of North America: the Northern group in northwestern Canada and Alaska, the Pacific Coast in northern California, Oregon, and southern Washington, and the Apachean group in the desert southwest of the continental United States. The seven Apachean languages include Navajo, the largest North American language in terms of number of speakers. Apachean is a very tightly related and well-defined branch. The Pacific Coast group is much less closely related than Apachean and is perhaps more of a geographic subgroup containing perhaps six languages. Of these only Tolowa and Hupa are still spoken today, and these only by a handful of speakers. Of the roughly 24 Northern Athabaskan languages, eleven are spoken in Alaska, three of which straddle the border with Canada.
Given the available data, it is difficult to discern linguistic subgroups within Northern Athabaskan. This is certainly true for the languages of the Tanana River drainages, which form a continuum extending from Lower Tanana in the west (downriver) to Upper Tanana in the east (upriver). Tanacross itself was not defined as a distinct language until the late 1960s (Krauss 1973a). The dialectology of this area has not been completely unraveled, but it is clear that Tanacross of course shares many features with neighboring languages and dialects, especially the Mentasta dialect of Ahtna, the (now extinct) Salcha dialect of Lower Tanana, the Tetlin dialect of Upper Tanana, and the Han language.
However, Tanacross is distinguished most dramatically from neighboring languages by the development of Proto-Athabaskan (PA) constricted vowels into high tone. In contrast, Lower Tanana, Hän and Upper Tanana developed low tone, while Ahtna either did not develop or lost tone. The Tanacross tone system remains active in the phonology and morphology of the language. Tanacross shares close linguistic, geographical and social ties with Upper Tanana to the east. In fact, the close social ties which have bound Tanacross with other groups in the upper Tanana drainage area argue for the definition of a Tanana Uplands language and culture area. This area would include all groups which have regularly participated in potlatch ceremonies with Tanacross, including the Upper Tanana of Tetlin, Northway and Beaver Creek; the Han of the vicinity of Eagle, Alaska and Dawson City, Yukon; and the Mentasta Ahtna of the Mentasta area. Mentasta is the most divergent dialect of Ahtna and shares many linguistic features with Tanacross and Upper Tanana. Due to extensive multilingualism within the Tanana Uplands area, any study of Tanacross must account for the larger socio-linguistic framework within which Tanacross is embedded.
Early research
In addition to the strictly linguistic resources to be discussed below, Isaac (1988) and Simeone (1995) provide important cultural background on the Tanacross community. The former is an oral history told by Chief Andrew Isaac, the last traditional chief of Tanacross. Though much of the text has been translated into English, the translation maintains much of the speech style of the original Tanacross language. The text contains many references to Tanacross flora and fauna, as well as cultural items. Simeone's book is an ethnographic sketch written by an Episcopal lay worker who spent much of the 1970s living in Tanacross village. Ethnographies of the eastern Alaska Athabaskan region, though not specific to Tanacross, can be found in McKennan (1959) and Andrews (1975). De Laguna & McClellan's (1960) field notes also contain extensive ethnographic information.
The earliest written record by far of the Tanacross language is the “Copper River Kolchan” vocabulary recorded in Wrangell (1839). This list was probably collected at Nuchek in Prince William Sound, but its character is unmistakably Tanacross. Another short (three typescript pages) word list was collected by J.T. Geoghegan (Geoghegan & Geoghegan 1904). David Shinen compiled a somewhat longer Tanacross word list from Mary Charlie and Oscar Isaac in Tanacross village, and a portion of this list was later published under the heading “Nabesna” in Hoijer (1963). More substantive documentation of Tanacross began with exploratory fieldwork by Krauss, who first called it “transitional Tanana”. In the early 1970s Nancy McRoy compiled some textual materials with speaker Mary Charlie and a short wordlist containing about 400 items, mostly nouns, as well as some basic literacy materials. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Jeff Leer compiled further notes on grammatical paradigms and phonological features, including the three-way fricative voicing contrast. Marilyn Paul (1978) presents some notes compiled from a class taught by Leer at ANLC. Ron Scollon transcribed and translated a collection of texts from speaker Gaither Paul using a revised orthography which indicates tone. Kari has compiled a preliminary stem list based on information collected from several speakers in the 1980s, but tone is not marked. Alice Brean has compiled lexical and paradigmatic information. Minoura has compiled a short word list and information on tone. In spite of the various sources of lexical documentation, Krauss (p.c.) estimates than only twenty percent of the extant body of lexical information has been documented by linguists.
During the early 1990s John Ritter of the Yukon Native Language Center (YNLC) began a comprehensive study of Tanacross phonology in the early 1990s and developed a practical orthography. Tanacross speakers Irene Solomon Arnold and Jerry Isaac have participated in literacy workshops in Tok, Whitehorse and Dawson City, resulting in the production of literacy materials with accompanying cassette tapes. Solomon & Ritter (1997) provides crucial data for the description of tone phenomena. Phonology and morphology are described in Holton's 2000 University of California Santa Barbara dissertation. Semi-voiced fricatives are described by Holton (2001). The interaction of tone and intonation is described in Holton (2005). Additional sound recordings and field notes are available at YNLC and the Alaska Native Language Archive. Since 2000 Irene Solomon has worked as a language specialist at the Alaska Native Language Center and has collaborated on a number of projects with linguist Gary Holton, including a phrase book, a learners' dictionary, and a multimedia description of the sound system.
References
External links
Tanacross basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database
Tanacross Learners' Dictionary iPhone app
Indigenous languages of Alaska
Northern Athabaskan languages
Indigenous languages of the North American Subarctic
Endangered Athabaskan languages
Official languages of Alaska | [
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223892 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20on%20the%20postage%20stamps%20of%20Lebanon | List of people on the postage stamps of Lebanon | Lebanon was formerly a part of the Turkish Empire, and used Turkish postage stamps during that time. In the immediate aftermath of World War I, when it was a French mandate, it used French stamps overprinted for use in the combined territories of Greater Syria. The first Lebanese stamps in 1924 were overprinted French stamps.
A
Ibrahim Abd el Al (2001)
Avicenna (1948)
C
Camille Chamoun (1958 airmail)
Fouad Chehab (1960)
Daoud Corm (1974 airmail)
D
Fakhr al-Din II El Maari (1961 airmail)
E
Émile Eddé (1937)
F
Faisal II of Iraq (1957 airmail)
Moustafa Farroukh (1974 airmail)
G
Ameen Gemayel (1988)
César Gemayel (1974 airmail)
Gibran Khalil Gibran (1971 Airmail)
H
Elias Harawi
Rafic Hariri
Hussein I of Jordan (1957 airmail)
J
Pope John Paul II (1997)
Roman Emperor Justinian (1968 airmail)
K
Rashid Karami (1988)
Amira Khaskiah (1968 airmail)
Bechara El Khoury (1947 airmail)
Chucri Kouatly (1957 airmail)
L
Vladimir Lenin (1971 airmail)
M
Hage Maroun (1961)
René Moawad (1996)
Milo of Crotona (1924)
Mohammed V of Morocco (1960 airmail)
N
Mikhail Naimy (1978 airmail)
Gamal Nasser (1957 airmail)
Maurice Noguès (1938 airmail)
O
Imam Abd al-Rahman al-Ouzai (1971 airmail)
P
Daoud Pasha (1968 airmail)
Louis Pasteur (1924- Overprinted French Stamps)
Pope Paul VI (1965 airmail)
Pedro I of Brazil (1973 airmail)
R
Georgina Rizk (1974 airmail)
Pierre de Ronsard (1924)
S
Hassan Kamel Al-Sabbah (1971 airmail)
Elias Sarkis (1981)
Saud bin Abdul Aziz (1957 airmail)
Habib Serour (1974 airmail)
Amir Beshir Shehab (1942) a.k.a. Emir Bechir
Y
Youssef Bey Karam (2014)
Z
Abdallah Zakher (2001)
References
Lebanon, List of people on stamps of
Stamps
Philately of Lebanon
Stamps | [
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223893 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Hollingworth | Peter Hollingworth | Peter John Hollingworth (born 10 April 1935) is an Australian retired Anglican bishop. Engaged in social work for several decades, he served as the archbishop of the Anglican Diocese of Brisbane in Queensland for 11 years from 1989 and was the 1991 Australian of the Year. He served as the 23rd Governor-General of Australia from 2001 until 2003. He is also an author and recipient of various civil and ecclesiastical honours. In 2003 he became the third Australian governor-general to resign, after criticisms were aired over his conduct as Archbishop of Brisbane in the 1990s.
Early life
Born in Adelaide, South Australia, Hollingworth moved to Melbourne, Victoria, in 1940. After attending Lloyd Street and Murrumbeena primary schools he received his secondary-school education at Scotch College, Melbourne, then began a cadetship with BHP, an Australian mining company.
Education and career
Hollingworth was conscripted for national service in 1953 and, after basic training at the Royal Australian Air Force base at Point Cook, he began working in the chaplain's office and discerned a vocation to ordained ministry. After matriculating in 1954 he enrolled at the University of Melbourne, residing at Trinity College as a member of its school of theology. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1958 and a Licentiate of Theology in 1959.
On 6 February 1960 he married Kathleen Ann Turner, an obstetric physiotherapist, whom he had met while on National Service. The couple have three daughters.
Hollingworth was ordained as an Anglican priest in 1960. He became deacon-in-charge and then priest-in-charge of St Mary's North Melbourne, in a group ministry of the Anglican Inner City Mission within the Melbourne Diocesan Centre. In 1964 he joined the Brotherhood of St Laurence, an independent Anglican welfare organisation, as chaplain and director of youth and children's work, then as director of social policy and research. He completed a master's degree in social work and in 1980 was appointed executive director of the Brotherhood of St Laurence, where he served for 25 years and was involved in other associated community and welfare bodies.
He wrote several books about his work with the poor which became educational texts. As a public advocate on welfare policy he argued that "poverty should be looked at in terms of the structure of society rather than the individual case."
He was elected a canon of St Paul's Cathedral in 1980 and became the Bishop in the Inner City upon his consecration, 24 February 1985.
In 1989 he was elected the 8th Archbishop of Brisbane, where he continued his advocacy for the poor and underprivileged and supported the ordination of women.
He was chairman of the International Year of Shelter for the Homeless National NGO Committee and was named Australian of the Year for 1991, being described as "Australia’s foremost spokesman for social justice". He used his public profile to criticise government policy in relation to Aboriginal welfare and youth unemployment.
In 1998, he attended as an appointed delegate to the 1998 Australian Constitutional Convention.
Governor-General of Australia
On 22 April 2001 the Prime Minister of Australia, John Howard, announced that Queen Elizabeth II had accepted his advice to appoint Hollingworth as Governor-General of Australia upon the completion of Sir William Deane's term. He was the first Christian cleric to hold the post, though precedent existed at a state level where Aboriginal pastor Sir Doug Nicholls and Uniting Church minister Sir Keith Seaman had served as Governor of South Australia and Davis McCaughey had served as Governor of Victoria. On 29 June 2001, Hollingworth was sworn in as Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia and Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Force. As the governor-general is the chancellor and principal companion of the Order of Australia, Hollingworth was appointed a companion of the order (AC) on 29 June 2001.
Resignation
In December 2001, allegations were raised that, during his time as Archbishop of Brisbane, Hollingworth had failed to deal appropriately with sex abuse allegations made against a church teacher at Toowoomba Preparatory School. That month, the Brisbane Anglican diocese was ordered to pay $834,800 damages to the woman who had been found to have been sexually abused. Hetty Johnston, an advocate for child sex abuse victims, instigated a campaign calling for Hollingworth to resign. Hollingworth told the Australian media that, as a newly appointed archbishop at the time, he lacked the experience to handle the matter. He also said he had not believed that the case involved sexual abuse, but conceded he had not done enough to stop abuses occurring. Hollingworth subsequently apologised to the Toowoomba victim and released a formal statement condemning child sexual abuse but by February 2002, the Labor Opposition was calling for Hollingworth to be dismissed. Hollingworth stepped down from his positions as the Brisbane Lions' No 1 ticket holder, patron of Barnardo's, Kids First Foundation and the National Association for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect.
Phillip Aspinall, Hollingworth's successor as archbishop, ordered an inquiry, which concluded that in 1993 Hollingworth had allowed a known paedophile to continue working as a priest. In May 2003, the report by the Diocese of Brisbane into the handling of the cases was tabled in the Queensland parliament by Premier of Queensland, Peter Beattie. On 8 May, Hollingworth issued a public statement denying allegations that he had raped a woman in the 1960s. Both the deputy prime minister, John Anderson, and the treasurer, Peter Costello, indicated in early May that Hollingworth should consider his position. After meeting with Howard on 11 May, Hollingworth stood aside. On 28 May 2003, he announced his resignation and his commission as governor-general was revoked as of 29 May 2003.
Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse
In 2015–2016, Hollingworth faced questions as part of the Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse in regards to his handling of abuse claims while he was Archbishop of Brisbane. He has apologised to victims for not pursuing their claims more rigorously.
Honours
In 1976, Hollingworth was appointed an officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) and in 1988 he was appointed an officer of the Order of Australia (AO) for his work in church and community. In 2001 he was awarded the Centenary Medal and later the same year was promoted to companion of the Order of Australia (AC) upon his appointment as Governor General taking effect. As well as these secular honours he was elected as a canon of St Paul's Cathedral in Melbourne in 1980. In 1991 he was named Australian of the Year and was included in the inaugural list of Australian Living Treasures in 1997.
On 21 May 2001, Hollingworth was awarded the Lambeth degree of Doctor of Letters (DLitt) by George Carey, the then Archbishop of Canterbury. He was awarded the doctorate in recognition of his research, publications, teaching and achievements in the fields of Christian social ethics, social welfare and poverty studies and episcopal leadership. In addition to this doctorate he already had six honorary doctorates from Australian universities.
Publications
References
External links
Report by the Board of Inquiry
1935 births
Living people
Governors-General of Australia
Anglican archbishops of Brisbane
Assistant bishops in the Anglican Diocese of Brisbane
Australian republicans
Companions of the Order of Australia
Australian Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Australian of the Year Award winners
University of Melbourne alumni
People educated at Trinity College (University of Melbourne)
People educated at Scotch College, Melbourne
People from Adelaide
Recipients of the Centenary Medal
Delegates to the Australian Constitutional Convention 1998 | [
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223894 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riley%20P.%20Bechtel | Riley P. Bechtel | Riley Peart Bechtel CBE (born March 25, 1952) is an American billionaire heir and businessman. He was the chairman of the Bechtel Corporation until April 2017. As of July 2021, their estimated net worth is US$2.7 billion.
Early life
He is the great-grandson of Warren A. Bechtel, the company's founder. His parents were Elizabeth Hogan and Stephen Bechtel Jr., who was the former chairman and CEO of the company.
He attended The Thacher School, a boarding school. He received a bachelor's degree in political science and psychology from the University of California, Davis, and a JD/MBA from Stanford University in 1977. He was admitted to the State Bar of California in November 1979 and joined the American Bar Association.
Career
He worked for the law firm of Thelen, Marrin, Johnson & Bridges. He joined Bechtel full-time in 1981 and was elected president and chief operating officer in March 1989. He became CEO in June 1990. In January 1996, he also became chairman of Bechtel.
He sits on the board of directors of the international council of J.P. Morgan Chase & Co. (since 1995), the Fremont Group (owned by Bechtel Corporation), the Fremont Group (which in turn runs Trinity Ventures, LP), Fremont Investors, Inc. (owned by Bechtel Corporation), and Sequoia Ventures, Inc. (limited partner of Bechtel Corporation). He was a board member of Theranos.
He is a former member of the Trilateral Commission, the American Society of Corporate Executives, The Business Council, the Business Roundtable, and the National Petroleum Council. He sits on the corporate council of the Conservation Fund and the Board of Trustees of the Ocean Exploration Trust. He also sits on the governing board of the Indian School of Business, Stanford Graduate School of Business advisory council, Stanford Law School Dean's advisory council, and UC Davis' board of visitors. He was appointed to the President's Export Council by George W. Bush. In 1998, he and his father were presented with the Honor Award from the National Building Museum for their company's contributions to America's built environment. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2001. He is also an Honorary Fellow of the American Society of Civil Engineers and an Honorary Lifetime member of the American Society of Safety Engineers.
Wealth
According to Forbes, his estimated net worth is US$3 billion, as of October 2021.
Personal life
He resides in California with his wife, Susan. He is a member of the Augusta National Golf Club as well as the all-male Bohemian Club in San Francisco and attends its annual encampment, the Bohemian Grove. He is consistently ranked in the top 200 richest people in the US and the top 500 richest people in the world by Forbes magazine. In February 2014, Bechtel announced that, after 25 years, he was stepping down as CEO of Bechtel Corporation because of health reasons associated with Parkinson's disease.
References
1952 births
American chief executives
American construction businesspeople
American billionaires
Bechtel
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Living people
Businesspeople from San Francisco
People from Alameda County, California
Stanford Law School alumni
University of California, Davis alumni
American chief operating officers
People from Menlo Park, California
Theranos people | [
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223896 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20Supreme%20Court%2C%20Appellate%20Division | New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division | The Appellate Divisions of the Supreme Court of the State of New York are the intermediate appellate courts in New York State.
There are four Appellate Divisions, one in each of the state's four Judicial Departments (e.g., the full title of the "Fourth Department" is "Supreme Court of the State of New York, Appellate Division, Fourth Judicial Department").
Jurisdiction
Each Appellate Division primarily hears appeals from the superior courts (Supreme Court, surrogate's courts, family courts, county courts, and Court of Claims) in civil cases, the Supreme Court in criminal cases, and the county courts in felony criminal cases in the Third and Fourth Judicial Departments. In addition, in civil cases it may hear appeals from the appellate terms of the Supreme Court when these courts have heard appeals from one of the lower trial courts.
New York's rules of civil procedure allow for interlocutory appeals of right from nearly every order and decision of the trial court, meaning that most may be appealed to the appropriate appellate department while the case is still pending in the trial court.
An Appellate Division may make decisions of law and fact with respect to its power to hear first appeals from state trial courts, including the Supreme Court and County Courts. These trial level courts exercise specific jurisdiction as conferred by law. In contrast, both the New York Court of Appeals and the Appellate Division when it sits as a final appeals court with respect to appeals arising from decisions of the Appellate Terms in the First and Second Departments, generally may only decide questions of law. The Appellate Division may adjudicate facts subject to specific constraints in the course of initial review of agency decisions under New York's CPLR Article 78, which provides for limited court review or agency and corporate decisions.
Decisions of the Appellate Division department panels are binding on the lower courts in that department, and also on lower courts in other departments unless there is contrary authority from the Appellate Division of that department. If two different departments have made different rulings on the same issue, then the lower courts in each departmental area must follow the ruling made by the higher court for their particular department. This can sometimes result in the same law being applied differently in different departments. When this occurs, the highest court in the state, the Court of Appeals, can remedy the situation by hearing the case and issuing a single ruling, which is then binding on every court in the state. Every opinion, memorandum, and motion of the Appellate Division sent to the New York State Reporter of the New York State Law Reporting Bureau is required to be published in the Appellate Division Reports. Opinions of the appellate terms are published selectively in the Miscellaneous Reports.
Organization
Departments
The First Department (seated in Manhattan) covers The Bronx (Bronx County) and Manhattan (New York County). Justice Rolando Acosta has been the department's Presiding Justice since May 22, 2017.
The Second Department (seated in Brooklyn) covers Queens (Queens County), Brooklyn (Kings County), Staten Island (Richmond County), Long Island (Nassau and Suffolk counties) and Dutchess, Orange, Putnam, Rockland and Westchester counties. This department is the largest by population. Justice Hector D. LaSalle has been the Presiding Justice since May 25, 2021.
The Third Department (seated in Albany) includes an area extending from the territory of the Second Department north to New York's borders with Vermont and Quebec, and includes the cities of Albany, Troy, Schenectady, Saratoga Springs, and Binghamton. This territory extends nearly as far west as Syracuse. Hon. Elizabeth A. Garry has been the Presiding Justice since January 1, 2018.
The Fourth Department (seated in Rochester) covers the remainder of the state (west of the Third Department's territory), and includes the cities of Buffalo, Rochester, and Syracuse. Hon. Gerald J. Whalen has been the Presiding Justice since January 7, 2016.
Programs and agencies
Attorneys and Counselors at Law
In addition to hearing appeals in matters of law and equity, the Appellate Divisions regulate the admission of lawyers to the Bar and their conduct and discipline.
Each department has a Character and Fitness Committee, whose members interview applicants in person for admission to the bar.
Each department has Attorney Grievance Committees that investigates complaints of attorney misconduct and may issue reprimands or recommend censure, suspension, or disbarment to the Appellate Division.
Protection of minors and the incapacitated
At English common law, the Lord Chancellor, as the king's delegate to exercise the Crown's special jurisdiction, had responsibility for the custody and protection of infants and the mentally incapacitated. When the New York Supreme Court was organized, the Legislature transferred what remained of the king's prerogative to the court.
The Appellate Division regulates the panels of attorneys that represent children in family law proceedings in the appellate, Supreme, Family and Criminal Courts, and each department has an Office for Attorneys for Children (Originally named Law Guardian).
Each department also has a Mental Hygiene Legal Service (MHLS) program. Since its creation by statute in 1964 as the Mental Health Information Service, the MHLS has served as the watchdog of the rights of the institutionalized mentally disabled in New York and has been recognized by the courts as essential to the state's statutory "protective shield of checks and balances" governing the admission, transfer and retention of psychiatric patients.
Court Examiners are designated by each department to ascertain whether guardians appointed pursuant to the Mental Hygiene Law have complied with the order of appointment and have performed the duties specified.
Procedure
Each case is decided by a panel of five, or in some instances four, justices of the Court. There is no procedure for the Court to sit en banc.
Some basic rules governing appeals are found in Articles 55 and 57 of the New York Civil Practice Law and Rules, but they are not detailed enough to fully provide for a comprehensive system of appellate procedure. Prior to September 2018, and unlike other states that have statewide rules of appellate procedure, there was no set of appellate procedure rules shared by all four departments beyond the rudimentary set in the CPLR. Instead, each Appellate Division filled in the CPLR's gaps by promulgating its own individual set of rules governing more specific details of practice before that court. The result was considerable diversity in appellate procedure between the four Appellate Divisions, which extended to matters as basic as the form and formatting of appellate briefs, the deadline to perfect an appeal after filing of the notice of appeal, appellate motions, and oral argument.
During the 2010s, this problem was studied at length by the New York State Bar Association, and the NYSBA's recommendations for reform came to the attention of Chief Judge Janet DiFiore. In June 2018, the Presiding Justices of the Appellate Divisions promulgated statewide Practice Rules of the Appellate Division, which became effective in September 2018 and are codified outside of the CPLR in 22 N.Y.C.R.R. Part 1250. The four Departments retain the ability to supplement (and even supersede) the uniform rules by promulgating rules of their own.
Appeals from an Appellate Division
Decisions by an Appellate Division may be appealed to the state's highest court, the New York Court of Appeals. In some cases, an appeal lies of right, but in most cases, permission (or "leave") to appeal must be obtained, either from the Appellate Division itself or from the Court of Appeals. In civil cases, the Appellate Division panel or Court of Appeals votes on petitions for leave to appeal; in most criminal cases, however, the petition for leave to appeal is referred to a single Justice or Judge, whose decision whether to grant or deny leave is final.
Case management
To keep caseloads under control, most Appellate Division opinions are extremely concise. Often, an Appellate Division panel will dispose of an entire case in only two paragraphs, with the second paragraph stating: "We have considered plaintiff's (or defendant's) remaining contentions and find them unavailing." In contrast, courts in most other states traditionally devote a few more paragraphs to disposing of the other "remaining contentions."
Appointment of justices
Justices of the Appellate Divisions are chosen by the Governor from among those elected to the State Supreme Court. A justice does not have to have been elected from one of the judicial districts within a department to be appointed to the Appellate Division for that department, although the Presiding Justice and a majority of the total number of justices are to reside within the department. They serve at least five years, or until the completion of their 14-year elected terms, or reaching the constitutional age limit of 70, beyond which the governor may choose to reappoint them for up to three two-year terms.
The State Constitution provides that the First and Second Department are each to comprise seven justices, and the Third and Fourth departments five justices. In addition to these "constitutional" justices, the presiding justice of each department may ask the Governor to designate "additional justices" where needed based on the court's workload. At present, for example, the First Department comprises 20 justices in total when there are no vacancies. The qualifications for additional Justices are the same as for other justices.
Administration of the courts
Attorneys are admitted to the New York bar by one of the Appellate Division departments rather than by New York's highest court, the Court of Appeals, though once admitted to any of the Appellate Division departments, such attorney is admitted to practice and appear before all non-federal courts in the state, including the Court of Appeals. Applicants must be interviewed in person by a member of the court's "Character and Fitness Committee" after passing the New York State Bar Exam (since July 2016, the Uniform Bar Examination) and Multistate Professional Responsibility Examination administered by the New York State Board of Law Examiners. Applicants are admitted in the department in which they reside; applicants residing outside New York are admitted through the Third Department in Albany.
Judges are regulated by the Rules Governing Judicial Conduct promulgated by the Chief Administrator, the Code of Judicial Conduct adopted by the New York State Bar Association, and the relevant rules of the respective Appellate Division departments. Attorneys are regulated by various state laws, the Rules of Professional Conduct (based on the ABA Model Rules of Professional Conduct), and rules adopted by each department of the Appellate Division. Each department of the Appellate Division has a committee that investigates complaints of attorney misconduct and may issue reprimands or recommend censure, suspension, or disbarment to the Appellate Division.
History
The Appellate Divisions were created by the New York State Constitution of 1894 to succeed the General Term of the Supreme Court, effective January 1, 1896.
See also
Judiciary of New York
Judicial Conference of the State of New York
Appellate Division Courthouse of New York State
New York State Courts Electronic Filing System
References
Further reading
External links
Appellate Divisions of the Supreme Court
First Judicial Department
Second Judicial Department
Third Judicial Department
Fourth Judicial Department
Lower appellate courts
First Judicial Department Appellate Term
Second Judicial Department Appellate Term
Supreme Court in the New York Codes, Rules and Regulations
New York Slip Opinion Service from the New York State Law Reporting Bureau
New York Official Reports Service from West
New York (state) state courts
State appellate courts of the United States
New York (state) law
1896 establishments in New York (state)
Courts and tribunals established in 1896 | [
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223898 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial%20ecology | Industrial ecology | Industrial ecology (IE) is the study of material and energy flows through industrial systems. The global industrial economy can be modelled as a network of industrial processes that extract resources from the Earth and transform those resources into commodities which can be bought and sold to meet the needs of humanity. Industrial ecology seeks to quantify the material flows and document the industrial processes that make modern society function. Industrial ecologists are often concerned with the impacts that industrial activities have on the environment, with use of the planet's supply of natural resources, and with problems of waste disposal. Industrial ecology is a young but growing multidisciplinary field of research which combines aspects of engineering, economics, sociology, toxicology and the natural sciences.
Industrial ecology has been defined as a "systems-based, multidisciplinary discourse that seeks to understand emergent behavior of complex integrated human/natural systems". The field approaches issues of sustainability by examining problems from multiple perspectives, usually involving aspects of sociology, the environment, economy and technology. The name comes from the idea that the analogy of natural systems should be used as an aid in understanding how to design sustainable industrial systems.
Overview
Industrial ecology is concerned with the shifting of industrial process from linear (open loop) systems, in which resource and capital investments move through the system to become waste, to a closed loop system where wastes can become inputs for new processes.
Much of the research focuses on the following areas:
material and energy flow studies ("industrial metabolism")
dematerialization and decarbonization
technological change and the environment
life-cycle planning, design and assessment
design for the environment ("eco-design")
extended producer responsibility ("product stewardship")
eco-industrial parks ("industrial symbiosis")
product-oriented environmental policy
eco-efficiency
Industrial ecology seeks to understand the way in which industrial systems (for example a factory, an ecoregion, or national or global economy) interact with the biosphere. Natural ecosystems provide a metaphor for understanding how different parts of industrial systems interact with one another, in an "ecosystem" based on resources and infrastructural capital rather than on natural capital. It seeks to exploit the idea that natural systems do not have waste in them to inspire sustainable design.
Along with more general energy conservation and material conservation goals, and redefining commodity markets and product stewardship relations strictly as a service economy, industrial ecology is one of the four objectives of Natural Capitalism. This strategy discourages forms of amoral purchasing arising from ignorance of what goes on at a distance and implies a political economy that values natural capital highly and relies on more instructional capital to design and maintain each unique industrial ecology.
History
Industrial ecology was popularized in 1989 in a Scientific American article by Robert Frosch and Nicholas E. Gallopoulos. Frosch and Gallopoulos' vision was "why would not our industrial system behave like an ecosystem, where the wastes of a species may be resource to another species? Why would not the outputs of an industry be the inputs of another, thus reducing use of raw materials, pollution, and saving on waste treatment?" A notable example resides in a Danish industrial park in the city of Kalundborg. Here several linkages of byproducts and waste heat can be found between numerous entities such as a large power plant, an oil refinery, a pharmaceutical plant, a plasterboard factory, an enzyme manufacturer, a waste company and the city itself. Another example is the Rantasalmi EIP in Rantasalmi, Finland. While this country has had previous organically formed EIP's, the park at Rantasalmi is Finland's first planned EIP.
The scientific field Industrial Ecology has grown quickly in recent years. The Journal of Industrial Ecology (since 1997), the International Society for Industrial Ecology (since 2001), and the journal Progress in Industrial Ecology (since 2004) give Industrial Ecology a strong and dynamic position in the international scientific community. Industrial Ecology principles are also emerging in various policy realms such as the concept of the Circular Economy that is being promoted in China. Although the definition of the Circular Economy has yet to be formalized, generally the focus is on strategies such as creating a circular flow of materials, and cascading energy flows. An example of this would be using waste heat from one process to run another process that requires a lower temperature. The hope is that strategies such as this will create a more efficient economy with fewer pollutants and other unwanted by-products.
Principles
One of the central principles of Industrial Ecology is the view that societal and technological systems are bounded within the biosphere, and do not exist outside it. Ecology is used as a metaphor due to the observation that natural systems reuse materials and have a largely closed loop cycling of nutrients. Industrial Ecology approaches problems with the hypothesis that by using similar principles as natural systems, industrial systems can be improved to reduce their impact on the natural environment as well. The table shows the general metaphor.
IE examines societal issues and their relationship with both technical systems and the environment. Through this holistic view , IE recognizes that solving problems must involve understanding the connections that exist between these systems, various aspects cannot be viewed in isolation. Often changes in one part of the overall system can propagate and cause changes in another part. Thus, you can only understand a problem if you look at its parts in relation to the whole. Based on this framework, IE looks at environmental issues with a systems thinking approach. A good IE example with these societal impacts can be found at the Blue Lagoon in Iceland. The Lagoon uses super-heated water from a local geothermal power plant to fill mineral-rich basins that have become recreational healing centers. In this sense the industrial process of energy production uses its wastewater to provide a crucial resource for the dependent recreational industry.
Take a city for instance. A city can be divided into commercial areas, residential areas, offices, services, infrastructures, and so forth. These are all sub-systems of the 'big city' system. Problems can emerge in one sub-system, but the solution has to be global. Let's say the price of housing is rising dramatically because there is too high a demand for housing. One solution would be to build new houses, but this will lead to more people living in the city, leading to the need for more infrastructure like roads, schools, more supermarkets, etc. This system is a simplified interpretation of reality whose behaviors can be 'predicted'.
In many cases, the systems IE deals with are complex systems. Complexity makes it difficult to understand the behavior of the system and may lead to rebound effects. Due to unforeseen behavioral change of users or consumers, a measure taken to improve environmental performance does not lead to any improvement or may even worsen the situation.
Moreover, life cycle thinking is also a very important principle in industrial ecology. It implies that all environmental impacts caused by a product, system, or project during its life cycle are taken into account. In this context life cycle includes
Raw material extraction
Material processing
Manufacture
Use
Maintenance
Disposal
The transport necessary between these stages is also taken into account as well as, if relevant, extra stages such as reuse, remanufacture, and recycle.
Adopting a life cycle approach is essential to avoid shifting environmental impacts from one life cycle stage to another. This is commonly referred to as problem shifting. For instance, during the re-design of a product, one can choose to reduce its weight, thereby decreasing use of resources. It is possible that the lighter materials used in the new product will be more difficult to dispose of. The environmental impacts of the product gained during the extraction phase are shifted to the disposal phase. Overall environmental improvements are thus null.
A final important principle of IE is its integrated approach or multidisciplinarity. IE takes into account three different disciplines: social sciences (including economics), technical sciences and environmental sciences. The challenge is to merge them into a single approach.
Examples
The Kalundborg industrial park is located in Denmark. This industrial park is special because companies reuse each other's waste (which then becomes by-products). For example, the Energy E2 Asnæs Power Station produces gypsum as a by-product of the electricity generation process; this gypsum becomes a resource for the BPB Gyproc A/S which produces plasterboards. This is one example of a system inspired by the biosphere-technosphere metaphor: in ecosystems, the waste from one organism is used as inputs to other organisms; in industrial systems, waste from a company is used as a resource by others.
Apart from the direct benefit of incorporating waste into the loop, the use of an eco-industrial park can be a means of making renewable energy generating plants, like Solar PV, more economical and environmentally friendly. In essence, this assists the growth of the renewable energy industry and the environmental benefits that come with replacing fossil-fuels.
Additional examples of industrial ecology include:
Substituting the fly ash byproduct of coal burning practices for cement in concrete production
Using second generation biofuels. An example of this is converting grease or cooking oil to biodiesels to fuel vehicles.
South Africa's National Cleaner Production Center (NCPC) was created in order to make the region's industries more efficient in terms of materials. Results of the use of sustainable methods will include lowered energy costs and improved waste management. The program assesses existing companies to implement change.
Onsite non-potable water reuse
Biodegradable plastic created from polymerized chicken feathers, which are 90% keratin and account for over 6 million tons of waste in the EU and US annually. As agricultural waste, the chicken feathers are recycled into disposable plastic products which are then easily biodegraded into soil.
Toyota Motor Company channels a portion of the greenhouse gases emitted back into their system as recovered thermal energy.
Anheuser-Busch signed a memorandum of understanding with biochemical company Blue Marble to use brewing wastes as the basis for its "green" products.
Enhanced oil recovery at Petra Nova.
Reusing cork from wine bottles for use in shoe soles, flooring tiles, building insulation, automotive gaskets, craft materials, and soil conditioner.
Darling Quarter Commonwealth Bank Place North building in Sydney, Australia recycles and reuses its wastewater.
Plant based plastic packaging that is 100% recyclable and environmentally friendly.
Food waste can be used for compost, which can be used as a natural fertilizer for future food production. Additionally, food waste that has not been contaminated can be used to feed those experiencing food insecurity.
Hellisheiði geothermal power station uses ground water to produce electricity and hot water for the city of Reykjavik. Their carbon byproducts are then injected back into the Earth and calcified, leaving the station with a net zero carbon emission.
Tools
Future directions
The ecosystem metaphor popularized by Frosch and Gallopoulos has been a valuable creative tool for helping researchers look for novel solutions to difficult problems. Recently, it has been pointed out that this metaphor is based largely on a model of classical ecology, and that advancements in understanding ecology based on complexity science have been made by researchers such as C. S. Holling, James J. Kay, and further advanced in terms of contemporary ecology by others. For industrial ecology, this may mean a shift from a more mechanistic view of systems, to one where sustainability is viewed as an emergent property of a complex system. To explore this further, several researchers are working with agent based modeling techniques
.
Exergy analysis is performed in the field of industrial ecology to use energy more efficiently. The term exergy was coined by Zoran Rant in 1956, but the concept was developed by J. Willard Gibbs. In recent decades, utilization of exergy has spread outside physics and engineering to the fields of industrial ecology, ecological economics, systems ecology, and energetics.
Other examples
Another great example of industrial ecology both in practice and in potential is the Burnside Cleaner Production Centre in Burnside, Nova Scotia. They play a role in facilitating the 'greening' of over 1200 businesses that are located in Burnside, Eastern Canada's largest industrial park. The creation of waste exchange is a big part of what they work towards, which will promote strong industrial ecology relationships.
Onsan Industrial Park is a case-study program intended to serve as an example of policies and practices relevant to pursuing a green growth model of development. The potential benefits of the EIP model are being shown in the Republic of Korea, where more than 1,000 businesses from a wide range of industries call the Ulsan Mipo and Onsan Industrial Park in South Korea home. This park is South Korea's industrial capital because it has more than 100,000 jobs.
A common practice for water waste management systems is to use the left over "sludge" as fertilizer. The waste water contains lots of phosphorus and nitrogen which are valuable chemicals to use in fertilizer.
Gjenge makers ltd is another example of industrial ecology. The company takes discarded plastics and makes them into bricks. Gjenge makers receives the leftover plastic waste from packaging factories and recycling facilities and sells the pavers.
See also
References
Further reading
The industrial green game: implications for environmental design and management, Deanna J Richards (Ed), National Academy Press, Washington DC, USA, 1997,
'Handbook of Input-Output Economics in Industrial Ecology', Sangwon Suh (Ed), Springer, 2009,
External links
Articles and books
Industrial Ecology: An Introduction
Industrial Ecology
Industrial Symbiosis Timeline
Journal of Industrial Ecology (Yale University on behalf of the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies).
Industrial Ecology research & articles from The Program for the Human Environment, The Rockefeller University
Education
Industrial Ecology open online course (IEooc)
Erasmus Mundus Master's Programme in Industrial Ecology
Industrial ecology programme at the NTNU: Industrial Ecology Programme at NTNU, Trondheim – Norway
Industrial Ecology Master's Programme at Leiden University & TU Delft (Joint Degree), Leiden/Delft – The Netherlands
Center for Industrial Ecology at Yale University’s School of Forestry & Environmental Studies, New Haven – CT, USA
Research material
Inventory of free and open software tools for industrial ecology research
Network
International Society for Industrial Ecology – ISIE
Industrial engineering
Systems ecology
Environmental economics | [
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223901 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscles%20%28musician%29 | Muscles (musician) | Chris Copulos (born 1986 or 1987), better known by his stage name Muscles, is an Australian electronica musician. Muscles' debut album Guns Babes Lemonade was released in Australia on 29 September 2007. The album entered the Australian ARIA Album Chart at No. 14 on 8 October 2007, reaching No. 3 on the Australian Artist Chart and No. 1 on the Dance Album Chart in its first week.
History
Beginnings
Muscles self-released Four Months in early 2006, a compilation of 20 lo-fi experimental/dance/ambient songs burned on 80 handmade CD-Rs, whilst playing various open mic nights in Melbourne. Muscles's first single "One Inch Badge Pin" gained small radio play on Australian national youth radio Triple J in July 2006. Playing various indie nights and club shows between Melbourne, Muscles supported Girl Talk in Melbourne and Sydney and performed New Year's Eve at Honkytonks 'The Last Dance' closing down party.
2007 began with a concert at Sydney Festival alongside Midnight Juggernauts, Ajax and Gus Da Hoodrat. A week later Muscles was chosen as the support for Hot Chip's Melbourne Big Day Out sideshow. A special one-off performance was organised in February at Click Click (in Brown Alley), arranging 10 musicians from local indie bands in Melbourne to come together and play four songs in a 10 piece superstar improv-band to a mixed response. February included gigs at St. Kilda Festival, main support for Jenny Wilson's Australian tour, parties in Sydney at Bandits and Bad Kids Recreation Club. Late February Modular threw a launch party for their new compilation 'Leave Them All Behind 2' at Bondi Beach, the night included DJ sets from Van She Tech and Bang Gang DJs and Muscles was asked to play live.
In March he opened the first ever Golden Plains Festival (sister to the popular Meredith Music Festival, Australia's biggest non-commercial festival). Three weeks later was Australia's first ever V Festival, Muscles was not on the line-up but was added last minute a night before due to a band cancelling, already booked to play the official afterparty there were three shows that day including a DJ set at Club 77. Muscles met Soulwax/2manydjs at the V festival afterparty where he was asked to support them on an 11 date North American tour in April for their US release of Nite Versions.
Back to Australia in May, and directly to supporting Architecture in Helsinki on their east coast tour including a most memorable all ages show at The Metro in Sydney.
Muscles spent a month in London between May and June playing club nights and parties. The debut album Guns Babes Lemonade (completed in February) was mastered at The Exchange during this time. Highlights of the tour include supporting Robyn in Camden, supporting Soulwax in an underground railway, playing the O2 Wireless Festival afterparty in London and the O2 Wireless Festival in Leeds. Amongst gigs in London, Leeds, Bristol, Brighton and Nottingham, the tour also included a gig in Rome with The Presets (that Motörhead rocked up to after their concert with Iron Maiden that night) and a Modular Party in Paris at Maxim's restaurant.
In August, Muscles played at the Splendour in the Grass festival, a few days later travelling to Japan with Cut Copy, The Presets and The Bang Gang DJs, to play two shows at Womb and Summersonic Festival Modular Midnight Stage.
Mid-August saw the release of "Ice Cream" and "Sweaty", a double A-side Australian CD single on Modular. "Ice Cream" had been a radio-only single since March, due to Triple J and community radio stations around the country picking it up 6 months before Muscles had a record deal.
Guns Babes Lemonade
He performed on the Parklife national festival tour in September alongside Justice, M.I.A., Digitalism and MSTRKRFT. The debut album Guns Babes Lemonade was released in Australia during this tour. Muscles did a two-week North American club tour in October to promote the US release of the album. In November and December, he played his first headline tour of Australia including 3 Melbourne shows at the Corner Hotel, Adelaide's Rocket Bar, Family in Brisbane, and an all-ages show at The Forum in Sydney. The tour also included festivals in Newcastle, New South Wales and Canberra, a Myspace Secret Show in Coffs Harbour and the biggest Australian-only music festival Homebake. December 2007 saw Muscles on the support bill for the inaugural Nevereverland festival, headlined by Daft Punk. He was again booked for the festival's 2008 edition, but was taken off the bill mid-tour due to rifts with label Modular, taking to MySpace to vent his frustrations.
He missed the Meredith Music Festival due to illness. As of 13 December 2007, his album had reached No. 3 on the CMJ RPM (Electronic) charts in the US. New Year's Eve highlights included playing an abandoned cinema complex in Melbourne with Felix Da Housecat, Spank Rock and Chromeo. Muscles also supported Felix Da Housecat in Sydney on New Year's Day after playing BBQ Breaks in Brisbane that afternoon.
In 2008, Muscles was one of the headline acts at the Southbound Festival in Busselton, Western Australia along with Groove Armada, Kings of Leon and others. In February, he was asked to play the Good Vibrations Festival in Sydney and also gained the main live support for the Chemical Brothers' Australian tour. In February announced he would embark on a 17-date Australian tour to promote the single "The Lake", which was released in release late April 2008. An encore show in Melbourne was added due to popularity in his hometown, and a third Perth show also after Perth and Fremantle shows sold out. With 14 shows selling out it proved to be a record breaking tour for an emerging Australian artist. Muscles unorthodox performance at the 2008 Meredith Music Festival included him disappearing behind stage with his wireless microphone and repeatedly yelling "You can't see me!" to a confused audience.
Muscles' singles "Ice Cream" and "Sweaty" appeared in the Triple J Hottest 100, 2007 at Nos. 14 and 76 respectively.
Acoustic
Muscles' acoustic piano rendition of "Ice Cream" reached No. 45 on the Triple J Hottest 100, 2008 on 26 January 2009, Australia Day.
Younger & Immature EP
A press release on 7 September 2010 from Modular/Universal Australia announced a five-track EP entitled Younger & Immature and lead single "Girl Crazy Go", released in late October 2010.
"Koala"/"I'll Follow You"
The double A-side single "Koala" and "I'll Follow You" was released by Modular 1 July 2011; it was released to promote Muscles' second album.
Discography
Albums
Guns Babes Lemonade (September 2007) Aus No. 14
Manhood (June 2012)
Gods (March 2017)
Love Synthesizers (April 2017)
Muscles (January 2020)
EPs
Four Months (February 2006) (promo)
Hyperpop! (April 2006) (independent release)
Popular Music Is (May 2006) (independent release)
Gold Coast Babes (May 2006) (independent release)
Younger & Immature EP (October 2010) (Modular)
Singles
"One Inch Badge Pin" (2007)
"Ice Cream / Sweaty" (2007) Aus No. 59
"Sweaty" (2008) International
"Ice Cream" (2008) UK
"The Lake" (2008) USA
"Girl Crazy Go" (2010)
"Princess Beatrice Royal Hat" (2011)
"Koala / I'll Follow You" (2011)
"Unicorns" (2015)
"Be Your Man" (2016)
Remixes
Songs that Muscles has remixed include:
Emma-Louise – "Jungle" (2011)
Kylie Minogue – "Put Your Hands Up" (2011)
Sly Hats – "Vampire Sips" (2009)
Robyn – "Cobrastyle" (2008)
Unreleased remixes:
Ben Lee – "I Love Pop Music" (2009)
Architecture in Helsinki – "Nevereverdid" (2008)
Children Collide – "Frozen Armies" (2006)
Music videos
"Sweaty" [Chris Hopkins] (2007)
"The Lake" [Jaron Albertin] (2008)
"Girl Crazy Go" [Beaufort] (2010)
References
Australian electronic musicians
Australian dance musicians
Living people
Musicians from Melbourne
Year of birth missing (living people) | [
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223902 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klute | Klute | Klute is a 1971 American neo-noir crime thriller film directed and produced by Alan J. Pakula, written by Andy and Dave Lewis, and starring Jane Fonda, Donald Sutherland, Charles Cioffi, and Roy Scheider. The film follows a high-priced call girl who assists a detective in solving a missing persons case.
It is the first installment of what has informally come to be known as Pakula's "paranoia trilogy". The other two films are The Parallax View (1974) and All the President's Men (1976).
Klute was theatrically released in the United States on June 25, 1971, by Warner Bros, to critical and commercial success. Reviewers praised the film's direction, screenplay and most notably Fonda's performance, while the film grossed over $12 million against a $2.5 million budget. It received two nominations at the 44th Academy Awards; Best Original Screenplay, with Fonda winning Best Actress.
Plot
A Pennsylvania chemical company executive, Tom Gruneman, disappears. The police find an obscene letter in Gruneman's office addressed to a New York City prostitute named Bree Daniels, who had received several such letters. After six months of fruitless police work, Peter Cable, a fellow executive at Gruneman's company, hires family friend and detective John Klute to investigate Gruneman's disappearance.
Klute rents an apartment in the basement of Bree's building, taps her phone, and follows her as she turns tricks. Bree appears to enjoy the freedom of freelancing as a call girl while auditioning for acting and modeling jobs, but she reveals the emptiness of her life to her psychiatrist. Bree refuses to answer Klute's questions at first. After learning that he has been watching her, Bree says she does not recognize Gruneman. She acknowledges being beaten by a john two years earlier, but cannot identify Gruneman from a photo. Bree takes Klute to meet her former pimp, Frank Ligourin, who managed Jane McKenna, a prostitute who referred the abusive client to Bree. McKenna has apparently committed suicide and their other colleague Arlyn Page has since become a drug addict and disappeared.
Klute and Bree develop a romance, although she tells her psychiatrist that she wishes she could go back to "just feeling numb" turning tricks. She tells Klute she is paranoid that she is being watched. They find Page, who tells them that the photo of Gruneman is not the client, who was an older man instead. Page's body is later found in the river. Klute connects the "suicides" of the two prostitutes, surmising that the client was using Gruneman's name. He also thinks the client killed Gruneman and might kill Bree next. Klute revisits Gruneman's acquaintances. By typographic comparison, the obscene letters are traced to Cable, to whom Klute has been reporting during his investigation. Klute asks Cable for money to buy the "black book" of McKenna's clients to learn the identity of the abusive client. He leaves enough bread crumbs to see whether Cable reveals his own complicity in the murders.
Cable follows Bree to a client's office and reveals that he sent her the letters. After Gruneman accidentally found him physically abusing McKenna, Cable was worried Gruneman would use the incident to sabotage his career. Cable tried to frame Gruneman by planting the letter in his office. After playing an audiotape he made as he murdered Page, he attacks Bree. When he sees Klute rush in, Cable abruptly lurches backward to get away, crashing through a window to his death.
Bree moves out of her apartment with Klute's help. A voiceover conversation with her psychiatrist reveals her hesitancy to give up her life of autonomy to be in a traditional relationship with Klute, saying she'd "go out of [her] mind" if she turned to a domestic lifestyle. She admits that although she will miss Klute, she is unable to tell him, and jokes that the doctor will likely see her again the next week. As they leave the apartment, Bree gets a telephone call from a client; she tells him she is leaving New York and does not expect to return. She and Klute leave the apartment together.
Cast
Production
Development
To prepare for her role as Bree, Jane Fonda spent a week in New York City observing high-class call girls and madams; she also accompanied them on their outings to after hours clubs to pick up men. Fonda was disturbed that none of the men showed interest in her, which she believed was because they could see that she was really just an "upper-class, privileged pretender".
Fonda had doubts about whether she could portray the role and asked Alan Pakula to release her from her contract and hire Faye Dunaway instead, but Pakula refused. One of Fonda's first concerns was that she, as a nascent feminist, should not even be playing a prostitute. Fonda confided this concern to a more longstanding feminist who disabused her of this notion. To get past the sense that she just wasn't hooker material, Fonda turned to her memories of several call girls she had known while living in France, all of whom worked for the famed Madame Claude. She remembered that all of them had been sexually abused as children, and Fonda used this as an "entry" to her own character, and as a way to understand Bree's motivations in becoming a prostitute.
Release
Home media
Klute was released on DVD in 2005, and on Blu-ray by The Criterion Collection in July 2019.
Reception
Box office
The film earned US$8 million () in theatrical rentals at the North American box office.
Critical response
Klute was praised for its screenplay and Fonda's performance. On Rotten Tomatoes, Klute holds an approval rating of 93% based on 40 reviews, with an average rating of 8.19/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "Donald Sutherland is coolly commanding and Jane Fonda a force of nature in Klute, a cuttingly intelligent thriller that generates its most agonizing tension from its stars' repartee." On Metacritic, which assigns a rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 81 out of 100, based on 47 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".
Roger Ebert of The Chicago Sun-Times gave Klute 3.5 stars out of a possible 4, writing that while the thriller elements were poorly executed, the performances of Sutherland and especially Fonda carried the film. He suggested that the film should have been titled Bree after her character, who is the soul of the movie and avoids the hooker with a heart of gold stereotype: "What is it about Jane Fonda that makes her such a fascinating actress to watch? She has a sort of nervous intensity that keeps her so firmly locked into a film character that the character actually seems distracted by things that come up in the movie."
Fonda's performance received widespread praise. The Rotten Tomatoes consensus declared: "Fonda makes all the right choices, from the mechanics of her walk and her voice inflection to the penetration of the girl's raging psyche. It is a rare performance."
Accolades
References
External links
Klute: Trying to See Her, an essay by Mark Harris at the Criterion Collection
1971 crime films
1970s crime thriller films
American crime thriller films
American detective films
American films
American neo-noir films
English-language films
Films about prostitution in the United States
Films directed by Alan J. Pakula
Films featuring a Best Actress Academy Award-winning performance
Films featuring a Best Drama Actress Golden Globe-winning performance
Films scored by Michael Small
Films set in apartment buildings
Films set in New York City | [
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223904 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%2C%20Queen%20of%20Scots%20%281971%20film%29 | Mary, Queen of Scots (1971 film) | Mary, Queen of Scots is a 1971 biographical film based on the life of Mary Stuart, Queen of Scotland, written by John Hale and directed by Charles Jarrott. The cast was led by Vanessa Redgrave as the title character and Glenda Jackson as Elizabeth I. Jackson had previously played the part of Elizabeth in the BBC TV drama Elizabeth R, screened in February and March 1971, the first episode of which was also written by Hale.
The screenplay was written by John Hale and the film directed by Charles Jarrott. Like the play by Friedrich Schiller (Maria Stuart, 1800) and the opera by Gaetano Donizetti (Maria Stuarda, 1835), it takes considerable liberties with history in order to achieve increased dramatic effect, in particular two fictitious face-to-face encounters between the two queens (who never met in real life). The film received mixed reviews with criticism of the screenplay, running length and historical inaccuracies; however it received praise for the leading female performances, its production values, and musical score. At the 44th Academy Awards, the film received five nominations including Best Actress (for Redgrave).
Plot
Following the death of her husband Francis II of France in 1560, Mary, Queen of Scots (Vanessa Redgrave), returns to her native land. Though fearless, unselfish, and very beautiful, the young queen faces many challenges. As in neighbouring England, the Protestant faith has been embraced by many nobles of Scotland; in addition, the Catholic Mary has to deal with her half-brother James Stewart, Lord Moray's (Patrick McGoohan) ambitions for rule. He suggests that Mary enjoy herself in Scotland, and pass the time with dancing and feasting. Moray wants to rule Scotland while the lovely but inexperienced Mary becomes a figurehead.
Fearing that Mary has ambitions for England's throne, Elizabeth I of England (Glenda Jackson) decides to weaken her claim by sending her favourite, the ambitious Robert Dudley (Daniel Massey), to woo and marry Mary. She promises that Mary will become her heir if she agrees to the marriage. Sly Elizabeth also sends the younger, dashing but weak and spoiled Lord Darnley (Timothy Dalton) from a powerful Catholic family. Tempted by the handsome Darnley, Mary impulsively chooses him for marriage. Lord Moray, a Protestant, opposes the marriage, but Mary ignores him. She exiles Moray to strengthen her own authority. Elizabeth is satisfied that reckless, passionate Mary's romantic misadventures will keep her busy in Scotland and give shrewd, practical Elizabeth less to worry about.
Soon after the wedding, Darnley throws a childish temper tantrum, complaining that he has no real power and is merely Mary's king consort. A disillusioned Mary soon banishes Darnley from her bed and frequently consults with the gentle, soft-spoken Italian courtier David Riccio (Ian Holm). Darnley previously had him as a lover and accuses him of fathering Mary's expected child.
A group of Scottish lords persuade Darnley to help get rid of Riccio, whom they murder in Mary's presence. To escape, she persuades Darnley that the plotters will turn against him, and they flee to the safety of Lord Bothwell (Nigel Davenport). He has been an ally of Mary since her arrival in Scotland. After he defeats the plotters, Mary forces a truce among their leader Moray, Darnley and Bothwell. Mary gives birth to a son, James, who is expected to succeed both Mary and the unmarried, childless Elizabeth.
The peace is short-lived. The weak, selfish Darnley still wants power, though by now he is hideously scarred and already dying of syphilis (the pox). Mary pities him, but finds herself falling in love with the rough but loyal Bothwell. With Moray's help, they arrange for Darnley to be killed in a gunpowder explosion at his manor; Darnley escapes before the blast but is strangled. Bothwell marries Mary, and their few brief nights together are blissful. But Moray rejoins the Scottish lords and leads a rebellion against them. He forces Mary to abdicate, and she and her husband are driven into exile, Mary to England and Bothwell to Denmark. Mary's young son James is to be crowned king of Scotland (although Moray will effectively rule) and raised as a Protestant.
In England, Mary begs Elizabeth for money and an army to regain her throne. Instead Elizabeth takes her prisoner, keeping her locked away in luxurious captivity in a remote castle. Elizabeth's closest advisor, Sir William Cecil (Trevor Howard), is anxious to get rid of Mary, but Elizabeth fears to set a precedent by putting an anointed monarch to death. She also fears that Mary's death might spark a rebellion by her Catholic subjects and cause problems with powerful France and Spain. As a result, Mary is doomed to an open-ended captivity. Over time, the once proud queen of Scots succumbs to an empty routine, plotting half-heartedly to escape but growing increasingly comfortable in her luxurious seclusion. She occupies herself with a lazy daily schedule of cards, embroidery and gossip, talking vaguely of escape yet sleeping later and later each morning.
With the help of his associate Walsingham (Richard Warner), Cecil finds evidence of Mary's involvement in the conspiracy to assassinate Elizabeth known as the Babington Plot. Finally Elizabeth confronts Mary, who regains her royal pride and behaves defiantly at their secret meeting. Although Elizabeth offers her mercy if she begs for forgiveness, Mary will not beg for mercy in public. She endures the trial, conviction and execution. She knows her son James will ultimately succeed to the English throne.
Historical liberties
For dramatic effect, the film presents two meetings between the queens, although they never met in life.
The film also implies a homosexual liaison between Darnley and Riccio not known to history, although they may have been friends initially. The confrontation at Bothwell's Hermitage Castle seems loosely based on an actual incident at Carberry, and the film misses out the decisive Battle of Langside.
James VI and I was born in Edinburgh Castle, not Hermitage Castle, as depicted in the film.
Cast
Vanessa Redgrave as Mary, Queen of Scots
Glenda Jackson as Queen Elizabeth I of England
Patrick McGoohan as Mary's half-brother James Stewart, 1st Earl of Moray
Timothy Dalton as Mary's second husband Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley
Nigel Davenport as Mary's third husband, James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell
Trevor Howard as Elizabeth's advisor Sir William Cecil
Daniel Massey as Elizabeth's lover, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester
Ian Holm as Mary's advisor, David Riccio
Andrew Keir as Ruthven
Robert James as Scottish religious reformer John Knox
Katherine Kath as Mary's first mother-in-law, Catherine de' Medici
Frances White as Mary's companion, Mary Fleming
Vernon Dobtcheff as Mary's uncle, the Duke of Guise
Raf De La Torre as her other uncle, the Cardinal of Lorraine
Richard Warner as Elizabeth's spy master Francis Walsingham
Bruce Purchase as the Earl of Morton
Brian Coburn as the Earl of Huntly
Richard Denning as Mary's first husband, King Francis II of France
Maria Aitken as Lady Bothwell
Jeremy Bulloch as Andrew
Production notes
The film was shot in France (Château de Chenonceau), Hermitage Castle, Scotland; Alnwick Castle, England, Bamburgh Castle, England, Parham Park, England, and Chiltern Open Air Museum in Buckinghamshire, England. The song in the opening sequence, "Vivre et Mourir," is sung by Redgrave. The lyrics are taken from a sonnet written by Mary, Queen of Scots.
Release
The film's UK premiere was the annual Royal Film Performance on 27 March 1972 at the Odeon Leicester Square attended by Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother.
Reception
Vincent Canby had little good to write about the film in The New York Times, describing it as "a loveless, passionless costume drama". He wrote "Unfortunately there is no excitement whatsoever in what Charles Jarrott, the director, and John Hale, the author of the original screenplay, have put together...Mary, Queen of Scots intends, I assume, to illuminate history...yet all it's really doing is touching bases, like a dull, dutiful student...Because both Miss Redgrave and Miss Jackson possess identifiable intelligence, [the film] is not as difficult to sit through as some bad movies I can think of. It's just solemn, well-groomed and dumb."
Roger Ebert gave the film three stars and lauded the interpretation of Redgrave and Jackson stating "Vanessa Redgrave is a tall, straight-backed, finely spirited Mary, and Glenda Jackson makes a perfectly shrewish, wise Elizabeth."
Awards and nominations
Mary, Queen of Scots received five nominations at the 44th Academy Awards; Best Actress (Redgrave), Best Art Direction (Terence Marsh, Robert Cartwright, Peter Howitt), Best Costume Design (Margaret Furse), Best Original Dramatic Score, (John Barry), and Best Sound (Bob Jones, John Aldred).
It also received five nominations at the 29th Golden Globe Awards; Best Motion Picture - Drama, Best Motion Picture Actress - Drama (Redgrave & Jackson), Best Screenplay (John Hale), and Best Original Score (John Barry).
References
External links
(not available in some countries)
1971 films
1970s biographical drama films
1970s historical drama films
British biographical drama films
British historical drama films
1970s English-language films
Films set in the 1560s
Films about capital punishment
Films about Mary, Queen of Scots
Films about Elizabeth I
Cultural depictions of Catherine de' Medici
Films directed by Charles Jarrott
Films scored by John Barry (composer)
Films produced by Hal B. Wallis
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223907 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Bohemian%20monarchs | List of Bohemian monarchs | The Duchy of Bohemia was established in 870 and raised to the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1198. Several Bohemian monarchs ruled as non-hereditary kings beforehand, first gaining the title in 1085. From 1004 to 1806, Bohemia was part of the Holy Roman Empire, and its ruler was an elector. During 1526–1804 the Kingdom of Bohemia, together with the other lands of the Bohemian Crown, was ruled under a personal union as part of the Habsburg Monarchy. From 1804 to 1918, Bohemia was part of the Empire of Austria, which itself was part of the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary from 1867 to 1918. Following the dissolution of the monarchy, the Bohemian lands, now also referred to as Czech lands, became part of Czechoslovakia, and they have formed today's Czech Republic since 1993.
Legendary rulers of Bohemia
Praotec Čech (Pater Boemus)
Lech
Krok
Libuše, duchess; Přemysl the Ploughman, her husband
Nezamysl
Mnata
Vojen
Vnislav
Křesomysl
Neklan
Hostivít
Princes of Great Moravia
Mojmír I (c.830–846)
Rastislav (846–870)
Slavomír (871) (interim)
Svatopluk I (871–894)
Mojmír II (894–906?)
Dukes of Bohemia (c. 870–1198)
Kings of Bohemia (1085–1092, 1158–1172, 1198–1918)
See also
List of rulers of Czechs
List of Bohemian consorts
01
Bohemia
Bohemia, Rulers | [
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223910 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robben%20Ford | Robben Ford | Robben Lee Ford (born December 16, 1951) is an American blues, jazz, and rock guitarist. He was a member of the L.A. Express and Yellowjackets and has collaborated with Miles Davis, Joni Mitchell, George Harrison, Larry Carlton, Rick Springfield, Little Feat and Kiss. He was named one of the "100 Greatest Guitarists of the 20th Century" by Musician magazine.
Early life
Robben Ford was born in Woodlake, California, United States, and raised in Ukiah, California. He began playing the saxophone at age 10 and the guitar at age 14. Robben and two of his brothers (Patrick and Mark) created the Charles Ford Blues Band in honor of and named after their father. A fourth brother died in the Vietnam conflict.
Career
At age 18, Ford's band was hired to play with Charlie Musselwhite, and recorded two albums The Charles Ford Band and Discovering the Blues. He recorded two albums with Jimmy Witherspoon called Live and Spoonful. In the 1970s, Ford joined the jazz fusion band, L.A. Express, led by saxophonist Tom Scott. In 1974, the band supported George Harrison on his American tour and played on the Joni Mitchell albums The Hissing of Summer Lawns and Miles of Aisles.
After leaving the L.A. Express in 1976, Robben Ford recorded his first solo album, The Inside Story with a band that later became the Yellowjackets.
In 1977, Ford was one of half a dozen or so session players asked to play the guitar solo for the Steely Dan song "Peg." In the end, the group went with the version by Jay Graydon instead. In 2006, a tribute album to Steely Dan – The Royal Dan – was released, with Ford covering "Peg" in his own style.
In 1982, Ford was one of several guitarists who appeared on the KISS album Creatures of the Night, playing lead guitar on the songs "Rock And Roll Hell" and "I Still Love You".
Ford worked briefly with Miles Davis in 1986; and can be heard on Davis' Montreux box set. Ford released his second solo album Talk to Your Daughter in 1988. He joined Philippe Saisse, Marcus Miller and J.T. Lewis in the cast of The Sunday Night Band for the second and final season of the late-night NBC television program Sunday Night in 1989. In the 1990s, he released the albums Robben Ford and the Blue Line, Mystic Mile, Handful of Blues, Tiger Walk and Supernatural.
Robben Ford has received five Grammy Award nominations and was named one of the "100 Greatest Guitarists of the 20th Century" by Musician magazine. He credited pianist and arranger Roger Kellaway and saxophonist and arranger Tom Scott, whom he met while playing for Joni Mitchell, as a major influence on his musical development.
Equipment
Guitars
Ford considers his first good electric a Guild Starfire III with a single Florentine (sharp) cutaway. He used a Gibson L-5 when he played with Charlie Musselwhite and the Ford Band, although he never thought it was a great guitar. While playing with Jimmy Witherspoon, Ford traded the L-5, plus $200, for a Super 400. When Ford began playing with the L.A. Express and Joni Mitchell, he used a 1958 Gibson dot-neck ES-335.
After Ford's Talk to Your Daughter album was released in 1988, Robben used a Robben Ford Signature model guitar created in a collaboration with Dan Smith of Fender and produced in Japan between 1987 and 1993. That guitar was based on the Fender Master Series Esprit Ultra that was produced from 1983 to 1986 in Japan. In 1987, new management at Fender authorized the first production of the Robben Ford Signature guitar. In 1994, production of the guitar moved from Japan to the Fender Custom Shop. Three models were produced: Ultra FM (with a carved maple top), Ultra SP (with a carved spruce top), and the Elite FM (with a carved flame maple top). The guitar line continued to be produced until 2002 when it was discontinued by Fender.
Sometimes he plays a vintage 1960 Fender Telecaster, Gibson Les Pauls, or a 1963 Gibson SG. Ford also owns other guitars including a 1966 Epiphone Riviera (with the original Bigsby tremolo removed and replaced with a stop tailpiece).
In a May 1–16, 2017 tour which ended in Niagara Falls NY, Ford debuted a newly acquired 1953 Gibson Les Paul.
Amplifiers
Robben Ford uses Dumble Amplifiers and Celestion G12-65 speakers. In 1983, Alexander "Howard" Dumble made Robben's first Dumble Overdrive Special (serial #002) for Robben. Dumble himself is the owner of serial #001.
When traveling abroad he prefers taking his Dumble, but will sometimes use Fender Super Reverb or Fender Twin amplifiers. More recently Robben has been using Little Walter amplifiers at home and in the studio.
Discography
As leader
Schizophonic (LA International, 1976)
Live Jimmy Witherspoon & Robben Ford (LAX, 1977)
The Inside Story (Elektra, 1979)
Standing on the Outside (Lakeside, 1983)
Talk to Your Daughter (Warner Bros., 1988)
Minor Elegance with Joe Diorio (MGI, 1989)
Robben Ford & the Blue Line (Stretch, 1992)
Live at the Notodden Blues Festival with Jimmy Witherspoon (Blue Rock'it, 1992)
Mystic Mile (Stretch, 1993)
Handful of Blues (Stretch, 1995)
Ain't Nothin' New About the Blues with Jimmy Witherspoon (AIM, 1995)
Blues Connotation (ITM, 1997)
The Authorized Bootleg (Blue Thumb, 1997)
Discovering the Blues (Avenue, 1997)
Tiger Walk (Blue Thumb, 1997)
Sunrise (Avenue, 1999)
Supernatural (GRP, 1999)
A Tribute to Paul Butterfield (Blue Rock'it, 2001)
Blue Moon (Concord, 2002)
Keep On Running (Concord, 2003)
Truth (Concord, 2007)
Soul on Ten (Concord, 2009)
Bullet with Renegade Creation (Blues Bureau, 2012)
Bringing It Back Home (Provogue, 2013)
A Day in Nashville (Provogue, 2014)
Into the Sun (Provogue, 2015)
Purple House (Ear Music, 2018)
The Sun Room (Ear Music, 2019)
Pure (Ear Music, 2021)
As sideman
With Jing Chi (Jimmy Haslip, Vinnie Colaiuta)
Jing Chi (Tone Center 2002)
Jing Chi Live at Yoshi's (Shrapnel 2003)
3D (Tone Center 2004)
Supremo (Tone Center 2017)
With Jerry Granelli
A Song I Thought I Heard Buddy (Sing ITM, 1992)
Dance Hall (Justin Time 2017)
Koputai (ITM, 1990)
One Day at a Time (ITM, 1990)
With Kazu Matsui Project
Kazu Matsui Project featuring Robben Ford - Standing on the Outside (1983)
With Keiko Matsui
A Drop of Water (Japan, 1986)
Under Northern Lights (Japan, 1988)
No Borders (MCA, 1990)
With Michael McDonald
If That's What It Takes (Warner Bros., 1982)
No Lookin' Back (Warner Bros., 1985)
Blink of an Eye (Reprise, 1993)
With Charlie Musselwhite
Louisiana Fog (Cherry Red, 1968)
Takin' My Time (Arhoolie, 1971)
Goin' Back Down South (Arhoolie, 1974)
Tell Me Where Have All the Good Times Gone? (Blue Rock'it, 1984)
One Night in America (Telarc, 2001)
With Tom Scott
Tom Cat (Ode, 1975)
Reed My Lips (GRP, 1994)
Night Creatures (GRP, 1995)
Bluestreak (GRP, 1996)
With Yellowjackets
Yellowjackets (Warner Bros., 1981)
Mirage a Trois (Warner Bros., 1983)
Run for Your Life (GRP, 1994)
Timeline (Mack Avenue, 2011)
With Jennifer Warnes
Famous Blue Raincoat (Attic, 1986)
The Hunter (Attic, 1992)
With others
Gregg Bissonette, Submarine (Favored Nations, 2000)
David Blue, Com'n Back for More (Asylum, 1975)
Perry Botkin Jr., Ports (A&M, 1977)
Chris Cain, So Many Miles (Blue Rock'it, 2010)
Larry Carlton, Live in Tokyo (335 Records, 2007)
Larry Carlton, Unplugged (335 Records, 2013)
Julie Christensen, Love Is Driving (Stone Cupid, 1996)
Randy Crawford, Secret Combination (Warner Bros., 1981)
A. J. Croce, A. J. Croce (Private Music, 1993)
A. J. Croce, That's Me in the Bar (Private Music, 1995)
A. J. Croce, By Request (Compass Records, 2021)
Tiffany Darwish, New Inside (MCA, 1990)
Miles Davis, Tutu (Warner Bros., 2011)
DeBarge, All This Love (Gordy, 1982)
Bob Dylan, Under the Red Sky (Columbia, 1990)
Richard Elliot, Initial Approach (ITI, 1984)
Tommy Emmanuel, Can't Get Enough (Columbia, 1996)
Tommy Emmanuel, Midnight Drive (Higher Octave, 1997)
Bill Evans, Big Fun (ESC, 2002)
Georgie Fame, Cool Cat Blues (Go Jazz, 1991)
Brandon Fields, The Other Side of the Story (Nova, 1988)
Anne Kerry Ford, In the Nest of the Moon (Illyria, 1996)
Ruthie Foster, The Truth According to Ruthie Foster (Shock, 2009)
Kenny Garrett, Old Folks (West Wind, 1999)
Dizzy Gillespie, Rhythmstick (1990)
Joni Mitchell, Miles of Aisles (Asylum, 1974)
Joni Mitchell, The Hissing of Summer Lawns (Asylum, 1975)
Arlo Guthrie, Power of Love (Warner Bros., 1981)
Charlie Haden, Helium Tears (NewEdition, 2005)
George Harrison, Dark Horse (Apple, 1974)
Amy Holland, On Your Every Word (Capitol, 1983)
Christian Howes, Out of the Blue (Resonance, 2010)
Rickie Lee Jones, Pop Pop (Geffen, 1991)
Marc Jordan, A Hole in the Wall (Airplay, 1989)
Kiss, Music from "The Elder" (Casablanca, 1981)
Greg Koch, Plays Well with Others (2013)
Dave Koz, Lucky Man (Capitol, 1993)
L.A. Express, L.A. Express (Caribou, 1976)
Michael Landau, Renegade Creation (Blues Bureau, 2010)
Sonny Landreth, From the Reach (Landfall, 2008)
Neil Larsen, Orbit (Straight Ahead, 2007)
Ricky Lawson, First Things First (Videoarts, 1998)
Ute Lemper, Crimes of the Heart (CBS, 1989)
Little Feat, Down On the Farm (Warner Bros., 1979)
Little Feat, Hoy-Hoy! (Warner Bros., 1990)
Kenny Loggins, Celebrate Me Home (Columbia, 1977)
Jeff Lorber, Step It Up (Heads Up, 2015)
Bob Malach, The Searcher (Go Jazz, 1995)
Barry Manilow, Here Comes the Night (Arista, 1982)
Barry Manilow, Oh Julie! (Arista, 1982)
Herbie Mann, Opalescence (Gaia, 1989)
Eric Marienthal, Oasis (GRP, 1991)
Eric Marienthal, Turn Up the Heat (Peak, 2001)
John Mayall, In the Palace of the King (Eagle 2007)
Amanda McBroom, Dreaming (Gecko, 1986)
Amanda McBroom, Midnight Matinee (Analogue, 1991)
Brownie McGhee, Facts of Life (Blue Rock'it, 1985)
Keb' Mo', Keep It Simple (Epic/Okeh, 2004)
John Kaizan Neptune, West of Somewhere (Milestone, 1981)
John Kaizan Neptune, Mixed Bag (Eastworld, 1983)
Claus Ogerman, Claus Ogerman Featuring Michael Brecker (GRP, 1991)
Brad Paisley, American Saturday Night (Arista, 2009)
Paul Personne, Lost in Paris Blues Band (Verycords, 2016)
Shawn Phillips, Do You Wonder (A&M, 1975)
Bonnie Raitt, Luck of the Draw (Capitol, 1991)
Kenny Rankin, Hiding in Myself (Cypress, 1988)
Rudy Rotta, Some of My Favorite Songs for... Pepper (Cake, 2006)
Leon Russell, Life Journey (Universal, 2014)
David Sanborn, Hearsay (Elektra, 1994)
Marilyn Scott, Without Warning! (Mercury, 1983)
Barbra Streisand, Streisand Superman (Columbia, 1977)
Sanne Salomonsen, In a New York Minute (Virgin, 1998)
Rick Springfield, Working Class Dog (RCA, 1980)
Supersonic Blues Machine, West of Flushing South of Frisco (Provogue, 2016)
Supersonic Blues Machine, Californisoul (Provogue, 2017)
Eric Tagg, Dreamwalkin (Pony Canyon, 2015)
Toots Thielemans, East Coast West Coast (Private Music, 1994)
William Topley, Mixed Blessing (Mercury, 1998)
Walter Trout, We're All in This Together (Provogue, 2017)
Carl Verheyen, Trading 8s (Cranktone, 2009)
Sadao Watanabe, Encore! (JVC, 2017)
Steve Weingart, Life Times Vol. 01 (Skeewa Music, 2003)
Bruce Willis, If It Don't Kill You It Just Makes You Stronger (Motown, 1989)
Jimmy Witherspoon, Spoonful (Blue Note, 1975)
Jimmy Witherspoon, Live at the Mint (On the Spot, 1996)
Tsuyoshi Yamamoto, Another Holiday (Warner Bros., 1985)
Jesse Colin Young, The Perfect Stranger (Elektra, 1982)
Videos
Robben Ford and the Blue Line: In Concert (Recorded April 7, 1993)
Robben Ford: New Morning - The Paris Concert (Recorded May, 2001)
Playing the Blues (2002)
The Blues and Beyond (2002)
Back to the Blues (2004)
Autour Du Blues: Larry Carlton and Robben Ford (2006)
The Robben Ford Clinic: The Art of Blues Rhythm (2007)
Robben Ford: In Concert: Revisited (2008)
The Robben Ford Clinic: The Art of Blues Solos (2009)
Robben Ford Trio: New Morning the Paris Concert: Revisited (2009)
References
External links
Official website
1951 births
Living people
People from Ukiah, California
People from Woodlake, California
Guitarists from California
Jazz musicians from California
20th-century American guitarists
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American guitarists
21st-century American male musicians
American blues guitarists
American jazz guitarists
American male guitarists
American rock guitarists
Lead guitarists
American male jazz musicians
Elektra Records artists
MCA Records artists
Warner Records artists
Yellowjackets members
Provogue Records artists | [
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223911 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%20Darnley | Lord Darnley | Lord Darnley is a noble title associated with a Scottish Lordship of Parliament, first created in 1356 for the family of Stewart of Darnley and tracing a descent to the Dukedom of Richmond in England. The title's name refers to Darnley in Scotland. Outside the Peerage of Scotland, another Earldom of Darnley was created in the Peerage of Ireland in 1729.
Early history
The first baron was Sir John Stewart of Darnley. His descendant, John Stewart, 1st Earl of Lennox, was created Earl of Lennox in 1488. Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox (1516–1571), was the father of Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley (1545–1567) (later created Duke of Albany), better known as "Lord Darnley", a courtesy title, his father holding that title, who became the husband of Mary, Queen of Scots, and thus father of King James VI and I (1566–1625).
Together with Lord Ruthven and others, Darnley openly murdered David Rizzio in Holyrood Palace in March 1566. Mary thereafter distanced herself from Darnley.
On 10 February 1567, Darnley died when his residence was destroyed by a bomb whilst his wife, Mary, Queen of Scots, attended a party. Darnley and his groom were found dead at the scene with marks on their necks (possibly they were strangled) and next to them lay a knife with which they had been stabbed. The suspected murderer, James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, married Mary one month after he was acquitted and released from jail.
Later history
With the elevation of the Earldom of Lennox to a dukedom in 1581 the barony of Darnley retained its link with Lennox and in 1612 the Dukedom of Richmond was added to the title and remained so after its extinction and revival in 1675. The subsidiary Earldom of Darnley was revived at the same time.
References
Lordships of Parliament
Darnley
Extinct lordships of Parliament
Noble titles created in 1572
Noble titles created in 1578 | [
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223912 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Hepburn%20%28bishop%29 | James Hepburn (bishop) | James Hepburn (died 1524) was a Scottish prelate and administrator. He was the son of Alexander Hepburn of Whitsome. His name occurs as the rector of Dalry and king's clerk on 1 August 1511. Hepburn was Treasurer of Scotland between from at least June 1515, until October the following year. He also held the position of rector of Parton in the diocese of Galloway.
He was elected Bishop of Moray sometime before 12 February 1516, on the nomination of the Governor of Scotland, John Stewart, Duke of Albany, following the translation of Bishop Andrew Forman to the Archbishopric of St Andrews.
Hepburn had been granted the temporalities of the see by 28 August. With his provision by Pope Leo X on 14 May 1516, he received a Bull exempting him from the metropolitan and legatine jurisdiction of the Archbishop of St Andrews. Although Archbishop Forman (d. 1521) had consented to this, his successor James Beaton resented it, and wrote to a senior Cardinal as a part of a wider attempt to have this reversed.
Among other activities as during his short episcopate, Hepburn instituted the church of Duffus as a new rectory. He died shortly before 11 November 1524.
Notes
References
Dowden, John, The Bishops of Scotland, ed. J. Maitland Thomson, (Glasgow, 1912)
Keith, Robert, An Historical Catalogue of the Scottish Bishops: Down to the Year 1688, (London, 1924)
Watt, D.E.R., Fasti Ecclesiae Scoticanae Medii Aevi ad annum 1638, 2nd Draft, (St Andrews, 1969)
15th-century births
1524 deaths
Bishops of Moray
People from Berwickshire
16th-century Scottish Roman Catholic bishops
Treasurers of Scotland | [
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223913 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet%20Suzman | Janet Suzman | Dame Janet Suzman, (born 9 February 1939) is a South African-born British actress who enjoyed a successful early career in the Royal Shakespeare Company, later replaying many Shakespearean roles, among others, on TV. In her first film, Nicholas and Alexandra (1971), her performance as Empress Alexandra Feodorovna earned her several honours, including a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress.
Suzman later starred in a wide range of classical and modern drama as well as directing many productions, both in Britain and South Africa. She is a niece of Helen Suzman, South African politician and anti-apartheid campaigner. Suzman herself appeared in a film that looked closely at the apartheid issue, A Dry White Season (1989).
Early life
Janet Suzman was born in Johannesburg to a Jewish family, the daughter of Betty (née Sonnenberg) and Saul Suzman, a wealthy tobacco importer.
Her grandfather, Max Sonnenberg, was a member of the South African parliament, and her aunt was the civil rights/anti-apartheid campaigner, Helen Suzman. Suzman was educated at the independent school Kingsmead College, Johannesburg, and at the University of the Witwatersrand, where she studied English and French. She moved to London in 1959.
Stage career
After training for the stage at the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art, Suzman made her debut as Liz in Billy Liar at the Tower Theatre, Ipswich, in 1962. She became a member of the Royal Shakespeare Company in 1963 and started her career there as Joan of Arc in The Wars of The Roses (1962–64). The RSC gave her the opportunity to play many of the Shakespearean heroines, including Rosaline in Love's Labour's Lost, Portia in The Merchant of Venice, Ophelia in Hamlet, Kate in The Taming of the Shrew, Beatrice in Much Ado About Nothing, Celia and Rosalind in As You Like It, Lavinia in Titus Andronicus and her Cleopatra, magisterial, ardent and seductive, in 1973, which is said to have been a definitive performance. (An ATV/ITC television production, Antony and Cleopatra, was broadcast in 1974 in the UK and was shown internationally.) Although her stage appearances tended to run naturally towards Shakespeare and the classics, including Ibsen's Hedda Gabler, Chekhov's The Three Sisters, Marlowe, Racine, Gorky and Brecht, she also appeared in plays by Genet, Pinter, Ronald Harwood, Nicholson, Albee and others.
Films and TV
She appeared in many British television drama productions in the 1960s and early 1970s, including Saint Joan (1968), The Three Sisters (1970), Macbeth (1970), Hedda Gabler (1972), Twelfth Night (1973), as Hilda Lessways in Clayhanger (1976), as Lady Mountbatten in Lord Mountbatten: The Last Viceroy (1985) and Dennis Potter's The Singing Detective (1986). Her first film role was in Nicholas and Alexandra (1972), and she was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress, the BAFTA and the Golden Globe for her portrayal of the Empress Alexandra. This was followed by A Day in the Death of Joe Egg (1972) opposite Alan Bates. In addition to the 1974 television version of Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra, she also appeared as "Frosine" in the BBC's Theatre Night 1988 production of The Miser opposite Nigel Hawthorne as "Harpagon" and Jim Broadbent as Maitre Jacques. Another role was that of Frieda Lawrence in Priest of Love (1981).
Suzman has made few films since, the best-known being Don Siegel's The Black Windmill (1974), Nijinsky (1980), Peter Greenaway's The Draughtsman's Contract (1982), Federico Fellini's E la Nave Va (And the Ship Sails On 1983), A Dry White Season (1989) with Marlon Brando and Nuns on the Run (1990; a rare comedic role). In 2020 Suzman appeared in the Netflix production of The Crown as the literary agent of Michael Shea, the Queen's press secretary. The episode dealt with the rift between Buckingham Palace and Margaret Thatcher over the prime minister's refusal to back Commonwealth sanctions against South Africa. The episode also inferred that Mrs Thatcher's stance might have been linked to her son Mark's business interests in South Africa.
Later activities
In her native South Africa she directed Othello, which was also televised, and Brecht's The Good Woman of Setzuan (renamed The Good Woman of Sharpeville) both at the Market Theatre, Johannesburg. She also toured her modern adaptation of Chekhov's The Cherry Orchard - a South African response entitled The Free State. She wrote, starred in and directed this piece with the Birmingham Repertory Theatre. Other productions with Suzman as director included A Dream of People at the RSC, The Cruel Grasp at the Edinburgh Festival, Feydeau's No Flies on Mr Hunter (Chelsea Centre, 1992), Death of a Salesman (Theatr Clwyd, 1993), and Pam Gems's The Snow Palace (Tour and Tricycle Theatre, 1998).
In 2002, she returned to the RSC to perform in a new version of The Hollow Crown with Sir Donald Sinden, Ian Richardson and Sir Derek Jacobi. In 2005, she appeared in the West End in a revival of Brian Clark's 1978 play Whose Life Is It Anyway? starring Kim Cattrall. In 2006 she directed Hamlet and in 2007 she played Volumnia in Coriolanus in Stratford-upon-Avon, for which she received excellent notices. In 2010, she appeared in Dream of the Dog, a new South African play, at the Finborough Theatre, London, which subsequently transferred to the West End. Suzman wrote Acting With Shakespeare: Three Comedies, a book based on a series of acting master classes.
In 2014, Suzman was criticized for comments regarding arts participation in the theater. In response to a call by Meera Syal to engage in more diverse audiences, Suzman inaccurately referred to theater as "a white invention, a European invention."
Personal life and honours
Her marriage (1969–86) to director Trevor Nunn ended in divorce; they have one son, Joshua. Suzman is a patron of Dignity in Dying and campaigns for a change in the law on assisted dying.
Suzman was appointed Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2011 Birthday Honours for services to drama. Her aunt, Helen Suzman, was appointed Honorary Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1989 for her anti-apartheid activism.
Janet Suzman holds Honorary D.Litt. degrees from the Universities of Warwick, Leicester, London (QMW), Southampton, Middlesex, Kingston, Cape Town University Edge Hill University and Buckingham University. She is an Honorary Fellow of the Shakespeare Institute, and was awarded the Pragnell Award for lifetime services to Shakespeare in 2012.
She is a patron of the London International Festival of Theatre.
Filmography
Reference:
References
External links
Janet Suzman at Who's Who Southern Africa
1939 births
Living people
Alumni of the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art
British stage actresses
British film actresses
British television actresses
British film directors
Jewish British actresses
People from Johannesburg
Royal Shakespeare Company members
South African stage actresses
South African film actresses
South African television actresses
South African film directors
South African women film directors
South African Jews
Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Actresses awarded British damehoods
South African emigrants to the United Kingdom
South African people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent
British people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent
University of the Witwatersrand alumni | [
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223917 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Cecil | William Cecil | William Cecil may refer to:
Lord William Cecil (courtier) (1854–1943), British royal courtier
Lord William Cecil (bishop) (1863–1936), Bishop of Exeter, 1916–1936
William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley (1520–1598), English politician and advisor to Elizabeth I
William Cecil, 2nd Earl of Exeter (1566–1640), Knight of the Garter
William Cecil, 2nd Earl of Salisbury (1591–1668), Knight of the Garter
William Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Exeter (1825–1895), member of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
William Cecil, 5th Marquess of Exeter (1876–1956), recipient of the Territorial Decoration
William Cecil, 7th Marquess of Exeter (1909–1988), son of William Cecil, 5th Marquess of Exeter
William Cecil, 17th Baron de Ros (1590–1618), Baron in the Peerage of England
William Amherst Vanderbilt Cecil (1928–2017), operator of the Biltmore Estate
William Cecil Ross (1911–1998), politician in Manitoba, Canada
William Cecil Slingsby (1849–1929), English mountain climber and alpine explorer | [
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223922 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl%20of%20Beaconsfield | Earl of Beaconsfield | Earl of Beaconsfield, of Hughenden in the County of Buckingham, was a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1876 for Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, a favourite of Queen Victoria. Victoria favoured Disraeli's Tory policies over those of his Liberal rival, William Ewart Gladstone. Disraeli had also promoted the Royal Titles Act 1876 that had given Victoria the title of Empress of India. The subsidiary title of the earldom was Viscount Hughenden, of Hughenden in the County of Buckingham, also in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.
In 1868, at the end of his first term as prime minister, Disraeli's wife Mary had been created Viscountess Beaconsfield, of Beaconsfield in the County of Buckingham, in her own right, allowing her husband to remain a member of the House of Commons. Lady Beaconsfield died in 1872. When Disraeli became an earl in 1876 he automatically lost his seat in the Commons but remained prime minister, leading his government from the House of Lords.
Beaconsfield is the name of a town in the county of Buckinghamshire. For most of his parliamentary career, Disraeli served as a member for Buckinghamshire. He owned an estate, Hughenden Manor, in the nearby town of High Wycombe, but never lived in Beaconsfield. His choice of title might have been partly influenced by the fact that in 1794 the conservative political philosopher and parliamentarian Edmund Burke, whom Disraeli admired, had turned down King George III's offer to raise him to the peerage as Lord Beaconsfield.
In 1878, Disraeli refused Queen Victoria's offer to make him a duke, accepting instead membership in the Order of the Garter. The Disraelis died without direct heirs and their titles became extinct; Hughenden Manor passed to Lord Beaconsfield's nephew Coningsby Disraeli.
Earls of Beaconsfield (1876)
Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield (1804–1881)
Viscountess Beaconsfield (1868)
Mary Anne Disraeli, 1st Viscountess Beaconsfield (1792–1872)
References
1876 establishments in the United Kingdom
1881 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Extinct earldoms in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
Noble titles created in 1876
Noble titles created for UK MPs
Beaconsfield
Benjamin Disraeli | [
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223924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daihatsu | Daihatsu | , commonly known as Daihatsu, is a Japanese automobile manufacturer and one of the oldest surviving Japanese internal combustion engine manufacturers. The headquarters are located in Ikeda, Osaka Prefecture.
Historically, it was well known for building three-wheeled vehicles and off-road vehicles, while currently the company offers a range of kei car models, along with kei trucks, kei vans and other larger small cars in Japan. The company also produces entry-level compact cars in Japan and Southeast Asia, which are also supplied to global emerging markets under the Toyota brand.
, its presence has been limited to Japan, Indonesia, and Malaysia (as Perodua), where the company has significant research and development resources, manufacturing facilities and sales operations.
The company has been a wholly-owned subsidiary of the Toyota Motor Corporation since August 2016. , Daihatsu sales account for 4 per cent of total Toyota Group vehicle sales.
Name
The name "Daihatsu" is a combination of the first kanji for Ōsaka (大) and the first of the word . In the new combination the reading of the "大" is changed from "ō" to "dai", giving "dai hatsu".
History
Daihatsu was formed in March 1951 as a successor to Hatsudoki Seizo Co. Ltd, founded in 1907, as part of Hatsudoki's major restructure. Hatsudoki's formation was largely influenced by the Engineering Department's faculty of Osaka University, to develop a gasoline-powered engine for small, stationary power plants. From the beginning of the company until 1930, when a prototype three-wheeler truck was considered and proposed, Hatsudoki's focus was largely steam engines for Japanese National Railways and included rail carriages for passenger transportation. The company then focused on railroad diesel engines, working with Niigata Engineering, and Shinko Engineering Co., Ltd. Before the company began to manufacture automobiles, their primary Japanese competitor was Yanmar for diesel engines that weren't installed in a commercial truck to provide motivation.
The company's decision to focus on automobile production and related technologies was influenced by the early days of automobile manufacturing in Japan during the late 1920s and 1930s, when both Ford and General Motors had opened factories in Japan and enjoyed a considerable market share. Ford opened a factory at Yokohama in March 1925 and in 1927 GM opened Osaka Assembly until both factories were appropriated by the Imperial Japanese Government before World War II.
During the 1960s, Daihatsu began exporting its range to Europe, where it did not have major sales success until well into the 1980s. In Japan, the majority of Daihatsu models occupies the kei jidōsha (or kei car) segment.
Daihatsu was an independent automaker until Toyota became a major shareholder in 1967 as the Japanese government intended to open up the domestic market. According to Toyota, it was first approached by Sanwa Bank, banker of Daihatsu. In 1995, Toyota increased its shareholding in the company from 16.8 percent to 33.4 percent by acquiring shares from other shareholders: banks and insurance companies. At the time, the company was producing mini-vehicles and some small cars under contract for Toyota. Toyota, by owning more than a one-third stake, would be able to veto shareholder resolutions at the annual meeting. In 1998, Toyota increased its holding in the company to 51.2 percent by purchasing shares from its major shareholders including financial institutions.
Daihatsu pulled out of the European market by 2013, citing the persistently strong yen, which makes it difficult for the company to make a profit from its export business. Following the financial crisis of 2007–2008 Daihatsu's sales in Europe plummeted, from 58,000 in 2007 to 12,000 in 2011.
In August 2011, Daihatsu invested 20 billion yen ($238.9 million) in Indonesia to build a factory that produces low-cost cars under the Low Cost Green Car scheme. The construction had been initialized on 70,000 square meters on May 27, 2011 and started operations at the end of 2012, producing up to 100,000 cars per year.
In August 2016, Daihatsu became a wholly owned subsidiary of Toyota Motor Corporation. In January 2017, Daihatsu and Toyota jointly established an internal company to develop compact vehicles for emerging markets called the 'Emerging-market Compact Car Company'. Under the internal company, Daihatsu is responsible of product planning and quality planning of the vehicles, while both Toyota and Daihatsu are jointly responsible of product and business planning. To support the company, Toyota Motor Asia Pacific Engineering and Manufacturing Co., Ltd. (TMAP-EM) in Thailand was renamed to Toyota Daihatsu Engineering and Manufacturing Co., Ltd. (TDEM).
In October 2016, Daihatsu and Toyota announced a new vehicle architecture called the Daihatsu New Global Architecture (DNGA) was being developed. The second-generation Mira e:S was revealed as the first DNGA model in 2017, although the company later revised the definition of DNGA and launched the fourth-generation Tanto claiming it as the first DNGA model instead.
Company timeline
1907 – Hatsudoki Seizo Co., Ltd. founded
1951 – Company renamed: Daihatsu Motor Co., Ltd.
1963 – Daihatsu Compagno which utilized multiple bodystyles on one platform was presented. The long running D logo introduced.
1964 – The millionth Daihatsu is built on September 1.
1965 – The Daihatsu Compagno Berlina went on sale in the United Kingdom, the first Japanese car to be marketed there.
1967 – Starts cooperation with Toyota Motor Corporation
1969 – The two millionth Daihatsu is built.
1971 – First generation of the Daihatsu Delta Truck model launched in Japan, a Toyota influenced four wheeled six ton cargo lorry.
1975 – Begins to supply diesel engines to the original SEMAL motor vehicle company of Portugal for the new PORTARO 4X4 and TAGUS 4X4 offroad vehicles.
1980 – Daihatsu builds its three millionth kei car
1987 – Daihatsu enters the US automotive market with the Hijet
1988 – Daihatsu introduces the Rocky and Charade in the US market
1992 – Daihatsu shuts down US sales in February and ceases production of US-spec vehicles
1998 – Toyota gains a controlling interest (51.2%) in Daihatsu Motor Co., Ltd.
2011 – Daihatsu states that sales of Daihatsu motor cars will cease across Europe on January 31, 2013
2011 – Daihatsu invests 20 billion yen ($238.9 million) in Indonesia to build a factory that produces low-cost cars.
2016 – Toyota purchases Daihatsu's remaining assets, and therefore makes Daihatsu a wholly owned subsidiary
Export markets
Daihatsu's first export was in 1953, and by 1980 half a million Daihatsu vehicles had been exported. In 1979 a European main office was established in Brussels, tasked with controlling and expanding Western European exports. Since the late 1990s, its exports have been steadily contracting. This has been partially offset by the sale of Daihatsu vehicles through the Toyota channel, and the sale of technology to Malaysia's Perodua. Daihatsu has also supplied cars under different badges to various automakers in the past. The company currently provides engines and transmissions to Malaysia's Perodua, which manufactures and markets rebadged Daihatsu cars locally, and sold a small number of Perodua cars in the United Kingdom and Ireland until 2012.
Asia and Oceania
Following the 1997 Asian financial crisis, Daihatsu closed their plants in Thailand and withdrew from the market entirely. Until withdrawing in March 1998 they had mostly been selling the Mira range in Thailand; the Mira was also built there with certain local modifications.
After the launch of Perodua, Daihatsu's Malaysian operations were scaled down to concentrate exclusively on the commercial vehicles market, selling its Delta and Gran Max commercial truck chassis; Daihatsu had formerly sold Charades and Miras in the country since it first began operations in Malaysia as a joint venture in 1980. In Indonesia, Daihatsu remains a major player.
It was reported on March 31, 2005 that Toyota would withdraw Daihatsu from the Australian market after sales fell heavily in the years leading up, in spite of the overall new-car market in Australia growing 7%. Daihatsu ended its Australian operations in March 2006 after almost 40 years there. At the time the marque sold the Charade, Copen, Delta, Sirion and Terios models.
Toyota New Zealand announced on April 8, 2013 that sales of new Daihatsu vehicles in the country would cease by the end of the year, citing a lack of products that would comply with future NZ regulatory standards. No additional new vehicles were being imported as of the announcement date.
The Americas
Daihatsu's operations in Chile, where Daihatsu is well known for its 1970s models such as the Charade or Cuore, were also threatened after low sales in 2004 and 2005. Toyota has stated that it intended to persist in the Chilean market, where only the Terios model was available until it was rebranded as the Toyota Rush in August 2016, as Daihatsu left that market.
In Trinidad and Tobago, Daihatsu has had a market presence since 1958 when its Mark I Midget was a popular choice among market tradesmen. From 1978 until 2001, a local dealer marketed the Charmant, Rocky, Fourtrak, and then later, the Terios and Grand Move which were popular. The Delta chassis remained popular from its introduction in 1985 until today. Toyota Trinidad and Tobago Ltd. (a wholly owned subsidiary of Toyota Japan) now markets Daihatsu Terios, YRV and Sirion under stiff competition.
In the United States, Daihatsus were marketed from 1988 until 1992 but were hampered by the 1990s recession, and that their products had very little impact as the company's compact and fuel economic cars did not align with the perceived needs of American customers. Only the Charade and the Rocky were sold. Beginning in 1987, Daihatsu also sold the Hijet in the United States as an off-road only utility vehicle. The US Head Office was located at 4422 Corporate Center Drive in Los Alamitos, California and is currently the location of Timken Bearing Inspection Inc. Daihatsu and Bombardier Inc. had been planning to open an assembly plant for the Charade in Canada in 1989, with the ultimate goal of building a small car of Bombardier's design to market in North America. These plans came to naught, however. After Daihatsu's withdrawal from the US market, Toyota, which had recently purchased a controlling interest in Daihatsu, continued to provide after-sales support for existing Daihatsu customers through at least 2002.
Europe
European imports began in 1979. The company had little or no presence in countries with protectionist barriers such as France and Spain - where local manufacturers also targeted the same market segment as Daihatsu. Daihatsu sold mainly in the United Kingdom, Germany, and the Netherlands. In Italy, Daihatsu partnered with local small car experts Innocenti in 1982 as a backdoor to several continental markets. The Italian manufacturer used Daihatsu drivetrains in their cars from 1983 until 1993. Beginning in 1992, Piaggio also manufactured the Hijet microvan and truck locally, as the Piaggio Porter, Innocenti Porter, or Daihatsu Hijet. It remains available as of 2020 and is also built in India. In the mid-1980s Daihatsu also briefly imported Charades assembled by Alfa Romeo's South African subsidiary to Italy, in another effort to circumvent import restrictions.
Daihatsu announced on January 13, 2011 that sales of Daihatsu motor cars would cease across Europe on January 31, 2013. This was due to the increasing strength of the Japanese yen, which had increased prices beyond competitive levels. Daihatsu had no stock of new Daihatsu cars in the UK at the time, and did not intend to import any more cars in the interim period.
Africa
From 1983 until 1985, Alfa Romeo's South African branch assembled the Charade for local sales and for export to Italy. In April 2015, Daihatsu pulled out of South Africa.
Electrics and hybrids
Daihatsu has had a long-running development program for electric vehicles, beginning with the production of "pavilion cars" for the 1970 Osaka World Expo and continuing with the production of golf carts and vehicles for institutional use, such as the DBC-1. An electric version of the company's Fellow Max kei car also followed, the beginning of a series of prototypes. The 1973 oil crisis provided further impetus and at the 20th Tokyo Motor Show (1973) Daihatsu displayed a 550 W electric trike (TR-503E), the BCX-III electric car prototype and daihatsu's own EV1. Daihatsu showed more prototypes through the 1970s, for instance at the 1979 Sydney Motor Show, and then joined the Japanese Electric Vehicle Association's PREET program (Public Rent and Electronic Towncar) with an electric version of the Max Cuore kei car. The program allowed registered users access to the cars with a magnetized card and charged according to mileage used.
In November 1974, Daihatsu released the Hallo (ES38V), a tilting trike powered by an electric motor and two 12V batteries.
In December 2011, Daihatsu released the Pico EV Concept, a quadricycle powered by an electric motor.
The company released a mild hybrid technology called the Daihatsu Mild Hybrid System in 2007, and is used in the Hijet/Atrai Hybrid-IV.
In November 2021, Daihatsu released their first mass-produced full hybrid system. Marketed as the "e-Smart Hybrid", it is a series hybrid system as opposed to Toyota's more advanced parallel hybrid technology. The technology was first used by the hybrid version of the A200 series Rocky. It is also used by the Toyota-branded model, the Raize under the common "Hybrid Synergy Drive" branding.
Motorcycles
In 1973, Daihatsu presented an electric tilting trike at the Tokyo Motor Show. This entered production in 1975 as the Hallo. Daihatsu also released a petrol powered version using a 50 cc two-stroke engine.
Logo
Daihatsu is well known with its signature D logo. The D logo debuted in September 1963 on the Compagno as the first automobile with the Daihatsu D logo, although from its establishment in 1951 until 1969, Daihatsu also used a Ford-like logo, with Daihatsu vintage-style wordmark (outside Japan) and Daihatsu wordmark in katakana, written inside an ellipse. Daihatsu also had a second logo, based on a stylized drawing of Osaka Castle. The script logo remained in use as Daihatsu's corporate logo and appeared on Daihatsu product catalogues and brochures until November 1969. Thus, in the 1950s and 1960s Daihatsu was commonly referred to as Japan's Ford, and also as the Japanese equivalent to Ford. In December 1969, this logo was discontinued and Daihatsu officially used the D logo as its corporate logo. Except in Indonesia, the first Daihatsu logo was used in brochures until about 1977 or 1978. The famous D logo is a stylized, modernized version of the D in the earlier logo and resembles the da in katakana.
The D logo as the corporate logo (the white D placed inside the red rectangle), is used from late 1969 onwards. The first version of the D logo, surrounded with circle, used on Daihatsu automobiles from 1963 until 1979. From 1979 to 1989, the D logo is surrounded by a dark grey rectangle. In November 1989, following the launch of Toyota's famous current logo, the D logo is surrounded by an oval, and made in chrome. The chrome D logo is still used until today.
Vehicles
Plants and production
Japan
Daihatsu's first, and oldest factory, called Ikeda Plant 1 was built in May 1939 in Ikeda, Osaka. The second factory was built May 1961 and is called Ikeda Plant 2, which also houses the Osaka HQ office that was established March 1965. The company also maintains an office in Tokyo that was originally opened as Hatsudoki Seizo Co. Ltd. in June 1933 the Daihatsu Building. Daihatsu currently has two factories in Ryūō, Shiga. The first factory was opened in April 1974, and the second one in January 1989. Daihatsu opened a factory in April 1973 in Ōyamazaki, Kyoto. Daihatsu opened two factories in Nakatsu, Ōita starting in November 2004 with Nakatsu Plant 1, followed by Nakatsu Plant 2 in November 2007. The Kurume Plant was opened August 2008 in Kurume. It also houses the Daihatsu Group Kyushu Development Center which opened in 2014.
, the following vehicles are built by Daihatsu in Japan:
Overseas
Through its majority-owned subsidiary Astra Daihatsu Motor, Daihatsu operates two plants in Indonesia. One is in Karawang, and the other in Sunter, Jakarta. The Malaysian car manufacturer Perodua, in which Daihatsu has a minority stake, operates two factories in Rawang, Selangor.
Notes
References
External links
Daihatsu (official site in Japanese)
Daihatsu (English site)
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1907
Car manufacturers of Japan
Companies based in Osaka Prefecture
Engine manufacturers of Japan
Toyota brands and marques
Toyota subsidiaries
Truck manufacturers of Japan
Diesel engine manufacturers
Japanese brands
Japanese companies established in 1907
Midori-kai
Toyota Group
2016 mergers and acquisitions
Companies formerly listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange | [
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223925 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy%20Gish | Dorothy Gish | Dorothy Elizabeth Gish (March 11, 1898June 4, 1968) was an American actress of the screen and stage, as well as a director and writer. Dorothy and her older sister Lillian Gish were major movie stars of the silent era. Dorothy also had great success on the stage, and was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame. Dorothy Gish was noted as a fine comedian, and many of her films were comedies.
Early life
Dorothy Gish was born in Dayton, Ohio. She had an older sister, Lillian. The Gish sisters' mother, Mary Robinson McConnell Gish, supported the family after her husband James Leigh Gish, a traveling salesman, abandoned the family in New York. Mary Gish, who was "a former actress and department store clerk", moved with her daughters to East St. Louis, Illinois, where she opened a candy and catering business. In 1902, at the age of four, Dorothy made her stage debut portraying the character "Little Willie" in East Lynne, an adaptation of the 1861 English novel by Ellen Wood.
In 1910, she heard from her husband's brother, Grant Gish, who lived in Shawnee, Oklahoma and informed her that James was ill. He was in a hospital in nearby Norman, Oklahoma, so Mary sent 17-year-old Lillian to visit him. At first, Lillian wrote back to her 12-year-old sister Dorothy that she planned to stay in Oklahoma and continue her education, but after seeing her father she admitted she missed her mother and sister. So, after a few months away from them, in the spring of 1912, she traveled back. Soon afterward, their childhood friend, actress Mary Pickford, introduced the sisters to director D. W. Griffith, and they began performing as extras at the Biograph Studios in New York at salaries of 50 dollars a week. During his initial work with the sisters, Griffith found it difficult to distinguish one from the other, so he had Lillian wear a blue ribbon in her hair and Dorothy a red one. The girls, especially Lillian, impressed the director, so he included them in the entourage of cast and crew he took to California to produce films there.
Career
Dorothy and her sister both debuted in Griffith's 1912 production An Unseen Enemy. She would ultimately perform in over 100 short films and features, many times with Lillian. Throughout her own career, however, Dorothy had to contend with ongoing comparisons to her elder or "big" sister by film critics, fellow actors, studio executives, and by other insiders in the motion picture industry. Such comparisons began even from the outset of the sisters' work for Biograph. Linda Arvidson, Griffith's first wife, recalls their initial work for the studio in her autobiography When The Movies Were Young:
Near-fatal accident, 1914
Dorothy Gish's budding film career almost ended on a street in Los Angeles on Thanksgiving Day in 1914. On Friday, November 26, the 16-year-old actress was struck and nearly killed by a "racing automobile". Newspapers and film-industry publications at the time reported the event and described the severe injuries Gish sustained. The near-fatal accident occurred as Dorothy was walking with Lillian at the intersection of Vermont and Prospect avenues. According to news reports, after the car struck her, it dragged her along the street for 40 to 50 feet. Other movie personnel who were standing together on a nearby sidewalk, including D. W. Griffith, witnessed Dorothy being hit. The following day, the Los Angeles Times informed its readers about the accident:
Subsequent news reports also describe the reaction of other pedestrians at the scene. The Chicago Sunday Tribune and trade papers reported that Dorothy's "horrified friends" rushed to her aid, with Griffith being among those who lifted the unconscious teenager into an ambulance and reportedly rode with her in the emergency vehicle. In addition to Gish's initial examination by the doctor identified by the Los Angeles Times, the Chicago newspaper and Motion Picture News stated that she was rushed to the hospital, where surgeons mended her "very badly torn" left side with "many stitches" and treated the area where one of her toes had been "cut off", presumably a toe from her badly damaged right foot. At the time of the accident, Gish was completing a two-reel romantic comedy with actor W. E. Lawrence. The film, How Hazel Got Even, had already been delayed once at Reliance-Majestic Studios due to director Donald Crisp's bout with pneumonia. Completion of the short was postponed yet again, for over a month, while Gish recuperated. Originally scheduled for release on December 27, 1914, How Hazel Got Even was not distributed to theaters until mid-February 1915.
1915–1928
After recovering from the 1914 accident, Gish resumed her screen career the following year, performing in a series of two- and three-reel shorts as well as in longer, more complex films such as the five-reel productions Old Heidelberg, directed by John Emerson, and Jordan Is a Hard Road, once again under D. W. Griffith's direction. Increasingly, Dorothy's appeal to both producers and audiences continued to grow in 1915, leading W. E. Keefe in the June issue of Motion Picture Magazine to recognize her as "one of the most popular film stars on the Motion Picture screen". In an article about Gish in the cited issue, Keefe also recognizes that Dorothy, career-wise, was finally emerging from her sister's shadow:
In 1916 and 1917, Dorothy continued to expand her acting credentials by starring in a variety of five-reelers for Fine Arts Film Company or "Griffith's studio", which was a subsidiary of Triangle Film Corporation. Her work in those years required filming on locations in New York and on the West Coast.
In the 1918 release Hearts of the World, a film about World War I and the devastation of France, Dorothy found her first cinematic foothold in comedy, striking a personal hit in a role that captured the essence of her sense of humor. As the "little disturber", a street singer, her performance was the highlight of the film, and her characterization on screen catapulted her into a career as a star of comedy films.
Griffith did not use Dorothy in any of his earliest epics, but while he spent months working on The Birth of a Nation and Intolerance, Dorothy was featured in many feature-length films made under the banner of Triangle and Mutual releases. They were directed by young Griffith protégés such as Donald Crisp, James Kirkwood, and Christy Cabanne. Elmer Clifton directed a series of seven Paramount-Artcraft comedies with Dorothy that were so successful and popular that the tremendous revenue they raked in helped to pay the cost of Griffith’s expensive epics. These films were wildly popular with the public and the critics. She specialised in pantomime and light comedy, while her sister appeared in tragic roles. Dorothy became famous in this long series of Griffith-supervised films for the Triangle-Fine Arts and Paramount companies from 1918 through 1920, comedies that put her in the front ranks of film comedians. Almost all of these films are now considered to be lost films.
"And So I Am a Comedienne", an article published in Ladies Home Journal in July 1925, gave Dorothy a chance to recall her public persona: “And so I am a comedienne, though I, too, once wanted to do heroic and tragic things. Today my objection to playing comedy is that it is so often misunderstood by the audiences, both in the theater and in the picture houses. It is so often thought to be a lesser art and something which comes to one naturally, a haphazard talent like the amateur clowning of some cut-up who is so often thought to be ‘the life of the party’. In the eyes of so many persons comedy is not only the absence of studied effect and acting, but it is not considered an art.”
She made a film in England Nell Gwynn which led to three more films. Gish earned £41,000 for these movies.
Sound era and return to stage
When the film industry converted to talking pictures, Dorothy made one in 1930, the British crime drama Wolves. Earlier, in 1928 and 1929, her performances in the Broadway play Young Love and her work with director George Cukor renewed her interest in stagecraft and in the immediacy of performing live again. The light comedy had proven to be popular with critics and audiences in New York, in performances on the road in the United States, as well overseas in a London production. Those successes convinced her to take a respite from film-making.
In 1939, both Dorothy and Lillian Gish found the stage role of a lifetime. “Dorothy and I went to see the New York production of Life with Father, starring Howard Lindsay and Dorothy Stickney,” Lillian wrote in her autobiography. “After the performance I said: ‘This is the play we’ve been waiting for to take through America.’” Lillian predicted the popular play would be a perfect showcase for all the people who had seen the hundreds of films featuring Mary Pickford, Dorothy, and herself. She was introduced to Lindsay backstage, and immediately surprised the producers with her enthusiastic desire to head the first company to go on the road, with Dorothy taking the same part for the second road company, and the movie rights for Mary Pickford. Pickford did not make the film version, but the Gish sisters took the two road companies on extensive tours. Another stage success later in Gish's career was The Magnificent Yankee, which ran on Broadway at the Royale Theatre during the first half of 1946.<ref>[http://www.playbill.com/production/the-magnificent-yankee-royale-theatre-vault-0000010282 "The Magnificent Yankee], Royale Theatre, January 22 – June 8, 1946. Playbill, New York, N.Y. Retrieved September 28, 2019.</ref> Lillian in her pictorial book Dorothy and Lillian Gish repeats John Chapman's comments about her sister's work in that production: "'Miss [Dorothy] Gish and Mr. Calhern give the finest performances I have ever seen them in. She is a delight and a darling.'"
Television and final films
Television in the 1950s offered many stage and film actors the opportunity to perform in plays broadcast live. Dorothy ventured into the new medium, appearing on NBC's Lux Video Theatre on the evening of November 24, 1955, in a production of Miss Susie Slagle's. She and Lillian had previously performed that play together on screen, in Paramount Pictures' 1945 film adaptation.
"The truth is, that she did not know what she really wanted to do," wrote her sister, Lillian, in her autobiography. "She had always had trouble making decisions and assuming responsibilities, in some ways she had never grown up. She was such a witty and enchanting child that we enjoyed indulging her. First Mother and I spoiled her and later Reba, her friend, and her husband Jim. Reba called Dorothy 'Baby' and so did Jim. With the best intentions in the world, we all helped to keep her a child."
From 1930 until her death, she only performed in five more movies, including Our Hearts Were Young and Gay (1944), which was a hit for Paramount. Director Otto Preminger cast Dorothy in his 1946 film, Centennial Summer, and Mae Marsh appears in the film in one of her many bit parts. In the 1951 release The Whistle at Eaton Falls, a film noir drama film produced by Louis de Rochemont, Dorothy portrays the widow of a mill owner. On television during this period, she also made several appearances in anthology television series. Her final film role was in 1963 in another Otto Preminger production, The Cardinal, in which she plays the mother of the title character.
Personal life
Dorothy Gish married only once, to James Malachi Rennie (1890–1965), a Canadian-born actor who co-starred with her in two productions in 1920: Remodeling Her Husband, directed by sister Lillian, and in the comedy Flying Pat. In December 1920, the couple eloped to Greenwich, Connecticut, where they wed in a double ceremony in which Gish's friend, actress Constance Talmadge, also married Greek businessman John Pialoglou. Gish and Rennie remained together until their divorce in 1935. Dorothy never married again.
Death and legacy
Gish died aged 70 in 1968 from bronchial pneumonia at a clinic in Rapallo, Italy, where she had been a patient for two years to treat hardening arteries. Her sister Lillian, who was filming in Rome, was at her bedside. The New York Times reported the day after her death that the United States consulate in Genoa was making arrangements to cremate "Miss Gish's body" for return to the United States. The ashes were later entombed in Saint Bartholomew's Episcopal Church in New York City in the columbarium in the undercroft of the church. Lillian, who died in 1993, was interred beside her.
In recognition of her contributions to the motion picture industry, in 1960 Dorothy Gish was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6385 Hollywood Boulevard in Los Angeles.
The (since renamed) Gish Film Theatre and Gallery of Bowling Green State University's Department of Theatre and Film was named for Lillian and Dorothy Gish and was dedicated on that campus in 1976.
Quotes
Partial filmography
References
Notes
Bibliography
Casselton, Harold (ed.). Remembering Dorothy Gish. Minneapolis: The Society for Cinephiles, 1986.
Croy, Homer. Star Maker: The Story of D. W. Griffith. New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1959.
Gish, Dorothy. "And So I am a Comedienne". Ladies Home Journal (July 1925)
Gish, Lillian. Dorothy and Lillian Gish. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1973.
Gish, Lillian. The Movies, Mr. Griffith, and Me. New York: Prentice Hall, 1969.
Slide, Anthony. The Griffith Actresses. New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1973.
Talmadge, Margaret L. The Talmadge Sisters''. New York: J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1924.
See also
External links
Extensive Dorothy Gish gallery
The Dorothy Gish Project
Dorothy Gish at Virtual History
1898 births
1968 deaths
American Episcopalians
American expatriates in Italy
American film actresses
American silent film actresses
American child actresses
Deaths from bronchopneumonia
Deaths from pneumonia in Liguria
Actresses from Dayton, Ohio
Actresses from New Rochelle, New York
20th-century American actresses
Lillian Gish | [
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223929 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subpoena | Subpoena | A subpoena (; also subpœna, supenna or subpena) or witness summons is a writ issued by a government agency, most often a court, to compel testimony by a witness or production of evidence under a penalty for failure. There are two common types of subpoenas:
subpoena ad testificandum orders a person to testify before the ordering authority or face punishment. The subpoena can also request the testimony to be given by phone or in person.
subpoena duces tecum orders a person or organization to bring physical evidence before the ordering authority or face punishment. This is often used for requests to mail copies of documents to requesting party or directly to court.
Etymology
The term subpoena is from the Middle English suppena and the Latin phrase sub poena meaning "under penalty". It is also spelled "subpena". The subpoena has its source in English common law and it is now used almost with universal application throughout the English common law world. John Waltham, Bishop of Salisbury, is said to have created the writ of subpoena during the reign of Richard II. However, for civil proceedings in England and Wales, it is now described as a witness summons, as part of reforms to replace Latin terms with Plain English understandable to the layman.
Process
Australia
In New South Wales, a court may set aside the whole, or part of, a subpoena on the basis that it is a "fishing expedition". In Lowery v Insurance Australia Ltd, the NSW Court of Appeal held that where documents requested in the schedule of a subpoena are deemed to have no relevance to the proceedings in dispute, the subpoena may be set aside as it has no legitimate forensic purpose. It was also held that it was not the role of the Court to redraft the subpoena and narrow its scope to those issues in dispute. In Victoria a subpoena is usually issued by a court registry officer, and does not require leave of the court.
New Zealand
In New Zealand, subpoenas are governed under the rules of the court in which the subpoena is issued.
United States
Subpoenas are usually issued by the clerk of the court in the name of the judge presiding over the case. Additionally, court rules may permit lawyers to issue subpoenas themselves in their capacity as officers of the court. Typically subpoenas are issued "in blank" and it is the responsibility of the lawyer representing the plaintiff or defendant on whose behalf the testimony is to be given to serve the subpoena on the witness. If a witness is reluctant to testify, then the personal service of subpoena is usually required with proof of service by non-party server.
The subpoena will usually be on the letterhead of the court where the case is filed, name the parties to the case, and be addressed by name to the person whose testimony is being sought. It will contain the language "You are hereby commanded to report in person to the clerk of this court" or similar, describing the specific location, scheduled date and time of the appearance. Some issuing jurisdictions include an admonishment advising the subject of the criminal penalty for failure to comply with a subpoena, and reminding him or her not to leave the court facilities until excused by a competent authority, often ending with the archaic threat "Fail not at your peril." In some situations, the person having to testify or produce documents is paid.
Pro se litigants who represent themselves, unlike lawyers, must ask a court clerk to officially issue them subpoena forms when they need to call witnesses by phone or in person, or when they need to officially request documents to be sent to them or directly to court. Any documents that have not been subpoenaed to court or verified by a witness may be dismissed by the opposite party as hearsay, unless excepted by hearsay rules or permitted by the judge. If the witness is called via long-distance phone call, then the requesting party is responsible for initiating the call and providing a payment with a prepaid phone card. Most states (including California) have further restrictions on subpoena use in criminal cases.
Some states (as is the case in Florida) require the subpoenaing party to first file a Notice of Intent to Serve Subpoena, or a Notice of Production from Non-Party ten days prior to issuing the subpoena, so that the other party may have ample time to file any objections.
Also, the party being subpoenaed has the right to object to the issuance of the subpoena, if it is for an improper purpose, such as subpoenaing records that have no relevance to the proceedings, or subpoenaing persons who would have no evidence to present, or subpoenaing records or testimony that is confidential or privileged.
Standing committees in both houses of the United States Congress have the authority to send out subpoenas for legitimate lawmaking and investigation purposes. This compels the production of testimony or records, and failure to respond constitutes contempt of Congress.
There are several exceptions to being required to testify in court, including the following examples:
Fifth Amendment – Under the Fifth Amendment to the American constitution, no person shall be compelled to be a witness against themselves. Witnesses can't be forced to testify if the testimony may incriminate them. This right can, however, be denied if the witness is granted immunity. This immunity allows them to testify, and makes them immune to prosecution for any crimes they confess to.
Spousal privilege – In most cases, a person cannot be compelled to testify against their spouse. This rule exists as a consequence of the Fifth Amendment and the "One flesh" concept of Marriage. Under this rule, since married spouses are joined together in one flesh, they shouldn't be forced to testify against each other. Exceptions to this rule include domestic violence or sexual abuse cases.
Counselors or Priests – Communication with a counselor or priest is considered privileged, because both jobs involve clients being completely honest, without having to fear the consequences.
Lawyers – In order to get the best legal advice, clients must tell all details to their lawyer without fear of consequences, so therefore communication with a lawyer is protected, and a lawyer can't be forced to testify against a client.
Doctors – Doctors are forbidden from disclosing patient documents without the patient's permission, under the law of patient confidentiality. Therefore, a doctor's testimony against a patient is a violation of their oath. As a result, doctors can never be forced to disclose medical records.
Diplomats – Foreign diplomats can never be forced to testify in court, under Diplomatic Immunity.
Incompetent Witness or Evidence - A witness may have memory issues, which can affect their ability to truthfully recall events. They also may not be physically fit to appear in court.
Inadmissible Evidence – If the evidence is illegally obtained, it is not admissible in court. For example, someone who sneaks onto private property, and overhears a private conversation between 2 spouses will not be allowed to testify in court. The same goes for illegally recorded conversations, illegally taken photos, or eavesdropped conversations. For example, if a burglar broke into a home and discovered drugs inside, their evidence would not be allowed in court, as it was illegally obtained.
"Friendly subpoena"
A "friendly subpoena" is a subpoena that is issued to an individual or entity who might otherwise testify or submit evidence willingly without a subpoena, but is prevented from doing so due to a higher order legal, ethical or regulatory loyalty or fiduciary responsibility, which can only be superseded by a subpoena. It is called a "friendly" subpoena because the recipient would otherwise be or is very likely to be willing to cooperate with the investigation at issue, once issued a subpoena.
See also
Administrative subpoena
Summons
Indictment
References
Further reading
"The Press and Subpoenas: An Overview", by Marlena Telvick and Amy Rubin, Frontline, PBS, February 20, 2010.
Latin legal terminology
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223938 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuxalk%20language | Nuxalk language | Nuxalk , also known as Bella Coola , is a Salishan language spoken by the Nuxalk people. Today, it is an endangered language with only 3 fluent speakers in the vicinity of the Canadian town of Bella Coola, British Columbia. While the language is still sometimes called Bella Coola by linguists, the native name Nuxalk is preferred by some, notably by the Nuxalk Nation's government.
Though the number of truly fluent speakers has not increased, the language is now taught in both the provincial school system and the Nuxalk Nation's own school, Acwsalcta, which means "a place of learning". Nuxalk language classes, if taken to at least the Grade 11 level, are considered adequate second-language qualifications for entry to the major B.C. universities. CKNN-FM Nuxalk Radio is also working to promote the language.
Name
The name "Nuxalk" for the language comes from the native nuxalk (or nuχalk), referring to the "Bella Coola Valley". "Bella Coola" is a rendering of the Heiltsuk bḷ́xʷlá, meaning "stranger".
Geographical distribution
Nowadays, Nuxalk is spoken only in Bella Coola, British Columbia, surrounded by Wakashan- and Athabascan-speaking tribes. It was once spoken in over 100 settlements, with varying dialects, but in the present day most of these settlements have been abandoned and dialectal differences have largely disappeared.
Classification
Nuxalk forms its own subgroup of the Salish language family. Its lexicon is equidistant from Coast and Interior Salish, but it shares phonological and morphological features with Coast Salish (for example, the absence of pharyngeals and the presence of marked gender). Nuxalk also borrows many words from contiguous North Wakashan languages (especially Heiltsuk), as well as some from neighbouring Athabascan languages and Tsimshian.
Phonology
Consonants
Nuxalk has 29 consonants depicted below in IPA and the Americanist orthography of Davis & Saunders when it differs from the IPA.
What are transcribed in the orthography as 'plain' velar consonants are actually palatals, and the sibilants palatalize to before .
Vowels
Allophony
may be pronounced:
before postvelars
between postvelars
, before a sonorant followed by a consonant or word boundary
adjacent to palatovelars
elsewhere
may be pronounced:
(?) surrounded by postvelars
before rounded velars followed by a consonant or word boundary
(?) before a sonorant followed by a consonant or word boundary
elsewhere
may be pronounced:
surrounded by postvelars
before a sonorant followed by a consonant or word boundary
before rounded velars followed by a consonant or word boundary
elsewhere
Orthography
In addition to the Americanist orthography of Davis & Saunders used in this article for clarity, Nuxalk also has a non-diacritical Bouchard-type practical orthography that originated in Hank Nater's The Bella Coola Language (1984), and was used in his 1990 Nuxalk-English Dictionary. It continues to be used today at Acwsalcta for Nuxalk language learning, as well as in Nuxalk documents and names. The orthographic variants are summarized below.
Syllables
The notion of syllable is challenged by Nuxalk in that it allows long strings of consonants without any intervening vowel or other sonorant. Salishan languages, and especially Nuxalk, are famous for this. For instance, the following word contains only obstruents:
clhp'xwlhtlhplhhskwts'
/xɬ-pʼχʷɬt-ɬp-ɬɬ-s=kʷt͡sʼ/
possess-bunchberry-plant-PAST.PERFECT-3sSUB/3sOBJ=then
'then he had had in his possession a bunchberry plant.'
(Nater 1984, cited in Bagemihl 1991: 16)
Other examples are:
'shape, mold'
'bend'
'bunchberry'
'he arrived'
'little boy'
'saliva'
'northeast wind'
'cut with scissors'
'animal fat'
'that's my animal fat over there'
'seal fat'
'strong'
'go to shore'
'crooked'
'you had seen that I had gone through a passage' (Nater 1984, p. 5)
There has been some dispute as to how to count the syllables in such words, what, if anything, constitutes the nuclei of those syllables, and if the concept of 'syllable' is even applicable to Nuxalk. However, when recordings are available, the syllable structure can be clearly audible, and speakers have clear conceptions as to how many syllables a word contains. In general, a syllable may be , (where F is a fricative), , or . When C is a stop, CF syllables are always composed of a plain voiceless stop () plus a fricative (). For example, 'thick' is two syllables, , with a syllabic fricative, while in 'stone', 'salt', 'crooked', 'to see' and 'wet' each consonant is a separate syllable. Stop-fricative sequences can also be disyllabic, however, as in 'strong' (two syllables, at least in the cited recording) and 'rough' (one syllable or two). Syllabification of stop-fricative sequences may therefore be lexicalized or a prosodic tendency. Fricative-fricative sequences also have a tendency toward syllabicity, e.g. with 'bad' being one syllable or two, and 'seal fat' being two syllables () or three. Speech rate plays a role, with e.g. 'you spat on me' consisting of all syllabic consonants in citation form () but condensed to stop-fricative syllables () at fast conversational speed.
This syllabic structure may be compared with that of Miyako.
The linguist Hank Nater has postulated the existence of a phonemic contrast between syllabic and non-syllabic sonorants: , spelled ṃ, ṇ, ḷ. (The vowel phonemes would then be the syllabic counterparts of .) Words claimed to have unpredictable syllables include sṃnṃnṃuuc 'mute', smṇmṇcaw '(the fact) that they are children'.
Grammar
Events
The first element in a sentence expresses the event of the proposition. It inflects for the person and number of one (in the intransitive paradigm) or two (in the transitive paradigm) participants.
E.g. ƛ̓ikm-Ø ti-wac̓-tx 'the dog is running'.
Whether the parenthesized segments are included in the suffix depends on whether the stem ends in an underlying resonant (vowel, liquid, nasal) and whether it is non-syllabic. So qāχla 'drink' becomes qāχla-ł 'we drink', qāχla-nap 'you (pl.) drink', qāχla-naw 'they drink', but nuyamł 'sing' becomes nuyamł-ił 'we're singing', nuyamł-ap 'you (pl.) are singing', nuyamł-aw 'they're singing'.
However, the choice of the 3ps marker -Ø or -s is conditioned by semantics rather than phonetics. For example, the sentences tix-s ti-ʔimlk-tx and tix-Ø ti-ʔimlk-tx could both be glossed 'it's the man', but the first is appropriate if the man is the one who is normally chosen, while the second is making an assertion that it is the man (as opposed to someone else, as might otherwise be thought) who is chosen.
The following are the possible person markers for transitive verbs, with empty cells indications non-occurring combinations and '--' identifying semantic combinations which require the reflexive suffix -cut- followed by the appropriate intransitive suffix:
E.g. sp̓-is ti-ʔimlk-tx ti-stn-tx 'the man struck the tree'.
Whether a word can serve as an event isn't determined lexically, e.g. ʔimmllkī-Ø ti-nusʔūlχ-tx 'the thief is a boy', nusʔūlχ-Ø ti-q̓s-tx 'the one who is ill is a thief'.
There is a further causative paradigm whose suffixes may be used instead:
This has a passive counterpart:
This may also have a benefactive gloss when used with events involving less activity of their participant (e.g. nuyamł-tus ti-ʔimlk-tx ti-ʔimmllkī-tx 'the man made/let the boy sing'/'the man sang for the boy'), while in events with more active participants only the causative gloss is possible. In the later group even more active verbs have a preference for the affix-lx- (implying passive experience) before the causative suffix.
The executor in a transitive sentence always precedes the experiencer. However, when an event is proceeded by a lone participant, the semantic content of the event determines whether the participant is an executor or an experiencer. This can only be determined syntactically if the participant is marked by the preposition ʔuł-, which marks the experience.
Some events are inherently transitive or intransitive, but some may accept multiple valencies (e.g. ʔanayk 'to be needy'/'to want [something]').
Prepositions may mark experiencers, and must mark implements. Any participants which are not marked by prepositions are focussed. There are three voices, which allow either the executor, the experiencer, or both to have focus:
Active voice - neither is marked with prepositions.
Passive voice - the event may have different suffixes, and the executor may be omitted or marked with a preposition
Antipassive voice - the event is marked with the affix -a- before personal markers, and the experiencer is marked with a preposition
The affix -amk- (-yamk- after the antipassive marker -a-) allows an implement to have its preposition removed and to be focused. For example:
nuyamł-Ø ti-man-tx ʔuł-ti-mna-s-tx x-ti-syut-tx 'the father sang the song to his son'
nuyamł-amk-is ti-man-tx ti-syut-tx ʔuł-ti-mna-s-tx 'the father sang the song to his son'
Prepositions
There are four prepositions which have broad usage in Nuxalk:
Deixis
Nuxalk has a set of deictic prefixes and suffixes which serve to identify items as instantiations of domains rather than domains themselves and to locate them in deictic space. Thus the sentences wac̓-Ø ti-ƛ̓ikm-tx and ti-wac̓-Ø ti-ƛ̓ikm-tx, both 'the one that's running is a dog', are slightly different - similar to the difference between the English sentences 'the visitor is Canadian' and 'the visitor is a Canadian' respectively.
The deixis system has a proximal/medial/distal and a non-demonstrative/demonstrative distinction. Demonstratives may be used when finger pointing would be appropriate (or in distal space when something previously mentioned is being referred to).
Proximal demonstrative space roughly corresponds to the area of conversation, and proximal non-demonstrative may be viewed as the area in which one could attract another's attention without raising one's voice. Visible space beyond this is middle demonstrative, space outside of this but within the invisible neighborhood is medial non-demonstrative. Everything else is distal, and non-demonstrative if not mentioned earlier.
The deictic prefixes and suffixes are as follows:
Female affixes are used only when the particular is singular and identified as female; if not, even if the particular is inanimate, masculine or plural is used.
The deictic prefixes only have a proximal vs. non-proximal distinction, and no demonstrative distinction:
tu- is used in earlier varieties and some types of narratives, except for middle non-demonstrative, and the variant ʔił- may be used "in the same collection of deictic space".
While events are not explicitly marked for tense per se, deixis plays a strong role in determining when the proposition is being asserted to occur. So in a sentence like mus-is ti-ʔimmllkī-tx ta-q̓lsxʷ-t̓aχ 'the boy felt that rope', the sentence is perceived as having a near-past (same day) interpretation, as the boy cannot be touching the rope in middle space from proximal space. However this does not hold for some events, like k̓x 'to see'.
A distal suffix on any participant lends the event a distant past interpretation (before the past day), a medial suffix and no distal suffix lends a near past time, and if the participants are marked as proximal the time is present.
Not every distal participant occurs in past-tense sentences, and vice versa—rather, the deictic suffixes must either represent positions in space, time, or both.
Pronouns
Personal pronouns are reportedly nonexistent but the idea is expressed via verbs that translate as "to be me", etc.
Particles
See also
Coast Salish languages
Interior Salish
References
Bibliography
Bruce Bagemihl (1998). Maximality in Bella Coola (Nuxalk). In E. Czaykowska-Higgins & M. D. Kinkade (Eds.), Salish Languages and Linguistics: Theoretical and Descriptive Perspectives (pp. 71–98). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student’s Handbook, Edinburgh.
Philip W. Davis & Ross Saunders (1978). Bella Coola Syntax. In E.-D. Cook & J. Kaye (Eds.), Linguistic Studies of Native Canada (pp. 37–66). Vancouver: University of British Columbia.
Philip W. Davis & Ross Saunders (1980). Bella Coola Texts. British Columbia Provincial Museum Heritage Record (No. 10). Victoria: British Columbia Provincial Museum. .
Philip W. Davis & Ross Saunders (1997). A Grammar of Bella Coola. University of Montana Occasional Papers in Linguistics (No. 13). Missoula, MT: University of Montana. .
Forrest, Linda. (1994). The de-transitive clauses in Bella Coola: Passive vs. inverse. In T. Givón (Ed.), Voice and Inversion (pp. 147–168). Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (hbk); .
Montler, Timothy. (2004–2005). (Handouts on Salishan Language Family).
Nater, Hank F. (1977). Stem List of the Bella Coola language. Lisse: Peter de Ridder.
Nater, Hank F. (1984). The Bella Coola Language. Mercury Series; Canadian Ethnology Service (No. 92). Ottawa: National Museums of Canada.
Nater, Hank F. (1990). A Concise Nuxalk–English Dictionary. Mercury Series; Canadian Ethnology Service (No. 115). Hull, Quebec: Canadian Museum of Civilization. .
Newman, Stanley. (1947). Bella Coola I: Phonology. International Journal of American Linguistics, 13, 129-134.
Newman, Stanley. (1969). Bella Coola Grammatical Processes and Form Classes. International Journal of American Linguistics, 35, 175-179.
Newman, Stanley. (1969). Bella Coola Paradigms. International Journal of American Linguistics, 37, 299-306.
Newman, Stanley. (1971). Bella Coola Reduplication. International Journal of American Linguistics, 37, 34-38.
Newman, Stanley. (1974). Language Retention and Diffusion in Bella Coola. Language in Society, 3, 201-214.
Newman, Stanley. (1976). Salish and Bella Coola Prefixes. International Journal of American Linguistics, 42, 228-242.
Newman, Stanley. (1989). Lexical Morphemes in Bella Coola. In M. R. Key & H. Hoenigswald (Eds.), General and Amerindian Ethnolinguistics: In Remembrance of Stanley Newman (pp. 289–301). Contributions to the Sociology of Language (No. 55). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. .
External links
Nuxalk Nation Website
First Nations Languages of British Columbia Nuxalk page
Nuxalk bibliography
UCLA Archive for Bella Coola
Bella Coola (Intercontinental Dictionary Series)
Salishan languages
Agglutinative languages
Indigenous languages of the Pacific Northwest Coast
First Nations languages in Canada | [
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223942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rootkit | Rootkit | A rootkit is a collection of computer software, typically malicious, designed to enable access to a computer or an area of its software that is not otherwise allowed (for example, to an unauthorized user) and often masks its existence or the existence of other software. The term rootkit is a compound of "root" (the traditional name of the privileged account on Unix-like operating systems) and the word "kit" (which refers to the software components that implement the tool). The term "rootkit" has negative connotations through its association with malware.
Rootkit installation can be automated, or an attacker can install it after having obtained root or administrator access. Obtaining this access is a result of direct attack on a system, i.e. exploiting a known vulnerability (such as privilege escalation) or a password (obtained by cracking or social engineering tactics like "phishing"). Once installed, it becomes possible to hide the intrusion as well as to maintain privileged access. Full control over a system means that existing software can be modified, including software that might otherwise be used to detect or circumvent it.
Rootkit detection is difficult because a rootkit may be able to subvert the software that is intended to find it. Detection methods include using an alternative and trusted operating system, behavioral-based methods, signature scanning, difference scanning, and memory dump analysis. Removal can be complicated or practically impossible, especially in cases where the rootkit resides in the kernel; reinstallation of the operating system may be the only available solution to the problem. When dealing with firmware rootkits, removal may require hardware replacement, or specialized equipment.
History
The term rootkit or root kit originally referred to a maliciously modified set of administrative tools for a Unix-like operating system that granted "root" access. If an intruder could replace the standard administrative tools on a system with a rootkit, the intruder could obtain root access over the system whilst simultaneously concealing these activities from the legitimate system administrator. These first-generation rootkits were trivial to detect by using tools such as Tripwire that had not been compromised to access the same information. Lane Davis and Steven Dake wrote the earliest known rootkit in 1990 for Sun Microsystems' SunOS UNIX operating system. In the lecture he gave upon receiving the Turing award in 1983, Ken Thompson of Bell Labs, one of the creators of Unix, theorized about subverting the C compiler in a Unix distribution and discussed the exploit. The modified compiler would detect attempts to compile the Unix login command and generate altered code that would accept not only the user's correct password, but an additional "backdoor" password known to the attacker. Additionally, the compiler would detect attempts to compile a new version of the compiler, and would insert the same exploits into the new compiler. A review of the source code for the login command or the updated compiler would not reveal any malicious code. This exploit was equivalent to a rootkit.
The first documented computer virus to target the personal computer, discovered in 1986, used cloaking techniques to hide itself: the Brain virus intercepted attempts to read the boot sector, and redirected these to elsewhere on the disk, where a copy of the original boot sector was kept.
Over time, DOS-virus cloaking methods became more sophisticated. Advanced techniques included hooking low-level disk INT 13H BIOS interrupt calls to hide unauthorized modifications to files.
The first malicious rootkit for the Windows NT operating system appeared in 1999: a trojan called NTRootkit created by Greg Hoglund. It was followed by HackerDefender in 2003. The first rootkit targeting Mac OS X appeared in 2009, while the Stuxnet worm was the first to target programmable logic controllers (PLC).
Sony BMG copy protection rootkit scandal
In 2005, Sony BMG published CDs with copy protection and digital rights management software called Extended Copy Protection, created by software company First 4 Internet. The software included a music player but silently installed a rootkit which limited the user's ability to access the CD. Software engineer Mark Russinovich, who created the rootkit detection tool RootkitRevealer, discovered the rootkit on one of his computers. The ensuing scandal raised the public's awareness of rootkits. To cloak itself, the rootkit hid from the user any file starting with "$sys$". Soon after Russinovich's report, malware appeared which took advantage of that vulnerability of affected systems. One BBC analyst called it a "public relations nightmare." Sony BMG released patches to uninstall the rootkit, but it exposed users to an even more serious vulnerability. The company eventually recalled the CDs. In the United States, a class-action lawsuit was brought against Sony BMG.
Greek wiretapping case 2004–05
The Greek wiretapping case 2004–05, also referred to as Greek Watergate, involved the illegal telephone tapping of more than 100 mobile phones on the Vodafone Greece network belonging mostly to members of the Greek government and top-ranking civil servants. The taps began sometime near the beginning of August 2004 and were removed in March 2005 without discovering the identity of the perpetrators. The intruders installed a rootkit targeting Ericsson's AXE telephone exchange. According to IEEE Spectrum, this was "the first time a rootkit has been observed on a special-purpose system, in this case an Ericsson telephone switch." The rootkit was designed to patch the memory of the exchange while it was running, enable wiretapping while disabling audit logs, patch the commands that list active processes and active data blocks, and modify the data block checksum verification command. A "backdoor" allowed an operator with sysadmin status to deactivate the exchange's transaction log, alarms and access commands related to the surveillance capability. The rootkit was discovered after the intruders installed a faulty update, which caused SMS texts to be undelivered, leading to an automated failure report being generated. Ericsson engineers were called in to investigate the fault and discovered the hidden data blocks containing the list of phone numbers being monitored, along with the rootkit and illicit monitoring software.
Uses
Modern rootkits do not elevate access, but rather are used to make another software payload undetectable by adding stealth capabilities. Most rootkits are classified as malware, because the payloads they are bundled with are malicious. For example, a payload might covertly steal user passwords, credit card information, computing resources, or conduct other unauthorized activities. A small number of rootkits may be considered utility applications by their users: for example, a rootkit might cloak a CD-ROM-emulation driver, allowing video game users to defeat anti-piracy measures that require insertion of the original installation media into a physical optical drive to verify that the software was legitimately purchased.
Rootkits and their payloads have many uses:
Provide an attacker with full access via a backdoor, permitting unauthorized access to, for example, steal or falsify documents. One of the ways to carry this out is to subvert the login mechanism, such as the /bin/login program on Unix-like systems or GINA on Windows. The replacement appears to function normally, but also accepts a secret login combination that allows an attacker direct access to the system with administrative privileges, bypassing standard authentication and authorization mechanisms.
Conceal other malware, notably password-stealing key loggers and computer viruses.
Appropriate the compromised machine as a zombie computer for attacks on other computers. (The attack originates from the compromised system or network, instead of the attacker's system.) "Zombie" computers are typically members of large botnets that can–amongst other things–launch denial-of-service attacks, distribute e-mail spam, and conduct click fraud.
In some instances, rootkits provide desired functionality, and may be installed intentionally on behalf of the computer user:
Detect and prevent cheating in online games with software like Warden and GameGuard.
Detect attacks, for example, in a honeypot.
Enhance emulation software and security software. Alcohol 120% and Daemon Tools are commercial examples of non-hostile rootkits used to defeat copy-protection mechanisms such as SafeDisc and SecuROM. Kaspersky antivirus software also uses techniques resembling rootkits to protect itself from malicious actions. It loads its own drivers to intercept system activity, and then prevents other processes from doing harm to itself. Its processes are not hidden, but cannot be terminated by standard methods.
Anti-theft protection: Laptops may have BIOS-based rootkit software that will periodically report to a central authority, allowing the laptop to be monitored, disabled or wiped of information in the event that it is stolen.
Bypassing Microsoft Product Activation
Types
There are at least five types of rootkit, ranging from those at the lowest level in firmware (with the highest privileges), through to the least privileged user-based variants that operate in Ring 3. Hybrid combinations of these may occur spanning, for example, user mode and kernel mode.
User mode
User-mode rootkits run in Ring 3, along with other applications as user, rather than low-level system processes. They have a number of possible installation vectors to intercept and modify the standard behavior of application programming interfaces (APIs). Some inject a dynamically linked library (such as a .DLL file on Windows, or a .dylib file on Mac OS X) into other processes, and are thereby able to execute inside any target process to spoof it; others with sufficient privileges simply overwrite the memory of a target application. Injection mechanisms include:
Use of vendor-supplied application extensions. For example, Windows Explorer has public interfaces that allow third parties to extend its functionality.
Interception of messages.
Debuggers.
Exploitation of security vulnerabilities.
Function hooking or patching of commonly used APIs, for example, to hide a running process or file that resides on a filesystem.
Kernel mode
Kernel-mode rootkits run with the highest operating system privileges (Ring 0) by adding code or replacing portions of the core operating system, including both the kernel and associated device drivers. Most operating systems support kernel-mode device drivers, which execute with the same privileges as the operating system itself. As such, many kernel-mode rootkits are developed as device drivers or loadable modules, such as loadable kernel modules in Linux or device drivers in Microsoft Windows. This class of rootkit has unrestricted security access, but is more difficult to write. The complexity makes bugs common, and any bugs in code operating at the kernel level may seriously impact system stability, leading to discovery of the rootkit. One of the first widely known kernel rootkits was developed for Windows NT 4.0 and released in Phrack magazine in 1999 by Greg Hoglund. Kernel rootkits can be especially difficult to detect and remove because they operate at the same security level as the operating system itself, and are thus able to intercept or subvert the most trusted operating system operations. Any software, such as antivirus software, running on the compromised system is equally vulnerable. In this situation, no part of the system can be trusted.
A rootkit can modify data structures in the Windows kernel using a method known as direct kernel object manipulation (DKOM). This method can be used to hide processes. A kernel mode rootkit can also hook the System Service Descriptor Table (SSDT), or modify the gates between user mode and kernel mode, in order to cloak itself. Similarly for the Linux operating system, a rootkit can modify the system call table to subvert kernel functionality. It is common that a rootkit creates a hidden, encrypted filesystem in which it can hide other malware or original copies of files it has infected. Operating systems are evolving to counter the threat of kernel-mode rootkits. For example, 64-bit editions of Microsoft Windows now implement mandatory signing of all kernel-level drivers in order to make it more difficult for untrusted code to execute with the highest privileges in a system.
Bootkits
A kernel-mode rootkit variant called a bootkit can infect startup code like the Master Boot Record (MBR), Volume Boot Record (VBR), or boot sector, and in this way can be used to attack full disk encryption systems.
An example of such an attack on disk encryption is the "evil maid attack", in which an attacker installs a bootkit on an unattended computer. The envisioned scenario is a maid sneaking into the hotel room where the victims left their hardware. The bootkit replaces the legitimate boot loader with one under their control. Typically the malware loader persists through the transition to protected mode when the kernel has loaded, and is thus able to subvert the kernel. For example, the "Stoned Bootkit" subverts the system by using a compromised boot loader to intercept encryption keys and passwords. In 2010, the Alureon rootkit has successfully subverted the requirement for 64-bit kernel-mode driver signing in Windows 7, by modifying the master boot record. Although not malware in the sense of doing something the user doesn't want, certain "Vista Loader" or "Windows Loader" software work in a similar way by injecting an ACPI SLIC (System Licensed Internal Code) table in the RAM-cached version of the BIOS during boot, in order to defeat the Windows Vista and Windows 7 activation process. This vector of attack was rendered useless in the (non-server) versions of Windows 8, which use a unique, machine-specific key for each system, that can only be used by that one machine. Many antivirus companies provide free utilities and programs to remove bootkits.
Hypervisor level
Rootkits have been created as Type II Hypervisors in academia as proofs of concept. By exploiting hardware virtualization features such as Intel VT or AMD-V, this type of rootkit runs in Ring -1 and hosts the target operating system as a virtual machine, thereby enabling the rootkit to intercept hardware calls made by the original operating system. Unlike normal hypervisors, they do not have to load before the operating system, but can load into an operating system before promoting it into a virtual machine. A hypervisor rootkit does not have to make any modifications to the kernel of the target to subvert it; however, that does not mean that it cannot be detected by the guest operating system. For example, timing differences may be detectable in CPU instructions. The "SubVirt" laboratory rootkit, developed jointly by Microsoft and University of Michigan researchers, is an academic example of a virtual-machine–based rootkit (VMBR),
while Blue Pill software is another. In 2009, researchers from Microsoft and North Carolina State University demonstrated a hypervisor-layer anti-rootkit called Hooksafe, which provides generic protection against kernel-mode rootkits. Windows 10 introduced a new feature called "Device Guard", that takes advantage of virtualization to provide independent external protection of an operating system against rootkit-type malware.
Firmware and hardware
A firmware rootkit uses device or platform firmware to create a persistent malware image in hardware, such as a router, network card, hard drive, or the system BIOS. The rootkit hides in firmware, because firmware is not usually inspected for code integrity. John Heasman demonstrated the viability of firmware rootkits in both ACPI firmware routines and in a PCI expansion card ROM. In October 2008, criminals tampered with European credit-card-reading machines before they were installed. The devices intercepted and transmitted credit card details via a mobile phone network. In March 2009, researchers Alfredo Ortega and Anibal Sacco published details of a BIOS-level Windows rootkit that was able to survive disk replacement and operating system re-installation. A few months later they learned that some laptops are sold with a legitimate rootkit, known as Absolute CompuTrace or Absolute LoJack for Laptops, preinstalled in many BIOS images. This is an anti-theft technology system that researchers showed can be turned to malicious purposes.
Intel Active Management Technology, part of Intel vPro, implements out-of-band management, giving administrators remote administration, remote management, and remote control of PCs with no involvement of the host processor or BIOS, even when the system is powered off. Remote administration includes remote power-up and power-down, remote reset, redirected boot, console redirection, pre-boot access to BIOS settings, programmable filtering for inbound and outbound network traffic, agent presence checking, out-of-band policy-based alerting, access to system information, such as hardware asset information, persistent event logs, and other information that is stored in dedicated memory (not on the hard drive) where it is accessible even if the OS is down or the PC is powered off. Some of these functions require the deepest level of rootkit, a second non-removable spy computer built around the main computer. Sandy Bridge and future chipsets have "the ability to remotely kill and restore a lost or stolen PC via 3G". Hardware rootkits built into the chipset can help recover stolen computers, remove data, or render them useless, but they also present privacy and security concerns of undetectable spying and redirection by management or hackers who might gain control.
Installation and cloaking
Rootkits employ a variety of techniques to gain control of a system; the type of rootkit influences the choice of attack vector. The most common technique leverages security vulnerabilities to achieve surreptitious privilege escalation. Another approach is to use a Trojan horse, deceiving a computer user into trusting the rootkit's installation program as benign—in this case, social engineering convinces a user that the rootkit is beneficial. The installation task is made easier if the principle of least privilege is not applied, since the rootkit then does not have to explicitly request elevated (administrator-level) privileges. Other classes of rootkits can be installed only by someone with physical access to the target system. Some rootkits may also be installed intentionally by the owner of the system or somebody authorized by the owner, e.g. for the purpose of employee monitoring, rendering such subversive techniques unnecessary. Some malicious rootkit installations are commercially driven, with a pay-per-install (PPI) compensation method typical for distribution.
Once installed, a rootkit takes active measures to obscure its presence within the host system through subversion or evasion of standard operating system security tools and application programming interface (APIs) used for diagnosis, scanning, and monitoring. Rootkits achieve this by modifying the behavior of core parts of an operating system through loading code into other processes, the installation or modification of drivers, or kernel modules. Obfuscation techniques include concealing running processes from system-monitoring mechanisms and hiding system files and other configuration data. It is not uncommon for a rootkit to disable the event logging capacity of an operating system, in an attempt to hide evidence of an attack. Rootkits can, in theory, subvert any operating system activities. The "perfect rootkit" can be thought of as similar to a "perfect crime": one that nobody realizes has taken place. Rootkits also take a number of measures to ensure their survival against detection and "cleaning" by antivirus software in addition to commonly installing into Ring 0 (kernel-mode), where they have complete access to a system. These include polymorphism (changing so their "signature" is hard to detect), stealth techniques, regeneration, disabling or turning off anti-malware software, and not installing on virtual machines where it may be easier for researchers to discover and analyze them.
Detection
The fundamental problem with rootkit detection is that if the operating system has been subverted, particularly by a kernel-level rootkit, it cannot be trusted to find unauthorized modifications to itself or its components. Actions such as requesting a list of running processes, or a list of files in a directory, cannot be trusted to behave as expected. In other words, rootkit detectors that work while running on infected systems are only effective against rootkits that have some defect in their camouflage, or that run with lower user-mode privileges than the detection software in the kernel. As with computer viruses, the detection and elimination of rootkits is an ongoing struggle between both sides of this conflict. Detection can take a number of different approaches, including looking for virus "signatures" (e.g. antivirus software), integrity checking (e.g. digital signatures), difference-based detection (comparison of expected vs. actual results), and behavioral detection (e.g. monitoring CPU usage or network traffic).
For kernel-mode rootkits, detection is considerably more complex, requiring careful scrutiny of the System Call Table to look for hooked functions where the malware may be subverting system behavior, as well as forensic scanning of memory for patterns that indicate hidden processes. Unix rootkit detection offerings include Zeppoo, chkrootkit, rkhunter and OSSEC. For Windows, detection tools include Microsoft Sysinternals RootkitRevealer, Avast Antivirus, Sophos Anti-Rootkit, F-Secure, Radix, GMER, and WindowsSCOPE. Any rootkit detectors that prove effective ultimately contribute to their own ineffectiveness, as malware authors adapt and test their code to escape detection by well-used tools. Detection by examining storage while the suspect operating system is not operational can miss rootkits not recognised by the checking software, as the rootkit is not active and suspicious behavior is suppressed; conventional anti-malware software running with the rootkit operational may fail if the rootkit hides itself effectively.
Alternative trusted medium
The best and most reliable method for operating-system-level rootkit detection is to shut down the computer suspected of infection, and then to check its storage by booting from an alternative trusted medium (e.g. a "rescue" CD-ROM or USB flash drive). The technique is effective because a rootkit cannot actively hide its presence if it is not running.
Behavioral-based
The behavioral-based approach to detecting rootkits attempts to infer the presence of a rootkit by looking for rootkit-like behavior. For example, by profiling a system, differences in the timing and frequency of API calls or in overall CPU utilization can be attributed to a rootkit. The method is complex and is hampered by a high incidence of false positives. Defective rootkits can sometimes introduce very obvious changes to a system: the Alureon rootkit crashed Windows systems after a security update exposed a design flaw in its code. Logs from a packet analyzer, firewall, or intrusion prevention system may present evidence of rootkit behaviour in a networked environment.
Signature-based
Antivirus products rarely catch all viruses in public tests (depending on what is used and to what extent), even though security software vendors incorporate rootkit detection into their products. Should a rootkit attempt to hide during an antivirus scan, a stealth detector may notice; if the rootkit attempts to temporarily unload itself from the system, signature detection (or "fingerprinting") can still find it. This combined approach forces attackers to implement counterattack mechanisms, or "retro" routines, that attempt to terminate antivirus programs. Signature-based detection methods can be effective against well-published rootkits, but less so against specially crafted, custom-root rootkits.
Difference-based
Another method that can detect rootkits compares "trusted" raw data with "tainted" content returned by an API. For example, binaries present on disk can be compared with their copies within operating memory (in some operating systems, the in-memory image should be identical to the on-disk image), or the results returned from file system or Windows Registry APIs can be checked against raw structures on the underlying physical disks—however, in the case of the former, some valid differences can be introduced by operating system mechanisms like memory relocation or shimming. A rootkit may detect the presence of such a difference-based scanner or virtual machine (the latter being commonly used to perform forensic analysis), and adjust its behaviour so that no differences can be detected. Difference-based detection was used by Russinovich's RootkitRevealer tool to find the Sony DRM rootkit.
Integrity checking
Code signing uses public-key infrastructure to check if a file has been modified since being digitally signed by its publisher. Alternatively, a system owner or administrator can use a cryptographic hash function to compute a "fingerprint" at installation time that can help to detect subsequent unauthorized changes to on-disk code libraries. However, unsophisticated schemes check only whether the code has been modified since installation time; subversion prior to that time is not detectable. The fingerprint must be re-established each time changes are made to the system: for example, after installing security updates or a service pack. The hash function creates a message digest, a relatively short code calculated from each bit in the file using an algorithm that creates large changes in the message digest with even smaller changes to the original file. By recalculating and comparing the message digest of the installed files at regular intervals against a trusted list of message digests, changes in the system can be detected and monitored—as long as the original baseline was created before the malware was added.
More-sophisticated rootkits are able to subvert the verification process by presenting an unmodified copy of the file for inspection, or by making code modifications only in memory, reconfiguration registers, which are later compared to a white list of expected values. The code that performs hash, compare, or extend operations must also be protected—in this context, the notion of an immutable root-of-trust holds that the very first code to measure security properties of a system must itself be trusted to ensure that a rootkit or bootkit does not compromise the system at its most fundamental level.
Memory dumps
Forcing a complete dump of virtual memory will capture an active rootkit (or a kernel dump in the case of a kernel-mode rootkit), allowing offline forensic analysis to be performed with a debugger against the resulting dump file, without the rootkit being able to take any measures to cloak itself. This technique is highly specialized, and may require access to non-public source code or debugging symbols. Memory dumps initiated by the operating system cannot always be used to detect a hypervisor-based rootkit, which is able to intercept and subvert the lowest-level attempts to read memory—a hardware device, such as one that implements a non-maskable interrupt, may be required to dump memory in this scenario. Virtual machines also make it easier to analyze the memory of a compromised machine from the underlying hypervisor, so some rootkits will avoid infecting virtual machines for this reason.
Removal
Manual removal of a rootkit is often extremely difficult for a typical computer user, but a number of security-software vendors offer tools to automatically detect and remove some rootkits, typically as part of an antivirus suite. , Microsoft's monthly Windows Malicious Software Removal Tool is able to detect and remove some classes of rootkits. Also, Windows Defender Offline can remove rootkits, as it runs from a trusted environment before the operating system starts. Some antivirus scanners can bypass file system APIs, which are vulnerable to manipulation by a rootkit. Instead, they access raw file system structures directly, and use this information to validate the results from the system APIs to identify any differences that may be caused by a rootkit. There are experts who believe that the only reliable way to remove them is to re-install the operating system from trusted media. This is because antivirus and malware removal tools running on an untrusted system may be ineffective against well-written kernel-mode rootkits. Booting an alternative operating system from trusted media can allow an infected system volume to be mounted and potentially safely cleaned and critical data to be copied off—or, alternatively, a forensic examination performed. Lightweight operating systems such as Windows PE, Windows Recovery Console, Windows Recovery Environment, BartPE, or Live Distros can be used for this purpose, allowing the system to be "cleaned". Even if the type and nature of a rootkit is known, manual repair may be impractical, while re-installing the operating system and applications is safer, simpler and quicker.
Defenses
System hardening represents one of the first layers of defence against a rootkit, to prevent it from being able to install. Applying security patches, implementing the principle of least privilege, reducing the attack surface and installing antivirus software are some standard security best practices that are effective against all classes of malware. New secure boot specifications like Unified Extensible Firmware Interface have been designed to address the threat of bootkits, but even these are vulnerable if the security features they offer are not utilized. For server systems, remote server attestation using technologies such as Intel Trusted Execution Technology (TXT) provide a way of verifying that servers remain in a known good state. For example, Microsoft Bitlocker's encryption of data-at-rest verifies that servers are in a known "good state" on bootup. PrivateCore vCage is a software offering that secures data-in-use (memory) to avoid bootkits and rootkits by verifying servers are in a known "good" state on bootup. The PrivateCore implementation works in concert with Intel TXT and locks down server system interfaces to avoid potential bootkits and rootkits.
See also
Computer security conference
Host-based intrusion detection system
Man-in-the-middle attack
The Rootkit Arsenal: Escape and Evasion in the Dark Corners of the System
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Types of malware
Privilege escalation exploits
Cryptographic attacks
Cyberwarfare | [
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] |
223948 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dracocephalum | Dracocephalum | Dracocephalum is a genus of about 60 to 70 species of flowering plants in the family Lamiaceae, native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. These flowers, collectively called dragonhead, are annual or perennial herbaceous plants or subshrubs, growing to 15 to 90 centimeters tall.
Selected species
Dracocephalum aitchisonii Rech.f.
Dracocephalum argunense Fisch. ex Link
Dracocephalum aucheri Boiss.
Dracocephalum austriacum L.
Dracocephalum bipinnatum Rupr.
Dracocephalum botryoides Steven
Dracocephalum breviflorum Turrill
Dracocephalum bullatum Forrest ex Diels
Dracocephalum butkovii Krassovsk.
Dracocephalum calophyllum Hand.-Mazz.
Dracocephalum charkeviczii Prob.
Dracocephalum discolor Bunge
Dracocephalum diversifolium Rupr.
Dracocephalum ferganicum Lazkov
Dracocephalum foetidum Bunge
Dracocephalum formosum Gontsch.
Dracocephalum forrestii W.W.Sm.
Dracocephalum fragile Turcz. ex Benth.
Dracocephalum fruticulosum Steph. ex Willd.
Dracocephalum grandiflorum L.
Dracocephalum heterophyllum Benth.
Dracocephalum hoboksarensis G.J.Liu
Dracocephalum imberbe Bunge
Dracocephalum imbricatum C.Y.Wu & W.T.Wang
Dracocephalum integrifolium Bunge
Dracocephalum isabellae Forrest ex W.W.Sm.
Dracocephalum jacutense Peschkova
Dracocephalum junatovii A.L.Budantsev
Dracocephalum kafiristanicum Bornm.
Dracocephalum komarovii Lipsky
Dracocephalum kotschyi Boiss.
Dracocephalum krylovii Lipsky
Dracocephalum lindbergii Rech.f.
Dracocephalum longipedicellatum Muschl.
Dracocephalum microflorum C.Y.Wu & W.T.Wang
Dracocephalum moldavica L. (type)
Dracocephalum multicaule Montbret & Aucher ex Benth.
Dracocephalum multicolor Kom.
Dracocephalum nodulosum Rupr.
Dracocephalum nuratavicum Adylov
Dracocephalum nuristanicum Rech.f. & Edelb.
Dracocephalum nutans L.
Dracocephalum oblongifolium Regel
Dracocephalum olchonense Peschkova
Dracocephalum origanoides Steph. ex Willd.
Dracocephalum palmatoides C.Y.Wu & W.T.Wang
Dracocephalum palmatum Steph. ex Willd.
Dracocephalum parviflorum Nutt.
Dracocephalum paulsenii Briq.
Dracocephalum peregrinum L.
Dracocephalum pinnatum L.
Dracocephalum polychaetum Bornm.
Dracocephalum popovii T.V.Egorova & Sipliv.
Dracocephalum propinquum W.W.Sm.
Dracocephalum psammophilum C.Y.Wu & W.T.Wang
Dracocephalum purdomii W.W.Sm.
Dracocephalum renati Emb.
Dracocephalum rigidulum Hand.-Mazz.
Dracocephalum rupestre Hance
Dracocephalum ruyschiana L.
Dracocephalum schischkinii Strizhova
Dracocephalum scrobiculatum Regel
Dracocephalum spinulosum Popov
Dracocephalum stamineum Kar. & Kir.
Dracocephalum stellerianum Hiltebr.
Dracocephalum subcapitatum (Kuntze) Lipsky
Dracocephalum surmandinum Rech.f.
Dracocephalum taliense Forrest ex W.W.Sm.
Dracocephalum tanguticum Maxim.
Dracocephalum thymiflorum L.
Dracocephalum truncatum Y.Z.Sun ex C.Y.Wu
Dracocephalum velutinum C.Y.Wu & W.T.Wang
Dracocephalum wallichii Sealy
Dracocephalum wendelboi Hedge
References
External links
Lamiaceae genera
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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223949 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yankee%20Station | Yankee Station | Yankee Station (officially Point Yankee) was a fixed coordinate off the coast of Vietnam where U.S. Navy aircraft carriers and support ships loitered in open waters over a nine-year period during the Vietnam War. The location was used primarily by aircraft carriers of Task Force 77 to launch strikes over North Vietnam. While the coordinate's official designation was "Point Yankee", it was universally referred to as Yankee Station. Carriers conducting air operations at Yankee Station were said to be "on the line" (in combat) and statistical summaries were based on days on the line. Yankee Station was initially located at 16° 00′ N, 110° 00′ E, however with a massive increase in operations over North Vietnam in 1966 the station was moved about 145 miles (230 km) northwest to 17° 30′ N, 108° 30′ E, placing it about 90 miles (145 km) from the North Vietnamese shore.
Yankee Team beginnings
The name derived from it being the geographic reference point "Y", pronounced "Yankee" in the NATO phonetic alphabet. In turn the term Point Yankee derived from the launch point for "Yankee Team" aerial reconnaissance missions over Laos conducted in 1964. The first ship operations at Point Yankee took place in April 1964. Starting 13 April 1966 Yankee Station was moved further toward the Gulf of Tonkin at 17° 30' N and 108° 30' E, about 190 km due east of Đồng Hới.
Early missions were flown in the Kingdom of Laos during the Laotian Civil War. Begun 19 May 1964 as medium and low level U.S. Navy photo reconnaissance missions over the Plain of Jars, it was soon ramped up to "armed reconnaissance" covered by U.S. Air Force F-100 Super Sabre fighter escorts from Tan Son Nhut. The classified operation was dubbed Yankee Team on 25 May 1964. Notice of their non-emergency sorties was forwarded from CINCPAC to Washington 36 hours in advance for possible cancellation. A command post was set up in 2nd Air Division headquarters. A U.S. Air Force liaison officer was posted to to coordinate the naval aviators with Air Force operations; in turn, a party of five naval personnel were detailed to the command post.
Committed to a mission in which half the planes drew ground fire, and lacking a formal Combat Search and Rescue backup, the mission suffered its first loss on 6 June 1964 when Lieutenant Charles F. Klusman was shot down while flying at 1,200 feet. Air America attempted rescue without success. Flak suppression protocols had not yet been figured out; use of napalm, the most successful counter to anti-aircraft batteries, was banned by the American ambassador to Laos, Leonard Unger. A second plane went down during the would-be CSAR.
After settling into secretive run air strikes against communist infiltrators into Laos, Yankee Team morphed into Operation Barrel Roll.
Yankee Station continues the fight
During the two periods of sustained air operations against North Vietnam (March 2, 1965, to October 31, 1968, and March 30, 1972, to December 29, 1972) there were normally three carriers on the line, each conducting air operations for twelve hours, then off for twelve hours. One of the carriers would operate in Vietnam territorial waters from noon to midnight, another from midnight to noon, and one during daylight hours, which gave 24-hour coverage plus additional effort during daylight hours, when sorties were most effective. However at the end of May, 1972, six carriers were for a short period of time on the line at Yankee Station conducting Linebacker and Linebacker II strikes.
The first aircraft carrier at Yankee Station was Kitty Hawk, which was ordered there in April 1964 for the Yankee Team missions. Kitty Hawk was joined by in May and in June, two months prior to the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. Ticonderoga and Constellation launched the first bombing missions from Yankee Station on August 5, 1964. Constellation was also the last carrier conducting operations at Yankee Station on August 15, 1973. suffered a major accident while at Yankee Station when a series of fires and explosions on her deck killed 134 men and injured another 161.
A corresponding Dixie Station in the South China Sea off the Mekong Delta was a single carrier point for conducting strikes within South Vietnam from May 15, 1965, to August 3, 1966.
Endnotes
References
Anthony, Victor B. and Richard R. Sexton (1993). The War in Northern Laos. Command for Air Force History. OCLC 232549943.
Frankum, Ronald B. Jr. (2011). Historical Dictionary of the War in Vietnam. Scarecrow Press. ISBNs 0810879565, 9780810879560.
Recommended reading
Francillon, René. Tonkin Gulf Yacht Club US Carrier Operations off Vietnam, Naval Institute Press (1988)
Nichols, John B. (CDR, USN ret.) and Tillman, Barrett. On Yankee Station, Naval Institute Press,
Nordeen, Lon. Air Warfare in the Missile Age, Smithsonian Institution Press (1985),
Reardon, Carol. Launch the Intruders University of Kansas Press (2005)
Vietnam War sites
Naval aviation operations and battles
United States naval aviation
United States Navy in the Vietnam War
History of the South China Sea | [
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223950 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists%20of%20Telugu-language%20films | Lists of Telugu-language films | This is a list of films produced in the Telugu cinema (Tollywood) and in the Telugu language.
1930s
List of Telugu films of the 1930s
1940s
List of Telugu films of the 1940s
List of Telugu films of 1940
List of Telugu films of 1941
List of Telugu films of 1942
List of Telugu films of 1943
List of Telugu films of 1944
List of Telugu films of 1945
List of Telugu films of 1946
List of Telugu films of 1947
List of Telugu films of 1948
List of Telugu films of 1949
1950s
List of Telugu films of the 1950s
List of Telugu films of 1950
List of Telugu films of 1951
List of Telugu films of 1952
List of Telugu films of 1953
List of Telugu films of 1954
List of Telugu films of 1955
List of Telugu films of 1956
List of Telugu films of 1957
List of Telugu films of 1958
List of Telugu films of 1959
1960s
List of Telugu films of the 1960s
List of Telugu films of 1960
List of Telugu films of 1961
List of Telugu films of 1962
List of Telugu films of 1963
List of Telugu films of 1964
List of Telugu films of 1965
List of Telugu films of 1966
List of Telugu films of 1967
List of Telugu films of 1968
List of Telugu films of 1969
1970s
List of Telugu films of the 1970s
List of Telugu films of 1970
List of Telugu films of 1971
List of Telugu films of 1972
List of Telugu films of 1973
List of Telugu films of 1974
List of Telugu films of 1975
List of Telugu films of 1976
List of Telugu films of 1977
List of Telugu films of 1978
List of Telugu films of 1979
1980s
List of Telugu films of the 1980s
List of Telugu films of 1980
List of Telugu films of 1981
List of Telugu films of 1982
List of Telugu films of 1983
List of Telugu films of 1984
List of Telugu films of 1985
List of Telugu films of 1986
List of Telugu films of 1987
List of Telugu films of 1988
List of Telugu films of 1989
1990s
List of Telugu films of the 1990s
List of Telugu films of 1990
List of Telugu films of 1991
List of Telugu films of 1992
List of Telugu films of 1993
List of Telugu films of 1994
List of Telugu films of 1995
List of Telugu films of 1996
List of Telugu films of 1997
List of Telugu films of 1998
List of Telugu films of 1999
2000s
List of Telugu films of 2000
List of Telugu films of 2001
List of Telugu films of 2002
List of Telugu films of 2003
List of Telugu films of 2004
List of Telugu films of 2005
List of Telugu films of 2006
List of Telugu films of 2007
List of Telugu films of 2008
List of Telugu films of 2009
2010s
List of Telugu films of 2010
List of Telugu films of 2011
List of Telugu films of 2012
List of Telugu films of 2013
List of Telugu films of 2014
List of Telugu films of 2015
List of Telugu films of 2016
List of Telugu films of 2017
List of Telugu films of 2018
List of Telugu films of 2019
2020s
List of Telugu films of 2020
List of Telugu films of 2021
List of Telugu films of 2022
References
Lists of Indian films
Lists of films by language | [
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223955 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghantasala%20%28singer%29 | Ghantasala (singer) | Ghantasala Venkateswararao (4 December 1922 – 11 February 1974), known mononymously as Ghantasala, was an Indian film composer, Playback Singer known for his works predominantly in Telugu cinema and Kannada cinema and also in Tamil, Malayalam, Tulu and Hindi language films. In 1970, he received the Padma Shri award, India's fourth highest civilian award for his contribution to Indian cinema. According to The Hindu and The Indian Express, Ghantasala was "Such a divine talent and with his songs he could move the hearts of the people." "Ghantasala's blending of classical improvisations to the art of light music combined with his virtuosity and sensitivity puts him a class apart, above all others in the field of playback singing"." "Gifted with what Indian Film Historian V. A. K. Ranga Rao called "the most majestic voice", Ghantasala helped Telugu film music develop its own distinct character which remains unparalleled". He is referred to as the "Gaana Gandharva" for his mesmerising voice and musical skills.
Ghantasala performed in the United States, England and Germany, and for the United Nations Organisation. The government of Andhra Pradesh marked the occasion of 25 years of his film career as Silver Jubilee Celebrations of Ghantasala in Hyderabad on 1 February 1970. More than 30,000 people attended the function held at the Lal Bahadur Stadium, Hyderabad. Ghantasala continues to be popular. Statutes of his likeness have been installed across Andhra Pradesh. Every year, the anniversaries of his birth and death are celebrated in India and overseas.
Early life
Ghantasala was born in 1922 into a Telugu Brahmin family of Ghantasala Soorayya, a professional singer in Chowtapalli, a village in Gudivada taluk of Krishna District. During his childhood, Ghantasala used to dance to his father's Tarangams. His father died when Ghantasala was a child, and he was brought up by his maternal uncle. He took formal music training from Patrayani Sitarama Sastry, and joined Maharajah's Government College of Music and Dance in Vijayanagram.
Career
Ghantasala participated in the Quit India Movement of 1942, for which he was arrested and imprisoned for 18 months at the Alipore (Allipura) Jail, Ballari. After leaving jail, he met Samudrala Sr., who advised him to try his luck in the film industry as a singer. Ghantasala married Savitri, who lived in a village called Pedapulivarru. In that village, Ghantasala met lyricist Samudrala Sr., who was impressed with his voice and inducted him into the Madras film industry. Before Ghantasala found fame, he was already an accomplished Carnatic music singer.
Ghantasala's first break as a singer came from All India Radio. Later on, Peketi Siva Ram from HMV studios recorded Ghantasala's private songs. Ghantasala debuted as a chorus singer and for a character role in Seeta Rama Jananam by Pratibha Films. After this, he worked with well-known music directors Gali Penchala and C. R. Subbaraman. Ghantasala's first film as a music director was Laxmamma. He introduced the technique of changing the vocal pitch and diction to suit the actor singing the songs. Ghantasala was peerless at Padyam renderings and his way with the Telugu padyam was incomparable.
Producer Chittajallu Krishnaveni gave Ghantasala his first job as full-time music director for her film Mana Desam, which was N. T. Rama Rao's first film. It established Ghantasala as a music composer-cum-playback singer. He was the most prolific film composer and playback singer in Telugu cinema until the mid-1970s. He composed music for many popular Telugu movies, including Patala Bhairavi, Mayabazar, Lava Kusa, Pandava Vanavasam, Rahasyam, Gundamma Katha, Paramanandayya Shishyula Katha and Pelli Chesi Chudu, and also for popular Tamil and Kannada films in the 1950s and 1960s. Ghantasala sang for and directed the music for a Hindi film Jhandaa ooncha Rahe Hamara (1964). The song "Siva Sankari" from the film Jagadeka Veeruni Katha (1961) believed to be one of the most challenging songs from classical hindusthani and carnatic style was sung by Ghantasala in a single take.
Private recordings and Bhagavad Gita
Ghantasala served as the Aaasthana Gaayaka (court musician) for the Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams. He recorded private albums, including Bhagawad Gita, Patriotic Songs, Padyalua unique genre of Telugu, singing the verses in dramatic stylePushpa Vilapam, Devotional and folk songs. His recording of "Bhagawad Gita", which he directed and sang, can now be heard daily in the Tirumala temple. According to music director Pendyala Nageswara Rao and playback singer P. Susheela, "Ghantasala alone is the foremost among playback singers who had a full-fledged melodious powerful voice range which could accommodate in uniformity, all the three octaves in music quite comfortably".
Pendyala Nageswara Rao channelled Ghantasala's classical musical knowledge and skills in classical renditions and in Telugu films including siva sankari from film Jagadekaveeruni Katha, Rasika Raja taguvaramu kama from film Jayabheri, and Syamala Dandakam – Manikya Veena from film Mahakavi Kalidasu. Pendyala said these renditions were recorded only in one take by Ghantasala.
Death
Ghantasala died on 11 February 1974, two months after his 51st birthday, due to cardiac arrest at a hospital in Chennai. The last song he recorded was for a documentary – Bhadrachala Ramadasu Vaibhavam ( music by Master Venu ) from the hospital bed the day before his death.
Legacy
The Indian government released a postage stamp and first day cover to celebrate Ghantasala's work on 11 February 2003. He is the first movie singer-composer of the south to be accorded this honour. The US Postal Department has released a postal stamp on Ghantasala on 6 October 2014. The postal stamp was jointly released by the North American Telugu Society (NATS) in collaboration with Telugu Literary and Cultural Association (TLCA) in New York.
Various awards named after Ghantasala are given every year, including the "Ghantasala melody king award". Recipients of this award include playback singers K J Yesudas and P Suseela, and Indian Idol Sri Ramachandra. Ghantasala Arts Academy has instituted the "Ghantasala National Award"; the first winner was playback singer S. P. Balasubrahmanyam.
Awards
Ghantasala was honoured with the "Padmashri" by the Government of India. He won the best playback singer award in Andhra Pradesh every year for nearly 30 years, a feat unachieved by any other playback singer.
After the saint poet Annamacharya in the 15th century, Ghantasala has been the only singer to perform devotional songs inside the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple near the Lord Moola Virat.
Tributes
"Kala Pradarshini Ghantasala Puraskar", the only award instituted directly by the Ghantasala Family curated by his second son Ravi Ghantasala and his wife, acclaimed dancer Parvathi Ravi Ghantasala, which aims to honor legends who have contributed to "Arts and Philanthropy". the Inaugural awards were presented to Dr.S.P.Balasubramanyam (music), Dr. Padma Subramaniam (Dance) and Dr. Nalli Kuppusamy Chetty (Philanthropy).
The Ghantasala Puraskar Award 2014, given every year by Sharan Incorporation, has been conferred on Rao Bala Saraswathi Devi, who was the first Telugu playback singer.
The Government music college in Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, is named after Ghantasala. Ghantasala Sangeetha Kalasala college in Hyderabad and Vizag offers six-month and one-year diploma courses on Ghantasala's light music, songs and music. Ghantasala Yuva kalakendram offers semester based courses specially for children and youth.SivaNandiAwardRecipient Ghantasala Yuva Kalakendram founder M.S.V.N.VamshikrishnaDevaraya conducts ghantasala musical workshops every year at tayagaraya gana sabha
Personal life
Ghantasala Venkateswararao was married to Savitri and (Late) Sarala Devi. He was blessed with 8 children: 4 Daughters (Meera, Shyamala, Suguna, Shanthi) and 4 Sons (Vijayakumar, Ravikumar, Shankarkumar, Ratnakumar). Shyamala, Suguna, Shanthi, Vijayakumar and Ratnakumar are born to Savtri and Meera, Ravikumar and Shankar Kumar are born to Sarla Devi.
It is said that Ghantasala named his eldest son “Vijaya” Kumar after Vijaya Productions out of gratitude towards the organization that employed him as a permanent artiste. Sri Chakrapani, one of then producers of Vijaya Productions, presented Ghantasala a purse with Rs. 25,000 realising his respect towards the organization.
Filmography
Tyagayya (1946)
Anarkali (1955)
Sri Venkateswara Mahatyam (1960) Sathya harichndra(Kannada)
Playback singer and music director
Rangeli Raaja, 1971
Ali Baba 40 Dongalu, 1970
Thalli Thandrulu, 1970
Nirdoshi, 1970
Jarigina Katha, 1969
Govula Gopanna, 1968
Rahasyam, 1967
Punyavati, 1967
Bhuvana Sundari Katha, 1967
Stree Janma, 1967
Paramanandayya Shishyula Katha, 1966
Sakuntala, 1966
C.I.D., 1965
Gudi Gantalu, 1965
Pandava Vanavasam, 1965
Varasatvam, 1964
Marmayogi, 1964
Veera Kesari, 1963
Valmiki, 1963
Bandipotu, 1963
Lavakusa, 1963
Raktha Sambandham, 1962
Gundamma Katha, 1962
Sati Sulochana, 1961
Sabash Raja, 1961
Bhakta Raghunath, 1960
Vimala, 1960
Deepavali, 1960
Shantinivasam, 1960
Pelli Sandadi, 1959
Sabhash Ramudu 1959
Manchi Manasuku Manchi Rojulu, 1958
Pelli Naati Pramanalu, 1958
Mayabazar, 1957
Bhale Bava, 1957
Sarangadhara, 1957
Vinayaka Chaviti, 1957
Chiranjeevulu, 1956
Jayam Manade, 1956
Kanakatara, 1956
Sontha Ooru, 1956
Kanyasulkam, 1955
Vadina Gari Gajulu, 1955
Chandraharam, 1954
Bratuku Theruvu, 1953
Paropakaram, 1953
Palletooru, 1952
Pelli Chesi Choodu, 1952
Patala Bhairavi, 1951
Shavukaru, 1950
Vali Sugriva, 1950
Mana Desam, 1949
Keelugurram, 1949
Balaraju, 1948
Ratnamala, 1947
Playback singer
Ghantasala recorded songs as playback singer for the movies under popular composers – S Rajeswara Rao, Pendyala Nageswara Rao, M S Viswanathan, K V Mahadevan, Adi Narayana Rao, Master Venu, T V Raju, T Chalapathi Rao, S P Kodandapani, Shankar Jai Kishan, Susarla Dakshina Murthy, and Galipenchala Narasimha Rao among others.
Yasodha Krishna (1975)
Khaidi Babai (1974)
Kodenagu (1974)
Premalu Pellillu (1974)
Taatamma Kala (1974)
Dorababu (1974)
Alluri Seetharamaraju (1974)
Anbu Sagothararkal - Tamil (1973)
Ida Lokam (1973)
Doctor Babu (1973)
Dabbuku Lokam Dasoham (1973)
Bangaru Babu (1973)
Ganga Manga (1973)
Vaade Veedu (1973)
Bhakta Tukaram (1973)
Sarada (1973)
Iddaru Ammaiyulu (1972)
Datta Putrudu (1972)
Koduku Kodalu (1972)
Baala Bharatam (1972)
Beedala Patlu (1972)
Sri Krishnaanjaneya Yuddham (1972)
Pandanti Kapuram (1972)
Badi Panthulu (1972)
Vichitra Bandham (1972)
Sreemanthudu (1972)
Kalam Marindi (1972)
Manchi Rojulu Vacchayi (1972)
Suputhrudu (1971)
Pavitra Hrudayalu (1971)
Sri Krishna Satya (1971)
Adhrushtajatakudu (1971)
Chinnanati Snehitulu (1971)
Amayakuralu (1971)
Raithu Bidda (1971)
Jeevitha Chakram (1971)
Prem Nagar (1971)
Dasara Bullodu (1971)
Bharya Biddalu (1971)
Rajakota Rahasyam (1971)
Sampoorna Ramayanam (1971)
Ananda Nilayam (1971)
Manasu Mangalyam (1971)
Pavitra Bandham (1971)
Oke Kutumbam (1970)
Kathanayika Molla (1970)
Suguna Sundari Katha (1970)
Lakshmi Kataaksham (1970)
Jai Jawan (1970)
Balaraju Katha (1970)
Dharmadata (1970)
Sri Krishna Vijayam (1970)
Talla Pellama (1970)
Kodalu Diddina Kapuram (1970)
Bhale Maastaru (1969)
Ekaveera (1969)
Manushulu Marali (1969)
Sipayi Chinnaya (1969)
Kathanayakudu (1969)
Bandipotu Bheemanna (1969)
Vichitra Kutumbam (1969)
Gopaludu Bhoopaludu (1969)
Kadaladu Vadaladu (1969)
Buddhimantudu (1969)
Sapta Swaralu (1969)
Mooganomu (1969)
Aatmeeyulu (1969)
Vichitra Kutumbam (1969)
Aadarsa Kutumbam (1969)
Bandipotu Dongalu (1969)
Bhale Rangadu (1969)
Nindu Hrudayalu (1969)
Lakshmi Nivasam (1968)
Tikka Sankarayya (1968)
Ramu (1968)
Sri Rama Katha (1968)
Kalasi Vacchina Adrushtam (1968)
Varakatnam (1968)
Bandhavyalu (1968)
Bangaru Gajulu (1968)
Uma Chandi Gowri Sankarula Katha (1968)
Nindu Samsaram (1968)
Baghdad Gaja Donga (1968)
Undamma Bottu Pedata (1968)
Brahmachari (1968)
Adrushtavantulu (1968)
Sukha Dukhalu (1967)
Poola Rangadu (1967)
Chikkadu Dorakadu (1967)
Shri Krishnavataram (1967)
Vasantasena (1967)
Avekallu (1967)
Ummadi Kutumbam (1967)
Gruha Lakshmi (1967)
Goodachari 116 (1967)
Kanchukota (1967)
Chadarangam (1967)
Eedu Jodu (1967)
Sri Krishna Rayabharam (1967)
Aaasthiparulu (1966)
Bheemanjaneya Yuddham (1966)
Sangeetha Lakshmi (1966)
Pidugu Ramudu (1966)
Sri Krishna Pandaveeyam (1966)
Sri Krishna Tulabharam (1966)
Mohini Bhasmasura (1966)
Adugu Jadalu (1966)
Bhakta Potana (1966)
Navaratri (1966)
Rangula Ratnam (1966)
Palnati Yuddham (1966)
Aggi Barata (1966)
Kanne Manasulu (1966)
Anthastulu (1965)
Sumangali (1965)
Dorikithe Dongalu (1965)
Zamindar (1965)
Satya Harishchandra (1965)
Jwala Dweepa Rahasyam (1965)
Manushulu Mamathalu (1965)
Manchi Kutumbam (1965)
Tene Manasulu (1965)
Veera Abhimanyu (1965)
Uyyala Jampala (1965)
Sri Simhachala Kshetra Mahima (1965)
Prammelarjuneeyam (1965)
Mangamma Sapadham (1965)
Visala Hrudayalu (1965)
Aatma Gouravam (1965)
Naadi Aadajanme (1965)
Preminchi choodu (1965)
Chandrahaasa (1965)
Todu Needa (1965)
Daagudu Muthalu (1964)
Desadrohulu (1964)
Raamudu Bheemudu (1964)
Pooja Phalam (1964)
Navagraha Puja Mahima (1964)
Babruvahana (1964)
Dr. Chakravarthi (1964)
Devatha (1964)
Amarasilpi Jakkana (1964)
Muralikrishna (1964)
Manchi Manishi (1964)
Sabhash Soori (1964)
Aatmabalam (1964)
Bobbili Yuddham (1964)
Sri Satyanarayana Mahathyam (1964)
Manchi Chedu (1963)
Anuragam (1963)
Chaduvukunna Ammayilu (1963)
Punarjanma (1963)
Lakshaadikari (1963)
Mooga Manasulu (1963)
Sri Krishnaarjuna Yuddham (1963)
Narthanasala (1963)
Thobuttuvulu (1963)
Tirupathamma Katha (1963)
Paruvu Prathista (1963)
Kulagothralu (1962)
Aradhana (1962)
Bhishma (1962)
Tiger Ramudu (1962)
Mahamantri Timmarusu (1962)
Constable Kooturu (1962)
Siri Sampadalu (1962)
Manchi Manasulu (1962)
Aatmabandhuvu (1962)
Kalasi Vunte Kaladu Sukham (1961)
Usha Parinayam (1961)
Krishna Prema (1961)
Pelli Kani Pillalu (1961)
Velugu Needalu (1961)
Gulebakavali katha (1961)
Seetha Rama Kalyanam (1961)
Bhakta Jayadeva (1961)
Iddaru Mitrulu (1961)
Jagadeka Veeruni Katha (1961)
Bharya Bhartalu (1961)
Bava Maradalu (1961)
Vaagdanam (1961)
Mahakavi Kalidasu (1960)
Bhatti Vikramarka (1960)
Sri Venkateswara Mahatyam (1960)
Runanubandham (1960)
Kuladaivam (1960)
Bhakta Sabari (1960)
Rajamukutam (1959)
Ulagam Sirikkirathu (1959)
Banda Ramudu (1959)
Rechukka Pagatichukka (1959)
Illarikam (1959)
Jayabheri (1959)
Bhakta Ambarisha (1959)
Nammina Bantu (1959)
Chenchu Lakshmi (1958)
Karthavarayuni Katha (1958)
Appu Chesi Pappu Koodu (1958)
Mangalya Balam (1958)
Bhookailas (1958)
Veera Kankanam (1957)
Nala Damayanthi (1957)
Panduranga Mahatyam (1957)
Thodi Kodallu (1957)
Dongallo Dora (1957)
M L A (1957)
Suvarna Sundari (1957)
Bhale Ramudu (1956)
Tenali Ramakrishna (1956)
Harischandra (1956)
Charanadaasi (1956)
Pennin Perumai (1956)
Santhanam (1955)
Swarna Manjari (1955)
Jayasimha (1955)
Kanyasulkam (1955)
Donga Ramudu (1955)
Anarkali (1955)
Rani Ratnaprabha (1955)
Sri Kalahastiswara Mahatyam (1954)
Raju Peda (1954)
Pedda Manushulu (1954)
Kanna Talli (1953)
Devadasu (1953)
Chandi raani (1953)
Prema (1952)
Tingu Ranga (1952)
Malliswari (1951)
Swapna Sundari (1950)
Gunasundari katha (1949)
Laila Majnu (1949)
Raksharekha (1949)
Swarga Seema (1945)
Private albums
Pushpa Vilapam
Patriotic Songs
Bhagawad Gita
Folk Songs
Devotional Songs
See also
Songs of Ghantasala
Ghantasala film career silver jubilee felicitation at LB Stadium, Hyderabad(rare video)
References
External links
Ghantasala's homepage
Ghantasaala Gaana Charita
Deva Mahadeva
http://www.ghantasala.info/pictures/docs/gh-jail-cert.jpg
1922 births
1974 deaths
Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts
Indian male playback singers
Telugu film score composers
Kannada film score composers
Kannada playback singers
Tamil film score composers
People from Krishna district
Telugu playback singers
20th-century Indian singers
Singers from Andhra Pradesh
Indian male songwriters
20th-century Indian composers
Film musicians from Andhra Pradesh
Indian male film score composers
20th-century Indian male singers | [
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223968 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London%20Metal%20Exchange | London Metal Exchange | The London Metal Exchange (LME) is a futures & forwards exchange with the world's largest market in standarised forward contracts, futures contracts and options on base metals. The exchange also offers contracts on ferrous metals and precious metals. As the LME offers contracts with daily expiry dates of up to three months from trade date, weekly contracts to six months, and monthly contracts up to 123 months, it also allows for cash trading. It offers hedging, worldwide reference pricing, and the option of physical delivery to settle contracts.
History
The London Metal Market and Exchange Company was founded in 1877, but the market traces its origins back to 1571 and the opening of the Royal Exchange, London. Before the exchange was created, business was conducted by traders in London coffee houses using a makeshift ring drawn in chalk on the floor.
At first only copper was traded. Lead and zinc were soon added but only gained official trading status in 1920. The exchange was closed upon the outbreak of World War II and did not re-open for copper trading until 1953. The range of metals traded was extended to include aluminium (1978), nickel (1979), tin (1989), aluminium alloy (1992), steel (2008), and minor metals cobalt and molybdenum (2010). The exchange ceased trading plastics in 2011. The total value of the trade is around $US 11.6 trillion annually.
Many deals are made for commodities to be delivered in three months' time. The custom stems from the time that copper cargoes originally took in 1877 on their voyage from the ports of Chile.
The LME was owned by its members until 2012, when it was sold to Hong Kong Exchanges and Clearing for £1.4 billion.
Commodities traded
The LME offers futures and options contracts for aluminium, aluminium alloy, NASAAC (North American Special Aluminium Alloy), cobalt, copper, lead, lithium, molybdenum, nickel, steel HRC, steel rebar, steel scrap, tin and zinc.
Facilities
To trade contracts in copper, tin, or any other metal listed on the LME, one has to trade through an LME member. Purchasers of contracts, which are then left to reach maturity, will receive a warrant for a specific LME approved warehouse to take delivery of the metal if required.
The LME issues, each day, detailed figures on how many tonnes of each metal is in its warehouses, which helps producers and consumers make correct business decisions.
Ring trading
Trading Times are 11:40 to 17:00 GMT.
Open-outcry is the oldest way of trading on the exchange, though nowadays the majority of trades are placed electronically. It is central to the process of price discovery, the way LME official prices are established. Prices are derived from the most liquid periods of trading; the short open-outcry ring trading sessions, and are most representative of industry supply and demand. The official settlement price, on which contracts are settled, is determined by the last offer price before the bell is sounded to mark the end of the official ring.
There is constant inter-office trading. A relatively small yet important portion of trading is still done by open-outcry in the Ring. There is a morning and an afternoon trade, where each of the nine metal contracts are traded in two blocks with a five-minute session for each contract (the sessions last from 11.40 until 13.10 and from 14.55 until 16.15, each session includes a 10-minute break). The second trading block in the morning is key to setting the Daily Official Exchange rates. After the official trades of sessions one and two, there are 85 and 45 minutes of "kerb" trading respectively. Trades are in futures, options and TAPOs (traded average-price options, a form of Asian options).
Whilst the price discovery mechanism used by the exchange is post-trade transparent it is not pre-trade transparent. Pre-trade transparency is required for many securities under the Market in Financial Instruments Directive (MiFiD) to achieve fair markets by reducing such illegal abuse as market manipulation.
The LME is the last exchange in Europe where open-outcry trading takes place. The ring was temporarily closed in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In January 2021, LME proposed closing the ring, Europe’s last open-outcry trading floor, and moving permanently to an electronic system.
Ring Dealing Members
Ring Dealing Members are entitled to trade in the Ring during the ring-trading sessions. They may also operate a 24-hour market by trading inter-office. All Ring Dealing Members, as members of the LME Clear, are authorised under the Financial Services and Markets Act 2000, and are regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority.
Ring Dealing Members are Clearing Members, who hold the exclusive right to trade in the ring;
Amalgamated Metal Trading Ltd
E D & F Man Capital Markets Limited
Marex Financial Ltd
Metdist Trading Ltd
INTL FCStone Europe Ltd
GF Financial Markets (UK) Ltd
Societe Generale International Ltd
Sucden Financial Ltd
Triland Metals Ltd
In addition to the 9 companies that have exclusive rights to trade in the Ring, around 100 companies are involved in the LME in total.
Precious metals
Contrary to popular belief, the precious metals, gold and silver, are not traded on the London Metal Exchange, but on the over-the-counter market usually referred to as the London Bullion Market, by the members of the London Bullion Market Association. Platinum and palladium are traded on the London Platinum and Palladium Market. Both members of the LBMA and LPPM trade the precious metals spot market on EBS (Electronic Broking Systems)—acquired by ICAP in June 2006. Many companies involved in minor metals are members of the Minor Metal Trade Association.
The LME used, however, to provide trade matching and clearing services to the London bullion market and distributes gold, silver, and gold IRS (interest rate swaps) forward rates on behalf of the LBMA.
Electronic trading
The LME launched an electronic platform called LME Select launched in February 2001. This was developed by a Swedish software house Cinnober. The platform is a FIX-based trading platform, and now handles a majority of the total LME business.
Delivery points
As a market of “last resort”, industry can use the LME’s delivery option to sell excess stock in times of oversupply and as a source of material in times of extreme shortage. In reality, physical delivery occurs in a very small percentage of cases on the LME as most organizations use the LME for hedging purposes. The small percentage which does result in delivery, however, plays a vital role in creating price convergence.
Warehouses
To support the physical delivery mechanism, the LME approves and licenses a network of warehouses and storage facilities around the world. Controversy arose in 2013 because the LME took action to limit the use of its warehouses for the hoarding of aluminium. In March 2014, England's High Court found for Rusal, the Russian aluminium company, striking down these rules.
See also
List of futures exchanges
London Platinum and Palladium Market
References
External links
London Metal Exchange
Financial services companies established in 1877
Commodity exchanges in the United Kingdom
Organisations based in the City of London
Buildings and structures in the City of London
Futures exchanges
1877 establishments in the United Kingdom
Organizations established in 1877
Metal industry | [
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223975 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTR | NTR | NTR or ntr may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
N.T.R: Kathanayakudu, a 2019 Indian Telugu film about N. T. Rama Rao
N.T.R: Mahanayakudu, a 2019 sequel
Lakshmi's NTR, a 2019 Indian Telugu film about N. T. Rama Rao
NTR: Netsuzou Trap, a manga series
Netorare, Japanese term for cheating or being unfaithful, used in hentai media
Businesses and organizations
NTR plc, an Irish renewable energy company
National Transcontinental Railway, a historic Canadian railway
Nonprofit Technology Resources, a computer-refurbishing nonprofit organization
NTR Trust, a not-for-profit Indian social welfare organization
Omroep NTR, a Dutch public service broadcaster
People
N. T. Rama Rao (1923–1996), known as NTR, Indian actor and politician
N. T. Rama Rao Jr. (born 1983), or NTR Jr., Indian film actor
Science
Neurotensin receptor 1, a protein encoded by the NTSR1, or NTR, gene
Nuclear thermal rocket, a proposed spacecraft propulsion technology
Non-catalytic tyrosine-phosphorylated receptors, receptor family present on immune cells
Other uses
Normal Trade Relations, a legal term in international trade
nṯr, Egyptian language word for Ancient Egyptian deities
Del Norte International Airport, Mexico, IATA code NTR
Northallerton railway station, England, station code NTR
, people considered unworthy of staying at the Hotel Ritz, Madrid | [
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223976 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accretion | Accretion | Accretion may refer to:
Science
Accretion (astrophysics), the formation of planets and other bodies by collection of material through gravity
Accretion (meteorology), the process by which water vapor in clouds forms water droplets around nucleation sites
Accretion (coastal management), the process where coastal sediments return to the visible portion of the beach following storm erosion
Accretion (geology), the increase in size of a tectonic plate by addition of material along a convergent boundary
Accretionary wedge
Other uses
Accretion (finance), predictable changes in the price of certain securities | [
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223979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepfamily | Stepfamily | A stepfamily, is a family where at least one parent has children that are not biologically or adoptive related to the other spouse. Either parent, or both, may have children from previous relationships or marriages. A "simple" stepfamily is one in which only one member of the couple has a prior child or children and the couple has not yet had additional children. When both members of the couple have at least one pre-existing child, the new family is "complex" or "blended". If only one member has one or more prior children but the couple has another child together, the "complex"/"blended" designation replaces the "simple" designation upon the birth of the new child. If both members of the couple have prior children, those children are stepbrothers and stepsisters to one another. Any subsequent child born to the couple is a half-sibling of the respective members' prior children.
Along with the "simple" and "complex", there are other terms that help describe the types of stepfamilies. The most popular types are neotraditional, matriarchal, and romantic. Neotraditional is the most common and has both parents sharing the responsibility of the children. In a matriarchal stepfamily, a strong, independent woman is in charge of the family with the stepfather becoming a mentor. Finally, a romantic stepfamily is when the two parents expect the combining of their separate families to run smoothly without realizing that issues will arise.
Etymology
The earliest recorded use of the prefix step-, in the form steop-, is from an 8th-century glossary of Latin-Old English words meaning "orphan". is given for the Latin word and for . Similar words recorded later in Old English include , , and . The words are used to denote a connection resulting from the remarriage of a widowed parent and are related to the word meaning 'bereaved', with and occasionally used simply as synonyms for orphan. Words such as stepbrother, stepniece and stepparent appeared much later and have no particular connotation of bereavement. Corresponding words in other Germanic languages include Old High German and Old Norse .
Terminology
A child is referred to as the stepdaughter or stepson of their biological or adoptive parent's new spouse, and the spouse is referred to as the stepparent (father or mother) of the child.
A stepparent is the spouse of someone's parent, and not their biological or adoptive parent, stepfather being the male spouse and stepmother the female spouse.
A step-grandparent is not someone's biological or adoptive grandparent, stepgrandfather being the male one, and stepgrandmother the female one.
A step-uncle is the spouse of someone's parent's sister (aunt) or brother (uncle) and is not the father of someone's cousin, except when the sibling marries another and never has children (no cousins). The sister's niece/nephew should refer to a new spouse as uncle, not step-uncle. A step-aunt is the spouse of someone's parent's brother (uncle) or sister (aunt) and is not the mother of someone's cousin, except when the sibling marries another and never had children (no cousins). The sister's niece/nephew should refer to the newest spouse as aunt, not step-aunt. Similarly, a stepsibling is the offspring of a stepparent to whom one is not biologically or adoptive related, stepbrother being the male one and stepsister the female one. A stepgrandson is the grandson of someone's spouse who one is not biologically related to. A step-granddaughter is the granddaughter of someone's spouse to whom one is not biologically or adoptive related.
Alternatively, in Australia Under the Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) a "stepparent" in relation to a child, is interpreted as a person who is not a parent of the child; and is, or has been, married to or a de facto partner of, a parent of the child; and treats, or at any time while married to, or a de facto partner of, the parent treated, the child as a member of the family formed with the parent.
Challenges
According to James Bray, three of the challenges facing a stepfamily are financial and living arrangements, resolving feelings about the previous marriage and anticipating parenting changes. Research has shown that parents who are constantly fighting with their ex-spouse tend to make their children suffer mentally and emotionally. However, parents who are close with their ex-spouse tend to make their new spouse insecure and anxious.
Additional challenges that a step- or blended family face are those regarding the paternal parents as well as the inherent bond that paternal parents have with their children and vice versa. Stepparents often face significant difficulties when interacting with the paternal parent. Often, paternal parents feel as though the other man or woman will ultimately replace them. This is a common feeling for a parent when faced with the new circumstance of blended families.
Legal status
Although historically stepfamilies are built through the institution of marriage and are legally recognized, it is currently unclear if a stepfamily can be both established and recognized by less-formal arrangements, such as when a man or woman with children cohabits with another man or woman outside of marriage. This relationship is becoming more common in all Western countries.
There appear to be many cultures in which these families are recognized socially as de facto families. However, in modern Western culture it is often unclear as to what, if any, social status and protection they enjoy in law.
The stepparent is a "legal stranger" in most of the U.S. and has no legal right to the minor child no matter how involved in the child's life they are. The biological parents (and, where applicable, adoptive parents) hold that privilege and responsibility. If the biological parent does not give up their parental rights and custody of the child, the other parent's subsequent marriage cannot create a parental relationship without the biological parent's written consent before a "child" reaches adulthood. In most cases, the stepparent can not be ordered to pay child support.
Stepparents generally do not have the authority to give legal consent to medical treatment for a stepchild, unless the stepparent has legally adopted the child or been designated a legal guardian. A child's parents or legal guardians may sign a statement authorizing a third party to consent to medical care.
With regard to unmarried couples, one can easily imagine such social and legal recognition, most notably in the case of common law marriage. Unmarried couples today may also find social recognition locally through community consensus.
Still, it is not at all clear what formal parenting roles, rights, responsibilities and social etiquette should exist between stepparents and their stepchildren. This often leaves the parents in unexpected conflicts with each other, their former spouses and the children.
For all the confusion which stepparents may feel, it is often even less clear to the stepchildren what the interpersonal relationships are, or should be, between themselves and their stepsiblings; between themselves and their stepparent; and even between themselves and their birth parents. These relationships can be extremely complex, especially in circumstances where each stepspouse may bring children of their own to the home or in households where children are expected to actively participate in each of the newly created families of both birth parents.
Although most stepfamilies can agree on what they do not want to be for one another, they are often hard pressed to agree upon what they do want to be for one another. This makes it difficult for everyone in the family to learn their roles. It is especially difficult for the children, because the roles and expectations of them change as they move between the homes and families of both of their birth parents.
If a stepparent legally adopts the partner's child or children, he or she becomes the child's legal parent. In such cases, the parents may stop using the terms stepparent and stepchild and instead refer to the child simply as their son or daughter; depending on the child's degree of affinity for the adoptive parent and/or approval of the legal proceedings culminating in the child's adoption, the child may likewise drop the "step-" designation from his/her description of the relationship. Even when all parties describe the relationship using the terms applied to biological and adoptive families, however, at least some of the emotional and psychological issues common to stepfamilies may or may not persist.
Thus, one possibility is that a stepfamily can be reconfigured, and thanks to the biological and adoptive links could leave the condition of a stepfamily.
Stepparent adoption
United States
In the United States, the most common form of adoption is adopting a stepchild. By adopting a stepchild, the stepparent is agreeing to be fully responsible for their spouse's child. The non-custodial parent no longer has any rights or responsibilities for the child, including child support.
When a stepparent adopts a stepchild, either the other biological parent willingly gives up their parental rights to the child, the court terminates those rights, or the other biological parent is deceased. Reasons a court may terminate the non-custodial parent's rights include evidence of abuse or neglect, legal abandonment, or any other indications that a continued relationship between the child and that parent would be detrimental to the child. Grounds for legal child abandonment in most states is no contact between the parent and child for at least one year.
Canada
In Canada, one needs to put into writing what the child's circumstances are for being adopted. Some circumstances may include: the child's mental, physical, and emotional welfare, their background, religion, having a positive relationship, etc. If the child is an indigenous person, then the family must specify their plan to keep the child involved in their culture.
Abuse
A common villain of classic fairy tales is the abusive stepmother, like the queen in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Lady Tremaine in Cinderella, or Madame Fichini in The Trouble with Sophie, which shows mother-in-law as cruel. She mistreats her non-biological child by locking them away, or trying to kill them in some cases, and treats her own children, if any, very well. In popular culture, phrases like "I'll beat you like a red-headed stepchild" are uttered as a common threat that show just how aware people are about the assumed nature of stepfamily abuse. The thought is that the nonbiological child is more likely to be beaten because of the lack of kinship ties. The research on this topic shows that this issue is not so clearly defined. The image of the wicked stepmother is well known but much of the research available shows more of the abuse coming from stepfathers.
But on the other hand, in children's stories, it is rare to find a bad father-in-law, yet there are several, such as Charles Francis Mistrane, a bad father-in-law, violent and hateful in the Eleonore tale, by R.J.P Toreille, published in France in 2018.
Stepfathers have been shown to abuse female stepchildren more than males. They are also shown to be more abusive towards female children than biological families, but less abusive than adoptive fathers. The abuse studied with men in mind tends to focus on physical or sexual abuse of children rather than emotional abuse. Neglect is also discussed as a qualifying method of child abuse by stepparents in general. In 2004 a U.S. study by Weekes and Weekes-Shackelford found that while biological fathers fatally abuse children five and under at a rate of 5.6 per million per year, stepfathers were found to have a rate of 55.9 per million per year. A U.K. study done in 2000 had different results which found that many fewer children responded as being abused by a stepparent. Economic factors could also play a role in the abuse of stepchildren. In places with higher levels of social strain abuse may be more prevalent or more violent. Other studies of census data and child neglect and abuse records have found that stepparents may be over represented in abuse figures. They found that when the data is balanced, the biological parents have a much higher rate of abuse than the stepparents do.
Stepmothers are thought to be less violent in their abuse and instead rely mainly on verbal and emotional abuse.
There is little research in the field of parental abuse by children in concern with stepchildren abusing stepparents. The abuse of stepchildren by their siblings is also a topic with little research.
In research
In her book, Becoming a Stepfamily, Patricia Papernow (1993) suggests that each stepfamily goes through seven distinct stages of development, which can be divided into the early, middle, and late stages. The early stages consist of the fantasy, immersion, and awareness stages. In the fantasy stage, both children and parents are typically "stuck" in their fantasies or wishes for what their family could be like. The developmental task for this stage is for each member to articulate their wants and needs. In the Immersion stage, the family is typically struggling to live out the fantasy of a "perfect" blended family. In this stage, it is critical for the "insider spouse" (i.e. the biological parent who typically forms the emotional hub of the family) to understand that the feelings of the "outsider spouse" and children are real. The task of this stage is to persist in the struggle to become aware of the various experiences. This stage is followed by the awareness stage, in which the family gathers information about what the new family looks like (e.g., roles, traditions, "family culture") and how each member feels about it. The tasks of this stage are twofold: individual and joint. The individual task is for each member to begin to put words to the feelings they are experiencing, and to voice their needs to other family members. The joint task is for family members to begin to transcend the "experiential gaps" and to try to form an understanding of other members' roles and experiences.
The middle stages consist of the mobilization and action stages. In the mobilization stage, the stepparent can begin to step forward to address the family's process and structure. The tasks of this stage are to confront differences in each member's perception of the new family, as well as to influence one another before shaming or blaming begins to take action to reorganize the family structure. The goal here is to make joint decisions about new stepfamily rituals, rules, and roles. The focus in this stage is on the stepfamily's unique "middle ground" (i.e. the "areas of shared experience, shared values, and easy cooperative functioning created over time," p. 39), and on balancing this new middle ground with honoring of past and other relationships.
The later stages consist of the contact and resolution stages. In the contact stage, the couple is working well together, the boundaries between households are clear, and stepparents have definite roles with stepchildren as "intimate outsiders." The task for this stage is in solidifying the stepparent's role, and in continuing the process of awareness. Finally, in the resolution stage, the stepfamily's identity has become secure. The family accepts itself for who it is, there is a strong sense of the stepfamily's middle ground, and children feel secure in both households. The task for this stage is to nourish the depth and maturity gained through this process, and to rework any issues that might arise at family "nodal events" (e.g., weddings, funerals, graduations, etc.).
In her book, Stepmonster: A New Look at Why Real Stepmothers Think, Feel, and Act the Way We Do, social researcher Wednesday Martin takes an anthropological approach to examining stepfamily dynamics.
Education
The prevalence of stepfamilies has increased over the past century with the increase of divorce and remarriage. According to the Step Family Foundation, "over 50% of US families are remarried or recoupled." These families are unique in their experiences facing many challenges which first-married families do not. For example, role ambiguity, dealing with stepchildren, and ex-spouses are only a few of the issues which are unique to these families. In response to these families' desire for assistance, stepfamily education has become an increasingly common topic among scholars and educators. Although still a relatively new facet within the marriage education realm, stepfamily education provides important information which may not be addressed in traditional marriage or relationship education curriculum. As discussed by Adler-Baeder and Higginbotham (2004) a number of curricula are currently available to stepfamilies and family life educators; however, further research is needed in order to determine best-practices for the field. One way in which this gap is being filled is through the current implementation of Healthy Marriage Demonstration Grants in the U.S. As part of the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005, grants for healthy marriage and responsible fatherhood, which include at-risk and diverse populations such as stepfamilies, are providing important information on the evaluation of stepfamily programs and their effectiveness in servicing stepfamilies.
See also
Half-sibling
Cinderella effect
Phaedra complex
Notes
Michael Conner offer counseling & therapy services with an online video system to some patients where it can be helpful.
References
Warner, Marina. From the Beast to the Blonde: On Fairy Tales and Their Tellers,
Tatar, Maria. The Hard Facts of the Grimms' Fairy Tales,
Tatar, Maria. The Annotated Classic Fairy Tales,
Further reading
LeBey, Barbara (2004). Remarried with Children: Ten Secrets for Successfully Blending and Extending Your Family. New York: Bantam.
Martin, Wednesday, PhD (2009). Stepmonster: A New Look at Why Real Stepmothers Think, Feel, and Act the Way We Do. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Papernow, Patricia L. (1993). Becoming a Stepfamily: Patterns of Development in Remarried Families. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Ulrike Zartler, Valerie Heinz-Martin, Oliver Arránz Becker (Eds.) (2015). Family Dynamics After Separation: A Life Course Perspective on Post-Divorce Families. Special Issue ZfF, Volume 10, Barbara Budrich, .
External links
Family
Adoption, fostering, orphan care and displacement | [
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223980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice%20crystals | Ice crystals | Ice crystals are solid ice exhibiting atomic ordering on various length scales and include hexagonal columns, hexagonal plates, dendritic crystals, and diamond dust.
Formation
The hugely symmetric shapes are due to depositional growth, namely, direct deposition of water vapor onto the ice crystal. Depending on environmental temperature and humidity, ice crystals can develop from the initial hexagonal prism into numerous symmetric shapes. Possible shapes for ice crystals are columns, needles, plates and dendrites. If the crystal migrates into regions with different environmental conditions, the growth pattern may change, and the final crystal may show mixed patterns. Ice crystals tend to fall with their major axis aligned along the horizontal, and are thus visible in polarimetric weather radar signatures with enhanced (positive) differential reflectivity values. Electrification of ice crystals can induce alignments different from the horizontal. Electrified ice crystals are also well detectable by polarimetric weather radars.
Temperature and humidity determine many different crystalline forms. Ice crystals are responsible for various atmospheric optics displays.
Ice clouds are composed of ice crystals, the most notable being cirrus clouds and ice fog. The slight whitening of a clear blue sky caused by ice crystals high in the troposphere can be a sign that a weather front (and rain) is approaching, as moist air is carried to high levels and freezes to ice crystals.
Geometry
At ambient temperature and pressure, water molecules have a V shape. The two hydrogen atoms bond to the oxygen atom at a 105° angle.
Common ice crystals are symmetrical and have a hexagonal pattern.
Square crystals
Square ice crystals form at room temperature when squeezed between two layers of graphene. The material is a new crystalline phase of ice, joining 17 others. The research derived from the earlier discovery that water vapor and liquid water could pass through laminated sheets of graphene oxide, unlike smaller molecules such as helium. The effect is thought to be driven by the van der Waals force, which may involve more than 10,000 atmospheres of pressure.
See also
Snow
Snowflake
Ice spike
Ice lens
Icicle
References
External links
SnowCrystals.com!, at Caltech
American Meteorological Society Glossary
Crystal
Crystal
Clouds, fog and precipitation
Atmospheric optical phenomena | [
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223983 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European%20roller | European roller | The European roller (Coracias garrulus) is the only member of the roller family of birds to breed in Europe. Its overall range extends into the Middle East, Central Asia and Morocco.
The European roller is found in a wide variety of habitats, avoiding only treeless plains. It winters primarily in dry wooded savanna and bushy plains, where it typically nests in tree holes.
Taxonomy and systematics
The European roller was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under its current the binomial name Coracias garrulus. The type locality is Sweden. The generic name derives from Greek korakias referring to a type of crow, perhaps the red-billed chough. The specific epithet garrulus is from Latin and means 'chattering' or 'noisy'. Alternate English names include the blue roller, common roller, Eurasian roller, or simply roller.
A molecular phylogenetic study published in 2018 found that the European roller was most closely related to the Abyssinian roller (Coracias abyssinicus).
The rollers are medium-sized Old World birds of open woodland habitats. They have brightly coloured plumage and a hooked bill. Most are found south of the Sahara. The genus Coracias contains eight species of sit-and-wait hunters. The European roller is similar in appearance and behaviour to the Abyssinian roller. These two birds and the lilac-breasted roller have been considered to form subspecies.
Two subspecies are recognised:
Western European roller (C. g. garrulus) - Linnaeus, 1758: The nominate subspecies. Found in north-western Africa, southern Europe and east through north-western Iran to south-western Siberia.
Eastern European roller (C. g. semenowi) - Loudon & Tschusi, 1902: Also named the Kashmir roller. Found in Iraq and southern Iran east through Kashmir and southern Kazakhstan to Xinjiang in western China.
Description
The European roller is a stocky bird, the size of a Eurasian jay at in length with a wingspan. It is mainly blue with an orange-brown back.
This species is striking in its strong direct flight, with the brilliant blue contrasting with black flight feathers. Sexes are similar, but the juvenile is a drabber version of the adult.
The display of this bird is like that of a lapwing, with the twists and turns that give this species its English name.
The call is a harsh crow-like sound. It gives a raucous series of calls when nervous.
Distribution and habitat
The European roller is a bird of warmer regions. The nominate subspecies breeds in northern Africa from Morocco to Tunisia, in southern and east-central Europe, and eastwards through northwestern Iran to southwestern Siberia. The subspecies C. g. semenowi breeds from Iraq and southern Iran east through Kashmir and southern Kazakhstan to Xinjiang. The European range was formerly more extensive, but there has been a long-term decline in the north and west, with extinction as a nesting bird in Sweden and Germany. The European roller is a long-distance migrant, wintering in Africa south of the Sahara in two distinct regions, from Senegal east to Cameroon and from Ethiopia west (with observations in the Degua Tembien mountains) to Congo and south to South Africa. Some populations migrate to Africa through India. A collision with an aircraft over the Arabian Sea has been recorded.
It is a bird of warm, dry, open country with scattered trees, preferring lowlands, but occurs up to in Europe and in Morocco. Oak and pine woodlands with open areas are prime breeding habitat, but farms, orchards and similar areas with mixed vegetation are also used. In Africa, a similarly wide range of dry, open land with trees is used. It winters primarily in dry, wooded savanna and bushy plains, where it typically nests in tree holes.
Migration
The advent of sufficiently lightweight tracking technology has facilitated several recent studies of roller migration, providing new information on the non-breeding sites used by rollers from different breeding populations. Individuals from south-west European populations migrate to south-west Africa (Angola, Namibia, and Botswana), with French and north-Spanish birds taking a direct southerly route across the Sahara, while Portuguese and south-Spanish birds take a more westerly route around the west African coast. Rollers from eastern European populations also spend the winter period in southern Africa, but further east in Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Botswana. The Sahel savannah region immediately south of the Sahara Desert (particularly the area around Lake Chad) appears to be important for rollers from many populations as an autumn re-fuelling site, and Latvian and other north and north-eastern populations migrate northwards via the Arabian Peninsula in spring. Individuals from different breeding populations use distinct but overlapping winter sites; there is a good correlation between the longitude of individual breeding and non-breeding sites, suggesting parallel migration. In the east, the northernmost breeders (from Latvia) tend to winter south of the southernmost breeders (from Cyprus) - this suggests a pattern of 'leap-frog' migration.
Behaviour and ecology
The European roller chick will vomit a foul-smelling orange liquid onto itself to deter a predator. The smell also warns the parents on their return to the nest.
Breeding
The nest site is usually in a natural cavity in a tree or in a hole excavated by a woodpecker. It is typically located above the ground. Pairs sometimes use a cavity in rocks or buildings and may occasionally excavate a hole in a sandy bank. The hole is unlined. The clutch is 2 to 6 white smooth glossy eggs that measure . They are laid at intervals of two or occasionally three days. They are incubated by both sexes but mainly by the female starting before the clutch is completed. They hatch after 17 to 19 days. The young are cared for by both parents but usually the male passes food to the female. The nestlings fledge after 26 to 27 days. Only a single brood is raised each year, but a replacement clutch is laid if the first is lost. European rollers generally first breed when they are two years old.
The maximum age recorded from ring-recovery data is 9 years and 2 months for a bird shot in Poland.
Food and feeding
Rollers often perch prominently on trees, posts or overhead wires, like giant shrikes, whilst watching for the large insects, small reptiles, rodents and frogs that they eat. The diet of adult rollers is dominated by Coleoptera, whereas nestlings mostly eat Orthoptera, such as grasshoppers and bush crickets.
Conservation status
The Eurasian roller has an extensive distribution in Europe and western Asia, and its European breeding population is estimated at 159,000 to 330,000 birds. When Asian breeders are added, this gives a global total population of 277,000 to 660,000 individuals. There have been fairly rapid population declines across much of its range, so it was formerly classified as near threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature in 2005; it has, however, been downlisted to least concern in 2015, as population development was judged to not meet the criteria for a more urgent rating at this time. The European population declined by 25 percent between 1990 and 2000. The northern areas of the breeding range have fared worst, with numbers in the Baltic states and northern Russia collapsing, and no birds left breeding in Estonia.
Threats include hunting while on migration around the Mediterranean, and large numbers, possibly in the thousands, are killed for food in Oman. Agricultural practices have led to the loss of trees and hedges which provide potential nest sites and perches for hunting, and pesticides have reduced the availability of insect food. At locations where foraging resources are abundant, providing nest boxes can be a useful short-term conservation solution; however, in other locations foraging habitat restoration is more important.
The European roller is a host of the Acanthocephalan intestinal parasite Moniliformis gracilis.
References
Cited texts
External links
European roller - Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds.
Oiseaux Photos
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 4.5 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
Photos, audio and video of European roller from Cornell Lab of Ornithology's Macaulay Library
European roller
Birds of Central Asia
Birds of Western Asia
Birds of Europe
Least concern biota of Europe
European roller
European roller | [
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223986 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycloalkane | Cycloalkane | In organic chemistry, the cycloalkanes (also called naphthenes, but distinct from naphthalene) are the monocyclic saturated hydrocarbons. In other words, a cycloalkane consists only of hydrogen and carbon atoms arranged in a structure containing a single ring (possibly with side chains), and all of the carbon-carbon bonds are single. The larger cycloalkanes, with more than 20 carbon atoms are typically called cycloparaffins. All cycloalkanes are isomer of Alkene.
The cycloalkanes without side chains are classified as small (cyclopropane and cyclobutane), common (cyclopentane, cyclohexane, and cycloheptane), medium (cyclooctane through cyclotridecane), and large (all the rest).
Besides this standard definition by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), in some authors' usage the term cycloalkane includes also those saturated hydrocarbons that are polycyclic.
In any case, the general form of the chemical formula for cycloalkanes is CnH2(n+1−r), where n is the number of carbon atoms and r is the number of rings. The simpler form for cycloalkanes with only one ring is CnH2n.
Nomenclature
Cycloalkanes with one ring in their structure are named by prefixing the term "cyclo" to the name of linear alkane with the same number of carbon atoms in the main chain as a cycloalkane to be named has in its ring. For example, the name of cyclopropane (C3H6) containing a three-membered ring is derived from propane (C3H8) - an alkane having three carbon atoms in the main chain.
The naming of polycyclic alkanes such as bicyclic alkanes and spiro alkanes is more complex, with the base name indicating the number of carbons in the ring system, a prefix indicating the number of rings (e.g., "bicyclo-"), and a numeric prefix before that indicating the number of carbons in each part of each ring, exclusive of junctions. For instance, a bicyclooctane that consists of a six-membered ring and a four-membered ring, which share two adjacent carbon atoms that form a shared edge, is [4.2.0]-bicyclooctane. That part of the six-membered ring, exclusive of the shared edge has 4 carbons. That part of the four-membered ring, exclusive of the shared edge, has 2 carbons. The edge itself, exclusive of the two vertices that define it, has 0 carbons.
There is more than one convention (method or nomenclature) for the naming of compounds, which can be confusing for those who are just learning, and inconvenient for those who are well-rehearsed in the older ways. For beginners, it is best to learn IUPAC nomenclature from a source that is up to date, because this system is constantly being revised. In the above example [4.2.0]-bicyclooctane would be written bicyclo[4.2.0]octane to fit the conventions for IUPAC naming. It then has room for an additional numerical prefix if there is the need to include details of other attachments to the molecule such as chlorine or a methyl group. Another convention for the naming of compounds is the common name, which is a shorter name and it gives less information about the compound. An example of a common name is terpineol, the name of which can tell us only that it is an alcohol (because the suffix "-ol" is in the name) and it should then have a hydroxyl group (–OH) attached to it.
An example of the IUPAC method is given in the adjacent image. In this example the base name is listed first, which indicates the total number of carbons in both rings including the carbons making up the shared edge (e.g., "heptane", which means "hepta-" or 7 carbons, and "-ane", which indicates only single bonding between carbons). Then in front of the base name is the numerical prefix, which lists the number of carbons in each ring, excluding the carbons that are shared by each ring, plus the number of carbons on the bridge between the rings. In this case there are two rings with two carbons each and a single bridge with one carbon, excluding the carbons shared by it and the other two rings. There is a total of three numbers and they are listed in descending order separated by dots, thus: [2.2.1].
Before the numerical prefix is another prefix indicating the number of rings (e.g., "bicyclo-"). Thus, the name is bicyclo[2.2.1]heptane.
The group of cycloalkanes are also known as naphthenes.
Properties
Table of cycloalkanes
Cycloalkanes are similar to alkanes in their general physical properties, but they have higher boiling points, melting points, and densities than alkanes. This is due to stronger London forces because the ring shape allows for a larger area of contact. Containing only C–C and C–H bonds, unreactivity of cycloalkanes with little or no ring strain (see below) are comparable to non-cyclic alkanes.
Conformations and ring strain
In cycloalkanes, the carbon atoms are sp3 hybridized, which would imply an ideal tetrahedral bond angle of 109° 28′ whenever possible. Owing to evident geometrical reasons, rings with 3, 4, and (to a very tiny extent) also 5 atoms can only afford narrower angles; the consequent deviation from the ideal tetrahedral bond angles causes an increase in potential energy and an overall destabilizing effect. Eclipsing of hydrogen atoms is an important destabilizing effect, as well. The strain energy of a cycloalkane is the theoretical increase in energy caused by the compound's geometry, and is calculated by comparing the experimental standard enthalpy change of combustion of the cycloalkane with the value calculated using average bond energies. Conformations of cycloalkanes, their different strain contributions also with respect to reaction rates, and methods for their characterization are discussed briefly in the Wikipedia section Conformational isomerism. Molecular mechanics calculations are well suited to identify the many conformations occurring particularly in medium rings.
Ring strain is highest for cyclopropane, in which the carbon atoms form a triangle and therefore have 60 °C–C–C bond angles. There are also three pairs of eclipsed hydrogens. The ring strain is calculated to be around 120 kJ mol−1.
Cyclobutane has the carbon atoms in a puckered square with approximately 90° bond angles; "puckering" reduces the eclipsing interactions between hydrogen atoms. Its ring strain is therefore slightly less, at around 110 kJ mol−1.
For a theoretical planar cyclopentane the C–C–C bond angles would be 108°, very close to the measure of the tetrahedral angle. Actual cyclopentane molecules are puckered, but this changes only the bond angles slightly so that angle strain is relatively small. The eclipsing interactions are also reduced, leaving a ring strain of about 25 kJ mol−1.
In cyclohexane the ring strain and eclipsing interactions are negligible because the puckering of the ring allows ideal tetrahedral bond angles to be achieved. As well, in the most stable chair form of cyclohexane, axial hydrogens on adjacent carbon atoms are pointed in opposite directions, virtually eliminating eclipsing strain.
After cyclohexane, the molecules are unable to take a structure with no ring strain, resulting in an increase in strain energy, which peaks at 9 carbons (around 50 kJ mol−1). After that, strain energy slowly decreases until 12 carbon atoms, where it drops significantly; at 14, another significant drop occurs and the strain is on a level comparable with 10 kJ mol−1. After 14 carbon atoms, sources disagree on what happens to ring strain, some indicating that it increases steadily, others saying that it disappears entirely. However, bond angle strain and eclipsing strain are an issue only for smaller rings.
Ring strain can be considerably higher in bicyclic systems. For example, bicyclobutane, C4H6, is noted for being one of the most strained compounds that is isolatable on a large scale; its strain energy is estimated at 267 kJ mol−1.
Reactions
The simple and the bigger cycloalkanes are very stable, like alkanes, and their reactions, for example, radical chain reactions, are like alkanes.
The small cycloalkanes – in particular, cyclopropane – have a lower stability due to Baeyer strain and ring strain. They react similarly to alkenes, though they do not react in electrophilic addition, but in nucleophilic aliphatic substitution. These reactions are ring-opening reactions or ring-cleavage reactions of alkyl cycloalkanes. Cycloalkanes can be formed in a Diels–Alder reaction followed by a catalytic hydrogenation. Medium rings exhibit larger rates in for example nucleophilic substitution reactions but smaller ones in ketone reduction. This is due to conversion from sp3- to sp2-state, or vice versa, and the preference for sp2-states in medium rings, where some of the unfavourable torsional strain in saturated rings is relieved. Molecular mechanics calculations of strain energy differences SI between sp3- and sp2-states show linear correlations with rates ( as logk ) of many redox or substitution reactions.
See also
Prelog strain
Conformational isomerism
Cycloalkene
References
Organic Chemistry IUPAC Nomenclature. Rule A-23. Hydrogenated Compounds from Fused Polycyclic Hydrocarbons http://www.acdlabs.com/iupac/nomenclature/79/r79_73.htm
Organic Chemistry IUPAC Nomenclature.Rule A-31. Bridged Hydrocarbons: Bicyclic Systems. http://www.acdlabs.com/iupac/nomenclature/79/r79_163.htm
Organic Chemistry IUPAC Nomenclature.Rules A-41, A-42: Spiro Hydrocarbons http://www.acdlabs.com/iupac/nomenclature/79/r79_196.htm
Organic Chemistry IUPAC Nomenclature.Rules A-51, A-52, A-53, A-54:Hydrocarbon Ring Assemblies http://www.acdlabs.com/iupac/nomenclature/79/r79_158.htm
External links
"Cycloalkanes" at the online Encyclopædia Britannica
"Cycloalkanes" by the Chemistry staff at Westminster College | [
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223988 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchidometer | Orchidometer | An orchidometer (or orchiometer) is a medical instrument used to measure the volume of the testicles.
The orchidometer was introduced in 1966 by Swiss pediatric endocrinologist Andrea Prader of the University of Zurich. It consists of a string of twelve numbered wooden or plastic beads of increasing size from about 1 to 25 millilitres. Doctors sometimes informally refer to them as "Prader's balls", "the medical worry beads", or the "endocrine rosary".
The beads are compared with the testicles of the patient, and the volume is read off the bead which matches most closely in size. Prepubertal sizes are 1–3 ml, pubertal sizes are considered 4 ml and up and adult sizes are 12–25 ml.
The orchidometer can be used to accurately determine size of testes. Discrepancy of testicular size with other parameters of maturation can be an important clue to various diseases. Small testes can indicate either primary or secondary hypogonadism. Testicular size can help distinguish between different types of precocious puberty. Since testicular growth is typically the first physical sign of true puberty, one of the most common uses is as confirmation that puberty is beginning in a boy with delay. Large testes (macroorchidism) can be a clue to one of the most common causes of inherited generalised learning disability, fragile X syndrome.
Stephen Shalet, a leading endocrinologist who works for the Christie Hospital in Manchester, is reported to have told The Observer, "Every endocrinologist should have an orchidometer. It's his stethoscope."
Orchidometers are also commonly used to measure testicular volume in rams.
Related concept
Numerous clinical scales and measurement systems exist to define genitals as normal male or female, or "abnormal", including the Prader scale, Quigley scale. and the satirical Phall-O-Meter.
See also
Testicle
References
Further reading
Taranger, J., Engström, I., Lichtensten, H., Svenberg-Redegren, I., "Somatic Pubertal Development", Acta Pediatr. Scand. Suppl. 1976, vol. 258, pp. 121–135
Male genital procedures
Medical equipment
Dimensional instruments
1966 introductions
Testicle
Intersex and medicine | [
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223992 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind%20shear | Wind shear | Wind shear (or windshear), sometimes referred to as wind gradient, is a difference in wind speed and/or direction over a relatively short distance in the atmosphere. Atmospheric wind shear is normally described as either vertical or horizontal wind shear. Vertical wind shear is a change in wind speed or direction with a change in altitude. Horizontal wind shear is a change in wind speed with a change in lateral position for a given altitude.
Wind shear is a microscale meteorological phenomenon occurring over a very small distance, but it can be associated with mesoscale or synoptic scale weather features such as squall lines and cold fronts. It is commonly observed near microbursts and downbursts caused by thunderstorms, fronts, areas of locally higher low-level winds referred to as low-level jets, near mountains, radiation inversions that occur due to clear skies and calm winds, buildings, wind turbines, and sailboats. Wind shear has significant effects on the control of an aircraft, and it has been the sole or a contributing cause of many aircraft accidents.
Sound movement through the atmosphere is affected by wind shear, which can bend the wave front, causing sounds to be heard where they normally would not, or vice versa. Strong vertical wind shear within the troposphere also inhibits tropical cyclone development but helps to organize individual thunderstorms into longer life cycles which can then produce severe weather. The thermal wind concept explains how differences in wind speed at different heights are dependent on horizontal temperature differences and explains the existence of the jet stream.
Definition
Wind shear refers to the variation of wind over either horizontal or vertical distances. Airplane pilots generally regard significant wind shear to be a horizontal change in airspeed of for light aircraft, and near for airliners at flight altitude. Vertical speed changes greater than also qualify as significant wind shear for aircraft. Low-level wind shear can affect aircraft airspeed during takeoff and landing in disastrous ways, and airliner pilots are trained to avoid all microburst wind shear (headwind loss in excess of ). The rationale for this additional caution includes:
microburst intensity can double in a minute or less,
the winds can shift to excessive crosswinds,
is the threshold for survivability at some stages of low-altitude operations, and
several of the historical wind shear accidents involved microbursts.
Wind shear is also a key factor in the formation of severe thunderstorms. The additional hazard of turbulence is often associated with wind shear.
Where and when it is strongly observed
Weather situations where shear is observed include:
Weather fronts. Significant shear is observed when the temperature difference across the front is or more, and the front moves at or faster. Because fronts are three-dimensional phenomena, frontal shear can be observed at any altitude between surface and tropopause, and can therefore be seen both horizontally and vertically. Vertical wind shear above warm fronts is more of an aviation concern than near and behind cold fronts due to their greater duration.
Upper-level jet streams. Associated with upper-level jet streams is a phenomenon known as clear air turbulence (CAT), caused by vertical and horizontal wind shear connected to the wind gradient at the edge of the jet streams. The CAT is strongest on the anticyclonic shear side of the jet, usually next to or just below the axis of the jet.
Low-level jet streams. When a nocturnal low-level jet forms overnight above Earth's surface ahead of a cold front, significant low-level vertical wind shear can develop near the lower portion of the low-level jet. This is also known as non-convective wind shear as it is not due to nearby thunderstorms.
Mountains.
Inversions. When on a clear and calm night, a radiation inversion is formed near the ground, the friction does not affect wind above the top of the inversion layer. The change in wind can be 90 degrees in direction and in speed. Even a nocturnal (overnight) low-level jet can sometimes be observed. It tends to be strongest towards sunrise. Density differences cause additional problems to aviation.
Downbursts. When an outflow boundary forms due to a shallow layer of rain-cooled air spreading out near ground level from the parent thunderstorm, both speed and directional wind shear can result at the leading edge of the three-dimensional boundary. The stronger the outflow boundary is, the stronger the resultant vertical wind shear will become.
Horizontal component
Weather fronts
Weather fronts are boundaries between two masses of air of different densities, or different temperature and moisture properties, which normally are convergence zones in the wind field and are the principal cause of significant weather. Within surface weather analyses, they are depicted using various colored lines and symbols. The air masses usually differ in temperature and may also differ in humidity. Wind shear in the horizontal occurs near these boundaries.
Cold fronts feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather and may be preceded by squall lines and dry lines. Cold fronts are sharper surface boundaries with more significant horizontal wind shear than warm fronts. When a front becomes stationary, it can degenerate into a line that separates regions of differing wind speed, known as a shear line, though the wind direction across the front normally remains constant. In the tropics, tropical waves move from east to west across the Atlantic and eastern Pacific basins. Directional and speed shear can occur across the axis of stronger tropical waves, as northerly winds precede the wave axis and southeast winds are seen behind the wave axis. Horizontal wind shear can also occur along the local land breeze and sea breeze boundaries.
Near coastlines
The magnitude of winds offshore is nearly double the wind speed observed onshore. This is attributed to the differences in friction between landmasses and offshore waters. Sometimes, there are even directional differences, particularly if local sea breezes change the wind on shore during daylight hours.
Vertical component
Thermal wind
Thermal wind is a meteorological term not referring to an actual wind, but a difference in the geostrophic wind between two pressure levels and , with ; in essence, wind shear. It is only present in an atmosphere with horizontal changes in temperature (or in an ocean with horizontal gradients of density), i.e. baroclinicity. In a barotropic atmosphere, where temperature is uniform, the geostrophic wind is independent of height. The name stems from the fact that this wind flows around areas of low (and high) temperature in the same manner as the geostrophic wind flows around areas of low (and high) pressure.
The thermal wind equation is
where the are geopotential height fields with , is the Coriolis parameter, and is the upward-pointing unit vector in the vertical direction. The thermal wind equation does not determine the wind in the tropics. Since is small or zero, such as near the equator, the equation reduces to stating that is small.
This equation basically describes the existence of the jet stream, a westerly current of air with maximum wind speeds close to the tropopause which is (even though other factors are also important) the result of the temperature contrast between equator and pole.
Effects on tropical cyclones
Tropical cyclones are, in essence, heat engines that are fueled by the temperature gradient between the warm tropical ocean surface and the colder upper atmosphere. Tropical cyclone development requires relatively low values of vertical wind shear so that their warm core can remain above their surface circulation center, thereby promoting intensification. Vertical wind shear tears up the "machinery" of the heat engine causing it to break down. Strongly sheared tropical cyclones weaken as the upper circulation is blown away from the low-level center.
Effects on thunderstorms and severe weather
Severe thunderstorms, which can spawn tornadoes and hailstorms, require wind shear to organize the storm in such a way as to maintain the thunderstorm for a longer period. This occurs as the storm's inflow becomes separated from its rain-cooled outflow. An increasing nocturnal, or overnight, low-level jet can increase the severe weather potential by increasing the vertical wind shear through the troposphere. Thunderstorms in an atmosphere with virtually no vertical wind shear weaken as soon as they send out an outflow boundary in all directions, which then quickly cuts off its inflow of relatively warm, moist air and causes the thunderstorm to dissipate.
Planetary boundary layer
The atmospheric effect of surface friction with winds aloft forces surface winds to slow and back counterclockwise near the surface of Earth blowing inward across isobars (lines of equal pressure) when compared to the winds in frictionless flow well above Earth's surface. This layer where friction slows and changes the wind is known as the planetary boundary layer, sometimes the Ekman layer, and it is thickest during the day and thinnest at night. Daytime heating thickens the boundary layer as winds at the surface become increasingly mixed with winds aloft due to insolation, or solar heating. Radiative cooling overnight further enhances wind decoupling between the winds at the surface and the winds above the boundary layer by calming the surface wind which increases wind shear. These wind changes force wind shear between the boundary layer and the wind aloft and are most emphasized at night.
Effects on flight
Gliding
In gliding, wind gradients just above the surface affect the takeoff and landing phases of the flight of a glider.
Wind gradient can have a noticeable effect on ground launches, also known as winch launches or wire launches. If the wind gradient is significant or sudden,
or both, and the pilot maintains the same pitch attitude, the indicated airspeed will increase, possibly exceeding
the maximum ground launch tow speed. The pilot must adjust the airspeed to deal with the effect of the
gradient.
When landing, wind shear is also a hazard, particularly when the winds are strong. As the glider descends through the wind gradient on final approach to landing, airspeed decreases while sink rate increases, and there is insufficient time to accelerate prior to ground contact. The pilot must anticipate the wind gradient and use a higher approach speed to compensate for it.
Wind shear is also a hazard for aircraft making steep turns near the ground. It is a particular problem for gliders which have a relatively long wingspan, which exposes them to a greater wind speed difference for a given bank angle. The different airspeed experienced by each wing tip can result in an aerodynamic stall on one wing, causing a loss of control accident.
Parachuting
Wind shear or wind gradients are a threat to parachutists, particularly to BASE jumping and wingsuit flying. Skydivers have been pushed off of their course by sudden shifts in wind direction and speed, and have collided with bridges, cliffsides, trees, other skydivers, the ground, and other obstacles. Skydivers routinely make adjustments to the position of their open canopies to compensate for changes in direction while making landings to prevent accidents such as canopy collisions and canopy inversion.
Soaring
Soaring related to wind shear, also called dynamic soaring, is a technique used by soaring birds like albatrosses, who can maintain flight without wing flapping. If the wind shear is of sufficient magnitude, a bird can climb into the wind gradient, trading ground speed for height, while maintaining airspeed. By then turning downwind, and diving through the wind gradient, they can also gain energy. It has also been used by glider pilots on rare occasions.
Wind shear can also produce wave. This occurs when an atmospheric inversion separates two layers with a marked difference in wind direction. If the wind encounters distortions in the inversion layer caused by thermals coming up from below, it will produce significant shear waves that can be used for soaring.
Impact on passenger aircraft
Following the 1985 crash of Delta Air Lines Flight 191, in 1988 the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration mandated that all commercial aircraft have on-board wind shear detection systems by 1993. The installation of high-resolution Terminal Doppler Weather Radar stations at many U.S. airports that are commonly affected by wind shear has further aided the ability of pilots and ground controllers to avoid wind shear conditions.
Sailing
Wind shear affects sailboats in motion by presenting a different wind speed and direction at different heights along the mast. The effect of low-level wind shear can be factored into the selection of sail twist in the sail design, but this can be difficult to predict since wind shear may vary widely in different weather conditions. Sailors may also adjust the trim of the sail to account for low-level wind shear, for example using a boom vang.
Sound propagation
Wind shear can have a pronounced effect upon sound propagation in the lower atmosphere, where waves can be "bent" by refraction phenomenon. The audibility of sounds from distant sources, such as thunder or gunshots, is very dependent on the amount of shear. The result of these differing sound levels is key in noise pollution considerations, for example from roadway noise and aircraft noise, and must be considered in the design of noise barriers. This phenomenon was first applied to the field of noise pollution study in the 1960s, contributing to the design of urban highways as well as noise barriers.
The speed of sound varies with temperature. Since temperature and sound velocity normally decrease with increasing altitude, sound is refracted upward, away from listeners on the ground, producing an acoustic shadow at some distance from the source. In 1862, during the American Civil War Battle of Iuka, an acoustic shadow, believed to have been enhanced by a northeast wind, kept two divisions of Union soldiers out of the battle, because they could not hear the sounds of battle only six miles downwind.
Effects on architecture
Wind engineering is a field of engineering devoted to the analysis of wind effects on the natural and built environment. It includes strong winds which may cause discomfort as well as extreme winds such as tornadoes, hurricanes, and storms which may cause widespread destruction. Wind engineering draws upon meteorology, aerodynamics, and several specialist engineering disciplines. The tools used include climate models, atmospheric boundary layer wind tunnels, and numerical models. It involves, among other topics, how wind impacting buildings must be accounted for in engineering.
Wind turbines are affected by wind shear. Vertical wind-speed profiles result in different wind speeds at the blades nearest to the ground level compared to those at the top of blade travel, and this, in turn, affects the turbine operation. This low-level wind shear can cause a large bending moment in the shaft of a two-bladed turbine when the blades are vertical. The reduced wind shear over water means shorter and less expensive wind turbine towers can be used in shallow seas.
See also
Aviation safety
Low level windshear alert system
Sailing
Cumulonimbus and aviation
References
External links
National Science Digital Library - Wind shear
Wind
Weather hazards to aircraft
Microscale meteorology
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223993 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wake%20%28physics%29 | Wake (physics) | In fluid dynamics, a wake may either be:
the region of recirculating flow immediately behind a moving or stationary blunt body, caused by viscosity, which may be accompanied by flow separation and turbulence, or
the wave pattern on the water surface downstream of an object in a flow, or produced by a moving object (e.g. a ship), caused by density differences of the fluids above and below the free surface and gravity (or surface tension).
Viscosity
The wake is the region of disturbed flow (often turbulent) downstream of a solid body moving through a fluid, caused by the flow of the fluid around the body.
For a blunt body in subsonic external flow, for example the Apollo or Orion capsules during descent and landing, the wake is massively separated and behind the body is a reverse flow region where the flow is moving toward the body. This phenomenon is often observed in wind tunnel testing of aircraft, and is especially important when parachute systems are involved, because unless the parachute lines extend the canopy beyond the reverse flow region, the chute can fail to inflate and thus collapse. Parachutes deployed into wakes suffer dynamic pressure deficits which reduce their expected drag forces. High-fidelity computational fluid dynamics simulations are often undertaken to model wake flows, although such modeling has uncertainties associated with turbulence modeling (for example RANS versus LES implementations), in addition to unsteady flow effects. Example applications include rocket stage separation and aircraft store separation.
Density differences
In incompressible fluids (liquids) such as water, a bow wake is created when a watercraft moves through the medium; as the medium cannot be compressed, it must be displaced instead, resulting in a wave. As with all wave forms, it spreads outward from the source until its energy is overcome or lost, usually by friction or dispersion.
The non-dimensional parameter of interest is the Froude number.
Kelvin wake pattern
Waterfowl and boats moving across the surface of water produce a wake pattern, first explained mathematically by Lord Kelvin and known today as the Kelvin wake pattern.
This pattern consists of two wake lines that form the arms of a chevron, V, with the source of the wake at the vertex of the V. For sufficiently slow motion, each wake line is offset from the path of the wake source by around arcsin(1/3) = 19.47° and is made up of feathery wavelets angled at roughly 53° to the path.
The inside of the V (of total opening 39° as indicated above) is filled with transverse curved waves, each of which is an arc of a circle centered at a point lying on the path at a distance twice that of the arc to the wake source. This pattern is independent of the speed and size of the wake source over a significant range of values.
However, the pattern changes at high speeds (only), viz., above a hull Froude number of approximately 0.5. Then, as the source's speed increases, the transverse waves diminish and the points of maximum amplitude on the wavelets form a second V within the wake pattern, which grows narrower with the increased speed of the source.
The angles in this pattern are not intrinsic properties of merely water: Any isentropic and incompressible liquid with low viscosity will exhibit the same phenomenon. Furthermore, this phenomenon has nothing to do with turbulence. Everything discussed here is based on the linear theory of an ideal fluid, cf. Airy wave theory.
Parts of the pattern may be obscured by the effects of propeller wash, and tail eddies behind the boat's stern, and by the boat being a large object and not a point source. The water need not be stationary, but may be moving as in a large river, and the important consideration then is the velocity of the water relative to a boat or other object causing a wake.
This pattern follows from the dispersion relation of deep water waves, which is often written as,
where
= the strength of the gravity field
is the angular frequency in radians per second
= angular wavenumber in radians per metre
"Deep" means that the depth is greater than half of the wavelength.
This formula implies that the group velocity of a deep water wave is half of its phase velocity, which, in turn, goes as the square root of the wavelength.
Two velocity parameters of importance for the wake pattern are:
is the relative velocity of the water and the surface object that causes the wake.
is the phase velocity of a wave, varying with wave frequency.
As the surface object moves, it continuously generates small disturbances which are the sum of sinusoidal waves with a wide spectrum of wavelengths. Those waves with the longest wavelengths have phase speeds above and dissipate into the surrounding water and are not easily observed. Other waves with phase speeds at or below , however, are amplified through constructive interference and form visible shock waves, stationary in position w.r.t. the boat.
The angle between the phase shock wave front and the path of the object is = . If c/v > 1 or < −1, no later waves can catch up with earlier waves and no shockwave forms.
In deep water, shock waves form even from slow-moving sources, because waves with short enough wavelengths move slower. These shock waves are at sharper angles than one would naively expect, because it is group velocity that dictates the area of constructive interference and, in deep water, the group velocity is half of the phase velocity.
All shock waves, that each by itself would have had an angle between 33° and 72°, are compressed into a narrow band of wake with angles between 15° and 19°, with the strongest constructive interference at the outer edge (angle arcsin(1/3) = 19.47°), placing the two arms of the V in the celebrated Kelvin wake pattern.
A concise geometric construction demonstrates that, strikingly, this group shock angle w.r.t. the path of the boat, 19.47°, for any and all of the above , is actually independent of
, , and ; it merely relies on the fact that the group velocity is half of the phase velocity . On any planet, slow-swimming objects have "effective Mach number" 3!
For slow swimmers, low Froude number, the Lighthill−Whitham geometric argument that the opening of the Kelvin chevron (wedge, V pattern) is universal goes as follows. Consider a boat moving from right to left with constant speed v, emitting waves of varying wavelength, and thus wavenumber and phase velocity , of interest when < v for a shock wave (cf., e.g., Sonic boom or Cherenkov radiation). Equivalently, and more intuitively, fix the position of the boat and have the water flow in the opposite direction, like a piling in a river.
Focus first on a given , emitting (phase) wavefronts whose stationary position w.r.t. the boat assemble to the standard shock wedge tangent to all of them, cf. Fig.12.3.
As indicated above, the openings of these chevrons vary with wavenumber, the angle between the phase shock wavefront and the path of the boat (the water) being = arcsin(/v) ≡ . Evidently, increases with . However, these phase chevrons are not visible: it is their corresponding group wave manifestations which are observed.
Consider one of the phase circles of Fig.12.3 for a particular , corresponding to the time in the past, Fig.12.2. Its radius is QS, and the phase chevron side is the tangent PS to it. Evidently, PQ= and SQ = = , as the right angle PSQ places S on the semicircle of diameter PQ.
Since the group velocity is half the phase velocity for any and all , however, the visible (group) disturbance point corresponding to S will be T, the midpoint of SQ. Similarly, it lies on a semicircle now centered on R, where, manifestly, RQ=PQ/4, an effective group wavefront emitted from R, with radius v/4 now.
Significantly, the resulting wavefront angle with the boat's path, the angle of the tangent from P to this smaller circle, obviously has a sine of TR/PR=1/3, for any and all , , , , etc.: Strikingly, virtually all parameters of the problem have dropped out, except for the deep-water group-to-phase-velocity relation! Note the (highly notional) effective group disturbance emitter moves slower, at 3v/4.
Thus, summing over all relevant and s to flesh out an effective Fig.12.3 shock pattern, the universal Kelvin wake pattern arises: the full visible chevron angle is twice that, 2arcsin(1/3) ≈ 39°.
The wavefronts of the wavelets in the wake are at 53°, which is roughly the average of 33° and 72°.
The wave components with would-be shock wave angles between 73° and 90° dominate the interior of the V. They end up half-way between the point of generation and the current location of the wake source. This explains the curvature of the arcs.
Those very short waves with would-be shock wave angles below 33° lack a mechanism to reinforce their amplitudes through constructive interference and are usually seen as small ripples on top of the interior transverse waves.
Other effects
The above describes an ideal wake, where the body's means of propulsion has no other effect on the water. In practice the wave pattern between the V-shaped wavefronts is usually mixed with the effects of propeller backwash and eddying behind the boat's (usually square-ended) stern.
The Kelvin angle is also derived for the case of deep water in which the fluid is not flowing in different speed or directions as a function of depth ("shear"). In cases where the water (or fluid) has sheer, the results may be more complicated.
Recreation
"No wake zones" may prohibit wakes in marinas, near moorings and within some distance of shore in order to facilitate recreation by other boats and reduce the damage wakes cause. Powered narrowboats on British canals are not permitted to create a breaking wash (a wake large enough to create a breaking wave) along the banks, as this erodes them. This rule normally restricts these vessels to or less.
Wakes are occasionally used recreationally. Swimmers, people riding personal watercraft, and aquatic mammals such as dolphins can ride the leading edge of a wake. In the sport of wakeboarding the wake is used as a jump. The wake is also used to propel a surfer in the sport of wakesurfing. In the sport of water polo, the ball carrier can swim while advancing the ball, propelled ahead with the wake created by alternating armstrokes in crawl stroke, a technique known as dribbling.
See also
Bow shock (aerodynamics)
Slipstream
Wake turbulence
Karman vortex street
References
External links
Erosion caused by boat wakes
NIST detailed derivation
Fluid dynamics
Water waves
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223995 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Holmgren | David Holmgren | David Holmgren (born 1955) is an Australian environmental designer, ecological educator and writer. He is best known as one of the co-originators of the permaculture concept with Bill Mollison.
Early life
Holmgren was born in Fremantle, Western Australia in February 1955, the second of three children. His parents Venie and Jack Holmgren were bookshop proprietors, activists committed to social justice, and former members of the communist party who raised their children to question authority and stand up for their beliefs.
Holmgren was dux of John Curtin High School, but this remained unrecorded on the roll of honour due to his ‘dissident attitude’. On completing high school he hitchhiked around Australia, before moving to Tasmania in 1974 to study at the Tasmanian College of Advanced Education's Department of Environmental Design. In the alternative education environment there he chose to study landscape design, ecology and agriculture.
Permaculture
Holmgren first met Bill Mollison in 1974 when Mollison spoke at a seminar at the Department of Environmental Design. This led to an intense working relationship over the next three years, with Holmgren and Mollison sharing a house and garden, putting ideas into practice and collecting useful plant species. Holmgren wrote the manuscript for what would become Permaculture One: a perennial agricultural system for human settlements as he completed his Environmental Design studies, and submitted it as the major reference for his thesis. He then handed the manuscript to Mollison for editing and additions, before it was published in 1978.
Holmgren's development of permaculture ideas and practices were also strongly influenced by Haikai Tane, as well as the work of P. A. Yeomans, Franklin Hiram King, Howard T. Odum and Albert Howard.
Holmgren initially concentrated his efforts on testing and refining his theories, first on his mother's property in southern New South Wales (Permaculture in the Bush, 1985; 1993), then at his own property, Melliodora, Hepburn Permaculture Gardens, at Hepburn Springs, Victoria, which he developed with his partner, Su Dennett.
He started his consultancy business Holmgren Design Services in 1983, designing and advising on a wide range of projects including:
Commonground Co-operative, Seymour Vic
Project Branchout
CERES Community Environment Park, Brunswick, Vic
‘Millpost Farm’, Bungendore NSW David Watson Millpost: A broad acre permaculture farm since 1979
‘Energy descent action and planning in the Hepburn Shire’ report for Hepburn Shire, exploring innovation in sustainability and resilience planning at the local level
The publication in December 2002 of Holmgren's major work on permaculture saw a deeper and more accessible systematisation of the principles of permaculture refined by Holmgren over more than 25 years of practice. The book, Permaculture: Principles and Pathways beyond Sustainability (2002a), is dedicated to Howard T. Odum, who died two months before its publication, and it owes much to Odum's vision of a world in energy transition.
Principles and Pathways offers twelve key permaculture design principles, each explained in separate chapters. It is regarded as a major landmark in permaculture literature, especially as the seminal work, Bill Mollison's Permaculture: A Designer's Manual (1988) was published fifteen years previously and has never been revised.
Other contributions
Novel ecosystems
Holmgren is a public critic of the land management orthodoxy of removing all non-native plants despite their ecological functions.
Holmgren's interest in recombinant ecosystems or 'weedscapes' is partly inspired by a 1979 visit to New Zealand and interactions with New Zealand ecologist Haikai Tane (1995). It has also been shaped by Homgren's interactions and experimentation at Spring Creek Community Forest where an informal network of locals manage a riparian forest of mixed native and non native species, with outcomes including increased recreational use and reduced fire hazard. The site has hosted guided tours and has been the subject of scientific research.
His ‘Weeds or wild nature: a permaculture perspective’ (2011) was published in Plant Protection Quarterly, and he wrote the foreword to Tao Orion's Beyond the War on Invasive Species.
Future scenarios
In 2007 Adam Grubb, founding editor of Energy Bulletin.net (now Resilience.org) published Holmgren's extended essay "Future Scenarios; mapping the cultural implications of Peak Oil and Climate Change" at futurescenarios.org, which established Holmgren as a significant futurist articulating and clarifying the Energy Descent concept.
Influenced by the work of Nicole Foss, Holmgren's more recent work has also taken into account the possible impacts of a global financial bubble burst.
Retrofitting the suburbs
Holmgren argues that Australian suburbs can be effectively retrofitted for liveability, resilience and sustainability through strategies such as home food production and preservation, building retrofits and behaviour change. An early version of these ideas, 'Retrofitting the Suburbs for Sustainability', was published by the CSIRO in 2005
Holmgren created the fictional story 'Aussie St' to illustrate both the changes in Australian suburbs since the 1950s, and a possible resilient future.
His work on retrofitting the suburbs culminated in 2018 with the publication of RetroSuburbia: the downshifter's guide to a resilient future. The work is both a manifesto and a manual on how Australian suburbs can be transformed to become productive and resilient in an energy decent future. It is divided into three fields for action – the Built, the Biological and the Behavioral – and contains real-life case studies and an update of the Aussie St story.
Major projects
Melliodora
Holmgren's home and major development site since 1986, “Melliodora” is a -acre property situated at the edge of Hepburn Springs, central Victoria. It is one of the best-documented and well-known permaculture demonstration sites in the world. The passive solar house, mixed food gardens and orchards, dams and livestock, and creek revegetation in the nearby public land show how permaculture design can help restore and improve land, and provide for residents' needs and enjoyment in a cool continental inland climate.
Fryers Forest Ecovillage
Fryers Forest Ecovillage, near Castlemaine, in Central Victoria, Australia is a significant design and test of his permaculture principles.
Recognition
Recognition for Holmgren's contribution as an environmental designer, educator and activist has been slow to develop after the initial enthusiasm generated by the publication of Permaculture One when he was 23. The inclusion in Ecological Pioneers (of Australia) was the first substantial recognition by academic authors. The inclusion of a three part series on Melliodora in a best of ten years of Gardening Australia, the most popular Australian TV gardening program, and a person profile on the Australian broadcast network program Landline (ABC TV rural program) have been the most significant recognition by mainstream media. In 2012, following the publication of PP&PBS in Italian, the environmental organisation Fondazione Parchi Monumentali Bardini e Peyron recognised Holmgren's contribution with the award Il Monito del Giardin.
In 2014, Holmgren was inducted into the Green Lifestyle Awards Hall of Fame for his pioneering and ongoing work with permaculture since he co-founded the concept more than three decades ago. He is in the good company of Bob Brown, the inaugural inductee in 2012 and Olivia Newton-John in 2013.
In 2017 Holmgren was awarded an honorary doctorate from CQUniversity.
Publications
Although Permaculture One was published by a mainstream publisher (Corgi) most of Holmgren's work has been self-published allowing experimentation with subject material such as case studies (Permaculture in bush, Trees on the treeless planes and Melliodora), book formats (Melliodora A3 landscape) and eBook formats (Melliodora, Collected Writings) before their more widespread uptake, and Web publishing (Future Scenarios). This DIY approach reflects permaculture principles that encourage experimentation and self-reliance.
The Essence of Permaculture, a summary of PP&PBS, is the most translated work by Holmgren (available in 10 languages in 2015) while PP&PBS is available in Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Czech, Japanese, French, Korean and Chinese. Future Scenarios is available in Japanese.
Bibliography
1978 Bill Mollison and David Holmgren. Permaculture One: A Perennial Agriculture for Human Settlements. Melbourne: Transworld.
1985 Permaculture in the Bush. Hepburn, Victoria: Holmgren Design.
1993 The Flywire House: a case study in design against bushfire. Hepburn, Victoria: Holmgren Design.
1994 Trees on the Treeless Plains: Revegetation Manual for Volcanic Landscapes of Central Victoria. Hepburn, Victoria: Holmgren Design.
1995 "The Permaculture Movement and Education", in Goldfields Permaculture and Landcarers, 3, 14–16.
1996 a Melliodora (Hepburn Permaculture Gardens): Ten Years of Sustainable Living. Hepburn, Victoria: Holmgren Design.
1996 b "Fryers Forest Village", in Green Connections, 2.2, 20–21.
1997 "Getting Started", in Green Connections, 10, 28–31.
2002 a Permaculture: Principles and Pathways Beyond Sustainability- Revised. Hepburn, Victoria: Holmgren Design Services.
2002 b David Holmgren: Collected Writings 1978–2000. [eBook on CD] Hepburn, Victoria: Holmgren Design.
2005 Mellidora (Hepburn Permaculture Gardens): A Case Study in Cool Climate Permaculture 1985 – 2005 [eBook] Hepburn, Victoria: Holmgren Design Services.
2006 a Trees on the Treeless Plains: Revegetation Manual for Volcanic Landscapes of Central Victoria. [eBook] Hepburn, Victoria: Holmgren Design.
2006 b David Holmgren: Collected Writings & Presentations 1978 – 2006 [eBook] Hepburn, Victoria: Holmgren Design Services.
2009 Future Scenarios - Community adaption to Peak Oil & Climate Change. White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing Company.
2011 2011 Permaculture Diary, Marrickville NSW: PcDC Michele Margolis.
2012 "The long view" in Permaculture Pioneers: Stories from the New Frontier, edited by Kerry Dawborn & Caroline Smith, Holmgren Design Services,
2018 RetroSuburbia: the downshifter's guide to a resilient future Hepburn, Victoria: Holmgren Design,
See also
Energy descent
References
Further reading
Grayson, Russ (2003) "Permaculture an agent of bio-invasion?". The Planet. The journal of Permaculture International Limited, 6 (Autumn), 10–11
Low, Tim (1998) Feral Future. Melbourne: Viking Australia
Mollison, Bill (1988) Permaculture: A Designer's Manual. Tyalgum, NSW: Tagari Publishing,
Mulligan, Martin and Stuart Hill (2001) Ecological Pioneers. A Social History of Australian Thought and Action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 202–207,
Odum, H.T. (1971) Environment, Power and Society. New York: John Wiley & Sons
Odum, H.T. and E.C. Odum (2001) A Prosperous Way Down: Principles and Policies. New York: John Wiley & Sons, . New 2008 edition: University Press of Colorado
Payne, Steve (2003) "The Good House Effect". The Organic Gardener. Autumn. Ultimo, NSW: ABC Enterprises, 30–34
Smith, J Russell (1929, 1953, 1977) Tree Crops: A Permanent Agriculture. Old Greenwich, MA: Devlin-Adair. 1987: Island Press,
Tane, Haikai (1995) Ecography. Mapping and Modelling Landscape Ecosystems. Canberra: Murray-Darling Basin Commission
External links
Holmgren Design
Essence of Permaculture (free download)
Retrosuburbia website
Future Scenarios: Mapping the Cultural Implications of Peak Oil and Climate Change
An Australian environmentalist’s next act: “Frugal hedonism” New York Times
Peak Oil and Permaculture: David Holmgren on Energy Descent, Adam Fenderson, originally published by Global Public Media, 6 June 2004, hosted at Resilience.org/Post Carbon Institute
Peak Oil and Permaculture: David Holmgren Video, Permaculture Cairns
David Holmgren speaks with GPM's Julian Darley (archived 2005)
Retrofitting the Suburbs for Sustainability
Permaculture principles
‘Retrofitting the suburbs’ for food production, Fran Molloy on David Holmgren & his ideas, Sydney Morning Herald, 19 March 2008, retrieved 25 June 2013
1955 births
Living people
Australian gardeners
Australian non-fiction writers
Organic gardeners
People from Western Australia
Sustainability advocates
Systems ecologists
Permaculturalists | [
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223999 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virga | Virga | In meteorology, a virga is an observable streak or shaft of precipitation falling from a cloud that evaporates or sublimates before reaching the ground. A shaft of precipitation that does not evaporate before reaching the ground is a precipitation shaft. At high altitudes the precipitation falls mainly as ice crystals before melting and finally evaporating; this is often due to compressional heating, because the air pressure increases closer to the ground. It is very common in deserts and temperate climates. In North America, it is commonly seen in the Western United States and the Canadian Prairies. It is also very common in the Middle East, Australia, and North Africa.
Virgae can cause varying weather effects, because as rain is changed from liquid to vapor form, it removes significant amounts of heat from the air due to water's high heat of vaporization. Precipitation falling into these cooling down drafts may eventually reach the ground. In some instances these pockets of colder air can descend rapidly, creating a wet or dry microburst which can be extremely hazardous to aviation. Conversely, precipitation evaporating at high altitude can compressionally heat as it falls, and result in a gusty downburst which may substantially and rapidly warm the surface temperature. This fairly rare phenomenon, a heat burst, also tends to be of exceedingly dry air.
Virgae also have a role in seeding storm cells. This is because small particles from one cloud are blown into neighboring supersaturated air and act as nucleation particles for the next thunderhead cloud to begin forming.
Etymology
The word is derived from the Latin virga, meaning "rod, sprig, staff, branch, shoot, twig, spray, sprout, switch, graft."
Extraterrestrial occurrences
Sulfuric acid rain in the atmosphere of Venus evaporates before reaching the ground due to the high heat near the surface. Similarly, virgae happen on gas giant planets such as Jupiter. In September 2008, NASA's Phoenix lander discovered a snow variety of virga falling from Martian clouds.
See also
Fallstreak hole
Precipitation shaft
Sun pillar
References
External links
National Science Digital Library - Virga
"Viewing the Vagaries and Verities of Virga" Alistair B. Fraser and Craig F. Bohren, Department of Meteorology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, 2 November 1992 and 25 January 1993.
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224001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall%20streaks | Fall streaks | Fall streaks may refer to:
Praecipitatio, a visual appearance of precipitation reaching the ground
Virga, a visual appearance of precipitation which doesn't reach the ground
Fallstreak hole, a large circular gap that can appear in cirrocumulus or altocumulus clouds | [
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224002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillstream%20loach | Hillstream loach | The hillstream loaches or river loaches are a family, the Balitoridae, of small fish from South, Southeast and East Asia. The family includes about 202 species. They are sometimes sold as "lizardfish" or (in Germany) "flossensaugers". Many of the species are popular for aquaria, species in the genus Sewellia are most commonly sold in the aquaria trade. They have a number of similarities with the Cobitidae, their sibling family of "loaches", such as multiple barbels around the mouth. They should not be confused with the loricariids, which look similar but are a family of catfish.
Most species are rheophilic, living in swift, clear and well-oxygenated streams. Several species of the family live in fast-flowing streams or torrents and have modified ventral fins used for clinging to rocks.
The subfamily Nemacheilinae has recently been separated as a distinct family, Nemacheilidae (stone loaches) and several genera have been separated into the family Gastromyzontidae.
References
Cypriniformes
Freshwater fish of Asia | [
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224011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalised%20logistic%20function | Generalised logistic function | The generalized logistic function or curve, also known as Richards' curve, originally developed for growth modelling, is an extension of the logistic or sigmoid functions, allowing for more flexible S-shaped curves:
where = weight, height, size etc., and = time.
It has five parameters:
: the lower (left) asymptote;
: the upper (right) asymptote when . If and then is called the carrying capacity;
: the growth rate;
: affects near which asymptote maximum growth occurs.
: is related to the value
: typically takes a value of 1. Otherwise, the upper asymptote is
The equation can also be written:
where can be thought of as a starting time,
(at which )
Including both and can be convenient:
this representation simplifies the setting of both a starting time and the value of Y at that time.
The general model is sometimes named a "Richards' curve" after F. J. Richards, who proposed the general form for the family of models in 1959.
The logistic, with maximum growth rate at time , is the case where .
Generalised logistic differential equation
A particular case of the generalised logistic function is:
which is the solution of the Richards' differential equation (RDE):
with initial condition
where
provided that ν > 0 and α > 0.
The classical logistic differential equation is a particular case of the above equation, with ν =1, whereas the Gompertz curve can be recovered in the limit provided that:
In fact, for small ν it is
The RDE models many growth phenomena, arising in fields such as oncology and epidemiology.
Gradient of generalized logistic function
When estimating parameters from data, it is often necessary to compute the partial derivatives of the logistic function with respect to parameters at a given data point (see ). For the case where ,
Modeling COVID-19 infection trajectory
A generalized logistic function, also called the Richards growth curve, is widely used in modelling COVID-19 infection trajectories. Infection trajectory is a daily time series data for the cumulative number of infected cases for a subject such as country, city, state, etc. There are variant re-parameterizations in the literature: one of frequently used forms is
where are real numbers, and is a positive real number. The flexibility of the curve is due to the parameter : (i) if then the curve reduces to the logistic function, and (ii) if converges to zero, then the curve converges to the Gompertz function. In epidemiological modeling, , , and represent the final epidemic size, infection rate, and lag phase, respectively. See the right panel for an examplary infection trajectory when are designated by .
One of the benefits of using growth function such as generalized logistic function in epidemiological modeling is its relatively easy expansion to the multilevel model framework by using the growth function to describe infection trajectories from multiple subjects (countries, cities, states, etc). See the above figure. Such a modeling framework can be also widely called the nonlinear mixed-effects model or hierarchical nonlinear model.
Special cases
The following functions are specific cases of Richards' curves:
Logistic function
Gompertz curve
Von Bertalanffy function
Monomolecular curve
Footnotes
References
Growth curves
Mathematical modeling | [
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224012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appeal%20to%20consequences | Appeal to consequences | Appeal to consequences, also known as argumentum ad consequentiam (Latin for "argument to the consequence"), is an argument that concludes a hypothesis (typically a belief) to be either true or false based on whether the premise leads to desirable or undesirable consequences. This is based on an appeal to emotion and is a type of informal fallacy, since the desirability of a premise's consequence does not make the premise true. Moreover, in categorizing consequences as either desirable or undesirable, such arguments inherently contain subjective points of view.
In logic, appeal to consequences refers only to arguments that assert a conclusion's truth value (true or false) without regard to the formal preservation of the truth from the premises; appeal to consequences does not refer to arguments that address a premise's consequential desirability (good or bad, or right or wrong) instead of its truth value. Therefore, an argument based on appeal to consequences is valid in long-term decision making (which discusses possibilities that do not exist yet in the present) and abstract ethics, and in fact such arguments are the cornerstones of many moral theories, particularly related to consequentialism. Appeal to consequences also should not be confused with argumentum ad baculum, which is the bringing up of 'artificial' consequences (i.e. punishments) to argue that an action is wrong.
General form
An argument based on appeal to consequences generally has one of two forms:
Positive form
If P, then Q will occur.
Q is desirable.
Therefore, P is true.
It is closely related to wishful thinking in its construction.
Examples
"Real estate markets will continue to rise this year: home owners enjoy the capital gains."
"Humans will travel faster than light: faster-than-light travel would be beneficial for space travel."
Negative form
If P, then Q will occur.
Q is undesirable.
Therefore, P is false.
Appeal to force (argumentum ad baculum) is a special instance of this form.
This form somewhat resembles modus tollens but is both different and fallacious, since "Q is undesirable" is not equivalent to "Q is false".
Example
"If the six men win, it will mean that the police are guilty of perjury, that they are guilty of violence and threats, that the confessions were invented and improperly admitted in evidence and the convictions were erroneous... This is such an appalling vista that every sensible person in the land would say that it cannot be right that these actions should go any further." Lord Denning in his judgment on the Birmingham Six.
In law
In law, an argument from inconvenience or argumentum ab inconvenienti, is a valid type of appeal to consequences. Such an argument would seek to show that a proposed action would have unreasonably inconvenient consequences, as for example a law that would require a person wishing to lend money against a security to first ascertain the borrower's title to the property by inquiring in every single courthouse in the country.
See also
Affirming the consequent
Appeal to fear
Argumentum ad hominemcircumstantial form
Consequentialism
Pascal's wager
Utilitarianism
Wishful thinking
Notes
Consequences
Causal fallacies
Consequentialism
Relevance fallacies | [
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224013 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colima | Colima | Colima (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Colima (), is one of the 31 states that make up the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It shares its name with its capital and main city, Colima.
Colima is a small state of Western Mexico on the central Pacific coast, and includes the four oceanic Revillagigedo Islands. Mainland Colima shares borders with the states of Jalisco and Michoacán. In addition to the capital city of Colima, the main cities are Manzanillo and Tecomán. Colima is the fourth smallest state in Mexico and has the smallest population, but has one of Mexico's highest standards of living and the lowest unemployment.
Geography and environment
The state covers a territory of 5,455 km2 and is the fourth smallest federal entity after Tlaxcala, Morelos and the Federal District of Mexico City, containing only 0.3% of the country's total territory. The state is in the middle of Mexico's Pacific coast, bordered by the Pacific Ocean and the states of Jalisco and Michoacán.
Colima's territory includes the Revillagigedo Islands—Socorro, San Benedicto, Clarión, and Roca Partida. These are under federal jurisdiction but are considered part of the municipality of Manzanillo.
Politically, the state is divided into ten municipalities. Natural geography divides the state into a northern and southern region. The north has a cooler climate due to the higher mountains. The south is hotter and includes the Pacific Ocean coastline. The Revillagigedo Islands, of volcanic origin, are dispersed along the 19° north parallel over an area of about 400 km2—with a total landmass of 205 km2.
The altitude varies from sea level to 3,839 m (12,595 ft) at the crater of the Volcán de Colima.
The state is in an offshoot of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range and geographically consists of four mountain systems. The most important of these is the Cerro Grande and its related peaks of Jurípicho-Juluapan, Los Juanillos, La Astilla, El Ocote, El Peón, El Barrigón, San Diego, and La Media Luna. The second consists of mountain chains parallel to the coast between the Marabasco and Armería Rivers, which include El Espinazo del Diablo, El Escorpión, El Tigre, El Aguacate, El Centinela, El Tora and La Vaca. The third is located between the Armería and Salado Rivers and includes the Alcomún y Partida, San Miguel y Comala and San Gabriel/Callejones peaks. The last is between the Salado and Naranjo or Coahuayana Rivers and contains small mountain chains such as the Piscila, Volcancillos, La Palmera, El Camichín and Copales. Three quarters of the state is covered by mountains and hills.
At the very north of the state, the border is marked by two volcanoes. The Colima Volcano, also called the Volcán de Fuego, is active and the Nevado de Colima is not. The Nevado de Colima is taller at 4,271 m (14,013 ft) and gives its name to the national park that surrounds it. The Colima Volcano, 3825 m (12,549 ft), has a pyramidal peak, in contrast to the other, which has been leveled somewhat. The last major eruptions of the Colima Volcano occurred in 1998 and 1999.
The main rivers of the state are the Cihuatlán River, also called the Chacala, Marabasco, or Paticajo, which forms the state's border with Jalisco on the west; the Armería, which descends from the Sierra de Cacoma and crosses the state north-south into the Pacific, and the Coahuayana River, which forms Colima's eastern border with Michoacán. The Salado is another important river, which flows entirely within Colima before emptying into the Coahuayana. Many of the state's streams and arroyos empty into the Salado.
Colima has a relatively short coastline, at 139 km (1.2% of Mexico's total). It extends from the Boca de Apiza to the Cerro de San Francisco in front of Barra de Navidad, Jalisco.
Coastal lagoons include the Potrero Grande in Manzanillo along with the Miramar and the San Pedrito. On the Tecomán municipality coast there are the lagoons of Alcuzahua and Amela, with the Cuyutlán lagoon split between the municipalities of Armería and Manzanillo. Inland, there are various fresh water lakes, with the larger ones near the coast and smaller ones in the Valley of Colima. The valley lakes are fed by the runoff from the Colima Volcano and include the Carrizalillo, Las Cuatas, El Jabalí, El Calaboso, La María and La Escondida.
The predominant climate is hot and relatively moist, with the coast particularly moist. One exception is the Tecomán municipality where the climate is dry and very hot. The mildest climates are in the municipalities of Comala and Cuauhtémoc. On the coast, the average temperature varies from between 24 and 26 C and inland, at the highest elevations, the temperature averages between 20 and 22 C.
Cropland covers 27% of the state's territory, with another 28% dedicated to pasture. Forest covers 35% with the rest composed of bodies of water and urban areas. Most wild vegetation in the west of the state consists of moderately deciduous rainforest of medium height. Plants that lose leaves do so in the dry season. These include commercially important trees such as red cedar, (Couratara guianensis), (Enterolobium cyclocarpum)—and trees locally known as , and . From the west of Manzanillo and into the municipalities of Armería and Coquimatlán, there is rainforest of medium height with tree species such as (Bursera) and (Parmentiera aculeatea), with some pines, oaks, and salt friendly mangrove forests and scrub.
There is great diversity of wildlife species although a number of mammal species, such as ocelots, pumas, wild boar and deer, are disappearing. Among the state's rodents is the Magdalena rat (Xenomys nelsoni), a small rare animal little known outside Colima. Bird species include wild turkeys, although these have mostly disappeared, and a bird called the chachalaca. A number of ducks and other migratory birds pass through. Reptiles include crocodiles, with a nursery in Tecomán dedicated to their survival. It is also one of three Mexican states where the tarantula species Brachypelma hamorii is found, the other two being Michoacán and Jalisco.
Demographics
In the latter part of the 20th century, Colima had a very high population growth, expanding from 112,321 in 1950 to 567,996 in 2005. However, this growth has slowed due to family planning programs. Despite this population growth, the state still ranks last of Mexico's federal entities, with a total of 650,555 according to the 2010 census, only 0.6% of the country's total. By 1980, the majority of the state's population was living in urban centers. Today, 89% live in urban areas, above the national average of 78%. These urban populations are concentrated in the municipalities of Colima, Manzanillo, Tecomán and Villa de Alvarez.
The majority of the population is mestizo (mixed indigenous and Spanish). As of 2005, some 2,880 people were counted with the ability to speak an indigenous language. This is about 7 out of 1,000 people, slightly higher than the nation's average of 6 per 1,000 people. However, there are ethnic Nahua and Otomi communities in Zacualpan and Suchitlán in the municipality of Comala, in Juluapan and Pueblo Nuevo in the municipality of Villa de Alvarez and in Las Pesadas in the municipality of Minatitlán. According to the 2020 Census, 1.86% of Colima's population identified as Black, Afro-Mexican, or of African descent. Over 95% of the state's population is Catholic with small communities of other Christian groups making up the rest.
Principal communities
The city of Colima is the capital and gives the state its name. It is located in the north central part of the state, just south of the foothills of the Colima Volcano in the Valley of Colima. The city began as a Spanish settlement that was originally established further south in 1523 but moved to the current location in 1527. The capital remains the state's economic, political and cultural center.
Villa de Álvarez is part of the city of Colima's metropolitan area. However, it maintains a distinct identity, with a combination bullfighting and charreada event that is one of the oldest of its kind in northwestern Mexico, which takes part in La Petatera, a bullring that is assembled each year for the event, made of logs and petates, and that is known as one of the world’s largest crafts. It is also known for late evening meals called cenadurias that typically feature sopes, enchiladas, tostadas, pozole, atole, and tamales.
The city of Los Martínez began at the end of the 18th century, established by someone known only by his last name of Martínez. In 1818, a strong earthquake sent many from nearby San Francisco to the area, and it was renamed San Francisco de Almoloyan. It was recognized as a town in 1860, with the name of Villa de Álvarez in honor of the first governor of the state. It was designated a city in 1991.
Manzanillo is the state's primary port and tourist destination. It is on the Pacific coast, less than two hours' drive from the capital. Manzanillo is mostly popular with regional tourists and sports fishermen, but there have been efforts to broaden its appeal. The city is one of Mexico's important Pacific ports, handing regional merchandise and acting as an overflow port for other ports from Mexico to Los Angeles. Most of the state's recent economic development has been related to this port.
Coquimatlán comes from a Nahuatl phrase meaning "land of networks" referring to the interconnected ravines in the area. It was founded in the very early colonial period and still maintains its narrow streets and old houses with large main doors of wood and balconies with simple ironwork.
Tecomán is located in what has been an agricultural valley since the colonial era, today best known for its production of limes. The town is marked by an abstract sculpture depicting a lime tree created by sculptor Sebastián, which measures thirty meters in height and weighs 110 tons. In addition to being the main lime producer, the Tecoman Valley also produces cocoa, cotton, coconuts, mangos, papaya, avocados and melons.
Economy
The state has a high level of socioeconomic development, with one of the highest standards of living in Mexico and lowest unemployment. In the state, 96% have running water, 82% have sewerage and 98% have electricity. The 2009 GDP of the state was 43,370,725,000 pesos; however, due to its small size and population, this is only 0.5% of Mexico's total GDP. Most population and employment growth has been in the main urban areas of the state such as Colima, Villa de Alvarez, Manzanillo and Tecomán. According to INEGI (2010), 24.1% are employed in services. 20.4% in commerce, restaurants and hotels, 15.9% in transportation, storage and communications, 11.1% in finance, insurance and real estate, 9.5% in electricity, gas and water services, 5.7% in manufacturing, 5.1% in construction, 4.9% in agriculture and livestock and 3.8% in mining.
Agriculture, forestry and fishing employ 1.2% of the state's population and contribute 8.45% to its GDP. Colima produces about half of Mexico's lime crop, and is second in the production of coconut meat and tuna . The principal markets for Colima's agricultural products—especially produce—are Guadalajara, Mexico City, Puebla and Monterrey. During the dry season, there is migration from the rural areas into the urban ones as most agricultural work takes place during the rainy season. Most farm work consists of the harvesting of fruit. The agricultural production supports an agro-industry that attracts workers from neighboring Jalisco and Michoacán. Most of Colima's agriculture is based on perennial plants, such as fruit trees, producing limes, coconuts, mangos and bananas, accounting for ninety percent of the volume of agricultural production and 79% of its value. Colima is the primary producer of limes in Mexico. Other important crops include corn, rice, melons, sorghum, chili peppers, coffee, tomatoes and tomatillos.
By volume the most important livestock is that of cattle, followed by domestic fowl, then honey and beeswax. Most livestock production is in the north of the state due to climate, and also includes pigs, goats and sheep. Commercially productive forest stands at about 108,225 hectares with about sixty percent of the trees salable. These forests are mostly rainforest, with some areas of holm oak. Lumber harvesting has decreased in the state owing to conservation measures.
Fishing is concentrated on the coastline in ocean waters of about 641 km2 as well as in 8,350 hectares of lagoons and 2,032 inland bodies of waters. There are also about 3,000 hectares dedicated to fish farming. Fish production has increased considerably since the 1980s. This is mostly due to more intensive ocean activities, but fish production from rivers and lakes has also grown, at about twelve percent.
Principle catches include tuna and squid, in which Colima ranks nationally at third and fourth place respectively. Other commercial species include huachinangos, red porgy, combers, wahoo, and mojarra. Fish farming mostly concerns raising shrimp along lakes and lagoons, such as Cuyutlán, Chupadero, and Potrero Grande, with an annual production of about 5,000 tons. Some oyster raising takes place as well.
The fishing industry in the state supports a canning industry mostly for tuna, shrimp and octopus along with the freezing of fish filets.
Mining, construction, and utilities employ 18.5% of the population and generate 27.53% of the GDP. Half of this is from production of electricity, gas, and water services. Mining is next in importance, with production of iron, mostly from the Peña Colorada, the largest deposit in the country. Manufacturing contributes 4.7% of the state's GDP with 2,007 units of production. Most facilities produce beverages, metal structures, canned foods, cereals, furniture, printed materials, building supplies and dairy products.
Handcrafts in the state are mostly produced for local needs rather than the tourist market. One distinguished craft is the making of palm frond hats, including a local style called the colimote. Ixtlahuacán is noted for its production of hammocks. Other items include huarache sandals, boots, bird cages, cold cuts and costumes and masks for traditional dance. These costumes include “Indian” dresses decorated with cross stitch. The state is also known for the production of handcrafted furniture, especially those based on the designs of Alejandro Rangel Hidalgo, from Comala. Villa de Álvarez produces decorative objects in fine wood. Suchitlán in the municipality of Comala is distinguished by its production of masks and other accessories for festivals and ceremonies. Villages on the sides of the Cerro Grande are the principal producers of baskets made from reeds and palm fronds. Santiago in the municipality of Manzanillo is noted for crafts made of seashell and snail shells. The main craft in the city of Colima is the reproduction of archeological pieces, especially ceramics of the old red-burnished (rojo-bruñido) style.
About two thirds of the state's GDP is from commerce and services which include transportation and storage, mostly linked with the Manzanillo port. Economic growth associated with the port continues to grow by double digits. Most commercial activity in general is concentrated in the cities of Colima, Tecomán and Manzanillo, which have the most developed communications, transportation and other infrastructure. The main distribution center is the city of Colima handing both basic commodities and industrial and other commercial merchandise for the rest of the state. Just under 95% of Colima's commercial enterprises are retail outlets with 5.6% involved in wholesale. Only three percent of these enterprises are modern facilities with twenty-one traditional markets, forty-five major tianguis and numerous corner stores still dominating the state. Commercial sales increase by about five percent per year.
Much of the state's tourism centers on its beaches in Manzanillo, and in the municipalities of Armería and Tecomán. Manzanillo is the most popular in the state, and a major tourism destination for Mexico's Pacific coast. For this reason, it has developed infrastructure with hotels, restaurants, golf courses, and other attractions. For Holy Week 2011, one of Mexico's busiest vacation times, the state gained 175 million pesos and had a hotel occupancy of 94%, 7% higher than the previous year. 70,249 visited during that period. Most of the visitors were at the state's beaches with the busiest being Cuyutlán, El Real and Miramar.
Tourist attractions
Colima's most important tourism destination is the beaches of Manzanillo, which is popular among those in western Mexico as well as many sports fishermen. Historically, the port was the point of departure for various maritime expeditions and received the annual Manila Galleon from the Philippines. It has called itself the "World Capital of the Sailfish" since 1957 when 336 species were caught off its shores. The abundance of this fish along with marlin has made it a popular destination with sports fishermen and the city holds the annual Dorsey International fishing tournament. However, it is not as well known or as well visited as other Pacific destinations such as Puerto Vallarta, despite long sandy beaches and docks for cruise ships. In the 2000s, the city worked to renovate its downtown, with all buildings now showing white facades and many with red tile roofs.
The second most important destination is the small town of Comala, a small traditional town near the capital of Colima. Comala was named a "Pueblo Mágico" in 2002 because of its natural surroundings and traditional architecture, which its downtown declared a historic monument. Since 1962, all the buildings in the town have been painted white and most have red tile roofs, giving it the nickname of "White Village of America."
Most of the other attractions of the state are related to its history, and most of these are in and around the capital city of Colima. The former state government palace is located in the center of the city of Colima and dates from the 19th century. The main stairwell contains a mural by Colima painter Jorge Chávez Carrillo. The Palacio Federal is near Jardín Núñez in the city of Colima and dates from the beginning of the 20th century. The upper floor contains murals with scenes depicting Mexico City and portraits of people from Mexico's history. The Archive of the History of the State is located at Jardín Juárez in the city of Colima. It dates from the early 20th century and was home to the Escuela de Artes . San Francisco de Almoloyan in the city of Colima is the ruins of an old Franciscan monastery from the 16th century. The Mesón de Caxitlán on the Colima Tecomán highway is the ruins of an old in on the former royal road from the 18th century.
Other important attractions include a number of former haciendas, many of which have been renovated. The Del Carmen hacienda is in the municipality of Villa de Álvarez. It was a cattle ranch from the 19th century, and has been restored. The San Antonio hacienda is in the municipality of Comala. It was a coffee plantation from the 19th century, with a chapel and aqueduct, which have all been restored. The former Nogueras hacienda in Comala has a main house that dates from the 19th century and a chapel from the 17th. It has been restored and is used primarily as a museum.
The United States Department of State considers the State of Colima so dangerous due to widespread crime that it has issued a "Do Not Travel" advisory to its citizens for the entire state.
Culture
Indigenous, and Spanish cultures have played a part in the shaping of the state, although traces can be hidden in modern local cultures and traditions. Most crafts and dances of the state are of indigenous origin although some originated after the Conquest. The Spanish contributed bullfighting and charreada.
The most popular folk dances in the state include some that tell the story of the Spanish conquest—under various names, such as conquista, Virgin of Guadalupe, capotes, and the fox. Another popular dance is called apaches. These originated in the colonial period, along with moros y cristianos and matachines. Dances with indigenous roots include sonajera india and morenos.
Pastorelas, or short plays with religious themes, are traditions that began in the very early colonial period. A popular one from that time is the Adoration of the Three Wise Men, though it has evolved to meet modern tastes.
Colima has a number of important local festivals and other annual events. January 6 is the Los Chayacates de Ixtlahuacán—a mix of indigenous and Catholic practices based on the pastorela and the cultivation cycle of corn. On the Tuesday after Epiphany is the "Entrance of the Señor de la Expiración" in Rancho de Villa. On this date the image returns to this village from Coquimatlán. It includes parades, dances, fireworks, and jaripeos.
Candlemas is an important event in Tecomán with traditional dances and fair. Candlemas in Suchitlán is the most important annual event in the region, celebrated with dances such as Los Gallitos, Los Apaches and Los Morenos. The last two dances involved dancers with elaborately carved and decorated masks.
Villa de Álvarez celebrates its annual Fiestas Charro-Taurinas, originally the feast of the city's patron saint, Philip of Jesus. In addition to bullfights and charreadas, mojigangas are featured. The Paspaques of Suchitlán—an agricultural ritual of pre-Hispanic origin—is celebrated by the Nahuas of this small village on 19 March. It centers on preparing corn in various ways, such as tortillas, tamales, pozole, and more. Holy Week is a major event in many municipalities, which often hold passion plays during the week.
The Feria de Manzanillo occurs from 29 April to 1 May and celebrates the anniversary of its designation as a major port (Puerto de Altura). It is held with street parties, dances, contests, and jaripeos. 3 May is the Day of the Holy Cross, important in Suchitlán, and celebrated with the morenos dance. The Fiestas del Cristo de Caña in Quesería in May revolves around an 18th-century Christ image that came to the area from Pátzcuaro. It is celebrated with horse races, mojigangas, traditional dance, processions, and music. On 29 September Tamala, municipality of Ixtlahuacán celebrates the feast of the Archangel Michael with a change of "mayordomos" (festival sponsors).
The most important festival in the state is Day of the Dead. For the weeks before and after, the state holds its Agricultural, Industrial, and Cultural Fair. On 1 November, the city of Colima has an agricultural, livestock, commerce, and industry fair that includes dances, parades with floats and a charreada. Pastorelas are most commonly seen during December between the feast day of the Virgin of Guadalupe (12 December) and Christmas. Comala celebrates the feast of the Virgin of Guadalupe from the first to the 12 of December with processions, bullfights, jaripeos, cockfights—and on the eighth with a dance to popular music, floats, and fireworks.
The state has produced one internationally famous artist named Alejandro Rangel Hidalgo. He is best known for illustrating Christmas cards for UNICEF in the 1960s, but he did much other work and designed furniture in a style now called Rangeliano. Many of his works are preserved at his former home of the Nogueras Hacienda in Comala, which is now a museum and cultural center run by the University of Colima. Other noted artists from the state include Gabriel Portillo, Mercedes Zamora, Jorge Chávez Carrillo, Pancha Magaña and Juan Soriano. Noted writers include Gregorio Torres Quintero, Fray Juan de Grijalva, Balbino Dávalos and Felipe Sevilla.
Communications and transportation
Transport
The most important transportation hub in the state is the port of Manzanillo, handling 91.3% of the shipping of the state and the immediate region. It also operates as an overflow port for the commercial and industrial zones of western Mexico, the Bajío area and the center of Mexico, but handles overflow from as far as Los Angeles. Most of the merchandise that passes through here is part of the trade between Mexico and Asia. The port infrastructure consists of two types of installations. One is artificial, located in the interior port of San Pedrito and the other located in the bay proper. The artificial structure is a tall dock with a length of 450 meters and 225 meters wide for a surface of 10,125m2. The Manzanillo port has a dock for cruise ships, and an average of 58 ships visit per year. Nearby are two large private marinas, one in Las Hadas and the other at Isla Navidad. The port area is not fully developed, with over 130 hectares reserved for expansion.
The two main airports are the Playa de Oro International Airport in Manzanillo and the Lic. Miguel de la Madrid Airport in Colima. Playa de Oro has flights to and from destinations in Mexico, the United States and Canada. The Miguel de la Madrid airport was opened in 1987, twenty-two km outside the capital. It extends over 386 hectares with runways that cover 16,200m2. The longest runway is 2.3 km long. It has one terminal. Most of the Colima airport flights go to Mexico City, with about 100,000 passengers going through the terminal in 2009.
The state has 1,424.5 km of roadway with 686.9 km paved with asphalt and the rest stone or dirt road. The main highway out of the state connects the city of Colima and Guadalajara. The second most important connects Manzanillo with Guadalajara. This roadway has broken Mexican records in the dimensions of its bridges. There are 191.5 km of railway with fifteen active stations.
Media
There are eight AM radio stations operating in the state and five FM stations. Most are in Colima and Manzanillo. There is no local television station with programming coming from Mexico City and through cable. Telephone service covers the entire state but rural areas still use analog. There are still some telegraph centers. The state has fourteen newspapers mostly in the city of Colima and Manzanillo, including: Correo de Manzanillo, Diario de Colima, and Ecos de la Costa.
History
Name and seal
The formal name of the state is "Estado Libre y Soberano de Colima" (Free and Sovereign State of Colima). The state is named after the capital city of Colima. This name is most likely derived from a Nahuatl phrase "coliman," but the original meaning is in doubt with two most accepted versions. One interpretation means "place in the hand of the grandfather" with "grandfather" possibly referring to the volcano. The other interpretation is "place in the hands of the ancestors." A third interpretation is based on an interpretation of Colima's glyph as it appears in the Nomina and Mendocino codices, which has a bent arm with the hand turned and water on the shoulder. This glyph is still used in the state's seal. This interpretation would then be "place where the waters bend."
Pre-Hispanic period
The state was home to a number of pre-Hispanic cultures as part of Western Mexico. Archeological evidence dates human occupation of the area as far back as 1500 BCE, with sites here contemporary with San Lorenzo on the Gulf Coast and Tlatilco in the Valley of Mexico. One period of the area's development is called the Los Ortices era, which began around 500 BCE. During this time the elements that characterize the pre-Hispanic peoples of Colima appear, including shaft tombs and a distinctive ceramic style called rojo bruñido, or burnished red.
The next phase, called Comala and centered on a site of the same name, was from around 100 to 600 CE. Comala people perfected burnished red pottery and created representations of people and animals with skill and fluid lines. The best known of these figures are known as the fattened dogs. The Comala site shows influence from Teotihuacan. Around 500 CE, another site in Armería developed along the river of the same name.
The Chanal site was active from the 6th to the 15th centuries and was the main culture for the Colima area. Belonging to this culture was a number of smaller sites and most of the ones known and explored to date. After Chanal the largest related site is La Campana but most contain pyramidal bases and plazas with structures often containing rounded edges. Images of Huehueteotl and Tlaloc appear with this culture, which may indicate the origins of the cultures that ultimately settled central Mexico.
There is one other site called Periquillo, which indicates one late migration into Colimas around the 10th century from the north.
At the beginning of the 16th century, the Purépechas invaded the territory of the Tecos and got as far as the salt fields of Tzacoalco. However, a chief named Colimotl or Colliman defeated the P’urhépechas during the Salitre War (Guerra del Salitre). After this, the Tecos conquered Sayula, Zapotlán and Amunla, making them the dominant cultural group in this part of the state. Both the Periquillo and Chanal sites were occupied when the Spanish arrived in the 16th century.
Colonial era
After conquering the Aztecs and the Purépecha, the Spanish made incursions into Colima. The first incursion into the Colima area occurred under Juan Rodríguez de Villafuerte in 1522 but was defeated by the natives of the Tecomán Valley. Hernán Cortés then sent Gonzalo de Sandoval to defeat the Tecos, which he did at the Paso de Alima and the Palenque de Tecomán. Sandoval then established the first Spanish settlement in the Colima Valley called Caxitlán in 1523, making it the third oldest functioning city government in Mexico and the second municipality of western New Spain. In 1527, Francisco Cortés de San Buenaventura moved the Spanish settlement to its current located and changing the name to San Sebastián de Colima.
Revillagigedo Archipelago was discovered 1533 by Hernando de Grijalva. The state's first port at Tzalahua would be an important site for about 300 years of Spanish colonial rule as a line of defense and a commercial center.
After the Conquest, the native population was reduced drastically. Some estimations state that the population declines from 150,000 in 1523 to 15,000 in 1554, rebounding somewhat in the 17th century. This population reduction led to the introduction of African slaves and indigenous people from neighboring regions.
Evangelization was carried out by the Franciscans who established the San Francisco de Coliman monastery in 1554 then the Almoloyan monastery. They would be followed by the Mercedarians and the Brothers of Saint John of the Cross. It was originally made part of the diocese of Valladolid (Morelia).
The port of Manzanillo, then called Santiago de Buena Esperanza, played a large part in the expeditions northwards ordered by Hernán Cortés, which later led to the discovery of Las Californias — the Baja California Peninsula and Alta California. Cortés de San Buenaventura set out to conquer towards the north, covering the rest of the state and into what is now southern Sinaloa. Later the port would be a target for pirates as the Manila galleons would unload materials from the Spanish East Indies here. These pirates would include Francis Drake and Thomas Cavendish. The last major battle against pirates at Manzanillo was in 1615 with Captain Sebastián Vizcaino defending the port against Dutch pirate Joris van Speilbergen.
However, Colima would lose territory during the colonial period to 1822, and further into the 19th century. With the creation of Nueva Galicia in 1531, Colima lost its territories north of the Cihuatlán or Marabasco River and the region south of Lake Chapala. In 1550, Colima lost the provinces of Autlán and Amula. By the end of the 16th century, it lost the Motines region, now part of Michoacán and in the 19th century the Xilotlán region to Jalisco.
From the early colonial period, Colima was a province that answered to Mexico City. In 1789, the parish of Colima was incorporated into the diocese of Guadalajara. In 1796, Colima was converted into a sub delegation of the province of Guadalajara.
One colonial area industry in Colima was the production of "coconut wine" — an alcoholic beverage distilled from date palm fruit and coconut. One of the first introduced crops was cacao in the 16th century, with coconut, sugar cane, and cotton coming after. Other crops such as rice, indigo and vanilla would be introduced later.
Independence to the present
In the early 19th century, the commercial port of Manzanillo was opened to domestic and international traffic for a brief time. The first Colima newspaper called "El Observador de las Leyes" was published at this time as well.
With the outbreak of the Mexican War of Independence, authorities arrested the head of Indian communities along with suspected insurgents in October 1810. This was despite the fact that Nahua groups had organized to defend against the insurgents upon hearing that they were enemies of the king and planned to destroy churches. One accused insurgent was José Antonio Díaz, the parish priest of Almoloyán and friend of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla. Later he would join the insurgent army. During the war, the city of Colima was taken by the insurgents Jose Antonio Torres at the end of 1810 without resistance and taken back by the royalist army in 1811. In 1811, royalist troops defeated the insurgents under José Calixto Martinez at the Battle of Los Llanos de Santa Juana. Insurgents took back the city in 1812 under the command of Ignacio Sandoval and Miguel Gallaga. In 1813, the city was in royalist hands with the city swearing allegiance to the monarchist constitution. In 1821 the Plan of Iguala for Mexican independence was proclaimed in the city, and accepted by local authorities. Immediately after Independence, Colima was still a subdelegation of Guadalajara. In 1821, Colima lost the Zapotlán areas along with the towns of Tecalitlán and Xilotlán, but gained the town of Tonila. This and earlier losses of territory would define the area's modern borders.
In 1824, with Mexico's first constitution, Colima was an independent territory of Mexico, However, it was integrated with Michoacán later in 1837. In 1846, Colima became a separate territory again, and in 1856, was made a state with the triumph of the Liberals. Its status as a state was reaffirmed by the 1857 Mexican Constitution and General Manuel Alvarez was declared its first constitutional governor.
Colima served as a provisional seat for Benito Juárez’s Liberal government in 1858 during the Reform War. In 1861, the Revillagigedo Islands were added to Colima’s territory. French troops entered the city in 1864, dissolving the state congress, with Colima becoming a department in 1865. In 1867, Republican troops under Ramon Corona retook the city. Colima became a diocese independent of Guadalajara in 1881.
The latter part of the 19th century saw the introduction of industry with textile factories such as La Armonía, La Atrevida and San Cayetano. The telegraph arrived to the state in 1869 to connect the capital and the port of Manzanillo. Similarly, the telephone service was added in 1883. Railroad service between the two cities began in 1889 and a city tram was added to the capital in 1892.
During the Mexican Revolution, there were no major battles but there were local clashes. In 1911, troops loyal to Francisco I. Madero entered Colima and suspended the state congress. After the war, social organizations that would mark Mexico’s development for much of the 20th century were created in Colima as well, especially ejidos, with the one in Suchitlán being the first. Another important movement was the creation of workers’ unions and cooperatives such as the Unión de Estibadores in Manzanillo. In 1919, President Venustiano Carranza created the Sociedad Cooperativa de Salineros in the city of Colima with the exclusive rights to extract salt from Cuyutlán Lake. These changes were imposed by federal authorities outside of Colima, leading to political instability within the state, especially during elections.
Federal intervention from Mexico City continued into the 1920s, with a number of laws to reform schools, hospitals and other institutions, which before had been mostly operated by the Catholic Church. This was opposed by many in the state who supported the Church's formerly prominent role in political and social affairs. The Ley de Cultos (Religion Law) of 1926 gave rise to the Cristero War pitting those favoring the Catholic Church against those favoring agrarian and socialist reform. Battles and skirmishes related to this conflict took place in a number of locales in Mexico but it cause severe problems in Colima, causing major divisions with no formal resolution.
Textile production that began in the 19th century ended by the mid 20th century, though farmers continued to grow cotton to ship to Guadalajara. In the 1940s, the Tecomán Valley began to be intensively cultivated, creating a new source income for the state, with limes as the principle crop, and leading to the development of agro-industry.
The Universidad (Popular) de Colima was founded in 1942.
Much of the history of the latter 20th century into the present revolves around economic development. A hurricane devastated the state in 1959. The Plan Colima was conceived and executed to improve the general infrastructure of the state during the 1980s by then Mexican president Miguel de la Madrid. It was prompted mostly by road congestion due to port shipping in Manzanillo as well as the growing tourism sector. It was designed to facilitate in-state transportation and connect the state better to the rest of Mexico. The main aspect of the plan was the construction of highways such as the highway that connects Manzanillo to Guadalajara and then onto Tampico. This highway was amplified at the end of the decade and made a toll road on approach to Manzanillo. The last decades have seen a new wave of industrial construction with the building of facilities for businesses such as Cementos Apasco, Citrojugo, Brun Foods, Embotelladora de Tecomán, Consorcio Minero Benito Juárez-Peña Colorada, Grupo Agroindustrial de Occidente, AMTEX and others.
However, Mexico's struggles with drug traffickers have not skipped the state, which is along Pacific Coast drug smuggling routes. For the first quarter of 2011, there were 52 registered homicides in the state, most linked to organized crime. This is significantly higher than previous years with most of these occurring in Colima, Villa de Alvarez and Manzanillo.
Archaeology
A very early culture in Colima was Capacha culture, developing in the region between 2000 and 1200 BCE.
El Chanal is located four km north of the city of Colima. It is a complex of pyramid platforms with stairs, a Mesoamerican ballcourt and a number of plazas. A distinctive feature of the site are stones with glyphs that are found on stairways.
La Campana is in the urban area of Villa de Álvarez. It is a ceremonial center with various temples and pyramidal platforms with rounded edges. At least one of the platforms was used as a mausoleum with the tomb inside still visible.
Education
The state has 307 preschools, 510 primary schools, 131 middle schools and 57 high school and vocational level schools. Today, over 85% of the population finishes primary school. Just under 90% of those who start middle school finish. Over 91% of the population over the age of 15 is literate. However, only about 12% of the state's population has a university level education and 26% have not finished primary school or have had no schooling at all.
High school level education is available in all regions of the state, with just under sixty percent of those starting a program finishing it, with most that do not dropping out.
The state system also has schools dedicated to special education, vocational training and early childhood centers for those needing various types of physical and educational therapy. Literacy programs for adults are handled by INEA and CONAFE.
Higher education consists of a number of technological schools, universities and teachers’ colleges. Just over half of these are located in the city of Colima, with about 19% in Villa de Alvarez and eleven percent in Tecomán. Most technology related higher education is provided by the Instituto Tecnológico de Colima, with 76% of the students, followed by ITESM- Colima with 7.6% and Instituto Autónomo de Educación Superior de Tecomán with 16.2%. Most of the general university education is provided by the University of Colima (over 93%) with the rest attending the Universidad Autónoma del Pacífico. The main teachers’ colleges are the Instituto Superior de Educación Normal de Colima and the Universidad Pedagógica Nacional. The main providers of post graduate education are the University of Colima and ITESM-Colima.
The University of Colima was founded in 1940, following the educational philosophy of President Lázaro Cárdenas meant to provide higher education to the poorer classes. Today, the university offers high school level classes along with undergraduate and graduate degrees. Much of the institution's current size and offering is due to growth in the 1980s, and during that time its reputation in Mexico and abroad increased. Most of the university's majors are concentrated in agriculture, industry and commerce with aim of enhancing Colima's economy.
The Instituto Tecnológico de Colima was founded in 1976 with three majors in engineering and business with the aim of providing an alternative education focusing on preparing students for industry and service markets. Since then it has added majors in biotechnology, computer science, mechatronics and architecture, offering six undergraduate degrees and one master's degree.
Sister cities
San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
See also
2003 Colima earthquake
Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition
References
External links
Colima state government
Revista Electrónica Fumarola
States of Mexico
1857 establishments in Mexico
States and territories established in 1857 | [
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224016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston%20Beer%20Company | Boston Beer Company | The Boston Beer Company is an American brewery founded in 1984. Boston Beer Company's first brand of beer was named Samuel Adams after Founding Father Samuel Adams, an American revolutionary patriot. Since its founding, Boston Beer has started several other brands, and in 2019 completed a merger with Dogfish Head Brewery.
The Boston Beer Company is the fourth largest brewer in the United States with products available throughout the United States and internationally.
History
Early history
The Boston Beer Company was founded in 1984 by James "Jim" Koch and Rhonda Kallman. The initial beer offering was Samuel Adams Boston Lager, a 4.8% abv amber or Vienna lager. Koch, the sixth-generation, first-born son to follow in his family's brewing footsteps, brewed his first batch of the beer in his kitchen, using the original family recipe for Louis Koch Lager. At the time, Koch was working at Boston Consulting Group after receiving BA, MBA and JD degrees from Harvard University. While serving in his role as a manufacturing consultant at BCG, Koch developed a business plan for a locally focused beer company. He invested $100,000 of his own money and raised additional funds from investors, family members, and friends including former classmates and BCG colleagues. The company was organized as a limited liability partnership; most early investors did not have active roles in the company. However, one early investor, John B. Wing, held a board seat until 2002.
Koch named his beer after the Boston patriot Samuel Adams, who fought for American independence, and who also had inherited a brewing tradition from his father. In March 1985, Koch introduced the beer as Samuel Adams Boston Lager, over Patriot's Day weekend which honors the first battle of the American Revolution and today is more widely known for the running of the Boston Marathon. Six weeks later, Samuel Adams was voted "Best Beer in America" at the Great American Beer Festival, in which 93 national and regional beers competed. The beer was first put on tap at Doyle's Cafe in Jamaica Plain.
Initially, Koch rented excess capacity and brewed the beer at the Pittsburgh Brewing Company, best known for their Iron City brand of beer. As sales increased Koch developed other contract arrangements at various brewing facilities with excess capacity, ranging from Stroh breweries, Portland's original Blitz-Weinhard brewery (shuttered in 1999), Cincinnati's Hudepohl-Schoenling brewery (eventually purchased by the Boston Beer Company in early 1997), and industry giant SABMiller. The Boston Beer Company also has a small R&D brewery located in Boston (Jamaica Plain), Massachusetts, where public tours and beer tastings are offered. The brewery occupies part of the premises of the old Haffenreffer Brewery.
1990s – present
In 1997, Jim Koch returned to his hometown of Cincinnati to purchase the Hudepohl-Schoenling Brewery, where his father apprenticed in the 1940s. This was also an important step the company took to reduce reliance on contract brewing.
The Boston Beer Company went public, selling shares of Class A Common Stock on the New York Stock Exchange, under the ticker symbol, "SAM". These shares, however, have no voting rights, while the company is controlled through its Class B Common Stock, of which Koch owns 100% of the shares.
Boston Beer launched Hardcore Cider in 1997, and Twisted Tea brand in 2000. In 2007, the Boston Beer Company purchased the former F. & M. Schaefer Brewing Company brewery in Breinigsville, Pennsylvania, in the Lehigh Valley. The brewery had been owned by Diageo North America, Inc. and used for the production of Smirnoff Ice malt beverages since 2001. By 2012, Samuel Adams was producing two-thirds of all its beer at the Breinigsville facility, and it has increased brewing capacity there. In 2012 Boston Beer Company launched Angry Orchard hard cider company based in Cincinnati, Ohio.
As of 2014, the company had 1,325 employees in its Boston, Massachusetts, Cincinnati, Ohio and Breinigsville, Pennsylvania breweries.
On May 9, 2019, Boston Beer Company acquired Delaware-based Dogfish Head Brewery for $300 million. As part of the merger, Dogfish Head owner Sam Calagione and his wife, Mariah, became the second biggest non-institutional owners of Boston Beer Company.
In 2020, Boston Beer Company invested $85 million dollars in its Cincinnati plant to quadruple its current canning capacity of Samuel Adams, Angry Orchard, Twisted Tea, and Truly Hard Seltzer.
Products
Samuel Adams Boston Lager
Following Jim Koch's great-great grandfather's recipe, Samuel Adams continued to use traditional brewing processes, including decoction mash (a four vessel process) and krausening (a secondary fermentation). Boston Lager is also dry hopped using the Hallertau Mittelfrueh and Tettnang Tettnanger hops.
Samuel Adams Rebel IPA
First brewed in 2014, Samuel Adams Rebel IPA is a West Coast style India Pale Ale. The beer is brewed with five American hops - American Cascade, Simcoe, Chinook, Centennial, and Amarillo. In early 2015, Samuel Adams released Rebel Rouser, a double India Pale Ale, and Rebel Rider, a session India Pale Ale.
Sam Adams Light
Introduced in 2001, Sam Adams Light was the second light beer the company brewed. There was consideration to name the brew "Turtle Adams" after Sam Adams’ pet turtle. The company previously sold Boston Lightship, which was introduced in 1987.
Samuel Adams Barrel Room Collection
These Belgian style beers are left in large wood barrels to age and pick up some of the flavors of the wood. The beers in this collection are American Kriek, New World, Stony Brook Red, Thirteenth Hour and Tetravis.
Samuel Adams Utopias
The company followed this up in 2002 with Utopias; at 24% ABV, it was marketed as the strongest commercial beer in the world (a mark that has since been challenged). The company subsequently released new "vintages" of Utopias annually, increasing the alcoholic content to 27% ABV by 2007.
Utopias is made with caramel, Vienna, Moravian and Bavarian smoked malts, and four varieties of noble hops: Hallertauer Mittelfrüh, Tettnanger, Spalter, and Saaz hops. The beer is matured in scotch, cognac and port barrels for the better part of a year. A limited number of bottles are released each year; in 2007, only 12,000 bottles were produced, and in 2009, only 9,000 bottles were released. Sold in a ceramic bottle resembling a copper-finished brewing kettle, a single bottle of Utopias cost $100 in 2002, and $150 in 2009.
Because of legal restrictions, Utopias is not offered in the states of Alabama, Georgia, Idaho, New Hampshire, North Carolina, Oregon, South Carolina, Vermont, or West Virginia.
Triple Bock
Triple Bock was released in 1994, 1995, and 1997. It has a black, opaque color, no carbonation, and at 17.5% ABV it was the strongest beer brewed at the time it was introduced. Maple syrup was added in the brewing process. Triple Bock was a "forerunner" of later strong beers from Samuel Adams — Millennium (21% ABV released in 1999 only), and Utopias (24–26% ABV first released in 2002).
Seasonal beers
In addition to year-round offerings, Samuel Adams also has four seasonal offerings. The spring seasonal beers are Cold Snap, a Witbier and Escape Route, a Kölsch. The spring seasonals are sold from January to March. The Summer offerings are available from April through August and include Summer Ale, a wheat ale and Porch Rocker, a radler. The Autumn seasonal beers are available August through October and are Octoberfest, a Marzen and Pumpkin Batch, a saison with pumpkin. The Winter/Holiday seasonal beers are available November through December and are, Winter Lager, a Bock and White Christmas an Ale.
Samuel Adams also offers seasonal variety packs that include a mix of year-round and seasonal offerings.
Hard cider
Samuel Adams began offering ciders in 1995. The company has both year-round and seasonal cider offerings, which since 2012 have been sold under the Angry Orchard brand name.
Malt beverages
Beginning in 2001, Boston Beer began to produce Twisted Tea, a 5% abv malt beverage marketed as a "hard iced tea". Its brand portfolio has since grown to include a number of flavored varieties, including a "half and half" variant designed to mimic an Arnold Palmer, and is primarily marketed in the American southeast.
Hard seltzer
Boston Beer Company launched a line of hard seltzers in 2016 under the brand name Truly Spiked & Sparkling.
Subsidiaries
Boston Beer operates a number of other sub-brands, including The Traveler Brewing Company (which focuses on shandy variants), Coney Island Brewing Company (purchased from Schmaltz Brewery and brewing a nationally available line of hard sodas in addition to beer exclusive to the New York City market), and also owns the Los Angeles-based Angel City Brewery and the Concrete Beach Brewery in Miami.
Weihenstephan partnership
In October 2009, the Boston Beer Company announced a two-year project with German brewery Bayerische Staatsbrauerei Weihenstephan to jointly produce a new craft beer named Infinium, to be marketed in both Germany and the U.S. The brewers described the beer, which was sold in corked bottles and had alcohol content of 10.3% abv, as a Champagne-like "crisp pale brew". Approximately 15,000 cases were released in North America in December 2010 at a suggested retail price of $20 per 750 mL bottle, Marketed towards drinkers who would rather toast with beer than Champagne on New Year's Eve, Infinium is described by the brewers as "the first new beer style created under the Reinheitsgebot in over a hundred years".
Philanthropy
Samuel Adams Brewing the American Dream
In 2008, Jim Koch created the Brewing the American Dream program. As of 2015, the company has helped more than 4,000 entrepreneurs and together with their lending partner, Accion, made close to 400 loans totaling $400 million.
2008 Hops shortage
In early 2008, amidst a worldwide shortage of hops—a key ingredient in beer—Boston Beer Company agreed to sell 20,000 pounds of its hops, at cost, to craft brewers throughout the United States. The company selected 108 craft brewers to divide the 20,000 pounds they had spare.
Samuel Adams shared their hops again in June 2012.
LongShot American Homebrew Competition
Created in 1996, the Samuel Adams LongShot American Homebrew Competition is an annual competition among amateur homebrewers. Homebrewers submit their brew to a series of judging and taste tests with the chance to see their creation in larger-scale production and sold on store shelves as part of a Samuel Adams mixed 6-pack the following year.
Sponsorship
Starting in the 2018 season, Boston Beer Company's Samuel Adams became the official beer of the Boston Red Sox, replacing Budweiser. The eight-year deal will last through the 2025 season and include signage and a Sam roof deck. The agreement also allows Boston Beer to use the Red Sox Logo for marketing purposes, run Red Sox related contests with tickets to games.
Since the 2021 season, Twisted Tea has been the naming sponsor of Team Twisted Tea Suzuki in the AMA Motocross and Supercross championships.
Controversies
Since 1990, the company has produced a seasonal fruit beer labeled "Cranberry Lambic". "Lambic" describes a spontaneously fermented beer generally produced in Brussels or the nearby Pajottenland region, and the Samuel Adams product is not spontaneously fermented, consumers and brewers charged that "Cranberry Lambic" was mislabeled and could cause consumer confusion. Michael Jackson, a leading beer critic, called it "a misleading name". Grant Wood, Senior Brewing Manager at Boston Beer, defended the name, saying, "I wouldn't consider it mislabeling. Whenever I have served the Cranberry Lambic, I have always been really up front about it. Is it a true lambic made in that region in Belgium? No. Does it taste like one? Yes. So it's sort of our homage to the style without the pain and agony of it."
From 2000-2002, the company sponsored a radio show on WNEW-FM in New York called "Opie & Anthony". The hosts created a promotion called "Sex for Sam", in which Opie and Anthony encouraged couples to have sex in notable public places in New York City. On August 15, 2002, a Virginia couple was charged with public lewdness after attempting to have sex in a vestibule at St. Patrick's Cathedral; this led to the firing of the radio hosts a week later.
In October 2007, in an incident referred to by The Wall Street Journal as "Sam Adams v. Sam Adams", the Boston Beer Company demanded that control of the domain names "samadamsformayor.com" and "mayorsamadams.com" be turned over to the company. The domains had been purchased by an employee of the Portland, Oregon radio station NewsRadio 1190 KEX for the campaign of Portland mayoral candidate, Sam Adams. In a cease-and-desist letter, the company expressed concern that consumers might confuse the mayoral candidate with their beer. In an interview with the Associated Press the company said it was willing to discuss Adams' use of his name on his Web sites, "probably for the length of the time the election is being held".
In April 2008, the Boston Beer Company issued its first product recall because of potential defects found in certain glass bottles manufactured by a third-party supplier which, at the time, supplied about a quarter of the bottles the Boston Beer Company used. The Boston Beer Company stated that they believed fewer than 1% of bottles from the supplier could contain small pieces of glass and issued a recall for the safety of consumers. There were no reports of injuries. News of the recall led to shares of the company temporarily dropping by more than 3%.
On July 4, 2013, a video commercial for Sam Adams beer was rolled out on the July 4th holiday that created controversy over an omitted phrase. The manufacturer decided to leave out "endowed by their creator" in its invocation of the Declaration of Independence which outraged critics. But Sam Adams said they were just following trade association rules. The company said in a statement:
"The Beer Institute Advertising Code says, 'Beer advertising and marketing materials should not include religion or religious themes.' We agree with that and try to adhere to these guidelines."
In 2018, the company pushed for changes to the definition of "craft brewery" in order to accommodate a continuing shift away from beer-only operations toward other brewed products including ciders.
In 2020, for the first time ever the company removed the popular Old Fezziwig ale from their Winter Classics Variety Pack.
Works cited
References
External links
The Boston Beer Company Financial Information from Yahoo!
"The Revenge of Infinium"
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Manufacturing companies based in Boston
Food and drink companies based in Boston
Food and drink companies established in 1984
1984 establishments in Massachusetts
Beer brewing companies based in Massachusetts
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224017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culiac%C3%A1n | Culiacán | Culiacán, officially Culiacán Rosales, is a city in northwestern Mexico that is the capital of and the largest city in Sinaloa and in the Culiacán Municipality. It was founded on September 29, 1531 by the Spanish conquerors Lázaro de Cebreros and Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán under the name of Villa de San Miguel, which referred to its patron saint, Michael the Archangel.
Culiacán is well known for its culture, luxuries, and celebrations. Its iconic sites include its historic center, Las Riberas Park, the flag or better known as dancing fountains and religious temples such as its Basilica Cathedral, the sanctuary, and the Lomita. The modern Tres Ríos district is known for its buildings, squares, hotels, parks, restaurants, schools, etc.
The city is in a valley on the slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental, at the confluence of the Tamazula and Humaya Rivers, where both join to form the Culiacán River 55 m above sea level.
Etymology
The genuine Aztec name of the Nahuatl language is Colhuacán or Culhuacán, which is from colhua or culhua and can, which is a place, and its meaning varies according to different historians:
"snake place"
"crooked hill"
"where walkers twist the path"
The most respected theory is "place of the colhuas", that is "inhabited by the colhua tribe", and the most frequent meaning is "place of worshiping the God Coltzin".
History
Prehispanic era
In ancient times, there was an indigenous population called Huey Colhuacan that dates back to Tecpatl, which corresponds to the year 628 of our era; the Aztecs built it during their pilgrimage. Its exact location is unknown, but it is assumed that it was close to the current town of Culiacancito. Here he was born in 1065 A.D. the cult of Huitzilopochtli, the warrior god of Aztec mythology. The ancient settlers were called Culichis.
Founding
The city that we know today as Culiacán was co-founded in 1531 by Lázaro de Cebreros and Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán under the name of Villa de San Miguel. Upon their arrival in the 16th century, the Spanish found the existence of farmhouses organized in indigenous nations by the tribe of the Tahues, which brought together a group of people of the same origin and language who had a common tradition.
Other indigenous peoples that inhabited the original territory of Culiacán were the Tebacas, Pacaxes, Sabaibo and Achires.
After their war of conquest, Lázaro de Cebreros and Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán (1531), organized the territories acquired in three provinces, one of them was Culiacán which was delimited, to the south, by the Elota river and in the north by the Mocorito River, depending on the Kingdom of Nueva Galicia. Organized in this way, it lasted until 1786, the year in which the administration system was implemented, with Sonora and Sinaloa forming the administration of Arizpe and the ancient province of Culiacán gave life to the party of the same name with equal jurisdiction.
Independent Mexico
On October 6, 1821, Independence was sworn in Culiacán. Culiacán is granted the category of city, on July 21, 1823, when the provinces of Sonora and Sinaloa separated by decree from Congress. In 1824, by Constitutive Act of the Mexican Federation, Sinaloa and Sonora meet again, forming the state of the West. In 1830, the provinces of Sonora and Sinaloa were definitively separated, by decree of October 13, 1830, the city of Culiacán being designated capital of the state of Sinaloa. Later, during the conservative government related to the French Intervention in 1861, prefectures were installed and the Municipalities Law was decreed that divided the Districts into City Councils. The Badiraguato District was suppressed and became part of the Culiacán District as a Municipality.
From 1859 to 1873 it ceased to be the capital of Sinaloa, which moved to Mazatlán. Already in the Restored Republic, Governor Eustaquio Buelna confronted the merchants of the port. He returned to Culiacán and the Local Congress gave him the status of capital of the state.
Porfirian and revolutionary times
For 1878, Culiacán had three City Halls, whose headwaters were Culiacán, Quilá and Badiraguato, it remained that way until in 1880 Badiraguato returned to being a district with the limits that previously corresponded to it.
1912 was the year in which the Municipalities were established by law as a new form of internal government, but it was until 1915 that the Political Directories were suppressed, this law coming into force, causing the Districts to become free municipalities.
Culiacán was established as a Municipality by decree published on April 8, 1915, comprising within its limits the current Municipality of Navolato that was segregated in 1982, according to a decree of August 27 of that year, thus losing 2,285 km² of the valley agricultural.
Some time later, the State Congress approved the extension of the name of the capital city, giving it its current official name, Culiacán de Rosales, in honor of the great Mexican military man, Antonio Rosales.
After World War II
Beginning in the late 1950s, Culiacán became the birthplace of an incipient underground economy based on illicit drugs exported to the United States. The completion of the Pan-American Highway and the regional airport in the 1960s accelerated the expansion of a workable distribution infrastructure for the enterprising few families that would later come to dominate the international drug cartels along Mexico's Pacific Northwest. The Sinaloa Cartel made Culiacán its primary base.
On October 17, 2019, after an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to arrest one of the cartel leaders, widespread gunfights broke out across the city, leading to multiple deaths, in what has been called the "Battle of Culiacán". Many people including innocent people, have also died in these drug wars. One of El Chapos relatives was arrested by police but they were forced to release him.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms of the municipality and the city of Culiacán in Sinaloa, Mexico, has various elements that represent the history of the municipality yesterday and today.
Rolando Arjona Amábilis was the one who drew up the official coat of arms of the Municipality of Culiacán, which was made official, through municipal decree number May 13, 26, 1960 and published in number 90 of the Official Newspaper of the State of Sinaloa on July 30, 1960.
Its shape is square with rounded corners, ending in a point. The entire "field" of the shield covered with a reddish color of earth, is occupied by a hieroglyph representing a hill with a human head on top, very inclined forward and which alludes to Coltzin, "the crooked god", an authentic figure of the Nahuatl mythology, which gave name to a Nahuatlaca-Colhua tribe and this, in turn, to the town of its residence, Colhuacán or Teocolhuacán.
Behind the hieroglyph to the right, there are symbols of water referring to rivers; On the same hieroglyph, in the central part and towards the left side, there is a cross followed by a path on which footprints can be observed, which end in a small construction, motifs that symbolize the missionaries of San Miguel de Culiacán left for the north and they are invoked as an obligatory tribute to the goodness and heroism of the missionaries.
On the carmine border, the word "Culiacán" can be read in its upper part and in its lower part the word "Colhuacán" which corresponds to the true name of the place in the Nahuatl language. In the upper part of the shield there is a hill with a germinating seed and on it, the figure of a golden sun that alludes both to the tropical climate of this region and to the fundamentally agricultural effort of its inhabitants.
Politics
The government of the municipality of Culiacán corresponds to its City Council, this is elected a universal, direct and secret vote for a period of three years that are not renewable for the immediate period but if not continuously and that begins to exercise its position on the day January 1 of the year following your election; The city council is integrated by the Municipal President into a Procurator Trustee and the body of councilors made up of 18 representatives, once they are elected by relative majority and seven by the principle of proportional representation.
Syndications
For its internal regime, the municipality is subdivided into 17 receiverships, which in turn are divided into police stations, the 17 receiverships of the municipality are: El Salado, Higueras de Abuya, Baila, Aguaruto, Emiliano Zapata, Adolfo López Mateos (El Tamarindo), Jesús María, Las Tapias, Quilá, Sanalona, San Lorenzo, Tacuichamona, Tepuche, Imala, Costa Rica, Culiacancito and Eldorado.
Paramunicipals
Culiacan Zoo
JAPAC
Municipal Institute of Sports and Physical Culture (IMDEC)
EME Park (87)
Municipal Institute of Culiacán Women (IMMUJERES)
MIA Institute (MIA Museum & MIA Auditorium)
Culiacán Municipal Institute of Culture (IMCC)
Housing Institute
DIF Culiacan
The Chronicle of Culiacán
Municipal Institute of Youth (IMJU)
Municipal Commission of Populated Centers of Culiacán (COMUN)
IMPLAN
COMPAVI
Geography
Location
It is located in the central region of the State of Sinaloa, forming part of the northwest of Mexico. The coordinates correspond to it: 24 ° 48'15 "N (north latitude) and 107 ° 25'52" W (west longitude), with an altitude of 54 meters above sea level.
It is located 1,240 km from Mexico City, from Culiacán to Tepic, there are only 502 km; to Durango, 536 km; to Hermosillo, 688 km; to Guadalajara, 708 km; to Monterrey, 1,118 km; Chihuahua, 1,159 km; to Tijuana, 1,552 km; and to Matamoros, 1,434 km.
Relief and hydrography
The relief of the municipality is well defined by a mountainous part and the coastal plain; the physiographic region of the highlands is a relatively large portion that is part of the Pacific slope of the Sierra Madre Occidental, which has heights of 300 to 2,100 meters above sea level. The municipality of Culiacán is crossed by four hydrological currents: the Humaya, Tamazula, Culiacán and San Lorenzo rivers; Humaya has its origin in the State of Durango, entering Sinaloa through the municipality of Badiraguato; its waters are controlled by the dam Licenciado Adolfo López Mateos. The Tamazula River rises in the Sierra Madre Occidental near the Topia Valley; its current is controlled by the Sanalona dam; the Humaya and Tamazula rivers unite in front of the city of Culiacán to form the Culiacán River, which finally empties into the Gulf of California; the San Lorenzo river is born in the Sierra Madre Occidental within the State of Durango, enters Sinaloa through the municipality of Cosalá and empties into the Gulf of California.
Climate
Culiacán has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSh), despite receiving an annual rainfall over , due to its hot temperatures and high evaporation. Summers are very hot and humid, shade temperatures can reach and high humidity can produce heat indices of , with the risk of heavy rainfall from decaying tropical cyclones also present. Winters are much milder with less humidity and an average high of 27 °C, with warm nights.
Demographics
Population dynamics
The Municipality of Culiacán has a total population of 858,638 inhabitants, this according to the 2010 Population and Housing Census carried out by the National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI). It has a population density of 166.8 inhabitants / km2, the Municipality concentrates 31% of the population in the State of Sinaloa, with 422,507 men and 436,131 women, with a ratio of 96.9 men for every 100 women.
The city of Culiacán Rosales occupies only a part of the municipality of Culiacán and in 2010 had an urban area of 65 km2, being the largest in the state of Sinaloa and has a population of 675,773 inhabitants (of which 329,608 are men and 346,165 are women), according to the 2010 Population and Housing Census carried out by the (INEGI), resulting in a population density of 10,396.5 inhabitants / km2. concentrating 78.7% of the total urban population of the Municipality. The ethnic groups most represented in the Municipality are the Mixtec and Nahuatl, the total population of indigenous language speakers (HLI population) is 13,081 people. On the other hand, in the urban area of Culiacán, there are only 3,536 indigenous people, representing a very low percentage with respect to the total; Furthermore, these indigenous groups are not native to the municipality or the entity, since they were exterminated, displaced or assimilated by the mestizo population.
The city ranks 20th in number of foreign population, which amounts to 6,693 inhabitants, which represent almost 1% of the total population; Among the main nationalities we find Americans, Canadians, Spanish, Italians, Greeks, Argentines, Cubans, Colombians, Brazilians, Chinese, Japanese, Russians, Ukrainians, Venezuelans, Dominicans, Germans, among others.
It should be noted the presence of people of Greek origin that occurred in the 1940s and 1950s, which coincide with the incipient but flourishing emergence of agriculture, which attracted a lot of Hellenic labor for the tillage of the land, seeing that it was a profitable business, they communicated it to their family and friends, which attracted a greater number of people; today they have inherited a legacy to their children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren that make up the few thousand people who continue to live in the city. It is believed that the Greek community is the largest in Mexico and the best organized, the president of said community is in charge of Basilio Karamanos Pérez.
Housing and urbanism
The total number of dwellings that exist in the city are 221,144 of which only 176,799 dwellings are occupied with an average of 3.81 inhabitants per inhabited dwelling. In general, cement roofs, walls and floors are used for the construction of the house, although homes or buildings do not cease to exist, most of them have sheet roofs and earth floors, this occurs mainly in the area peripheral to the south of the city, where the humble settlements of new inhabitants who arrive with the hope of obtaining a better quality of life proliferate.
Of the 176,799 occupied dwellings, 173,704 have electricity; 171,614 have piped water; 171,489 have drainage and 169,550 have the 3 services simultaneously.
The city has many buildings, among the most noteworthy are, Torre Tres Ríos, Torre Santa María, Torre Tres Afluencias, Mileto 4 Ríos, Estela Corporate Center, Ceiba, BioInnova Building, Tower 120 and Dafi, all located in one of the most important districts of the city, the Tres Ríos Urban Development.
City zoning
The city is divided into different areas mainly:
The Historical Center of Culiacán is the original area of the city, in which most of the buildings of the Spanish colonization between the 16th and 19th centuries are found, it comprises a territorial extension of approximately 247,123 ha (2,471 km²). From the '70s onwards, there was a process of depopulation of the area due to the high costs of rents, the bustle of the main streets and avenues and the priority of having more commercial spaces, but in recent years there has been a process of repopulation of the same with the construction of apartments in the periphery of the Center and a project of urban reorganization in which it is intended to have a higher population density.
Las Colonias, which are the first settlements that were populating the perimeter around the original urban area by people from different social strata to have a largely wide space close to the Center; Among the best known and with the largest number of population we find: Infonavit Humaya, Tierra Blanca, January 6, Stase, Juntas de Humaya, Almada, Miguel Alemán, Centro Sinaloa, Morelos, Palmito, El Barrio, Aurora, etc.
The subdivisions for their part are places divided by different construction companies, in which there are in certain sections, the same style of housing, housing people of lower middle class, middle and upper middle class, among the best known are: La Conquista, Villas del Rio, Valle Alto, Los Pinos, Villa Verde, Villa Fontana, etc.
Residentials are considered to be areas strategically built for people with high purchasing power, with spacious houses, large green areas and in most cases, they are delimited as private, and we find: Tres Ríos, Chapultepec, Los Álamos, Guadalupe, Lomas de Guadalupe, Colinas de San Miguel, Montebello, La Campiña, Las Quintas, Isla Musalá, La Primavera, etc.
Independent of these areas, we find one that stands out for its extension and its level of influence at the state level: the Tres Ríos Urban Development, which was started in 1990 with the aim of creating a better commercial, residential and entertainment area. for the city, in addition to taking advantage of the lands adjacent to the Culiacán, Humaya and Tamazula rivers, in addition to embellishing the banks with vegetation and a new boardwalk.
Parks and green areas
The green areas are located in different areas of the city; In recent years, the municipal and state government have been concerned with protecting, safeguarding, and increasing green lungs, to provide a better quality of life for Culiacans and tourists; it has the following:
Las Riberas Park
Parque Las Riberas (in Spanish) is the area attached to the Tamazula and Humaya rivers. Different species of trees such as willows, poplars, guamúchiles, and eucalyptus, can be seen. The White Bimodal bridg,e which connects the park with the city center, facilitates access for pedestrians and at night it becomes a light show that contrasts with the Black Bridge in Culiacán.
Culiacán Botanical Garden
Located to the east of the city, this area comprises 10 ha and is home to different ecosystems and hundreds of plant and tree species. The Culiacán Botanical Garden has a variety of more than 2,000 plants. It is known because here runners and cyclists choose to take the morning walk, the prohibition of dogs on the path of plants stands out. Many photographers flock to this garden to capture young quinceañeras and newlyweds.
Orabá Island
Orabá Island, as its name indicates, is an island between the confluence of the Tamazula River and the Humaya River, where the Culiacán River is born. It is part of a series of parks and gardens that have been built on the banks of the three rivers. From very early on, many people come to exercise, walk, run, ride a bicycle or simply take a walk among the large trees.
Culiacán Zoo
Located next to the heart of the city, forming part of the Civic Center Constitución with an extension of 13.5 hectares; which houses 1,400 animals belonging to more than 450 species including mammals, reptiles and birds. It was built on December 14, 1950, as part of the Development Plan of the Sinaloa State Government, which contemplated the need to create a natural area that would contribute to promoting the education of flora and fauna existing in this region under the mandate of the State Governor. General Gabriel Leyva Velásquez, supported by Mr. Emilio Aguerreverre, Municipal President of Culiacán.
Tres Ríos water park
The Tres Ríos Water Park is a recreational space that was built at the confluence of the Humaya and Tamazula rivers, precisely where the Culiacán River is born.
This park is very close to Parque Las Riberas. It is the largest and most visited park in the northwest of the country.
This park is very visited thanks to its views of the Black Bridge and the Culiacán River.
Dancing fountains
The dancing or dancing fountains of Culiacán are a spectacle of hundreds of independent fountains programmed to "dance" to the sound of typical Sinaloan music. This show is presented every day in an area of the 3 Ríos Project where the flagpole is located, more specifically, at the mere confluence of the Humaya and Tamazula rivers.
The shows are always given twice at night and always at the same time, and they are a tourist attraction in Culiacán.
Park 87
Located on Av. México 68, República Mexicana. The park has as attractions, slides, swimming pools, zip lines, the garden of peace.
Obregón Square
Located on Álvaro Obregón Avenue, you can enjoy a pleasant stay thanks to its lush trees that prevent you from feeling the overwhelming heat of the city. Also, you can find candy and food stalls in the surroundings of the area, as well as a small book stand. Besides, the square comes alive in the weekends afternoons, where there is live music and many people (mostly the elderly or seniors) dance to the rhythm of the songs.
Rosales Square
Located next to the Rosalina house, which has diverse vegetation, it is a space with colonial architecture that offers pedestrians a rest from the busy rhythm of life in the city.
Economy
Culiacán's economy is mainly agricultural and commerce, being a trade center for produce, meat, and fish. Among other industries, Culiacán represents 32 percent of the state economy.
Coppel, Casa Ley, Homex and other companies of national importance are headquartered in Culiacan.
The Sinaloa Cartel, a drug-trafficking and organized crime syndicate, is based in Culiacán.
Administrative divisions
Culiacán is divided into 27 sectors (sectores), which are groups of several quarters (colonias):
Media
The newspaper El Debate and El noroeste is published in Culiacán.
Education
Universities
Centro de Estudios Universitarios Superiores (CEUS)
Escuela Libre de Derecho de Sinaloa
Instituto Tecnológico de Culiacán
Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM) – Campus Sinaloa
Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Sinaloa – Campus Culiacán
Universidad Asia-Pacifico
Universidad Autónoma de Durango-Campus Culiacán
Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa
Universidad Casa Blanca
Universidad Católica de Culiacán
Universidad Golfo de México – Campus Culiacán
Universidad México Internacional
Universidad de Occidente – Campus Culiacán
Universidad de San Miguel (USM)
Universidad TecMilenio – Campus Culiacán
Universidad Tecnológica de Sinaloa
Universidad Valle del Bravo – Campus Culiacán
Universidad de Veracruz – Campus Culiacán
Universidad Tecnológica de Culiacán
Instituto Chapultepec
Transportation
The Terminal de Autobuses de Culiacán or Central de Autobuses Culiacán Millenium is a bus terminal located west of the city of Culiacán, Sinaloa, Mexico. The station is built in front of the Country Club. This plant replaced the old plant that was to the south, in front of Blvd. Gabriel Leyva Solano.
Transit system
Urban transport
At present, Culiacán has just over 68 urban transport routes, which serve about one million users. The Culiacán urban transport is operated by RedPlus.
Rail
The city has a train station, operated by Ferromex, and it is used only to transport freight. It is connected to south with Mazatlán and north with Guaymas.
Bus station
Culiacán uses the Central Internacional de Autobuses "Millennium" ("Millennium" International Buses Station) to travel across all Mexico (north, central, and south) and to the United States (Arizona and California). This replaced the old bus terminal in the southern city.
Roads and expressways
Though several high-speed roads have been built, most of the city's streets are rather narrow and traffic jams are common at rush hours. Now, 300,000 cars are in Culiacan, making the per capita number of cars one of the highest in the country considering the 745,000 inhabitants.
Main roads
Culiacán has several roads (avenues, boulevards, streets, etc.), but some of these are the main quick connection to other points of the city.
Álvaro Obregón Ave
Francisco I. Madero Blvd.
Paseo Niños Heroes
El Dorado Ave
Aeropuerto
Emiliano Zapata Blvd.
Benjamín Hill Ave
Calzada de las Torres
México 68
Plan Mar de Cortes
Heroico Colegio Militar
Revolución Ave
Sanalona Way
Rolando Arjona Amabilis Blvd.
Universitarios
José Limón Blvd.
Las Américas
Diego Valadez Ríos
Manuel J. Clouthier
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla
José Vasconcelos
Gabriel Leyva Solano Blvd.
Xicoténcatl
Josefa Ortíz de Domínguez
Enrique Sanchez Alonso Blvd.
De los Insurgentes
Pedro Infante Blvd.
Rotarismo Road
Ciudades Hermanas
Patria Ave
Constituyentes Emiliano García
Nicolás Bravo
21 de Marzo Ave
Las Minas
Bridges and tunnels
The city has a total of 13 bridges: six across the Tamazula River, two spanning the Humaya River, and the longest one with other four crossing the Culiacán River. Efforts to solve traffic problems have been made, but most of the city streets and bridges are now crowded and insufficient to handle regular and rush hours traffic; a 40-km/h speed limit in most parts of the city worsens the situation.
Musalá Bridge (Tamazula River)
Musalá-Universitaria Bridge (Tamazula River)
Benito Juárez Bridge (Tamazula River)
Morelos Bridge (Tamazula River)
Miguel Hidalgo Bridge (Tamazula River)
Juan de Dios Bátiz-Tres Ríos Bridge (Tamazula River)
Josefa Ortíz de Domínguez Bridge (Humaya River)
Rafael Buelna Bridge (Humaya River)
Jorge Almada Bridge (Culiacán River)
Black Rail Bridge (Culiacán River)
Rolando Arjona Amabilis-UDO (Culiacán River)
USE-Valle Alto (Culiacán River)
Libramiento Recursos (Rosales Channel)
Eje Federalismo Bridges (Rosales Channel)
Chavez Castro Bridge (Rosales Channel)
Emiliano Zapata Pass Bridge (Rosales Channel)
Also, Culiacán has bridges in streets conforming to high transit systems in places where the rush hour is common.
Zapata (Blvd. Emiliano Zapata)
280-Aeropuerto (Blvd. Aeropuerto)
Eje Aeropuerto (Blvd. Aeropuerto-Emiliano Carranza street)
Mexico 15 (Plan Mar de Cortes-Mexican Federal Highway 15)
Primavera (Plan Mar de Cortes-La Primavera)
Eje El Trébol (Plan Mar de Cortes-Blvd. Jesús Kumate)
Eje Federalismo Tunnels (Gabriel Leyva Solano/Francisco I. Madero-Federalismo)
UdO (Blvd. Rolando Arjona-Blvd. Lola Beltrán) under construction
Gasolinera del Valle (Blvd. Jesús Kumate-Blvd. Emiliano Zapata) under construction
Japac Country (Blvd. Pedro Infante-Blvd. Rolando Arjona) spring 2013
On February 17, 2014, investigators from Mexico and the United States learned that Joaquín Guzmán Loera, or El Chapo, was using underground sewage tunnels in Culiacán by constructing hatches connecting to the drainage network in the bathtubs of his city "stash houses".
On at least one occasion, authorities chased Guzman into the tunnels, but lost him. An AP reporter said some of the tunnels were well lit, had wood paneling, and were air-conditioned.
Highways and freeways
Culiacán is a rail junction and is located on the Panamerican Highway that runs north to the United States and south to Guadalajara and Mexico City, and the Benito Juárez Highway or Maxipista, which is a toll road that runs parallel to the toll-free federal highway. It is connected to the north with Los Mochis and to the south with Mazatlán, Tepic, and Guadalajara with the Federal Highway 15.
Mexican Federal Highway 15 (north: Los Mochis, south: Mazatlán)
Sanalona Free Highway (southeast: Sanalona (exit)/Cosalá)
Culiacán is linked to the satellite city of Navolato by an excellent freeway that now reaches Altata, in the Pacific Ocean coast. Culiacán is also linked to Tamazula de Victoria in Durango state.
Freeway 280-30 (west: Navolato-Altata)
Freeway 3-225 (north: Melchor Ocampo-Guamuchil)
Freeway 5-325 (south: Costa Rica-El Dorado)
Tamazula Interstate Freeway (northeast: Sanalona-Tamazula de Victoria)
Airport
Culiacán is served by Federal de Bachigualato International Airport , the most important domestic gateway in the state of Sinaloa, and the second in international operations after Mazatlán International Airport. It is located south of downtown; it is also the 10th Mexican Air Force base.
Entertainment
Tourism
Imala's hot springs are about a 30-minute ride from the city and close to several dams and reservoirs, where one can fish largemouth bass all year round.
Altata beach, located 30 minutes from Culiacán, has had extensive development over the last few years. It has a "sister" beach called Isla Cortés or Nuevo Altata, where this project of travel destination, has begun with some restaurants and private areas.
The Cathedral, a 19th-century church, began construction in the 1830s.
Plazuela Alvaro Obregón was the place for social gatherings in the 1800s.
La Lomita or Templo de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe is the tallest church in Culiacán, situated on a hill with a view of the entire city.
The Centro Cultural Genaro Estrada, known by the locals as "Difocur", encompasses a theater, movie theater, a café, and a group of museums specializing in local culture. DIFOCUR is also the home of the Orquesta Sinfonica Sinaloa de las Artes. The OSSLA performs a 42-week season (September to June) of symphony, pops, opera, ballet, and chamber music, and features musicians from more than 15 different countries, including Mexico, the United States, England, Scotland, Canada, Romania, Argentina, and others. Working under the auspices of the government of Sinaloa, the OSSLA also performs many outreach and educational programs around the state of Sinaloa, as well as throughout Mexico.
The Regional History Museum in the "Parque Constitución", a large art museum downtown and a number of small art galleries, is owned by several of the local universities.
The Botanical Garden and Centro de Ciencias de Sinaloa, a science museum, holds the fifth-largest meteorite on earth.
A baseball stadium, the Estadio Angel Flores, is the home of Los Tomateros de Culiacan; a bigger football arena, called Estadio Banorte (formerly Estadio Carlos González), is the home of Los Dorados de Sinaloa, a Mexican football team. Several university stadiums are also available.
In downtown, the best preserved old street is the called Rosales, between Rosales Square and the cathedral.
Attractions
FORUM Culiacán Mall is the largest mall in Culiacán. It offers Liverpool, Sears, Steve Madden, Pull and Bear, Zara, C&A, Lacoste, Nine West, Victoria's Secret, MacStore, Starbucks, Sanborns, and Tous stores, a Cinemex movie theater, MixUp, boutiques, kiosks, a food area, and an HSBC.
Plaza Galerias San Miguel is the second-largest mall. It offers Sears, Citi Cinemas movie theater, and mainly shoe stores.
Plaza Cinépolis is a modern plaza/little mall in the western part of the city, and it is the only place in Culiacán where one can find the Cinépolis movie theater.
Plaza Fiesta is a plaza located in the city center. It offers Coppel, a Ley Plaza (supermarket), restaurants, little boutiques, and shoe stores.
Plaza La Campiña is a plaza mall in the eastern section of the city, near the Culiacán River. It offers Pavi, Coppel, a Mega Plaza/Commercial Mexicana (Super Market), many boutiques, jewelers, and seasonally a go-kart track.
Splash Club! is one of the largest water parks in the state of Sinaloa.
Nearby towns and villages:
La Primavera is a small and private urbanized zone in the south of the city; it contains many houses, two schools, a little mall next to a channel, a sports club, and a group of channels connected to the biggest lake in Culiacán, where anyone can fish and go camping.
El Conchal and other small villages with a population of 500 or less are located 8 km from El Dorado. There, people live on fishing and tourism.
Sports
The city is home to three professional league sport teams: baseball with the Tomateros de Culiacán from the Liga Mexicana del Pacífico, two championships in Caribbean series in 1996 and 2002; and football with Dorados de Sinaloa, who play at the Estadio Banorte (Estadio Carlos González) and basketball with the Caballeros de Culiacan from the CIBACOPA. Duck, dove, and goose hunting season goes from early November through March. Culiacán also holds a yearly international marathon.
Notable people from Culiacán
Entertainment
Yolanda Andrade, TV host
Ariel Camacho, singer
Luis Campos, drummer (Collinz Room, Noelia)
Cesar Millan, dog trainer
Paul Rodriguez, Hollywood actor and talk show host
Chalino Sánchez, Mexican singer and songwriter.
Sheyla Tadeo, actress and comedian
Rocio Lopez Ortiz, film producer and Academy member
Sports
Irene Aldana (born 1988), mixed martial artist
Julio César Chávez, boxer with six world championships in three weight divisions
Julio César Chávez, Jr., former Middleweight champion
Omar Chávez, welterweight contender prospect
Óliver Pérez, Major League Baseball player
Alberto Medina, footballer
Jared Borgetti, footballer
Jorge Iván Estrada, footballer
Héctor Moreno, footballer
Julio Urías, Major League Baseball player, World Series champion
Modeling
Paulina Flores Arias, Miss Mexico 2000, supermodel
Rosa María Ojeda, Miss Mexico 2006
Laura Elena Zuniga Huizar, Miss Mexico 2008, Miss Latinoamericana 2008, supermodel
Perla Judith Beltrán Acosta, Miss Mexico 2009, 2009 Miss World, Miss World top model
Crime
Benjamín Arellano Félix, Mexican drug lord, founder of Tijuana Cartel, older brother of Carlos Arellano Félix and Ramón Arellano Félix, and younger brother of Francisco Rafael Arellano Félix
Carlos Arellano Félix, Mexican drug lord and brother of Benjamín Arellano Félix, Francisco Rafael Arellano Félix and Ramón Arellano Félix
Francisco Rafael Arellano Félix, Mexican drug lord and older brother of Benjamín Arellano Félix, Carlos Arellano Félix and Ramón Arellano Félix
Ramón Arellano Félix, Mexican drug lord, founder of Tijuana Cartel and younger brother of Benjamín Arellano Félix, Carlos Arellano Félix and Francisco Rafael Arellano Félix
Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo, Mexican drug lord, founder of Guadalajara Cartel
Joaquín "El Chapo" Guzmán, Mexican drug lord, he lived here for sometime before he was captured by the police
Gallery
See also
Aguaruto, Sinaloa
Culiacancito
Las Flores, Culiacan
Jardines Del Humaya
References
External links
H. Ayuntamiento de Culiacán — Official website
Culiacán Travel Guide – Official website
Capitals of states of Mexico
Cities in Mexico
Populated places in Sinaloa
Populated places established in 1531
1531 establishments in New Spain
1530s establishments in Mexico | [
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224020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20River | James River | The James River is a river in the U.S. state of Virginia that begins in the Appalachian Mountains and flows to Chesapeake Bay. The river length extends to if one includes the Jackson River, the longer of its two source tributaries. It is the longest river in Virginia. Jamestown and Williamsburg, Virginia's first colonial capitals, and Richmond, Virginia's current capital, lie on the James River.
History
The Native Americans who populated the area east of the Fall Line in the late 16th and early 17th centuries called the James River the Powhatan River, named for the chief of the Powhatan Confederacy which extended over most of the Tidewater region of Virginia. The Jamestown colonists named it "James" after King James I of England, as they constructed the first permanent English settlement in the Americas in 1607 at Jamestown along the banks of the James River about upstream from the Chesapeake Bay.
The navigable portion of the river was the major highway of colonial Virginia during its first 15 years, facilitating supply ships delivering supplies and more emigrants from England. However, for the first five years, despite hopes of discovering gold ores, these ships sent little of monetary value back to the sponsors. In 1612, businessman John Rolfe successfully cultivated a non-native strain of tobacco which proved popular in England. Soon, the river became the primary means of exporting the large hogsheads of this cash crop from an ever-growing number of plantations with wharfs along its banks. This development made the proprietary efforts of the Virginia Company of London successful financially, spurring even more development, investments and immigration. Below the falls at Richmond, many James River plantations had their own wharfs, and additional ports and/or early railheads were located at Warwick, Bermuda Hundred, City Point, Claremont, Scotland, and Smithfield, and, during the 17th century, the capital of the Colony at Jamestown.
Navigation of the James River played an important role in early Virginia commerce and the settlement of the interior, although growth of the colony was primarily in the Tidewater region during the first 75 years. The upper reaches of the river above the head of navigation at the fall line were explored by fur trading parties sent by Abraham Wood during the late 17th century.
Although ocean-going ships were unable to navigate beyond present-day Richmond, portage of products and navigation with smaller craft to transport crops other than tobacco was feasible. Produce from the Piedmont and Great Valley regions traveled down the river to seaports at Richmond and Manchester through such port towns as Lynchburg, Scottsville, Columbia and Buchanan.
James River and Kanawha Canal
The James River was considered a route for transport of produce from the Ohio Valley. The James River and Kanawha Canal was built for this purpose, to provide a navigable portion of the Kanawha River, a tributary of the Ohio River. For the most mountainous section between the two points, the James River and Kanawha Turnpike was built to provide a portage link for wagons and stagecoaches. However, before the canal could be fully completed, in the mid-19th century, railroads emerged as a more practical technology and eclipsed canals for economical transportation. The Chesapeake and Ohio Railway (C&O) was completed between Richmond and the Ohio River at the new city of Huntington, West Virginia by 1873, dooming the canal's economic prospects. In the late-19th century, the Richmond and Alleghany Railroad was laid along the eastern portion of the canal's towpath, and became part of the C&O within 10 years. In modern times, this rail line is used primarily in transporting West Virginia coal to export coal piers at Newport News.
Kepone contamination
During the 1960s and 70s, mishandling and dumping of the insecticide Kepone resulted in the contamination of large stretches of the James River Estuary downstream of the Allied Signal Company and LifeSciences Product Company plants in Hopewell, Virginia. Due to the pollution risks, many businesses and restaurants along the river suffered economic losses. In 1975 Governor Mills Godwin Jr. shut down the James River to fishing for 100 miles, from Richmond to the Chesapeake Bay. This ban remained in effect for 13 years, until efforts to clean up the river began to show results. A decade of accumulated silt, lying above the contaminated riverbed, helped to reduce levels of the chemical.
Watershed and course
The James River drains a catchment comprising . The watershed includes about 4% open water and an area with a population of 2.5 million people (2000). The James River forms near Iron Gate on the border between Alleghany and Botetourt counties, from the confluence of the Cowpasture and Jackson rivers in the Appalachian Mountains. It flows into the Chesapeake Bay at Hampton Roads. Tidal waters extend west to Richmond, the capital of Virginia, at the river's fall line (the head of navigation). Larger tributaries draining to the tidal portion include the Appomattox River, Chickahominy River, Warwick River, Pagan River, and the Nansemond River.
At its mouth near Newport News Point, the Elizabeth River and the Nansemond River join the James River to form the harbor area known as Hampton Roads. Between the tip of the Virginia Peninsula near Old Point Comfort and the Willoughby Spit area of Norfolk in South Hampton Roads, a channel leads from Hampton Roads into the southern portion of the Chesapeake Bay and out to the Atlantic Ocean a few miles further east. Many boats pass through this river to import and export Virginia products.
Major Tributaries
Appomattox River
Chickahominy River
Warwick River
Pagan River
Nansemond River
Looney Creek
Cowpasture River
Jackson River
Craig Creek
Catawba Creek
Also see: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Tributaries_of_the_James_River
Recreation
The James River contains many parks and other recreational attractions. Canoeing, fishing, kayaking, hiking, and swimming are some of the activities that people enjoy along the river during the summer. From the river's start in the Blue Ridge mountains to Richmond, numerous rapids and pools offer fishing and whitewater rafting. The most intense whitewater stretch is a segment that ends in downtown Richmond where the river goes over the fall line. This is the only place in the country where extensive class III (class IV with above average river levels) whitewater conditions exist within sight of skyscrapers. Below the fall line east of Richmond, the river is better suited for water skiing and other large boat recreation. Here the river is known for its blue catfish, reaching average sizes of , with frequent catches exceeding . In the Chesapeake watershed, the James River is the last confirmed holdout for the nearly extirpated Atlantic sturgeon. In May 2007 a survey identified 175 sturgeon remaining in the entire river, with 15 specimens exceeding .
Dams
Due to its potential for generating mechanical power for rotating machinery such as grist mills, hydroelectric power, and as a water route for trade, many dams have been built across the James River since the time of European settlement of the region. While most of these dams have been removed or failed, several dams still exist along the upper course of the river. From the head of the river downstream to Richmond are found the following dams as identified by the current US Army Corps of Engineers National Inventory of Dams:
The Cushaw Hydroelectric Project near Glasgow and Big Island.
The Bedford Hydropower Project near Big Island.
The Big Island Dam near Big Island.
The Coleman Falls Dam in Coleman Falls
The Holcomb Rock Dam near Lynchburg.
The Reusens Dam near Lynchburg.
The Scotts Mill Dam in Lynchburg.
The Bosher Dam in Richmond.
The tallest dam is the Reusens Dam, which also has the greatest hydroelectric nameplate capacity and the greatest reservoir capacity. At 1,617 feet, the longest dam is the Cushaw Hydroelectric Project due to the highly angled path the dam takes across the river.
While not identified in the National Inventory of Dams, a very low head weir structure is found below Bosher Dam in Richmond on either side of Williams Island. Known as the "Z-Dam" for its zigzag course on the south side of the island, the current structure was built in 1932 and serves to direct water into Richmond's water treatment facility on the north bank. The less than 5 feet tall dam does not serve any power or navigation purpose.
Bridges
Highway bridges below Richmond
In the Hampton Roads area, the river is as much as wide at points. Due to ocean-going shipping upriver as far as the Port of Richmond, a combination of ferryboats, high bridges and bridge-tunnels are used for highway traffic. Crossings east to west include:
The Hampton Roads Bridge-Tunnel (I-64)
The Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge-Tunnel (I-664)
The James River Bridge (US 17/ US 258/ VA 32)
The Jamestown Ferry (VA 31) (toll-free)
The Benjamin Harrison Memorial Bridge near Hopewell. This is a drawbridge on VA 106 / VA 156 which replaced ferry service in 1966. It was the site of a major collision of a ship in 1977.
The Varina-Enon Bridge is a high cable-stayed bridge carrying I-295 which was the second of its type in the U.S. when it was completed.
The Vietnam Veterans Memorial Bridge carries the Pocahontas Parkway (State Route 895) via a high-level bridge to connect to State Route 150 at Interstate 95.
The SR 895 high-level crossing is the last bridge east of the Deepwater Port of Richmond and head of ocean-going navigation at the fall line of the James River. West of this point, potential flooding is more of an engineering concern than clearance for watercraft.
Highway bridges at Richmond
The following is a list of extant highway bridges across the James River with one or both ends within the City of Richmond.
Interstate 95 James River Bridge (I-95)
Mayo Bridge (US-360)
Manchester Bridge (US-60)
Robert E. Lee Memorial Bridge (US-1, US-301 and U.S. Bicycle Route 1)
Boulevard Bridge (VA-161) (toll bridge, restricted weights)
Powhite Parkway Bridge (Powhite Parkway and VA-76) (toll bridge)
Huguenot Memorial Bridge (VA-147)
Edward E. Willey Bridge (VA-150)
Highway bridges west of Richmond
The following is a partial, incomplete list of extant highway bridges across the James River west of Richmond.
World War II Veterans Memorial Bridge (SR 288)
U.S. Route 522 near Maidens
State Route 45 near Cartersville
Columbia Road (Route 690) near Columbia
U.S. Route 15 near Bremo Bluff
State Route 602 at Howardsville
State Route 20 near Scottsville
State Route 56 near Wingina
U.S. Route 60 at Bent Creek
Monacan Bridge (U.S. Route 29 east of Lynchburg)
Carter Glass Memorial Bridge (U.S. Route 29 Business at Lynchburg)
John Lynch Memorial Bridge (Lynchburg)
Blue Ridge Parkway near Big Island
U.S. Route 501 at Snowden
State Route 759 at Natural Bridge Station
State Route 614 at Arcadia
U.S. Route 11, State Route 43 and U.S. Bicycle Route 76 at Buchanan
Interstate 81 at Buchanan
State Route 630 at Springwood
James Street at Eagle Rock connecting U.S. Route 220 and State Route 43
U.S. Route 220 near Eagle Rock
Bridge Street at Glen Wilton
U.S. Route 220 near Iron Gate
Bicycles
The Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge-Tunnel prohibits bicycles, but bicyclists may take the Jamestown Ferry. After a fatal accident on the Boulevard Bridge , the City of Richmond requires bicycles to travel on the sidewalk for the length of the bridge.
James River Reserve Fleet
The James River is the anchorage () for a large portion of the National Defense Reserve Fleet, called the "James River fleet" or the "ghost fleet," consisting of "mothballed" ships, mostly merchant vessels, that can be activated within 20 to 120 days to provide shipping for the United States during national emergencies, either military or non-military, such as commercial shipping crises.
The fleet is managed by the U.S. Department of Transportation's Maritime Administration (MARAD). It is a different entity from the United States Navy reserve fleets, which consist largely of warships.
James River in music
A song was recorded by country and Western music singer Lefty Frizzell about the river, called "James River," released on the Saginaw, Michigan album.
The Americana/bluegrass band Old Crow Medicine Show, released "James River Blues," a James River boatman's lament of the arrival of the railroads, on their 2006 album Big Iron World.
A song recorded by Waylon Jennings titled "The Ghost of General Lee" mentions "the James River water [running] a bloody red" following a battle between the Union and Confederate armies.
Avail, a music group from Richmond, recorded Over the James, a 1998 hardcore punk LP record released by Lookout Records (and re-released in 2006 by Jade Tree Records) named in honor of the river, containing the song "Scuffle Town" whose lyrics also reference the river.
The river is referenced in the Wrinkle Neck Mules song "Banks of the James."
Prior to settling on the title Black Messiah, American soul singer D'Angelo was set on titling his third studio album James River.
In the song "When the Master Calls the Roll," from her 2014 album The River & the Thread, American singer/songwriter Rosanne Cash refers to a planned wedding, sometime around the start of the Civil War, "down by the King James River" in Virginia.
Cracker's "James River" is on their 1998 album Gentleman's Blues.
See also
List of rivers of Virginia
James River bateau
James River Squadron
Army of the James
References
External links
Online exhibition of the James River & Kanawha Canal
Heritage of the James River, talk by Ann Woodlief at James River Symposium, 1995
James River Association
James River During the Civil War in Encyclopedia Virginia
James VI and I
01
Rivers of Virginia
Tributaries of the Chesapeake Bay
Rivers of Richmond, Virginia
Rivers of James City County, Virginia | [
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224021 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidalgo%20%28state%29 | Hidalgo (state) | Hidalgo (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Hidalgo () is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, constitute the 32 federal entities of Mexico. It is divided into 84 municipalities and its capital city is Pachuca de Soto. Located in the eastern part of the country, Hidalgo is bordered by San Luis Potosí and Veracruz on the north, Puebla on the east, Tlaxcala and State of Mexico on the south and Querétaro on the west.
In 1869, Benito Juárez created the State of Hidalgo and made Pachuca its capital city; Juárez would add the name "de Soto" in recognition of Manuel Fernando Soto, who is considered the most important driving force in creating the state. The state was named after Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, the initiator of the Mexican War of Independence.
The indigenous peoples of the state, such as the Otomi, retain much of their traditional culture. In addition to Mexicans of Spanish descent, there are also notable immigrant cultures: those of the descendants of Cornish miners from Cornwall (located in South West England) who arrived in the 19th century, a few self-proclaimed Italian descendants, and a small Jewish enclave which claims to be descended from Sephardi Jews which came to New Spain in the 16th century.
Hidalgo is known for its mountainous terrain, though part of the state is on a coastal plain. With a population of 2.858 million and an area of roughly 20,813 square km, Hidalgo is one of Mexico's smaller states. The state contains a number of ecotourism, cultural and archeological attractions including the Huasteca area, the ruins of Tula, natural hot water springs, old haciendas and mountain ranges.
History
The modern day state of Hidalgo is located within the pre-Hispanic region of Mesoamerica. Numerous migrations of indigenous people took place through here, mostly arriving or passing through from the north, with many eventually settling in the Valley of Mexico. The Toltecs initially settled in Xochicoatlán, now the municipality of Molango, at the beginning of the 7th century. From here they dispersed to locales such as Huejutla and Tollatzingo (now called Tulancingo) where they eventually had their capital of Tollan, today known as Tula.
The Toltecs were eventually overrun by Chichimecas, who established their capital in Metztitlán. The Aztecs arrived in the 12th century, initially establishing themselves in Mixquiahuala, then founding Tizayuca later. Eventually, the Aztecs took over most of what is now the southern portion of the state, incorporating it into the Aztec Empire.
After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, the conquistadors carved out territories for themselves from Aztec lands. Hernán Cortés took possession of lands to the northeast of Mexico City extending into modern Hidalgo state. Evangelization efforts followed soon thereafter with the first Franciscans arriving in 1523. This changed the social, economic and cultural structure of the areas as the Spanish took control of natural resources — especially minerals — and the labor the Indians provided. It also led to a massive decrease in the native population, especially during the governorship of the area by Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán. By the 18th century, the economy of the Hidalgo area was dominated by mining and agricultural haciendas. Much of the agricultural production during the colonial period was centered on livestock such as sheep and pigs as well as the making of pulque from the native maguey plant. However, the mining of silver, gold and other metals in the Pachuca/Real del Monte area would prove to be the economic backbone of the area through the colonial period and into most of post Independence period. The fortunes of the mining industry would rise and fall during the colonial period; one of the most productive eras came under the control of Pedro Romero de Terreros in the 18th century.
Despite Spanish control and evangelization efforts since the 16th century, many of the Otomi and other indigenous groups of the area had not been fully subjugated by the 18th century, especially in the Sierra Gorda and Sierra Baja areas. These groups and others manage a significant amount of success in maintaining cultural, political and economic autonomy through the colonial period. Much of the state still maintains a number of strong indigenous identities.
Many in Hidalgo, especially the indigenous, supported Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla’s cause, providing leaders such as José María Correa and José Antonio Magos, both of whom were active in the Mezquital Valley area. However, no major battles of the Mexican War of Independence were fought in the state. Instead, a number of smaller operations against local Spaniards were conducted. When the war ended in 1821, the country was divided into a number of states. The modern state of Hidalgo was initially part of the very large territory called “Mexico” (which extended in all directions from Mexico City), which eventually was split with the remaining portion becoming the modern State of Mexico. What is now Hidalgo was originally the districts of Tula, Tulancingo and Huejutla of the former entity. The state of Hidalgo would not be formally created until the 1860s.
The economic consequences to the mines of Pachuca and Real del Monte during the War of Independence were ruinous. In 1824, British mining companies were brought in to revive the sector. The British introduced steam-powered machinery and other modern techniques as well as a large quantity of Cornish miners. Many of these Cornish miners stayed and English names and foods such as pasties (called “pastes” in Spanish) help define the state, especially in the Pachuca and Real del Monte areas. These Englishmen were forced to sell their interest to Mexican capitalists in 1849, and the mining sector fell again.
In 1861, the government of the vast State of Mexico was centered in Toluca, east of Mexico City. The distance of the capital was one of the reasons why Hidalgo state would eventually separate. When French forces invaded central Mexico in 1862, the large territory of Mexico was divided into three military sectors for defense. The second district had its capital in Actopan and its borders were roughly commensurate with that of modern Hidalgo state. The French succeeded in placing Maximilian I on the throne of Mexico, who visited Pachuca in 1865. Soon thereafter, insurgent activity against the French government intensified and after Maximilian was overthrown, the new republican government decided to make this military district the state of Hidalgo in 1869. The state was named after Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, the first leader of the Mexican Independence movement.
From the establishment of the state until the Porfirio Díaz period, the economy, especially the mining sector was erratic. In the late 1880s, a number of modern inventions, such as the telegraph, telephone and railroad helped the Hidalgo economy. It also brought in another wave of foreign investment in the mining industry. By the mid-1900s, much of the mining production in Pachuca and Real del Monte was controlled by U.S. based interests such as the United States Mining Smelting and Refining Company. Pulque haciendas, primarily selling to nearby Mexico City, were prosperous in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The prosperity of the state was best seen in the capital of Pachuca with the construction of many civic structures, but many rural areas were still quite impoverished. This situation would make the state favor the oncoming Mexican Revolution.
During the Mexican Revolution, local armed groups, such as the one led by Francisco P. Mariel in Huejutla, faced off against government troops. Forces led by Nicolas Flores took Jacala and threatened Zimapan and Ixmiquilpan in 1911. Later that same year Gabriel Hernandez took Tulancingo and Pachuca, forcing the then-governor out of power. After Porfirio Díaz fled the country, several factions would vie for power here. The government of the state was seized in 1915 by Agustin Sangins, who declared himself in favor of Victoriano Huerta, prompting opponents to take up arms in the Huasteca area, Jacala and Tulancingo. Victory initially went to those in support of Huerta. When Huerta's government fell, the state had a chaotic succession of governors, each of whom supported different factions. When the war finally wound down by 1920, the state had a new constitution.
In 1920, the first airmail flight took place with a biplane piloted by Horacio Ruiz Gaviño taking off from Pachuca and landing in Mexico City 53 minutes later carrying 543 letters, 61 postcards and other items.
The war left the mining industry in ruins again and the desertion of same by the American companies. Modernization of the nearly destroyed infrastructure began in the 1920s with the reconstruction of telephone lines and the construction of highways within the state. In the 1930s, a number of companies such as Cruz Azul Cement were expropriated and popular credit schemes such as the Banco de Credito Ejidal were created. Over 130 schools in rural areas were also built. Construction and modernization of infrastructure would continue through the rest of the 20th century.
This wave of mining activity would decline in the mid-20th century, causing the deterioration of the state's economy, especially in the Pachuca area. In the 1950s and 1960s efforts were undertaken to shift the state's economy from agriculture and mining to manufacturing. In 1952, an automotive motor production facility called Diesel Nacional (DINA) was constructed. The old Instituto Científico Literario Autónomo de Hidalgo was converted to the Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo in 1961, with the purpose of turning out engineers and other professionals to provide the impetus for the development of industry. These efforts soon paid dividends and construction growth, especially of suburban subdivisions for workers in newly built factories.
The growth of the Greater Mexico City area reached the southern border of Hidalgo state in the late 20th and early 21st century with the municipality of Tizayuca formally added into the region in 2005.
One problem the extreme southern part of the state has had in the past decade is the contamination of water from the drainage of the Valley of Mexico. Mexico City pumps out excess water from the area, as the valley has no natural drainage, to the north into Mexico and Hidalgo states. This water is increasingly polluted and is causing damage to these northern zones. The state is negotiating federal and other help to treat and recycle this water so that it does not do further damage to state agriculture and environment.
At least 93 people, including eight children, were killed, and 46 were injured when a clandestine gasoline pipe exploded in Tlahuelilpan on January 19, 2019.
Demographics
Several indigenous groups within the state have managed to maintain a relatively strong independent cultural identity since the Conquest. These ethnic groups include the Nahua, the Otomis and the Tepehuas, each still speaking their own language. The largest group is the Otomi, which has over 250,000 speakers in the state. The total number of people who speak an indigenous language of any kind was estimated at 320,029 in 2005.
According to the 2020 Census, 1.58% of Hidalgo's population identified as Black, Afro-Mexican, or of African descent.
Population of the state historically has risen and fallen based on the state of the economy especially, the health of the mining sector. When mining activity fell in the mid-20th century, the population fell as well. The population began to recover in the 1980s. From then until 2000, the population grew from 1,547,493 to 2,235,591, leaving the state with a large number of people under the age of thirty. The mining sector has also been responsible for immigration to the state, most notably that of the Cornish in the 19th century in the Pachuca and Real de Monte areas. While most descendants of these Cornish immigrants now are monolingual Spanish speakers, many have retained the Protestant faith. The Cornish have influenced the cuisine here as well, with one of Hidalgo's signature dishes being “pastes” (pa-stays), which are Cornish dough pockets filled with Mexican style meat, vegetable and sweet fillings.
Over 70% identify themselves as Catholic with significant minorities as Protestant or Evangelical. Another significant minority are those who practice the Jewish faith. Many of these claim ancestry from Sephardi Jews who came to New Spain in the 16th century to escape the Inquisition in Spain. When it reached New Spain, these people moved to the rural hills to continue their practice clandestinely. These are mostly concentrated in the community of Venta Prieta. While their claims have not been proven, there are indications that they are true. Most practitioners in Venta Prieta are Conservative.
Culture
Hidalgo's literary history extends back to the 19th century with the oldest notable writers being Ignacio Rodríguez Galván and José María Rodríguez y Cos. Rodríguez Galván was born in 1816 in Tizayuca and is considered to be the first Mexican Romance writer. He wrote poetry and plays as well as founding a newspaper called Año Nuevo. Rodríguez y Cos was born in 1823 in Tulancingo and represents Positivism in Mexico, writing poetry and plays. The most important poet from the 20th century is Efrén Rebolledo from Actopán, who lived from 1877 to 1929. Other important writers from this century include Xavier Sorondo, Margarita Michelena, Gabriel Vargas, Ricardo Garibay, Gonzalo Martré and Miguel Ángel Granados Chapa Notable painters appear in the 20th century including Byron Gálvez, Yadira Gutiérrez and José Hernández Delgadillo. The best known musician from the state is Nicandro Castillo, who wrote mostly popular music in the mid-20th century. As part of a performing group called Los Plateados, his work became part of a number of Mexican films, including Cuando habla el corazón, Seda, sangre y sol and Así se quiere en Jalisco. Other important musicians from the state include Abundio Martínez and Demetrio Vite Hernández.
The best known celebrity and artist from the state is Rodolfo Guzmán Huerta, better known as El Santo. Born in Tulancingo in 1917,not only was he Mexico's best known lucha libre wrestler, he experienced success in the movies, playing his lucha libre character battling evil. He never took off his mask in public, until a few weeks before his death in 1984.
Day of the Dead in the state is referred to as the "Xantolo" which extends from October 31 to November 2. Like in other parts of Mexico, the days around November 2 honor the dead with altars and offerings, although each community has its own variations. One area which is known for its traditions is Huejutla de Reyes, where altars dedicated to the dead are especially large and profusely decorated with flowers, colored paper and traditional foods, with the intention of counteracting mourning. In a number of areas, rituals based on Huasteca traditions are also performed. One of these is called the "Danza de Xantolo", in which masked figures in robes dance in candlelight. In other communities, youths in costume will dance from house to house, to be invited in to eat dishes prepared for the occasion. Another tradition is to have bands play at the cemeteries on November 2, where tombs are cleaned and decorated with flowers, garlands and more.
Native gastronomy
The Mezquital Valley has best preserved the state's indigenous, especially Otomi, culinary heritage based a number of traditional native animal and vegetable products. One of these is the use of a number of edible insects, many of which are considered delicacies such as escamoles (ant eggs) and maguey larvae as well as others such as larvae found on nopal plants, “chacas” (beetles) and “chicharras” (cicadas). Other local animals still used for food include tadpoles (called atepocates), salamanders and their larvae, squirrels and rabbits. Plant species still commonly used include mesquite beans, nopal and other cactus, and various cactus fruit such as “tunas” (cactus pears) and “xoconostle.” These are often prepared in dishes that the state shares with most of the rest of Mexico such as tacos, tamales, moles and a specialty of central Mexico, mixiote. Another common central Mexican dish popular in the state is barbacoa. This dish has its origins in the pre-Hispanic period, when it was meat cooked in an underground pit. Today, it is most often cooked in pots in more conventional ovens, but the meat, today mostly pork, is still smothered in the alcoholic beverage pulque and wrapped in maguey leaves for flavor. This preparation of barbacoa is considered to be the state dish.
Tourism
The state secretary of tourism has divided the state's attraction into "corridors" with similar themes. The Corridor de la Montaña (Mountain Corridor) is devoted to ecotourism and includes a number of different climates and ecosystems. These areas favor activities such as camping, extreme sports and well as family activities. They include places such as old mining haciendas, archeological sites and state parks. Municipalities which are promoted under this category include Mineral del Monte, Huasca de Ocampo and Mineral del Chico.
The Corridor de los Balnearios (Water Park Corridor) list most of the major water parks, spas, natural pools and thermal springs in the state. Hidalgo ranks second in Mexico for the number of thermal springs. These springs have an average temperature of 38C but some reach as high as 80C. They exist due to rivers of magma that flow under the surface. Municipalities promoted under this category include Ixmiquilpan, Actopan and Cardonal.
The Corridor Tulancingo y los 4 elementos (Tulancingo and the 4 elements Corridor) is named for its major location of Tulancingo and the sports that are promoted here. Sporting activities are classed under the elements of air, water, fire and earth and include hot air ballooning, fishing, boating, rustic ironwork produced in Apulco and hiking in the natural landscapes. The area extends from the municipality of Tulancingo to the municipality of Huehuetla. (4elementos)
The Corridor de las Haciendas (Haciendas Corridor) contains most of the state's 176 former haciendas which were constructed between the 16th and the 19th centuries. Most were devoted to mining or the making of pulque. Many contain the original buildings, including the main residences as well as tours. Many of these are in rural municipalities, which conserve old traditions. In the Apan area, most of the old haciendas were devoted to the making of pulque, which is still made and can be sampled. The area also contains many of the state's former colonial monasteries as well as civic constructions such as the Padre Tembleque Aqueduct.
The Sierra and Huasteca Corridor covers this mountain range which is home to the Huastec people. The area includes ecotourism activities, camping and fishing in an area filled with dense vegetations and heated water sources. Municipalities featured here include Huejutla de Reyes, Zacualtipán and Molango where many indigenous people live. The cuisine of the area is also emphasized.
The Tolteca Corridor centers on the archeological site of Tula, which was the home of one of the principal pre-Hispanic civilizations of Mexico. Many of the oldest monasteries of the state, founded in the 16th century, are located here. Featured municipalities include Tula de Allende, Atotonilco de Tula, Tepeji del Rio, Mixquiahuala, Tlahuelilpan, Tlaxcoapan and Tezontepec.
Geography
The terrain of the state is very rugged. At its lowest point it is only a few meters above sea level, and at its highest it is over 3,300 meters above sea level.
The state is divided into three geographical regions: the Atlantic Coastal Plain, the Sierra Madre Oriental (mountain ranges), and the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, which contains the highest peaks. Each of these regions is distinct from the rest.
Mountains
The Sierra Alta region is part of the Sierra Madre Oriental mountain system, and in the temperate climate zone of the state. Some of Hidalgo's main peaks are located here, including Cerro del Aguila, Cerro del Santo Roa, and Cerrro de Agua Fria. There is also Cerro la Aguja de Calnali, a volcanic cinder cone. Many of Hidalgo's caves are located here, such as: Texcatete in Zacualtipan; Texcapa in Tepehuacan; and Tecamachal and Villacastla in Molango.
The Sierra Baja is also located in the Sierra Madre Oriental system and is characterized by small plains surrounded by stony peaks. There are five major canyons located here, which take their names from the rivers that form them, from south to north: Amajac, Meztitlan, Amolon, Mezquititlan and Tolantongo. Although lower than the temperate Sierra Alta, the Sierra Baja still has a temperate climate due to strong, moist winds which flow from the northeast.
The Sierra Gorda mountain range is a branch of the Sierra Madre Oriental which crosses northwest Hidalgo and ends in San Luis Potosí. These are mostly mountains of volcanic origin. The Tula and Moctezuma Rivers meet here, whose waters then cut the Moctezuma Canyon, which has walls up to 480 meters high.
The Sierra de Tenango or Sierra Norte de Puebla mountain range begins to one side of the Valley of Tulancingo and extends down to the Huasteca region of Puebla and Veracruz states. The range is also known as the Sierra de Huayacocotla, with low lying mountains of a humid, cloudy temperate climate with frequent rain in the summer. Two of Hidalgo's main dams, the Tejocotal and the Omitemetl are located on the rivers here, and are part of the Necaxa Hydroelectrical System.
La Comarca Minera is the mining district in the mountains around Pachuca and Real del Monte. Cerro de las Navajas is located here, a mountain made primarily of obsidian. The mining district and mountains extend from Pachuca north towards the municipality of Huasca, then east towards Actopan. From Pachuca it also extends a short ways south to Mineral de la Reforma and Comarca. In most of this region there is extensive mining, both of precious metals as well as lead and building stone, such as sandstone and marble. Over 38 million kilograms of silver and 200 tons of fine gold have been extracted since the Spanish colonial era began in the 16th century. That nearly equals the weight of the stone used to build the Tembleque Aqueduct. In additions to mines, the area is home to extensive forests of oyamel fir, pines. and oaks. Many of its peaks are rocky and barren such as Zumate in Omitlan, Peñas Cargadas in Real del Monte and Peña del Conejo in San Jeronimo.
Valleys
The Valley of Tulancingo has a temperate climate with an average year round temperature of 15C. It is bordered by the Sierra de Tenango and the highlands of Apan. It is a large fertile valley with extensive agriculture.
The very northern part of the Valley of Mexico is located within the state, which is separated from the area in which Mexico City is found by a series of low lying mountains. This part of the Valley extends from Tizayuca towards Pachuca. It is separated from the Valley of Mezquital by the Sierra de Tezontlalpan and from the rest of the Valley of Mexico by the low lying Sierra de los Pitos. The climate here is temperate and semi arid with occasional freezes. Except for the forests on the mountain tops, the flora and fauna are those found in more arid regions such as maguey, yucca, rabbits, armadillos and mesquite trees.
Since many of the mountains surrounding Pachuca lack tree cover, little slows the prevailing winds which can reach speeds of up to 120 km per hour. This gives the capital city the nickname of La Bella Airosa (Beautiful Windy City).
The Valley of Mezquital is three valleys called the Actopan, the Ixmiquilpan and the Tasquillo as well as flat areas known as Tula and Alfajayucan. The vegetation is mostly that of semi arid regions with mesquite trees and various types of cacti growing. The only areas with tree cover are those near streams and other water sources and on the mountain tops of the peaks. Despite this, the region is considered to be Hidalgo's granary, growing corn, beans, wheat, tomatoes, onions, oats, olives, cactus fruit, tejocote and much more. It produces more than half of the alfalfa and green chili peppers in Mexico. Due to the lack of rainfall, irrigation from the areas above and below ground streams is important. However, it is also one of the areas of Mexico with the highest levels of malnutrition. The valley averages 2000 meters above sea level and has a temperate climate with freezes being rare.
Water
Principal rivers include the Tula, Amajac and the Metztitlan. Other rivers in the state flow into these three, such as the Rosas, Cuautitlan, Guadalupe and Salado, which flow into the Tula River. One exception to this is the San Juan River, which forms part of the state's border with Querétaro. This river flows into the Pánuco River in San Luis Potosí. The Amajac begins in the Sierra de Pachuca and flows southeast. The Metztitlan River begins at the state's border with Puebla state and eventually flows into Metztitlan Lake. Principal lakes in the state are the Metztitlán, Zupitlan or Tulancingo, San Antonio, Pueblilla and Carrillos. The state also has a significant number of sulfur and hot water springs such as La Cantera in Tula, Mixquiahual and Vito in Atotonilco, Tephé in Ejido Tephé, Humedades y Dios Padra in Ixmiquilpan and Tolantongo and Textacapa in Cardonal.
Climate
There are three main climates in the state. The lowlands are hot with temperatures rising as high as 44C in the summer in places such as the municipality of Pisaflores. Temperate regions can have hot days but often the temperature is moderated by cooler winds and clouds. Cold climates dominate the highest altitudes where freezing temperatures at night are not uncommon. Rainfall varies widely from as low as 250mm per year to as high as 2,800mm per year. The main indicator of climate type is altitude.
The north of the state has the lowest elevation and the hottest climate. It is also the smallest region of the state. The second region averages about 800 meters above sea level and is more temperate in climate. The coldest climates at the highest areas are the most populated and average about 2,000 meters above sea level.
Major elevations in the state include Cerro la Peñuela (3,350 masl), Cerro el Jihuingo (3,240masl), Cerro la Paila (3,200 masl), Cerro las Navajas (3,180 masl), Cerro el Agual Azul (3,040 masl) and Cerro la Estancia (3,020 masl).
In addition to the three main geographic/climate regions, the state subdivides into a number of sub-regions. Sub-regions include the La Huasteca area. This extends like a green sash across part of the state, and altitude does not exceed 800 masl. It is mostly located near the Gulf Coast and receives a significant amount of rainfall from this body of water.
Ecology
Most plants are either of arid and desert habitats, or of the Sierra Madre Oriental pine-oak forests habitat, with Mexican pine (Pinus pseudostrobus) in the higher mountains.
Wildlife includes 31 species of reptiles, thirteen species of duck, six of doves, and three of falcons, as well as mammals such as skunks, spider monkeys, wild boar, anteaters, and gray foxes.
A small habitat in the state is the Huasteca highland rainforest. It has plants blooming nearly year-round. Forests include tree species such as: “Tlacuilo,” Oaks (Quercus species), Copaifera, “Zuchiate,” Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), and Mexican white cedar (Cupressus lusitanica). The area has one of the widest varieties of wild birds including eagles, hummingbirds, and wild turkeys. Reptiles include a wide variety of snakes, and mammals include coyotes, bobcats, wild boar, spotted deer, and rabbits. Tropical crops raised here include sugar cane, coconuts, pineapple, bananas, mamey, and tamarind.
Economy
Traditionally, Hidalgo's economy has been based on mining and agriculture, with manufacturing more recently. Most industry is located in what is called the “Urban Industrial Corridor of the South," where most of the state's economic activity is located. Outside of this corridor, the economy remains based on subsistence farming and has high levels of poverty, with the per capita income only 61.5% of the national average. Industry accounts for more than 25% of the state's gross domestic product.
However, the state has a higher-than-average growth, averaging 7.7% since the mid-1990s. The state consistently produces an overall surplus. Like other Mexican states, Hidalgo is heavily dependent on the federal government for revenues, with almost 97% of revenues from federal sources, which is high. The state's debt level is very low compared to other rated local and regional governments in Mexico and worldwide. One major debt issue is with pension funds but S&P does not consider it onerous. As of the end of 2000, the state's economic rating by Standard & Poor's was ‘mxA-‘ with a stable outlook.
The state contains 2.1 million hectares of land, 30% of which is cultivable. Most of this land is only farmed during the annual rainy season. Corn is the primary crop followed by barley, beans, oats, wheat, green chili peppers, squash and tomatoes. Thirty-eight percent of the land is dedicated to grazing and livestock production. Fishing and fish farming are also important producing mojarra, tilapia, carp, trout and charal. Most of the surface area of the state (38%) is used for the raising of livestock with 29% dedicated to agriculture. Forests cover about 22% of the state. Both pine and broadleaf forests are found in the higher mountain areas of the state. The lower altitude Huasteca has rainforest and semi-rainforest vegetation. Hidalgo has approximately 125,000 m3 of commercial timber with an estimated value of 47,771.701 pesos. Non-wood forest products are estimated to value 331,961 pesos. For much of the 20th century, forest size diminished. This is being countered with reforestation efforts over as much as 743,224 hectares, with about 2,500 hectares fully reforested every year. Just over 25% of the population if employed in agriculture and livestock production.
Mining is the oldest and most traditional large-scale economic activity in the state. The mining of magnesium provides the most income to the state, providing 28% of all revenues, followed by zinc (18%), silver (14.3%), limestone (12.9%) and lead (7.7%). Other minerals include gold, copper, cadmium and sulfur. Most precious metals such as gold, silver and copper are mined in Pachuca and Zimapan. Petroleum, natural gas and other similar deposits also exist.
The most important commercial sector of the state is that of retail foodstuffs, especially those selling groceries, meat and poultry. This represented over 40% of the commercial sector in 1998. Just over 30% of commerce was dedicated to non-food products such as clothing and pharmaceuticals with the rest mostly dedicated to wholesale foods. From the latter 20th century, tourism has taken up much of the economic slack left behind by the demise of much of the state's mining industry, with income from this sector surpassing that of the petroleum industry. The state has a variety of historic, cultural and natural attractions. Commerce and tourism employ about 44% of the population.
Industrial production in the state centers on metal products, machinery and equipment, accounting for about 24% of the total. Non-metallic minerals, other than petroleum account for about 25%. However, the most important industry is automobile and train engine production, which is followed by the refining of petroleum products, based mostly in Tula. Automotive and train production is centered in Ciudad Sahagún. Most of the automobiles produced are sold in Mexico City. Other industries include the production of cement in Tula de Allende and textiles in Tepeji del Río and Tulancingo. This employs about 30% of the population.
Construction accounts for about 4% of the economy of Hidalgo, with utilities such as electricity accounting for about the same. Hidalgo produces about 8.7% of the total electricity used in the country.
In many of the more rural parts of the state, the making of crafts such as textiles, baskets, wood items and more can contribute significantly to household income. Textile production is widespread, but some of the best embroidery is done in Tenango de Doria, in which blouses, skirts and more are covered in designs of bright colors. Another area with noted embroidery is Acaxochitlán and nearby communities in the Sierra de Huasteca. The designs on these pieces are endemic to the area. In the Mezquital Valley, they make items with maguey fiber, often for rope, belts, bags and sandals. The weaving of cotton and wool into items such as blankets, wraps and other items is also a widespread craft. Fibers from maguey plants and palm trees are also used in the production of baskets, hats and mats. One native hat made from palm fronds is called "garambullero" as well as a type of rattle. Other materials worked into baskets and other items include reeds, willow branches and ixtle. The working of all these fibres and materials is primarily done by women.
As the state has a relative abundance of wood, crafts based on this material is common. The most important product is the making of wood furniture, most of which is in a rustic Spanish style. Miniature boxes, flutes and other items are a speciality of a community called Nith in the Ixmiquuilpan municipality. Molango is noted for its guitars. Tenango is noted for the making of wooden utensils such as spoons and spatulas. Pottery production is categorized by the type of clay used. In the Tulancingo Valley, the clay type is known as "chapopote" and is mostly worked into pots, comals and other cooking items. Huejutla is known for its "barro blanco" (white clay), also used to make items for cooking. In Huasca de Ocampo red clay is abundant. In Chililico, the clay is ochre and typically painted with images of birds and flowers. The Mezquital Valley and the Comarca Minera area makes a type of pottery which is not glazed, mostly for utilitarian items. In some areas, such as Tulancingo and Chapantongo, Talavera type glazed pottery is also made. Metalworking comes from the state's mining past, where materials such as gold, silver, copper and iron are worked into jewelry, pots, jars, utensils, and railing. Areas best known for their metal working are Pachuca and Real del Monte (jewelry), The Sierra Alta and Tizapán (copper items) and the Mezquital Valley for ironwork.
Education
In the 1999–2000 school year, the state had 7,421 educational centers for grades K-12, with 33,994 teachers and 743,771 students. Only 19.1% of these students are at the middle school level, 8.3% in vocational schools and 3% in preparatory or in higher education. Most of the students at the higher levels are concentrated in municipalities such as Pachuca, Tula de Allende, Huejutla, Ixmiquilpan and Tulancingo. Fifty-three percent of four-year-olds and 95% of five-year-olds attend pre school or kindergarten. Ninety-two percent of those who finish primary school go on to secondary school. Seventy-four percent who finish secondary school go on to high school or vocational school. Of children over six years of age, 93.5% are attending school, which is slightly above the national average of 92.2%, putting Hidalgo in 14th place.
The Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo began at the same time the state was founded. In 1869, the Instituto Literario y Escuela de Artes y Oficios, the university's predecessor was founded. It was reorganized in 1872 under the Porfirio Díaz regime and in 1875, the school was moved from the house it was founded in on Allende Street to the former hospital of San Juan de Dios on the west side of Pachuca. The school was closed several times during the Mexican Revolution but was permanently reopened in 1925 as the University of Hidalgo. From the time to the present the school has grown adding new departments such as those in medicine and engineering. In 1948, the school gain autonomy from governmental oversight, changing its name to the current one. This school is the most important in the state as it is organized in the mid-20th century to spur the industrial development on which the state depends today.
Infrastructure
In recent years Hidalgo has experienced an increase in its infrastructure. Telephone coverage is one per 15.3 inhabitants, and 100% of the population has access to radio and/or television broadcasts, both private and public. There are twelve licensed broadcasters in the state, equally divided between private and public organizations.
Newspapers of Hidalgo include: El Independiente de Hidalgo, El Reloj de Hidalgo, El Sol de Hidalgo, El Sol de Tulancingo, Milenio Hidalgo, Ruta, Síntesis de Bolsillo Hidalgo, Síntesis, El Periódico de Hidalgo, Unomásuno Hidalgo, and Visto Bueno.
The state contains 7,923 km of highways, most of which (48.2%) are rural roads. Six cities, Pachuca, Huichapan, Molango, Ixmiquilpan, Tizayuca and Zimapan, have air travel facilities. The airport in Pachuca is the largest, with a 1,800 meter runway for both passengers and freight. An averages of 4,500 flights enter and leave the facility each year. There are 978.5 km of rail lines with only 60 km in disuse.
Major communities
The state is divided into 84 municipalities. The major communities are:
Huejutla de Reyes
Ixmiquilpan
Pachuca
Tula de Allende
Ciudad Sahagún
Tepeji del Río
Tizayuca
Tulancingo
Progreso de Obregón
See also
References
Bibliography
External links
Hidalgo State Government
Lengua, cultura e historia de los otomíes – Language, culture, and history of the Otomi
Codices otomi – Otomi codexes in French, English & Spanish
States of Mexico
Mexican Plateau states
Sierra Madre Oriental
States and territories established in 1869
1869 establishments in Mexico | [
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] |
224022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solder%20ring%20fitting | Solder ring fitting | A solder ring fitting, also known by the trademarked name Yorkshire fitting, is a pre-soldered capillary connector for joining copper pipes used in plumbing.
Operation
To obtain perfect joins, the inside of the fitting and the outside of the copper pipe are cleaned using coarse steel wool, flux paste is applied, the pipe is inserted into the fitting and heat applied from a portable propane torch until a ring of solder shows at the edges of the fitting. To obtain a durable joint, water must not be poured on the solder joint to cool it. Yorkshire fittings are now made with lead-free solder.
The fittings come in a great variety of configurations, such as Tee-pieces, straight couplers, elbows or bends, reducers (to join pipes of different diameters), stop-ends, and there are versions with screw threads (male or female) at one end to fit taps and galvanized iron pipes.
Valves such as stoptaps & gate valves are also available in solder ring configuration.
See also
Sweat fitting
References
Plumbing
Soldering | [
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224030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trail%20mix | Trail mix | Trail mix or scroggin is a type of snack mix, typically a combination of granola, dried fruit, nuts, and sometimes candy, developed as a food to be taken along on hikes. Trail mix is considered an ideal snack food for hikes, because it is lightweight, easy to store, and nutritious, providing a quick energy boost from the carbohydrates in the dried fruit or granola, and sustained energy from fats in nuts.
The combination of nuts, raisins and chocolate as a trail snack dates at least to the 1910s, when outdoorsman Horace Kephart recommended it in his popular camping guide.
Other names
In New Zealand, trail mix is known as "scroggin" or "schmogle". In Australia, the term "scroggin" is used exclusively, although in more recent years, "trail mix" has been imported into the jargon from the USA. Some claim that the name stands for sultanas, carob, raisins, orange peel, grains, glucose, and nuts or alternatively sultanas, chocolate, raisins and other goody-goodies including nuts; but this may be a backronym.
The American word gorp, a term for trail mix often used by hikers in North America, is typically said to be an acronym for "good ol' raisins and peanuts", although the mix may contain M&M's and other nuts. The Oxford English Dictionary cites a 1913 reference to the verb gorp, meaning "to eat greedily", so the "good ol' raisins and peanuts" explanation may be folk etymology.
In Germany, Poland, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, and several other European countries, trail mix is called "student fodder", "student oats", or "student mix" in the local languages and usually does not include chocolate. In Iran mixed nuts is called "ajil", eaten at festivals like Yaldā Night or just a social "mehmooni".
Ingredients
Common ingredients may include:
Nuts, such as almonds or cashews
Legumes, such as peanuts or baked soybeans.
Dried fruits such as raisins, cranberries, apricots, apples, banana chips, sultanas or candied orange peel
Chocolate: chocolate chips, chunks, and M&M's
Breakfast cereals such as granola
Rye chips
Pretzels
Seeds, such as pumpkin seeds or sunflower seeds
Carob chips
Shredded coconut
Ginger (crystallized)
See also
Snack mix
Snacking
References
Snack foods | [
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224031 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XUnit | XUnit | xUnit is the collective name for several unit testing frameworks that derive their structure and functionality from Smalltalk's SUnit. SUnit, designed by Kent Beck in 1998, was written in a highly structured object-oriented style, which lent easily to contemporary languages such as Java and C#. Following its introduction in Smalltalk the framework was ported to Java by Kent Beck and Erich Gamma and gained wide popularity, eventually gaining ground in the majority of programming languages in current use. The names of many of these frameworks are a variation on "SUnit", usually replacing the "S" with the first letter (or letters) in the name of their intended language ("JUnit" for Java, "RUnit" for R etc.). These frameworks and their common architecture are collectively known as "xUnit".
xUnit architecture
All xUnit frameworks share the following basic component architecture, with some varied implementation details.
Test runner
A test runner is an executable program that runs tests implemented using an xUnit framework and reports the test results.
Test case
A test case is the most elemental class. All unit tests are inherited from here.
Test fixtures
A test fixture (also known as a test context) is the set of preconditions or state needed to run a test. The developer should set up a known good state before the tests, and return to the original state after the tests.
Test suites
A test suite is a set of tests that all share the same fixture. The order of the tests shouldn't matter.
Test execution
The execution of an individual unit test proceeds as follows:
setup(); /* First, we should prepare our 'world' to make an isolated environment for testing */
...
/* Body of test - Here we make all the tests */
...
teardown(); /* At the end, whether we succeed or fail, we should clean up our 'world' to
not disturb other tests or code */
The setup() and teardown() methods serve to initialize and clean up test fixtures.
Test result formatter
A test runner produces results in one or more output formats. In addition to a plain, human-readable format, there is often a test result formatter that produces XML output. The XML test result format originated with JUnit but is also used by some other xUnit testing frameworks, for instance build tools such as Jenkins and Atlassian Bamboo.
Assertions
An assertion is a function or macro that verifies the behavior (or the state) of the unit under test. Usually an assertion expresses a logical condition that is true for results expected in a correctly running system under test (SUT).
Failure of an assertion typically throws an exception, aborting the execution of the current test.
xUnit frameworks
Many xUnit frameworks exist for various programming languages and development platforms.
List of unit testing frameworks
See also
Unit testing in general:
Unit testing
Software testing
Test Anything Protocol
Programming approach to unit testing:
Test-driven development
Extreme programming
References
External links
Unit testing frameworks | [
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224033 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga%203000UX | Amiga 3000UX | The Commodore Amiga 3000UX is a model of the Amiga computer family that was released with Amiga Unix, a full port of AT&T Unix System V Release 4 (SVR4), installed along with AmigaOS. The system is otherwise equivalent to the standard A3000, once a right-click initiates a boot to Kickstart (Amiga's kernel).
At one point, Sun Microsystems approached Commodore-Amiga, Inc. with the offer to produce the A3000UX under license as a low- to mid-range alternative to their high-end Sun workstations. That this offer was declined was one of the many management decisions that led to the popular belief that the Amiga platform would have been a real success story but for Commodore management.
It is possible that Commodore (or a third party) repurposed A3000UX machines for standard AmigaOS, as some standard A3000 models have been found with labeling suggesting they were originally to be sold as A3000UX machines.
See also
Amiga models and variants
References
Amiga | [
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224034 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarpit%20%28networking%29 | Tarpit (networking) | A tarpit is a service on a computer system (usually a server) that purposely delays incoming connections. The technique was developed as a defense against a computer worm, and the idea is that network abuses such as spamming or broad scanning are less effective, and therefore less attractive, if they take too long. The concept is analogous with a tar pit, in which animals can get bogged down and slowly sink under the surface, like in a swamp.
The original tarpit idea
Tom Liston developed the original tarpitting program LaBrea. It can protect an entire network with a tarpit run on a single machine.
The machine listens for Address Resolution Protocol requests that go unanswered (indicating unused addresses), then replies to those requests, receives the initial SYN packet of the scanner and sends a SYN/ACK in response. It does not open a socket or prepare a connection, in fact it can forget all about the connection after sending the SYN/ACK. However, the remote site sends its ACK (which gets ignored) and believes the 3-way-handshake to be complete. Then it starts to send data, which never reaches a destination. The connection will time out after a while, but since the system believes it is dealing with a live (established) connection, it is conservative in timing it out and will instead try to retransmit, back-off, retransmit, etc. for quite a while.
Later versions of LaBrea also added functionality to reply to the incoming data, again using raw IP packets and no sockets or other resources of the tarpit server, with bogus packets that request that the sending site "slow down". This will keep the connection established and waste even more time of the scanner.
SMTP tarpits
One of the possible avenues that were considered to battle bulk-spam at one time, was to mandate a small fee for every submitted mail. By introducing such artificial cost, with negligible impact on legitimate use as long as the fee is small enough, automated mass-scale spam would instantly become unattractive. Tarpitting could be seen as a similar (but technically much less complex) approach, where the cost for the spammer would be measured in terms of time and efficiency rather than money.
Authentication procedures increase response times as users attempt invalid passwords. SMTP authentication is no exception. However, server-to-server SMTP transfers, which is where spam is injected, require no authentication. Various methods have been discussed and implemented for SMTP tarpits, systems that plug into the Mail Transfer Agent (MTA, i.e. the mail server software) or sit in front of it as a proxy.
One method increases transfer time for all mails by a few seconds by delaying the initial greeting message ("greet delay"). The idea is that it will not matter if a legitimate mail takes a little longer to deliver, but due to the high volume, it will make a difference for spammers. The downside of this is that mailing lists and other legitimate mass-mailings will have to be explicitly whitelisted or they will suffer, too.
Some email systems, such as sendmail 8.13+, implement a stronger form of greet delay. This form pauses when the connection is first established and listens for traffic. If it detects any traffic prior to its own greeting (in violation of RFC 2821) it closes the connection. Since many spammers do not write their SMTP implementations to the specification, this can reduce the number of incoming spam messages.
Another method is to delay only known spammers, e.g. by using a blacklist (see Spamming, DNSBL). OpenBSD has integrated this method into their core system since OpenBSD 3.3, with a special-purpose daemon (spamd) and functionality in the firewall (pf) to redirect known spammers to this tarpit.
MS Exchange can tarpit senders who send to an invalid address. Exchange can do this because the SMTP connector is connected to the authentication system.
A more subtle idea is greylisting, which, in simple terms, rejects the first connection attempt from any previously-unseen IP address. The assumption is that most spammers make only one connection attempt (or a few attempts over a short period of time) to send each message, whereas legitimate mail delivery systems will keep retrying over a longer period. After they retry, they will eventually be allowed in without any further impediments.
Finally, a more elaborate method tries to glue tarpits and filtering software together, by filtering e-mail in realtime, while it is being transmitted, and adding delays to the communication in response to the filter's "spam likeliness" indicator. For example, the spam filter would make a "guess" after each line or after every x bytes received as to how likely this message is going to be spam. The more likely this is, the more the MTA will delay the transmission.
Background
SMTP consists of requests, which are mostly four-letter words such as MAIL, and replies, which are (minimally) three-digit numbers. In the last line of the reply, the number is followed by a space; in the preceding lines it is followed by a hyphen. Thus, on determining that a message being attempted to send is spam, a mail server can reply:
451-Ophiomyia prima is an agromyzid fly
451-Ophiomyia secunda is an agromyzid fly
451-Ophiomyia tertia is an agromyzid fly
451-Ophiomyia quarta is an agromyzid fly
451-Ophiomyia quinta is an agromyzid fly
451-Ophiomyia sexta is an agromyzid fly
451-Ophiomyia septima is an agromyzid fly
451 Your IP address is listed in the DNSBL. Please try again later.
The tarpit waits fifteen or more seconds between lines (long delays are allowed in SMTP, as humans sometimes send mail manually to test mail servers). This ties up the SMTP sending process on the spammer's computer so as to limit the amount of spam it can send.
IP-level tarpits
The Linux kernel can now be patched to allow tarpitting of incoming connections instead of the more usual dropping of packets. This is implemented in iptables by the addition of a TARPIT target. The same packet inspection and matching features can be applied to tarpit targets as are applied to other targets.
Mixed SMTP-IP level tarpits
A server can determine that a given mail message is spam, e.g. because it was addressed to a spam trap, or after trusted users' reports. The server may decide that the IP address responsible for submitting the message deserves tarpitting. Cross-checking against available DNSBLs can help to avoid including innocent forwarders in the tarpit database. A daemon exploiting Linux libipq can then check the remote address of incoming SMTP connections against that database. SpamCannibal is a GPL software designed around this idea; Stockade is a similar project implemented using FreeBSD ipfirewall.
One advantage of tarpitting at the IP level is that regular TCP connections handled by an MTA are stateful. That is, although the MTA doesn't use much CPU while it sleeps, it still uses the amount of memory required to hold the state of each connection. On the opposite, LaBrea-style tarpitting is stateless, thus gaining the advantage of a reduced cost against the spammer's box. However, it has to be noted that making use of botnets, spammers can externalize most of their computer-resource costs.
Criticism
It is known that a tarpitted connection may generate a significant amount of traffic towards the receiver, because the sender considers the connection as established and tries to send (and then retransmit) actual data. In practice, given current average computer botnet size, a more reasonable solution will be to drop suspicious traffic completely, without tarpitting. This way, only TCP SYN segments will be retransmitted, not the whole HTTP or HTTPS requests.
Commercial implementations of tar-pitting
As well as MS Exchange, there have been two other successful commercial implementations of the tar pit idea. The first was developed by TurnTide, a Philadelphia-based startup company, which was acquired by Symantec in 2004 for $28 million in cash. The TurnTide Anti Spam Router contains a modified Linux kernel which allows it to play various tricks with TCP traffic, such as varying the TCP window size. By grouping various email senders into different traffic classes and limiting the bandwidth for each class, the amount of abusive traffic is reduced - particularly when the abusive traffic is coming from single sources which are easily identified by their high traffic volume.
After the Symantec acquisition, a Canadian startup company called MailChannels released their "Traffic Control" software, which uses a slightly different approach to achieve similar results. Traffic Control is a semi-realtime SMTP proxy. Unlike the TurnTide appliance, which applies traffic shaping at the network layer, Traffic Control applies traffic shaping to individual senders at the application layer. This approach results in a somewhat more effective handling of spam traffic originating from botnets because it allows the software to slow traffic from individual spam zombies, rather than requiring zombie traffic to be aggregated into a class.
See also
Turing tarpit
Anti-spam techniques (e-mail)
Mail-sink
References
Computer network security
Anti-spam | [
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224035 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Sillies | The Sillies | The Sillies were a Detroit punk rock band formed early 1977 by auto assembly line worker Ben Waugh. The Sillies played their first show second-billed to The MC5. Later, they played with bands such as The Dead Boys, The Damned, The Cramps, and toured the United States and Canada. The band regrouped and toured the West Coast of North America in 2002 to support the release of their "debut" CD America's Most Wanton (Nebula/Scooch Pooch).
External links
www.thesillies.com
Indie rock musical groups from Michigan
Musical groups from Detroit | [
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224040 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Cook%27s%20Decameron | The Cook's Decameron | The Cook's Decameron: A Study In Taste, Containing Over Two Hundred Recipes For Italian Dishes is a cookbook by Emily Waters (as Mrs. W. G. Waters) first published in 1901.
Introduced in the form of a story inspired by Giovanni Boccaccio's Decameron (for which it is named), the book introduces the fictional Marchesa di Sant Andrea who learns that nine aristocratic friends have all been forced to postpone much anticipated dinner parties as their cooks have all resigned. That evening, the Marchesa and her friends meet and make plans to establish a cooking school under the Marchesa's direction. Following the introductory fiction, the form reverts to a more conventional cookbook, and Waters presents more than 200 recipes for Italian dishes.
The book was initially published in 1901 in London (William Heineman) and New York (Brentano). It was successful enough to be reprinted and in 1920 Waters published a sequel, Just a Cookery Book, published by the Medici Society and containing 400 recipes.
Waters, who died in 1928, was also a skilled classicist and collaborated with her husband, William George Waters, in translating Italian Renaissance literature.
References
External links
Cook's Decameron on Project Gutenberg
1901 non-fiction books
Cookbooks
British cookbooks | [
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224043 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tar%20pit | Tar pit | Tar pits, sometimes referred to as asphalt pits, are large asphalt deposits. They form in the presence of oil, which is created when decayed organic matter is subjected to pressure underground. If this crude oil seeps upward via fractures, conduits, or porous sedimentary rock layers, it may pool up at the surface. The lighter components of the crude oil evaporate into the atmosphere, leaving behind a black, sticky asphalt. Tar pits are often excavated because they contain large fossil collections.
Tar pits form above oil reserves, and these deposits are often found in anticlinal traps. In fact, about 80 percent of petroleum found on Earth has been found in anticlinal traps. Anticlines are folds in stratigraphic layers in which each half of the fold dips away from the crest. Such structures are usually developed above thrust faults or in tectonic regions where the land is bending and folding. If the structure above the concave-down fold (arch) is a non-porous rock or aquitard, such as shale, it is considered an anticlinal trap. The figure in this section is a cartoon cross-section diagram that shows oil stuck in an anticlinal trap. If there is a fault or fracture in the overlying strata above the oil reserve, the oil may migrate to the surface. This is possible by capillary fringe and because oil is less dense than water.
Chemistry
Tar pits are pools of asphalt. However, at the beginning of their formation, they were not always sticky and dense. The pools were composed of crude oil that originated below Earth's surface. Crude oil is a mixture of heteroatom compounds, hydrocarbons, metals, and inorganic compounds. Heteroatom compounds are organic molecules that contain elements that are not carbon or hydrogen, while hydrocarbons contain only carbon and hydrogen. Crude oil is less viscous than asphalt because it contains a higher percentage of light hydrocarbons. Light hydrocarbons include the following alkanes: methane, ethane, propane, and butane. These molecules have very low molecular weights. Crude oils may also contain some inorganic impurities, such as CO2, H2S, N2, and O2. At the surface, these light molecules may evaporate out of the crude oil, leaving behind the heavier, stickier molecules. Asphalt, or bitumen, usually contains hydrocarbon molecule chains with 50+ carbon atoms. The longer the hydrocarbon chain, the more viscous it becomes, and the boiling point increases.
Evaporation is an important process in the formation of tar pits. A reservoir of light crude oil on Earth's surface can be reduced by up to 75% of the initial volume just after a few days, forming asphalt as the resulting product. For medium crude oils, the volume may be reduced by 40%. Crude oils will evaporate differently depending on their chemical composition. The average composition of a bitumen sample by weight is 80.2% carbon, 7.5% hydrogen, 7.6% oxygen, 1.7% nitrogen, and 3.0% sulfur.
Notable tar pits
La Brea Tar Pits
The La Brea Tar Pits are located in Southern California. The petroleum that is seen on the surface is sourced from the Salt Lake Oil Field reservoir and the oil sands in the Repetto and Pico formations. These oil deposits were formed during the Miocene Epoch when marine plankton organisms accumulated in an ocean basin. Over time, sediments buried the organisms 300 to 1000 meters below Earth's surface, subjecting them to high pressures. This process turned the organic matter into oil. The 6th Street Fault that cuts through the Salt Lake Oil Field is the conduit that feeds the La Brea Tar Pits. Petroleum migrated to the surface over time, trapping and preserving animals and plants for the past 50,000 years.
Carpinteria Tar Pits
The Carpinteria Tar Pits are located in Tar Pits Park in Carpinteria, California. These tar pits were predicted to have formed during the Pleistocene. During an excavation project, 25 plant species were recovered along with 55 species of birds and 26 species of mammals. Springs of tar still ooze to the surface through fractures in the underlying stratigraphic layers of marine shale.
Binagadi Asphalt Lake
The Binagadi Asphalt Lake is located in Azerbaijan, or in the Caucasus, a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. This tar pit is known for preserving the heads and bodies of multiple cave lions, a mammal that flourished in the Pleistocene. A well-preserved horse skull was also found in the Binagadi asphalt lake. It is estimated to be 96-120 thousand years old. It is on display at the Natural-Historical Museum of Azerbaijan in Baku, Azerbaijan.
Pitch Lake
Pitch Lake in Trinidad and Tobago is a large, bowl-like depression filled with bitumen. The lake has a maximum depth of 250 feet with an area of 100 acres, making it the largest deposit of solid bitumen on Earth. The lake is cold and dense near the shores, and it has a top layer that can be walked on. Underneath this skin, the asphalt is continuously churning. The lake gets gradually softer and hotter near the center where the bitumen begins to bubble. The gas being released in the middle of the lake is largely methane and an ample amount of carbon dioxide.
Pitch Lake formed thousands of years ago in the presence of tectonic activity. Movement along a fault created a fracture that tapped into an oil and gas reservoir deep within the crust. The oil and gas seeped upward to Earth's surface through the fracture over time, creating Pitch Lake. Due to this constant replenishment of the oil and gas, the lake has a slight current. The current is largely unnoticed because the top layer of Pitch Lake is mostly solid.
Fossils
Tar pits are characteristic of their many fossils. This is the case because the thick, sticky asphalt traps animals. Once animals step into the tar, they become immobilized and begin sinking immediately if the asphalt is warm and sticky enough. Predators that see these helpless animals usually would advance into the tar pits with the hope of catching their next meal. As a result, prey are usually found beneath the predator during excavation projects.
The bones and hard parts of the animals are well preserved because they are buried rapidly after the organism's death. Beneath the surface, the hard parts are engulfed with asphalt, and they are protected from climate variations like rain, wind, or snow that may accelerate weathering processes. Asphalt also lacks oxygen and water, so major decomposing organisms like aerobic fungi and bacteria are absent.
In the La Brea Tar Pits, more than one million bones have been recovered since 1906. 231 vertebrate species, 234 invertebrate species, and 159 plant species have been identified. The most frequent large mammal found in the La Brea Tar Pits is the dire wolf, one of the most famous prehistoric carnivores that lived during the Pleistocene. Fossils from saber-toothed cats and coyotes were also abundant. Additional fossils are constantly being discovered through continued excavation projects.
Living organisms
Life was found in a ca. 28,000-year-old sample of natural asphalt in the La Brea Tar Pits. Hundreds of new species of bacteria were discovered that have the ability to thrive in environments with little to no water or air. They contain special enzymes that can break down hydrocarbons and other petroleum products. The origin of the bacteria in these natural asphalt pits is unknown, but it is believed that they evolved from preexisting soil microorganisms that survived an asphalt seepage event thousands of years ago. The soil microorganisms had to adapt and undergo genetic changes to help tolerate the harsh, new environment, which ultimately gave rise to new bacterial species.
In one study, the predominant bacteria found in the La Brea Tar Pits were of the Gammaproteobacteria class in the Chromatiales order, more simply referred to as purple sulfur bacteria. Purple sulfur bacteria do not use water as their reducing agent, so oxygen is not produced during respiration. Instead, they use sulfur in the form of sulfides as their reducing agent. Other bacteria discovered in the tar pits were of the Rubrobacteraceae family. These bacteria are known for being some of the most radiation-resistant organisms on the planet.
Pitch Lake, another asphalt pit in Trinidad and Tobago, is also a habitat for microbial communities of archaea and bacteria. Bacterial microorganisms from the orders Burkholderiales and Enterobacteriales have been found living in microliter-sized droplets of water recovered from the lake. The biomass in Pitch Lake lake was reported up to 107 cells per gram of asphalt. Many of these microbes survive on sulfur, iron, methane, or other hydrocarbons. Ongoing research is being conducted in Pitch Lake because it mimics the environment found on the surface of Saturn’s largest moon, Titan. The discovery of extremophiles in Pitch Lake provides insight into the possibilities for microbial life in the hydrocarbon lakes that are found on Titan.
Contributions to greenhouse gases
Tar pits are formed by the fractionation of crude oil at the surface. The lighter hydrocarbons of the crude oil, which include methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), and propane (C3H8), evaporate, leaving behind larger hydrocarbons that make up the chemical composition of asphalt. This is a concern because methane, ethane, and propane are either major greenhouse gases and/or photochemical pollutants. The La Brea Tar Pits emit about 500 kg of methane per day. The emissions are the highest along the 6th Street Fault, which is the conduit that feeds the tar pits with crude oil from the sediments underneath Earth's surface. It was also discovered that methane is evaporating out of the nearby soil, affecting the physiology of the native grasses. The La Brea Tar Pits have the highest natural gas flux measured for any onshore seepage zone in the United States. On a global scale, geologic CH4 and C2H6 emissions estimates from gas seepage in sedimentary rock are in the order of 50-70 Tg/year and 2-4 Tg/year respectively. These values are roughly half of the global CH4 and C2H6 emissions from anthropogenic fossil fuel combustion, which are approximately 100-150 Tg CH4/year and 6-8 Tg C2H6/year. These hydrocarbon emissions can be contributed to oil biodegradation and methanogenesis within the tar pits.
The natural geologic sources of methane and other hydrocarbons should be considered when modeling atmospheric greenhouse gases. Not all sources of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere are a result of anthropogenic emissions.
Dangers of tar pits
Hydrocarbon seepage in urban or industrialized areas present a geologic hazard due to the explosive nature of hydrocarbons. On March 24, 1985, a pocket of methane gas passed through a small opening between the floor slab and foundation walls of a Ross clothing department store in Los Angeles, only about a mile north of the La Brea Tar Pits. This methane pocket created an explosion that injured 21 people. This event increased awareness of the potential dangers of methane pockets and hydrocarbon seepage in the area.
Key to paleoplant behavior
Tar pits are excellent preserving agents, and they also have the ability to provide carbon isotope data for trees that have fallen into the asphalt. Looking at carbon isotope data in prehistoric trees can reveal information about plant responses to different amounts of carbon dioxide in the paleoatmosphere. Samples of Juniperus trees from the Last Glacial Period were recovered from the La Brea Tar Pits, and they revealed that the ratio of intercellular and atmospheric CO2 was similar between glacial and modern trees. Since the amount of carbon dioxide during the Last Glacial Period was between 180 and 200 ppm (409.8 ppm today), there was less carbon available for photosynthesis. The Juniperus trees had to enhance CO2 uptake to survive under limiting carbon conditions. It is likely that the trees’ stomatal conductance and chloroplast demand for CO2 was higher during this period to increase their carbon consumption. When moving into the following Interglacial Period, the Juniperus trees’ stomatal conductance and chloroplast demand for CO2 decreased as a result of higher temperatures and higher CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere. This response to fluctuating carbon levels is seen in plants over time. For example, increased stomatal conductance is observed in modern C3 plants grown in low CO2 environments. It is also hypothesized that the wetter climate during the Last Glacial Period may have increased the nitrogen availability to plants, which therefore increased the concentration of nitrogen in leaves. This change may have increased the Juniperus trees’ photosynthetic capacities.
History of tar pits and humans
A woman's body was recovered from the La Brea Tar Pits in 1914. Only the skull and parts of the skeleton were preserved, and she was determined to have died about 9,000 years ago. She was between the ages 18–24 at death, and she was 4 feet and 8-10 inches tall. This is the only reported instance of human remains found within tar pits.
For thousands of years, Native Americans used tar from the La Brea Tar Pits as an adhesive and binding agent. They would use it as waterproof caulking to line their boats and baskets. When Westerners arrived at the tar pits, they began mining and extracting the tar for roofing material in nearby towns.
References
Petroleum geology
Sedimentology | [
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] |
224046 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passau%20%28district%29 | Passau (district) | Passau is a Landkreis (district) in the southeast of Bavaria. It encloses the city of Passau geographically from two sides. Neighboring districts are (from the east clockwise) Rottal-Inn, Deggendorf, Freyung-Grafenau. To the south it borders Austria.
History
Archaeological findings prove that the area was settled more than 7000 years ago. In 1971 the district was created by merging the previous districts Wegscheid, Vilshofen, Griesbach (Rottal) and parts of the districts Pfarrkirchen and Eggenfelden. The city's original name was Batava (also known as Batavia) in Roman times. Passau survived three major fires, the biggest one being the all-destructive fire from 1662. After much of the city had burned down, bishops rebuilt it in Baroque style. To this day, massive cathedrals such as the St. Stephan's Dom (Dom means "cathedral" in German) stun visitors from all over the world. St. Stephan houses the world's largest church organ.
Geography
The district consists of two geographically different parts, separated by the river Danube. In the north is the southern part of the Bayrischer Wald (Bavarian Forest) mountains with hills up to 1000 meter. In the south of the Danube river the landscape is only hilly with plains between the valleys of the Inn and Ilz river.
Coat of arms
The bottom of the coat of arms show the blue-and-white checkered symbol of Bavaria. In the top part is a red wolf and a red panther. The wolf represents the abbey of Passau (Hochstift Passau), which is now the central part of the district. The panther is the symbol of the Wittelsbach family, and it represents the area of the former districts Vilshofen and Griesbach.
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
Official website (German)
Districts of Bavaria | [
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] |
224051 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alienated | Alienated | Alienated may refer to:
Alienated (TV series), a 2003 Canadian science fiction TV series
"Alienated" (Diagnosis Murder episode), an episode of the sixth season of Diagnosis Murder
"Alienated" (Eureka episode), an episode of the first season of Eureka
"Alienated", a song by Keri Hilson on her album In a Perfect World...
Alienated, the first book in the Alienated trilogy by Melissa Landers
See also
Alienation (disambiguation) | [
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224053 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandenburg%20%28disambiguation%29 | Brandenburg (disambiguation) | Brandenburg is one of Germany's sixteen Bundesländer (federal states).
Brandenburg may also refer to:
Places
Brandenburg an der Havel, a town in Brandenburg, Germany
Brandenburg Euthanasia Centre, a Nazi killing facility located in the aforementioned town
Brandenburg-Görden Prison, a prison located nearby the aforementioned town
Margraviate of Brandenburg, a medieval German principality (1157–1806), at times partitioned into
Brandenburg-Ansbach, a margraviate
Brandenburg-Bayreuth, a margraviate
Brandenburg-Kulmbach, a margraviate
Brandenburg-Küstrin, a margraviate
Brandenburg-Schwedt, a margraviate
Brandenburg-Stendal, a margraviate and state in the Holy Roman Empire
Brandenburg-Prussia (1618–1701), a historical state consisting of the Margraviate of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia
Province of Brandenburg (1815–1945), a province of Prussia, Germany
Brandenburg (1945-1952), a subdivision of the Soviet occupation zone and state of East Germany
Neubrandenburg (New Brandenburg), a town in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Germany
Brandenburg, Kentucky, a city in the United States
Brandenburg (Frisches Haff), former name of Ushakovo in Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia
Transportation
, a class of battleships built by Germany in the 1890s
, the lead ship of the class
, a class of frigates operated by the German Navy
, the lead ship of the class
Berlin Brandenburg Airport (BER/EDDB)
BER Airport station (disambiguation)
Other uses
Brandenburg (ballet), a 1997 ballet by Jerome Robbins
Brandenburg (surname)
Brandenburg concertos, a collection of instrumental works by Johann Sebastian Bach
Brandenburg v. Ohio, a United States Supreme Court case
Brandenburg, a 2005 book by journalist Henry Porter
Brandenburg, a 1994 novel by Glenn Meade
Brandenburgers, a German commando unit during World War II
See also
Brandenburg Gate (disambiguation)
List of rulers of Brandenburg
List of places in Brandenburg
Berlin-Brandenburg (disambiguation)
Brandenbourg, a village in Luxembourg | [
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224059 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throw%20%28disambiguation%29 | Throw (disambiguation) | Throwing is the launching of a ballistic projectile by hand.
Throw, thrown, or throwing may also refer to:
Music
Throw (band), a punk band from the Philippines
"Throw", a song by Stabbing Westward from the 1994 album Ungod
Throws, a British indie pop duo formed by Mike Lindsay and Sam Genders, both formerly of Tunng
"Thrown", a song by Opshop from the 2004 album You Are Here
Science and engineering
Throwing, in computer programming, a transfer of control when an exception occurs
Throw, an element of an electrical switch
Throw, in geology, the vertical displacement of rock strata at a fault
Sports
Throw (grappling), a martial arts move that involves throwing an opponent to the ground
Throwing (cricket), an illegal bowling action involving the straightening of the arm
Throwing a game, playing to intentionally lose
Other
Mardi Gras throws, small gifts or trinkets passed out during Mardi Gras parades
Throwing, another name for English knitting
Throwing, the process of making ceramic ware on a potter's wheel
Throw (projector), the distance between a movie projector and its screen
Throw, the distance between gears as experienced by the driver of a manual transmission
Throw, the act of rolling dice
Throw blanket
Throw pillow
See also
Trow (disambiguation) | [
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224061 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minamoto%20no%20Yoshitomo | Minamoto no Yoshitomo | (1123 – 11 February 1160) was the head of the Minamoto clan and a general of the late Heian period of Japanese history. His son Minamoto no Yoritomo became shōgun and founded the Kamakura shogunate, the first shogunate in the history of Japan.
His Dharma name was Shōjō Juin (勝定寿院).
Hōgen Rebellion
With the outbreak of the Hōgen Rebellion in 1156, the members of the Minamoto and Taira samurai clans were beckoned into the conflict. Yoshitomo sided along with Taira no Kiyomori in support of the Emperor Go-Shirakawa and Fujiwara no Tadamichi, while his father Minamoto no Tameyoshi sided with the retired Emperor Sutoku and Fujiwara no Yorinaga. Yoshitomo, defeating his father and the forces of Sutoku and Yorinaga, became head of the Minamoto and established himself as a political power in the capital of Kyoto. However, despite his attempts to have his father pardoned, Tameyoshi was executed. Also, the outcome of the Hōgen rebellion established the Minamoto and Taira as the two strongest political rivals in the country.
Heiji Rebellion
Three years later in 1159, Yoshitomo and Fujiwara no Nobuyori placed Go-Shirakawa under house arrest and killed his retainer, the scholar Fujiwara no Michinori, in what is called the Heiji Rebellion. Eventually, Taira no Kiyomori, in support of Go-Shirakawa, defeated Yoshitomo.
While escaping from Kyoto, Yoshitomo was forced to kill his son Tomonaga. Later, Yoshitomo was betrayed and killed in his bath. Three of his sons, Minamoto no Yoritomo, Minamoto no Yoshitsune and Minamoto no Noriyori, were later spared and exiled by Kiyomori. However, Yoshihira and Nobuyori were executed.
His grave in Aichi Prefecture is surrounded on all sides by wooden swords (bokuto), as by legend his last words were "If only I had even a bokuto..."
Family
Yoshitomo fathered five sons in total. His two sons, Yoshihira and Tomonaga, lost their lives following the Minamoto Clan's defeat in the Heiji Rebellion in 1160. At the time of the outbreak of the Genpei War in 1180, Minamoto no Yoritomo was his eldest surviving son. His other two surviving sons were Minamoto no Noriyori and Minamoto no Yoshitsune.
Father: Minamoto no Tameyoshi (源為義, 1096–1156)
Mother: Daughter of Fujiwara no Tadakiyo (藤原忠清の娘)
Wife: Yura Gozen (由良御前, ?–1159), "Urahime" (由良姫), daughter of Fujiwara no Suenori (藤原季範).
Concubine: Tokiwa Gozen (常盤御前, 1138–c.1180)
1st son: Minamoto no Yoshihira (源義平, 1140–1160)
2nd son: Minamoto no Tomonaga (源朝長, 1144–1160)
3rd son: Minamoto no Yoritomo (源頼朝, 1147–1199)
4th son: Minamoto no Noriyori (源範頼, 1150–1193)
5th son: Minamoto no Yoshitsune (源義経, 1159–1189)
See also
Siege of Shirakawa-den
Siege of Sanjō Palace
References
Bibliography
Turnbull, Stephen (1998). The Samurai Sourcebook. London: Cassell & Co. page 60.
Minamoto no Yoshitomo
Minamoto no Yoshitomo
Minamoto clan
People of Heian-period Japan
Heian period Buddhists | [
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224063 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Warsaw%20%281920%29 | Battle of Warsaw (1920) | The Battle of Warsaw (Polish: Bitwa Warszawska, Russian: Варшавская битва, transcription: Varshavskaya bitva, Ukrainian: Варшавська битва, transcription: Varshavsʹka bytva), also known as the Miracle on the Vistula (Polish: Cud nad Wisłą), was a series of battles that resulted in a decisive Polish victory in 1920 during the Polish–Soviet War. Poland, on the verge of total defeat, repulsed and defeated the Red Army.
After the Polish Kiev Offensive, Soviet forces launched a successful counterattack in summer 1920, forcing the Polish army to retreat westward in disarray. The Polish forces seemed on the verge of disintegration and observers predicted a decisive Soviet victory.
The battle of Warsaw was fought from August 12–25, 1920 as Red Army forces commanded by Mikhail Tukhachevsky approached the Polish capital of Warsaw and the nearby Modlin Fortress. On August 16, Polish forces commanded by Józef Piłsudski counterattacked from the south, disrupting the enemy's offensive, forcing the Russian forces into a disorganized withdrawal eastward and behind the Neman River. Estimated Russian losses were 10,000 killed, 500 missing, 30,000 wounded, and 66,000 taken prisoner, compared with Polish losses of some 4,500 killed, 10,000 missing, and 22,000 wounded.
The defeat crippled the Red Army; Vladimir Lenin, the Bolshevik leader, called it "an enormous defeat" for his forces. In the following months, several more Polish follow-up victories secured Poland's independence and led to a peace treaty with Soviet Russia and Soviet Ukraine later that year, securing the Polish state's eastern frontiers until 1939.
The politician and diplomat Edgar Vincent regards this event as one of the most important battles in history on his expanded list of most decisive battles, since the Polish victory over the Soviets halted the spread of communism further westwards into Europe. A Soviet victory, which would have led to the creation of a pro-Soviet Communist Poland, would have put the Soviets directly on the eastern border of Germany, where considerable revolutionary ferment was present at the time.
Prelude
In the aftermath of World War I, Poland fought to preserve its newly regained independence, lost in the 1795 partitions of Poland, and to carve out the borders of a new multinational federation (Intermarium) from the territories of their former partitioners, Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary.
At the same time in 1919, the Bolsheviks had gained the upper hand in the Russian Civil War, having dealt crippling blows to the Russian White Movement. Vladimir Lenin viewed Poland as a bridge to bring communism to Central and Western Europe, and the Polish–Soviet War seemed the perfect way to test the Red Army's strength. The Bolshevik's speeches asserted that the revolution was to be carried to western Europe on the bayonets of Russian soldats and that the shortest route to Berlin and Paris lay through Warsaw. The conflict began when Polish head of state Józef Piłsudski formed an alliance with the Ukrainian leader Symon Petlyura (on April 21, 1920) and their combined forces began to push into Ukraine, liberating Kyiv on May 7.
The two sides were embroiled in the Polish–Ukrainian War, amidst competing territorial claims. After early setbacks against Poland in 1919, the Red Army was overwhelmingly successful in a counter-offensive in early 1920 that nullified the Polish Kiev Operation, forcing a Polish retreat. By mid-1920, Poland's very survival was at stake and foreign observers expected it to collapse at any moment. The Russian strategy called for a mass push toward the Polish capital, Warsaw. Its capture would have had a major propaganda effect for the Russian Bolsheviks, who expected the fall of the Polish capital not only to undermine the morale of the Poles, but to spark an international series of communist uprisings and clear the way for the Red Army to join the German Revolution.
The Russian 1st Cavalry Army under Semyon Budyonny broke through Polish lines in early June. The effects of that were dramatic; Budyonny's success resulted in a collapse of all Polish fronts. On July 4, Mikhail Tukhachevsky's Western Front began an all-out assault in Belarus from the Berezina River, forcing Polish forces to retreat. On July 19 the Red Army seized Grodno, on July 22 the Brześć Fortress was captured and on July 28, it reached Białystok. In early August, Polish and Soviet delegations met at Baranavichy and exchanged notes, but their talks came to nothing.
Orders of battle
Polish
3 Fronts (Northern, Central, Southern), 7 Armies, a total of 32 divisions: 46,000 infantry; 2,000 cavalry; 730 machine guns; 192 artillery batteries; and several units of (mostly FT-17) tanks.
Fronts:
Northern Front: 250 km., from East Prussia, along the Vistula River, to Modlin:
5th Army
1st Army – Warsaw
2nd Army – Warsaw
Central Front:
4th Army – between Dęblin and Kock
3rd Army – between south of Kock and Brody
Southern Front – between Brody and the Dniester River
Soviet
Battle plans
Polish
By the beginning of August, the Polish retreat had become more organized, as their supply lines were steadily shortened. At first, Józef Piłsudski wanted to stop the Soviets at the Bug River and the city of Brest-Litovsk, but the Soviet advance resulted in their forces breaching that line, making that plan obsolete. On the night of August 5–6, Piłsudski, staying at the Belweder Palace in Warsaw, conceived a revised plan. In the first phase, it called for Polish forces to withdraw across the Vistula River and defend the bridgeheads at Warsaw and at the Wieprz River, a tributary of the Vistula southeast of Warsaw. A quarter of the available divisions would be concentrated to the south for a strategic counteroffensive. Next, Piłsudski's plan called for the 1st and 2nd Armies of General Józef Haller's Central Front (10½ divisions) to take a passive role, facing the Soviet main westward thrust and holding their entrenched positions, Warsaw's last line of defence, at all costs. At the same time, the 5th Army (5½ divisions) under General Władysław Sikorski, subordinate to Haller, would defend the northern area near the Modlin Fortress; when it became feasible they were to strike from behind Warsaw, thus cutting off Soviet forces attempting to envelop Warsaw from that direction, and break through the enemy front and fall upon the rear of the Soviet Northwestern Front. Additionally, five divisions of the 5th Army were to protect Warsaw from the north. General Franciszek Latinik's 1st Army would defend Warsaw itself, while General Bolesław Roja's 2nd Army was to hold the Vistula River line from Góra Kalwaria to Dęblin.
The crucial role, however, was assigned to the approximately 20,000-strong, newly formed Task Force (also translated as "Assault Group" or "Shock Army", from Polish Grupa Uderzeniowa), under the personal command of Piłsudski. This unit, composed of the most elite Polish units from the southern front, was to be reinforced by General Leonard Skierski's 4th Army and General Zygmunt Zieliński's 3rd Army. After retreating from the Bug River area, those armies had not moved directly toward Warsaw but had crossed the Wieprz River and broken off contact with their pursuers, thus confusing the enemy as to their whereabouts. The Assault Group's assignment was to spearhead a rapid offensive from their southern position in the Vistula-Wieprz River triangle. They were supposed to advance north, targeting a weak spot that the Polish intelligence thought to have found in between the Soviet Western and Southwestern Fronts, where their communications relied on the weak Mozyr Group. The aim of this operation was to throw the Soviet Western Front into chaos and separate it from its reserves. According to the plan, Sikorski's 5th Army and the advancing Assault Group would meet near the East Prussian border, leaving the Soviets trapped in an encirclement.
Although based on fairly reliable information provided by Polish intelligence and intercepted Soviet radio communications, the plan was called 'amateurish' by many high-ranking army officers and military experts, from Polish officers to the advisors from the French Military Mission to Poland who were quick to point out Piłsudski's lack of formal military education.
Criticism was levied on the logistical side, as suggested concentration points were as far as 100 to 150 miles (150 to 250 km) from many Polish units, most of them engaged on the front lines, and all of that a mere week before the planned date of the counterattack. All regrouping was within striking distance of the enemy; if Piłsudski and his staff mistimed when the Soviet offensive would begin, the Polish counter-attack and even the cohesion of the entire Polish front would be in chaos. Piłsudski himself admitted in his memoirs that it was a gamble; he decided to go forward with it due to politicians' defeatist stance, fear for the safety of the capital, and the prevailing feeling that if Warsaw were to fall, all would be lost. Only the desperate situation persuaded other army commanders to go along with it. They realized that under the circumstances, it was the only possible way to avoid a devastating defeat. The plan seemed so desperate and inept, that when the Soviets intercepted a copy of it, it was discarded as a poor deception attempt.
The authorship of the plan is a matter of some controversy. Due to Piłsudski's political image, he was largely unpopular with the right wing of Polish politics. Furthermore, Paderewski told top Allied leaders that Weygand had the idea; Paderewski knew better, but he was trying to use American support for a comeback in Polish politics. After the battle, many reports suggested that the plan was in fact prepared either by the French general Maxime Weygand or by the Polish Chief of Staff Tadeusz Jordan-Rozwadowski. According to recent research, the French Military Mission proposed only a minor tactical counter-attack of two divisions towards Mińsk Mazowiecki. Its aim would have been to push the Red Army 30 kilometres back in order to ease subsequent ceasefire negotiations. On the other hand, General Rozwadowski's plan called for a deeper thrust into Russian lines from the area of Wieprz. However, Piłsudski proposed a large-scale operation, with significant forces committed to beating the enemy forces rather than merely pushing them back. The plan was opposed by the French mission, which did not believe that the Polish army would be able to regroup after a 600 kilometre retreat. Nonetheless, for many years, a myth persisted that it was the timely arrival of Allied forces that had saved Poland, a myth in which Weygand occupied the central role.
Davies points out Piłsudski "was left with only one serious possibility—a counter-offensive to the right of centre, at a point where a strike-force could be assembled from both northern and southern fronts. He pondered and checked these considerations during the night of 5–6 August, ruminating alone in his study at Belweder in Warsaw. In the morning, he received Rozwadowski and together they worked out the details. Rozwadowski pointed out the value of the River Wieprz ... by the evening, Order No. 8358/3 ... was ready and issued." Gen. Weygand admitted in his memoirs that "la victoire était polonaise, le plan polonais, l'armée polonaise." ("the victory was Polish, the plan Polish, the army Polish")
Russian
Mikhail Tukhachevsky planned to encircle and surround Warsaw by crossing the Vistula River, near Włocławek, to the north and south of that city, northwest of Warsaw, and launch an attack from the northwest. With 24 divisions in four armies under his command, he planned to repeat the classic maneuver of Ivan Paskevich, who in 1831, during the November Uprising, had crossed the Vistula at Toruń and reached Warsaw practically unopposed, crushing the Polish uprising. This move would also cut the Polish forces off from Gdańsk, the only port open to shipments of arms and supplies.
The main weakness of the Russian plan was the poorly defended southern flank, secured only by the Pinsk Marshes and the weak Mazyr (Mozyrska) Group. That unit consisted of the 57th Infantry Division, 8,000 strong, and acted as the link between the Soviet two fronts (the majority of the Russian Southwest Front was engaged in the battle of Lwów).
Davies argues that the Soviet failure was caused by its tardiness in moving forces in for a frontal attack on Warsaw. By contrast the Poles were speedy, making every day's delay a liability to the Soviets. Furthermore, there was poor coordination between the Soviet Western Command and the three armies of the Southwestern Command. In the political sphere, Davies argues, there was too much friction inside the Soviet Command. According to the historian Thomas Fiddick, rumors of disobedience to orders on the Soviet side by General Semyon Budyonny, or possibly even Joseph Stalin, were baseless. Moscow had decided for political reasons to reinforce the Crimean front at the expense of the Polish front. It meant it was replacing its goals of Europe-wide Communist revolution with a sort of "peaceful coexistence" with the West amidst internal consolidation.
Battle
First phase
While the Red Army pushed forward, Gayk Bzhishkyan's Cavalry Corps, together with the 4th Army, crossed the Wkra River and advanced towards the town of Włocławek, the 15th and 3rd Armies were approaching Modlin Fortress and the 16th Army moved towards Warsaw. The final Russian assault on Warsaw began on August 12. The Soviet 16th Army commenced the attack at the town of Radzymin (only 23 kilometres east of the city) and captured it the following day. This initial success of the Red Army prompted Piłsudski to move up his plans by 24 hours.
The first phase of the battle started on August 12, with a Red Army frontal assault on the Praga bridgehead. In heavy fighting, Radzymin changed hands several times and most foreign diplomats left Warsaw; only the British and Vatican ambassadors chose to remain. On August 14, Radzymin fell to the Red Army, and the lines of Władysław Sikorski's Polish 5th Army were broken. The 5th Army had to fight three Soviet armies at once: the 3rd, 4th, and 15th. The Modlin sector was reinforced with reserves (the Siberian Brigade and General Franciszek Krajowski's fresh 18th Infantry Division, both elite, battle-tested units: the 5th Army held out until dawn.
The situation was saved around midnight when the 203rd Uhlan Regiment managed to break through the Red Army lines and attack a Soviet command post, which resulted in a destruction of a radio station of A.D. Shuvayev's Soviet 4th Army. The latter unit had only one radio station left, fixed on one frequency which was known to the Polish intelligence. Since the Polish code-breakers did not want the Russians to find out that their codes had been broken, the remaining Soviet radio station was neutralized by having the radio station in Warsaw recite the Book of Genesis in Polish and Latin on the frequency used by the 4th Army. It thus lost contact with its headquarters and continued marching toward Toruń and Płock, unaware of Tukhachevsky's order to turn south. The raid by the 203rd Uhlans is sometimes referred to as "the Miracle of Ciechanów."
At the same time, the Polish 1st Army under General Franciszek Latinik resisted a direct Red Army assault on Warsaw by six rifle divisions. The struggle for control of Radzymin forced Józef Haller, commander of the Polish Northern Front, to start the 5th Army's counterattack earlier than planned.
During this time, Piłsudski was finishing his plans for the counter-offensive. He decided to supervise the attack, personally handing in a letter of resignation from all state functions so he could concentrate on the military situation and so that if he died, it would not paralyze the state. He succeeded in raising the morale of the troops, between August 12 and August 15, visiting units of the 4th Army concentrating near Puławy, about 100 kilometres south of Warsaw.
At that time, Piłsudski also commented on the dreadful state of logistics of the Polish army: "In the 21st Division, almost half of the soldiers paraded in front of me barefoot." The newly created Polish army had little choice in its equipment; its rifles and artillery pieces were produced in at least six countries, each of them using different ammunition.
Second phase
The 27th Infantry Division of the Red Army managed to reach the village of Izabelin, 13 kilometres northwest of the capital, but this was the closest that Russian forces would come.
Tukhachevsky, certain that all was going according to plan, was actually falling into Piłsudski's trap. There were only token Polish resistance in the path of the main Russian advance north and across the Vistula, on the right flank of the battle (from the perspective of the Soviet advance). At the same time, south of Warsaw, on the battle's left front, the vital link between the Northwestern and Southwestern Fronts was much more vulnerable, protected only by a small Soviet force, the Mozyr Group. Further, Semyon Budyonny, commanding the 1st Cavalry Army, a unit much feared by Piłsudski and other Polish commanders, disobeyed orders by the Soviet High Command, which at Tukhachevsky's insistence, ordered him to advance at Warsaw from the south. Budyonny resented this order, influenced by a grudge between commanding South-Western Front generals Alexander Ilyich Yegorov and Tukhachevsky. In addition, the political games of Joseph Stalin, at the time the chief political commissar of the South-Western Front, further contributed to Yegorov's and Budyonny's disobedience. Stalin, looking for personal glory, aimed to capture the besieged Lwów (Lviv), an important industrial center. Ultimately, Budyonny's forces marched on Lwów instead of Warsaw, and thus missed the battle.
The Polish 5th Army counterattacked on August 14, crossing the Wkra River. It faced the combined forces of the Soviet 3rd and 15th Armies (both numerically and technically superior). The struggle at Nasielsk lasted until August 15 and resulted in near-complete destruction of the town. However, the Soviet advance toward Warsaw and Modlin was halted at the end of August 15, and on that day Polish forces recaptured Radzymin, which boosted the Polish morale.
From that moment on, Sikorski's 5th Army pushed exhausted Soviet units away from Warsaw, in an almost Blitzkrieg-like operation. Sikorski's units were given the support of almost all of the small number of mechanized units—tanks and armoured cars—that the Polish army had, as well as that of the two Polish armoured trains. It was able to advance rapidly at the speed of 30 kilometres a day, disrupting the Soviet "enveloping" northern manoeuvre.
Third phase
On August 16, the Polish Assault Group commanded by Piłsudski began its march north from the Wieprz River. It faced the Mazyr Group, a Soviet corps that had defeated the Poles during the Kiev operation several months earlier. However, during its pursuit of the retreating Polish armies, the Mazyr Group had lost most of its troops and had been reduced to only one or two divisions covering a 150-kilometre front line on the left flank of the Soviet 16th Army. On the first day of the counteroffensive, only one of the five Polish divisions reported any sort of opposition, while the remaining four, supported by a cavalry brigade, managed to advance north 45 kilometres unopposed. When evening fell, the town of Włodawa had been liberated, and the communication and supply lines of the Soviet 16th Army had been cut. Even Piłsudski was surprised by the extent of these early successes. The Assault Group units covered about 70 kilometres in 36 hours. As planned, it split the Soviet fronts, disrupting the offensive, all without encountering any significant resistance. The Mazyr Group had already been defeated on the first day of the Polish counterattack. Consequently, the Polish armies found what they had hoped for—a large opening between the Soviet fronts. They exploited it ruthlessly, continuing their northward offensive with two armies following and falling on the surprised and confused enemy.
On August 18, Tukhachevsky, in his headquarters in Minsk, some 300 miles (500 km) east of Warsaw, realized the extent of his defeat, quickly issuing the orders for the Red Army to retreat and regroup. He wanted to straighten the front line to improve his logistics, regain the initiative and push the Poles back again, but the situation had progressed beyond salvaging. His orders either arrived too late or failed to arrive at all. Soviet General Bzhishkyan's 3rd Cavalry Corps continued to advance toward Pomerania, its lines endangered by the Polish 5th Army, which had finally managed to push back the Red Army and switched over to pursuit. The Polish 1st Legions Infantry Division, in order to cut the enemy's retreat, carried out a forced march, going on the move for up to 21 hours a day, from Lubartów to Białystok—covering 163 miles (262 km) in only six days. Throughout that period, the division engaged the enemy twice. The division's rapid advance allowed it to intercept the 16th Soviet Army, cutting it off from reinforcements near Białystok and forcing most of its troops to surrender.
The Soviet armies in the centre of the front fell into chaos. Some divisions continued to fight their way toward Warsaw, while others retreated, lost their cohesion and panicked. Tukhachevsky lost contact with most of his forces, and the Soviet plans were thrown into disorder. Only the 15th Army remained an organized force; it tried to obey Tukhachevsky's orders, shielding the withdrawal of the westernmost extended 4th Army. However, it was defeated twice on August 19 and 20 and joined the general route of the Red Army's North-Western Front. Tukhachevsky had no choice but to order a full retreat toward the Western Bug River. By August 21, all organized resistance ceased to exist, and by August 31, the Soviet Southwestern Front was completely routed.
Aftermath
Although Poland managed to achieve victory and push back the Russians, Piłsudski's plan to outmanoeuvre and surround the Red Army did not succeed completely. On July 4, four Soviet armies of the North-Western Front began to advance on Warsaw. After initial successes, by the end of August, three of them—the 4th, 15th and 16th Armies, as well as the bulk of Bzhishkyan's 3rd Cavalry Corps—had all but disintegrated, their remnants either taken prisoner or briefly interned after crossing the border into German East Prussia. The 3rd Army was the least affected; due to the speed of its retreat, the pursuing Polish troops could not catch up with it.
Red Army losses were about 15,000 dead, 500 missing, 10,000 wounded and 65,000 captured, compared to Polish losses of approximately 4,500 killed, 22,000 wounded and 10,000 missing. Between 25,000 and 30,000 Soviet troops managed to reach the borders of Germany. After crossing into East Prussian territory, they were briefly interned, then allowed to leave with their arms and equipment. Poland captured about 231 pieces of artillery and 1,023 machine guns.
The southern arm of the Red Army's forces had been routed and no longer posed a threat to the Poles. Semyon Budyonny's 1st Cavalry Army, besieging Lwów, had been defeated at the Battle of Komarów on August 31 and the Battle of Hrubieszów. By mid-October, the Polish army had reached the Tarnopol-Dubno-Minsk-Drisa line.
Tukhachevsky succeeded eventually in reorganizing his eastward-retreating forces, but not in regaining the initiative. In September, he established a new defensive line near Grodno. In order to break it, the Polish army fought the Battle of the Niemen River (September 15–21), once again defeating the Red Army. After the Battle of the Szczara River, both sides were exhausted. On October 12, under heavy pressure from France and Britain, a ceasefire was signed. By October 18, the fighting was over, and on March 18, 1921, the Treaty of Riga was signed, ending hostilities.
Bolshevik propaganda before the Battle of Warsaw had described the fall of Poland's capital as imminent, and its anticipated fall was to be a signal for the start of large-scale communist revolutions in Poland, Germany, and other European countries, economically devastated by the First World War. Due to the Polish victory, however, the Soviet attempts to overthrow the government of Lithuania (planned for August) had to be cancelled. The Soviet defeat was therefore considered a setback for Soviet leaders supportive of that plan (particularly Vladimir Lenin).
A National Democrat Sejm deputy, Stanisław Stroński, coined the phrase, "Miracle at the Vistula" (Polish: "Cud nad Wisłą"), to underline his disapproval of Piłsudski's earlier "Ukrainian adventure." In response, Poland's Prime Minister Wincenty Witos commented, "Whatever you want to write and say – whoever you want to dress in laurels and merits – this is 1920's 'Miracle at the Vistula.'" Diaries from many participants of the battle attribute the outcome to the Blessed Virgin Mary citing multiple reasons, including widespread national prayer beforehand and subsequent reports of her appearance on the battlefield. The date of the turn of the battle is believed to coincide with the Solemnity of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary as celebrated by Roman Catholics.
Breaking of Russian ciphers
According to documents found in 2005 at Poland's Central Military Archives, Polish cryptologists broke Russian ciphers they had intercepted as early as September 1919. At least some of the Polish victories, not only the Battle of Warsaw but also other battles, can be attributed to this. Lieutenant Jan Kowalewski, credited with the original breakthrough, received the Order of Virtuti Militari in 1921.
See also
Blue Army
Siege of Warsaw (1939)
Stefan Mazurkiewicz
Battle of Warsaw 1920, a 2011 film by Jerzy Hoffman
Notes and references
Further reading
Biskupski M. B. "Paderewski, Polish Politics, and the Battle of Warsaw, 1920," Slavic Review (1987) 46#3 pp. 503–512 he was trying to get American support for his comeback in Polish politics in JSTOR
Edgar Vincent D'Abernon, The Eighteenth Decisive Battle of the World: Warsaw, 1920, Hyperion Press, 1977, .
Davies, Norman. White Eagle, Red Star: the Polish–Soviet War, 1919–20, Pimlico, 2003, .
Davies, Norman. "The Soviet Command and the Battle of Warsaw," Soviet Studies (1972) 23#4 pp. 573–585 says the Soviet failure of command was responsible for its defeat
Fiddick, Thomas. "The 'Miracle of the Vistula': Soviet Policy versus Red Army Strategy," Journal of Modern History (1973) 45#4 pp. 626–643 in JSTOR
Fuller, J.F.C. The Decisive Battles of the Western World, Hunter Publishing, .
Hetherington, Peter. Unvanquished: Joseph Pilsudski, Resurrected Poland, and the Struggle for Eastern Europe (2012) pp. 425–458 excerpt and text search
Watt, Richard M. Bitter Glory: Poland and Its Fate, 1918–1939, Hippocrene Books, 1998, .
Zamoyski, Adam. Warsaw 1920: Lenin's Failed Conquest of Europe (2008) excerpt and text search
In Polish
M. Tarczyński, Cud nad Wisłą, Warszawa, 1990.
Józef Piłsudski, Pisma zbiorowe, Warszawa, 1937, reprinted by Krajowa Agencja Wydawnicza, 1991, .
Mikhail Tukhachevski, Lectures at Military Academy in Moscow, February 7–10, 1923, reprinted in Pochód za Wisłę (March across the Vistula), Łódź, 1989.
External links
Robert Szymczak, Polish–Soviet War: Battle of Warsaw, Historynet
3 scans Polish maps
"Bolszewik złamany Gazeta Wyborcza article about breaking of Soviet ciphers.
1920 in Poland
Warsaw
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