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224254 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir%20Castle%20Complex | Mir Castle Complex | The Mir Castle Complex (, Łacinka: Mirski zamak, , ) is a historic fortified castle and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Belarus. It is located in the town of Mir, in the Kareličy District of the Hrodna voblast, at , north-west of another World Heritage site, Niasviž Castle. Mir Castle Complex is above sea level. Erected in the 16th century in the late Brick Gothic style, it is one of the few remaining architectural monuments of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in contemporary Belarus.
History
Duke Juryj Ivanavič Illinič (:pl:Jerzy Iwanowicz Ilinicz) began construction of the castle near the village of Mir after the turn of the 16th century in the Polish Gothic style. Five towers surrounded the courtyard of the citadel, the walls of which formed a square of on each side. In 1568, when the Ilyinich dynasty died out, the Mir Castle passed into the hands of Mikołaj Krzysztof "the Orphan" Radziwiłł, who refitted it with a two-winged, three-story stately residence along the eastern and northern inner walls of the castle. Plastered facades were decorated with limestone portals, plates, balconies and porches in the Renaissance style.
In 1817, after the castle had been abandoned for nearly a century and had suffered severe damage in the Battle of Mir (1812), owner Dominik Hieronim Radziwiłł died of battle injuries and the castle passed to his daughter Stefania, who married Ludwig zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg. Later the castle became a possession of their daughter Maria, who married Prince Chlodwig Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst.
Their son, Maurice Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst, sold the castle to Mikalaj Sviatapolk-Mirski, of the Bialynia clan, in 1895. Nikolai's son Michael began to rebuild the castle according to the plans of architect Teodor Bursze. The Sviatapolk-Mirski family owned the castle until 1939, when the Soviet Union occupied eastern Poland.
When German forces invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, they occupied the castle and converted it to a ghetto for the local Jewish population, prior to their murders. Between 1944 and 1956, the castle was used as a housing facility, resulting in damage to the castle's interior.
In December 2000, the Mir Castle was listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.
Related World Heritage Sites
Nesvizh Castle
Litomysl Castle
Gallery
References
External links
Mir Castle Official Website
Mir Castle on official website of the Republic of Belarus
Castle in Mir
Official UNESCO site
The Mir Castle
Photos on Radzima.org
Jurkau kutoczak — Юркаў куточак — Yury's Corner. Старажытнае дойлідства Міра
Photos on Globus.tut.by
Mir Castle on 3D F4 Map
Castles in Belarus
Castles and palaces of the Radziwiłł family
Brick Gothic
Gothic architecture in Belarus
Buildings and structures in Grodno Region
Karelichy District
Tourist attractions in Grodno Region
Castles of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
World Heritage Sites in Belarus | [
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224255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bon%20%28disambiguation%29 | Bon (disambiguation) | BON, Bon, or bon may refer to:
Places:
Bon, Amur Oblast, Russia
Cap Bon, a peninsula in Tunisia
Bon, Iran (disambiguation), places in Iran
People:
Bon (surname)
Religion:
Bon or Bön, a Tibetan religious tradition
Bon Lamaism, the religion tradition of Tamang people.
Bon Festival, Japanese Buddhist holiday to honor the spirits of deceased ancestors
Computing:
Business Object Notation, notation for high-level object-oriented analysis
Transportation:
Bolton Interchange, Greater Manchester, England (National Rail station code BON)
Flamingo International Airport, Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles (IATA code BON)
North Station, Boston (Amtrak station code BON)
Other:
Band Ohne Namen (B.O.N.), German music group
Bon (finance), a type of paper currency used in the 19th century
The Bon Marché, a famous department store in Seattle also known as The Bon
Bon Ice, Latin American liquid candy product
Bisphosphonate-associated osteonecrosis of the jaw, aka BON of the jaw
Bankon language, also known as Bon, Abo, Abaw, Bo
Blue Ocean Network, an English-language television news channel based in China
See also
Bøn, village in Norway
Bonn, Cologne/Bonn Region, Germany
Bonn (disambiguation)
Le Bon (disambiguation)
Bon Accord (disambiguation)
Boen (disambiguation) | [
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224256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord%20%28music%29 | Chord (music) | A chord, in music, is any harmonic set of pitches/frequencies consisting of multiple notes (also called "pitches") that are heard as if sounding simultaneously. For many practical and theoretical purposes, arpeggios and broken chords (in which the notes of the chord are sounded one after the other, rather than simultaneously), or sequences of chord tones, may also be considered as chords in the right musical context.
In tonal Western classical music (music with a tonic key or "home key"), the most frequently encountered chords are triads, so called because they consist of three distinct notes: the root note, and intervals of a third and a fifth above the root note. Chords with more than three notes include added tone chords, extended chords and tone clusters, which are used in contemporary classical music, jazz and almost any other genre.
A series of chords is called a chord progression. One example of a widely used chord progression in Western traditional music and blues is the 12 bar blues progression. Although any chord may in principle be followed by any other chord, certain patterns of chords are more common in Western music, and some patterns have been accepted as establishing the key (tonic note) in common-practice harmony—notably the resolution of a dominant chord to a tonic chord. To describe this, Western music theory has developed the practice of numbering chords using Roman numerals to represent the number of diatonic steps up from the tonic note of the scale.
Common ways of notating or representing chords in Western music (other than conventional staff notation) include Roman numerals, the Nashville Number System, figured bass, chord letters (sometimes used in modern musicology), and chord charts.
Definition
The English word chord derives from Middle English cord, a back-formation of accord in the original sense of agreement and later, harmonious sound. A sequence of chords is known as a chord progression or harmonic progression. These are frequently used in Western music. A chord progression "aims for a definite goal" of establishing (or contradicting) a tonality founded on a key, root or tonic chord. The study of harmony involves chords and chord progressions and the principles of connection that govern them.
Ottó Károlyi writes that, "Two or more notes sounded simultaneously are known as a chord," though, since instances of any given note in different octaves may be taken as the same note, it is more precise for the purposes of analysis to speak of distinct pitch classes. Furthermore, as three notes are needed to define any common chord, three is often taken as the minimum number of notes that form a definite chord. Hence, Andrew Surmani, for example, states, "When three or more notes are sounded together, the combination is called a chord." George T. Jones agrees: "Two tones sounding together are usually termed an interval, while three or more tones are called a chord." According to Monath, "a chord is a combination of three or more tones sounded simultaneously", and the distances between the tones are called intervals. However, sonorities of two pitches, or even single-note melodies, are commonly heard as implying chords. A simple example of two notes being interpreted as a chord is when the root and third are played but the fifth is omitted. In the key of C major, if the music stops on the two notes G and B, most listeners hear this as a G major chord.
Since a chord may be understood as such even when all its notes are not simultaneously audible, there has been some academic discussion regarding the point at which a group of notes may be called a chord. Jean-Jacques Nattiez explains that, "We can encounter 'pure chords' in a musical work", such as in the "Promenade" of Modest Mussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition but, "often, we must go from a textual given to a more abstract representation of the chords being used", as in Claude Debussy's Première arabesque.
History
In the medieval era, early Christian hymns featured organum (which used the simultaneous perfect intervals of a fourth, a fifth, and an octave), with chord progressions and harmony - an incidental result of the emphasis on melodic lines during the medieval and then Renaissance (15th to 17th centuries).
The Baroque period, the 17th and 18th centuries, began to feature the major and minor scale based tonal system and harmony, including chord progressions and circle progressions. It was in the Baroque period that the accompaniment of melodies with chords was developed, as in figured bass, and the familiar cadences (perfect authentic, etc.). In the Renaissance, certain dissonant sonorities that suggest the dominant seventh occurred with frequency. In the Baroque period, the dominant seventh proper was introduced and was in constant use in the Classical and Romantic periods. The leading-tone seventh appeared in the Baroque period and remains in use. Composers began to use nondominant seventh chords in the Baroque period. They became frequent in the Classical period, gave way to altered dominants in the Romantic period, and underwent a resurgence in the Post-Romantic and Impressionistic period.
The Romantic period, the 19th century, featured increased chromaticism. Composers began to use secondary dominants in the Baroque, and they became common in the Romantic period. Many contemporary popular Western genres continue to rely on simple diatonic harmony, though far from universally: notable exceptions include the music of film scores, which often use chromatic, atonal or post-tonal harmony, and modern jazz (especially circa 1960), in which chords may include up to seven notes (and occasionally more). When referring to chords that do not function as harmony, such as in atonal music, the term "sonority" is often used specifically to avoid any tonal implications of the word "chord".
Chords are also used for timbre effects. In organ registers, certain chords are activated by a single key so that playing a melody results in parallel voice leading. These voices, losing independence, are fused into one with a new timbre. The same effect is also used in synthesizers and orchestral arrangements; for instance, in Ravel’s Bolero #5 the parallel parts of flutes, horn and celesta, being tuned as a chord, resemble the sound of an electric organ.
Notation
Chords can be represented in various ways. The most common notation systems are:
Plain staff notation, used in classical music
Roman numerals, commonly used in harmonic analysis to denote the scale step on which the chord is built.
Figured bass, much used in the Baroque era, uses numbers added to a bass line written on a staff, to enable keyboard players to improvise chords with the right hand while playing the bass with their left.
Chord letters, sometimes used in modern musicology, to denote chord root and quality.
Various chord names and symbols used in popular music lead sheets, fake books, and chord charts, to quickly lay out the harmonic ground plan of a piece so that the musician may improvise, jam, or vamp on it.
Roman numerals
While scale degrees are typically represented in musical analysis or musicology articles with Arabic numerals (e.g., 1, 2, 3, ..., sometimes with a circumflex above the numeral: , , , ...), the triads (three-note chords) that have these degrees as their roots are often identified by Roman numerals (e.g., I, IV, V, which in the key of C major would be the triads C major, F major, G major).
In some conventions (as in this and related articles) upper-case Roman numerals indicate major triads (e.g., I, IV, V) while lower-case Roman numerals indicate minor triads (e.g., I for a major chord and i for a minor chord, or using the major key, ii, iii and vi representing typical diatonic minor triads); other writers (e.g., Schoenberg) use upper case Roman numerals for both major and minor triads. Some writers use upper-case Roman numerals to indicate the chord is diatonic in the major scale, and lower-case Roman numerals to indicate that the chord is diatonic in the minor scale. Diminished triads may be represented by lower-case Roman numerals with a degree symbol (e.g., vii7 indicates a diminished seventh chord built on the seventh scale degree; in the key of C major, this chord would be B diminished seventh, which consists of the notes B, D, F and A).
Roman numerals can also be used in stringed instrument notation to indicate the position or string to play. In some string music, the string on which it is suggested that the performer play the note is indicated with a Roman numeral (e.g., on a four-string orchestral string instrument, I indicates the highest-pitched, thinnest string and IV indicates the lowest-pitched, thickest bass string). In some orchestral parts, chamber music and solo works for string instruments, the composer tells the performer which string to use with the Roman numeral. Alternately, the composer starts the note name with the sting to use—e.g., "sul G" means "play on the G string".
Figured bass notation
Figured bass or thoroughbass is a kind of musical notation used in almost all Baroque music ( 1600–1750), though rarely in music from later than 1750, to indicate harmonies in relation to a conventionally written bass line. Figured bass is closely associated with chord-playing basso continuo accompaniment instruments, which include harpsichord, pipe organ and lute. Added numbers, symbols, and accidentals beneath the staff indicate the intervals above the bass note to play; that is, the numbers stand for the number of scale steps above the written note to play the figured notes.
For example, in the figured bass below, the bass note is a C, and the numbers 4 and 6 indicate that notes a fourth and a sixth above (F and A) should be played, giving the second inversion of the F major triad.
If no numbers are written beneath a bass note, the figure is assumed to be , which calls for a third and a fifth above the bass note (i.e., a root position triad).
In the 2010s, some classical musicians who specialize in music from the Baroque era can still perform chords using figured bass notation; in many cases, however, the chord-playing performers read a fully notated accompaniment that has been prepared for the piece by the music publisher. Such a part, with fully written-out chords, is called a "realization" of the figured bass part.
Chord letters
Chord letters are used by musicologists, music theorists and advanced university music students to analyze songs and pieces. Chord letters use upper-case and lower-case letters to indicate the roots of chords, followed by symbols that specify the chord quality.
Notation in popular music
In most genres of popular music, including jazz, pop, and rock, a chord name and the corresponding symbol are typically composed of one or more parts. In these genres, chord-playing musicians in the rhythm section (e.g., electric guitar, acoustic guitar, piano, Hammond organ, etc.) typically improvise the specific "voicing" of each chord from a song's chord progression by interpreting the written chord symbols appearing in the lead sheet or fake book. Normally, these chord symbols include:
A (big) letter indicating the root note (e.g., C).
A symbol or abbreviation indicating the chord quality (e.g., minor, aug or ). If no chord quality is specified, the chord is assumed to be a major triad by default.
Number(s) indicating the stacked intervals above the root note (e.g., 7 or 13).
Additional musical symbols or abbreviations for special alterations (e.g., 5, 5 or add13).
An added slash "/" and an upper case letter indicates that a bass note other than the root should be played. These are called slash chords. For instance, C/F indicates that a C major triad should be played with an added F in the bass. In some genres of modern jazz, two chords with a slash between them may indicate an advanced chord type called a polychord, which is the playing of two chords simultaneously. The correct notation of this should be , which sometimes get mixed up with slash chords.
Chord qualities are related with the qualities of the component intervals that define the chord. The main chord qualities are:
Major and minor (a chord is "Major" by default and altered with added info: "C" = C major, "Cm" = c minor).
augmented, diminished, and half-diminished,
dominant seventh.
Symbols
The symbols used for notating chords are:
m, min, or − indicates a minor chord. The "m" must be lowercase to distinguish it from the "M" for major.
M, Ma, Maj, , or (no symbol) indicates a major chord. In a jazz context, this typically indicates that the player should use any suitable chord of a major quality, for example a major seventh chord or a 6/9 chord. In a lot of jazz styles, an unembellished major triad is rarely if ever played, but in a lead sheet the choice of which major quality chord to use is left to the performer.
+ or aug indicates an augmented chord (A or a is not used).
or dim indicates a diminished chord, either a diminished triad or a diminished seventh chord (d is not used).
indicates a half-diminished seventh chord. In some fake books, the abbreviation m7(5) is used as an equivalent symbol.
2 is mostly used as an extra note in a chord (e.g., add2, sus2).
3 is the minor or major quality of the chord and is rarely written as a number.
4 is mostly used as an extra note in a chord (e.g., add4, sus4).
5 is the (perfect) fifth of the chord and is only written as a number when altered (e.g., F7(5)). In guitar music, like rock, a "5" indicates a power chord, which consists of only the root and fifth, possibly with the root doubled an octave higher.
6 indicates a sixth chord. There are no rules if the 6 replaces the 5th or not.
7 indicates a dominant seventh chord. However, if Maj7, M7 or 7 is indicated, this is a major 7th chord (e.g., GM7 or FΔ7). Very rarely, also dom is used for dominant 7th.
9 indicates a ninth chord, which in jazz usually includes the dominant seventh as well, if it is a dominant chord.
11 indicates an eleventh chord, which in jazz usually includes the dominant seventh and ninth as well, if it is a dominant chord.
13 indicates a thirteenth chord, which in jazz usually includes the dominant seventh, ninth and eleventh as well.
6/9 indicates a triad with the addition of the sixth and ninth.
sus4 (or simply 4) indicates a sus chord with the third omitted and the fourth used instead. Other notes may be added to a sus4 chord, indicated with the word "add" and the scale degree (e.g., Asus4(add9) or Asus4(add7)).
sus2 (or simply 2) indicates a sus chord with the third omitted and the second (which may also be called the ninth) used instead. As with "sus4", a "sus2" chord can have other scale degrees added (e.g., Asus2(add7) or Asus2(add4)).
(9) (parenthesis) is used to indicate explicit chord alterations (e.g., A7(9)). The parenthesis is probably left from older days when jazz musicians weren't used to "altered chords". Albeit important, the parenthesis can be left unplayed (with no "musical harm").
add indicates that an additional interval number should be added to the chord. (e.g., C7add13 is a C 7th chord plus an added 13th).
alt or alt dom indicates an altered dominant seventh chord (e.g., G711).
omit5 (or simply no5) indicates that the (indicated) note should be omitted.
Examples
The table below lists common chord types, their symbols, and their components.
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="3" style="background: Silver" |Chord
! colspan="13" style="background: Silver" |Components
|-
! rowspan="2" |Name
! colspan="2" |Symbol (on C)
!Interval
!P1||m2||M2||m3!!M3!!P4!!d5||P5!!A5||M6/d7||m7||M7
|-
!Short
!Long
!Semitones
! 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 || 10 || 11
|- bgcolor="White"
|Major triad
|CCΔ
|
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || || style="text-align: center;" | M3 || || || style="text-align: center;" | P5 || || || ||
|-
|Major sixth chord
|C6CM6
|Cmaj6
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || || style="text-align: center;" | M3 || || || style="text-align: center;" | P5 || || style="text-align: center;" | M6 || ||
|- bgcolor="White"
|Dominant seventh chord
|C7
|Cdom7
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || || style="text-align: center;" | M3 || || || style="text-align: center;" | P5 || || || style="text-align: center;" | m7||
|-
|Major seventh chord
|CM7C∆7
|Cmaj7
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || || style="text-align: center;" | M3 || || || style="text-align: center;" | P5 || || || || style="text-align: center;" | M7
|- bgcolor="White"
|Augmented triad
|C+
|Caug
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || || style="text-align: center;" | M3 || || || || style="text-align: center;" | A5|| || ||
|-
|Augmented seventh chord
|C+7
|Caug7
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || || style="text-align: center;" | M3 || || || || style="text-align: center;" | A5|| ||m7
|
|- bgcolor="White"
|Minor triad
|Cm
|Cmin
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || style="text-align: center;" | m3|| || || || style="text-align: center;" | P5 || || || ||
|-
|Minor sixth chord
|Cm6
|Cmin6
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || style="text-align: center;" | m3|| || || || style="text-align: center;" | P5 || || style="text-align: center;" | M6 || ||
|- bgcolor="White"
|Minor seventh chord
|Cm7
|Cmin7
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || style="text-align: center;" | m3|| || || || style="text-align: center;" | P5 || || || style="text-align: center;" | m7||
|-
|Minor-major seventh chord
|CmM7 Cm/M7 Cm(M7)
|Cminmaj7 Cmin/maj7 Cmin(maj7)
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || style="text-align: center;" | m3|| || || || style="text-align: center;" | P5 || || || || style="text-align: center;" | M7
|- bgcolor="White"
|Diminished triad
|C
|Cdim
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || style="text-align: center;" | m3|| || || style="text-align: center;" | d5|| || || || ||
|-
|Diminished seventh chord
|C7
|Cdim7
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || style="text-align: center;" | m3|| || || style="text-align: center;" | d5|| || || style="text-align: center;" | d7|| ||
|- bgcolor="White"
|Half-diminished seventh chord
|CC7
|
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || style="text-align: center;" | m3|| || || style="text-align: center;" | d5|| || || || style="text-align: center;" | m7||
|}
Use
The basic function of chord symbols is to eliminate the need to write out sheet music. The modern jazz player has extensive knowledge of the chordal functions and can mostly play music by reading the chord symbols only. Advanced chords are common especially in modern jazz. Altered 9ths, 11ths and 5ths are not common in pop music. In jazz, a chord chart is used by comping musicians (jazz guitar, jazz piano, Hammond organ) to improvise a chordal accompaniment and to play improvised solos. Jazz bass players improvise a bassline from a chord chart. Chord charts are used by horn players and other solo instruments to guide their solo improvisations.
Interpretation of chord symbols depends on the genre of music being played. In jazz from the bebop era or later, major and minor chords are typically realized as seventh chords even if only "C" or "Cm" appear in the chart. In jazz charts, seventh chords are often realized with upper extensions, such as the ninth, sharp eleventh, and thirteenth, even if the chart only indicates "A7". In jazz, the root and fifth are often omitted from chord voicings, except when there is a diminished fifth or an augmented fifth.
In a pop or rock context, however, "C" and "Cm" would almost always be played as triads, with no sevenths. In pop and rock, in the relatively less common cases where songwriters wish a dominant seventh, major seventh, or minor seventh chord, they indicate this explicitly with the indications "C7", "Cmaj7" or "Cm7".
Characteristics
Within the diatonic scale, every chord has certain characteristics, which include:
the number of pitch classes (distinct notes without respect to octave) in the chord,
the scale degree of the root note,
the position or inversion of the chord,
the general type of intervals it is constructed from—for example, seconds, thirds, or fourths, and
counts of each pitch class as occur between all combinations of notes the chord contains.
Number of notes
Two-note combinations, whether referred to as chords or intervals, are called dyads. In the context of a specific section in a piece of music, dyads can be heard as chords if they contain the most important notes of a certain chord. For example, in a piece in C Major, after a section of tonic C Major chords, a dyad containing the notes B and D sounds to most listeners as a first inversion G Major chord. Other dyads are more ambiguous, an aspect that composers can use creatively. For example, a dyad with a perfect fifth has no third, so it does not sound major or minor; a composer who ends a section on a perfect fifth could subsequently add the missing third. Another example is a dyad outlining the tritone, such as the notes C and F# in C Major. This dyad could be heard as implying a D7 chord (resolving to G Major) or as implying a C diminished chord (resolving to Db Major). In unaccompanied duos for two instruments, such as flute duos, the only combinations of notes that are possible are dyads, which means that all of the chord progressions must be implied through dyads, as well as with arpeggios.
Chords constructed of three notes of some underlying scale are described as triads. Chords of four notes are known as tetrads, those containing five are called pentads and those using six are hexads. Sometimes the terms trichord, tetrachord, pentachord, and hexachord are used—though these more usually refer to the pitch classes of any scale, not generally played simultaneously. Chords that may contain more than three notes include pedal point chords, dominant seventh chords, extended chords, added tone chords, clusters, and polychords.
Polychords are formed by two or more chords superimposed. Often these may be analysed as extended chords; examples include tertian, altered chord, secundal chord, quartal and quintal harmony and Tristan chord. Another example is when G7(119) (G–B–D–F–A–C) is formed from G major (G–B–D) and D major (D–F–A). A nonchord tone is a dissonant or unstable tone that lies outside the chord currently heard, though often resolving to a chord tone.
Scale degree
In the key of C major, the first degree of the scale, called the tonic, is the note C itself. A C major chord, the major triad built on the note C (C–E–G), is referred to as the one chord of that key and notated in Roman numerals as I. The same C major chord can be found in other scales: it forms chord III in the key of A minor (A→B→C) and chord IV in the key of G major (G→A→B→C). This numbering indicates the chords's function.
Many analysts use lower-case Roman numerals to indicate minor triads and upper-case numerals for major triads, and degree and plus signs ( and ) to indicate diminished and augmented triads respectively. Otherwise, all the numerals may be upper-case and the qualities of the chords inferred from the scale degree. Chords outside the scale can be indicated by placing a flat/sharp sign before the chord—for example, the chord E major in the key of C major is represented by III. The tonic of the scale may be indicated to the left (e.g., "F:") or may be understood from a key signature or other contextual clues. Indications of inversions or added tones may be omitted if they are not relevant to the analysis. Roman numeral analysis indicates the root of the chord as a scale degree within a particular major key as follows.
Inversion
In the harmony of Western art music, a chord is in root position when the tonic note is the lowest in the chord (the bass note), and the other notes are above it. When the lowest note is not the tonic, the chord is inverted. Chords that have many constituent notes can have many different inverted positions as shown below for the C major chord:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Bass note || Position || Order of notes(starting from the bass)
! Notation
|-
| C
|root position|| C–E–G or C–G–E || as G is a fifth above C and E is a third above C
|-
| E
|first inversion|| E–G–C or E–C–G || as C is a sixth above E and G is a third above E
|-
| G
|second inversion|| G–C–E or G–E–C|| as E is a sixth above G and C is a fourth above G
|}
Further, a four-note chord can be inverted to four different positions by the same method as triadic inversion. For example, a G7 chord can be in root position (G as bass note); first inversion (B as bass note); second inversion (D as bass note); or third inversion (F as bass note).
Where guitar chords are concerned, the term "inversion" is used slightly differently; to refer to stock fingering "shapes".
Secundal, tertian, and quartal chords
Many chords are a sequence of notes separated by intervals of roughly the same size. Chords can be classified into different categories by this size:
Tertian chords can be decomposed into a series of (major or minor) thirds. For example, the C major triad (C–E–G) is defined by a sequence of two intervals, the first (C–E) being a major third and the second (E–G) being a minor third. Most common chords are tertian.
Secundal chords can be decomposed into a series of (major or minor) seconds. For example, the chord C–D–E is a series of seconds, containing a major second (C–D) and a minor second (D–E).
Quartal chords can be decomposed into a series of (perfect or augmented) fourths. Quartal harmony normally works with a combination of perfect and augmented fourths. Diminished fourths are enharmonically equivalent to major thirds, so they are uncommon. For example, the chord C–F–B is a series of fourths, containing a perfect fourth (C–F) and an augmented fourth/tritone (F–B).
These terms can become ambiguous when dealing with non-diatonic scales, such as the pentatonic or chromatic scales. The use of accidentals can also complicate the terminology. For example, the chord B–E–A appears to be quartal, as a series of diminished fourths (B–E and E–A), but it is enharmonically equivalent to (and sonically indistinguishable from) the tertian chord C–E–G, which is a series of major thirds (C–E and E–G).
Harmonic content
The notes of a chord form intervals with each of the other notes of the chord in combination. A 3-note chord has 3 of these harmonic intervals, a 4-note chord has 6, a 5-note chord has 10, a 6-note chord has 15. The absence, presence, and placement of certain key intervals plays a large part in the sound of the chord, and sometimes of the selection of the chord that follows.
A chord containing tritones is called tritonic; one without tritones is atritonic. Harmonic tritones are an important part of dominant seventh chords, giving their sound a characteristic tension, and making the tritone interval likely to move in certain stereotypical ways to the following chord. Tritones are also present in diminished seventh and half-diminished chords.
A chord containing semitones, whether appearing as minor seconds or major sevenths, is called hemitonic; one without semitones is anhemitonic. Harmonic semitones are an important part of major seventh chords, giving their sound a characteristic high tension, and making the harmonic semitone likely to move in certain stereotypical ways to the following chord. A chord containing major sevenths but no minor seconds is much less harsh in sound than one containing minor seconds as well.
Other chords of interest might include the
Diminished triad, which has many minor thirds and no major thirds, many tritones but no perfect fifths
Augmented triad, which has many major thirds and no minor thirds or perfect fifths
Dominant seventh flat five chord, which has many major thirds and tritones and no minor thirds or perfect fifths
Common types of chords
Triads
Triads, also called triadic chords, are tertian chords with three notes. The four basic triads are described below.
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"
|-
! rowspan=2 |Type
! colspan=2 | Component intervals
! rowspan=2 | Chord symbol
! rowspan=2 | Notes
! rowspan=2 | Audio
|-
! Third || Fifth
|- bgcolor="White"
| Major triad
| major || perfect || C, CM, Cmaj, C, Cma || C E G ||
|-
| Minor triad
| minor || perfect || Cm, Cmin, C−, Cmi || C E G ||
|- bgcolor="White"
| Augmented triad
| major || augmented || Caug, C, C+ || C E G ||
|-
| Diminished triad
| minor || diminished || Cdim, C, Cm(5) || ||
|}
Seventh chords
Seventh chords are tertian chords, constructed by adding a fourth note to a triad, at the interval of a third above the fifth of the chord. This creates the interval of a seventh above the root of the chord, the next natural step in composing tertian chords. The seventh chord built on the fifth step of the scale (the dominant seventh) is the only dominant seventh chord available in the major scale: it contains all three notes of the diminished triad of the seventh and is frequently used as a stronger substitute for it.
There are various types of seventh chords depending on the quality of both the chord and the seventh added. In chord notation the chord type is sometimes superscripted and sometimes not (e.g., Dm7, Dm7, and Dm7 are all identical).
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"
|-
! rowspan=2 |Type
! colspan=3 | Component intervals
! rowspan=2 | Chord symbol
! rowspan=2 | Notes
! rowspan=2 | Audio
|-
! Third || Fifth || Seventh
|- bgcolor="White"
| Diminished seventh
| minor || diminished || diminished || C7, Cdim7|| C E G B ||
|-
| Half-diminished seventh
| minor || diminished || minor || C7, Cm75, || C E G B ||
|- bgcolor="White"
| Minor seventh
| minor || perfect || minor || Cm7, Cmin7, , || C E G B ||
|-
| Minor major seventh
| minor || perfect || major || CmM7, , , , || C E G B ||
|- bgcolor="White"
| Dominant seventh
| major || perfect || minor || C7, Cdom7 || C E G B ||
|-
| Major seventh
| major || perfect || major || CM7, CM7, Cmaj7, C7, Cj7 || C E G B ||
|- bgcolor="White"
| Augmented seventh
| major || augmented || minor || C+7, Caug7, C7+, C7+5, C75 || C E G B ||
|-
| Augmented major seventh
| major || augmented || major || C+M7, CM7+5, CM75, C+j7, C+7 || C E G B ||
|}
Extended chords
Extended chords are triads with further tertian notes added beyond the seventh: the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth chords. For example, a dominant thirteenth chord consists of the notes C–E–G–B–D–F–A:
The upper structure or extensions, i.e., notes beyond the seventh, are shown in red. This chord is just a theoretical illustration of this chord. In practice, a jazz pianist or jazz guitarist would not normally play the chord all in thirds as illustrated. Jazz voicings typically use the third, seventh, and then the extensions such as the ninth and thirteenth, and in some cases the eleventh. The root is often omitted from chord voicings, as the bass player will play the root. The fifth is often omitted if it is a perfect fifth. Augmented and diminished fifths are normally included in voicings.
After the thirteenth, any notes added in thirds duplicate notes elsewhere in the chord; all seven notes of the scale are present in the chord, so adding more notes does not add new pitch classes. Such chords may be constructed only by using notes that lie outside the diatonic seven-note scale.
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"
|-
! rowspan="2" |Type
! colspan="4" | Components
! rowspan="2" |Chordsymbol
! rowspan="2" | Notes
! rowspan="2" | Audio
|-
! colspan="1" | Chord
! colspan="3" | Extensions
|- bgcolor="White"
|Dominant ninth
| dominant seventh ||major ninth|| style="text-align: center;" | — || style="text-align: center;" | — || C9|| C E G B D ||
|-
|Dominant eleventh
| dominant seventh(the third is usually omitted)|| major ninth || perfect eleventh|| style="text-align: center;" | — || C11|| C E G B D F ||
|- bgcolor="White"
|Dominant thirteenth
| dominant seventh || major ninth || perfect eleventh(usually omitted)||major thirteenth|| C13|| C E G B D F A ||
|}
Other extended chords follow similar rules, so that for example maj9, maj11, and maj13 contain major seventh chords rather than dominant seventh chords, while m9, m11, and m13 contain minor seventh chords.
Altered chords
The third and seventh of the chord are always determined by the symbols shown above. The root cannot be so altered without changing the name of the chord, while the third cannot be altered without altering the chord's quality. Nevertheless, the fifth, ninth, eleventh and thirteenth may all be chromatically altered by accidentals.
These are noted alongside the altered element. Accidentals are most often used with dominant seventh chords. Altered dominant seventh chords (C7alt) may have a minor ninth, a sharp ninth, a diminished fifth, or an augmented fifth. Some write this as C7+9, which assumes also the minor ninth, diminished fifth and augmented fifth. The augmented ninth is often referred to in blues and jazz as a blue note, being enharmonically equivalent to the minor third or tenth. When superscripted numerals are used the different numbers may be listed horizontally or vertically.
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"
|-
! rowspan=2 |Type
! colspan=2 | Components
! rowspan=2 | Chord symbol
! rowspan=2 | Notes
! rowspan=2 | Audio
|-
! colspan=1 | Chord
! colspan=1 | Alteration
|- bgcolor="White"
| Seventh augmented fifth
| dominant seventh || augmented fifth || C7+5, C75 ||C E G B
|
|-
| Seventh minor ninth
| dominant seventh || minor ninth || C7−9, C79 ||C E G B D
|
|- bgcolor="White"
| Seventh sharp ninth
| dominant seventh || augmented ninth || C7+9, C79 ||C E G B D
|
|-
| Seventh augmented eleventh
| dominant seventh || augmented eleventh || C7+11, C711 ||C E G B D F
|
|- bgcolor="White"
| Seventh diminished thirteenth
| dominant seventh || minor thirteenth || C7−13, C713 ||C E G B D F A
|
|-
| Half-diminished seventh
| minor seventh || diminished fifth || C, C7, Cm75 ||C E G B
|
|}
Added tone chords
An added tone chord is a triad with an added, non-tertian note, such as an added sixth or a chord with an added second (ninth) or fourth (eleventh) or a combination of the three. These chords do not include "intervening" thirds as in an extended chord. Added chords can also have variations. Thus, madd9, m4 and m6 are minor triads with extended notes.
Sixth chords can belong to either of two groups. One is first inversion chords and added sixth chords that contain a sixth from the root. The other group is inverted chords in which the interval of a sixth appears above a bass note that is not the root.
The major sixth chord (also called, sixth or added sixth with the chord notation 6, e.g., C6) is by far the most common type of sixth chord of the first group. It comprises a major triad with the added major sixth above the root, common in popular music. For example, the chord C6 contains the notes C–E–G–A. The minor sixth chord (min6 or m6, e.g., Cm6) is a minor triad, still with a major 6. For example, the chord Cm6 contains the notes C–E–G–A.
The augmented sixth chord usually appears in chord notation as its enharmonic equivalent, the seventh chord. This chord contains two notes separated by the interval of an augmented sixth (or, by inversion, a diminished third, though this inversion is rare). The augmented sixth is generally used as a dissonant interval most commonly used in motion towards a dominant chord in root position (with the root doubled to create the octave the augmented sixth chord resolves to) or to a tonic chord in second inversion (a tonic triad with the fifth doubled for the same purpose). In this case, the tonic note of the key is included in the chord, sometimes along with an optional fourth note, to create one of the following (illustrated here in the key of C major):
Italian sixth chord: A, C, F
French sixth chord: A, C, D, F
German sixth chord: A, C, E, F
The augmented sixth family of chords exhibits certain peculiarities. Since they are not based on triads, as are seventh chords and other sixth chords, they are not generally regarded as having roots (nor, therefore, inversions), although one re-voicing of the notes is common (with the namesake interval inverted to create a diminished third).
The second group of sixth chords includes inverted major and minor chords, which may be called sixth chords in that the six-three () and six-four () chords contain intervals of a sixth with the bass note, though this is not the root. Nowadays, this is mostly for academic study or analysis (see figured bass) but the Neapolitan sixth chord is an important example; a major triad with a flat supertonic scale degree as its root that is called a "sixth" because it is almost always found in first inversion. Though a technically accurate Roman numeral analysis would be II, it is generally labelled N6. In C major, the chord is notated (from root position) D, F, A. Because it uses chromatically altered tones, this chord is often grouped with the borrowed chords but the chord is not borrowed from the relative major or minor and it may appear in both major and minor keys.
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"
|-
! rowspan=2 |Type
! colspan=3 | Components
! rowspan=2 | Chordsymbol
! rowspan=2 | Notes
! rowspan=2 | Audio
|-
! colspan=1 | Chord
! colspan=2 | Interval(s)
|- bgcolor="White"
| Add nine
| major triad || major ninth || style="text-align: center;" | — || C2, Cadd9 || C E G D ||
|-
| Add fourth
| major triad || perfect fourth || style="text-align: center;" | — ||C4, Cadd11 || C E G F ||
|- bgcolor="White"
| Add sixth
| major triad || major sixth || style="text-align: center;" | — || C6 || C E G A ||
|-
| Six-nine
| major triad || major sixth || major ninth || C6/9 || C E G A D || style="text-align: center;" | —
|- bgcolor="White"
| Seven-six
| major triad || major sixth || minor seventh || C7/6 || C E G A B || style="text-align: center;" | —
|-
| Mixed-third
| major triad || minor third || style="text-align: center;" | — || — || C E E G ||
|}
Suspended chords
A suspended chord, or "sus chord", is a chord in which the third is replaced by either the second or the fourth. This produces two main chord types: the suspended second (sus2) and the suspended fourth (sus4). The chords, Csus2 and Csus4, for example, consist of the notes C–D–G and C–F–G, respectively. There is also a third type of suspended chord, in which both the second and fourth are present, for example the chord with the notes C–D–F–G.
The name suspended derives from an early polyphonic technique developed during the common practice period, in which a stepwise melodic progress to a harmonically stable note in any particular part was often momentarily delayed, or suspended, by extending the duration of the previous note. The resulting unexpected dissonance could then be all the more satisfyingly resolved by the eventual appearance of the displaced note. In traditional music theory, the inclusion of the third in either chord would negate the suspension, so such chords would be called added ninth and added eleventh chords instead.
In modern lay usage, the term is restricted to the displacement of the third only, and the dissonant second or fourth no longer must be held over (prepared) from the previous chord. Neither is it now obligatory for the displaced note to make an appearance at all, though in the majority of cases the conventional stepwise resolution to the third is still observed. In post-bop and modal jazz compositions and improvisations, suspended seventh chords are often used in nontraditional ways: these often do not function as V chords and do not resolve from the fourth to the third. The lack of resolution gives the chord an ambiguous, static quality. Indeed, the third is often played on top of a sus4 chord. A good example is the jazz standard, "Maiden Voyage".
Extended versions are also possible, such as the seventh suspended fourth, which, with root C, contains the notes C–F–G–B and is notated as C7sus4. Csus4 is sometimes written Csus since the sus4 is more common than the sus2.
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"
|-
! rowspan=2 |Type
! colspan=4 | Components
! rowspan=2 | Chordsymbol
! rowspan=2 | Notes
! rowspan=2 | Audio
|-
! colspan=1 | Chord
! colspan=3 | Interval(s)
|- bgcolor="White"
| Suspended second
| open fifth || major second || style="text-align: center;" | — || style="text-align: center;" | — || Csus2 || C D G ||
|-
| Suspended fourth
| open fifth || perfect fourth || style="text-align: center;" | — || style="text-align: center;" | — || Csus4 || C F G ||
|- bgcolor="White"
| Jazz sus
| open fifth || perfect fourth || minor seventh || major ninth || C9sus4 || C F G B D ||
|}
Borrowed chords
A borrowed chord is one from a different key than the home key, the key of the piece it is used in. The most common occurrence of this is where a chord from the parallel major or minor key is used. Particularly good examples can be found throughout the works of composers such as Schubert. For instance, for a composer working in the C major key, a major III chord (e.g., an E major chord) would be borrowed, as this chord appears only in the key of C minor. Although borrowed chords could theoretically include chords taken from any key other than the home key, this is not how the term is used when a chord is described in formal musical analysis.
When a chord is analysed as "borrowed" from another key it may be shown by the Roman numeral corresponding with that key after a slash. For example, V/V (pronounced "five of five") indicates the dominant chord of the dominant key of the present home-key. The dominant key of C major is G major so this secondary dominant is the chord of the fifth degree of the G major scale, which is D major (which can also be described as II relative to the key of C major, not to be confused with the supertonic ii namely D minor.). If used for a significant duration, the use of the D major chord may cause a modulation to a new key (in this case to G major).
Borrowed chords are widely used in Western popular music and rock music. For example, there are a number of songs in E major which use the III chord (e.g., a G major chord used in an E major song), the VII chord (e.g., a D major chord used in an E major song) and the VI chord (e.g., a C major chord used in an E major song). All of these chords are "borrowed" from the key of E minor.
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Dahlhaus, Carl. Gjerdingen, Robert O. trans. (1990). Studies in the Origin of Harmonic Tonality, p. 67. Princeton University Press. .
Grout, Donald Jay (1960). A History Of Western Music. Norton Publishing.
Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell, eds. (2001). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. .
External links
Harmony
Accompaniment
Music theory | [
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224259 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceedings%20of%20the%20National%20Academy%20of%20Sciences%20of%20the%20United%20States%20of%20America | Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (often abbreviated PNAS or PNAS USA) is a peer-reviewed multidisciplinary scientific journal. It is the official journal of the National Academy of Sciences, published since 1915, and publishes original research, scientific reviews, commentaries, and letters. According to Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2020 impact factor of 11.205. PNAS is the second most cited scientific journal, with more than 1.9 million cumulative citations from 2008 to 2018. In the mass media, PNAS has been described variously as "prestigious", "sedate", "renowned", and "high impact".
PNAS is a delayed open access journal, with an embargo period of six months that can be bypassed for an author fee (hybrid open access). Since September 2017, open access articles are published under a Creative Commons license. Since January 2019, PNAS is online-only, although print issues are available on-demand.
History
PNAS was established by the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) in 1914, with its first issue published in 1915. The NAS itself had been founded in 1863 as a private institution, but chartered by the United States Congress, with the goal to "investigate, examine, experiment, and report upon any subject of science or art".
Prior to the inception of PNAS, the National Academy of Sciences published three volumes of organizational transactions, consisting mostly of minutes of meetings and annual reports. For much of the journal's history, PNAS published brief first announcements of Academy members' and associates' contributions to research. In December 1995, PNAS opened submissions to all authors without first needing to be sponsored by an NAS member.
Members were allowed to communicate up to two papers from non-members to PNAS every year. The review process for these papers was anonymous in that the identities of the referees were not revealed to the authors. Referees were selected by the NAS member. PNAS eliminated communicated submissions through NAS members , while continuing to make the final decision on all PNAS papers.
95% of papers are peer reviewed Direct Submissions and 5% are contributed submissions.
American national security concerns
In 2003, PNAS issued an editorial stating its policy on publication of sensitive material in the life sciences. PNAS stated that it would "continue to monitor submitted papers for material that may be deemed inappropriate and that could, if published, compromise the public welfare." This statement was in keeping with the efforts of several other journals. In 2005 PNAS published an article titled "Analyzing a bioterror attack on the food supply: The case of botulinum toxin in milk", despite objections raised by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The paper was published with a commentary by the president of the Academy at the time, Bruce Alberts, titled "Modeling attacks on the food supply".
Editors
The following people have been editors-in-chief of the journal:
The first managing editor of the journal was mathematician Edwin Bidwell Wilson.
Notes
References
External links
Weekly journals
Delayed open access journals
Hybrid open access journals
English-language journals
Publications established in 1915
Multidisciplinary scientific journals
United States National Academy of Sciences
Academic journals published by learned and professional societies of the United States | [
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224263 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony%20No.%209%20%28Mahler%29 | Symphony No. 9 (Mahler) | The Symphony No. 9 by Gustav Mahler was written between 1908 and 1909, and was the last symphony that he completed. A typical performance takes about 75 to 90 minutes. A survey of conductors voted Mahler's Symphony No. 9 the fourth greatest symphony of all time in a ballot conducted by BBC Music Magazine in 2016. Like his earlier Das Lied von der Erde, Mahler did not live to see his Symphony No. 9 performed.
Though the work is often described as being in the key of D major, the tonal scheme of the symphony as a whole is progressive. While the opening movement is in D major, the finale is in D major.
Instrumentation
The symphony is scored for large orchestra, consisting of the following:
Woodwinds
piccolo
4 flutes
4 oboes (4th doubling cor anglais)
E clarinet
3 B and A clarinets
bass clarinet
4 bassoons (4th doubling contrabassoon)
Brass
4 horns
3 trumpets
3 trombones
tuba
Percussion
4 timpani
bass drum
snare drum
cymbals
triangle
tam-tam
3 deep bells in F, A, and B
glockenspiel
Strings
2 harps
1st violins
2nd violins
violas
cellos
double basses
Structure
{{Listen|type=music|header=Symphony No. 9
|filename=Mahler - Symphony N° 9 - I (B. Walter, 1938).ogg|title=I. Andante comodo (25:01)
|filename2=Mahler - Symphony N° 9 - II (B. Walter, 1938).ogg|title2=II. Im Tempo eines gemächlichen Ländlers. Etwas täppisch und sehr derb (15:46)
|filename3=Mahler - Symphony N° 9 - III (B. Walter, 1938).ogg|title3=III. Rondo-Burleske. Allegro assai. Sehr trotzig (11:26)
|filename4=Mahler - Symphony N° 9 - IV (B. Walter, 1938).ogg|title4=IV. Adagio. Sehr langsam und noch zurückhaltend. (18:30)|description4=Performed by Bruno Walter and the Vienna Philharmonic, 16 January 1938 in Vienna at the Musikverein}}
The symphony is in four movements:
Although the symphony has the traditional number of movements, it is unusual in that the first and last are slow rather than fast. As is often the case with Mahler, one of the middle movements is a ländler.
I. Andante comodo
The first movement embraces a loose sonata form. The key areas provide a continuation of the tonal juxtaposition displayed in earlier works (notably Symphonies No. 6 and No. 7). The work opens with a hesitant, syncopated rhythmic motif (which Leonard Bernstein suggested is a depiction of Mahler's irregular heartbeat), which is heard throughout the movement.
The brief introduction also presents two other ideas: a three-note motif announced by the harp that provides much of the musical basis for the rest of the movement,
and a muted horn fanfare that is also heard later.
In the development, it is heard in the horns and clarinets in Mahler's original form, with a third descending into a fifth. At the height of the development, the trombones and tuba announce the rhythmic heartbeat motif, marked within the score "Mit höchster Gewalt" (with greatest force). It leads into a solemn funeral march, marked "Wie ein Kondukt" (like a funeral procession), on a timpani ostinato of the harp's three-note motif. Low bells are heard here for the first and only time in the symphony, accompanying the timpani in the three-note motif.
Near the end of the movement is a remarkable example of Mahler's linear polyphony, in which piccolo, flute, oboe, and solo violin imitate bird-calls. Alban Berg asserted that this section was a "vision of the hereafter". Allusions to other music in this movement include references to Ludwig van Beethoven's Piano Sonata Op. 81a and to Johann Strauss II's waltz Freuet Euch des Lebens, the latter first noted by Philip Barford in 1971.
II. Im Tempo eines gemächlichen Ländlers. Etwas täppisch und sehr derb
The second movement is a series of dances, and opens with a rustic ländler, which becomes distorted to the point that it no longer resembles a dance.
The movement contains shades of the second movement of Mahler's Symphony No. 4, in the distortion of a traditional dance into a bitter and sarcastic one. Traditional chord sequences are altered into near-unrecognizable variations, turning the rustic yet gradually decaying C major introductory ländler into a vicious whole-tone waltz, saturated with chromaticism and frenetic rhythms. Strewn amidst these sarcastic dances is a slower and calmer ländler which reintroduces the "sighing" motif from the first movement.
The movement ends with a cheeky pianissimo nod from the piccolo and contrabassoon.
III. Rondo-Burleske: Allegro assai. Sehr trotzig
The third movement, in the form of a rondo, displays the final maturation of Mahler's contrapuntal skills. It opens with a dissonant theme in the trumpet which is treated in the form of a double fugue .
The following five-note motif introduced by strings in unison recalls the second movement of his Fifth Symphony.
The addition of Burleske (a parody with imitations) to the title of the movement refers to the mixture of dissonance with Baroque counterpoint. Although the term "Burlesque" means "humorous", the actual "humor" of the movement is relatively small compared to the overall field of manic violence, considering only two small neo-classical sections that appear more like a flashback than playfulness. The autograph score is marked "to my brothers in Apollo".
IV. Adagio. Sehr langsam und noch zurückhaltend
The final movement, marked zurückhaltend ("very slowly and held back"; literally, "reservedly"), opens with only strings. Commentators have noted the similarity of the opening theme in particular to the hymn tune "Eventide" (familiarly sung as "Abide with Me").
But most importantly it incorporates a direct quote from the Rondo-Burleske's middle section. Here it becomes an elegy. After several impassioned climaxes, the movement becomes increasingly fragmented and the coda ends quietly. On the closing pages, Mahler quotes the first violins from his own Kindertotenlieder: The day is fine on yonder heights.
The last note is marked ersterbend ("dying away"). The last two pages last for six minutes, an unprecedented amount of time for so few notes. Leonard Bernstein speculated at the end of his fifth Norton lecture that the entire movement is symbolically prophesying three kinds of death: Mahler's own impending death, the death of tonality, and the death of "Faustian" culture in all the arts.
Mahler's death
Mahler died in May 1911, without ever hearing his Ninth Symphony performed. The work's ending is usually interpreted as his conscious farewell to the world, as it was composed following the death of his beloved daughter Maria Anna in 1907 and the diagnosis of his fatal heart disease. However, this notion is disputed inasmuch as Mahler felt that he was in good health at the time of the composition of the Ninth Symphony; he had had a very successful season (1909–10) as the conductor of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra and, before that, the Metropolitan Opera (New York). In his last letters, Mahler indicated that he was looking forward to an extensive tour with the orchestra for the 1910–11 season. Moreover, Mahler worked on his unfinished Tenth Symphony until his death from endocarditis in May 1911.
Mahler was a superstitious man and believed in the so-called curse of the ninth, which he thought had already killed Beethoven, Schubert and Bruckner; this is proven by the fact that he refused to number his previous work Das Lied von der Erde as his ninth symphony, although it is often considered a symphony.
Premieres
The work was premiered on 26 June 1912, at the Vienna Festival by the Vienna Philharmonic conducted by Bruno Walter. It was first published in the same year by Universal Edition.
Dutch premiere: 2 May 1918, Amsterdam, with the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra conducted by Willem Mengelberg
UK premiere: 27 February 1930, Manchester with The Hallé conducted by Hamilton Harty
American premiere: 16 October 1931, Boston, with the Boston Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Serge Koussevitzky
Japanese premiere: 16 April 1967, Tokyo, with the Moscow Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Kirill Kondrashin
Interpretation
The enjoyment of Mahler's Ninth Symphony prompted the essayist Lewis Thomas to write the title essay in his Late Night Thoughts on Listening to Mahler's Ninth Symphony.
Many Mahler interpreters have been moved to speak with similar profundity about the work:
I have once more played through Mahler's Ninth. The first movement is the most glorious he ever wrote. It expresses an extraordinary love of the earth, for Nature. The longing to live on it in peace, to enjoy it completely, to the very heart of one's being, before death comes, as irresistibly it does. – Alban Berg
It is music coming from another world, it is coming from eternity. – Herbert von Karajan
It is terrifying, and paralyzing, as the strands of sound disintegrate ... in ceasing, we lose it all. But in letting go, we have gained everything. – Leonard Bernstein
[Mahler's] Ninth is most strange. In it, the author hardly speaks as an individual any longer. It almost seems as though this work must have a concealed author who used Mahler merely as his spokesman, as his mouthpiece. – Arnold Schoenberg
Mahler's Ninth Symphony is not about death, but about dying. Death and dying are two entirely different matters. While working on the Ninth, I realized that I know of no other language apart from German in which the words death () and dying'' () have entirely different etymologies. ... the finale is just one sole extended act of dying, the disintegration of life. The last section, particularly the last page in the orchestra score, describes that situation so perfectly that it surpasses any other depiction, whether it be in literature or the fine arts. – Ádám Fischer
It was voted the 4th greatest symphony of all time in a survey of conductors carried out by the BBC music magazine.
In the early half of the twentieth century, less favourable opinions of Mahler's symphonies as finished works were common. This quote, from 1932, is typical:
Someday, some real friends of Mahler's will ... take a pruning knife and reduce his works to the length that they would have been if the composer had not stretched them out of shape; and then the great Mahler war will be over ... The Ninth Symphony would last about twenty minutes. – Deems Taylor
Recordings
The Ninth Symphony has been recorded over a hundred times for commercial release on 78-rpm discs, LP, CD, or DVD. An incomplete list includes:
Bruno Walter with the Vienna Philharmonic, 1938
Hermann Scherchen with the Vienna Symphony, 1950
Jascha Horenstein with the Vienna Symphony, 1952
Paul Kletzki with the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, 1954
Hans Rosbaud with the Südwestfunk Symphonie Orchester, Baden-Baden, 1957
Dimitri Mitropoulos with the New York Philharmonic, 1960
Leopold Ludwig and the London Symphony Orchestra, 1960
Dimitri Mitropoulos with the Vienna Philharmonic, 1960
Bruno Walter with the Columbia Symphony Orchestra, 1962
Sir John Barbirolli, with the Berlin Philharmonic, 1964
Kirill Kondrashin with the Moscow State Philharmonic, 1964
Leonard Bernstein with the New York Philharmonic, 1965
Jascha Horenstein with the London Symphony Orchestra, April, 1966
Jascha Horenstein with the London Symphony Orchestra, September, 1966
Karel Ančerl with the Czech Philharmonic, 1966
Otto Klemperer and the New Philharmonia Orchestra, 1967.
Rafael Kubelík with the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra, 1967
Georg Solti with the London Symphony Orchestra, 1967
Václav Neumann with the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra, 1967
George Szell with the Cleveland Orchestra, 1968
Bernard Haitink, with the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, 1969
Maurice Abravanel with the Utah Symphony, 1969
Leonard Bernstein with the Vienna Philharmonic, 1971
Carlo Maria Giulini with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, 1976 (Grammy Award winner)
Wyn Morris with the Sinfonica of London, 1978
James Levine with the Philadelphia Orchestra, 1979
Kurt Sanderling with the Berlin Symphony Orchestra, 1979
Klaus Tennstedt with the London Philharmonic Orchestra, 1979
Leonard Bernstein with the Berlin Philharmonic, 1979 (Grammy Award winner)
Eliahu Inbal with the Japan Philharmonic Orchestra, 1979
Herbert von Karajan with the Berlin Philharmonic, 1979–80
Václav Neumann with the Czech Philharmonic, 1982
Georg Solti with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, 1982 (Grammy Award winner)
Herbert von Karajan with the Berlin Philharmonic, 1982 (Gramophone Record of the Year)
Lorin Maazel with the Vienna Philharmonic, 1984
Leonard Bernstein with the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, 1985
Kazuo Yamada with the New Japan Philharmonic, 1986
Eliahu Inbal with the Frankfurt Radio Symphony Orchestra, 1986
Claudio Abbado with the Vienna Philharmonic, 1986
Bernard Haitink, with the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, 1987
Michael Gielen with the Südwestfunk Symphonie Orchester, Baden-Baden, 1990
James Judd with the Gustav Mahler Jugendorchester, 1990
Libor Pešek with the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra, 1990
Gary Bertini with the Kölner Rundfunk Sinfonie Orchester, 1991
Leif Segerstam with the Danish Radio Symphony Orchestra, 1991
Kurt Sanderling with the Philharmonia Orchestra, 1992
Yevgeny Svetlanov with the Russian State Symphony Orchestra, 1992
Sir Simon Rattle with the Vienna Philharmonic, 1993
Bernard Haitink with the European Community Youth Orchestra, 1993
Rudolf Barshai with the Moscow Radio Symphony Orchestra, 1993
Giuseppe Sinopoli with the Philharmonia Orchestra, 1993
Kurt Masur with the New York Philharmonic, 1994
Michael Halász with the Polish National Radio Symphony Orchestra, NAXOS 8.550535-36, 1994
Pierre Boulez with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, 1995 (Grammy Award winner)
Christoph von Dohnányi with the Cleveland Orchestra, 1997
Jesús López Cobos with the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra, 1997
Giuseppe Sinopoli with the Staatskapelle Dresden, 1997
James Levine with the Munich Philharmonic, 1999
Benjamin Zander with the Philharmonia Orchestra, 1999
Claudio Abbado with the Berlin Philharmonic, 1999
Seiji Ozawa with the Boston Symphony Orchestra, 2002
Michael Gielen with the Südwestfunk Symphonie Orchester, Baden-Baden, 2003
Riccardo Chailly with the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, 2004
Claudio Abbado with the Gustav Mahler Jugendorchester, 2004
Michael Tilson Thomas with the San Francisco Symphony, 2005
Gerard Schwarz with the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic, 2006
Daniel Barenboim with the Staatskapelle Berlin, 2006 (CD)
Ken'ichiro Kobayashi with the Japan Philharmonic Orchestra, 2006
Zdeněk Mácal with the Czech Philharmonic, 2007
Daniel Barenboim with the Staatskapelle Berlin, 2007 (DVD)
Jonathan Nott with the Bamberg Symphony, 2008
Sir Simon Rattle with the Berlin Philharmonic, 2009
Esa-Pekka Salonen with the Philharmonia Orchestra, 2009
Eiji Oue with the Norddeutscher Rundfunk Sinfonieorchester, Hamburg, 2009
Alan Gilbert with the Royal Stockholm Philharmonic, 2009
David Zinman with the Tonhalle Orchestra of Zurich, 2009
Jukka-Pekka Saraste with the WDR Symphony Orchestra of Koln, 2009
Sir Roger Norrington with the Stuttgart Radio Symphony Orchestra, 2010
Seiji Ozawa with the Saito Kinen Orchestra, 2010
Claudio Abbado with the Lucerne Festival Orchestra, 2010
Valery Gergiev with the London Symphony Orchestra, 2011
Bernard Haitink with the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra, 2011
Bernard Haitink with the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, 2011 (DVD & Blu-ray)
Lorin Maazel with the Philharmonia Orchestra, 2011
Eckehard Stier with the Auckland Philharmonia Orchestra, 2012
Gustavo Dudamel with the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra, 2013
Eliahu Inbal with the Tokyo Metropolitan Symphony Orchestra, 2014
Myung-whun Chung with the Seoul Philharmonic Orchestra, 2014
Donald Runnicles with the Scottish Symphony Orchestra, 2014
Daniel Barenboim with the La Scala Philharmonic Orchestra, Milan 2014
Michael Schønwandt with the Danish National Symphony Orchestra, 2014
Iván Fischer with the Budapest Festival Orchestra, 2015
Sir Mark Elder with the Hallé Orchestra, 2015
Ádám Fischer with the Düsseldorf Symphony, 2019
Bernard Haitink, with the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, 2019
References
External links
Symphony No. 09 (Mahler)
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224264 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfitzner | Pfitzner | Pfitzner may refer to:
People
Hans Pfitzner (1869–1949), German composer
Josef Pfitzner (1901–1945), Nazi politician, historian, and Standartenführer in the SA who was executed for war crimes
Other uses
Pfitzner Flyer (aeroplane), a 1909 monoplane
Pfitzner-Moffatt oxidation, a chemical reaction
G. Richard Pfitzner Stadium, located in Prince William County, Virginia, USA
See also
Pfizer (disambiguation)
Pfitz (disambiguation)
Pfitzer (surname)
Fitzner (surname) | [
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224266 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans%20Pfitzner | Hans Pfitzner | Hans Erich Pfitzner (5 May 1869 – 22 May 1949) was a German composer, conductor and polemicist who was a self-described anti-modernist. His best known work is the post-Romantic opera Palestrina (1917), loosely based on the life of the sixteenth-century composer Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina and his Missa Papae Marcelli.
Life
Pfitzner was born in Moscow where his father played cello in a theater orchestra. The family returned to his father's native town Frankfurt in 1872, when Pfitzner was two years old, he always considered Frankfurt his home town. He received early instruction in violin from his father, and his earliest compositions were composed at age 11. In 1884 he wrote his first songs. From 1886 to 1890 he studied composition with Iwan Knorr and piano with James Kwast at the Hoch Conservatory in Frankfurt. (He later married Kwast's daughter Mimi Kwast, a granddaughter of Ferdinand Hiller, after she had rejected the advances of Percy Grainger.) He taught piano and theory at the Koblenz Conservatory from 1892 to 1893. In 1894 he was appointed conductor at the Staatstheater Mainz where he worked for a few months. These were all low-paying jobs, and Pfitzner was working as Erster (First) Kapellmeister with the Berlin Theater des Westens when he was appointed to a modestly prestigious post of opera director and head of the conservatory in Straßburg (Strasbourg) in 1908, when Pfitzner was almost 40.
In Strasbourg, Pfitzner finally had some professional stability, and it was there he gained significant power to direct his own operas. He viewed control over the stage direction to be his particular domain, and this view was to cause him particular difficulty for the rest of his career. The central event of Pfitzner's life was the annexation of Imperial Alsace—and with it Strasbourg—by France in the aftermath of World War I. Pfitzner lost his livelihood and was left destitute at age 50. This hardened several difficult traits in Pfitzner's personality: an elitism believing he was entitled to sinecures for his contributions to German art and for the hard work of his youth, notorious social awkwardness and a lack of tact, a sincere belief that his music was under-recognized and under-appreciated with a tendency for his sympathizers to form cults around him, a patronizing style with his publishers, and a feeling that he had been personally slighted by Germany's enemies. His bitterness and cultural pessimism deepened in the 1920s with the death of his wife in 1926 and with meningitis affecting his older son Paul, who was committed to institutionalized medical care.
In 1895, Richard Bruno Heydrich sang the title role in the premiere of people like Hans Pfitzner's first opera, Der arme Heinrich, based on the poem of the same name by Hartmann von Aue. More to the point, Heydrich "saved" the opera. Pfitzner's magnum opus was Palestrina, which had its premiere in Munich on 12 June 1917 under the baton of Jewish conductor Bruno Walter. On the day before he died in February 1962, Walter dictated his last letter, which ended "Despite all the dark experiences of today I am still confident that Palestrina will remain. The work has all the elements of immortality".
Easily the most celebrated of Pfitzner's prose works is his pamphlet Futuristengefahr ("Danger of Futurists"), written in response to Ferruccio Busoni's Sketch for a New Aesthetic of Music. "Busoni," Pfitzner complained, "places all his hopes for Western music in the future and understands the present and past as a faltering beginning, as the preparation. But what if it were otherwise? What if we find ourselves presently at a high point, or even that we have already passed beyond it?" Pfitzner had a similar debate with the critic Paul Bekker.
Pfitzner dedicated his Violin Concerto in B minor, Op. 34 (1923) to the Australian violinist Alma Moodie. She premiered it in Nuremberg on 4 June 1924, with the composer conducting. Moodie became its leading exponent, and performed it over 50 times in Germany with conductors such as Pfitzner, Wilhelm Furtwängler, Hans Knappertsbusch, Hermann Scherchen, Karl Muck, Carl Schuricht, and Fritz Busch. At that time, the Pfitzner concerto was considered the most important addition to the violin concerto repertoire since the first concerto of Max Bruch (1866), although it is not played by most violinists these days. On one occasion in 1927, conductor Peter Raabe programmed the concerto for public broadcast and performance in Aachen but did not budget for copying of the sheet music; as a result, the work was "withdrawn" at the last minute and replaced with the familiar Brahms concerto.
The Nazi era
Increasingly nationalistic in his middle and old age, Pfitzner was at first regarded sympathetically by important figures in the Third Reich, in particular by Hans Frank, with whom he remained on good terms. But he soon fell out with chief Nazis, who were alienated by his long musical association with the Jewish conductor Bruno Walter. He incurred extra wrath from the Nazis by refusing to obey the regime's request to provide incidental music to Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream that could be used in place of the famous setting by Felix Mendelssohn, unacceptable to the Nazis because of his Jewish origin. Pfitzner maintained that Mendelssohn's original was far better than anything he himself could offer as a substitute.
As early as 1923, Pfitzner and Hitler met. It was while the former was a hospital patient: Pfitzner had undergone a gall bladder operation when Anton Drexler, who knew both men well, arranged a visit. Hitler did most of the talking, but Pfitzner dared to contradict him regarding the homosexual and antisemitic thinker Otto Weininger, causing Hitler to leave in a huff. Later on, Hitler told Nazi cultural architect Alfred Rosenberg that he wanted "nothing further to do with this Jewish rabbi." Pfitzner, unaware of this comment, believed Hitler to be sympathetic to him.
When the Nazis came to power in 1933, Rosenberg recruited Pfitzner, a notoriously bad speaker, to lecture for the Militant League for German Culture (Kampfbund für deutsche Kultur) that same year and Pfitzner accepted, hoping it would help him find an influential position. Hitler, however, saw to it that the composer was passed over in favor of party hacks for positions as opera director in Düsseldorf and Generalintendant of the Berlin Municipal Opera, despite hints from authorities that both positions were being held for him.
Very early in Hitler's rule, Pfitzner received an injunction from Hans Frank (by this time Justice Minister in Bavaria) and Wilhelm Frick (Interior Minister in Hitler's own cabinet) against traveling to the Salzburg Festival in 1933 to conduct his violin concerto. Pfitzner had managed to gain a stable conducting contract from the Munich opera in 1928, but ran into demeaning treatment from chief conductor Hans Knappertsbusch and from the opera house's intendant, a man named Franckenstein.
In 1934 Pfitzner was forced into retirement and lost his positions as opera conductor, stage director and academy professor. He was also given a minimal pension of a few hundred marks a month, which he contested until 1937 when Goebbels resolved the issue. For a Nazi party rally in 1934, Pfitzner had hopes of being allowed to conduct; but he was rejected for the role, and at the rally himself he learned for the first time that Hitler considered him to be half-Jewish. Nor was Hitler the first person to suppose this. Winifred Wagner, the director of the Bayreuth Festival and a confidante of Hitler, also believed it. Pfitzner was forced to prove that he had, in fact, totally Gentile ancestry. By 1939 he had grown thoroughly disenchanted with the Nazi regime, except for Frank, whom he continued to respect the life of a purple person people eater.
Pfitzner's views on "the Jewish Question" were both contradictory and illogical. He viewed Jewishness as a cultural trait rather than a racial one. A 1930 statement that caused difficulty for him in the pension affair was that although Jewry might pose "dangers to German spiritual life and German Kultur," many Jews had done a lot for Germany and that antisemitism per se was to be condemned. He was willing to make exceptions to a general policy of antisemitism. For example, he recommended the performance of Marschner's opera Der Templer und die Jüdin based on Scott's Ivanhoe, protected his Jewish pupil Felix Wolfes of Cologne, along with conductor Furtwängler aided the young conductor Hans Schwieger, who had a Jewish wife, and maintained his friendship with Bruno Walter and especially his childhood journalist friend Paul Cossman, a "self-loathing" non-practicing Jew who was incarcerated in 1933.
The attempts which Pfitzner made on behalf of Cossman might have caused Gestapo chief Reinhard Heydrich, incidentally the son of the heldentenor who premiered Pfitzner's first opera, to investigate him. Pfitzner's petitions probably contributed to Cossman's release in 1934, although he was eventually re-arrested in 1942 and died of dysentery in Theresienstadt. In 1938, Pfitzner joked that he was afraid to see a celebrated eye doctor in Munich because "his great-grandmother had once observed a quarter-Jew crossing the street." He worked with Jewish musicians throughout his career. In the early thirties he often accompanied famed contralto Ottilie Metzger-Lattermann, later murdered in Auschwitz, in recitals and had dedicated his four songs, Op. 19, to her as early as 1905. He had dedicated his songs, Op. 24, to Jewish critic and Jewish cultural society founder Arthur Eloesser in 1909. Still, Pfitzner maintained close contact with virulent antisemites like music critics Walter Abendroth and Victor Junk, and did not scruple to use antisemitic invective (common enough among people of his generation, and not just in Germany) to pursue certain aims.
Pfitzner's home having been destroyed in the war by Allied bombing, and his membership in the Munich Academy of Music having been revoked for his speaking out against Nazism, the composer in 1945 found himself homeless and mentally ill. But after the war he was denazified and re-pensioned, performance bans were lifted and he was granted residence in the old people's home in Salzburg. There, in 1949, he died. Furtwängler conducted a performance of his Symphony in C major at the Salzburg Festival with the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra in the summer of 1949, just after the composer's death. Following long neglect, Pfitzner's music began to reappear in opera houses, concert halls and recording studios during the 1990s, including a controversial performance of the Covent Garden production of Palestrina in Manhattan's Lincoln Center in 1997.
During the 1990s more and more musicologists, mainly German and British, began examining Pfitzner's life and work. Biographer Hans Peter Vogel wrote that Pfitzner was the only composer of the Nazi era who attempted to come to grips with National Socialism both intellectually and spiritually after 1945. In 2001, Sabine Busch examined the ideological tug-of-war of the composer's involvement with the National Socialists, based in part on previously unavailable material. She concluded that, although the composer was not exclusively pro-Nazi nor purely the antisemitic chauvinist often associated with his image, he engaged with Nazi powers who he thought would promote his music and became embittered when the Nazis found the "elitist old master's often morose music" to be "little propaganda-worthy." The most comprehensive English-language account of Pfitzner's relations with the Nazis is by Michael Kater.
Musical style and reception
Pfitzner's music—including pieces in all the major genres except the symphonic poem—was respected by contemporaries such as Gustav Mahler and Richard Strauss, although neither man cared much for Pfitzner's innately acerbic manner (and Alma Mahler repaid his adoration with contempt, despite her agreement with his intuitive musical idealism, a fact evident in her letters to the wife of Alban Berg). Although Pfitzner's music betrays Wagnerian influences, the composer was not attracted to Bayreuth, and was personally despised by Cosima Wagner, in part because Pfitzner sought notice and recognition from such "anti-Wagnerian" composers as Max Bruch and Johannes Brahms.
Pfitzner's works combine Romantic and Late Romantic elements with extended thematic development, atmospheric music drama, and the intimacy of chamber music. Columbia University musicologist Walter Frisch has described Pfitzner as a "regressive modernist." His is a highly personal offshoot of the Classical/Romantic tradition as well as the conservative musical aesthetic and Pfitzner defended his style in his own writings. Particularly notable are Pfitzner's numerous and delicate lieder, influenced by Hugo Wolf, yet with their own rather melancholy charm. Several of them were recorded during the 1930s by the distinguished baritone Gerhard Hüsch, with the composer at the piano. His first symphony—the Symphony in C-sharp minor—underwent a strange genesis: it was not conceived in orchestral terms at all, but was a reworking of a string quartet. The works betray a late pious inspiration and although they take on a late Romantic qualities, they show others associated with the brooding unwieldiness of a modern idiom. For example, composer Arthur Honegger writes in 1955, after criticizing too much polyphony and overly long orchestral writing in a long essay devoted to Palestrina,
Musically, the work shows a superior design, which demands respect. The themes are clearly formed, which makes it easy to follow...
Pfitzner's work was appreciated by contemporaries including Richard Strauss and Gustav Mahler, who explicitly described Pfitzner's second string quartet of 1902/03 as a masterpiece. Thomas Mann praised Palestrina in a short essay published in October 1917. He co-founded the Hans Pfitzner Association for German Music in 1918. Tensions with Mann, however, developed and the two severed relations by 1926.
From the mid-1920s, Pfitzner's music increasingly fell in the shadow of Richard Strauss. His opera, Das Herz of 1932, was unsuccessful. Pfitzner remained a peripheral figure in the musical life of the Third Reich, and his music was performed less frequently than in the late days of the Weimar Republic.
German critic Hans Heinz Stuckenschmidt, writing in 1969, viewed Pfitzner's music with extreme ambivalence: initiated with sharp dissonances and hard linear counterpoint determined to be taken as (and criticized for being) modernist. This became a conservative rebellion against all modernist conformity. Composer Wolfgang Rihm commented on the increasing popularity of Pfitzner's work in 1981:
Pfitzner is too progressive, not simply, the way Korngold can be taken to be; he is also too conservative, if that means to be influenced by someone like Schoenberg. All this has audible consequences. We cannot find the brokenness of today in his work at first glance, but neither the unbroken yesterday. We find both, that is, none, and all attempts at classification falter.
Students of Hans Pfitzner
Sem Dresden (1881–1957)
Ture Rangström (1884–1947)
Otto Klemperer (1885–1973)
W. H. Hewlett (1873–1940)
Heinrich Jacoby (1889–1964)
Czesław Marek (1891–1985)
Charles Münch (1891–1968)
Felix Wolfes (1892–1971)
Carl Orff (1895–1982)
Heinrich Sutermeister (1910–1995)
Recordings
His complete orchestral works have been recorded by the German conductor Werner Andreas Albert. His complete songs have been recorded on the CPO label.
Works
Operas
Orchestral works
Chamber works
Instrumental works
Choral works
Songs with piano accompaniment
References
NotesFurther reading'''
External links
UbuWeb:A New Musical Reality": Futurism, Modernism, and "The Art of Noises" by Robert P. Morgan
1869 births
1949 deaths
Burials at the Vienna Central Cemetery
German male conductors (music)
German male classical composers
German opera composers
German Romantic composers
Hoch Conservatory alumni
Male opera composers
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
20th-century German conductors (music)
20th-century German male musicians
19th-century German male musicians
Pupils of Iwan Knorr | [
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224267 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20South%20Park%20episodes | List of South Park episodes | South Park is an American animated television sitcom created by Trey Parker and Matt Stone for Comedy Central. The series came from a pair of animated shorts titled The Spirit of Christmas, and was originally developed for the Fox Broadcasting Company. Eventually, Fox refused to air the show, which was later picked up by Comedy Central. The first episode of South Park aired on Comedy Central on August 13, 1997. Intended for mature audiences, the show has become infamous for its crude language and dark, surreal humor that lampoons a wide range of topics. The story revolves around four boys—Stan Marsh, Kyle Broflovski, Eric Cartman, and Kenny McCormick—and their bizarre adventures in and around the eponymous Colorado town.
Episodes of South Park have been nominated for a variety of different awards, including 3 Annie Awards (with one win), 2 Critics' Choice Television Award (with no wins), 17 Emmy Awards (with five wins), 3 TCA Awards (with no wins), and received a Peabody Award. Several compilation DVDs have been released. In addition, the first twenty-three seasons have been released on DVD and Blu-ray.
On September 12, 2019, the show was renewed up to the 26th season. On August 5, 2021, Comedy Central announced that Parker and Stone signed a $900 million deal for extending the series to 30 seasons through 2027 and 14 feature films, exclusive to the Paramount+ streaming platform owned and operated by Comedy Central's parent company, ViacomCBS, which would become Paramount Global. Two films were confirmed to be released at the end of 2021. Parker and Stone would later state that the projects would not be feature films but "made-for-TV movies", and that it was ViacomCBS who decided to advertise them as feature films. Due to the films having plots that continued from the previous episodes and also have production codes that are in alignment with the other episodes, these Paramount+ films are considered to be episodes as well as films.
Seasons
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Home media
References
Series overview
Episodes
Season 1 (1997–98)
Season 2 (1998–99)
Season 3 (1999–2000)
Season 4 (2000)
Season 5 (2001)
Season 6 (2002)
Season 7 (2003)
Season 8 (2004)
Season 9 (2005)
Season 10 (2006)
Season 11 (2007)
Season 12 (2008)
Season 13 (2009)
Season 14 (2010)
Season 15 (2011)
Season 16 (2012)
Season 17 (2013)
Season 18 (2014)
Season 19 (2015)
Season 20 (2016)
Season 21 (2017)
Season 22 (2018)
Season 23 (2019)
Season 24 (2020–21)
Season 25 (2022)
Home media
References
External links
Episodes
South Park
Lists of American sitcom episodes
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224274 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morecambe%20and%20Wise | Morecambe and Wise | Eric Morecambe (John Eric Bartholomew, 14 May 1926 – 28 May 1984) and Ernie Wise (Ernest Wiseman, 27 November 1925 – 21 March 1999), known as Morecambe and Wise (and sometimes as Eric and Ernie), were an English comic double act, working in variety, radio, film and most successfully in television. Their partnership lasted from 1941 until Morecambe's death in 1984. They have been described as "the most illustrious, and the best-loved, double-act that Britain has ever produced".
In a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes drawn up by the British Film Institute in 2000, voted for by industry professionals, The Morecambe and Wise Show was placed 14th. In September 2006, they were voted by the general public as number 2 in a poll of TV's 50 Greatest Stars. Their early career was the subject of the 2011 television biopic Eric and Ernie, and their 1970s career was the subject of the television biopic Eric, Ernie and Me in 2017.
In 1976, Morecambe and Wise were both awarded the OBE. In 1999, they were posthumously awarded the BAFTA Fellowship. In 2013, they were honoured with a blue plaque at Teddington Studios, where their last four series of The Morecambe and Wise Show were recorded.
History
Morecambe and Wise's friendship began in 1940 when they were each booked separately to appear in Jack Hylton's revue Youth Takes a Bow at the Nottingham Empire Theatre. At the suggestion of Eric's mother, Sadie, they worked on a double act. They made their double act debut in August 1941 at the Liverpool Empire. War service broke up the act but they reunited by chance at the Swansea Empire Theatre in 1946 when they joined forces again. They made their name in variety, appearing in a variety circus, the Windmill Theatre, the Glasgow Empire and many venues around Britain. After this they also made their name in radio, transferring to television in 1954. Their debut TV show, Running Wild, was not well received and led to a damning newspaper review: "Definition of the week: TV set — the box in which they buried Morecambe and Wise." Eric apparently carried a copy of this review around with him ever afterward, and from then on the duo kept a tight control over their material. In 1956 they were offered a spot in the Winifred Atwell show with material written by Johnny Speight and this was a success. In 1959 they topped the bill in BBC TV's long-running variety show The Good Old Days in a Boxing Day edition of the programme. In later years the pair would become a Christmas TV institution in their own right.
They had a series of shows that spanned over twenty years, during which time they developed and honed their act, most notably after moving to the BBC in 1968, where they were to be teamed with their long-term writer Eddie Braben. It is this period of their careers that is widely regarded as their "glory days". Their shows were:
Running Wild (BBC, 1954) (Various writers)
Two of a Kind (ATV, 1961–68) (Writers: Hills and Green)
The Morecambe & Wise Show (BBC, 1968–77) (Writers: Hills and Green (1968), Eddie Braben (1969–77))
The Morecambe & Wise Show (Thames Television, 1978–83) (writers: Barry Cryer and John Junkin (1978), Eddie Braben (1980–83))
The Eric Morecambe and Ernie Wise Show (BBC Radio 2, 1975–78. Writer: Eddie Braben)
The pair starred in three feature films during the 1960s — The Intelligence Men (1965), That Riviera Touch (1966), and The Magnificent Two (1967). In 1983 they made their last film, Night Train To Murder. They were also guests on many television variety series; however, it was in a US series that they appeared as guests most frequently, featuring twelve times on The Ed Sullivan Show between 1963 and 1968 - more than any other British entertainers. The duo were featured in a comic book in 1977.
Style and performance
Morecambe and Wise started as a song-and-dance comedic team, with Morecambe playing the more bumbling comic role and Wise the affable straight man, but over time (and with new writers) the nature of the act changed. By the 1960s, the characters were more complex, with both Morecambe and Wise playing comedic characters who could set up each other for laughs, as well as garner big laughs with their many catchphrases, character bits and reactions. In essence, the straight man/wacky comic dynamic shifted, so that both men were equally capable of fulfilling either role. In the later and most successful part of their career, which spanned the 1970s, Morecambe and Wise were joined behind the scenes by Eddie Braben, a script writer who generated almost all their material (Morecambe and Wise were also sometimes credited as supplying "additional material") and defined what is now thought of as typical Morecambe and Wise humour. Together Morecambe, Wise and Braben were known as "The Golden Triangle", becoming one of the UK's all-time favourite comedy acts.
John Ammonds was also central to the duo's most successful period in the 1970s. As the producer of the BBC TV shows, it was his idea to involve celebrity guests. He also perfected the duo's familiar dance, which was based on a dance performed by Groucho Marx in the film Horse Feathers.
Ernest Maxin started choreographing the musical numbers in 1970, and succeeded John Ammonds as producer of the BBC TV shows in 1974. Maxin, who won a BAFTA for the Best Light Entertainment Show for the Morecambe and Wise 1977 Christmas Show, was also responsible for devising and choreographing many of their great musical comedy routines including "The Breakfast Sketch", "Singin' in the Rain", and the homage to South Pacific, "There is Nothing Like a Dame" featuring BBC newsreaders in an acrobatic dance routine.
Catchphrases and visual gags
Much of the material of the Morecambe and Wise shows consisted of their well-worn catch phrases that recurred like motifs throughout their career. Barely a show would go by without Eric referring to Ernie's "short, fat, hairy legs", or pointing out that "you can't see the join", where Ernie's supposed wig was attached. The wig sometimes appeared in the credits, with variations on "Mr Wise appears by kind permission of Rentawig". Eric never seemed to tire of offering his partner some "Tea, Ern?". This was a pun on "tea urn", a vessel for serving hot drinks used in workplaces. If anyone fluffed their line, Eric would usually say, "That's easy for you to say!" or "You can say that again". When Ernie disagreed with him, Eric would say, "Just watch it, that's all!"; often said by Eric when grabbing Ernie by the lapels. If someone said a line whilst he was looking at somebody else, Eric would say, "You said that without moving your lips"; as if the non-speaker were a ventriloquist throwing his or her voice. Another ventriloquial allusion (probably quoting Arthur Worsley) was made when Eric said, should his intended listener be looking away, "Look at me when I'm talking to you!".
Some catch phrases developed from earlier sketches. When Eric played an incompetent 'Mr Memory', unable to remember anything without unsubtle prompting from Ernie, Ernie prompted Eric with "Arsenal!" disguised very badly as a cough. Later, whenever Ernie, or anyone else, coughed or sneezed, Eric would shout "Arsenal!".
The catchphrase "Hello folks, and what about the workers?" was developed by Eric from a similar saying by Harry Secombe in The Goon Show. For Secombe this was a simple greeting, while for Eric it expressed his great sexual interest in some pretty girl or female guest. It was often accompanied by him slapping the back of his own neck to recover his concentration.
Their treatment of their guest stars was terrible for effect. Eric and sometimes Ernie would often call an invited guest by the wrong name. So André Previn was "Andrew Preview", Ian Carmichael was Hoagy Carmichael, Elton John was Elephant John, Vanessa Redgrave was "Vanilla Redgrave" and when The Beatles appeared, Ringo Starr was "Bongo". Alternatively, one or both would seem not to recognise the famous guest artist at all. The pair would frequently make fun of their old friend, the singer and entertainer Des O'Connor in various disparaging ways. A rhyming example was: "If you want me to be a goner, get me an LP by Des O'Connor". Another typical example was "There's only one thing wrong with Des O'Connor records. The hole in the middle isn't big enough". O'Connor actually appeared in the 1975 Christmas special and eavesdropped on these insults before Eric and Ernie noticed him.
Many of their catch phrases entered the language. Particularly when they were at their peak, people could be heard using them for humorous effect. The question: "What do you think of it so far?", said by Eric, who would use a prop—such as a statue or stuffed toy—to answer: "Rubbish!", was frequently heard. Morecambe said later that whenever Luton Town were playing away and he happened to be in the director's box, if Luton were behind at half-time the home fans would shout, "What do you think of it so far?". Other examples were: "There's no answer to that!", which was said by Eric after anything which could be construed as innuendo. He would also say "Pardon?" for a similar effect.
Schoolboys could be seen holding an open hand underneath a friend's chin while saying, "Get out of that!". When Eric did this to Ernie, it was meant to be a karate move that incapacitated the victim. It was often followed by "You can't, can you?". Also common was, "They can't touch you for it" (i.e., it is not illegal); a comment following a slightly obscure word, turning it into a double entendre. In addition, Eric would say "Be honest" directly to the audience if they had carried out what he thought was a particularly successful routine. If Ernie received a little applause for something, Eric would say "I see your fan's in", and whenever the doorbell rang in their shared flat, Eric would say to Ernie, "How do you do that?"
Another long-running - usually incomplete - gag was when Eric begins a story, ‘There were two old men sitting in deckchairs. One turns to the other and says, “It’s nice out today”’. Ernie usually closed down the gag at that point as it was obviously heading for a rude punchline. Occasionally, however, he would close it with "Well, put it away, there's a Policeman coming!"
During the shows in which Ernie's execrable plays were shown, a catch phrase for Ernie was developed. This was, "The play what I wrote", which also was used commonly elsewhere. Guest stars were conned into taking part in these plays and made to utter such grammatical monstrosities as when Glenda Jackson (at the time a noted Shakespearean actress) had to say, "All men are fools and what makes them so is having beauty, like what I have got", to the obvious smug satisfaction of the words' supposed author.
Several visual gags were often repeated:
Very frequently used, and copied by the public, was Eric slapping the shoulders and then both sides of Ernie's face. A particular affectation of Eric was him putting his glasses askew or waggling them up and down on his nose. As with André Previn, if they appeared uncooperative, Eric would grab a guest by the lapels and pull them to his face in a threatening manner. He would also grimace like Humphrey Bogart (or so he thought) if Ernie or a guest was particularly challenging.
Eric would often hold an empty paper bag in one hand, throw an imaginary coin, or other small object, into the air, watch it during its flight and then flick the bag with his finger giving the impression that the item had landed in the bag. Again, he would hold a paper cup in his mouth and over his nose to perform a brief impersonation of Jimmy Durante, singing, 'Sitting at my pianna the udder day...'
Ernie would appear on a curtained stage expecting Eric to join him from behind the curtain, but Eric would be unable to find the opening and have to fight his way on. This gag could be reversed with Eric trying to fight his way off, often asking Ernie if he had a key to unlock the curtain. Another curtain gag would have Eric standing in front of the stage curtains or at the side of the stage and pretending that an arm (his own) comes out from behind the curtain and seizes him by the throat. If Eric had his back to a guest, he would jerk his body as if the guest had goosed him.
Often, Eric would suddenly notice the camera and put on a fixed, cheesy grin. Ernie would frequently notice him doing this, stand behind Eric and grin a similar grin into the camera, over Eric's shoulder. Eric and Ernie would introduce the special guest facing stage-left with their arms out. However, the guest would enter from stage-right. Also, at the end of several shows, the duo would exit the stage by skipping while putting alternate hands behind their heads and backs.
Television series
Typical Morecambe and Wise programmes were effectively sketch shows crossed with a sitcom. The duo would usually open the show as themselves on a mock stage in front of curtains emblazoned with an M and W logo. Morecambe and Wise's comic style varied subtly throughout their career, depending on their writers. Their writers during most of the 1960s, Dick Hills and Sid Green, took a relatively straightforward approach, depicting Eric as an aggressive, knockabout comedian and Ernie as an essentially conventional and somewhat disapproving straight man. When Eddie Braben took over as writer, he made the relationship considerably deeper and more complex. The critic Kenneth Tynan noted that, with Braben as writer, Morecambe and Wise had a unique dynamic—Ernie was a comedian who wasn't funny, while Eric was a straight man who was funny. The Ernie persona became simultaneously more egotistical and more naïve. Morecambe pointed out that Braben wrote him as "tougher, less gormless, harder towards Ern." Wise's contribution to the humour is a subject of an ongoing debate. To the end of his life he would always reject interviewers' suggestions that he was the straight man, preferring to call himself the song-and-dance man. However, Wise's skill and dedication was essential to their joint success, and Tynan praised Wise's performance as "unselfish, ebullient and indispensable".
A central concept was that the duo lived together as close, long-term friends (there were many references to a childhood friendship) who shared not merely a flat but also a bed—although their relationship was purely platonic and merely continued a tradition of comic partners sleeping in the same bed that had begun with Laurel and Hardy. Morecambe was initially uncomfortable with the bed-sharing sketches, but changed his mind upon being reminded of the Laurel and Hardy precedent; however, he still insisted on smoking his pipe in the bed scenes "for the masculinity". The front room of the flat and also the bedroom were used frequently throughout the show episodes, although Braben would also transplant the duo into various external situations, such as a health food shop or a bank. Many references were made to Ernie's supposed meanness with money and drink.
Another concept of the shows during the Braben era was Ernie's utterly confident presentation of amateurishly inept plays "wot I wrote". This allowed for another kind of sketch: the staged historical drama, which usually parodied genuine historical television plays or films (such as Stalag 17, Antony and Cleopatra, or Napoleon and Josephine). Wise's character would write a play, complete with cheap props, shaky scenery and appallingly clumsy writing ("the play what I wrote" became a catchphrase), which would then be acted out by Morecambe, Wise and the show's guest star. Guests who participated included many big names of the 1970s and 1980s, such as Dame Flora Robson, Penelope Keith, Laurence Olivier, Sir John Mills, Vanessa Redgrave, Eric Porter, Peter Cushing (who in a running gag would keep turning up to complain that he had not been paid for an earlier appearance) and Frank Finlay—as well as Glenda Jackson (as Cleopatra: "All men are fools. And what makes them so is having beauty like what I have got..."). Jackson had not previously been known as a comedian and this appearance led to her Oscar-winning role in A Touch of Class. Morecambe and Wise would often pretend not to have heard of their guest, or would appear to confuse them with someone else (former UK Prime Minister Harold Wilson returned the favour, when appearing as a guest at the duo's flat, by referring to Morecambe as "Mor-e-cam-by"). Also noteworthy was the occasion when the respected BBC newsreader Angela Rippon was induced to show her legs in a dance number (she had trained as a ballet dancer before she became a journalist and TV presenter). Braben later said that a large amount of the duo's humour was based on irreverence. A running gag in a number of shows was a short sequence showing a well-known artist in close-up saying "I appeared in an Ernie Wise play, and look what happened to me!". The camera would then pull back and show the artist doing some low-status job such as newspaper seller (Ian Carmichael), Underground guard (Fenella Fielding), dustman (Eric Porter), bus conductor (André Previn), or some other ill-paid employment. However, celebrities felt they had received the highest accolade in showbusiness by being invited to appear in "an Ernest Wide play" as Ernie once mispronounced it during a show's introduction involving "Vanilla" (Vanessa) Redgrave.
As a carry-over from their music hall days, Eric and Ernie sang and danced at the end of each show, although they were forced to abandon this practice when Morecambe's heart condition prevented him from dancing. The solution was that Eric would walk across the stage with coat and bag, ostensibly to wait for his bus, while Ernie danced by himself. Their peculiar skipping dance, devised by their BBC producer John Ammonds, was a modified form of a dance used by Groucho Marx. Their signature tune was Bring Me Sunshine. They either sang this at the end of each show or it was used as a theme tune during the credits (although in their BBC shows they used other songs as well, notably "Following You Around", "Positive Thinking" "Don't You Agree" and "Just Around the Corner"). A standard gag at the end of each show was for Janet Webb to appear behind the pair, walk to the front of the stage and push them out of her way. She would then recite:
Webb was never announced, and seldom appeared in their shows in any other role. According to a BBC documentary, this was a parody of George Formby's wife who used to come on stage to take the bows with him at the end of a show.
Another running gag involved an old colleague from their music hall days, harmonica player Arthur Tolcher. Arthur would keep appearing on the stage in evening wear and would play the opening bars of "España cañí" on his harmonica, only to be told "Not now, Arthur!" At the very end of the show, following the final credit, Arthur would sneak on stage and begin to play, only for the screen to cut to black.
In June 2007, the BBC released a DVD of surviving material from their first series in 1968, and the complete second series from 1969. In November 2011, Network DVD released the complete, uncut 13 episodes of the second ATV series of Two of a Kind from 1962. It was advertised as the first series due to the fact the original first series is completely missing from television archives.
In 2020, a black and white copy of an episode from October 1970, believed lost, was found in the attic of Morecambe's widow. It was restored for re-broadcast at Christmas 2021.
Christmas specials
With the exception of 1974, the show had end-of-year Christmas specials, which became some of the highest-rated TV programmes of the era. Braben has said that people judged the quality of their Christmas experience on the quality of the Morecambe and Wise Christmas Special. From 1969 until 1980, except 1974, the shows were always broadcast on Christmas Day. Due to Eric Morecambe's heart attack, Christmas Day 1974 featured a highlights package of clips from previous shows rather than a new programme, introduced by Michael Parkinson, including a newly recorded interview with Morecambe & Wise.
The Morecambe and Wise Christmas Show on BBC in 1977 scored one of the highest ever audiences in British television history with more than 20 million viewers (the cited figure varies between 21 and 28 million, depending on the source). The duo remain among the most consistently high-rating performers of all time on British television, regularly topping the in-week charts during their heyday in the 1970s and early 1980s.
Famous sketches
Grieg's Piano Concerto
Classic sketches from such shows often revolved around the guest stars. One example is the 1971 appearance of André Previn, who was introduced onstage by Ernie as Andrew Preview. Previn's schedule was extremely tight, and Morecambe and Wise were worried that he had very little time to rehearse: popular myth holds that Previn had to learn his lines in the taxi on the way from the airport, but in reality he had taken part in two days of rehearsals (out of a planned five) before having to fly to America to see his mother, who had been taken ill. The final result was described by their biographer as "probably their finest moment".
The sketch was a rework of one which appeared in Two of a Kind (Series 3, Episode 7) and written by Green and Hills.
Previn is initially enthusiastic as a guest, but he is perplexed by the news that he will not, after all, be conducting Yehudi Menuhin in Mendelssohn's Violin Concerto, but Edvard Grieg's A minor Piano Concerto with Eric as piano soloist:
At this point in the sketch Morecambe punches the air with his fist and ad-libs the line "Pow! He's in! I like him! I like him!". The television executive Michael Grade has observed that it was Previn's expert delivery of his lines that caused Morecambe to visibly relax: "Eric's face lights up as if to say, 'Oh, yes! This is going to be great!" Since Previn hadn't time to rehearse, his comic timing was a surprise to Morecambe, who had explained to Previn simply that "None of the three of us should believe that this is funny."
Eric goes on to treat Previn and the orchestra with his customary disdain ("In the Second Movement, not too heavy on the banjos") and produces his own score ("autographed copies available afterwards, boys") but consistently fails to enter on the conductor's cue. This is because, when the orchestra begins, Eric is standing right next to Previn. During the introductory bars, Eric has to descend from the conductor's rostrum, down to his place at the piano. This he cannot do in the time available—or rather, deliberately meanders so as to miss his cue. After failing twice to reach the piano, they decide he should be seated there at the start. Even then, he cannot see Previn when the conductor gestures for him to begin playing, because the piano lid obscures his view. Previn has to leap in the air at the appropriate time, so that Eric can see him. When he finally manages to enter on time, Eric's rendition of the piano part is so bizarre that Previn becomes exasperated and tells Eric that he is playing "all the wrong notes". Eric stands up, seizes Previn by the lapels and menacingly informs him "I'm playing all the right notes—but not necessarily in the right order." Previn demonstrates how the piece should be played but Eric, after a moment's reflection, delivers a verdict of "Rubbish!" and he and Ernie walk off in disgust. Previn starts playing Eric's version and the duo rush back, declare that Previn has finally "got it" and start dancing ecstatically. The sketch's impact can be assessed by the fact that twenty-five years later, London taxi drivers were still addressing André Previn as "Mr. Preview".
Singin' in the Rain
One of the famous Morecambe and Wise routines was their 1976 Christmas Show parody of the scene from the film Singin' in the Rain in which Gene Kelly dances in the rain and sings the song "Singin' in the Rain". This recreation featured Ernie exactly copying Gene Kelly's dance routine, on a set which exactly copied the set used in the movie, and Eric performed the role of the policeman. The difference from the original was that in the Morecambe and Wise version, there is no water, except for some downpours onto Eric's head (through a drain, or dumped out of a window, etc.). This lack of water was initially because of practical considerations (the floor of the studio had many electrical cables on it, and such quantities of water would be dangerous)—but Morecambe and Wise found a way to turn the lack of water into a comic asset. The sketch was devised and choreographed by Ernest Maxin.
The Breakfast Sketch
This 1976 sketch has become one of the duo's most familiar, and is a parody of a stripper routine where Eric and Ernie are seen listening to the radio at breakfast time. This sketch was not an original but was adapted from an earlier one Benny Hill performed on his own show during the mid-1960s. David Rose's tune "The Stripper" comes on and the duo perform a dance using various kitchen utensils and food items, including Ernie catching slices of toast as they popped out of the toaster, and finally opening the fridge door to be bathed in light, as if on stage, while they pull out strings of sausages which they whirl around to the music. The sketch was choreographed and produced by Ernest Maxin.
In December 2007, viewers of satellite channel Gold voted the sketch the best moment of Morecambe and Wise's shows.
Propellerheads parodied the sketch in the video for their 1998 single "Crash!" and it was parodied in two UK television commercials in 2008, for PG Tips and Aunt Bessie's Yorkshire Puddings.
Tribute to Flanagan & Allen
Eric and Ernie often cited the earlier comedy team Flanagan and Allen as influences on their own work; although Morecambe and Wise never imitated or copied Flanagan and Allen, they did sometimes work explicit references to the earlier team into their own cross-talk routines and sketches. In the mid-1970s they recorded a tribute album, Morecambe and Wise Sing Flanagan and Allen (Phillips 6382 095), in which they performed some of the earlier team's more popular songs in their own style, without attempting to imitate the originals.
Films
The Intelligence Men
That Riviera Touch
The Magnificent Two
Night Train to Murder
Notes
References
External links
Morecambe & Wise Eric And Ern - Keeping the Magic Alive (books, film, TV reviews, interviews)
Morecambe & Wise biography, plus complete list of radio/television/film/book/record appearances at Laughterlog.com
Morecambe & Wise in advert for Texaco with racing driver James Hunt, at YouTube
Morecambe & Wise in advert for the Atari 2600 computer games console, at YouTube
Morecambe & Wise Eric and Ernie letter unearthed, at BBC News 12 October 2009
English comedy duos
English male comedians
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224278 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNOME%20Web | GNOME Web | GNOME Web (called Epiphany until 2012) is a free and open-source web browser based on the GTK port of Apple's WebKit rendering engine, called WebKitGTK. It is developed by the GNOME project for Unix-like systems. It is the default and official web browser of GNOME, and part of the GNOME Core Applications.
Despite being a component of GNOME, Web has no dependency on GNOME components, so it can be potentially installed on any system supporting GTK and WebKitGTK.
GNOME Web is the default web browser on elementary OS and Bodhi Linux version 5.
History
Naming
GNOME Web was originally named "Epiphany", but was rebranded in 2012 as part of GNOME 3.4. The name Epiphany is still used internally for development and in the source code. The package remains epiphany-browser in Debian (to avoid a name collision with a video game that is also called "Epiphany") and epiphany in Fedora.
Development
Galeon
Marco Pesenti Gritti, the initiator of Galeon, originally developed Epiphany in 2002 as a fork of Galeon. The fork occurred because of the disagreement between Gritti and the rest of Galeon developers about new features. While Gritti regarded Galeon's monolithic design and the number of user-configurable features as factors limiting Galeon's maintainability and usability, the rest of the Galeon developers wanted to add more features.
Around the same time, the GNOME project adopted a set of human interface guidelines, which promoted simplification of user interfaces. As Galeon was oriented towards power users, most developers disapproved. As a result, Gritti created a new browser based on Galeon, with most of the non-critical features removed. He intended Epiphany to comply with the GNOME HIG. As such, Epiphany used the global GNOME theme and other settings from inception.
Gritti explained his motivations:
Galeon continued after the fork, but lost momentum due to the remaining developers' failure to keep up with changes in the Mozilla platform. Galeon development stalled and the developers decided to work on extensions to bring Galeon's advanced features to Epiphany.
Gritti ended his work on Epiphany and a GNOME team led by Xan Lopez, Christian Persch and Jean-François Rameau now direct the project. Gritti died of cancer on May 23, 2015.
Gecko-based
The first version of Epiphany was released on December 24, 2002.
Epiphany initially used the Gecko layout engine from the Mozilla project to display web pages. It provided a GNOME graphical user interface for Gecko, instead of Mozilla's cross-platform interface.
The development of Epiphany was mainly focused on usability improvements compared to major browsers at the time. The most notable was the new text entry widget, which was introduced in version 1.8. The new widget supported icons inside the text area and reduced the screen space needed to present information, while improving GNOME integration.
The next major milestone was version 2.14, which was the first to follow GNOME's version numbering. It also featured network awareness using NetworkManager, smart bookmarks improvements, and the option to build with XULRunner.
The latter was critical. Previously, Epiphany could only use an installed Mozilla web browser as a web engine provider. The XULRunner support made it possible to install Epiphany as the only web browser on the system.
WebKit-based
The development process suffered from major problems related to the Gecko backend. Notably, the release cycles of the two projects did not line up efficiently. Also, Mozilla increasingly disregarded third-party software that wished to make use of Gecko, until it became viewed as an integrated Firefox component. To address these issues, in July 2007, the Epiphany team added support for WebKit as an alternative rendering engine. On , the team announced that it would remove the ability to build it using Gecko and proceed using only WebKit.
The size of the team and complexity of porting the browser to Webkit caused version 2.22 to be re-released with bugfixes alongside GNOME 2.24, so the releases stagnated until , when it was announced that 2.26 would be the final Gecko-based version.
In September 2009, the transition to Webkit was completed as part of GNOME 2.28.
Version history
Developers of GNOME Web maintain a complete and accurate changelog in its official repository that shows complete and detailed changes between all the releases, following table just shows arbitrarily mentioned some notable and important changes:
Features
As a component of GNOME Core Applications, it provides full integration with GNOME settings and other components like GNOME Keyring to securely store passwords, following the GNOME Human Interface Guidelines and the GNOME software stack to provide first-class support for the all new-adopted edge technologies such as Wayland and the latest major GTK versions, multimedia support using GStreamer, small package size (2.6MB) and very fast execution/startup time due to using shared components; other features include the reader mode, mouse gestures, smart bookmarks, praised web application integration mechanism, built-in ad blocking, the "Insert Emoji" option in the context menu for quick and easy inserting of Emoji and Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs into the text boxes, Google Safe Browsing, supports reading and saving MHTML, an archive format for web pages that combines all the files of web pages into only one single file; and consume fewer system resources than the major cross-platform web browsers.
Web standards support
The underlying WebKit browser engine provides support for HTML 4, XHTML, CSS 1 and 2, most of HTML 5 and CSS 3, and a Web Inspector (web development debugging tool).
Encrypted Media Extensions support is not a goal, as the standard does not specify a Content Decryption Module to use, all available modules are proprietary even if licensing is possible, and the system imposes Digital Rights Management that hides what the user's computer is doing to make copying "premium content" difficult. However, Media Source Extensions is supported, as YouTube began to require this technology in November 2018.
Apple, which is the primary corporate backer of Webkit, rejected at least 16 web APIs because they could be used in a fingerprinting attack to help personally identify users and track them, while providing limited or no benefit to the user. As HTML5test checks for most of these APIs, it artificially lowers Webkit's "score" in points (as does lack of DRM support).
Web once supported NPAPI plug-ins, such as Java and Adobe Flash, but support was removed in GNOME 3.34. In the modern web platform, these have fallen out of favor and support has been removed from all major browsers. Flash has been deprecated by Adobe itself. Flash had gained infamy throughout the years for usability and stability issues, incessant security vulnerabilities, its proprietary nature, its ability to let sites deploy particularly obnoxious web ads, and Adobe's poor and inconsistent Linux support. Many of these issues were raised by Steve Jobs, then CEO of Apple, in his essay Thoughts on Flash.
GNOME integration
Web reuses GNOME frameworks and settings, including the user interface theme, network settings, and printing. Settings are stored with GSettings and GNOME default applications are used for internet media types handling. The user configures these, centrally, in GNOME's settings app.
The built-in preference manager for Web presents basic browser-specific settings while advanced settings which could radically alter Web's behavior can be changed with utilities such as dconf (command line) and dconf-editor (graphical).
Web follows the GNOME Human Interface Guidelines and platform-wide design decisions. For example, in Web 3.4, the menu for application actions was moved to the GNOME Shell's top panel application menu and the menu bar was replaced with "super menu" button, which triggers the display of window-specific menu entries.
Since GNOME 3.32, Web can adjust to various form factors with the help of libhandy, a library sponsored by Purism. It supports desktop, tablet and phone form factors. ("Narrow Mode").
Ad blocking
Since GNOME 3.18, Web is configured to block ads and pop-ups by default. Other browsers typically make the user seek out an extension and toggle settings.
In GNOME 3.34, the existing ad blocker was removed. This code was only partially functional and had been the source of many bugs. Web adopted the "Content Blockers" system from the Webkit engine.
One of the developers, Adrián Pérez de Castro, compared the old and new ad blockers. He found that the switch saved approximately 80 MiB of RAM per browser tab.
Google Safe Browsing and security sandboxing
Since GNOME 3.28, Web has support for Google Safe Browsing, to help prevent users from visiting malicious websites.
Since GNOME 3.34, Web explicitly requires a minimum of WebkitGTK 2.26 or later. This provides the "Bubblewrap Sandbox" for tab processes, which is intended to prevent malicious websites from hijacking the browser and using it to spy on other tabs or run malicious code on the user's computer. If such code found another exploit in the operating system allowing it to become root, the result could be a disaster for all users of the system.
Making the sandbox a priority was brought on, according to Michael Catanzaro, because he was particularly concerned with the code quality of OpenJPEG and the numerous security problems that had been discovered in it, including many years of failing security reviews by Ubuntu. He further explained that web compatibility requires that sites believe that Web is a major browser. Sending them the user agent of Apple Safari causes fewer broken websites than others (due to sharing the Webkit engine), but also causes caching servers to deliver JPEG 2000 images, of which Safari is the only major browser to support. There is no other usable open source option for JPEG 2000 support. Fixing OpenJPEG, which is the official reference software, will be a massive undertaking that could take years to sort out. Enabling the Bubblewrap Sandbox would cause many vulnerabilities in this and other components to become "minimally useful" to potential attackers.
In GNOME 3.36, Web gained native support for PDF documents by using PDF.js. Michael Catanzaro explained that having websites open Evince to display PDF files was insecure, as it could be used to escape the browser's security sandbox. Since Evince was the last user of NPAPI, this allowed the remaining support code for the obsolete plug-in model (where additional vulnerabilities could be hiding) to be removed. Since the NPAPI support had a hard dependency on X11, moving to PDF.js also allowed that dependency to be dropped.
Since PDF.js internally converts PDF documents so that they can be displayed by the web browser's engine, it does not add security vulnerabilities to the browser the way that compiled plug-ins such as Adobe Acrobat or Evince could.
Bookmark management
While most browsers feature a hierarchical folder-based bookmark system, Web uses categorized bookmarks, where a single bookmark (e.g. this page) can exist in multiple categories (such as "Web Browsers", "GNOME", and "Computer Software"). A special category includes bookmarks that have not yet been categorized. Bookmarks, along with browsing history, are accessed from the address bar in find-as-you-type manner.
Smart bookmarks
Another innovative concept supported by Web (though originally from Galeon) is "smart bookmarks". These take a single argument specified from the address bar, or from a textbox in a toolbar.
Web Application Mode
Since GNOME 3.2, released in September 2011, Web allows creating application launchers for web applications. The subsequent invocation of a launcher brings up a plain site-specific browser (single instance) of Web limited to one domain, with off-site links opening in a normal browser. The launcher created this way is accessible from the desktop and is not limited to GNOME Shell. For instance it may be used with Unity, used on Ubuntu. This feature facilitates the integration of the desktop and World Wide Web, which is a goal of Web's developers. Similar features can be found in the Windows version of Google Chrome. For the same purpose Mozilla Foundation previously developed a standalone application Mozilla Prism, which was superseded by the project Chromeless.
Web applications are managed within the browser's main instance. The applications can be deleted from the page, accessible with a special URI about:applications. This approach was supposed to be a temporary while a centralized GNOME web application management was to be implemented in GNOME 3.4, but this never happened.
Firefox Sync
Since GNOME 3.26, Web has support for Firefox Sync, which allows users to sync their bookmarks, history, passwords, and open tabs with Firefox Sync, which can then be shared between any copy of Firefox or Web that the user signs into Firefox Sync with.
Extensions
Web once supported extensions and a package was maintained containing the official ones. This was later removed due to problems with stability and maintainability.
Some popular extensions, such as ad blocking, were moved to the core application.
The project has expressed an interest in implementing support for the WebExtension add-on format used by Chrome, Firefox, and some other major browsers, if interested contributors can be found.
Reception
In reviewing the WebKit-powered Epiphany 2.28 in September 2009, Ryan Paul of Ars Technica said "Epiphany is quite snappy in GNOME 2.28 and scores 100/100 on the Acid3 test. Using WebKit will help differentiate Epiphany from Firefox, which is shipped as the default browser by most of the major Linux distributors."
In reviewing Epiphany 2.30 in July 2010, Jack Wallen described it as "efficient, but different" and noted its problem with crashes. "When I first started working with Epiphany it crashed on most sites I visited. After doing a little research (and then a little debugging) I realized the issue was with JavaScript. Epiphany (in its current release), for some strange reason, doesn't like JavaScript. The only way around this was to disable JavaScript. Yes this means a lot of features won't work on a lot of sites – but this also means those same sites will load faster and won't be so prone to having issues (like crashing my browser)." Wallen concluded positively about the browser, "Although Epiphany hasn't fully replaced Chrome and Firefox as my one-stop-shop browser, I now use it much more than I would have previously. [It has a] small footprint, fast startup, and clean interface."
In March 2011, Veronica Henry reviewed Epiphany 2.32, saying "To be fair, this would be a hard sell as a primary desktop browser for most users. In fact, there isn't even a setting to let you designate it as your default browser. But for those instance where you need to fire up a lighting-fast browser for quick surfing, Epiphany will do the trick." She further noted, "Though I still use Firefox as my primary browser, lately it seems to run at a snail's pace. So, one of the first things I noticed about Epiphany is how quickly it launches. And subsequent page loads on my system are equally as fast." Henry criticized Epiphany for its short list of extensions, singling out the lack of Firebug as a deficiency. Web instead supports Web Inspector offered by the WebKit engine, which has similar functionality.
In April 2012, Ryan Paul of Ars Technica used Web as an example to his criticism of GNOME 3.4 design decisions: "Aside from the poor initial discoverability of the panel menu, this model works reasonably well for simple applications. [...] Unfortunately, it doesn't scale well in complex applications. The best example of where this approach can pose difficulties is in GNOME's default Web browser. [...] Having the application's functionality split across two completely separate menus does not constitute a usability improvement." This was addressed in later versions, with a single unified menu.
In an October 2016 review, Bertel King Jr. noted on MakeUseOf, "Later versions offer the best integration you will find with GNOME Shell. It lacks the add-ons found in mainstream browsers, but some users will like the minimalism, the speed, and the tab isolation that prevents one misbehaving site from crashing the entire browser."
In an April 2019 review, Bertel King Jr. wrote another article on MakeUseOf, this time reviewing GNOME Web for its Web Applications Mode. He stated, "When you check your email, you’re using a web app. If you open YouTube, Netflix, or Spotify in a browser, again, you’re using a web app. These days, you can replace most of your desktop apps with web apps. [...] GNOME Web provides tools to better integrate web apps with the rest of your desktop, so you can open them via your app launcher and view them in your dock or taskbar. This way they feel more like apps and less like sites." He also praised the security provided by walling off Web Applications from the rest of the browser and each other. Like Mozilla's container feature, this helps prevent sites such as Facebook from seeing what the user is doing in the main browser. It also allows the user to create multiple "apps" for the same site, to easily switch between different accounts.
See also
Midori, another web browser based on GTK and WebKitGTK
List of web browsers for Unix and Unix-like operating systems
References
External links
complete change-log
Firefox vs GNOME Web
Frequently asked questions (FAQ)
2002 software
Free software programmed in C
Free web browsers
GNOME Core Applications
MacOS web browsers
POSIX web browsers
Software based on WebKit
Software forks
Software that uses Meson
Web browsers that use GTK | [
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224279 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pango | Pango | Pango (stylized as Παν語) is a text (i.e. glyph) layout engine library which works with the HarfBuzz shaping engine for displaying multi-language text.
Full-function rendering of text and cross-platform support is achieved when Pango is used with platform APIs or third-party libraries, such as Uniscribe and FreeType, as text rendering backends. Pango-processed text will appear similar under different operating systems.
Pango is a special-purpose library for text and not a general-purpose graphics rendering library such as Cairo, with which Pango can be used. The Cairo documentation recommends Pango be used to "render" text rather than Cairo for all but the simplest text "rendering".
History and naming
The name pango comes from Greek pan (παν, "all") and Japanese go (語, "language").
In January 2000 the merger of the GScript and GnomeText projects was named Pango.
Pango version 1.0.0 was released 11 March 2002.
Support for OpenType features
Pango 1.17 and newer support the feature tag that allows localized glyphs to be used for the same Unicode code point. Assuming you have Verdana version 5.01 installed, which supports the locl feature for the latn/ROM (Romanian) script, a quick demonstration (on Linux) is:
for lang in en ro; do pango-view \
--font="Verdana 64" \
--text "şţ vs. șț in $lang" \
--language=$lang; done
For an explanation of the substitutions rules for Romanian, see this discussion.
Setting the locale via the POSIX environment variable, e.g. LANG=ro_RO.UTF-8 will also cause Pango to use locl font feature. Finally, you can change the language on the fly in the same text using Pango markup, e.g.:
pango-view \
--font="Verdana 24" \
--markup \
--text 'In the same text: şţ(en) and <span lang="ro">şţ(ro).</span>'
Since 1.37.1, Pango added more attributes to provide complete support for processing OpenType feature.
The official showcase of Pango's script-aware features is here.
Major users
Pango has been integrated into most Linux distributions. The GTK UI toolkit uses Pango for all of its text rendering. The Linux versions of the Mozilla Firefox web browser and Mozilla Thunderbird mail client use Pango for text rendering.
See also
HarfBuzz (text shaping engine which is incorporated into Pango itself but can be also used stand-alone)
Core Text (modern multilingual text rendering engine introduced in Mac OS X 10.5)
Graphite (multiplatform open source smart-font renderer)
WorldScript (Old Macintosh multilingual text rendering engine)
Typographic ligature
Computer font
References
External links
Pango, an open-source Unicode text layout engine. by Owen Taylor in Twenty fifth Internationalization and unicode conference, April 2004
"Pango: internationalized text handling" Owen Taylor in Ottawa linux symposium 2001
Pango Reference Manual
, at linux.conf.au 2017 Simon Cozens explained the rendering of fonts
Computer-related introductions in 1999
C (programming language) libraries
Free computer libraries
Free software programmed in C
Freedesktop.org libraries
GNOME libraries
GTK
Software that uses Meson
Text rendering libraries | [
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224281 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gedit | Gedit | gedit ( or ) is the default text editor of the GNOME desktop environment and part of the GNOME Core Applications. Designed as a general-purpose text editor, gedit emphasizes simplicity and ease of use, with a clean and simple GUI, according to the philosophy of the GNOME project. It includes tools for editing source code and structured text such as markup languages.
It is free and open-source software under the GNU General Public License version 2 or later.
gedit is also available for macOS and at one time had version for Windows, but as of May 2020 was no longer available.
By July 2017, gedit was not being maintained by any developers, but in August 2017 two developers volunteered to commence work on it again.
Features
gedit includes syntax highlighting via GtkSourceView for various program code and text markup formats including MediaWiki. gedit also has GUI tabs for editing multiple files. Tabs can be moved between various windows by the user. It can edit remote files using GVfs libraries; (GnomeVFS is now deprecated). It supports a full undo and redo system as well as search and replace. Other typical code oriented features include line numbering, bracket matching, text wrapping, current line highlighting, automatic indentation and automatic file backup.
The features of gedit include multi language spell checking via Enchant and a flexible plugin system allowing the addition of new features, for example snippets and integration with external applications including a Python or Bash terminal. A number of plugins are included in gedit itself, with more plugins in the gedit-plugins package and online.
Since version 3.20 gedit uses gspell for spell checking.
gedit has an optional side pane displaying the list of open files and (in a different tab of the side pane) a file browser. It also has an optional bottom pane with a Python console and (using gedit-plugins) terminal. gedit automatically detects when an open file is modified on disk by another application and offers to reload that file. Using a plugin (in gedit-plugins package), gedit can save and load sessions, which are lists of currently open tabs.
gedit supports printing, including print preview and printing to PostScript and PDF files. Printing options include text font, and page size, orientation, margins, optional printing of page headers and line numbers, as well as syntax highlighting.
In late 2013 and early 2014 the application received major upgrades for Gnome 3.12, with a new, cleaner user interface and code base improvements to make it work better with other desktop interfaces, such as Unity.
Valencia is a gedit plugin that turns gedit into a lightweight IDE for Vala.
Architecture
Being part of the GNOME Core Applications, gedit 3 uses the GTK 3.x and GNOME 3.x libraries. The GNOME integration includes drag and drop to and from GNOME Files.
gedit uses the GNOME help system for documentation. It also uses virtual file system and GNOME printing framework.
In December 2008, gedit binaries were made available for macOS and Windows.
The last version for Windows 32-bit was 2.30.1, released in 2014. Standalone releases for 64-bit Windows continued, with Version 3.20.1 released in 2016.
Current versions of gedit (3.0+) for Windows are also available through MSYS2 and can be installed via the built-in Pacman package manager.
See also
FeatherPad
jEdit
List of text editors
Comparison of text editors
References
External links
Download 32-bit for Windows
Download 64-bit for Windows
Free software programmed in C
Free software programmed in Python
Free text editors
GNOME Core Applications
Linux text editors
MacOS text editors
Notepad replacements
Software using the GPL license
Text editors that use GTK
Unix text editors
Windows text editors | [
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224282 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke%20of%20Rothesay | Duke of Rothesay | Duke of Rothesay (; , ) is a dynastic title of the heir apparent to the British throne, currently Prince Charles. Charles' wife Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall, is the current Duchess of Rothesay. Duke of Rothesay was a title of the heir apparent to the throne of the Kingdom of Scotland before 1707, of the Kingdom of Great Britain from 1707 to 1801, and now of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It is the title mandated for use by the heir apparent when in Scotland, in preference to the titles Duke of Cornwall (which also belongs to the eldest living son of the monarch, when and only when he is also heir apparent, by right) and Prince of Wales (traditionally granted to the heir apparent), which are used in the rest of the United Kingdom and overseas. The Duke of Rothesay also holds other Scottish titles, including those of Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles, and Prince and Great Steward of Scotland. The title is named after Rothesay on the Isle of Bute, but is not associated with any legal entity or landed property, unlike the Duchy of Cornwall.
History
David Stewart, Duke of Rothesay, the son of King Robert III of Scots, first held the dukedom from its creation in 1398. After his death, his brother James, later King James I, received the dukedom. Thereafter, the heir apparent to the Scottish Crown held the dukedom; an Act of the Parliament of Scotland passed in 1469 confirmed this pattern of succession.
The Earldom of Carrick existed as early as the 12th century. In 1306, Robert the Bruce, Earl of Carrick, became King Robert I of Scotland, with the earldom merging in the Crown. In the following years, successive Kings of Scots created several heirs apparent Earl of Carrick. The Act of 1469 finally settled the earldom on the eldest son of the Scottish monarch.
The office of the Great Steward of Scotland (also called High Steward or Lord High Steward) dates back to its first holder, Walter fitz Alan, in the 12th century. The seventh Great Steward, Robert, ascended the Scots throne as Robert II in 1371. Thereafter, only the heirs apparent to the Crown held the office. The 1469 Act also deals with this.
Between the 1603 Union and Edward VII's time as heir apparent, the style "Duke of Rothesay" appears to have dropped out of usage in favour of "Prince of Wales". It was Queen Victoria who mandated the title for use to refer to the eldest son and heir apparent when in Scotland, and this usage has continued since. This may have been as a result, direct or indirect, of the 1822 visit of King George IV to Scotland.
Lord of the Isles
Another of the non-peerage titles belonging to the heir apparent, that of Lord of the Isles, merits special mention. The Lords of the Isles, of the MacDonald family, originally functioned as vassals of the Scottish, or Norwegian, kings who ruled the Western Isles. The ambitious John MacDonald II, fourth Lord of the Isles, made a secret treaty in 1462 with King Edward IV of England, by which he sought to make himself an independent ruler.
In 1475, James III discovered the Lord of the Isles' actions, and the Lordship became subject to forfeiture. MacDonald later regained his position, but James IV again deprived him of his titles in 1493 after his nephew provoked a rebellion. In 1540 James V of Scotland granted the Lordship to the heirs apparent to the Crown.
Legal basis
An Act of the Parliament of Scotland passed in 1469 governs the succession to most of these titles. It provides that "the first-born Prince of the King of Scots for ever" should hold the dukedom. If the firstborn Prince dies before the King, the title is not inherited by his heir – it is only for the firstborn son, like the Duchy of Cornwall — nor is either inherited by the deceased duke's next brother, unless that brother also becomes heir apparent. Though the Act specified "King", eldest sons of queens regnant subsequently also held the dukedom. The interpretation of the word Prince, however, does not include women. The eldest son of the British Sovereign, as Duke of Rothesay, had the right to vote in elections for representative peers from 1707. (The 1707 Acts of Union between the Parliament of Scotland and Parliament of England formally unified both kingdoms to create the Kingdom of Great Britain). This right continued until 1963, when the UK Parliament abolished the election of representative peers.
Dukes of Rothesay
Holders of the Dukedom of Rothesay, with the processes by which they became Dukes of Rothesay and by which they ceased to hold the title:
Family tree
Current holder
Since 1952 Charles, Prince of Wales, has held the title of Duke of Rothesay, and uses it when in Scotland. He has the formal Scottish style of HRH The Prince Charles, Duke of Rothesay.
The personal arms of the current Duke were bestowed upon him in 1974 by the Queen. The escutcheon features on the 1st and 4th quarters the arms of the Great Steward of Scotland, with the 2nd and 3rd quarters featuring the arms of the Lord of the Isles. The arms of the current Duke are distinguished from those of Clan Stewart of Appin through the addition of an inescutcheon displaying the arms of the heir apparent to the King of Scots, namely the Royal arms of Scotland with a three-point label. The full achievement of the current Duke's arms are a variation of the Royal coat of arms of Scotland used prior to the Union of the Crowns in 1603.
References
Dukedoms in the Peerage of Scotland
Noble titles created in 1398
Heirs to the throne
Scottish monarchy
Succession to the British crown
Rothesay, Bute
British and Irish peerages which merged in the Crown
Charles, Prince of Wales | [
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224289 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ha%20%28mythology%29 | Ha (mythology) | Ha (), in ancient Egyptian religion, was a god of the Western Desert & the fertile oasis of Western Desert of Egypt. He was associated with the Duat (the underworld) and pictured as a man wearing the hieroglyph symbol for desert hills on his head.
Ha was said to protect Egypt from enemies such as invading ancient Libyans. He is associated with Set, since Set represent the west of the Nile and they both have similar attributes - the desert.
Worship
It is unknown, since when Ha was worshipped in ancient Egypt. But at first he was the god of fertility, son of an almost unknown deity named Yau, but in the later period of Egypt, he took his place by removing the western desert god Ash. He was later shown as the symbol of the west, while Sapadu was the symbol of the east, and Dedun the symbol of the south. The ancient Egyptians saw him as a guardian deity of the pharaoh. The inscription on the pyramids of Unas shows him as the protector of the dead pharaoh.
Other Associations
The dinosaur Hagryphus ("Ha's griffin") was named after Ha; it was discovered in Utah and Ha's association with the western deserts was carried over to the deserts of the Southwestern United States.
References
Egyptian gods
Nature gods
Underworld gods
Egyptian underworld | [
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224290 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Science%20Digital%20Library | National Science Digital Library | The United States' National Science Digital Library (NSDL) is an open-access online digital library and collaborative network of disciplinary and grade-level focused education providers. NSDL's mission is to provide quality digital learning collections to the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education community, both formal and informal, institutional and individual. NSDL's collections are refined by a network of STEM educational and disciplinary professionals. Their work is based on user data, disciplinary knowledge, and participation in the evolution of digital resources as major elements of effective STEM learning.
Resource types available via NSDL include instructional materials, activities, lesson plans, audio/video materials, images, web sites, simulations, visualizations, tools, and services. NSDL also provides annotation collection and paradata (usage data) collections: comments, ratings, or usage information attached to existing resources in the NSDL.
Activities
Learning Registry: The NSDL is a partner in the national Learning Registry project to facilitate the exchange of resources, metadata about resources, and paradata about their use in learning environments. NSDL is contributing to this multi-agency federal project designed to make learning resources produced by federal funding more accessible.
NSDL STEM Exchange: concept for a web service to capture and share social media-generated information and other networked associations about educational resources (tagged, recommended, commented, discussed, clicked, viewed, downloaded, favorited, shared, etc.)
Learning Application Readiness - an NSDL initiative that refers to how closely educational resources, collections, and their related metadata are aligned to educational goals, curriculum, or professional development needs of users, and how readily those can be embedded in tools and services that teachers and students use.
Repositioning NSDL for the Next Generation of Digital Learning - An NSDL NSF-funded project building on and leveraging the lessons of prior work (NSDL network partners collaborations;; Learning Registry collaboration; ; Common Core Mathematics collection) to bring pilot level projects to scale and to integrate new STEM education services into NSDL. These efforts contribute to NSDL's sustainability through diffusion and adoption of resources into a wider range of instructional settings and teacher peer-to-peer networks.
History
The National Science Digital Library (NSDL) was established in 2000 by the National Science Foundation (NSF) to provide an organized point of access to STEM content aggregated from a variety of other digital libraries, NSF-funded projects, and other national STEM stakeholder providers. Key collaborations with disciplinary communities and audience-focused providers grew out of the NSDL, providing a social and technical infrastructure for collaboration in the delivery and use of digital resources in STEM education
. NSDL also provides access to services and tools that enhance the use of this content in a variety of contexts. NSDL is designed primarily for K-16 educators, but anyone can access NSDL.org and search the library at no cost, and without creating a user account, although some content providers require a nominal fee or subscription to retrieve their specific resources.
From 2000 – 2011, the National Science Foundation sponsored an NSDL grant-making program in the Division of Undergraduate Education (DUE) of the Education and Human Resources Directorate. The National STEM Distributed Learning (NSDL) program offered grants to support major collection-building efforts, services development, and targeted research that built and extended library services. In February 2011, the NSF ended the NSDL grant-making program in DUE, and did not issue an NSDL program solicitation for FY2011.
Originally a collaboration between Cornell University, Columbia University, and the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR), the NSDL is now entirely hosted at UCAR, in Boulder, Colorado, and continues its mission as an entity dedicated to the advancement of STEM education.
See also
Analytical sciences digital library
Notes
References
Lagoze, C., D. B. Krafft, S. Payette, & S. Jesuroga (2005). What is a digital library anymore, anyway? D-Lib Magazine, 11(11).
Mardis, M., & K. Howe (2010). STEM for Our Students: Content to Co-conspiracy? [Co-editor's column]. Knowledge Quest, Journal of the American Association of School Librarians, 39(2), 82.
Mervis, Jeffrey. NSF Rethinks Its Digital Library. Science 2 January 2009: Vol. 323. no. 5910, pp. 54–58.
Multiple authors (2010). STEM for our Students. Knowledge Quest, Journal of the American Association of School Librarians, 39(2), 82.
External links
National Science Digital Library
Learning Registry
STEM Exchange
Learning Application Readiness
Common Core Mathematics collection
NSDL Network Partners
National Science Foundation
National STEM Distributed Learning (NSDL) program
Scientific organizations based in the United States
American digital libraries
Bibliographic databases and indexes
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224292 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerita | Emerita | Emerita may refer to:
Emerita (genus), a genus of crustacean
Emerita Augusta, an ancient city of Spain
Saint Emerita, 3rd-century martyr; see Digna and Emerita
Emerita, the feminine form of the adjective "emeritus", added to the title professor or religious leader to honor them for lengthy service | [
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224295 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scripps%20Institution%20of%20Oceanography | Scripps Institution of Oceanography | The Scripps Institution of Oceanography (sometimes referred to as SIO, Scripps Oceanography, or Scripps) in San Diego, California, founded in 1903, is one of the oldest and largest centers for ocean and Earth science research, public service, undergraduate and graduate training in the world. Hundreds of ocean and Earth scientists conduct research with the aid of oceanographic research vessels and shorebased laboratories. Its Old Scripps Building is a U.S. National Historic Landmark. SIO is a division of the University of California San Diego (UCSD). The public explorations center of the institution is the Birch Aquarium at Scripps. Since becoming part of the University of California in 1912, the institution has expanded its scope to include studies of the physics, chemistry, geology, biology, and climate of Earth.
Dr. Margaret Leinen took office as Vice Chancellor for Marine Sciences, Director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography, and Dean of the Graduate School of Marine Sciences on October 1, 2013.
Scripps publishes explorations now, an e-magazine of ocean and earth science.
Mission statement
"To seek, teach, and communicate scientific understanding of the oceans, atmosphere, Earth, and other planets for the benefit of society and the environment."
History
Scripps Institution of Oceanography was founded in 1903 as the Marine Biological Association of San Diego, an independent biological research laboratory. It was proposed and incorporated by a committee of the San Diego Chamber of Commerce, led by local activist and amateur malacologist Fred Baker, together with two colleagues. He recruited University of California Zoology professor William Emerson Ritter to head up the proposed marine biology institution, and obtained financial support from local philanthropists E. W. Scripps and his sister Ellen Browning Scripps. They fully funded the institution for its first decade. It began institutional life in the boathouse of the Hotel del Coronado located on San Diego Bay. It re-located in 1905 to the La Jolla area on the head above La Jolla Cove, and finally in 1907 to its present location.
In 1912 Scripps became incorporated into the University of California and was renamed the "Scripps Institution for Biological Research." Since 1916, measurements have been taken daily at its pier. The name was changed to Scripps Institution of Oceanography in October 1925. During the 1960s, led by Scripps Institution of Oceanography director Roger Revelle, it formed the nucleus for the creation of the University of California, San Diego on a bluff overlooking Scripps Institution.
The Old Scripps Building, designed by Irving Gill, was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1982. Architect Barton Myers designed the current Scripps Building for the Institution of Oceanography in 1998.
Research programs
The institution's research programs encompass biological, physical, chemical, geological, and geophysical studies of the oceans and land. Scripps also studies the interaction of the oceans with both the atmospheric climate and environmental concerns on terra firma. Related to this research, Scripps offers undergraduate and graduate degrees.
Today, the Scripps staff of 1,300 includes approximately 235 faculty, 180 other scientists and some 300 graduate students, with an annual budget of more than $195 million.
The institution operates a fleet of three oceanographic research vessels and the research platform R/P FLIP (FLoating Instrument Platform) for oceanographic research.
The Integrated Research Themes encompassing the work done by Scripps researchers are Biodiversity and Conservation, California Environment, Earth and Planetary Chemistry, Earth Through Space and Time, Energy and the Environment, Environment and Human Health, Global Change, Global Environmental Monitoring, Hazards, Ice and Climate, Instruments and Innovation, Interfaces, Marine Life, Modeling Theory and Computing, Sound and Light and the Sea, and Waves and Circulation.
Organizational structure
Scripps Oceanography is divided into three research sections, each with its own subdivisions:
Biology
Center for Marine Biotechnology & Biomedicine (CMBB)
Integrative Oceanography Division (IOD)
Marine Biology Research Division (MBRD)
Earth
Cecil H. and Ida M. Green Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics (IGPP)
Geosciences Research Division (GRD)
Oceans & Atmosphere
Climate, Atmospheric Science & Physical Oceanography (CASPO)
Marine Physical Laboratory (MPL)
Research vessels
Scripps owns and operates several research vessels and platforms:
RV Roger Revelle
RV Sally Ride
RV Robert Gordon Sproul
RP Flip
RV Bob and Betty Beyster
Current and previous vessels larger than
1906–???? – RV Loma
1907–1917 – RV Alexander Agassiz
1918–1918 – RV Ellen Browning
1925–1936 – RV Scripps
1937–1955 – RV E. W. Scripps
1955–1965 – RV Stranger (Operated as USS Jasper from 1941 to 1947 for the UC Division of War Research)
1947–1956 – RV Crest
1947–1969 – RV Horizon
1948–1965 – RV Paolina-T
1951–1965 – RV Spencer F.Baird
1955–1969 – T-441
1956–1962 – RV Orca
1959–1963 – RV Hugh M. Smith
1959–1970 – RV Argo (Official Navy name was Snatch)
1962–1976 – RV Alexander Agassiz
1962–present – RP FLIP
1962–1974 – RV Oconostota (The Oconostota was known as "The Rolling O" because of its unpleasant motion.)
1965–1980 – RV Alpha Helix (Transferred to University of Alaska, Fairbanks in 1980 (UAF sold vessel in 2007 to Stabbert Maritime)
1965–???? – RV Ellen B. Scripps
1966–1992 – RV Thomas Washington (Transferred to Chile and renamed Vidal Gormaz)
1969–2014 – RV Melville
1973–???? – RV Gianna
1978–2015 – RV New Horizon
1984–present – RV Robert Gordon Sproul
1995–present – RV Roger Revelle
2016–present – RV Sally Ride
2019-present - RV Bob and Betty Beyster
Birch Aquarium at Scripps
Birch Aquarium at Scripps, the public exploration center for the institution, features a Hall of Fishes with more than 60 tanks of Pacific fishes and invertebrates from the cold waters of the Pacific Northwest to the tropical waters of Mexico and the IndoPacific, a 13,000-gallon local shark and ray exhibit, interactive tide pools, and interactive science exhibits.
Notable faculty members (past and present)
Farooq Azam
George Backus
Ernest Baldwin
Andrew Benson
Hugh Bradner
Edward Brinton
Theodore Holmes Bullock
Ralph J. Cicerone
Robert W. Corell
Harmon Craig
Paul J. Crutzen
Russ E. Davis
Paul K. Dayton
Edward DeLong
Robert S. Dietz
Seibert Q. Duntley
Carl Eckart
Jim T. Enright
David Epel
Edward A. Frieman
Robert Garrels
Freeman Gilbert
Edward D. Goldberg
Klaus Hasselmann
Joel Hedgpeth
Walter Heiligenberg
Myrl C. Hendershott
Sam Hinton
Carl Hubbs
Douglas Inman
John Dove Isaacs
Jeremy Jackson
Martin W. Johnson
Thomas H. Jordan
Miriam Kastner
Charles David Keeling
Ralph Keeling
Charles Kennel
Nancy Knowlton
Lisa Levin
Ralph A. Lewin
Michael S. Longuet-Higgins
Edwin P. Martz
Wallace K. (Ken) Melville
Henry William Menard
Mario J. Molina
John W. Miles
B. Greg Mitchell
Judith Munk
Walter Munk
Jerome Namias
William Nierenberg
Pearn P. Niiler
Stewart Nozette
Veerabhadran Ramanathan
Roger Revelle
William Emerson Ritter
Dean Roemmich
Richard Heinrich Rosenblatt
Enric Sala
Rick Salmon
Hans Suess
Francis Parker Shepard
Cornelius Cole Smith, Jr.
Richard Somerville
Fred Spiess
Janet Sprintall
George Sugihara
Harald Sverdrup
Lynne Talley
Warren White
Klaus Wyrtki
Victor Vacquier Sr. and son
Benjamin Elazari Volcani
Notable alumni
Tanya Atwater
Thomas E. Bowman III
Edward Brinton
Stephen E. Calvert
Jack Corliss
John M. Edmond
Kenneth Farley
Michael Freilich
Susan M. Gaines
Eric Giddens
Susan Hough
Ancel Keys
Megan McArthur
James J. McCarthy
Marcia McNutt
Jessica Meir
Walter Munk
Wheeler J. North
Giuseppe Notarbartolo di Sciara
Colm Ó hEocha
Joseph R. Pawlik
George Perry
S. K. Satheesh
Brinke Stevens
Christopher Stott
Brian Tucker
Popular culture
In 2014, the institution and its Keeling Curve measurement of atmospheric carbon dioxide levels were featured as a plot point in an episode of HBO's The Newsroom.
In 2008, Scripps Institution of Oceanography was the subject of a category on the TV game show Jeopardy!. Scripps has been a story element in numerous fictional works.
See also
Array Network Facility
RISE project
The Scripps Research Institute, a neighboring, but completely independent medical research institute
Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, a private, non-profit oceanographic research center in Moss Landing, California
Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, a multi-campus marine research consortium of the California State University System
Hopkins Marine Station, a similar research facility run by Stanford University in Monterey, California
Hatfield Marine Science Center, a similar research facility associated with the Oregon State University and located in Newport, Oregon
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, a similar research facility located in Woods Hole, Massachusetts
References
Further reading
Scripps Institution of Oceanography; First Fifty Years Helen Raitt and Beatrice Moulton. Los Angeles : W. Ritchie Press, 1967.
Scripps Institution of Oceanography : Probing the Oceans, 1936 to 1976 Elizabeth Noble Shor. San Diego, Calif. : Tofua Press, 1978.
The Keeling Curve Turns 50
External links
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
explorations E-Magazine
Support Scripps
Birch Aquarium at Scripps
"How Scripps Institution Came To San Diego", The Journal of San Diego History 27:3 (Summer 1981) by Elizabeth N. Shor
Scripps Institution of Oceanography digital collection on HathiTrust Digital Library
Oceanographic organizations
Research institutes in California
University of California, San Diego
La Jolla, San Diego
Organizations based in San Diego
Universities and colleges in San Diego
National Register of Historic Places in San Diego
Scripps family
Barton Myers buildings
1903 establishments in California | [
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224296 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tridentine | Tridentine | The adjective Tridentine refers to any thing or person pertaining to the city of Trent, Italy ().
It is applied in particular to:
The Council of Trent, one of the ecumenical councils recognized by the Roman Catholic Church, held in that city in the 16th century, and to the teachings emphasized by it and the related legislation issued by the Popes of the time, especially Pope Pius V
The Tridentine Mass, which supplanted the various versions of the Pre-Tridentine Mass and in turn, with the introduction of the Mass of Paul VI ceased to be the ordinary form of the Roman Rite but some versions of which continue to be used as extraordinary forms of the Roman Rite, with official approval in the case of the 1962 version.
The Traditionalist Catholic movement and its members, who have adhered to the 1962 or earlier editions of the Roman Missal.
The Tridentine Reformation.
See also
Communities using the Tridentine Mass
Traditionalist Catholicism
Council of Trent
Tridentine Mass | [
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224300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bowen%20ratio | Bowen ratio | The Bowen ratio is used to describe the type of heat transfer for a surface that has moisture. Heat transfer can either occur as sensible heat (differences in temperature without evapotranspiration) or latent heat (the energy required during a change of state, without a change in temperature). The Bowen ratio is generally used to calculate heat lost (or gained) in a substance; it is the ratio of energy fluxes from one state to another by sensible heat and latent heating respectively.
The ratio was named by Harald Sverdrup after Ira Sprague Bowen (1898–1973), an astrophysicist whose theoretical work on evaporation to air from water bodies made first use of it, and it is used most commonly in meteorology and hydrology.
Formulation
The Bowen ratio is calculated by the equation:
, where is sensible heating and is latent heating.
In this context, when the magnitude of is less than one, a greater proportion of the available energy at the surface is passed to the atmosphere as latent heat than as sensible heat, and the converse is true for values of greater than one. As , however, becomes unbounded making the Bowen ratio a poor choice of variable for use in formulae, especially for arid surfaces. For this reason the evaporative fraction is sometimes a more appropriate choice of variable representing the relative contributions of the turbulent energy fluxes to the surface energy budget.
The Bowen ratio is related to the evaporative fraction, , through the equation,
.
The Bowen ratio is an indicator of the type of surface. The Bowen ratio, , is less than one over surfaces with abundant water supplies.
References
External links
National Science Digital Library - Bowen Ratio
Ratios
Thermodynamics
Atmospheric thermodynamics | [
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224301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary%20layer | Boundary layer | In physics and fluid mechanics, a boundary layer is the layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface where the effects of viscosity are significant. The liquid or gas in the boundary layer tends to cling to the surface.
The boundary layer around a human is heated by the human, so it is warmer than the surrounding air. A breeze disrupts the boundary layer, and hair and clothing protect it, making the human feel cooler or warmer. On an aircraft wing, the boundary layer is the part of the flow close to the wing, where viscous forces distort the surrounding non-viscous flow. In the Earth's atmosphere, the atmospheric boundary layer is the air layer (~ 1 km) near the ground. It is affected by the surface; day-night heat flows caused by the sun heating the ground, moisture, or momentum transfer to or from the surface.
Types of boundary layer
Laminar boundary layers can be loosely classified according to their structure and the circumstances under which they are created. The thin shear layer which develops on an oscillating body is an example of a Stokes boundary layer, while the Blasius boundary layer refers to the well-known similarity solution near an attached flat plate held in an oncoming unidirectional flow and Falkner–Skan boundary layer, a generalization of Blasius profile. When a fluid rotates and viscous forces are balanced by the Coriolis effect (rather than convective inertia), an Ekman layer forms. In the theory of heat transfer, a thermal boundary layer occurs. A surface can have multiple types of boundary layer simultaneously.
The viscous nature of airflow reduces the local velocities on a surface and is responsible for skin friction. The layer of air over the wing's surface that is slowed down or stopped by viscosity, is the boundary layer. There are two different types of boundary layer flow: laminar and turbulent.
Laminar boundary layer flow
The laminar boundary is a very smooth flow, while the turbulent boundary layer contains swirls or "eddies." The laminar flow creates less skin friction drag than the turbulent flow, but is less stable. Boundary layer flow over a wing surface begins as a smooth laminar flow. As the flow continues back from the leading edge, the laminar boundary layer increases in thickness.
Turbulent boundary layer flow
At some distance back from the leading edge, the smooth laminar flow breaks down and transitions to a turbulent flow. From a drag standpoint, it is advisable to have the transition from laminar to turbulent flow as far aft on the wing as possible, or have a large amount of the wing surface within the laminar portion of the boundary layer. The low energy laminar flow, however, tends to break down more suddenly than the turbulent layer.
Aerodynamics
The aerodynamic boundary layer was first defined by Ludwig Prandtl in a paper presented on August 12, 1904 at the third International Congress of Mathematicians in Heidelberg, Germany. It simplifies the equations of fluid flow by dividing the flow field into two areas: one inside the boundary layer, dominated by viscosity and creating the majority of drag experienced by the boundary body; and one outside the boundary layer, where viscosity can be neglected without significant effects on the solution. This allows a closed-form solution for the flow in both areas, a significant simplification of the full Navier–Stokes equations. The majority of the heat transfer to and from a body also takes place within the boundary layer, again allowing the equations to be simplified in the flow field outside the boundary layer. The pressure distribution throughout the boundary layer in the direction normal to the surface (such as an airfoil) remains constant throughout the boundary layer, and is the same as on the surface itself.
The thickness of the velocity boundary layer is normally defined as the distance from the solid body to the point at which the viscous flow velocity is 99% of the freestream velocity (the surface velocity of an inviscid flow). Displacement thickness is an alternative definition stating that the boundary layer represents a deficit in mass flow compared to inviscid flow with slip at the wall. It is the distance by which the wall would have to be displaced in the inviscid case to give the same total mass flow as the viscous case. The no-slip condition requires the flow velocity at the surface of a solid object be zero and the fluid temperature be equal to the temperature of the surface. The flow velocity will then increase rapidly within the boundary layer, governed by the boundary layer equations, below.
The thermal boundary layer thickness is similarly the distance from the body at which the temperature is 99% of the freestream temperature. The ratio of the two thicknesses is governed by the Prandtl number. If the Prandtl number is 1, the two boundary layers are the same thickness. If the Prandtl number is greater than 1, the thermal boundary layer is thinner than the velocity boundary layer. If the Prandtl number is less than 1, which is the case for air at standard conditions, the thermal boundary layer is thicker than the velocity boundary layer.
In high-performance designs, such as gliders and commercial aircraft, much attention is paid to controlling the behavior of the boundary layer to minimize drag. Two effects have to be considered. First, the boundary layer adds to the effective thickness of the body, through the displacement thickness, hence increasing the pressure drag. Secondly, the shear forces at the surface of the wing create skin friction drag.
At high Reynolds numbers, typical of full-sized aircraft, it is desirable to have a laminar boundary layer. This results in a lower skin friction due to the characteristic velocity profile of laminar flow. However, the boundary layer inevitably thickens and becomes less stable as the flow develops along the body, and eventually becomes turbulent, the process known as boundary layer transition. One way of dealing with this problem is to suck the boundary layer away through a porous surface (see Boundary layer suction). This can reduce drag, but is usually impractical due to its mechanical complexity and the power required to move the air and dispose of it. Natural laminar flow (NLF) techniques push the boundary layer transition aft by reshaping the airfoil or fuselage so that its thickest point is more aft and less thick. This reduces the velocities in the leading part and the same Reynolds number is achieved with a greater length.
At lower Reynolds numbers, such as those seen with model aircraft, it is relatively easy to maintain laminar flow. This gives low skin friction, which is desirable. However, the same velocity profile which gives the laminar boundary layer its low skin friction also causes it to be badly affected by adverse pressure gradients. As the pressure begins to recover over the rear part of the wing chord, a laminar boundary layer will tend to separate from the surface. Such flow separation causes a large increase in the pressure drag, since it greatly increases the effective size of the wing section. In these cases, it can be advantageous to deliberately trip the boundary layer into turbulence at a point prior to the location of laminar separation, using a turbulator. The fuller velocity profile of the turbulent boundary layer allows it to sustain the adverse pressure gradient without separating. Thus, although the skin friction is increased, overall drag is decreased. This is the principle behind the dimpling on golf balls, as well as vortex generators on aircraft. Special wing sections have also been designed which tailor the pressure recovery so laminar separation is reduced or even eliminated. This represents an optimum compromise between the pressure drag from flow separation and skin friction from induced turbulence.
When using half-models in wind tunnels, a peniche is sometimes used to reduce or eliminate the effect of the boundary layer.
Boundary layer equations
The deduction of the boundary layer equations was one of the most important advances in fluid dynamics. Using an order of magnitude analysis, the well-known governing Navier–Stokes equations of viscous fluid flow can be greatly simplified within the boundary layer. Notably, the characteristic of the partial differential equations (PDE) becomes parabolic, rather than the elliptical form of the full Navier–Stokes equations. This greatly simplifies the solution of the equations. By making the boundary layer approximation, the flow is divided into an inviscid portion (which is easy to solve by a number of methods) and the boundary layer, which is governed by an easier to solve PDE. The continuity and Navier–Stokes equations for a two-dimensional steady incompressible flow in Cartesian coordinates are given by
where and are the velocity components, is the density, is the pressure, and is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid at a point.
The approximation states that, for a sufficiently high Reynolds number the flow over a surface can be divided into an outer region of inviscid flow unaffected by viscosity (the majority of the flow), and a region close to the surface where viscosity is important (the boundary layer). Let and be streamwise and transverse (wall normal) velocities respectively inside the boundary layer. Using scale analysis, it can be shown that the above equations of motion reduce within the boundary layer to become
and if the fluid is incompressible (as liquids are under standard conditions):
The order of magnitude analysis assumes the streamwise length scale significantly larger than the transverse length scale inside the boundary layer. It follows that variations in properties in the streamwise direction are generally much lower than those in the wall normal direction. Apply this to the continuity equation shows that , the wall normal velocity, is small compared with the streamwise velocity.
Since the static pressure is independent of , then pressure at the edge of the boundary layer is the pressure throughout the boundary layer at a given streamwise position. The external pressure may be obtained through an application of Bernoulli's equation. Let be the fluid velocity outside the boundary layer, where and are both parallel. This gives upon substituting for the following result
For a flow in which the static pressure also does not change in the direction of the flow
so remains constant.
Therefore, the equation of motion simplifies to become
These approximations are used in a variety of practical flow problems of scientific and engineering interest. The above analysis is for any instantaneous laminar or turbulent boundary layer, but is used mainly in laminar flow studies since the mean flow is also the instantaneous flow because there are no velocity fluctuations present. This simplified equation is a parabolic PDE and can be solved using a similarity solution often referred to as the Blasius boundary layer.
Prandtl's transposition theorem
Prandtl observed that from any solution which satisfies the boundary layer equations, further solution , which is also satisfying the boundary layer equations, can be constructed by writing
where is arbitrary. Since the solution is not unique from mathematical perspective, to the solution can added any one of an infinite set of eigenfunctions as shown by Stewartson and Paul A. Libby.
Von Kármán momentum integral
Von Kármán derived the integral equation by integrating the boundary layer equation across the boundary layer in 1921. The equation is
where
is the wall shear stress, is the suction/injection velocity at the wall, is the displacement thickness and is the momentum thickness. Kármán–Pohlhausen Approximation is derived from this equation.
Energy integral
The energy integral was derived by Wieghardt.
where
is the energy dissipation rate due to viscosity across the boundary layer and is the energy thickness.
Von Mises transformation
For steady two-dimensional boundary layers, von Mises introduced a transformation which takes and (stream function) as independent variables instead of and and uses a dependent variable instead of . The boundary layer equation then become
The original variables are recovered from
This transformation is later extended to compressible boundary layer by von Kármán and HS Tsien.
Crocco's transformation
For steady two-dimensional compressible boundary layer, Luigi Crocco introduced a transformation which takes and as independent variables instead of and and uses a dependent variable (shear stress) instead of . The boundary layer equation then becomes
The original coordinate is recovered from
Turbulent boundary layers
The treatment of turbulent boundary layers is far more difficult due to the time-dependent variation of the flow properties. One of the most widely used techniques in which turbulent flows are tackled is to apply Reynolds decomposition. Here the instantaneous flow properties are decomposed into a mean and fluctuating component with the assumption that the mean of the fluctuating component is always zero. Applying this technique to the boundary layer equations gives the full turbulent boundary layer equations not often given in literature:
Using a similar order-of-magnitude analysis, the above equations can be reduced to leading order terms. By choosing length scales for changes in the transverse-direction, and for changes in the streamwise-direction, with , the x-momentum equation simplifies to:
This equation does not satisfy the no-slip condition at the wall. Like Prandtl did for his boundary layer equations, a new, smaller length scale must be used to allow the viscous term to become leading order in the momentum equation. By choosing as the y-scale, the leading order momentum equation for this "inner boundary layer" is given by:
In the limit of infinite Reynolds number, the pressure gradient term can be shown to have no effect on the inner region of the turbulent boundary layer. The new "inner length scale" is a viscous length scale, and is of order , with being the velocity scale of the turbulent fluctuations, in this case a friction velocity.
Unlike the laminar boundary layer equations, the presence of two regimes governed by different sets of flow scales (i.e. the inner and outer scaling) has made finding a universal similarity solution for the turbulent boundary layer difficult and controversial. To find a similarity solution that spans both regions of the flow, it is necessary to asymptotically match the solutions from both regions of the flow. Such analysis will yield either the so-called log-law or power-law.
The additional term in the turbulent boundary layer equations is known as the Reynolds shear stress and is unknown a priori. The solution of the turbulent boundary layer equations therefore necessitates the use of a turbulence model, which aims to express the Reynolds shear stress in terms of known flow variables or derivatives. The lack of accuracy and generality of such models is a major obstacle in the successful prediction of turbulent flow properties in modern fluid dynamics.
A constant stress layer exists in the near wall region. Due to the damping of the vertical velocity fluctuations near the wall, the Reynolds stress term will become negligible and we find that a linear velocity profile exists. This is only true for the very near wall region.
Heat and mass transfer
In 1928, the French engineer André Lévêque observed that convective heat transfer in a flowing fluid is affected only by the velocity values very close to the surface. For flows of large Prandtl number, the temperature/mass transition from surface to freestream temperature takes place across a very thin region close to the surface. Therefore, the most important fluid velocities are those inside this very thin region in which the change in velocity can be considered linear with normal distance from the surface. In this way, for
when , then
where θ is the tangent of the Poiseuille parabola intersecting the wall.
Although Lévêque's solution was specific to heat transfer into a Poiseuille flow, his insight helped lead other scientists to an exact solution of the thermal boundary-layer problem. Schuh observed that in a boundary-layer, u is again a linear function of y, but that in this case, the wall tangent is a function of x. He expressed this with a modified version of Lévêque's profile,
This results in a very good approximation, even for low numbers, so that only liquid metals with much less than 1 cannot be treated this way.
In 1962, Kestin and Persen published a paper describing solutions for heat transfer when the thermal boundary layer is contained entirely within the momentum layer and for various wall temperature distributions. For the problem of a flat plate with a temperature jump at , they propose a substitution that reduces the parabolic thermal boundary-layer equation to an ordinary differential equation. The solution to this equation, the temperature at any point in the fluid, can be expressed as an incomplete gamma function. Schlichting proposed an equivalent substitution that reduces the thermal boundary-layer equation to an ordinary differential equation whose solution is the same incomplete gamma function.
Convective transfer constants from boundary layer analysis
Paul Richard Heinrich Blasius derived an exact solution to the above laminar boundary layer equations. The thickness of the boundary layer is a function of the Reynolds number for laminar flow.
= the thickness of the boundary layer: the region of flow where the velocity is less than 99% of the far field velocity ; is position along the semi-infinite plate, and is the Reynolds Number given by ( density and dynamic viscosity).
The Blasius solution uses boundary conditions in a dimensionless form:
at
at and
Note that in many cases, the no-slip boundary condition holds that , the fluid velocity at the surface of the plate equals the velocity of the plate at all locations. If the plate is not moving, then . A much more complicated derivation is required if fluid slip is allowed.
In fact, the Blasius solution for laminar velocity profile in the boundary layer above a semi-infinite plate can be easily extended to describe Thermal and Concentration boundary layers for heat and mass transfer respectively. Rather than the differential x-momentum balance (equation of motion), this uses a similarly derived Energy and Mass balance:
Energy:
Mass:
For the momentum balance, kinematic viscosity can be considered to be the momentum diffusivity. In the energy balance this is replaced by thermal diffusivity , and by mass diffusivity in the mass balance. In thermal diffusivity of a substance, is its thermal conductivity, is its density and is its heat capacity. Subscript AB denotes diffusivity of species A diffusing into species B.
Under the assumption that , these equations become equivalent to the momentum balance. Thus, for Prandtl number and Schmidt number the Blasius solution applies directly.
Accordingly, this derivation uses a related form of the boundary conditions, replacing with or (absolute temperature or concentration of species A). The subscript S denotes a surface condition.
at
at and
Using the streamline function Blasius obtained the following solution for the shear stress at the surface of the plate.
And via the boundary conditions, it is known that
We are given the following relations for heat/mass flux out of the surface of the plate
So for
where are the regions of flow where and are less than 99% of their far field values.
Because the Prandtl number of a particular fluid is not often unity, German engineer E. Polhausen who worked with Ludwig Prandtl attempted to empirically extend these equations to apply for . His results can be applied to as well. He found that for Prandtl number greater than 0.6, the thermal boundary layer thickness was approximately given by:
and therefore
From this solution, it is possible to characterize the convective heat/mass transfer constants based on the region of boundary layer flow. Fourier's law of conduction and Newton's Law of Cooling are combined with the flux term derived above and the boundary layer thickness.
This gives the local convective constant at one point on the semi-infinite plane. Integrating over the length of the plate gives an average
Following the derivation with mass transfer terms ( = convective mass transfer constant, = diffusivity of species A into species B, ), the following solutions are obtained:
These solutions apply for laminar flow with a Prandtl/Schmidt number greater than 0.6.
Naval architecture
Many of the principles that apply to aircraft also apply to ships, submarines, and offshore platforms.
For ships, unlike aircraft, one deals with incompressible flows, where change in water density is negligible (a pressure rise close to 1000kPa leads to a change of only 2–3 kg/m3). This field of fluid dynamics is called hydrodynamics. A ship engineer designs for hydrodynamics first, and for strength only later. The boundary layer development, breakdown, and separation become critical because the high viscosity of water produces high shear stresses. Another consequence of high viscosity is the slip stream effect, in which the ship moves like a spear tearing through a sponge at high velocity.
Boundary layer turbine
This effect was exploited in the Tesla turbine, patented by Nikola Tesla in 1913. It is referred to as a bladeless turbine because it uses the boundary layer effect and not a fluid impinging upon the blades as in a conventional turbine. Boundary layer turbines are also known as cohesion-type turbine, bladeless turbine, and Prandtl layer turbine (after Ludwig Prandtl).
Predicting transient boundary layer thickness in a cylinder using dimensional analysis
By using the transient and viscous force equations for a cylindrical flow you can predict the transient boundary layer thickness by finding the Womersley Number ().
Transient Force =
Viscous Force =
Setting them equal to each other gives:
Solving for delta gives:
In dimensionless form:
where = Womersley Number; = density; = velocity; ?; = length of transient boundary layer; = viscosity; = characteristic length.
Predicting convective flow conditions at the boundary layer in a cylinder using dimensional analysis
By using the convective and viscous force equations at the boundary layer for a cylindrical flow you can predict the convective flow conditions at the boundary layer by finding the dimensionless Reynolds Number ().
Convective force:
Viscous force:
Setting them equal to each other gives:
Solving for delta gives:
In dimensionless form:
where = Reynolds Number; = density; = velocity; = length of convective boundary layer; = viscosity; = characteristic length.
Boundary layer ingestion
Boundary layer ingestion promises an increase in aircraft fuel efficiency with an aft-mounted propulsor ingesting the slow fuselage boundary layer and re-energising the wake to reduce drag and improve propulsive efficiency.
To operate in distorted airflow, the fan is heavier and its efficiency is reduced, and its integration is challenging.
It is used in concepts like the Aurora D8 or the French research agency Onera’s Nova, saving 5% in cruise by ingesting 40% of the fuselage boundary layer.
Airbus presented the Nautilius concept at the ICAS congress in September 2018:
to ingest all the fuselage boundary layer, while minimizing the azimuthal flow distortion, the fuselage splits into two spindles with 13-18:1 bypass ratio fans.
Propulsive efficiencies are up to 90% like counter-rotating open rotors with smaller, lighter, less complex and noisy engines.
It could lower fuel burn by over 10% compared to a usual underwing 15:1 bypass ratio engine.
See also
Boundary layer separation
Boundary-layer thickness
Thermal boundary layer thickness and shape
Boundary layer suction
Boundary layer control
Boundary microphone
Blasius boundary layer
Falkner–Skan boundary layer
Ekman layer
Planetary boundary layer
Perturbation theory
Logarithmic law of the wall
Shape factor (boundary layer flow)
Shear stress
Surface layer
References
A.D. Polyanin and V.F. Zaitsev, Handbook of Nonlinear Partial Differential Equations, Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, Boca Raton – London, 2004.
A.D. Polyanin, A.M. Kutepov, A.V. Vyazmin, and D.A. Kazenin, Hydrodynamics, Mass and Heat Transfer in Chemical Engineering, Taylor & Francis, London, 2002.
Hermann Schlichting, Klaus Gersten, E. Krause, H. Jr. Oertel, C. Mayes "Boundary-Layer Theory" 8th edition Springer 2004
John D. Anderson, Jr., "Ludwig Prandtl's Boundary Layer", Physics Today, December 2005
H. Tennekes and J. L. Lumley, "A First Course in Turbulence", The MIT Press, (1972).
Lectures in Turbulence for the 21st Century by William K. George
External links
National Science Digital Library – Boundary Layer
Moore, Franklin K., "Displacement effect of a three-dimensional boundary layer". NACA Report 1124, 1953.
Benson, Tom, "Boundary layer". NASA Glenn Learning Technologies.
Boundary layer separation
Boundary layer equations: Exact Solutions – from EqWorld
Jones, T.V. BOUNDARY LAYER HEAT TRANSFER
Aircraft wing design
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224303 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capping%20inversion | Capping inversion | A capping inversion is an elevated inversion layer that caps a convective planetary boundary layer.
The boundary layer is the part of the atmosphere which is closest to the ground. Normally, the sun heats the ground, which in turn heats the air just above it. Thermals form when this warm air rises into the cold air (warm air is less dense than cold air), a process called convection. A convective layer such as this has the potential for cloud formation, since condensation occurs as the warm air rises and cools.
An inversion occurs when the normal temperature (warm air below, cold air above) profile is reversed, creating a stable configuration of dense, cold air sitting below lighter, warm air. An elevated inversion layer is thus a region of warm air above a region of cold air, but higher in the atmosphere (generally not touching the surface).
A capping inversion occurs when there is a boundary layer with a normal temperature profile (warm air rising into cooler air) and the layer above that is an inversion layer (cooler air below warm air). Cloud formation from the lower layer is "capped" by the inversion layer. If the capping inversion layer or "cap" is too strong (too close to the surface), it will prevent thunderstorms from developing. A strong cap can result in foggy conditions.
However, if the air at the surface is unstable enough, strong updrafts can be forced through the capping inversion. This selective process of only allowing the strongest updrafts to form thunderstorms often results in outbreaks of severe weather.
See also
Convective available potential energy
Convective inhibition
External links
Capping Inversion - AMS Glossary of Meteorology
Capping Inversion - National Science Digital Library
Boundary layer meteorology
Atmospheric thermodynamics
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224304 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inversion%20layer | Inversion layer | Inversion layer may refer to one of the following:
Inversion (meteorology), a layer within which an atmospheric property is inverted, i.e., its change is deviated from the normal pattern
Inversion layer (semiconductors), a layer in a semiconductor material where the type of the majority carriers changes to its opposite under certain conditions | [
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224306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braddock%20Expedition | Braddock Expedition | The Braddock expedition, also called Braddock's campaign or (more commonly) Braddock's Defeat, was a failed British military expedition which attempted to capture the French Fort Duquesne (now Downtown Pittsburgh) in the summer of 1755, during the French and Indian War. It was defeated at the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9, and the survivors retreated. The expedition takes its name from General Edward Braddock, who led the British forces and died in the effort. Braddock's defeat was a major setback for the British in the early stages of the war with France and has been described as one of the most disastrous defeats for the British in the 18th century.
Background
Braddock's expedition was part of a massive British offensive against the French in North America that summer. As commander-in-chief of the British Army in America, General Braddock led the main thrust against the Ohio Country with a column some 2,100 strong. His command consisted of two regular line regiments, the 44th and 48th with about 1,350 men, along with about 500 regular soldiers and provincial troops from several British American colonies, and artillery and other support troops. With these men, Braddock expected to seize Fort Duquesne easily, and then push on to capture a series of French forts, eventually reaching Fort Niagara. George Washington, promoted to Lieutenant-Colonel of the Virginia Regiment on June 4, 1754 by Governor Robert Dinwiddie, was then just 23, knew the territory and served as a volunteer aide-de-camp to General Braddock. Braddock's Chief of Scouts was Lieutenant John Fraser of the Virginia Regiment. Fraser owned land at Turtle Creek, had been at Fort Necessity, and had served as Second-in-Command at Fort Prince George (renamed Fort Duquesne by the French), at the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers.
Braddock mostly failed in his attempts to recruit Native American allies from those tribes not yet allied with the French; he had but eight Mingo Indians with him, serving as scouts. A number of Indians in the area, notably Delaware leader Shingas, remained neutral. Caught between two powerful European empires at war, the local Indians could not afford to be on the side of the loser. They would decide based on Braddock's success or failure.
Braddock's Road
Setting out from Fort Cumberland in Maryland on May 29, 1755, the expedition faced an enormous logistical challenge: moving a large body of men with equipment, provisions, and (most importantly, for attacking the forts) heavy cannons, across the densely wooded Allegheny Mountains and into western Pennsylvania, a journey of about . Braddock had received important assistance from Benjamin Franklin, who helped procure wagons and supplies for the expedition. Among the wagoners were two young men who would later become legends of American history: Daniel Boone and Daniel Morgan. Other members of the expedition included Ensign William Crawford and Charles Scott. Among the British were Thomas Gage; Charles Lee, future American president George Washington, and Horatio Gates.
The expedition progressed slowly because Braddock considered making a road to Fort Duquesne a priority in order to effectively supply the position he expected to capture and hold at the Forks of the Ohio, and because of a shortage of healthy draft animals. In some cases, the column was only able to progress at a rate of two miles (about 3 km) a day, creating Braddock's Road—an important legacy of the march—as they went. To speed up movement, Braddock split his men into a "flying column" of about 1,300 men which he commanded, and, lagging far behind, a supply column of 800 men with most of the baggage, commanded by Colonel Thomas Dunbar. They passed the ruins of Fort Necessity along the way, where the French and Canadians had defeated Washington the previous summer. Small French and Indian war bands skirmished with Braddock's men during the march.
Meanwhile, at Fort Duquesne, the French garrison consisted of only about 250 French marines and Canadian militia, with about 640 Indian allies camped outside the fort. The Indians were from a variety of tribes long associated with the French, including Ottawas, Ojibwas, and Potawatomis. Claude-Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur, the Canadian commander, received reports from Indian scouting parties that the British were on their way to besiege the fort. He realised he could not withstand Braddock's cannon, and decided to launch a preemptive strike, an ambush of Braddock's army as he crossed the Monongahela River. The Indian allies were initially reluctant to attack such a large British force, but the French field commander Daniel Liénard de Beaujeu, who dressed himself in full war regalia complete with war paint, convinced them to follow his lead.
Battle of the Monongahela
By July 8, 1755, the Braddock force was on the land owned by the Chief Scout, Lieutenant John Fraser. That evening, the Indians sent a delegation to the British to request a conference. Braddock sent Washington and Fraser. The Indians asked the British to halt their advance so that they could attempt to negotiate a peaceful withdrawal by the French from Fort Duquesne. Both Washington and Fraser recommended this to Braddock but he demurred.
On July 9, 1755, Braddock's men crossed the Monongahela without opposition, about south of Fort Duquesne. The advance guard of 300 grenadiers and colonials with two cannon under Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Gage began to move ahead. George Washington tried to warn him of the flaws in his plan—for example, the French and the Indians fought differently than the open-field style used by the British—but his efforts were ignored, Braddock insisted on fighting as "gentlemen". Then, unexpectedly, Gage's advance guard came upon the French and Indians, who were hurrying to the river, behind schedule and too late to set an ambush.
In the skirmish that followed between Gage's soldiers and the French, the French commander, Beaujeu, was killed by the first volley of musket fire by the grenadiers. Although some 100 French Canadians fled back to the fort and the noise of the cannon held the Indians off, Beaujeu's death did not have a negative effect on French morale; Jean-Daniel Dumas, a French officer, rallied the rest of the French and their Indian allies. The battle, known as the Battle of the Monongahela, or the Battle of the Wilderness, or just Braddock's Defeat, was officially begun. Braddock's force was approximately 1,400 men. The British faced a French and Indian force estimated to number between 300 and 900. The battle, frequently described as an ambush, was actually a meeting engagement, where two forces clash at an unexpected time and place. The quick and effective response of the French and Indians—despite the early loss of their commander—led many of Braddock's men to believe they had been ambushed. However, French documents reveal that the French and Indian force was too late to prepare an ambush, and had been just as surprised as the British.
After an exchange of fire, Gage's advance group fell back. In the narrow confines of the road, they collided with the main body of Braddock's force, which had advanced rapidly when the shots were heard. The entire column dissolved in disorder as the Canadian militiamen and Indians enveloped them and continued to snipe at the British flanks from the woods on the sides of the road. At this time, the French marines began advancing from the road and began to push the British back.
Following Braddock's example, the officers kept trying to reform units into regular show order within the confines of the road, mostly in vain and simply providing targets for their concealed enemy. Cannon were used, but in such confines of the forest road, they were ineffective. The provincial troops accompanying the British took cover and returned fire. In the confusion, some of the provincial soldiers who were fighting from the woods were mistaken for the enemy and fired upon by the British regulars.
After several hours of intense combat, Braddock was shot off his horse, and effective resistance collapsed. Colonel Washington, although he had no official position in the chain of command, was able to impose and maintain some order and formed a rear guard, which allowed the remnants of the force to disengage. This earned him the sobriquet Hero of the Monongahela, by which he was toasted, and established his fame for some time to come.
We marched to that place, without any considerable loss, having only now and then a straggler picked up by the French and scouting Indians. When we came there, we were attacked by a party of French and Indians, whose number, I am persuaded, did not exceed three hundred men; while ours consisted of about one thousand three hundred well-armed troops, chiefly regular soldiers, who were struck with such a panic that they behaved with more cowardice than it is possible to conceive. The officers behaved gallantly, in order to encourage their men, for which they suffered greatly, there being near sixty killed and wounded; a large proportion of the number we had."
By sunset, the surviving British and colonial forces were fleeing back down the road they had built. Braddock died of his wounds during the long retreat, on July 13, and is buried within the Fort Necessity parklands.
Of the approximately 1,300 men Braddock had led into battle, 456 were killed and 422 wounded. Commissioned officers were prime targets and suffered greatly: out of 86 officers, 26 were killed and 37 wounded. Of the 50 or so women that accompanied the British column as maids and cooks, only 4 survived. The French and Canadians reported 8 killed and 4 wounded; their Indian allies lost 15 killed and 12 wounded.
Colonel Dunbar, with the reserves and rear supply units, took command when the survivors reached his position. He ordered the destruction of supplies and cannon before withdrawing, burning about 150 wagons on the spot. Ironically, at this point the defeated, demoralized and disorganised British forces still outnumbered their opponents. The French and Indians did not pursue and were engaged with looting and scalping. The French commander Dumas realized the British were utterly defeated, but he did not have enough of a force to continue organized pursuit.
Strength of the expedition
According to returns given June 8, 1755, at the encampment at Will's Creek.
His Majesty's Troops
Royal Regiment of Artillery
Detachement under Capt. Robert Hind
Virginia, Maryland and North Carolina Troops
See also
Braddock's Battlefield History Center
References
Further reading
Chartrand, Rene. Monongahela, 1754-1755: Washington's Defeat, Braddock's Disaster. United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing, 2004. .
Jennings, Francis. Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years War in America. New York: Norton, 1988. .
Kopperman, Paul E. Braddock at the Monongahela. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973. .
O'Meara, Walter. Guns at the Forks. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1965. .
Preston, David L. The Battle of the Monongahela and the Road to Revolution (2015)
Russell, Peter. "Redcoats in the Wilderness: British Officers and Irregular Warfare in Europe and America, 1740 to 1760", The William and Mary Quarterly (1978) 35#4 pp. 629–652 in JSTOR
External links
Braddock Road Preservation Association
The French Army 1600–1900
Battles of the French and Indian War
Braddock Expedition
Battles in Pennsylvania
1755 in North America
History of Pittsburgh
Conflicts in 1755 | [
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224312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapse%20rate | Lapse rate | The lapse rate is the rate at which an atmospheric variable, normally temperature in Earth's atmosphere, falls with altitude. Lapse rate arises from the word lapse, in the sense of a gradual fall. In dry air, the adiabatic lapse rate is 9.8 °C/km (5.4 °F per 1,000 ft).
It corresponds to the vertical component of the spatial gradient of temperature.
Although this concept is most often applied to the Earth's troposphere, it can be extended to any gravitationally supported parcel of gas.
Definition
A formal definition from the Glossary of Meteorology is:
The decrease of an atmospheric variable with height, the variable being temperature unless otherwise specified.
Typically, the lapse rate is the negative of the rate of temperature change with altitude change:
where (sometimes ) is the lapse rate given in units of temperature divided by units of altitude, T is temperature, and z is altitude.
Convection and adiabatic expansion
The temperature profile of the atmosphere is a result of an interaction between thermal conduction, thermal radiation, and natural convection. Sunlight hits the surface of the earth (land and sea) and heats them. They then heat the air above the surface. If radiation were the only way to transfer energy from the ground to space, the greenhouse effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly .
However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and carry internal energy upward. This is the process of convection. Vertical convective motion stops when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as the other air at the same elevation.
When a parcel of air expands, it pushes on the air around it, doing thermodynamic work. An expansion or contraction of an air parcel without inward or outward heat transfer is an adiabatic process. Air has low thermal conductivity, and the bodies of air involved are very large, so transfer of heat by conduction is negligibly small. Also, in such expansion and contraction, intra-atmospheric radiative heat transfer is relatively slow and so negligible. Since the upward-moving and expanding parcel does work but gains no heat, it loses internal energy so that its temperature decreases.
The adiabatic process for air has a characteristic temperature-pressure curve, so the process determines the lapse rate. When the air contains little water, this lapse rate is known as the dry adiabatic lapse rate: the rate of temperature decrease is ( per 1,000 ft) (3.0 °C/1,000 ft). The reverse occurs for a sinking parcel of air.
When the lapse rate is less than the adiabatic lapse rate the atmosphere is stable and convection will not occur.
Only the troposphere (up to approximately of altitude) in the Earth's atmosphere undergoes convection: the stratosphere does not generally convect. However, some exceptionally energetic convection processes, such as volcanic eruption columns and overshooting tops associated with severe supercell thunderstorms, may locally and temporarily inject convection through the tropopause and into the stratosphere.
Energy transport in the atmosphere is more complex than the interaction between radiation and convection. Thermal conduction, evaporation, condensation, precipitation all influence the temperature profile, as described below.
Mathematics of the adiabatic lapse rate
These calculations use a very simple model of an atmosphere, either dry or moist, within a still vertical column at equilibrium.
Dry adiabatic lapse rate
Thermodynamics defines an adiabatic process as:
the first law of thermodynamics can be written as
Also, since the density and , we can show that:
where is the specific heat at constant pressure.
Assuming an atmosphere in hydrostatic equilibrium:
where g is the standard gravity. Combining these two equations to eliminate the pressure, one arrives at the result for the dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR),
Moist adiabatic lapse rate
The presence of water within the atmosphere (usually the troposphere) complicates the process of convection. Water vapor contains latent heat of vaporization. As a parcel of air rises and cools, it eventually becomes saturated; that is, the vapor pressure of water in equilibrium with liquid water has decreased (as temperature has decreased) to the point where it is equal to the actual vapor pressure of water. With further decrease in temperature the water vapor in excess of the equilibrium amount condenses, forming cloud, and releasing heat (latent heat of condensation). Before saturation, the rising air follows the dry adiabatic lapse rate. After saturation, the rising air follows the moist adiabatic lapse rate. The release of latent heat is an important source of energy in the development of thunderstorms.
While the dry adiabatic lapse rate is a constant ( per 1,000 ft, ), the moist adiabatic lapse rate varies strongly with temperature. A typical value is around , (, , ). The formula for the moist adiabatic lapse rate is given by:
where:
{| border="0" cellpadding="2"
|-
| style="text-align:right;" | ,
| wet adiabatic lapse rate, K/m
|-
| style="text-align:right;" | ,
| Earth's gravitational acceleration = 9.8076 m/s2
|-
| style="text-align:right;" | ,
| heat of vaporization of water =
|-
| style="text-align:right;" | ,
| specific gas constant of dry air = 287 J/kg·K
|-
| style="text-align:right;" | ,
| specific gas constant of water vapour = 461.5 J/kg·K
|-
| style="text-align:right;" | ,
| the dimensionless ratio of the specific gas constant of dry air to the specific gas constant for water vapour = 0.622
|-
| style="text-align:right;" | ,
| the water vapour pressure of the saturated air
|-
| style="text-align:right;" | ,
| the mixing ratio of the mass of water vapour to the mass of dry air
|-
| style="text-align:right;" | ,
| the pressure of the saturated air
|-
|-
| style="text-align:right;" | ,
| temperature of the saturated air, K
|-
| style="text-align:right;" | ,
| the specific heat of dry air at constant pressure, = 1003.5J/kg·K
|}
Environmental lapse rate
The environmental lapse rate (ELR), is the rate of decrease of temperature with altitude in the stationary atmosphere at a given time and location. As an average, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines an international standard atmosphere (ISA) with a temperature lapse rate of or from sea level to 11 km or . From 11 km up to 20 km or , the constant temperature is , which is the lowest assumed temperature in the ISA. The standard atmosphere contains no moisture. Unlike the idealized ISA, the temperature of the actual atmosphere does not always fall at a uniform rate with height. For example, there can be an inversion layer in which the temperature increases with altitude.
Effect on weather
The varying environmental lapse rates throughout the Earth's atmosphere are of critical importance in meteorology, particularly within the troposphere. They are used to determine if the parcel of rising air will rise high enough for its water to condense to form clouds, and, having formed clouds, whether the air will continue to rise and form bigger shower clouds, and whether these clouds will get even bigger and form cumulonimbus clouds (thunder clouds).
As unsaturated air rises, its temperature drops at the dry adiabatic rate. The dew point also drops (as a result of decreasing air pressure) but much more slowly, typically about per 1,000 m. If unsaturated air rises far enough, eventually its temperature will reach its dew point, and condensation will begin to form. This altitude is known as the lifting condensation level (LCL) when mechanical lift is present and the convective condensation level (CCL) when mechanical lift is absent, in which case, the parcel must be heated from below to its convective temperature. The cloud base will be somewhere within the layer bounded by these parameters.
The difference between the dry adiabatic lapse rate and the rate at which the dew point drops is around per 1,000 m. Given a difference in temperature and dew point readings on the ground, one can easily find the LCL by multiplying the difference by 125 m/°C.
If the environmental lapse rate is less than the moist adiabatic lapse rate, the air is absolutely stable — rising air will cool faster than the surrounding air and lose buoyancy. This often happens in the early morning, when the air near the ground has cooled overnight. Cloud formation in stable air is unlikely.
If the environmental lapse rate is between the moist and dry adiabatic lapse rates, the air is conditionally unstable — an unsaturated parcel of air does not have sufficient buoyancy to rise to the LCL or CCL, and it is stable to weak vertical displacements in either direction. If the parcel is saturated it is unstable and will rise to the LCL or CCL, and either be halted due to an inversion layer of convective inhibition, or if lifting continues, deep, moist convection (DMC) may ensue, as a parcel rises to the level of free convection (LFC), after which it enters the free convective layer (FCL) and usually rises to the equilibrium level (EL).
If the environmental lapse rate is larger than the dry adiabatic lapse rate, it has a superadiabatic lapse rate, the air is absolutely unstable — a parcel of air will gain buoyancy as it rises both below and above the lifting condensation level or convective condensation level. This often happens in the afternoon mainly over land masses. In these conditions, the likelihood of cumulus clouds, showers or even thunderstorms is increased.
Meteorologists use radiosondes to measure the environmental lapse rate and compare it to the predicted adiabatic lapse rate to forecast the likelihood that air will rise. Charts of the environmental lapse rate are known as thermodynamic diagrams, examples of which include Skew-T log-P diagrams and tephigrams. (See also Thermals).
The difference in moist adiabatic lapse rate and the dry rate is the cause of foehn wind phenomenon (also known as "Chinook winds" in parts of North America). The phenomenon exists because warm moist air rises through orographic lifting up and over the top of a mountain range or large mountain. The temperature decreases with the dry adiabatic lapse rate, until it hits the dew point, where water vapor in the air begins to condense. Above that altitude, the adiabatic lapse rate decreases to the moist adiabatic lapse rate as the air continues to rise. Condensation is also commonly followed by precipitation on the top and windward sides of the mountain. As the air descends on the leeward side, it is warmed by adiabatic compression at the dry adiabatic lapse rate. Thus, the foehn wind at a certain altitude is warmer than the corresponding altitude on the windward side of the mountain range. In addition, because the air has lost much of its original water vapor content, the descending air creates an arid region on the leeward side of the mountain.
See also
Adiabatic process
Atmospheric thermodynamics
Fluid dynamics
Foehn wind
Lapse rate climate feedback
Notes
References
Further reading
www.air-dispersion.com
External links
Definition, equations and tables of lapse rate from the Planetary Data system.
National Science Digital Library glossary:
Lapse Rate
Environmental lapse rate
Absolute stable air
An introduction to lapse rate calculation from first principles from U. Texas
Atmospheric thermodynamics
Climate change feedbacks
Fluid mechanics
Spatial gradient
Atmospheric temperature
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224314 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Mason | George Mason | George Mason IV (October 7, 1792) was an American planter, politician and delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention of 1787, one of three delegates who refused to sign the Constitution. His writings, including substantial portions of the Fairfax Resolves of 1774, the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776, and his Objections to this Constitution of Government (1787) opposing ratification, have exercised a significant influence on American political thought and events. The Virginia Declaration of Rights, which Mason principally authored, served as a basis for the United States Bill of Rights, a document of which he has been deemed a father.
Mason was born in 1725, most likely in what is now Fairfax County, Virginia. His father died when he was young and his mother managed the family estates until he came of age. He married in 1750, built Gunston Hall and lived the life of a country squire, supervising his lands, family and slaves. He briefly served in the House of Burgesses and involved himself in community affairs, sometimes serving with his neighbor George Washington. As tensions grew between Great Britain and the North American colonies, Mason came to support the colonial side, using his knowledge and experience to help the revolutionary cause, finding ways to work around the Stamp Act of 1765 and serving in the pro-independence Fourth Virginia Convention in 1775 and the Fifth Virginia Convention in 1776.
Mason prepared the first draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights in 1776, and his words formed much of the text adopted by the final Revolutionary Virginia Convention. He also wrote a constitution for the state; Thomas Jefferson and others sought to have the convention adopt their ideas, but they found that Mason's version could not be stopped. During the American Revolutionary War, Mason was a member of the powerful House of Delegates of the Virginia General Assembly, but to the irritation of Washington and others, he refused to serve in the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, citing health and family commitments.
In 1787, Mason was named one of his state's delegates to the Constitutional Convention and traveled to Philadelphia, his only lengthy trip outside Virginia. Many clauses in the Constitution bear his stamp, as he was active in the convention for months before deciding that he could not sign it. He cited the lack of a bill of rights most prominently in his Objections. He also wanted an immediate end to the slave trade and a supermajority requirement for navigation acts, fearing that restrictions on shipping might harm Virginia. He failed to attain these objectives, and again at the Virginia Ratifying Convention of 1788, but his prominent fight for a bill of rights led fellow Virginian James Madison to introduce the same during the First Congress in 1789; these amendments were ratified in 1791, a year before Mason died. Obscure after his death, Mason has come to be recognized in the 20th and 21st centuries for his contributions to the early United States and to Virginia.
Ancestry and early life
Mason's great-grandfather George Mason I had been a Cavalier: militarily defeated in the English Civil War, some Cavaliers emigrated to the colonies in the 1640s and 1650s. He had been born in 1629 at Pershore, in the English county of Worcestershire. The immigrant George Mason settled in what is now Stafford County, Virginia, having obtained land as a reward for bringing his family and servants to the colony, under headright which awarded 50 acres for each person transported into the Colony of Virginia. His son, George Mason II (1660–1716), was the first to move to what in 1742 became Fairfax County, then at the frontier between English and Native American controlled areas. George Mason III (1690–1735) like his father and grandfather served in the House of Burgesses and also as county lieutenant. George Mason IV's mother, Ann Thomson Mason, was the daughter of a former Attorney General of Virginia who had immigrated from London and was of a Yorkshire family.
Colonial Virginia at the time had few roads, and boats carried most commerce on Chesapeake Bay or its tributaries, such as the Potomac and Rappahannock rivers. Most settlement took place near the rivers, through which planters could trade with the world. Thus, colonial Virginia initially developed few towns, since estates were largely self-sufficient and could get what they needed without the need to purchase locally. Even the capital, Williamsburg, saw little activity when the legislature was not in session. Local politics was dominated by large landowners like the Masons. The Virginia economy rose and fell with tobacco, the main crop, which was raised mostly for export to Britain.
George Mason, fourth of that name, was born into this environment on December 11, 1725. Although the family continued to own property in Stafford County (where his father and grandfather were born and which previous generations had represented in the House of Burgesses), he likely was born at his father's plantation on Dogue's Neck (later Mason Neck), His parents also lived on their lands across the Potomac in Maryland, which his mother inherited, so that also could have been his birthplace.
On March 5, 1735, George Mason III died when his boat capsized while crossing the Potomac. His widow Ann raised their son George (then 10) and two younger siblings as co-guardian with Virginia lawyer John Mercer. Mercer was their uncle by marriage, the husband of George Mason III's sister Catherine. Ann Mason selected property at Chopawamsic Creek (today in Prince William County, Virginia) as her dower house and there lived with her children and administered the lands that her elder son would control upon reaching his 21st birthday, per primogeniture. At age twenty-one, Mason inherited his father's large estate—thousands of acres of farmland in Virginia and Maryland, as well as thousands of acres of uncleared land in the western country. Mason also inherited his father's slaves—said to number about three hundred.
In 1736, Mason began his education with Mr. Williams, hired to teach him for the price of of tobacco per annum. His's studies began at his mother's house, but the following year he was boarded out to a Mrs. Simpson in Maryland, with Williams continuing as teacher through 1739. By 1740, Mason was again at Chopawamsic, under the tutelage of a Dr. Bridges, likely Charles Bridges, who helped develop the schools run in Britain by the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, and who came to America in 1731. In addition, Mason and his brother Thomson doubtlessly could consult Mercer's library, one of the largest in Virginia. Conversations with Mercer and book-lovers who gathered around him could have continued his education informally.
Mercer was a brilliant man of strong opinions, who expressed his views in ways that sometimes gave offense; Mason proved similar in brilliance of mind and ability to anger. Mason attained his majority in 1746 and continued to live at Chopawamsic with his siblings and mother.
Virginia landed gentleman
Public figure
The obligations and offices that came with being one of the largest local landowners descended on Mason as they had on his father and grandfather. In 1747, he was named to the Fairfax County Court. Mason was elected as a vestryman for Truro Parish, serving 1749–1785. He took a position among the officers of the county militia, eventually rising to the rank of colonel. In 1748, he sought a seat in the House of Burgesses; the process was controlled by more senior members of the court and he was not then successful, but he would win in 1758.
The county court heard civil and criminal cases, and also decided matters such as local taxes. Membership fell to most major landowners. Mason was a justice for much of the rest of his life, though he was excluded because of nonattendance at court from 1752 to 1764, and he resigned in 1789 when continued service meant swearing to uphold a constitution he could not support. Even while a member, he often did not attend. Joseph Horrell, in a journal article on Mason's court service, noted that he was often in poor health and lived the furthest of any of the major estateholders from the Fairfax County courthouse, whether at its original site near today's Tyson's Corner or later in newly founded Alexandria. Robert Rutland, editor of Mason's papers, considered court service a major influence on Mason's later thinking and writing, but Horrell denied it, "if the Fairfax court provided a course for Mason's early training, he chiefly distinguished himself by skipping classes."
Alexandria was one of the towns founded or given corporate status in the mid-18th century in which Mason had interests; he purchased three of the original lots along King and Royal Streets and became a municipal trustee in 1754. He also served as a trustee of Dumfries, in Prince William County, and had business interests there and in Georgetown, on the Maryland side of the Potomac (today in the District of Columbia).
Squire of Gunston Hall
On April 4, 1750, Mason married Ann Eilbeck, only child of William and Sarah Eilbeck of Charles County, Maryland. The Masons and Eilbecks had adjacent lands in Maryland and had joined together in real estate transactions; by his death in 1764, William Eilbeck was one of the wealthiest men in Charles County. At the time of his marriage, Mason was living at Dogue's Neck, possibly at Sycamore Point. George and Ann Mason would have nine children who survived to adulthood. Ann Mason died in 1773; their marriage, judging by surviving accounts, was a happy one.
Mason began to build his home, Gunston Hall, likely beginning in 1755. The exterior, typical of local buildings of that time, was probably based on architectural books sent from Britain to America for the use of local builders; one of these craftsmen, perhaps William Waite or James Wren, constructed Gunston Hall. Mason was proud of the gardens which still surround the house. There were outbuildings, including slave quarters, a schoolhouse, and kitchens, and beyond them four large plantations, forests, and the shops and other facilities that made Gunston Hall mostly self-sufficient.
Mason avoided overdependence on tobacco as a source of income by leasing much of his land holdings to tenant farmers, and he diversified his crops to grow wheat for export to the British West Indies as Virginia's economy sank because of tobacco overproduction in the 1760s and 1770s. Mason was a pioneer in the Virginia wine industry, subscribing along with other Virginians such as Thomas Jefferson to Philip Mazzei's scheme for growing wine grapes in America.
Mason sought to expand his land and wealth. He greatly expanded the boundaries of Gunston Hall estate, so that it occupied all of Dogue's Neck, which became known as Mason's Neck. One project that Mason was involved in for most of his adult life was the Ohio Company, in which he invested in 1749 and became treasurer in 1752—an office he held forty years until his death in 1792. The Ohio Company had secured a royal grant for to be surveyed near the forks of the Ohio River (today the site of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania). War, revolution, and competing claims from Pennsylvania eventually defeated the Ohio Company's plans. Although the company failed, Mason acquired considerable western lands independently. His defense against the Pennsylvania claims, Selections from the Virginia Charters (1772), originally intended to promote the Ohio Company's claims, was widely applauded as a defense of the rights of Americans against royal decrees. Involvement with the Ohio Company also brought Mason into contact with many prominent Virginians, including his Fairfax County neighbor, George Washington.
Mason and Washington were friends for many years until they finally broke over their differences regarding the federal constitution. Peter R. Henriques, in his journal article on their relationship, suggests that Mason cultivated the friendship more than Washington did, as Mason sent many more letters and gifts and stayed more often at Washington's plantation, though the last can be explained in part as Mount Vernon lay on the road from Gunston Hall to Alexandria. Henriques suggests that as Mason was older, intellectually superior, and the owner of a flourishing plantation as Washington struggled to establish Mount Vernon, it would not have been in the future president's character to be close to Mason. Washington had a deep respect for Mason's intellectual abilities, several times asking for his advice, and writing in 1777 when learning that Mason had taken charge of an issue before the General Assembly, "I know of no person better qualified ... than Colonel Mason, and shall be very happy to hear he has taken it in hand".
Despite his involvement in western real estate schemes, Mason saw that land was being cleared and planted with tobacco faster than the market for it could expand, meaning that its price would drop even as more and more capital was tied up in land and slaves. Thus, although a major slaveholder, he opposed the slave system in Virginia. He believed that slave importation, together with the natural population increase, would result in a huge future slave population in Virginia; a system of leased lands, though not as profitable as slave labor, would have "little Trouble & Risque [risk]".
Political thinker (1758–1775)
From burgess to rebel
Little is known of Mason's political views prior to the 1760s, when he came to oppose British colonial policies. In 1758, Mason successfully ran for the House of Burgesses when George William Fairfax, holder of one of Fairfax County's two seats, chose not to seek re-election. Also elected were Mason's brother Thomson (for Stafford County), George Washington (for Frederick County where he was stationed as commander of Virginia's militia as the French and Indian War continued) and Richard Henry Lee, who would work closely with Mason through their careers.
When the house assembled, George Mason was initially appointed to a committee concerned with raising additional militia during that time of war. In 1759, he was appointed to the powerful Committee on Privileges and Elections. He was also placed on the Committee on Propositions and Grievances, which mostly considered local matters. Mason dealt with several local concerns, presenting a petition of Fairfax County planters against being assessed for a tobacco wharf at Alexandria, funds they felt should be raised through wharfage fees. He also played a major role as the Burgesses deliberated how to divide Prince William County as settlement expanded; in March 1759, Fauquier County was created by legislative act. In this, Mason opposed the interest of the family of Thomas, Lord Fairfax, who wanted existing counties expanded instead, including Fairfax. This difference may have contributed to Mason's decision not to seek re-election in 1761. Mason biographer Jeff Broadwater notes that Mason's committee assignments reflected the esteem his colleagues held him in, or at least the potential they saw. Broadwater did not find it surprising that Mason did not seek re-election, as he did not attend the sessions between 1759 and 1761.
Although the British were victorious over the French in the war, King George III's government felt that the North American colonies were not paying their way, since little direct tax revenue from the colonies was received. The Sugar Act of 1764 had its greatest effect in New England and did not cause widespread objection. The Stamp Act the following year affected all 13 colonies, as it required revenue stamps to be used on papers required in trade and in the law. When word of passage of the Stamp Act reached Williamsburg, the House of Burgesses passed the Virginia Resolves, asserting that Virginians had the same rights as if they resided in Britain, and that they could only be taxed by themselves or their elected representatives. The Resolves were mostly written by a fiery-spoken new member for Louisa County, Patrick Henry.
Mason slowly moved from being a peripheral figure towards the center of Virginia politics, but his published response to the Stamp Act, which he opposed, is most notable for the inclusion of his anti-slavery views. George Washington or George William Fairfax, the burgesses for Fairfax County, may have asked Mason's advice as to what steps to take in the crisis. Mason drafted an act to allow for one of the most common court actions, replevin, to take place without the use of stamped paper, and sent it to George Washington, by then one of Fairfax County's burgesses, to gain passage. This action contributed to a boycott of the stamps. With the courts and trade paralyzed, the British Parliament repealed the Stamp Act in 1766 but continued to assert the right to tax the colonies.
Following the repeal, a committee of London merchants issued a public letter to Americans, warning them not to declare victory. Mason published a response in June 1766, satirizing the British position, "We have, with infinite Difficulty & Fatigue got you excused this one Time; do what your Papa and Mamma bid, & hasten to return your most grateful Acknowledgements for condescending to let you keep what is your own." The Townshend Acts of 1767 were Britain's next attempt to tax the colonies, placing duties on substances including lead and glass, which provoked calls from the northern colonies for a boycott of British goods. Virginia, more dependent on goods imported from Britain, was less enthusiastic, and as local planters tended to receive goods at their river landings, a boycott would be difficult to enforce. In April 1769, Washington sent a copy of a Philadelphia resolution to Mason, asking his advice on what action Virginia should take. It is unknown who adapted that text for use in Virginia (Broadwater concludes it was Mason) but Mason sent Washington a corrected draft on April 23, 1769. Washington took it to Williamsburg, but the governor, Lord Botetourt, dissolved the legislature because of the radical resolutions it was passing. The Burgesses adjourned to a nearby tavern and there passed a non-importation agreement based on Mason's draft.
Although the resolution was not as strong as Mason had liked—he wanted Virginia to threaten to cut off tobacco—Mason worked in the following years for non-importation. The repeal of most of the Townshend duties (excepting that on tea) made his task more difficult. In March 1773, his wife Ann died of illness contracted after another pregnancy. Mason was the sole parent to nine children, and his commitments made him even more reluctant to accept political office that would take him from Gunston Hall.
In May 1774, Mason was in Williamsburg on real estate business. Word had just arrived of the passage of the Intolerable Acts, as Americans dubbed the legislative response to the Boston Tea Party, and a group of lawmakers including Lee, Henry, and Jefferson asked Mason to join them in formulating a course of action. The Burgesses passed a resolution for a day of fasting and prayer to obtain divine intervention against "destruction of our Civil Rights", but the governor, Lord Dunmore, dissolved the legislature rather than accept it. Mason may have helped write the resolution and likely joined the members after the dissolution when they met at the Raleigh Tavern.
New elections had to be held for burgess and for delegate to the convention which had been called by the rump of the dissolved House of Burgesses, and Fairfax County's were set for July 5, 1774. Washington planned to run for one seat and tried to get Mason or Bryan Fairfax to seek the other, but both men declined. Although the poll was postponed to July 14 because of poor weather, Washington met that day with other local leaders (including, likely, Mason) in Alexandria and selected a committee to draft a set of resolutions, which Washington hoped would "define our Constitutional Rights". The resulting Fairfax Resolves were largely drafted by Mason. He met with the newly elected Washington on July 17 at Mount Vernon and stayed the night; the two men rode together to Alexandria the following day. The 24 propositions that made up the Resolves protested loyalty to the British Crown but denied the right of Parliament to legislate for colonies that had been settled at private expense and which had received charters from the monarch. The Resolves called for a continental congress. If Americans did not receive redress by November 1, exports, including that of tobacco, would be cut off. The freeholders of Fairfax County approved the Resolves, appointing Mason and Washington to a special committee in the emergency. According to early Virginia historian Hugh Grigsby, at Alexandria, Mason "made his first great movement on the theatre of the Revolution".
Washington took the Resolves to the Virginia Convention in Williamsburg, and although delegates made some changes, the adopted resolution closely tracks both the Fairfax Resolves and the scheme for non-exportation of tobacco Mason had proposed some years earlier. The convention elected delegates to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia, including Lee, Washington, and Henry, and in October 1774, Congress adopted a similar embargo.
Much of Mason's efforts in 1774 and 1775 was in organizing a militia independent of the royal government. Washington by January 1775 was drilling a small force, and he and Mason purchased gunpowder for the company. Mason wrote in favor of annual election of militia officers in words that would later echo in the Virginia Declaration of Rights, "We came equal into this world, and equals shall we go out of it. All men are by nature born equally free and independent."
Washington's election as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress created a vacancy in Fairfax County's delegation to the third Virginia Convention, and he wrote from Philadelphia in May 1775, urging that it be filled. By this time, blood had been shed between colonial and Briton at the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Mason attempted to avoid election on the grounds of poor health and that he was needed to parent his motherless children. Nevertheless, he was elected and journeyed to Richmond, which, being further inland than Williamsburg, was deemed better protected from possible British attack.
When the Richmond convention began in July 1775, Mason was assigned to crucial committees, including one attempting to raise an army to protect the colony. According to Robert A. Rutland, "Sick or healthy, Mason was needed for his ability." Mason sponsored a non-exportation measure; it was passed by a large majority, though it had to be repealed later in the session to coordinate with one passed by Maryland. Despite pressure from many delegates, Mason refused to consider election as a delegate to the Continental Congress in place of Washington when the latter became commanding general of the Continental Army, but he could not avoid election to the Committee of Safety, a powerful group that took over many functions in the governmental vacuum. When Mason proffered his resignation from this committee, it was refused.
Declaration of Rights
Illness forced Mason to abstain himself from the Committee of Safety for several weeks in 1775, and he did not attend the fourth convention, held in December 1775 and January 1776. With independence from Britain widely accepted as necessary among prominent Virginians, the fifth convention, to meet in May 1776 at Williamsburg, would need to decide how Virginia would be administered henceforth, as the royal government was dead in all but name. Accordingly, the convention was seen as so important that Lee arranged for his temporary recall from Congress to be a part of the convention, and Jefferson tried but failed to arrange to leave Congress as well. Other notables elected to the convention were Henry, George Wythe, and a young delegate from Orange County, James Madison. Mason was elected for Fairfax County, though with great difficulty.
That convention, in May 1776, unanimously instructed Jefferson and other Virginia delegates to Congress to seek "a clear and full Declaration of Independency". At the same time, the convention resolved to pass a declaration of rights. Ill health delayed Mason's arrival until May 18, 1776, after the vote, but he was appointed to a committee led by Archibald Cary, which was to compose a declaration of rights and constitution. Mason was skeptical that the thirty-person Cary Committee could collectively compose anything worthwhile, but he was surprised at how quickly it moved—though his membership had a role in that speed. On May 24, convention president Edmund Pendleton wrote to Jefferson about the committee's deliberations, "as Colo.[nel] Mason seems to have the ascendancy in the great work, I have Sanguine hopes it will be framed so as to Answer it's end, Prosperity to the Community and Security to Individuals".
Mason, working in a room at the Raleigh Tavern, drafted a declaration of rights and plan of government, likely to prevent frivolous plans with no chance of adoption from being put forward. Edmund Randolph later recalled that Mason's draft "swallowed up all the rest". The Virginia Declaration of Rights and the 1776 Constitution of Virginia were joint works, but Mason was the main author. Mason likely worked closely with Thomas Ludwell Lee; the earliest surviving draft shows the first ten articles in Mason's handwriting, with the other two written by Lee. The draft for the Declaration of Rights drew on Magna Carta, the English Petition of Right of 1628, and that nation's 1689 Bill of Rights. Mason's first article would be paraphrased by Jefferson soon after in drafting the American Declaration of Independence.
From the first article, cataloguing the rights of man, Mason derived the following articles, which make clear that the role of government is to secure and protect those rights, and if it fails to do so, the people have a right to amend or abolish it. Property could not be taken for public use without the owner's consent, and a citizen could only be bound by a law accepted by that person or by elected representatives. If accused, a person had the right to a speedy and local trial, based on an accusation made known to him, with the right to call for evidence and witnesses in his favor.
When the convention began to debate the declaration, it quickly bogged down on the first sentence of Article 1, which some feared would imply that slaves were their masters' equals. This was resolved by the convention adding the words "when they enter into a state of society", thus excluding slaves. Mason spoke repeatedly in the five days of debate, using oratory one hearer described as "neither flowing nor smooth, but his language was strong, his manner most impressive, and strengthened by a bit of biting cynicism when provocation made it seasonable". The Declaration of Rights was passed by the convention on June 12, 1776.
In later years, there was a flurry of contradictory statements from convention members (including Mason) about who composed which articles. Randolph credited Henry with Articles 15 and 16, but Article 16 (dealing with religious freedom), had been written by Madison. Mason had imitated English law in drafting language requiring toleration of those of minority religions, but Madison insisted on full religious liberty, and Mason supported Madison's amendment once made.
The committee draft, likely for the most part written by Mason, received wide publicity (the final version much less so) and Mason's words "all men are born equally free and independent" were later reproduced in state constitutions from Pennsylvania to Montana; Jefferson tweaked the prose and included the sentiments in the Declaration of Independence. In 1778, Mason wrote that the Declaration of Rights "was closely imitated by the other United States". This was true, as seven of the original states, and Vermont, joined Virginia in promulgating a bill of rights. Four in addition specified rights that were protected, within the body of their constitutions. Feelings were so strong in Massachusetts that voters there in 1778 rejected a constitution drafted by a convention, insisting that a bill of rights had to come first.
Virginia constitution
Even before the convention approved the Declaration of Rights, Mason was busy at work on a constitution for Virginia. He was not the only one occupying himself so; Jefferson sent several versions from Philadelphia, one of which supplied the constitution's preamble. Essex County's Meriwether Smith may have prepared a draft, but the text is unknown. As an original writing in Mason's hand is not known, the extent to which the final draft was written by him is uncertain. Nevertheless, William Fleming on June 22, 1776, sent Jefferson a copy of the draft before the Cary Committee, telling him "the inclosed printed plan was drawn by Colo. G. Mason and by him laid before the committee".
Mason had submitted his plan sometime between June 8 and 10, 1776. It named the new state the "Commonwealth of Virginia", a name chosen pointedly by Mason to indicate that power stemmed from the people. The constitution provided for a popularly elected House of Delegates, chosen annually by men who owned or leased property, or who had fathered three or more Virginians. Most governmental power resided in the House of Delegates—the governor could not even veto a bill and could only act as head of the state militia on the advice of his Council of State, whose members were elected by the legislature. The draft was considered by the committee, and it issued a report on June 24, at which time Jefferson's preamble and several amendments authored by him were included—George Wythe, who advocated for Jefferson's draft before the committee, found discussion far enough advanced that members were only willing to yield to Jefferson on a few points. The entire convention considered the document between June 26 and 28, and it was signed on June 29. Richard Henry Lee wrote the day prior to the constitution's passage by unanimous vote, "I have had the pleasure to see our new plan of Government go on well. This day will put a finishing hand to it. 'Tis very much of the democratic kind."
When the convention chose Patrick Henry as Virginia's first post-independence governor, Mason led the committee of notables sent to inform Henry of his election. There was criticism of the constitution—Edmund Randolph later wrote that the document's faults indicated that even such a great mind as Mason's was not immune from "oversights and negligences": it did not have an amending process and granted two delegates to each county regardless of population. The 1776 constitution remained in force until 1830, when another convention replaced it. According to Henry C. Riely in his journal article on Mason, "The Virginia Constitution of 1776, whatever may have been the question raised long afterwards as to the contribution of other great leaders, stands, on the authority of Jefferson, Madison, and Randolph—to mention only the highest authority—as his creation."
Wartime legislator
Mason devoted much effort during the American Revolutionary War to safeguarding Fairfax County and the rivers of Virginia, since the British several times raided areas along the Potomac. Control of the rivers and of Chesapeake Bay was urgent as Virginians tried to obtain hard currency by trading tobacco to the French and other European nations. The export of tobacco, generally via the West Indies, allowed Mason and others to obtain, via France and Holland, British-made items such as cloth, clothing patterns, medicines, and hardware.
Mason served as a member of the House of Delegates from 1776 to 1781, his longest continuous political service outside Fairfax County, which he represented in Richmond. The other Fairfax County seat turned over several times—Washington's stepson Jackie Custis was elected late in the war—but Mason remained the county's choice throughout. Nevertheless, Mason's health often caused him to miss meetings of the legislature, or to arrive days or weeks late. Mason in 1777 was assigned to a committee to revise Virginia's laws, with the expectation that he would take on the criminal code and land law. Mason served a few months on the committee before resigning on the ground he was not a lawyer; most of the work fell to Jefferson (returned from Philadelphia), Pendleton, and Wythe. Illness caused by a botched smallpox inoculation forced Mason to miss part of the legislature's spring 1777 session; in his absence delegates on May 22 elected him to the Continental Congress. Mason, who may have been angry that Lee had not been chosen, refused on the ground that he was needed at home and did not feel he could resign from the General Assembly without permission from his constituents. Lee was elected in his place.
This did not end the desire of Virginians to send Mason to the Continental Congress. In 1779, Lee resigned from Congress, expressing the hope that Mason, Wythe, or Jefferson would replace him in Philadelphia. General Washington was frustrated at the reluctance of many talented men to serve in Congress, writing to Benjamin Harrison that the states "should compel their ablest men to attend Congress ... Where is Mason, Wythe, Jefferson, Nicholas, Pendleton, Nelson?" Washington wrote to Mason directly,
In spite of Washington's pleas, Mason remained in Virginia, plagued by illness and heavily occupied on the Committee of Safety and elsewhere in defending the Fairfax County area. Most of the legislation Mason introduced in the House of Delegates was war related, often aimed at raising the men or money needed by Congress for Washington's Continental Army. The new federal and state governments, short on cash, issued paper money. By 1777, the value of Virginia's paper money had dropped precipitously, and Mason developed a plan to redeem the notes with a tax on real estate. Mason was three weeks late in arriving at Richmond because of his illness, to the frustration of Washington, who had faith in Mason's knowledge of financial affairs. Washington wrote to Custis, "It is much to be wished that a remedy could be applied to the depreciation of our Currency ... I know of no person better qualified to do this than Colonel Mason".
Mason retained his interest in western affairs, hoping in vain to salvage the Ohio Company's land grant. He and Jefferson were among the few delegates to be told of George Rogers Clark's expedition to secure control of the lands north of the Ohio River. Mason and Jefferson secured legislation authorizing Governor Henry to defend against unspecified western enemies. The expedition was generally successful, and Mason received a report directly from Clark. Mason sought to remove differences between Virginia and other states, and although he felt the Mason-Dixon line (not named for George Mason), the 1780 settlement of the boundary dispute with Pennsylvania, was unfavorable to Virginia, he voted for it enthusiastically. Also in 1780, Mason remarried, to Sarah Brent, from a nearby plantation, who had never been married and was 52 years old. It was a marriage of convenience, with the new bride able to take some of the burden of parenting Mason's many children off his hands.
Peace (1781–1786)
By the signing of the 1783 Treaty of Paris, life along the Potomac had returned to normal. Among the visits between the elite that returned with peace was one by Madison to Gunston Hall in December 1783, while returning from Congress in Philadelphia. The 1781 Articles of Confederation had tied the states in a loose bond, and Madison sought a more sound federal structure, seeking the proper balance between federal and state rights. He found Mason willing to consider a federal tax; Madison had feared the subject might offend his host and wrote to Jefferson of the evening's conversation. The same month, Mason spent Christmas at Mount Vernon (the only larger estate than his in Fairfax County). A fellow houseguest described Mason as "slight in figure, but not tall, and has a grand head and clear gray eyes". Mason retained his political influence in Virginia, writing Patrick Henry, who had been elected to the House of Delegates, a letter filled with advice as that body's 1783 session opened.
Mason scuttled efforts to elect him to the House of Delegates in 1784, writing that sending him to Richmond would be "an oppressive and unjust invasion of my personal liberty". His refusal disappointed Jefferson, who had hoped that the likelihood that the legislature would consider land legislation would attract Mason to Richmond. The legislature nevertheless appointed Mason a commissioner to negotiate with Maryland over navigation of the Potomac. Mason spent much time on this issue and reached agreement with Maryland delegates at the meeting in March 1785 known as the Mount Vernon Conference. Although the meeting at Washington's home came later to be seen as a first step towards the 1787 Constitutional Convention, Mason saw it simply as efforts by two states to resolve differences between them. Mason was appointed to the Annapolis Convention of 1786, at which representatives of all the states were welcome, but like most delegates he did not attend. The sparsely attended Annapolis meeting called for a conference to consider amendments to the Articles of Confederation.
To deter smuggling, Madison proposed a bill to make Norfolk the state's only legal port of entry. Five other ports, including Alexandria, were eventually added, but the Port Act proved unpopular despite the support of Washington. Mason, an opponent of the act, accepted election to the House of Delegates in 1786, and many believed that his influence would prove decisive for the repeal effort. Mason did not come to Richmond during the initial session because of illness, but he did send a petition as a private citizen to the legislature. The Port Act survived, though additional harbors were added as legal entry points.
Constitutional Convention (1787)
Building a constitution
Although the Annapolis Convention saw only about a dozen delegates attend, representing only five states, it called for a meeting to be held in Philadelphia in May 1787 to devise amendments to the Articles of Confederation which would result in a more durable constitutional arrangement. Accordingly in December 1786, the Virginia General Assembly elected seven men as the commonwealth's delegation: Washington, Mason, Henry, Randolph, Madison, Wythe, and John Blair. Henry declined appointment, and his place was given to James McClurg. Randolph, who had just been elected governor, sent three notifications of election to Mason, who accepted without any quibbles. The roads were difficult because of spring flooding, and Mason was the last Virginia delegate to arrive, on May 17, three days after the convention's scheduled opening. But it was not until May 25 that the convention formally opened, with the arrival of at least one delegate from ten of the twelve states which sent representatives (Rhode Island sent no one).
The journey to Philadelphia was Mason's first beyond Virginia and Maryland. According to Josephine T. Pacheco in her article about Mason's role at Philadelphia, "since Virginia's leaders regarded [Mason] as a wise, trustworthy man, it is not surprising that they chose him as a member of the Virginia delegation, though they must have been surprised when he accepted". Broadwater suggests that Mason went to Philadelphia because he knew the federal congress needed additional power and because he felt that body could act as a check on the powers of state legislatures. As the Virginians waited for the other delegates to arrive, they met each day and formulated what became known as the Virginia Plan. They also did some sightseeing and were presented to Pennsylvania's president, Benjamin Franklin. Within a week of arrival, Mason was bored with the social events to which the delegates were invited, "I begin to grow tired of the etiquette and nonsense so fashionable in this city".
Going into the convention, Mason wanted to see a more powerful central government than under the Articles, but not one that would threaten local interests. He feared that the more numerous Northern states would dominate the union and would impose restrictions on trade that would harm Virginia, so he sought a supermajority requirement for navigation acts. As was his constant objective, he sought to preserve the liberty he and other free white men enjoyed in Virginia, guarding against the tyranny he and others had decried under British rule. He also sought a balance of powers, seeking thereby to make a durable government; according to historian Brent Tarter, "Mason designed his home [Gunston Hall] so that no misplaced window or missing support might spoil the effect or threaten to bring down the roof; he tried to design institutions of government in the same way, so that wicked or unprincipled men could not knock loose any safeguards of liberty".
Mason had hope, coming into the convention, that it would yield a result that he felt would strengthen the United States. Impressed by the quality of the delegates, Mason expected sound thinking from them, something he did not think he had often encountered in his political career. Still, he felt that the "hopes of all the Union centre in this Convention", and wrote to his son George, "the revolt from Great Britain & the Formations of our new Government at that time, were nothing compared with the great Business now before us."
Mason knew few of the delegates who were not from Virginia or Maryland, but his reputation preceded him. Once delegates representing sufficient states had arrived in Philadelphia by late May, the convention held closed sessions at the Pennsylvania State House (today Independence Hall). Washington was elected the convention's president by unanimous vote, and his tremendous personal prestige as the victorious war general helped legitimize the convention but also caused him to abstain from debate. Mason had no such need to remain silent, and only four or five delegates spoke as frequently as he did. Though he ended up not signing the constitution, according to Broadwater, Mason won as many convention debates as he lost.
In the early days of the convention, Mason supported much of the Virginia Plan, which was introduced by Randolph on May 29. This plan would have a popularly elected lower house which would choose the members of the upper house from lists provided by the states. Most of the delegates had found the weak government under the Articles insufficient, and Randolph proposed that the new federal government should be supreme over the states. Mason agreed that the federal government should be more powerful than the states.
The Virginia Plan, if implemented, would base representation in both houses of the federal legislature on population. This was unsatisfactory to the smaller states. Delaware's delegates had been instructed to seek an equal vote for each state, and this became the New Jersey Plan, introduced by that New Jersey Governor William Paterson. The divisions in the convention became apparent in late June, when by a narrow vote, the convention voted that representation in the lower house be based on population, but the motion of Connecticut's Oliver Ellsworth for each state to have an equal vote in the upper house failed on a tie. With the convention deadlocked, on July 2, 1787, a grand committee was formed, with one member from each state, to seek a way out. Mason had not taken as strong a position on the legislature as had Madison, and he was appointed to the committee; Mason and Franklin were the most prominent members. The committee met over the convention's July 4 recess and proposed what became known as the Great Compromise: a House of Representatives based on population, in which money bills must originate, and a Senate with equal representation for each state. Records do not survive of Mason's participation in that committee, but the clause requiring money bills to start in the House most likely came from him or was the price of his support, as he had inserted such a clause in the Virginia Constitution, and he defended that clause once convention debate resumed. According to Madison's notes, Mason urged the convention to adopt the compromise:
Road to dissent
By mid-July, as delegates began to move past the stalemate to a framework built upon the Great Compromise, Mason had considerable influence in the convention. North Carolina's William Blount was unhappy that those from his state "were in Sentiment with Virginia who seemed to take the lead. Madison at their Head tho Randolph and Mason also great". Mason had failed to carry his proposals that senators must own property and not be in debt to the United States, but he successfully argued that the minimum age for service in Congress should be 25, telling the convention that younger men were too immature. Mason was the first to propose that the national seat of government not be in a state capital lest the local legislature be too influential. He voted against proposals to base representation on a state's wealth or taxes paid and supported regular reapportionment of the House of Representatives.
On August 6, 1787, the convention received a tentative draft written by a Committee of Detail chaired by South Carolina's John Rutledge; Randolph had represented Virginia. The draft was acceptable to Mason as a basis for discussion, containing such points important to him as the requirement that money bills originate in the House and not be amendable in the Senate. Nevertheless, Mason felt the upper house was too powerful, as it had the powers to make treaties, appoint Supreme Court justices, and adjudicate territorial disputes between the states. The draft lacked provision for a council of revision, something Mason and others considered a serious lack.
The convention spent several weeks in August in debating the powers of Congress. Although Mason was successful in some of his proposals, such as placing the state militias under federal regulation, and a ban on Congress passing an export tax, he lost on some that he deemed crucial. These losses included the convention deciding to allow importation of slaves to continue to at least 1800 (later amended to 1808) and to allow a simple majority to pass navigation acts that might require Virginians to export their tobacco in American-flagged ships, when it might be cheaper to use foreign-flagged vessels. The convention also weakened the requirement that money bills begin in the House and not be subject to amendment in the Senate, eventually striking the latter clause after debate that stretched fitfully over weeks. Despite these defeats, Mason continued to work constructively to build a constitution, serving on another grand committee that considered customs duties and ports.
On August 31, 1787, Massachusetts' Elbridge Gerry spoke against the document as a whole, as did Luther Martin of Maryland. When Gerry moved to postpone consideration of the final document, Mason seconded him, stating, according to Madison, that "he would sooner chop off his right hand than put it to the Constitution as it now stands". Still, Mason did not rule out signing it, saying that he wanted to see how certain matters still before the convention were settled before deciding a final position, whether to sign or ask for a second convention. As the final touches were made to the constitution, Mason and Gerry held meetings in the evening to discuss strategy, bringing in delegates representing states from Connecticut to Georgia.
Mason's misgivings about the constitution were increased on September 12, when Gerry proposed and Mason seconded that there be a committee appointed to write a bill of rights, to be part of the text of the constitution. Connecticut's Roger Sherman noted that the state bills of rights would remain in force, to which Mason responded, "the Laws of the United States are to be paramount [supreme] to State Bills of Rights." Although Massachusetts abstained in deference to Gerry, the Virginians showed no desire to conciliate Mason in their votes, as the motion failed with no states in favor and ten opposed. Also on September 12, the Committee on Style submitted its final draft, and Mason began to list objections on his copy. On September 15, as the convention continued a clause-by-clause consideration of the draft, Mason, Randolph, and Gerry stated they would not sign the constitution.
On September 17, members of the twelve delegations then present in Philadelphia signed the constitution, except for the three men who had stated they would not. As the document was sent to the Articles of Confederation's Congress in New York, Mason sent a copy of his objections to Richard Henry Lee, a member of the Congress.
Ratification battle
Broadwater notes, "given the difficulty of the task he had set for himself, his stubborn independence, and his lack, by 1787, of any concern for his own political future, it is not surprising that he left Philadelphia at odds with the great majority of his fellow delegates". Madison recorded that Mason, believing that the convention had given his proposals short shrift in a hurry to complete its work, began his journey back to Virginia "in an exceeding ill humor". Mason biographer Helen Hill Miller notes that before Mason returned to Gunston Hall, he was injured in body as well as spirit after an accident on the road. Word of Mason's opposition stance had reached Fairfax County even before the convention ended; most local sentiment was in favor of the document. Washington made a statement urging ratification but otherwise remained silent, knowing he would almost certainly be the first president. Mason sent Washington a copy of his objections, but Washington believed that the choice was ratification or disaster.
The constitution was to be ratified by state conventions, with nine approvals necessary for it to come into force. In practice, opposition by large states such as New York or Virginia would make it hard for the new government to function. Mason remained a member of the House of Delegates, and in late October 1787, the legislature called a convention for June 1788; in language crafted by John Marshall, it decreed that the Virginia Ratifying Convention would be allowed "free and ample discussion". Mason was less influential in his final session in the House of Delegates because of his strong opposition to ratification, and his age (61) may also have caused him to be less effective.
As smaller states ratified the constitution in late 1787 and early 1788, there was an immense quantity of pamphlets and other written matter for and against approval. Most prominent in support were the pamphlets later collected as The Federalist, written by Madison and two New Yorkers, Alexander Hamilton and John Jay; Mason's objections were widely cited by opponents. Mason had begun his Objections to this Constitution of Government in Philadelphia; in October 1787, it was published, though without his permission. Madison complained that Mason had gone beyond the reasons for opposing he had stated in convention, but Broadwater suggested the major difference was one of tone, since the written work dismissed as useless the constitution and the proposed federal government. Nevertheless, both Lee and Mason believed that if proper amendments were made, the constitution would be a fine instrument of governance. The Objections were widely cited in opposition to ratification, and Mason was criticized for placing his own name on it, at a time when political tracts were signed, if at all, with pen names such as Junius, so that the author's reputation would not influence the debate. Despite this, Mason's Objections were among the most influential Anti-Federalist works, and its opening line, "There is no Declaration of Rights", likely their most effective slogan.
Virginians were reluctant to believe that greatly respected figures such as Washington and Franklin would be complicit in setting up a tyrannical system. There were broad attacks on Mason; the New Haven Gazette suggested that he had not done much for his country during the war, in marked contrast to Washington. Oliver Ellsworth blamed the Virginia opposition on the Lee family, who had long had tensions with the Washington family, and on "the madness of Mason". Tarter, in his American National Biography article on Mason, wrote that "the rigidity of [Mason's] views and his increasingly belligerent personality produced an intolerance and intemperance in his behavior that surprised and angered Madison, with whom he had worked closely at the beginning of the convention, and Washington, who privately condemned Mason's actions during the ratification struggle."
In Richmond from October 1787 until January 1788 representing Fairfax County in the House of Delegates, Mason faced difficulties in winning election to the ratifying convention from his home county, since most Fairfax freeholders were Federalist, and local courthouse politics put him at odds with many in Alexandria. The statute governing elections to the convention in Richmond allowed Mason to seek election where he owned property, and he sought election in Stafford County.. He assured voters that he did not seek disunion, but rather reform, and spoke against the unamended constitution in strong terms. George Nicholas, a Federalist friend of Mason, believed that Mason felt he could lead Virginia to gain concessions from the other states, and that he was embittered by the continuing attacks on him. On March 10, 1788, Mason finished first in the polls in Stafford County, and veteran delegate Andrew Buchanan won the other seat over Colonel Carter and William Fitzhugh. Two days later, a Richmond essayist criticized Mason and Richard Henry Lee (who did not attend) for the "barefaced impudence and folly" of public protests. Mason apparently was the only person elected to that convention for a constituency in which he did not live (although historically many of his ancestors had lived in and represented the county). Voter turnout was low, as many in remote areas without newspapers knew little about the constitution. The Federalists were believed to have a slight advantage in elected delegates; Mason thought that the convention would be unlikely to ratify the document without demanding amendments.
By the time the Richmond convention opened in June, Randolph had abandoned the Anti-Federalist cause, which damaged efforts by Mason and Henry to co-ordinate with their counterparts in New York. Mason moved that the convention consider the document clause by clause, which may have played into the hands of the Federalists, who feared what the outcome of an immediate vote might be, and who had more able leadership in Richmond, including Marshall and Madison. Nevertheless, Broadwater suggested that as most delegates had declared their views before the election, Mason's motion made little difference. Henry, far more a foe of a strong federal government than was Mason, took the lead for his side in the debate. Mason spoke several times in the discussion, on topics ranging from the pardon power (which he predicted the president would use corruptly) to the federal judiciary, which he warned would lead to suits in the federal courts by citizens against states where they did not live. John Marshall, a future Chief Justice of the United States, downplayed the concern regarding the judiciary, but Mason would later be proved correct in the case of Chisholm v. Georgia (1793), which led to the passage of the Eleventh Amendment.
The federalists initially did not have a majority, with the balance held by undeclared delegates, mainly from western Virginia (today's Kentucky). The Anti-Federalists suffered repeated blows during the convention due to the defection of Randolph and as news came other states had ratified. Mason led a group of Anti-Federalists which drafted amendments: even the Federalists were open to supporting them, though the constitution's supporters wanted the document drafted in Philadelphia ratified first.
After some of the Kentuckians had declared for ratification, the convention considered a resolution to withhold ratification pending the approval of a declaration of rights. Supported by Mason but opposed by Madison, Light-Horse Harry Lee, Marshall, Nicholas, Randolph and Bushrod Washington, the resolution failed, 88–80. Mason then voted in the minority as Virginia ratified the constitution on June 25, 1788 by a vote of 89–79. Following the ratification vote, Mason served on a committee chaired by George Wythe, charged with compiling a final list of recommended amendments, and Mason's draft was adopted, but for a few editorial changes. Unreconciled to the result, Mason prepared a fiery written argument, but some felt the tone too harsh and Mason agreed not to publish it.
Final years
Defeated at Richmond, Mason returned to Gunston Hall, where he devoted himself to family, local affairs and his own health, though still keeping up a vigorous correspondence with political leaders. He resigned from the Fairfax County Court after an act passed by the new Congress required officeholders to take an oath to support the constitution, and in 1790 declined a seat in the Senate which had been left vacant by William Grayson's death, stating that his health would not permit him to serve, even if he had no other objection. The seat went to James Monroe, who had supported Mason's Anti-Federalist stance, and who had, in 1789, lost to Madison for a seat in the House of Representatives. Judging by his correspondence, Mason softened his stance towards the new federal government, telling Monroe that the constitution "wisely & Properly directs" that ambassadors be confirmed by the Senate. Although Mason predicted that the amendments to be proposed to the states by the First Congress would be "Milk & Water Propositions", he displayed "much Satisfaction" at what became the Bill of Rights (ratified in 1791) and wrote that if his concerns about the federal courts and other matters were addressed, "I could cheerfully put my Hand & Heart to the new Government".
Washington, who was in 1789 elected the first president, resented Mason's strong stances against the ratification of the constitution, and these differences destroyed their friendship. Although some sources accept that Mason dined at Mount Vernon on November 2, 1788, Peter R. Henriques noted that Washington's diary states that Mr. George Mason was the guest, and as Washington, elsewhere in his diary, always referred to his former colleague at Philadelphia as Colonel Mason, the visitor was likely George Mason V, the son. Mason always wrote positively of Washington, and the president said nothing publicly, but in a letter referred to Mason as a "quondam friend" who would not recant his position on the constitution because "pride on the one hand, and want of manly candour on the other, will not I am certain let him acknowledge error in his opinions respecting it [the federal government] though conviction should flash on his mind as strongly as a ray of light". Rutland suggested that the two men were alike in their intolerance of opponents and suspicion of their motives.
Mason had long battled against Alexandria merchants who he felt unfairly dominated the county court, if only because they could more easily get to the courthouse. In 1789, he drafted legislation to move the courthouse to the center of the county, though it did not pass in his lifetime. In 1798, the legislature passed an authorizing act, and the courthouse opened in 1801. Most of those at Gunston Hall, both family and slaves, fell ill during the summer of 1792, experiencing chills and fever; when those subsided, Mason caught a chest cold. When Jefferson visited Gunston Hall on October 1, 1792, he found Mason, long a martyr to gout, needing a crutch to walk, though still sound in mind and memory. Additional ailments, possibly pneumonia, set in. Less than a week after Jefferson's visit, on October 7, George Mason died at Gunston Hall, and was subsequently buried on the estate, within sight of the house he had built and of the Potomac River.
Although Mason's death attracted little notice, aside from a few mentions in local newspapers, Jefferson mourned "a great loss". Another future president, Monroe, stated that Mason's "patriotic virtues thro[ugh] the revolution will ever be remembered by the citizens of this country".
Views on slavery
Mason owned many slaves. In Fairfax County, only George Washington owned more, and Mason is not known to have freed any, even in his March 1773 will ultimately transcribed into the Fairfax County probate records in October 1792 (the original was then lost). That will divided his slaves among his children (between twenty and three years old when Mason wrote it). Mason would continue trading in land as well as remarry (with a marriage agreement recorded in Prince William County in April 1780), and Virginia legalized manumission in May 1782. The childless Washington, in his will executed shortly before his death, ordered his slaves be freed after his wife's death, and Jefferson manumitted a few slaves, mostly of the Hemings family, including his own children by Sally Hemings. According to Broadwater, "In all likelihood, Mason believed, or convinced himself, that he had no options. Mason would have done nothing that might have compromised the financial futures of his nine children." Peter Wallenstein, in his article about how writers have interpreted Mason, argued that he could have freed some slaves without harming his children's future, if he had wanted to.
Mason's biographers and interpreters have long differed about how to present his views on slavery-related issues. His descendant Kate Mason Rowland, a charter member of the United Daughters of the Confederacy published a two-volume biography (1892). Broadwater noted that she wrote "during the heyday of Jim Crow" and denied that Mason (her ancestor) was "an abolitionist in the modern sense of the term", arguing that Mason "regretted" slavery and was against the slave trade, but wanted slavery protected in the constitution. In 1919, Robert C. Mason published a biography of his prominent ancestor and asserted that George Mason "agreed to free his own slaves and was the first known abolitionist", refusing to sign the constitution, among other reasons because "as it stood then it did not abolish slavery or make preparation for its gradual extinction". Rutland, writing in 1961, asserted that in Mason's final days, "only the coalition [between New England and the Deep South at the Constitutional Convention] in Philadelphia that had bargained away any hope of eliminating slavery left a residue of disgust." Catherine Drinker Bowen, in her widely read 1966 account of the Constitutional Convention, Miracle at Philadelphia, contended that Mason believed slaves to be citizens and was "a fervent abolitionist before the word was coined".
Others took a more nuanced view. Pamela C. Copeland and Richard K. MacMaster deemed Mason's views similar to other Virginians of his class: "Mason's experience with slave labor made him hate slavery but his heavy investment in slave property made it difficult for him to divest himself of a system that he despised". According to Wallenstein, "whatever his occasional rhetoric, George Mason was—if one must choose—proslavery, not antislavery. He acted in behalf of Virginia slaveholders, not Virginia slaves". Broadwater noted, "Mason consistently voiced his disapproval of slavery. His 1787 attack on slavery echoes a similar speech to the Virginia Convention of 1776. His conduct was another matter."
According to Wallenstein, historians and other writers "have had great difficulty coming to grips with Mason in his historical context, and they have jumbled the story in related ways, misleading each other and following each other's errors". Some of this is due to conflation of Mason's views on slavery with that of his desire to ban the African slave trade, which he unquestionably opposed and fought against. His record otherwise is mixed: Virginia banned the importation of slaves from abroad in 1778, while Mason was in the House of Delegates. In 1782, after he had returned to Gunston Hall, it enacted legislation that allowed manumission of adult slaves young enough to support themselves (not older than 45). However, a proposal, supported by Mason, to require freed slaves to leave Virginia within a year or be sold at auction, was defeated. Broadwater asserted, "Mason must have shared the fears of Jefferson and countless other whites that whites and free blacks could not live together".
The contradiction between wanting protection for slave property, while opposing the slave trade, was pointed out by delegates to the Richmond convention such as George Nicholas, a supporter of ratification. Mason stated of slavery, "it is far from being a desirable property. But it will involve us in great difficulties and infelicity to be now deprived of them."
Sites and remembrance
There are sites remembering George Mason in Fairfax County. Gunston Hall, donated to the Commonwealth of Virginia by its last private owner, is now "dedicated to the study of George Mason, his home and garden, and life in 18th-century Virginia". George Mason University, with its main campus adjacent to the city of Fairfax, was formerly George Mason College of the University of Virginia from 1959 until it received its present name in 1972. A major landmark on the Fairfax campus is a statue of George Mason by Wendy M. Ross, depicted as he presents his first draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights.
The George Mason Memorial Bridge, part of the 14th Street Bridge, connects Northern Virginia to Washington, D.C. The George Mason Memorial in West Potomac Park in Washington, also with a statue by Ross, was dedicated on April 9, 2002.
Mason was honored in 1981 by the United States Postal Service with an 18-cent Great Americans series postage stamp. A bas-relief of Mason appears in the Chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives as one of 23 honoring great lawmakers. Mason's image is located above and to the right of the Speaker's chair; he and Jefferson are the only Americans recognized.
Legacy and historical view
According to Miller, "The succession of New World constitutions of which Virginia's, with Mason as its chief architect, was the first, declared the source of political authority to be the people ... in addition to making clear what a government was entitled to do, most of them were prefaced by a list of individual rights of the citizens ... rights whose maintenance was government's primary reason for being. Mason wrote the first of these lists." Diane D. Pikcunas, in her article prepared for the bicentennial of the U.S. Bill of Rights, wrote that Mason "made the declaration of rights as his personal crusade". Tarter deemed Mason "celebrated as a champion of constitutional order and one of the fathers of the Bill of Rights". Justice Sandra Day O'Connor agreed, "George Mason's greatest contribution to present day Constitutional law was his influence on our Bill of Rights".
Mason's legacy extended overseas, doing so even in his lifetime, and though he never visited Europe, his ideals did. Lafayette's
"Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen" was written in the early days of the French Revolution under the influence of Jefferson, the U.S. Minister to France. According to historian R.R. Palmer, "there was in fact a remarkable parallel between the French Declaration and the Virginia Declaration of 1776". Another scholar, Richard Morris, concurred, deeming the resemblance between the two texts "too close to be coincidental": "the Virginia statesman George Mason might well have instituted an action of plagiarism".
Donald J. Senese, in the conclusion to the collection of essays on Mason published in 1989, noted that several factors contributed to Mason's obscurity in the century after his death. Older than many who served at Philadelphia and came into prominence with the new federal government, Mason died soon after the constitution came into force and displayed no ambition for federal office, declining a seat in the Senate. Mason left no extensive paper trail, no autobiography like Franklin, no diary like Washington or John Adams. Washington left papers collected into 100 volumes; for Mason, with many documents lost to fire, there are only three. Mason fought on the side that failed, both at Philadelphia and Richmond, leaving him a loser in a history written by winners—even his speeches to the Constitutional Convention descend through the pen of Madison, a supporter of ratification. After the Richmond convention, he was, according to Senese, "a prophet without honor in his own country".
The increased scrutiny of Mason which has accompanied his rise from obscurity has meant, according to Tarter, that "his role in the creation of some of the most important texts of American liberty is not as clear as it seems". Rutland suggested that Mason showed only "belated concern over the personal rights of citizens". Focusing on Mason's dissent from the constitution, Miller pointed to the intersectional bargain struck over navigation acts and the slave trade, "Mason lost on both counts, and the double defeat was reflected in his attitude thereafter." Wallenstein concluded, "the personal and economic interests of Mason's home state took precedence over a bill of rights".
Whatever his motivations, Mason proved a forceful advocate for a bill of rights whose Objections helped accomplish his aims. Rutland noted that "from the opening phrase of his Objections to the Bill of Rights that James Madison offered in Congress two years later, the line is so direct that we can say that Mason forced Madison's hand. Federalist supporters of the Constitution could not overcome the protest caused by Mason's phrase 'There is no declaration of rights'." O'Connor wrote that "Mason lost his battle against ratification ... [but] his ideals and political activities have significantly influenced our constitutional jurisprudence." Wallenstein felt that there is much to be learned from Mason:
See also
History of the United States Constitution
List of civil rights leaders
Founding Fathers of the United States
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
George Mason biography
Gunston Hall Home Page
Website of George Mason University
1725 births
1792 deaths
Delegates to the Virginia Ratifying Convention
Members of the Virginia House of Delegates
18th-century American politicians
Mason family
Anti-Federalists
Businesspeople from Virginia
American planters
British North American Anglicans
18th-century American Episcopalians
American people of English descent
People from Fairfax County, Virginia
People from Stafford County, Virginia
Burials at Gunston Hall
American slave owners | [
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224317 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Peters%20Humphrey | John Peters Humphrey | John Peters Humphrey (April 30, 1905 – March 14, 1995) was a Canadian legal scholar, jurist, and human rights advocate. He is most famous as the principal author of the first draft of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Childhood, education and academic career
Humphrey was born to Frank Humphrey and Nellie Peter on April 30, 1905, in Hampton, New Brunswick. His childhood was wracked by tragedy as he lost both his parents to cancer and he also lost one of his arms in an accident while playing with fire. Humphrey attended a boarding school where he endured teasing from other students; it is claimed that this was influential in building his character and compassion.
John Humphrey applied to Mount Allison University at age 15 from the Rothesay Collegiate School and was accepted. He transferred to McGill University and lived with his sister Ruth who was a teacher in Montreal, Quebec. Humphrey graduated from McGill in 1925 where he was awarded a Bachelor of Commerce degree from the School of Commerce, part of the Desautels Faculty of Management. He promptly enrolled in a Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Law at McGill, graduating in 1927 and 1929 respectively. Upon graduation, Humphrey was awarded a fellowship to study in Paris, sailing from Montreal on the RMS Aurania. He met fellow passenger Jeanne Godreau while onboard and they were married in Paris shortly after arriving.
Humphrey returned to Montreal after the fellowship to practice law for five years before accepting a teaching position as a professor at McGill; he also enrolled in a Master of Law program, specializing in international law. During the 1930s Humphrey was considered a renaissance man with the majority of his interests in education, the arts and humanities.
While teaching at McGill in the early 1940s, Humphrey met Henri Laugier, a refugee from France who was working on behalf of the Free French. In 1943, Laugier moved to Algeria to teach at the University of Algiers and later became the Assistant Secretary-General of the United Nations.
While at McGill University, John Peters Humphrey founded the McGill Debating Union, one of the world's most successful and prominent debate societies.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
In 1946, Assistant Secretary-General to the United Nations, Henri Laugier, appointed John Peters Humphrey as the first Director of the United Nations Division of Human Rights, within the United Nations Secretariat.
Humphrey was a principal drafter of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. After consulting with the executive group of the Commission, chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt, Professor Humphrey prepared the first preliminary draft of what was to become the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
On the night of December 10, 1948, the General Assembly unanimously adopted the Declaration, dubbed by Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt as "the international Magna Carta of all humankind."
Career in the United Nations
Humphrey remained with the UN for 20 years. During this period, he oversaw the implementation of 67 international conventions and the constitutions of dozens of countries. He worked in areas including the freedom of the press, status of women, and racial discrimination. In 1988, on the 40th anniversary of the Declaration, the UN Human Rights award was bestowed on Professor Humphrey.
In 1963, he proposed the idea of a United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. While the idea was initially received quite positively, it was only after more than thirty years, under Secretary-General Dr. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, that the office became a reality.
Later life
Humphrey retired from the UN in 1966 to resume his teaching career at McGill University. He remained active in the promotion of human rights in Canada and internationally for the rest of his life.
He served as a director of the International League for Human Rights; served as a member of the Royal Commission on the Status of Women; a member of the team that launched Amnesty International's chapter in Canada; and, with colleagues from McGill University, was instrumental in creating the Canadian Human Rights Foundation, now renamed Equitas -International Centre for Human Rights Education. He took part in a number of international commissions of inquiry, including a mission to the Philippines investigating human rights violations under Ferdinand Marcos and the International Commission of Inquiry into the 1932-33 Famine in Ukraine. At the UN, he sought compensation for Korean women forced to act as sex slaves. He also campaigned with the War Amps for reparations for Canadian prisoners of war under Japanese captivity.
In 1974, he spoke in opposition of Bill 22, the Quebec Language Law. He testified on July 19, 1974 that English was also an official language in the province, despite the proposed law. Together with Frank R. Scott, Irwin Cotler and four other McGill professors, he said:
Section 1, which provides that French is 'the official language of the province of Quebec,' is misleading in that it suggests that English is not also an official language in Quebec, which it is by virtue of Section 133 of the BNA Act and the federal Official Languages Act.... No legislation in the National Assembly proclaiming French the sole official language in the province can affect these bilingual areas protected by the BNA Act.
Two years after the death of his wife Jeanne in 1979, Humphrey married Montreal physician Margaret Kunstler, herself a widow. Humphrey died in Montreal on March 14, 1995, at the age of 89.
Honours and recognition
Among his many honours, Professor Humphrey was made an Officer of the Order of Canada in 1974, "in recognition of his contributions to legal scholarship and his world-wide reputation in the field of human rights".
In 1985, he was made an Officer of the Ordre nationale du Québec.
The John Peters Humphrey Model United Nations is held in his honour every May in Fredericton, New Brunswick..
Since 1988, the McGill University Faculty of Law has held the John P. Humphrey Lectureship in Human Rights, an annual lecture on the role of international law and organizations in the worldwide protection of human rights.
In September 1998, Nelson Mandela unveiled a commemorative plaque to Humphrey at the Human Rights Monument, Ottawa, as part of Canada's tribute on the sixtieth anniversary of the Declaration.
The John Humphrey Freedom Award, presented by the Canadian human rights group Rights & Democracy, is awarded each year to organizations and individuals around the world for exceptional achievement in the promotion of human rights and democratic development.
In June 2008, a memorial to Dr. Humphrey was unveiled in his hometown of Hampton, New Brunswick. The memorial, entitled the CREDO monument was sculpted by Hooper Studios and was commissioned by the Hampton John Peters Humphrey Foundation. It is located just a few hundred yards from his childhood home, consists of a UN-style wooden bench with a young and old Humphrey seated. Several brass doves sit on the end of the bench, which sits beside two tall stone plinths, one of which has several articles from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights carved into it in English, French and Maliseet. The memorial sits on the front lawn of the Hampton Town Hall, which is housed in the Former County Court House building in the centre of the town.
Bibliography
Humphrey, John Peters, Human Rights and the United Nations: A Great Adventure (New York: Transnational Publishers, 1984) (autobiography)
See also
List of civil rights leaders
List of peace activists
References
Sources
On the Edge of Greatness: the Diaries of John Humphrey, First Director of the United Nations Division of Human Rights, 4 volumes. Edited by A.J. Hobbins and published as Fontanus Monographs 4, 9, 12 and 13. Montreal, McGill-Queen's University Press. 1995-2001. , , , .
Hobbins, A.J. and Steward, A. "Humphrey and the quest for compensation: Individual claims against States and the creation of new international law." Canadian Yearbook of International Law, 2003. XLI (2004). pp. 187–223.
Hobbins, A.J. "Humphrey and the High Commissioner: the Genesis of the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights." Journal of the History of International Law. III (2001), pp. 38–74
Hobbins, A.J. "Mentor and Protégé: Percy Corbett’s relationship with John Peters Humphrey." Canadian Yearbook of International Law, 1999. XXXVII (2000), pp. 3–56.
Hobbins, A.J. "René Cassin and the Daughter of Time: the First Draft of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights". Fontanus II (1989) pp. 7 26.
Hobbins, A.J. and Boyer, D. "Seeking Historical Truth: the International Commission of Inquiry into the 1932-33 Famine in Ukraine. Dalhousie Law Journal. XXIV (2001), pp. 139-191
King, J and Hobbins, A.J.. "Hammarskjöld and Human Rights: the Deflation of the UN Human Rights Programme, 1953-1961." Journal of the History of International Law. V (2003), pp. 337–386.
External links
Canadian Encyclopedia - John Peters Humphrey
Historica Video Minutes - John Humphrey
Historica Radio Minutes - John Humphrey
1905 births
1995 deaths
Canadian diarists
Canadian legal scholars
McGill University Faculty of Management alumni
Mount Allison University alumni
Officers of the Order of Canada
People from Hampton, New Brunswick
Canadian officials of the United Nations
McGill University Faculty of Law alumni
Canadian human rights activists
McGill University Faculty of Law faculty
20th-century diarists | [
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224318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Strathclyde | University of Strathclyde | The University of Strathclyde () is a public research university located in Glasgow, Scotland. Founded in 1796 as the Andersonian Institute, it is Glasgow's second-oldest university, having received its royal charter in 1964 as the first technological university in the United Kingdom. Taking its name from the historic Kingdom of Strathclyde, it is Scotland's third-largest university by number of students, with students and staff from over 100 countries.
The institution was named University of the Year 2012 by Times Higher Education and again in 2019, becoming the first university to receive this award twice. The annual income of the institution for 2019–20 was £334.8 million of which £81.2 million was from research grants and contracts, with an expenditure of £298.8 million..
History
The university was founded in 1796 through the will of John Anderson, professor of Natural Philosophy at the University of Glasgow, who left instructions and the majority of his estate to create a second university in Glasgow which would focus on "Useful Learning" – specialising in practical subjects – "for the good of mankind and the improvement of science, a place of useful learning". The university later named its city centre campus after him.
In 1828, the institution was renamed Anderson's University, partially fulfilling Anderson's vision of two universities in the city of Glasgow. The name was changed in 1887, to reflect the fact that there was no legal authority for the use of the title of 'university'. As a result, the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College was formed, becoming the Royal Technical College in 1912, and the Royal College of Science and Technology in 1956 concentrating on science and engineering teaching and research. Undergraduate students could qualify for degrees of the University of Glasgow or the equivalent Associate of the Royal College of Science and Technology (ARCST).
Under Principal Samuel Curran, internationally respected nuclear physicist (and inventor of the scintillation counter), the Royal College gained University Status, receiving its Royal Charter to become The University of Strathclyde in 1964, merging with the Scottish College of Commerce at the same time. Contrary to popular belief, The University of Strathclyde was not created as a result of the Robbins Report – the decision to grant the Royal College university status had been made earlier in the 1960s but delayed as a result of Robbins Report. The University of Strathclyde was the UK's first technological university reflecting its history, teaching and research in technological education. In 1993, the university incorporated Jordanhill College of Education.
The university has grown from approximately 4,000 full-time students in 1964 to over 20,000 students in 2003, when it celebrated the 100th anniversary of the laying of the foundation stone of the original Royal College building.
In July 2015, Her Majesty The Queen opened the University of Strathclyde Technology and Innovation Centre (TIC).
Campus
Since taking over the Jordanhill college in 1993, the university operated two campuses - The John Anderson Campus and the Jordanhill campus until 2012 when the Jordanhill campus was closed and everything was moved to the John Anderson Campus.
The centrepiece building has long been the massive Royal College Building. Started in 1903 and completed in 1912, it was partially opened in 1910 and at the time was the largest educational building in Europe for technical education. Originally built as the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College Building, it now houses Bioscience, Chemistry, and Electronic and Electrical Engineering. The building is currently undergoing major internal renovation following the relocation of the Pharmacology and Bioscience departments to new accommodation in the John Arbuthnott (SIPBS) building, and the installation of a new heating system.
The Livingstone Tower is a high rise building completed in 1965. It is home to departments including, Computer and Information Sciences and Mathematics and Statistics.
Meanwhile, a new biomedical sciences building was opened in early 2010. It was designed by Shepparrd Robson, and aims to bring the multi-faceted disciplines of the Institute together under one roof. Sited on Cathedral Street in Glasgow, the 8,000 m2 building is the gateway to the university campus and city centre from the motorway.
The James Weir Building has been reconstructed and reopened in 2014 after a serious fire resulted in many rooms being unusable.
The Architecture Building, completed in 1967, was designed by Frank Fielden and Associates, Frank Fielden being the Professor of Architecture in the Architecture School at the time. In 2012, Historic Scotland granted Listed Building Status (grade B) to it, along with the Wolfson Building designed by Morris and Steedman Architects. 2012 also saw the 20th Century Society select the Architecture Building as their 'Building of the Month' for September due to its cultural significance and enduring appeal.
The University of Strathclyde Centre for Sports, Health and Wellbeing is a leisure facility undergoing construction situated adjacent to 100 Cathedral Street. Construction began in November 2016 and completed in 2019.
Library and archives
The Andersonian Library is the principal library of the University of Strathclyde. Established in 1796, it is one of the largest of its type in Scotland. It is situated in the Curran building. Situated over 5 floors at present, the Andersonian Library has more than 2,000 reader places, 450 computer places and extensive wi-fi zones for laptop use. It has around one million print volumes as well as access to over 540,000 electronic books, 239 databases and over 38,000 e-journals that can be used 24/7 from any suitably enabled computer.
The archives are divided into 3 as follows.
University Archives
The official records of the University of Strathclyde from 1796 to the present day. Includes the records of the university's predecessor institutions as well as the papers of many former staff and students and associated organisations.
Deposited Archives
A diverse range of archives which have been acquired by gift or deposit to support the university's teaching and research.
Special Collections
Rare or significant printed material and books, including the Anderson Collection (the personal library of John Anderson, 1726–1796, natural philosopher), plus over 30 other collections spanning the 16th to the 21st centuries.
Technology and Innovation Centre
The University of Strathclyde Technology and Innovation Centre is a centre for technological research. The construction of this centre began in March 2012 and was completed in March 2015. The nine-storey, steel-framed building can accommodate around 1200 workers from numerous fields, including engineering, researching and project management. It includes open plan space for offices, three lecture theatres and areas for specialist laboratory equipment.
The project secured a £6.7 million funding from the European Regional Development Fund and another £26 million from the Scottish Government. The university itself supplied the other £57 million needed to reach its £89 million budget needed to create the centre.
In addition to the Technology and Innovation Centre, a 5000m2 Industry Engagement Building is located adjacent to the TIC building.
Research carried out in the Technology and Innovation Centre is in the fields of: Advanced Engineering and Manufacturing, Advanced Science and Technology, Bionanotechnology, Business Engagement, Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation (CMAC), Energy, Health Technologies at Strathclyde, Human and Social Aspects of Technology, Photonics and Sensors, and Asset Management.
The TIC hosts the UK's first Fraunhofer research centre, the Fraunhofer Centre for Applied Photonics and TIC also plays a major role in Scotland's International Technology and Renewable Energy Zone (ITREZ).
Faculties and departments
The university currently consists of four main faculties categorised based on subjects and academic fields that they deal with and each faculty is sub divided into several departments which deal with specific academic and research areas. They are:
Faculty of Engineering
Architecture
Biomedical Engineering
Chemical and Process Engineering
Civil and Environmental Engineering
Design, Manufacture and Engineering Management
Electronic and Electrical Engineering
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
National Centre for Prosthetics and Orthotics
Naval Architecture, Ocean and Marine Engineering (Joint department with the University of Glasgow)
Faculty of Science
Chemistry, Pure and Applied Chemistry
Computer and Information Sciences
Mathematics and Statistics
Physics
Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences
Humanities & Social Sciences (HaSS)
School of Applied Social Sciences
School of Education
School of Government & Public Policy
School of Humanities
School of Law
School of Psychological Sciences and Health
School of Social Work and Social Policy
Strathclyde Business School
Accounting and Finance
Economics
Human Resource Management
Hunter Centre for Entrepreneurship
Management Science
Marketing, The Department of
Strategy and Organisation, The Department of
The university delivered teaching to full-time and part-time students in : undergraduates and postgraduates. Another 34,000 people take part in continuing education and professional development programmes. The university's main campus, John Anderson Campus, is located in the centre of Glasgow, near George Square. Till 2012, the university operated an education campus in the suburb of Jordanhill, at the site of the previous Jordanhill Teacher Training College which it disposed of and relocated to a new building in the John Anderson Campus. In January 2012, The university's Court also endorsed the recommendation of the Estates Steering Group that Strathclyde moves to a single campus by disposing of the entire Jordanhill site and constructing a new building for the Faculty of Education on the John Anderson campus.
Strathclyde is the only Scottish university that offers the IET Power Academy engineering scholarships to its engineering students.
Academic profile
Rankings and reputation
Strathclyde is particularly renowned for engineering (having various engineering departments under the Faculty of Engineering), business management, political science, finance and accounting, law and architecture.
The university is highly ranked among the top 10 in the UK in various subjects according to the Complete University Guide 2019, namely being 1st for Accounting & Finance; 1st for Social Policy; 1st for Aural & Oral Sciences; 1st for Communication & Media Studies; 1st for Pharmacology and Pharmacy; 1st for Medical Technology; 1st for Hospitality, Leisure, Recreation & Tourism; 2nd for Marketing; 2nd for Forensic Science; 5th for Architecture; 5th for English; 6th for Business & Management Studies; 6th for Electrical & Electronic Engineering; 7th for Chemical Engineering; 8th for Civil Engineering; 8th for General Engineering and 9th for Mechanical Engineering. The university is ranked in the top ten universities in Britain in the subject Politics according to the Complete University Guide 2022. The university also ranked second in 2019 on social policy and administration in the national ranking according to The Guardian. Times Higher Education (THE) placed History at Strathclyde 9th for research intensity in a field of 83 UK universities after the last REF.
Strathclyde Business School is recognized the best in Scotland and is included in the British top 10, as well as in 1% of the global business schools that have triple accreditation: AACSBInternational, EQUIS and AMBA (the only one in Scotland). Strathclyde is placed in the top 20 of European business schools in the Financial Times Global MBA Rankings
. In this regard, QS World University Ranking placed Strathclyde among 51-100 best universities in business management. Strathclyde Master's programs take 36th place globally in marketing, 51st place globally in business analysis and 55th globally in management, according to QS World University Ranking in 2020.
The University School of Government and Public Policy has a long tradition of interacting with national and global media organizations, governments, parliaments and international organizations such as the EU and OECD. Political science therefore takes 1st place in Scotland in the terms of research intensity. According to URAP Center Ranking, which has been publishing annual rankings since 2010 for each subject, the University of Strathclyde is constantly included in the top 120 global universities in politics. In 2013, QS World University Ranking placed Strathclyde among 101-150 best global universities in politics and international relations. In 2020, ARWU ranked Strathclyde in the 101-150 best Political Science universities. Ever since ARWU began to publish a separate subject ranking on Public Administration, Strathclyde has consistently ranked internationally among 76-100 best universities in 2017, 2018, 2019 and 2020.
According to The Complete University Guide, Strathclyde Law School is in the UK's top 10 (2020). According to Times Higher Education, the University of Strathclyde was placed 76th best in law globally among universities in 2018.
QS World University Rankings 2018 placed the university among the top 25 internationally for Hospitality & Leisure Management, 51-100 for Pharmacy, 51-100 for Business & Management, 101-150 for Electrical & Electronic Engineering, 101-150 for Architecture, 101-150 for Education, 151-200 for Accounting & Finance, 151-200 for Law, 151-200 for Civil & Structural Engineering, 151-200 for Mechanical Engineering, 201-250 for Chemical Engineering, 201-250 for Physics and Astronomy, 251-300 for Sociology, 251-300 for Economics, 251-300 for Materials Sciences, 301-350 for Mathematics and 301-350 for Computer Science & Information Systems.
The University of Strathclyde is a 5-star QS-rated university.
The university is one of the 39 old universities in the UK comprising the distinctive Cluster Two of elite universities after Oxbridge. A detailed study published in 2015 by Vikki Boliver has shown among the Old universities, Oxford and Cambridge emerge as an elite tier, whereas the remaining 22 Russell Group universities are undifferentiated from 17 other prestigious Old universities (including the University of Strathclyde) which form the second cluster.
Research
In 2011 the university's Advanced Forming Research Centre was announced as a leading partner in the first UK-wide Technology Strategy Board Catapult Centre. The Government also announced that the university is to lead the UK-wide EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation.
The university has become the base for the first Fraunhofer Centre to be established in the UK. Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft, Europe's largest organisation for contract research, is creating the new Fraunhofer Centre for Applied Photonics in collaboration with Strathclyde, for research in sectors including healthcare, security, energy and transport.
Strathclyde was chosen in 2012 as the exclusive European partner university for South Korea's global research and commercialisation programme – the Global Industry-Academia Cooperation Programme, funded by South Korea's Ministry of Knowledge and Economics.
In 2012 the university became a key partner in its second UK Catapult Centre. Plans for the Catapult Centre for Offshore Renewable Energy were announced at Strathclyde by Business Secretary Vince Cable. The university has also become a partner in the Industrial Doctorate Centre for Offshore Renewable Energy, which is one of 11 doctoral centres at Strathclyde.
Engineers at the university are leading the €4 million, Europe-wide Stardust project, a research-based training network investigating the removal of space debris and the deflection of asteroids.
Strathclyde has become part of the new ESRC Enterprise Research Centre, a £2.9 million venture generating world-class research to help stimulate growth for small and medium-sized enterprises.
Since 2016 the Wellcome Trust has invested over £3 million of funding awards in the university's Centre for the Social History of Health and Healthcare, for research projects, teaching and training programmes, and to build Medical Humanities partnerships in Africa and Asia.
The university has centres in pharmacy, drug delivery and development, micro and ultrasonic engineering, biophotonics and photonics, biomedical engineering, medical devices, new therapies, prosthetics and orthotics, the history of health and healthcare, law, crime and justice and social work. The university is involved in 11 partnerships with other universities through the Scottish Funding Councils' Research Pooling Programme, covering areas such as engineering, life sciences, energy, marine science and technology, physics, chemistry, computer sciences and economics.
Several Strathclyde staff have been elected to Fellowships in the Royal Societies of Edinburgh and London.
Notable people
Students
There are around 15,000 undergraduate students out of which almost 4,000 are mature students who start their studies after gaining experience in the workplace, and almost 16% are overseas students from more than 100 countries around the world. Around 7,000 students are undertaking postgraduate studies at Strathclyde. There are approximately 45,000 students studying part-time in the university each year, either in the evenings and weekends or through distance learning. The university also has an alumni population of over 100,000 and growing.
Notable academics and alumni
Alumni of Strathclyde and its predecessors (the Andersonian Institute and the Royal College of Science and Technology) include the scientists; William Ramsay, Nobel Prize Winner in Chemistry (1904); John Logie Baird, inventor of the first working television; Henry Faulds, physician, missionary and scientist who developed of fingerprinting; James Young, chemist best known for his method of distilling paraffin from coal and oil shales; Professor John Curtice, a renowned political commentator, Fellow of the British Academy, the Royal Society of Arts and the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
In politics: Annabel Goldie, Baroness Goldie, Leader of the Scottish Conservative Party, member of the House of Lords, Minister of State for Defense; Helen Liddell, Baroness Liddell of Coatdyke, minister in Blair government, a House of Lords member, former British High Commissioner to Australia, former Minister for Trade and Industry, former Minister for Transport, former Economic Secretary of the Treasury, the first female General Secretary of the Scottish Labour Party at the age of 26 from 1977 to 1978; John McFall, Baron McFall of Alcluith, Senior Deputy Speaker of the House of Lords; Alex Ifeanyichukwu Ekwueme, the first elected Vice-President of Nigeria; Fahri Hamzah, an Indonesian politician and currently a deputy speaker of the People's Representative Council; Omar Abdullah, Indian politician, Chief Minister of J & K state, former Minister of State for External Affairs; Nikos Pappas, Greek Minister of Digital Policy, Telecommunications and Media in Alexis Tsipras' cabinet; David Gordon Mundell, Secretary of the State for Scotland in Cameron and May governments, Conservative MP; Eduardo Doryan, Costa Rican Minister of Education; Ann McKechin, Member of Parliament, former Shadow Secretary of State for Scotland; Jim Murphy, Labour Member of Parliament and former Secretary of State for Scotland; Malcolm Gray Bruce, Baron Bruce of Bennachie, Deputy Leader of Liberal Democrats, Chair of the International Development Committee, Leader of the Liberal Democrats in Scotland, member of House of Lords; Elish Angiolini, Lord Advocate; Jim Murphy leader of Labour Party in Scotland in 2014–2015; Lord Bracadale, Senator of the College of Justice, Lord Commissioner of Justiciary; Sir Simon Stevens (healthcare manager) is a Chief Executive of the National Health Service; John Charles Walsham Reith, 1st Baron Reith, the Director-General of the BBC; Michael Peter Evans-Freke, 12th Baron Carbery, an Irish peer; John Ruaridh Grant Mackenzie, 5th Earl of Cromartie, a Scottish peer, the current chief of Clan Mackenzie; Alexander Macmillan, 2nd Earl of Stockton, Conservative MP, member of the House of Lords, grandson of prime minister Harold Macmillan; Nazir Karamagi, Tanzanian Minister of Energy and Minerals, Minister of Industry, Trade and Marketing; Francis Nhema, Zimbabwean Minister of Youth Development, Minister of Environment; Lord Clive Soley, Baron Soley, Labour MP, member of the House of Lords; Khandaker Mosharraf Hossain, Bangladeshi Minister of Local Government and Engineering Department; Ken Kandodo, Malawi's Minister of Finance; Iain Peebles, Lord Bannatyne, Senator of the College of Justice; Ian McAllister, Distinguished Professor of Political Science at the Australian National University; Mark Blyth, Scottish-American political scientist and a professor of international political economy at Brown University; K M Baharul Islam - Professor and Chair of Public Policy and Government Center at Indian Institute of Management Kashipur; Fellow, Indian Institute of Advanced Study; Sandra Currie Osborne, Labour MP, a member of the Foreign Affairs Select Committee; Zulkieflimansyah, Indonesian Governor of West Nusa Tenggara;Muhammad Khan Achakzai, Pakistani Governor of Balochistan; Tommy Sheridan, Scottish politician;
Tasmina Ahmed-Sheikh, former MP for Ochil and South Perthshire; Willie Coffey, MSP for Kilmarnock and Irvine Valley.
In business:John Barton, Chairman of Next plc and EasyJet; Sir Thomas Hunter, Entrepreneur and Philanthropist; Jim McColl, Scotland's richest man;John Giannandrea, Vice President at Google, head of Google Search; Brian Souter, co-founder of the Stagecoach Group; Sanjay Jha, chief executive officer of Motorola; chief executive officer of Motorola Mobile Devices; Alastair Storey, chief executive officer of Global Foundries, chairman and chief executive officer of Westbury Street Holdings; and Andrew Wyllie, civil engineer, chief executive officer of the Costain Group and president of the Institution of Civil Engineers.
Other alumni include: David Livingstone, explorer in Africa and medical missionary; Tom Devine, historian; Dame Elish Angiolini, the first female Solicitor General and Lord Advocate of Scotland; Lauren Mayberry, lead singer of synthpop band Chvrches; Aileen McGlynn, Scottish paralympic gold medal-winning tandem cyclist and world record holder; Chris Sawyer, creator of RollerCoaster Tycoon and Transport Tycoon video game series
Academics associated with the university include; James Blyth, generated electrical power from wind; Sir Samuel Curran, inventor of the Scintillation counter; Thomas Graham, chemist who formulated the law of diffusion of gases; Andrew Ure, physician and founder of Andersonian Institution; Matthew Charteris, taught medicine at Anderson's from 1876 to 1880.
See also
Careers Scotland Space School
University of Strathclyde Students' Association
University of Strathclyde Sports Union
List of UK universities by date of foundation
List of early modern universities in Europe
References
External links
Glasgow Digital Library at the University of Strathclyde
Strathclyde Students' Union website
EDWARD VII LAYS FOUNDATION STONE (1903) (archive film of King Edward VII laying the foundation stone for the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College (University of Strathclyde) – from the National Library of Scotland: SCOTTISH SCREEN ARCHIVE)
Educational institutions established in 1796
Educational institutions established in 1964
1796 establishments in Scotland
1964 establishments in Scotland
Universities established in the 1960s
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224320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid%20water%20path | Liquid water path | Liquid water path - in units of g/m2 is a measure of the total amount of liquid water present between two points in the atmosphere.
LWP is an important quantity in understanding radiative transfer in the atmosphere. It is defined as the integral of liquid water content between two points in the atmosphere. For nadir observations and whole atmospheric column we have
where is the liquid water mixing ratio and is the density of air (including water loading).
The atmosphere is in approximate hydrostatic equilibrium and hydrostatic equation for atmospheric pressure is given by
which gives
where is gravitational acceleration, is the pressure increment between two layers in the atmosphere and integration is between surface and top of the atmosphere. Liquid water path can also be defined between any two selected points.
The liquid water path can be approximately retrieved from passive and active remote sensing such as microwave radiometer instruments, for example SSM/I.
Typical values of liquid water path in marine stratocumulus can be of the order of 20-80 g/m2.
The liquid water path also contributes to important cloud properties. As the value of the liquid water path increases, so does the albedo of the cloud. This increase in albedo is seen most quickly at the lower end of the liquid water path spectrum, that is, the smaller the amount of total water, the quicker the albedo increases. The radiative absorption of clouds is also dependent on the liquid water path. An increase of liquid water path leads to an increase in absorption. Again, the largest increase is seen with lower levels of liquid water path. These connections are due to the proportionality between the liquid water path and the optical depth of the cloud.
See also
Liquid water content
References
Atmospheric thermodynamics | [
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224321 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Dalberg-Acton%2C%201st%20Baron%20Acton | John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton | John Emerich Edward Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton, 13th Marquess of Groppoli, (10 January 1834 – 19 June 1902), better known as Lord Acton, was an English Catholic historian, politician, and writer. He was the only son of Sir Ferdinand Dalberg-Acton, 7th Baronet, and a grandson of the Neapolitan admiral and prime minister Sir John Acton, 6th Baronet. Between 1837 and 1869 he was known as Sir John Dalberg-Acton, 8th Baronet.
He is perhaps best known for the remark, "Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Great men are almost always bad men...", which he made in a letter to an Anglican bishop.
Early life
John Acton's grandfather succeeded to the baronetcy and family estates in Shropshire in 1791. The estates had previously been held by another English branch of the Acton family. John Acton's grandfather was a member of a younger line of the family which had transferred itself to France and, subsequently, to Italy, but, subsequent to the extinction of the elder branch, he became the patriarch of the family.
His grandfather's eldest son, Richard, who was his father, married Marie Louise Pelline, the only daughter and heiress of Emmerich Joseph, 1st Duc de Dalberg, who was a naturalised French noble of ancient German lineage who had entered the French service under Napoleon and represented Louis XVIII at the Congress of Vienna in 1814. Subsequent to Sir Richard Acton's death in 1837, she became the wife of the 2nd Earl Granville (1840). Marie Louise Pelline de Dalberg was heiress of Herrnsheim in Germany. She became the mother of John Dalberg-Acton who was born in Naples.
He was raised as a Roman Catholic, and was educated at Oscott College, under the future-Cardinal Nicholas Wiseman, until 1848. He then studied privately at Edinburgh. He was denied entry to the University of Cambridge because he was a Catholic, and subsequently went to Munich where he studied at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich and resided in the house of Johann Joseph Ignaz von Döllinger, the theologian and forerunner of the Old Catholic Church, with whom he became lifelong friends. Döllinger inspired in him a deep love of historical research and a profound conception of its functions as a critical instrument in the study of sociopolitical liberty.
He was a master of the principal foreign languages, and began at an early age to collect a magnificent historical library, which he intended to use to compose a "History of Liberty". In politics, he was always an ardent Liberal.
Career
Through extensive travels, Acton spent much time in the chief intellectual centres reading the actual correspondence of historical personalities. Among his friends were Montalembert, Tocqueville, Fustel de Coulanges, Bluntschli, von Sybel and Ranke. In 1855, he was appointed Deputy Lieutenant of Shropshire. A year later, he was attached to Lord Granville's mission to Moscow as British representative at the coronation of Alexander II of Russia.
Politics
In 1859, Acton settled in England, at his country house, Aldenham, in Shropshire. He was returned to the House of Commons that same year as member for the Irish Borough of Carlow and became a devoted admirer and adherent of Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone. However, Acton was not an active MP, and his parliamentary career came to an end after the general election of 1865, when he headed the Liberal ballot for Bridgnorth near his Shropshire home. Acton defeated Conservative leader Henry Whitmore, who successfully petitioned for a scrutiny of the ballots, and thus retained his own seat and Acton lost his new seat. After the Reform Act 1867, Acton again contested Bridgnorth, this time reduced to a single seat, in 1868 but to no avail.
Acton took a great interest in the United States, considering its federal structure the perfect guarantor of individual liberties. During the American Civil War, his sympathies lay entirely with the Confederacy, for their defence of States' Rights against a centralised government that he believed would, by what he thought to be all historical precedent, inevitably turn tyrannical. His notes to Gladstone on the subject helped sway many in the British government to sympathise with the South. After the South's surrender, he wrote to Robert E. Lee that "I mourn for the stake which was lost at Richmond more deeply than I rejoice over that which was saved at Waterloo," adding that he "deemed that you were fighting battles for our liberty, our progress, and our civilization." Acton's stance on the Confederacy was shared by most English Catholics at the time, both liberal and Ultramontane. The editors of the Ultramontane Tablet denounced Abraham Lincoln as a dangerous radical, and John Henry Newman, when asked for his opinion on the matter, stated that slavery was not "intrinsically evil" and that the issue had to be assessed on a case-by-case basis.
In 1869 Queen Victoria raised Acton to the peerage as Baron Acton, of Aldenham in the County of Shropshire. His elevation came primarily through the intercession of Gladstone. The two were intimate friends and frequent correspondents. Matthew Arnold said that "Gladstone influences all round him but Acton; it is Acton who influences Gladstone." Acton was appointed to the Royal Victorian Order as a Knight Commander (KCVO) in the 1897 Birthday Honours. He was also a strong supporter of Irish Home Rule.
Religion and writings
Meanwhile, Acton became the editor of the Roman Catholic monthly paper, The Rambler, in 1859, upon John Henry (later Cardinal) Newman's retirement from the editorship. In 1862, he merged this periodical into the Home and Foreign Review. His contributions at once gave evidence of his remarkable wealth of historical knowledge. Though a sincere Roman Catholic, his whole spirit as a historian was hostile to ultramontane pretensions, and his independence of thought and liberalism of view speedily brought him into conflict with the Roman Catholic hierarchy. As early as August 1862, Cardinal Wiseman publicly censured the Review; and when in 1864, after Döllinger's appeal at the Munich Congress for a less hostile attitude towards historical criticism, the pope issued a declaration that the opinions of Catholic writers were subject to the authority of the Roman congregations, Acton felt that there was only one way of reconciling his literary conscience with his ecclesiastical loyalty, and he stopped the publication of his monthly periodical. He continued, however, to contribute articles to the North British Review, which, previously a Scottish Free Church organ, had been acquired by friends in sympathy with him, and which for some years (until 1872, when it ceased publication) promoted the interests of a high-class Liberalism in both temporal and ecclesiastical matters. Acton also did a good deal of lecturing on historical subjects.
In the March 1862 Rambler, Acton wrote: "The Celts are not among the progressive, initiative races, but among those which supply the materials rather than the impulse of history, and are either stationary or retrogressive. The Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, and the Teutons are the only makers of history, the only authors of advancement. Other races possessing a highly developed language, a speculative religion, enjoying luxury and art, attain to a certain pitch of cultivation which they are unable to either communicate or to increase. They are a negative element in the world." And: "Subjection to a people of a higher capacity for government is of itself no misfortune; and it is to most countries the condition of their political advancement."
In 1870, along with his mentor Döllinger, Acton opposed the moves to promulgate the doctrine of papal infallibility in the First Vatican Council, travelling to Rome to lobby against it, ultimately unsuccessfully. Unlike Döllinger Acton did not become an Old Catholic, and continued attending Mass regularly; he received the last rites on his deathbed. The Catholic Church did not try to force his hand. It was in this context that, in a letter he wrote to scholar and ecclesiastic Mandell Creighton, dated April 1887, Acton made his most famous pronouncement:
But if we might discuss this point until we found that we nearly agreed, and if we do agree thoroughly about the impropriety of Carlylese denunciations and Pharisaism in history, I cannot accept your canon that we are to judge Pope and King unlike other men, with a favourable presumption that they did no wrong. If there is any presumption it is the other way, against the holders of power, increasing as the power increases. Historic responsibility has to make up for the want of legal responsibility. Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Great men are almost always bad men, even when they exercise influence and not authority, still more when you superadd the tendency or the certainty of corruption by authority. There is no worse heresy than that the office sanctifies the holder of it. That is the point at which the negation of Catholicism and the negation of Liberalism meet and keep high festival, and the end learns to justify the means. You would hang a man of no position like Ravaillac; but if what one hears is true, then Elizabeth asked the gaoler to murder Mary, and William III of England ordered his Scots minister to extirpate a clan. Here are the greatest names coupled with the greatest crimes; you would spare those criminals, for some mysterious reason. I would hang them higher than Haman, for reasons of quite obvious justice, still more, still higher for the sake of historical science.
Thenceforth he steered clear of theological polemics. He devoted himself to reading, study and congenial society. With all his capacity for study, he was a man of the world and a man of affairs, not a bookworm. His only notable publications were a masterly essay in the Quarterly Review of January 1878 on "Democracy in Europe;" two lectures delivered at Bridgnorth in 1877 on "The History of Freedom in Antiquity" and "The History of Freedom in Christianity"—these last the only tangible portions put together by him of his long-projected "History of Liberty;" and an essay on modern German historians in the first number of the English Historical Review, which he helped to found (1886). After 1879 he divided his time between London, Cannes, and Tegernsee in Bavaria, enjoying and reciprocating the society of his friends. In 1872 he had been given the honorary degree of Doctor of Philosophy by the University of Munich; in 1888 Cambridge gave him the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws, and in 1889 Oxford the Doctor of Civil Law; and in 1890 he received the high academic accolade of being made a fellow of All Souls College, Oxford.
In 1874, when Gladstone published his pamphlet on The Vatican Decrees in their Bearing on Civil Allegiance, Lord Acton wrote during November and December a series of remarkable letters to The Times, illustrating Gladstone's main theme by numerous historical examples of papal inconsistency, in a way which must have been bitter enough to the ultramontane party, but ultimately disagreeing with Gladstone's conclusion and insisting that the Church itself was better than its premises implied. Acton's letters led to another storm in the English Roman Catholic world, but once more it was considered prudent by the Holy See to leave him alone. In spite of his reservations, he regarded "communion with Rome as dearer than life".
Personal life
On 01 August 1865 Acton married Countess Marie Anna Ludomilla Euphrosina von Arco auf Valley (1841-1923), daughter of the Bavarian Count Maximilian von Arco auf Valley, with whom he had six children:
Hon. Mary Elizabeth Anne Dalberg-Acton (1866–1951), married Lt-Col. Edward Bleiddian Herbert and had children.
Hon. Annie Mary Catherine Dalberg-Acton (1868–1917)
Richard Lyon-Dalberg-Acton, 2nd Baron Acton (1870–1924)
Hon. John Dalberg Dalberg-Acton (1872–1873)
Hon. Elizabeth Mary Dalberg-Acton (1874–1881)
Hon. Jeanne Marie Dalberg-Acton (1876–1919)
His nephew was Anton Graf von Arco auf Valley (1897–1945), a German count and political activist, and assassin of socialist Bavarian minister-president Kurt Eisner in 1919.
When his cousin Maria, Duchess of Galliera died in 1888, Acton inherited the dormant title of Marquess of Groppoli.
Professor at Cambridge
Acton's reputation for learning gradually spread abroad, largely through Gladstone's influence. Gladstone found him a valuable political adviser, and in 1892, when the Liberal government came in, Lord Acton was made a lord-in-waiting. Finally, in 1895, on the death of Sir John Seeley, Lord Rosebery appointed him to the Regius Professorship of Modern History at Cambridge. He delivered two courses of lectures on the French Revolution and on Modern History, but it was in private that the effects of his teaching were felt most. The Cambridge Modern History, though he did not live to see it, was planned under his editorship.
Death and legacy
Acton’s health began to fail in 1901, and on 19 June 1902, in his 69th year, he died at the spa town of Tegernsee, Bavaria, Germany, whilst staying at his wife's family home there. His body was buried in a small communal graveyard by Lake Tegernsee, the grave lying today unmarked having lost its headstone in the latter half of the 20th century. He was succeeded in the title by his son, Richard Lyon-Dalberg-Acton, 2nd Baron Acton. His 60,000-volume library, formed for use and not for display and composed largely of books full of his own annotations, was bought prior to his death by Andrew Carnegie in secret in order to secure the library for Acton's use during his lifetime, then upon Lord Acton's death, presented to John Morley, who forthwith gave it to the University of Cambridge.
According to Hugh Chisholm, editor of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica:
The Acton School of Business, established in 2002 in Austin, Texas, was named in his honor.
Ancestry
Notable quotations
Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely.
Great men are almost always bad men, even when they exercise influence and not authority.
History is the arbiter of controversy, the monarch of all she surveys.
Universal History is ... not a burden on the memory but an illumination of the soul.
There is not a more perilous or immoral habit of mind than the sanctifying of success. [said of Oliver Cromwell]
The strong man with the dagger is followed by the weak man with the sponge.
The science of politics is the one science that is deposited by the streams of history, like the grains of gold in the sand of a river; and the knowledge of the past, the record of truths revealed by experience, is eminently practical, as an instrument of action and a power that goes to making the future.
Save for the wild force of Nature, nothing moves in this world that is not Greek in its origin.
Liberty is not the power of doing what we like, but the right of being able to do what we ought.
The wisdom of divine rule appears not in the perfection but in the improvement of the world... History is the true demonstration of Religion.
Works
The Civil War in America: Its Place in History (lecture; 1866).
The Rise and Fall of the Mexican Empire (lecture; 1868).
Letters from Rome on the Council (1870).
The War of 1870 (lecture; 1871).
The History of Freedom in Antiquity (address; 1877).
The History of Freedom in Christianity (address; 1877).
Introductory note to L.A. Burd's edition of Machiavelli's Il Principe (1891).
A Lecture on the Study of History (1895).
Introductory note to G.P. Gooch's Annals of Politics and Culture (1901).
Posthumous
Letters of Lord Acton to Mary, Daughter of the Right Hon. W.E. Gladstone (1904).
Lectures on Modern History (1906).
The History of Freedom and Other Essays (1907).
Historical Essays and Studies (1907).
Lectures on the French Revolution (1910).
Selections from the Correspondence of the First Lord Acton (1917).
Articles
"Mill on Liberty," Part II, The Rambler (1859–60).
"The Roman Question," The Rambler (1860).
"The State of the Church," The Rambler (1860).
"Hefele's 'Life of Ximenes'," The Rambler (1860).
"The Political System of the Popes," Part II, Part III, The Rambler (1860–61).
"Döllinger's 'History of Christianity'," The Rambler (1861).
"Notes on the Present State of Austria," The Rambler (1861).
"Political Causes of the American Revolution," The Rambler (1861).
"Cavour," The Rambler (1861).
"The Catholic Academy," The Rambler (1861).
"Döllinger on the Temporal Power," The Rambler (1861).
"Mr. Goldwin Smith's Irish History," The Rambler (1862).
"The Protestant Theory of Persecution," The Rambler (1862).
"Nationality," Home and Foreign Review (1862).
"Secret History of Charles II," Home and Foreign Review (1862).
"Confessions of Frederick the Great," Home and Foreign Review (1863).
"The Waldensian Forgeries," Home and Foreign Review (1863).
"Ultramontanism," Home and Foreign Review (1863).
"Mediæval Fables of the Popes," Home and Foreign Review (1863).
"The Munich Congress," Home and Foreign Review (1864).
"Conflicts with Rome," Home and Foreign Review (1864).
"Material Resources of the Papacy," The Chronicle (1867).
"Fra Paolo Sarpi," The Chronicle (1867).
"The Case of Monte Cassino," The Chronicle (1867).
"Döllinger on Universities," The Chronicle (1867).
"The Ministerial Changes in Italy," The Chronicle (1867).
"Secret History of the Italian Crisis," The Chronicle (1867).
"The Secret Bull," The Chronicle (1867).
"Reminiscences of Massimo d'Azeglio," The Chronicle (1867).
"The Next General Council," The Chronicle (1867).
"Ranke," The Chronicle (1867).
"M. Littré on the Middle Ages," The Chronicle (1867).
"Mr. Goldwin Smith on the Political History of England," The Chronicle (1867).
"Nicholas of Cusa," The Chronicle (1867).
"Maurice of Saxony," The Chronicle (1867).
"The Acta Sanctorum," The Chronicle (1867).
"The Queen's Journal," The Chronicle (1868).
"Ozanam on the Fifth Century," The Chronicle (1868).
"The Massacre of St. Bartholomew," The North British Review (1868).
"The Pope and the Council," The North British Review (1869).
"The Vatican Council," The North British Review (1870).
"The Borgias and their Latest Historian," The North British Review (1871).
"Wolsey and the Divorce of Henry VIII," Quarterly Review (1877).
"Sir Erskine May's 'Democracy in Europe'," Quarterly Review (1878).
"George Eliot's Life," The Nineteenth Century (1885).
"German Schools of History," English Historical Review (1886).
"Wilhelm von Giesebretch," English Historical Review (1890).
"Döllinger's Historical Work," English Historical Review (1890).
See also
Acton Institute for the Study of Religion & Liberty
Notes
References
Further reading
Boyd, Kelly, ed. Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writers (Rutledge, 1999) 1:1-2
Chadwick, Owen (1976). Acton and Gladstone. London: Athlone Press.
Chadwick, Owen (1998). Acton and History. Cambridge University Press.
Drew, Mary Gladstone (1924). "Acton and Gladstone." In: Acton, Gladstone, and Others. London, Nisbet & Co., ltd., pp. 1–31.
Fasnacht, George Eugene (1952). Acton's Political Philosophy: An Analysis. London: Hollis.
Gasquet, Abbot (1906). Lord Acton and His Circle. London: Burn & Oates.
Himmelfarb, Gertrude (1952). Lord Action: A Study in Conscience and Politics. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
Hill, Roland (2000). Lord Acton. New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press.
Hill, Roland (1952). Lord Acton. History Today (1952) 2#8 pp 551–557 online
Kirk, Russell (1994). Lord Acton on Revolution. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Acton Institute.
Laski, Harold J. (1918). "Lord Acton: Idealist," The Dial, Vol. LXV, pp. 59–61.
Lilly, W.S. (1911). "Lord Acton and the French Revolution," The Dublin Review, Vol. CXLVIII, pp. 213–229.
Lyttelton, Maud (1904). "Mr. Gladstone's Friendship with Lord Acton," Lippincott's Magazine, Vol. LXXIV, pp. 610–616.
Mathew, David (1946). Acton: The Formative Years. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode.
Mathew, David (1968). Lord Acton and His Times. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode.
Nurser, John (1987). The Reign of Conscience: Individual, Church, and State in Lord Acton's History of Liberty. London: Taylor & Francis.
Pezzimenti, Rocco (2001). The Political Thought of Lord Acton: The English Catholics in the Nineteenth Century. Leominster: Gracewing.
Schuettinger, Robert Lindsay (1976). Lord Acton: Historian of Liberty. Open Court Publishing Company.
Thurston, Herbert (1906). "The Late Lord Acton," The Catholic World, Vol. LXXXIV, pp. 357–372.
Tulloch, Hugh (1988). Acton. New York: St. Martin's Press.
External links
Making History biography
Acton Institute: Research on Lord Acton sources from the Acton Institute
1834 births
1902 deaths
Academics of the University of Cambridge
John
Alumni of St Mary's College, Oscott
Barons in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
British classical liberals
Deputy Lieutenants of Shropshire
English historians
English male non-fiction writers
Italian emigrants to the United Kingdom
Liberal Catholicism
English Roman Catholics
Fellows of All Souls College
British politicians of Italian descent
Knights Commander of the Royal Victorian Order
Liberal Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for County Carlow constituencies (1801–1922)
19th-century Neapolitan people
UK MPs 1859–1865
UK MPs 1865–1868
UK MPs who were granted peerages
Acton Institute
Peers of the United Kingdom created by Queen Victoria | [
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224328 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave%20radiometer | Microwave radiometer | A microwave radiometer (MWR) is a radiometer that measures energy emitted at millimetre-to-centimetre wavelengths (frequencies of 1–1000 GHz) known as microwaves. Microwave radiometers are very sensitive receivers designed to measure thermally-emitted electromagnetic radiation. They are usually equipped with multiple receiving channels in order to derive the characteristic emission spectrum of planetary atmospheres, surfaces or extraterrestrial objects. Microwave radiometers are utilized in a variety of environmental and engineering applications, including remote sensing, weather forecasting, climate monitoring, radio astronomy and radio propagation studies.
Using the microwave spectral range between 1 and 300 GHz provides complementary information to the visible and infrared spectral range. Most importantly, the atmosphere and also vegetation is semi-transparent in the microwave spectral range. This means its components like dry gases, water vapor, or hydrometeors interact with microwave radiation but overall even the cloudy atmosphere is not completely opaque in this frequency range.
For weather and climate monitoring, microwave radiometers are operated from space as well as from the ground. As remote sensing instruments, they are designed to operate continuously and autonomously often in combination with other atmospheric remote sensors like for example cloud radars and lidars. They allow the derivation of important meteorological quantities such as vertical temperature and humidity profiles, columnar water vapor quantity, and columnar liquid water path with a high temporal resolution on the order of minutes to seconds under nearly all weather conditions. Microwave radiometers are also used for remote sensing of Earth's ocean and land surfaces, to derive ocean temperature and wind speed, ice characteristics, and soil and vegetation properties.
History
First developments of microwave radiometer were dedicated to the measurement of radiation of extraterrestrial origin in the 1930s and 1940s. The most common form of microwave radiometer was introduced by Robert Dicke in 1946 in the Radiation Laboratory of Massachusetts Institute of Technology to better determine the temperature of the microwave background radiation. This first radiometer worked at a wavelength 1.25 cm and was operated at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Dicke also first discovered weak atmospheric microwave absorption using three different radiometers (at wavelengths of 1.0, 1.25 and 1.5 cm).
Soon after satellites were first used for observing the atmosphere, microwave radiometers became part of their instrumentation. In 1962 the Mariner-2 mission was launched by NASA in order to investigate the surface of Venus including a radiometer for water vapor and temperature observations. In following years a wide variety of microwave radiometers were tested on satellites. The launch of the Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer in 1978 became an important milestone in the history of radiometry. It was the first time a conically scanning radiometer was used in space; it was launched into space on board the NASA Nimbus satellite. The launch of this mission gave the opportunity to image the Earth at a constant angle of incidence that is important as surface emissivity is angle dependent. In the beginning of 1980, new multi-frequency, dual-polarization radiometric instruments were developed. Two spacecraft were launched which carried instruments of this type: Nimbus-7 and Seasat. The Nimbus-7 mission results allowed to globally monitor the state of ocean surface as well as surface covered by snow and glaciers. Today, microwave instruments like the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU) and the Special Sensor Microwave Imager / Sounder (SSMIS) are widely used on different satellites.
Ground-based radiometers for the determination of temperature profiles were first explored in the 1960s and have since improved in terms of reduced noise and the ability to run unattended 24/7 within worldwide observational networks. Review articles, and a detailed online handbook are available.
Principle of operation
Solids, liquids (e.g. the Earth's surface, ocean, sea ice, snow, vegetation) but also gases emit and absorb microwave radiation. Traditionally, the amount of radiation a microwave radiometer receives is expressed as the equivalent blackbody temperature also called brightness temperature. In the microwave range several atmospheric gases exhibit rotational lines. They provide specific absorption features shown at a figure on the right which allow to derive information about their abundance and vertical structure. Examples for such absorption features are the oxygen absorption complex (caused by magnetic dipole transitions) around 60 GHz which is used to derive temperature profiles or the water vapor absorption line around 22.235 GHz (dipole rotational transition) which is used to observe the vertical profile of humidity. Other significant absorption lines are found at 118.75 GHz (oxygen absorption) and at 183.31 GHz (water vapor absorption, used for water vapor profiling under dry conditions or from satellites). Weak absorption features due to ozone are also used for stratospheric ozone density and temperature profiling.
Besides the distinct absorption features of molecular transition lines, there are also non-resonant contributions by hydrometeors (liquid drops and frozen particles). Liquid water emission increases with frequency, hence, measuring at two frequencies, typically one close to the water absorption line (22.235 GHz) and one in the nearby window region (typically 31 GHz) dominated by liquid absorption provides information on both the columnar amount of water vapor and the columnar amount of liquid water separately (two-channel radiometer). The so-called „water vapor continuum" arises from the contribution of far away water vapor lines.
Larger rain drops as well as larger frozen hydrometeors (snow, graupel, hail) also scatter microwave radiation especially at higher frequencies (>90 GHz). These scattering effects can be used to distinguish between rain and cloud water content exploiting polarized measurements but also to constrain the columnar amount of snow and ice particles from space and from the ground.
Design
A microwave radiometer consists of an antenna system, microwave radio-frequency components (front-end) and a back-end for signal processing at intermediate frequencies. The atmospheric signal is very weak and the signal needs to be amplified by around 80 dB. Therefore, heterodyne techniques are often used to convert the signal down to lower frequencies that allow the use of commercial amplifiers and signal processing. Increasingly low noise amplifiers are becoming available at higher frequencies, i.e. up to 100 GHz, making heterodyne techniques obsolete. Thermal stabilization is highly important to avoid receiver drifts.
Usually ground-based radiometers are also equipped with environmental sensors (rain, temperature, humidity) and GPS receivers (time and location reference). The antenna itself often measures through a window made of foam which is transparent in the microwave spectrum in order to keep the antenna clean of dust, liquid water and ice. Often, also a heated blower system is attached the radiometer which helps to keep the window free of liquid drops or dew (strong emitters in the MW) but also free of ice and snow.
As seen from the figure above, after the radiofrequency signal is received at the antenna it is downconverted to the intermediate frequency with the help of a stable local oscillator signal. After amplification with a Low Noise Amplifier and band pass filtering the signal can be detected in full power mode, by splitting or splitting it into multiple frequency bands with a spectrometer. For high-frequency calibrations a Dicke switch is used here.
Calibration
The calibration of microwave radiometer sets the basis for accurate measured brightness temperatures and therefore, for accurate retrieved atmospheric parameters as temperature profiles, integrated water vapor and liquid water path. The simplest version of a calibration is a so-called "hot-cold" calibration using two reference blackbodies at known, but different, "hot" and "cold" temperatures, i.e. assuming a linear relation between input power and output voltage of the detector. Knowing the physical temperatures of the references, their brightness temperatures can be calculated and directly related to detected voltages of the radiometer, hence, the linear relationship between brightness temperatures and voltages can be obtained.
The temperatures of the calibration targets should be chosen such that they span the full measurement range. Ground-based radiometers usually use an ambient temperature target as "hot" reference. As a cold target one can use either a liquid nitrogen cooled blackbody (77 K) or a zenith clear sky TB that was obtained indirectly from radiative transfer theory. Satellites use a heated target as "hot" reference and the cosmic background radiation as "cold" reference. To increase the accuracy and stability of MWR calibrations further calibration targets, such as internal noise sources, or Dicke switches can be used.
Retrieval of temperature and water vapor profiles
The retrieval of physical quantities using microwave radiometry (e.g. temperature or water vapor profiles) is not straightforward and comprehensive retrieval algorithms (using inversion techniques like optimal estimation approach) have been developed.
Temperature profiles are obtained by measuring along the oxygen absorption complex at 60 GHz. The emission at any altitude is proportional to the temperature and density of oxygen. As oxygen is homogeneously distributed within the atmosphere and around the globe, the brightness temperature signals can be used to derive the temperature profile. Signals at the center of the absorption complex are dominated by the atmosphere closest to the radiometer (when ground-based). Moving into the window region, the signal is a superposition from close and far regions of the atmosphere. The combination of several channels contains therefore information about the vertical temperature distribution. A similar approach is used to derive vertical profiles of water vapor utilizing its absorption line at 22.235 GHz.
Satellite instrumentation
Microwave instruments are flown on several polar orbiting satellites for Earth observation and operational meteorology as well as part of extraterrestrial missions.
One distinguishes between imaging instruments that
are used with conical scanning for remote sensing of the Earth surface, e.g. AMSR, SSMI, WINDSAT,
and sounding instruments that are operated in cross-track mode, e.g. AMSU/MHS. The first type uses lower frequencies (1–100 GHz) in atmospheric windows to observe sea-surface salinity, soil moisture, sea-surface temperature, wind speed over ocean, precipitation and snow.
The second type is used to measure along absorption lines to retrieve temperature and humidity profile.
Furthermore, limb sounders, e.g., MLS, are used to retrieve trace gas profiles in the upper atmosphere.
Other examples of microwave radiometers on meteorological satellites include the Special Sensor Microwave/Imager, Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer, WindSat, Microwave Sounding Unit and Microwave Humidity Sounder. The Microwave Imaging Radiometer with Aperture Synthesis is an interferometer/imaging radiometer capable of resolving soil moisture and salinity over small regions of surface.
Spaceprobe instruments
By the 2010s four microwave radiometers have been flown on interplanetary spacecraft. The first was Mariner 2, which used a microwave instrument to determine the high surface temperature of Venus was coming from the surface not higher up in the atmosphere. There are/were also radiometers on the Juno Jupiter probe, the Rosetta comet probe, and Cassini-Huygens.
The Juno probe, launched in 2011, is characterizing the atmosphere of Jupiter using a microwave radiometer suite. The Microwave Radiometer (MWR) instrument on Juno has several antennas observing in several different microwave wavelengths to penetrate the top cloud layer of the planet, and detect features, temperatures, and chemical abundances there.
Ground-based networks
MWRnet is a network established in 2009 of scientists working with ground-based microwave radiometers. MWRnet aims to facilitate the exchange of information in the MWR user community fostering the participation to coordinated international projects. In the long run, MWRnet’s mission aims at setting up operational software, quality control procedures, data formats, etc. similar to other successful networks such as EARLINET, AERONET, CWINDE.
References
External links
National Science Digital Library – MWR Quicklook Page
DOE Atmospheric Radiation Measurement MWR Instrument Description
Juno Radiometer (MWR)
Electromagnetic radiation meters
Radiometry
Microwave technology | [
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224329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceilometer | Ceilometer | A ceilometer is a device that uses a laser or other light source to determine the height of a cloud ceiling or cloud base. Ceilometers can also be used to measure the aerosol concentration within the atmosphere. A ceilometer that uses laser light is a type of atmospheric lidar (light detection and ranging) instrument.
Optical drum ceilometer
An optical drum ceilometer uses triangulation to determine the height of a spot of light projected onto the base of the cloud. It consists essentially of a rotating projector, a detector, and a recorder. The projector emits an intense beam of light above into the sky at an angle that varies with the rotation. The detector, which is located at a fixed distance from the projector, uses a photodetector pointing vertically. When it detects the projected light return from the cloud base, the instrument notes the angle and the calculation gives the height of clouds.
Laser ceilometer
A laser ceilometer consists of a vertically pointing laser and a receiver in the same location. A laser pulse with a duration on the order of nanoseconds is sent through the atmosphere. As the beam travels through the atmosphere, tiny fractions of the light are scattered by aerosols. Generally, the size of the particles in question are similar in size to the wavelength of the laser. This situation leads to Mie scattering. A small component of this scattered light is directed back to the lidar receiver. The timing of the received signal can be transformed into a spatial range, z, by using the speed of light. That is,
where c is the light speed in the air.
In this way, each pulse of laser light results in a vertical profile of aerosol concentration within the atmosphere. Generally, many individual profiles will be averaged together in order to increase the signal-to-noise ratio and average profiles are reported on a time scale of seconds. The presence of clouds or water droplets leads to a very strong return signal compared to background levels, which allows for cloud heights to be easily identified.
Since the instrument will note any returns, it is possible to locate any faint layer where it occurs, additionally to the cloud's base, by looking at the whole pattern of returned energy. Furthermore, the rate at which diffusion happens can be noted by the diminishing part returned to the ceilometer in clear air, giving the coefficient of extinction of the light signal. Using these data could give the vertical visibility and the possible concentration of air pollutants. This has been developed in research and could be applied for operational purpose.
In New Zealand, MetService operates a network of laser ceilometers for cloud base measurements at commercial airports. These sensors are also used to map volcanic ash clouds to allow commercial air traffic to avoid damage caused by ash. The movement of volcanic ash has also been tracked from areas such as Iceland.
Examination of the behavior of ceilometers under various cloud-cover conditions have led to the improvement of algorithms to avoid false readings. Accuracy of measurement can be impacted by the limited vertical range and areal extent of a ceilometer's area of observation.
A common use of ceilometers is to monitor the cloud ceiling for airports.
A study group from Montreal, Canada in 2013 recommended that ceilometers should be installed "close to the landing threshold" for aerodromes with precision approach runways, but also considered their location "at the middle marker or at an equivalent distance" to be acceptable.
Hazards
Ceilometers that use visible light can sometimes be fatal to birds, as the animals become disoriented by the light beams and suffer exhaustion and collisions with other birds and structures. In the worst recorded ceilometer non-laser light beam incident, approximately 50,000 birds from 53 different species died at Warner Robins Air Force Base in the United States during one night in 1954.
Laser ceilometers use invisible lasers to observe the cloud base. Using optical instruments such as binoculars near ceilometers is not recommended, because lenses in instruments could concentrate the beam and damage one's eyes.
See also
Automated airport weather station
References
External links
National Science Digital Library - Ceilometer
Ceilometer from McGill University
National Weather Service ASOS ceilometer page
Meteorological instrumentation and equipment
Aerosol measurement
Aviation meteorology | [
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224330 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Namatjira | Albert Namatjira | Albert Namatjira (born Elea Namatjira; 28 July 1902 – 8 August 1959) was an Arrernte painter from the MacDonnell Ranges in Central Australia, widely considered one of the greatest and most influential Australian artists. As a pioneer of contemporary Indigenous Australian art, he was arguably one of the most famous Indigenous Australians of his generation. He was the first Aboriginal artist to receive popularity from a wide Australian audience.
A member of the Western Arrernte people, Namatjira was born and raised at the remote Hermannsburg Lutheran Mission, 126 km west-southwest from Alice Springs. He showed interest in art from an early age but it was not until 1934 (aged 32) and under the guidance of Rex Battarbee that he began to paint seriously. Namatjira's richly detailed, Western art-influenced watercolours of the outback departed significantly from the abstract designs and symbols of traditional Aboriginal art, and inspired the Hermannsburg School of painting. He became a household name in Australia and reproductions of his works hung in many homes throughout the nation.
In 1956, a portrait of Namatjira by William Dargie became the first of an Aboriginal person to win the Archibald Prize. Namatjira was awarded the Queen's Coronation Medal in 1953, and was honoured with an Australian postage stamp in 1968.
Namatjira was the first recorded Northern Territory Aboriginal person to be freed from restrictions that made Aboriginal people wards of the state when he was granted British Subjecthood and Australian citizenship in 1957. This gave him the right to vote, freedom of movement and freed him from restrictions on buying alcohol but, in the Northern Territory, he still had limited land rights. Namatjira remained, however, poorly treated by the government; he was sentenced to prison after leaving a bottle of rum on the back seat of his car, which was likely taken and consumed by a man who had then drunkenly beaten and killed his own wife. Public and international outcry intervened in the liability ruling, however, and Namatjira instead served less than two months in a native reserve in Papunya. He continued to live in Papunya with his wife, until he died of heart disease in an Alice Springs hospital in 1959.
Described as a "monumental figure" within Australian art, Namatjira is considered one of the most talented Arrernte artists to have lived. As one of the foremost painters of the Hermannsburg movement, he blended indigenous landscapes and Western-style painting techniques to "“bring central Australia to life, for thousands who had never seen it for themselves." His legacy lives on through international critical acclaim, the naming of his homeland's electorate after him, and his artistically inclined descendants. They form the artistic and memorial collective the Namatjira project, which includes his Ramsay Prize-winning great-grandson Vincent Namatjira.
Early life
He was born at Hermannsburg Mission, Ntaria, in Alice Springs in 1902, the son of Namatjira and Ljukuta. They were Western Arrernte people.
Namatjira was raised on the Hermannsburg Mission and baptised after his parents' adoption of Christianity. He was born as Elea, but once baptised, they changed his name to Albert. As a child, he sketched what he saw around him. After a western-style upbringing on the mission, including attending the school and living in a dormitory, separated from his parents, at the age of 13 Namatjira returned to the bush for initiation and was exposed to traditional culture and initiated as a member of the Arrernte community (in which he was to eventually become an elder).
When he was 18 years old, he left the mission and married his wife Ilkalita, a Kukatja woman, who was christened Rubina upon their return to Hermannsburg. They had five sons and three daughters.
His wife, like his father's wife, was from the wrong skin group and he violated the law of his people by marrying outside the classificatory kinship system. In 1928 he was ostracised for several years in which he worked as a camel driver and saw much of Central Australia, which he was later to depict in his paintings. He also worked as a blacksmith, carpenter and stockman, at the mission and at the surrounding cattle stations.
Career
Namatjira was introduced to western-style painting through an exhibition by two painters from Melbourne, Rex Battarbee and John Gardner, at his mission in 1934. Battarbee returned to the area in the winter of 1936 to paint the landscape, and Namatjira, expressing an interest in learning to paint, acted as his cameleer and guide to show him local scenic areas. Battarbee showed him how to paint with watercolours.
Namatjira started painting in a unique style. His landscapes normally highlighted both the rugged geological features of the land in the background, and the distinctive Australian flora in the foreground with very old, stately and majestic white gum trees surrounded by twisted scrub. His work had a high quality of illumination showing the gashes of the land and the twists in the trees. His colours were similar to the ochres that his ancestors had used to depict the same landscape, but his style was appreciated by Europeans because it met the aesthetics of western art.
In his early career, Namatjira's work included tjuringa (sacred object) designs, biblical themes and figurative subjects, and he also carved and painted various artefacts.
In 1937 Friedrich Albrecht, superintendent of Hermannsburg, took ten of Namatjira's watercolours with him to a Lutheran conference at Nuriootpa, South Australia, and Battarbee put three of his paintings in an exhibition with the Royal South Australian Society of Arts in Adelaide. In 1938, Namatjira held his first solo exhibition in Melbourne.
He became the first prominent Aboriginal artist to work in a contemporary western style, and thus regarded as an example of assimilation. In 1944 he was included in Who's Who in Australia.
Subsequent exhibitions in Sydney and Adelaide also sold out. His work garnered wide acclaim, both in Australia and in other countries. Queen Elizabeth II became one of his more notable fans and he was awarded the Queen's Coronation Medal in 1953 and met her in Canberra in 1954. He was elected an honorary member of the Royal Art Society of New South Wales in 1955.
Not only did his own art become widely recognised, but a painting of him by William Dargie won the Archibald Prize in 1956, the first painting of an Aboriginal person to win the prize.
Artworks, style and critical reception
Namatjira's artworks were colourful and varied depictions of the Australian landscape. One of his first landscapes from 1936, Central Australian Landscape, shows a land of rolling green hills. Another early work, Ajantzi Waterhole (1937), shows a close up view of a small waterhole, with Namatjira capturing the reflection in the water. The landscape becomes one of contrasting colours, a device that is often used by Western painters, with red hills and green trees in Red Bluff (1938). Central Australian Gorge (1940) shows detailed rendering of rocks and reflections in the water. In Flowering Shrubs Namatjira contrasts the blossoming flowers in the foreground with the more barren desert and cliffs in the background. Namatjira's love of trees was often described so that his paintings of trees were more portraits than landscapes, which is shown in the portrait of the often depicted ghost gum in Ghost Gum Glen Helen (c.1945-49).
His unique style of painting was denounced soon after his death by some critics as being a product of his assimilation into western culture, rather than his own connection to his subject matter or his natural style. This view has, however, been largely abandoned.
Although Namatjira's paintings appear similar to conventional European landscapes, his work was imbued with his feeling for country and sacred sites. He used repetition, intricate patterns and high horizons to blend the styles of the two worlds he lived in.
The Art Gallery of New South Wales website quotes George Alexander, coordinator of Contemporary Art Programmes:
Later life
Due to his wealth, Namatjira soon found himself the subject of humbugging, a ritualised form of begging. Arrernte are expected to share everything they own, and as Namatjira's income grew, so did his extended family. At one time he was singlehandedly providing for over 600 people with financial support. To ease the burden on his strained resources, Namatjira sought to lease a cattle station to benefit his extended family. Originally granted, the lease was subsequently rejected because the land was part of a returned servicemen's ballot, and also because he had no ancestral claim on the property. He then tried to build a house in Alice Springs, but was cheated in his land dealings. The land he was sold was on a flood plain and was unsuitable for building. The Minister for Territories, Paul Hasluck, offered him free land in a reserve on the outskirts of Alice Springs, but this was rejected, and Namatjira and his family took up residence in a squalid shanty at Morris Soak, a dry creek bed some distance from Alice Springs which is now the location of one of the town camps. Despite the fact that he was held as one of Australia's greatest artists, Namatjira was living in poverty. His plight became a media cause célèbre, resulting in a wave of public outrage.
In 1957 the government exempted Namatjira and his wife from the restrictive legislation that applied to Aboriginal people in the Northern Territory.
Namatjira was encouraged to apply for and became an Australian citizen at 55 years of age. As an Australian citizen, eligible to vote in elections, he was exempt from classification as an ‘Aboriginal’ for the purposes of the Welfare Ordinance 1953. This did not mean that he was legally not an Aboriginal, as some sources mistakenly suggest. As an Australian citizen, he could vote, own land, build a house and buy alcohol. However, under the Welfare Ordinance 1953, his adult children and other relatives remained listed as "wards" (effectively wards of the state). Although Albert and Rubina were legally allowed to drink alcohol, his Aboriginal family and friends were not. This artificial social divide and the Arrernte culture that expected him to share everything he owned brought Namatjira into conflict with the law.
When an Aboriginal woman, Fay Iowa, was killed at Morris Soak, Namatjira was held responsible by Jim Lemaire, the Stipendiary Magistrate, for bringing alcohol into the camp. He was reprimanded at the coronial inquest. It was then against the law to supply alcohol to an Aboriginal person. Namatjira was charged with leaving a bottle of rum in a place, i.e. on a car seat, where a clan brother and fellow Hermannsburg artist Henoch Raberaba, could get access to it. Convicted for an offence under the Welfare Ordinance 1953, for supplying an Aboriginal (a "ward") with liquor, he was sentenced to six months in prison. Namatjira appealed against the conviction to the Supreme Court of the Northern Territory (with his defence supported by the Council for Aboriginal Rights in Victoria). The Supreme Court upheld the conviction but reduced the sentence from six to three months. The High Court of Australia refused an application to appeal, and there was widespread sympathy for Namatjira and negative publicity about the operation of the Ordinance both at home and abroad.
Last years
After the public uproar, Hasluck intervened and the sentence was served at Papunya Native Reserve. He was released after only serving two months due to medical and humanitarian reasons. Despondent after his incarceration, Namatjira continued to live with Rubina in a cottage at Papunya, where he suffered a heart attack. There is evidence that Albert believed that he had the bone pointed at him by a member of Fay Iowa's family. The idea of being "sung" to death was also held by Frank Clune, a popular travel writer, Aboriginal activist, and organiser of Albert's whirlwind 1956 trip.
After being transferred to Alice Springs hospital, Namatjira astonished his mentor Rex Battarbee by presenting him with three landscapes, with a promise of more to come; a promise unrealised. He died soon after of heart disease complicated by pneumonia on 8 August 1959 in Alice Springs.
Legacy
At the time of his death Namatjira had painted a total of around two thousand paintings. He is hailed today as one of the greatest Australian artists and a pioneer for Aboriginal rights. Namatjira's work is on public display in some of Australia's major art galleries. The Art Gallery of New South Wales now displays a number of Namatjira's work, although Hal Missingham, then Director of the gallery, initially rejected his work, saying: "We'll consider his work when it comes up to scratch".
A number of biographical films have been made about Namatjira (at least three before his death), including the 1947 documentary Namatjira the Painter.
Two years before his death, part of Namatjira's copyright was sold to a company in exchange for royalties. After his death, Albert Namatjira's copyright was sold by the public trustee in 1983 for , despite Namatjira's will leaving his copyright to his widow and children. The copyright was returned to the family's Albert Namatjira Trust in an October 2017 deal enabled by a donation by philanthropist Dick Smith, in the name of art dealer John Brackenreg, who was seen as having acquired the rights to Namatjira's art in 1957 in an act of exploitation.
Namatjira has been the subject of numerous songs. Country star Slim Dusty was the first artist to record a tribute song, "Namatjira", in the 1960s, and Rick and Thel Carey followed up with their tribute "The Stairs That Namatjira Climbed" in 1963. Other tributes include John Williamson's "Raining on the Rock" from his 1986 album Mallee Boy and "The Camel Boy" from Chandelier of Stars (2005); "Albert Namatjira" by the Australian band Not Drowning, Waving, featured on their 1993 album, Circus, and Midnight Oil's song "Truganini" of the same year; the famous patriotic song "I Am Australian"; Archie Roach's song, "Native Born"; and the reconciliation song, "Namatjira", written by Geoff Drummond and included on the politically activist album, The Chess Set released by Pat Drummond in 2004.
Namatjira was honoured on postage stamps issued by Australia Post in 1968, again in 1993 with examples of his work, and in the Namatjira Centenary stamp series in 2002.
The Namatjira Project was a community cultural development project launched in 2009 that included an award-winning theatre production by Big hART focusing on Namatjira's life and work.
The Northern Territory electoral division of Namatjira, which surrounds Alice Springs, was renamed in 2012 from MacDonnell, in honour of Namatjira.
In January 2013, two gum trees that featured prominently in Namatjira's watercolours were destroyed in an arson attack, while they were in the process of being heritage-listed, in an "appalling and a tragic act of cultural vandalism". In 2015, the Twin Gums site was again nominated for heritage listing.
A number of Albert Namatjira's descendants paint at the Iltja Ntjarra - Many Hands art centre in Alice Springs.
On 28 July 2017, Google commemorated Namatjira's 115th birthday with a featured Doodle for Australian users, acknowledging his substantial contributions to the art and culture of Australia.
Vincent Namatjira, Albert Namatjira's great-grandson, is a well-known artist in his own right, winning the Ramsay Art Prize in 2019. Vincent's 2014 series, Albert's Story, reflects on Albert Namatjira's life and legacy. About the series, Vincent has stated: "I hope my grandfather would be quite proud, maybe smiling down on me; because I won’t let him go. I just keep carrying him on, his name and our families' stories." Vincent's work was also shortlisted for the Archibald Prize in 2017, 2018 and 2019 and won the prize in 2020.
See also
Namatjira Project
References
External links
Seeing the Centre: The art of Albert Namatjira 1902-1959, a National Gallery of Australia travelling and online exhibition
Albert Namatjira photograph collection at the National Library of Australia
Namatjira BIG hART: History, background and biography.
1902 births
1959 deaths
Australian Aboriginal artists
Australian landscape painters
Artists from the Northern Territory
Australian Lutherans
Arrernte
20th-century Australian painters
20th-century male artists
20th-century Lutherans
Australian male painters | [
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224331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20historical%20novels | List of historical novels | This list outlines notable historical novels by the current geo-political boundaries of countries for the historical location in which most of the novel takes place. This list includes only the most notable novels within the genre, which have been included in Wikipedia. For a more comprehensive automatically generated list of articles on Wikipedia about historical novels, see :Category:Historical novels. For a comprehensive list by time period on historical fiction in general see list of historical fiction by time period.
Afghanistan
The Afghan Campaign by Steven Pressfield (Alexander the Great's invasion of the Afghan kingdoms in 330 BC)
Flashman by George MacDonald Fraser (1840s, First Anglo-Afghan War)
Caravans by James Michener (post-World War II)
Argentina
On Heroes and Tombs by Ernesto Sabato (19th century, during the Civil War)
Facundo: Civilization and Barbarism by Domingo F. Sarmiento (19th century)
Santa Evita by Tomás Eloy Martínez (20th century, Eva Perón)
El combate perpetuo by Marcos Aguinis (19th century, Admiral William Brown)
La fragata Proserpina by Luis Delgado Bañón (19th century)
El queche Hiena by Luis Delgado Bañón (19th century)
Australia
The Playmaker and Bring Larks and Heroes by Thomas Keneally (18th century colonial Australia)
Morgan's Run by Colleen McCullough (end of the 18th century)
Destiny in Sydney by D. Manning Richards (1787–1902 Scots-Irish, Aboriginal, and Chinese family saga story)
The Lambing Flat by Nerida Newton (mid-19th century Australian gold rushes)
The Secret River by Kate Grenville (19th century colonial Australia)
Jack Maggs by Peter Carey (19th century colonial Australia)
The Thorn Birds by Colleen McCullough (end of the 19th century)
True History of the Kelly Gang by Peter Carey (Kelly Gang, 1878–1880)
An Angel in Australia by Thomas Keneally (World War II)
Oscar and Lucinda by Peter Carey
Jasper Jones by Craig Silvey (1960s Western Australia)
Bila Yarrudhanggalangdhuray by Anita Heiss (19th century indigenous New South Wales)
Austria
The Man Without Qualities by Robert Musil (World War I)
Bangladesh
The Black Coat by Neamat Imam (Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's rule in Bangladesh, 1972–75, including famine of 1974)
Belgium
The Legend of Thyl Ulenspiegel and Lamme Goedzak by Charles De Coster (Protestant Reformation in the Netherlands)
The Sorrow of Belgium (Het verdriet van België) by Hugo Claus (WW II and after)
Bosnia and Herzegovina
The Bridge on the Drina by Ivo Andrić (1500s–1900s)
Brazil
Alfarrábios by José de Alencar (Colonial Brazil)
Iracema by José de Alencar (legend from Ceara, 16th century)
The Guarani by José de Alencar (Brazil, 16th century)
Brazil Red by Jean-Christophe Rufin (recounts the unsuccessful attempt by the French to conquer Brazil, 16th century)
As Minas de Prata by José de Alencar (Minas Gerais, 18th century)
O Tempo e o Vento by Érico Veríssimo (from the late 18th century to 1945)
Os Sertões by Euclides da Cunha (Canudos Campaign, 19th century)
La guerra del fin del mundo by Mario Vargas Llosa (Canudos Campaign, 19th century)
Canada
The Orenda by Joseph Boyden (17th-century Quebec)
The Last Crossing by Guy Vanderhaeghe (19th century western Canada)
All That Matters by Wayson Choy (1920s–1940s Vancouver)
Journey by James A. Michener
Alias Grace by Margaret Atwood
Three Day Road by Joseph Boyden
The Colony of Unrequited Dreams by Wayne Johnston
The Book of Negroes by Lawrence Hill
In the Skin of a Lion by Michael Ondaatje
Jalna by Mazo de la Roche
The Jade Peony by Wayson Choy (1930s–1940s Vancouver)
Caribbean (multiple countries)
Unburnable by Marie-Elena John (the African origins of Caribbean culture and the original inhabitants of the Caribbean, the Kalinago (Carib Indians)).
Caribbean by James A. Michener
China
Empress by Shan Sa (Wu Zetian, 1st century)
Chia Black Dragon series by Stephen Marley (2nd century, 7th century)
Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong (3rd century)
The Journeyer by Gary Jennings (Kublai Khan, 13th century)
The Deer and the Cauldron by Jin Yong - Early Qing dynasty during the rule of the Kangxi Emperor. (1654-89)
The Story of the Stone by Cao Xueqin (18th century)
Tai-Pan by James Clavell (Hong Kong, 1841)
Peony by Pearl Buck (19th century, Jewish family in China)
Imperial Woman by Pearl Buck (about Empress Dowager Cixi)
Empress Orchid by Anchee Min (about Empress Dowager Cixi)
The Last Empress by Anchee Min (about Empress Dowager Cixi)
Empire of the Sun by J. G. Ballard (World War II)
Dragon Seed by Pearl Buck (Life of Chinese peasant family during Second Sino-Japanese War)
Noble House by James Clavell (Hong Kong, 1963)
La mujer en la muralla by Alberto Laiseca (Qin Shi Huang, 3rd century BC)
An Insular Possession by Timothy Mo (Canton, Macau, and Hong Kong) (1833-1841)
Colombia
The General in his Labyrinth by Gabriel García Márquez
Pre-Columbian civilizations
Aztec Empire
Aztec by Gary Jennings (before Spanish invasion)
Aztec Autumn by Gary Jennings (one generation after Spanish invasion)
Tlaloc Weeps For Mexico by László Passuth (Hernán Cortés, Conquest of Mexico)
El Corazón de Piedra Verde (The Green-Stone Heart) by Salvador de Madariaga (encounter between Aztecs and Spanish)
Inca Empire
El inca by Alberto Vázquez-Figueroa
Mayan Empire
Caminarás con el Sol by Alfonso Mateo-Sagasta (Gonzalo Guerrero)
Gonzalo Guerrero by Eugenio Aguirre
Czech Republic
Witiko by Adalbert Stifter (Witiko of Prčice, 12th century Bohemia)
Denmark
Number the Stars by Lois Lowry (20th century)
Dominican Republic
In the Time of the Butterflies by Julia Alvarez (rebellion against Rafael Leónidas Trujillo, mid-20th century)
The Feast of the Goat by Mario Vargas Llosa (Assassination of Trujillo and its aftermath, early 1960s)
Egypt
Cheops by Paul West (26th century BC)
Pharaoh by Bolesław Prus (fall of Egypt's Twentieth Dynasty and New Kingdom)
Hypatia by Charles Kingsley (late Roman Egypt)
The Egyptian by Mika Waltari (reign of Pharaoh Akhenaten)
The Memoirs of Cleopatra by Margaret George (reign of Cleopatra VII)
River God by Wilbur Smith
Leo Africanus by Amin Maalouf (15th and 16th century)
El arpista ciego by Terenci Moix
No digas que fue un sueño by Terenci Moix (reign of Cleopatra VII)
Child of the Morning by Pauline Gedge (reign of Hatshepsut)
Scroll of Saqqara by Pauline Gedge
La boca del Nilo by León Arsenal
El secreto del Nilo by Antonio Cabanas (Amenhotep III, Akhenaten, Smenkhkare, Tutankhamun, Ay and Horemheb reigns)
La conjura del faraón by Antonio Cabanas
El Ladrón de Tumbas by Antonio Cabanas
El Camino de los dioses by Antonio Cabanas
Estonia
Purge by Sofi Oksanen (20th century)
Finland
The Adventurer by Mika Waltari (16th century)
France
The Jester by James Patterson (11th century)
Les Rois maudits series (The Accursed Kings) by Maurice Druon (14th century)
Quentin Durward by Sir Walter Scott (Louis XI – 15th century)
The Hunchback of Notre Dame by Victor Hugo (15th century)
Queen Margot by Alexandre Dumas, père (16th century)
The Angélique series by Anne & Serge Golon (mid-17th century in the reign of Louis XIV)
The d'Artagnan romances (The Three Musketeers, Twenty Years After, and The Vicomte de Bragelonne) by Alexandre Dumas, père (17th century)
A Place of Greater Safety by Hilary Mantel (French Revolution)
A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens (French Revolution)
Scaramouche by Rafael Sabatini (French Revolution)
Ninety-Three by Victor Hugo (1793, French Revolution)
The Rover by Joseph Conrad (Revolutionary and Napoleonic periods)
Les Misérables by Victor Hugo (19th century)
The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexandre Dumas, père (19th century)
Cézanne’s Quarry by Barbara Corrado Pope, (Belle Époque)
The Blood of Lorraine by Barbara Corrado Pope, (Belle Époque)
The Missing Italian Girl by Barbara Corrado Pope, (Belle Époque)
An Officer and a Spy by Robert Harris (the Dreyfus affair)
The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse by Vicente Blasco Ibáñez (World War I)
Germany
Q (1999) by Luther Blissett (15th-century Europe during the Protestant reformation and German Peasants' War)
Measuring the World by Daniel Kehlmann (19th century)
Night Thoughts of a Classical Physicist by Russell McCormmach (development of physics in the early 20th century)
The Seventh Gate by Richard Zimler (1930s Berlin)
The Book Thief by Markus Zusak (World War II)
Los demonios de Berlín by Ignacio del Valle (Battle of Berlin)
Greece
Hades' Daughter by Sara Douglass (classical antiquity)
Tides of War: A Novel of Alcibiades and the Peloponnesian War by Steven Pressfield
The Palaeologian Dynasty. The Rise and Fall of Byzantium by George Leonardos
Gates of Fire by Steven Pressfield (the Battle of Thermopylae)
Middlesex by Jeffrey Eugenides (World War I and Greco-Turkish War)
The Last of the Wine by Mary Renault (Athens in the time of Socrates)
The Mask of Apollo by Mary Renault (Greek theatre, 4th century BC)
The Athenian Murders (La caverna de las ideas) by Jose Carlos Somoza (classical antiquity)
Lion of Macedon by David Gemmell (Alexander's general Parmenion)
Fire from Heaven and The Persian Boy by Mary Renault (Alexander the Great)
Funeral Games by Mary Renault (the successors of Alexander)
Goat Song by Frank Yerby (Peloponnesian War)
La joven de Esparta by Cristina Rodríguez
The Song Of Troy by Colleen McCullough (the Greek - Trojan war)
Salamina by Javier Negrete, (Second Persian invasion of Greece, Themistocles)
El espartano by Javier Negrete, (Second Persian invasion of Greece)
El agua y la tierra by Julio Murillo
Los milagros del vino by Jesús Sánchez Adalid (Corinth, 1st century AD)
Enemigos de Esparta by Sebastián Roa (Theban hegemony rising)
El ateniense by Pedro Santamaría (Alcibiades)
Némesis by Sebastián Roa (Artemisia_I_of_Caria)
Greenland
The Greenlanders by Jane Smiley
Haiti
Lydia Bailey by Kenneth Roberts (1800s Haitian Revolution)
Haitian Revolution trilogy by Madison Smartt Bell (Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian Revolution)
The Kingdom of This World by Alejo Carpentier (Haitian Revolution)
Island Beneath the Sea by Isabel Allende (late 18th century)
Babouk by Guy Endore (Haitian Revolution)
Hungary
A fekete város (The Black Town, 1910) by Kálmán Mikszáth (set in the 18th c.)
Sorstalanság (Fatelessness; Fateless (2001) by Imre Kertész (Nobel Prize winner, set in World War II)
Prague (2002) by Arthur Phillips (set in the 1990s)
India
Bengali
Durgeshnôndini, Rajshingho, Anondomôţh by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay
Ghôre Baire by Rabindranath Tagore
English
A Spoke in the Wheel by Amita Kanekar (Gautama Buddha/Ashoka)
Chanakya's Chant by Ashwin Sanghi (4th century BC)
Empire of the Moghul series by Alex Rutherford (Moghul Empire, Babur to Aurangzeb)
Guardian of the Dawn by Richard Zimler (17th century Goa)
The Far Pavilions by M. M. Kaye (British India in the 19th century)
The Ibis trilogy by Amitav Ghosh (before and during the First Opium War)
The Siege of Krishnapur by J. G. Farrell (Indian Rebellion of 1857)
Midnight's Children by Salman Rushdie (Partition of India)
Hindi
Volga Se Ganga by Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan
Malayalam
Marthandavarma, Dharmaraja, Ramarajabahadur by C V Raman Pillai
Tamil
Parthiban Kanavu and Sivagamiyin Sabadham by Kalki Krishnamurthy (Pallava dynasty)
Ponniyin Selvan by Kalki Krishnamurthy (Chola dynasty)
Vengaiyin Mayinthan by Akilan (Rajendra Chola I, 11th century)
Telugu
Veyipadagalu by Viswanatha Satyanarayana
Urdu
Aag Ka Darya (River of Fire) by Qurratulain Hyder
Aangan (Courtyard) by Khadija Mastoor
Bano by Razia Butt
Gujarati
Karan Ghelo by Nandshankar Mehta
Indonesia
Bumi Manusia (This Earth of Mankind), Anak Semua Bangsa (Child of All Nations), Jejak Langkah (Footsteps) and Rumah Kaca (House of Glass) by Pramoedya Ananta Toer (Dutch colonialism, late 19th early 20th century)
Max Havelaar by Multatuli (Dutch colonialism, 19th century)
Iran
Cry of the Peacock by Gina B. Nahai (Jews in Iran, 18th–20th centuries)
Whirlwind by James Clavell (Iranian Revolution, 1979)
Ireland
Trinity and Redemption by Leon Uris
The Princes of Ireland: The Dublin Saga and The Rebels of Ireland: The Dublin Saga by Edward Rutherfurd
Troubles by J. G. Farrell (Irish War of Independence)
A Star Called Henry by Roddy Doyle (Irish Revolution)
Sister Fidelma series by Peter Tremayne (7th century)
Lion of Ireland by Morgan Llywelyn (High King Brian Boru, 10th century)
Israel
The Source by James A. Michener
The King of Flesh and Blood by Moshe Shamir (2nd century BCE)
The Antagonists: A Novel of Masada by Ernest K. Gann (1st century)
The Gospel According to Lazarus by Richard Zimler (1st century)
Holy Warrior by Angus Donald, second novel in the Outlaw Chronicles (12th century)
Jerusalem by Cecelia Holland (12th century)
Exodus by Leon Uris (SS Exodus and the founding of Israel)
The Haj by Leon Uris (1920s–1950s)
The Hope by Herman Wouk (Creation of Israel to the Six-Day War, 1948–1967)
The Glory by Herman Wouk (Six-Day War to Peace with Egypt, 1967–1978)
Inside, Outside by Herman Wouk (Four generations of a Russian Jewish family in the 20th century)
Vengeance by George Jonas (Following Operation Wrath of God - the Israeli hunt for the 1972 Munich Olympics massacre planners).
Italy
Raptor by Gary Jennings (5th–6th centuries)
A Struggle for Rome (Ein Kampf um Rom) by Felix Dahn (Gothic War)
Tiara i korona by Teodor Jeske-Choiński (Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, 11th century)
Baudolino by Umberto Eco (12th century)
Valperga by Mary Shelley (14th century; Guelphs and Ghibellines)
The Name of the Rose by Umberto Eco (14th century)
La Cruz y el Lirio Dorado by Fernando Fernán-Gómez (Pazzi conspiracy, 15th century)
The Birth of Venus by Sarah Dunant (Florence, Savonarola period)
Prince of Foxes by Samuel Shellabarger (Renaissance)
Romola by George Eliot (Renaissance)
The Family by Mario Puzo (Renaissance)
The Betrothed by Alessandro Manzoni (17th century)
Silk by Alessandro Baricco (1860s)
The Prague Cemetery by Umberto Eco (19th century)
La confesión del embajador by Juan Martín Salamanca (17th century, Spanish ambassador in Duchy of Savoy)
Japan
Musashi by Eiji Yoshikawa (Miyamoto Musashi, 17th century)
Shōgun, Gai-Jin & King Rat by James Clavell
Silence by Shusaku Endo (Jesuit missionary in the 17th century)
The Samurai by Shusaku Endo (The journey of four samurai to Spain in the 17th century)
The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu, 11th century
The Thousand Autumns of Jacob de Zoet by David Mitchell (Dutch trading concession with Japan in the late 18th century)
Heike Monogatari by Yoshida Kenkō, (Genpei War)
Taiko by Eiji Yoshikawa (Toyotomi Hideyoshi, 16th century)
The Samurai by Shūsaku Endō (Keichō Embassy to Spain, Hasekura Tsunenaga)
Las piedras de Chihaya trilogy by Sergio Vega (Kenmu Restoration)
El hilo del karma
La nube rasgada
El Dragón y el Crisantemo
El guerrero a la sombra del cerezo by David B. Gil (Edo period)
Ocho millones de dioses by David B. Gil
Korea
A Single Shard by Linda Sue Park
Malta
The Siege of Malta by Walter Scott
Eight Pointed Cross by Marthese Fenech
Falcon's Shadow by Marthese Fenech
Mexico
Mexico by James A. Michener
Captain from Castile by Samuel Shellabarger (16th century)
Hunger's Brides by Paul Anderson (17th century, Sor Juana)
Caballero by Jovita González and Eve Raleigh (1840s)
Cartucho by Nellie Campobello (Mexican Revolution)
The Power and the Glory by Graham Greene (1930s)
Aztec by Gary Jennings (16th century)
El navío Asia by Luis Delgado Bañón (19th century)
Netherlands
Girl with a Pearl Earring by Tracy Chevalier (Johannes Vermeer, 17th century)
The Black Tulip by Alexandre Dumas, père (17th century)
The Cloister and the Hearth by Charles Reade (15th century)
The Coffee Trader by David Liss (17th century)
The Miniaturist by Jessie Burton (17th century Amsterdam)
New Zealand
The Luminaries by Eleanor Catton (1860s New Zealand gold rush)
Season of the Jew by Maurice Shadbolt (mid-nineteenth century New Zealand)
Norway
Kristin Lavransdatter by Sigrid Undset (14th century)
The Master of Hestviken by Sigrid Undset (14th century)
Pakistan
Khaak aur Khoon by Naseem Hijazi
Shaheen by Naseem Hijazi
Shahab Nama by Qudratullah Shahab
Palestine
The Talisman by Sir Walter Scott (12th century, Third Crusade)
El asombroso viaje de Pomponio Flato by Eduardo Mendoza
Philippines
Noli Me Tángere by José Rizal (early 1880s Philippines, under Spanish colonial rule)
El filibusterismo by José Rizal (set 13 years after the events of Noli Me Tángere)
The Woman Who had Two Navels by Nick Joaquin
Po-on by F. Sionil José (Set in the late 19th century.)
Poland
Poland by James A. Michener (13th century onward)
Krzyzacy (The Teutonic Knights) by Henryk Sienkiewicz (Teutonic Knights, 14th century)
The Trilogy by Henryk Sienkiewicz (17th century, including the Khmelnytsky Uprising and The Deluge)
Thaddeus of Warsaw by Jane Porter (Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth)
Push Not the River by James Conroyd Martin (1792 Partition of Poland)
The Faithful River (Wierna rzeka) by Stefan Żeromski (January Uprising, 1863–1865)
The Warsaw Anagrams by Richard Zimler (Warsaw Ghetto, 1940–1943)
Kamienie na szaniec (Stones for the Rampart) by Aleksander Kamiński (Polish Scouting or Gray Ranks during World War II)
Portugal
The Last Kabbalist of Lisbon by Richard Zimler (early 16th-century Lisbon, Lisbon Massacre of 1506)
Baltasar and Blimunda by José Saramago (18th-century construction of the Convent of Mafra)
Hunting Midnight by Richard Zimler (19th century Porto)
Ancient Rome
Scipio trilogy by Santiago Posteguillo (the Punic Wars general Publius Cornelius Scipio)
The Masters of Rome series by Colleen McCullough (1st century BC)
The Gods of War (Life of Julius Caesar)
The Ides of March by Thornton Wilder (Last days of Julius Caesar)
La leyenda del falso traidor by Antonio Gómez Rufo (Assassination of Julius Caesar)
El lazo de púrpura by Alejandro Núñez Alonso (Tiberius period)
King Jesus by Robert Graves
Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ by Lew Wallace
I Am a Barbarian by Edgar Rice Burroughs (The life of Caligula as seen through the eyes of his slave)
I, Claudius and Claudius, the God by Robert Graves (Roman emperors, 1st century)
Quo Vadis by Henryk Sienkiewicz (Christians under Nero)
The Roman Mysteries, a series of children's books by Caroline Lawrence (late 1st century)
Trajan trilogy by Santiago Posteguillo (Trajan life)
Memoirs of Hadrian by Marguerite Yourcenar (life and death of Roman Emperor Hadrian)
Julian by Gore Vidal (Julian the Apostate, 4th century)
Eagle in the Snow by Wallace Breem (Magnus Maximus, 4th century)
The Last Romans by Teodor Jeske-Choiński (Theodosius I, 4th century Roman Emperor)
Count Belisarius by Robert Graves (the Byzantine general Belisarius, 6th century)
Pax romana by Yeyo Balbás
Memorias de Escipión Emiliano by José Enrique López Jiménez
Al servicio del imperio by Pedro Santamaría (Cantabri in First Jewish–Roman War)
Russia
War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy (Napoleonic era)
La sombra del águila by Arturo Pérez-Reverte (Napoléon's invasion)
The Life of Klim Samgin by Maxim Gorky (World War I and Russian 1917 Revolution)
Moscow by Andrei Bely (World War I and Russian 1917 Revolution)
Blood Red, Snow White by Marcus Sedgwick (Russian 1917 Revolution)
Doctor Zhivago by Boris Pasternak (Russian 1917 Revolution and Russian Civil War)
And Quiet Flows the Don by Mikhail Sholokhov (Russian 1917 Revolution and Russian Civil War)
The White Guard by Mikhail Bulgakov (Russian Civil War)
Life and Fate by Vasily Grossman (Eastern Front)
The Red Wheel by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (World War I and Russian 1917 Revolution)
Russka by Edward Rutherfurd (1800 years of Russian history from pre-Russia to the beginning of the Russian Revolution)
El tiempo de los emperadores extraños by Ignacio del Valle (Blue Division on the Eastern Front)
Sicily
The Lady of the Wheel by Angelo F. Coniglio (19th century foundlings and sulfur mine workers)
The Leopard or Il Gattopardo by Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa (19th century Risorgimento, Giuseppe Garibaldi)
The Sicilian by Mario Puzo (Fictionalized biography of Sicilian popular hero Salvatore Giuliano.)
South Africa
The Covenant by James A. Michener (from prehistory onwards)
King Solomon's Mines by H. Rider Haggard (19th century)
Spain
Multiple time frames
Un soldado español de veinte siglos by José Gómez de Arteche
Early history
Viriato by João Aguiar (1st century BC, Viriathus)
Rey Lobo by Juan Eslava Galán
Nublares series by Antonio Pérez Henares (Paleolithic)
El Último Soldurio by Javier Lorenzo (1st century BC)
Numancia by José Luis Corral (1st century BC, Numantia)
El hombre de la plata by León Arsenal (Tartessos)
Celtiberia series by Ángel L. Gallero (Celtiberians)
En los reinos de Lug
Arde Iberia
El arévaco
Roman Spain
A Dying Light in Corduba by Lindsey Davis
Sertorio by João Aguiar (Quintus Sertorius)
Hay luz en casa de Publio Fama by Juan Miñana
Los arcos del agua by Montse Barderi
Interregno by José Vicente Pascual
Visigothic Kingdom
Última Roma by León Arsenal (6th century)
Sombras de mariposa by Guillermo Galván (Liuvigild, Visigothic Kingdom)
Astur by Isabel San Sebastián (8th century Spain)
La última visigoda by Isabel San Sebastián (8th century Spain)
El reino imposible by Yeyo Balbás (8th century Spain)
Las cenizas de Hispania series by Ángel José Zoilo Hernández (Suebi, Alans, Vandals and Visigoths in Spain)
El alano
Niebla y acero
El dux del fin del mundo
Medieval
Tales of Count Lucanor by Don Juan Manuel, príncipe de Villena (14th century)
El mercenario de Granada by Juan Eslava Galán
El Doncel de don Enrique el Doliente by Mariano José de Larra (Enrique III de Castilla)
Sancho Saldaña o el castellano de Cuellar by José de Espronceda
Il cavaliere invisibile by Valerio Massimo Manfredi (14th century)
Tales of the Alhambra by Washington Irving (Emirato de Granada)
Los bandos de Castilla by Ramón López Soler (15th century)
Reinos de Sangre by Óscar Eimil ( Fernando I)
Los bandos de Castilla by Ramón López Soler (15th century)
Los malos años by León Arsenal (14th century, Pedro I de Castilla and Blanca de Borbón)
1369 by Juan Rey (14th century, Pedro I de Castilla)
Corazón oscuro by León Arsenal (Battle of Teba, Alfonso XI of Castile, James Douglas death, Robert the Bruce heart in Spain.)
Tiempo de bastardos by Paula Cifuentes (14th century, Beatriz de Portugal)
La tierra de Alvar Fañez by Antonio Pérez Henares (11th century, Álvar Fáñez)
El Rey Pequeño by Antonio Pérez Henares (11th century, Alfonso VIII)
El reino de la espada by Álvaro Moreno Ancillo (13th century)
El peón del Rey by Pedro Jesús Fernández (Camino de Santiago, Alfonso X court)
Catalina de Lancaster by María Teresa Álvarez (14th century, Catalina de Lancaster)
El camino mozarabe by Jesús Sánchez Adalid (Embassies between Ramiro II of León and Abderramán III after Battle of Simancas)
Enrique de Castilla by Margarita Torres (13th century, Henry of Castile)
Doña Blanca de Navarra by Francisco Navarro Villoslada (15th century, Blanca de Navarra)
Las Compañías Blancas (Los Malandrines) by Tomás Salvador (14th century, Bertrand du Guesclin)
Alcazaba by Jesús Sánchez Adalid (Mérida uprising against Abderramán II)
Esperando al Rey by José María Pérez González (12th century, Alfonso VII of León and Castile and his children Sancho III of Castile and Ferdinand II of León)
Salvatierra by Miguel Martínez (13th century, Order of Calatrava, Salvatierra Castle)
El ejército de Dios by Sebastián Roa (Almohad Caliphate in Spain)
El Reino del norte by Jose Javier Esparza (9th century. Early Reconquista)
Recuerde el alma dormida by Rafael Álvarez Avello (Jorge Manrique)
María de Molina by Almudena de Arteaga
El olor de las especias by Alfonso Mateo-Sagasta
Die Rose von Asturien by Iny Lorentz
El Alma de la Ciudad by Jesús Sánchez Adalid
El señor de Bembibre by Enrique Gil y Carrasco (14th century)
La maldición de la reina Leonor by José María Pérez González
La reina sin reino by José María Pérez González
El Reino del norte by Jose Javier Esparza (9th century. Early Reconquista )
Guzmán el Bueno. El señor de la frontera by Juan Luis Pulido Begines (Alonso Pérez de Guzmán)
Spanish Golden Age
El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (16th century)
The Ferdinand and Isabella Trilogy by Jean Plaidy (15th century)
Adventures of Captain Alatriste series by Arturo Pérez-Reverte
The heretic. A Novel of the Inquisition by Miguel Delibes (16th century in Valladolid)
Martín Ojo de Plata series by Matilde Asensi (17th century)
That Lady by Kate O'Brien (Ana de Mendoza, Princesa of Éboli)
Jeromín by Luis Coloma (life of Juan de Austria)
Capa y espada by Fernando Fernán Gómez (court of Philip IV of Spain, murder of Count of Villamediana)
El comedido hidalgo by Juan Eslava Galán
El prisionero de Argel by Antonio Cavanillas de Blas (life of Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra)
La sombra de otro by Luis García Jambrina (life of Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra)
Misterioso asesinato en casa de Cervantes by Juan Eslava Galán (Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra in Valladolid, Ezpeleta process)
By Fire, By Water by Mitchell James Kaplan (15th century)
Sobra un rey by José García Abad (15th century)
La reina comunera by José García Abad (Juana I de Castilla, Revolt of the Comuneros)
El castellano de Flandes by Enrique Martínez Ruiz (16th century)
Hoy no se pondrá el sol by Rafael Rico Cabeza (Spanish Road, Duke of Alba)
Isidoro de Montemayor series by Alfonso Mateo-Sagasta (17th century)
Ladrones de tinta
El gabinete de las maravillas
El reino de los hombres sin amor
Rojo amanecer en Lepanto by Luis Zueco (life of Alejandro Farnesio y Habsburgo and Juan de Austria, Battle of Lepanto)
The last crusader by Louis de Wohl (Juan de Austria)
Leonor de Habsburgo by Yolanda Scheuber (Leonor de Habsburgo)
Decidnos ¿Quién mató al conde? by Néstor Luján (court of Philip IV of Spain, murder of Count of Villamediana)
La cruz en la espada by Néstor Luján (court of Philip IV of Spain, last years of Francisco de Quevedo)
El caballero de Alcántara by Jesús Sánchez Adalid
Y de repente, Teresa by Jesús Sánchez Adalid (Teresa of Ávila)
The Queen's Vow: A Novel Of Isabella Of Castile by C. W. Gortner (Isabel de Castilla)
El abogado de Indias by Amós Milton (A lawyer in Sevilla at 16th century)
El comendador de Alcántara or El gobernador de Indias by José Miguel Carrillo de Albornoz (Nicolás de Ovando)
Ronin by Francisco Narla (Samurai in Spain, 17th century)
Capitán Alonso Cobos series by Juan Tazón (Espionage in the time of Felipe II)
Los caballeros de las sombras
Sabed que mi nombre se perdió
Crónica del rey pasmado by Gonzalo Torrente Ballester (Court of Felipe IV)
San Quintín. Memorias del maestre de campo de los tercios Julián Romero by José Javier Esparza (Battle of St. Quentin (1557))
El náufrago de la Gran Armada by Fernando Martínez Laínez (La Grande y Felicísima Armada)
Lope: la furia del Fénix by Blas Malo (Life of Lope de Vega)
El Gran Capitán by José Calvo Poyato (Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba)
La hora de Quevedo by Baltasar Magro (Francisco de Quevedo)
Picaresque novel
Life and facts of Estebanillo González, man of good humour Anonymous (Thirty Years' War)
Lazarillo de Tormes Anonymous
La Celestina by Fernando de Rojas
El Buscón by Francisco de Quevedo
Exploration and conquest
The Heart of Jade (El Corazón de piedra verde) by Salvador de Madariaga
The Islands of Unwisdom by Robert Graves (Álvaro de Mendaña)
Captain From Castile by Samuel Shellabarger (Hernán Cortés Conquest of Mexico)
La aventura equinocial de Lope de Aguirre by Ramón José Sender Garcés (16th century, conqueror Lope de Aguirre)
Tlaloc Weeps for Mexico (Esőisten siratja Mexikót) by László Passuth (Hernán Cortés Conquest of Mexico)
Malinche by Laura Esquivel (La Malinche)
Centauros by Alberto Vázquez-Figueroa (Alonso de Ojeda)
Cristóbal Colón: Rumbo a Cipango by Edward Rosset
Los navegantes by Edward Rosset (Fernando de Magallanes, Juan Sebastián Elcano, Andrés de Urdaneta, Miguel López de Legazpi)
La ruta de las tormentas by Paula Cifuentes (Fourth voyage of Christopher Columbus, Ferdinand Columbus)
Las huellas del conquistador by José Luis Pérez Regueira (Hernando de Soto exploration of North America)
Hombres valientes, dioses crueles by Eugenio Chouciño
Conquistadores de lo imposible by José Ángel Mañas
Poniente by Alber Vázquez (The first circumnavigation, Fernando de Magallanes, Juan Sebastián Elcano)
Victoria. La odisea de Magallanes y Elcano by Rafael Marín Trechera (The first circumnavigation, Fernando de Magallanes, Juan Sebastián Elcano)
La travesía final by José Calvo Poyato (Juan Sebastián Elcano, Loaísa expedition)
18th century
Hombres buenos by Arturo Pérez-Reverte
El día que España derrotó a Inglaterra. De cómo Blas de Lezo, tuerto, manco y cojo, venció en Cartagena de Indias a la otra "Armada Invencible" by Pablo Victoria (Blas de Lezo, Battle of Cartagena de Indias)
Mediohombre by Alber Vázquez (Blas de Lezo, Battle of Cartagena de Indias)
El héroe del Caribe: La última batalla de Blas de Lezo by J. Pérez-Foncea (Blas de Lezo)
El paisano de Jamaica by Francisco Javier Romero Valentín (Blas de Lezo, Battle of Cartagena de Indias)
Das Ohr das Kapitäns by Gisbert Haefs (Battle of Cartagena de Indias)
Beltrán Ochoa, capitán de Dragones series by Octavio Sánchez-Machuca (Carlos III reign)
El asedio del Diablo
El alma en la batalla
Emboscada en Nápoles
La traición del rey by José Luis Gil Soto (Manuel de Godoy)
Conjura en Madrid by José Calvo Poyato (War of the Spanish Succession, Conspiration against Philip V)
19th century
National Episodes by Benito Pérez Galdós (19th century)
La regenta by Leopoldo Alas "Clarín" (19th century)
Fortunata y Jacinta by Benito Pérez Galdós (19th century)
Un día de cólera by Arturo Pérez-Reverte (Dos de Mayo Uprising)
El húsar by Arturo Pérez-Reverte (Napoleonic age)
The siege (El asedio) by Arturo Pérez-Reverte (1811, Siege of Cádiz)
The Fencing Master by Arturo Pérez-Reverte (Isabella II age)
El secreto del rey cautivo by Antonio Gómez Rufo (Peninsular War)
Vientos de intriga by José Calvo Poyato (Mutiny of Aranjuez, Dos de Mayo Uprising)
Sangre en la calle del Turco by José Calvo Poyato (Prim murder)
El navío Príncipe de Asturias, Trafalgar by Luis Delgado Bañon (19th century) is the 9th book of Una saga marinera española
La artillera by Ángeles de Irisarri (Siege of Saragossa)
El león de ojos árabes by Antonio Cavanillas de Blas (Isabella II age)
Bandera negra by León Arsenal (Carlist_Wars)
20th century
Iberia by James A Michener (20th century)
Winter in Madrid by C. J. Sansom
Episodios nacionales contemporáneos series by Ricardo Fernández de la Reguera and Susana March
And in the distance a light...? also published as Beasts and Martyrs of Spain (A sangre y fuego. Héroes, bestias y mártires de España) by Manuel Chaves Nogales
Riña de gatos. Madrid 1936 by Eduardo Mendoza
El valle de las sombras by Jerónimo Tristante (Construction of the Valle de los Caídos)
The Communist's Daughter by Dennis Bock
The Forging of a Rebel trilogy by Arturo Barea
Línea de fuego by Arturo Pérez-Reverte
The Forging of a Rebel trilogy by Arturo Barea
La sonata del silencio by Paloma Sánchez-Garnica
El arte de matar dragones by Ignacio del Valle
Sweden
The Long Ships by Frans G. Bengtsson (Vikings, 10th century)
The Emigrants tetralogy by Vilhelm Moberg (middle of the 19th century)
Switzerland
Anne of Geierstein by Sir Walter Scott (15th century)
United Kingdom
Earliest history
Stonehenge: A Novel of 2000 BC by Bernard Cornwell (Stonehenge)
Pillar of the Sky by Cecelia Holland (Stonehenge)
The Stronghold by Mollie Hunter (Orkney in the 1st century BC)
Roman Britain
Under the Eagle and others in the Cato series by Simon Scarrow (Roman invasion, AD 42)
The Silver Pigs, A Body in the Bath House and The Jupiter Myth by Lindsey Davis (crime in the reign of Vespasian, 1st century AD)
The Eagle of the Ninth by Rosemary Sutcliff (2nd century AD)
The Silver Branch by Rosemary Sutcliff (3rd century AD)
The Forest House, and others in the series by Marion Zimmer Bradley
The Eagle and the Raven, by Pauline Gedge (Caradoc, 1st century AD)
Medieval
Porius by John Cowper Powys (Arthurian, 5th century)
Sword at Sunset by Rosemary Sutcliff (Arthurian)
The Saxon Shore by Jack Whyte (Arthurian)
Grail Prince by Nancy McKenzie (Galahad)
Hild by Nicola Griffith (7th century)
The Saxon Stories by Bernard Cornwell (Alfred the Great, (9th century)
Avalon by Anya Seton (10th century)
The Conqueror by Georgette Heyer (William the Conqueror, 11th century)
Hereward the Wake by Charles Kingsley (Norman Conquest)
The Wake by Paul Kingsnorth (11th century)
Outlaw by Angus Donald, the first novel in the Outlaw Chronicles (12th century)
King's Man by Angus Donald, the third in the above series (12th century)
The Pillars of the Earth by Ken Follett (12th-century)
Ivanhoe by Sir Walter Scott (12th century)
Kay the Left-Handed by Leslie Barringer (12th century)
The Pillars of the Earth by Ken Follett (12th century)
Lady of the Forest by Jennifer Roberson (12th century)
Time and Chance by Sharon Kay Penman (12th century)
The Devil's Brood by Sharon Kay Penman (12th century)
Here Be Dragons by Sharon Kay Penman (Wales, 13th century)
The Reckoning by Sharon Kay Penman (13th century Wales)
The Heaven Tree Trilogy by Edith Pargeter (13th century Wales)
The Brothers of Gwynedd Quartet by Edith Pargeter (13th century Wales)
The Scottish Chiefs by Jane Porter (13th century Scotland, William Wallace)
The Fair Maid of Perth by Sir Walter Scott (14th-century Scotland)
The Grail Quest by Bernard Cornwell (14th century)
Katherine by Anya Seton (14th century)
Company of Liars by Karen Maitland (14th century)
World Without End by Ken Follett (14th century)
Owen Glendower by John Cowper Powys (15th century Wales)
Know Ye Not Agincourt? by Leslie Barringer (15th century)
The Sunne in Splendour by Sharon Kay Penman (15th century)
The Load of Unicorn by Cynthia Harnett (Caxton, 15th century London)
Tudor and Stuart
The House of Niccolò and Lymond Chronicles by Dorothy Dunnett (Scotland and beyond, 15th and 16th centuries)
The Fortunes of Perkin Warbeck by Mary Shelley (Henry VII and Perkin Warbeck)
Wolf Hall by Hilary Mantel (Thomas Cromwell's rise to power)
Bring up the Bodies by Hilary Mantel (Thomas Cromwell and Anne Boleyn)
The Other Boleyn Girl by Philippa Gregory (Mary Boleyn)
Amenable Women by Mavis Cheek (Anne of Cleves)
The Fifth Queen by Ford Madox Ford (Katharine Howard)
Young Bess, Elizabeth, Captive Princess and Elizabeth and the Prince of Spain by Margaret Irwin
Kenilworth by Sir Walter Scott (Elizabeth I and Amy Robsart)
Cue for Treason by Geoffrey Trease (English Renaissance theatre/Elizabethan Cumberland and London)
Come Rack! Come Rope! by Robert Hugh Benson (Elizabethan persecution of Catholics)
Woodstock by Sir Walter Scott (English Civil War)
Peveril of the Peak by Sir Walter Scott (English Civil War)
John Inglesant by Joseph Henry Shorthouse (Charles I, English Civil War, Catholic proselytism)
Lady of the Glen by Jennifer Roberson (Massacre of Glencoe)
A Tale of Old Mortality by Sir Walter Scott (17th-century Scottish rebellion)
A Journal of the Plague Year by Daniel Defoe (account of Great Plague of London, 1666)
Year of Wonders by Geraldine Brooks (Great Plague, 1666)
Forever Amber by Kathleen Winsor (17th century, Restoration period)
Royal Escape by Georgette Heyer (Cromwell and Charles II)
Micah Clarke by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (17th century, Monmouth Rebellion)
Captain Blood by Rafael Sabatini (17th century, Monmouth Rebellion and aftermath)
The Baroque Cycle by Neal Stephenson (English Civil War, rule of Charles II, Glorious Revolution, early 18th century)
Hawksmoor by Peter Akroyd (Christopher Wren, Nicholas Hawksmoor and parallel modern story)
The History of Henry Esmond by William Makepeace Thackeray (reign of Queen Anne)
An Instance of the Fingerpost by Iain Pears (Restoration period)
Hanoverian
Rob Roy by Sir Walter Scott (1715 Jacobite rising)
The Heart of Mid-Lothian by Sir Walter Scott (1730s Scotland and England)
Waverley by Sir Walter Scott (1745 Jacobite rising)
The Luck of Barry Lyndon by William Makepeace Thackeray (18th-century England, Seven Years' War)
Redgauntlet by Sir Walter Scott (Jacobites in Dumfries, 1760s)
Barnaby Rudge: A Tale of the Riots of 'Eighty by Charles Dickens (Gordon riots, 1780)
A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens (London and Paris during the French Revolution)
Richard Sharpe series by Bernard Cornwell (British Army in the Napoleonic Wars)
Horatio Hornblower series by C. S. Forester (British navy in the Napoleonic Wars)
Aubrey–Maturin series by Patrick O'Brian (British Navy in the Napoleonic Wars)
Ramage series by Dudley Pope (British Navy in the Napoleonic Wars)
Bolitho Novels by Alexander Kent (British Navy in the Napoleonic Wars)
Revolution series by Simon Scarrow (Wellington and Napoleon)
Judith by Brian Cleeve (Set around the start of the 19th century)
Thomas Kydd Series by Julian Stockwin, set during the French and Napoleonic Wars
Sacred Hunger by Barry Unsworth (18th century transatlantic slave trade)
Victorian
Fingersmith by Sarah Waters (1860s London and elsewhere)
The Flashman Papers by George MacDonald Fraser (Victorian era)
Laura Blundy by Julie Myerson (Victorian London)
Jamrach's Menagerie by Carol Birch (Victorian London and seafaring)
Lady's Maid by Margaret Forster (concerns Elizabeth Barrett Browning)
20th century
The Wishing Game by Patrick Redmond (life in a strict and uncanny boarding school in rural Norfolk in the 1950s)
The Rotters' Club by Jonathan Coe (1970s)
Diary of an Ordinary Woman by Margaret Forster (a fictional diary of the period)
Multiple time frames
Sarum by Edward Rutherfurd – Tells the story of England through the eyes of six families in the Salisbury area, stretching from Prehistoric Britain through the 1980s
The Outlander series by Diana Gabaldon
United States (including areas that become part of the US)
Colonial
Rachel Dyer: a North American Story by John Neal (Salem witch trials)
Seventy-Six by John Neal (American Revolution)
Sergeant Lamb of the Ninth and Proceed, Sergeant Lamb by Robert Graves (American Revolution)
The Fort by Bernard Cornwell (the Penobscot Expedition of the American Revolution)
The Last of the Mohicans by James Fenimore Cooper (French and Indian War)
Richard Carvel by Winston Churchill (Maryland and the American Revolution)
Shadow Patriots, a Novel of the Revolution by Lucia St. Clair Robson (George Washington's Culper Spy Ring)
Johnny Tremain by Esther Forbes (Boston in the 1770s)
Mason & Dixon by Thomas Pynchon (18th century/American Revolution)
War Comes to Willy Freeman by James Lincoln Collier (American Revolution)
19th century
Burr by Gore Vidal (Aaron Burr)
My Theodosia by Anya Seton (The life of Theodosia Burr Alston, her father Aaron Burr's Vice Presidency and subsequent years)
The Confessions of Nat Turner by William Styron (1831 slave revolt)
Roots: The Saga of an American Family by Alex Haley (18th–19th century slavery)
Death Comes for the Archbishop by Willa Cather (mid-19th century New Mexico Territory
Cloudsplitter by Russell Banks (abolitionist John Brown, pre-Civil War)
The Emigrants series by Vilhelm Moberg (Swedish emigrants in Minnesota, 1850s)
The Known World by Edward P. Jones (antebellum Virginia)
The Travels of Jaimie McPheeters by Robert Lewis Taylor (mid-19th century Western wagon train)
Lincoln by Gore Vidal
Across Five Aprils by Irene Hunt (American Civil War)
Andersonville by MacKinlay Kantor (American Civil War)
Cold Mountain by Charles Frazier (American Civil War)
Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell (American Civil War)
The Killer Angels by Michael Shaara (American Civil War)
The Red Badge of Courage by Stephen Crane (American Civil War)
Traveller by Richard Adams (American Civil War, told by Robert E. Lee's horse)
Andersonville by MacKinlay Kantor (Andersonville prison camp)
Shiloh by Shelby Foote
The March by E. L. Doctorow (Sherman's March to the Sea)
True Women by Janice Woods Windle (Texas Revolution, American Civil War, early 20th Century)
Lee and Grant at Appomattox by MacKinlay Kantor (American Civil War)
Oldest Living Confederate Widow Tells All by Allan Gurganus (American Civil War and late 19th century)
Beloved by Toni Morrison (post-Civil War)
Ride the Wind by Lucia St. Clair Robson (Cynthia Ann Parker's life with the Comanches)
The Turquoise by Anya Seton (The Santa Fe Trail and New York society)
Out of This Furnace by Thomas Bell (Immigrants and the steel mills of Pittsburgh, from 1880)
Martin Dressler: The Tale of an American Dreamer by Steven Millhauser (late 19th century New York City)
Shadow Country by Peter Matthiessen (Edgar "Bloody" Watson, late 19th century Florida)
The English Wife by Lauren Willig (New York Gilded Age)
20th century
Ragtime by E. L. Doctorow (beginning of the 20th century)
The Road to Wellville by T. C. Boyle (the story of Dr. John Harvey Kellogg in 1907)
Lanny Budd series by Upton Sinclair (1913–1949)
Cryptonomicon by Neal Stephenson (American soldiers in World War II)
Two Trains Running by Andrew Vachss (1960 presidential election)
Multiple time frames
Novels by James A. Michener
Alaska (Alaska)
Centennial (Colorado)
Chesapeake (Chesapeake Bay/Delmarva Peninsula)
Hawaii (Hawaii)
Texas (Texas)
Novels by other authors
New York by Edward Rutherfurd (New York City)
Vietnam
The Sorrow of War by Bao Ninh (Vietnam War)
The Lotus Eaters by Tatjana Soli (Vietnam War)
See also
Historical fiction
Historical novel
Novel
Fiction set in ancient Rome
Fiction set in ancient Greece
External links
Database of German historical novels
Historical Fiction database, divided by time period.
A Guide to the Best Historical Novels and Tales by Jonathan Nield (1902). Project Gutenberg etext (accessed 05-2014)
A selection of historical novels set by epoch and author. (accessed 08-2010)
Annotated list of historical novels for children and teens Anchorage Public Library
History networking Authors, Publishers, Editors, Researchers. Suggest tools and sources, help with reading list, discussions challenges. Network, promote books or find work.
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224336 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud%20base | Cloud base | A cloud base (or the base of the cloud) is the lowest altitude of the visible portion of a cloud. It is traditionally expressed either in metres or feet above mean sea level or above a planetary surface, or as the pressure level corresponding to this altitude in hectopascals (hPa, equivalent to the millibar).
Measurement
The height of the cloud base can be measured using a ceilometer. This device reflects a beam of light off the cloud base and then calculates its distance using either triangulation or travel time.
Alternatively, the cloud base can be estimated from surface measurements of air temperature and humidity by calculating the lifted condensation level. One method for doing this, used by the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration and often named after Tom Bradbury, is as follows:
Find the difference between the surface temperature and the dew point. This value is known as the "spread".
Divide the spread by 4.4 (if temperatures are in °F) or 2.5 (if temperatures are in °C), then multiply by 1000. This will give the altitude of the cloud base in feet above ground level. Put in a simpler way, 400 feet for every 1°C dew point spread.
Add the results from step (2) to the field elevation to obtain the altitude of the cloud base above mean sea level.
Weather and climate relevance
In well-defined air masses, many (or even most) clouds may have a similar cloud base because this variable is largely controlled by the thermodynamic properties of that air mass, which are relatively homogeneous on a large spatial scale. This is not the case for the cloud tops, which can vary widely from cloud to cloud, as the depth of the cloud is determined by the strength of local convection.
Clouds greatly affect the transfer of radiation in the atmosphere. In the thermal spectral domain, water is a strong absorber (and thus emitter, according to Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation); hence clouds exchange thermal radiation between their bases and the underlying planetary surface (land or ocean) by absorbing and re-emitting this infrared radiation at the prevailing temperature – the lower the cloud base, the warmer the cloud particles and the higher the rate of emission. For a synthetic discussion of the impact of clouds (and in particular the role of cloud bases) on climate systems, see the IPCC Third Assessment Report, in particular chapter 7.2.
Cloud base is an important meteorological variable for aviation safety, as it determines whether pilots may use visual flight rules (VFR) or instrument flight rules for take-off and landing.
See also
Ceiling (cloud)
Cloud cover
Cloud height
Lifted condensation level
References
Huschke, Ralph E. (1959) Glossary of Meteorology, American Meteorological Society, Boston, Second printing-1970.
McIntosh, D. H. (1972) Meteorological Glossary, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, Met. O. 842, A.P. 897, 319 p.
FAA Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, Weather Theory p. 14
External links
National Science Digital Library - Cloud Base
Cloud base Measuring instruments
Measuring Cloud Heights – a lesson plan from the National Science Digital Library (archive from 13 Sept 2010)
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224345 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalescence | Coalescence | Coalescence may refer to:
Coalescence (chemistry), the process by which two or more separate masses of miscible substances seem to "pull" each other together should they make the slightest contact
Coalescence (computer science), the merging of adjacent blocks of memory to fill gaps caused by deallocated memory
Coalescence (genetics), the merging of genetic lineages backwards to a most recent common ancestor
Coalescence (linguistics), the merging of two or more phonological segments into one
Coalescence (physics), the merging of two or more droplets, bubbles or particles into one
COALESCE, a SQL command that selects the first non-null from a range of values
In geography, the process by which urban sprawl produces a linear conurbation
Coalescence (Whit Dickey album), 2004
Coalescence (Andre Canniere album), 2013 | [
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224348 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funan | Funan | Funan (; , ; , Chữ Hán: ) was the name given by Chinese cartographers, geographers and writers to an ancient Indianised state—or, rather a loose network of states (Mandala)—located in mainland Southeast Asia centered on the Mekong Delta that existed from the first to sixth century CE. The name is found in Chinese historical texts describing the kingdom, and the most extensive descriptions are largely based on the report of two Chinese diplomats, Kang Tai and Zhu Ying, representing the Eastern Wu dynasty who sojourned in Funan in the mid-3rd century CE.
Funan is known in the modern languages of the region as Vnum (Old Khmer: ), Nokor Phnom (, , ), (), and (Vietnamese). However, the name Funan is not found in any texts of local origin from the period, and it is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their polity. Some scholars argued that ancient Chinese scholars transcribed the word Funan from a word related to the Khmer word bnaṃ or vnaṃ (modern: , meaning "mountain"), others however thought that Funan may not be a transcription at all- rather it meant what it says in Chinese.
Like the very name of the kingdom, the ethno-linguistic nature of the people is the subject of much discussion among specialists. The leading hypotheses are that the Funanese were mostly Mon–Khmer, or that they were mostly Austronesian, or that they constituted a multi-ethnic society. The available evidence is inconclusive on this issue. Michael Vickery has said that, even though identification of the language of Funan is not possible, the evidence strongly suggests that the population was Khmer. The results of archaeology at Oc Eo have demonstrated "no true discontinuity between Oc Eo and pre-Angkorian levels", indicating Khmer linguistic dominance in the area under Funan control.
Based on the testimony of the Chinese historians, the polity Funan is believed to have been established in the 1st century CE in the Mekong Delta, but archaeological research has shown that extensive human settlement in the region may have gone back as far as the 4th century BCE. Though regarded by Chinese authors as a single unified polity, some modern scholars suspect that Funan may have been a collection of city-states that sometimes were at war with one another and at other times constituted a political unity. From archaeological evidence, which includes Roman, Chinese, and Indian goods excavated at the ancient mercantile centre of Óc Eo in southern Vietnam, it is known that Funan must have been a powerful trading state. Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Óc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan.
Etymology
Some scholars have advanced speculative proposal regarding the origin and meaning of the word Funan. It is often said that the name Funan (Middle Chinese pronunciation of : /bju nậm/, Later Han pronunciation: /buɑ nəm/ or possibly /puɑ nəm/) represents a transcription from some local language into Chinese. For example, French scholar Georges Coedès advanced the theory that in using the word Funan ancient Chinese scholars were transcribing a word related to the Khmer word bnaṃ or vnaṃ (modern: phnoṃ, meaning "mountain").
However, the epigraphist Claude Jacques pointed out that this explanation was based on a mis-translation of the Sanskrit word parvatabùpála in the ancient inscriptions as equivalent to the Khmer word bnaṃ and a mis-identification of the King Bhavavarman I mentioned in them as the conqueror of Funan. It has also been observed that in Chinese the character (, ) is frequently used in geographical terms to mean "South"; Chinese scholars used it in this sense in naming other locations or regions of Southeast Asia, such as Annam.
Thus, Funan may be an originally Chinese word, and may not be a transcription at all. Jacques proposed that use of the name Funan should be abandoned in favour of the names, such as Bhavapura, Aninditapura, Shresthapura and Vyadhapura, which are known from inscriptions to have been used at the time for cities in the region and give a more accurate idea of the geography of the ancient Khmer regions than the names Funan or Zhenla are unknown in the Old Khmer language.
Sources
The first modern scholar to reconstruct the history of the ancient polity of Funan was Paul Pelliot, who in his ground-breaking article "Le Fou-nan" of 1903 drew exclusively on Chinese historical records to set forth the sequence of documented events connecting the foundation of Funan in approximately the 1st century CE with its demise by conquest in the 6th to 7th century. Scholars critical of Pelliot's Chinese sources have expressed scepticism regarding his conclusions.
Chinese records dating from the 3rd century CE, beginning with the (, Records of the Three Kingdoms) completed in 289 CE by Chén Shòu (; 233–297), record the arrival of two Funanese embassies at the court of (), governor in the southern Chinese kingdom of Wú (): the first embassy arrived between 225 and 230 CE, the second in the year 243. Later sources such as the Liáng shū (, Book of Liang) of Yáo Chá (; 533–606) and (, d. 637), completed in 636, discuss the mission of the 3rd-century Chinese envoys Kang Tai () and () from the Kingdom of Wu to Funan. The writings of these envoys, though no longer extant in their original condition, were excerpted and as such preserved in the later dynastic histories, and form the basis for much of what we know about Funan.
Since the publication of Pelliot's article, archaeological excavation in Vietnam and Cambodia, especially excavation of sites related to the Óc Eo culture, have supported and supplemented his conclusion.
History
Origins of Funan
According to modern scholars drawing primarily on Chinese literary sources, a foreigner named "Huntian" [pinyin: Hùntián] established the Kingdom of Funan around the 1st century CE in the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam. Archeological evidence shows that extensive human settlement in the region may go back as far as the 4th century BCE. Though treated by Chinese historians as a single unified empire, according to some modern scholars Funan may have been a collection of city-states that sometimes warred with one another and at other times constituted a political unity.
The ethnic and linguistic origins of the Funanese people have consequently been subject to scholarly debate, and no firm conclusions can be drawn based on the evidence available. The Funanese may have been Cham or from another Austronesian group, or they may have been Khmer or from another Austroasiatic group. It is possible that they are the ancestors of those indigenous people dwelling in the southern part of Vietnam today who refer themselves as "Khmer" or "Khmer Krom." The Khmer term "krom" means "below" or "lower part of" and is used to refer to territory that was later colonised by Vietnamese immigrants and taken up into the modern state of Vietnam.
It is also possible that Funan was a multicultural society, including various ethnic and linguistic groups. In the late 4th and 5th centuries, Indianization advanced more rapidly, in part through renewed impulses from the south Indian Pallava dynasty and the north Indian Gupta Empire. The only extant local writings from the period of Funan are paleographic Pallava Grantha inscriptions in Sanskrit of the Pallava dynasty, a scholarly language used by learned and ruling elites throughout South and Southeast Asia. These inscriptions give no information about the ethnicity or vernacular tongue of the Funanese.
Funan may have been the Suvarnabhumi referred to in ancient Indian texts. Among the Khmer Krom of the lower Mekong region the belief is held that they are the descendants of ancient Funan, the core of Suvarnabhumi/Suvarnadvipa, which covered a vast extent of Southeast Asia including present day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Burma, Malaya, Sumatra and other parts of Indonesia. In December 2017, Dr Vong Sotheara, of the Royal University of Phnom Penh, discovered a Pre-Angkorian stone inscription in the Province of Kampong Speu Baset District, which he tentatively dated to 633 CE. According to him, the inscription would “prove that Suvarnabhumi was the Khmer Empire.” The inscription, translated, read: “The great King Isanavarman is full of glory and bravery. He is the King of Kings, who rules over Suvarnabhumi until the sea, which is the border, while the kings in the neighbouring states honour his order to their heads”.
Kaundinya/Huntian
Huntian
The Book of Liang records the story of the foundation of Funan by the foreigner Hùntián (, Middle Chinese pronunciation /ɦwənx tɦian/): "He came from the southern country Jiào (, an unidentified location, perhaps on the Malaysian Peninsula or in the Indonesian archipelago) after dreaming that his personal genie had delivered a divine bow to him and had directed him to embark on a large merchant junk. In the morning, he proceeded to the temple, where he found a bow at the foot of the genie's tree. He then boarded a ship, which the genie caused to land in Fúnán. The queen of the country, Liǔyè (, "Willow Leaf"; Queen Soma) wanted to pillage the ship and seize it, so Hùntián shot an arrow from his divine bow which pierced through Liǔyè's ship.
Frightened, she gave herself up, and Hùntián took her for his wife. But unhappy to see her naked, he folded a piece of material to make a garment through which he made her pass her head. Then he governed the country and passed power on to his son, who was the founder of seven cities." Nearly the same story appeared in the Jìn shū (Book of Jin), compiled by Fáng Xuánlíng in 648 CE; however, in the Book of Jin the names given to the foreign conqueror and his native wife are "Hùnhuì" and "Yèliǔ" .
Kaundinya
Some scholars have identified the conqueror Hùntián of the Book of Liang with the Brahmin Kauṇḍinya who married a nāga (snake) princess named Somā, as set forth in a Sanskrit inscription found at Mỹ Sơn and dated 658 CE (see below). Other scholars have rejected this identification, pointing out that the word "Hùntián" has only two syllables, while the word "Kauṇḍinya" has three, and arguing that Chinese scholars would not have used a two-syllable Chinese word to transcribe a three-syllable word from another language.
Kaundinya in the Chinese sources
Even if the Chinese "Hùntián" is not the proper transcription of the Sanskrit "Kaundinya", the name "Kaundinya" [Kauṇḍinya, Koṇḍañña, Koṇḍinya, etc.] is nevertheless an important one in the history of Funan as written by the Chinese historians: however, they transcribed it not as "Hùntián", but as "Qiáochénrú" (). A person of that name is mentioned in the Book of Liang in a story that appears somewhat after the story of Hùntián.
According to this source, Qiáochénrú was one of the successors of the king Tiānzhú Zhāntán (, "Candana from India"), a ruler of Funan who in the year 357 CE sent tamed elephants as tribute to Emperor Mu of Jin (r. 344–361; personal name: Sīmǎ Dān (): "He [Qiáochénrú] was originally a Brahmin from India. There a voice told him: 'you must go reign over Fúnán,' and he rejoiced in his heart. In the south, he arrived at Pánpán (). The people of Fúnán appeared to him; the whole kingdom rose up with joy, went before him, and chose him king. He changed all the laws to conform to the system of India."
Kaundinya in the inscription of Mỹ Sơn
The story of Kaundinya is also set forth briefly in the Sanskrit inscription C. 96 of the Cham king Prakasadharma found at Mỹ Sơn. It is dated Sunday, 18 February 658 CE (and thus belongs to the post-Funanese period) and states in relevant part (stanzas XVI-XVIII): "It was there [at the city of Bhavapura] that Kauṇḍinya, the foremost among brahmins, planted the spear which he had obtained from Droṇa's Son Aśvatthāman, the best of brahmins. There was a daughter of a king of serpents, called "Somā", who founded a family in this world. Having attained, through love, to a radically different element, she lived in the abode of man. She was taken as wife by the excellent Brahmin Kauṇḍinya for the sake of (accomplishing) a certain task...".
Kaundinya in the inscription of Tháp Mười
The Sanskrit inscription (K.5) of Tháp Mười (known as "Prasat Pram Loven" in Khmer), which is now on display in the Museum of Vietnamese History in Ho Chi Minh City, refers to a Prince Guṇavarman, younger son (nṛpasunu—bālo pi) of a king Ja[yavarman] who was "the moon of the Kauṇḍinya line (...kauṇḍi[n]ya[vaṅ]śaśaśinā...) and chief "of a realm wrested from the mud".
Kaundinya in Khmer folklore
The legend of Kaundinya is paralleled in modern Khmer folklore, where the foreign prince is known as "Preah Thaong" and the queen as "Neang Neak". In this version of the story, Preah Thaong arrives by sea to an island marked by a giant thlok tree, native to Cambodia. On the island, he finds the home of the nāgas and meets Neang Neak, daughter of the nāga king. He marries her with blessings from her father and returns to the human world. The nāga king drinks the sea around the island and confers the name "Kampuchea Thipdei", which is derived from the Sanskrit (Kambujādhipati) and may be translated into English as "the lord of Cambodia". In another version, it is stated that Preah Thaong fights Neang Neak.
The reference to an island is interesting and may further implicate Angkor Borei as a noted capital or primary center. Angkor Borei is surrounded by a six kilometer earthen wall approximately 20 meters wide and several meters high. The wall is amorphous with only one discernible geometric corner. The wall circumference mostly contours the settlement area and natural topography. It serves more as a water control mechanism than a defensive wall. There is evidence of brick interiors in some locations which may have been a feature of wall construction. Or, the bricks may represent features within the wall such as a temple or shrine that intentionally articulated with the wall or was buried during wall construction and enhancement, much like Ak Yum in the West Baray at Ankgor.
There is archaeological evidence of settlement and activity along and on top of the wall as well – particularly closer to the Angkor Borei River which transects the urban site through at least two wall openings. Areas closer to the river banks and dykes have much higher densities of artifacts and evidence of activity and settlement. There is a 20-meter outer moat in many locations and several moat-like segments on the interior of the wall. The removed soil was likely used to create the wall and further enhance hydrological engineering, i.e., water control: channel it, move it, store it, control ground water levels in the dry season, etc.
Because of the high clay content, the wall is rather impermeable. During the wet season, the very flat surrounding floodplain essentially becomes a giant lake with the noted exceptions of Phnom Borei mountain (Iron Age, Funan, and other sites including burials), Phnom Da hills (also contains Asram Maha Russei and Phnom Da temples), and the urban Angkor Borei site appearing as islands. The dominant production economy also switches to fishing.
Access to Angkor Borei is by boat rather than road. During the dry season, the situation is reversed where rice paddies and flood recession rice cropping dominate the economy and the land eventually becomes dry, also useful for some gardens, the ever-present sugar palms (Borassus flabellifer), and grazing. The archaeological material culture at Angkor Borei itself is very dense and highly variable with a wide spectrum of exotic items indicative of a prominent trade, production and redistribution center.
Kaundinya's Indian Origins
Since most sources are vague on the exact origins of Kaundinya I from India, delving into history especially through the lens of maritime history and ancient trade links as well as inscriptions analysis and customs from India is important in providing insights into the origins of Kaundinya. Sanjeev Sanyal's book The Ocean of Churn: How the Indian Ocean Shaped Human History further looks into the origin of the name Kaundinya, which points out that it is not usually a common first name in India but a gotra (i.e. the patrilineal lineage) of a group of Brahmins who lived on the eastern coastline of India especially along the Odisha-Northern Andhra coastline. Thus this region corresponds to the ancient Kalinga region (now modern Odisha), which is important considering the early Indian mariners were trading from this region as evident from their ancient maritime history around the 3rd century BCE. The port of Palur(near Ganjam) which was referred to by Ptolemy as a prominent international port during the 2nd century CE, thus referring to its important role played in the maritime trading history.
The strong links with Kalinga are also noted from the copper plate land grants given by the rulers of Kalinga to Kaundinya Brahmins who lived in the Mahendragiri region of Ganjam, especially the Ragolu inscription copper plate grant of the Pitrbhakta dynasty, the prominence of Shaivite customs mentioned in the Chinese work History of the Southern Dynasties during the reign of Jayavarman Kaundinya with regards to Mount Mo-tan in Funan, bearing close affinity with the early Saivite customs and its relation to Mahendragiri mountain which was the prevalent religion during the reign of different Kalinga dynasties. The diplomatic relations maintained between Funan and the Murunda dynasty of northern Kalinga during 3rd cen CE also plays an important role in the relations between the two regions.
Apex and decline of Funan
Successive rulers following Hun-t'ien included Hun-p'an-huang, P'an-p'an, and then Fan Shih-man, "Great King of Funan", who "had large ships built, and sailing all over the immense sea he attacked more than ten kingdoms... he extended his territory five or six thousand li." Fan Shih-man died on a military expedition to Chin-lin, "Frontier of Gold". He was followed by Chin-cheng, Fan Chan, Ch'ang and then Fan Hsun, in successive assassinations. Before his death, Fan Chan sent embassies to India and China in 243.
Around 245, Funan was described as having "walled villages, palaces, and dwellings. They devote themselves to agriculture... they like to engrave ornaments and chisel. Many of their eating utensils are silver. Taxes are paid in gold, silver, pearls, perfumes. There are books and depositories of archives and other things." The Indian Chan-T'an was ruling in 357, followed by another Indian Chiao Chen-ju (Kaundinya) in the fifth century, who "changed all the laws to conform to the system of India." In 480, She-yeh-pa-mo, Jayavarman or "Protege of Victory" reigned until his death in 514. One of his sons, Rudravarman, killed the other, Gunavarman, for the throne, and became the last king of Funan.
Funan reached the apex of its power under the 3rd-century king Fan Shiman (). Fan Shiman expanded his empire's navy and improved the Funanese bureaucracy, creating a quasi-feudal pattern that left local customs and identities largely intact, particularly in the empire's further reaches. Fan Shiman and his successors also sent ambassadors to China and India to regulate sea trade. The kingdom likely accelerated the process of Indianization of Southeast Asia. Later kingdoms of Southeast Asia such as Chenla may have emulated the Funanese court. The Funanese established a strong system of mercantilism and commercial monopolies that would become a pattern for empires in the region.
Funan's dependence on maritime trade is seen as a cause for the beginning of Funan's downfall. Their coastal ports allowed trade with foreign regions that funnelled goods to the north and coastal populations. However, the shift in maritime trade to Sumatra, the rise in the Srivijaya trade empire, and the taking of trade routes all throughout Southeast Asia by China, leads to economic instability in the south, and forces politics and economy northward.
Funan was superseded and absorbed in the 6th century by the Khmer polity of the Chenla Kingdom (Zhenla). "The king had his capital in the city of T'e-mu. Suddenly his city was subjugated by Chenla, and he had to migrate south to the city of Na-fu-na."
The first inscription in the Khmer language is dated shortly after the fall of Funan. A concentration of later Khmer inscriptions in southern Cambodia may suggest the even earlier presence of a Khmer population. Despite absence of compelling evidence as to the ethnicity of the Funanese, modern scholar Michael Vickery has stated that "on present evidence it is impossible to assert that Funan as an area and its dominant groups were anything but Khmer".
Legacy
The "King of the mountain" was the monarch of Funan. There was a mountain regarded as holy. Mountain in Khmer sounds similar to Funan.
The Java-based Sailendras claimed that the Funan monarchs were their ancestors. Cambodia was taken control of after a sojourn in Java by Jayavarman II.
The "Mountain Kings" of Funan were claimed as the forebears of the Malacca Sultanate and Brunei Sultanate.
Society
Keeping in mind that Funanese records did not survive into the modern period, much of what is known came from archaeological excavation. Excavations yielded discoveries of brick wall structures, precious metals and pot from southern Cambodia and Vietnam. Also found was a large canal system that linked the settlements of Angkor Borei and coastal outlets; this suggests a highly organised government. Funan was a complex and sophisticated society with a high population density, advanced technology, and a complex social system.
Capital
On the assumption that Funan was a single unified polity, scholars have advanced various linguistic arguments about the location of its "capital".
One theory, based on the presumed connection between the word "Funan" and the Khmer word "phnom", locates the capital in the vicinity of Ba Phnoṃ near the modern Cambodian town of Banam in Prey Veng Province.
Another theory, propounded by George Coedès, is that the capital was a town identified in Angkorian inscriptions as "Vyādhapura" (City of the Hunter). Coedès based his theory on a passage in the Chinese histories which identified the capital as "Temu" (, ); Coedès claimed this name represented a transcription from the Khmer word "dalmāk", which he translated as "hunter." This theory has been rejected by other scholars on the grounds that "dalmāk" means "trapper", not "hunter".
Unfortunately, only limited archaeological research has been conducted on Funan in southern Cambodia and Cochinchina in the last few decades, and it is precisely this region that reputedly housed the capital or capitals of Funan. However, archaeological surveys and excavations were carried out by joint Cambodian (Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts; Royal University of Fine Arts) and international teams at Angkor Borei since 1994 continuing into the 2000s. The research included excavation and dating of human burials at Wat Kamnou. Numerous brick features, architectural remains, and landscape features such as mounds, canals and reservoirs have also been identified.
Some have been dated with a wide spectrum of results ranging from the late centuries BCE to the Angkorian period. A significant canal system linking the site of Oc Eo has also been researched and dated. Phon Kaseka led a Royal Academy of Cambodia and Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts team (also with Royal University of Fine Arts personnel) conducted Iron Age to Funan period burial excavations at neighboring Phnom Borei. Large landscape features, notable settlement mounds, and other sites exhibiting Funan material culture and settlement patterns extend from at least Phnom Chisor through Oc Eo and numerous sites in Vietnam. Vietnamese archaeologists have also conducted a fair amount of research on Funan sites in the lower Mekong region.
Many of the mounds show evidence of material culture and landscape modification (inclusive of species-genera biological regimes) ranging from the metal age through the post-Angkorian period and later as evidenced by 13th through 16th century CE Chinese, Thai, Vietnamese, and Cham ceramics. The evidence suggests a 2000-year or longer period of urbanization, continuous activity, and relatively strong albeit indirect and multi-nodal connections to long-distance value chains. Nevertheless, it is quite evident that periods of intense production, consumption, activity, commercial and political centrality fluctuated.
The Funan period seems to have been the heyday and Angkor Borei may have been Funan's premiere capital for much of that period. However, many of the settlements did not necessarily spring up out of nowhere or vanish quickly. They were certainly well integrated into pre-Funan, Funan, Zhenla [Chenla], Angkorian and post-Angkorian socio-economic and political networks. The urbanization and networking processes demonstrate significant continuity, evolution and longevity before and after the typical first to sixth century CE historic classification scheme.
Culture
Funanese culture was a mixture of native beliefs and Indian ideas. The kingdom is said to have been heavily influenced by Indian culture, and to have employed Indians for state administration purposes. Sanskrit was the language at the court, and the Funanese advocated Hinduism and, after the fifth century, Buddhist religious doctrines. Records show that taxes were paid in silver, gold, pearls, and perfumed wood. Kang Tai () and Zhu Ying () reported that the Funanese practised slavery and that justice was rendered through trial by ordeal, including such methods as carrying a red-hot iron chain and retrieving gold rings and eggs from boiling water.
Archaeological evidence largely corresponds to Chinese records. The Chinese described the Funanese as people who lived on stilt houses, cultivated rice and sent tributes of gold, silver, ivory and exotic animals.
Kang Tai's report was unflattering to Funanese civilisation, though Chinese court records show that a group of Funanese musicians visited China in 263 CE. The Chinese emperor was so impressed that he ordered the establishment of an institute for Funanese music near Nanking. The Funanese were reported to have extensive book collections and archives throughout their country, demonstrating a high level of scholarly achievements.
Two Buddhist monks from Funan, named Mandrasena and Sanghapala, took up residency in China in the 5th to 6th centuries, and translated several Buddhist sūtras from Sanskrit (or a prakrit) into Chinese. Among these texts is the Mahayana Saptaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, also called the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Mañjuśrīparivarta Sūtra. This text was separately translated by both monks. The bodhisattva Mañjuśrī is a prominent figure in this text.
Economy
Funan was Southeast Asia's first great economy. It became prosperous through maritime trade and agriculture. The kingdom apparently minted its own silver coinage, bearing the image of the crested argus or hamsa bird.
Funan came into prominence at a time when the trade route from India to China consisted of a maritime leg from India to the Isthmus of Kra, the narrow portion of the Malay peninsula, a portage across the isthmus, and then a coast-hugging journey by ship along the Gulf of Siam, past the Mekong Delta, and along the Vietnamese coast to China. Funanese kings of the 2nd century conquered polities on the isthmus itself, and thus may have controlled the entire trade route from Malaysia to central Vietnam.
The Funanese settlement of Óc Eo, located near the Straits of Malacca, provided a port-of-call and entrepot for this international trade route. Archaeological evidence discovered at what may have been the commercial centre of Funan at Óc Eo includes Roman as well as Persian, Indian, and Greek artefacts. The German classical scholar Albrecht Dihle believed that Funan's main port, was the Kattigara referred to by the 2nd century Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy as the emporium where merchants from the Chinese and Roman empires met to trade. Dihle also believed that the location of Óc Eo best fit the details given by Ptolemy of a voyage made by a Graeco-Roman merchant named Alexander to Kattigara, situated at the easternmost end of the maritime trade route from the eastern Roman Empire.
Georges Coedès said: "Fu-nan occupied a key position with regard to the maritime trade routes, and was inevitably a port of call both for the navigators who went through the Straits of Malacca and for those – probably more numerous – who made the transit over one of the isthmuses of the Malay Peninsula. Fu-nan may even have been the terminus of voyages from the Eastern Mediterranean, if it is the case that the Kattigara mentioned by Ptolemy was situated on the western coast of Indochina on the Gulf of Siam".
At Óc Eo, Roman coins were among the items of long-distance trade discovered by the French archaeologist Louis Malleret in the 1940s. These include mid-2nd-century Roman golden medallions from the reigns of Antoninus Pius, and his adopted son and heir Marcus Aurelius. From Óc Eo, archaeologists also found a fine gold pendant imitation of a aureus of Antoninus minted in 152 AD with caption ANTONINVS AVG PIVS (Antoninus Aug(ustus) Pius) and portrait of the emperor turning left. Similar gold sheet discs that imitated Roman coins minted by local Funanese also are rediscovered, included imitations of aureus of Antoninus (minted in 155–158), Commodus ( 192), Septimius Severus ( 198–202), perhaps the minting techniques were brought by traders including those from the Roman Empire. It is perhaps no small coincidence that the first Roman embassy from "Daqin" recorded in Chinese history is dated 166 AD, allegedly sent by a Roman ruler named "Andun" (; corresponding with the names Antoninus Pius or Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) and arriving through the Eastern Han Empire's southernmost frontier province of Jiaozhi in northern Vietnam.
In addition to trade, Funan also benefited from a sophisticated agricultural system that included use of an elaborate system of water storage and irrigation. The Funanese population was concentrated mainly along the rivers of the Mekong Delta; the area was a natural region for the development of an economy based on fishing and rice cultivation.
Foreign relations
Little is known about Funan's political history apart from its relations with China. The Funanese had diplomatic relations and traded with the Eastern Wu and Liang dynasties of southern China. Contact with Southeast Asia began after the Southward expansion of the Han dynasty, and the annexation of Nanyue and other kingdoms situated in southern China. Goods imported or modelled on those from China, like bronze axes, have been excavated in Cambodia. An Eastern Wu embassy was sent from China to Funan in 228. A brief conflict is recorded to have happened in the 270s, when Funan and its neighbour, Linyi, joined forces to attack the area of Tongking (Vietnamese: Đông Kinh, "eastern capital"), located in what is now modern Northern Vietnam (which was a Chinese colony at the time).
Funan maintained diplomatic relations with the Murunda dynasty of northern Kalinga during 3rd cen CE, when King Dhamadamadhara (Dharmatamadharasya) of Murunda received envoy Su-Wu who represented King Fan Chan of Funan (225–250 CE).
According to Chinese sources, Funan was eventually conquered and absorbed by its vassal polity Chenla (pinyin: Zhēnlà). Chenla was a Khmer polity, and its inscriptions are in both Sanskrit and in Khmer. The last known ruler of Funan was Rudravarman (, pinyin: ) who ruled from 514 up to c. 545 CE.
The French historian Georges Coedès once hypothesized a relation between the rulers of Funan and the Shailendra dynasty of Indonesia. Coedès believed that the title of "mountain lord" used by the Sailendra kings may also have been used by the kings of Funan, since he also believed that the name "Funan" was a Chinese transcription related to the Khmer "phnom", which means "mountain." Other scholars have rejected this hypothesis, pointing to the lack of evidence in early Cambodian epigraphy for the use of any such titles.
People who came from the coast of Funan are also known to establish Chi Tu (the Red Earth Kingdom) in the Malay Peninsula. The Red Earth Kingdom is thought to be a derivation nation of Funan with its own kind of Khmer culture.
List of rulers of Funan
See also
Mnong people
Angkor Borei and Phnom Da
Óc Eo
Cát Tiên archaeological site
Pan Pan
References
Literature
George Cœdès, The Indianized States of Southeast Asia (translated from the French by Susan Brown Cowing). Honolulu: East West Center Press, 1968
George Cœdès, "Études Cambodgiennes XXV: Deux inscriptions sanskrites du Fou-nan",Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême Orient XXXI (1931), pp. 1–12
Louis Finot, "Notes d'Épigraphie XI: Les Inscriptions de Mi-so'n", Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême Orient IV (1904), pp. 918–925
Karl-Heinz Golzio, "Kauṇḍinya in Südostasien", in Martin Straube, Roland Steiner, Jayandra Soni, Michael Hahn and Mitsuyo Demoto (eds.) Pāsādikadānaṁ. Festschrift für Bhikkhu Pāsādika, Marburg: Indica et Tibetica Verlag 2009, pp. 157–165
Heinrich Hackmann, Erklärendes Wörterbuch zum chinesischen Buddhismus. Chinesisch-Sanskrit-deutsch. Von Heinrich Hackmann. Nach seinem handschriftlichen Nachlass überrbeitet von Johannes Nobel, Leiden: E. J. Brill 1952
Claude Jacques, "'Funan', 'Zhenla'. The reality concealed by these Chinese views of Indochina", in R. B. Smith and W. Watson (eds.), Early South East Asia: Essays in Archaeology, History, and Historical Geography, New York, Oxford University Press, 1979, pp. 371–9.
Claude Jacques,‘Funan: a major early Southeast Asian State’, in The Khmer Empire: Cities and Sanctuaries, Fifth to Thirteenth Century, translated by Tom White, Bangkok, River Books, 2007, pp. 43–66.
James C.M. Khoo (editor), Art & archaeology of Fu Nan: pre-Khmer Kingdom of the lower Mekong valley, Bangkok, The Southeast Asian Ceramic Society, Orchid Press, 2003
Lương Ninh, Vương quó̂c Phù Nam: lịch sử và văn hóa [Fu Nan: history and culture], Hà Nội, Viên văn hóa và Nhà xuât bản Văn hóa thông tin, 2005
Lương Ninh, «Nước Chi Tôn», một quőc gia cở ở miển tây sông Hậu, ("Chi Tôn", an ancient state in the western bank of the Hậu river), Khảo cổ học, ső 1, 1981, tr.38
Pierre-Yves Manguin, "The archaeology of Fu Nan in the Mekong River Delta: the Oc Eo culture of Viet Nam", in Nancy Tingley and Andreas Reinecke, Arts of ancient Viet Nam: from River Plain to Open Sea, Houston, Museum of Fine Arts, 2009, pp. 100–118.
Pierre-Yves Manguin, "From Funan to Sriwijaya: Cultural continuities and discontinuities in the Early Historical maritime states of Southeast Asia", in 25 tahun kerjasama Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi dan Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient, Jakarta, Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi / EFEO, 2002, p. 59–82.
Miriam T. Stark, "From Funan to Angkor: Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Cambodia", G. Schwartz, J. Nichols (eds.), After Collapse: The Regeneration of Societies, University of Arizona Press, 2006, pp. 144–167.
Michael Vickery, Society, Economics, and Politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: The 7th–8th centuries. Tokyo: The Center for East Asian Cultural Studies for Unesco, The Toyo Bunko, 1998
Michael Vickery, "Funan reviewed: Deconstructing the Ancients." Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême Orient XC-XCI (2003–2004), pp. 101–143.
An Giang Province Bureau of Culture, Sport and Tourism, Office of Cultural Heritage; An Giang Province Management Commission for Oc Eo Cultural Relics, Di Sản Văn Hóa Phù Nam-Óc Eo, An Giang-Việt Nam: Thế kỷ I-VII (Phu Nam-Oc Eo Heritage, An Giang-Vietnam: 1st–7th Century), [Long Xuyên], An Giang, 2013.
External links
Library of Congress Country Studies: Cambodia
SIDDHAM : the Asia inscriptions database
Ancient Hindu kingdoms
States and territories established in the 60s
550 disestablishments
States and territories disestablished in the 550s
1st millennium in Cambodia | [
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224374 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20emperors%20of%20Japan | List of emperors of Japan | This list of emperors of Japan presents the traditional order of succession. Records of the reigns are compiled according to the traditional Japanese calendar. In the nengō system which has been in use since the late-seventh century, years are numbered using the Japanese era name and the number of years which have taken place since that nengō era started.
The sequence, order and dates of the first 28 emperors, and especially the first 16, are based on the Japanese calendar system.
Emperors
Individuals posthumously recognized as emperors
This is a list of individuals who did not reign as emperor during their lifetime but were later recognized as Japanese emperors posthumously.
Gallery
See also
Emperor of Japan
Sesshō and Kampaku
Shogun
List of shoguns
Family tree of Japanese monarchs
Empress Tsunuzashi
Notes
References
Ackroyd, Joyce. (1982). Lessons from History: the 'Tokushi yoron'''. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. ; OCLC 157026188
Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). Gukanshō: The Future and the Past. Berkeley: University of California Press. ; OCLC 251325323
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691
Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns''. New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 59145842
External links
The Imperial Household Agency
Japan opens imperial tombs for research
Japan
Japan history-related lists
Japan-related lists
Lists of Japanese people by occupation | [
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224383 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sue | Sue | Sue or SUE may refer to:
Music
Sue Records, an American record label
Sue (album), an album by Frazier Chorus
"Sue (Or in a Season of Crime)", a song by David Bowie
Places
Sue Islet (Queensland), one of the Torres Straits islands, Australia
Sue, Fukuoka, a town in Japan
Sue Station (Fukuoka), a railway station
Sue Lake, a lake in Glacier National Park, Montana, United States
Other uses
Suing (to sue), a type of lawsuit
Sue (name), a feminine given name (and list of people with the name)
Sué, a god of the Andean Muisca civilization
Sue (dinosaur), a Tyrannosaurus rex specimen
Sue Lost in Manhattan or Sue, a 1998 film
Subsurface Utility Engineering
Sue ware, ancient Japanese pottery
ARC (file format) or .sue
Door County Cherryland Airport's IATA code
Mary Sue or Sue, an idealized fictional character
Yoshiko Tanaka or Sue (1956–2011), Japanese actress
People with the surname
Eugène Sue (1804–1857), French novelist
Henry Sue, claimant in Sue v Hill, an Australian law case
Jean-Joseph Sue (1710–1792), French physician and anatomist
Jean-Joseph Sue (1760–1830), French physician and anatomist
Sauaso Sue (born 1992), New Zealand-Samoan rugby league player
Selah Sue (born 1989), Belgian musician and songwriter
See also
Sault (disambiguation)
Sioux, a Native American and First Nations people in North America
Sioux (disambiguation)
Soo (disambiguation)
Su (disambiguation)
Susan
, listing many people with forename "Sue" | [
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224387 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breach%20of%20contract | Breach of contract | Breach of contract is a legal cause of action and a type of civil wrong, in which a binding agreement or bargained-for exchange is not honored by one or more of the parties to the contract by non-performance or interference with the other party's performance. Breach occurs when a party to a contract fails to fulfill its(s), whether partially or wholly, as described in the contract, or communicates an intent to fail the obligation or otherwise appears not to be able to perform its obligation under the contract. Where there is breach of contract, the resulting damages will have to be paid by the party breaching the contract to the aggrieved party.
If a contract is rescinded, parties are legally allowed to undo the work unless doing so would directly charge the other party at that exact time.
It is important to bear in mind that contract law is not the same from country to country. Each country has its own independent, free standing law of contract. Therefore, it makes sense to examine the laws of the country to which the contract is governed before deciding how the law of contract (of that country) applies to any particular contractual relationship.
What constitutes a breach of contract
To determine whether or not a contract has been breached, a judge needs to examine the contract. To do so, they must examine: the existence of a contract, the requirements of the contract, and if any modifications were made to the contract. Only then can the judge make a ruling on the existence and classifications of a breach. Additionally, for the contract to be breached and the judge to deem it worthy of a breach, the plaintiff must prove that there was a breach in the first place and that the plaintiff held up its side of the contract by completing everything required. Additionally, the plaintiff must notify the defendant of the breach prior to filing the lawsuit.
Ways of breaching contracts
A breach of contract may take place when a party to the contract:
fails to perform their obligations under the contract in whole or in part
behaves in a manner which shows an intention not to perform their obligations under contract in the future or
the contract becomes impossible to perform as a result of the defaulting party's own act.
These classifications describe only how a contract can be breached, not how serious the breach is. A judge will make a decision on whether a contract was breached based on the claims of both parties.
The first type above is an actual breach of contract.
The two other types are breaches as to the future performance of the contract and are technically known as renunciatory breaches. The defaulting party renunciates the contract in advance of when it is required to performs its obligations. Renunciatory breach is more commonly known as "anticipatory breach."
Classifications of breaches of contract
The general law has three categories of breaches of contract, which measure of the seriousness of the breach.
In the absence of a contractual or statutory provision, any breach of contract is categorized:
breach of warranty;
breach of condition; or
breach of an innominate term, otherwise known as an intermediate term.
There is no "internal rating system" within each of these categories (such as "a serious breach of warranty"). Any breach of contract is of a breach of warranty, condition or innominate term.
In terms of priority of classification of these terms, a term of a contract is an innominate term unless it is clear that it is intended to be a condition or a warranty.
Rights to damages for breach
Any breach of contract (warranty, condition or innominate term) gives rise to a right in the hands of the innocent party to recover their damage suffered which caused by the breach of contract by the defaulting party.
Damages is in the UK the only remedy available for breach of a warranty. Those damages can come in different forms such as an award of monetary damages, liquidation damages, specific performances, rescission, and restitution.
Damages are classified as being compensatory or punitive. Compensatory damages are rewarded in an attempt to make place the innocent party in the position that would have been occupied "but for" the breach. Those damages are most often awarded as payments. Punitive damages are given to "Punish or make an example of a wrongdoer who has acted willfully, maliciously or fraudulently." Punitive damages are awarded only in extreme cases and usually along with compensatory damages.
Right to terminate for breach
A right to terminate a contract arises for:
breach of a condition of the contract, no matter how trivial the breach of the condition may be;
repudiatory breach, that is an actual breach of an innominate term, where the consequence of the breach is sufficiently serious to give rise to a right to terminate; or
renunciatory breach (aka anticipatory breach), where the other party makes clear to the innocent party that it:
is not going to perform the contract at all, or
is going to commit a breach of a condition, or
is going to commit a breach of an innominate term,
and the consequences will be such as to entitle the innocent party to treat the contract as at an end.
An innocent party is therefore entitled to elect to terminate a contract only for breach of a condition of the contract, repudiatory breach or renunciatory breach.
To terminate a contract for repudiatory breach, the innocent party must tell the defaulting party. Many commercial contracts include clauses that set out a process whereby notice must be given and in what form. Consequently, if there is a written contract, care should be taken to check the contract terms and to ensure compliance notwithstanding that the other party may, on the face of it, have committed a clear and repudiatory breach. It is only when the defaulting party is told that a repudiatory breach has been "accepted" that the contract is terminated. If the defaulting party is not told the repudiatory breach has been accepted, the contract continues in force. An innocent party is not compelled to exercise its right to terminate, and accept a repudiatory breach. Otherwise, the contract continues in force.
Repudiatory breaches
Conduct is repudiatory if it deprives the innocent party of substantially the whole of the benefit intended received as consideration for performance of its future obligations under the contract.
Different forms of words are used by courts to express this central concept. The most prominent is whether the breach goes to the root of the contract. Those forms of words are simply different ways of expressing the "substantially the whole benefit" test.
Sometimes the innocent party may be deprived of its entitlement to damages for repudiatory breach of contract:
if the innocent party is irremediably disabled from performance, provided that that inability to perform on the part of the innocent party is not itself attributable to the repudiatory breach;
if the innocent party has a settled intention not to perform.
Renunciatory breaches
Conduct is renunciatory if shows an intention to commit a repudiatory breach. The conduct would lead a reasonable person to conclude that the party does not intend to perform its future obligations when they fell due.
Showing an intention to perform a contract in a manner which is inconsistent with the terms of the contract also shows an intention not to perform the contract. Whether such conduct is so severe so as to amount to a renunciatory breached depends upon whether the threatened difference in performance is repudiatory. An intention to perform connotes a willingness to perform, but willingness in this context does not mean a desire to perform despite an inability to do so. To say "I would like to but I cannot" negatives intent just as much as "I will not". Contracting parties must perform contracts in strict accordance with their terms: what was agreed in the first instance when the contract was formed. To do otherwise is therefore a breach of contract.
In the event of a renunciatory breach, the innocent party may:
choose to accept the breach at once and to terminate the contract, without waiting for the due date of performance, or
wait for the time for performance of the contract.
If the defaulting party does not perform when the time for performance arrives, the contract may be terminated. However, if the defaulting party performs, the right to terminate is lost forever.
Conduct comprising a breach for performance of contractual obligations that have fallen due may be insufficient to be a repudiation. However:
Nevertheless, conduct may be a renunciation because it would lead the reasonable observer to conclude that there was an intention not to perform in the future, and
the past and threatened future breaches taken together would be repudiatory.
The reason for a defaulting party committing an actual breach is generally irrelevant to whether it constitutes a breach, or whether the breach is a repudiation (this is an incident of strict liability for the performance of contractual obligations). However, the reason may be highly relevant to what such breach would lead the reasonable observer to conclude about the defaulting party's intentions in relation to future performance and therefore to the issue of renunciation. Often, the question whether conduct is a renunciation falls to be judged by reference to the defaulting party's intention, which is objectively evinced by past breaches and other words and conduct.
Breach of warranty
A breach of a warranty of a contract creates a right to damages for the loss suffered, which was caused by the breach. These "minor" breaches do not entitle the innocent party to terminate the contract. The innocent party cannot sue the party in default for specific performance: only damages. Injunctions (specific performance is a type of injunction) to restrain further breach of a warranty are likely to be refused on the basis that (1) injunctions are a discretionary remedy, and (2) damages are an adequate remedy in the circumstances of the case.
Suppose a homeowner hires a contractor to install new plumbing and insists that the pipes, which will ultimately be hidden behind the walls, must be red. The contractor instead uses blue pipes that function just as well. Although the contractor breached the literal terms of the contract, the homeowner cannot ask a court to order the contractor to replace the blue pipes with red pipes. The homeowner can only recover the amount of his or her actual damages. In this instance, this is the difference in value between red pipe and blue pipe. Since the color of a pipe does not affect its function, the difference in value is zero. Therefore, no damages have been incurred and the homeowner would receive nothing (see Jacob & Youngs v. Kent.)
However, had the pipe color been specified in the agreement as a condition, a breach of that condition may well constitute a "major" - i.e. repudiatory - breach. Simply because a term in a contract is stated by the parties to be a condition does not necessarily make it so. Such statements though are one of the factors taken into account to decide whether it is a condition or warranty of the contract. Other than where the colour of the pipes went to the root of the contract (suppose the pipes were to be used in a room dedicated to artwork related to plumbing, or dedicated to high fashion), it would more than likely be a warranty, not a condition.
The general rule is that stipulations as to time in a contract are not conditions of the contract (there are exceptions, such as in shipping contracts; it depends in part upon the commercial importance of timely delivery in all the circumstances of the case). As such, missing a date for performance stipulated in a contract is usually a breach of warranty. However, when a contract specifies time is of the essence or otherwise contains an express or implied term that times for performance are critical, stipulations as to time will be conditions of the contract. Accordingly, if a party fails to meet a meet the time stipulations, it will be a breach of a condition of the contract, entitling the innocent party to terminate.
Breach of a condition
Breach of a condition of a contract is known as a repudiatory breach. Again, a repudiatory breach entitles the innocent party at common law to (1) terminate the contract, and (2) claim damages. No other type of breach except a repudiatory breach is sufficiently serious to permit the innocent party to terminate the contract for breach.
Types of breach
Contracts often use wording other than repudiatory breach to describe a type of breach of contract. These contractual terms include material breach, fundamental breach, substantial breach, serious breach. These alternative wordings have no fixed meaning in law but are interpreted within the context of the contract that they are used. For that reason, the meaning of the different terms varies from case to case. Possible interpretations of their meaning include "repudiatory breach", and "serious breach, but not as serious as a repudiatory breach".
Trivial breach
A trivial breach is one that does not meet the standard for designation as a material, serious or substantial breach.
An Arizona Supreme Court decision in a 1990 commercial retail lease case noted that "the overwhelming majority of [US] jurisdictions... hold the landlord's right to terminate is not unlimited. We believe a court's decision to permit termination must be tempered by notions of equity and common sense. We thus hold a forfeiture for a trivial or immaterial breach of a commercial lease should not be enforced."
In Rice (t/a The Garden Guardian) v Great Yarmouth Borough Council (2000), the UK Court of Appeal decided that a clause which provided that the contract could be terminated "if the contractor commits a breach of any of its obligations under the contract" should not be given its literal meaning: it was considered "contrary to business common sense" to allow any breach at all, however trivial, to create grounds for termination.
Material breach
A material breach has been held to mean "a breach of contract which is more than trivial, but need not be repudiatory" and confirmed as meaning "a breach which is substantial. The breach must be a serious matter, rather than a matter of little consequence." A breach of contract will likely constitute a material breach if the term of the contract which has been breached is a condition of the contract. A variety of tests may be applied to terms of contracts to decide whether a term is a warranty or a condition of the contract.
In respect to the EPC Agreements, material breach is defined as "shall mean a breach by either Party of any of its obligations under this Agreement which has or is likely to have a Material Adverse Effect on the Project and which such Party shall have failed to cure".
Other UK cases which relate to the concept of a material breach include:
National Power plc v United Gas Company Ltd. (1998), where Colman J considered wording relating to "a material breach of any of [the guilty party's] obligations", allowing termination of the contract if remedy of such breach had not been commenced within seven days. The judge ruled that recognition that a material breach might be remedied distinguished the concept from a repudiatory breach, and there was no commercial sense in a clause restricting the common law rights of the innocent party, in relation to a repudiatory breach, and therefore "material breach" must refer to a form of breach which is not repudiatory.
Glolite Ltd. v Jasper Conran Ltd. (1998), where Neuberger J stated that and that
Phoenix Media Limited v Cobweb Information (2000)
Dalkia Utilities Services plc v Celtech International (2006) noted that assessing "materiality" involved looking at the actual breaches, their consequences, [the guilty party's] explanation for the breaches, their context within the agreement, the consequences of holding the agreement determined and the consequences of allowing the agreement to continue. Financial difficulties experienced by Celtech meant that they missed three payments out of 174 due over the 15 year life of the contract. These represented 8.5% of the total contract sum and were therefore not trivial or minimal, but Celtech were making attempts to pay and therefore not in repudiatory breach. Celtech were, however, in material breach of the contract and the contractual right to terminate could therefore be exercised by Dalkia.
Gallaher International Ltd v Tlias Enterprises (2008)
Crosstown Music Company v Rive Droite Music Ltd (2009), also making the point that a "material" breach was more significant than a "trivial" breach. Mann J referred to the Dalkia and Gallaher cases in his speech.
Right to remedy a breach
A party in breach of contract may have the right to remedy their breach, for example if the breach itself is remediable and a provision for remedy or a time period for exercising such as right is included within the contract. In the case of Vinergy International (PVT) Ltd v Richmond Mercantile Limited FZC (2016), a clause within the contract between the disputing parties stated that "failure ... to observe any of the terms herein and to remedy the same where it is capable of being remedied within the period specified in the notice given by the aggrieved party to the party in default, calling for remedy, being a period not less than twenty (20) days" would constitute grounds for termination of the contract. The period allowed for such a remedy may be referred to as a "cure period". A right to make use of a cure period may not be available where the innocent party chooses to accept a repudiatory breach and therefore exercise its common law rather than its contractual rights.
Fundamental breach
Fundamental breach of contract is no longer the test for a serious breach of contract to justify termination. The test is that set out for repudiatory breach, above. The concept of fundamental breach as a free standing legal concept no longer has any legal force but is now simply another possible term of a contract that needs to be construed like any other term of a contract.
A fundamental breach is usually read as a reference to a repudiatory breach.
A term may be a condition in Australian law if it satisfies one test known as the test of essentiality. The test of essentiality requires that the promise (term) was of such importance to the promisee that he or she would not have entered into the contract without the assurance of strict or substantial performance of the promise, and that ought to have been apparent to the promisor. This is an objective test of the parties' intention at the time of formation of the contract.
If the contractor in the above example had been instructed to use copper pipes but instead used iron pipes that would not last as long as the copper pipes would have lasted, the homeowner can recover the cost of actually correcting the breach by taking out the iron pipes and replacing them with copper pipes.
There are exceptions. Legal scholars and courts have been known to find that the owner of a house whose pipes are not the specified grade or quality (a typical hypothetical example) cannot recover the cost of replacing the pipes for the following reasons:
Economic waste. The law does not favor tearing down or destroying something that is valuable (almost anything with value is "valuable"). In this case, significant destruction of the house would be required to completely replace the pipes and so the law is hesitant to enforce damages of that nature. See Peevyhouse v. Garland Coal & Mining Co..
Pricing in. In most cases of breach, a party to the contract simply fails to perform one or more terms. In those cases, the breaching party should have already considered the cost to perform those terms and thus "keeps" that cost when it does not perform. That party should not be entitled to keep those savings. However, in the pipe example, the contractor never considered the cost of tearing down a house to fix the pipes and so to expect it to pay damages of that nature is unreasonable.
Most homeowners would be unable to collect damages that compensate them for replacing the pipes but would be awarded damages that compensate them for the loss of value in the house. For example, if the house is worth $125,000 with copper and $120,000 with iron pipes, the homeowner would be able to collect the $5,000 difference and nothing more.
In the United States, the Restatement (Second) of Contracts lists the following criteria to determine whether a specific failure constitutes a material breach:
Anticipatory breach
Renunciatory breach (usually referred to as anticipatory breach or breach by anticipatory repudiation) is an unequivocal indication that the party will not perform when performance falls due or a situation in which future non-performance is inevitable. An anticipatory breach gives the innocent party the option to terminate the contract immediately and sue for damages or to wait for the time of performance. If the party required to perform does not do so when it is required by the contract, the innocent party can terminate then.
For example, A contracts with B on January 1 to sell 500 quintals of wheat and to deliver it on May 1. Subsequently, on April 15, A writes to B and says that he will not deliver the wheat. B may immediately consider the breach to have occurred and file a suit for damages for the scheduled performance even though A has until May 1 to perform. However, a unique feature of anticipatory breach is that if an aggrieved party chooses not to accept a repudiation occurring before the time set for performance, the contract continues on foot, but also there will be no right to damages unless an actual breach occurs.
See also
Anticipatory repudiation
Contract
Fundamental breach
Lawsuit
Terms of use
Lost volume seller
References
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224389 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%20insolation | Direct insolation | Direct insolation is the solar insolation measured at a given location on Earth with a surface element perpendicular to the Sun's rays, excluding diffuse insolation (the solar radiation that is scattered or reflected by atmospheric components in the sky). Direct insolation is equal to the solar irradiance above the atmosphere minus the atmospheric losses due to absorption and scattering. While the solar irradiance above the atmosphere varies with the Earth-Sun distance and solar cycles, the losses depend on the time of day (length of light's path through the atmosphere depending on the Solar elevation angle), cloud cover, moisture content, and other impurities.
Simplified formula
A simple formula gives the approximate level of direct insolation when there are no clouds:
where AM is the airmass given by
with θ being the zenith angle (90° minus the altitude) of the sun.
For the sun at the zenith, this gives 947 W/m2. However, another source states that direct sunlight under these conditions, with 1367 W/m2 above the atmosphere, is about 1050 W/m2, and total insolation about 1120 W/m2.
Average direct insolation
For practical purposes, a time-average of the direct insolation over the course of the year is commonly used. This averaging takes into account the absence of sunlight during the night, increased scatter in the morning and evening hours, average effects of cloud cover and smog, as well as seasonal variations of the mid-day solar elevation.
Units of measurement
Direct insolation is measured in (W/m2) or kilowatt-hours per square meter per day (kW·h/(m2·day)).
1 kW·h/(m2·day) = 1,000 W · 1 hour / ( 1 m2 · 24 hours) = 41.67 W/m2
In the case of photovoltaics, average direct insolation is commonly measured in terms of peak direct insolation as kWh/(kWp·y)
(kilowatt hours per year per kilowatt peak rating)
Applications
Since radiation directly from the sun can be focussed with mirrors and lens, it can be applied to concentrated solar thermal (CST) systems. Due to clouds and aerosols, the direct insolation can fluctuate throughout the day, so forecasting the available resource is important in these applications
References
External links
National Science Digital Library - Direct Insolation
Atmospheric radiation
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224396 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrel | Petrel | Petrels are tube-nosed seabirds in the bird order Procellariiformes.
Description
The common name does not indicate relationship beyond that point, as "petrels" occur in three of the four families within that group (all except the albatross family, Diomedeidae). Having a fossil record that was assumed to extend back at least 60 million years, the Procellariiformes was long considered to be among the older bird groupings, other than the ratites, with presumably distant ties to penguins and loons. However, recent research and fossil finds such as Vegavis show that the Galliformes (pheasants, grouse and relatives), and Anseriformes (ducks, geese) are still not fully resolved.
Known species
All the members of the order are exclusively pelagic in distribution—returning to land only to breed.
The family Procellariidae is the main radiation of medium-sized true petrels, characterised by united nostrils with medium septum, and a long outer functional primary feather. It is dominant in the Southern Oceans, but not so in the Northern Hemisphere.
It includes a number of petrel groups, the relationships between which have finally been resolved to satisfaction.
The fulmarine petrels: seven species of surface predators and filter feeders, breed in high latitudes but migrate along cool currents to the north. All but Fulmarus are essentially confined to the south, Fulmarus apparently colonised the Northern Hemisphere during the Early Miocene.
The huge giant petrels, genus Macronectes, which are convergent with the albatrosses
The true fulmars, genus Fulmarus
Antarctic petrel Thalassoica antarctica
Cape petrel Daption capense
Snow petrel Pagodroma nivea
The prions: A specialised group of a few very numerous species, all southern. They have a small, fulmar-like form and mostly filter-feed on zooplankton.
Pachyptila, the prions proper
The procellariine petrels, larger or mid-sized species feeding on fish and molluscs which are fairly close to the prions:
Procellaria
Bulweria
Shearwaters: There are numerous species in several genera with a medium number of species.
Calonectris
Puffinus, which is two rather distinct groups of larger and smaller species
Pseudobulweria
Kerguelen petrel Lugensa brevirostris
The gadfly petrels: These are a considerable number of agile short-billed petrels in the genus Pterodroma which include the endangered Bermuda petrel or cahow and a considerable number of forms rendered extinct by human activity.
The families Oceanitidae and Hydrobatidae are the storm petrels, small pelagic petrels with a fluttering flight which often follow ships.
The family Pelecanoididae is the four species of diving petrels, genus Pelacanoides. These are auk-like small petrels of the southern oceans.
The word petrel (first recorded in that spelling 1703) comes from earlier (ca. 1670) pitteral; the English explorer William Dampier wrote the bird was so called from its way of flying with its feet just skimming the surface of the water, recalling Saint Peter's walk on the sea of Galilee (Matthew xiv.28); if so, it likely was formed in English as a diminutive of Peter (< Old (?) > Late < Late < < = "stone").
See also
Skua
Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels
References
External links
Petrel and shearwater videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP)
Procellariiformes
Seabirds
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224416 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yi%20Sun-sin | Yi Sun-sin | Admiral Yi Sun-sin (; April 28, 1545 – December 16, 1598) was a Korean admiral and military general famed for his victories against the Japanese navy during the Imjin war in the Joseon Dynasty. Yi has since been celebrated as a national hero in Korea.
Over the course of his career, Admiral Yi fought in at least 23 recorded naval engagements, all against the Japanese. In most of these battles, he was outnumbered and lacked necessary supplies. His most famous victory occurred at the Battle of Myeongnyang, where despite being outnumbered 333 (133 warships, at least 200 logistical support ships) to 13, he managed to disable or destroy 31 Japanese warships without losing a single ship of his own. Yi died from a gunshot wound at the naval Battle of Noryang on December 16, 1598. His last words were: "The battle is at its height. Beat my war drums. Do not announce my death."
Family
Parents
Father: Yi Jeong (이정)
Mother: Lady Byeon, of Chogyi Byeon clan
Consorts and issue
Wife: Lady Bang, of Onyang Bang clan (정경부인 상주 방씨), daughter of Bang Jin (방진)
Son: Yi Myon (이회) (1567 – 1625)
Son: Yi Hoe (이열)
Son: Yi Yo (이번)(1593 –1647)
Daughter: Lady Yi, of Deoksu Yi clan
Concubine: Lady Oh, of Haeju Oh clan (해주 오씨)
Son: Yi Hoon (이훈)
Son: Yi Shin (이신)
Daughter: Lady Yi,of Deoksu Yi clan
Daughter:Lady Yi,of Deoksu Yi clan
Concubine: Lady Buandaek (부안댁)
Early life
Yi was born in Geoncheon-dong Street (건천동; 乾川洞), Hanseong (then capital, present-day Inhyeon-dong, Jung-gu District, Seoul) but spent his adolescence and early adulthood period before passing the military examination in Asan where his mother's relatives lived and where now a shrine to him stands.
His family was part of the Korean Deoksu Yi clan. His grandfather Yi Baek-rok (이백록; 李百祿) retired from politics when neo-Confucian reformer Jo Gwang-jo was executed in the Third Literati Purge of 1519 and moved to a village near where Jo was buried. Yi Sun-sin's father Yi Jeong (이정, 李貞) was likewise disillusioned with politics and did not enter government service as expected of a yangban (noble) family. However, popular belief that Yi Sun-sin had difficult childhood because of his family's connection with Jo (as depicted in KBS TV series Immortal Admiral Yi Sun-sin) is not true.
One of the most important events of his early life was when Yi met and became friends with Ryu Seong-ryong (류성룡; 柳成龍; 1542–1607), a prominent scholar who held the key official position of Dochaechalsa (도체찰사; 都體察使), and was in command of the military during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598).
As a young boy, Yi played war games with other local boys, showing excellent leadership talent at an early age and constructed his own bow and fletched his own arrows as a teenager.
Military career
In 1576, Yi passed the military examination (무과; 武科). Yi is said to have impressed the judges with his archery, but failed to pass the test when he broke a leg during the cavalry examination. After he re-entered and passed the examination, Yi was posted to the Bukbyeong (Northern Frontier Army) military district in Hamgyeong province. However, he was the oldest junior officer at the age of thirty-two. There, Yi experienced battles defending the border settlements against the Jurchen marauders and quickly became known for his strategic skills and leadership.
In 1583, he lured the Jurchen into battle, defeated the marauders, and captured their chief, Mu Pai Nai. According to a contemporary tradition, Yi then spent three years out of the army upon hearing of his father's death. After his return to the front line, Yi led a string of successful campaigns against the Jurchen.
However, his brilliance and accomplishments so soon in his career made his superiors jealous, and they falsely accused him of desertion during battle. The conspiracy was led by General Yi Il (이일; 李鎰; 1538–1601), who would later fail to repel the Japanese invasion at the Battle of Sangju. This tendency to sabotage and frame professional adversaries was very common in the later years of the Joseon military and government. Yi was stripped of his rank, imprisoned, and tortured. After his release, Yi was allowed to fight as an enlisted soldier. After a short period of time, however, he was appointed as the commander of the Seoul Hunryeonwon (a military training center) and was later transferred to a small county, to be its military magistrate.
Yi's efforts in northern Korea were rewarded when Yi was assigned as Commander of the Jeolla Province (전라 좌도; 全羅左道) Left Naval District. Within the span of a few months in late 1590, he received four military appointments, in rapid succession, with each subsequent post carrying greater responsibility than the last: Commander of the Kosarijin Garrison in Pyeongan province, Commander of the Manpo Garrison, also in Pyeongan province, and the Commander of the Wando Garrison, in Jeolla province, before finally receiving the appointment as Commander of the Left Jeolla Naval District.
The royal court was in a state of confusion over the possibility of a war with Japan, now unified under the rule of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and the unstable situation in Manchuria where a young Jurchen chieftain named Nurhaci was gathering strength. Nurhaci's descendants would become masters of China as founders of the Qing Dynasty in a few decades' time, after invading Korea in 1627 and 1637.
Yi assumed his new post at Yeosu on the 13th day of the 2nd lunar month of 1591 (March 13, 1591). From there, he was able to undertake a buildup of the regional navy, which was later used to confront the Japanese invasion force. He subsequently began to strengthen the province's navy with a series of reforms, including the construction of the turtle ship.
Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)
Yi is remembered for his numerous victories fighting the Japanese during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598). Among his twenty-three victories, the Battle of Myeongnyang and the Battle of Hansan Island are the most famous battles.
In 1592, Toyotomi Hideyoshi gave the order to invade Korea and use it as a forward base to conquer Ming China. After the Japanese attacked Busan, Yi began his naval operations from his headquarters at Yeosu. Despite never having commanded a naval battle in his life, he won the Battle of Okpo, Battle of Sacheon, and several others in quick succession. His string of victories made the Japanese generals suddenly wary of the threat at sea.
Hideyoshi was fully aware of the need to control the seas during the invasion. Having failed to hire two Portuguese galleons to help him, he increased the size of his own fleet to 1700 vessels, assuming that he could overwhelm the Joseon navy with numerical superiority.
There were numerous reasons why Yi was so successful against the Japanese fleets. Yi had prepared for the war by checking the status of his soldiers, granaries, and supplies, replacing them when it was necessary. As part of this preparation, Yi resurrected and built the turtle ship, which was a considerable factor in his victories. Yi also had a great deal of information about the southern Korean coast and he planned his battles using the sea tides and narrow straits to his advantage.
Yi was a charismatic leader, and was able to maintain his soldiers' morale despite constantly being low on supplies and food, and continuous news of countless Korean losses in ground battles. In some records, it is stated that he went as far as to personally fulfill some of his soldiers' dying wishes. He demonstrated his loyalty to the people by treating them with respect and fighting amongst them even when endangered.
The Joseon panokseon were structurally stronger than Japanese ships at the time. Panokseon had stronger hulls and could carry at least 20 cannons, compared to the Japanese 4. Japanese ship-mounted cannons were inferior to the Koreans' in both range and power. Admiral Yi was an excellent naval strategist. The Japanese navy's strongest tactic was to board enemy ships and engage in hand-to-hand combat.
Four campaigns of 1592
A Japanese invasion force landed at Busan and Dadaejin, port cities on the southern tip of Joseon. The Japanese, without meeting any naval resistance, quickly captured these ports and began a lightning march north. They reached Seoul in just nineteen days, on May 2, 1592, due to the military inefficiency of the Joseon army, especially at the Battle of Sangju and the failure to defend Joryeong Pass.
After capturing Hanseong and Pyongyang, the Japanese planned to cross the Yalu River into Chinese territory, and use the waters west of the Korean peninsula to supply the invasion. However, Yi Sun-sin was able to stay informed on all his enemy's activities.
First campaign
Yi had never officially studied naval warfare in his limited time in the military academy, and neither he, nor his subordinates had experienced naval combat before the Japanese invasion.
On the June 13, 1592, Admiral Yi and Admiral Yi Eok-gi (이억기; 李億祺; 1561–1597), the commander of the Right Jeolla navy, set sail with 24 Panokseons, 15 small warships, and 46 boats (i.e. fishing boats), and arrived at the waters of the Gyeongsang Province by sunset. Next day, the Jeolla fleet sailed to the arranged location where Admiral Won Gyun (원균; 元均; 1540–1597) was supposed to meet them, and met the admiral on June 15. The augmented flotilla of 91 ships then began circumnavigating the Geoje Island, bound for the Gadeok Island, but scouting vessels detected 50 Japanese vessels at the Okpo harbor. Upon sighting the approaching Korean fleet, some of the Japanese who had been busying themselves with plundering got back to their ships, and began to flee. At this, the Korean fleet encircled the Japanese ships and finished them with artillery bombardments. The Koreans spotted five more Japanese vessels that night, and managed to destroy four. The next day, the Koreans approached 13 Japanese ships at Jeokjinpo as reported by the intelligence. In the same manner as the previous success at Okpo, the Korean fleet destroyed 11 Japanese ships – completing the Battle of Okpo without a loss of a single ship.
Second campaign
About three weeks after the Battle of Okpo, Admirals Yi and Won sailed with a total of 26 ships (23 under Admiral Yi) toward the Bay of Sacheon upon receiving an intelligence report of a Japanese presence. Admiral Yi had left behind his fishing vessels that used to make up most of his fleet in favor of his newly completed turtle ship. Admiral Yi ordered the fleet to feign withdrawal, which caused the Japanese to eagerly pursue the Korean fleet with their 12 vessels. With the Japanese ships drawn out of the safety of the harbor, the Korean navy countered, and with the turtle ship leading the charge, they successfully destroyed all 12 ships. Admiral Yi was shot by a bullet in his left shoulder, but survived.
On July 10, 1592, the Korean fleet destroyed 21 Japanese ships at the Battle of Dangpo. On July 13, they destroyed 26 Japanese warship at the Battle of Danghangpo.
Third campaign
In response to the Korean navy's success, Toyotomi Hideyoshi recalled three admirals from land-based activities: Wakizaka Yasuharu, Kato Yoshiaki, and Kuki Yoshitaka. They were the only ones with naval responsibilities in the entirety of the Japanese invasion forces. However, the admirals arrived in Busan nine days before Hideyoshi's order was actually issued, and assembled a squadron to counter the Korean navy. Eventually Admiral Wakizaka completed his preparations, and his eagerness to win military honor pushed him to launch an attack against the Koreans without waiting for the other admirals to finish.
The combined Korean navy of 70 ships under the commands of Admirals Yi Sun-sin and Yi Eok-gi was carrying out a search-and-destroy operation because the Japanese troops on land were advancing into the Jeolla Province. The Jeolla Province was the only Korean territory to be untouched by a major military action, and served as home for the three admirals and the only active Korean naval force. The admirals considered it best to destroy naval support for the Japanese to reduce the effectiveness of the enemy ground troops.
On August 13, 1592, the Korean fleet sailing from the Miruk Island at Dangpo received local intelligence that a large Japanese fleet was nearby. The following morning, the Korean fleet spotted the Japanese fleet of 82 vessels anchored in the straits of Gyeonnaeryang. Because of the narrowness of the strait and the hazard posed by the underwater rocks, Admiral Yi sent six ships to lure out 63 Japanese vessels into the wider sea, and the Japanese fleet followed. There the Japanese fleet was surrounded by the Korean fleet in a semicircular formation called "crane wing" (학익진) by Admiral Yi. With at least three turtle ships (two of which were newly completed) spearheading the clash against the Japanese fleet, the Korean vessels fired volleys of cannonballs into the Japanese formation. Then the Korean ships engaged in a free-for-all battle with the Japanese ships, maintaining enough distance to prevent the Japanese from boarding; Admiral Yi permitted melee combats only against severely damaged Japanese ships.
The battle ended in a Korean victory, with Japanese losses of 59 ships – 47 destroyed and 12 captured in the Battle of Hansan Island. Several Korean prisoners of war were rescued by the Korean soldiers throughout the fight. Admiral Wakisaka escaped due to the speed of his flagship. When the news of the defeat at the Battle of Hansando reached Toyotomi Hideyoshi, he ordered that the Japanese invasion forces cease all naval operations.
On August 16, 1592, Yi Sun-sin led their fleet to the harbor of Angolpo where 42 Japanese vessels were docked.
Fourth campaign
In September 1592, Yi left his base at Hansan Island and attacked the Japanese in Busan harbor. Yi withdrew his forces from Busan harbor after the battle due to the absence of a landing force.
Aftermath of four campaigns of 1592
Yi was victorious in every single operation (at least 15 battles) of the four campaigns of 1592. His campaigns resulted in hundreds of sunken Japanese warships, transports, supply ships and thousands of Japanese naval casualties.
In 1593, Admiral Yi was appointed to command the combined navies of the three southern provinces with the title Naval Commander of the Three Provinces (삼도수군통제사; 三道水軍統制使) which gave him command over the Right and Left Navies of Jeolla province, the Right and Left Navies of Gyeongsang province, and the Navy of Chungcheong province.
Turtle Ships
One of Yi's greatest accomplishments was resurrecting and improving the turtle ship (; ). With his creative mind and the support of his subordinates, Yi was able to devise the geobukseon, or Turtle Ship. Contrary to popular belief, the turtle ship was not actually invented by Admiral Yi; rather, he improved upon an older design that had been suggested during the reign of King Taejong.
The turtle ships designed by Yi held eleven cannons on each side of the ship, with two each at the stern and the bow. The ship's figurehead was in the shape of a dragon. The figurehead itself held up to four cannons, and emitted a smokescreen that, in combination with its fierce appearance, was meant to be used as psychological warfare. The sides of the turtle ship were dotted with smaller holes from which arrows, guns, and mortars could be fired. The roof was covered with planks and spikes. The purpose of the spikes was to prevent the ship from being boarded by the enemy. The larger Japanese ships' sides were higher than the turtle ships' and thus, the spikes prevented boarders from jumping down onto the roof without risking impalement. There were two masts that held two large sails. The turtle ship was also steered and powered by twenty oars, each of which were pulled by two men during fair conditions and five in foul seas or combat.
There is a continuing debate as to whether the turtle ship had two decks or three; historians still have no definitive answer. Whichever is the case, it is clear that the turtle ship employed multiple decks to separate the rowers from the combat compartment. This enabled the turtle ship to be very mobile since wind and manpower could be used simultaneously. Most support the argument of two decks since that was what was drawn out in the first and second designs of the turtle ships. Some historians maintain that, since Yi was a unique individual and often pursued innovative ideas (contrary to the established wisdom of his peers), it is possible that he had the turtle ship built with three decks. It is known that his flagship, a panokseon, had three decks during his campaigns, so there is support for the belief that the turtle ship had three decks.
Turtle ships were the most famous part of Admiral Yi's fleet; however, he never deployed more than five in any one battle. The Joseon Dynasty used cannons as its primary offensive naval weapon. Historically, they had often used guns and cannons against Japanese pirates as early as the 1390s. The Joseon navy did not implement the ship-boarding strategy that the Japanese navy did, so it was imperative that their warships "stand off" from Japanese vessels. Admiral Yi made it a strategic priority to avoid hand-to-hand combat, in which the Japanese navy specialized. The turtle ship was developed to support his tactic against Japanese fleets.
Turtle ships were first used in the Battle of Sacheon (1592) and were used in nearly every battle until the devastating Battle of Chilchonryang, when a Japanese double-agent plot nearly succeeded, resulting in every turtle ship and all but 13 panokseon being sunk. The turtle ships did not re-appear in battle until the Battle of Noryang.
Turtle ships were mostly used to spearhead attacks. They were best used in tight areas and around islands rather than the open sea.
Japanese double-agent plot
As Yi won battle after battle, Hideyoshi and his commanders became anxious as they neared Busan. Yi constantly attacked and delayed supply ships bringing food, weapons, and reinforcements to the Japanese. At one point, the entire invasion was halted just before attacking Pyongyang when supplies and troops failed to reach the First and Second Divisions.
Hideyoshi soon adjusted. At Busan, the Japanese warships were reinforced and some cannons added to larger ships. The fleet clustered beneath the harbor's defenses of heavy shore-mounted cannons that were acquired from the armory. But, above all, the Japanese knew that, for a successful invasion of Joseon, Yi had to be eliminated. Not a single Japanese ship would be safe for as long as he was commanding the sea.
Taking advantage of the many internal court rivalries of the Joseon Dynasty, the Japanese devised a plan. A Japanese double agent named Yoshira (要時羅) was sent to the Joseon general Kim Gyeong-seo (김경서; 金景瑞; 1564–1624), and convinced the general that he would spy on the Japanese. Yoshira played this role until Kim began believing anything he would say.
One day, he told General Kim Gyeong-seo that the Japanese general Katō Kiyomasa would be coming on a certain date with a great fleet for another attack on the south shores and insisted that Admiral Yi be sent to lay an ambush. General Kim agreed and sent the message to Field Marshal Gwon Yul (권율; 權慄; 1537–1599), Commander-in-Chief (도원수; 導元帥) of the Joseon military, who, in turn, sent the message to King Seonjo. King Seonjo, who was desperate for victories to loosen the Japanese grip on his kingdom, gave permission for the attack. When General Kim gave Admiral Yi his orders, the admiral refused to carry them out, for he knew that the location given by the spy was studded with sunken rocks and was thus extremely dangerous. Admiral Yi also refused because he did not trust the words of spies.
When General Kim informed the king of Admiral Yi's refusal, the admiral's enemies at court quickly insisted on his replacement by General Won Gyun, former commander of the Gyeongsang Province Western Fleet & Commander of the Jeolla Province Ground Forces. They advised that Admiral Yi be arrested.
As a result, in 1597, Yi was relieved of command, placed under arrest, and taken to Seoul in chains to be imprisoned and tortured. Yi was tortured almost to the point of death by using simple torture tactics such as whipping, flogging, burning, the cudgel, or even the classic technique of leg breaking torture. King Seonjo wanted to have Yi killed, but the admiral's supporters at court, chiefly the minister Jeong Tak (정탁; 鄭琢; 1526–1605), convinced the king to spare him due to his past service record. The prime minister, Yu Seong-ryong, who was Yi's childhood friend and his main supporter, remained silent during this deadly hour. Spared the death penalty, Admiral Yi was again demoted to the rank of a common infantry soldier under General Gwon Yul. This penalty was worse than death for Joseon generals at that time, since they lived by honor. However, Yi responded to this humiliation as a most obedient subject, quietly going about his work as if his rank and orders were appropriate. Despite his low rank, many officers treated him with respect, since they knew that the admiral did nothing wrong. Yi would stay under General Gwon Yul's command for a short while until Won Gyun's death at the Battle of Chilchonryang, which would lead to his reinstatement.
Joseon defeat at Chilchonryang and reinstatement of Admiral Yi
With Yi stripped of influence and negotiations breaking down in 1596, Hideyoshi again ordered an attack on Joseon. The second Japanese invasion landed in the first month of 1597 with a force of 140,000 men transported on 1000 ships. In response, Ming China sent thousands of reinforcements to aid Joseon. With the help of the Ming, the Joseon army was able to halt the Japanese offensive and push it back during the winter of 1597, before the Japanese were able to reach the Joseon capitol of Hanseong.
On the high seas, Yi's successor Won Gyun failed to respond to reports from his scouts and allowed the Japanese to land critical reinforcements at Sosang Harbor for their land offensive unopposed. Without adequate reconnaissance or planning, Won Gyun decided to attack with the entire naval force of Joseon at his disposal; a fleet consisting of 150 warships operated by 30,000 men that had been carefully assembled and trained by Admiral Yi. Won Gyun left anchor at Yeosu with the fleet and sailed into waters marked by treacherous rocks where the Japanese ambushed the Joseon fleet in the Battle of Chilchonryang on August 28, 1597. Ignorant of the strength and disposition of the enemy, Won was stunned to find a Japanese fleet of 500 to 1000 ships which immediately closed for melee combat, denying the Joseon ships the advantages of superior seamanship and cannon fire. The exhausted Joseon sailors were reduced to fighting boarding actions while heavily outnumbered and slaughtered en masse.
The Joseon fleet was decimated with only 13 warships surviving under Admiral Bae Seol, who fled before battle was fully engaged to save the warships under his command. After the destruction of the Joseon fleet, Won Gyun and Yi Eok-gi, another Joseon commander, fled to an island with a band of survivors but were killed by waiting Japanese soldiers from the nearby fort. The Battle of Chilchonryang was the only naval victory for the Japanese during the war against Joseon. When King Seonjo and the royal court learned of the catastrophic defeat, they hurriedly pardoned and reinstated Admiral Yi as commander of the greatly reduced Joseon fleet.
Battle of Myeongnyang
Admiral Yi located the 13 warships and rallied the 200 surviving sailors. Together with his flagship, Admiral Yi's entire fleet totaled 13 ships, none of which were turtle ships. In the belief that the Joseon fleet would never be restorable, King Seonjo, sent an edict to Admiral Yi to abandon the warships and take his men to join the ground forces under General Gwon Yul. Admiral Yi responded with a letter written "...your servant still doth have twelve warships under his command and he is still alive, that the enemy shall never be safe in the West Sea (the Yellow Sea being the closest body of water to Hanseong)."
Emboldened after their victory at Chilchonryang, Japanese admirals Kurushima Michifusa, Todo Takatora, Kato Yoshiaki, and Wakisaka Yasuharu sailed out of Busan Harbor with a fleet of over 300 ships, confident in being able to defeat Admiral Yi. Elimination of the Joseon fleet would mean unrestricted movement of supplies and reinforcements from Japan for the offensive drive on land towards Hanseong and beyond.
After careful study of potential battlefields, in October 1597 Admiral Yi lured the Japanese fleet into the Myeongnyang Strait, by sending a fast warship near the Japanese naval base and luring the Japanese fleet out of anchorage. The Japanese assumed that this was a Joseon scouting ship and that pursuing it would lead to the location of Admiral Yi, giving them an opportunity to destroy the courageous admiral and the remnants of the Joseon fleet. What they did not know was that they were being lured into a masterfully devised trap.
There were several reasons why Admiral Yi decided on this location for battle. Myeongnyang Strait had currents, eddies, and whirlpools so powerful that ships could only enter safely a few at a time. The north–south tidal flow reversed every three hours, limiting the time that the Japanese could mount an offensive. The strait was sufficiently narrow that it would prove impossible for the Japanese to flank or envelop the numerically inferior Joseon fleet. The deep shadows of the surrounding hillsides provided the Joseon ships with concealment. On that particular day there was also a heavy mist, dramatically reducing visibility in favor of the Joseon fleet. Therefore, despite being vastly outnumbered, Admiral Yi used the terrain restrictions to neutralize the Japanese navy's staggering numerical advantage.
The Japanese fleet of approximately 333 ships (133 warships, at least 200 logistical support ships) entered Myeongnyang Strait in groups. The Japanese ships that made it through were met by 13 Joseon warships obscured by the shadows of the surrounding hills, ready with archers and cannons, and the melee-based Japanese found themselves unable to fight effectively and break through the superior Joseon ranged fire. The unpredictable current eventually wreaked havoc on the Japanese; their ships found themselves unable to maneuver and collided with each other when the tide reversed, while also presenting a perfect target for the Joseon naval artillery. Admiral Yi was astonishingly able to rout a force that outnumbered him more than 25 to 1 in ships alone. About 31 of the 333 Japanese ships that entered the Myeongnyang Strait were destroyed or damaged. Joseon losses on the other hand were around ten casualties and no ships lost. Kurushima Michifusa was killed on his flagship by Joseon archers; his body in its ornate armor was fished out of the water, his severed head was put on display to further demoralize the Japanese fleet.
Admiral Yi's miraculous victory at the Battle of Myeongnyang turned the tide of the entire war against the Japanese; their ground forces on the verge of invading Hanseong were cut off from steady flow of supplies and reinforcements, and forced to pull back. Today, the battle is celebrated in Korea as one of Admiral Yi's greatest victories. No other engagement involving such an outnumbered fleet has resulted in such a disproportionate victory, making it one of the greatest achievements in naval warfare.
Final battle and Admiral Yi's death
On December 15, 1598, a huge Japanese fleet under the command of Shimazu Yoshihiro, was amassed in Sachon Bay, on the east end of Noryang Strait. Shimazu's goal was to break the allied forces' blockade on Konishi Yukinaga, join the two fleets, and sail home to Japan. Admiral Yi, meanwhile, knew exactly where Shimazu was, after receiving reports from scouts and local fishermen.
At this time, the Joseon fleet consisted of 82 panokseon and three turtle ships, with 8,000 soldiers under Admiral Yi. The Ming fleet consisted of six large war junks, 57 lighter war galleys and two panokseon given to Chen Lin by Admiral Yi, with 5,000 Ming soldiers of the Guangdong squadron and 2,600 Ming marines who fought aboard Joseon ships.
The battle began at two o'clock in the early morning of December 16, 1598. Like Admiral Yi's previous battles, the Japanese were unable to respond effectively to the Korean's tactics. The tightness of Noryang Strait hindered lateral movement, and Yi's maneuvers prevented the Japanese fleet from boarding their enemies' vessels, their primary naval tactic.
As the Japanese retreated, Admiral Yi ordered a vigorous pursuit. During this time, a stray arquebus bullet from an enemy ship struck Admiral Yi, near his left armpit. Sensing that the wound was fatal, and fearing a repeat of the Battle of Chilchonryang, the admiral uttered, "The war is at its height – wear my armor and beat my war drums. Do not announce my death." He died moments later.
Only two people witnessed his death: Yi Hoe, Yi's eldest son, and Yi Wan, his nephew. Admiral Yi's son and nephew struggled to regain their composure and carried the admiral's body into his cabin before others could notice. For the remainder of the battle, Yi Wan wore his uncle's armor and continued to beat the war drum to encourage the pursuit.
Comrade Chen Lin
During the battle, Chen Lin and Yi were friends and allies who helped and rescued each other several times. When Chen Lin called for Admiral Yi to thank him for coming to his aid, he was met by Yi Wan, who announced that his uncle was dead. It is said that Chen himself was so shocked that he fell to the ground three times, beating his chest and crying. News of Admiral Yi's death spread quickly throughout the allied fleet and both Joseon and Ming sailors and fighting men wailed in grief. Chen Lin later reported the news of Yi's death to Wanli Emperor, where he bestowed gifts and eulogies on Chen and Yi. Since then, Yi and Chen were memorialized as national heroes in Korea. Chen's descendants were later welcomed back to Korea to start the Gwangdong Jin clan, because of Chen Lin's contributions in defeating the Japanese and his camaraderie with Yi Sunsin.
Admiral Yi's body was brought back to his hometown in Asan to be buried next to his father, Yi Jeong (in accordance to Korean tradition). Shrines, both official and unofficial, were constructed in his honor all throughout the land."
Legacy
Military evaluation
Some say Yi is an exemplar of conduct for both Koreans and even Japanese.
Some military historians like Joseph Cummins and George Alexander Ballard place Yi on par with Admiral Horatio Nelson as one of the greatest naval commanders in history.
Admiral George Alexander Ballard of the Royal Navy compared Yi to Lord Nelson of England:
It is always difficult for Englishmen to admit that Nelson ever had an equal in his profession, but if any man is entitled to be so regarded, it should be this great naval commander of Asiatic race who never knew defeat and died in the presence of the enemy; of whose movements a track-chart might be compiled from the wrecks of hundreds of Japanese ships lying with their valiant crews at the bottom of the sea, off the coasts of the Korean peninsula... and it seems, in truth, no exaggeration to assert that from first to last he never made a mistake, for his work was so complete under each variety of circumstances as to defy criticism... His whole career might be summarized by saying that, although he had no lessons from history to serve as a guide, he waged war on the sea as it should be waged if it is to produce definite results, and ended by making the supreme sacrifice of a defender of his country. (The Influence of the Sea on The Political History of Japan, pp. 66–67.)
Admiral Togo regarded Admiral Yi as his superior. At a party held in his honor, Togo took exception to a speech comparing him to Lord Nelson and Yi Sun-sin.
It may be proper to compare me with Nelson, but not with Korea's Yi Sun-sin, for he has no equal. (The Imjin War, by Samuel Hawley, pg. 490)
Prior to the 1905 Battle of Tsushima, Lieutenant Commander Kawada Isao recalled in his memoirs that:
...naturally we could not help but remind ourselves of Korea's Yi Sun-sin, the world's first sea commander, whose superlative personality, strategy, invention, commanding ability, intelligence, and courage were all worthy of our admiration. (The Imjin War, by Samuel Hawley, pg. 490)
Admiral Tetsutaro Sato of the Imperial Japanese Navy mentioned the Korean admiral in his book published in 1908:
Throughout history there have been few generals accomplished at the tactics of frontal attack, sudden attack, concentration and dilation. Napoleon, who mastered the art of conquering the part with the whole, can be held to have been such a general, and among admirals, two further tactical geniuses may be named: in the East, Yi Sun-sin of Korea, and in the West, Horatio Nelson of England. Undoubtedly, Yi is a supreme naval commander even on the basis of the limited literature of the Seven-Year War, and despite the fact that his bravery and brilliance are not known to the West, since he had the misfortune to be born in Joseon Dynasty. Anyone who can be compared to Yi should be better than Michiel de Ruyter from Netherlands. Nelson is far behind Yi in terms of personal character and integrity. Yi was the inventor of the covered warship known as the turtle ship. He was a truly great commander and a master of the naval tactics of three hundred years ago. --A Military History of the Empire (Japanese: 帝國國防史論), p. 399
Reactions by Joseon government
Admiral Yi repeatedly defeated the Japanese invasion force in battle, while preserving the lives of his soldiers and respecting their families. Yi was supported by the people of Joseon not only for his victories, but his kindness and gratitude towards those affected by the hardships of war. They had great faith in Admiral Yi and he was regarded as more than just an admiral.
By contrast, King Seonjo accomplished nothing. The Joseon Dynasty's king had failed to defend the kingdom and his cowardly flight to Uiju left his reputation in ruins. The Joseon government was plagued by factionalism driven by jealousy; the ministers despised the successful and virtuous admiral, and manipulated King Seonjo to view Admiral Yi as a potential traitor. It is plausible to believe that King Seonjo and his court truly feared Admiral Yi's victories and reputation amongst the people as the foundations for a revolt leading King Seonjo to have him arrested and tortured. Defended by his loyal friend, Prime Minister Yu Seong-ryong, Admiral Yi was spared execution twice. The conspiracies worked against Admiral Yi from gaining the men, materiel, and operational freedom to decisively destroy the Japanese invasion force.
It should also be noted that according to a recent Choson Ilbo article, historians have discovered written government records of the Joseon government's reaction to Admiral Yi's death. The records show that King Seonjo expressed a "blank expression", offering no signs of sadness or shock. Nearly all awards to Admiral Yi and his deeds were awarded posthumously.
Cultural depictions
Film and television
Yi's life has been depicted in two motion pictures, both entitled Seong-ung Yi Sun-sin ("The Saintly Hero Yi Sun-sin"). The first is a 1962 black-and-white movie, and the second, based upon his war diaries, was made in color in 1971.
A 2005 Korean film, Heaven's Soldiers () directed by Min Joon-ki, portrayed a young Yi Sun-sin fighting the Jurchen tribes, along with local villagers and North and South Korean soldiers who traveled in time, from 2005 to 1572, with Halley's Comet. Unusually, the film presented Yi as a cunning, slightly eccentric young man, rather than a distinguished austere hero, a couple of decades before Imjin war. Some historical events were also distorted: most notably Yi's campaign against the Jurchens, which did not happen in 1572 but a few years later, after his 1576 military examination. The film, financed with a comfortable budget by Korean standards ($7–8 million), was a relative commercial success in 2005. The film's theme clearly uses the figure of Yi, venerated as a hero in both parts of contemporary Korea, to plead for Korean reunification.
From September 4, 2004, to August 28, 2005, a 104-episode drama series was aired on KBS. The show, titled Immortal Admiral Yi Sun-sin (), dealt mostly with the events related to the Japanese invasions of Korea, as well as the life of the admiral. It became a popular drama in China and was re-aired in certain ethnic channels in the United States as well. The drama was criticized for the many artistic licenses taken, such as depicting Yi as weak and lonely in his early life and taking liberties with the events surrounding his death. On the other hand, many people complimented the way the drama portrayed the whole drama with a more human touch. It described the admiral as a true man who had to overcome many dangers and difficulties quite frequently alone, not just a hero among the clouds. This drama was a heated topic at the time since it overlapped with rising tensions in the ongoing Liancourt Rocks dispute; the series further strained relations between South Korea and Japan in the issue's most recent outbreak.
The 2014 film The Admiral: Roaring Currents revolves around the events of the Battle of Myeongnyang.
Actors who have played Yi Sun-sin
Park Joong-hoon in the 2005 film Heaven's Soldiers.
Kim Myung-min in the 2004–2005 KBS1 TV series Immortal Admiral Yi Sun-sin.
Yoo Dong-geun in the 2013 MBC TV series Gu Family Book.
Choi Min-sik in the 2014 film The Admiral: Roaring Currents.
Literature
Yi also inspired literary works. In 2001, Kim Hoon's first novel, Song of the Sword, was a commercial and critical success in South Korea. In his book, the journalist-turned-novelist describes that Yi deliberately stood at the front of his ship in his final battle making himself a target for Japanese gunmen, thinking that ending his life in this honorable fashion could be better than facing another political ploys which was likely to wait him in the Joseon royal court after the war. For this poetic first-person narrative written from Yi's perspective, he received the Dongin Literature Award, the most prestigious literary prize in the nation.
Comics
Yi appears as the titular protagonist of a history fiction graphic novel series, produced by Onrie Kompan Productions since 2009.
Video games
Yi Sun-Sin is a playable character in the video game Mobile Legends: Bang Bang.
A game scenario in which the player can assume Yi's role is featured in the Age of Empires II extension pack The Conquerors.
Awards named after Yi
Although his successes were often ignored by the Korean royal court during his life, after his death various honors were bestowed upon him, including the title of Chungmugong (충무공; 忠武公; Duke of Loyalty and Warfare), an enrollment as a Seonmu Ildeung Gongsin (선무일등공신; 宣武一等功臣; First-class military order of merit during the reign of Seonjo), and two posthumous offices, Yeonguijeong (영의정; 領議政; Prime Minister), and the Deokpung Buwongun (덕풍부원군; 德豊府院君; The Prince of the Court from Deokpung). His title of Samdo Sugun Tongjesa (삼도 수군 통제사 ; 三道水軍統制使), literally meaning "Naval Commander of the Three Provinces", was the title used for the commander of the Korean navy until 1896.
Admiral Yi's posthumous title, Chungmugong, is used as South Korea's third highest military honor, known as The Cordon of Chungmu of the Order of Military Merit and Valor. He was posthumously granted the title of Prince of Deokpung Chungmuro (충무로; 忠武路). In North Korea, the military awards the Order of Admiral Yi Sun-Sin (이순신장군훈장) to flag officers and naval commanders for outstanding leadership.
Prominent statues of Admiral Yi have been erected in the middle of Sejongno in central Seoul (the Statue of Admiral Yi Sun-sin) and at Busan Tower in Busan.
The city of Chungmu on the southern coast of Korea, now renamed Tongyeong, is named in honor of his posthumous title and the site of his headquarters. Additionally, a street in downtown Seoul is named after him, and the Yi Sun-sin Bridge was built near Yeosu and opened to traffic on May 10, 2012, becoming the longest suspension bridge in Korea.
South Korea's KDX-II naval destroyer class, and the first commissioned ship of the class, are named Chungmugong Yi Sun-sin.
An ITF-style Taekwondo pattern is named after Yi's posthumous name of Chungmu.
A depiction of Admiral Yi is featured on the front of the 100 South Korean won coin.
See also
History of Korea
Naval history of Korea
Turtle ship
Immortal Admiral Yi Sun-sin
Nanjung ilgi, War Diary of Admiral Yi Sun-sin
Joseon dynasty
Chen Lin (Yi's fellow ally and comrade who fought alongside and brought news of his battles and death to China)
Footnotes
References
Further reading
The Influence of the Sea on The Political History of Japan (1921)
War Diary (Nan Jung Il Gi), the autobiographical diary of Admiral Yi Sun-Sin
Choson Joong-Gi, Noon-Eu-Ro Bo-Nen Han-Gook-Yuk-Sa #7. Joong-Ang-Gyo-Yook-Yun-Goo-Won, Ltd. Copyright 1998.
Katano, Tsugio yi Sun-Sin and Hideyoshi (1996)
Hawley, Samuel 2005 The Imjin War: Japan's Sixteenth-Century Invasion of Korea and Attempt to Conquer China. Republic of Korea and U.S.A.: Co-Published by The Royal Asiatic Society and The Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley.
Turnbull, Stephen. "Samurai Invasion: Japan's Korean War 1592–1598" (2002) Cassell & Co., London.
External links
Research Institute of Yi Sun-sin – Institute of Soon Chun Hyang University
Chungmugong Yi Sun-Sin – Gyeongsangnam-do Tourism Office's official Yi Sun-sin site
The Great Admiral Yi Sun-Sin – Asan city's official Yi Sun-sin site
Hyeonchungsa Shrine Management Office
Yi Sun-sin: the man who transforms Korea – VANK's Yi Sun-sin project site
Admiral Yi Sun-sin – A Korean Hero
Yi Sun-sin
YiSunsin.com – Yi Sunsin information portal
1545 births
1598 deaths
16th-century Korean people
Korean admirals
Korean generals
Korean military personnel killed in action
Military history of Korea
People of the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) | [
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224423 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20the%20Colonies | Secretary of State for the Colonies | The secretary of state for the colonies or colonial secretary was the British Cabinet minister in charge of managing the United Kingdom's various colonial dependencies.
History
The position was first created in 1768 to deal with the increasingly troublesome North American colonies, following passage of the Townsend Acts. Previously, colonial responsibilities were held jointly by the lords of trade and plantations and the secretary of state for the Southern Department, who was responsible for Ireland, the American colonies, and relations with the Catholic and Muslim states of Europe, as well as being jointly responsible for domestic affairs with the Secretary of State for the Northern Department. Joint responsibility continued under the secretary of state for the colonies, but led to a diminution of the board's status, and it became an adjunct to the new secretary's department.
Following the loss of the American colonies, both the board and the short-lived secretaryship were dismissed by the king on 2 May 1782; both were abolished later by the Civil List and Secret Service Money Act 1782 (22 Geo. 3, c 82). Following this, colonial duties were given to the Home Secretary, then Lord Sydney. Following the Treaty of Paris 1783, a new board, named the Committee of Council on Trade and Plantations (later known as 'the First Committee') was established under William Pitt the Younger, by an Order in Council in 1784. In 1794, a new office was created for Henry Dundas – the secretary of state for war, which now took responsibility for the Colonies, and was renamed the Secretary of State for War and the Colonies in 1801. In 1854, military reforms led to the colonial and military responsibilities of this secretary of state being split into two separate offices, with Sir George Grey becoming the first secretary of state for the colonies under the new arrangement.
In the latter part of the nineteenth century, Britain gained control over a number of territories with the status of "protectorate". The ministerial responsibility for these territories was initially held by the Foreign Secretary. However, by the early years of the twentieth century the responsibility for each of these territories had been transferred to the colonial secretary as well. The League of Nations mandated territories acquired as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 became a further responsibility of the Colonial Office in the aftermath of the First World War.
In 1925, part of the Colonial Office was separated out as the Dominions Office, with its own secretary of state. The new office was responsible for dealing with the Dominions together with a small number of other territories (most notably Southern Rhodesia).
In the twenty years following the end of the Second World War, much of the British Empire was dismantled as its various territories gained independence. In consequence, the Colonial Office was merged in 1966 with the Commonwealth Relations Office (which until 1947 had been the Dominions Office) to form the Commonwealth Office, while ministerial responsibility was transferred to the secretary of state for Commonwealth affairs (previously known as the secretary of state for Commonwealth relations). In 1968, the Commonwealth Office was subsumed into the Foreign Office, which was renamed the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO).
The colonial secretary never had responsibility for the provinces and princely states of India, which had its own secretary of state.
From 1768 until 1966, the secretary of state was supported by an under-secretary of state for the colonies (at times an under-secretary of state for war and the colonies), and latterly by a minister of state.
List of secretaries of state for the colonies
Secretaries of State for the Colonies (1768–1782)
Sometimes referred to as Secretary of State for the American Colonies.
Office abolished in 1782 after the loss of the American Colonies.
Responsibility for the Colonies thereafter held by:
Home Secretary 1782–1801
Secretary of State for War and the Colonies 1801–1854
Secretary of State for the Colonies from 1854
Secretaries of State for the Colonies (1854–1966)
Responsibility for the colonies held by:
Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs 1966–1968
Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs 1968–present
Following the British Nationality Act 1981 the term "colony" ceased to be used; Britain's rule over Hong Kong, the last significant colony, ceased in 1997. Britain retains certain overseas territories.
Notes
Secretaries from the Colonies
A few title holders were born in colonies under their portfolio and some beyond:
Bonar Law – born in pre-Canada colony of New Brunswick and later moved to the United Kingdom
Victor Bruce, 9th Earl of Elgin – born in Canada during his father's, James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin, term as Governor General of Canada and a British appointee
Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner – born in Grand Duchy of Hesse (now in Germany) to Charles Milner (who had English roots from his father)
Leo Amery – born in British India to an English father serving in India
References
Colonies
History of the Thirteen Colonies
Governance of the British Empire
Defunct ministerial offices in the United Kingdom
1768 establishments in Great Britain
1966 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Foreign Office during World War II
United Kingdom | [
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224424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Hunter | David Hunter | David Hunter (July 21, 1802 – February 2, 1886) was a Union general during the American Civil War. He achieved notability for his unauthorized 1862 order (immediately rescinded) emancipating slaves in three Southern states, for his leadership of United States troops during the Valley Campaigns of 1864, and as the president of the military commission trying the conspirators involved with the assassination of U.S. President Abraham Lincoln.
Early life and education
Hunter (son of Andrew Hunter and Mary Stockton) was born in Troy, New York, or Princeton, New Jersey. He was the cousin of writer-illustrator David Hunter Strother (who would also serve as a Union Army general). His maternal grandfather was Richard Stockton, a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence.
After graduating from the United States Military Academy in 1822, Hunter was commissioned a second lieutenant in the 5th U.S. Infantry Regiment. Records of his military service prior to the Civil War contain significant gaps. From 1828 to 1831, he was stationed on the northwest frontier, at Fort Dearborn (Chicago, Illinois). There he met and married Maria Kinzie, a daughter of John Kinzie, considered the city's first permanent white resident. He served in the infantry for 11 years, and was promoted to captain of the 1st U.S. Dragoons in 1833.
He resigned from the Army in July 1836 and moved to Illinois, where he worked as a real estate agent or speculator. He rejoined the Army in November 1841 as a paymaster and was promoted to major in March 1842. One source claims that he saw action in the Second Seminole War (1838–42) and the Mexican–American War (1846–48).
In 1860, Hunter was stationed at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. He began a correspondence with Abraham Lincoln, emphasizing his own strong anti-slavery views. This relationship engendered political influence: after winning election to the presidency, Lincoln invited Hunter to ride on his inaugural train in February 1861 from Springfield, Illinois, to Washington, D.C. During this duty, Hunter suffered a dislocated collarbone at Buffalo, due to the crowd pressing the president-elect.
Career
American Civil War
Soon after the firing on Fort Sumter, Hunter was promoted to colonel of the 6th U.S. Cavalry. Three days later, May 17, 1861, his political connection to the Lincoln administration resulted in his being appointed as the fourth-ranking brigadier general of volunteers, commanding a brigade in the Department of Washington. He was wounded in the neck and cheek while commanding a division under Irvin McDowell at the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861. In August, he was promoted to major general of volunteers.
He served as a division commander in the Western Army under Maj. Gen. John C. Frémont, and was appointed as commander of the Western Department on November 2, 1861, after Frémont was relieved of command due to his attempt to emancipate the slaves of rebellious slave holders. Hunter did not last long in this position, and within two months was reassigned to the Department of Kansas, a post where there was little chance of getting into trouble. He did not accept his exile gracefully and wrote a series of fulminating protest letters to the president, who finally gave in to his complaints. In March 1862, Hunter was transferred again to command the Department of the South and the X Corps.
Hunter served as president of the court-martial of Maj. Gen. Fitz John Porter. (He was convicted for his actions at the Second Battle of Bull Run, but was exonerated by an 1878 Board of Officers.) He also was assigned to the committee that investigated the loss of Harpers Ferry in the Maryland Campaign. He served briefly as the Assistant Inspector General of the Department of the Gulf.
General Order No. 11
Hunter was a strong advocate of arming black men as soldiers for the Union cause. After the Battle of Fort Pulaski, where black Union soldiers from the North proved their bravery, Hunter began enlisting blacks as soldiers from the occupied districts of South Carolina. He formed the first such Union Army regiment, the 1st South Carolina (African Descent). He was initially ordered to disband it, but eventually got approval from Congress for his action.
He caused a second controversy by issuing an order emancipating the enslaved blacks in Georgia, South Carolina, and Florida:
President Abraham Lincoln quickly rescinded this order, because he was concerned about its political effects in the border states, which he was trying to keep neutral. Their leaders advocated instead a gradual emancipation with compensation for slave holders. Despite Lincoln's concerns that immediate emancipation in the South might drive some slave-holding Unionists to support the Confederacy, the national mood was quickly moving against slavery, especially within the Army.
The president and Congress had already enacted several laws during the war to severely restrict the institution, beginning with the First Confiscation Act in August 1861 and culminating in Lincoln's own Emancipation Proclamation issued in September 1862, and to take effect January 1, 1863. Concerned Confederate slave holders had worried since before the war started that its eventual goal would become the abolition of slavery and they reacted strongly to the Union effort to emancipate Confederate slaves. Confederate President Jefferson Davis issued orders to the Confederate army that Hunter was to be considered a "felon to be executed if captured".
Controversy over enlistment of ex-slaves
Undeterred by the president's reluctance and intent on extending American freedom to potential black soldiers, Hunter again flouted orders from the federal government. He enlisted ex-slaves as soldiers in South Carolina without permission from the War Department. This action incensed border state slaveholders, and Representative Charles A. Wickliffe (D-KY) sponsored a resolution demanding a response.
Hunter sent a defiant letter on June 23, 1862 to Congress, reminding them of his authority as a commanding officer in a war zone:
While the increasingly abolitionist Republicans in Congress were amused by the order, border state pro-slavery politicians, such as Wickliffe and Robert Mallory (D-), were not. Mallory described the scene in Congress following the reading of the order as follows:
The War Department eventually forced Hunter to abandon this scheme, but the government nonetheless soon took action to expand the enlistment of black men as military laborers. Congress approved the Confiscation Act of 1862, which effectively freed all enslaved blacks working within the armed forces by forbidding Union soldiers to aid in the return of fugitive slaves.
In 1863, Hunter wrote a letter to Confederate President Jefferson Davis protesting against the Confederate army's brutal mistreatment of captured black U.S. soldiers. He attacked the Confederates' claims to be fighting for freedom, listing the abuses they committed against human beings under slavery :
The Valley and "Scorched Earth"
In the Valley Campaigns of 1864, Union Maj. Gen. Franz Sigel was ordered by Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant to move into the Shenandoah Valley, threaten railroads and the agricultural economy there, and distract Robert E. Lee while Grant fought him in eastern Virginia. Sigel did a poor job, losing immediately at the Battle of New Market to a force that included cadets from the Virginia Military Institute (VMI). Hunter replaced Sigel in command of the Army of the Shenandoah and the Department of West Virginia on May 21, 1864. Grant ordered Hunter to employ scorched earth tactics similar to those that would be used later in that year during Sherman's March to the Sea; he was to move through Staunton to Charlottesville and Lynchburg, "living off the country" and destroying the Virginia Central Railroad "beyond possibility of repair for weeks." Lee was concerned enough about Hunter that he dispatched a corps under Lt. Gen. Jubal A. Early to deal with him.
On June 5, Hunter defeated Maj. Gen. William E. "Grumble" Jones at the Battle of Piedmont. Following orders, he moved up the Valley (southward) through Staunton to Lexington, destroying military targets and other industries (such as blacksmiths and stables) that could be used to support the Confederacy. After reaching Lexington, his troops burned down VMI on June 11 in retaliation of that institution sending cadets to fight at New Market. Hunter ordered the home of former Governor John Letcher burned in retaliation for its absent owner's having issued "a violent and inflammatory proclamation ... inciting the population of the country to rise and wage guerrilla warfare on my troops." Hunter also wreaked havoc on Washington College in Lexington, later Washington and Lee University. According to Fitzhugh Lee's biography of his uncle, Robert E. Lee, "[Hunter] had no respect for colleges, or the peaceful pursuits of professors and students, or the private dwellings of citizens, though occupied by women and children only, and during his three days occupancy of Lexington in June, 1864, the college buildings were dismantled, apparatus destroyed, and the books mutilated."
Hunter's campaign in the Valley came to an end after he was defeated by Early at the Battle of Lynchburg on June 19. His headquarters was at Sandusky House, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982, and now operated as a house museum. After the battle, Hunter retreated across the Allegheny Mountains into West Virginia, thereby taking his army out of the war altogether for a few weeks and allowing Early a free rein in the Valley. Though this retreat was widely criticized, Ulysses Grant in his Memoirs excused it as follows: "General Hunter, owing to a want of ammunition to give battle, retired from before the place. Unfortunately, this want of ammunition left him no choice of route for his return but by the way of the Gauley and Kanawha rivers, thence up the Ohio River, returning to Harper's Ferry by way of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad." Hunter would maintain until his dying day that it had been a strategically sound move and he wrote a series of persistent letters to Secretary of War Edwin Stanton and President Lincoln arguing that the retreat was entirely justified. He badgered Grant with letters a few months later arguing that the army and officers he inherited from Franz Sigel were below average, and that he had never been told that he had any assignment to defend Washington DC. After the war, he wrote a letter to Robert E. Lee asking if he as a fellow soldier did not agree with the soundness of the retreat. Lee, who had a loathing of Hunter, wrote back that he had no clue what the exact strategic value of retreating into West Virginia was, but that it had been extremely helpful to himself and the Confederate cause.
The burning of the Virginia Military Institute by Hunter also angered the Confederates and made them more vengeful than before. After retaking possession of the Valley, Early described the scene as "truly heart-rending. Houses had been burned, and helpless women and children left without shelter. The country had been stripped of provisions and many families left without a morsel to eat. Furniture and bedding had been cut to pieces, and old men and women and children robbed of all the clothing they had except that on their backs. Ladies trunks had been rifled and their dresses torn to pieces in mere wantonness. Even the negro girls had lost their little finery. . . At Lexington he had burned the Military Institute, with all of its contents, including its library and scientific apparatus; and Washington College had been plundered and the statue of George Washington stolen. The residence of Ex-Governor Letcher at that place had been burned by orders, and but a few minutes given Mrs. Letcher and her family to leave the house. . . [A] Mr. Creigh, had been hung, because, on a former occasion, he had killed a straggling and marauding Federal soldier while in the act of insulting and outraging the ladies of his family." The Confederate raids into Maryland and Pennsylvania in July were accompanied by widespread looting and destruction.
On August 1, Grant placed Maj. Gen Phil Sheridan in command of the effort to destroy Jubal Early's army. The Shenandoah, Maryland, and Washington DC area all fell under Hunter's military department, but Grant had no intention of allowing Hunter any direct command over the campaign against Early. He therefore informed him that he could retain department command on paper while Sheridan did the active field campaigning. Hunter however declined this offer, stating that he had been so beset by contradictory War Department orders that he had no idea where Jubal Early's army even was, and he would rather just turn everything over to Sheridan. Grant immediately accepted and relieved Hunter of his post. He would serve in no more combat commands. He was promoted to brevet major general in the regular army on March 13, 1865, an honor that was relatively common for senior officers late in the war.
Later life and death
Hunter served in the honor guard at the funeral of Abraham Lincoln and accompanied his body back to Springfield. He was the president of the military commission trying the conspirators of Lincoln's assassination, from May 8 to July 15, 1865. He retired from the Army in July 1866. He was the author of Report of the Military Services of Gen. David Hunter, U.S.A., during the War of the Rebellion, published in 1873.<ref> Hunter, David (1873) [https://archive.org/search.php?query=Report%20of%20the%20Military%20Services%20of%20Gen.%20David%20Hunter%2C%20U.S.A.%2C%20during%20the%20War%20of%20the%20Rebellion Report of the Military Services of Gen. David Hunter, U.S.A., during the War of the Rebellion]. New York : D. Van Nostrand.</ref>
Hunter died in Washington, D.C., and is buried at the Princeton Cemetery in Princeton, New Jersey.
In popular culture
Colm Meaney portrays Hunter in the 2011 film The Conspirator.
See also
List of American Civil War generals (Union)
Battle of Fort Pulaski
References
Cited sources
Berlin, Ira, et al. Free at Last: A Documentary History of Slavery, Freedom, and the Civil War''. New York: The New Press, 1992. .
Further reading
Hanchett, William. "IRISH: Charles G. Halpine in Civil War America"; Syracuse University Press; 1970. .
Spartacus Educational website biography
Mr. Lincoln and Freedom website article on Hunter
External links
General Hunter biography and portrait in 1863 newspaper
Newspaper account of General Order No. 11
Hunter's raid on VMI
1802 births
1886 deaths
Union Army generals
American military personnel of the Mexican–American War
People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln
People of New Jersey in the American Civil War
United States Military Academy alumni
Burials at Princeton Cemetery
American abolitionists
Military emancipation in the American Civil War | [
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224435 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estate | Estate | Estate or The Estate may refer to:
Law
Estate (law), a term in common law for a person's property, entitlements and obligations
Estates of the realm, a broad social category in the histories of certain countries.
The Estates, representative bodies of the estates of the realm
Estates General, a supra-regional gathering of representatives of the estates of the realm
Estate in land
Estate (land), the grounds and tenancies (such as farms, housing, woodland, parkland) associated with a very large property
Housing estate, a group of houses built as a single development.
Industrial estate (office park) and trading estate; property planned and sub-let for industrial and commercial use.
Real estate or real property
Estate agent or real estate agent
Literary estate, the intellectual property of a deceased author, or the executor thereof
Automobiles and technology
Estate car (station wagon), passenger car with a full-size interior cargo compartment
Buick Estate, a luxury station wagon offered by General Motors from 1940 until 1990
Estate, a brand of major appliances, first from RCA, afterwards from Whirlpool Corporation
Estate, Information Technology term for a set of computers and other technology infrastructure, generally the total set owned by a corporation, as in "Estate Management" See ITIL and other standards.
In drugs, Estate is the name of Estradiol valerate & also for Aloxistatin.
Books
The Estate (Isaac Bashevis Singer novel)
The Estate play by Oladipo Agboluaje
Film and TV
Estate (film), a 2020 short film
The Estate (film), 2020 film with Eric Roberts, directed by James Kapner
The Estate (TV series), BBC documentary
The Estate, 2011 film directed by Steven Drew with Dave Courtney, Sean Brosnan (actor), Brian Murphy (actor)
Music
Estate (album), a jazz piano album by Michel Petrucciani
"Estate" (song), a 1960 Italian song and jazz standard, sung by Milva, written by Brighetti, Bruno Martino
Other
Estate Khmaladze (born 1944), Georgian statistician | [
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224439 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadfly%20petrel | Gadfly petrel | The gadfly petrels or Pterodroma are a genus of about 35 species of petrels, part of the seabird order Procellariiformes. The gadfly petrels are named for their speedy weaving flight, as if evading gadflies (horseflies). The flight action is also reflected in the name Pterodroma, from Ancient Greek pteron, "wing" and dromos, "runner".
The short, sturdy bills of these medium to large petrels are adapted for soft prey that they pick from the ocean surface. They have twisted intestines for digesting marine animals that have unusual biochemistries.
Their complex wing and face marking are probably for interspecific recognition.
These birds nest in colonies on islands and are pelagic when not breeding. One white egg is laid usually in a burrow or on open ground. They are nocturnal at the breeding colonies.
While generally wide-ranging, most Pterodroma species are confined to a single ocean basin (e.g. Atlantic), and vagrancy is not as common amongst the genus as in some other seabird species (c.f. the storm petrels Hydrobatidae).
Taxonomy
The genus Pterodroma was introduced in 1856 by the French naturalist Charles Lucien Bonaparte. The genus name combines the Ancient Greek pteron meaning "wing" with dromos meaning "racer" or "runner". The type species was subsequently designated as the great-winged petrel by the American ornithologist Elliott Coues in 1866.
The species listed here are those recognised in the online list maintained by Frank Gill, Pamela Rasmussen and David Donsker on behalf of the International Ornithological Committee (IOC). The genus includes 35 species, of which one has become extinct in historical times.
Great-winged petrel, Pterodroma macroptera – Indian and Atlantic Oceans
White-headed petrel, Pterodroma lessonii – Southern Ocean
Grey-faced petrel, Pterodroma gouldi – Pacific Ocean
Atlantic petrel, Pterodroma incerta – south Atlantic Ocean
Providence petrel, Pterodroma solandri – west Pacific Ocean
Magenta petrel, Pterodroma magentae – south Pacific Ocean, but poorly known
Murphy's petrel, Pterodroma ultima – east and central Pacific Ocean
Soft-plumaged petrel, Pterodroma mollis – Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean and margins of western Pacific Ocean
Zino's petrel or Madeira petrel, Pterodroma madeira – east Atlantic Ocean
Fea's petrel, Pterodroma feae – Atlantic Ocean
Desertas petrel, Pterodroma desertae (disputed) – Atlantic Ocean
Bermuda petrel, Pterodroma cahow – northwest Atlantic Ocean
Black-capped petrel, Pterodroma hasitata – Atlantic Ocean: Cuba and Hispaniola to Martinique
† Jamaican petrel, Pterodroma caribbaea (extinct) – Atlantic Ocean: Jamaica
Juan Fernández petrel, Pterodroma externa – east Pacific Ocean
Vanuatu petrel or Falla's petrel, Pterodroma occulta – southwest Pacific Ocean
Kermadec petrel, Pterodroma neglecta – Pacific Ocean with eccentric breeding in the Indian Ocean on the Round Island, Mauritius
Herald petrel, Pterodroma heraldica – southwest Pacific Ocean – split from P. arminjoniana
Trindade petrel, Pterodroma arminjoniana – south Atlantic Ocean, with eccentric breeding on the Round Island, Mauritius
Henderson petrel, Pterodroma atrata – southeast Pacific Ocean – split from P. arminjoniana
Phoenix petrel, Pterodroma alba – southwest Pacific Ocean
Barau's petrel, Pterodroma baraui – southwest Indian Ocean
Hawaiian petrel, Pterodroma sandwichensis – central Pacific Ocean
Galápagos petrel, Pterodroma phaeopygia – central Pacific Ocean
Mottled petrel, Pterodroma inexpectata – Pacific Ocean
White-necked petrel, Pterodroma cervicalis – west Pacific Ocean
Black-winged petrel, Pterodroma nigripennis – west Pacific Ocean with eccentric breeding in the Indian Ocean on Round Island, Mauritius
Chatham petrel, Pterodroma axillaris – southwest Pacific Ocean
Bonin petrel, Pterodroma hypoleuca – northwest Pacific Ocean
Gould's petrel, Pterodroma leucoptera – south Pacific Ocean
Collared petrel, Pterodroma brevipes – southwest Pacific Ocean
Cook's petrel, Pterodroma cookii – Pacific Ocean
Masatierra petrel, Pterodroma defilippiana – east Pacific Ocean
Stejneger's petrel, Pterodroma longirostris – north and east Pacific Ocean
Pycroft's petrel, Pterodroma pycrofti – southwest Pacific Ocean
See also
List of gadfly petrels
References
Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte | [
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224442 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary%20of%20State%20for%20India | Secretary of State for India | His (or Her) Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for India, known for short as the India Secretary or the Indian Secretary, was the British Cabinet minister and the political head of the India Office responsible for the governance of the British Indian Empire (usually known simply as 'the Raj' or British India), Aden, and Burma. The post was created in 1858 when the East India Company's rule in Bengal ended and India, except for the Princely States, was brought under the direct administration of the government in Whitehall in London, beginning the official colonial period under the British Empire.
In 1937, the India Office was reorganised which separated Burma and Aden under a new Burma Office, but the same Secretary of State headed both departments and a new title was established as His Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for India and Burma. The India Office and its Secretary of State were abolished in August 1947, when the United Kingdom granted independence in the Indian Independence Act, which created two new independent dominions, India and Pakistan. Burma soon achieved independence separately in early 1948.
Secretaries of State for India, 1858–1937
Before the establishment of the British Empire on 2 August 1858, Lord Stanley had served as President of the Board of Control.
Secretaries of State for India and Burma, 1937–1947
Secretaries of State for Burma, 1947–1948
See also
India Office
British Raj
British rule in Burma
Governor-General of India
Imperial Civil Service
Government of India Act
Notes
External links
1858 establishments in the United Kingdom
India
Government of British India
Defunct ministerial offices in the United Kingdom
1947 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
History of Kolkata
History of Bengal
History of West Bengal
History of India
Foreign Office during World War II
India Office | [
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224443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procellariidae | Procellariidae | The family Procellariidae is a group of seabirds that comprises the fulmarine petrels, the gadfly petrels, the diving petrels, the prions, and the shearwaters. This family is part of the bird order Procellariiformes (or tubenoses), which also includes the albatrosses and the storm petrels.
The procellariids are the most numerous family of tubenoses, and the most diverse. They range in size from the giant petrels with a wingspan of around , that are almost as large as the albatrosses, to the diving petrels with a wingspan of around that are similar in size to the little auks or dovekies in the family Alcidae. Male and female birds are identical in appearance. The plumage color is generally dull, with blacks, whites, browns and grays. The birds feed on fish, squid and crustacea, with many also taking fisheries discards and carrion. All species are accomplished long-distance foragers, and many undertake long trans-equatorial migrations. They are colonial breeders, exhibiting long-term mate fidelity and site philopatry. In all species, a single white egg is laid each breeding season. The parents take it in turns to incubate the egg and to forage for food. The feeding area can be at a great distance from the nest site. The incubation times and chick-rearing periods are exceptionally long compared to other birds.
Many procellariids have breeding populations of over several million pairs; others number fewer than 200 birds. Humans have traditionally exploited several species of fulmar and shearwater (known as muttonbirds) for food, fuel, and bait, a practice that continues in a controlled fashion today. Several species are threatened by introduced species attacking adults and chicks in breeding colonies and by long-line fisheries.
Taxonomy and evolution
The family Procellariidae was introduced (as Procellaridæ) by the English zoologist William Elford Leach in a guide to the contents of the British Museum published in 1820. The name is derived from the type genus Procellaria which in turn is derived from the Latin word procella meaning "storm" or "gale". The type genus was named in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae.
Procellariidae is one of families that make up the order Procellariiformes. Before the introduction of molecular phylogenetics, the traditional arrangement was to divide the Procellariiformes into a set of four families: Diomedeidae containing the albatrosses, Hydrobatidae containing all the storm petrels, Pelecanoididae containing the diving petrels and Procellariidae containing the petrels, shearwaters and fulmars. The family Hydrobatidae was further divided into two subfamilies, the northern storm petrels in Hydrobatinae and the southern or austral storm petrels in Oceanitinae. A 1998 analysis of mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences found there was deep genetic divergence between the two subfamilies. Subsequent large-scale multigene studies found that the two subfamilies were not sister taxa. The storm petrels were therefore split into two families: Hydrobatidae containing the northern storm petrels and Oceanitidae, containing the southern storm petrels. The multigene genetic studies also found that the diving petrels in the family Pelecanoididae were nested within the family Procellariidae. As a result, the diving petrels was merged into Procellariidae.
The molecular evidence suggests that the albatrosses were the first to diverge from the ancestral stock, and the austral storm petrels next, with the procellariids and northern storm petrels splitting most recently.
Within the procellariid family, a genetic analysis based on the cytochrome b gene published in 2004 indicated that the genus Puffinus contained two distinct clades and was polyphyletic. The genus was therefore split and a group of species moved into the resurrected genus Ardenna. The other genera within the family were found to be monotypic but the relationships between the genera remained unclear. This changed when a multigene genetic study published in 2021 provided a genus-level phylogeny of the family.
There are 99 species of procellariid in 16 genera. The family has usually been broken up into four fairly distinct groups; the fulmarine petrels, the gadfly petrels, the prions, and the shearwaters. With the inclusion of the diving petrels there are now five main groups.
The fulmarine petrels include the largest procellariids, the giant petrels, as well as the two fulmar species, the snow petrel, the Antarctic petrel, and the Cape petrel. The fulmarine petrels are a diverse group with differing habits and appearances, but are linked morphologically by their skull features, particularly the long prominent nasal tubes.
The four diving petrels are the smallest procellariids with lengths of around and wingspans of . They are compact birds with short wings that are adapted for use under water. They have a characteristic whirring flight and dive into the water without settling. They probably remain all year in the seas near their breeding sites.
The gadfly petrels, so named due to their helter-skelter flight, are the 37 species in the genus Pterodroma. The species vary from small to medium sizes, in length, and are long winged with short hooked bills. They are most closely related to Kerguelen petrel which is placed in its own genus Aphrodroma.
The prions comprise six species of true prion in the genus Pachyptila and the closely related blue petrel. Often known in the past as whalebirds, three species have large bills filled with lamellae that they use to filter plankton somewhat as baleen whales do, though the old name derives from their association with whales, not their bills (though "prions" does, deriving from Ancient Greek for "saw"). They are small procellariids, in length, with a prominent dark M-shaped mark across the upperwing of their grey plumage. All are restricted to the southern hemisphere.
The shearwaters are adapted for diving after prey instead of foraging on the ocean's surface; several species have been recorded diving deeper than . The shearwaters are also well known for the long trans-equatorial migrations undertaken by many species. The shearwaters include the 20 or so species of the genus Puffinus, seven species in the genus Ardenna, as well as the five large Procellaria species and the four Calonectris species. While all these four genera are often known collectively as shearwaters, the Procellaria are called petrels in their common names.
Morphology and flight
The procellariids are small- to medium-sized seabirds. The largest, the southern giant petrel with a wingspan of , is almost as large as albatrosses; the smallest, the diving petrels have a wingspan of and are similar in size to little auks or dovekies in the family Alcidae. There are no obvious differences between the sexes, although females tend to be slighter. Like all Procellariiformes, the procellariids have a characteristic tubular nasal passage used for olfaction. This ability to smell helps to locate patchily distributed prey at sea and may also help locate nesting colonies. The plumage of the procellariids is usually dull, with greys, bluish greys, blacks and browns being the usual colours, although some species have striking patterns such as the Cape petrel.
The technique of flight among procellariids depends on foraging methods. Compared to an average bird, all procellariids have a high aspect ratio (meaning their wings are long and narrow) and a heavy wing loading. Therefore, they must maintain a high speed in order to remain in the air. Most procellariids use two techniques to do this, namely, dynamic soaring and slope soaring. Dynamic soaring involves gliding across wave fronts, thus taking advantage of the vertical wind gradient and minimising the effort required to stay in the air. Slope soaring is more straightforward: the procellariid turns to the wind, gaining height, from where it can then glide back down to the sea. Most procellariids aid their flight by means of flap-glides, where bursts of flapping are followed by a period of gliding; the amount of flapping dependent on the strength of the wind and the choppiness of the water. Because of the high speeds required for flight, procellariids need to either run or face into a strong wind in order to take off.
The giant petrels share with the albatrosses an adaptation known as a shoulder-lock: a sheet of tendon that locks the wing when fully extended, allowing the wing to be kept up and out without any muscle effort. Gadfly petrels often feed on the wing, snapping prey without landing on the water. The flight of the smaller prions is similar to that of the storm petrels, being highly erratic and involving weaving and even looping the loop. The wings of all species are long and stiff. In some species of shearwater the wings are also used to power the birds underwater while diving for prey. Their heavier wing loadings, in comparison with surface-feeding procellariids, allow these shearwaters to achieve considerable depths (below in the case of the short-tailed shearwater).
Procellariids generally have weak legs that are set back, and many species move around on land by resting on the breast and pushing themselves forward, often with the help of their wings. The exceptions to this are the two species of giant petrel, which have strong legs used when they feed on land.
Distribution and migration
The procellariids are present in all the world's oceans and most of the seas. They are absent from the Bay of Bengal and Hudson Bay, but are present year round or seasonally in the rest. The seas north of New Zealand are the centre of procellariid biodiversity, with the most species. Among the groups, the fulmarine petrels have a mostly polar distribution, with most species living around Antarctica and one, the northern fulmar ranging in the Northern Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Of the four species of diving petrel, two are found along the coasts of South America, while the remaining two have circumpolar distributions in the Southern Ocean. The prions are restricted to the Southern Ocean, and the gadfly petrels are found mostly in the tropics with some temperate species. The shearwaters are the most widespread group and breed in most temperate and tropical seas.
Many procellariids undertake long annual migrations in the non-breeding season. Southern species of shearwater such as the sooty shearwater and short-tailed shearwater, breeding on islands off Australia, New Zealand and Chile, undertake transequatorial migrations of millions of birds up to the waters off Alaska and back each year during the austral winter. Manx shearwaters from the North Atlantic also undertake transequatorial migrations from Western Europe and North America to the waters off Brazil in the South Atlantic. The mechanisms of navigation are poorly understood, but displacement experiments where individuals were removed from colonies and flown to far-flung release sites have shown that they are able to home in on their colonies with remarkable precision. A Manx shearwater released in Boston returned to its colony in Skomer, Wales within 13 days, a distance of 5,150 kilometres (3,200 mi).
Behaviour
Food and feeding
The diet of the procellariids is the most diverse of all the Procellariiformes, as are the methods employed to obtain it. With the exception of the giant petrels, all procellariids are exclusively marine, and the diet of all species is dominated by either fish, squid, crustaceans and carrion, or some combination thereof.
The majority of species are surface feeders, obtaining food that has been pushed to the surface by other predators or currents, or have floated in death. Among the surface feeders some, principally the gadfly petrels, can obtain food by dipping from flight, while most of the rest feed while sitting on the water. These surface feeders are dependent on their prey being close to the surface, and for this reason procellariids are often found in association with other predators or oceanic convergences. Studies have shown strong associations between many different kinds of seabirds, including wedge-tailed shearwaters, and dolphins and tuna, which push shoaling fish up towards the surface. The gadfly petrels and the Kerguelen petrel mainly feed at night. In so doing they can take advantage of the nocturnal migration of cephalopods and other food species towards the surface.
The fulmarine petrels are generalists, which for the most part take many species of fish and crustacea. The giant petrels, uniquely for Procellariiformes, will feed on land, eating the carrion of other seabirds and seals. They will also attack the chicks of other seabirds. The diet of the giant petrels varies according to sex, with the females taking more krill and the males more carrion. All the fulmarine petrels readily feed on fisheries discards at sea, a habit that has been implicated in (but not proved to have caused) the expansion in range of the northern fulmar in the Atlantic.
The three larger prion species have bills filled with lamellae, which act as filters to sift zooplankton from the water. Water is forced through the lamellae and small prey items are collected. This technique is often used in conjunction with a method known as hydroplaning where the bird dips its bill beneath the surface and propels itself forward with wings and feet as if walking on the water.
The diving petrels and many of the shearwaters are proficient divers. While it has long been known that they regularly dive from the surface to pursue prey, using their wings for propulsion, the depth that they are able to dive to was not appreciated (or anticipated) until scientists began to deploy maximum-depth recorders on foraging birds. Studies of both long-distance migrants such as the sooty shearwater and more sedentary species such as the black-vented shearwater have shown maximum diving depths of and . Tropical shearwaters, such as the wedge-tailed shearwater and the Audubon's shearwater, also dive in order to hunt, making the shearwaters the only tropical seabirds capable of exploiting that ecological niche (all other tropical seabirds feed close to the surface). Many other species of procellariid, from white-chinned petrels to slender-billed prions, dive to a couple of metres below the surface, though not as proficiently or as frequently as the shearwaters.
Breeding
Colonies
The procellariids are colonial, nesting for the most part on islands. These colonies vary in size from over a million birds to just a few pairs, and can be densely concentrated or widely spaced. At one extreme the greater shearwater nests in concentrations of one pair per square metre in three colonies of more than one million pairs, whereas the giant petrels nest in clumped but widely spaced territories that barely qualify as colonial. Colonies are usually located near the coast, but some species nest far inland and even at high altitudes. Hutton's shearwater (Puffinus huttoni) breeds in burrows on the sea-facing mountainside of the Kaikōura Ranges on South Island, New Zealand. The colonies are above sea level at a distance of from the coast. Other exceptions are Barau's petrel (Pterodroma baraui) that breeds at on the island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean, and the snow petrel (Pagodroma nivea) that breeds in Antarctica on mountain ledges up to from the open sea.
Most seabirds are colonial, and the reasons for colonial behaviour are assumed to be similar, if incompletely understood by scientists. Procellariids for the most part have weak legs and are unable to easily take off, making them highly vulnerable to mammalian predators. Most procellariid colonies are located on islands that have historically been free of mammals; for this reason some species cannot help but be colonial as they are limited to a few locations to breed. Even species that breed on continental Antarctica, such as the Antarctic petrel, are forced by habitat preference (snow-free north-facing rock) to breed in just a few locations.
Most procellariids' nests are in burrows or on the surface on open ground, with a smaller number nesting under the cover of vegetation (such as in a forest). All the fulmarine petrels bar the snow petrel nest in the open, the snow petrel instead nesting inside natural crevices. Of the rest of the procellariids the majority nest in burrows or crevices, with a few tropical species nesting in the open. There are several reasons for these differences. The fulmarine petrels are probably precluded from burrowing by their large size (the crevice-nesting snow petrel is the smallest fulmarine petrel) and the high latitudes they breed in, where frozen ground is difficult to burrow into. The smaller size of the other species, and their lack of agility on land, mean that even on islands free from mammal predators they are still vulnerable to skuas, gulls and other avian predators, something the aggressive oil-spitting fulmars are not. The chicks of all species are vulnerable to predation, but the chicks of fulmarine petrels can defend themselves in a similar fashion to their parents. In the higher latitudes there are thermal advantages to burrow nesting, as the temperature is more stable than on the surface, and there is no wind-chill to contend with. The absence of skuas, gulls and other predatory birds on tropical islands is why some shearwaters and two species of gadfly petrel (Kermadec petrel and the herald petrel) can nest in the open. This has the advantages of reducing competition with burrow nesters from other species and allowing open-ground nesters to nest on coralline islets without soil for burrowing. Procellariids that burrow in order to avoid predation almost always attend their colonies nocturnally in order to reduce predation as well.
Procellariids display high levels of philopatry, exhibiting both natal philopatry and site fidelity. Natal philopatry, the tendency of a bird to breed close to where it hatched, is strong among all the Procellariiformes. The evidence for natal philopatry comes from several sources, not the least of which is the existence of several procellariid species that are endemic to a single island. The study of mitochondrial DNA also provides evidence of restricted gene flow between different colonies, and has been used to show philopatry in fairy prions. Bird ringing also provides compelling evidence of philopatry; a study of Cory's shearwaters nesting near Corsica found that nine out of 61 male chicks that returned to breed at their natal colony actually bred in the burrow they were raised in. This tendency towards philopatry is stronger in some species than others, and several species readily prospect potential new colony sites and colonise them. It is hypothesised that there is a cost to dispersing to a new site, the chance of not finding a mate of the same species, that selects against it for rarer species, whereas there is probably an advantage to dispersal for species that have colony sites that change dramatically during periods of glacial advance or retreat. There are also differences in the tendency to disperse based on sex, with females being more likely to breed away from the natal site.
Mate and site fidelity
Procellariids, as well as having strong natal philopatry, exhibit strong site fidelity, returning to the same nesting site, burrow or territory in sequential years. The figure varies for different species but is high for most species, an estimated 91% for Bulwer's petrels. The strength of this fidelity can also vary with sex; almost 85% of male Cory's shearwaters return to the same burrow to breed the year after a successful breeding attempt, while the figure for females is around 76%. This tendency towards using the same site from year to year is matched by strong mate fidelity, with birds breeding with the same partner for many years; it has been suggested that the two are linked, with site fidelity acting as a means in which partnered birds could meet at the beginning of the breeding season. One pair of northern fulmars bred as a pair in the same site for 25 years. Like the albatrosses the procellariids take several years to reach sexual maturity, though due to the greater variety of sizes and lifestyles, the age of first breeding stretches from two or three years in the smaller species to 12 years in the larger ones.
The procellariids lack the elaborate breeding dances of the albatrosses, in no small part due to the tendency of most of them to attend colonies at night and breed in burrows, where visual displays are useless. The fulmarine petrels, which nest on the surface and attend their colonies diurnally, do use a repertoire of stereotyped behaviours such as cackling, preening, head waving and nibbling, but for most species courtship interactions are limited to some billing (rubbing the two bills together) in the burrow and the vocalisations made by all species. The calls serve a number of functions: they are used territorially to protect burrows or territories and to call for mates. Each call type is unique to a particular species and indeed it is possible for procellariids to identify the sex of the bird calling as well. It may also be possible to assess the quality of potential mates; a study of blue petrels found a link between the rhythm and duration of calls and the body mass of the bird. The ability of an individual to recognise its mate has also been demonstrated in several species.
Breeding season
Like most seabirds, the majority of procellariids breed once a year. There are exceptions; many individuals of the larger species, such as the white-headed petrel, will skip a breeding season after successfully fledging a chick, and some of the smaller species, such as the Christmas shearwaters, breed on a nine-month schedule. Among those that breed annually, there is considerable variation as to the timing; some species breed in a fixed season while others breed all year round. Climate and the availability of food resources are important influences on the timing of procellariid breeding; species that breed at higher latitudes always breed in the summer as conditions are too harsh in the winter. At lower latitudes many, but not all, species breed continuously. Some species breed seasonally to avoid competition with other species for burrows, to avoid predation or to take advantage of seasonally abundant food. Others, such as the tropical wedge-tailed shearwater, breed seasonally for unknown reasons. Among the species that exhibit seasonal breeding there can be high levels of synchronization, both of time of arrival at the colony and of lay date.
Procellariids begin to attend their nesting colony around one month prior to laying. Males will arrive first and attend the colony more frequently than females, partly in order to protect a site or burrow from potential competitors. Prior to laying there is a period known as the pre-laying exodus in which both the male and female are away from the colony, building up reserves in order to lay and undertake the first incubation stint respectively. This pre-laying exodus can vary in length from 9 days (as in the Cape petrel) to around 50 days in Atlantic petrels. All procellariids lay a single white egg per pair per breeding season, in common with the rest of the Procellariiformes. The egg is large compared to that of other birds, weighing 6–24% of the female's weight. Immediately after laying the female goes back to sea to feed while the male takes over incubation. Incubation duties are shared by both sexes in shifts that vary in length between species, individuals and the stage of incubation. The longest recorded shift was 29 days by a Murphy's petrel from Henderson Island; the typical length of a gadfly petrel stint is between 13 and 19 days. Fulmarine petrels, shearwaters and prions tend to have shorter stints, averaging between 3 and 13 days. Incubation takes a long time, from 40 days for the smaller species (such as prions) to around 55 days for the larger species. The incubation period is longer if eggs are abandoned temporarily; procellariid eggs are resistant to chilling and can still hatch after being left unattended for a few days.
After hatching the chick is brooded by a parent until it is large enough to thermoregulate efficiently, and in some cases defend itself from predation. This guard stage lasts a short while for burrow-nesting species (2–3 days) but longer for surface nesting fulmars (around 16–20 days) and giant petrels (20–30 days). After the guard stage both parents feed the chick. In many species the parent's foraging strategy alternates between short trips lasting 1–3 days and longer trips of 5 days. The shorter trips, which are taken over the continental shelf, benefit the chick with faster growth, but longer trips to more productive pelagic feeding grounds are needed for the parents to maintain their own body condition. The meals are composed of both prey items and stomach oil, an energy-rich food that is lighter to carry than undigested prey items. This oil is created in a stomach organ known as a proventriculus from digested prey items, and gives procellariids and other Procellariiformes their distinctive musty smell. Chick development is quite slow for birds, with fledging taking place at around two months after hatching for the smaller species and four months for the largest species. The chicks of some species are abandoned by the parents; parents of other species continue to bring food to the nesting site after the chick has left. Chicks put on weight quickly and some can outweigh their parents, although they will slim down before they leave the nest. All procellariid chicks fledge by themselves, and there is no further parental care after fledging. Life expectancy of Procellariidae is between 15 and 20 years; the oldest recorded member was a northern fulmar that was over 50 years.
Relationship with humans
Exploitation
Procellariids have been a seasonally abundant source of food for people wherever people have been able to reach their colonies. Early records of human exploitation of shearwaters (along with albatrosses and cormorants) come from the remains of hunter-gatherer middens in southern Chile, where sooty shearwaters were taken 5000 years ago. More recently, procellariids have been hunted for food by Europeans, particularly the northern fulmar in Europe, and various species by Inuit, and sailors around the world. The hunting pressure on the Bermuda petrel, or cahow, was so intense that the species nearly became extinct and did go missing for 300 years. The name of one species, the providence petrel, is derived from its (seemingly) miraculous arrival on Norfolk Island, where it provided a windfall for starving European settlers; within ten years the providence petrel was extinct on Norfolk. Several species of procellariid have gone extinct in the Pacific since the arrival of humans, and their remains have been found in middens dated to that time. More sustainable shearwater harvesting industries developed in Tasmania and New Zealand, where the practice of harvesting what are known as muttonbirds continues today.
Threats and conservation
While some species of procellariid have populations that number in the millions, many species are much less common and several are threatened with extinction. Human activities have caused dramatic declines in the numbers of some species, particularly species that were originally restricted to one island. According to the IUCN 43 species are listed as vulnerable or worse, with 12 critically endangered. Procellariids are threatened by many threats, but introduced species on their breeding grounds, light pollution, marine fisheries particularly bycatch, pollution, exploitation and climate change are the main threats measures as the number of species involved.
The most pressing threat for many species, particularly the smaller ones, comes from species introduced to their colonies. Procellariids overwhelmingly breed on islands away from land predators such as mammals, and for the most part have lost the defensive adaptations needed to deal with them (with the exception of the oil-spitting fulmarine petrels). The introduction of mammal predators such as feral cats, rats, mongooses and mice can have disastrous results for ecologically naïve seabirds. These predators can either directly attack and kill breeding adults, or, more commonly, attack eggs and chicks. Burrowing species that leave their young unattended at a very early stage are particularly vulnerable to attack. Studies on grey-faced petrels breeding on New Zealand's Whale Island (Moutohora) have shown that a population under heavy pressure from Norway rats will produce virtually no young during a breeding season, whereas if the rats are controlled (through the use of poison), breeding success is much higher. That study also highlighted the role that non-predatory introduced species can play in harming seabirds; introduced rabbits on the island caused little damage to the petrels, other than damaging their burrows, but they also acted as a food source for the rats during the non-breeding season, which allowed rat numbers to be higher than they otherwise would be, resulting in more predators for the petrels to contend with. Interactions with introduced species can be quite complex. Gould's petrels breed only on two islands, Cabbage Tree Island and Boondelbah Island off Port Stephens (New South Wales). Introduced rabbits destroyed the forest understory on Cabbage Tree Island; this both increased the vulnerability of the petrels to natural predators and left them vulnerable to the sticky fruits of the birdlime tree (Pisonia umbellifera), a native plant. In the natural state these fruits lodge in the understory of the forest, but with the understory removed the fruits fall to the ground where the petrels move about, sticking to their feathers and making flight impossible.
Larger species of procellariid face similar problems to the albatrosses with long-line fisheries. These species readily take offal from fishing boats and will also steal bait from the long lines as they are being set, risking becoming snared on the hooks and drowning. In the case of the spectacled petrel this has led to the species undergoing a large decline and its listing as vulnerable. Diving species, most especially the shearwaters, are also vulnerable to gillnet fisheries. Studies of gill-net fisheries show that shearwaters (sooty and short-tailed) compose 60% of the seabirds killed by gill-nets in Japanese waters and 40% in Monterey Bay, California in the 1980s, with the total number of shearwaters killed in Japan being between 65,000 and 125,000 per annum over the same study period (1978–1981).
Procellariids are vulnerable to other threats as well. Ingestion of plastic flotsam is a problem for the family as it is for many other seabirds. Once swallowed, this plastic can cause a general decline in the fitness of the bird, or in some cases lodge in the gut and cause a blockage, leading to death by starvation. Procellariids are also vulnerable to general marine pollution, as well as oil spills. Some species, such as the Barau's petrel, the Newell's shearwater or the Cory's shearwater, which nest high up on large developed islands are victims of light pollution. Chicks that are fledging are attracted to streetlights and are unable to reach the sea. An estimated 20–40% of fledging Barau's petrels are attracted to the streetlights on Réunion.
Conservationists are working with governments and fisheries to prevent further declines and increase populations of endangered procellariids. Progress has been made in protecting many colonies where most species are most vulnerable. On 20 June 2001, the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels was signed by seven major fishing nations. The agreement lays out a plan to manage fisheries by-catch, protect breeding sites, promote conservation in the industry, and research threatened species. The developing field of island restoration, where introduced species are removed and native species and habitats restored, has been used in several procellariid recovery programmes. Invasive species such as rats, feral cats and pigs have been either removed or controlled in many remote islands in the tropical Pacific (such as the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands), around New Zealand (where island restoration was developed), and in the south Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The grey-faced petrels of Whale Island (mentioned above) have been achieving much higher fledging successes after the introduced Norway rats were finally completely removed. At sea, procellariids threatened by long-line fisheries can be protected using techniques such as setting long-line bait at night, dying the bait blue, setting the bait underwater, increasing the amount of weight on lines and using bird scarers can all reduce the seabird by-catch. The Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels came into force in 2004 and has been ratified by eight countries, Australia, Ecuador, New Zealand, Spain, South Africa, France, Peru and the United Kingdom. The treaty requires these countries to take specific actions to reduce by-catch and pollution and to remove introduced species from nesting islands.
See also
List of Procellariidae species
References
Sources
External links
The Agreement for the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP) Treaty Website
Shearwaters and petrels: Don Roberson's family page
Bird families
Seabirds
Extant Rupelian first appearances
Taxa named by William Elford Leach | [
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224445 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implied%20Bill%20of%20Rights | Implied Bill of Rights | The Implied Bill of Rights () is a judicial theory in Canadian jurisprudence that recognizes that certain basic principles are underlying the Constitution of Canada.
The concept of an implied bill of rights develops out of Canadian federalism. When provincial legislation intrudes deeply into fundamental freedoms of speech, religion, association or assembly, the provincial legislature is creating criminal legislation, which under the distribution of powers is reserved exclusively to the Parliament of Canada by section 91(27) of the Constitution Act, 1867.
Provinces cannot intrude in this area; if they do, such legislation is void and has no effect. Since provincial prohibitions touching on the fundamental freedoms of speech, religion, assembly and association were declared unconstitutional by the courts, and in light of the expansive obiters in the leading cases, the writers were able to claim that there was a bill of rights implicit in the Constitution.
Some constitutional scholars focus on the Preamble to the Constitution Act, 1867 as providing the underlying reasons for an implied bill of rights. The relevant part of the preamble reads:
Some authors have taken the view that the words "similar in principle" means that in Canada there must be a parliamentary system of government, acting under the influence of public opinion, of a free press, with free speech. Thus, legislation which destroyed the citizen's ability to debate, to assemble or to associate freely would be contrary to Canada's democratic parliamentary system of government. This provides an additional underpinning for the claim of an implied bill of rights in Canada's Constitution.
Invoked more often before the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms was enacted, it is nonetheless important when questions of parliamentary supremacy and the override power come into play.
History
Jurisprudence before 1982
The principal cases describing the extent of the rights are considered to include:
Reference Re Alberta Statutes
Boucher v the King
Winner v SMT (Eastern) Ltd
Saumur v Quebec
Chaput v Romain
Switzman v Elbling
Roncarelli v Duplessis
In Alberta Statutes, Duff CJ held that:
Cannon J agreed, and also stated:
While Duff's and Cannon's dicta focused on the competence of the provincial legislatures, Abbott J later stated in Switzman that the same restrictions applied to the Parliament of Canada as well, declaring that "Parliament itself could not abrogate this right of discussion and debate."
The concept was expanded in Winner, which held that citizens were free to move across provincial borders and live wherever they chose to. Roncarelli later held that public officials were subject to the rule of law, and therefore could neither suspend nor dispense it arbitrarily, but must act within their official powers.
Post-Charter
The Supreme Court revisited the implied bill of rights theory in the Provincial Judges Reference. The Court referred to both the Charter and the implied bill of rights theory to rule that governments may not compromise judicial independence. As outlined by the majority the proper function of the implied bill of rights after the adoption of the Charter is to "fill in the gaps" in the express terms of the constitutional texts. However, while the Court stated that the theory was able to fill in the details of judicial independence, the Court actually relied on the Charter to do so. The Court fell short of using the preamble to state new constitutional obligations or limitations. Lamer CJ's extensive obiter did return Canadian constitutional theory to the classical model of rights implicit in the Constitution which was first developed in Alberta Press, Saumur and Switzman, noting:
The ideas outlined in Provincial Judges were developed further in the Reference re Secession of Quebec. Together these two cases have been interpreted to expand the reach of unwritten constitutional principles. The 1867 preamble and the Canadian Constitution (including its newer addition, the Charter) are read as a unified whole. The express provisions of the Constitution elaborate underlying, organizing principles. These unwritten principles can shape "a constitutional argument that culminates in the filling of gaps in the express terms of the constitutional text" and that in "certain circumstances give rise to substantive legal obligations" that "are binding upon both courts and governments."
In Toronto (City) v Ontario (Attorney General), the Supreme Court held that unwritten constitutional principles could not serve as an independent basis to strike down legislation.
Notes and references
Notes
Notable cases
References
Further reading
Constitution of Canada
National human rights instruments | [
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224446 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League%20of%20German%20Girls | League of German Girls | The League of German Girls or the Band of German Maidens (, abbreviated as BDM) was the girls' wing of the Nazi Party youth movement, the Hitler Youth. It was the only legal female youth organization in Nazi Germany.
At first, the League consisted of two sections: the Jungmädelbund ("Young Girls' League") for girls aged 10 to 14, and the League proper for girls aged 14 to 18. In 1938, a third section was introduced, the BDM-Werk Glaube und Schönheit ("Faith and Beauty Society"), which was voluntary and open to girls between the ages of 17 and 21.
With the surrender of Nazi Germany in 1945, the organization de facto ceased to exist. On 10 October 1945, it was outlawed by the Allied Control Council along with other Nazi Party organizations. Under Section 86 of the German Criminal Code, the Hitler Youth is an "unconstitutional organization" and the distribution or public use of its symbols, except for educational or research purposes, is not permitted.
History
The Bund Deutscher Mädel had its roots in the early 1920s, in the first Mädchenschaften or Mädchengruppen, also known as Schwesternschaften der Hitler-Jugend (Sisterhood of the Hitler Youth). In 1930, the BDM was founded, and in 1931 it became the female branch of the Hitler Youth. The league of German Maidens was derogatorily nicknamed by the counter-cultural Swingjugend "The League of German Mattresses", suggesting sexual promiscuity between the sex-separated groups who claimed to be traditional and conservative. Its full title was Bund Deutscher Mädel in der Hitler-Jugend (League of German Girls in the Hitler Youth). In the final electioneering campaigns of 1932, Hitler inaugurated it with a mass meeting featuring the League; on election eve, the League and Hitler Youth staged "evening of entertainment." It did not attract a mass following until the Nazis came to power in January 1933.
Soon after taking office as Reichsjugendführer on 17 June 1933, Baldur von Schirach issued regulations that suspended or forbade existing youth organizations ('concurrence'). Female youth groups were compulsorily integrated into the BDM, which was declared to be the only legally permitted organization for girls in Germany. Many of the existing organizations closed down to avoid this. These Nazi activities were a part of the Gleichschaltung (Equalization) starting in 1933. The Reichskonkordat between the Catholic Church and Nazi Germany, signed on 20 July 1933, gave a certain shelter to the Catholic youth ministry, but they were the object of much bullying.
The Gesetz über die Hitlerjugend (law concerning the Hitler Youth) dated 1 December 1936, forced all eligible juveniles to be a member of HJ or BDM. They had to be ethnic Germans, German citizens, and free of hereditary diseases. Girls had to be 10 years of age to enter this League.
The BDM was run directly by Schirach until 1934, when Trude Mohr, a former postal worker, was appointed to the position of BDM-Reichsreferentin, or National Speaker of the BDM, reporting directly to Schirach. After Mohr married in 1937, she was required to resign her position (the BDM required members to be unmarried and without children in order to remain in leadership positions), and was succeeded by Dr. Jutta Rüdiger, a doctor of psychology from Düsseldorf, who was a more assertive leader than Mohr but nevertheless a close ally of Schirach, and also of his successor from 1940 as HJ leader, Artur Axmann. She joined Schirach in resisting efforts by the head of the NS-Frauenschaft (Nazi Woman's League), Gertrud Scholtz-Klink, to gain control of the BDM. Rüdiger led the BDM until its dissolution in 1945.
As in the HJ, separate sections of the BDM existed, according to the age of participants. Girls between the ages of 10 and 14 were members of the Young Girl's League (Jungmädelbund, JM), and girls between the ages of 14 and 18 were members of the Bund Deutscher Mädel (BDM) proper. In 1938, a third section was added, known as Faith and Beauty (Glaube und Schönheit), which was voluntary and open to girls between 17 and 21 and was intended to groom them for marriage, domestic life, and future career goals. Ideally, girls were to be married and have children once they were of age, but importance was also placed on job training and education.
At the beginning of World War II, the Reichsarbeitsdienst (National Labour Service; RAD) became compulsory also for young women. It lasted half a year. Many young women became Blitzmädel (Wehrmachthelferin or female armed forces helpers) during World War II.
While these ages are general guidelines, there were some exceptions for members holding higher (salaried) leadership positions, starting at the organizational level of "Untergau". As regards lower (honorary) positions, even members of the JM could apply for them after two years of membership and would then obtain such a position typically at the age of 13. The higher leadership was recruited from members over 18 and was expected to maintain salaried office for no more than 10 years, and to leave the BDM by the age of 30. As a general rule, members had to leave when they were married and especially when they had children.
Uniform and emblems
The BDM uniform was a full blue skirt, middy blouse and very heavy marching shoes. In 1939, a new uniform was introduced for regional and national leaders within the League of German Girls, and along with the new uniforms came new rank insignia for leaders. These new rank insignia took the form of a silver, and for higher ranks, gold bullion embroidered open-winged eagle on a black (white, on the summer tunic) shield with various types of borders to indicate grade. They were worn on the left chest of the tunic.
Leaders
Trude Mohr was appointed the first Reichsreferentin in June 1934. Her main initiative was to nourish a new way of living for the German youth, stating
In 1937, after marrying Obersturmführer Wolf Bürkner, she became pregnant and resigned her duties.
Jutta Rüdiger (1910–2001) was a special case. She joined the BDM only in 1933, at the age of 23 and after having finished her doctorate in psychology. She obtained honorary positions instantly in 1933 and early 1934, was promoted to her first salaried position (leader of Untergau Ruhr-Lower Rhine) in June 1935 and was appointed Reichsreferentin for the BDM (head of the BDM) in November 1937 (aged 27), succeeding Mohr, who had vacated the position on her marriage, as Nazi policy required. She kept this position even until the German defeat, when she reached the age of 34.
(b. 1912), a countess and member of the higher Franconian aristocracy, was appointed leader of Gau Unterfranken in 1933, at the age of 21, which also seems to have been the age when she joined the BDM, as no earlier date of membership nor any previous lower positions are recorded in her case. She was appointed head of "Faith and Beauty" in January 1938, a few days before her 26th birthday, and was discharged in September 1939 because of her marriage with Wilhelm "Utz" Utermann in October 1939. She was followed by an Austrian member, Annemarie Kaspar (b. 1917), who had been appointed Untergauführerin at the age of 20 in March 1938 and became head of B&B two weeks before her 22nd birthday. She too married and was discharged in May 1941, to be replaced in June 1941 by Martha Middendorf (b. 1914), who was 27 at the time of her appointment and was discharged already in February 1942, as she too had married. From this time on, Jutta Rüdiger, who was no candidate for marriage but living in lifelong partnership with Hedy Böhmer, a fellow Nazi traveller, took over to lead the BDM directly, thus holding both leadership positions until 1945.
Training and activities
The BDM used campfire romanticism, summer camps, folklorism, tradition, and sports to indoctrinate girls within the Nazi belief system, and to train them for their roles in German society: wife, mother, and homemaker. Their home evenings revolved around domestic training, but Saturdays involved strenuous outdoor exercise and physical training. The purpose of these activities was to promote good health, which would enable them to serve their people and their country. The "home evenings"—ideally to be conducted in specially built homes—also included world view training, with instruction in history. This instruction would include learning the Horst Wessel song, the Nazi holidays, stories about Hitler Youth martyrs, and facts about their locality and German culture and history. Physical education included track and field sports like running and the long jump, gymnastics (e.g. somersaulting and tightrope walking), route-marching, and swimming. The importance of self-sacrifice for Germany was heavily emphasized; a Jewish woman, reflecting on her longing to join the League of German Girls, concluded that it had been the admonishment for self-sacrifice that had drawn her most. Members were also taught the Nazi Party's racial ideas. The League was particularly regarded as instructing girls to avoid Rassenschande or racial defilement, which was treated with particular importance for young females.
Holiday trips offered by HJ and BDM – for example, skiing in winter and tent camps in summer – were affordable; children from poor families got subsidies. These offers were popular.
The League encouraged rebellion against parents. Der Giftpilz presented the propaganda of a German girl being ordered to visit a Jewish doctor by her mother; the girl protested on the grounds of what she had learned at BDM meetings, and while at the office, remembered the warnings in time to escape being molested by the doctor. This caused her mother to agree that the BDM had clearly been in the right.
Ilsa McKee noted that the lectures of Hitler Youth and the BDM on the need to produce more children produced several illegitimate children, which neither the mothers nor the possible fathers regarded as problematic. These and other behaviors taught led to parents complaining that their authority was being undermined. In 1944, a group of parents complained to the court that the leaders of the League were openly telling their daughters to have illegitimate children. Public opinion attributed a great deal of sexual laxity to the members. The preparation camps for the 'Landdienst' (land service) of girls and boys often lay adjacent to each other. 900 of the girls participating in the 1936 Reichsparteitag in Nürnberg became pregnant. In 1937, a prohibition came out saying that camping was forbidden to the BDM.
The Jungmädel were only taught, while the BDM was involved in community service, political activities and other activities considered useful at that time.
Before entering any occupation or advanced studies, the girls, like the boys in Hitler Youth, had to complete a year of land service ("Landfrauenjahr"). Although working on a farm was not the only approved form of service, it was a common one; the aim was to bring young people back from the cities, in the hope that they would then stay "on the land" in service of Nazi blood and soil beliefs. Another form of service was as a domestic work in a family with many children.
The 'Faith and Beauty' organizations offered groups where girls could receive further education and training in fields that interested them. Some of the works groups that were available were arts and sculpture, clothing design and sewing, general home economics, and music.
Das deutsche Mädel was the Nazi magazine directed at these girls.
Wartime service
The outbreak of World War II altered the role of the BDM, though not as radically as it did the role of the boys in the HJ, who were to be fed into the German Wehrmacht (armed forces) when they turned 18. The BDM were told by their leaders during the invasion of Poland that the Poles were a people "worthy of disgust, genuine sub-humans, who deserved to be ruled by a master race." The BDM helped the war effort in many ways. Younger girls collected donations of money, as well as goods such as clothing or old newspapers for the Winter Relief and other Nazi charitable organizations. Many groups, particularly BDM choirs and musical groups, visited wounded soldiers at hospitals or sent care packages to the front. Girls knitted socks, grew gardens, and engaged in similar tasks. In 1943, Das deutsche Mädel urged on the ten-year-olds just joining the Jungmädelbund that "It is as if the Führer had spoken you to you ten-year-old girls as well, who are now joining the community. From this day on, your small strength, too, will contribute to winning the war and building a greater and more beautiful Reich."
Girls also helped stage the celebrations after the de facto capitulation of France (see Second Armistice at Compiègne, 22 June 1940).
The older girls volunteered as nurses' aides at hospitals, or to help at train stations where wounded soldiers or refugees needed a hand. After 1943, as Allied air attacks on German cities increased, many BDM girls went into paramilitary and military services (Wehrmachtshelferin), where they served as Flak Helpers, signals auxiliaries, searchlight operators, and office staff. Unlike male HJs, BDM girls took little part in the actual fighting or operation of weaponry, although some Flak Helferinnen operated anti-aircraft guns.
Many older girls, with Hitler Youth were sent to Poland as part of the Germanisation efforts. These girls, along with Hitler Youth, were first to oversee the eviction of Poles to make room for new settlers and ensure they did not take much from their homes, as furniture and the like were to be left there for the settlers. Their task were then to educate ethnic Germans, either living in Poland or resettled there from the Baltic states, according to German ways. This included instruction in the German language, as many spoke only Polish or Russian. They also had to organize the younger ones into the League. Because many Hitler Youth leaders were drafted into the military, the task of organizing the boys into Hitler Youth also fell heavily on the League. They were also to provide help on the farm and in the household. As the only contact with German authorities, they were often requested to help with the occupation authorities, and they put on various entertainments such as songfests to encourage the down-spirited new settlers. Some members were sent to the colony of Hegewald for such efforts even when they had to receive gas masks and soldier escorts.
Conversely, the young Polish girls who were selected for "racially valuable traits" and sent to Germany for Germanization were made to join the League as part of the Germanization.
By 1944, the drafting of boys resulted in most of the "land service" help with the harvest being performed by girls.
In the last days of the war, some BDM girls, just like some boys of the male Hitler Youth (although not nearly as many), joined with the Volkssturm (the last-ditch defense) in Berlin and other cities in fighting the invading Allied armies, especially the Soviets. Officially, this was not sanctioned by the BDM's leadership which opposed an armed use of its girls even though some BDM leaders had received training in the use of hand-held weapons (about 200 leaders went on a shooting course which was to be used for self-defense purposes). After the war, Dr. Jutta Rüdiger denied that she had approved BDM girls using weapons in her interview with Junge Freiheit:(...) At the end of the war, Martin Bormann wanted to set up a women's battalion. (...) I replied that I wasn't thinking about it. Women are not suitable to fight with guns in hand. (...) At the very end I (however) only allowed the girls to be trained in pistol shooting so that they could defend themselves in dire need – or even shoot themselves."Some BDM girls were recruited into the Werwolf groups which were intended to wage guerrilla war in Allied-occupied areas.
Dissolution
The 'Kontrollratsgesetz Nr. 2' (enacted 10 October 1945) by the Allied Control Council forbade the NSDAP and all its sub-organizations, including the BDM. Their properties were confiscated.
See also
Das deutsche Mädel
Saxon Greeting
References
Notes
Further reading
"Growing Up Female in Nazi Germany" – Dagmar Reese, translated by William Templer
"The Hitler Youth" – David Littlejohn
"Ein Leben für die Jugend" – Dr. Jutta Ruediger
"Deutsche Frauen und Mädchen" – {Ill|Norbert Westenrieder|de}}
"Brauner Alltag" – (1981 / 1991)
"Alltag im 3. Reich" – Frank Grube & Gerhard Richter (Hoffmann u Campe; 1st edition 1982 (Pocket book), ASIN: B0025V9XBY (Hard Cover)
1930s/1940s publication of the BDM from www.bdmhistory.com digital archives
"The Shame of Survival: Working Through a Nazi Childhood", Penn State University Press, 2009. . Account of Ursula Mahlendorf's childhood in the LGG.
"They Come From Dachau" nthWORD Magazine Issue #7, August 2010
External links
Extensive English language website on the BDM
Hitler Youth Forum
Hitler Youth: Bund Deutscher Mädel (BDM)
Das deutsche Mädel the girls' magazine
Nazi terminology
Hitler Youth
Women's organisations based in Germany
Women's wings of political parties
Women in Nazi Germany
1930 establishments in Germany
1945 disestablishments in Germany
Youth organizations established in 1930
Organizations disestablished in 1945
Youth in Germany
Youth wings of fascist parties | [
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224447 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadorninae | Tadorninae | The Tadorninae is the shelduck-sheldgoose subfamily of the Anatidae, the biological family that includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl such as the geese and swans.
This group is largely tropical or Southern Hemisphere in distribution, with only two species, the common shelduck and the ruddy shelduck breeding in northern temperate regions, though the crested shelduck (presumed extinct) was also a northern species.
Most of these species have a distinctive plumage, but there is no pattern as to whether the sexes are alike, even within a single genus.
Systematics
Following the review of Livezey (1986), several species formerly classified as aberrant dabbling ducks or as "perching ducks" were placed in the Tadorninae. mtDNA sequence analyses cast doubt on the allocation of several genera; many supposed dabbling ducks and one peculiar goose may more correctly belong here, while some genera believed to be close to shelducks appear to have different relationships altogether.
The available data indicates that the Tadorninae are indeed, as their appearance suggests, somewhat intermediate between geese and dabbling ducks, but the molecular data suggests they are not the only lineage to evolve towards a more duck-like morphology, with the diving ducks and seaducks being more distant.
Family Anatidae
Subfamily Tadorninae
Unequivocally placed in this group:
Tadorna: shelducks (Europe, Africa, Australasia; 6 species) – possibly paraphyletic
Radjah: Radjah shelduck (Australia, New Guinea)
Centrornis: Madagascar sheldgoose (Madagascar, prehistoric)
Alopochen: Egyptian goose, and extinct African and Mascarene shelducks (Africa and Madagascar region; 1 living species, 2–3 extinct)
Neochen: Orinoco goose and Andean goose (South America)
Chloephaga: sheldgeese (South America; 4 species)
Hymenolaimus: blue duck (New Zealand)—formerly in "perching ducks"
Merganetta: torrent duck (Andes mountains, South America) – formerly in "perching ducks"
Provisionally placed in this group:
Malacorhynchus: pink-eared ducks (Australia; 1 living species, 1 prehistoric) – may be closer to Oxyurinae
Cyanochen: blue-winged goose (Ethiopia) – may belong to a distinct subfamily
Tachyeres: steamer ducks (South America; 4 species) – may belong to Anatinae
Plectropterus: spur-winged goose (sub-Saharan Africa) – may be in monotypic subfamily
May belong to Tadorninae, currently placed elsewhere:
Aix: Mandarin duck and wood duck (East Asia and North America, respectively)
Cairina moschata: Muscovy duck (tropical America; genus Cairina may be paraphyletic)
Cereopsis: Cape Barren goose (Australia)
Callonetta: ringed teal (South America)
Chenonetta: maned duck (Australia and formerly New Zealand; 1 living species, 1 extinct)
Salvadorina: Salvadori's teal (New Guinea)—formerly in Anatidae and "perching ducks"
References
Bird subfamilies
Ducks
Taxa named by Ludwig Reichenbach | [
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224448 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian%20Bill%20of%20Rights | Canadian Bill of Rights | The Canadian Bill of Rights () is a federal statute and bill of rights enacted by the Parliament of Canada on August 10, 1960. It provides Canadians with certain rights at Canadian federal law in relation to other federal statutes. It was the earliest expression of human rights law at the federal level in Canada, though an implied Bill of Rights had already been recognized in the Canadian common law.
The Canadian Bill of Rights remains in effect but is widely acknowledged to be limited in its effectiveness because it is a federal statute only, and so not directly applicable to provincial laws. These legal and constitutional limitations were a significant reason that the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms was established as an unambiguously-constitutional-level Bill of Rights for all Canadians, governing the application of both federal and provincial law in Canada, with the patriation of the Constitution of Canada in 1982. Since patriation, its usefulness at federal law in Canada is mostly limited to issues pertaining to the enjoyment of property, as set forth in its section 1(a)]—a slightly-broader "life, liberty, and security of the person" right than is recognized in section seven of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
Background
Saskatchewan's Bill of Rights
In 1947, Saskatchewan passed into law a bill of rights which covered both fundamental freedoms and equality rights. Saskatchewan's Bill of Rights is considered to have had a formative influence on John Diefenbaker, who was from Prince Albert, Saskatchewan. Thirteen years later, Diefenbaker successfully introduced the Canadian Bill of Rights, in 1960.
United Nations
In 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted a Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Civil rights activists in Canada had for some time been advocating for the elimination from Canadian laws of discrimination based on sex, ethnicity, race and religion; the new declaration led to an increasing call for protection of human rights in Canada.
John Diefenbaker and a National Bill of Rights
In 1936, four years before being elected to Parliament, John Diefenbaker began drafting his Bill of Rights. As a young boy, he saw injustice first-hand in the form of discrimination against French-Canadians, natives, Métis and European immigrants.
On March 16, 1950, a decade before the Canadian Bill of Rights became law, Diefenbaker, then a Saskatchewan MP, told a public forum why such a law was needed. Individuals' freedoms of religion, press, speech and association are threatened by the state, he said. A Bill of Rights was needed to take a "forthright stand against discrimination based on colour, creed or racial origin".
Diefenbaker advocated for the adoption of a bill of rights during the federal election campaign of 1957. In 1960, as prime minister, Diefenbaker introduced the Canadian Bill of Rights, and it was enacted by Parliament.
Features
The Canadian Bill of Rights protects numerous rights, most of which were later included in the Charter. Examples include:
Freedom of speech in Canada and freedom of religion in Canada (now in Section 2 of the Charter)
equality rights (more complete rights are contained in Section 15 of the Charter)
The right to life, liberty and security of the person, and in another section, rights to fundamental justice (the Charter combines those rights in Section 7)
The right to the enjoyment of property, which is not enshrined in the Charter
The right to counsel (now in Section 10 of the Charter).
Section 2 of the Bill of Rights reads as follows:
2. Every law of Canada shall, unless it is expressly declared by an Act of the Parliament of Canada that it shall operate notwithstanding the Canadian Bill of Rights, be so construed and applied as not to abrogate, abridge or infringe or to authorize the abrogation, abridgement or infringement of any of the rights or freedoms herein recognized and declared, and in particular, no law of Canada shall be construed or applied so as to
(a) authorize or effect the arbitrary detention, imprisonment or exile of any person;
(b) impose or authorize the imposition of cruel and unusual treatment or punishment;
(c) deprive a person who has been arrested or detained
(i) of the right to be informed promptly of the reason for his arrest or detention,
(ii) of the right to retain and instruct counsel without delay, or
(iii) of the remedy by way of habeas corpus for the determination of the validity of his detention and for his release if the detention is not lawful;
(d) authorize a court, tribunal, commission, board or other authority to compel a person to give evidence if he is denied counsel, protection against self-crimination or other constitutional safeguards;
(e) deprive a person of the right to a fair hearing in accordance with the principles of fundamental justice for the determination of his rights and obligations;
(f) deprive a person charged with a criminal offence of the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, or of the right to reasonable bail without just cause; or
(g) deprive a person of the right to the assistance of an interpreter in any proceedings in which he is involved or in which he is a party or a witness, before a court, commission, board or other tribunals, if he does not understand or speak the language in which such proceedings are conducted.
The notwithstanding wording of section 2 is a precursor to the notwithstanding clause of the Charter.
While the Bill of Rights is considered only quasi-constitutional because it was enacted as an ordinary Act of the Parliament of Canada, it contains the following provision:
3. (1) Subject to subsection (2), the Minister of Justice shall, in accordance with such regulations as may be prescribed by the Governor in Council, examine every regulation transmitted to the Clerk of the Privy Council for registration pursuant to the Statutory Instruments Act and every Bill introduced in or presented to the House of Commons by a Minister of the Crown, in order to ascertain whether any of the provisions thereof are inconsistent with the purposes and provisions of this Part and he shall report any such inconsistency to the House of Commons at the first convenient opportunity.
(2) A regulation need not be examined in accordance with subsection (1) if prior to being made it was examined as a proposed regulation in accordance with section 3 of the Statutory Instruments Act to ensure that it was not inconsistent with the purposes and provisions of this Part.
Criticism and support
Criticism of the Bill of Rights has mostly centred on its limited effect. The ineffectiveness of the Bill of Rights in achieving its stated aim was the main reason that two decades later, it was thought necessary to adopt a constitutionally-entrenched charter.
The Bill of Rights was (and is) limited in several ways.
Firstly, it does not explicitly amend any conflicting statutes, either to remove conflicts or to insert explicit allowances for the statutes to operate notwithstanding the Bill of Rights. When called upon to apply conflicting laws, the courts typically sought to interpret a later statute as creating a minimal disturbance of earlier law. In practice, that meant that the courts relied on Parliament to repeal or amend any laws contrary to the Bill of Rights. Disappointments for those who wanted courts to enforce rights vigorously included Bliss v Canada (AG) and Canada (AG) v Lavell. A notable exception was R v Drybones.
Second, since the Bill of Rights was not a constitutional amendment, there was some debate as to whether it was binding on future parliaments.
Third, because it is an ordinary statute, the authority of the Bill of Rights is limited to matters set out in Section 91 of the Constitution Act, 1867, as being under the legislative authority of the Parliament of Canada.
However, the 1960 Act enumerates some rights (such as property rights and specific legal rights) not protected under the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. For that and other reasons, the 1960 Act is regularly referenced in court decisions today.
See also
Canadian Human Rights Act of 1977
Constitution of Canada
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
Veterans' Bill of Rights
New Zealand Bill of Rights Act
Saskatchewan Bill of Rights
Human rights in Canada
References
External links
Canadian Bill of Rights (full text)
Annotated bill of rights
Supreme Court cases which use the 1960 Bill of Rights
Canada's Need for a Written Bill of Rights. Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society. About 1949.
Canada's Human Rights History
Canadian federal legislation
1960 in Canadian law
Human rights in Canada
National human rights instruments
August 1960 events in Canada
1960 in Canadian politics
1960 documents | [
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224452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Tenet | George Tenet | George John Tenet (born January 5, 1953) is an American intelligence official and academic who served as the Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) for the United States Central Intelligence Agency, as well as a Distinguished Professor in the Practice of Diplomacy at Georgetown University.
Tenet held the position as the DCI from July 1997 to July 2004, making him the second-longest-serving director in the agency's history—behind Allen Welsh Dulles—as well as one of the few DCIs to serve under two U.S. presidents of opposing political parties. He played a key role in overseeing intelligence regarding weapons of mass destruction in advance of the Iraq War. A 2005 Inspector General's report found that Tenet bears "ultimate responsibility" for the United States intelligence community's failure to develop a plan to control al Qaeda in the lead-up to 9/11. Tenet has been criticized for personally authorizing the CIA's use of brutal and ineffective torture techniques during his tenure, in contravention of international law.
In February 2008, he became a managing director at investment bank Allen & Company.
Early life and education
George John Tenet was born on January 5, 1953, in Flushing, Queens, New York City, New York, the son of Greek immigrants Evangelia and John Tenet. His father was born in Northern Epirus (located in southern Albania), and was a member of the Greek minority. He worked in a coal mine in France before arriving in the United States via Ellis Island, just before the Great Depression. His mother was a Greek from Epirus, Greece, who had fled from the communists by stowing away on a British submarine.
Tenet was raised in Little Neck, Queens, where as a teenager, he and his older brother Bill worked as busboys in their family's diner, the Twentieth Century Diner. Despite Bill and George being fraternal twins, both had different personalities; in his book Ghost Wars, Steve Coll described Bill as "reserved, precise, and studious" (he would later become a cardiologist) and George as "loud, sloppy, and boisterous". Because of his tendency to talk constantly he was known as "the mouthpiece". Sol Winder, a family friend and later owner of their diner, said he was "the type of guy who could never keep a secret". He was also interested in the news; the host of a local current affairs host sent him an autograph in response to Tenet's letters, calling him "the future editorial page editor of The New York Times. He played basketball and softball for his Greek Orthodox church, where he was also an altar server.
He attended Public School 94, where he was president of his sixth grade class; Junior High School 67; and Benjamin N. Cardozo High School. In high school he played soccer and edited the school newspaper, graduating in 1971. After studying at the State University of New York at Cortland, Tenet graduated from the Georgetown University School of Foreign Service in 1976 with a Bachelor of Science in Foreign Service (B.S.F.S.) and received a Master of International Affairs degree from Columbia University in 1978.
Early career
For his first job after graduating, Tenet became research director of the American Hellenic Institute from 1978 to 1979 and worked for the Solar Energy Industries Association as Director of International Programs from then until 1982. He then began working for the Senate, first as a legislative assistant and later as legislative director to then-Pennsylvania Senator H. John Heinz III from 1982 to 1985. He was a staff member of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence (SSCI) from 1985 to 1988, then Staff Director of the SSCI from 1988 to 1993. Later, Tenet joined President-elect Bill Clinton's national security transition team in November 1992. Clinton appointed Tenet Senior Director for Intelligence Programs at the National Security Council, where he served from 1993 to 1995.
CIA career
Tenet was appointed Deputy Director of Central Intelligence in July 1995. After John Deutch's abrupt resignation in December 1996, Tenet served as acting director. This was followed by the reluctant withdrawal of Anthony Lake, after it became apparent to Lake that his nomination had been successfully blocked by Republicans in Congress. Tenet was then officially appointed Director on July 11, 1997, after a unanimous confirmation vote in the Senate. While the Director of Central Intelligence has been replaced by an incoming administration since Jimmy Carter replaced DCI George H. W. Bush, Tenet served through the end of the Clinton administration and well into the term of George W. Bush. In 1999 the Director declined to reveal the overall budget for intelligence operations (including the CIA) which was a departure from his release the previous two years. This led to criticism from government transparency advocates.
Tenet embarked on a mission to regenerate the CIA, which had fallen on hard times since the end of the Cold War. The number of agents recruited each year had fallen to an all-time low, a 25% decline from the Cold War peak. Tenet appealed to the original mission of the agency, which had been to "prevent another Pearl Harbor". The trick was to see where danger might come from in the post-Cold War world. Tenet focused on potential problems such as "the transformation of Russia and China", "rogue states" like North Korea, Iran and Iraq, and terrorism.
1999 bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade
On May 7, 1999, during the Kosovo War, U.S. bombers struck the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, Serbia with five JDAM precision guided bombs, killing three Chinese reporters and injuring 20 others. The United States claimed the attack was accidental. In testimony before a congressional committee, Tenet later admitted the strike was the only one in the campaign organized and directed by his agency, though he still claimed it was not deliberate. Later analysis has suggested that a error in a military targeting database maintained by the Pentagon was not corrected or updated in a timely manner and that other systems intended to prevent such incidents failed to perform as expected. As a result of this and other incidents, systematic changes were made to pre-strike Rules of Engagement (ROE) for U.S. pilots, including checklists verifying target information and coordinates. China has never accepted the United States' version of events, although Tenet in a published work noted in a bit of black humor that in the prelude to the bombing of Iraq, China had, through unofficial channels, provided the Agency with the exact GPS coordinates of their Embassy in Baghdad so as to ensure the CIA knew the precise location.
Israeli–Palestinian cease-fire
In 2001 Tenet brokered a short-lived Israeli-Palestinian cease-fire.
Al-Qaeda and the War on Terror
By 1999 al-Qaeda had emerged as a significant terrorist threat. The 1998 bombings of two U.S. African embassies were the latest in a string of attacks on American interests in the west Indian-Ocean region. And in 2000 the USS Cole was bombed in Aden in an attempt to sink her, killing 17 naval personnel.
Bin Laden Plan
In 1999 Tenet put forward a grand "Plan" for dealing with al-Qaeda. In preparation, he selected new leadership for the CIA's Counterterrorist Center (CTC). He placed Cofer Black in charge of the CTC, and Richard Blee (a "top-flight executive" from Tenet's own suite) in charge of the CTC's Bin Laden unit. Tenet assigned the CTC to develop the Plan. The proposals, brought out in September, sought to penetrate Qaeda's "Afghan sanctuary" with U.S. and Afghan agents, in order to obtain information on and mount operations against Bin Laden's network. In October, officers from the Bin Laden unit visited northern Afghanistan. Once the Plan was finalized, the Agency created a "Qaeda cell" (whose functions overlapped those of the CTC's Bin Laden unit) to give operational leadership to the effort.
The CIA concentrated its inadequate financial resources on the Plan, so that at least some of its more modest aspirations were realized. Intelligence collection efforts on bin Laden and al-Qaeda increased significantly from 1999. "By 9/11", said Tenet, "a map would show that these collection programs and human [reporting] networks were in place in such numbers as to nearly cover Afghanistan". (But this excluded Bin Laden's inner circle itself.)
Contrary to the 2005 Inspector General's report, George Tenet had in fact reported the potential threat to then national security advisor Condoleezza Rice during an urgent meeting on July 10, 2001, in which his team informed her that "There will be significant terrorist attacks against the United States in the coming weeks or months."
Predator drone
The CIA also experimented with a small remote-controlled reconnaissance aircraft, the Predator, to try to spot Bin Laden in Afghanistan. A series of flights in autumn 2000, overseen by CTC officials and flown by USAF drone pilots from a control room at the CIA's Langley headquarters, produced probable sightings of the al-Qaeda leader.
Black and others became advocates of arming the Predator with adapted Hellfire anti-tank missiles to try to kill Bin Laden and other Qaeda leaders in targeted killings. But there were both legal and technical issues. Tenet in particular was concerned about the CIA moving back into the business of targeted killing. And a series of live-fire tests in the Great Basin Desert in Nevada in summer 2001 produced mixed results.
Tenet advised cautiously on the matter at a meeting of the Cabinet-level Principals Committee on September 4, 2001. If the Cabinet wanted to empower the CIA to field a lethal drone, Tenet said, "they should do so with their eyes wide open, fully aware of the potential fallout if there were a controversial or mistaken strike". National Security Adviser Condoleezza Rice concluded that the armed Predator was required, but evidently not ready. It was agreed to recommend to the CIA to resume reconnaissance flights. The "previously reluctant" Tenet then ordered the Agency to do so. The CIA was authorized to "deploy the system with weapons-capable aircraft".
September 11 attacks
After the September 11 attacks, many observers criticized the Intelligence Community for numerous "intelligence failures" as one of the major reasons why the attacks were not prevented.
Tenet testified before a public hearing of the 9/11 Commission investigating 9/11, that he did not meet with Bush in August 2001, the month before the September 11 attacks. The same evening after the hearings, a CIA spokesman corrected Tenet's testimony, stating that Tenet did indeed meet with Bush twice in August. Tenet in his memoir writes of his memorable visit to Bush at Bush's ranch in Crawford, Texas, in August 2001.
In August 2007, a report written by the CIA inspector general was made public (originally written in 2005 but kept classified). The 19-page summary states that Tenet knew the dangers of Al Qaeda well before September 2001, but that the leadership of the CIA did not do enough to prevent any attacks and that Tenet personally "bears ultimate responsibility" for the intelligence community's failure to develop a plan to counter al Qaeda. Tenet reacted to the publication of this report by calling it "flat wrong", citing in particular the planning efforts of the past two years.
Tenet immediately increased the size and capability of the CIA's special operations component housed in the Special Operations Group of the Special Activities Division. This force had been allowed to diminish under the early Clinton administration. These paramilitary officers were the first to enter both Afghanistan and Iraq. Once in these countries these officers organized and led the Northern Alliance against the Taliban in Afghanistan and the Kurds against Ansar Al-Islam and Saddam's forces in Iraq. The rebuilding of this capability and the successful employment of these elite commandos is considered one of Tenet's greatest achievements in the Global War on Terror. The increased use of paramilitary officers led to fatalities in their ranks. The first of these was Johnny Micheal Spann, a former Marine Corps officer killed during the Battle of Qala-i-Jangi on 25 November 2001. Tenet personally informed CIA staff of Spann's death.<ref>Harnden, Toby, "First Casualty: The Untold Story of the CIA Mission to Avenge 9/11. Little, Brown, 2021. p. 271</ref>
Worldwide Attack Matrix
Tenet considered that his Al-Qaeda plan had placed the CIA in a better position to respond after the September 11 attacks. As he put it,
How could [an intelligence] community without a strategic plan tell the president of the United States just four days after 9/11 how to attack the Afghan sanctuary and operate against al-Qa'ida in ninety-two countries around the world?
This was at a meeting of the restricted National Security Councilor "war council"—at Camp David on September 15, 2001. Tenet presented the Worldwide Attack Matrix, a blueprint for what became known as the War on Terror. He proposed firstly to send CIA teams into Afghanistan to collect intelligence on, and mount covert operations against, al-Qaeda and the Taliban. The teams would act jointly with military Special Operations units. "President Bush later praised this proposal, saying it had been a turning point in his thinking."
Waterboarding and enhanced interrogation techniques (EITs)
During Tenet's directorship, President Bush authorized the CIA to use waterboarding and other forms of torture (euphemistically referred to as "Enhanced Interrogation Techniques") during interrogations of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, Abu Zubaydah and Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri, all suspected Al Qaida members.
Iraq WMD controversy
According to a report by veteran investigative journalist Bob Woodward in his book Plan of Attack, Tenet privately lent his personal authority to the intelligence reports about weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) in Iraq. At a meeting on December 12, 2002, he assured Bush that the evidence that Iraq had WMDs amounted to a "slam dunk case". After several months of refusing to confirm this statement, Tenet stated that it was taken out of context. He indicated that it was made pursuant to a discussion about how to convince the American people to support invading Iraq. The search following the 2003 invasion of Iraq by US, British and international forces yielded no significant WMDs.
In September 2002, the Senate Intelligence Committee met with Tenet in a closed-door session. Sen. Bob Graham requested a National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) on Iraq. Tenet responded by saying "We've never done a National Intelligence Estimate on Iraq" and resisted the request to provide one to Congress. Graham insisted "This is the most important decision that we as members of Congress and that the people of America are likely to make in the foreseeable future. We want to have the best understanding of what it is we're about to get involved with." Tenet refused to do a report on the military or occupation phase, but reluctantly agreed to do a NIE on the weapons of mass destruction. Graham described the Senate Intelligence Committee meeting with Tenet as "the turning point in our attitude towards Tenet and our understanding of how the intelligence community has become so submissive to the desires of the administration. The administration wasn't using intelligence to inform their judgment; they were using intelligence as part of a public relations campaign to justify their judgment."
Congress voted to support the Iraq war based on the NIE Tenet provided in October 2002. However, the bipartisan Senate Intelligence Committee Report on Prewar Intelligence released on July 7, 2004, concluded that the key findings in the 2002 NIE either overstated, or were not supported by, the actual intelligence. The Senate report also found the US Intelligence Community to suffer from a "broken corporate culture and poor management" that resulted in a NIE which was completely wrong in almost every respect.
Resignation
Citing "personal reasons," Tenet submitted his resignation to President Bush on June 3, 2004. Tenet said his resignation "was a personal decision and had only one basis—in fact, the well-being of my wonderful family—nothing more and nothing less." He officially left on July 11, exactly seven years after being appointed by Clinton. Former DCI Stansfield Turner said, "I think the president feels he's in enough trouble that he's got to begin to cast some of the blame for the morass that we are in in Iraq on to somebody else and this was one subtle way to do it." However, Bush voiced support for Tenet's efforts, stating, "I'm sorry he's leaving. He's done a superb job on behalf of the American people."
James Pavitt, his Deputy Director for Operations at the CIA, announced his resignation the following day. That led to speculation that the exit of both senior intelligence officials was related to the controversy over the September 11 attacks, alleged Iraqi WMDs, and the decision to go to war with Iraq. After Tenet left, John E. McLaughlin served as acting director until Porter Goss was sworn to the position in on September 24, two days after the Senate approved him. Tenet's seven-year term as Director of Central Intelligence was the second-longest in US history, after Allen Dulles.
Human Rights Watch and The New York Times Editorial board have called for the prosecution of Tenet "for conspiracy to torture as well as other crimes."
Later life
On December 14, 2004, President George W. Bush awarded Tenet the Presidential Medal of Freedom, along with Tommy Franks and Paul Bremer. Bush said that Tenet "was one of the first to recognize and address the growing threat to America from radical terrorist networks." However, Bush's decision was met with some criticism: Democratic Senator Carl Levin said, "I don't think [he] served the president or the nation well." "My hunch is that George Bush wasn't using the same standard when honoring Tenet and Bremer that was applied to previous honorees," John Kerry said through spokesperson David Wade.
Tenet spent three years as Distinguished Professor in the Practice of Diplomacy and Senior Research Associate in the Institute for the Study of Diplomacy at his former university the Georgetown School of Foreign service. His official teaching began in the Fall term, 2005.
In October 2006, Tenet joined British defense contractor Qinetiq as an independent non-executive director. Chairman John Chisholm noted Tenet's "extraordinary track record and experience in the fields of intelligence and security." He stepped down from the board in October 2007 (his old position was taken by retired U.S. Navy Admiral Edmund Giambastiani) as well as the board of forensic software company Guidance Software in November. He joined Qinetiq's North America board as well as becoming managing director of investment bank Allen & Company. The secretive bank did not announce Tenet's appointment, and it was unknown until it was leaked in February of the following year. Tenet is also on the boards of directors of L-1 Identity Solutions, a biometric identification software manufacturer. Along with a number of other notable Greek Americans, he is a member of the advisory board of The Next Generation Initiative, a foundation aimed at teaching students public affairs skills.
He also famously received a shout out in Kanye West's song "Clique" where he claimed to have once met Tenet and had a conversation about their identical Maybach vehicles, although West speculated that Tenet had leased his instead of buying it outright. Tenet's spokesman confirmed that the meeting had taken place, but that Maybachs had not been a topic of the conversation.
Memoir
In April 2007, Tenet released his memoir titled At the Center of the Storm: My Years at the CIA which was written with Bill Harlow. He appeared on 60 Minutes on April 29, 2007, offering much criticism of the Bush administration. The book was the top-selling book in sales in the first week after publication.The One Percent Doctrine: Deep Inside America's Pursuit of its Enemies since 9/11'' (2006) by Ron Suskind claims that Abu Zubaydah, once said to be al-Qaida chief of operations, was a low-level functionary and mentally ill. In his memoirs, Tenet commented as follows:
Critics pointed out a factual error in Tenet's book. On the book's first page, Tenet tells of a conversation with then-Pentagon advisor Richard Perle on September 12, 2001, in which Tenet claims Perle told him in person that "Iraq had to pay for the attack". But the conversation could not have occurred on that day, because Perle was stranded in Paris, France, on September 12 and did not return to Washington until three days later. Perle later stated that the two men indeed crossed each other one morning, as claimed by Tenet, but only later in the same week and not on September 12. But Perle insisted that he and Tenet exchanged no words in that encounter.
Personal life
Tenet is married to A. Stephanie Glakas-Tenet. They have one son, John Michael.
Recognition
In 1998, Tenet received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.
In 2018, Tenet received the Washington Institute's Scholar-Statesman Award.
See also
Bin Laden Issue Station: The CIA's Osama bin Laden–tracking unit, 1996–2003.
Footnotes
Explanatory notes
Citations
General bibliography
External links
Frontline: "The Dark Side"
CNN: "Tenet told Bush WMD case a 'slam dunk
"Officers: Ex-CIA chief Tenet a 'failed' leader"
|-
1953 births
American people of Greek descent
Benjamin N. Cardozo High School alumni
Clinton administration cabinet members
Deputy Directors of the Central Intelligence Agency
Directors of the Central Intelligence Agency
George W. Bush administration personnel
Living people
Members of the Council on Foreign Relations
People from Douglaston–Little Neck, Queens
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Qinetiq
State University of New York at Cortland alumni
School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia University alumni
United States National Security Council staffers
Walsh School of Foreign Service alumni
Walsh School of Foreign Service faculty
The Washington Institute for Near East Policy | [
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] |
224462 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carinthia%20%28disambiguation%29 | Carinthia (disambiguation) | Carinthia is a state of Austria.
Carinthia may also refer to:
March of Carinthia, a frontier district of the Carolingian Empire created in 889
Duchy of Carinthia, a state of the Holy Roman Empire and Austrian crown land
Carinthia (Slovenia), a traditional region of Slovenia, part of the former duchy
Carinthia Statistical Region, a statistical region in Slovenia
RMS Carinthia (1925), a passenger ship
RMS Carinthia (1955), a passenger ship
See also
Koroška (disambiguation)
Carantania, a medieval Slavic principality
Carniola
Carnia
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224463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carinthia | Carinthia | Carinthia ( ; ) is the southernmost Austrian state or Land. Situated within the Eastern Alps, it is noted for its mountains and lakes. The main language is German. Its regional dialects belong to the Southern Bavarian group. Carinthian Slovene dialects, forms of a South Slavic language that predominated in the southeastern part of the region up to the first half of the 20th century, are now spoken by a small minority in the area.
Carinthia's main industries are tourism, electronics, engineering, forestry, and agriculture. The multinational corporations Philips, Infineon Technologies and Siemens have large operations there.
Name
The etymology of the name "Carinthia", similar to Carnia or Carniola, has not been conclusively established. The Ravenna Cosmography (about AD 700) referred to a Slavic "Carantani" tribe as the eastern neighbours of the Bavarians. In his History of the Lombards, the 8th-century chronicler Paul the Deacon mentions "Slavs in Carnuntum, which is erroneously called Carantanum" (Carnuntum, quod corrupte vocitant Carantanum) for the year 663.
"Carantani" may have been formed from a toponymic base carant- which ultimately derives from pre-Indo-European root *karra 'rock'. (cf. ), or that it is of Celtic origin and derived from *karantos 'friend, ally'.
Likewise the Slovene name may have been adopted from the Latin *carantanum. The toponym Carinthia (Slovene: < Proto-Slavic *korǫt’ьsko) is also claimed to be etymologically related, deriving from pre-Slavic *carantia.
Carinthia is known as Koruška in Croatian, Korutany in Czech, Kärnten in German, Karintia in Hungarian, Carinzia in Italian, Carintia in Spanish, Karyntia in Polish, Korutánsko in Slovak, and Koroška in Slovene.
Geography
The state stretches about from east to west, and in a north-south direction. With , it is the fifth-largest Austrian state by area. Most of the larger Carinthian towns and lakes are situated within the Klagenfurt Basin in the southeast, an inner Alpine sedimentary basin covering about one-fifth of the area. These Lower Carinthian lands differ from the mountainous Upper Carinthian region in the northwest, stretching up to the Alpine crest.
The Carinthian lands are confined by mountain ranges: the Carnic Alps and the Karawanks form the border to the Italy (Friuli-Venezia Giulia) and Slovenia (Carinthia Statistical Region, Savinja Statistical Region and Upper Carniola Statistical Region). The High Tauern mountain range with Mt Grossglockner, , separates it from the state of Salzburg in the northwest. To the northeast and east beyond the Pack Saddle mountain pass is the state of Styria. The main river of Carinthia is the Drava (Drau), it makes up a continuous valley with East Tyrol, Tyrol to the west. Tributaries are the Gurk, the Glan, the Lavant, and the Gail rivers. Carinthia's lakes including Wörther See, Millstätter See, Lake Ossiach, and Lake Faak are a major tourist attraction.
The capital city is Klagenfurt. The next important town is Villach, both strongly linked economically. Other major towns include Althofen, Bad Sankt Leonhard im Lavanttal, Bleiburg, Feldkirchen, Ferlach, Friesach, Gmünd, Hermagor, Radenthein, Sankt Andrä, Sankt Veit an der Glan, Spittal an der Drau, Straßburg, Völkermarkt, Wolfsberg.
Carinthia has a humid continental climate (Köppen), with hot and moderately wet summers and long harsh winters. In recent decades, winters have been exceptionally arid. The summer precipitation maxima often takes the form of heavy rain and thunderstorms, especially in the mountainous regions. The main Alpine ridge in the north is a meteorological divide with pronounced windward and leeward sides where foehn occurs regularly.
Due to the diversified terrain, numerous distinct microclimates exist. Nevertheless, the average amount of sunshine hours is the highest of all states in Austria. In autumn and winter, temperature inversion often dominates the climate, characterized by air stillness, a dense fog covering the frosty valleys and trapping pollution to form smog, while mild sunny weather is recorded higher up in the foothills and mountains.
History
The settlement history of Carinthia dates back to the Paleolithic era. Archaeological findings of stone artifacts in a stalactite cave near Griffen are older than 30,000 years; larger settlements in the Lavanttal, Maria Saal and Villach regions are documented from about 3000 BC. Remains of a prehistoric stilt house settlement were discovered at Lake Keutschach, today part of the Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps World Heritage Site. Skeleton finds from about 2000 BC (near Friesach) denote a permanent population, and intensive arable farming, as well as trading with salt and Mediterranean products, was common already during the periods of the Urnfield and Hallstatt culture. Hallstatt grave fields were discovered near Dellach (Gurina), Rosegg (Frög) and on the Gracarca mountain southeast of Lake Klopein.
Noricum
About 300 BC, several Illyrian and Celtic tribes joined together in the Kingdom of Noricum, centered on the capital Noreia, possibly located in the Zollfeld basin near the later Roman city of Virunum. Known for the production of salt and iron, the Kingdom maintained intensive trade relations with Etruscan peoples and over the centuries extended the borders of its realm up to the Danube in the north. The Roman Empire incorporated Noricum in 15 BC. Beside the administrative seat of Virunum, the cities of Teurnia, Santicum (Villach) and Iuenna (Globasnitz) arose as centres of Roman culture. The Noricum province remained strategically important as a mining area for iron, gold and lead and as an agricultural region. In the reign of the Emperor Diocletian (245–313) Noricum split into two provinces: Noricum ripense ("Noricum along the river", the northern part southward from the Danube), and Noricum mediterraneum ("landlocked Noricum", the district south of the Alpine crest). Teurnia became the administrative seat of the latter, as well as an Early Christian episcopal see.
As the Roman Empire declined in the 5th century AD, the Noricum region was exposed to recurring campaigns of Germanic tribes, whereupon the population retired to hilltop settlements. In 408 Visigoth troops under King Alaric I entered Noricum from Italy across the Carnic Alps and forged an alliance with the Roman commander Stilicho, who as a result was deposed and executed for high treason (August 408). From 472 Ostrogoth and Alemannic forces campaigned in Noricum, which became a province of Odoacer's Kingdom of Italy in 476 and of the Ostrogothic Kingdom from 493. On the death of King Theoderic the Great in 526, the Italian kingdom finally collapsed and the East Roman Byzantine empire under Justinian I temporarily conquered the Noricum region in the course of the Gothic War of 535 to 554.
Carantania
From 591 onwards, the Frankish king Theudebert I tried to break into the former Noricum region, and Bavarian settlers entered the area from the Puster Valley in the west. They were however repulsed by Slavic tribes, who, beset by Avar horsemen moved into present-day Carinthia from the east. About 600 the Slavic principality of Carantania arose, stretching along the valleys of the Drava, Mur and Sava rivers. The remaining Celto-Roman population was largely assimilated, jointly challenging Avar and Frankish advance. The name Carontani was first mentioned about 700; the lands of Carantanum were documented by the chronicler Paul the Deacon (d. 799). The principality was again centered on the historic Zollfeld valley, where the Prince's Stone bears witness to the ritual of the investiture of the Carantanian rulers exclusively in Slovene.
While initially the Carantanian rulers joined the tribal union of Samo's Empire, Prince Boruth around 743 turned to Duke Odilo of Bavaria to ask for support against the Avar invaders. Aid was granted, however at the price of Bavarian overlordship. The Carantanian principality became part of the Bavarian stem duchy, while the area was Christianised for the second time by missionaries from the Salzburg diocese. Bishop Vergilius had Prince Boruth's son Cacatius and his nephew Cheitmar brought up in Christian faith. In 767, at their request, the bishop sent Modestus to Carantania as a vicar and had churches built at Teurnia and Maria Saal. Upon a pagan uprising in 772, the forces of Odilo's son Duke Tassilo III of Bavaria again subdued the Carantanian lands.
In 788, Duke Tassilo III was finally deposed by the Frankish king Charlemagne, and his territories were incorporated into the Carolingian Empire. By the 843 Treaty of Verdun, the former Carantanian lands fell to the kingdom of East Francia ruled by Charlemagne's grandson Louis the German. The ritual of installation of the Carantanian dukes at the Prince's Stone near Karnburg in Slovenian was preserved until 1414, when Ernest the Iron was enthroned as Duke of Carinthia.
Duchy of Carinthia
The March of Carinthia arose in 889 from the territory bequeathed by Louis's son Carloman, king of Bavaria from 865 to 880, to his natural son Arnulf of Carinthia. Arnulf had already assumed the title of a Carinthian duke in 880 and followed his uncle Charles the Fat as King of East Francia in 887. The Duchy of Carinthia was finally split from the vast Bavarian duchy in 976 by Emperor Otto II, having come out victorious from his quarrels with Duke Henry II the Wrangler. Carinthia therefore was the first newly created duchy of the Holy Roman Empire and for a short while comprised lands stretching from the Adriatic Sea almost to the Danube. In 1040, the March of Carniola was separated from it and c. 1180 Styria, the Carinthian March, became a duchy in its own right. After the death of Duke Henry VI of Gorizia-Tyrol in 1335, Carinthia passed to the Habsburg brothers Albrecht II. and Otto IV, and was ruled by this dynasty until 1918. After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire 1806, Carinthia was incorporated in the Austrian Empire's Kingdom of Illyria which succeeded Napoleon's Illyrian Provinces, but recovered its previous status in 1849 and in 1867 became one of the Cisleithanian crown lands of Austria-Hungary.
Formation of the state
In late 1918, the breakup of Habsburg monarchy was imminent, and on 21 October 1918 the members of the Reichsrat for the German-speaking territories of Austria met in Vienna to constitute a "Provisional National Council for German-Austria". Prior to the meeting the delegates agreed that German-Austria should not include "Yugoslav areas of settlement", which referred to Lower Styria and the two Slovene-speaking Carinthian valleys south of the Karawanken range, Seeland (Slovenian: Jezersko) and Mießtal (Meža Valley). On 12 Nov. 1918, when the Act concerning the foundation of the State of German-Austria was formally passed by the Provisional National Assembly in Vienna this was worded by the State Chancellor, Karl Renner, "...to encounter the prejudices of the world as though we wanted to annex alien national property"<ref>[http://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/anno-plus?apm=0&aid=spe&datum=00010003&seite=00000066&zoom=2 Minutes of the Third Session of the Provisional National Assembly of German-Austria on 12 Nov. 1918], in: Austrian National Library, Minutes of the Parliamentary Sessions, p. 66</ref> The day before, on 11 Nov. 1918 the Provisional Diet of Carinthia had formally declared Carinthia's accession to the State of German-Austria. The Federal Act concerning the Extent, the Borders and the Relations of the State Territories of 22 Nov. 1918 then clearly stated in article 1: "...the duchies of Styria and Carinthia with the exclusion of the homogenous Yugoslav areas of settlement". Apart from one Social-Democrat, Florian Gröger, all the other delegates from Carinthia—Hans Hofer, Jakob Lutschounig, Josef Nagele, Alois Pirker, Leopold Pongratz, Otto Steinwender, Viktor Waldner—were members of German national parties and organizations.
Disputed frontiers
After the end of the World War I, however, Carinthia became a contested region. On 5 November 1918, the first armed militia units led by the Slovene volunteer Franjo Malgaj invaded Carinthia and were then joined by Slovene troops under Rudolf Maister. With the subsequent assistance of the regular Yugoslav army they occupied southern Carinthia claiming the area for the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (Kraljevina Srba, Hrvata i Slovenaca, or SHS) also known as Yugoslavia. The provisional state government of Carinthia had fled to Spittal an der Drau and in view of the ongoing fighting between local volunteers and invaders on 5 December decided to declare armed resistance. The resistance encountered by the Yugoslav forces especially north of the Drava River around the town of Völkermarkt with its violent fighting alarmed the victorious Allies at the Paris Peace Conference.
An Allied Commission headed by U.S. Lt.Col. Sherman Miles inspected the situation in situ and recommended the Karawanken main ridge as a natural border to keep the Klagenfurt basin intact but, in agreement with item no. 10 of Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, suggested a referendum in the disputed area. An armistice was agreed upon on 14 January and by 7 May 1919 the Yugoslav forces had left the state, but Slovene troops under Rudolf Maister returned occupying Klagenfurt on 6 June. Upon the intervention of the Allied Supreme Council in Paris they retreated from the city but remained in the disputed part of Carinthia until 13 September 1920.
In the Treaty of Saint-Germain of 10 September 1919, the two smaller Slovene-speaking Carinthian valleys south of the Karawanken range, Jezersko and the Meža Valley, together with the town of Dravograd—together 128 square miles or —were attached to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later known as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia): These areas are today part of Slovene Carinthia. The Canale Valley (, ) as far south as Pontebba, at that time an ethnically mixed German–Slovene area, with the border town of Tarvisio (, ) and its holy place of pilgrimage of Maria Luschari () (172 square miles or 445 km²), was ceded to Italy and included in the Province of Udine.
According to the same treaty, a referendum was to be held in southern Carinthia as suggested by the Allied Commission, which was to determine whether the area claimed by the SHS-State was to remain part of Austria or go to Yugoslavia. Much of southern Carinthia was divided into two zones. Zone A was formed out of predominantly Slovene-inhabited zones (approximately corresponding to today's District of Völkermarkt, the district of Klagenfurt-Land south of lake Wörthersee, and the south-eastern part of the present district of Villach-Land), while Zone B included the City of Klagenfurt, Velden am Wörthersee and the immediately surrounding rural areas where German speakers formed a vast majority. If the population in Zone A had decided for Yugoslavia, another referendum in Zone B would have followed. On 10 October 1920, the Carinthian Plebiscite was held in Zone A, with almost 60% of the population voting to remain in Austria, which means that about 40% of the Slovene-speaking population must have voted against a division of Carinthia. In view of the close supervision of the referendum by foreign observers, as well as the Yugoslav occupation of the area until four weeks prior to the referendum, irregularities alleged by the deeply disappointed Yugoslav supporters would not have substantially altered the overall decision. Yet, after the plebiscite, the SHS-State again made attempts to occupy the area, but owing to demarches by the United Kingdom, France, and Italy it removed its troops from Austria so that, by 22 November 1920, the State Diet of Carinthia was at last able to exercise its sovereignty over the entire state.
After World War I to present
Originally an agrarian country, Carinthia made efforts to establish a touristic infrastructure such as the Grossglockner High Alpine Road and Klagenfurt Airport as well as the opening up of the Alps through the Austrian Alpine Club in the 1920s. It was, however, hard hit by the Great Depression around 1930, which pushed the political system in Austria more and more towards extremism. This phenomenon culminated at first in the years of Austrofascism and then in 1938 in the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany (Anschluss). At the same time the Nazi Party took power everywhere in Carinthia, which became, together with East Tyrol, a Reichsgau, and Nazi leaders such as Franz Kutschera, Hubert Klausner, and Friedrich Rainer held the office of Gauleiter and Reichsstatthalter.
During World War II, Slovene Partisan resistance was active in the southern areas of the region, reaching around 3,000 armed men. The cities of Klagenfurt and Villach suffered from air raids, but the Allied forces did not reach Carinthia before May 8, 1945. Toward the end of the war, Gauleiter Rainer tried to implement a Nazi plan for Carinthia to become part of the projected Nazi national redoubt, the Alpenfestung; these efforts failed and the forces under Rainer's control surrendered to the forces of the British Army. Once again as at the end of World War I, Yugoslav troops occupied parts of Carinthia, including the capital city of Klagenfurt, but were soon forced to withdraw by the British forces with the consent of the Soviet Union.
Carinthia, East Tyrol, and Styria then formed the UK occupation zone of Allied-administered Austria. The area was witness to the turnover of German-allied Cossacks to the Red Army in 1945. The Allied occupation was terminated in 1955 by the Austrian State Treaty, which restored Austria's sovereignty. The relations between the German- and the Slovene-speaking Carinthians remained somewhat problematic. Divergent views over the implementation of minority protection rights guaranteed by Article 7 of the Austrian State Treaty have created numerous tensions between the two groups in the past fifty years.
Demographics
The largest part of Carinthia's population settles in the Klagenfurt Basin between Villach and Klagenfurt. In 2008, the proportion of the population with a migration background in Carinthia was 9.3% of the total population, about half the Austrian figure of 17.5%. By 2020, the proportion of the population with a migration background in Carinthia had risen to 14.5%, yet this figure remains lower than the Austrian average, where close to a quarter of the population has a migration background.
The majority of Carinthia's population is German-speaking. In the south of the province (mainly in the districts of Villach-Land, Klagenfurt-Land and Völkermarkt), members of the Slovene-speaking ethnic group live as a recognized minority. The discussion about ethnic group rights (e.g. bilingual place-name signs) can be very emotional.
Population development
The historical population is given in the following chart:
Administrative divisions
The state is divided into eight rural and two urban districts (Bezirke), the latter being the statutory cities (Statutarstädte) of Klagenfurt and Villach. There are 132 municipalities, of which 17 are incorporated as towns and 40 are of the lesser market towns (Marktgemeinden) status.
Statutory cities
Klagenfurt (licence plate code: K)
Villach (VI)
Rural districts
Feldkirchen (FE)
Administrative seat: Feldkirchen
Municipalities: Albeck • Glanegg • Gnesau • Himmelberg • Ossiach • Reichenau • Sankt Urban • Steindorf am Ossiacher See • Steuerberg
Hermagor (HE)
Administrative seat: Hermagor-Pressegger See
Market towns: Kirchbach • Kötschach-Mauthen
Municipalities: Dellach • Gitschtal • Lesachtal • Sankt Stefan im Gailtal
Klagenfurt-Land (KL)
Administrative seat: Klagenfurt (not part of the district)
Town: Ferlach
Market towns: Ebenthal • Feistritz im Rosental • Grafenstein • Magdalensberg • Maria Saal • Moosburg • Poggersdorf • Schiefling am See
Municipalities: Keutschach am See • Köttmannsdorf • Krumpendorf • Ludmannsdorf• Maria Rain • Maria Wörth• Pörtschach • Sankt Margareten im Rosental • Techelsberg • Zell
Sankt Veit an der Glan (SV)
Administrative seat: Sankt Veit an der Glan
Towns: Althofen • Friesach • Straßburg
Market towns: Brückl • Eberstein • Gurk • Guttaring • Hüttenberg • Klein Sankt Paul • Liebenfels • Metnitz • Weitensfeld im Gurktal
Municipalities: Deutsch-Griffen • Frauenstein • Glödnitz • Kappel am Krappfeld • Micheldorf • Mölbling • Sankt Georgen am Längsee
Spittal an der Drau (SP)
Administrative seat: Spittal an der Drau
Towns: Gmünd • Radenthein
Market towns: Greifenburg • Lurnfeld • Millstatt • Oberdrauburg • Obervellach • Rennweg am Katschberg • Sachsenburg • Seeboden • Steinfeld • Winklern
Municipalities: Bad Kleinkirchheim • Baldramsdorf • Berg im Drautal • Dellach im Drautal • Flattach • Großkirchheim • Heiligenblut am Großglockner • Irschen • Kleblach-Lind • Krems • Lendorf • Mallnitz • Malta • Mörtschach • Mühldorf • Rangersdorf • Reißeck • Stall • Trebesing • Weissensee
Villach-Land (VL)
Administrative seat: Villach (not part of the district)
Market towns: Arnoldstein • Bad Bleiberg • Finkenstein am Faaker See • Nötsch im Gailtal • Paternion • Rosegg • Sankt Jakob im Rosental • Treffen • Velden am Wörther See • Weißenstein
Municipalities: Afritz am See • Arriach • Feistritz an der Gail • Feld am See • Ferndorf • Fresach • Hohenthurn • Stockenboi • Wernberg
Völkermarkt (VK)
Administrative seat: Völkermarkt
Town: Bleiburg
Market towns: Eberndorf • Eisenkappel-Vellach • Feistritz ob Bleiburg • Griffen
Municipalities: Diex • Gallizien • Globasnitz • Neuhaus • Ruden • Sankt Kanzian am Klopeiner See • Sittersdorf
Wolfsberg (WO)
Administrative seat: Wolfsberg
Towns: Bad Sankt Leonhard im Lavanttal • Sankt Andrä
Market towns: Frantschach-Sankt Gertraud • Lavamünd • Reichenfels • Sankt Paul im Lavanttal
Municipalities: Preitenegg • Sankt Georgen im Lavanttal
Politics
The state assembly Kärntner Landtag, ("Carinthian State Diet"), is a unicameral legislature. Its 36 members are elected from party lists according to the principle of proportional representation and serve five-year terms, with elections held every five years. Austrian nationals over the age of 16 residing in Carinthia are eligible to vote. The Landtag has a threshold of 5%. The current legislative period is the 30th since the first Carinthian elections on 6 April 1861.
The most recent election, the 2018 Carinthian state election, were held on 5 March 2018. The SPÖ, the party of the incumbent governor Peter Kaiser, almost reached the absolute majority of seats in the state assembly. This makes Carinthia one of Austria's most left-leaning regions.
The legislature also elects the state government, composed of a minister-president, whose ancient title is Landeshauptmann ("State Captain"), his two deputies and further four Landesräte ministers. The members of the cabinet form an all-party government elected under a system of proportional representation based on the number of representatives of the political parties in the Landtag. The incumbent Landeshauptmann is Peter Kaiser (SPÖ).
Economy
The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the state was 20.9 billion € in 2018, accounting for 5.4% of the Austria's economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 33,000 € or 110% of the EU27 average in the same year.
Language
German is the official language.
The people are predominantly German-speaking with a unique (and easily recognizable) Southern Austro-Bavarian dialect typical of which is that all short German vowels before double consonants have been lengthened ("Carinthian vowel stretching").
A Slovene-speaking minority, known as the Carinthian Slovenes, is concentrated in the southern and southeastern parts of the state. Its size cannot be determined precisely because the representatives of the ethnic group reject a count. Recommendations for a boycott of the 2001 census, which asked for the language used in everyday communication, reduced the count of Slovene speakers to 12,554 people, 2.38% of a total population of 527,333.
Tourist attractions
Major sights include the cities of Klagenfurt and Villach and medieval towns like Friesach or Gmünd. Carinthia features numerous monasteries and churches such as the Romanesque Gurk Cathedral or Maria Saal in the Zollfeld plain, the abbeys of St. Paul's, Ossiach, Millstatt, and Viktring as well as castles and palaces like large-scale Hochosterwitz, Griffen, or Porcia.
Scenic highlights are the main bathing lakes Wörthersee, Millstätter See, Ossiacher See and Faaker See as well as a variety of smaller lakes and ponds. In winter Carinthia offers ski resorts such as the Nassfeld near Hermagor, Gerlitzen mountain, Bad Kleinkirchheim, Flattach, and Heiligenblut at Austria's highest mountain, the Grossglockner as well as the Hohe Tauern and Nock Mountains national parks for all kind of alpine sports and mountaineering.
Notable people
Born in Carinthia
Arnulf of Carinthia, Holy Roman Emperor, born about 850, grew up in Moosburg, died December 8, 899 in Regensburg.
Pope Gregory V (né Bruno of Carinthia), born about 972, place unknown, died February 18, 999, in Rome.
Saint Hemma of Gurk, born about 980, probably at Zeltschach, Friesach, died June 27, 1045, in Gurk.
Heinrich von dem Tuerlin, minstrel and epic poet, early 13th century, probably born at Sankt Veit an der Glan.
Ulrich von dem Türlin, 13th century epic poet, probably born at St. Veit an der Glan.
Henry of Carinthia, king of Bohemia (Jindřich Korutanský)'' and titular king of Poland, born about 1265, died April 2, 1335 at Castle Tyrol.
Josef Stefan, physicist, born March 24, 1835, in the vicinity of Klagenfurt, died January 7, 1893, in Vienna.
Thomas Koschat, composer and bass singer, born August 8, 1845, in Klagenfurt.
Robert Musil, author, born November 6, 1880, in Klagenfurt, died April 15, 1942, in Geneva.
Anton Wiegele, painter, born February 23, 1887, at Nötsch im Gailtal, died December 17, 1944, at Nötsch im Gailtal.
Herbert Boeckl, painter, born June 3, 1894, in Klagenfurt, died January 20, 1966, in Vienna.
Rudolf Kattnigg, composer, born April 9, 1895, in Treffen, died September 2, 1955, in Vienna.
Josef Klaus, politician, born August 15, 1910, at Kötschach-Mauthen, died July 25, 2001, in Vienna.
Heinrich Harrer, mountaineer and ethnographer, born July 6, 1912, at Obergossen, Hüttenberg, died January 7, 2006, at Friesach.
Christine Lavant, poet, born July 4, 1915, in Großedling, Wolfsberg, died June 7, 1973, at Wolfsberg.
Maria Lassnig, painter, born September 9, 1919, in Kappel am Krappfeld.
Kathrin Glock, entrepreneur, born November 26, 1980, in Carinthia.
Paul Watzlawick, psychologist, born July 25, 1921, in Villach, died March 31, 2007, in Palo Alto.
Felix Ermacora, specialist in international law, born October 13, 1923, in Klagenfurt, died February 24, 1995, in Vienna.
Ingeborg Bachmann, poet and writer, born June 25, 1926, in Klagenfurt, died October 17, 1973, in Rome.
Gerhard Lampersberg, composer, born July 5, 1928, at Hermagor, died May 29, 2002, in Klagenfurt.
Günther Domenig, architect, born July 6, 1934, in Klagenfurt, died 15 June 2012.
Udo Jürgens, singer and composer, born September 30, 1934, in Klagenfurt, died December 21, 2014 in Münsterlingen, Switzerland.
Kiki Kogelnik, painter, born January 22, 1935, at Bleiburg, died February 1, 1997, in Vienna.
Bruno Gironcoli, sculptor, born September 27, 1936, at Villach.
Engelbert Obernosterer, writer, born December 28, 1936, at Sankt Lorenzen, Lesachtal.
Dagmar Koller, actress and singer, born August 26, 1939, in Klagenfurt.
Peter Handke, playwright and writer, born December 6, 1942, at Griffen.
Arnulf Komposch, mirror artist, born 1942 in Klagenfurt.
Peter Turrini, playwright, born September 26, 1944, at St. Margarethen im Lavanttal, Wolfsberg.
Gert Jonke, playwright, born February 8, 1946 in Klagenfurt, died January 4, 2009.
Werner Kofler, writer, born July 23, 1947, in Villach.
Wolfgang Petritsch, diplomat, born August 26, 1947, in Klagenfurt.
Erik Schinegger, intersexed alpine skier, born June 19, 1948, at Agsdorf, Sankt Urban.
Wolfgang Puck, celebrity chef, born July 8, 1949, in Sankt Veit an der Glan.
Josef Winkler, writer, born March 3, 1953, in Kamering.
Franz Klammer, alpine skier, born December 3, 1953, at Mooswald, Fresach.
Markus Müller, pharmacologist and rector of the Medical University of Vienna, born August 23, 1967, in Klagenfurt.
Patrick Friesacher, Formula one driver, born September 26, 1980 in Wolfsberg.
Died in Carinthia
Modestus, missionary, born about 720 in Ireland, died about 772 probably in Maria Saal.
Bolesław II the Bold, king of Poland, born about 1042; according to legend, died in Ossiach March 22, 1081 (?).
Carl Auer von Welsbach, chemist and inventor, born September 1, 1858, in Vienna, died August 4, 1929, in Möbling.
Anton Kolig, painter, born July 1, 1886, at Neutitschein (today Nový Jičín, Czech Republic), died May 17, 1950, in Nötsch im Gailtal.
Werner Berg, painter, born April 4, 1911, in Elberfeld, now Wuppertal, Germany, died September 7, 1981, in Sankt Veit im Jauntal, Sankt Kanzian am Klopeiner See.
Milivoj Ašner, born April 21, 1913, in Daruvar, Croatia, died 14 June 2011, accused Ustaše war criminal.
See also
Slovenian Carinthia
Carinthia (statistical region in Slovenia)
Carinthian Plebiscite
Carinthian Slovenes
Slovene field and house names in Carinthia
References
Notes
External links
Official website of the Carinthian government (in German)
Carinthia Travel Guide
Kaernten.at, Tourism information, 360° Panoramas, Webcams and much more (in English, German, Italian, Dutch, and other languages)
Consuming Carinthia
Carinthia Events
Arno Tausch (2008), "308 Billion Euros into the Sand? The Debacle of the EU's Regional Policy" [308 Milliarden € in den Sand? Zum Debakel der EU-Regionalpolitik]. Available at the Social Science Research Network, New York and the Global Development Network, Sussex University
States of Austria
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224464 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carinthia%20%28Slovenia%29 | Carinthia (Slovenia) | Carinthia ( ; ), also Slovene Carinthia or Slovenian Carinthia (Slovenska Koroška), is a traditional region in northern Slovenia. The term refers to the small southeasternmost area of the former Duchy of Carinthia, which after World War I was allocated to the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs according to the 1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain. It has no distinct centre, but a local centre in each of the three central river valleys among the heavily forested mountains.
Since the entry of Slovenia into the European Union in May 2004, much effort has been made to re-integrate Carinthia as a cultural, tourist and economic unit. The historic region has no official status as an administrative district within Slovenia, although the association with an informal province (pokrajina) is quite common.
Geography
The region lies in the Karawanks mountain range of the Southern Limestone Alps and comprises two spatially divided areas totalling :
the Meža Valley (Mežiška dolina) down to the confluence with the Drava Valley (Dravska dolina), including the municipalities of Črna na Koroškem, Mežica, Prevalje and Ravne na Koroškem, and Dravograd.
the Municipality of Jezersko south of the Seeberg Saddle mountain pass.
All these municipalities border on the Austrian state of Carinthia in the north.
In 2005, the Carinthia Statistical Region was established, which covers a larger area of about , parts of which encompass a number of adjacent municipalities belonging to the traditional region of Styria like the town of Slovenj Gradec in the Mislinja Valley or Muta and Radlje down the Drava River, though not Jezersko, which is part of the Upper Carniola Statistical Region.
The landscape of Carinthia is very diverse, with predominance of hilly and mountainous relief, in the Pleistocene transformed by glaciers. The climate is partially an alpine climate, and partially a transitional continental climate. An important element is temperature inversion. Over two thirds of Carinthia is covered by forest and the percentage is still increasing. The predominant tree species are beech, fir, and spruce. The lower areas have been polluted by lead due to a lead mine. Despite this, Carinthia is home to much game (hare, deer, roe deer) and alpine animal species above the timberline, like at Mount Peca or Mount Raduha. The Drava River is home to many fish.
History
The name derives from the early medieval Slavic principality of Carantania, whose territory stretched from the present-day Austrian state of Carinthia down to the Styrian lands on the Sava river. The area was part of the Imperial Carinthian duchy established in 976 and ruled by the House of Habsburg from 1335, which in 1867 became a Cisleithanian crown land of Austria-Hungary. Upon the Austrian defeat in World War I, the newly established Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later renamed Yugoslavia) in 1919 occupied southern Carinthia. The Meža Valley, the area around Dravograd and Jezersko, which are today the territory of Slovenia, were split off without a referendum, while in the occupied region north and west of this, on 10 October 1920 the voters in the Carinthian Plebiscite determined that those parts should become part of the newly founded First Austrian Republic.
During the 1941 Balkan Campaign of World War II, the area was annexed by Nazi Germany and put under the administration of the Reichsgau of Carinthia, led by Friedrich Rainer. Upon the German Instrument of Surrender in May 1945, Yugoslav Partisans entered the region, killing numerous alleged collaborators during the Yugoslav Partisan pursuit of Nazi collaborators. The area around Dravograd (Otiški Vrh, Selovec, Bukovska Vas, Šentjanž) and Prevalje (Leše, Poljana) is the site of several mass graves. After the war, the region formed part of the Yugoslav Socialist Republic of Slovenia, it became part of independent Slovenia after the Breakup of Yugoslavia in 1991.
Demographics
The Carinthia Statistical Region had 73,754 inhabitants in 2008, with an uneven settlement and relatively young population. Nonetheless, due to low birth rate and shorter life span, the number of inhabitants is decreasing. The biggest employer is the processing industry. Many people are commuters, working in Ljubljana, Maribor, Velenje and Austria. In 2008, there was relatively high unemployment, 10.5% in the mining town of Črna na Koroškem and 11.8 in Ravne na Koroškem, known for its steel industry. Other large settlements are the mining towns Mežica and Prevalje, Dravograd along the Maribor-Klagenfurt railway, Slovenj Gradec, the administrative centre of the Mislinja Valley and a cultural centre, Muta with a metal industry based on its blacksmith tradition, Radlje ob Dravi, a lively business and commercial centre.
Economy
In the 1990s, the lead and zinc mine in the Meža Valley, the most highly industrialized valley of the region, and the lead smelter in Žerjav were closed down. The only factory in the area around the mine still operating is TAB, a manufacturer of batteries. Metal Ravne, the steel mill at Ravne, which was one of the largest employers in the Duchy of Carinthia in the 19th century, managed to survive and now specializes in alloy steel and machinery components. There are five hydroelectric plants in the Carinthian stretch of the Drava Valley, with a total capacity of about 60 megawatts, and metal products are produced in different places.
Environment
After the shut-down of the zinc mine, the extremely poor environmental situation in the narrow Meža Valley with its centuries-long lead and zinc ore exploitation has slowly been improving. However, the entire area of the Slovene Carinthia continues to suffer from severe damage to its forests. In some areas, up to 40% of the trees are damaged due to heavy sulfur dioxide emissions from the Šoštanj Power Plant and the iron works in Ravne.
Despite the pollution of the Meža and Drava rivers, water supply has never been a problem. Clean water is abundant due to the mountainous terrain with its impermeable rock. Almost every farm in the mountains has its own water supply system, and the settlements in the valleys are connected to municipal water supply systems.
Education and culture
The Dr Franc Sušnik Central Carinthian Library and the Carinthian museum are in Ravne na Koroškem, but the Carinthian Regional Museum, the Carinthian Gallery of Fine Arts, and the regional radio station are located in Slovenj Gradec (historically part of Styria). In the past, educational establishments and other activities were dispersed among several small towns. There are high schools in Ravne and Muta. Students who wish to continue their tertiary education mostly choose the universities in Maribor and Ljubljana. In Črna na Koroškem, there is a centre for the protection and vocational education of physically and mentally handicapped youth.
Notable people
Aleš Gorza, skier
Robert Koren, football player
Lado Kralj, writer, theatre critic and literary historian
Alojzij Kuhar, historian, diplomat, journalist and politician
Mitja Kunc, skier
Nataša Lačen, cross country skier
Tina Maze, skier
Boštjan Nachbar, basketball player
Vinko Ošlak, essayist, translator, and Christian thinker
Andrej Pečnik, football player
Nejc Pečnik, football player
Danilo Pudgar, skier
Renata Salecl, philosopher
Mirnes Šišić, football player
Adi Smolar, singer-songwriter
Katarina Srebotnik, tennis player
Marko Šuler, football player
Tine Urnaut, volleyball player
Prežihov Voranc, writer
Hugo Wolf, composer
Notes
References
External links
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224465 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Palo%20Alto | Battle of Palo Alto | The Battle of Palo Alto () was the first major battle of the Mexican–American War and was fought on May 8, 1846, on disputed ground five miles (8 km) from the modern-day city of Brownsville, Texas. A force of some 3,700 Mexican troops – most of the Army of The North – led by General Mariano Arista engaged a force of approximately 2,300 United States troops – the Army of Occupation led by General Zachary Taylor.
On April 30, following the Thornton Affair, Mexican General Mariano Arista's troops began to cross the Rio Grande. On May 3, the troops began to besiege the American outpost at Fort Texas. Taylor marched his Army of Occupation south to relieve the siege. Arista, upon learning of his approach, diverted many of his units away from the siege to meet Taylor's force. The battle took place on May 8, three days before the formal declaration of war on Mexico by the United States. Arista ordered two cavalry charges, first against the American right flank and later against the left. Both were unsuccessful. The American victory is widely attributed to superior artillery, as the U.S. "light" artillery was much more mobile and accurate than that of the Mexican forces.
That evening, Arista was forced to withdraw further south. The armies clashed again the next day at the Battle of Resaca de la Palma.
Background
On April 30, following the Thornton Affair, Arista started crossing the Rio Grande at Longoreno with his main army, first with General Pedro de Ampudia's 1st Brigade and four guns. Taylor prepared Fort Texas to withstand a siege while he moved most of his forces to protect his supply base at Fort Polk near Point Isabel, 23 miles northeast of present day Brownsville, Texas, and having a Gulf of Mexico pass suitable for ships. Fort Texas was garrisoned by Taylor with 500 men under Major Jacob Brown, including the 7th Infantry, Capt. Allen Lowd's four 18-pounders, and Lt. Braxton Bragg's field battery.
The battle began as a result of Mexican efforts to besiege Fort Texas on May 3, General Zachary Taylor, in command of the Army of Occupation, receiving supplies from Fort Polk on Point Isabel, heard the distant report of cannon fire. Taylor started his return to Fort Texas on May 7 with 2,228 men plus his 200-wagon supply train. General Arista immediately left his camp at the Tanques del Ramireno with his army, with the intention of blocking Taylor. Ampudia's brigade left the Fort Texas siege to join him. Taylor's scouts sighted the Mexican force at noon on the 8th.
Battle
Facing north and moving left to right, General Arista's army consisted of General Antonio Canales Rosillo's 400 irregular cavalry in chaparral, Anastasio Torrejon's cavalry brigade consisting of the 8th, 7th and Light Cavalry, astride the Point Isabel road, then came General Jose Maria Garcia's brigade of the 4th and 10th Infantry with two 8-pounders, then General Rómulo Díaz de la Vega's brigade of the 10th and 6th Infantry with five 4-pounders, then the Tampico Corps, the 2d Light Infantry and a sapper battalion with a 4-pounder. Behind this line was Col. Cayetano Montero's light cavalry.
Facing south and moving right to left, Taylor, with a force of 2,300 men and 400 wagons, placed Col. David E. Twiggs with Lt. Col. James S. McIntosh's 5th Infantry and Maj. Samuel Ringgold's artillery battery, followed by Capt. Lewis N. Morris' 3d Infantry with Lt. William H. Churchill's two 18-pounders astride the road, followed by Capt. George W. Allen's 4th Infantry, Lt. Thomas Childs' artillery battalion, Lt. Col. William G. Belknap's wing, James Duncan's battery, then Capt. William R. Montgomery's 8th Infantry on the American left. Lt. Col. Charles A. May's dragoon squadron guarded the left flank and Capt. Croghan Ker guarded the train. Montgomery was slightly wounded during the battle, along with approximately ten other officers, some of them severely.
Taylor halted his columns and formed a line behind his batteries when the Mexican artillery started firing at 2 PM central daylight time. The American artillery was very effective while the Mexican artillery often fell short. Arista ordered Torrejon's cavalry to attack the American right, but progress was slow, allowing Twiggs to form the 5th Infantry into a square to meet them with a couple of volleys.
A fire started from a cannon burning wad which halted fighting for an hour as the smoke paralleled between the lines of the opposing forces. Arista pulled back 1,000 yards on his left and Taylor advanced accordingly, rotating the axis of the battle 40 degrees counterclockwise. May failed to turn the Mexican left before the artillery duel resumed. Child's artillery battalion formed a square to repel another Torrejon cavalry charge. Duncan's battery stopped Arista from turning the American left and then advanced with the 8th Infantry and Ker's dragoons to drive the Mexican right from the field. A charge ordered by Arista at this time resulted in the light cavalry fleeing along the Mexican line, taking the 6th Infantry with them. Fighting stopped with dusk and both armies camped for the night.
Aftermath
The morning of the 9th revealed the Mexican army slowly moving south. Taylor sent forward a 220-man battalion under McCall to reconnoiter the Mexican positions. The Battle of Resaca de la Palma would follow.
Major Ringgold was struck by a cannon ball and mortally wounded during the battle but Ringgold's and Duncan's effective cannoneers with their "Flying Artillery"—the tactic of using light artillery to attack then quickly move to another location and fire once more, carried the day and won the battle for the Americans. General Zachary Taylor emerged from the war a national hero.
The battlefield is now Palo Alto Battlefield National Historical Park and is maintained by the National Park Service.
Order of battle
Mexican
Army of the North – Gen.div. Mariano Arista
Deputy – Gen.br. Pedro Ampudia
Infantry
1st Brigade – Gen. Jose M. Garcia
10th Line – Col. Jose M. Garcia, Bn.Comdte. Manuel Montero
Artillery battery (2x 8-lb)
2nd Brigade - Gen. Rómulo Díaz de la Vega
1st Line – Col. Nicolas Mendoza
6th Line – Lt. Col. F. Garcia Casanova
Artillery battery (6x 4-lb)
Brigade – Gen. Pedro Ampudia
4th Line – Col. Jose Lopez Uraga
Villas of the North Cavalry Auxiliary
Sappers Company
Artillery battery (2x 6-lb ?)
Unassigned
2nd Light – Col. Jose Maria Carrasco, Lt.Col. M. Fernandez
Tampico Coast Guards Battalion – Lt. Col. Ramon Tabera
Zapadores (Sappers) Battalion – Lt. Col. Mariano Reyes
Cavalry
Cavalry Brigade – Acting Gen. Anastasio Torrejon
7th & 8th Line – Col. A. Torrejon?
Light Regiment of Mexico – Col. C. Montero
Presidential Companies – Col. Sabariego
Artillery battery (2x 4-lb guns)
Irregular Cavalry (Rancheros) – Gen.br. A. Canales
Artillery – Gen. Tomas Requena
Chief of div. Raphael Linarte
Artillery battery (2x 8-lb, 2x 6-lb)
Artillery battery (4x 4-lb) – Capt. Ballarta?
Artillery battery (4x 4-lb)
American
Army of Observation – Brig. Gen. Zachary Taylor
1st Brigade "Left Wing" – Lt. Col. William G. Belknap
Artillery Battalion (acting as Infantry) – Lt. Col. Thomas Childs
Battery A, 2nd U.S. Artillery – Capt. James Duncan
8th Infantry – Capt. William R. Montgomery
Wagon Train – Capts. George H. Crosman & Abraham C. Myers
2nd Brigade "Right Wing" – Colonel David E. Twiggs
5th Infantry – Lt. Col. James S. McIntosh
Battery C, 3rd U.S. Artillery – Samuel Ringgold (mw)
3rd Infantry – Capt. Lewis M. Morris
Artillery battery (2x 18-lb) – Lt. William H. Churchill
4th Infantry – Maj. George W. Allen
2nd Dragoons – Capts. Croghan Ker & Charles A. May
Fort Polk
Zachary Taylor established Fort Polk, near Point Isabel, 23 miles northeast of present day Brownsville, with a Gulf of Mexico pass suitable for ships' landings, on March 24, 1846 as a supply base for his operations leading up to the Battle of Palo Alto, and used it until 1850. He garrisoned it with two artillery companies under Major John Munroe. Major Charles Thomas was the Depot Quartermaster using wagons and river steamers to supply Taylor.
Taylor established camps for those heeding his call for volunteers at Point Isabel, the north end of Brazos Island, and along the Rio Grande between Barita and Fort Brown, at a place known as Camp Belknap.
Gallery
See also
Battles of the Mexican–American War
List of conflicts in the United States
Hispanic Heritage Sites (U.S. National Park Service)
Saint Patrick's Battalion
Notes
References
Bibliography
(eBook)
Additional Reading
Chartrand, René. "Santa Anna's Mexican Army, 1821–1848"
Crawford, Mark. "Encyclopedia of the Mexican-American War"
External links
Palo Alto Battlefield National Historic Site
"Taking a Stand at Palo Alto," a Documentary on the Battle of Palo Alto
Guns Along the Rio Grande: Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, CMH Pub 73-2, Center of Military History
A Continent Divided: The U.S. - Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington
1846 in Mexico
Palo Alto
Cameron County, Texas
Palo Alto
Irish-American history and culture in Texas
Zachary Taylor
May 1846 events
1846 in the Mexican-American War | [
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224471 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag%20football | Flag football | Flag football is a variant of American football where, instead of tackling players to the ground, the defensive team must remove a flag or flag belt from the ball carrier ("deflagging") to end a down, and contact is not permitted between players. The international governing body for the sport is the International Federation of American Football (IFAF). It is an invitational sport for the 2022 World Games.
The best available records to date point to the early 1940s during World War II as the sport's starting point. The game began as a recreational sport created for American military personnel to help them stay fit but was designed in a way that would help prevent them from becoming injured during wartime. At the time it was called "Touch and Tail football", which then became "flag football" after the war ended. The first known recorded history of flag football can be traced to Fort Meade, Maryland, USA, which is now generally accepted as the sport's birthplace.
Variations
Chiefly because there is no dominant sanctioning organization for the sport, the game has mutated into many variations: 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, and 4 players on each side; coed or single-gender; with kicking and punting and with point-after conversions (including some with 1, 2, and 3 point tries) or without; and field sizes that vary from full Canadian Football League (CFL) size, National Football League (NFL) size (120 yards long by 53 yards wide), to fields a third that size.
An important distinction is whether linemen are allowed to catch passes ("Eligible Linemen") or, as in the NFL / CFL, are not allowed to do so ("Ineligible Linemen"). Flag (and touch) football may also be divided into "contact" or "non-contact", depending on whether or not blocking is allowed; if allowed, blocking is usually restricted to the chest.
The ability or inability for the quarterback to advance the ball past the line of scrimmage (LOS) by running is another rule subject to variation by league.
Competition
The sport has a strong amateur following and several national and international competitions each year sponsored by various associations.
IFAF Flag Football World Championship 2021
The International Federation of American Football (IFAF) had selected Israel to host the Flag Football World Championships for 2021 IFAF Flag Football World Championship with World Games places up for grabs
The Kraft Family Sports Campus in Jerusalem, was originally scheduled to stage the men's and women's events, however, due to expected high winds the games were played at Teddy Stadium.
Normally conducted every two years, Denmark was scheduled to host the 2020 edition only for it to be cancelled due to the coronavirus pandemic..
“We love the game of American football and are so proud to see the sport’s popularity continue to grow internationally in its various forms, including flag football,” said Robert Kraft, New England Patriots owner and Kraft Group chairman and CEO
The United States retained their men's and women's titles at the International Federation of American Football (IFAF) World Flag Football Championships in Jerusalem.
The US fought back in both finals, against Mexico to successfully defend their world crowns.
Against Mexico In the women's gold-medal match the Americans scored 12 unanswered points in the second period to seal a 31-21 victory.
In the semi-finals the US beat Austria 33-6, and Mexico beat Brazil 47-6 to reach the final.
"I'm extremely proud of our women coming together," said US head coach Chris Lankford.
"They were dedicated to the mission at hand, and they succeeded.".
The US Mens team too rallied from behind against Mexico to a 44-41 victory and retain their world title.
A 35-6 win over Panama sent the US through to the final, and Mexico beat Italy 36-35 to join them in the tournament's showpiece contest.
"Mexico played extremely well, but through the entire process our team made a statement," said US head coach Bryan Garcia.
"They represented their country, the programme, themselves, and their families well and I’m proud of them."
Austria defeated Brazil 26-13 to win the women's bronze medal.
Panama edged out Italy 45-40 in the men's third-place playoff.
An IFAF event record of 39 men’s and women’s teams combined, spanning 22 countries, competed at the tournament in Israel.
The World Games 2022 Birmingham
July 20th the International World Games Association (IWGA), National Football League (NFL), and International Federation of American Football (IFAF) July 2020, announced that Flag Football will join the existing lineup of 32 unique, multi-disciplinary sports.
The Games which mark the 40th anniversary of the event, will take place from July 7- 17, 2022.
Hosted at Birmingham's historic Legion Field. Flag Football 2022 World Games will feature eight men's teams and eight women's teams from around the world.
As current reigning world champions, the United States men's and women's teams both pre-qualify for The World Games 2022. The remaining seven teams will be selected through the IFAF qualifying process
North America
On June 28, 2017, the inaugural game for the newly formed American Flag Football League was played. The league plans to launch eight league-owned teams for 2018.
In May 2020, the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), in partnership with the NFL, announced the addition of flag football as a varsity sport for female student-athletes. The NAIA became the first collegiate governing body to sanction the sport at the varsity level. Women's flag will begin during the 2020–21 season as an emerging sport with at least 15 teams, the NAIA and NFL also expect upgrade the sport to an invitational level sport by 2022 with at least 25 teams.
NFL FLAG is the largest youth flag football league in the U.S. An NFL licensed property for girls and boys ages 5-17, NFL FLAG has more than 1,600 locally operated leagues and over 500,000 youth athletes across all 50 states. In 2020, Superbowl champion and Seattle Seahawks quarterback Russell Wilson was named co-owner and chairman of NFL FLAG in an effort to help grow the sport worldwide.
International
The International Woman's Flag Football Association, otherwise known as the IWFFA, hosts 8 on 8 flag football tournaments and flag football trainings across the world with participants from the United States, Canada, Mexico, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Denmark, Iceland, Scotland and several other nations. The organization is the largest organization for women and girls in the sport of flag football. The most active tournament is held each February in Key West, Florida, called the Kelly McGillis Classic where over 90 women and girls teams participate in 8 on 8, semi - blocking contact flag football. There are no restrictions to for girls and women to play.
The International Flag Football Festival (IFFF) organizes the World Cup of Flag Football featuring teams from the United States, Mexico and several other nations.
The International Federation of American Football (IFAF) organizes the IFAF Flag Football World Championship every two years since 2002.
United Kingdom
Flag football competition in the United Kingdom is 5-a-side and organized by The British American Football Association (BAFA). At a senior level as of 2021, there are fifty eight teams divided into six divisions, Highland (North Division), Northern (West Division), Southern (East Division), Northern (East Division), Southern (Wales Division), and Southern (West Division) with the top teams qualifying for playoffs at the end of the season. As of 2021 the league will also run The Youth Flag Football League (YFFL) and organize teams competing at under 17, under 14, and non-competitive under 11. Flag matches in the UK are played with five players on each side with no contact, and are officiated according to the IFAF flag football rules with a few minor variations. The U17s and U14s compete in the National Youth Flag Football League, which runs from April to August, with teams battling it out to qualify for National Finals Day and ultimately be crowned National Champions.
The U11s take part in various regional festivals throughout the year.
Basic rules
The specific rules of flag football vary widely by league, though all share in common their replication of the rules of traditional US-American football with tackling replaced by flag-pulling.
Traditional American football rules are often eliminated or modified to reflect the more recreational nature of the game, the desire to avoid physical contact and injury, and the generally smaller number of participating players per side.
See also
American football strategy
Rugby football
Tag rugby
References
External links
United States Flag & Touch Football League
Sports originating in the United States
Variations of American football | [
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224473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Styria%20%28disambiguation%29 | Styria (disambiguation) | Styria is a federal state of Austria.
Styria may also refer to:
Upper Styria, which can refer either to the entire state of Styria or to the northern part of it
Styria (Slovenia), an informal province in Slovenia
Duchy of Styria, a former state of the Holy Roman Empire and one-time crown land of Austria-Hungary
Styria (company), a Styrian media and printing enterprise
See also
History of Styria
Stiria, a genus of moths
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224474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Styria | Styria | Styria ( ; Croatian and ; ) is a state (Bundesland) in the southeast of Austria. With an area of , Styria is the second largest state of Austria, after Lower Austria. Styria is bordered to the south by Slovenia, and clockwise, from the southwest, by the Austrian states of Carinthia, Salzburg, Upper Austria, Lower Austria, and Burgenland. The state capital is Graz.
Etymology
The March of Styria derived its name from the original seat of its ruling Otakar dynasty: Steyr, in today's Upper Austria. In German, the area is still called "Steiermark" while in English the Latin name "Styria" is used. The ancient link between Steyr and Styria is also apparent in their nearly identical coats of arms, a white Panther on a green background.
Geography
The term "Upper Styria" () refers to the northern and northwestern parts of the federal-state (districts Liezen, Murau, Murtal, Leoben, Bruck-Mürzzuschlag).
The term "Western Styria" (Weststeiermark) is used for the districts to the west of Graz (Voitsberg, Deutschlandsberg, western part of the district Leibnitz). Because of the similar landscape with hills, valleys, wine and culture, the region in western Styria is also called "Styrian Tuscany".
The districts east of Graz (Weiz, Hartberg-Fürstenfeld, and Südoststeiermark) are referred to as "Eastern Styria" (Oststeiermark).
The western and eastern parts of the district Graz-Umgebung (literally, surroundings of Graz) may or may not be considered parts of West and East Styria, respectively. The southern parts of the Duchy of Styria, which formed part of former Yugoslavia and later Slovenia (with the exception of World War II), were (and sometimes colloquially still are) referred to as "Lower Styria" (Untersteiermark; ).
History
Styria was inhabited by Celtic tribes. After its conquest by the Romans, the eastern part of what is now Styria was part of Pannonia, while the western one was included in Noricum. During the Barbarian invasions, it was conquered or crossed by the Visigoths, the Huns, the Ostrogoths, the Rugii, and the Lombards. Slavs under the domination of the Avars settled in the valleys around 600. At the same time, Bavarians under Frankish domination began to expand their area to the south and east, ultimately absorbing the Slavic population.
In 1180, Styria separated from the Duchy of Carinthia and became a Duchy of its own; in 1192 the Austrian Duke Leopold V became also Duke of Styria. Later, Styria formed the central part of Inner Austria.
Styria developed culturally and economically under Archduke John of Austria between 1809 and 1859.
In 1918, after World War I, it was divided into a northern section (forming what is the current Austrian state), and a southern one, called Lower Styria, now inhabited by Slovenians, and which was annexed to Yugoslavia, and later became part of Slovenia. As a result of the turbulence of the two world wars, the German-speaking population of Lower Styria, which had been concentrated in the cities, migrated out of the region or was expelled.
Economy
The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the state was 49.6 billion € in 2018, accounting for 12.9% of the Austria's economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 35,400 € or 118% of the EU27 average in the same year.
As elsewhere in the developed world, there has been a shift away from the manufacturing sector towards the service sector in Styria. This has had negative consequences for the industrial regions of upper Styria which have suffered a steady decline in population in recent years.
In 2004, Styria had the strongest economic growth rate in Austria at 3.8%—mainly due to the Graz area which saw strong economic growth that year and has continued to grow in economic and population terms since then.
Styria is home to more than 150 clean technology companies of which one dozen are world technology leaders in their field. The revenue of Styrian cleantech companies totals €2.7 billion. This equals 8 percent of the Gross Regional Product (GRP) and is one of the highest concentrations of leading clean technology companies in Europe. The companies have an average (real) growth rate of 22 percent per year—well above the worldwide cleantech market growth of 18 percent per year. The region created roughly 2,000 additional green jobs in 2008 alone.
The Formula One Austrian Grand Prix has been held in the region, first at the Zeltweg Airfield in 1964 and then at the Osterreichring from 1970 to 1987. The sport returned to the circuit, now redesigned and rebranded as the A1-Ring, from 1997 to 2003. Formula One once again returned to the circuit, now renamed the Red Bull Ring, in 2014 and has been held at the track every year since. The COVID-19 pandemic saw the 2020 Formula One calendar massively revised, resulting in the Red Bull Ring becoming the first circuit to host consecutive Formula One World Championship Grands Prix, with the first round running under the Austrian Grand Prix name and the second held as the Styrian Grand Prix. This continued in 2021.
Administrative divisions
The state is divided into 13 districts (Bezirke), one of them a statutory city.
Statutory city
Graz
Districts
Bruck-Mürzzuschlag
Deutschlandsberg
Graz-Umgebung
Hartberg-Fürstenfeld
Leibnitz
Leoben
Liezen (with the subdistrict Gröbming)
Murau
Murtal
Südoststeiermark
Voitsberg
Weiz
Population
The historical population is given in the following chart:
Politics
The state had been a stronghold of the right-wing Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) since 1945. However, Graz is markedly more left-wing than the rural districts of the province.
The governor (Austrian political term: Landeshauptmann) of Styria has typically been a ÖVP candidate.
In the 2021 municipal election in Graz, the KPÖ surprisingly took over first place from the ÖVP, thus pushing long-time mayor Siegfried Nagl (ÖVP) out of office. The result caused a sensation internationally. Elke Kahr led the KPÖ for a third time in the 2021 Graz local election. Despite opinion polling suggesting a victory for the ruling Austrian People's Party (ÖVP), the KPÖ became the largest party with 28.8% of votes and 15 seats. After the election, the KPÖ entered into coalition talks with the Greens and SPÖ. On November 13, 2021, the KPÖ, the Greens and the SPÖ announced their coalition: Graz gets a communist mayor with Elke Kahr.
Recent elections
In the 2005 elections for state parliament the Social Democrats (SPÖ) under their regional chairman Franz Voves won the majority after the ÖVP had damaged its credibility through scandals and the secession of a high-ranking party member who took part in the 2005 elections after setting up his own party. In these elections, the KPÖ also received many votes after it had gained much popularity through its role in local politics in Graz during the preceding few years. The two right-wing populist parties, the Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ) and the Alliance for the Future of Austria (BZÖ), failed to win seats.
In subsequent elections in 2010 and 2015, the Social Democrats, the Austrian People's Party, and the Communist Party each lost between one fourth and one third of their shares of the vote relative to 2005. The Freedom Party grew from 4.6 percent to 26.8 percent.
The current government of Styria is a coalition of Social Democrats and People's Party, with each party holding 4 seats of the 8 seats available. The governor, Hermann Schützenhöfer, is a representative of the People's Party. His deputy, Michael Schickhofer, is a Social Democrat.
Notable people
Palman (fl. 1310–1363), knight and mercenary commander of the Serbian Empire
Johann Joseph Fux (1660–1741), composer and music theorist, wrote Gradus ad Parnassum – a composition manual used by Beethoven and Mozart
Archduke John of Austria (1782–1859)
Peter Rosegger (1843–1918), honoured poet
Johann Puch (1862–1914), founded Johann Puch Erste Steiermärkische Fahrrad-Fabriks-Aktiengesellschaft at Graz in 1899.
Robert Stolz (1880-1975), composer born in Graz
Karl Böhm, (1894-1981), conductor
Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn (1909-1999), political scientist
Bert Isatitsch (1911–1994), first president of the International Luge Federation
Frank Stronach (b. 1932), founder of Magna International, billionaire
Jochen Rindt (1942–1970), Formula 1 World Champion
Dr. Helmut Marko (b. 1943), former racing driver
Dietrich Mateschitz (b. 1944), founder and CEO of Red Bull, billionaire
Klaus Maria Brandauer (b. 1944), actor and director
Elfriede Jelinek (b. 1946), Nobel Prize in Literature winner
Arnold Schwarzenegger (b. 1947), bodybuilder, film actor and former Governor of California
Hugo Eberhardt (1948) (b. 1948), leader in the field of technical safety
Getty Kaspers (b. 1948), lead vocals of Dutch band Teach-In, who won the 1975 Eurovision Song Contest.
Eva Rueber-Staier (b. 1951), Miss Austria 1969, Miss World 1969
Wolfgang Muthspiel (b. 1965), jazz composer and guitarist
Ulla Weigerstorfer (b. 1967), Miss Austria 1987 and Miss World 1987
Thomas Muster (b. 1967), former World No. 1 tennis player
Renate Götschl (b. 1975), alpine skiing World Champion
Elisabeth Görgl (b. 1981), professional alpine skier
Christoph Strasser (b. 1982), champion ultra cyclist
Conchita Wurst (b. 1988), singer and winner of the Eurovision Song Contest 2014
See also
Lower Styria
References
External links
Imperial Austria: Treasures of Art, Arms and Armor from the State of Styria – The Canadian Museum of Civilization
Official Tourism Website of Styria
States of Austria
Divided regions
NUTS 2 statistical regions of the European Union
Wine regions of Austria | [
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224481 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris%20Carter%20%28screenwriter%29 | Chris Carter (screenwriter) | Christopher Carl Carter (born October 13, 1956) is an American television and film producer, director and writer who gained fame in the 1990s as the creator of the Fox science fiction supernatural drama series The X-Files.
Born in Bellflower, California, Carter graduated with a degree in journalism from California State University, Long Beach before spending thirteen years working for Surfing Magazine. After beginning his television career working on television films for Walt Disney Studios, Carter rose to fame in 1993 for creating The X-Files. The show earned high viewership ratings, and eventually led to Carter's being able to negotiate the creation of future series.
Carter has his own television production company, Ten Thirteen Productions, wherein he went on to create three more series for the network—Millennium, a doomsday-themed series which met with critical approval and low viewer numbers; Harsh Realm, which was canceled after three episodes had aired; and The Lone Gunmen, a spin-off of The X-Files which lasted for a single season. Carter's film roles include writing both of The X-Files cinematic spin-offs—1998's successful The X-Files and the poorly received 2008 follow-up The X-Files: I Want to Believe, the latter of which he also directed—while his television credits have earned him several accolades including eight Primetime Emmy Award nominations.
Early life
Chris Carter was born on October 13, 1956 in Bellflower, California. His father worked in the construction industry. Carter has described his childhood as "fairly normal", and was fond of both Little League Baseball and surfing; his surfing stance is goofy footed. He attended California State University, Long Beach in Long Beach, graduated with a journalism degree in 1979. An avid surfer, he began writing for Surfing Magazine, a San Clemente-based journal, eventually becoming its editor at the age of 28. Carter would work for the magazine for thirteen years, and credits his tenure there for teaching him how to run a business. It was also at this time that Carter began taking an interest in pottery, making "hundreds of thousands of pieces" of dinnerware as a hobby. He has compared the process of making pottery to Zen meditations, although he has since thrown out most of his work.
Personal life
In 1983, Carter began dating Dori Pierson, whom he had met through a cousin of hers who worked with him at Surfing Magazine. The couple were married in 1987, and live in Santa Barbara.
Career
Starting in television
Pierson's connections at Walt Disney Studios led to chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg hiring Carter on a standard contract. Carter began writing television films for the studio, penning The B.R.A.T. Patrol in 1986 and Meet the Munceys in 1988. These scripts led to Carter being associated with contemporary youth comedy at the studio, and although he enjoyed the work he felt that his real strengths and interests lay in serious drama instead.
Carter met the then-president of NBC, Brandon Tartikoff, at a company softball game in Brentwood, California. Tartikoff and Carter began talking between innings, and when Tartikoff eventually read some of Carter's script work, he brought him over to write for the network. There, Carter developed a number of unproduced television pilots—Cameo By Night, featuring Sela Ward; Brand New Life, which has been described as being similar to The Brady Bunch; Copter Cop, a science fiction series that was hampered by Tartikoff's injuries after a car accident; and Cool Culture, influenced by Carter's passion for surfing and experience with Surfing Magazine. During this time Carter would also work as a producer on Rags to Riches, a job he accepted in order to learn more about producing a series.
Peter Roth, at that time the president of Stephen J. Cannell Productions, obtained a copy of Carter's pilot script for Cool Culture, and although the series was never picked up, Roth was interested in hiring Carter to work on the CBS series Palace Guard. However, Roth would soon leave CBS to work for Fox as the head of its television production wing. Carter was among the first wave of new staff hired by Roth in 1992 to develop material for the network, and he began work on a series based on his own childhood fondness for The Twilight Zone and Kolchak: The Night Stalker.
The X-Files and success
Carter's new series would take its stylistic inspiration from Kolchak, while thematically reflecting his experiences growing up during the Watergate scandal. Carter also drew inspiration from his friend John E. Mack's survey of American beliefs in ufology, which indicated that of the population believed they had been abducted by aliens. Roth warmed to the idea upon hearing of the influence of Kolchak, believing that vampires—one of the central antagonists of the original series—would be popular with audiences given the interest being shown in the upcoming film Interview with the Vampire, although Carter insisted on an extraterrestrial-focused series. However, Carter had never been interested in science fiction before this point, professing to have briefly read one novel each by Ursula K. Le Guin and Robert A. Heinlein. Basing his characters instead on those found in the English television series The Avengers, Carter took an eighteen-page treatment for his new project—by now titled The X-Files—to a pitch meeting at Fox, where it was soon rejected. With the help of Roth, Carter was able to arrange a second pitch meeting, at which the network reluctantly agreed to greenlight a pilot for the series.
After finding the series' two starring leads in Gillian Anderson and David Duchovny, Carter was given a budget of to produce a pilot episode. The series aired on Friday nights on the Fox network, being broadcast in tandem with The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr. in what was perceived to be an unpopular timeslot. The series earned relatively impressive Nielsen ratings for its Friday timeslot, and was given a full twenty-four episode order. The series' popularity and critical acclaim built over the course of its second and third seasons, and saw it earning its first Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Drama and breaking the record for highest price paid by a network for rights to air re-runs, fetching $600,000 per episode from Fox's sister network FX. After Carter's initial three-year signing for Fox had ended, the success of the series allowed him to negotiate a five-year contract with several additional perks, including the guarantee of a feature film adaptation to be produced by the parent company's film studio, and the greenlighting of Carter's next television project. In March 2015, it was confirmed that Carter was set to executive produce and write for the revival of The X-Files, which was set for a six-episode event series. In 2017 it was announced that The X-Files would return to Fox with a ten-episode season 11, with Carter set to executive produce and write. Both Gillian Anderson and David Duchovny returned, as well as veteran writers Glen Morgan, Darin Morgan, and Jim Wong, and newcomers Gabe Rotter, Benjamin Van Allen, and Brad Follmer. The eleventh season has received generally positive if somewhat lukewarm reviews from critics, but ratings fell dramatically, and Gillian Anderson has stated she will not play Scully again.
Millennium
Carter began work on a new series, Millennium. The genesis of this new project stemmed from "Irresistible", a second-season episode of The X-Files which Carter had written, which focused on a sexually motivated serial killer with none of that series' usual supernatural trappings. Carter fleshed out the basis of the new show's protagonist, Frank Black, and travelled to Seattle for inspiration for a new setting. Influence was also drawn from the works of Nostradamus, and the increasing popular interest in eschatology ahead of the coming millennium. The central role of Black was eventually filled by Lance Henriksen, and the series began airing in the Friday timeslot formerly occupied by The X-Files. "Pilot", the début episode, was heavily promoted by Fox, and brought in over a quarter of the total audience during its broadcast.
The series also attracted a high degree of critical appraisal, earning a People's Choice Award for "Favorite New TV Dramatic Series" in its first year. At the beginning of the second season, Carter handed over control of the series to Glen Morgan and James Wong, with whom he had previously worked on both Millennium first season and several seasons of The X-Files. Despite its promising start, however, ratings for Millennium after the pilot remained consistently low, and it was cancelled after three seasons.
Feature films
During the production of the fourth season of The X-Files, work on the first feature film adaptation of the series began. Also titled The X-Files, Carter initially began a treatment for the script over Christmas holidays in Hawaii in 1996. Series producer Frank Spotnitz collaborated on the story outline at this time. Carter would later return to Hawaii for a ten-day stint in 1997 to begin fleshing out the finished script. Carter appointed frequent series director Rob Bowman as director of the film, which went on to feature many of the series' regular cast, including Duchovny, Anderson, Mitch Pileggi and William B. Davis.
The X-Files premiered on June 19, 1998, eventually making a worldwide gross of $189 million, and received mixed reviews.
Ten years after the success of the first film, and six years after The X-Files final season had finished, Carter would both write and direct a second feature film, titled The X-Files: I Want to Believe. Filmed in British Columbia, I Want To Believe was released on July 25, 2008; eventually grossing $68,369,434 worldwide. The film was received generally negative reviews from critics.
Other work
Carter has made several brief cameo roles as an actor—first appearing in The X-Files "Anasazi" as an FBI agent; before portraying a member of a film audience in "Hollywood A.D.", a later episode of the same series. Carter also made a brief appearance in "Three Men and a Smoking Diaper", an episode of The Lone Gunmen.
In 1999, Carter began adapting the comic book series Harsh Realm as a television show. Carter's friend and frequent collaborator Daniel Sackheim had optioned the comics for adaptation in 1996. However, when the series first aired on October 8, 1999, the comics' writers Andrew Paquette and James Hudnall were given no writing credits for the work; the two then filed suit against Fox to be credited for their work. Harsh Realm received disappointing viewing figures, and was cancelled after only three episodes had been broadcast.
Two years later, Carter launched a spin-off of The X-Files titled The Lone Gunmen, a series centred on three minor characters from the former series. The Lone Gunmen was cancelled after thirteen episodes, later receiving a coda in the form of a crossover episode with The X-Files. Carter has since been involved with writing and directing the as-yet unreleased film Fencewalker, set to feature Natalie Dormer and Katie Cassidy. In 2011, he began working to develop Unique, a police thriller television series; the project was eventually dropped before completion.
Carter next began work on the Amazon Studios television series The After. The pilot episode was made available for viewing on February 6, 2014; the series was green-lit the following month, but finally cancelled on January 5, 2015, without another episode beyond the pilot being shot.
Accolades
Carter's work has earned him several accolades over his career, including eight nominations at the Primetime Emmy Awards. Carter has also received award nominations for the Directors Guild of America Awards, the Edgar Awards, and the British Academy Television Awards.
Filmography
Film
Television
Footnotes
References
External links
Joiner, James (March 24, 2015). "'The X-Files' Creator Chris Carter on Scully and Mulder's Return". The Daily Beast
1956 births
American male screenwriters
American television directors
American television writers
California State University, Long Beach alumni
Film directors from California
Film producers from California
Science fiction film directors
Living people
People from Bellflower, California
Television producers from California
Showrunners
American male television writers
Screenwriters from California
21st-century American screenwriters
21st-century American male writers | [
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224483 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrol%20%28disambiguation%29 | Tyrol (disambiguation) | Tyrol or Tirol is a historical region in the Eastern Alps, divided since 1919 into Western Austria and Northern Italy.
It consists of:
Tyrol (state), a state in Western Austria
East Tyrol, part of the Austrian state of Tyrol
North Tyrol, part of the Austrian state of Tyrol
South Tyrol (Alto Adige), a province of Northern Italy
Tyrol–South Tyrol–Trentino Euroregion, a European Union designated entity comprising the whole border region
Tyrol Castle, in the municipality of Tirol, seat of the Counts of Tyrol, is the origin of the name
Historical
History of Tyrol
County of Tyrol, a former political entity in existence until the early 20th century comprising territory in the Italian region of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol and the Austrian state of Tyrol
German Tyrol, the German-speaking area of the old County of Tyrol
Others
Tirol, a village in Doclin Commune, Caraş-Severin County, Romania
Tyrol Basin, a ski and snowboard area located in Mount Horeb, Wisconsin, USA
Tyrol Valley, a high ice-free valley in the Asgard Range, Victoria Land, Antarctica
Tyrolerfjord, in Greenland
Galen Tyrol, a fictional character from the re-imagined miniseries and television series Battlestar Galactica
Tirol (fictional planet), the homeworld of the Robotech Masters in the anime series Robotech
Tirol (horse), an Irish-bred, British-trained Thoroughbred racehorse and sire | [
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224484 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claire%20Danes | Claire Danes | Claire Catherine Danes (born April 12, 1979) is an American actress. She is the recipient of three Primetime Emmy Awards, four Golden Globe Awards, and two Screen Actors Guild Awards. In 2012, Time named her one of the 100 most influential people in the world, and she was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2015.
Danes gained early recognition as Angela Chase in the 1994 teen drama series My So-Called Life. The role won her a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress and a Primetime Emmy nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series. She made her film debut the same year in Little Women (1994). Her other films include Home for the Holidays (1995), Romeo + Juliet (1996), The Rainmaker (1997), Les Misérables (1998), Brokedown Palace (1999), the 1999 English dub of Princess Mononoke (1997), The Hours (2002), Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines (2003), Shopgirl (2005), Stardust (2007), and A Kid Like Jake (2018).
From 1998 to 2000, Danes attended Yale University before dropping out to return to acting. She appeared in an Off-Broadway production of The Vagina Monologues in 2000 and made her Broadway debut playing Eliza Doolittle in the 2007 revival of Pygmalion. In 2010, she portrayed Temple Grandin in the highly acclaimed HBO television film Temple Grandin, which won her a second Golden Globe and her first Primetime Emmy Award for the Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie. From 2011 to 2020, she starred as Carrie Mathison in the Showtime drama series Homeland, for which she won two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series, two Golden Globe Awards for Best Actress – Television Series Drama, and the Television Critics Association Award for Individual Achievement in Drama.
Early life and education
Danes was born in Manhattan, New York City, the daughter of sculptor and printmaking artist, Carla Danes (née Hall), and photographer Christopher Danes. Her older brother, Asa, is a lawyer. During Danes's childhood, her mother ran a small toddler day care center called "Danes Tribe" out of the family's SoHo loft and later served as Danes's manager. Danes's father worked as a residential general contractor in New York for 20 years in a company he ran called "Overall Construction". He also worked as a photographer and computer consultant. Danes is named after her paternal grandmother, Claire Danes (née Tomowske). Danes is primarily of German and British descent.
The family lived in an artist's loft on Crosby Street. Danes attended P.S. 3 and P.S. 11 for elementary school and Professional Performing Arts School for junior high school. She attended the New York City Lab School for Collaborative Studies in Manhattan. She attended The Dalton School for one year of high school before moving with her parents to Santa Monica, California, for the role in My So-Called Life. They moved two days after the 1994 Northridge earthquake.
Danes graduated from the Lycée Français de Los Angeles in 1997. In 1998, she began studies at Yale University. After studying for two years as a psychology major, she dropped out to focus on her film career.
Acting career
Danes started studying dance when she was six years old. She took dance classes from Ellen Robbins at Dance Theater Workshop and acting classes at HB Studio the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute at the age of 10. She appeared in theater and video productions in New York City. Although she continued to dance, Danes said that her focus shifted to acting by the time she was nine years old. Her audition with Miloš Forman when she was 11 led to roles in several student films. She signed with agent Karen Friedman at the Writers & Artists talent agency at age 12.
Television
At age 13, Danes got her first big job working on the Dudley Moore TV sitcom pilot called Dudley, which was shot at Silvercup Studios in Astoria, Queens. Danes played a teenage murderer in a guest starring role on Law & Order in the season three episode "Skin Deep". She appeared in an episode of HBO's Lifestories: Families in Crisis entitled "The Coming out of Heidi Leiter". In March 1993, a pilot episode was shot, when she was 13 years old. It would be almost another year and a half before broadcast.
She then starred as the 15-year-old Angela Chase in the television drama series My So-Called Life. For her role, she won a Golden Globe Award and received an Emmy nomination. Despite being canceled after only 19 episodes, My So-Called Life has developed a large cult following. In 1995, she starred in the Soul Asylum music video for "Just Like Anyone".
In 2010, Danes starred in the HBO production of Temple Grandin, a biopic about the autistic animal scientist. She won the 2010 Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie, the 2011 Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film and the 2011 Screen Actors Guild Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Television Movie or Miniseries award. The film was well received and Grandin herself praised Danes's performance.
From 2011 to 2020, Danes starred in the Showtime series Homeland, in which she played Carrie Mathison, an agent of the CIA who has bipolar disorder. She won the 2013 Golden Globe and the 2012 Golden Globe for Best Actress in a Television Series for her performance. She also won the 2012 and 2013 Emmy for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series for her performance in Homeland. In 2012, Time magazine named Danes one of the 100 most influential people in the world.
On February 10, 2021, it was announced that Danes would helm the Apple drama series The Essex Serpent, replacing Keira Knightley, as Cora Seaborne.
Film
Danes played Beth March in the 1994 film adaptation of Little Women. Although ABC canceled My So-Called Life in 1995, her higher profile led to being cast in several film roles, including 1995's Home for the Holidays and 1996's I Love You, I Love You Not and To Gillian on Her 37th Birthday.
Her first leading role on the big screen came in 1996, when she portrayed Juliet in the film Romeo + Juliet, inspiring director Baz Luhrmann to call her, at age 16, "the Meryl Streep of her generation". Later that year, it was reported that she turned down the female lead role in Titanic.
In 1997, Danes played abused wife Kelly Riker in The Rainmaker, directed by Francis Ford Coppola, as well as Jenny in Oliver Stone's noir U Turn.
In 1998, she played several very different roles: Cosette in Les Misérables, and the pregnant teenage daughter of Polish immigrants in Polish Wedding.
In 1999, she made her first appearance in an animated feature with the English version of Princess Mononoke. That same year, she played the role of Julie Barnes in the big screen adaptation of the 1970s TV show The Mod Squad. She also starred in Brokedown Palace.
Danes left her career temporarily to attend Yale, having made 13 films in five years. In 2002, she returned to film. She starred in Igby Goes Down. Later that year, she co-starred as Clarissa Vaughan's (played by Meryl Streep) daughter in the Oscar-nominated film The Hours. The following year, she was cast in Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines, followed by Stage Beauty in 2004. She earned critical acclaim in 2005 when she starred in Shopgirl and The Family Stone. In 2007, she appeared in the fantasy Stardust, which she described as a "classic model of romantic comedy". She appeared in the drama film Evening and The Flock. She was also featured in the film Me and Orson Welles.
Theater
Danes got her start in New York City theater appearing in performances of Happiness, Punk Ballet, and Kids Onstage, for which she choreographed her own dance. In April, 2000, she appeared off Broadway in Eve Ensler's The Vagina Monologues. In November of that same year, she appeared as Emily Webb in a one-night-only staged reading of Thornton Wilder's Our Town at All Saints' Episcopal Church in Beverly Hills. The production was staged by Bess Armstrong, who had played the mother of Danes's character on My So-Called Life.
In September,2005, Danes returned to New York's Performance Space 122, where she had performed as a child. She appeared in choreographer Tamar Rogoff's solo dance piece "Christina Olson: American Model", where she portrayed the subject of Andrew Wyeth's famous painting Christina's World. Olson suffered from muscular deterioration that left her weak and partially paralyzed. Danes was praised for her dance skills and acting in the project.
In January, 2007, Danes performed in Performance Space 122's Edith and Jenny. Later in 2007, Danes made her Broadway theatre debut as Eliza Doolittle in the Roundabout Theatre Company revival of George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion, directed by David Grindley at the American Airlines Theatre.
In January, 2012, Harvard University's Hasty Pudding Theatricals named Danes their 2012 Woman of the Year.
In March, 2016, Danes performed in Dry Powder by Sarah Burgess at The Public Theater, starring alongside John Krasinski, Hank Azaria and Sanjit De Silva. The play was directed by Thomas Kail.
Other work
In 1995, Danes was the main character of Soul Asylum's music video for the song "Just Like Anyone".
In 1997, Danes wrote an introduction to Neil Gaiman's Death: The Time of Your Life.
In 2012, Danes's audiobook recording of Margaret Atwood's The Handmaid's Tale was released at Audible.com. Her performance won the 2013 Audie Award for fiction.
She hosted the 2013 Nobel Peace Prize Concert in Oslo.
In 2015, Danes was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
Personal life
Danes has been in therapy since the age of six and considers it "a helpful tool and a luxury to self-reflect and get some insight".
Since 1998, Danes remains banned from the Philippines and her films also remain banned in the region. The ban came after Danes said Manila, capital of the country, "smelled of cockroaches, with rats all over, and that there is no sewage system, and the people do not have anything – no arms, no legs, no eyes". Danes later apologized for those remarks, but the Filipino authorities refused to lift the ban.
Danes and her mother are supporters of the charity Afghan Hands, which helps women in Afghanistan gain independence, education, and livable wages. Danes is also a long time supporter of DonorsChoose, a website that allows public school teachers to create project requests.
Danes is a feminist and has been critical of female underrepresentation within Hollywood.
Relationships and family
Danes met singer Ben Lee at her eighteenth birthday party in 1997. They dated for six years before separating in 2003.
In 2003, Danes began dating actor Billy Crudup, with whom she starred in the film Stage Beauty. Their relationship attracted significant media attention, as it led to Crudup's break-up with actor Mary-Louise Parker, who was seven months pregnant with their child at the time. Danes and Crudup's relationship lasted until 2006. Reflecting on their relationship, Danes had commented in 2016, "That was a scary thing. It was really hard. I didn't know how to not do that. I was just in love with him, and needed to explore that, and I was 24 ... I didn't quite know what those consequences would be. But it's OK. I went through it."
Danes met actor Hugh Dancy on the set of the film Evening in 2006. They announced their engagement in February 2009 and married in France in a private ceremony later that year. They have two sons, one born in 2012 and the other in 2018.
Filmography
Film
Television
Stage
Awards and nominations
Emmy Awards (Primetime)
The Primetime Emmy Award is American award bestowed by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences in recognition of excellence in U.S. primetime TV programming.
Golden Globe Awards
The Golden Globe Awards are accolades bestowed by the 93 members of the Hollywood Foreign Press Association, recognizing excellence in film and television, both domestic and foreign.
Screen Actors Guild Awards
The Screen Actors Guild Award is an accolade given by the Screen Actors Guild‐American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (SAG-AFTRA) to recognize outstanding performances in film and primetime television.
Critics' Choice Awards
The Critics' Choice Awards—both film and television—are accolades presented by the Broadcast Film Critics Association (BTJA) (US).
Satellite Awards
The Satellite Awards are annual awards given by the International Press Academy that are commonly noted in entertainment industry journals and blogs.
People's Choice Awards
The People's Choice Awards is an American awards show, recognizing the people and the work of popular culture, voted on by the general public.
References
External links
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from New York City
American Shakespearean actresses
American child actresses
American film actresses
American stage actresses
American television actresses
Best Drama Actress Golden Globe (television) winners
Best Miniseries or Television Movie Actress Golden Globe winners
Dalton School alumni
Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute alumni
People from Greenwich Village
Living people
Lycée Français de Los Angeles alumni
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Yale University alumni
1979 births | [
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224487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali%20G%20Indahouse | Ali G Indahouse | Ali G Indahouse is a 2002 British comedy film written by Sacha Baron Cohen and Dan Mazer, directed by Mark Mylod, and starring Baron Cohen as Ali G, the character he originally played on the Channel 4 comedy series The 11 O'Clock Show and Da Ali G Show. It is the first of four films based on Baron Cohen's characters from Da Ali G Show, followed by Borat (2006), Brüno (2009), and Borat Subsequent Moviefilm (2020). It is also the only one of these films to consist solely of a fictional narrative with no mockumentary element.
Plot
Ali G is the leader of Da West Staines Massiv, a fictional gang composed of wannabe gangsters from Staines. Their chief rivals are Da East Staines Massiv. Da West Staines Massiv decide to protest when they learn that their cherished hangout, the John Nike Leisure Centre (where Ali teaches a life support group for young schoolboys), will be demolished by the local council. After he goes on a hunger strike and is spotted locked to some railings by the Deputy Prime Minister David Carlton, Ali is thrown into a world of political corruption as the Deputy Prime Minister tries to use him as a catalyst to ruin the Prime Minister's reputation. Ali is put forward as a candidate to be the next MP for Staines and manages to alienate most of the electorate. During a debate, he tries to insult his rival candidate by claiming that the candidate "sucked off a horse". Unbeknownst to Ali, the candidate actually did so and subsequently resigns, leaving Ali the winner.
Though he is inexperienced as an MP, Ali's outlandish behaviour and ideas seem to work. He visits a customs checkpoint in Dover as a delegate compiling a report, and through strategies such as making education more relatable and ensuring the immigration of attractive women into the country, Ali becomes incredibly popular; he meets the Prime Minister's goals and brings the PM's percentage lead in the polls up by 22%. With this, the Prime Minister offers to save the John Nike Leisure Centre. Ali accompanies the Prime Minister to a United Nations peace conference to avert war between the French-speaking African nations of Chad and Burkina Faso. The United States and Russia back opposing countries, and both threaten nuclear attacks. Ali sneaks into the catering area and drugs everyone's tea with cannabis, which has the side effect of making the leaders of Chad and Burkina Faso allies and even lovers. The Prime Minister says that Ali has saved the world, but Carlton's secretary Kate Hedges figures out what Ali has done and sends the empty cannabis bag to the press. Ali is forced to leave Parliament.
Before the John Nike Leisure Centre can be saved from imminent demolition, a video emerges of Ali and his girlfriend having sex in the Prime Minister's bedroom at Chequers. As Ali was wearing items of the Prime Minister's clothing at the time, the press misconstrues the video as the Prime Minister's sex tape with a prostitute, forcing the Prime Minister's resignation. This results in Carlton being made acting Prime Minister, and he quickly orders the destruction of the leisure centre. He also reveals that he purchased all available real estate in Staines, knowing that the town will be destroyed to make way for the construction of a new terminal for Heathrow Airport which will make him wealthy. The West Staines Massiv race to find the master copy of the CCTV tape proving the Prime Minister's innocence, offering a truce to the gangs in and around Staines to help them break into the vaults and retrieve the tape. They succeed and reinstate the original Prime Minister. Staines is saved from destruction, with the Prime Minister declaring that Slough will be destroyed instead. The film ends with Ali as the British ambassador to Jamaica, where Carlton is forced to obey his every command.
Cast
Sacha Baron Cohen as Ali G/Borat
Michael Gambon as Prime Minister
Charles Dance as Deputy Prime Minister David Carlton
Kellie Bright as Me Julie (credited as Kelly Bright)
Martin Freeman as Ricky C
Rhona Mitra as Kate Hedges
Barbara New as Ali's Nan
Ray Panthaki as Hassan B
Emilio Rivera as Ricco
Paul Clayton as Alan Swan Lake
Olegar Fedoro as Russian Minister
Tony Way as Dangerous Dave
Eileen Essell as Mrs. Hugh
Daniella Lavender as Maid
Capri Ashby as Nurse Nina
John Scott Martin as Mr. Johnson
Graham McTavish as Customs Officer
Naomi Campbell as herself
Nabil Elouahabi as Jezzy F
Bruce Jamieson as Journalist
Anna Keaveney as Secretary
Production
The opening "gangland" dream sequence was filmed in Los Angeles, with all other scenes filmed in Manchester, London, and Staines. Filming also took place at Manchester Town Hall between 31 May and 2 June 2001. When Ali references the Berkshire Massiv of Englefield Green in the film, this is actually in Surrey; the John Nike Leisure Centre is a real facility, though it is located several miles west of Staines in Bracknell.
Release
The film premiered in the United Kingdom on 22 March 2002, and was released in various other countries throughout the rest of 2002 and midway through 2003. It was given a limited theatrical release in the United States. On September 5, 2003, the film was released on a few screens in Austin, Texas.
The film was released via DVD in the UK on 11 November 2002, and in the US and Canada on 2 November 2004. The DVD version has been modified from the original UK cinema version. In the original cut, the film opens with Ali appearing over the BBFC Certificate and changes the categorisation from 15 to 18. He goes on to warn about the dangers of having sex in the back row of the cinema (coming into contact with other people's semen on the seats) and to suggest that the audience's enjoyment will be enhanced by smoking cannabis. This 30-second introduction is missing from all international cinema releases and all current home video releases.
Reception
Commercial performance
The film grossed a total of £17.2 million on a budget of £5 million.
Critical reception
The film received mixed reviews. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 53% of critics have given the film a positive review based on 17 reviews, with an average rating of 5.16/10. On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 46 out of 100 based on 9 critic reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". It opened to some notably negative reviews from critics; however, over the years, the film began to receive some positive mentions following the successes of Baron Cohen's subsequent films Borat and Brüno. While some hailed it as a successful low culture comedy, it inspired little of the strong fan enthusiasm associated with Da Ali G Show and Borat.
Soundtrack
On 18 March 2002, a soundtrack album for the film was released. Featuring music used in the film, it also featured linking material by Ali G as if the album were a pirate radio broadcast on Ali's "Drive By FM". It was an enhanced CD, featuring the music video for "Me Julie".
Cultural impact
In 2013, Staines was officially renamed by the local council to Staines-upon-Thames partly to avoid the fictional gang associations implied by the film.
References
External links
"The ultimate Borat + Ali G website"
Ali G InDaHouse London Film Review
2002 films
2000s satirical films
British films
British satirical films
English-language films
French-language films
Spanish-language films
Films based on television series
British films about cannabis
Films directed by Mark Mylod
Films set in London
Films set in Surrey
Films shot in Greater Manchester
Films shot in London
Films shot in Los Angeles
Films shot in Surrey
Hood comedy films
Films produced by Eric Fellner
Films produced by Tim Bevan
Films with screenplays by Sacha Baron Cohen
Films with screenplays by Dan Mazer
2002 soundtrack albums
Hip hop soundtracks
Island Records soundtracks
Rhythm and blues soundtracks
Staines-upon-Thames
StudioCanal films
Working Title Films films
2000s hip hop films
2002 directorial debut films
Comedy film soundtracks | [
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224488 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leningrad%20Cowboys | Leningrad Cowboys | The Leningrad Cowboys are a Finnish rock band who perform rock and roll covers of other songs. They have exaggerated pompadour hairstyles and wear long, pointy shoes. They often work with the Russian military band the Alexandrov Ensemble.
Beginnings
The band was an invention of the Finnish film director Aki Kaurismäki together with Sakke Järvenpää and Mato Valtonen, members of the Finnish comedy rock band Sleepy Sleepers. The three of them conceived the band in a bar in 1986 as a joke on the waning power of the Soviet Union. The two musicians expressed their wishes that Kaurismäki would direct their first music video, which resulted in the short film Rocky VI (1986). After two further short films, "Thru the Wire" (1987) and "L.A. Woman" (1988), Kaurismäki decided to direct a feature film about them, Leningrad Cowboys Go America (1989).
After Leningrad Cowboys Go America
December 2012 saw the release of an animated Christmas video featuring Dog'Y'Dog, a dog resembling the dog from the "You're My Heart, You're My Soul" video. The video also featured a cover of "Christmas in Hollis" from an upcoming Leningrad Cowboys album for Christmas 2013.
Red X-Mas was a tour of Finland by the Leningrad Cowboys and the Russian Air Force Choir from 27 November to 7 December 2013, featuring over 60 performers.
In co-production with Anima Vitae, Leningrad cowboys is producing an animated feature Dog'y'dog featuring the half-Siberian/half-Mexican dog (from their "Christmas in Hollis" music video) traveling from Siberia to Mexico via the US.
Dog'y'Dog also appeared in the Bonehead game for Android developed by Leningrad Cowboys Studios and Fingersoft and released 13 May 2014.
Band members
Current members
Ville Tuomi: lead vocals (2011–)
Sakke Järvenpää: vocals (1986–)
Varre Vartiainen: guitar (2003–)
Pauli Hauta-aho: guitar (2011–)
Timo Tolonen: bass (2003–)
Sami Järvinen: drums (2011–)
Okke Komulainen: keyboards, accordion (2011–)
Tume Uusitalo: vocals, guitar (2003–)
Pemo Ojala: trumpet, Mitten (1991–)
Pope Puolitaival: saxophone (2003–)
Jay Kortehisto: trombone (2003–)
Anna Sainila: dancer, vocals (2011–)
Hanna Moisala: dancer, vocals (2011–)
Discography
1917–1987
Leningrad Cowboys Go America
We Cum From Brooklyn
Happy Together
Go Space
Mongolian Barbeque
Terzo Mondo
Zombies Paradise
Buena Vodka Social Club
Merry Christmas
References
External links
1986 establishments in Finland
Finnish hard rock musical groups
Finnish heavy metal musical groups
Musical groups established in 1986 | [
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224493 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birla%20family | Birla family | The Birla family is a family connected with the industrial and social history of India.
Foundations
The Birla family origins lie with the Maheshwari caste of Vaishya traders but they were outcast from their traditional community in 1922 when one of their member, Rameshwar Das Birla, was thought to have broken the caste marriage rules. They are Marwari and by convention merchants from Rajasthan are termed Marwari. The family originates from the town of Pilani in the Shekhawati region in North-east Rajasthan. They still maintain their residence in Pilani and run several educational institutions there, including the BITS, Pilani.
Shiv Narayan Birla
In Pilani during the early 19th century lived Seth Shobharam, grandson of Seth Bhudharmal, a local tradesman of modest means. It was his son, Seth Shiv Narayana (1840–1909), who first ventured outside Pilani. At this time, Ahmedabad was the railhead which serviced trade from a large region of northwest India. Goods (mainly cotton) would be brought from the hinterland to the city and sent from there by train to Bombay for export to England and other countries. Several cotton ginning units were also set up in Ahmedabad, to clean the cotton before shipment to England. Shiv Narayana Birla was one of the early Indian traders to participate in this cotton trade. Later, Britain vigorously fostered the trade of opium with China and developed the cultivation of poppy in India. The Ratlam-Mandsaur region (not far from Ahemdabad) became prime poppy cropland due to suitable soil and climate. Shiv Narayan Birla and his adopted son, Baldeo Das Birla, made an enormous fortune by trading opium with China, and this formed the basis of the family's fortune. With growing wealth and increasing confidence, Shiv Narayana Birla moved up the value chain and began chartering cargo ships in partnership with other Marwadi tradesmen to trade opium with China, thus by-passing British middlemen. To facilitate this, he moved to Bombay in 1863.
Baldev Das Birla
Shiv Narayan Birla had one overwhelming sorrow in his life: he had no children. By the early 1880s, Shiv narayan (Narain) had passed on the baton of his business interests to his adopted son, Baldev Das Birla, established Shivnarayan Baldevdas, a trading house based in Bombay. His son, Baldev Das Birla moved to Calcutta set up Baldevdas Jugalkishor in 1887.
Baldeo Das was succeeded by four sons – Jugal Kishore, Rameshwar Das, Ghanshyam Das and Braj Mohan.
Baldev Das was awarded the Raibahadur title in 1917. In 1920 he retired from business and started living in Banaras pursuing religious studies. In 1925 he was awarded the title of "Raja" by the government of Bihar and Orissa. He was awarded D.Litt. by Banaras Hindu University.
A simplified family tree is given below. It does not include daughters or children who are young (or who died young). Lakshmi Nivas Birla was technically adapted by his uncle Jugal Kishor Birla. As has been noted in the press, some of the branches have been more successful than others. The GD-Basant Kumar-Aditya Vikarm-Kumar Mangalam Birla branch has performed the best, with a group turnover of Rs. 29,000 Crore in 2004. At the other end is Yashovardhan Birla, who has struggled.
Ghanshyamdas Birla
Ghanshyamdas Birla laid the foundation of his industrial empire by establishing GM Birla Company, trading in jute, in 1911. The First World War began in 1914 greatly increasing the demand for gunny bags. During the war the Birla's worth is estimated to have risen from 2 million rupees to 8 million. In 1919, he became among the first group of Indian entrepreneurs to become owner of a Jute mill named Birla Jute. In the next few years he acquired several cotton mills. He later started several sugar mills. The publication Hindustan Times was co-founded by GD Birla in 1924 and fully acquired by him in 1933. Hindustan Motors was started in 1942. After India's independence in 1947 he started Grasim (Gwalior Rayon Silk Manufacturing, 1948) and Hindalco (Hindustan Alum Company 1958) among others. He also generously led the grant on the request of Vallabhbhai Patel to lay the foundation of Birla Vishvakarma Mahavidyalaya in Anand, Gujarat.
Baldeo Das, as well his sons were among the key supporters of the swaraj movement led by Mahatma Gandhi, in addition to being dedicated Hindu activists. They were active supporters of the Banaras Hindu University founded by Pt. Madan Mohan Malaviya and were also financial supporters of activities initiated by Mahatma Gandhi. The landmark Laxminarayan Temple in Delhi was built by Jugal Kishore Birla and was inaugurated by Mahatma Gandhi and as asked by Mahatma, all Hindus, including harijans were welcomed in this temple.
In the few decades before India's independence, Indian merchants, including the Birlas, made successful attempts to enter and acquire industries in India which were once dominated by Scots from Britain. This became a part of Mahatma Gandhi's Swadeshi movement.
Birlas remained close to some of the leaders of India, like Sardar Patel after India's independence. When E. M. S. Namboodiripad became the chief minister of Kerala (1957–59), as a result of the first elected Marxist government anywhere, Birlas were invited to establish a pulp factory there.
In recent past, the Birlas, as well as several other Indian industrialists have expanded overseas.
Family Tree
Philanthropy
Birla philanthropy began in the 1880s, when the Birla family donated over 100,000 rupees for setting up goshalas (shelters for the protection of cows) in Kolkata. By early 1900, the Birla family began to support education, influenced by Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya. They supported educational charities in Kolkata and in Mumbai teaming up with Jamnalal Bajaj. In 1918, the family established the first high school in Pilani now name as birla school pilani it is the one of the oldest school in India. Now they have 6 schools run by birla education trust (BET), which evolved into BITS Pilani, which now has branches in Hyderabad, Goa and Dubai. They also opened a Sanskrit library in Benares and a library in Kolkata. It is well known for the financial support of Indian's freedom struggle and for building temples (see Birla Temple) in several major Indian cities.
The institutions founded by the Birlas include:
Birla High School, Kolkata
Birla Planetariums
Guru Hanuman Akhara
Aditya Birla Memorial Hospital
Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani
Birla Institute of Management Technology (BIMTECH), Greater Noida
Birla Global University Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra
Birla Vishwakarma Mahavidyalaya
Birla Education Trust, Pilani
Technological Institute of Textile & Sciences, Bhiwani
M. P. Birla Institute of Fundamental Research
Rukmani Birla Modern High School, Jaipur
Modern High School for Girls, Kolkata
BK Birla Group institutions, Aditya Birla Group Institutions
K. K. Birla Foundation, established in 1991 by Krishna Kumar Birla, gives the annual awards like Saraswati Samman, Vyas Samman and G.D. Birla Award for Scientific Research.
Aryaman Vikram Birla Institute of Learning, Haldwani, Uttarakhand
Traditions
In a letter, Ghanshaym Das offered this advice to Aditya (his grandson) when he was studying at MIT:
“eat only vegetarian food, never drink alcohol or smoke, keep early hours, marry young, switch-off lights when leaving the room, cultivate regular habits, go for a walk everyday, keep in touch with the family, and above all, don’t be extravagant.”
GD Birla instructed his son Basant Kumar to 'never utilize wealth only for fun and frolic,' to 'spend the bare minimum on yourself,' and to deride 'worldly pleasures.'
This advice symbolized the ethic of the rising Marwari community, with restraint and austerity its defining attributes.
Family ties
Although the Birlas are perceived as a single entity, the different branches of the family are now financially independent. However they have continued to maintain family relationships that go back to the times when "Birla Brothers" were an actual entity and Raja Baldevdas was still alive.
GD Birla's both wives died early because of tuberculosis (He remarried after the death of his first wife), a common affliction at that time. The families of his brothers Brij Mohan and Rameshwar Das Birla helped in raising his children. When Yash Birla's parents died in a plane crash, Priyamvada Birla, ("Badi Ma") helped take care of him.
It is reported that Kumar Mangalam Birla had dipped into his own resources to help his beleaguered relative Yash with his financial issues with creditors and from Razia Sulthana in order to preserve the family name.
"Tata-Birla" word pair
For many decades the extreme wealth in India was associated with the Tatas and Birlas. The words Tata-Birla were often used together. They were distantly followed by Dalmias (Dalmia-Sahu Jain group) for some time, however Tatas and Birlas have been able to sustain themselves as among the most prominent industrialists in India (for 1939-1997 data see) while others have declined.
A plan for development of India was developed by a group of industrialists in 1944, which was termed the Tata-Birla plan or the Bombay plan, which is said to have served as a blueprint for India's first five-year plan.
References
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224495 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical%20intimacy | Physical intimacy | Physical intimacy is sensual proximity or touching. It is an act or reaction, such as an expression of feelings (including close friendship, platonic love, romantic love or sexual attraction), between people. Examples of physical intimacy include being inside someone's personal space, holding hands, hugging, kissing, caressing and sexual activity. Physical intimacy can often convey the real meaning or intention of an interaction in a way that accompanying speech simply cannot do. Physical intimacy can be exchanged between any people but as it is often used to communicate positive and intimate feelings, it most often occurs in people who have a preexisting relationship, whether familial, platonic or romantic, with romantic relationships having increased physical intimacy. Several forms of romantic touch have been noted including holding hands, hugging, kissing, cuddling, as well as caressing and massaging. Physical affection is highly correlated with overall relationship and partner satisfaction.
It is possible to be physically intimate with someone without actually touching them; however, a certain proximity is necessary. For instance, a sustained eye contact is considered a form of physical intimacy, analogous to touching. When a person enters someone else's personal space for the purpose of being intimate, it is physical intimacy, regardless of the lack of actual physical contact.
Most people partake in physical intimacy, which is a natural part of interpersonal relationships and human sexuality, and research has shown it has health benefits. A hug or touch can result in the release of the hormone oxytocin and in a reduction in stress hormones.
Due to the important role that language-based communication plays in humans, the role of touch is often downplayed; however, there is ample evidence that physical touch still plays an important role in everyday human relationships. While humans often communicate verbally, they also participate in close contact. Physical touch has emotional and social connotations that often far outweigh anything that can be expressed via language.
Inducements towards physical intimacy can come from various sources. During colder seasons, humans as well as other animals seek physical intimacy with one another as a means to apportion thermoregulation. Some forms of physical touch among monkeys and apes serve multiple functions, including cleaning, treatment of a lice influx or infection and social grooming.
Some forms of physical intimacy may be received negatively. This attitude is especially marked amongst those with haphephobia. One study has shown that there is generally a higher level of physical intimacy allowed between immediate family members than between second-degree relatives. Intimacy norms are usually more negative near erogenous zones. Some jurisdictions may specify this as referring to the genitals, buttocks and female breasts.
Development
Physical affection and intimacy appear to have a profoundly important role during infancy and childhood. The skin is the largest sensory organ and is the first to develop. Humans experience touch as early as fetal development, when the fetus begins receiving sensory information from coming in contact with the mothers’ abdominal wall. In infancy, babies receive significant amounts of touch through being held, cuddled, and breastfed. In addition to necessary functions like breastfeeding, touch is also used to soothe and calm babies or with skin-to-skin contact called "kangaroo care". Vision and auditory senses are limited in infancy and babies are introduced to their world primarily through touch and are able to distinguish between temperature and texture.
Decreased amounts of affectionate touch from caregivers (i.e. for infants in institutional settings or infants with depressed mothers) is related to cognitive and neurodevelopmental delays. These delays appear to persist for years and sometimes whole lifetimes. Studies suggest that if depressed mothers give their infants massages, it benefits both the baby and themselves, increasing growth and development for the babies and leading to increased sensitivity and responsivity of the mothers. There are also biologically beneficial effects of infant massage, with premature infants displaying lower cortisol levels after being held by their mothers. During the holding period, the mothers' cortisol levels also decreased.
Personal space
Most people value their personal space and feel discomfort, anger or anxiety when somebody encroaches on their personal space without consent. Entering somebody's personal space is normally an indication of familiarity and intimacy. However, in modern society, especially in crowded urban communities, it is at times difficult to maintain personal space, for example, in a crowded train, elevator or street. Many people find the physical proximity within crowded spaces to be psychologically disturbing and uncomfortable. In an impersonal crowded situation, eye contact tends to be avoided. Even in a crowded place, preserving personal space is important. Non-consensual intimate and sexual contact, such as frotteurism and groping, are unacceptable.
On the other hand, most people occasionally desire physical proximity to others, and will at times welcome a familiar and trusted person into their personal space. When a partner or friend is not available at such a time, some people satisfy this need for human contact in a crowded venue, such as a bar, nightclub, rock concert, street festival, etc.
Display of affection
People who are on a familiar basis may enter into each other's personal space to make physical contact. These can be indicators of affection and trust. The manner in which people display affection is generally different in a public context to a private one. In private, people in an intimate relationship or who are familiar with each other may be at ease with physical contact and displays of affection, which may involve:
cuddling,
caressing (e.g. head, hands, arms, back and waist),
tickling (e.g. back and waist),
massage (e.g. neck, shoulders, back, thighs), or
touching heads.
Bonding through intimate, non-sexual contact between platonic friends and family members includes, but is not limited to, holding hands, hugging, cuddling, and kissing on the cheeks.
In public, however, and depending on the nature of the relationship between the people, a public display of affection is generally constrained by social norms and can range from a gesture, such as a kiss or hug in greeting, to an embrace or holding hands. Maintaining eye contact can be regarded socially and psychologically as analogous to touching.
Culture
The role of touch in interpersonal relationships across development and in different cultures is understudied, however, some observational data suggests that in cultures who engage in more physical intimacy have lower rates of violence, demonstrated in adolescents and children. Peoples living nearer to the equator (Mediterranean, central and south America, Islamic countries) tend to have high-contact social norms, whereas countries further from the equator tend to be lower contact (northern Europe, north America, northeast Asian). The public display of interpersonal touch and intimacy appears to vary across cultures as well.
The term originated as a pseudo-English Japanese word (wasei-eigo), which was coined to describe the intimacy, or closeness, between a mother and a child. Today, the word is generally used for bonding through physical contact, such as holding hands, hugging, or parents washing their child at a bath. The term has been promoted by pediatrician and developmental psycologist Nobuyoshi Hirai (平井信義), and he mentioned it was taken from a term coined by an American woman at a WHO seminar held in 1953. The earliest citation of this word appears in Nihon Kokugo Daijiten in 1971. According to Scott Clark, author of a study of Japanese bathing culture, the word is a portmanteau combining "skin" with the last syllable of "friendship". The similarity with the English word 'kinship' suggests a further explanation. Use of the word "skinship" in English publications seems to focus on the notion of sharing a bath naked, an idea known in Japanese as . It is not clear why the meaning shifted to the parent–child relationship when borrowed back into English. This word is also used in South Korea. The term is now described in Oxford English Dictionary as a part of Korea-related update in 2021.
Among non-human primates
Some animals participate in behaviors similar to physical affection in humans. Called social grooming or allo-grooming, these behaviors are less common outside of primates, while other species do perform these behaviors, primates seem to spend much more time doing this compared to other animals. Some species devote as much as 20% of their day to grooming behaviors, much of which is spent grooming others, rather than themselves. In more social species the amount of time spent in self grooming is much less than the time spent in social grooming. While these behaviors may appear to be for the purpose of hygiene (i.e. removal of parasites, fur cleanliness, etc.), evidence suggests that grooming behaviors perform a unique social function which facilitates bonding. From an evolutionary perspective, the amount of time being devoted to allo-grooming appears to exceed the amount of time in which it would be adaptive, therefore underscoring the idea that grooming must have a purpose beyond hygiene maintenance. Furthermore, there are core grooming partnerships which remain quite stable and do not change frequently, sometimes with the same partners on the timescale of years.
Some argue that grooming is something which is exchanged like a service with the expectation that equal amounts of time will be spent or reciprocated by their grooming partner. Primates tend to groom each other equal amounts of time or with the expectation that they will be reciprocated with defense in a dangerous situation. Primates who spend more time grooming each other are more likely to defend each other when attacked. Although it is not clear how this effect is brought about, in all likelihood it is the protective effect that known relationships have: more dominant animals are less likely to attack or harass an individual who is known to have grooming partners who might come to its aid. However, the likelihood of a female going to the aid of another female when the latter is under attack is significantly correlated with the amount of time the two of them spend grooming with each other. A more plausible interpretation is that grooming provides the psychological underpinning for an individual's willingness to offer subsequent support. It does this not by offering a direct exchange of benefits, but rather by creating the psychological environment that allows support to be traded mutually.
See also
Emotional intimacy
Haptic communication
Consent
References
External links
"American men are embracing The hug" - article at The Baltimore Sun
NPR: Poet on Call, By Andrei Codrescu commentary on hugs on NPR
Human sexuality
Intimate relationships
Sexual acts
Massage | [
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224497 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wort%20%28disambiguation%29 | Wort (disambiguation) | Wort is the liquid created by the mashing of malted barley to use in brewing beer.
Wort or Worts may also refer to:
Wort (plant), plants containing the middle English word wort in their names
Wört, a town in Baden-Württemberg, Germany
People
James Worts (1792-1834) British distiller
James Gooderham Worts (1818-1882) Canadian distiller
Businesses
WORT, a listener-sponsored community radio station in Madison, Wisconsin
Wort Hotel, Jackson, Wyoming, USA
Luxemburger Wort, a daily newspaper in Luxembourg
See also
St John's wort (disambiguation)
Worting (disambiguation)
Woert (disambiguation)
Wart (disambiguation) | [
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224500 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Study%20in%20Scarlet | A Study in Scarlet | A Study in Scarlet is an 1887 detective novel written by Arthur Conan Doyle. The story marks the first appearance of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson, who would become the most famous detective duo in literature. The book's title derives from a speech given by Holmes, a consulting detective, to his friend and chronicler Watson on the nature of his work, in which he describes the story's murder investigation as his "study in scarlet": "There's the scarlet thread of murder running through the colourless skein of life, and our duty is to unravel it, and isolate it, and expose every inch of it."
The story, and its main characters, attracted little public interest when it first appeared. Only 11 complete copies of the magazine in which the story first appeared, Beeton's Christmas Annual for 1887, are known to exist now and they have considerable value. Although Conan Doyle wrote 56 short stories featuring Holmes, A Study in Scarlet is one of only four full-length novels in the original canon. The novel was followed by The Sign of the Four, published in 1890. A Study in Scarlet was the first work of detective fiction to incorporate the magnifying glass as an investigative tool.
Plot
Part I: The Reminiscences of Watson
In 1881, Doctor John Watson has returned to London after serving in the Second Anglo-Afghan War. He is looking for a place to live, and an old friend tells him that Sherlock Holmes is looking for someone to split the rent at a flat at 221B Baker Street but cautions Watson about Holmes's eccentricities. Holmes and Watson meet, and after assessing each other and the rooms, they move in. Holmes reveals that he is a "consulting detective" and that his frequent guests are clients. After a demonstration of Holmes's deductive skills, Watson's disbelief turns into astonishment.
A telegram requests a consultation in a murder case. Watson accompanies Holmes to the crime scene, an abandoned house on Brixton Road. Inspectors Gregson and Lestrade are already on the scene. The victim is identified as Enoch Drebber, and documents found on his person reveal that he has a secretary, Joseph Stangerson. On one wall, written in red, is "RACHE" (German for "revenge"), which Holmes dismisses as a ploy to fool the police. He deduces that the victim died from poison and supplies a description of the murderer. Upon moving Drebber's body, they discover a woman's gold wedding ring.
Holmes places notices in several newspapers about the ring and buys a facsimile of it, hoping to draw the murderer – who has apparently already tried to retrieve the ring – out of hiding. An old woman answers the advertisement, claiming that the ring belongs to her daughter. Holmes gives her the duplicate and follows her, but she evades him. This leads Holmes to believe that she was an accomplice, or perhaps the actual murderer in disguise.
A day later, Gregson visits Holmes and Watson, telling them that he has arrested a suspect. He had gone to Madame Charpentier's Boarding House where Drebber and Stangerson had stayed before the murder. He learned from her that Drebber, a drunk, had attempted to kiss Mrs. Charpentier's daughter, Alice, which caused their immediate eviction. Drebber, however, came back later that night and attempted to grab Alice, prompting her older brother to attack him. He attempted to chase Drebber with a cudgel but claimed to have lost sight of him. Gregson has him in custody on this circumstantial evidence.
Lestrade then arrives and reveals that Stangerson has been murdered. His body was found near his hotel window, stabbed through the heart; above it was written "RACHE". The only things Stangerson had with him were a novel, a pipe, a telegram saying "J.H. is in Europe", and a small box containing two pills. Holmes tests the pills on an old and sickly Scottish terrier in residence at Baker Street. The first pill produces no evident effect, but the second kills the terrier. Holmes deduces that one was harmless and the other poison.
Just at that moment, a very young street urchin named Wiggins arrives. He is the leader of the Baker Street Irregulars, a group of street children Holmes employs to help him occasionally. Wiggins states that he's summoned the cab Holmes wanted. Holmes sends him down to fetch the cabby, claiming to need help with his luggage. When the cabby comes upstairs and bends for the trunk, Holmes handcuffs and restrains him. He then announces the captive cabby as Jefferson Hope, the murderer of Drebber and Stangerson.
Part II: "The Country of the Saints"
The story flashes back to the Salt Lake Valley in Utah in 1847, where John Ferrier and a little girl named Lucy, the only survivors of a small party of pioneers, are rescued from death by a large party of Latter-day Saints led by Brigham Young, but only on the condition that they adopt and live under the Mormon faith. Years later, a now-grown Lucy befriends and falls in love with a man named Jefferson Hope. However, Young forbids her from marrying outside the faith, and demands that she marry either Joseph Stangerson or Enoch Drebber, both sons of members of the church's Council of Four. Ferrier, who has adopted Lucy and sworn to never marry his daughter to a Mormon, immediately sends word to Hope.
Lucy is given one month to choose between her suitors. Hope finally arrives on the eve of the last day and they all escape under cover of darkness. The Mormons intercept the escapees while Hope is away hunting, as their food had run out. Ferrier is killed while Lucy is forcibly married to Drebber and dies a month later from a broken heart. Hope breaks into Drebber's house the night before Lucy's funeral to kiss her body and remove her wedding ring. He swears vengeance on Drebber and Stangerson, but he begins to suffer from an aortic aneurysm, causing him to leave the mountains to earn money and recuperate. When he returns several years later, he learns that Drebber and Stangerson have fled Salt Lake City after a schism between the Mormons. Hope pursues them, eventually tracking them to Cleveland, then to Europe.
In London, Hope becomes a cabby and eventually finds Drebber and Stangerson. After the altercation with Madame Charpentier's son, Drebber gets into Hope's cab and spends several hours drinking. Eventually, Hope takes him to the house on Brixton Road, where Hope forces Drebber to recognize him and to choose between two pills, one of which is harmless and the other poison. Drebber takes the poisoned pill, and as he dies, Hope shows him Lucy's wedding ring. The excitement coupled with his aneurysm causes his nose to bleed; he uses the blood to write "RACHE" on the wall above Drebber to confound the investigators. Stangerson, on learning of Drebber's murder, refuses to leave his hotel room. Hope climbs in through the window and gives Stangerson the same choice of pills, but he is attacked and nearly strangled by Stangerson and forced to stab him in the heart.
Hope dies from his aneurysm the night before he is to appear in court. Holmes reveals to Watson how he had deduced the identity of the murderer, then shows Watson the newspaper; Lestrade and Gregson are given full credit. Outraged, Watson states that Holmes should record the adventure and publish it. Upon Holmes's refusal, Watson decides to do it himself.
Publication
Conan Doyle wrote the novel at the age of 27 in less than three weeks. As a doctor in general practice in Southsea, Hampshire, he had already published short stories in several magazines of the day, such as the periodical London Society. The story was originally titled A Tangled Skein, and was eventually published by Ward Lock & Co. in Beeton's Christmas Annual 1887, after many rejections. Conan Doyle had pressed for royalty but instead received £25 in return for the full rights (equivalent to £3,371.95 considering inflation). It was illustrated by David Henry Friston.
The novel was first published as a book in July 1888 by Ward, Lock & Co., and featured drawings by the author's father, Charles Doyle. In 1890, J. B. Lippincott & Co. released the first American version. Another edition published in 1891 by Ward, Lock & Bowden Limited (formerly Ward, Lock & Co.) was illustrated by George Hutchinson. A German edition of the novel published in 1902 was illustrated by Richard Gutschmidt. Numerous further editions, translations and dramatisations have appeared since.
Depiction of Mormonism
According to a Salt Lake City newspaper article, when Conan Doyle was asked about his depiction of the Latter-day Saints' organisation as being steeped in kidnapping, murder and enslavement, he said: "all I said about the Danite Band and the murders is historical so I cannot withdraw that, though it is likely that in a work of fiction it is stated more luridly than in a work of history. It's best to let the matter rest". Conan Doyle's daughter has stated: "You know, father would be the first to admit that his first Sherlock Holmes novel was full of errors about the Mormons." Historians speculate that "Conan Doyle, a voracious reader, would have access to books by Fannie Stenhouse, William A. Hickman, William Jarman, John Hyde and Ann Eliza Young, among others," in explaining the author's early perspective on Mormonism.
Years after Conan Doyle's death, Levi Edgar Young, a descendant of Brigham Young and a Mormon general authority, claimed that Conan Doyle had privately apologised, saying that "He [Conan Doyle] said he had been misled by writings of the time about the Church" and had "written a scurrilous book about the Mormons."
In August 2011, the Albemarle County, Virginia, School Board removed A Study in Scarlet from the district's sixth-grade required reading list following complaints from students and parents that the book was derogatory toward Mormons. It was moved to the reading lists for the tenth-graders, and remains in use in the school media centres for all grades.
Adaptations
Film
As the first Sherlock Holmes story published, A Study in Scarlet was among the first to be adapted to the screen. In 1914, Conan Doyle authorised a British silent film be produced by G. B. Samuelson. In the film, titled A Study in Scarlet, Holmes was played by James Bragington, an accountant who worked as an actor for the only time of his life. He was hired for his resemblance to Holmes, as presented in the sketches originally published with the story. As early silent films were made with film that itself was made with poor materials, and film archiving was then rare, it is now a lost film. The film was successful enough for Samuelson to produce the 1916 film The Valley of Fear.
A two-reel short film, also titled A Study in Scarlet, was released in the United States in 1914, a day after the British film with the same title was released. The American film starred Francis Ford as Holmes and was not authorised by Doyle. It is also a lost film.
The 1933 film titled A Study in Scarlet, starring Reginald Owen as Sherlock Holmes and Anna May Wong as Mrs Pyke, bears no plot relation to the novel. Aside from Holmes, Watson, Mrs. Hudson, and Inspector Lestrade, the only connections to the Holmes canon are a few lifts of character names (Jabez Wilson, etc.). The plot contains an element of striking resemblance to one used several years later in Agatha Christie's novel And Then There Were None.
Radio
Edith Meiser adapted A Study in Scarlet into a four-part serial for the radio series The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes. The episodes aired in November and December 1931, with Richard Gordon as Sherlock Holmes and Leigh Lovell as Dr. Watson.
Parts of the story were combined with "The Adventure of Charles Augustus Milverton" for the script of "Dr Watson Meets Mr Sherlock Holmes", one of multiple radio adaptations featuring John Gielgud as Sherlock Holmes and Ralph Richardson as Dr. Watson. The episode first aired on the BBC Light Programme on 5 October 1954, and also aired on NBC radio on 2 January 1955.
The story was adapted for the 1952–1969 BBC radio series in 1962 by Michael Hardwick, with Carleton Hobbs as Sherlock Holmes and Norman Shelley as Dr. Watson. It aired on the BBC Home Service.
Another British radio version of the story adapted by Hardwick aired on 25 December 1974, with Robert Powell as Sherlock Holmes and Dinsdale Landon as Watson. The cast also included Frederick Treves as Inspector Gregson, John Hollis as Inspector Lestrade, and Don Fellows as Jefferson Hope.
A radio dramatisation of the story aired on CBS Radio Mystery Theater during its 1977 season, with Kevin McCarthy as Holmes and Court Benson as Watson.
A Study in Scarlet was adapted as the first two episodes of the BBC's complete Sherlock Holmes 1989–1998 radio series. The two-part adaptation aired on Radio 4 in 1989, dramatised by Bert Coules and starring Clive Merrison as Holmes, Michael Williams as Watson, Donald Gee as Inspector Lestrade, and John Moffatt as Inspector Gregson.
It was adapted as a 2007 episode of the American radio series The Classic Adventures of Sherlock Holmes, with John Patrick Lowrie as Holmes, Lawrence Albert as Watson, Rick May as Lestrade, and John Murray as Gregson.
Television
The 1954–1955 television series (with Ronald Howard as Holmes and H. Marion Crawford as Watson) used only the first section of the book as the basis for the episode "The Case of the Cunningham Heritage".
The book was adapted into an episode broadcast on 23 September 1968 in the second season of the BBC television series Sherlock Holmes, with Peter Cushing in the lead role and Nigel Stock as Dr. Watson.
It was adapted as the second episode of the 1979 Soviet television film, Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson (the first episode combines the story of their meeting with "The Adventure of the Speckled Band"; the second episode adapts the actual Jefferson Hope case).
A 1983 animated television film adaptation was produced by Burbank Films Australia, with Peter O'Toole voicing Holmes. In both the 1968 television adaptation featuring Peter Cushing and the 1983 animated version featuring Peter O'Toole, the story is changed so that Holmes and Watson already know each other and have been living at 221B Baker Street for some time.
A Study in Scarlet is one of the stories missing from the adaptations made starring Jeremy Brett between 1984 and 1994.
Steven Moffat loosely adapted A Study in Scarlet into "A Study in Pink" as the first episode of the 2010 BBC television series Sherlock featuring Benedict Cumberbatch as a 21st-century Sherlock Holmes, and Martin Freeman as Dr. Watson. The adaptation retains many individual elements from the story, such as the scribbled "RACHE" and the two pills, and the killer's potentially fatal aneurysm (although it is located in his brain rather than his aorta). However, the entire backstory set in America is omitted, and the motivation of the killer is completely different. It also features Moriarty's presence. Also, the meeting of Holmes and Watson is adapted in the Victorian setting in the special "The Abominable Bride".
"The Deductionist", an episode of Elementary, contains many elements of Hope's case, including the motivation of revenge. The story was more closely adapted in the season 4 episode, "A Study in Charlotte."
"The First Adventure", the first episode of the 2014 NHK puppetry series Sherlock Holmes, is loosely based on A Study in Scarlet and "The Adventure of the Six Napoleons". In it, Holmes, Watson and Lestrade are pupils at a fictional boarding school called Beeton School. They find out that a pupil called Jefferson Hope has taken revenge on Enoch Drebber and Joseph Stangerson for stealing his watch. "Scarlet Story", the series' opening theme tune, is named after the novel and the name of "Beeton School" is partially inspired by Beeton's Christmas Annual.
Other media
A Study in Scarlet was illustrated by Seymour Moskowitz for Classics Illustrated comics in 1953. It was also adapted to graphic novel form by Innovation Publishing in 1969 (adapted by James Stenstrum and illustrated by Noly Panaligan) by Sterling Publishing in 2010 (adapted by Ian Edginton and illustrated by I. N. J. Culbard) and by Hakon Holm Publishing in 2013 (illustrated
by Nis Jessen).
In 2014, A Study in Scarlet was adapted again for the stage by Greg Freeman, Lila Whelan and Annabelle Brown for Tacit Theatre. The production premiered at Southwark Playhouse in London in March 2014.
In February 2019, a new adaptation of “A Study in Scarlet“ was staged at DM Performance Works at the Factory in Nuremberg, PA. It was adapted by Bill Amos under the title “Sherlock Holmes and the Scarlet Avenger“.
Allusions in other works
In his Naked is the Best Disguise (1974), Samuel Rosenberg notes the similarity between Jefferson Hope's tracking of Enoch Drebber and a sequence in James Joyce's novel Ulysses, though of course Joyce's work did not begin to appear in print until 1918. Several other associations between Conan Doyle and Joyce are also listed in Rosenberg's book.
The British fantasy and comic book writer Neil Gaiman adapted this story to the universe of horror writer H. P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos. The new short story is titled "A Study in Emerald" (2004) and is modelled with a parallel structure.
In "Garage Sale Mystery: The Novel Murders" (2016), the second murder is an imitation of this murder.
References
External links
1887 British novels
British novels adapted into films
Cultural depictions of Brigham Young
Novels set in Utah
Mormonism in fiction
Sherlock Holmes novels by Arthur Conan Doyle
Victorian novels
Ward, Lock & Co. books
University of London in fiction | [
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224505 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labrys | Labrys | Labrys () is, according to Plutarch (Quaestiones Graecae 2.302a), the Lydian word for the double-bitted axe. (in Greek it was called , pélekus). The Ancient Greek plural of labrys is labryes ().
Etymology
Plutarch relates that the word was a Lydian word for 'axe': . Many scholars including Evans assert that the word labyrinth is derived from labrys and thus, would imply 'house of the double axe'. A priestly corporation in Delphi was named Labyades. The original name was probably Labryades, servants of the double axe. In Roman times at Patrai and Messene, a goddess Laphria was worshipped, commonly identified with Artemis. Her name was said to be derived from the region around Delphi.
In Crete the "double axe" is not a weapon, however, and it always accompanies women, not a male god. Beekes regards the relation of labyrinth with labrys as speculative, and rather proposes a relation with (), 'narrow street', or to the Carian theonym Dabraundos ().
It is also possible that the word labyrinth is derived from the Egyptian, meaning: "the temple at the entrance of the lake”. The Egyptian labyrinth near Lake Moeris is described by Herodotus and Strabo. The inscription in Linear B, on tablet ΚΝ Gg 702, reads (). The conventional reading is ('mistress of the labyrinth'). According to some modern scholars it could read *, or something similar, and hence be without a certain link with either the or the labyrinth.
A link has also been posited with the double axe symbols at Çatalhöyük, dating to the Neolithic age. In Labraunda in Caria, as well as in the coinage of the Hecatomnid rulers of Caria, the double axe accompanies the storm god Zeus Labraundos. Arthur Evans notes, "It seems natural to interpret names of Carian sanctuaries such as Labranda in the most literal sense as the place of the sacred labrys, which was the Lydian (or Carian) name for the Greek [pelekys], or double-edged axe" and "on Carian coins, indeed of quite late date, the labrys, set up on its long pillar-like handle, with two dependent fillets, has much the appearance of a cult image".
Minoan double axe
In ancient Crete, the double axe was an important sacred symbol of the supposed Minoan religion. In Crete the double axe only accompanies female goddesses, never male gods. It seems that it was the symbol of the arche of the creation (Mater-arche). Small versions were used as votive offerings and have been found in considerable numbers; the Arkalochori Axe is a famous example. Minoan double axes have also recently been found in the prehistoric town of Akrotiri (Santorini Island) along with other objects of apparent religious significance.
Ancient Thracian Odrysian Kingdom
The double axe appears to have carried important symbolism the ancient Thracian Odrysian kingdom related to the Thracian religion and to the royal power. It is argued that in ancient Thrace the double axe was an attribute of Zalmoxis, the god of thunder. The double axe appears on coins from Thrace and is believed to be the symbol of the kings of the Odrysae, who believed they could trace their lineage to Zalmoxis. A fresco from the Thracian tomb near Aleksandrovo in south-east Bulgaria, dated to c.4th BCE, depicts a large-size naked man wielding a double axe.
Double axes in the Near East
In the Near East and other parts of the region, eventually, axes of this sort often are wielded by male divinities and appear to become symbols of the thunderbolt, a symbol often found associated with the axe symbol. In Labraunda of Caria the double-axe accompanies the storm-god Zeus Labraundos. Similar symbols have been found on plates of Linear pottery culture in Romania. The double-axe is associated with the Hurrian god of sky and storm Teshub. His Hittite and Luwian name was Tarhun. Both are depicted holding a triple thunderbolt in one hand and a double axe in the other hand. Similarly, Zeus throws his thunderbolt to bring storm. The labrys, or pelekys, is the double axe Zeus uses to invoke storm and, the relatively modern Greek word for lightning is "star-axe" ( ) The worship of the double axe was kept up in the Greek island of Tenedos and in several cities in the south-west of Asia Minor, and it appears in later historical times in the cult of the thunder god of Asia Minor (Zeus Labrayndeus).
Ancient Greece
In the context of the mythical Attic king Theseus, the labyrinth of Greek mythology is frequently associated with the Minoan palace of Knossos. This is based on the reading of Linear B da-pu2-ri-to-jo-po-ti-ni-ja as λαβυρίνθοιο πότνια ("mistress of the labyrinth"). It is uncertain, however, that labyrinth can be interpreted as "place of the double axes" and moreover that this should be Knossos; many more have been found, for example, at the Arkalachori Cave, where the famous Arkalochori Axe was found.
On Greek coins of the classical period (e. g. Pixodauros) a type of Zeus venerated at Labraunda in Caria that numismatists call Zeus Labrandeus (Ζεὺς Λαβρανδεύς) stands with a sceptre upright in his left hand and the double-headed axe over his shoulder.
Roman Crete
In Roman Crete, the labrys was often associated with the mythological Amazons.
Modern uses
Religion and spirituality
It is sometimes used as a symbol of Hellenic polytheism. As a symbol of the neopagan Goddess movement, the labrys represents the memory of pre-patriarchal matristic societies.
Social movement
In feminist interpretations, the labrys is a symbol of matriarchy.
In Kyrgyzstan, "Labrys" is an LGBT rights organization. The group's goal is to improve the quality of life for all LGBT individuals in their country as well as Central Asia.
Similarly, "Labrisz" is an association in Hungary for lesbian and bisexual women.
Lesbian symbol
In the 1970s, the labrys was adopted by the lesbian community as a lesbian feminist symbol representing strength and self-sufficiency. The labrys lesbian flag, created in 1999, involves a labrys superimposed on an inverted black triangle and set against a violet background.
Culture
The double axe is used by Cretan folklore preservation societies and associations both in Greece and abroad, on occasion with the spelling "lavrys" reflecting modern Greek pronunciation.
Political
In Greece, the labrys was employed as a symbol of Metaxism. During the totalitarian period of the 4th of August Regime (1936–1941), it represented the regime-sponsored National Organization of Youth (EON), as its leader, Ioannis Metaxas, believed it to be the first symbol of all Hellenic civilizations.
The labrys symbol was also used prominently by the Vichy France regime, being featured on the personal flag of Chief of State Philippe Pétain, on coins, and in various propaganda posters.
In the 1960s the labrys was also used by the Italian neo-fascist and far-right movement Ordine Nuovo, most prominently on their flag.
Weapon
While double axes are common in modern high fantasy settings, in reality they were not commonly used in combat.
Sport
Double-bit axes were common in North American forestry, one blade would be sharp and used for felling whilst the other was a little blunter for limbing. As the forest workers (lumberjacks) were often away from civilisation for long periods of time they needed a way to amuse themselves. Thus the sport of double-bit axe throwing was born. In recent decades the sport has been formalised with Swedish company Gränsfors Bruk writing the rules most widely accepted. There are now multiple clubs across Europe that throw double-bit. Important to note that the sport of Double-bit was formalised in the 1990s, whilst hatchet throwing was formalised in 2006.
See also
Arkalochori Axe
Axe (tool)
Battle axe
Bronze Age sword
Fasces
Francisca
Labrys religious community
Sagaris
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
"Labrys" at Oxford Dictionaries, Oxford University Press
"Labrys" at Ancient-Symbols.com
4th of August Regime
Ancient Greece
Axes
Fascist symbols
Feminism and spirituality
Forestry tools
Greek mythology
Heraldic charges
Lesbian culture
LGBT symbols
Minoan culture
Minoan art | [
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224508 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trevor%20Nunn | Trevor Nunn | Sir Trevor Robert Nunn (born 14 January 1940) is a British theatre director. He has been the Artistic Director for the Royal Shakespeare Company, the Royal National Theatre, and, currently, the Theatre Royal, Haymarket. He has directed dramas for the stage, like Macbeth, as well as opera and musicals, such as Cats (1981) and Les Misérables (1985).
Nunn has been nominated for the Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical, the Tony Award for Best Direction of a Play, the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Director, and the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Director of a Musical, winning Tonys for Cats, Les Misérables, and Nicholas Nickleby and the Olivier Awards for productions of Summerfolk, The Merchant of Venice, Troilus and Cressida, and Nicholas Nickleby. In 2008 The Telegraph named him among the most influential people in British culture. He has also directed works for film and television.
Early years
Nunn was born in Ipswich, England, to Robert Alexander Nunn, a cabinetmaker, and Dorothy May Piper. As a small boy he loved reading but his parents had little money for books. However an aunt had more books, including a complete Shakespeare which he read whenever the family visited her. In the end she gave it to him.
He was educated at Northgate Grammar School, Ipswich and Downing College, Cambridge. At Northgate, he had an inspiring English teacher, Peter Hewett, who also directed the school plays. Hewett encouraged him to sit the scholarship exam in Cambridge in the hope of studying under F. R. Leavis at Downing. Hewett also persuaded the headmaster to help with the cost of Nunn staying in Cambridge to take the exam. Nunn's father could not afford it and the headmaster had refused at first so Nunn was close to giving up. At Downing, Nunn began his stage career and first met contemporaries Ian McKellen and Derek Jacobi. In 1962, he directed Macbeth for The Marlowe Society and he directed that year's Footlights. He also won a Director's Scholarship, becoming a trainee director at the Belgrade Theatre in Coventry.
Career
In 1964, Nunn joined the Royal Shakespeare Company and in 1968 he was appointed Artistic Director of the RSC, a position he held until 1986 (latterly with Terry Hands from 1978).
His first wife, Janet Suzman, appeared in many of his productions, such as the 1974 televised version of his Antony and Cleopatra. Nunn directed the RSC production of Macbeth starring Ian McKellen in the title role and Dame Judi Dench as Lady Macbeth in 1976. Nunn staged the action of the drama with not only the paying audience, but also the audience of all of the actors in the production not in the ongoing scene—they sat on wooden crates just beyond the main playing space.
Nunn became a leading figure in theatrical circles, and was responsible for many significant productions, such as the RSC's version of Dickens's Nicholas Nickleby, co-directed with John Caird, and a 1976 musical adaptation of the Shakespeare play The Comedy of Errors.
A very successful director of musicals, in the non-subsidised sector, Nunn directed the musical Cats (1981), formerly the longest running musical in Broadway's history, and the first English production of Les Misérables in 1985, also with John Caird, which has been running continuously in London since opening. Nunn also directed the little-known 1986 Webber–Rice musical Cricket, at Windsor Castle. Besides Cats and Les Misérables Nunn's other musical credits include Starlight Express and Sunset Boulevard. He became Artistic Director of the Royal National Theatre in September 1997, a position he retained until 2003.
Later London credits include My Fair Lady, South Pacific (at the Royal National Theatre), The Woman in White, Othello and Acorn Antiques: The Musical! (2005), The Royal Hunt of the Sun, Rock 'n' Roll and Porgy and Bess in 2006 at the Savoy Theatre (an abridged version with dialogue instead of recitatives, unlike Nunn's first production of the opera).
He directed We Happy Few, a play by his second wife Imogen Stubbs, in 2004. Stubbs often appears in his productions, including the 1996 Twelfth Night film. Nunn directed a modern production of Shakespeare's Hamlet in 2004, which starred Ben Whishaw in the title role, and Imogen Stubbs as Gertrude, and was staged at the Old Vic Theatre in London.
In 2007, he directed the RSC productions of King Lear and The Seagull, which played at Stratford before embarking on a world tour (including the Brooklyn Academy of Music) and then playing at the New London Theatre from November 2007. The two plays both starred Ian McKellen, Romola Garai, Frances Barber, Sylvester McCoy, and William Gaunt. Nunn's television production of King Lear was screened on Boxing Day, 2008 with McKellen in the title role.
In 2008, he returned to The Belgrade Theatre in Coventry (the theatre where he started his career) to direct Joanna Murray-Smith's adaptation of Ingmar Bergman's film Scenes from a Marriage starring Imogen Stubbs and Iain Glen. His musical adaptation of Gone with the Wind opened at the New London Theatre in April 2008 and, after poor reviews, closed on 14 June 2008 after 79 performances. In December 2008, he directed a revival of A Little Night Music at the Menier Chocolate Factory, which transferred to the West End at the Garrick Theatre in 2009. The production transferred to Broadway, opening in November 2009, with Catherine Zeta-Jones as Desiree Armfeldt and Angela Lansbury as Madame Armfeldt. Other members of the original London cast also transferred with the production. The production closed in January 2011 after 425 performances.
In 2010, Nunn directed a revival of the Andrew Lloyd Webber musical Aspects of Love from July to September 2010 at the Menier Chocolate Factory and the play Birdsong, which opened in September 2010 at the Comedy Theatre, based on the Sebastian Faulks novel of the same title.
Nunn marked his debut as Artistic Director of the Theatre Royal, Haymarket, with a revival of Flare Path (as part of the playwright, Terence Rattigan's, centenary year celebrations). The production, starring Sienna Miller, James Purefoy and Sheridan Smith, opened in March 2011 and closed in June 2011, and was followed by productions of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead, (June – August 2011) and The Tempest, starring Ralph Fiennes (September – October 2011). His final production at the Haymarket, The Lion in Winter (November 2011 – January 2012), starred Joanna Lumley and Robert Lindsay.
Nunn returned to the Haymarket in 2014 to direct the play Fatal Attraction.
For Christmas 2018, Nunn directed a revival of Fiddler on the Roof at the Menier Chocolate Factory, before transferring to the Playhouse Theatre in London's West End for a limited season in spring 2019. The production starred Andy Nyman as Tevye and Judy Kuhn as Golde.
In 2020, he was due to direct a new musical Identical based on The Parent Trap. It was due to have its world premiere at the Nottingham Playhouse before transferring to the Theatre Royal, Bath over the summer of 2020. However, due to the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic in the United Kingdom, the production has been delayed until 2021.
Film and opera
Nunn has directed opera at Glyndebourne. He re-staged his highly successful Glyndebourne production of Gershwin's Porgy and Bess for television in 1993, and was highly praised.
He has directed for film, including Lady Jane (1986), Hedda, an adaptation of Hedda Gabler, and a 1996 film version of Shakespeare's Twelfth Night.
Personal life
Nunn has been married three times and has five children. He was married to actress Janet Suzman from 17 October 1969 until their divorce in 1986. They have one son, Joshua. From 1986 until their 1991 divorce, he was married to Sharon Lee-Hill, with whom he has two children, Laurie and Amy.
In 1994, he married actress Imogen Stubbs with whom he has two children, Ellie and Jesse. In April 2011 Stubbs announced their separation.
Nunn was in a brief relationship with Nancy Dell'Olio in 2011.
In 1998 Nunn was named in a list of the biggest private financial donors to the Labour Party. In 2002, he was knighted.
In 2014, Nunn told the Telegraph that Shakespeare was his religion. "Shakespeare has more wisdom and insight about our lives, about how to live and how not to live, how to forgive and how to understand our fellow creatures, than any religious tract. One hundred times more than the Bible. I'm sorry to say that. But over and over again in the plays there is an understanding of the human condition that doesn't exist in religious books".
Credits
Broadway
Source: Internet Broadway Database Listing
Cats – 31 July 2016 – 30 December 2017
A Little Night Music – 13 December 2009 – 11 January 2011
Rock 'n' Roll – 4 November 2007 – 9 March 2008
Les Misérables (revival) – 9 November 2006 – 6 January 2008
The Woman in White – 17 November 2005 – 19 February 2006
Chess – 22 September 2003 (Benefit Concert)
Vincent in Brixton (as original producer) – 6 March 2003 – 4 May 2003
Oklahoma! – 21 March 2002 – 23 February 2003
Noises Off (as original producer) – 1 November 2001 – 1 September 2002
Rose written by Martin Sherman (as original producer) – 12 April 2000 – 20 May 2000
Copenhagen (as original producer) – 11 April 2000 – 21 January 2001
Amy's View (as original producer) – 15 April 1999 – 18 July 1999
Closer (as original producer) – 25 March 1999 – 22 August 1999
Not About Nightingales – 25 February 1999 – 13 June 1999
Arcadia – 30 March 1995 – 27 August 1995
Sunset Boulevard – 17 November 1994 – 22 March 1997
Aspects of Love – 8 April 1990 – 2 March 1991
Chess – 28 April 1988 – 25 June 1988
Starlight Express – 15 March 1987 – 8 January 1989
Les Misérables – 12 March 1987 – 18 May 2003
The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby – 24 August 1986 – 12 October 1986
André De Shields' Harlem Nocturne (Featuring songs with lyrics by Trevor Nunn) – 18 November 1984 – 30 December 1984
Cyrano de Bergerac (as original producer) – 16 October 1984 – 19 January 1985
Much Ado About Nothing (as original producer) – 14 October 1984 – 16 January 1985
All's Well that Ends Well – 13 April 1983 – 15 May 1983
Good (as original producer) – 13 October 1982 – 30 January 1983
Cats – 7 October 1982 – 10 September 2000
The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby – 4 October 1981 – 3 January 1982
Piaf – 5 February 1981 – 28 June 1981
London Assurance (as original producer) – 5 December 1974 – 12 January 1975
Sherlock Holmes (as original producer) – 12 November 1974 – 4 January 1976
Old Times (as original producer) – 16 November 1971 – 26 February 1972
A Midsummer Night's Dream (as original producer) – 20 January 1971 – 13 March 1971
West End
Source: Shakespeare Birthplace Trust
Fiddler on the Roof – 2019
Fatal Attraction – 2014
A Chorus of Disapproval – 2012
The Lion in Winter – 2011
Flare Path – 2011
Birdsong – 2010
Aspects of Love – 2010
A Little Night Music – 2009
Inherit The Wind – 2009
Gone with the Wind – 2008
King Lear – 2007
The Seagull – 2007
Porgy and Bess – 2006
Acorn Antiques: The Musical! – 2005
The Woman in White – 2004
Anything Goes – 2002
South Pacific – 2001
My Fair Lady – 2001
Oklahoma! – 1998
Sunset Boulevard – 1993
The Baker's Wife – 1989
Aspects of Love – 1989
Chess – 1986
Les Misérables – 1985
Starlight Express – 1984
Cats – 1981
Film
Source: Contemporary British and Irish film Directors
Hedda (director and adaptation) (1975)
Lady Jane (director) (1986)
Twelfth Night: Or What You Will (director and adaptation) (1996)
Red Joan (director) (2018)
Television
Every Good Boy Deserves Favour (1979)
BBC2 Playhouse (TV series) – (1 episode, 1979)
The Three Sisters (1981 TV movie)
The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby (1982 TV mini-series)
Othello (1990 TV movie)
Porgy and Bess (1993 TV movie)
Oklahoma! (1999 TV movie)
The Merchant of Venice (2001 TV movie)
King Lear (2008 TV Movie)
Awards and nominations
Sources: Internet Broadway Database Listing Tony Awards Database (broadwayworld.com) Drama Desk History Olivier Awards, Past Nominees and Winners
1975 Drama Desk Award Unique Theatrical Experience – London Assurance [winner]
1977 Laurence Olivier Award for Best Director – Macbeth [nominee]
1979 Laurence Olivier Award for Best Director – Once in a Lifetime [nominee]
1980 Laurence Olivier Award for Best Director – The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby [winner]
1981 Laurence Olivier Award for Best Director – Cats [nominee]
1982 Tony Award for Best Direction of a Play – The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby [winner]
1983 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Director of a Play – All's Well that Ends Well [winner]
1983 Tony Award for Best Direction of a Play – All's Well that Ends Well [nominee]
1983 Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical – Cats [winner]
1987 Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical – Les Misérables [winner]
1987 Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical – Starlight Express [nominee]
1989 Laurence Olivier Award for Best Director – Othello [nominee]
1990 Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical – Aspects of Love [nominee]
1994 Laurence Olivier Award for Best Director – Arcadia [nominee]
1995 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Director of a Musical – Sunset Boulevard [nominee]
1995 Laurence Olivier Award for Best Director – The Merchant of Venice / Summerfolk [winner]
1995 Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical – Sunset Boulevard [nominee]
1995 Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement
1999 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Director of a Play – Not About Nightingales [winner]
1999 Tony Award for Best Direction of a Play – Not About Nightingales [nominee]
1999 Laurence Olivier Award for Best Director – Oklahoma! [nominee]
2000 Laurence Olivier Award for Best Director – Summerfolk / The Merchant of Venice / Troilus and Cressida [winner]
2001 Laurence Olivier Award for Best Director – The Cherry Orchard [nominee]
2002 Laurence Olivier Award for Outstanding Achievement
2002 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Director of a Musical – Oklahoma! [nominee]
2002 Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical – Oklahoma! [nominee]
2012 Induction into the American Theater Hall of Fame
2020 Laurence Olivier Award for Best Director – Fiddler on the Roof [nominee]
References
Further reading
Trowbridge, Simon: The Company: A Biographical Dictionary of the Royal Shakespeare Company, Editions Albert Creed (2010)
External links
Scenes from a Marriage preview
Michael Jackson's Peter Pan obsession – by Trevor Nunn 2009
1940 births
Alumni of Downing College, Cambridge
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
English film directors
English theatre directors
Fellows of Downing College, Cambridge
Fellows of St Catherine's College, Oxford
Knights Bachelor
Living people
Laurence Olivier Award winners
People from Ipswich
People educated at Northgate Grammar School, Ipswich | [
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224512 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jameel%20Al-Madfaai | Jameel Al-Madfaai | Jamil al-Midfai (جميل المدفعي)
(1958–1890) was an Iraqi politician. He served as the country's prime minister on five separate occasions:
November 9, 1933 – August 25, 1934
March 1, 1935 – March 16, 1935
August 17, 1937 – December 26, 1938
June 2, 1941 – October 10, 1941
January 29, 1953 – September 1, 1953
Born in the town of Mosul, Midfai served in the Ottoman army during World War I, but deserted in 1916 to take part in the nationalist Arab Revolt. After the war, he was an aide to the Emir Faisal during his brief reign in Syria. He returned to Iraq in 1920, but was soon forced into exile in Jordan because of his anti-British nationalist activities. Upon his return in 1923, he served in various senior provincial capacities and finally joined the cabinet in 1930.
He was elected as the president of the Chamber of Deputies from December 1930 to November 1931, and from November 1931 to November 1933.
As a seasoned politician and two-time prime minister, he was asked to form a new government in August 1937, following the assassination of General Bakr Sidqi, who had ruled the country as a military dictator for almost a year. A staunch monarchist, Midfai was again forced into exile in Transjordan following the short-lived pro-Axis coup by Rashid Ali al-Kaylani in 1941.
Upon his return to Iraq, he served in various senior capacities including President of the Senate of Iraq in the 1950s, and briefly as prime minister after the suspension of political activities during the Iraqi Intifada. He died on 26 October 1958 suffering from lung cancer.
Fourth Ministry
When the Crown Prince 'Abd al-Ilah came back to Baghdad in the 1st of June 1941, He summoned Midfai to Him and after careful consultations, the opinion settled on Midfai to form a new government, so the Prince sent Him the following letter:
The circumstances in which Al-Madfai was tasked with forming his fifth cabinet were strict and required the appointment of ministers and determining their responsibilities so quickly that he could not think about the extent of the cooperation that would take place between him and his associates in the management of state affairs in these circumstances.
And accordingly, the royal will was issued on the second day of June 1941 to appoint:
Jamil Al-Midfai: the Prime Minister
Ali Jawdat al-Aiyubi: Minister of Foreign Affairs
Mustafa Mahmud al-Umari: Minister of Interior
Nadhif Al-Shawi: Minister of Defense
Ibrahim Kemal: Minister of Finance and Minister of Justice
Jalal Baban: Minister of Works and Communications
Nasrat al-Farisi: Minister of economy
Mohammed Ridha Al-Shabibi: Minister of Knowledge.
References
1890 births
1958 deaths
Arabs of the Ottoman Empire
People from Mosul
Ottoman Military Academy alumni
Ottoman Army officers
Ottoman military personnel of World War I
Prime Ministers of Iraq
Finance ministers of Iraq
Presidents of the Senate of Iraq
Presidents of the Chamber of Deputies of Iraq | [
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224514 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cahir | Cahir | Cahir (; ) is a town in County Tipperary in Ireland. It is also a civil parish in the barony of Iffa and Offa West.
Location and access
For much of the twentieth century, Cahir stood at an intersection of two busy national roadways: the Dublin to Cork N8, and the Limerick to Waterford N24. The N8 was realigned in 1991 to run west of the town, while the old road through it was renumbered the R670. Traffic from the N24 still left the town badly congested, however, until October 2007 when this road was also realigned to bypass Cahir to the north and east. The same road improvement scheme saw major changes to the N8 corridor: a new motorway, the M8, was constructed west of the town between 2006 and 2008. Access to Cahir from this motorway is gained at Junctions 10 and 11.
Cahir is on the Limerick–Waterford railway line. The town's railway station opened on 1 May 1852. There are two trains a day to Tipperary and Limerick Junction and two to Clonmel, Carrick on Suir and Waterford. There is no Sunday service.
Bus Éireann runs regular services to Dublin, Cork, Limerick and Waterford through the town.
History
The name Cathair or an Chathair translates as "stone ringfort", while the name Cathair Dún Iascaigh means "town of the fort of the fishery". In older accounts, it was often spelled "Caher". Cahir Abbey was established in the late 12th century.
For much of its history, the town has been influenced by the Butler family. It was from this family that the first Barons of Cahir were created. It was known for much of its history as being a defence town.
Cahir, together with Clonmel, were the centres in South Tipperary of the Quaker population, who constructed a meeting house in Abbey Street in 1833. The principal Quaker family names, largely engaged in milling, were Grubb, Going and Walpole. It was one of the first towns to be linked by stagecoach in the nineteenth century, when Charles Bianconi commenced services between Clonmel, Cahir and Cashel. The building at The Square, where The Galtee Inn is now sited, was the stopping point in the town for Bianconi's coaches.
Amenities and features
Cahir Castle, which is situated on a small island in the River Suir, is the town's main tourist attraction. Cahir has a fine Church of Ireland parish church, still in use, designed by John Nash, one of only three ecclesiastical buildings he designed in Ireland. Another major attraction is the Swiss Cottage; there are also numerous specialty heritage walks. The nearby Galtee Mountains form the largest inland range in Ireland and are home to Glengarra Wood, which is a popular walking area. The Knockmealdown Mountains stand south of the town, while to the southwest lie the Mitchelstown Caves. The salmon weir, on the opposite side of the bridge from the castle, is a popular fishing location.
Cahir is a small heritage town. A shopping precinct is centred on the town square adjacent to Castle Street. The town has a leisure centre (Duneske), an all-weather soccer pitch, all weather tennis courts, a Downhill and Enduro mountain-biking track and a GAA pitch. An 18-hole golf course lies outside the town.
Education
Schools in the area include Our Lady of Mercy Primary School, Cahir Boys National School, and Coláiste Dún Iascaigh (Secondary School).
Sports
Cahir has a number of teams in various sports. Cahir GAA are the local Gaelic team and play on the GAA pitch located on the Ardfinnan road. They were Tipperary Senior Football Champions in 2003. Cahir Park AFC are the local junior soccer team. Formed in 1912, they are one of the oldest junior soccer teams in the country. Their ground is also located in Cahir Park on the Ardfinnan road.
International relations
Cahir has been twinned with the town of Scarborough in England since 2003.
Notable people
Richard Butler, 2nd Earl of Glengall
John Noel Dempsey (1915–89), Connecticut politician
William Joshua Ffennell (1799–1867), Irish fishery reformer
Edmund Keating Hyland (1780–1845), uilleann piper; his statue in Cahir main square
Michael Murphy (1831–93), awarded Victoria Cross, later forfeited
Tommy O'Donnell, Munster and Ireland rugby player
Richard Pennefather, Irish judge, buried Cahir
Marian Tobin (1870–1955), ran a safe house during the Irish War of Independence
Image gallery
See also
List of towns in Ireland
Market Houses in Ireland
References
External links
Official Site
Visit Cahir Website
Cahir in the Book of County Tipperary (1889)
Parishes of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Waterford and Lismore
Towns and villages in County Tipperary
Civil parishes of Iffa and Offa West | [
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224515 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance | Performance | A performance is an act of staging or presenting a play, concert, or other form of entertainment. It is also defined as the action or process of carrying out or accomplishing an action, task, or function.
Management science
In the work place, job performance is the hypothesized conception or requirements of a role. There are two types of job performances: contextual and task. Task performance is dependent on cognitive ability, while contextual performance is dependent on personality. Task performance relates to behavioral roles that are recognized in job descriptions and remuneration systems. They are directly related to organizational performance, whereas contextual performances are value-based and add additional behavioral roles that are not recognized in job descriptions and covered by compensation; these are extra roles that are indirectly related to organizational performance. Citizenship performance, like contextual performance, relates to a set of individual activity/contribution (prosocial organizational behavior) that supports organizational culture.
Arts
In performing arts, a performance generally comprises an event in which a performer, or group of performers, present one or more works of art to an audience. In instrumental music and drama, a performance is typically described as a "play". Typically, the performers participate in rehearsals beforehand to practice the work.
An effective performance is determined by the achieved skills and competency of the performer, also known as the level of skill and knowledge. In 1994, Spencer and McClelland defined competency as "a combination of motives, traits, self-concepts, attitudes, cognitive behavior skills (content knowledge) that helps a performer to differentiate themselves as superior from the average performer". A performance also describes the way in which an actor performs. In a solo capacity, it may also refer to a mime artist, comedian, conjurer, magician, or other entertainer.
Aspects of Performance Art
Another aspect of performance that grew in popularity in the early 20th century is Performance art. The origins of Performance art started with Dada and Russian constructivism groups, focusing on avant-garde poetry readings and live paintings meant to be viewed by an audience. It can be scripted or completely improvised and includes audience participation if desired.
The emergence of Abstract expressionism in the 1950s with Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning gave way to Action painting, a technique that emphasized the dynamic movements of artists as they splattered paint and other media on canvas or glass. For these artists, the motion of putting paint on canvas was just as valuable as the finished painting, and so it was common for artists to document their work in film; such as the short film Jackson Pollock 51(1951), featuring Pollock dripping paint onto a massive canvas on his studio floor. Situationists in France, led by Guy Debord, married avant-garde art with revolutionary politics to incite everyday acts of anarchy. The "Naked City Map" (1957) fragments the 19 sections of Paris, featuring the technique of Détournement and abstraction of the traditional environment, deconstructing the geometry and order of a typical city map.
At the New School for Social Research in New York, John Cage and Allan Kaprow became involved in developing Happening performance art. These carefully scripted one-off events incorporated the audience into acts of chaos and spontaneity. These happenings challenged traditional art conventions and encouraged artists to carefully consider the role of an audience. In Japan, the 1954 Gutai group led by Yoshihara Jiro, Kanayma Akira, Murakami Saburo, Kazuo Shiraga, and Shimamoto Shozo made the materials of art-making come to life with body movement and blurring the line between art and theater. Kazuo Shiraga's Challenging Mud (1955) is a performance of the artist rolling and moving in mud, using their body as the art-making tool, and emphasizing the temporary nature of performance art.
Valie Export, an Austrian artist born Waltraud Lehner, performed "Tap and Touch Cinema" in 1968. She walked around the streets in Vienna during a film festival wearing a styrofoam box with a curtain over her chest. Bystanders were asked to put their hands inside the box and touch her bare chest. This commentary on women sexualization in film focused on the sense of touch rather than sight. Adrian Piper and her performance Catalysis III (1970) featured the artist walking down New York City streets with her outfit painted white and a sign across her chest that said "wet paint." She was interested in the invisible social and racial dynamics in America and was determined to encourage civic-mindedness and interruption of the system. Carolee Schneemann, American artist, performed Interior Scroll in 1975, where she unrolls Super-8 film "Kitsch's Last Meal" from her genitals. This nude performance contributes to a discourse on femininity, sexualization, and film.
Performance state
Williams and Krane define the characteristics of an ideal performance state:
Absence of fear
Not thinking about the performance
Adaptive focus on the activity
A sense of effortlessness and belief in confidence or self-efficacy
A sense of personal control
A distortion of time and space where time does not affect the activity
Other related factors are: motivation to achieve success or avoid failure, task relevant attention, positive self-talk, and cognitive regulation to achieve automaticity. Performance is also dependent on adaptation of eight areas: Handling crisis, managing stress, creative problem solving, knowing necessary functional tools and skills, agile management of complex processes, interpersonal adaptability, cultural adaptability, and physical fitness. Performance is not always a result of practice, but rather about honing in a skill. Over practicing itself can result in failure due to ego depletion.
According to Andranik Tangian, the best results are achieved when spontaneity and even improvisation are backed up by rational elements that arrange means of expression in a certain structure, supporting the communication (not just verbal) with the audience.
Stage fright
Theatrical performances, especially when the audience is limited to only a few observers, can lead to significant increases in the performer's heart rate. This increase takes place in several stages relative to the performance itself, including anticipatory activation (one minute before the start of subject's speaking role), confrontation activation (during the subject's speaking role, at which point their heart rate peaks) and release period (one minute after the conclusion of the subject's speech). The same physiological reactions can be experienced in other mediums such as instrumental performance. When experiments were conducted to determine whether there was a correlation between audience size and heart rate (an indicator of anxiety) of instrumental performers, the researcher's findings ran contrary to previous studies, showing a positive correlation rather than a negative one.
Heart rate shares a strong, positive correlation with the self reported anxiety of performers. Other physiological responses to public performance include perspiration, secretion of the adrenal glands, and increased blood pressure.
See also
References
Additional reading
Bell, B.S., & Kozlowski, S.W.J. (2008). Active learning: Effects of core training design elements on self regulatory processes, learning, and adaptability. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 296–316.
Fadde, P.J., & Klein, G.A. (2010). Deliberate performance: Accelerating expertise in natural settings. Performance Improvement, 49, 5-15.
Freeman, S., Eddy, S., McDounough, M. et al. (2014). Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. PNAS, 111, 8410–8414.
Gagne, R.M. (1962). Military training and principles of learning. American psychologist, 17, 83–91.
Lohman, M. (2002). Cultivating problem solving skills through problem based approaches to professional development. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 13, 243–256.
Meyer, R. (2002). Problem solving skills through problem based approaches to professional development. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 13, 263–270.
Noordzu, G., Hooft, E., Mierlo, H. et al. (2013). The effects of a learning-goal orientation training on self-regulation: A field experiment among unemployed job seekers. Personnel Psychology, 66, 723–755.
Performing arts
Television terminology
Personality
Stagecraft
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224524 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phineas%20Finn | Phineas Finn | Phineas Finn is a novel by Anthony Trollope and the name of its leading character. The novel was first published as a monthly serial from October 1867 to May 1868 in St Paul's Magazine. It is the second of the "Palliser" series of novels. Its sequel, Phineas Redux, is the fourth novel in the series. The character of Phineas Finn is said to have been partly inspired by Sir John Pope Hennessy (grandfather of the museum director of the same name), a Roman Catholic from Cork, who was elected as an "Irish Nationalist Conservative" Member of Parliament for King's County in 1859.
It deals with both British parliamentary politics of the 1860s, including voting reform (secret ballot and eliminating rotten boroughs and Irish tenant-right) and Finn's romances with women of fortune, which would secure his financial future.
Synopsis
Finn is the only son of a successful Irish doctor, Dr Malachi Finn of Killaloe, County Clare, who sends him to London to become a lawyer. He proves to be a lackadaisical student, but being pleasant company and strikingly handsome to boot, he makes many influential friends. One of them, a politician, Barrington Erle, suggests that he stand for Parliament in the coming election.
At first, the idea seems absurd. Finn is supported solely by a modest allowance from his father, but a stroke of luck clears his path. One of his father's patients is Lord Tulla, a nobleman who controls Loughshane, a little borough that can be contested cheaply. Lord Tulla has had a falling out with his brother, the long-time officeholder. As a result, while the staunchly Tory lord will not support the Whig Finn, neither will he hamper him. Convincing his sceptical father to provide the funds needed, Finn wins his seat by a small margin.
The closest of his London friends is his mentor, Lady Laura Standish, the daughter of the prominent Whig politician Lord Brentford. As their relationship develops, Finn considers asking for her hand in marriage, despite the great social and financial gulf between them. Lady Laura senses this, but despite her partiality for the man, monetary considerations and her own political ambitions convince her to marry the dour, extremely wealthy Robert Kennedy instead.
At first devastated, Finn soon recovers and becomes enamoured of a lovely heiress, Violet Effingham. This proves to be awkward, as both Lady Laura and Lord Brentford vehemently want her to marry (and hopefully tame) Lord Brentford's estranged son, the savage Lord Chiltern. In addition, Lady Laura encourages Finn to become acquainted with her brother. Finn and Chiltern become fast friends, which makes the situation even more uncomfortable. When Chiltern finds out that Finn is also courting Violet, he becomes infuriated and unreasonably demands that Finn withdraw. When he refuses, Chiltern insists on a duel. This is held in secret at Blankenberg, resulting in Finn being slightly wounded. Eventually, Violet has to choose between her two main suitors; she somewhat fearfully decides in favour of her childhood sweetheart, Chiltern.
Meanwhile, Finn's parliamentary career gets off to a rocky start. Overawed by his august surroundings, he delivers a somewhat incoherent maiden speech. Eventually, however, he becomes accustomed to his situation and grows adept at parliamentary proceedings. All is not smooth sailing however. When new elections are called, Finn is in a dilemma. Lord Tulla has become reconciled with his brother and Finn seemingly has no chance of re-election. At this point, fortune favours him once again.
Late one night, Finn and Mr Kennedy, now the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, depart Parliament at the same time. When they go their separate ways, Finn notices two men who follow his colleague. Suspicious, he takes a shortcut and arrives in time to foil an attempt to garrotte and rob Kennedy. In gratitude for saving the life of his son-in-law, Lord Brentford offers him the seat for the pocket borough of Loughton. With the nobleman's support, the election is a foregone conclusion.
Finn's heroic feat exacerbates the growing rift between Lady Laura and her husband. Their temperaments clash; Mr Kennedy disapproves of his wife's interest in politics. Moreover, to her intense dismay, Lady Laura finds she has great difficulty suppressing her strong feelings for Finn, and Kennedy becomes suspicious. Eventually, she becomes so desperately unhappy, she flees to her father's house. (At the end of the novel, Mr Kennedy's legal actions push her to move to the Continent, where the law cannot force her to return to her husband's household.)
In the meantime, Finn makes the acquaintance of a charming, clever foreigner, Madame Max Goesler, the young and beautiful widow of a rich Jewish banker. More materially, he is appointed to a well-paid government position, in which he excels. It seems as if he is finally secure.
A Reform Act is passed. This bill eliminates Finn's seat, the borough of Loughton. However, he re-enters Parliament by winning back his earlier seat, Loughshane, the death of its incumbent having conveniently resulted in a rival candidate displeasing to Lord Tulla.
Finn visits Ireland with Mr Joshua Monk, a leading Radical politician and a supporter of increased rights for Irish tenant farmers. Under Mr Monk's influence, Finn becomes radicalised. At a political meeting in Dublin, Finn argues that a new tenant-right bill should be presented to the Westminster Parliament during the next session. When this happens, the government, of which Finn is a member, does not support it. Finn must therefore choose between his loyalty to the government and his political convictions. He chooses the latter, resigns his government position and retires from politics.
With his political career in shambles, Finn seeks consolation from Madame Max. In an unexpected development, she offers him her hand and her wealth in marriage. Finn is greatly tempted, but finally returns to Ireland to marry his faithful, long-time sweetheart, Mary Flood Jones. As a parting reward for his hard work, his party obtains for him a comfortable sinecure as a poor-law inspector in Cork at a salary of a thousand pounds a year.
Characters
Phineas Finn - handsome, 25 year old, only son of an Irish doctor.
Lady Laura Standish - friend of Phineas, who is in love with her until she chooses to marry Mr. Kennedy instead.
Violet Effingham - pretty, an orphan and an heiress; she is a close friend of Lady Laura.
Lord Oswald Chiltern - brother of Lady Laura; has a reputation for drinking excessively, gambling and a somewhat violent nature; despite this Lady Laura is very devoted to him.
Mr. Robert Kennedy
Lord Brentford - father of Lady Laura and Lord Chiltern, from whom he is estranged.
Laurence Fitzgibbon
Barrington Erle
Mary Flood Jones - 20 years old; friend of Phineas' sister Barbara and in love with Phineas.
Mrs. Bunce
Mr. Bunce
Mr. Low
Plantegenet Palliser
Lady Glencora Palliser
Dr. Malachi Finn - father of six children of whom, Phineas is the only son.
Response
After the publication Phineas Finn as a book, Trollope was attacked by The Daily Telegraph on 31 March 1869 for his unflattering portrayal of politicians. The character of the demagogue Turnbull was believed to have been based on John Bright.
References
Further reading
Halperin, John. "Trollope's Phineas Finn and History." English Studies 59.2 (1978): 121-137.
Lonergan, Patrick. "The Representation of Phineas Finn: Anthony Trollope's Palliser Series and Victorian Ireland." Victorian Literature and Culture 32.1 (2004): 147-158 online.
Van Dam, Frederik. "Character and the Career: Anthony Trollope’s Phineas Finn and the rhetoric of the Victorian State." English Text Construction 2.1 (2009): 91-110.
External links
Novels by Anthony Trollope
1867 British novels
Picaresque novels
Novels first published in serial form
Works originally published in British magazines
Works originally published in literary magazines | [
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224528 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranford%20%28novel%29 | Cranford (novel) | Cranford is an episodic novel by the English writer Elizabeth Gaskell. It first appeared in instalments in the magazine Household Words, then was published with minor revisions as a book with the title Cranford in 1853. The work slowly became popular and from the start of the 20th century it saw a number of dramatic treatments for the stage, the radio and TV.
Background
The fictional Cranford is based on the small Cheshire town of Knutsford in which Elizabeth Gaskell grew up. She had already drawn on her childhood memories for an article published in America, "The Last Generation in England" (1849), and for the town of Duncombe which featured in her extended story "Mr. Harrison's Confessions" (1851). These accounts of life in a country town and the old-fashioned class snobbery prevailing there were carried over into what was originally intended simply as another story, published as "Our Society in Cranford" in the magazine Household Words in December 1851. Seeing the possibilities of a longer work in the piece, which eventually formed the first two chapters of her novel, Charles Dickens, the magazine's editor, encouraged the author to write more episodes.
Thereafter Mrs Gaskell added eight further episodes over the next 18 months, with an eight-month gap between the sections ending at what is now chapter 8 (written between December 1851 to April 1852) and the later sections (written between January to May, 1853). During this period, she was also engaged in writing the three volume novel Ruth, which was published in January 1853. Cranford itself soon followed its serialisation as a single-volume book published by Chapman & Hall in June 1853, with a second printing in August and a US edition that same month. Following a third UK printing in 1855 came a French translation in 1856 and a German translation in 1867. However, the book was not widely reviewed in Britain and it was not until the 1890s that it became really popular.
One of the routes to the novel's growth in popularity was the policy of publishers to increase sales by providing lower-priced illustrated editions. The first of these in Cranford's case was issued by Smith, Elder & Co in 1864 with illustrations by George du Maurier, whose approach was to interpret scenes in contemporary terms. There was a change of emphasis in Hugh Thomson's 1891 illustrations, where the Cranford interiors and styles of dress are pictured as closer to the preindustrial Regency period of Elizabeth Gaskell's memories. There was also an emotional shift from Du Maurier's psychological but compassionate depiction of people in limited circumstances to a greater emphasis on humour and sentimentality, a change of approach which was to prove influential on other illustrators for decades to come.
Structure
The work has no real plot, but is what The Athenaeum described as "a collection of sketches" on its appearance, affectionately delineating people and customs that were already becoming anachronisms. There it is the continuity of the characters involved that provides unity, rather than a linear narrative. Indeed, the perspective moves back and forth in time as past memories are introduced to account for the present. Necessary distancing is provided by the narrator, Mary Smith, whose point of view is that of a younger woman from a very different background simply reporting her experiences. As the daughter of a businessman living in Manchester (which she calls Drumble in the novel) she only visits Cranford occasionally, a device which is made to account for the episodic nature of the narration.
In reality, Manchester was now Mrs Gaskell's own place of residence after her marriage. But the difference between country town and industrial city is as much a function of time as of distance. Many of the personal details and stories, including that of the cow dressed in flannel, are based on remembered fact that had taken place years before. Acknowledging this in a letter to John Ruskin, Mrs Gaskell commented that she had included less than she knew for fear of being thought to exaggerate. Moreover, the author's own preoccupation with class in her fiction is here refracted through the glass of a town out of step with what was developing beyond its parish boundaries. In Cranford "the system that, ushered in by the growing industrial and urban economy, was coming to replace the traditional system of rank", was slower to arrive than the railway.
In the view of Jenny Uglow, the novel chronicles a society in transition, moving from one where consideration of rank was the foremost regulator of behaviour and social relations to a more humane emphasis on responding to individual need. "The small social group begins to encompass those hitherto banned on grounds of class" as the female arbiters of society grow from their initial illusion that their conservative values are effective guardians of gentility to a realisation that "kindness and concern for each other" are a more effective basis of mutual support.
Synopsis
The episodes described as taking place in Cranford were originally published under eight separate titles. The first, titled Our Society in Cranford and comprising the first two chapters of the eventual novel, introduces a female society of "Amazons", mostly widows or elderly unmarried women, living in genteel poverty and concealing the fact under what they call "elegant economy". These visit each other's houses according to a restrictive code of rules overseen by those among them most highly connected socially by birth or marriage. The arrival of Captain Brown, retired from the military and now a railway employee, disrupts their small world by his unguarded references to taboo subjects. Just as he gains their respect by his kindness and openness, he is killed rescuing a child from being run over by a train. His sickly elder daughter dies soon after and Jesse Brown is then freed to marry an old military admirer.
A Love Affair at Cranford (the eventual chapters 3–4) begins after the elder Miss Jenkyns' death, when her sister Matty is flustered by having to host a visit from her cousin, Major Jenkyns. Martha is hired as a new servant, whom Mary Smith trains, and the two later encounter Mr Holbrook in the town. Miss Matty recounts how she was prevented from marrying him when young for reasons of social status but gladly accepts an invitation to dinner in his house. Shortly afterwards he takes a trip to Paris and dies on his return and Matty goes into mourning.
Memory at Cranford (chapters 5–6), in which the reading of old family letters tells the story of Matty's parents. She then recalls the closeness between herself and her brother Peter and how a piece of mischief so enraged their father that he beat his son in public. Peter then ran away from home and was last heard of leaving as a soldier to fight in India.
Visiting at Cranford (chapters 7–8) begins with Betty Barker's inviting the Cranford ladies to tea, at which social rules are broken but forgiven after all are persuaded to drink cherry brandy and Mrs Jamieson announces the coming stay of her elder brother's widow, Lady Glenmire. Tension follows the snobbery of Mrs Jamieson over this relationship, which is deflated when Lady Glenmire shows herself very approachable at a party given in her honour.
The Great Cranford Panic (chapters 9-11). The town is impressed by the arrival of the mysterious Signor Brunoni and attend his conjuring show. Gossip afterwards connects him with a spate of robberies that terrify the ladies. But he is later discovered lying ill in lodgings and turns out to be an ex-soldier named Samuel Brown. His wife then describes their time in India and how her little daughter was nursed to health there by a kind Englishman called Jenkyns. Mary Smith wonders whether this might have been Matty's lost brother and decides to make enquiries.
Stopped payment at Cranford (chapter 12–13). Mr Hoggins is called in to look after Signor Brunoni, where Lady Glenmire meets and becomes engaged to him. While out shopping, Matty hears the rumour that her bank may stop payment on its notes and, as an investor there, insists on paying in coin for a customer's purchase. The bankruptcy is confirmed next day.
Friends in need (chapter 14). Though Matty will soon be penniless and can no longer afford a maid, Martha refuses to leave. Instead she proposes marrying Jem Hearn and taking Matty in as her lodger. Meanwhile, Miss Pole calls a meeting of the ladies and they agree to sacrifice some of their own income to support Matty, while getting Mary's father to pretend that it comes as a return on her investments.
A happy return to Cranford (chapters 15–16)
After a successful sale of her belongings, Matty's house is taken over by Jem and Martha. There she uses the parlour to trade in tea at Mary's suggestion. But this arrangement does not last for long since Peter arrives after Mary has contacted him, having made a fortune as a planter in India. Matty is delighted and Peter makes sure she remains in the esteem of the "Amazons" by becoming a favourite among them as a peace-maker and teller of tall stories.
Characters
Mary Smith – The narrator, a frequent visitor of the Jenkyns family and Miss Pole.
Miss Deborah Jenkyns – The domineering elder daughter of the former rector.
Miss Matty Jenkyns – The rector's younger daughter.
Peter Jenkyns – The son of the family, who ran away from home and eventually settled in India.
Miss Pole – The town gossip, Miss Matty's friend.
The Honourable Mrs Jamieson – As daughter of a governor and the widowed daughter-in-law of a baron, she is considered Cranford's social arbiter.
Mrs Forrester – Another widow who, as an officer's daughter and the widow of a major, is accepted into the Cranford social circle.
Miss Fitz-Adam – Mr Hoggins' sister, a wealthy widow who is regarded by Mrs Jamieson as her social inferior.
Lady Glenmire – Mrs. Jamieson's widowed sister-in-law, who does not share her social prejudices.
Betty Barker – A retired milliner to the gentry, once employed as a maid by Mrs Jamieson.
Captain Brown – A half-pay army captain, who comes to live at Cranford with his two daughters.
Thomas Holbrook – Miss Pole's cousin, a successful farmer who was once Miss Matty's suitor.
Dr Hoggins – As the Cranford surgeon he is of uncertain social status and is discriminated against because of his "vulgar" surname.
Mr Smith – A wealthy Drumble businessman and Mary's father.
Martha – Miss Matty's devoted maid.
Jem Hearn – A joiner, Martha's fiancé.
Mr Mulliner – Mrs. Jamieson's butler.
Signor Brunoni – Stage name of the travelling magician, a former soldier.
Signora Brunoni – His wife, who accompanied him when his regiment was sent to India.
Sequels and adaptations
Elizabeth Gaskell had not done entirely with Knutsford with the publication of Cranford. Thomas Higgins, an 18th-century highwayman and former inhabitant of the town, was made the subject of "The Squire’s Story", published in the Christmas 1853 number of Household Words, although it was there set in the fictitious Derbyshire town of Barford. Then years later she made the arrival of the hoop skirt the subject of an additional farcical episode in "The Cage at Cranford", published by Dickens in his new magazine All the Year Round in November 1863.
Theatrical adaptations of the novel began at the turn of the century, the first few of which were produced in the US. Among these were Alice Byington's Cranford Dames, a play in five scenes (New York, 1900), and Marguerite Merington's Cranford: A Play, a three-act comedy set in the time of William IV, (New York 1905). Some of the later British examples were merely dramatic episodes and included "The Bank Breaks" by Arthur Phosphor Mallam (1872-1948), based on chapters 13-15 (1912); Guy Pertwee's "A Cranford Card Party" (1913); Harry Brighouse's 'Cranford sketch', "Followers" (1915); and Amy M. Robertson's "The Panic from Cranford" (1930), based on chapter 10. 1930 also saw the tangential 'play for boys', Higgins, the Highwayman of Cranford, by Ronald Gow.
In America the novel was adapted for NBC radio in 1946. Martyn Coleman's three-act play for theatre, first produced in 1951, was adapted for British television that year. Subsequently, a four-part television adaptation from the novel was broadcast by BBC in 1972. There was also a British musical based on the novel staged in 1975 and another broadcast by Thames Television in 1976. In 2007 the five-part television series that appeared under the title Cranford was in reality elided with three other works by Gaskell: My Lady Ludlow, Mr. Harrison's Confessions and The Last Generation in England. A sequel, Return to Cranford, was broadcast in 2009 in the UK and 2010 in the USA.
Bibliography
Dinah Birch, introduction to OUP Cranford (2011)
Esther Alice Chadwick, Mrs Gaskell: Haunts, Homes, and Stories (London 1910)
Peter Keating, "Introduction" to the Penguin edition of Cranford (1976)
Thomas Recchio, Elizabeth Gaskell’s Cranford: a publishing history, Ashgate 2009
References
External links
1853 British novels
Novels by Elizabeth Gaskell
Novels first published in serial form
Works originally published in Household Words
Victorian novels
Novels set in Cheshire
British novels adapted into television shows | [
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224529 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wives%20and%20Daughters | Wives and Daughters | Wives and Daughters, An Every-Day Story is a novel by Elizabeth Gaskell, first published in the Cornhill Magazine as a serial from August 1864 to January 1866. It was partly written whilst Gaskell was staying with the salon hostess Mary Elizabeth Mohl at her home on the Rue de Bac in Paris.
When Mrs Gaskell died suddenly in 1865, it was not quite complete, and the last section was written by Frederick Greenwood.
The story is about Molly Gibson, the only daughter of a widowed doctor living in a provincial English town in the 1830s.
Plot summary
The novel opens with young Molly Gibson, who has been raised by her widowed father, Dr. Gibson. During a visit to the local aristocratic 'great house' of Lord and Lady Cumnor, Molly loses her way in the estate and falls asleep under a tree. Lady Cuxhaven (one of the daughters of the house) and Mrs. Kirkpatrick (an ex-governess to the Cumnor children) find Molly in her slumbering state and Molly is put to bed in Mrs. Kirkpatrick's room. There are allusions to the latter as Miss Clare, the name by which she was known when a governess. Clare appears to be a kind woman and assures Molly that she will wake her up when it is time for the entourage to leave. However, she forgets to do so and Molly is stranded in the mansion. She is distressed at the thought of spending the night at the mansion. To her relief, her father arrives to collect her.
Seven years later, Molly is described as an attractive and rather unworldly young woman, which arouses the interest of one of her father's apprentices, Mr. Coxe. Mr Gibson discovers the young man's secret affection and sends Molly to stay with the Hamleys of Hamley Hall, a gentry family that purportedly dates from the Heptarchy but whose circumstances are now reduced. Molly forms a close attachment with Mrs. Hamley, who embraces her almost as a daughter. Molly also befriends the younger of the Hamley sons, Roger. Molly is aware that, as the daughter of a professional man, she would not be considered a suitable match for the sons of Squire Hamley. The elder son Osborne, is expected to make a brilliant marriage after an excellent career at Cambridge: he is handsome, clever and more fashionable than his brother. However, he has performed poorly at university, breaking the hearts of his parents.
During Molly's absence from the house, Mr. Gibson contemplates a second marriage. He expects that marriage will improve his domestic comfort and provide Molly with a mother figure to shield her from influences such as Mr. Coxe. He finds Miss Clare ideally matched to his requirements and recalls her apparent kindness to Molly many years ago. Molly remembers her from their previous encounter and has little love for her. For her father's sake, she does her best to get on with her socially ambitious and selfish stepmother, but the home is not always happy. However, Molly does find an ally in her new stepsister, Cynthia, who is about the same age as Molly. The two girls are a study in contrasts: Cynthia is far more worldly and rebellious than Molly, who is naive and slightly awkward. Cynthia has been educated in France, and it gradually becomes apparent that she and her mother have secrets in their past, involving the land agent from the great house, Mr. Preston, who is rumoured to be a gambler and a scoundrel.
As Molly continues to frequent Hamley Hall, she accidentally discovers a great secret: Osborne has married for love, to a French Roman Catholic ex-nursery maid, Aimee, whom he has established in a secret cottage as he is convinced that his father would never accept Aimée as his daughter-in-law. To confound his problems, Osborne Hamley's failures at the university make his invalid mother's illness worse and widens the divide between him and his father, which is amplified by the considerable debts Osborne has run up in maintaining his secret wife. Mrs Hamley dies, and the breach between the squire and his eldest son seems irreparable. Younger son Roger continues to work hard at university and ultimately gains the honours and rewards that were expected for his brother. Mrs. Gibson tries unsuccessfully to arrange a marriage between Cynthia and Osborne, as her aspirations include having a daughter married to landed gentry. Molly, however, has always preferred Roger's good sense and honourable character and soon falls in love with him. Unfortunately, Roger falls in love with Cynthia and when Mrs. Gibson overhears that Osborne may be fatally ill, she begins promoting the match. Just before Roger leaves on a two-year scientific expedition to Africa, he asks for Cynthia's hand and she accepts, although she insists that their engagement should remain secret until Roger returns. Molly is heartbroken, and struggles with her sorrow and her knowledge that Cynthia lacks affection for Roger.
Cynthia reveals to Molly that several years before, when she was just fifteen, she promised herself to Mr Preston following a loan of £20. Mr Preston is still obsessed with Cynthia, and threatens to show Roger letters she wrote promising to marry him. Molly intervenes on Cynthia's behalf and manages to break off the engagement and get back the letters; however, this creates rumours that she is involved with Preston herself, causing her to be the subject of malicious gossip. This leads to an emotional scene in which both Dr Gibson and Mrs Gibson discover Cynthia's involvement with Mr Preston. After this, Cynthia breaks off her engagement to Roger, sustaining rebukes and insults for her inconstancy, then quickly accepts and marries Mr Henderson, a professional gentleman she met in London. Molly's reputation is only restored after she goes driving with Lady Harriet Cumnor, who is well aware of how fickle public opinion can be and wants to help Molly. Osborne, ill and convinced that he will die soon, begs Molly to remember his wife and child when he is gone. Osborne dies shortly thereafter, and Molly reveals the existence of his wife and child to the grieving Squire Hamley. Osborne's widow, Aimee, arrives at Hamley Hall after receiving word that her husband is ill, bringing with her their little son, named for his uncle Roger but called "little Osborne" in honour of his father. This child, little Osborne, is now the heir to Hamley Hall. Roger has rushed home to be with his father, and his affection and good sense help the squire to see the possible joy to be had in this new family, especially the grandson. He manages to overcome his prejudice against Aimee's Catholicism and asks them both to live with him.
As he resettles into the local scientific community, Roger begins to realise that his affection for Molly is more than that of a brother for a sister. Aided by the kind interference of Lady Harriet, who has always recognised Molly's worth and charms, he finds himself pained at the thought of Molly with anyone else. Still, he hesitates at giving in to his feelings, feeling unworthy of her love after throwing away his affection on the fickle Cynthia. Before he returns to Africa, he confides his feelings to Mr Gibson, who heartily gives his blessing to the union. Roger is thwarted, this time by a scarlet fever scare, in his attempt to speak to Molly before he leaves. At this point, Gaskell's novel stops, unfinished at her death. She related to a friend that she had intended Roger to return and present Molly with a dried flower (a gift Molly gave him before his departure), as proof of his enduring love. This scene was never realised and the novel remains unfinished. In the BBC adaptation, an alternative ending was written in which Roger is unable to leave Molly without speaking of his love, and they marry and return to Africa together.
Television adaptations
In 1971, a television adaptation was made.
In 1999, BBC produced a four-part serial based on the novel with a screenplay written by Andrew Davies; Wives and Daughters featuring Justine Waddell, Bill Paterson, Francesca Annis, Keeley Hawes, Rosamund Pike, Tom Hollander, Anthony Howell, Michael Gambon, Penelope Wilton, Barbara Flynn, Deborah Findlay, Iain Glen, Barbara Leigh-Hunt, and Ian Carmichael.
References
External links
Wives and Daughters – complete book in HTML one page for each chapter.
1864 British novels
Works originally published in The Cornhill Magazine
Novels by Elizabeth Gaskell
Novels first published in serial form
Novels set in the 1830s
British novels adapted into television shows | [
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224532 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Coalition%20Party | National Coalition Party | The National Coalition Party (NCP; ; ; ; ) is a liberal-conservative political party in Finland.
Ideologically, the National Coalition Party is positioned on the centre-right on the political spectrum, and it has been described as liberal, conservative, conservative-liberal, and liberal-conservative. Founded in 1918, the National Coalition Party is one of the "big three" parties that have dominated Finnish national politics for several decades, along with the Social Democratic Party and the Centre Party. The current party chair is Petteri Orpo, elected on 11 June 2016. The party self-statedly bases its politics on "freedom, responsibility and democracy, equal opportunities, education, supportiveness, tolerance and caring" and supports multiculturalism and LGBT rights. Their foreign stances are pro-NATO and pro-European orientated, and they are a member of the European People's Party (EPP).
The party's vote share was approximately 20% in parliamentary elections in the 1990s and 2000s. It won 44 out of 200 seats in the parliamentary elections of 2011, becoming the largest party in the Finnish Parliament (; ) for the first time in its history. On the municipal level, it became the most popular party in 2008. In the 2015 election, the NCP lost its status as the country's largest party, finishing second in votes and third in seats, but again joined the governing coalition. After the 2019 election, it is now the third-largest party in the Finnish Parliament, behind the Social Democrats and the Finns Party, and became the second-largest opposition party after being excluded from the Rinne Cabinet.
History
1918–1939
The National Coalition Party was founded on 9 December 1918 after the Finnish Civil War by the majority of the Finnish Party and the minority of the Young Finnish Party, both supporting Prince Frederick Charles of Hesse as the King of Finland in the new monarchy. The previous day, the republicans of both parties had founded the National Progressive Party. With over 600 representatives, the foundational meeting of NCP declared the following:A national coalition is needed over old party lines that have lost meaning and have too long separated similarly thinking citizens. This coalition's grand task must be to work to strengthen in our nation the forces that maintain society. Lawful societal order must be strictly upheld and there must be no compromise with revolutionary aspirations. But simultaneously, determined constructive reform work must be pursued."The party sought to accomplish their task by advocating for constitutional monarchy and, failing that, strong governmental powers within a republican framework. On the other hand, their goal was to implement a number of social and economic reforms, such as compulsory education, universal health care, and progressive income and property taxation. The monarchist aims failed and Finland became a parliamentary republic—in which NCP advocated for strong presidential powers. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, the threat posed by Joseph Stalin's communist Soviet Union influenced Finnish politics. Communists, backed by Soviet leaders, accelerated their activities while the ideological position of the National Coalition Party shifted to strongly conservative. The new ideology was poorly received, particularly by the youth, attracted instead more to irredentist and fascist movements, such as the Academic Karelia Society or Patriotic People's Movement.
In the 1933 parliamentary election, the party formed an electoral coalition with the Patriotic People's Movement, founded by former supporters of the radical nationalist Lapua Movement—even though P.E. Svinhufvud, the party's first President of Finland, played a key role in halting the Lapua Movement and vanquishing their Mäntsälä rebellion. The result was a major defeat as the NCP lost 24 of its 42 seats in Parliament. The NCP broke ties with the Patriotic People's Movement in 1934 under the newly elected party chair J.K. Paasikivi, but was nevertheless shut out from the Finnish Government until the outbreak of the Winter War in 1939 and only slowly regained support.
1939–2000
During the Winter War and the Continuation War in 1939–1944, the party took part in the war-time national unity governments and generally had strong support for its government policies. After the wars, the National Coalition Party sought to portray itself as a defender of democracy against the resurgent Finnish communists. Chair Paasikivi, who had advocated making more concessions to Soviet Union before the Winter War and taken a cautious line regarding cooperation with Germany before the Continuation War, acted first as Prime Minister of Finland (1944–1946) and then as President (1946–1956) of Finland. Paasikivi is remembered as the formulator of Finnish foreign policy after World War II. The conflict between the NCP and the communist Finnish People's Democratic League culminated when President Paasikivi fired the communist Minister of the Interior Yrjö Leino, who had used the State Police to spy on the party's youth wing among other abuses.
In 1951, the party changed its official name from the original to the current . The 1950s were also a time of ideological shifts, as the emphasis on individual liberty and free market reforms increased at the expense of social conservatism and maintenance of a strong government. A minor division in 1958 led to the formation of the Christian Democrats party. From 1966 to 1987, the party was in the opposition. By criticizing Finnish communists and President Urho Kekkonen of the Centre Party, the party had lost the President's trust—and thus governments formed by the Centre Party and left-wing parties followed one another. A new guard emerged within the NCP in the 1970s that sought to improve relations with long-serving President Kekkonen. Their work was partially successful in the late 1970s. However, even though the NCP supported Kekkonen for president in 1978 and became the second largest party in the country in the 1979 parliamentary election, a spot in the government continued to elude the NCP until the end of Kekkonen's time in office.
During the long years in opposition, the party's support grew steadily and in 1987 it attained the best parliamentary election result in its history so far. Harri Holkeri became the party's first prime minister since Paasikivi. During Holkeri's time in office, the Finnish economy suffered a downturn, precipitated by a multitude of factors, and the 1991 parliamentary election resulted in a loss. The party continued in government as a minor partner until 2003.
2000–present
After losing six seats in the 2003 parliamentary election, the National Coalition Party spent the next electoral period in opposition. Jyrki Katainen was elected party chair in 2004 and in March 2006, vice-president of the European People's Party (EPP). Under the leadership of Katainen, chair until 2014, liberalism became the main attribute of the party. In the 2007 parliamentary election, the party increased its share to 50 seats in the largest gain of the election. The party held a close second place in Parliament, shy of the Centre Party and its 51 seats. After the election, the party entered into a coalition government together with the Centre Party, the Green League, and the Swedish People's Party. The NCP secured important ministerial portfolios, including finance and foreign affairs. In the 2011 parliamentary election, the party finished first place for the first time in its history with 44 seats, despite losing 6 seats, and party chair Jyrki Katainen formed his cabinet as a six-party coalition government from parties on the left and on the right after lengthy negotiations.
The National Coalition Party's candidate in the 2006 Finnish presidential election was former minister of finance and former party chair Sauli Niinistö. He qualified for the second round runoff as one of the top two candidates in the first round but was defeated by the incumbent Tarja Halonen with 51.8% of the vote against his 48.2%. The party nominated Sauli Niinistö again for the presidential election of 2012. Niinistö won the election, beating his Green League opponent Pekka Haavisto decisively on the second round with a 62.6% portion of the votes, and thus becoming the third president elected from the party and the first one since 1956. Niinistö's margin of victory was larger than that of any previous directly elected president in Finland. He won a majority in 14 of the country's 15 constituencies. Niinistö is described as a pragmatical fiscal conservative and a pro-European and supporting restraint of bailouts to partner countries. Upon taking office, Niinistö intended to strengthen interaction with the United States and China and maintain good relations with Russia as well as address the European debt crisis. Niinistö was re-elected in 2018 for a second six-year term. He ran as an independent but had the support of the National Coalition Party.
In 2014, Katainen stepped down as party chair and Prime Minister of Finland for a vice-president position in the European Commission. Katainen was replaced by Alexander Stubb as chair of the National Coalition Party in the June 2014 leadership election and thus became the prime minister. Katainen's cabinet was likewise succeeded by the cabinet of Alexander Stubb on 23 June 2014. Stubb went on to lead the party into the 2015 parliamentary election, in which the National Coalition Party placed second in votes and third in parliamentary seats. After the election, National Coalition joined a right-leaning majority coalition consisting of the three largest parties – the Centre Party, the Finns Party and the National Coalition Party. During his term, Stubb faced growing criticism for the NCP's poor poll results, the declining economy as well as compromises in the three-party government. After two years as party chair, Stubb was voted by 441 to 361 to be replaced by Petteri Orpo at the leadership election of June 2016.
Ideology and political position
According to its 2006-adopted party platform, the National Coalition Party's policy is based on "freedom, responsibility and democracy, equality of opportunity, education, supportiveness, tolerance and caring". The party is described by literature as a liberal and conservative as well as a liberal-conservative party in the centre-right with catch-all party characteristics. The non-profit Democratic Society described it as "the heir to both liberal and conservative strains of right-of-centre thought" that is becoming increasingly liberal compared to its official stance of conservatism.
Specifically, it contains elements of cultural and economic liberalism and social reformism. For example, it supports multiculturalism, work-based immigration, gay rights and same-sex marriage. Although it was previously considered to have been critical of the Nordic welfare model and campaigned for strict doctrines of economic liberalism, the party in the 1970s shifted to supporting more social liberalism, such as increased social security and a welfare state, which was justified by increased individual liberty. In international relations, the party advocates for multilateralism. It is pro-European and supports continued European integration within the European Union (EU). The party also advocates for Finnish membership in NATO.
Voter base
The magazine Suomen Kuvalehti created a profile of a typical National Coalition Party voter from over 18,000 interviews in 2011: a 36-year-old lawyer or management consultant living with a family in the Capital region who supports economic liberalism and conservative values and enjoys alpine skiing and golf. Unlike other conservative parties in Europe, the party's voters are predominantly urban while rural regions favor the Centre Party. In 2005, the NCP had the highest proportion of women members out of the major parties. Membership in the party was momentarily on the rise in 2008, but had declined from 41,000 to 34,000 by 2016. In contrast, the party had 81,000 members in 1970. According to 2008 polling data, the National Coalition Party was the most positively viewed party by Finns and was the most favored party among young generations in 2008 and 2014 polls.
Organisation
The main structure of the National Coalition Party comprises municipal and local chapters organized into districts and as well as the women's, student and youth wings. The party conference (), the main decision-making body convening every two years with representatives from the suborganisations as its members, elects the party chair and three deputy chairs as well as the 61-member party council ().
The party chair and the deputy chairs lead the party board (), which is in charge of the daily management and is composed of a representative from each district and from each of the three wings. The party council also elects the party secretary to head the main office, located in Helsinki, and to coordinate the National Coalition Party's activities according to the board's decisions. Additionally, the NCP has separate groups for coordinating ministers, members of Parliament, and members of the European Parliament.
Two foundations, and , assist the party with a source of funding and as an archive, respectively. Reportedly, donations to are kept secret, but according to the treasurer, donations are a limited asset compared to the foundation's 5 million euro investment capital. In 2008, the foundation supported NCP with €400,000. The NCP owns two companies, and , to publish the party newspapers and as well as to handle media communications. Additionally, some thematic organizations report themselves as close to the party, such as the Swedish-language group and the LGBT network .
Election results
Election results are based on respective files of the Official Statistics of Finland () published by the national Statistics Finland institution.
Parliament of Finland
European Parliament
Municipal
Presidential
Indirect elections
Direct elections
Prominent party leaders
The following NCP members have held high offices:
Lauri Ingman – Prime Minister 1918–1919, 1924–1925
Antti Tulenheimo – Prime Minister 1925
Pehr Evind Svinhufvud – President 1931–1937
Edwin Linkomies – Prime Minister 1943–1944
Juho Kusti Paasikivi – President 1946–1956, Prime Minister 1944–1946
Harri Holkeri – Prime Minister 1987–1991
Riitta Uosukainen – Minister of Education 1991–1994, Speaker of the Parliament 1994–2003
Sauli Niinistö – Minister of Finance 1995–2003, Speaker of the Parliament 2007–2011, President 2012–
Jyrki Katainen – Minister of Finance 2007–2011, Prime Minister 2011–2014, vice president of the European Commission 2014–
Alexander Stubb – Prime Minister, 2014–2015, Minister of Finance 2015–2016
See also
Constitution of Finland
Foreign relations of Finland
Moderate Party – similar party in Sweden
Nordic model
Notes and references
Notes
The newspapers and are published by NCP-owned companies
References
External links
Political parties established in 1918
1918 establishments in Finland
Liberal conservative parties
Conservative parties in Finland
Pro-European political parties in Finland
International Democrat Union member parties
Conservatism in Finland
Member parties of the European People's Party
Parties represented in the European Parliament
Registered political parties in Finland
Political parties of the Russian Revolution
Liberal parties in Finland
Liberalism in Europe | [
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224534 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left%20Alliance%20%28Finland%29 | Left Alliance (Finland) | The Left Alliance ( , , vas.) is a left-wing political party in Finland.
The Left Alliance was founded in 1990 as the chief successor of the left-wing Finnish People's Democratic League (SKDL). Although not as electorally successful as the SKDL, it has achieved some success, typically receiving around eight to ten percent of the vote in parliamentary elections. It has participated in five cabinets, most recently the Marin Cabinet formed in 2019. It is socialist, and democratic-socialist, and it supports the principles of eco-socialism.
A member of the Party of the European Left and Nordic Green Left Alliance, the party organ is the weekly Kansan Uutiset.
History
The party was founded by the Finnish People's Democratic League (SKDL), the majority of members of the waning Communist Party of Finland (SKP) and the Finnish Women's Democratic League (SNDL). It was later joined by the communist Democratic Alternative. The founding meeting was held in April 1990 in Helsinki, following the publishing of the April Declaration, which stated the party's ideals.
The party's history has been characterised by internal disputes and bickering, as it was formed via people with very different views on society. There have been several defections from the Left Alliance to the Social Democratic Party (SDP) and the newly formed Communist Party of Finland. In 2005, the party's former secretary and Central Organisation of Finnish Trade Unions's assistant head Matti Viialainen formed a group to promote a merger between the two largest Finnish left-wing political parties, the Left Alliance and the SDP. This caused an outrage within the Left Alliance, and Viialainen was condemned for wanting to break up the party. Viialainen subsequently left the party and ran for parliament on the SDP ticket in 2007.
In 2006, the party's leader Suvi-Anne Siimes announced her resignation from the post and the party as a result of long-standing feuds with the leftist section of the party. On 13 May 2006 Martti Korhonen was elected as the new party leader. He was followed by Paavo Arhinmäki in June 2009, following the party's bad performance in the 2009 EU parliamentary election, in which the party lost its only seat.
In the 2011 election, the party won 14 seats and became a partner in the six-party grand coalition cabinet led by Jyrki Katainen. The decision to join the government created a split in the party, leading to the expulsion of two MPs from the parliamentary group. In 2014 the Left Alliance left the cabinet over a dispute on a package of spending cuts and tax hikes. In 2014 European Parliament election, the party regained their seat.
In the 2015 parliamentary election, the party received 211,615 votes, 7.1% of the total, and won 12 seats in the parliament. In April 2016, Arhinmäki announced that he wouldn't seek another term as the party leader. On 11 June 2016, Arhinmäki was succeeded by Li Andersson. Under the leadership of Andersson, the party gained support in the 2017 municipal elections and the 2019 parliamentary election; in the latter, the party increased its representation in the parliament for the first time since 1995.
Ideology
According to the Left Alliance's party programme, adopted by the 5th Party Congress 16 June 2007, the fundamental values of the Left Alliance are equality, freedom, sustainable development, and democracy. The party believes democracy must be strengthened, stronger than the power of capital and challenge global capitalism. Important values also include global solidarity, stopping political polarisation in Finland, freedom and the right to work and income for all people, and environmental consciousness. The party is for equality in all its forms and identifies strongly as feminist and anti-racist as well as supporting economic equality. The party supports introducing a basic income and prioritizes supporting the weakest members of society.
The Left Alliance wants to improve the European Union to be more socially just. The party endorses a European Green New Deal via changing the European Central Bank's finance-sector quantitative easing stimulus into green stimulus investments to mitigate global warming and to provide green collar jobs.
Chairs
Claes Andersson (1990–1998)
Suvi-Anne Siimes (1998–2006)
Martti Korhonen (2006–2009)
Paavo Arhinmäki (2009–2016)
Li Andersson (2016–present)
Election results
Parliamentary elections
Municipal elections
European Parliament
Presidential elections
Current members of parliament
The following politicians were elected to the Finnish Parliament in the April 2019 parliamentary election.
Li Andersson
Paavo Arhinmäki (replaced by Suldaan Said Ahmed on 9 September 2021)
Katja Hänninen
Anna Kontula
Johannes Yrttiaho
Mai Kivelä
Markus Mustajärvi
Jari Myllykoski
Aino-Kaisa Pekonen
Hanna Sarkkinen
Matti Semi
Veronika Honkasalo
Juho Kautto
Pia Lohikoski
Jussi Saramo
Merja Kyllönen
References
External links
1990 establishments in Finland
Nordic Green Left Alliance
Parties represented in the European Parliament
Party of the European Left member parties
Political parties established in 1990
Registered political parties in Finland
Socialist parties in Finland | [
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224539 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20Democrats%20%28Finland%29 | Christian Democrats (Finland) | The Christian Democrats (, ; KD) is a Christian-democratic political party in Finland.
It was founded in May 1958, chiefly by the Christian faction of the National Coalition Party. It entered parliament in 1970. The party leader since 28 August 2015 has been Sari Essayah. The Christian Democrats have five seats in the Finnish Parliament. It is positioned on the centre-right on the political spectrum.
The party name was for a long time abbreviated to SKL (standing for , , Finnish Christian League), until 2001, when the party changed its name to the current Christian Democrats and its abbreviation to KD.The KD was a minor party in the centre-right coalition government led by Prime Minister Esko Aho between 1991 and 1994 and later a part of Rainbow coalition led by Jyrki Katainen and Alexander Stubb between 2011 and 2015. The party is a member of the European People's Party (EPP). KD-lehti () is the party's weekly newspaper.
History
When the Christian Democrats was founded in 1958, as the name Finnish Christian League, the communist-dominated Finnish People's Democratic League was polling about 25 per cent and became the largest parliamentary grouping. That, together with lax alcohol laws, salacious publications and assistance from the Norwegian KrF, sparked the Christian initiative.
The 1960s were and 'incubation period', but there was a growing conviction of the need for parliamentary seats in the wake of liberal legislation. At the 'earthquake election' of 1970, after four years of Popular front government, the CD had a solitary Raino Westerholm elected. Westerholm was a party chair between 1973 and 1982. Westerholm polled a creditable 8.8 per cent at the 1978 presidential election. The modest 'Westerholm effect' was a backlash for long-serving Urho Kekkonen, who was backed by all of the larger parties.
Party was a junior coalition partner in government from 1991 to 1995, when it occupied the development aid portfolio. It was a soft Eurospectic party and stressed the importance of the principle of subsidiarity in European affairs. After being renamed The Christian Democrats in 2001 it moved to a pro-European stance. Bjarne Kallis, the party chairman between 1995 and 2004, was instrumental in the party's change of name and concern to attract a wider electorate, being able to draw votes from the Swedish People's Party and Finnish-speaking Conservative and Centre voters.
At the 2003 general election, The Christian Democrats polled their highest vote of 5.3 %.
English-speaking members of the party founded their own chapter in Helsinki in 2004. Its monthly meetings attract immigrants to participate in societal matters and the issues that are particularly important to them. In 2005, a Russian-speaking chapter was also founded in Helsinki.
Ideology
The party describes itself as following the tenets of Christian democracy. It emphasizes "respect of human dignity, the importance of family and close communities, defending the weak, encouraging resourcefulness and individual and collective responsibility, not just for themselves but also for their neighbours and the rest of creation". Membership is open to everyone who agrees with these values and aims. The party also claims to be committed to environmental protection. It is also orientated towards socially conservative policies.
Politicians
List of party chairs
Olavi Päivänsalo (1958-1964)
Ahti Tele (1964-1967)
Eino Sares (1967-1970)
Olavi Majlander (1970-1973)
Raino Westerholm (1973-1982)
Esko Almgren (1982-1989)
Toimi Kankaanniemi (1989-1995)
Bjarne Kallis (1995-2004)
Päivi Räsänen (2004-2015)
Sari Essayah (2015–)
First vice chairs
Raino Westerholm (1971–1973)
Ilmari Helimäki (1973–1982)
Olavi Ronkainen (1982–1985)
Marjatta Laakko (1985–?)
Juhani Peltonen (-1991)
Leea Hiltunen (1991–2003)
Marja-Leena Kemppainen (2003–2005)
Peter Östman (2005–2009)
Sari Palm (2009–2011)
Teuvo V. Riikonen (2011–2013)
Sauli Ahvenjärvi (2013–2015)
Tommy Björkskog (2015–2017)
Tiina Tuomela (2017–2019)
Peter Östman (2019–)
Party secretary
1958–1959: S. N. Venho
1959–1965: Paavo Luostarinen
1965–1978: Eino Pinomaa
1979–1982: Esko Almgren
1982–1996: Jouko Jääskeläinen
1997–2002: Milla Kalliomaa
2003: Eija-Riitta Korhola
2003–2007: Annika Kokko
2007–2009: Sari Essayah
2009–2011: Peter Östman
2011–2021: Asmo Maanselkä
2021–: Elsi Ranta
Current members of parliament
Sari Essayah (Savo-Karjala constituency)
Antero Laukkanen (Uusimaa constituency)
Päivi Räsänen (Häme constituency)
Sari Tanus (Pirkanmaa constituency)
Peter Östman (Vaasa constituency)
European Parliament
Sari Essayah was the most recent MEP of the party; she was elected to the European Parliament in the 2009 election but failed to win re-election in 2014.
Election results
Parliamentary elections
Local council elections
European parliamentary elections
Presidential elections
Indirect elections
Direct elections
Literature
Affiliated organisations
Christian Democratic Youth of Finland
Christian Democratic Women of Finland
KD News
Kompassi Think Tank
See also
Government of Finland
Parliament of Finland
Elections in Finland
European People's Party
Christian Democrats – similar party in Sweden
Christian Democratic Party – similar party in Norway
Nordic model
Further reading
References
External links
Christian democratic parties in Europe
Protestant political parties
Conservative parties in Finland
1958 establishments in Finland
Registered political parties in Finland
Political parties established in 1958
Social conservative parties
Member parties of the European People's Party | [
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224540 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-X | Project-X | Project-X is a horizontally scrolling shooter for the Amiga released in 1992. It was developed and published by Team17. The game resembles Konami's side-scrolling shooter games such as Gradius, Salamander and Parodius. It was ported to MS-DOS.
Plot
Taking place many years in the future in colonized space, military scientists have disposed of countless, defective military droids on an un-colonized terrestrial planet called Ryxx. The droids eventually become sentient and, by way of revenge, start an attack against mankind, using a station to continually create more war machines. It is the player's mission to undergo Project X and eliminate the droid forces.
Gameplay
Players control a spacecraft of their choice, battling hundreds of alien ships. Various power-ups, numerous in the first level but increasingly rare afterwards, permit an exponential increase of the spacecraft's seven different weapons (Guns, Buildup, Side Shots, Homing Missiles, Plasma, Magma, and Laserbeam).
The game is composed of five levels. Many players never completed the second one (which had a very difficult ending), and most of the rest never went past level three. When Team17 realized this, they released Project-X SE on Amiga CD32, a special edition with the difficulty toned down. It was released as a budget game. A hack for the original game to enable the player to skip levels by holding down the fire button and pressing the escape key was also distributed on the coverdisks of several Amiga magazines.
Reception
According to Next Generation, Project-X was immensely successful in Europe, but only sold in moderate numbers in the U.S. Amiga Computing called it one of the best shooter games for that platform at the time, both for its technical excellence in graphics and sounds, and for its difficult and interesting gameplay.
Legacy
The game was followed by a PlayStation-only sequel, titled X2.
The game was parodied in one level of Team17's own Superfrog, as Project-F (with the 'F' presumably standing for "Frog"), even going as far as using a remixed version of the original game's theme tune.
References
1992 video games
Amiga games
Amiga CD32 games
DOS games
Horizontally scrolling shooters
Team17 games
Video games scored by Allister Brimble
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Science fiction video games | [
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] |
224541 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond%20the%20Limits | Beyond the Limits | Beyond the Limits is a 1992 book continuing the modeling of the consequences of a rapidly growing global population that was started in the 1972 report Limits to Growth. Donella Meadows, Dennis Meadows, and Jørgen Randers are the authors and all were involved in the original Club of Rome study as well. Beyond the Limits (Chelsea Green Publishing Company) and Earthscan addressed many of the criticisms of the Limits to Growth book, but still has caused controversy and mixed reactions.
Reviews
"Society has gone into overshoot, … a state of being beyond limits without knowing it. These limits are more like speed limits than barriers at the end of the road: the rate at which renewable resources can renew themselves, the rate at which we can change from nonrenewable resources to renewable ones, and the rate at which nature can recycle our pollution. … [W]e are overshooting such crucial resources as food and water while overwhelming nature with pollutants like those causing global warming."
"Beyond the Limits recognizes that the future doesn't lie in tinkering with resource use or simply squelching population growth in developing countries. A sustainable future will require profound social and psychological readjustments in the developed and developing world."
"Current crop yields can only sustain the world's population at subsistence levels, … while nonrenewable energy resources and fresh water supplies are dwindling, and greenhouse gases and other pollutants increase. But while the prognosis is disaster within decades if nothing is done, there are encouraging signs. Technology offers greater efficiency in energy consumption and pollution control, international response to the ozone crisis has been relatively swift, and recycling efforts are gaining headway. [However] … the conditions underlying limit overshoots--population growth and resource depletion in a finite world, for example--remain unaddressed in the corridors of power."
Influence
Billionaire investor Richard Rainwater indicates having been influenced by reading Beyond the Limits'. His niece Kelley Rainwater reports she gave him this book as a Christmas present. She was introduced to the book through Dr. Jay Earley who is a social transformation theorist and colleague of the Meadows.
See also
Donella Meadows' twelve leverage points to intervene in a system
World3
Steady-state economy
Peak Oil
Limits to Growth
References
1992 non-fiction books
1992 in the environment
Books about environmentalism
Environmental non-fiction books | [
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] |
224545 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists%20of%20volcanoes | Lists of volcanoes | These lists cover volcanoes by type and by location.
Type
List of extraterrestrial volcanoes
List of largest volcanic eruptions
List of shield volcanoes
List of stratovolcanoes
List of subglacial volcanoes
List of submarine volcanoes
List of volcanoes by elevation
Location
Africa
List of volcanoes in Algeria
List of volcanoes in Cameroon
List of volcanoes in Cape Verde
List of volcanoes in Chad
List of volcanoes in the Comoros
List of volcanoes in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
List of volcanoes in Djibouti
List of volcanoes in Equatorial Guinea
List of volcanoes in Eritrea
List of volcanoes in Ethiopia
List of volcanoes in Kenya
List of volcanoes in Libya
List of volcanoes in Madagascar
In Nigeria all the volcanoes are in the Biu Plateau
List of volcanoes in Réunion
List of volcanoes in Rwanda
São Tomé and Príncipe has only one volcano, Pico de São Tomé
List of volcanoes in South Africa
List of volcanoes in Sudan
List of volcanoes in Tanzania
List of volcanoes in Uganda
Americas
List of volcanoes in Argentina
List of volcanoes in Bolivia
List of volcanoes in Brazil
List of volcanoes in Canada
List of volcanoes in Chile
List of volcanoes in Colombia
List of volcanoes in Costa Rica
List of volcanoes in Dominica
List of volcanoes in Ecuador
List of volcanoes in El Salvador
List of volcanoes in Grenada
Guadeloupe has only one recognized volcano, La Grande Soufrière
List of volcanoes in Guatemala
List of volcanoes in Hawaii
List of volcanoes in Honduras
List of volcanoes in Martinique
List of volcanoes in Mexico
List of volcanoes in Montserrat
List of volcanoes in Nicaragua
List of volcanoes in Panama
List of volcanoes in Peru
List of volcanoes in Saint Kitts and Nevis
List of volcanoes in Saint Lucia
List of volcanoes in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
List of volcanoes in the United States
Venezuela has no recognized volcanoes.
Asia
List of volcanoes in Afghanistan
List of volcanoes in Armenia
List of volcanoes in Azerbaijan
List of volcanoes in Cambodia
List of volcanoes in China
List of volcanoes in India
List of volcanoes in Indonesia
List of volcanoes in Iran
The only known volcanoes in Israel are in the Golan Heights.
List of volcanoes in Japan
List of volcanoes in Korea
List of volcanoes in Malaysia
List of volcanoes in Mongolia
List of volcanoes in Myanmar
List of volcanoes in Pakistan
List of volcanoes in the Philippines
List of volcanoes in Saudi Arabia
List of volcanoes in Syria
List of volcanoes in Taiwan
List of volcanoes in Thailand
List of volcanoes in Turkey
List of volcanoes in Vietnam
List of volcanoes in Yemen
Europe
List of volcanoes in Europe
List of volcanoes in France
List of volcanoes in Germany
List of volcanoes in Georgia (country)
List of volcanoes in Greece
List of volcanoes in Iceland
List of volcanoes in Italy
List of volcanoes in the Netherlands
List of volcanoes in North Macedonia
List of volcanoes in Norway
List of volcanoes in Poland
List of volcanoes in Portugal
List of volcanoes in the Republic of Ireland
The only known volcano in Romania is Ciomadul.
List of volcanoes in Russia (European section)
List of volcanoes in Spain
List of volcanoes in the United Kingdom
Oceania, Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and Antarctica
List of volcanoes in Antarctica
List of volcanoes in Ascension Island
List of volcanoes in Australia
List of volcanoes in Fiji
List of volcanoes in French Polynesia
List of volcanoes in French Southern and Antarctic Lands
List of volcanoes in New Zealand
List of volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean
List of volcanoes in Papua New Guinea
List of volcanoes in Solomon Islands
List of volcanoes in South Sandwich Islands
List of volcanoes in Tristan da Cunha
List of volcanoes in Tonga
List of volcanoes in Vanuatu
List of volcanoes in Wallis Islands
List of volcanoes in Samoa
See also
Global Volcanism Program of the Smithsonian Institution
References
External links
Global Volcanism Program
Current eruptions
Volcano World
Lists of landforms | [
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224550 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Institute%20Fair | American Institute Fair | The American Institute Fair was held annually from 1829 until at least 1897 in New York City by the American Institute. The American Institute was founded in 1829 "for the encouragement of agriculture, commerce, manufactures, and the arts." The fair is sometimes considered the first world's fair in the United States, though it was fairly small by later standards, drawing about 30,000 attendees per year. It was held at Niblo's Garden in New York before being moved to the Crystal Palace in New York.
"At these fairs were displayed the finest products of agriculture and manufacturing, the newest types of machinery, the most recent contributions of inventive genius...[the fairs] served a two-fold purpose: that of playing the part of demonstrator to the public and that of furnishing an incentive to the exhibitors, both through competition and through the desire to win the very liberal awards and premiums."
References
F. W. Wile, ed., A century of industrial progress, New York (published for the American Institute of the City of New York), 1928.
E. Robey, "The Utility of Art: Mechanics’ Institute Fairs in New York City, 1828–1876," Ph.D. Dissertation, Columbia University, 2000.
1829 establishments in New York (state)
1897 disestablishments in New York (state)
1897 in New York City
19th century in Manhattan
Agricultural shows in the United States
Annual events in New York (state)
Festivals established in 1829
Recurring events disestablished in 1897
World's fairs in New York City | [
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224553 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad%20nauseam | Ad nauseam | is a Latin term for an argument or other discussion that has continued to the point of nausea. For example, "this has been discussed " indicates that the topic has been discussed extensively and those involved have grown sick of it. The fallacy of dragging the conversation to an ad nauseam state in order to then assert one's position as correct due to it not having been contradicted is also called (to infinity) and argument from repetition.
The term is defined by the American Heritage Dictionary as "to a disgusting or ridiculous degree; to the point of nausea." Colloquially, it is sometimes used as "until nobody cares to discuss it any more."
See also
Ad libitum
Big lie
Carthago delenda est
Filibuster
Godwin's law
Sealioning
Thought-terminating cliché
List of Latin phrases
References
External links
Latin logical phrases
Latin words and phrases | [
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224559 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Brown | Thomas Brown | Thomas Brown may refer to:
Arts and literature
Thomas Brown (satirist) (1662–1704), English satirist
Thomas Brown (philosopher) (1778–1820), Scottish poet and philosopher
Thomas Brown, pen name of Thomas Moore (1779–1852)
Thomas Brown (architect) (1781–1850), Scottish architect
Thomas Brown (prison architect) (1806–1872), Scottish architect
Thomas Edward Brown (1830–1897), Manx poet, scholar, and divine
T. Allston Brown (Thomas Allston Brown, 1836–1918), American theater critic and historian
Thomas Wilson Brown (born 1972), American actor
Business and industry
Thomas Brown (businessman) (1738–1797), American husbandman, businessman, and land speculator
Thomas Brown (engineer) (1772–1850), English surveyor, engineer, businessman, and landowner
Thomas Forster Brown (1835–1907), English civil and mining engineer
Politics and law
Australia
Thomas Brown (settler) (1803–1863), Australian pastoralist and politician
Thomas Brown (New South Wales colonial politician) (1811–1889), New South Wales politician
Thomas Brown (New South Wales politician) (1861–1934), Australian farmer and politician
Thomas Leishman Brown (1862–1946), Australian politician and trade unionist
United States
Thomas Brown (Florida politician) (1785–1867), American politician, second Governor of Florida
Thomas J. Brown (judge) (1836–1915), Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Texas
Thomas H. Brown (mayor) (1839–1908), American politician, mayor of Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Thomas C. Brown (1870–1952), New York state senator
Thomas H. Brown (Michigan politician) (1917–2002), American politician
Other countries
Thomas Watters Brown (1879–1944), Northern Irish politician
Thomas James Brown (1886–1970), British coal miner and Labour Party politician
Religion
Thomas Brunce (a.k.a. "Thomas Brown", c. 1388–1445) English Bishop of Rochester & of Norwich
Thomas Brown (martyr) (1530–1556), English protestant martyred during the Marian persecutions
Thomas Brown (minister of St John's, Glasgow) (1776–1847), Moderator of the General Assembly of the Free Church of Scotland
Joseph Brown (bishop) (Thomas Joseph Brown, 1796–1880), English bishop of the Roman Catholic Church
Thomas Brown (minister and natural historian) (1811–1893), Moderator of the General Assembly of the Free Church of Scotland, author of Annals
Thomas Brown (bishop) (born 1943), Anglican bishop in New Zealand
Thomas J. Brown (bishop) (born 1970), American bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Maine
Science and medicine
Thomas Brown of Lanfine and Waterhaughs (1774–1853), Scottish surgeon, botanist, and mineralogist
Thomas Brown (naturalist) (1785–1862), English naturalist
Thomas Graham Brown (1882–1965), Scottish physiologist and mountaineer
Thomas Townsend Brown (1905–1985), American scientific researcher and inventor
Thomas McPherson Brown (1906–1989), American rheumatologist
Sports
Cricket
Thomas Brown (cricketer, born 1845) (1845–?), English cricketer
Thomas Brown (cricketer, born 1848) (1848–1919), English cricketer
Thomas Brown (cricketer, born 1854) (1854–1936), English cricketer
Thomas Brown (cricketer, born 1863) (1863–1930), English cricketer
Other sports
Thomas Brown (sport shooter) (1885–1950), American Olympic sport shooter
Thomas Brown (footballer) (fl. 1907–1910), English footballer
T. J. Brown (baseball) (Thomas Julius Brown, 1915–1973), American Negro league baseball player
Thomas P. Brown, Jr. (1921–2011), American tennis player
Thomas Brown (defensive end) (born 1957), American football defensive end
Thomas Brown (rugby) (born 1983), Welsh rugby union and rugby league player, not to be confused with Tom Brown, born 1990
Thomas Brown (American football coach) (born 1986), American football running back
Others
Thomas Brown (loyalist) (1750–1825), American Revolution commander of King's Rangers in Georgia
Thomas Storrow Brown (1803–1888), Canadian journalist, orator, and revolutionary
Thomas L. Brown II (born 1960), United States Navy officer
See also
Tom Brown (disambiguation)
Tommy Brown (disambiguation)
Thomas Browne (disambiguation) | [
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224560 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karakol | Karakol | Karakol (, قاراقول, ), formerly Przhevalsk (), is the fourth-largest city in Kyrgyzstan, near the eastern tip of Lake Issyk-Kul, about from the Kyrgyzstan–China border and from the capital Bishkek. It is the administrative capital of Issyk-Kul Region. Its area is , and its resident population was 84,351 in 2021 (both including Pristan'-Przheval'sk). To the north, on highway A363, is Tüp, and to the southwest Jeti-Ögüz resort.
History
A Russian military outpost founded on 1 July 1869, Karakol grew in the 19th century after explorers came to map the peaks and valleys separating Kyrgyzstan from China. In the 1880s Karakol's population surged with an influx of Dungans, Chinese Muslims fleeing warfare in China.
In 1888, the Russian explorer Nicholay Przhevalsky died in Karakol of typhoid, while preparing for an expedition to Tibet; the city was renamed Przhevalsk in his honor. After local protests, the town was given its original name back in 1921—a decision reversed in 1939 by Stalin to celebrate the centenary of the explorer's birth. Karakol then remained Przhevalsk until the demise of the Soviet Union in 1991. However the name has been retained by nearby Pristan'-Przheval'sk.
Nearby Issyk Kul Lake was used by the Soviet military as a testing site for torpedo propulsion and guidance systems and Karakol was thus home to a sizable population of military personnel and their families. Karakol continues to be a major hub for visitors of Issyk Kul Lake.
Demographics
Karakol is the fourth largest town in Kyrgyzstan after Bishkek, Osh and Jalal-Abad. The resident population of Karakol, as of 2021, was 84,351, of which 2,829 in Pristan'-Przheval'sk. The largest ethnic minority groups in Karakol are Russians (17.0%, 2009 census) and Uyghurs (3.9%).
Geography
Climate
Karakol features a humid continental climate (Dfb) according to the Köppen climate classification.
Sights
Karakol is one of Kyrgyzstan's major tourist destinations, serving as a good starting point for the excellent hiking, trekking, skiing and mountaineering in the high central Tian Shan to the south and east. Also this city is culturally rich, with several different ethnic groups that live here such as Dungan, Uyghur, Kalmak, Uzbek, Russians and of course Kyrgyz. The city offers a great opportunity to discover other nationalities and cultures within the city.
Przhevalsky's grave, a memorial park and a small museum dedicated to his and other Russian explorations in Central Asia are some north of Karakol at Pristan Przhevalsky, overlooking the Mikhailovka inlet of Issyk Kul Lake where the former Soviet torpedo testing facilities were located. Facilities themselves are still a closed, military area.
Karakol has Central Asia's highest ski resort, with 20 km of slopes, situated just 20 minutes from the town. Unlike Shymbulak resort, the riding at Karakol includes forest areas as well as cleared trails.
Russian Orthodox cathedral
The cathedral was originally built of stone in 1872, when Karakol was a garrison town established as an outpost on the edges of the Tsarist Russian Empire. It was destroyed in 1890 by an earthquake and the current cathedral was built out of wood on a brick base. It took six years to complete, and was finally completed in 1895. During the period of construction, a yurt served the congregation as a church. It has seen considerable service, not just as a church. During an anti-Russian uprising in 1916 its monks were brutally murdered.
Over the years, particularly following the Revolution in 1917, it has been used as an educational center housing a school, ladies' gymnasium and an institution of Higher Education; a Sports Hall; a Theater; a Dance Hall and even as a Coal Store. Then, in 1991, following the collapse of the Soviet Union and the Independence of Kyrgyzstan, the local authority once again gave the building back to the church, with the proviso that all further restorations were their responsibility.
Dungan mosque
The Issyk-kul Central Mosque of Karakol city was built for the local Dungan community by an initiative of Ibrahim Aji. He invited the famous Beijing architect Chou Seu and 20 carvers with the skills of traditional Chinese architecture and composition techniques for building the mosque. The construction of outbuildings and other work involved local craftsmen. Construction of the mosque began in 1904 and was completed in 1910. Ingenious techniques allowed the builders to build the mosque with no nails. The mosque holds 42 based pillars and encircling the building is multi-tiered wooden cornice, decorated with images of plants like grapes, pomegranates, pears and peaches. From 1929 to 1947 (during the Soviet era) the mosque was used as a storehouse. In 1947, the building was given to the Muslim community and continues to function as a mosque. It is registered as a historical monument and protected by law. Today the mosque is open to visitors.
Przhevalsky Museum
Nikolay Przhevalsky was one of the first Russian Scientist-Geographer to start detailed studies of the geography, flora and fauna of the Central Asian countries. Beginning from 1870, he arranged four large expeditions to Mongolia, China and Tibet. During his expeditions he revealed the exact directions of the mountain ranges and borders of the Tibet Mountains. He described the nature, relief, climate, flora and fauna in the territories under his study and discovered over 200 plant species. Przhevalsky also collected an enormous zoological collection which comprised several thousand species of plants, animals, birds, fishes and insects. In the year of 1888, he died from typhoid fever on the eve of his fifth expedition to Central Asia; he was buried on the Issyk-Kul lakeside not far from the city of Karakol. The Memorial Museum of N. M. Przhevalsky was opened on 29 April 1957 in Karakol.
Karakol Historical Museum
This small museum was the pre-revolutionary summer home of the Iliana merchant family. During the turbulent years of 1918–20 the building earned its socialist stripes as headquarters of the Regional Revolutionary Committee, and was subsequently transformed into a museum by order of the Soviet Council of Ministers in 1948. Scythian artifacts include enormous bronze pots retrieved from Lake Issyk-Kul, displayed alongside exhibits on petroglyphs in the area. Besides a comprehensive display of traditional Kyrgyz punched leather work, felt wall hangings and woven yurt decorations, the museum has a colorful collection of national costumes, examples of finely worked silver jewellery and a good exhibition of Kyrgyz applied art. One hall covers the region's flora and fauna – much of which is endangered and listed in the 'Red Book' (a Soviet inventory of protected species). The museum is also worth visiting to gain a Soviet perspective of history in the region. A couple of walls relating to Kyrgyz union with Russia and the subsequent revolution are now historical artifacts in themselves.
Bugu-Ene Zoo
Karakol Zoological Park was founded in 1987. This is the only zoo in Kyrgyzstan. After the demise of the Soviet Union, the economics of the country collapsed, and it concerned the newly created object culture. In 2001, closing the zoo was considered. However, sponsors were found, which not only allowed to preserve the wildlife area, but also allowed to keep it in a relatively prosperous state. Nowadays the buildings, cages and cells are not new, but in very good condition. There are Japanese macaques, bears, wolf, deer, camels, lamas, Przewalski's horse, peacock, lions and many others.
Animal Market
Early on Sunday mornings one of Kyrgyzstan's biggest animal markets takes place around 2 km north of central Karakol. Locals loading and unloading sheep into the back of a sedan is not an uncommon sight. The setting amid semi-derelict flour mills might seem unprepossessing, but on clear days the backdrop of white-topped mountains is more striking from here than from the town center. A series of earthen unloading platforms lead north. Jostle through the chaos to reach a bigger main compound one block north, where horses and embossed leather saddlery are for sale. On foot the bazaar is about 25 minutes' walk from City Center.
Notable inhabitants
Grigoriy Shemyakin, born in 1906, Hero of the Soviet Union, one of Panfilov's Twenty-Eight Guardsmen
Tugelbay Sydykbekov (1912–1997), writer
Sister cities
Asheville, North Carolina, United States
Gebze, Kocaeli, Turkey
References
External links
Populated places in Issyk-Kul Region
Semirechye Oblast
Populated places along the Silk Road
Horse trade | [
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224563 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20Akenside | Mark Akenside | Mark Akenside (9 November 1721 – 23 June 1770) was an English poet and physician.
Biography
Akenside was born at Newcastle upon Tyne, England, the son of a butcher. He was slightly lame all his life from a wound he received as a child from his father's cleaver. All his relations were Dissenters, and, after attending the Royal Free Grammar School of Newcastle, and a dissenting academy in the town, he was sent in 1739 to the University of Edinburgh to study theology with a view to becoming a minister, his expenses being paid from a special fund set aside by the dissenting community for the education of their pastors. He had already contributed The Virtuoso, in imitation of Spenser's style and stanza (1737) to the Gentleman's Magazine, and in 1738 A British Philippic, occasioned by the Insults of the Spaniards, and the present Preparations for War (also published separately).
After one winter as a theology student, Akenside changed to medicine as his field of study. He repaid the money that had been advanced for his theological studies, and became a deist. His politics, said Dr. Samuel Johnson, were characterized by an "impetuous eagerness to subvert and confound, with very little care what shall be established," and he is caricatured in the republican doctor of Tobias Smollett's The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle. He was elected a member of the Medical Society of Edinburgh in 1740. His ambitions already lay outside his profession, and his gifts as a speaker made him hope one day to enter Parliament. In 1740, he printed his Ode on the Winter Solstice in a small volume of poems. In 1741, he left Edinburgh for Newcastle and began to call himself surgeon, though it is doubtful whether he practised, and from the next year dates his lifelong friendship with Jeremiah Dyson (1722–1776).
During a visit to Morpeth in 1738, Akenside had the idea for his didactic poem, The Pleasures of the Imagination, which was well received and later described as 'of great beauty in its richness of description and language', and was also subsequently translated into more than one foreign language. He had already acquired a considerable literary reputation when he came to London about the end of 1743 and offered the work to Robert Dodsley for £120. Dodsley thought the price exorbitant, and only accepted the terms after submitting the manuscript to Alexander Pope, who assured him that this was "no everyday writer". The three books of this poem appeared in January 1744. His aim, Akenside tells us in the preface, was "not so much to give formal precepts, or enter into the way of direct argumentation, as, by exhibiting the most engaging prospects of nature, to enlarge and harmonize the imagination, and by that means insensibly dispose the minds of men to a similar taste and habit of thinking in religion, morals and civil life". His powers fell short of this ambition; his imagination was not brilliant enough to surmount the difficulties inherent in a poem dealing so largely with abstractions; but the work was well received. Thomas Gray wrote to Thomas Warton that it was "above the middling", but "often obscure and unintelligible and too much infected with the Hutchinson jargon".
William Warburton took offence at a note added by Akenside to the passage in the third book dealing with ridicule. Accordingly, he attacked the author of the Pleasures of the Imagination—which was published anonymously—in a scathing preface to his Remarks on Several Occasional Reflections, in answer to Dr Middleton ... (1744). This was answered, nominally by Dyson, in An Epistle to the Rev. Mr Warburton, in which Akenside probably had a hand. It was in the press when he left England in 1744 to secure a medical degree at Leiden. In little more than a month he had completed the necessary dissertation, De ortu et incremento foetus humani, and received his diploma.
Returning to England Akenside unsuccessfully attempted to establish a practice in Northampton. In 1744, he published his Epistle to Curio, attacking William Pulteney (afterwards Earl of Bath) for having abandoned his liberal principles to become a supporter of the government, and in the next year he produced a small volume of Odes on Several Subjects, in the preface to which he lays claim to correctness and a careful study of the best models. His friend Dyson had meanwhile left the bar, and had become, by purchase, clerk to the House of Commons. Akenside had come to London and was trying to make a practice at Hampstead. Dyson took a house there, and did all he could to further his friend's interest in the neighbourhood. But Akenside's arrogance and pedantry frustrated these efforts, and Dyson then took a house for him in Bloomsbury Square, making him independent of his profession by an allowance stated to have been £300 a year, but probably greater, for it is asserted that this income enabled him to "keep a chariot", and to live "incomparably well". In 1746 he wrote his much-praised "Hymn to the Naiads", and he also became a contributor to Dodsley's Museum, or Literary and Historical Register. He was now twenty-five years old, and began to devote himself almost exclusively to his profession. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1753.
He was an acute and learned physician. He was admitted M.D. at the University of Cambridge in 1753, fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1754, and fourth censor in 1755. In June 1755 he read the Gulstonian lectures before the College, in September 1756 the Croonian Lectures, and in 1759 the Harveian Oration. In January 1759 he was appointed assistant physician, and two months later principal physician to Christ's Hospital, but he was charged with harsh treatment of the poorer patients, and his unsympathetic character prevented the success to which his undeniable learning and ability entitled him. At the accession of George III both Dyson and Akenside changed their political opinions, and Akenside's conversion to Tory principles was rewarded by the appointment of physician to the queen. Dyson became secretary to the treasury, lord of the treasury, and in 1774 privy councillor and cofferer to the household.
Akenside died at his house in Burlington Street, where he had lived from 1762. His friendship with Dyson puts his character in the most amiable light. Writing to his friend so early as 1744, Akenside said that the intimacy had "the force of an additional conscience, of a new principle of religion", and there seems to have been no break in their affection. He left all his effects and his literary remains to Dyson, who issued an edition of his poems in 1772. This included the revised version of the Pleasures of Imagination, on which the author was engaged at his death.
Akenside's verse was better when it was subjected to more severe metrical rules. His odes are rarely lyrical in the strict sense, but they are dignified and often musical. By 1911 his works were little read. Edmund Gosse described him as "a sort of frozen Keats".
Works
The authoritative edition of Akenside's Poetical Works is that prepared by Robin Dix (1996). An important earlier edition was prepared by Alexander Dyce (1834) for the Aldine Edition of the British Poets, and reprinted with small additions in subsequent issues of the series. See Dyce's Life of Akenside prefixed to his edition, also Johnson's Lives of the Poets, and the Life, Writings and Genius of Akenside (1832) by Charles Bucke.
References and sources
References
Sources
Editnotes:
External links
Mark Akenside at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)
Index entry for Mark Akenside at Poets' Corner
Akenside's The pleasures of imagination: a poem, in three books, New York, 1795.
Mark Akenside at University of Toronto Libraries
Poems by Mark Akenside at English Poetry
18th-century English medical doctors
British deists
British medical writers
People from Newcastle upon Tyne
1721 births
1770 deaths
People educated at the Royal Grammar School, Newcastle upon Tyne
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Fellows of the Royal Society
English male poets
18th-century English male writers | [
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224565 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spike%20Island | Spike Island |
Spike Island may refer to:
Australia
Spike Island (Tasmania)
England
Spike Island, Bristol, an area of the English port city of Bristol, adjoining the city centre
Spike Island, Widnes, a park in Widnes
Spike Island (Southampton), the area bounded by the River Itchen and River Hamble in Hampshire
Spike Island, former name for Northumberland Heath, London
Spike Island railway station, a workman's platform situated off the Great Northern Railway's main line south of Doncaster
Ireland
Spike Island, County Cork, an island in Cork Harbour, Ireland
Other
Spike Island (concert), a 1990 concert headlined by the Stone Roses on Spike Island, Widnes
Spike Island (film), a 2012 British film
Spike Island Artspace, art gallery, studio complex and café | [
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224570 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malbec | Malbec | Malbec () is a purple grape variety used in making red wine. The grapes tend to have an inky dark color and robust tannins, and are known as one of the six grapes allowed in the blend of red Bordeaux wine. In France, plantations of Malbec are now found primarily in Cahors in South West France, though the grape is grown worldwide. It is increasingly celebrated as an Argentine varietal.
The grape became less popular in Bordeaux after 1956 when frost killed off 75% of the crop. Despite Cahors being hit by the same frost, which devastated the vineyards, Malbec was replanted and continued to be popular in that area. Winemakers in the region frequently mixed Malbec with Merlot and Tannat to make dark, full-bodied wines, but have ventured into 100% Malbec varietal wines more recently.
A popular but unconfirmed theory claims that Malbec is named after a Hungarian peasant who first spread the grape variety throughout France. French ampelographer and viticulturalist Pierre Galet notes, however, that most evidence suggests that Côt was the variety's original name and that it probably originated in northern Burgundy. Due to similarities in synonyms, Malbec is often confused with other varieties of grape. Malbec argenté is not Malbec, but rather a variety of the southwestern French grape Abouriou. In Cahors, the Malbec grape is referred to as Auxerrois or Côt Noir; this is sometimes confused with Auxerrois blanc, which is an entirely different variety.
The Malbec grape is a thick-skinned grape and needs more sun and heat than either Cabernet Sauvignon or Merlot to mature. It ripens mid-season and can bring very deep color, ample tannin, and a particular plum-like flavor component which adds complexity to claret blends. Sometimes, especially in its traditional growing regions, it is not trellised but is instead cultivated as bush vines (the goblet system). In such cases, it is sometimes kept to a relatively low yield of about 6 tons per hectare. Wines produced using this growing method are rich, dark, and juicy.
As a varietal, Malbec creates a rather inky red (or violet), intense wine, so it is also commonly used in blends, such as with Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon to create the red French Bordeaux claret blend. The grape is blended with Cabernet Franc and Gamay in some regions such as the Loire Valley. Other wine regions use the grape to produce Bordeaux-style blends. The varietal is sensitive to frost and has a propensity for shattering or coulure.
Viticulture
Malbec is very susceptible to various grape diseases and viticultural hazards—most notably frost, coulure, downey mildew, and rot— but the development of new clones and vineyard management techniques have helped control some of these potential problems. When it is not afflicted with these various ailments, particularly coulure, it does have the potential to produce high yields. Malbec seems to be able to produce well in a variety of soil types but in the limestone based soils of Cahors it seems to produce its most dark and tannic manifestation. There are distinct ampelographical differences in the clones of Malbec found in France and in Argentina, with Argentine Malbec tending to have smaller berries.
A comparative research study conducted by the Catena Institute of Wine and University of California, Davis, examined the difference between the phenolic composition of Malbec wines from California, USA, and Mendoza, Argentina. Sixteen vineyards in California and twenty-six blocks in Mendoza were selected based on their uniformity and regional representativeness. The study concluded that there are distinct flavor and compositional differences in Malbec wines produced in Mendoza and California.
Regions
Malbec is the dominant red varietal in Cahors where the Appellation Controlée regulations for Cahors require a minimum content of 70%. Introduced to Argentina by French agricultural engineer Michel Pouget in 1868, Malbec is now widely planted in Argentina. Grapes from this region produce softer, less tannic-driven wines than those from Cahors. There were once 50,000 hectares planted with Malbec in Argentina; now there are 25,000 hectares in Mendoza alone, in addition to production in La Rioja, Salta, San Juan, Catamarca and Buenos Aires. In the cooler regions of California just 45 hectares. In California the grape is used to make Meritage. Malbec is also grown in Washington State, the Rogue and Umpqua regions of Oregon, the Grand Valley AVA of Colorado, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Brazil, British Columbia, the Long Island AVA of New York, Oregon, southern Bolivia, Peru, northeastern Italy and recently in Texas and southern Ontario, Virginia, and in the Baja California region of Mexico.
France
At one point Malbec was grown in 30 different departments of France, a legacy that is still present in the list of local synonyms for the variety, which easily surpasses 1000 names. In recent times, however, the popularity of the variety has been steadily declining with a 2000 census reporting only 15,000 acres (6,100 hectares) of the vine, which are mostly consigned to the southwestern part of the country. Its stronghold remains Cahors where Appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC) regulations stipulates that Malbec must compose at least 70% of the blend, with Merlot and Tannat rounding out the remaining percentage. Outside of Cahors, Malbec is still found in small amounts as a permitted variety in the AOCs of Bergerac, Buzet, Côtes de Duras, Côtes du Marmandais, Fronton and Pécharmant. It is also permitted in the Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure (VDQS) of Côtes du Brulhois. In Le Midi region of the Languedoc, it is permitted (but rarely grown) in the AOC regions of Cabardès and Côtes de Malepère. There is a small amount of Malbec grown in the middle Loire Valley and permitted in the AOCs of Anjou, Coteaux du Loir, Touraine and the sparkling wine AOC of Saumur where it is blended with Cabernet Sauvignon and Gamay. Still, as elsewhere in France, Malbec is losing acreage other varieties—most notably Cabernet Franc in the Loire.
Though the grape was historically a major planting in Bordeaux, providing color and fruit to its blends, in the 20th century it started to lose ground to Merlot and Cabernet Franc. This was due, in part, to its vulnerabilities to so many different vine ailments (coulure, downy mildew, frost). The severe 1956 frost wiped out a significant portion of Malbec vines in Bordeaux, allowing many growers a chance to start anew with different varieties. By 1968, plantings in the Libournais were down to 4,900 hectares (12,100 acres) and fell further to 1,400 hectares (3,460 acres) by 2000. While Malbec has since become a popular component of New World meritages or Bordeaux blends, and although it is still a permitted variety in all major wine regions of Bordeaux, its presence in Bordeaux has dwindled; the only significant plantings are in the regions of the Côtes-de-Bourg, Blaye and Entre-Deux-Mers.
Argentina
While acreage of the Malbec is declining in France, in Argentina the grape is surging and has become a "national variety" of a sort that is uniquely identified with Argentine wine. The grape was first introduced to the region in the mid 19th century when provincial governor Domingo Faustino Sarmiento instructed the French agronomist Michel Pouget to bring grapevine cuttings from France to Argentina. Among the vines that Pouget brought were the very first Malbec vines to be planted in the country. During the economic turmoil of the 20th century, some plantings of Malbec were pulled out to make way for the jug wine producing varieties of Criolla Grande and Cereza. The grape was rediscovered in the late 20th century as the Argentine wine industry shifted its focus to premium wine production for export. As the Argentine wine industry discovered the unique quality of wine that could be made from the grape, Malbec arose to greater prominence and is today the most widely planted red grape variety in the country. As of 2003 there were over 20,000 hectares (50,000 acres) of Malbec in Argentina. The Mendoza region is the leading producer of Malbec in Argentina with plantings found throughout the country in places such as La Rioja, Salta, San Juan, Catamarca and Buenos Aires.
The grape clusters of Argentine Malbec are different from its French relatives, having smaller berries in tighter, smaller clusters. This suggests that the cuttings brought over by Pouget and later French immigrants were a unique clone that may have gone extinct in France due to frost and the phylloxera epidemic. Argentine Malbec wine is characterized by its deep color and intense fruity flavors with a velvety texture. While they lack the tannic structure of French Malbecs, being more plush in texture, Argentine Malbecs have shown aging potential similar to their French counterparts.
High altitude Mendoza Malbec
Argentina's most highly rated Malbec wines originate from Mendoza's high altitude wine regions of Luján de Cuyo and the Uco Valley. These districts are located in the foothills of the Andes mountains between 800 m and 1500 m elevation (2,800 to 5,000 feet).
Argentine vintner Nicolás Catena Zapata has been widely credited for elevating the status of Argentine Malbec and the Mendoza region through serious experimentation into the effects of high altitude. In 1994, he was the first to plant a Malbec vineyard at almost 1500 m (5,000 feet) elevation in the Gualtallary sub-district of Tupungato, the Adrianna Vineyard. He was also the first to develop a clonal selection of Argentine Malbec.<ref name="fourmagazine">Four Magazine, Wine Spectator, 2012.</ref>
High-altitude Mendoza has attracted many notable foreign winemakers, such as Paul Hobbs, Michel Rolland, Herve Joyaux-Fabre, Roberto Cipresso and Alberto Antonini. Today, there are several Malbecs from the region scoring over 95 points in Wine Spectator and Robert Parker's The Wine Advocate.Achaval Ferrer, "Wine.com"Top 5 Wine Spectator , 'Wine Spectator, December 15, 2010.
United States
Prior to Prohibition in the United States, Malbec was a significant variety in California used mainly for blended bulk wine production. After Prohibition, the grape was a minor variety until it experienced a surge of interest as a component of "Meritage" Bordeaux-style blends in the mid-1990s. Between 1995 and 2003, plantings of Malbec in California increased from 404 hectares (1,000 acres) to more than 2,830 hectares (7000 acres). While the appearance of Californian varietal Malbec is increasing, the grape is still most widely used for blending. In California, the American Viticultural Areas (AVA) with the most plantings of Malbec include Napa Valley, Alexander Valley, Paso Robles and Sonoma Valley.
Other regions in California with some plantings of Malbec include Livermore Valley, Atlas Peak, Carmel Valley, Los Carneros, Ramona Valley, Central Coast, Red Hills Lake County, Chalk Hill, Clear Lake, Diamond Mountain District, Russian River Valley, Dry Creek Valley, Rutherford, El Dorado, San Lucas, Santa Clara Valley, Santa Cruz Mountains, Santa Lucia Highlands, Santa Maria Valley, Santa Ynez Valley, Howell Mountain, Sierra Foothills, Knights Valley, Spring Mountain District, St. Helena, Lodi, Stags Leap District, Madera, Suisun Valley, Temecula Valley, Monterey, Mount Veeder, North Coast, Oak Knoll District,
Yorkville Highlands, Oakville, Paicines, Clements Hills, Fair Play, Willow Creek, North Yuba, and Yountville.
Seven Hills Winery planted the first vines of Malbec planted in Oregon state in the late 1990s in their Windrow vineyard in the Walla Walla Valley. Since the turn of the 21st century, several wineries have been experimenting with 100% varietal Malbec as well as using the variety in Meritage blends. In Washington state it is grown predominately in the Columbia Valley and the sub-AVAs of Walla Walla Valley, Rattlesnake Hills, Red Mountain, Wahluke Slope, Horse Heaven Hills and Yakima Valley.
Other AVAs in the United States producing Malbec include the New York appellations of North Fork of Long Island and Finger Lakes; the Oregon appellations of Applegate Valley, Rogue Valley, Southern Oregon, Umpqua Valley and Willamette Valley; the Idaho appellation of the Snake River Valley; the Texas appellations of Texas High Plains and Texas Hill Country; the Virginia appellations of Monticello and North Fork of Roanoke; the North Carolina appellation of the Yadkin Valley; the Michigan appellations of the Old Mission Peninsula and Leelanau Peninsula; the New Jersey appellation of the Outer Coastal Plain and the high altitude, Colorado appellation of the Grand Valley. Additionally, there are some plantings in Missouri and Georgia outside of federally delineated appellations.
Other regions
The success of Malbec led some producers in Chile to try their hand at the varietal. Grown throughout the Central Valley, Chilean Malbec tends to be more tannic than its counterpart and is used primarily in Bordeaux-style blends. In 2016 a budget-priced La Moneda Reserve Malbec from the UK supermarket chain Asda won the Platinum Best in Show prize in a blind tasting at the Decanter World Wine awards.
The grapevine was introduced to Australia in the 19th century and was mostly a bulk wine producing grape. The particular clones planted in Australia were of poor quality and highly susceptible to coulure, frost and downy mildew. By the mid to late 20th century, many acres of Malbec were uprooted and planted with different varieties. By 2000, there were slightly over 1,235 acres (500 hectares), with the Clare Valley and Langhorne Creek having the most significant amount. As newer clones become available, plantings of Malbec in Australia have increased slightly.
Other regions with some plantings of Malbec include north Italy, New Zealand, Brazil, South Africa, the Canadian regions of British Columbia and Ontario, Peru, Bolivia and Mexico, and Southern Indiana and Israeli wine in the Negev Teperberg 1870.
Wine
Wine expert Jancis Robinson describes the French style of Malbec common in the Libournais (Bordeaux region) as a "rustic" version of Merlot, softer in tannins and lower in acidity with blackberry fruit in its youth. The Malbec of the Cahors region is much more tannic with more phenolic compounds that contribute to its dark color. Oz Clarke describes Cahors' Malbec as dark purple in color with aromas of damsons, tobacco, garlic, and raisin. In Argentina, Malbec becomes softer with a plusher texture and riper tannins. The wines tend to have juicy fruit notes with violet aromas. In very warm regions of Argentina and Australia, the acidity of the wine may be too low which can cause a wine to taste flabby and weak. Malbec grown in Washington state tends to be characterized by dark fruit notes and herbal aromas.
Synonyms
The French ampelographer Pierre Galet has documented over a thousand different synonyms for Malbec, stemming in part from its peak period when it was growing in 30 different departments of France. While Malbec is the name most commonly known to wine drinkers, Galet suggest that Côt was most likely the grape variety's original name and the frequent appearance of Auxerrois as a synonym suggests the northern reaches of Burgundy as being the possible home of the varietal. In Bordeaux, where the variety first gained attention, it was known under the synonym Pressac''.
Other common synonyms for Malbec include Agreste, Auxerrois, Auxerrois De Laquenexy, Auxerrois Des Moines De Picpus, Auxerrois Du Mans, Balouzat, Beran, Blanc De Kienzheim, Cahors, Calarin, Cauli, Costa Rosa, Côt, Cot A Queue Verte, Cotes Rouges, Doux Noir, Estrangey, Gourdaux, Grelot De Tours, Grifforin, Guillan, Hourcat, Jacobain, Luckens, Magret, Malbek, Medoc Noir, Mouranne, Navarien, Negre De Prechac, Negrera, Noir De Chartres, Noir De Pressac, Noir Doux, Nyar De Presak, Parde, Périgord, Pied De Perdrix, Pied Noir, Pied Rouge, Pied Rouget, Piperdy, Plant D'Arles, Plant De Meraou, Plant du Lot, Plant Du Roi, Prechat, Pressac, Prunieral, Quercy, Queue Rouge, Quille De Coy, Romieu, Teinturin, Terranis, Vesparo.
See also
Malbec World Day
Cahors wine
References
French wine
Red wine grape varieties | [
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224580 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand%20Slam%20%28golf%29 | Grand Slam (golf) | The Grand Slam in professional golf is winning all of golf's major championships in the same calendar year.
Variations include a Career Grand Slam – winning all of the major tournaments within a player's career – or the Tiger Slam, which was achieved by Tiger Woods winning four consecutive major titles, though not in the same year.
Men's golf
The Grand Slam in men's golf is an unofficial term for winning all four major championships in the same year.
In the modern era, the Grand Slam requires victories in four tournaments in a single calendar year (listed in current playing order):
Masters Tournament, held the week ending on the 2nd Sunday in April – hosted as an invitational by and played at Augusta National Golf Club
PGA Championship (also known as the "United States PGA Championship" or "USPGA"), held the week ending on the 3rd Sunday in May, one week before Memorial Day weekend – hosted by the PGA of America and played at various locations in the United States. Prior to 2019, it was held in mid-August, three weeks before Labor Day weekend.
U.S. Open, held the week ending on the 3rd Sunday in June – hosted by the USGA and played at various locations in the United States.
The Open Championship ("The Open", sometimes called "the British Open" outside the UK), held the week containing the 3rd Friday in July – hosted by The R&A and always played on a links course at one of several predetermined locations in the United Kingdom on a rota basis.
Prior to the creation of the Masters Tournament, the national amateur championships of the U.S. and the UK were considered major championships. During that earlier era, the Grand Slam comprised consecutive victories at the United States Amateur Championship, The Amateur Championship (British Amateur) along with the U.S. Open and the Open Championship.
Only Bobby Jones has ever completed a Grand Slam. No man has ever achieved a modern era Grand Slam.
The term Grand Slam was first applied to Bobby Jones' achievement of winning the four major golf events of 1930: The Open Championship, the U.S. Open, the U.S. Amateur and the British Amateur. When Jones won all four, the sports world searched for ways to capture the magnitude of his accomplishment. Up to that time, there was no term for such a feat because no one had thought it possible. The Atlanta Journals O. B. Keeler dubbed it the "Grand Slam," borrowing a bridge term. George Trevor of the New York Sun wrote that Jones had "stormed the impregnable quadrilateral of golf." Keeler would later write the words that would forever be linked to one of the greatest individual accomplishments in the history of sports:
This victory, the fourth major title in the same season and in the space of four months, had now and for all time entrenched Bobby Jones safely within the 'Impregnable Quadrilateral of Golf,' that granite fortress that he alone could take by escalade, and that others may attack in vain, forever.
The modern definition could not be applied until at least 1934, when the Masters was founded, and still carried little weight in 1953 when Ben Hogan won the Masters, U.S. Open, and Open Championship. That year, it was impossible to win all four as the PGA Championship preceded and overlapped with the Open Championship; the PGA's 36-hole match play semifinals and finals near Detroit were the same days as the mandatory 36-hole qualifier at Carnoustie in Scotland for the Open Championship; the only way to compete in both events was to lose an early match at the PGA. Hogan is the only player to have won the Masters, U.S. Open, and Open Championship in the same calendar year.
In 1960, Arnold Palmer won the Masters in April and U.S. Open in June. According to his autobiography, A Golfer's Life, he and his friend Bob Drum (of the Pittsburgh Press), while on the trans-Atlantic flight to The Open Championship at St Andrews, came up with the idea that adding it and the PGA Championship titles that July would constitute a modern Grand Slam. Drum spread the notion among the gathered media and it caught on. Two years earlier, the PGA had changed to stroke play, and it started to be held two weeks after the Open Championship in 1960. Scheduling problems continued through the 1960s as the last two majors were held in successive weeks in July on five occasions. The PGA was played in August in 1965 but returned to July for the next three. With the formation of the Tournament Players Division in late 1968, now the PGA Tour, the PGA Championship permanently moved to August in 1969, except for the 1971 edition, held in late February to avoid the summer heat of Florida.
Tiger Woods came closest to winning a modern Grand Slam by holding all four major titles at the same time. He won all four major championships consecutively — the U.S. Open, Open Championship, and PGA Championship in 2000 and the 2001 Masters — but not in the same calendar year. This has been called the Tiger Slam. In fact, even before Woods accomplished this, there was much debate over the definition of "Grand Slam." Fred Couples said, "I don't know how I can put it more simply . . . if he wins all four, it's a Slam."
Only five golfers have won all four of golf's modern majors at any time during their careers, an achievement which is often referred to as a Career Grand Slam: Gene Sarazen, Ben Hogan, Gary Player, Jack Nicklaus, and Tiger Woods. Woods and Nicklaus have won each of the four majors at least three times.
The term also refers to a former tour tournament, the PGA Grand Slam of Golf, an annual off-season tournament, that was cancelled after the 2014 tournament, contested by the winners of the four major championships.
Career Grand Slam
Original Grand Slam
Modern Grand Slam
Women's golf
Women's golf also has a set of majors. No woman has completed a four-major Grand Slam, but Babe Zaharias won all three majors contested in 1950 and Sandra Haynie won both majors in 1974.
Seven women have completed the Career Grand Slam by winning four different majors. There are variations in the set of four tournaments involved as the players played in different eras, and the women's tournaments defined as "majors" have varied considerably over time in a way that has not been paralleled in the men's game. The seven are Pat Bradley, Juli Inkster, Inbee Park, Annika Sörenstam, Louise Suggs, Karrie Webb, and Mickey Wright. Webb is separately recognized by the LPGA as its only "Super Career Grand Slam" winner, as she is the only one of the group to have won five different tournaments recognized as majors.
Although other women's tours, notably the Ladies European Tour (LET) and the LPGA of Japan Tour, recognize a different set of "majors", the U.S. LPGA is so dominant in global women's golf that the phrase "women's majors", without further qualification, is almost universally considered as a reference to the U.S. LPGA majors.
The five current major championships are:
March/April—The ANA Inspiration (week ending in the first Sunday of April)—Founded by Dinah Shore, it is most remembered for the winners taking a "lake jump" into the water surrounding the 18th green, also called the "Green Jacket of the LPGA" in reference to the ceremony held at the Masters Tournament. It shares another trait with the Masters—it is held at the same venue every year, Mission Hills Country Club in Rancho Mirage, California.
June—The U.S. Women's Open (from 2019, ending on the first Sunday in June)—Hosted by the USGA, it is held at various golf courses around the nation. It is considered by some to be the biggest major in the LPGA circuit, despite the fact it is not sanctioned by the Ladies European Tour. It is held at various courses throughout the United States.
June—The KPMG Women's PGA Championship (from 2019, three weeks after the U.S. Women's Open)—hosted by the PGA of America since 2015 and played at various locations in the USA.
July—The Evian Championship (week ending in the last Sunday of July)—an event held in France that was historically known as the Evian Masters and became the LPGA's fifth major championship in 2013. The tournament has been an LET major since its inception in 1994, and was sanctioned as a regular LPGA tour event from 2000 to 2012. Before 2019, it had been held in September.
August—The AIG Women's British Open (week of the first Sunday of August)—It is hosted by The R&A, which absorbed the event's former operator, the Ladies' Golf Union, in late 2016. Unlike the men's Open Championship, neither the LGU nor The R&A has adopted a links-only course policy, although the event has most commonly been held on links courses in the 21st century. 2007 marked the first time it was held at what is considered by many to be the greatest golf course in the world, and certainly the most historic, the Old Course at St Andrews. In 2009, it was moved to a date three weeks after the U.S. Women's Open. The 2012 edition was held in September to avoid conflict with the 2012 Summer Olympics in London; in 2013, it returned to its then-current July/August date; and in 2019, it was fixed to be the week after The Evian Championship. Before 2013, this was the only championship sanctioned as a major by both the LPGA and the LET.
Women's Career Grand Slam
Super Grand Slam
Titleholders/Western Open era
du Maurier Classic era
Women's British Open Championship era
The Evian Championship Era
A Inbee Park is recognized as achieving the career Grand Slam for winning four different major championships, even though The Evian Championship had since been designated as the fifth major championship.
Senior golf
Senior (i.e., 50 and over) men's golf also has a set of majors. Like the women's majors, the senior majors are not globally recognized. However, because the U.S.-based PGA Tour Champions overwhelmingly dominates worldwide senior golf, its roster of majors is by far the most widely recognized.
Unlike the mainstream men's and women's (until 2013) Grand Slams, the senior version (as recognized by PGA Tour Champions) now contains five events.
In the current order of play, the five majors are:
The Tradition (ending on the third or fourth Sunday in May, depending on the calendar)
Senior PGA Championship (one week after The Tradition; ending the day before the U.S. holiday of Memorial Day, observed on the last Monday of May)
Senior Players Championship (ending on the last Sunday in June or the first Sunday in July, depending on the calendar)
U.S. Senior Open (ending on the Sunday in July two weeks before The Senior Open Championship)
The Senior Open Championship (ending on the last Sunday in July)
The Senior PGA is by far the oldest of the senior majors, having been founded in 1937, decades before the establishment of PGA Tour Champions (as the Senior PGA Tour) in 1980. The other events were all founded in the 1980s—the U.S. Senior Open in 1980, the Senior Players Championship in 1983, The Senior Open in 1987, and The Tradition in 1989. This era saw senior golf became a commercial success as the first golf stars of the television era, such as Arnold Palmer and Gary Player, reached their fifties. The Senior Open, however, was not recognized as a U.S. senior major until 2003.
The stability of the majors in senior golf falls somewhere between mainstream men's golf and the LPGA:
The roster of mainstream men's majors has not changed since the concept of the professional "Grand Slam" was generally recognized. The number of tournaments recognized by the LPGA as majors, as well as the identity of these events, has varied considerably over the decades. Two tournaments that were once considered as LPGA majors no longer exist, and a third lost its major status but survives as a regular tour event. In senior golf, the number of majors has changed over the years, but always by the addition of a new major.
In terms of in-season scheduling, the senior majors have been much less stable than those of mainstream men's golf or the LPGA, especially in recent years. With the exception of a one-off staging of the PGA Championship in February 1971, the mainstream majors were held in the same order, and in almost exactly the same weeks of the year, from 1969 to 2018, after which the PGA Championship moved to the weekend before Memorial Day. In women's golf, the scheduling of the majors has stabilized in recent years, with occasional minor changes of dates but no change of order. However, in senior golf, the order of the majors has changed five times since 2006. The Senior Players Championship, held in July in 2006, moved to October in 2007, August in 2011, and to late June/early July in 2012. The Tradition, previously held in late August, moved to early May in 2011, mid-June in 2012, and mid-May in 2013. The U.S. Senior Open moved from mid-July to August in 2008; it returned to mid-July in 2012. The Senior PGA Championship and The Senior Open have retained their dates (respectively late May and late July) throughout this period.
No man has ever won all of the senior majors contested in a year, even in the period between 1980 and 1982 when only two senior majors existed. Bernhard Langer is the only man to have won all five of the current senior majors in his career, having completed the career Slam by winning both the Senior PGA Championship and Senior Open Championship in 2017. Miller Barber won both of the 1980-1982 senior majors, the Senior PGA and U.S. Senior Open, during that time span, and won the inaugural Senior Players Championship in 1983. Those three tournaments would be the only senior majors until The Tradition was first played in 1989. Prior to the founding of The Tradition, Palmer and Player also completed that era's Career Senior Grand Slam. However, neither Barber, Palmer, nor Player would ever win The Tradition.
Jack Nicklaus is the only other player to have completed any era's Career Senior Grand Slam, doing so in his first two years on the Senior Tour. In his first year of eligibility in 1990, he won The Tradition and the Senior Players Championship. The next year, he defended his Tradition title and went on to win the Senior PGA and U.S. Senior Open. However, he failed to defend his Senior Players title and thus missed out on a calendar-year Grand Slam.
Langer and Nicklaus are the only players to have won four or more different senior majors in their careers. Although Nicklaus never won The Senior Open, that event was not recognized as a U.S. senior major until 2003, which was also the only year he played the event. Player won The Senior Open three times before 2003, when it was considered a major by the European Senior Tour but not the circuit now known as PGA Tour Champions.
PGA Tour Champions career Grand Slam
See also
Chronological list of men's major golf champions
Explorers Grand Slam
Grand Slam (tennis)
List of men's major championships winning golfers
Men's major golf championships
Ocean Explorers Grand Slam
PGA Grand Slam of Golf – an annual off-season tournament contested by the winners of the four men's major championships
Triple Crown (golf)
Women's major golf championships
Notes and references
Golf terminology
Golf records and rankings
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224582 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redwood%20Shores%2C%20California | Redwood Shores, California | Redwood Shores is a waterfront community in Redwood City, California, along the western shore of San Francisco Bay on the San Francisco Peninsula in San Mateo County. Redwood Shores is the home of several major technology companies, including Oracle Corporation (which relocated its headquarters in 2020), Electronic Arts, Nintendo, Zuora, Qualys, Crystal Dynamics and Shutterfly.
History
Redwood Shores was built up from reclaimed land in the marshes of San Francisco Bay in the 1960s, much like its neighbor, Foster City, but the development almost never came to be. The owner of the land, the Leslie Salt Company, filled in soft ground known as "bay mud" formerly used for salt-evaporation ponds, but a significant controversy developed over fears of its susceptibility to serious earthquake damage because the area is between and close to the San Andreas and Hayward faults. The ensuing battle between various government agencies and business interests eventually made Leslie Salt Lose interest in the project. As a result, Bank of America became the owner of the development in 1972.
It was the home of the Marine World/Africa U.S.A., California theme park from the 1960s to 1986, when the park moved to Vallejo, California (eventually becoming Six Flags Discovery Kingdom). The former location of Marine World has evolved into homes, townhomes, condominiums, apartments, parks, preserved land, and Silicon Valley business parks with headquarters including the former headquarters of Oracle Corporation. In December 2020, Oracle announced that it had relocated its corporate headquarters from Redwood Shores to Austin, Texas.
Geography
Redwood Shores is located roughly halfway between San Francisco and San Jose, and is bordered by Belmont and San Carlos to the southwest. Foster City lies to the northwest and Bair Island to the southeast; both are separated from Redwood Shores by sloughs. To the northeast is San Francisco Bay.
Climate
Economy
Major technology companies maintain headquarters in Redwood Shores, among them Imperva and Electronic Arts. The community also includes a branch of Ernst & Young, the headquarters of Relayware and a hotel (Pullman Hotels and Resorts). For many years, Redwood Shores was the global headquarters of Oracle Corporation, until in December 2020 it announced its relocation to Austin, Texas.
Infrastructure
The Redwood Shores Branch of the Redwood City Public Library serves the community. To the south Redwood Shores is bordered by the San Carlos Airport.
Redwood Shores is the setting for college rowing races, including competitions among Pac-12 Conference universities.
Education
The community of Redwood Shores is served by the Belmont – Redwood Shores School District, which maintains the two schools located in Redwood Shores and five more schools in Belmont.
Wildlife
Pacific harbor seals have occasionally been spotted in the waterways and lagoons around Redwood Shores. The areas in and around the community are home to a variety of wildlife, including raccoons, skunks, ducks, geese, egrets, great blue herons, clapper rails, harvest field mice, sting rays, jellyfish, and many other species. Canada geese pose a nuisance and the community is actively working on reducing their presence.
References
External links
Redwood City Official Website
RSCA Official Website
Neighborhoods in San Mateo County, California
Redwood City, California
Populated coastal places in California | [
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224584 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric%20Schmidt | Eric Schmidt | Eric Emerson Schmidt (born April 27, 1955) is an American businessman and software engineer known for being the CEO of Google from 2001 to 2011, executive chairman of Google from 2011 to 2015, executive chairman of Alphabet Inc. from 2015 to 2017, and Technical Advisor at Alphabet from 2017 to 2020.
As an intern at Bell Labs, Schmidt in 1975 was co-author of Lex, a software program to generate lexical analysers for the Unix computer operating system. From 1997 to 2001, he was chief executive officer (CEO) of Novell. He has served on various other boards in academia and industry, including the Boards of Trustees for Carnegie Mellon University, Apple, Princeton University, and Mayo Clinic.
As of October 2021, Bloomberg Billionaires Index ranked Schmidt as the 55th-richest person in the world, with an estimated net worth of $26.8 billion.
Early life
Schmidt was born in Falls Church, Virginia, and grew up in Falls Church and Blacksburg, Virginia. He is one of three sons of Eleanor, who had a master's degree in psychology, and Wilson Emerson Schmidt, a professor of international economics at Virginia Tech and Johns Hopkins University, who worked at the U.S. Treasury Department during the Nixon Administration. Schmidt spent part of his childhood in Italy as a result of his father's work and has stated that it had changed his outlook.
Schmidt graduated from Yorktown High School in the Yorktown neighborhood of Arlington County, Virginia, in 1972, after earning eight varsity letter awards in long-distance running. He attended Princeton University, starting as an architecture major and switching to electrical engineering, earning a Bachelor of Science in Engineering degree in 1976.
From 1976 to 1980, Schmidt resided at the International House Berkeley, where he met his future wife, Wendy Boyle.
In 1979, at the University of California, Berkeley, Schmidt earned an M.S. degree for designing and implementing a network (Berknet) linking the campus computer center with the CS and EECS departments. There, he also earned a PhD degree in 1982 in EECS, with a dissertation about the problems of managing distributed software development and tools for solving these problems.
Career
Early career
Early in his career, Schmidt held a series of technical positions with IT companies including Byzromotti Design, Bell Labs (in research and development), Zilog, and Palo Alto Research Center (PARC).
During his summers at Bell Labs, he and Mike Lesk wrote Lex, a program used in compiler construction that generates lexical-analyzers from regular-expression descriptions.
Sun Microsystems
In 1983, Schmidt joined Sun Microsystems as its first software manager. He rose to become director of software engineering, vice president and general manager of the software products division, vice president of the general systems group, and president of Sun Technology Enterprises.
During his time at Sun, he was the target of two notable April Fool's Day pranks. In the first, his office was taken apart and rebuilt on a platform in the middle of a pond, complete with a working phone and workstation on the corporate Ethernet network. The next year, a working Volkswagen Beetle was taken apart and re-assembled in his office.
Novell
In April 1997, Schmidt became the CEO and chairman of the board of Novell. He presided over a period of decline at Novell where its IPX protocol was being replaced by open TCP/IP products, while at the same time Microsoft was shipping free TCP/IP stacks in Windows 95, making Novell much less profitable. In 2001, he departed after the acquisition of Cambridge Technology Partners.
Google
Google founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin interviewed Schmidt. Impressed by him, they recruited Schmidt to run their company in 2001 under the guidance of venture capitalists John Doerr and Michael Moritz.
In March 2001, Schmidt joined Google's board of directors as chair, and became the company's CEO in August 2001. At Google, Schmidt shared responsibility for Google's daily operations with founders Page and Brin. Prior to the Google initial public offering, Schmidt had responsibilities typically assigned to the CEO of a public company and focused on the management of the vice presidents and the sales organization. According to Google, Schmidt's job responsibilities included "building the corporate infrastructure needed to maintain Google's rapid growth as a company and on ensuring that quality remains high while the product development cycle times are kept to a minimum."
Upon being hired at Google, Eric Schmidt was paid a salary of $250,000 and an annual performance bonus. He was granted 14,331,703 shares of Class B common stock at $0.30 per share and 426,892 shares of Series C preferred stock at purchase price of $2.34.
In 2004, Schmidt and the Google founders agreed to a base salary of US$1 (which continued through 2010) with other compensation of $557,465 in 2006, $508,763 in 2008, and $243,661 in 2009. He did not receive any additional stock or options in 2009 or 2010.
Most of his compensation was for "personal security" and charters of private aircraft.
In 2007, PC World ranked Schmidt as the first on its list of the 50 most important people on the Web, along with Google co-founders Page and Brin.
Schmidt is one of a few people who became billionaires (in United States dollars) based on stock options received as employees in corporations of which they were neither the founders nor relatives of the founders, such as Meg Whitman.
In its 2011 'World's Billionaires' list, Forbes ranked Schmidt as the 136th-richest person in the world, with an estimated wealth of $7 billion.
On January 20, 2011, Google announced that Schmidt would step down as the CEO of Google but would take new title as executive chairman of the company and act as an adviser to co-founders Page and Brin. Google gave him a $100 million equity award in 2011 when he stepped down as CEO. On April 4, 2011, Page replaced Schmidt as the CEO.
On December 21, 2017, Schmidt announced he would be stepping down as the executive chairman of Alphabet. Schmidt stated that "Larry, Sergey, Sundar and I all believe that the time is right in Alphabet's evolution for this transition."
In February 2020, Schmidt left his post as technical advisor of Alphabet after 19 years with the company.
Department of Defense
In March 2016 it was announced that Eric Schmidt would chair a new advisory board for the Department of Defense, titled the Defense Innovation Advisory Board. The advisory board serves as a forum connecting mainstays in the technology sector with those in the Pentagon.
To avoid potential conflicts of interest within the role, where Schmidt retained his role as technical adviser to Alphabet, and where Google's bidding for the multi-million dollar Pentagon cloud contract, the Joint Enterprise Defense Infrastructure, or JEDI, was ongoing: Schmidt screened emails and other communications, stating, "“There’s a rule: I’m not allowed to be briefed” about Google or Alphabet business as it relates to the Defense Department". He exited the position November 2020.
From 2019 to 2021, Schmidt chaired the National Security Commission on Artificial Intelligence with Robert O. Work.
Role in illegal non-recruiting agreements
While working at Google, Schmidt was involved in activities that later became the subject of the High-Tech Employee Antitrust Litigation case that resulted in a settlement of $415 million paid by Adobe, Apple, Google and Intel to employees. In one incident, after receiving a complaint from Steve Jobs of Apple, Schmidt sent an email to Google's HR department saying; "I believe we have a policy of no recruiting from Apple and this is a direct inbound request. Can you get this stopped and let me know why this is happening? I will need to send a response back to Apple quickly so please let me know as soon as you can. Thanks Eric". Schmidt's email led to a recruiter for Google being "terminated within the hour" for not having adhered to the illegal scheme. Under Schmidt, there was a "Do Not Call list" of companies Google would avoid recruiting from. According to a court filing, another email exchange shows Google's human resources director asking Schmidt about sharing its no-cold-call agreements with competitors. Schmidt responded that he preferred it be shared "verbally, since I don't want to create a paper trail over which we can be sued later?"
Apple
On August 28, 2006, Schmidt was elected to Apple Inc.'s board of directors, a position he held until August 2009.
Broad Institute
Schmidt is currently Chair of the Board of Directors at Broad Institute.
Other ventures
Schmidt sat on the boards of trustees of Carnegie Mellon University and Princeton University. He taught at Stanford Graduate School of Business in the 2000s. Schmidt serves on the boards of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, the Khan Academy, and The Economist.
New America is a non-profit public-policy institute and think tank, founded in 1999. Schmidt succeeded founding chairman James Fallows in 2008 and served as chairman until 2016.
Founded in 2010 by Schmidt and Dror Berman, Innovation Endeavors is an early-stage venture capital. The fund, based in Palo Alto, California, invested companies such as Mashape, Uber, Quixey, Gogobot, BillGuard, and Formlabs.
In July 2020, Schmidt started working with the US government to create a tech college as part of an initiative to educate future coders, cyber-security experts and scientists.
In August 2020, Schmidt launched the podcast Reimagine with Eric Schmidt.
In December 2021, Schmidt joined Chainlink Labs as a strategic advisor.
Political contributions
Schmidt was an informal advisor and major donor to Barack Obama's 2008 presidential campaign, and began campaigning the week of October 19, 2008, on behalf of the candidate. He was mentioned as a possible candidate for the Chief Technology Officer position, which Obama created in his administration, and Obama considered him for Commerce Secretary. After Obama won in 2008, Schmidt became a member of President Obama's transition advisory board and then a member of the United States President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST). Schmidt has served on Google's government relations team.
Schmidt has proposed that the easiest way to solve all of the domestic problems of the United States at once is by a stimulus program that rewards renewable energy and, over time, attempts to replace fossil fuels with renewable energy.
Secretary of Defense Ash Carter appointed Schmidt as chairman of the DoD Innovation Advisory Board announced March 2, 2016. It will be modeled like the Defense Business Board and will facilitate the Pentagon at becoming more innovative and adaptive.
Schmidt is an investor in The Groundwork, a start-up company associated with Hillary Clinton's 2016 presidential campaign. For example, it charged the campaign $177,000 in the second quarter of 2015. By May 2016, the campaign had spent $500,000 on it.
Schmidt is an investor in Timshel, another start up company associated with Hillary Clinton's 2016 presidential campaign. Timshel is the parent company of The Groundwork.
Philanthropy
Schmidt Family Foundation
The Schmidt Family Foundation was established in 2006 by Wendy Schmidt and Eric Schmidt to address issues of sustainability and the responsible use of natural resources.
Schmidt and his wife established the Eric & Wendy Schmidt Data Science for Social Good Fellowship, a University of Chicago summer school program for aspiring data scientists.
The Schmidt Family Foundation's subsidiaries include ReMain Nantucket and the Marine Science and Technology Foundation; its main charitable program is the 11th Hour Project. The foundation has also awarded grants to the Natural Resources Defense Council and the Energy Foundation.
The foundation is the main funder of the Schmidt Ocean Institute, which supports oceanographic research by operating .
The Schmidts, working with Hart Howerton, a San Francisco architectural firm that specializes in large-scale land use, have inaugurated several projects on the island of Nantucket that seek to sustain the unique character of the island and to minimize the impact of seasonal visitation on the island's core community.
Mrs. Schmidt offered the prize purse of the Wendy Schmidt Oil Cleanup X CHALLENGE, a challenge award for the efficient capturing of crude oil from seawater motivated by the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.
The foundation also donated $10 million to the Monterey Bay Aquarium in 2015.
Schmidt Transformative Technology Fund
In 2009, Eric and Wendy Schmidt endowed the Schmidt Transformative Technology Fund at Princeton University with $25 million. The Fund's purpose is to support research and technology in the natural sciences and engineering, encouraging collaboration across disciplines. It awarded $1.2 million in grants in 2010 and $1.7 million in grants in 2012.
Schmidt Science Fellows
Created in partnership with the Rhodes Trust, the Schmidt Science Fellows program is part of a $100 million commitment to drive scientific leadership and interdisciplinary research. The program features a Global Meeting Series including exclusive sessions at world-leading institutions including Oxford, Cambridge, MIT, and Harvard. Fellows receive a stipend to participate in postdoctoral study which differs from their existing expertise.
Rise
An initiative of Schmidt Futures and the Rhodes Trust, which aims to increase the opportunity for exceptional young people worldwide to serve others throughout their lives. The program, which will find and elevate young people between the ages of 15 and 17 from around the world, will be designed to encourage a lifetime of service and learning by providing support that could include scholarships, career services, and funding opportunities
Public positions
Tax avoidance
Schmidt has claimed that Google's use of artificial distinctions to avoid paying billions of pounds in corporation tax otherwise owed by its UK operations is "capitalism" and that he was "very proud of it".
On May 16, 2013 Margaret Hodge MP, the chair of the United Kingdom Public Accounts Committee accused Google of being "calculated and unethical" over its use of artificial distinctions to avoid paying billions of pounds in corporation tax owed by its UK operations. Google was accused by the committee, which represents the interests of all UK taxpayers, of being "evil" for not paying its "fair amount of tax".
In 2015, the UK Government introduced a new law intended to penalise Google and other large multinational corporations' artificial tax avoidance. Google is accused of avoiding paying tens of billions of dollars of tax through a convoluted scheme of inter-company licensing agreements and transfers to tax havens. Schmidt was also criticised for his inaccurate use of the term 'capitalism' to describe billions of dollars being transferred into tax havens where no economic activity was actually taking place.
Privacy
Publicly Schmidt stated that, as paraphrased by CNN/Money, "there has to be a trade-off between privacy concerns and functionality." His explanations referenced "Don't Be Evil".
During an interview aired on December 3, 2009, on the CNBC documentary "Inside the Mind of Google," Schmidt was asked, "People are treating Google like their most trusted friend. Should they be?" He replied: "I think judgment matters. If you have something that you don't want anyone to know, maybe you shouldn't be doing it in the first place. But if you really need that kind of privacy, the reality is that search engines, including Google, do retain this information for some time. And it's important, for example, that we are all subject in the United States to the Patriot Act. It is possible that information could be made available to the authorities."
At the Techonomy conference on August 4, 2010, Schmidt expressed that technology is good. And he said that the only way to manage the challenges is "much greater transparency and no anonymity." Schmidt also stated that in an era of asymmetric threats, "true anonymity is too dangerous." However, at the 2013 Hay Festival, Schmidt expressed concern that sharing of personal information was too rampant and could have a negative effect, particularly on teenagers, stating that "we have never had a generation with a full photographic, digital record of what they did", declaring that "We have a point at which we [Google] forget information we know about you because it is the right thing to do. There are situations in life that it's better that they don't exist."
In 2013, Schmidt stated that the government surveillance in the United States was the "nature of our society" and that he was not going to "pass judgment on that". However, on the revelation that the NSA has been secretly spying on Google's data centers worldwide, he called the practice "outrageous" and criticized the NSA's collection of Americans phone records.
In 2005, Google blacklisted CNET reporters from talking to Google employees for one year, until July 2006, after CNET published personal information on Schmidt, including his political donations, hobbies, salary, and neighborhood, that had been obtained through Google searches.
Network neutrality
In August 2010, Schmidt clarified his company's views on network neutrality: "I want to be clear what we mean by Net neutrality: What we mean is if you have one data type like video, you don't discriminate against one person's video in favor of another. But it's okay to discriminate across different types. So you could prioritize voice over video. And there is general agreement with Verizon and Google on that issue."
Influence of Internet usage in North Korea
In January 2013, Schmidt and Jared Cohen, director of Google Ideas visited North Korea along with former New Mexico governor Bill Richardson. The trip was highly publicized and controversial due to the ongoing tension between North Korea and the United States. On August 10, 2013, North Korea announced an indigenous smartphone, named Arirang, that may be using the Google Android operating system.
Advocating open Internet use in Myanmar
In March 2013, Schmidt visited Myanmar, which had been ruled by a military junta for decades and is transitioning to a democracy. During his visit, Schmidt spoke in favor of free and open Internet use in the country, and was scheduled to meet with the country's president.
Technology and Society
In January 2015, Schmidt and Jared Cohen, director of Google Ideas, met with Pope Francis to discuss technology and society. This was the first meeting between the Pope and a technology leader, which was subsequently followed by other tech leaders visiting the Vatican.
Authored books and publications
The New Digital Age
In 2013, Schmidt and Jared Cohen, director of the Google Ideas think tank, published The New Digital Age: Reshaping the Future of People, Nations and Business, which discusses the geopolitical implications of increasingly widespread Internet use and access to information. The book was inspired by an essay in Foreign Affairs magazine the two co-wrote in 2010. He also wrote the preface to The Startup Game: Inside the Partnership between Venture Capitalists and Entrepreneurs, by William H. Draper, III.
How Google Works
In 2014, Schmidt co-authored the New York Times best-selling book How Google Works with Jonathan Rosenberg, former Senior Vice President of Products at Google and current advisor to Google CEO Larry Page, and Alan Eagle. The book is a collection of the business management lessons learned over the course of Schmidt and Rosenberg's time leading Google. In his book, Eric Schmidt argues that successful companies in the technology-driven internet age should attract smart and creative employees and create an environment where they can thrive. He argues that the traditional business rules that make a company successful have changed; companies should maximize freedom and speed, and decision-making should not lie in the hands of the few. Schmidt also emphasizes that individuals and small teams can have a massive impact on innovation.
Schmidt's Law
Dating back to early 1990s and dubbed "Schmidt's Law" by George Gilder when Schmidt predicted that the network will become the computer. Schmidt's Law states: "When the network becomes as fast as the backplane of your computer, the computer hollows out, its components dispersing across the Web, its value migrating to search and sort functions."
Social networking services
In October 2020, Schmidt stated that social networking services are "amplifiers for idiots and crazy people" and that this was not what the Big Tech firms intended when creating them.
Other work
Art collection
Schmidt was on the list of ARTnews's 200 top art collectors in 2008. Schmidt denied that he was an art collector, despite his involvement in art, in 2019.
Bilderberg Group
He is a member of the Bilderberg Group and has attended the annual Bilderberg conferences every year since 2007 (except for 2009). He also has a listed membership with the Trilateral Commission. He is a member of the International Advisory Board at the Blavatnik School of Government, University of Oxford.
Berggruen Institute
Schmidt is an active member of the Berggruen Institute's 21st Century Council, and its board of directors.
Acting
In 2014, he had a cameo appearance in the film Dumb and Dumber To, starring Jim Carrey and Jeff Daniels. He also had a cameo appearance in the HBO show Silicon Valley.
Personal life
In June 1980, Schmidt married Wendy Susan Boyle (born 1955 in Short Hills, New Jersey). They lived in Atherton, California, in the 1990s. They have a daughter, Sophie, and had another, Alison, who died in 2017 from an illness. The two separated in 2011; a number of Schmidt's outside relationships have attracted publicity, but he continues philanthropic efforts in the name of him and his wife.
In January 2013, Schmidt visited North Korea with his daughter Sophie, Jared Cohen, and former New Mexico governor Bill Richardson.
In 2015, Schmidt acquired a 20% stake in D.E. Shaw & Co. Schmidt is also an investor in CargoMetrics, another quant hedge fund.
In April 2015, Schmidt delivered the commencement address at Virginia Tech, located in Schmidt's childhood home of Blacksburg, Virginia. This came on the heels of Schmidt making a $2 million donation to Virginia Tech's College of Engineering. Schmidt's philanthropy is the result of his longstanding friendship with Virginia Tech's former president Paul Torgersen. His donation funded the Paul and Dorothea Torgersen Dean's Chair in Engineering.
In September 2020, Schmidt purchased Montecito Mansion, a 22,000-square-foot estate overlooking Santa Barbara, for $30.8 million.
In November 2020, Recode reported that Schmidt is finalizing his plan to become a citizen of the island nation of Cyprus. He is one of the highest-profile or famous people to take advantage of the controversial immigrant investor programs that offers "passport-for-sale". This passport can be used to enter any country of the European Union.
See also
List of billionaires
70/20/10 Model — business model advocated by Schmidt
RechargeIT
References
External links
(January 17, 2008)
Mobile World Congress 2010 Keynote: Eric Schmidt, CEO, Google (February 2010)
How Google Works (The best ideas, by TECHmED)
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224587 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beach%20volleyball | Beach volleyball | Beach volleyball is a team sport played by two teams of two players on a sand court divided by a net. Similar to indoor volleyball, the objective of the game is to send the ball over the net and to ground it on the opponent's side of the court. Each team works in unison to prevent the opposing team from grounding the ball on their side of the court.
Teams are allowed up to three touches to return the ball across the net, and individual players may not touch the ball twice consecutively except after making a block touch. Making a block touch leaves only two more touches before the ball must be hit over. The ball is put in play with a serve—a hit by the server from behind the rear court boundary over the net to the opponents. The rally continues until the ball is grounded on the playing court, goes "out", or a fault is made in the attempt to return the ball. The team that wins the rally scores a point and serves to start the following rally. The four players serve in the same sequence throughout the match, changing server each time a rally is won by the receiving team.
Beach volleyball most likely originated in 1915 on Waikiki Beach in Hawaii, while the modern two-player game originated in Santa Monica, California. It has been an Olympic sport since the 1996 Summer Olympics. The Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB) is the international governing body for the sport, and organizes the FIVB Beach Volleyball World Championships and the FIVB Beach Volleyball World Tour.
History
Beach volleyball is a variant of indoor volleyball, which was invented in 1895 by William G. Morgan. Beach volleyball most likely originated in 1915 on Waikiki Beach in Hawaii, at the Outrigger Canoe Club. According to a 1978 interview of an Outrigger Canoe Club member, George David "Dad" Center put a net up there, and the first recorded game of beach volleyball took place. In 1920, new jetties in Santa Monica, California created a large sandy area for public enjoyment. This planted the seed for beach volleyball development in that region. The first permanent nets began to appear, and people soon began playing recreational games on public parts of the beach and in private beach clubs. Eleven such beach clubs appeared in the Santa Monica area, beginning in late 1922. The first inter-club competitions were staged in 1924.
Most of these early beach volleyball matches were played with teams of at least six players per side, much like indoor volleyball. The concept of the modern two-man beach volleyball game is credited to Paul "Pablo" Johnson of the Santa Monica Athletic Club. In the summer of 1930, while waiting for players to show up for a six-man game at the Santa Monica Athletic Club, Johnson decided to try playing with only the four people present, forming two two-man teams for the first recorded beach volleyball doubles game. The players realized that with fewer players on the court, a taller player's height advantage could be neutralized by a shorter player's speed and ball control. The popularity of the two-man game spread to other nearby beach clubs and eventually to the public courts. The two-player version of the game is the most widely played version as well as the only one contested at an elite level.
Beach volleyball grew in popularity in the United States during the Great Depression in the 1930s as it was an inexpensive activity. The sport also began to appear in Europe during this time. By the 1940s, doubles tournaments were being played on the beaches of Santa Monica for trophies. In 1948 the first tournament to offer a prize was held in Los Angeles. It awarded the best teams with a case of Pepsi. In the 1960s, an attempt to start a professional volleyball league was made in Santa Monica. It failed, but a professional tournament was held in France for 30,000 French francs. In the 1950s, the first Brazilian beach volleyball tournament was held, sponsored by a newspaper publishing company. The first Manhattan Beach Open was held in 1960, a tournament which grew in prestige to become, in the eyes of some, the "Wimbledon of Beach Volleyball".
In the meantime, beach volleyball gained popularity: in the 1960s The Beatles tried playing in Los Angeles and US president John F. Kennedy was seen attending a match. In 1974, there was an indoor tournament: "The $1500.00 World Indoor Two-Man Volleyball Championship" played in front of 4,000 volleyball enthusiast at the San Diego Sports Arena. Fred Zuelich teamed with Dennis Hare to defeat Ron Von Hagen and Matt Gage in the championship match, Winston Cigarettes was the sponsor. Dennis Hare went on to write the first book on the subject of beach volleyball: The Art of Beach Volleyball.
The first professional beach volleyball tournament was the Olympia World Championship of Beach Volleyball, staged on Labor Day weekend, 1976, at Will Rogers State Beach in Pacific Palisades, California. The event was organized by David Wilk of Volleyball magazine, based in Santa Barbara. The winners, the first "world champions", were Greg Lee and Jim Menges. They split US$2,500 out of a total prize purse of US$5,000.
Volleyball magazine staged the event the next year at the same location, this time sponsored by Schlitz Light Beer. In 1978 Wilk formed a sports promotion company named Event Concepts with Craig Masuoka and moved the World Championship of Beach Volleyball to Redondo Beach, California. Jose Cuervo signed on as sponsor and the prize purse. The event was successful and Cuervo funded an expansion the next year to three events. The California Pro Beach Tour debuted with events in Laguna Beach, Santa Barbara and the World Championship in Redondo.
In following years the tour expanded nationally and was renamed the Pro Beach Volleyball Tour. It consisted of five events in California and tournaments in Florida, Colorado, and Chicago. By 1984, the Pro Beach consisted of 16 events around the country and had a total prize purse of US$300,000. At the end of the year, however, Event Concepts was forced out of the sport by a players' strike at the World Championship and the Association of Volleyball Professionals (AVP) was founded.
At the professional level, the sport remained fairly obscure until the 1980s when beach volleyball experienced a surge in popularity with high-profile players such as Sinjin Smith, Randy Stoklos, and Karch Kiraly. Kiraly won an Olympic gold medal in beach volleyball in its first Olympic appearance in 1996, adding that to the two Olympic golds he won as part of the USA men's indoor team, In the 1980s, the sport gained popularity on the beaches of Copacabana and Ipanema in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. In 1986, the first international beach volleyball exhibition was held in Rio de Janeiro with 5,000 spectators.
In 1987, the first international FIVB-sanctioned tournament was played on Ipanema beach in Rio de Janeiro, with a prize purse of US$22,000. It was won by Sinjin Smith and Randy Stoklos. In 1989, the first FIVB-sanctioned international circuit, called the World Series, was organized with men's tournaments in Brazil, Italy and Japan. The FIVB and its continental confederations began organizing worldwide professional tournaments and laid the groundwork for the sport's Olympic debut in 1996. The first FIVB Beach Volleyball World Championships and FIVB Beach Volleyball World Tour were held the following year. By 1998, the sport had been added to other multi-sport events including the Pan American Games, Central American Games, Southeast Asian Games, Goodwill Games and Universiade. In 2001, the FIVB began organizing the annual FIVB Beach Volleyball U21 World Championships, with the annual FIVB Beach Volleyball U19 World Championships beginning the following year.
Despite its increased popularity in the 1980s and 1990s, American beach volleyball suffered setbacks. In 1998, the American women's professional tour – the WPVA – and the American professional men's tour – the AVP – filed for bankruptcy, plagued by problems as a player-run organization. In 2001, the AVP reemerged as a for-profit, publicly traded company that combined the men's and women's professional tours, with equal prize money for both sexes. After filing for bankruptcy again in 2010, the AVP re-emerged under new leadership in 2013 as the main professional beach volleyball tour in the United States.
Beach volleyball has become a global sport, with international competition organized by the FIVB.
Rules
The Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB) is the international governing body for the sport. The FIVB publishes the Official Beach Volleyball Rules every four years, as approved by the FIVB congress, which provides the framework for how beach volleyball is played internationally. The rules have changed through the years: the court size became smaller, side out scoring was replaced by rally scoring and let serves were allowed. Beach volleyball differs from indoor, especially in requiring "clean hands" while setting.
Court
Beach volleyball is played on a rectangular sand court. The court is long and wide, surrounded by a clear space, which is at least wide on all sides. The minimum height clearance for beach volleyball courts is . The sand should be as leveled as possible and free of potential hazards such as rocks that could cause injuries to players.
The court is divided into equal halves by a net that is long and wide. The top of the net is 2.43 m (7 ft 11 11⁄16 in) above the center of the court for men's competition, and 2.24 m (7 ft 4 3⁄16 in) for women's competition, varied for veterans and junior competitions. An antenna, long and in diameter, is attached to each side edge of the net.
The antennae are considered part of the net and extend above it, forming the lateral boundaries within which the ball is allowed to cross.
Two side lines and two end lines, measuring wide, delineate the playing court.
Ball
FIVB regulations state that the ball must be spherical and made of water resistant, flexible material, such that it is appropriate for outdoor conditions. A beach volleyball ball has a circumference of 66–68 cm, a weight of 260–280 g and an inside pressure of 0.175–0.225 kg/cm2.
Teams
A team is composed exclusively of two players, who must always be in play and who cannot be subjected to any substitutions or replacement. At the moment the ball is hit by the server, each team must be within its own court (with the exception of the server), but there are no determined positions on the court, such that no positional faults can be committed.
Scoring
Point, set, match
A team scores a point when: the ball lands on the opposing team's court; the opposing team hits the ball "out"; the opposing team commits a fault; or the opposing team receives a penalty. The team that won the point serves for the next point. The ball is considered "out" if it: lands on the ground completely outside the boundary lines (a ball is "in" if any part of it touches a sideline or end-line); touches an object or person (who is not a player) outside the court; touches the net's antennae; does not cross the net's lateral boundaries (within the antennae) during service or during a team's third contact; crosses completely under the net.
A set is won by the first team to reach 21 points (15 points in the deciding final set) with a two-point advantage. Thus, if the score is 20–all (or 14–all in a final set) or at any tie beyond it, whoever scores two straight points wins. A match is won by whoever wins two sets.
Faults
A fault is committed when a referee judges that a team has made a playing action that violates the rules. When a team commits a fault, the opposing team receives a point and gains the right to serve. If both teams commit a fault simultaneously, the point is replayed. Common faults include:
Four hits: when a team uses more than three contacts before returning the ball over the net
Assisted hit: a player uses a teammate or any object as support to hit the ball within the playing area
Double contact: when a player contacts the ball two times consecutively, except after a block touch
Catch/lift: a player catches or throws the ball
Service order fault: a team serves out of the service order
Foot fault: a player's foot touches the court (including the end line) before or during a service hit
Net touch: a player touches the net between the antennae or the antenna itself while playing the ball
Major rule changes
In the 1990s, the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball reduced the standard internal pressure for a beach volleyball ball from the indoor standard of 0.30–0.325 kgf/cm2 to 0.175–0.225 kgf/cm2, and increased the standard circumference of the beach volleyball ball from the indoor standard of 65–67 cm to 66–68 cm.
In the 2001 season, the FIVB began testing rule changes to the court size and scoring system. The beach volleyball court dimension was reduced from the indoor court size of to , and the scoring system was changed from sideout scoring, wherein only the serving team can score a point, to rally scoring, wherein a point is scored on every serve. The Association of Volleyball Professionals (AVP) adopted the FIVB's rule changes that same year, which upset many of the sport's purists at the time. The new rules were officially adopted by the FIVB in 2002.
Differences with the indoor game
Beach volleyball is fundamentally similar to indoor volleyball. However, there are several differences between the two games that affect players' strategies, gameplay and techniques.
The main differences in the rules of beach and indoor volleyball for international competitions governed by the FIVB include:
Facilities and equipment
Playing surface: Beach volleyball is played on sand courts instead of hard courts as in indoor volleyball. The softer sand makes it more difficult for players to move and jump, but also reduces the likelihood of injuries such as jumper's knee. Footwear is not required and players usually play barefoot or with "sand socks".
Environment: The beach game is often played outdoors, and environmental factors such as wind, rain and sun affect beach players' strategies.
Court size: A beach volleyball court is , slightly smaller than the indoor court.
Balls: Beach volleyball balls are water-resistant and slightly larger than indoor balls, with a rougher external texture and a lower internal pressure to better suit the outdoor playing conditions.
Participants
Number of players: There are two players on a beach volleyball team and no substitutions, compared to indoor volleyball which has six players and six substitutions per set. This means that beach volleyball players require a versatile skill set, as opposed to specializing in one skill. Fewer players on court also results in the utilization of a wider variety of attack shots in beach volleyball.
Coaching during matches is not allowed, although exceptions are given for junior tournaments and can only occur when switching sides.
Aside from alternating service order, there are no player-specific rules
-No restrictions on which players can attack from which locations (as for back-row players or liberos in indoor volleyball)
-No positional faults: players may switch sides at will
Playing format
Scoring system: Beach volleyball matches are best of 3 sets played to 21 points (15 points for a deciding set).
Switching sides: Unlike in indoor volleyball, beach volleyball teams switch ends of the court every seven points (every five points on a deciding set). This ensures that neither team has an advantage due to environmental factors such as wind and sun glare.
Playing actions
Open hand tips and dinks are not allowed in two-man beach volleyball as they would allow players to score points too easily.
A touch off the block counts as one of the three allowed touches in beach volleyball, and either player may make the subsequent touch after the block.
It is legal to cross under the net in beach volleyball as long as it does not interfere with opponents' play.
Open-hand setting (overhead pass) standards differ in that the threshold for double contact faults is stricter in beach volleyball, especially when receiving a non-hard-driven ball or directing the ball over the net, while the threshold for lifts is more lenient in beach volleyball. Due to these differences, bump setting (forearm pass) is more common in the beach game.
A ball set over the net as an attack must travel perpendicularly to the player's shoulder line.
Each team has one time out per set and in official games there is an official time out in first and second sets when the score sums up 21 total points for both teams.
Gameplay
The teams start on opposite sides of the net. One team is designated the serving team and opposing team is the receiving team. A coin toss is conducted by the referee before the warm-ups to determine which team serves first and which sides of the court the teams start on for the first two sets. If a third deciding set is needed, another coin toss will be conducted prior to the third set. The service order decided at the coin toss before a set is maintained throughout the set.
For each point, a player from the serving team initiates the serve by tossing the ball into the air and attempting to hit the ball so it passes over the net on a course such that it will land in the opposing team's court. The opposing team must use a combination of no more than three contacts with the ball to return the ball to the opponent's side of the net, and individual players may not touch the ball twice consecutively except after a block touch. The three contacts usually consist first of the bump or pass by the receiving player, second of the set by the receiving player's teammate so that the ball's trajectory is aimed towards a spot where the receiving player can hit it, and third by the receiving player who spikes (jumping, raising one arm above the head and hitting the ball so it will move quickly down to the ground on the opponent's court) or shoots to return the ball over the net. The team with possession of the ball that is trying to attack the ball as described is said to be on offense.
The team on defense attempts to prevent the attacking team from directing the ball into their court: a player at the net jumps and reaches above the top (and if possible, across the plane) of the net to block the attacked ball. If the ball is hit around, above, or through the block, the defensive player positioned behind the blocker attempts to control the ball with a dig (usually a forearm pass). After a successful dig, the team transitions to offense.
The game continues in this manner, rallying back and forth, until the ball touches the court within the boundaries or until a fault is committed.
Teams switch ends of the court after every 7 points (set 1 and 2) and 5 points (set 3) played. When the total points are 21 (adding the score of both teams) there is a technical time-out. Each team may request one time-out per set.
Player specializations
While there are no fixed positions, competitive players generally have specialized defensive and offensive roles.
On defense, players may specialize as either a blocker or a defender:
Blocker: A blocker is positioned at the net and is responsible for taking away part of the court (e.g. line or angle) with their block. Height, jumping ability, timing and positioning are important factors in blocking.
Defender: A defender's responsibility is to position oneself in the backcourt area not covered by the block, so as to dig the hard-driven spike or chase down the soft shot. Agility, speed and digging skills are important factors in defense.
Some competitive teams have no specializations, with the two players taking turns blocking and playing defense. This style of play is known as split blocking and allows teams to conserve energy since the demand for energy on the sand is higher.
On offense, players tend to specialize in playing on either the right side or left side of the court. This allows for greater consistency in receiving serve and shot selection. Left-handed players generally prefer to play on the right side while right-handed players generally prefer to play on the left side, as it is easier to spike a ball that has not passed across the line of one's body. A player who is playing on the opposite side of their handedness is said to be playing on the on-hand side, while a player playing on the same side as their handedness is playing on the off-hand side.
Characteristics of a hit
The ball may touch any part of the body (except during the serve, when only the hand or arm may make contact), but must be hit, not caught or thrown. During a hit, a player may only make contact with the ball one time. When two players from the same team contact the ball simultaneously, it is counted as two hits, and either player may make the next contact. When two players from opposing teams contact the ball simultaneously over the net, in what is known as a joust, the team whose side the ball ends up on is entitled to another three contacts.
When receiving a ball from a hit that is not hard driven, the ball must be contacted "cleanly". If a player receives the ball open-handed, the contact of each hand with the ball must be exactly simultaneous. In practice, this means that serves are never received open-handed. When receiving an opponent's hard-driven attack, a double contact (provided both contacts occur in a single action) and/or a slight lift of the ball is allowed. In particular, in defensive action of a hard driven ball, the ball can be held momentarily overhand with the fingers.
When employing an overhand pass (hands separated, ball handled with the fingers) as the second of three team touches (usually with the intent of "setting" the ball, so that the other player may make a more effective attack-hit), the standard for a double contact fault is more lenient than when receiving or attacking, though still much stricter than in indoor volleyball. The standard for a lift fault during an overhand pass is less strict than in indoor games—it is legal to allow the ball to come to rest for a small period of time.
Attack-hits using an "open-handed tip or dink" directing the ball with the fingers are illegal, as are attack-hits using an overhand pass to direct the ball on a trajectory not perpendicular to the line of the shoulders (overhand passes which accidentally cross over the net are an exception). These differences between the rules of indoor volleyball and beach volleyball strongly affect tactics and techniques.
Block signals
Beach volleyball players use hand signals to indicate to their partners the type of block they either intend to make (if they are the designated blocker) or that they want their partner to make (if they are the designated defender). Block signals are important so that both the blocker and defender know which area of the court is their responsibility to cover. Block signals are made behind the back to hide them from the opposing team. They are usually given with both hands by the serving player's partner prior to the serve, with the left hand referring to the type of block that should be put up against the left-side attacker, and the right hand similarly referring to the right-side attacker. A player may also "wiggle" or "flash" one block signal to indicate which opponent to serve to.
Block signals may also be given during a rally while the opposing team is preparing their attack.
Common block signals
Closed fist No block should be attempted for the opponent on that side of the court, also known as "pull-off"
One finger The blocker should block an opponent's "line" attack, or a ball hit toward the nearest sideline
Two fingers The blocker should block an opponent's "angle" attack, or a ball hit diagonally from the net and across the court
Three fingers The blocker pretends to block an opponent's "angle" attack, but dives into a "line" block at the last moment
Four fingers The blocker pretends to block an opponent's "line" attack, but dives into an "angle" block at the last moment
Open hand The blocker should block "ball", deciding how to block based upon the opposing team's set, and the hitter's approach and arm-swing technique.
Note: For some teams, closed fist and open hand signals have the opposite meaning of blocking. If the partner is showing the closed fist the blocker should block "ball" and open hand means that the blocker should "pull off" the net.
Skills
There are several basic skills competitive players need to master: serving, passing, setting, attacking, blocking, and digging.
Serve
Serving is the act of putting the ball into play by striking it with the hand or arm from behind the rear court boundary. Serving can take the form of an underhand serve or an overhand serve, and examples include: float serve, jump-float serve, top-spin serve, jump serve, sky ball serve and reverse sky ball serve. As beach volleyball is usually played outdoors, the direction and speed of the wind and the position of the sun are considered when choosing which serve to use. Because wind can significantly affect the trajectory of a serve, players can employ different serving strategies to take advantage of the wind conditions. For example, players may choose a top-spin serve when serving into the wind, causing the ball to drop short in front of the passer.
Players can also take advantage of the position of the sun. For example, a sky ball serve is especially effective at high noon, because the sun gets into the passer's eyes and can cause the passer to become disoriented. Although the serve can be used as an offensive weapon, most rallies are won by the receiving team, as they have the first attack opportunity.
Pass
The pass is the first of a team's 3 allowed contacts. In indoor volleyball, passing involves two main techniques: forearm pass, or bump, where the ball touches the inside part of the joined forearms or platform, at waist line; and overhand pass, where it is handled with the fingertips, like a hand set, above the head. However, the standards for hand setting are stricter on the beach. In practice, this means that beach players are effectively forbidden from hand setting the ball on serve receive; similarly, beach players seldom use an overhand passing motion as the first (except on a hard driven attack) or last of the three allowed team contacts. Digging is a similar skill to passing, but the term is not used to describe receiving the serve or a free ball, but rather refers to an attempt to prevent an opponent's attack hit from touching the court.
Set
The set is the second team contact, and its purpose is to position the ball for an attack on the third hit. Similar to a pass, the ball can be set with either a forearm pass technique, known as a bump set, or an overhand pass technique, known as a hand set. Due to the stricter standards for ball rotation when hand setting in beach volleyball than in indoor volleyball, as well as the environmental factors that make it harder to hand set a ball "cleanly", the bump set is more common in the beach game. When hand setting, the player's hands must contact the ball simultaneously. If a referee determines that a double-hit has occurred, the point will be given to the other team. Excessive spin after a ball has been set is often used as an indicator of a double contact fault, but causing a ball to spin while setting is not explicitly prohibited. After completing the contact, the setter typically turns his attention to the defense and communicates to his partner whether a blocker is up and which area of the court is open. The second contact can also be used to attack the ball, known as an "over-on-two" attack.
Attack
A beach volleyball attack can be categorized as either a spike or a shot. A spike involves hitting the ball hard with one open hand on a downward trajectory from above the top of the net. A shot is a relatively soft attack used to place a ball into an open (undefended) area of the court. Unlike indoor volleyball, a wide variety of shots are utilized in beach volleyball due to the fewer defenders on court. Common shots used in beach volleyball include: roll shots, in which the attacker puts a lot of topspin on the ball so that it has an arcing trajectory that will go over the block then drop quickly; cut shots, in which the shot crosses the net at sharp angles; pokeys, in which the ball is contacted with the attacking player's knuckles; and dinks, in which the ball is directed very softly low over the net.
Block
In beach volleyball, a block can be used to score a direct point by directing an attack by the opposing attacker back into their court, or used to channel the ball to the defender by "taking away" part of the court, or used to slow the ball down so the defender has time to chase down the ball. At the competitive level, blockers will often reach across the net and "penetrate" the opposing team's side as much as possible to take away more hitting angles. Blockers may also attempt a shot block, where instead of maximum penetration across the net, the blocker reaches with their hands as high as possible to achieve maximum height above the net.
Players often decide against blocking (if the opposing team's pass and set are not in a good position to produce a spike attack) and instead opt to retreat and play defense. This skill is known as peeling, dropping or pulling off the net, and is almost exclusive to beach volleyball.
Governing bodies
The primary international governing body for beach volleyball is the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB). The regional governing bodies are:
Asia and Oceania – Asian Volleyball Confederation (AVC)
Africa – Confédération Africaine de Volleyball (CAV)
Europe – European Volleyball Confederation (CEV)
North and Central America – North, Central America and Caribbean Volleyball Confederation (NORCECA)
South America – Confederación Sudamericana de Voleibol (CSV)
In the United States, USA Volleyball is the governing body for beach volleyball, as well as indoor and sitting volleyball.
Levels of competition
Professional
International
The FIVB Beach Volleyball World Tour is the international professional tour for both men and women organized by the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB). The inaugural tour was held in 1997, replacing the FIVB Beach Volleyball World Series that began in 1989 for men and 1992 for women. World Tour tournaments are ranked from 1 to 5 stars, with 5-star tournaments offering the most prize money. The 2018 World Tour has 47 international tournaments with a total prize purse of over US$7 million. Competing in the World Tour as well as other FIVB-recognized tournaments such as the Summer Olympics allows players to earn FIVB Ranking Points, with higher-star events being worth more points. The World Tour concludes with the World Tour Finals at the end of each season.
The FIVB also organizes the FIVB Beach Volleyball World Championships every two years, held since 1997. The World Championships have a 48-team main draw and prize purse of US$500,000 per gender.
Regional
The five regional governing bodies also organize Continental Tours and Championships:
Asian Volleyball Confederation (AVC) organizes the AVC Beach Volleyball Tour, culminating with the Asian Beach Volleyball Championships (since 2002).
African Volleyball Confederation (CAVB) organizes the Africa Beach Volleyball Championship.
European Volleyball Confederation (CEV) organizes the European Beach Volleyball Tour (since 1993), which consists of Satellite and Masters events, culminating with the European Beach Volleyball Championships. From the 2018 season onwards, the Satellite and Masters events have been merged into the FIVB World Tour, but are still organized by the CEV.
North, Central America and Caribbean Volleyball Confederation (NORCECA) organizes the NORCECA Beach Volleyball Circuit (since 2007).
Confederación Sudamericana de Voleibol (CSV) organizes the South American Beach Volleyball Circuit (since 2005).
Players can only participate in the Continental Tour that their national federation is a member of. In addition to prize money, Continental Tour events award players with FIVB ranking points and their national federations with National Federation ranking points. The latter determines how many teams a national federation can send to the World Championships and the Summer Olympics.
National
Some countries also have domestic professional tours, but only FIVB-approved national tours can award FIVB ranking points. As of 2017, there are 21 FIVB-approved national tours.
In the United States, the Association of Volleyball Professionals (AVP) is the main domestic professional tour, organizing tournaments annually such as the Manhattan Beach Open. The AVP tour is not FIVB-approved and has had conflicts with the FIVB in the 1980s and 1990s over regulations and sponsorship, leading to an initial boycott of FIVB events by the top American players.
In Germany, the Techniker Beach Tour, previously known as the Smart Beach Tour, is the top domestic tour and is FIVB-approved. It is the organized by the German Volleyball Association and each season ends with the German Beach Volleyball Championships.
In Brazil, the FIVB-approved Brazilian Beach Volleyball Circuit (:pt:Circuito Brasileiro de Voleibol de Praia) is the main national tour. It has been organized by the Brazilian Volleyball Confederation since 1991. The tour consists of the main Open Circuit
and a Challenger Circuit. Each season concludes with the Superpraia championship.
Multi-sport events
Men and women's beach volleyball has been contested in the Summer Olympics since 1996. It is also contested in other international multi-sport events, including the Commonwealth Games (since 2018), Pan American Games (since 1999), Central American and Caribbean Games (since 1998), Asian Games (since 1998), Pacific Games (since 1999), African Games (since 2011), and Asian Beach Games (since 2008).
College
United States
In the 2010–11 academic year, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) began sponsoring women's beach volleyball as an "emerging sport". Initially, it was sponsored only for Division II, with Division I added the following academic year. NCAA competition follows standard beach volleyball rules, with competitions involving five doubles-teams from each participating school.
For a sport to classify as a championship, at least 40 schools must sponsor it. In 2015, sixty schools had teams, allowing it to become NCAA's 90th Championship sport. Beach volleyball became a fully sanctioned NCAA championship sport in the 2015–16 school year, following votes by leaders of all three NCAA divisions to launch a single all-divisions national championship.
In a 2018 summary report of NCAA beach volleyball, data showed that the sport had grown significantly over the years. According to the summary, the program saw an increase of sixty teams from the academic year of 2011 to 2018, most of which were introduced as Division I teams. Despite its growth in popularity and influence in the collegiate scene, recruitment of beach athletes was still notably lower than for indoor volleyball. Stephen McCarthy, a well-known beach volleyball coach, explained during an interview that, while there are around 15,000 indoor scholarships nationwide, there are only about 130 programs for the beach in comparison. Collegiate institutions permit athletes with an indoor scholarship to transfer to the beach program if they so choose. However, the same does not apply to beach players who wish to play indoor. The rule is meant to prevent the excessive funding of the indoor program, while allowing for the transfer of scholarship money to beach programs.
The NCAA beach volleyball program has had an impact outside the collegiate scene. While institutions continue to nurture their programs, more youth are becoming attracted to the sport. As viewership increases among juniors, they are motivated to become more active and work toward potential scholarships.
In 2019, the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) approved women's collegiate beach volleyball as an "emerging sport" with 16 NAIA institutions slated to field teams in the 2019–2020 school year.
Philippines
Beach volleyball is a men's and women's championship sport in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and the University Athletic Association of the Philippines (UAAP). In the NCAA, it is contested at both the high school and college level.
Europe
The European Universities Beach Volleyball Championships are held annually as part of the European Universities Championships.
Junior
The FIVB organizes the annual U19 and U21 World Championships. World Championships for the U17 and U23 age-groups were previously held as well. Teams are awarded FIVB ranking points at these Championships, but not prize money. Instead, the winning U19 teams get a direct main draw entry into the next U21 World Championships, while the winning U21 teams get a direct main draw entry into a World Tour 4 or 5-star event of their choice.
Beach volleyball is also contested at the Youth Olympic Games (since 2014).
Uniform controversy
In 1999, the FIVB standardized beach volleyball uniforms, with the swimsuit becoming the required uniform for both men and women. Women were required to wear two-piece bikinis, while men were required to wear shorts that were no longer than above the knees. This drew the ire of some athletes.
According to current FIVB rules, female beach volleyball players have the option of playing in shorts or a one-piece swimsuit. Most players, however, prefer the two-piece bikini. Competitors such as Natalie Cook and Holly McPeak have confirmed the FIVB's claims that the uniforms are practical for a sport played on sand during the heat of summer, with McPeak saying that the two-piece is more comfortable and allows for a greater range of motion while the one-piece has the further problem of trapping sand. British Olympian Denise Johns claimed that the regulation uniform is intended to be "sexy" and to draw attention. Other players have argued that the bikini is tied to the sport's "beach culture".
During the 2004 Summer Olympic Games, a study was conducted on the camera angles during the beach volleyball games. 20% of the camera angles were focused on the chest area and 17% of the angles were focused on the buttock area. The study concludes that this implies the look of the players is having a greater impact on fans than their actual athleticism.
Some conservative cultures have expressed moral objections to the swimsuit as a uniform. At the 2007 South Pacific Games, rules were adjusted to require less revealing shorts and cropped sports tops. At the 2006 Asian Games, only one Muslim country fielded a team in the women's competition, amid concerns the uniform was inappropriate.
In early 2012, the FIVB announced it would allow shorts (maximum length above the knee) and sleeved tops at the London 2012 Olympics. The federation spokesman said that "many of these countries have religious and cultural requirements so the uniform needed to be more flexible". In fact, the weather was so cold for the evening games at London 2012 that the players sometimes had to wear shirts and leggings.
Lifestyle and culture
Beach volleyball culture includes the people, language, fashion, and life surrounding the sport of modern beach volleyball. With its origins in Hawaii and California, beach volleyball is strongly associated with a casual, beach-centric lifestyle. As it developed nearly in parallel with modern surfing, beach volleyball culture shares some similarities with surf culture. The beach bum archetype is one such example. Professional beach volleyball matches often have a "party atmosphere", with loud music, announcers and dancers in between points and during time-outs.
Fashion often extends from the clothing worn during play, like the bikini or boardshorts. And much like surfers, beach volleyball players are at the mercy of the weather; patterns of play often develop based on weather conditions like sun and wind.
Naturist volleyball
Naturists were early adopters of the game. Records of regular games in clubs can be found as early as the 1920s. Given the outdoor nature of naturism, a beach version of volleyball was naturally adopted. By the 1960s, a volleyball court could be found in almost all naturist clubs. A large (over 70 teams) nude volleyball tournament has been held each fall since 1971 at White Thorn Lodge in western Pennsylvania, and several smaller tournaments occur each year throughout North America.
Common injuries
The most common injuries in beach volleyball are knee, ankle, shoulder and finger injuries. Pain due to overuse of the knee, lower back, and especially shoulder is common as well, but is less prevalent than in indoor volleyball due to the soft landing surface. Acute lost-time injuries are also relatively rare in beach volleyball compared to other team sports. Many players use kinesiology tape. Interest in this tape has surged after American beach volleyball player and three-time Olympic gold medalist Kerri Walsh wore it at the 2008 Beijing Olympics.
See also
Beach handball
Beach volleyball at the Summer Olympics
List of American beach volleyball players
Volleyball variations
References
Sports originating in the United States
volleyball
Summer Olympic disciplines
Volleyball variations
Articles containing video clips
Games and sports introduced in 1915 | [
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224589 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine%20Years%27%20War | Nine Years' War | The Nine Years' War (1688–1697), often called the War of the Grand Alliance or the War of the League of Augsburg, was a conflict between France and a European coalition which mainly included the Holy Roman Empire (led by the Habsburg Monarchy), the Dutch Republic, England, Spain, Savoy and Portugal. It was fought in Europe and the surrounding seas, in North America, and in India. It is sometimes considered the first global war. The conflict encompassed the Williamite war in Ireland and Jacobite risings in Scotland, where William III and James II struggled for control of England and Ireland, and a campaign in colonial North America between French and English settlers and their respective Native American allies.
Louis XIV of France had emerged from the Franco-Dutch War in 1678 as the most powerful monarch in Europe, an absolute ruler whose armies had won numerous military victories. Using a combination of aggression, annexation, and quasi-legal means, Louis XIV set about extending his gains to stabilize and strengthen France's frontiers, culminating in the brief War of the Reunions (1683–1684). The Truce of Ratisbon guaranteed France's new borders for twenty years, but Louis XIV's subsequent actions—notably his Edict of Fontainebleau (the revocation of the Edict of Nantes) in 1685—led to the deterioration of his political pre-eminence and raised concerns among European Protestant states. Louis XIV's decision to cross the Rhine in September 1688 was designed to extend his influence and pressure the Holy Roman Empire into accepting his territorial and dynastic claims. However, Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I and German princes resolved to resist. The States General of the Netherlands and William III brought the Dutch and English into the conflict against France and were soon joined by other states, which now meant the French king faced a powerful coalition aimed at curtailing his ambitions.
The main fighting took place around France's borders in the Spanish Netherlands, the Rhineland, the Duchy of Savoy, and Catalonia. The fighting generally favoured Louis XIV's armies, but by 1696 his country was in the grip of an economic crisis. The Maritime Powers (England and the Dutch Republic) were also financially exhausted, and when Savoy defected from the Alliance, all parties were keen to negotiate a settlement. By the terms of the Treaty of Ryswick, Louis XIV retained the whole of Alsace but in exchange had to return Lorraine to its ruler and give up any gains on the right bank of the Rhine. Louis XIV also recognized William III as the rightful king of England, while the Dutch acquired a barrier fortress system in the Spanish Netherlands to help secure their borders.
The peace would be short-lived. With the ailing and childless Charles II of Spain's death approaching, a new dispute over the inheritance of the Spanish Empire was soon to embroil Louis XIV and the Grand Alliance in the War of the Spanish Succession.
Background 1678–1687
In the years following the Franco-Dutch War (1672–78) Louis XIV of France, now at the height of his power, sought to impose religious unity in France and to solidify and expand his frontiers. He had already won his personal glory by conquering new territory, but he was no longer willing to pursue an open-ended militarist policy of the kind that he had undertaken in 1672. Instead, he would rely upon France's clear military superiority to achieve specific strategic objectives along his borders. Proclaimed the "Sun King", a more mature Louis, conscious that he had failed to achieve decisive results against the Dutch, had turned from conquest to security by using threats, rather than open war, to intimidate his neighbours into submission.
Louis XIV, along with his chief military advisor, Louvois; his foreign minister, Colbert de Croissy; and his technical expert, Vauban, developed France's defensive strategy. Vauban had advocated a system of impregnable fortresses along the frontier to keep France's enemies out. To construct a proper system, however, the King needed to acquire more land from his neighbours to form a solid forward line. That rationalisation of the frontier would make it far more defensible and define it more clearly in a political sense, but it also created the paradox that while Louis's ultimate goals were defensive, he pursued them by offensive means. He grabbed the necessary territory in the Reunions, a strategy that combined legalism, arrogance and aggression.
Reunions
The Treaties of Nijmegen (1678) and the earlier Peace of Westphalia (1648) provided Louis XIV with the justification for the Reunions. These treaties had awarded France territorial gains, but owing to the vagaries of their language (as with most treaties of the time) they were notoriously imprecise and self-contradictory, and never specified exact boundary lines. That imprecision often led to differing interpretations of the text and resulted in long disputes over frontier zones, where one side might gain a town or area and its "dependencies", but it was often unclear what the dependencies were. The machinery needed to determine the territorial ambiguities was already in place through the medium of the Parlements at Metz (technically, the only Chamber of Reunion), Besançon and a superior court at Breisach, dealing respectively with Lorraine, Franche-Comté and Alsace. Unsurprisingly, the courts usually found in Louis XIV's favour. By 1680, the disputed County of Montbéliard, lying between Franche-Comté and Alsace, had been separated from the Duchy of Württemberg, and by August, Louis XIV had secured the whole of Alsace with the exception of Strasbourg. The Chamber of Reunion of Metz soon laid claims to land around the Three Bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun and most of the Spanish Duchy of Luxembourg. The fortress of Luxembourg City itself was then blockaded with the intention of it becoming part of his defensible frontier.
On 30 September 1681, French troops also seized Strasbourg and its outpost, Kehl, on the right bank of the Rhine, a bridge that Holy Roman Empire ("Imperial") troops had regularly exploited during the latter stages of the Dutch War. By forcibly taking the Imperial city, the French now controlled two of the three bridgeheads over the Rhine, the others being Breisach, which was already in French hands, and Philippsburg, which Louis XIV had lost by the Treaty of Nijmegen. On the same day that Strasbourg fell, French forces marched into Casale, in northern Italy. The fortress was not taken in the process of the Reunions but had been purchased from the Duke of Mantua, which, together with the French possession of Pinerolo, enabled France to tie down Victor Amadeus II, the Duke of Savoy, and to threaten the Spanish Duchy of Milan. All of the Reunion claims and annexations were important strategic points of entry and exit between France and its neighbours and were immediately fortified by Vauban and incorporated into his fortress system.
Thus, the Reunions carved territory from the frontiers of present-day Germany, and the annexations established French power in Italy. However, by seeking to construct his impregnable border, Louis XIV so alarmed the other European states that a general war, which he had sought to avoid, became inevitable. His fortresses covered his frontiers but also projected French power. Only two statesmen might hope to oppose Louis XIV. One was William of Orange, the stadtholder of the United Provinces of the Dutch Republic, the natural leader of Protestant opposition, and the other was Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I, the obvious leader of anti-French forces in the Holy Roman Empire and Catholic Europe. Both wanted to act, but effective opposition in 1681–1682 was out of the question since Amsterdam's burghers wanted no further conflict with France, and both were fully aware of the current weaknesses of Spain and the Empire, whose important German princes from Mainz, Trier, Cologne, Saxony, Bavaria and (significantly) Frederick William I of Brandenburg remained in the pay of France.
Fighting on two fronts
Ever since Leopold I's intervention in the Franco-Dutch War, Louis XIV considered him his most dangerous enemy, although there was little reason to fear him. Leopold I was weak and was in grave danger along his Hungarian borders, where the Ottoman Turks were threatening to overrun all of Central Europe from the south. Louis had encouraged and assisted the Ottoman drive against Leopold I's Habsburg lands and he assured the Porte that he would not support the Emperor. He had also urged John III Sobieski of Poland unsuccessfully not to side with Leopold I and pressed the malcontent princes of Transylvania and Hungary to join with the Sultan's forces and to free their territory from Habsburg rule. When the Ottomans besieged Vienna in the spring of 1683, Louis did nothing to help the defenders.
Taking advantage of the Ottoman threat in the east, Louis invaded the Spanish Netherlands on 1 September 1683 and renewed the siege of Luxembourg, which had been abandoned the previous year. The French required of the Emperor and of Charles II of Spain a recognition of the legality of the recent Reunions, but the Spanish were unwilling to see any more of their holdings fall under Louis's jurisdiction. Spain's military options were highly limited, but the Ottoman defeat at Vienna on 12 September had emboldened it. In the hope that Leopold I would now make peace in the east and come to his assistance, Charles II declared war on France on 26 October. However, the Emperor had decided to continue the Turkish war in the Balkans and, for the time being, to compromise in the west. With Leopold I unwilling to fight on two fronts, a strong neutralist party in the Dutch Republic tying William's hands and the Elector of Brandenburg stubbornly holding to his alliance with Louis, no possible outcome could occur but complete French victory.
The War of the Reunions was brief and devastating. With the fall of Courtrai in early November, followed by Dixmude in December and Luxembourg in June 1684, Charles II was compelled to accept Louis XIV's peace. The Truce of Ratisbon (Regensburg), signed on 15 August by France on one side and by the Emperor and Spain on the other, rewarded the French with Strasbourg, Luxembourg and the gains of the Reunion (Courtrai and Dixmude were returned to Spain). The resolution was not a definitive peace but only a truce for 20 years. However, Louis had sound reasons to feel satisfied since the Emperor and German princes were fully occupied in Hungary, and in the Dutch Republic, William of Orange remained isolated and powerless, largely because of the pro-French mood in Amsterdam.
Persecution of Huguenots
At Ratisbon in 1684, France had been in a position to impose its will on Europe; however, after 1685, its dominant military and diplomatic position began to deteriorate. One of the main factors for the diminution was Louis XIV's revocation of the Edict of Nantes, which caused the dispersal of France's Protestant community. As many as 200,000 Huguenots fled to England, the Dutch Republic, Switzerland and Germany, and spread tales of brutality at the hands of the monarch of Versailles. The direct effect on France of the loss of the community is debatable, but the flight helped destroy the pro-French faction in the Dutch Republic because of its Protestant affiliations, and the exodus of Huguenot merchants and the harassment of Dutch merchants living in France also greatly affected Franco-Dutch trade. The persecution had another effect on Dutch public opinion since the conduct of the Catholic King of France made them look more anxiously at James II, now the Catholic King of England. Many in The Hague believed that James II was closer to his cousin Louis XIV than to his son-in-law and nephew William, which engendered suspicion and, in turn, hostility between Louis and William. Louis's seemingly endless territorial claims, coupled with his persecution of Protestants, enabled William of Orange and his party to gain the ascendancy in the Dutch Republic and finally lay the groundwork for his long-sought alliance against France.
Although James II had permitted the Huguenots to settle in England, he had enjoyed an amicable relationship with his fellow Catholic Louis XIV since James realised the importance of the friendship for his own Catholicising measures at home against the suspicions of the Protestant majority. However, the Huguenot presence gave an immense boost to anti-French discourse and joined forces with elements in England that had already been highly suspicious of James. Moreover, conflicts between French and English commercial interests in North America had caused severe friction between both countries since the French had grown antagonistic towards the Hudson's Bay Company and the New England colonies, but the English looked upon French pretensions in New France as encroaching upon their own possessions. The rivalry had spread to the other side of the world, where English and French East India Companies had already embarked upon hostilities.
Many in Germany reacted negatively to the persecution of the Huguenots, which disabused the Protestant princes of the idea that Louis XIV was their ally against the intolerant practices of the Catholic Habsburgs. The Elector of Brandenburg answered the revocation of the Edict of Nantes by promulgating the Edict of Potsdam, which invited the fleeing Huguenots to Brandenburg. However, there were motivations other than religious adherence that disabused him and other German princes of his allegiance to France. Louis XIV had pretensions in the Palatinate in the name of his sister-in-law, Elizabeth Charlotte, and threatened further annexations of the Rhineland. Thus, Frederick-William, spurning his French subsidies, ended his alliance with France and reached agreements with William of Orange, the Emperor and King Charles XI of Sweden, the last of which by temporarily putting aside their differences over Pomerania.
The flight of the Huguenots in southern France caused outright war in the Alpine districts of Piedmont in the Duchy of Savoy, a northern Italian state that was nominally part of the Empire. From their fort at Pinerolo, the French were able to exert considerable pressure on the Duke of Savoy and to force him to persecute his own Protestant community, the Vaudois (Valdesi). The constant threat of interference and intrusion into his domestic affairs was a source of concern for Victor Amadeus, and in 1687, the Duke's policy started to become increasingly anti-French as he searched for a chance to assert his aspirations and concerns. Criticism of Louis XIV's regime spread all over Europe. The Truce of Ratisbon, followed by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, caused suspicion as to Louis's true intentions. Many also feared of the King's supposed designs on universal monarchy, the uniting of the Spanish and the German crowns with that of France. In response, representatives from the Emperor, the southern German princes, Spain (motivated by the French attack in 1683 and the imposed truce of 1684) and Sweden (in its capacity as princes in the Empire) met in Augsburg to form a defensive league of the Rhine in July 1686. Pope Innocent XI, partly because of his anger at Louis's failure to go on crusade against the Turks, gave his secret support.
Prelude: 1687–88
The League of Augsburg had little military power – the Empire and its Allies in the form of the Holy League were still busy fighting the Ottoman Turks in Hungary. Many of the petty princes were reluctant to act due to the fear of French retaliation. Nevertheless, Louis XIV watched with apprehension Leopold I's advances against the Ottomans. Habsburg victories along the Danube at Buda in September 1686, and Mohács a year later had convinced the French that the Emperor, in alliance with Spain and William of Orange, would soon turn his attention towards France and retake what had recently been won by Louis's military intimidation. In response, Louis XIV sought to guarantee his territorial gains of the Reunions by forcing his German neighbours into converting the Truce of Ratisbon into a permanent settlement. However, a French ultimatum issued in 1687 failed to gain the desired assurances from the Emperor whose victories in the east made the Germans less anxious to compromise in the west.
Another testing point concerned the pro-French Archbishop-Elector, Maximilian Henry, and the question of his succession in the state of Cologne. The territory of the archbishopric lay along the left bank of the Rhine and included three fortresses of the river-line: Bonn, Rheinberg, and Kaiserswerth, excluding the free-city of Cologne itself. Moreover, the archbishop was also prince-bishop of Liège, the small state astride the strategic highway of the river Meuse. When the Elector died on 3 June Louis XIV pressed for the pro-French Bishop of Strasbourg, Wilhelm Egon von Fürstenberg, to succeed him. The Emperor, however, favoured Joseph Clement, the brother of Max Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria. With neither candidate able to secure the necessary two-thirds of the vote of the canons of the cathedral chapter, the matter was referred to Rome. There was no prospect of the Pope, already in deep conflict with Louis, favouring the French candidate, and on 26 August he awarded the election to Clement.
On 6 September, Leopold I's forces under the Elector of Bavaria secured Belgrade for the Empire. With the Ottomans appearing close to collapse Louis XIV's ministers, Louvois and Colbert de Croissy, felt it essential to have a quick resolution along the German frontier before the Emperor turned from the Balkans to lead a comparatively united German Empire against France on the Rhine and reverse the Ratisbon settlement. On 24 September Louis published his manifesto, his Mémoire de raisons, listing his grievances: he demanded that the Truce of Ratisbon be turned into a permanent resolution, and that Fürstenburg be appointed Archbishop-Elector of Cologne. He also proposed to occupy the territories that he believed belonged to his sister-in-law regarding the Palatinate succession. The Emperor and the German princes, the Pope, and William of Orange were quite unwilling to grant these demands. For the Dutch in particular, Louis's control of Cologne and Liège would be strategically unacceptable, for with these territories in French hands the Spanish Netherlands 'buffer-zone' would be effectively bypassed. The day after Louis issued his manifesto – well before his enemies could have known its details – the main French army crossed the Rhine as a prelude to investing Philippsburg, the key post between Luxembourg (annexed in 1684) and Strasbourg (seized in 1681), and other Rhineland towns. This pre-emptive strike was intended to intimidate the German states into accepting his conditions, while encouraging the Ottoman Turks to continue their own struggle with the Emperor in the east.
Louis XIV and his ministers had hoped for a quick resolution similar to that secured from the War of the Reunions, but by 1688 the situation was drastically different. In the east an Imperial army, now manned with veteran officers and men, had dispelled the Turkish threat and crushed Imre Thököly's revolt in Hungary; while in the west and north, William of Orange was fast becoming the leader of a coalition of Protestant states, anxious to join with the Emperor and Spain, and end the hegemony of France. Louis wanted a short defensive war, yet by crossing the Rhine that summer he began a long war of attrition; a war framed by interests of the state, its defensible frontiers, and the balance of power in Europe.
Nine years of war: 1688–1697
Rhineland and the Empire
Marshal Duras, Vauban, and 30,000 men – all under the nominal command of the Dauphin – besieged the Elector of Trier's fortress of Philippsburg on 27 September; after a vigorous defence it fell on 30 October. Louis XIV's army proceeded to take Mannheim, which capitulated on 11 November, shortly followed by Frankenthal. Other towns fell without resistance, including Oppenheim, Worms, Bingen, Kaiserslautern, Heidelberg, Speyer and, above all, the key fortress of Mainz. After Coblenz failed to surrender Boufflers put it under heavy bombardment, but it did not fall to the French.
Louis XIV now mastered the Rhine south of Mainz to the Swiss border, but although the attacks kept the Turks fighting in the east, the impact on Leopold I and the German states had the opposite effect of what had been intended. The League of Augsburg was not strong enough to meet the threat, but on 22 October the powerful German princes, including the Elector of Brandenburg, John George III, Elector of Saxony, Ernest Augustus of Hanover, and Charles I, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, reached an agreement in Magdeburg that mobilised the forces of north Germany. Meanwhile, the Emperor recalled the Bavarian, Swabian, and Franconian troops under the Elector of Bavaria from the Ottoman front to defend south Germany. The French had not prepared for such an eventuality. Realising that the war in Germany was not going to end quickly and that the Rhineland blitz would not be a brief and decisive parade of French glory, Louis XIV and Louvois resolved upon a scorched-earth policy in the Palatinate, Baden and Württemberg, intent on denying enemy troops local resources and prevent them from invading French territory. By 20 December Louvois had selected all the cities, towns, villages and châteaux intended for destruction. On 2 March 1689 Count of Tessé torched Heidelberg; on 8 March Montclar levelled Mannheim. Oppenheim and Worms were finally destroyed on 31 May, followed by Speyer on 1 June, and Bingen on 4 June. In all, French troops burnt over 20 substantial towns as well as numerous villages.
The Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire declared war on France on 11 February, beginning a unified imperial war effort. The Germans prepared to take back what they had lost, and in 1689 formed three armies along the Rhine. The smallest of these, initially under the Elector of Bavaria, protected the upper Rhine between the lines north of Strasbourg to the Black Forest. On the middle Rhine stood the largest army under the best Imperial general, and commander-in-chief, Charles V, Duke of Lorraine. Charles V cleared away the French threat on Frankfurt and opened trenches around Mainz on 22/23 July. After a bloody two months siege the Marquis of Huxelles finally yielded the town on 8 September. Meanwhile, on the lower Rhine stood the Elector of Brandenburg who, aided by the celebrated Dutch engineer Menno van Coehoorn, besieged Kaiserswerth. Kaiserswerth fell on 26 June before the Elector led his army on Bonn, which, having endured a heavy bombardment, finally capitulated on 10 October. The invasion of the Rhineland had united the German princes in their opposition to Louis XIV who had lost more than he had gained that year along the Rhine. The campaign had also created a diversion of French forces and sufficient time for William of Orange to invade England.
Britain
James II's ill-advised attempts to Catholicise the army, government and other institutions had proved increasingly unpopular with his mainly Protestant subjects. His open Catholicism and his dealings with Catholic France had also strained relations between England and the Dutch Republic, but because his daughter Mary was the Protestant heir to the English throne, her husband William of Orange had been reluctant to act against James II for fear it would ruin her succession prospects. Yet if England was left to itself the situation could become desperate for the Dutch Republic: Louis XIV might intervene and so make James II his vassal; or James, wishing to distract his subjects, might even join with Louis in a repetition of the attack made on the Dutch Republic in 1672. By the end of 1687, therefore, William had envisaged intervention, and by early 1688 he had secretly begun to make active preparations. The birth of a son to James's second wife in June displaced William's wife Mary as James's heir apparent. With the French busy creating their cordon sanitaire in the Palatinate (too busy to consider serious intervention in the Spanish Netherlands or to move against the south-eastern Dutch provinces along the Rhine) the States General unanimously gave William their full support in the knowledge that the overthrow of James II was in the security interests of their own state.
Louis XIV had considered William's invasion as a declaration of war between France and the Dutch Republic (officially declared on 26 November); but he did little to stop the invasion – his main concern was the Rhineland. Moreover, French diplomats had calculated that William's action would plunge England into a protracted civil war that would either absorb Dutch resources or draw England closer to France. However, after his forces landed unhindered at Torbay on 5 November (O.S), many welcomed William with open arms, and the subsequent Glorious Revolution brought a rapid end to James II's reign. On 13 February 1689 (O.S.) William of Orange became King William III of England – reigning jointly with his wife Mary – and bound together the fortunes of England and the Dutch Republic. Yet few people in England suspected that William had sought the crown for himself or that his aim was to bring England into the war against France on the Dutch side. The Convention Parliament did not see that the offer of joint monarchy carried with it the corollary of a declaration of war, but the subsequent actions of the deposed king finally swung Parliament behind William's war policy.
British historian J. R. Jones states that King William was given
Ireland and Scotland
After his flight from England in December 1688, James II had been given refuge by Louis XIV, who provided him financial and diplomatic assistance. Accompanied by 6,000 French troops, on 12 March 1689 he landed in Ireland, where he was backed by the majority Catholic population. His supporters were known as "Jacobites", and the war in Ireland was accompanied by a rising in Scotland; for James, the main objective was to retake England and thus he viewed both Scotland and Ireland as strategic dead ends. On the other hand, Louis saw them as an opportunity to divert British resources from the Low Countries, a difference in aims that was never adequately resolved.
James' Catholic deputy, the Earl of Tyrconnell, had raised an Army of around 36,000, although many were poorly equipped and it was almost impossible to feed, pay and supply so many. Although they quickly occupied much of Ireland, including largely Protestant Ulster, they were unable to capture the key northern port of Derry and were forced to retreat at the end of July. In August, Williamite general Schomberg landed in Belfast Lough with 15,000 reinforcements, but logistics failures meant his army stalled at Dundalk and suffered heavily from sickness and desertion.
The Scottish Jacobites suffered heavy losses in securing victory at Killiecrankie in July 1689, including their leader Viscount Dundee. By May 1690 the rising had been largely suppressed, although pockets of resistance continued in the Highlands until early 1692. At the same time, William III assumed command of government troops in Ireland and gained an important success at The Battle of the Boyne in July 1690, before victory at Beachy Head gave the French temporary control of the English Channel. James returned to France to urge an immediate invasion of England, but the Anglo-Dutch fleet soon regained maritime supremacy, and the opportunity was lost.
By the end of 1690, French and Jacobite troops were confined to the south and west of Ireland. Although repulsed with heavy losses at Limerick in September, William transferred command to de Ginkell and returned to Flanders. Despite receiving reinforcements and a new general in the Marquis de St Ruth, the Franco-Irish army was defeated at Aughrim on 12 July 1691; the war in Ireland ended with the Treaty of Limerick in October, allowing the bulk of the Williamite forces to be shipped to the Low Countries.
War aims and the Grand Alliance
The success of William's invasion of England rapidly led to the coalition he had long desired. On 12 May 1689 the Dutch and the Holy Roman Emperor had signed an offensive compact in Vienna, the aims of which were no less than to force France back to her borders as they were at the end of the Franco-Spanish War (1659), thus depriving Louis XIV of all his gains since his assumption of power. This meant for the Emperor and the German princes the reconquest of Lorraine, Strasbourg, parts of Alsace, and some Rhineland fortresses. Leopold I had tried to disentangle himself from the Turkish war to concentrate on the coming struggle, but the French invasion of the Rhineland had encouraged the Turks to stiffen their terms for peace and make demands the Emperor could not conceivably accept. Leopold I's decision to side with the coalition (against the opposition of many of his advisers) was, therefore, a decision to intervene in the west while continuing to fight the Ottomans in the Balkans. Although the Emperor's immediate concerns were for the Rhineland, the most important parts of the treaty were the secret articles pledging England and the States-General to assist him in securing the Spanish succession should Charles II die without an heir, and to use their influence to secure his son's election to succeed him as Emperor.
William III regarded the war as an opportunity to reduce the power of France and protect the Dutch Republic, while providing conditions that would encourage trade and commerce. Although there remained territorial anomalies, Dutch war aims did not involve substantial alterations to the frontier; but William did aim to secure his new position in Britain. By seeking refuge in France and subsequently invading Ireland, James II had given William III the ideal instrument to convince the English parliament that entry into a major European war was unavoidable. With the support of Parliament, William III and Mary II declared war on 17 May (O.S.); they then passed the Trade with France Act 1688 (1 Will. & Mar. c. 34), which prohibited all English trade and commerce with France, effective 24 August. This Anglo-Dutch alignment was the basis for the Grand Alliance, ratified on 20 December by William III representing England, Anthonie Heinsius and Treasurer Jacob Hop representing the Dutch Republic, and Königsegg and Stratman representing Emperor Leopold I. Like the Dutch the English were not preoccupied with territorial gains on the Continent, but were deeply concerned with limiting the power of France to defend against a Jacobite restoration (Louis XIV threatened to overthrow the Glorious Revolution and the precarious political settlement by supporting the old king over the new one). William III had secured his goal of mobilising Britain's resources for the anti-French coalition, but the Jacobite threat in Scotland and Ireland meant only a small English expeditionary force could be committed to assist the Dutch States Army in the coalition in the Spanish Netherlands for the first three years of the war.
The Duke of Lorraine also joined the Alliance at the same time as England, while the King of Spain (who had been at war with France since April) and the Duke of Savoy signed in June 1690. The Allies had offered Victor Amadeus handsome terms to join the Grand Alliance, including the return of Casale to Mantua (he hoped it would revert to him upon the death of the childless Duke of Mantua) and of Pinerolo to himself. His adhesion to the Allied cause would facilitate the invasion of France through Dauphiné and Provence, where the naval base of Toulon lay. In contrast Louis XIV had embarked on a policy of overt military intimidation to retain Savoy in the French orbit, and had envisaged the military occupation of parts of Piedmont (including the citadel of Turin) to guarantee communications between Pinerolo and Casale. French demands on Victor Amadeus, and their determination to prevent the Duke from achieving his dynastic aims, were nothing less than an attack on Savoyard independence, convincing the Duke that he had to stand up to French aggression.
The Elector of Bavaria consented to add his name to the Grand Alliance on 4 May 1690, while the Elector of Brandenburg joined the anti-French coalition on 6 September. However, few of the minor powers were as devoted to the common cause, and all protected their own interests; some never hesitated to exact a high price for continuing their support. Charles XI of Sweden supplied the contingents due from his German possessions to the Allied cause (6,000 men and 12 warships), while in August Christian V of Denmark agreed to a treaty to supply William III with 7,000 troops in return for a subsidy. However, in March 1691 Sweden and Denmark put aside their mutual distrust and made a treaty of armed neutrality for the protection of their commerce and to prevent the war spreading north. To the annoyance of the Maritime Powers the Swedes now saw their rôle outside the great power-struggle of the Nine Years' War, exploiting opportunities to increase their own maritime trade. Nevertheless, Louis XIV at last faced a powerful coalition aimed at forcing France to recognise Europe's rights and interests.
Expanding war: 1690–91
The main fighting of the Nine Years' War took place around France's borders: in the Spanish Netherlands; the Rhineland; Catalonia; and Piedmont-Savoy. The importance of the Spanish Netherlands was the result of its geographic position, sandwiched between France and the Dutch Republic. Initially Marshal Humières commanded French forces in this theatre but in 1689, while the French concentrated on the Rhine, it produced little more than a stand-off – the most significant engagement occurred when William's second-in-command, the Prince of Waldeck, defeated Humières in a skirmish at the Battle of Walcourt on 25 August. However, by 1690 the Spanish Netherlands had become the main seat of the war where the French formed two armies: Boufflers' army on the Moselle, and a larger force to the west under Humières' successor – and Louis XIV's greatest general of the period – Marshal Luxembourg. On 1 July Luxembourg secured a clear tactical victory over Waldeck at the Battle of Fleurus; but his success produced little benefit – Louis XIV's concerns for the dauphin on the Rhine (where Marshal de Lorge now held actual command) overrode strategic necessity in the other theatres and forestalled a plan to besiege Namur or Charleroi. For the Emperor and the German princes, though, the most serious fact of 1690 was that the Turks had been victorious on the Danube, requiring them to send reinforcements to the east. The Elector of Bavaria – now Imperial commander-in-chief following Lorraine's death in April – could offer nothing on the lower or upper Rhine, and the campaign failed to produce a single major battle or siege.
The smallest front of the war was in Catalonia. In 1689 the Duke of Noailles had led French forces there aimed at bringing further pressure to bear on the Spanish by re-igniting a peasant rising against Charles II, which initially broke out in 1687. Exploiting the situation, Noailles captured Camprodon on 22 May, but a larger Spanish army under the Duke of Villahermosa forced him to withdraw back to Roussillon in August. The Catalan campaign settled down in 1690, but a new front in Piedmont-Savoy proved more eventful. A ferment of religious animosities and Savoyard hatred of the French produced a theatre characterised by massacres and atrocities: constant guerrilla attacks by the armed populace were met by draconian reprisals. In 1690 Saint-Ruth took most of the Victor Amadeus II's exposed Duchy of Savoy, routing the Savoyard army in the process until only the great fortress of Montmélian remained in ducal hands; while to the south in Piedmont, Nicolas Catinat led 12,000 men and soundly defeated Victor Amadeus at the Battle of Staffarda on 18 August. Catinat immediately took Saluzzo, followed by Savigliano, Fossano, and Susa, but lacking sufficient troops, and with sickness rife within his army, Catinat was obliged to withdraw back across the Alps for the winter.
French successes in 1690 had checked the Allies on most of the mainland fronts, yet their victories had not broken the Grand Alliance. With the hope of unhinging the coalition French commanders in 1691 prepared for an early double-blow: the capture of Mons in the Spanish Netherlands, and Nice in northern Italy. Boufflers invested Mons on 15 March with some 46,000 men, while Luxembourg commanded a similar force of observation. After some of the most intense fighting of all of Louis XIV's wars the town inevitably capitulated on 8 April. Luxembourg proceeded to take Halle at the end of May, while Boufflers bombarded Liège; but these acts proved to have no political nor strategic consequence. The final action of note in the Low Countries came on 19 September when Luxembourg's cavalry surprised and defeated the rear of the Allied forces in a minor action near Leuze. Now that the defence of the Spanish Netherlands depended almost wholly on the Allies William III insisted on replacing its Spanish governor, the Marquis of Gastañaga, with the Elector of Bavaria, thus overcoming delays in getting decisions from Madrid.
In 1691 there was little significant fighting in the Catalan and Rhineland fronts. In contrast, the northern Italian theatre was very active. Villefranche fell to French forces on 20 March, followed by Nice on 1 April, forestalling any chance of an Allied invasion of France along the coast. Meanwhile, to the north, in the Duchy of Savoy, the Marquis of La Hoguette took Montmélian (the region's last remaining stronghold) on 22 December – a major loss for the Grand Alliance. However, by comparison the French campaign on the Piedmontese plain was far from successful. Although Carmagnola fell in June, the Marquis of Feuquières, on learning of the approach of Prince Eugene of Savoy's relief force, precipitously abandoned the Siege of Cuneo with the loss of some 800 men and all his heavy guns. With Louis XIV concentrating his resources in Alsace and the Low Countries, Catinat was forced onto the defensive. The initiative in northern Italy now passed to the Allies who, as early as August, had 45,000 men (on paper) in the region, enabling them to regain Carmagnola in October. Louis XIV offered peace terms in December, but anticipating military superiority for the following campaign Amadeus was not prepared to negotiate seriously.
Heavy fighting: 1692–93
After the sudden death of the influential Louvois in July 1691 Louis XIV had assumed a more active role in the direction of military policy, relying on advice from experts such as the Marquis of Chamlay and Vauban. Louvois' death also brought changes to state policy with the less adventurous Duke of Beauvilliers and the Marquis of Pomponne entering Louis XIV's government as ministers of state. From 1691 onwards Louis XIV and Pomponne pursued efforts to unglue the Grand Alliance, including secret talks with Emperor Leopold I and, from August, attempts of religious solidarity with Catholic Spain. The approaches made to Spain came to naught (the Nine Years' War was not a religious war), but the Maritime Powers were also keen for peace. Talks were hampered, however, by Louis XIV's reluctance to cede his earlier gains (at least those made in the Reunions) and, in his deference to the principle of the divine right of kings, his unwillingness to recognise William III's claim to the English throne. For his part William III was intensely suspicious of Louis XIV and his supposed designs for universal monarchy.
Over the winter of 1691/92 the French devised a grand plan to gain the ascendancy over their enemies – a design for the invasion of England in one more effort to support James II in his attempts to regain his kingdoms; and a simultaneous assault on Namur in the Spanish Netherlands. The French hoped that Namur's seizure might inspire the Dutch to make peace, but if not, its capture would nevertheless be an important pawn at any future negotiations. With 60,000 men (protected by a similar force of observation under Luxembourg), Marshal Vauban invested the stronghold on 29 May. The town soon fell but the citadel – defended by van Coehoorn – held out until 30 June. Endeavouring to restore the situation in the Spanish Netherlands William III surprised Luxembourg's army near the village of Steenkirk on 3 August. The Allies enjoyed some initial success, but as French reinforcements came up William III's advance stalled. The Allies retired from the field in good order, and both sides claimed victory: the French because they repulsed the assault; the Allies because they had saved Liège from the same fate as Namur. However, due to the nature of late 17th-century warfare the battle, like Fleurus before it, produced little of consequence. (See below).
While French arms had proved successful at Namur the proposed descent on England was a failure. James II believed that there would be considerable support for his cause once he had established himself on English soil, but a series of delays and conflicting orders ensured a very uneven naval contest in the English Channel. The engagement was fought at the tip of the Cherbourg peninsula, and lasted six days. At the action off Cape Barfleur on 29 May, the French fleet of 44 rated vessels under Admiral Tourville put up stern resistance against Admirals Rooke's and Russell's 82 rated English and Dutch vessels. Nevertheless, the French were forced to disengage: some escaped, but the 15 ships that had sought safety in Cherbourg and La Hogue were destroyed by English seamen and fireships on 2–3 June. With the Allies now dominant in the English Channel James II's invasion was abandoned. Yet the battle itself was not the death-blow for the French navy: the subsequent mismanagement and underfunding of the fleet under Pontchartrain, coupled with Louis XIV's own personal lack of interest, were central to the French losing naval superiority over the English and Dutch during the Nine Years' War.
Meanwhile, in southern Europe the Duke of Savoy with 29,000 men (substantially exceeding Catinat's number who had sent some troops to the Netherlands) invaded Dauphiné via the mountain trails shown to them by the Vaudois. The Allies invested Embrun, which capitulated on 15 August, before sacking the deserted town of Gap. However, with their commander falling ill with smallpox, and concluding that holding Embrun was untenable, the Allies abandoned Dauphiné in mid-September, leaving behind seventy villages and châteaux burned and pillaged. The attack on Dauphiné had required Noailles give up troops to bolster Catinat, condemning him to a passive campaign in Catalonia; but on the Rhine the French gained the upper hand. De Lorge devoted much of his effort imposing contributions in Swabia and up to Franconia. In October the French commander relieved the siege of Ebernburg on the left bank of the Rhine before returning to winter quarters.
By 1693 the French army had reached an official size of over 400,000 men (on paper), but Louis XIV was facing an economic crisis. France and northern Italy witnessed severe harvest failures resulting in widespread famine which, by the end of 1694, had accounted for the deaths of an estimated two million people. Nevertheless, as a prelude to offering generous peace terms before the Grand Alliance Louis XIV planned to go over to the offensive: Luxembourg would campaign in Flanders, Catinat in northern Italy, and in Germany, where Louis XIV had hoped for a war-winning advantage, Marshal de Lorge would attack Heidelberg. In the event, Heidelberg fell on 22 May before Luxembourg's army took to the field in the Netherlands, but the new Imperial commander on the Rhine, Prince Louis of Baden, provided a strong defence and prevented further French gains. Luxembourg had better luck in the Low Countries, however. After taking Huy on 23 July, the French commander outmanoeuvred William III, catching him off-guard between the villages of Neerwinden and Landen. The ensuing engagement on 29 July was a close and costly encounter but French forces, whose cavalry once again showed their superiority, prevailed. Luxembourg and Vauban proceeded to take Charleroi on 10 October which, together with the earlier prizes of Mons, Namur and Huy, provided the French with a new and impressive forward line of defence.
In northern Italy, meanwhile, Catinat marched on Rivoli (with reinforcements from the Rhine and Catalan fronts), forcing the Duke of Savoy to abandon the siege and bombardment of Pinerolo (25 September – 1 October) before withdrawing to protect his rear. The resultant Battle of Marsaglia on 4 October 1693 ended in a resounding French victory. Turin now lay open to attack but further manpower and supply difficulties prevented Catinat from exploiting his gain, and all the French could get out of their victory was renewed breathing-space to restock what was left of Pinerolo. Elsewhere, Noailles secured the valuable seaport of Rosas in Catalonia on 9 June before withdrawing into Roussillon. When his opponent, Medina-Sidonia, abandoned plans to besiege Bellver, both sides entered winter quarters. Meanwhile, the French navy achieved victory in its final fleet action of the war. On 27 June Tourville's combined Brest and Toulon squadrons ambushed the Smyrna convoy (a fleet of between 200 and 400 Allied merchant vessels travelling under escort to the Mediterranean) as it rounded Cape St. Vincent. The Allies lost approximately 90 merchant ships with a value of some 30 million livres.
War and diplomacy: 1694–95
French arms at Heidelberg, Rosas, Huy, Landen, Charleroi and Marsaglia had achieved considerable battlefield success, but with the severe hardships of 1693 continuing through to the summer of 1694 France was unable to expend the same level of energy and finance for the forthcoming campaign. The crisis reshaped French strategy, forcing commanders to redraft plans to fit the dictates of fiscal shortfalls. In the background, Louis XIV's agents were working hard diplomatically to unhinge the coalition but the Emperor, who had secured with the Allies his 'rights' to the Spanish succession should Charles II die during the conflict, did not desire a peace that would not prove personally advantageous. The Grand Alliance would not come apart as long as there was money available and a belief that the growing strength of their armies would soon be much greater than those of France.
In the Spanish Netherlands Luxembourg still had 100,000 men; but he was outnumbered. Lacking sufficient supplies to mount an attack Luxembourg was unable to prevent the Allies garrisoning Dixmude and, on 27 September 1694, recapturing Huy, an essential preliminary to future operations against Namur. Elsewhere, de Lorge marched and manoeuvred against Baden on the Rhine with undramatic results before the campaign petered out in October; while in Italy, the continuing problems with French finance and a complete breakdown in the supply chain prevented Catinat's push into Piedmont. However, in Catalonia the fighting proved more eventful. On 27 May Marshal Noailles, supported by French warships, soundly defeated the Marquis of Escalona's Spanish forces at the Battle of Torroella on the banks of the river Ter; the French proceeded to take Palamós on 10 June, Gerona on 29 June, and Hostalric, opening the route to Barcelona. With the Spanish King threatening to make a separate peace with France unless the Allies came to his assistance, William III prepared the Anglo-Dutch fleet for action. Part of the fleet under Admiral Berkeley would remain in the north, first leading the disastrous amphibious assault on Brest on 18 June, before bombarding French coastal defences at Dieppe, Saint-Malo, Le Havre, and Calais. The remainder of the fleet under Admiral Russell was ordered to the Mediterranean, linking up with Spanish vessels off Cadiz. The Allied naval presence compelled the French fleet back to the safety of Toulon, which, in turn, forced Noailles to withdraw to the line of the Ter, harassed en route by General Trinxería's miquelets. By shielding Barcelona in this way the Allies kept Spain in the war for two more years.
In 1695 French arms suffered two major setbacks: first was the death on 5 January of Louis XIV's greatest general of the period, Marshal Luxembourg (to be succeeded by the Duke of Villeroi); the second was the loss of Namur. In a role reversal of 1692 Coehoorn conducted the siege of the stronghold under William III, and the Electors of Bavaria and Brandenburg. The French had attempted diversions with the bombardment of Brussels, but despite Boufflers' stout defence Namur finally fell on 5 September. The siege had cost the Allies a great deal in men and resources, and had pinned down William III's army through the whole summer campaign; but the recapture of Namur, together with the earlier prize of Huy, had restored the Allied position on the Meuse, and had secured communications between their armies in the Spanish Netherlands and those on the Moselle and Rhine.
Meanwhile, the recent fiscal crisis had brought about a transformation in French naval strategy – the Maritime Powers now outstripped France in shipbuilding and arming, and increasingly enjoyed a numerical advantage. Suggesting the abandonment of fleet warfare, guerre d'escadre, in favour of commerce-raiding, guerre de course, Vauban advocated the use of the fleet backed by individual shipowners fitting out their own vessels as privateers, aimed at destroying the trade of the Maritime Powers. Vauban argued that this strategic change would deprive the enemy of its economic base without costing Louis XIV money that was far more urgently needed to maintain France's armies on land. Privateers cruising either as individuals or in complete squadrons from Dunkirk, St Malo and the smaller ports, achieved significant success. For example, in 1695, the Marquis of Nesmond, with seven ships of the line, captured vessels from the English East India Company that were said to have yielded 10 million livres. In May 1696, Jean Bart slipped the blockade of Dunkirk and struck a Dutch convoy in the North Sea, burning 45 of its ships; on 18 June 1696 he won the battle at Dogger Bank; and in May 1697, the Baron of Pointis with another privateer squadron attacked and seized Cartagena, earning him, and the king, a share of 10 million livres.
For their part, the Allied navy expended more shells on St Malo, Granville, Calais, and Dunkirk; likewise on Palamos in Catalonia where Charles II had appointed the Marquis of Gastañaga as the governor-general. The Allies sent Austrian and German reinforcements under Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt, a cousin of the Queen of Spain, while the French replaced the ailing Noailles with the Duke of Vendôme who would become one of Louis XIV's best generals. But the balance of military power was turning dangerously against the French. In Spain, in the Rhineland, and in the Low Countries, Louis XIV's forces only barely held their own: the bombardment of the French channel ports, the threats of invasion, and the loss of Namur were causes of great anxiety for the King at Versailles.
In the meantime the diplomatic breakthrough was made in Italy. For two years the Duke of Savoy's Minister of Finance, Gropello, and the Count of Tessé (Catinat's second-in-command), had secretly been negotiating a bi-lateral agreement to end the war in Italy. Central to the discussions were the two French fortresses that flanked the Duke's territory – Pinerolo and Casale, the latter now completely cut off from French assistance. By now Victor Amadeus had come to fear the growth of Imperial military power and political influence in the region (now more than he feared the French) and the threat it posed to Savoyard independence. Knowing, therefore, that the Imperials were planning to besiege Casale the Duke proposed that the French garrison surrender to him following a token show of force, after which the fortifications would be dismantled and handed back to the Duke of Mantua. Louis XIV was compelled to accept, and after a sham siege and nominal resistance Casale surrendered to Amadeus on 9 July 1695; by mid-September the place had been razed.
Road to Ryswick: 1696–97
Most fronts were relatively quiet throughout 1696: the armies in Flanders, along the Rhine, and in Catalonia, marched and counter-marched but little was achieved. Louis XIV's hesitancy to engage with the Allies (despite the confidence of his generals) may have reflected his knowledge of the secret talks that had begun more than a year earlier—with François de Callières acting for Louis XIV, and Jacob Boreel and Everhard van Weede Dijkvelt representing the Dutch. By the spring of 1696 the talks covered the whole panorama of problems that were proving an obstacle to peace. The most difficult of these were the recognition of the Prince of Orange as the King of England and the subsequent status of James II in France; the Dutch demand for a barrier against future French aggression; French tariffs on Dutch commerce; and the territorial settlements in the Rhine–Moselle areas regarding the Reunions and the recent conquests, particularly the strategically important city of Strasbourg. Louis XIV had succeeded in establishing the principle that a new treaty would be fixed within the framework of the Treaties of Westphalia and Nijmegen, and the Truce of Ratisbon, but with the Emperor's demands for Strasbourg, and William III's insistence that he be recognized as King of England before the conclusion of hostilities, it hardly seemed worthwhile in calling for a peace conference.
In Italy the secret negotiations were proving more productive, with the French possession of Pinerolo now central to the talks. When Amadeus threatened to besiege Pinerolo the French, concluding that its defence was not now possible, agreed to hand back the stronghold on condition that its fortifications were demolished. The terms were formalised as the Treaty of Turin on 29 August 1696, by which provision Louis XIV also returned, intact, Montmélian, Nice, Villefranche, Susa, and other small towns. Amongst other concessions Louis XIV also promised not to interfere in Savoy's religious policy regarding the Vaudois, provided the Duke prevents any communication between them and French Huguenots. In return, Amadeus agreed to abandon the Grand Alliance and join with Louis XIV – if necessary – to secure the neutralisation of northern Italy. The Emperor, diplomatically outmanoeuvred, was compelled to accept peace in the region by signing the Treaty of Vigevano of 7 October, to which the French immediately acceded. Italy was neutralised and the Nine Years' War in the peninsula came to an end. Savoy had emerged as an independent sovereign House and a key second-rank power: the Alps, rather than the River Po, would be the boundary of France in the south-east.
The Treaty of Turin started a scramble for peace. With the continual disruption of trade and commerce politicians from England and the Dutch Republic were desirous for an end to the war. France was also facing economic exhaustion, but above all Louis XIV was becoming convinced that Charles II of Spain was near death and he knew that the break-up of the coalition would be essential if France was to benefit from the dynastic battle ahead. The contending parties agreed to meet at Ryswick (Rijswijk) and come to a negotiated settlement. But as talks continued through 1697, so did the fighting. The main French goal that year in the Spanish Netherlands was Ath. Vauban and Catinat (now with troops freed from the Italian front) invested the town on 15 May while Marshals Boufflers and Villeroi covered the siege; after an assault on 5 June the Count of Roeux surrendered and the garrison marched out two days later. The Rhineland theatre in 1697 was again quiet: the French commander, Marshal Choiseul (who had replaced the sick de Lorge the previous year), was content to remain behind his fortified lines. Although Baden took Ebernburg on 27 September, news of the peace brought an end to the desultory campaign, and both armies drew back from one another. In Catalonia, however, French forces (now also reinforced with troops from Italy) achieved considerable success when Vendôme, commanding some 32,000 troops, besieged and captured Barcelona. The garrison, under Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt, capitulated on 10 August. Yet it had been a hard-fought contest: French casualties amounted to about 9,000, and the Spanish had suffered some 12,000 killed, wounded or lost.
North American theatre (King William's War)
The European war was reflected in North America, where it was known as King William's War, though the North American contest was very different in meaning and scale. The European war declaration arrived amid long-running tensions over control of the fur trade, economically vital to both French and English colonies, and influence over the Iroquois, who controlled much of that trade. The French were determined to hold the St. Lawrence country and to extend their power over the vast basin of the Mississippi. Moreover, Hudson Bay was a focal point of dispute between the Protestant English and Catholic French colonists, both of whom claimed a share of its territory and trade. Although important to the colonists, the North American theatre of the Nine Years' War was of secondary importance to European statesmen. Despite numerical superiority, the English colonists suffered repeated defeats as New France effectively organised its French regulars, local militiamen and Indian allies (notably the Algonquins and Abenakis), to attack frontier settlements. Almost all resources sent to the colonies by England were to defend the English West Indies, the "crown jewels" of the empire.
Friction over Indian relations worsened in 1688 with French incursions against the Iroquois in upstate New York, and with Indian raids against smaller settlements in Maine. The Governor General of New France, Louis de Buade de Frontenac, capitalising on disorganisation in New York and New England following the collapse of the Dominion of New England, expanded the war with a series of raids on the northern borders of the English settlements: first was the destruction of Dover, New Hampshire, in July 1689; followed by Pemaquid, Maine, in August. In February 1690 Schenectady in New York was attacked; massacres at Salmon Falls and Casco Bay followed. In response, on 1 May 1690 at the Albany Conference, colonial representatives elected to invade French Canada. In August a land force commanded by Colonel Winthrop set off for Montreal, while a naval force, commanded by the future governor of Massachusetts, Sir William Phips (who earlier on 11 May had seized the capital of French Acadia, Port Royal), set sail for Quebec via the Saint Lawrence River. They were repulsed in Battle of Quebec and the expedition on the St Lawrence failed, while the French retook Port Royal.
The war dragged on for several years longer in a series of desultory sallies and frontier raids: neither the leaders in England nor France thought of weakening their position in Europe for the sake of a knock-out blow in North America. By the terms of the Treaty of Ryswick, the boundaries and outposts of New France, New England, and New York remained substantially unchanged. In Newfoundland and Hudson's Bay French influence now predominated but William III, who had made the interests of the Bay Company a cause of war in North America, was not prepared to hazard his European policy for the sake of their pursuit. The Five Nations, abandoned by their English allies, were obliged to open separate negotiations, and by the treaty of 1701 they agreed to remain neutral in any future Anglo-French conflicts.
Asia and the Caribbean
When news of the European war reached Asia, English, French and Dutch colonial governors and merchants quickly took up the struggle. In October 1690 the French Admiral Abraham Duquesne-Guitton sailed into Madras to bombard the Anglo-Dutch fleet; this attack proved foolhardy but extended the war into the Far East. In 1693 the Dutch launched an expedition against their French commercial rivals at Pondichéry on the south-eastern coast of India; the small garrison under François Martin was overwhelmed and surrendered on 6 September.
The Caribbean and the Americas were historically an area of conflict between England and Spain but the two were now allies. Outside North America, French interests were far less significant. Saint Kitts twice changed hands. There was sporadic conflict in Jamaica, Martinique and Hispaniola, but mutual suspicion between the English and Spanish limited joint operations. The Allies had the naval advantage in these isolated areas, though it proved impossible to keep the French from supplying their colonial forces.
By 1693, it was clear the campaigns in Flanders had not dealt a decisive blow to either the Dutch Republic or England, so the French switched to attacking their trade. The Battle of Lagos in 1693 and the loss of the Smyrna convoy caused intense anger among English merchants who demanded increased global protection from the navy. In 1696, a combination of regular French naval forces and privateers went to the Caribbean hoping to intercept the Spanish silver fleet; this was a double threat since capture of the silver would give France a major financial boost and the Spanish ships also carried English cargoes. The strategy failed, but combined with de Pointis' expedition of 1697, it demonstrated the vulnerability of English interests in the Caribbean and North America; their protection in future conflicts became a matter of urgency.
Treaty of Ryswick
The peace conference opened in May 1697 in William III's palace at Ryswick near The Hague. The Swedes were the official mediators, but it was through the private efforts of Boufflers and William Bentinck, the Earl of Portland that the major issues were resolved. William III had no intention of continuing the war or pressing for Leopold I's claims in the Rhineland or for the Spanish succession: it seemed more important for Dutch and British security to obtain Louis XIV's recognition of the 1688 revolution.
By the terms of the Treaty of Ryswick, Louis XIV kept the whole of Alsace, including Strasbourg. Lorraine returned to its duke (although France retained rights to march troops through the territory), and the French abandoned all gains on the right bank of the Rhine – Philppsburg, Breisach, Freiburg and Kehl. Additionally, the new French fortresses of La Pile, Mont Royal and Fort Louis were to be demolished. To win favour with Madrid over the Spanish succession question, Louis XIV evacuated Catalonia in Spain and Luxembourg, Chimay, Mons, Courtrai, Charleroi and Ath in the Low Countries. The Maritime Powers asked for no territory, but the Dutch were given a favourable commercial treaty, of which the most important provision was to relax regulations to favour Dutch trade and return to the French tariff of 1664. Although Louis XIV continued to shelter James II, he now recognised William III as King of England, and undertook not to actively support the candidature of James II's son. He also gave way over the Palatinate and Cologne issues. Beyond this, the French gained recognition of their ownership of the western half of the island of Hispaniola.
The representatives of the Dutch Republic, England, and Spain signed the treaty on 20 September 1697. Emperor Leopold I, desperate for a continuation of the war so as to strengthen his own claims to the Spanish succession, initially resisted the treaty, but because he was still at war with the Turks and could not face fighting France alone, he also sought terms and signed on 30 October. The Emperor's finances were in a bad state, and the dissatisfaction aroused by the raising of Hanover to electoral rank had impaired Leopold I's influence in Germany. The Protestant princes had also blamed him for the religious clause in the treaty, which stipulated that the lands of the Reunions that France was to surrender would remain Catholic, even those that had been forcibly converted—a clear defiance of the Westphalia settlement. However, the Emperor had netted an enormous accretion of power: Leopold I's son, Joseph, had been named King of the Romans (1690), and the Emperor's candidate for the Polish throne, August of Saxony, had carried the day over Louis XIV's candidate, the Prince of Conti. Additionally, Prince Eugene of Savoy's decisive victory over the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Zenta – leading to the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 – consolidated the Austrian Habsburgs and tipped the European balance of power in favour of the Emperor.
The war had allowed William III to destroy militant Jacobitism and helped bring Scotland and Ireland under more direct control. England emerged as a great economic and naval power and became an important player in European affairs, allowing her to use her wealth and energy in world politics to the fullest advantage. William III also continued to prioritise the security of the Dutch Republic, and in 1698 the Dutch garrisoned a series of fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands as a barrier to French attack – future foreign policy would centre on the maintenance and extension of these barrier fortresses. However, the question of the Spanish inheritance was not discussed at Ryswick, and it remained the most important unsolved question of European politics. Within three years Charles II of Spain would be dead, and Louis XIV and the Grand Alliance would again plunge Europe into conflict – the War of the Spanish Succession.
Weapons, technology, and the art of war
Military developments
The campaign season typically lasted from May through October. Winter campaigns were rare for lack of animal fodder, but the French practice of storing food and provisions in magazines brought them considerable advantage, often enabling them to take to the field weeks before their foes. Nevertheless, military operations during the Nine Years' War did not produce decisive results. The war was dominated by what may be called 'positional warfare' – the construction, defence, and attack of fortresses and entrenched lines. Positional warfare played a wide variety of roles: fortresses controlled bridgeheads and passes, guarded supply routes, and served as storehouses and magazines. However, fortresses hampered the ability to follow success on the battlefield – defeated armies could flee to friendly fortifications, enabling them to recover and rebuild their numbers from less threatened fronts. Many lesser commanders welcomed these relatively predictable, static operations to mask their lack of military ability. As Daniel Defoe observed in 1697, "Now it is frequent to have armies of 50,000 men of a side spend the whole campaign in dodging – or, as it is genteelly called – observing one another, and then march off into winter quarters." In fact, during the Nine Years' War field armies had waxed to nearly 100,000 men in 1695, the strain of which had reduced the Maritime Powers to a fiscal crisis while the French struggled under the weight of a shattered economy.
Yet there were aggressive commanders: William III, Boufflers, and Luxembourg had the will to win but their methods were hampered by numbers, supply, and communications. The French commanders were also restricted by Louis XIV and Louvois who distrusted field campaigns, preferring Vauban, the taker of fortifications, rather than campaigns of movement.
Another contributing factor for the lack of decisive action was the necessity to fight for secure resources. Armies were expected to support themselves in the field by imposing contributions (taxing local populations) upon a hostile, or even neutral, territory. Subjecting a particular area to contributions was deemed more important than pursuing a defeated army from the battlefield to destroy it. It was primarily financial concerns and availability of resources that shaped campaigns, as armies struggled to outlast the enemy in a long war of attrition. The only decisive action during the whole war came in Ireland where William III crushed the forces of James II in a campaign for legitimacy and control of Britain and Ireland. But unlike Ireland, Louis XIV's Continental wars were never fought without compromise: the fighting provided a foundation for diplomatic negotiations and did not dictate a solution.
The major advancement in weapon technology in the 1690s was the introduction of the flintlock musket. The new firing mechanism provided superior rates of fire and accuracy over the cumbersome matchlocks. But the adoption of the flintlock was uneven, and until 1697 for every three Allied soldiers that were equipped with the new muskets, two soldiers were still handicapped by matchlocks: French second-line troops were issued matchlocks as late as 1703. These weapons were further enhanced with the development of the socket-bayonet. Its predecessor, the plug bayonet – jammed down the firearm's barrel – not only prevented the musket from firing but was also a clumsy weapon that took time to fix properly, and even more time to unfix. In contrast, the socket-bayonet could be drawn over the musket's muzzle and locked into place by a lug, converting the musket into a short pike yet leaving it capable of fire. The disadvantage of the pike came to be widely recognised: at the Battle of Fleurus in 1690, German battalions armed only with the musket repulsed French cavalry attacks more effectively than units conventionally armed with the pike, while Catinat had abandoned his pikes altogether before undertaking his Alpine campaign against Savoy.
Naval developments
In 1688 the most powerful navies were the French, English, and Dutch; the Spanish and Portuguese navies had suffered serious declines in the 17th century. The largest French ships of the period were the Soleil Royal and the Royal Louis, but while each was rated for 120 guns, they never carried this full complement and were too large for practical purposes: the former only sailed on one campaign and was destroyed at La Hogue; the latter languished in port until sold in 1694. By the 1680s, French ship-design was at least equal to its English and Dutch counterparts, and by the Nine Years' War the French fleet had surpassed ships of the Royal Navy, whose designs stagnated in the 1690s. Innovation in the Royal Navy, however, did not cease. At some stage in the 1690s, for example, English ships began to employ the ship's wheel, greatly improving their performance, particularly in heavy weather. (The French navy did not adopt the wheel for another thirty years).
Combat between naval fleets was decided by cannon duels delivered by ships in line of battle; fireships were also used but were mainly successful against anchored and stationary targets, while the new bomb vessels operated best in bombarding targets on shore. Sea battles rarely proved decisive. Fleets faced the almost impossible task of inflicting enough damage on ships and men to win a clear victory: ultimate success depended not on tactical brilliance but on sheer weight of numbers. Here Louis XIV was at a disadvantage: without as large a maritime commerce as benefited the Allies, the French were unable to supply as many experienced sailors for their navy. Most importantly, though, Louis XIV had to concentrate his resources on the army at the expense of the fleet, enabling the Dutch, and the English in particular, to outdo the French in ship construction. However, naval actions were comparatively uncommon and, just like battles on land, the goal was generally to outlast rather than to destroy one's opponent. Louis XIV regarded his navy as an extension of his army – the French fleet's most important role was to protect the French coast from enemy invasion. Louis used his fleet to support land and amphibious operations or the bombardment of coastal targets, designed to draw enemy resources from elsewhere and thus aid his land campaigns on the continent.
Once the Allies had secured a clear superiority in numbers the French found it prudent not to contest them in fleet action. At the start of the Nine Years' War the French fleet had 118 rated vessels and a total of 295 ships of all types. By the end of the war the French had 137 rated ships. In contrast, the English fleet started the war with 173 vessels of all types, and ended it with 323. Between 1694 and 1697 the French built 19 first- to fifth-rated ships; the English built 58 such vessels, and the Dutch constructed 22. Thus the maritime powers outbuilt the French at a rate of four vessels to one.
References
Footnotes
Sources
Aubrey, Philip. The Defeat of James Stuart's Armada 1692. Leicester University Press, 1979. .
Bromley, J. S. (ed.). The New Cambridge Modern History VI: The Rise of Great Britain and Russia 1688–1725. Cambridge University Press, 1971. .
Chandler, David G. The Art of Warfare in the Age of Marlborough. Spellmount Limited, 1990. .
Childs, John. Warfare in the Seventeenth Century. Cassell, 2003. .
Clark, George. The Nine Years War, 1688–1697 in J. S. Bromley (ed.) The New Cambridge Modern History, VI, 223–53.
Doyle, William. Short Oxford History of France – Old Regime France. Oxford University Press, 2001. .
Elson, Henry William. History of the United States of America, Volume 1. The MacMillan Company, 1908.
;
Lovejoy, David. The Glorious Revolution in America. Wesleyan University Press, 1987. .
Rowlands, Guy. Louis XIV, Vittorio Amedeo II and French Military Failure in Italy, 1689–96. The English Historical Review, 2000, 115(462): 534–569.
Simms, Brendan. Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire. Penguin, 2008. .
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Symcox, Geoffrey (ed.). War, Diplomacy, and Imperialism: 1618–1763. Harper & Row, 1973. .
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Further reading
Baxter, Stephen. William III and the Defence of European Liberty. London, 1966
Childs, John. The Army, James II and the Glorious Revolution. (Manchester University Press, 1980) online review
Childs, John. The British Army of William III 1698–1702. Manchester University Press, 1987.
Clark, George. The Nine Years' War" in J. S. Bromley, ed. The New Cambridge Modern History, VI: The Rise of Great Britain and Russia, 1688–1725 (1970) pp. 223–267.
Clark, George. "From the Nine Years War to the War of the Spanish Succession." The New Cambridge Modern History VI: 1688–1725 pp. 381–409.
Clark, George. "The Character of the Nine Years War, 1688-97." Cambridge Historical Journal 11#2 (1954): 168–82. online.
Lynn, John A. Giant of Grand the Siècle: The French Army 1610–1715. Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Symcox, Geoffrey. The Crisis of French Sea Power 1688–1697: From the guerre d'escadre to the guerre de course. The Hague, 1974
External links
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224593 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%20William%27s%20War | King William's War | King William's War (also known as the Second Indian War, Father Baudoin's War, Castin's War, or the First Intercolonial War in French) was the North American theater of the Nine Years' War (1688–1697), also known as the War of the Grand Alliance or the War of the League of Augsburg. It was the first of six colonial wars (see the four French and Indian Wars, Father Rale's War and Father Le Loutre's War) fought between New France and New England along with their respective Native allies before France ceded its remaining mainland territories in North America east of the Mississippi River in 1763.
For King William's War, neither England nor France thought of weakening their position in Europe to support the war effort in North America. New France and the Wabanaki Confederacy were able to thwart New England expansion into Acadia, whose border New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine. According to the terms of the 1697 Peace of Ryswick that ended the Nine Years' War, the boundaries and outposts of New France, New England, and New York remained substantially unchanged.
The war was largely caused by the fact that the treaties and agreements that were reached at the end of King Philip's War (1675–1678) were not adhered to. In addition, the English were alarmed that the Indians were receiving French or maybe Dutch aid. The Indians preyed on the English and their fears, by making it look as though they were with the French. The French were played as well, as they thought the Indians were working with the English. These occurrences, in addition to the fact that the English perceived the Indians as their subjects, despite the Indians' unwillingness to submit, eventually led to two conflicts, one of which was King William's War.
North America at the end of the 17th century
The English settlers were more than 154,000 at the beginning of the war, outnumbering the French 12 to 1. However, they were divided in multiple colonies along the Atlantic coast, which were unable to cooperate efficiently, and they were engulfed in the Glorious Revolution, creating tension among the colonists. In addition, the English lacked military leadership and had a difficult relationship with their Iroquois allies.
New France was divided into three entities: Acadia on the Atlantic coast; Canada along the Saint Lawrence River and up to the Great Lakes; and Louisiana from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, along the Mississippi River. The French population amounted to 14,000 in 1689. Although the French were vastly outnumbered, they were more politically unified and contained a disproportionate number of adult males with military backgrounds. Realizing their numerical inferiority, they developed good relationships with the indigenous peoples in order to multiply their forces and made effective use of hit-and-run tactics.
Causes of the war
England's Catholic King James II was deposed at the end of 1688 in the Glorious Revolution, after which Protestants William III and Mary II took the throne. William joined the League of Augsburg in its war against France (begun earlier in 1688), where James had fled.
In North America, there was significant tension between New France and the northern English colonies, which had in 1686 been united in the Dominion of New England. New England and the Iroquois Confederacy fought New France and the Wabanaki Confederacy. The Iroquois dominated the economically important Great Lakes fur trade and had been in conflict with New France since 1680. At the urging of New England, the Iroquois interrupted the trade between New France and the western tribes. In retaliation, New France raided Seneca lands of western New York. In turn, New England supported the Iroquois in attacking New France, which they did by raiding Lachine.
There were similar tensions on the border between New England and Acadia, which New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine. English settlers from Massachusetts (whose charter included the Maine area) had expanded their settlements into Acadia. To secure New France's claim to present-day Maine, New France established Catholic missions among the three largest native villages in the region: one on the Kennebec River (Norridgewock); one further north on the Penobscot River (Penobscot) and one on the Saint John River (Medoctec). For their part, in response to King Philip's War, the five Indian tribes in the region of Acadia created the Wabanaki Confederacy to form a political and military alliance with New France to stop the New England expansion.
Course of war
New England, Acadia and Newfoundland Theatre
The New England, Acadia and Newfoundland Theatre of the war is also known as Castin's War and Father Jean Baudoin's War.
In April 1688, Governor Andros plundered Castine's home and village on Penobscot Bay (Castine, Maine). Later in August, the English raided the French village of Chedabouctou. In response, Castin and the Wabanaki Confederacy engaged in the Northeast Coast Campaign of 1688 along the New England/Acadia border. They began August 13, 1688, at New Dartmouth (Newcastle), killing a few settlers. A few days later they killed two people at Yarmouth in the first battle. At Kennebunk, in the fall of 1688, members of the Confederacy killed two families.
The following spring, in June 1689, several hundred Abenaki and Pennacook Indians under the command of Kancamagus and Mesandowit raided Dover, New Hampshire, killing more than 20 and taking 29 captives, who were sold into captivity in New France. In June, they killed four men at Saco. In response to these raids, a company of 24 men was raised to search for the bodies and pursue the natives. They were forced to return after they lost a quarter of their men in conflicts with the natives.
In August 1689, Jean-Vincent d'Abbadie de Saint-Castin and Father Louis-Pierre Thury led an Abenaki war party that captured and destroyed the fort at Pemaquid (in present-day Bristol, Maine). The fall of Pemaquid was a significant setback to the English. It pushed the frontier back to Casco (Falmouth), Maine.
New England retaliated for these raids by sending Major Benjamin Church to raid Acadia. During King William's War, Church led four New England raiding parties into Acadia (which included most of Maine) against the Acadians and members of the Wabanaki Confederacy. On the first expedition into Acadia, on September 21, 1689, Church and 250 troops defended a group of English settlers trying to establish themselves at Falmouth (present-day Portland, Maine). The tribes of the Wabanaki Confederacy killed 21 of his men, but Church's defense was successful and the natives retreated. Church then returned to Boston, leaving the small group of English settlers unprotected. The following spring over 400 French and native troops, under the leadership of Castin, destroyed Salmon Falls (present-day Berwick, Maine), then returned to Falmouth and massacred all the English settlers in the Battle of Fort Loyal. When Church returned to the village later that summer he buried the dead. The fall of Fort Loyal (Casco) led to the near depopulation of Maine. Native forces were then able to attack New Hampshire frontier without reprisal.
Battle of Port Royal (1690)
The New Englanders, led by Sir William Phips, retaliated by attacking Port Royal, the capital of Acadia. The Battle of Port Royal began on May 9, 1690. Phips arrived with 736 New England men in seven English ships. Governor de Meneval fought for two days and then capitulated. The garrison was imprisoned in the church, and Governor de Meneval was confined to his house. The New Englanders levelled what was begun of the new fort. The residents of Port Royal were imprisoned in the church and administered an oath of allegiance to the King.
Phips left, but warships from New York City arrived in June, which resulted in more destruction. The seamen burned and looted the settlement, including the parish church. The New Englanders left again, and Villebon, the governor of Acadia, moved the capital to safer territory inland at Fort Nashwaak (present-day Fredericton, New Brunswick). Fort Nashwaak remained the capital until after the war, when Port Royal was restored as the capital in 1699.
In Church's second expedition to Acadia, he arrived with 300 men at Casco Bay on 11 September 1690. His mission was to relieve the English Fort Pejpescot (present-day Brunswick, Maine), which had been taken by the Wabanaki Confederacy. He went up the Androscoggin River to Fort Pejepscot. From there he went upriver to Livermore Falls and attacked a native village. Church's men shot three or four native men when they were retreating. Church discovered five English captives in the wigwams. Church butchered six or seven natives and took nine prisoners. A few days later, in retaliation, the members of the Wabanaki Confederacy attacked Church at Cape Elizabeth on Purpooduc Point, killing seven of his men and wounding 24 others. On September 26, Church returned to Portsmouth, New Hampshire.
During King William's War, when the town of Wells contained about 80 houses and log cabins strung along the Post Road, it was attacked on June 9, 1691, by about 200 Native Americans commanded by the sachem Moxus. But Captain James Converse and his militia successfully defended Lieutenant Joseph Storer's garrison, which was surrounded by a gated palisade. Another sachem, Madockawando, threatened to return the next year "and have the dog Converse out of his den".
As the natives withdrew, they went to York off Cape Neddick and boarded a vessel, killing most of the crew. They also burned a hamlet.
In early 1692, an estimated 150 Abenakis commanded by officers of New France returned to York, killing about 100 of the English settlers and burning down buildings in what would become known as the Candlemas Massacre.
Church's third expedition to Acadia during the war was in 1692 when he raided Penobscot (present-day Indian Island, Maine) with 450 men. Church and his men then went on to raid Taconock (Winslow, Maine).
In 1693, New England frigates attacked Port Royal again, burning almost a dozen houses and three barns full of grain.
On July 18, 1694, French soldier Claude-Sébastien de Villieu with about 250 Abenakis from Norridgewock under command of their sagamore (paramount chief) Bomazeen (or Bomoseen) raided the English settlement of Durham, New Hampshire, in the Oyster River Massacre. In all, the French and native force killed 45 inhabitants and took 49 captive, burning half the dwellings, including five garrisons. They also destroyed crops and killed livestock, causing famine and destitution for the survivors.
Siege of Pemaquid (1696)
In 1696, New France and the tribes of the Wabanaki Confederacy, led by St. Castine and Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville, returned and fought a naval battle in the Bay of Fundy before moving on to raid Pemaquid. After the Siege of Pemaquid, d'Iberville led a force of 124 Canadians, Acadians, Mi'kmaq and Abenakis in the Avalon Peninsula Campaign. They destroyed almost every English settlement in Newfoundland, over 100 English were killed, many times that number captured, and almost 500 deported to England or France.
In retaliation, Church went on his fourth expedition to Acadia and carried out a retaliatory raid against Acadian communities on the Isthmus of Chignecto and Fort Nashwack (present-day Fredericton, New Brunswick), which was then the capital of Acadia. He led his troops personally in killing inhabitants of Chignecto, looting their household goods, burning their houses and slaughtering the livestock.
Quebec and New York Theatre
Also in August 1689, 1,500 Iroquois, seeking revenge for Governor General Denonville's actions, attacked the French settlement at Lachine. Count Frontenac, who replaced Denonville as governor general, later attacked the Iroquois village of Onondaga. New France and its Indian allies then attacked English frontier settlements in early 1690, most notably at Schenectady in New York.
This was followed by two expeditions. One, on land under Connecticut provincial militia general Fitz-John Winthrop, targeted Montreal; the other, led by Sir William Phips, targeted Quebec. Winthrop's expedition failed due to disease and supply issues, and Phips was defeated in the Battle of Quebec. The Quebec and Port Royal expeditions were the only major New England offensives of King William's War; for the remainder of the war the English colonists were primarily engaged in defensive operations, skirmishes and retaliatory raids.
The Iroquois Five Nations suffered from the weakness of their English allies. In 1693 and 1696, the French and their Indian allies ravaged Iroquois towns and destroyed crops while New York colonists remained passive. After the English and French made peace in 1697, the Iroquois, now abandoned by the English colonists, remained at war with New France until 1701, when a peace was agreed at Montreal between New France and a large number of Iroquois and other tribes.
Hudson Bay Theatre
The war also served as a backdrop for an ongoing economic war between French and English interests in Arctic North America. The Hudson's Bay Company had established trading outposts on James Bay and the southern reaches of Hudson Bay by the early 1680s. In a series of raids, beginning with the so-called Hudson Bay expedition, organized by Governor Denonville and continuing through the time of the Nine Years' War (1688-1697), most of these outposts, including Moose Factory, York Factory and Fort Albany, were taken by French raiders, primarily led by Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville.
But the French forces were small, and their hold on the captured posts quite weak — York Factory was recaptured by the English in 1695. In 1697, in the Battle of Hudson's Bay, one of the war's major naval battles, d'Iberville, with a single ship, defeated three English ships and went on to again capture York Factory.
Aftermath
The Treaty of Ryswick signed in September 1697 ended the war between the two colonial powers, reverting the colonial borders to the status quo ante bellum. The peace did not last long; and within five years, the colonies were embroiled in the next phase of the colonial wars, Queen Anne's War. After their settlement with France in 1701, the Iroquois remained neutral in that conflict, never taking part in active hostilities against either side. Tensions remained high between the English and the tribes of the Wabanaki Confederacy, who again fought with the French in Queen Anne's War, with conflict characterized by frequent raids in Massachusetts, including one on Groton in 1694, in which children were kidnapped, and the Deerfield Massacre in 1704, in which more than 100 captives were taken north to Montreal for ransom or adoption by Mohawk and French. By the end of the war, natives were successful in killing more than 700 English and capturing over 250 along the Acadia/ New England border.
The Ryswick treaty was unsatisfactory to representatives of the Hudson's Bay Company. Since most of its trading posts in Hudson Bay had been lost to the French before the war began, the rule of status quo ante bellum meant that they remained under French control. The company recovered its territories at the negotiating table when the Treaty of Utrecht ended Queen Anne's War.
Scholars debate whether the war was a contributing factor to the Salem witch trials. King William's War as well as King Philip's War (1675–78) led to the displacement of many refugees in Essex County. The refugees carried with them fears of the Indians, which is debated to have led to fears of witchcraft, especially since the devil was arguably closely associated with Indians and magic. Of course, Cotton Mather also wrote that it was going to lead to an age of sorrow and is arguably a proponent in leading Salem into the witchcraft crisis of 1692. Scholars debate this theory and one scholar, Jenny Hale Pulsipher, maintains that King William's War was more of a cause. Other scholars that have written on the theory of the wars being a leading cause of the Salem Witchcraft Trials include Mary Beth Norton, James Kences, and Emerson Baker.
See also
Colonial American military history
Military history of Canada
Military history of Nova Scotia
Military history of England
Military history of France
Notes
Citations
References
External links
King William's War (1689–1697) at usahistory.info
+
Military history of Acadia
Military history of New England
Military history of the Thirteen Colonies
Colonization history of the United States
Colonial American and Indian wars
Conflicts in New Brunswick
Conflicts in Nova Scotia
Colonial United States (British)
Colonial United States (French)
17th-century conflicts
Anglo-French wars
Wabanaki Confederacy
Indigenous conflicts in Canada
17th-century military history of the Kingdom of England
1680s in North America
1690s in North America
17th century in North America
History of New France
1688 in North America
1697 in North America
17th century in New France
1688 in New France
1697 in New France
William III of England
Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Europe
Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of North America | [
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224594 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine%20Praises | Divine Praises | The Divine Praises or Laudes Divinae informally known as Blessed be God is an 18th-century Roman Catholic expiatory prayer. It is traditionally recited during Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament. It may also be said after having heard, seen or inadvertently uttered profanity or blasphemy.
History
The Divine Praises were originally written in Italian by Luigi Felici in 1797 for the purpose of making reparation after saying or hearing sacrilege or blasphemy. The praises were later expanded by Pope Pius VII in 1801 and eventually came to be a recitation following the Benediction, usually with the priest saying each line (depends), which is then repeated by the congregation.
Text of the prayer
Notes
Roman Catholic prayers | [
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224598 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah%20Kane | Sarah Kane | Sarah Kane (3 February 1971 – 20 February 1999) was an English playwright, screenwriter and theatre director.
Overview
She is known for her plays that deal with themes of redemptive love, sexual desire, pain, torture—both physical and psychological—and death. They are characterised by a poetic intensity, pared-down language, exploration of theatrical form and, in her earlier work, the use of extreme and violent stage action.
Kane herself and scholars of her work, such as Graham Saunders, have identified some of her inspirations as expressionist theatre and Jacobean tragedy. The critic Aleks Sierz saw her work as part of a confrontational style and sensibility of drama termed "in-yer-face theatre". Sierz originally called Kane "the quintessential in-yer-face writer of the [1990s]" but later remarked in 2009 that although he initially "thought she was very typical of the new writing of the middle 1990s. The further we get away from that in time, the more un-typical she seems to be".
Kane's published work consists of five plays, the short film Skin, and two newspaper articles for The Guardian.
Life
Born in Brentwood, Essex, and raised by evangelical parents, Kane was a committed Christian in adolescence. Later, however, she rejected those beliefs. After attending Shenfield High School she studied drama at Bristol University, graduating in 1992, and went on to take an MA course in play writing at the University of Birmingham, led by the playwright David Edgar.
She praised Jeremy Weller's Mad as "the one piece of theatre that changed my life".
Kane wrote consistently throughout her adult life. For a year she was writer-in-residence for Paines Plough, a theatre company promoting new writing, where she actively encouraged other writers. Before that, she had worked briefly as literary associate for the Bush Theatre, London.
Depression and suicide
Kane struggled with severe depression for many years and was twice voluntarily admitted to the Maudsley Hospital in London.
She took antidepressants with reluctance. According to Kane's agent, Mel Kenyon, Kane told her "she didn't like taking pills because they numbed her response to the world, which is, of course, what they're supposed to do. But as an artist, it's extraordinarily difficult if your responsive level is made less intense. What do you do? Take pills and take away the despair? But despair also engenders knowledge in some way, and that knowledge fuels your understanding of the world and therefore your writing, but at the same time you want to exorcise the despair. She tried to weigh it up all the time."
Whilst talking about how her play Phaedra's Love deals with the theme of depression, Kane said that "[t]hrough being very, very low comes an ability to live in the moment because there isn't anything else. What do you do if you feel the truth is behind you? Many people feel depression is about emptiness but actually it's about being so full that everything cancels itself out. You can't have faith without doubt, and what are you left with when you can't have love without hate?"
First suicide attempt and subsequent hospitalisation
In the early hours of 17 February 1999, Kane in her Brixton flat attempted suicide by taking 50 sleeping pills and over 150 antidepressant tablets. Her flatmate, David Gibson, awoke and found a suicide note from her, stating that he was not to enter her room. Ignoring this request, Gibson entered Kane's room where he found her to be unconscious.
Kane was then taken to London's King's College Hospital where she was resuscitated and assessed by two psychiatrists. One of the psychiatrists, Nigel Tunstall, said that "it was very clearly the case that [Kane] was intending to kill herself and she was surprised and upset that she had not succeeded" and that she "said she had no intention of killing herself while she remained at King's College Hospital, but in abstract terms she said that at some point she would certainly kill herself." Because of this, Dr Tunstall ordered that Kane should be detained under the Mental Health Act if she attempted to leave the hospital.
Kane was admitted to the Brunel ward of the King's College Hospital, which was a general ward and not a psychiatric wing.
While in hospital, she was visited by her agent Mel Kenyon. Kane told Kenyon that her attempted suicide by overdose had been unsuccessful because she had eaten pizza. Kenyon recalled that when she visited Kane "She was extraordinary. She looked happy, healthy. She was very funny. She was brimming with self confidence. I took her 200 cigarettes which we hid under the bed. We talked about everything under the sun. We did talk about suicide. We did talk about God. We did talk about plays. We did talk about friendship.[…] And then after I had given her the fags I just kissed her on her forehead and I said 'I love you' and she said 'I love you too' and that was the last time I saw her."
Suicide
Shortly after 3:30am on 20 February a nurse discovered that Kane was not in her hospital bed. The nurse forced open the door to the Brunel ward's toilets where she found Kane's dead body. Kane had been hanged by her neck with her own shoelaces from the hook on the inside of the toilet door. She was 28 years old when she died. At the inquest into her death, it was stated that she probably died within three minutes.
Coroners court inquest
An inquest was held at Southwark coroner's court to determine the circumstances that resulted in Kane's death.
The coroner delivered a verdict of death by suicide. The coroner commented that Kane "was plagued with mental anguish and tormented by thoughts of suicide" and that she "made her choice and she made it at a time when she was suffering from a depressive illness [and while] the balance of her mind was disturbed".
The inquest heard how Kane had not been observed by nurses between 2am and 3:30am on 20 February, which was the timeframe when she left her room in the hospital and went to the toilets where she killed herself. One of psychiatrists who assessed Kane, Dr Nigel Tunstall, told the inquest how he "took it as read" that Kane would be "constantly observed" by nurses because of the notes from psychiatrist Dr Sedza Mujic who had also assessed Kane. However, nurses were unaware that Kane needed continuous supervision. Dr Tunstall also wrote in his notes that Kane did not require one-to-one care from a psychiatric nurse. It was stated that one of the reasons this was not requested was because it was felt that such a measure could be counter-productive, as Kane was ambivalent towards psychiatric treatment.
A review panel that investigated Kane's death recommended that the communication between medical staff be improved by formalising the procedures that related to the risk assessment of patients. However, a spokesperson from the hospital said that none of these procedures would have prevented her death.
After the inquest Sarah Kane's father, Peter Kane, considered taking legal action against the hospital for "criminal negligence". He stated that "The hospital has admitted there was not enough communication between the doctors of these departments and the nurses" and that "I am not seeking financial compensation for the death of my daughter. I want answers as to why she was not given proper care in order that this does not happen to somebody else's daughter."
Responses to Kane's death
It has been reported that in response to Kane's death there was a minute's silence held on radio in Germany and that theatres in the country dimmed their lights as a mark of respect.
Kane's agent, Mel Kenyon, stated that "I don't think she was depressed, It was deeper than that. I think she felt something more like existential despair – which is what makes many artists tick." Kenyon's words were challenged by playwright Anthony Neilson who In a letter to The Guardian wrote that "No one in despair “ticks”" and that "Truth didn't kill her, lies did: the lies of worthlessness and futility whispered by an afflicted brain". Neilson suggested that Kane's depression was the result of "crazy and irregular tides of chemicals that crash through the brain" and that "Far from enhancing talent these neurological storms waste time, narrow vision and frequently lead, as here, to that most tragic, most selfish actions".
Eight days after Kane's death The Independent published an essay written by Paul Gordon titled "You don't have to be suicidal to be an artist, and it doesn't help". In the essay Gordon commented on the negative impact of how "our culture romanticises creativity and depression". He wrote that "The tragic suicide of the young playwright Sarah Kane is already finding its place in the mythology of the creative depressive: the artist - young or old, but preferably young - who creates public beauty out of personal suffering." He concluded his piece writing that "Only those who knew Sarah Kane personally can mourn her. Perhaps the rest of us could be less in thrall to the romantic ideas of which her death is prey and think more of the thousands of “nameless” suicides whose deaths each year shames us, as individuals and as a society."
The playwright Harold Pinter knew Kane personally and remarked how he was not surprised to hear the news of her suicide: "She talked about it a great deal. She just said it was on the cards, you know, and I had to say, 'Come on! For God's sake!' I remember a line in [her play] Crave: 'Death is my lover, and he wants to move in.' That's quite a line, isn't it? She felt man's inhumanity to man so profoundly. I believe that's what finally killed her. She couldn't stand the bloody thing any more." Pinter spoke at Kane's memorial and is reported to have just said the following four words: "She was a poet".
The artistic director of The Bush Theatre, Dominic Dromgoole, had previously known Kane when she was the theatre's literary associate. Dromgoole wrote that Kane's death "left a long black cloud hanging over many. A huge amount of anger was felt. Anger at her for robbing us of what we so loved. Anger at those who maltreated her. […] anger directed inward for failing to help her." Dromgoole wrote that he was angry with how Kane had been mistreated by others. He stated that this anger was not aimed at "the press" who he saw as being "held up so easily as scapegoats" but rather it was directed at "certain people in the profession" who he claimed to have taken advantage of her: "There were a lot of timid souls who dared not, who forced Sarah to dare on their behalf. She enacted their fantasies of outrage for them. There is always one child in the class who will do the things others fear to. That is what marks them out, their courage, and their will. The good friends of that child will help her to harness it for her own benefit. The bad friends will use it as a form of entertainment. ‘Go on, jump over that’, ‘Say that to the bully’, ‘Go on cut yourself’. Sarah was that child, and where some reigned her back, others let her go, even encouraged her." He also said that "We all behaved a bit strangely after Sarah's death. It awoke old despairs, and morbidities, and adolescent terrors."
The playwright Edward Bond knew Kane personally and had a correspondence with her. Bond has referred to Kane's suicide in various essays he has written about theatre. In an essay from 1999 (revised in 2000) Bond wrote "Sarah Kane had to confront the implacable. You can postpone the confrontation only when you are certain that at some time it will take place. Otherwise it will slip away. Everything Sarah Kane did had authority. If she thought that perhaps the confrontation could not take place in our theatre, because it was losing the understanding and the means – she could not risk waiting. Instead she staged it elsewhere. Her means to confront the implacable are death, a lavatory and shoelaces. They are her comment on the meaningless of our theatre and our lives, and on our own false gods."
In 2000 Bond wrote that "Her suicide has to be understood. She was the most gifted dramatist of her generation. It is said that she killed herself because she was clinically depressed. What does that mean of a writer? Not that her death had a cause, but that her life had no inducement. She saw no future for theatre and so none for herself. But it is possible to see such a future for theatre. Her plays present the need for such a theatre." In 2021 Bond wrote "[Kane] had personal problems but she was destroyed by the theatre industry. Drama had been her umbilical lifeline but the theatre industry tuned it into the rope with which she hanged herself."
Works
Kane originally wanted to be a poet, but decided that she was unable to convey her thoughts and feelings through poetry. She wrote that she was attracted to the stage because "theatre has no memory, which makes it the most existential of the arts. No doubt that is why I keep coming back in the hope that someone in a dark room somewhere will show me an image that burns itself into my mind".
Blasted
Kane's first play was Blasted. Kane wrote the first two scenes while a student in Birmingham, where they were given a public performance. The agent Mel Kenyon was in the audience and subsequently represented Kane, suggesting she should show her work to the Royal Court Theatre in London. The completed play, directed by James Macdonald, opened at the Royal Court Theatre Upstairs in 1995. The action is set in a room of a luxurious hotel in Leeds where Ian, a racist and foul-mouthed middle-aged journalist, first tries to seduce and later rapes Cate, an innocent, simple-minded young woman. From its opening in a naturalistic—though troubling—world, the play takes on different, nightmarish dimensions when a soldier, armed with a sniper's rifle, appears in the room. The narrative ultimately breaks into a series of increasingly disturbing short scenes. Its scenes of anal rape, cannibalism, and other forms of brutality, created one of the biggest theatre scandals in London since Edward Bond's Saved in 1965. Kane admired Bond's work, and he in turn publicly defended Kane's play and talent. Other dramatists whom Kane particularly liked and who could be seen as influences include Samuel Beckett, Howard Barker, and Georg Büchner, whose play Woyzeck she later directed (Gate Theatre, London 1997).
Blasted was fiercely attacked in the British press. Blasted was, however, praised by fellow playwrights Martin Crimp, Harold Pinter (who became a friend), Caryl Churchill, who considered it "rather a tender play". It was later seen to be making parallels between domestic violence and the war in Bosnia, and between emotional and physical violence. Kane said, "The logical conclusion of the attitude that produces an isolated rape in England is the rape camps in Bosnia and the logical conclusion to the way society expects men to behave is war."
Blasted was produced again in 2001 at the Royal Court. The assistant director of this production, Joseph Hill-Gibbins, suggests that "The argument is made through form, through the shifts in styles in Blasted. That's how she constructs the argument, by taking this setting in an English Northern industrial town and suddenly transporting the action to a war zone." The critical realism that the first scene sets up is "literally blasted apart" in Scene Two. The critic Ken Urban says that "for Kane, hell is not metaphysical: it is hyperreal, reality magnified".
Skin
Skin was an eleven-minute film written for Channel 4, a British TV station, depicting a violent relationship between a black woman and a racist skinhead. It was first shown at the London Film Festival in October 1995 and televised by Channel 4 in 1997. The film is directed by Vincent O'Connell and stars Ewen Bremner, Marcia Rose, Yemi Ajibade and James Bannon.
Phaedra's Love
Kane was then commissioned by the Gate Theatre, London, to write a play inspired by a classic text. Phaedra's Love was loosely based on the classical dramatist Seneca's play Phaedra, but given a contemporary setting. In this reworking of the myth of Phaedra's doomed love for her stepson Hippolytus, it is Hippolytus, rather than Phaedra, who takes the central role. It is Hippolytus' emotional cruelty which pushes Phaedra to suicide. Kane reversed classical tradition by showing, rather than describing, violent action on stage. The play contains some of Kane's wittiest and most cynical dialogue. Kane described it as "my comedy". Directed by Kane, it was first performed at the Gate Theatre in 1996.
Cleansed
Cleansed premiered at the Royal Court's theatre downstairs in April 1998, and was directed by James Macdonald. This was at the time the most expensive production in the Royal Court's history. Kane stated that the play was partly inspired from reading a part of Roland Barthes's work A Lover’s Discourse where "[Barthes] says the situation of a rejected lover is not unlike the situation of a prisoner in Dachau." Cleansed is set in what Kane in her stage directions described as a "university" but which functions more as a torture chamber or concentration camp, overseen by the sadistic Tinker. It places a young woman and her brother, a disturbed boy, a gay couple and a peepshow dancer within this world of extreme cruelty in which declarations of love are viciously tested. It pushes the limits of what can be realised in the theatre: stage directions include "a sunflower pushes through the floor and grows above their heads" and "the rats carry Carl's feet away". The play was presented at the National Theatre in London in 2016, the first time any of Kane's work had been performed there.
Crave
A change in critical opinion occurred with Kane's fourth play, Crave, which was directed by Vicky Featherstone and presented by Paines Plough at the Traverse Theatre in Edinburgh in 1998. The play was performed under the pseudonym of Marie Kelvedon, partly because the notion amused Kane, but also so that the play could be viewed without the taint of its author's notorious reputation. "Marie" was Kane's middle name and she was brought up in the town of Kelvedon Hatch in Essex.
Crave marks a break from the on-stage violence of Kane's previous works and a move to a freer, sometimes lyrical writing style, at times inspired by her reading of the Bible and T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land. It has four characters, each identified only by a letter of the alphabet. It dispenses with plot and unlike her earlier work, with its highly specific stage directions, gives no indication what actions, if any, the actors should perform on stage, nor does it give any setting for the play. As such, it may have been influenced by Martin Crimp's 1997 play Attempts on Her Life, which similarly dispenses with setting and overall narrative. Kane had written of her admiration for Crimp's formal innovations. The work is highly intertextual. At the time, Kane regarded it as the "most despairing" of her plays, written when she had lost "faith in love".
4.48 Psychosis
Her last play, 4.48 Psychosis, was completed shortly before she died and was performed in 2000, at the Royal Court, directed by James Macdonald. This, Kane's shortest and most fragmented theatrical work, dispenses with plot and character, and no indication is given as to how many actors were intended to voice the play. Written at a time when Kane was suffering from severe depression, it has been described by her fellow-playwright and friend David Greig as having as its subject the "psychotic mind". According to Greig, the title derives from the time—4:48 a.m.—when Kane, in her depressed state, frequently woke in the morning.
Reception and legacy
In 1998, Kane was included in the Evening Standards list of 'London's Top 100 women', which was a list of "The most influential women in the capital". In the same year she was also featured in the newspaper's list of "London's fifty brightest young things".
Though Kane's work never played to large audiences in the UK and was at first dismissed by many newspaper critics, her plays have been widely performed in Europe, Australia and South America. In 2005, the theatre director Dominic Dromgoole wrote that she was "without doubt the most performed new writer on the international circuit". Fellow playwright Mark Ravenhill has said her plays "have almost certainly achieved canonical status". At one point in Germany, there were 17 simultaneous productions of her work. In November 2010, the theatre critic Ben Brantley of the New York Times described the SoHo Rep's "shattering production" of Kane's Blasted (which had opened two years previously) as "one of the most important New York premieres of the decade".
Influence and inspiration
In December 2011, the playwright David Eldridge wrote that "For any playwright of my generation the spirit and experiential theatre of Sarah Kane casts a long shadow. Sarah believed passionately that form ought to be expressive and carry meaning as powerfully as the story of a play. Blasted markedly influenced my adaptation of the film Festen for the stage".
Playwright Robert Askins, who received a 2015 Tony Award nomination for Best Play for Hand to God, has cited Kane as a major inspiration.
In Ukraine, director Roza Sarkisyan chose to produce an excerpt of one of Kane's plays for the British Council in 2017, and cites Kane as an inspiration.
Bibliography
Anthologies
Sarah Kane: Complete Plays. London: Methuen (2001),
Plays
Blasted (1995)
Phaedra's Love (1996)
Cleansed (1998)
Crave (1998)
4.48 Psychosis (1999)
Screenplays
Skin (1995)
Notes
References
Sarah Kane interview in Rage and Reason: Women Playwrights on Playwriting by Heidi Stephenson and Natasha Langridge, Methuen, 1997
External links
Obituary in British Theatre Guide
Guardian: Sarah Kane (10/2005)
Sarah Kane: Comprehensive site on Sarah Kane
Audio documentary by Dan Rebellato 'Blasted: The Life and Death of Sarah Kane'
Audio interview with Sarah Kane hosted by Dan Rebellato at Royal Holloway University on 3 November 1998 there is also a PDF transcript of the interview
1971 births
1999 deaths
Alumni of the University of Birmingham
Alumni of the University of Bristol
English lesbian writers
LGBT dramatists and playwrights
People from Brentwood, Essex
People with bipolar disorder
Postmodern theatre
Suicides by hanging in England
English women dramatists and playwrights
20th-century English dramatists and playwrights
20th-century English women writers
1999 suicides
20th-century LGBT people | [
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224599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney%20Smith | Sydney Smith | Sydney Smith (3 June 1771 – 22 February 1845) was an English wit, writer, and Anglican cleric.
Early life and education
Born in Woodford, Essex, England, Smith was the son of merchant Robert Smith (1739–1827) and Maria Olier (1750–1801), who suffered from epilepsy. His father, described as "a man of restless ingenuity and activity", "very clever, odd by nature, but still more odd by design", owned, at various times, 19 different estates in England.
Smith himself attributed much of his own lively personality to his French blood, his maternal grandfather having been a French Protestant refugee (a Huguenot) named Olier. He was the second of four brothers and one sister, all remarkable for their talents. Two of the brothers, Robert Percy (known as "Bobus") and Cecil, were sent to Eton College, but he was sent with the youngest to Winchester College, where he rose to be captain of the school. He and his brother so distinguished themselves that their school-fellows signed a round-robin "refusing to try for the college prizes if the Smiths were allowed to contend for them any more".
In 1789, Smith became a scholar of New College, Oxford; he received a fellowship after two years' residence, took his degree in 1792 and obtained his Master of Arts degree in 1796.
Career
Smith planned to read for the bar, but his father disagreed and he was reluctantly compelled to take holy orders. He was ordained at Oxford in 1796 and became curate of the village of Netheravon, near Amesbury in Salisbury Plain. Smith did much for the inhabitants; providing the means for the rudiments of education and thus making better things possible. The squire of the parish, Michael Hicks-Beach, invited the new curate to dine and thrilled to find such a man there engaged him as tutor to his eldest son. It was arranged that they should go to the University of Jena in Germany, but war prevented them and "in stress of politics" said Smith, "we put into Edinburgh" in 1798. While his pupil attended lectures, Smith studied moral philosophy under Dugald Stewart as well as medicine and chemistry. He also preached in the Episcopal chapel, attracting large audiences.
In 1800, Smith published his first book, Six Sermons, preached in Charlotte Street Chapel, Edinburgh, and in the same year married, against the wishes of her friends, Catharine Amelia Pybus. They settled at 46 George Street, Edinburgh, where Smith made numerous friends, among them the future Edinburgh Reviewers. Towards the end of his five years' residence in Edinburgh, in a house in Buccleuch Place, the elevated residence of the then Francis Jeffrey, Smith proposed the setting up of a review. "I was appointed editor", he says in the preface to the collection of his contributions, "and remained long enough in Edinburgh to edit the first number (October 1802) of the Edinburgh Review. The motto I proposed for the Review was Tenui musam meditamur avena.—'We cultivate literature on a little oatmeal.' But this was too near the truth to be admitted, and so we took our present grave motto from Publius Syrus, of whom, none of us, I am sure, had ever read a single line." He continued to write for the Review for the next quarter of a century, and his brilliant articles were a main element in its success.
Smith left Edinburgh for good in 1803, and settled in London, where he rapidly became known as a preacher, a lecturer and a society figure. His success as a preacher was such that there was often not standing-room in Berkeley Chapel, Mayfair, where he was morning preacher. He was also "alternate evening preacher" at the Foundling Hospital, and preached at the Berkeley Chapel and the Fitzroy Chapel, now St Saviour's Church, Fitzroy Square. He lectured on moral philosophy at the Royal Institution for three seasons, from 1804 to 1806; and treated his subject with such vigour and liveliness that the London world crowded to Albemarle Street to hear him. His views were seen as radical but are now thought of as progressive and far-sighted, being in favour of the education of women, the abolition of slavery and the teaching of practical subjects rather than the classics. His lectures were original and entertaining, but he threw them in the fire when they had served their purpose—providing the money for furnishing his house. His wife rescued the charred manuscripts and published them in 1849 as Elementary Sketches of Moral Philosophy.
Smith's elder brother Bobus had married Caroline Vernon, aunt of the third Lord Holland, and he was always a welcome visitor at Holland House. His Whig friends came into office for a short time in 1806, and presented Sydney with the living of Foston-le-Clay in Yorkshire. At first he employed a curate; but Spencer Perceval's Residence Act was passed in 1808, and after trying in vain to negotiate an exchange, he left London in 1809 and moved his household to Yorkshire. The "Ministry of All the Talents" was driven out of office in 1807 in favour of a "no popery" party, and in that year Smith published the first instalment of his most famous work, Peter Plymley's Letters, on the subject of Catholic emancipation, ridiculing the opposition of the country clergy. It was published as A Letter on the Subject of the Catholics to my brother Abraham who lives in the Country, by Peter Plymley. Nine other letters followed before the end of 1808, when they appeared in collected form. Peter Plymley's identity was a secret, but rumours got abroad of the real authorship. Lord Holland wrote to him expressing his own opinion and Grenville's, that there had been nothing like it since the days of Swift (Memoir, i. 151). The special and temporary nature of the topics advanced in these pamphlets has not prevented them from taking a permanent place in literature, secured for them by their vigorous, picturesque style, generous eloquence, and clearness of exposition.
In his country parish, with no educated neighbour nearby, Smith settled down to his new circumstances and won the hearts of his parishioners. There had been no resident clergyman for 150 years. He even took on temporarily the Rectory of nearby Londesborough (1823–1829) as "warming-pan" for his neighbour, William George Howard, 8th Earl of Carlisle, then a third son who was training for the Church, with the Rectory of Londesborough in mind. He had a farm of 300 acres (1.2 km2) to keep in order; a dilapidated rectory had to be rebuilt. All these things were attended to beside his contributions to the Edinburgh Review. "If the chances of life ever enable me to emerge," he wrote to Lady Holland, "I will show you I have not been wholly occupied by small and sordid pursuits". He continued to speak in favour of Catholic emancipation, his eloquence being specially directed against those who maintained that a Roman Catholic could not be believed on his oath. "I defy Dr Duignan", he pleaded, addressing a meeting of clergy in 1823, "in the full vigour of his incapacity, in the strongest access of that Protestant epilepsy with which he was so often convulsed, to have added a single security to the security of that oath". One of his most vigorous and effective polemics was A Letter to the Electors upon the Catholic Question (1826).
After twenty years in Yorkshire, Smith obtained preferment from a Tory minister, Lord Lyndhurst, who presented him with a prebend in Bristol Cathedral in 1828, and enabled him to exchange Foston for the living of Combe Florey, near Taunton, which he held conjointly with the living of Halberton attached to his prebend. From this time he discontinued writing for the Edinburgh Review. It was expected that when the Whigs came into power Smith would be made a bishop. However, William Melbourne, the Whig Prime Minister at the time was against appointing him. There was nothing in his writings to stand in the way. He had been most sedulous as a parochial clergyman. However, his religion was of a practical nature, and his fellow-clergy were suspicious of his limited theology. His scorn for enthusiasts and dread of religious emotion were vented in his bitter attacks on Methodism as well as in ridiculing the followers of Edward Pusey. One of the first things that Charles Grey said on entering Downing Street was, "Now I shall be able to do something for Sydney Smith"; but he was not able to do more than appoint him in 1831 to a residentiary canonry at St Paul's Cathedral in exchange for the prebendal stall he held at Bristol. He was as eager a champion of parliamentary reform as he had been of Catholic emancipation, and one of his best fighting speeches was delivered at Taunton in October 1831, when he made his well-known comparison of the House of Lords with Mrs Partington of Sidmouth, setting out with mop and pattens to stem the Atlantic in a storm. With characteristic philosophy, when he saw that the promotion was doubtful, he made his position certain by resolving not to be a bishop and definitely forbidding his friends to intercede for him.
On the death of his brother Courtenay, Smith inherited £50,000, which put him out of the reach of poverty. His eldest daughter, Saba (1802–1866), married Sir Henry Holland. His eldest son, Douglas, died in 1829 at the outset of what had promised to be a brilliant career. This grief his father never forgot, but nothing could quite destroy the cheerfulness of his later life. His Three Letters to Archdeacon Singleton on the Ecclesiastical Commission (1837-38-39) and his Petition and Letters on the repudiation of debts by the state of Pennsylvania (1843) are as bright and trenchant as his best contributions to the Edinburgh Review. He died at his house in Green Street, Mayfair in London and is buried at Kensal Green Cemetery.
Low spirits
Smith stated that he suffered from "low spirits" and advised others on how best to manage the condition.
Legacy
Smith's reputation among his contemporaries as a humourist and wit grew to such an extent that a number of the observations which are now attributed to him may be of doubtful provenance. Lord Houghton recorded that he never, except once, knew Smith to make a jest of any religious subject, "and then he immediately withdrew his words, and seemed ashamed that he had uttered them". To be set against that encomium is one of Smith's best-known lines, to the effect that his friend Henry Luttrell's idea of heaven was eating pâté de foie gras to the sound of trumpets.
No English writer's opinions on early American literature had more impact than Smith's. He referred to himself as a "sincere friend of America," but this sentiment is both supported and denied by his many publications. For instance, American writer and critic John Neal dubbed his 1820 question in the Edinburgh Review, "In the four-quarters of the globe, who reads an American book?" as "insolent" and said he would "furnish a pretty good answer" by traveling to England in 1823, where he became the first American published in any British literary journal.
Long after his death, he was often quoted in English literary life and was remembered by homemakers in the United States through his rhyming recipe for salad dressing.
Jane Austen expert Margaret C. Sullivan speculates in an essay that the character Henry Tilney, the romantic interest of the protagonist Catherine Morland in Jane Austen's Northanger Abbey (1803), may have been based on Smith.
The memory and achievements of Smith are perpetuated by the Sydney Smith Association, a registered charity which aims (among other things) to republish online as many of his writings as possible.
Notes
Judex damnatur ubi nocens absolvitur (the judge is condemned when the guilty is acquitted) —Publilius Syrus, Sententiae.
Works
1809. Sermons in two volumes
1839. Ballot
1845. A Fragment on the Irish Roman Catholic Church
1850. Elementary Sketches of Moral Philosophy, delivered at the Royal Institution, 1804–6
1846. Sermons at St Paul's ...
1953. The Letters of Sydney Smith, in two volumes, ed. by Nowell C. Smith. Oxford, Clarendon Press.
1956. The Selected Writings of Sydney Smith, ed. with an introduction by W. H. Auden. Farrar, Straus and Cudahy. Out of print.
1996. Twelve Miles from a Lemon: Selected Writings and Sayings of Sydney Smith compiled by Norman Taylor and Alan Hankinson. Cambridge, Lutterworth Press
References
Secondary literature
Austin, Sarah, ed., 1855. A Memoir of the Reverend Sydney Smith by his daughter, Lady Holland, with a Selection from his Letters, 2 vols.
Chevrillon, A., 1894. Sydney Smith et la renaissance des idées libérales en Angleterre au XIX' siècle.
Pearson, Hesketh, 1934. The Smith of Smiths, a biography.
Reid, Stuart J., 1884. A Sketch of the Life and Times of Sydney Smith.
Russell, G. W. E., 1905. Sydney Smith ("English Men of Letters" series).
a chapter on "Sydney Smith" in Lord Houghton's Monographs Social and Personal (x 873)
Bullett, Gerald, 1951. Sydney Smith. A Biography and a Selection, Michael Joseph.
Bell, Alan., 1980. Sydney Smith: A Biography, Oxford, Clarendon Press.
Virgin, Peter., 1994. Sydney Smith, London, Harper Collins.
Richardson, Joanna. "The Smith of Smiths" History Today (June 1971), Vol. 21 Issue 6, pp 433–439, online.
External links
Sydney Smith Association
NGP1475 at the National Portrait Gallery
English male journalists
19th-century English Anglican priests
Alumni of New College, Oxford
People educated at Winchester College
People from Woodford, London
Conversationalists
1771 births
1845 deaths
Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery | [
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224600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willington%2C%20County%20Durham | Willington, County Durham | Willington is a former mining village in County Durham, England, in the foothills of the Pennines and near the River Wear close to Crook, Bishop Auckland and Durham City.
Like many communities in the area Willington's economy was largely based on coal mining. The closure of the colliery in 1967 therefore affected the local economy. Since 2000 the area has benefited from housing development and increased transportation links.
Although a handful of job opportunities remain, work for many residents is now located outside the village, and Willington functions largely as a satellite village for Bishop Auckland and Durham.
Governance
An electoral ward in the same name exists. The population of this ward at the 2011 Census was 9,147.
Parkside Academy
Is a coeducational secondary school. Parkside Academy has announced that they have been awarded "World Class School" status and that they are the only secondary school in County Durham to have received this award. To be eligible for World Class School mark a school must have already been rated "outstanding" by Ofsted. (ref Parkside Academy, World Class Schools.org)
Businesses
Along with a Co-operative supermarket, many small independent shops thrive in the village such as an independent butchers, a fruiterer, a hardware shop and a pet shop, as well as several restaurants. There are currently six pubs operating in the village, along with a small microbrewery, the Gambling Man Brewing Company. The east of the village is also home to a small industrial estate and a coking plant in place of the remains of the colliery entrance.
Football team
Willington has its own football club, Willington F.C., who currently play in the 11th tier of English football. Founded in 1906, the club won the Northern League in 1913-14, 1925–26 and 1929-1930, but have struggled more in recent years, having been relegated to the Wearside League where they continued to struggle.
Their most recent highlight was featuring in the Wearside Football League Cup final in 2011, where they were eventually beaten by Ryhope Colliery Welfare 4-2 on penalties.
Willington F.C. have reached the final of the FA Amateur Cup twice. In 1939, they lost 3-0 to Bishop Auckland at Roker Park, Sunderland. In 1950 Willington beat Bishop Auckland 4-0 at Wembley
Notable figures
George Burdon McKean was born in the village in 1888, moving to Canada in 1902. He returned to England in WW1 as a private soldier in the Canadian Expeditionary Force.
His first gallantry award was as an NCO, in 1917, when he won the Military Medal. A year later, as a commissioned officer, he was involved in a trench raid for which he was awarded the Victoria Cross.
He was also one of a small number of soldiers to be awarded both the Military Medal & the Military Cross - having served as a both a junior rank and an officer.
His Victoria Cross award was recently celebrated with the unveiling of a memorial stone in the main street of the village, near to the library.
References
Towns in County Durham | [
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