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224879 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists%20of%20Major%20League%20Baseball%20players | Lists of Major League Baseball players | This list consists of players who have appeared in Major League Baseball. Note that the list also includes players who appeared in the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players, which is not universally considered a major league.
The list is broken down into a page of each letter to reduce the size. Some letters are also broken down further for the same reason.
See also
List of 19th-century baseball players
List of baseball players who have played in the Caribbean Series
List of Major League Baseball replacement players
Lists of Negro league baseball players
List of first black Major League Baseball players
List of second-generation Major League Baseball players
Lists of major league players by national origin
Current MLB rosters
MLB All-Time rosters | [
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224880 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five%20pounds%20%28British%20gold%20coin%29 | Five pounds (British gold coin) | The five pounds gold coin is a British coin, produced in several periods since the early 19th century. Since 1990 it is also known as the five-sovereign piece or quintuple sovereign as it is equivalent to five sovereign coins and shares the alloy and design features of the sovereign.
Five-guinea coin
The five guineas gold coin started out life (in 1668) as coin worth 100 shillings (equivalent to five pounds) before the fluctuating value of the guinea eventually settled at twenty-one shillings (in 1717); therefore it is arguable that the five pounds piece issued after the Great Recoinage of 1816 is merely a continuation of this earlier coin. However, the £5 coin tends to have a more modern strike and so is normally considered separately.
George III five-pound coin
The first appearance of the denomination was in the reign of George III, when it was produced in 1820 as a pattern. The obverse shows the right-facing bust of the king with the legend GEORGIUS III D. G. BRITANNIAR. REX F.D. date, while the reverse shows Benedetto Pistrucci's now famous St. George and dragon design with no legend. The edge is inscribed on the normal version, but plain on the proof version.
George IV five-pound coin
The next appearance of the denomination was in the reign of George IV, when it was produced in 1826 and 1829. The obverse shows the left-facing bust of the king with the legend GEORGIUS IV DEI GRATIA date, while the reverse shows a crowned shield within a mantle cape with the legend BRITANNIARUM REX FID DEF. The 1826 coin has the edge inscription DECUS ET TUTAMEN ANNO REGNI SEPTIMO, while the 1829 coin has a plain edge.
Victoria five-pound coins
The next coin of this value did not appear until early in the reign of Queen Victoria, when one of the most famous and attractive of all British coins was produced, colloquially known as the Una and the Lion coin. Una and the Lion are characters in Spenser's The Faerie Queene, this five pounds piece has acquired a cult significance among collectors: the obverse shows the young head of the Queen, facing left with the legend VICTORIA D G BRITANNIARUM REGINA F D, while the reverse shows Queen Victoria as Una leading the lion to the left, with the legend DIRIGE DEUS GRESSUS MEOS – May the Lord direct my steps (some coins say DIRIGIT instead of DIRIGE – The Lord directs my steps) – with the date MDCCCXXXIX (1839 AD) in the exergue under the lion. The edge may either have the inscription DECUS ET TUTAMEN ANNO REGNI TERTIO or be plain. This issue is the lightest of all the £5 coins, weighing only 38.7–39.3 grams.
The next appearance of the denomination was not until 1887, when the Jubilee head was used with the obverse inscription VICTORIA D G BRIT REG F D, while the reverse shows Pistrucci's design of Saint George slaying the dragon, with the only legend being the date in the exergue. The edge of this coin is milled, and it weighs 40 grams. This coin was also (rarely) produced in the mint at Sydney, Australia, which is identified by the letter "S" above the centre of the date.
The Pistrucci reverse was used again in 1893, when the obverse used the "Old Head" or "Veil Head" of the queen, with the legend VICTORIA DEI GRA BRITT REGINA FID DEF IND IMP, and the edge is again milled.
Early 20th-century five-pound coins
In the reigns of Kings Edward VII, George V, (Edward VIII), and George VI, five pound coins were only issued in proof sets in the first year of their reign (only prepared for approval in the case of Edward VIII, which is why his coin is valued at around £175,000!). All these reigns used the Pistrucci George and Dragon obverse, with the 1902 and 1911 coins having milled edges, though at least some of the 1937 coins have plain edges. The 1902 Edward VII coin was also minted at Sydney, being identified by an "S" above the centre of the date.
Elizabeth II five-pound coin
The reign of Queen Elizabeth II saw a departure from the normal practice in issuing gold coinage. A small number of gold £5 pieces were struck in 1953 in order to provide continuity of the series, and again in 1957, but neither of these strikings were released to the public, with the result that they are now valued in the £250,000–£500,000 range.
No further £5 gold pieces were struck until 1980, nine years after decimalisation, since when they have been issued somewhat haphazardly in most years.
There are in modern times two different five pound gold coins simultaneously-minted, namely special gold editions of the £5 'crown', as well as what has become termed the "quintuple sovereign" or "five-sovereign piece" (being the equivalent of five sovereigns and part of the modern-day set of sovereign sizes). Both types are legal tender.
The £5 coins (quintuple sovereigns) are 36.02 mm in diameter in contrast to the commemorative 'crowns' that are 38.6mm diam.
Quintuple sovereigns
Gold £5 coins from 1980 to 1984 use the Arnold Machin effigy of the Queen, while the 1985–1990 coins use the Raphael Maklouf effigy. All these years use the Pistrucci reverse. In 1989 a completely new design was used to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the first issue of the original English sovereign coin – the obverse shows the Queen seated on the coronation throne holding the orb and sceptre, with the legend ELIZABETH II DEI GRA REG FID DEF, while the reverse shows a crowned shield within a double rose and the legend ANNIVERSARY OF THE GOLD SOVEREIGN 1489–1989.
Since 1990, these gold coins have continued to be produced in limited numbers in each year, chiefly as bullion coins but also of some collecting value, with some struck to proof or Brilliant Uncirculated standards, and with a nominal (ie no 'face') value in line with the other sizes of sovereigns. The Pistrucci reverse has also continued to be used, except 2002, when a special commemorative for the Golden Jubilee revived the shield reverse.
Modern-day crowns
Since 1990, £5 commemorative coins have been produced in cupronickel, but premium versions in silver and gold are often produced. These have been issued alongside new issues of the traditional Pistrucci-reverse five-pound gold coins, the 'quintuple sovereign'. These "modern five pound coins" are a continuation of the crown which was issued from 1544 as a five shilling coin.
These modern five-pound issues are not issued for circulation, but to mark events or commemorations of national or Royal significance.
References
British gold coins
Five-base-unit coins
Bullion coins | [
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224888 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String%20Quartet%20No.%203%20%28Bart%C3%B3k%29 | String Quartet No. 3 (Bartók) | String Quartet No. 3 by Béla Bartók was written in September 1927 in Budapest. It is one of six string quartets by Bartók.
The work is in one continuous stretch with no breaks, but is divided in the score into four parts:
Despite Bartók calling the third section a "recapitulation" it is not a straight repetition of the music from the prima parte, being somewhat varied and simplified. Although not marked as such, the coda is in fact a telescoped recapitulation of the seconda parte.
The mood of the first part is quite bleak, contrasting with the second part which is livelier and provides evidence of the inspiration Bartók drew from Hungarian folk music, with dance-like melodies to the fore.
The work is even more harmonically adventurous and contrapuntally complex than Bartók's previous two string quartets and explores a number of extended instrumental techniques, including sul ponticello (playing with the bow as close as possible to the bridge), col legno (playing with the wood rather than the hair of the bow), and glissandi (sliding from one note to another).
It has often been suggested that Bartók was inspired to write the piece after hearing a performance of Alban Berg's Lyric Suite (1926) in 1927. The piece is the most tightly constructed of Bartók's six string quartets, the whole deriving from a relatively small amount of thematic material integrated into a single continuous structure. It is also Bartók's shortest quartet, with a typical performance lasting around fifteen minutes.
The work is dedicated to the Musical Society Fund of Philadelphia and was entered into an international competition for chamber music run by the organization. It won the US$6,000 first prize jointly with a work by Alfredo Casella. The piece was premiered on 19 February 1929 by the Waldbauer-Kerpely Quartet.
The piece was first published in 1929 by Universal Edition.
References
External links
Béla Bartók - String Quartet No. 3 on YouTube
3
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224891 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Wood%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Halifax | Edward Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax | Edward Frederick Lindley Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax, (16 April 1881 – 23 December 1959), known as The Lord Irwin from 1925 until 1934 and The Viscount Halifax from 1934 until 1944, was a senior British Conservative politician of the 1930s. He held several senior ministerial posts during this time, most notably those of Viceroy of India from 1926 to 1931 and of Foreign Secretary between 1938 and 1940. He was one of the architects of the policy of appeasement of Adolf Hitler in 1936–1938, working closely with Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain. However, after Kristallnacht and the German occupation of Czechoslovakia in March 1939 he was one of those who pushed for a new policy of attempting to deter further German aggression by promising to go to war to defend Poland.
On Chamberlain's resignation early in May 1940, Halifax effectively declined the position of Prime Minister as he felt that Winston Churchill would be a more suitable war leader (Halifax's membership in the House of Lords was given as the official reason). A few weeks later, with the Allies facing apparently catastrophic defeat and British forces falling back to Dunkirk, Halifax favoured approaching Italy to see if acceptable peace terms could be negotiated. He was overruled by Churchill after a series of stormy meetings of the War Cabinet. From 1941 to 1946, he served as British Ambassador in Washington.
Early life and education
Wood was born on 16 April 1881 at Powderham Castle in Devon, home of his maternal grandfather William Courtenay, 11th Earl of Devon. He was born into a Yorkshire family, the sixth child and fourth son of Charles Wood, 2nd Viscount Halifax (1839–1934), and Lady Agnes Elizabeth Courtenay (1838–1919). His father was President of the English Church Union, which pushed for ecumenical reunion, in 1868, 1919, and 1927–1934. His great-grandfather was Earl Grey, the Prime Minister who introduced the Great Reform Act of 1832.
Between 1886 and 1890, Wood's three older brothers died young, leaving him, at the age of nine, heir to his father's fortune and seat in the House of Lords. He was brought up in a world of religion and hunting. His religiosity as a devout Anglo-Catholic like his father earned him the nickname, possibly coined by Churchill, of the "Holy Fox". He was born with an atrophied left arm and no left hand, which did not stop him from enjoying riding, hunting and shooting. He had an artificial left hand with a spring-operated thumb, with which he could hold reins or open gates.
Wood's childhood was divided mainly between two houses in Yorkshire: Hickleton Hall, near Doncaster, and Garrowby.
Halifax attended St David's Prep School from September 1892 and Eton College from September 1894. He was not happy at school as he was not talented either at sport or classics. He went up to Christ Church, Oxford, in October 1899. He took no part in student politics but blossomed academically, graduating with a first class degree in Modern History.
From November 1903 until 1910, he was a Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. After a year at All Souls, he went on a Grand Tour of South Africa, India, Australia and New Zealand with Ludovic Heathcoat-Amory. In 1905, he returned to England for two years of study at All Souls. He visited Canada in 1907. He wrote a short biography of the Victorian cleric John Keble (1909).
Early political career and war service
Wood had not stood in the 1906 general election, at which the Liberals won a landslide victory, choosing to devote his energies to his All Souls Fellowship. By 1909 the political tides had turned enough for Wood to put himself forward for the Conservative candidacy at Ripon in Yorkshire, and he was easily selected through local influence. Ripon had gone Liberal in 1906; Wood won it with a 1,000 vote majority in January 1910 and held it with a reduced majority in December 1910. He remained Member of Parliament for Ripon until his elevation to the Lords in 1925. He was a Ditcher (i.e. opposed to the bitter end and ready to "die in the last ditch" to defend the House of Lords' right to veto legislation) in the disputes over the Parliament Act 1911 but really made little impact on politics before 1914. He was vigorously opposed to Welsh Disestablishment.
Before the First World War he was already a captain in the Queen's Own Yorkshire Dragoons, a West Riding yeomanry regiment. He made a rare intervention in debate, urging that conscription be introduced immediately. He was sent to the front line in 1916. In January 1917 he was Mentioned in dispatches ("Heaven Knows What For" he wrote). He rose to the rank of major. He was then Deputy Director of Labour Supply at the Ministry of National Service from November 1917 to the end of 1918. He was initially sympathetic to Lord Lansdowne's proposal for a compromise peace, but ultimately demanded all-out victory and a punitive peace.
Wood was unopposed in the general elections of 1918, 1922, 1923 and 1924. He was a signatory to the April 1919 Lowther Petition calling for harsher peace terms against Germany in the Treaty of Versailles then being negotiated. In the 1918–1922 Parliament, Wood was an ally of Samuel Hoare, Philip Lloyd-Greame and Walter Elliot, all ambitious younger MPs in favour of progressive reform.
In 1918, he and George Ambrose Lloyd (later Lord Lloyd) wrote "The Great Opportunity", a tract aiming to set an agenda for a revived Conservative and Unionist Party following the end of the Lloyd George coalition. They urged the Conservative Party to concentrate on the welfare of the community rather than the good of the individual. With the Irish War of Independence then in progress Wood urged a federal solution. At this time he concentrated on housing and agriculture and Ireland.
Early ministerial career
In May 1920, he accepted the Governor-Generalship of South Africa, but the offer was withdrawn after the South African government announced that it wanted a Cabinet minister or a member of the Royal Family.
In April 1921, he was appointed Under-Secretary for the Colonies, under Churchill who was initially reluctant to meet him (on one occasion he stormed into Churchill's office and told him that he "expected to be treated like a gentleman"). In the winter of 1921–1922, Wood visited the British West Indies and wrote a report for Churchill.
On 16 October 1922, Wood attended the meeting of the junior ministers who expressed disquiet at the Lloyd George Coalition. On 19 October 1922, he voted at the Carlton Club meeting for the Conservatives to fight the next election as an independent force. The Coalition ended and Bonar Law formed a purely Conservative government. Wood was promoted to the Cabinet on 24 October 1922 as President of the Board of Education. Some saw this as an improvement in the moral character of the government. Austerity policies left no room for constructive policies. Wood, who spent two days hunting each week, was neither interested nor particularly effective in the job but saw it as a stepping stone to greater things. He was not happy about Stanley Baldwin's adoption of tariffs in December 1923, which saw the Conservatives lose their majority and give way to a minority Labour government.
When the Conservatives were returned to power, on 6 November 1924, Wood was appointed Minister for Agriculture, a more onerous job than Education had been. He took an Agriculture and Tithes Bill through the Commons.
Viceroy of India
Appointment
In October 1925, Lord Birkenhead, Secretary of State for India, offered Wood the job of Viceroy of India at the suggestion of King George V. His paternal grandfather Sir Charles Wood had been Secretary of State for India in 1859–1865. He almost declined, as he had two sons of school age and his aged father seemed unlikely to live until 1931 when his term was due to end. He accepted on the advice of his father (who in the event lived to see him return). He was created Baron Irwin, of Kirby Underdale in the County of York, in December 1925. He left for India on 17 March 1926, and arrived in Bombay on 1 April 1926.
Irwin was honoured with the GCSI and GCIE in 1926.
Irwin relished the pomp of the Viceroyalty. He was an able horseman, and stood 6' 5". He had a "Cecilian stoop and sympathetic kindly eyes" and gave an impression of a Prince of the Church (R. Bernays Naked Fakir 1931). Several attempts were made to assassinate him. He was more sympathetic to Indians than his predecessors had been, although he had no compunctions about signing death warrants when he thought them justified. He wanted Indians to be more united and friendly to the UK; his first major speech as Viceroy, and several more throughout his term of office, urged an end to communal violence between Hindus and Muslims.
Simon Commission
The 1919 Government of India Act had incorporated the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms ("Diarchy" – shared rule between British and Indians at the local level) and had promised that after ten years there would be a commission to inquire about a new constitution and to advise on whether further reforms were needed. Irwin accepted that greater self-government was necessary, as Indian national aspirations had grown since 1919. Birkenhead brought forward the date of the commission, and put it under Sir John Simon. Irwin recommended an all-British inquiry, as he thought that the Indian factions would not agree among themselves but would fall into line behind the results of the inquiry. David Dutton believes that this was "the most fateful mistake of his viceroyalty, and one he came bitterly to regret".
In November 1927, the composition of the Simon Commission was announced. All the leading Indian parties, including the Indian National Congress, boycotted it. Irwin assured Birkenhead that Simon could win over moderate Indian opinion. Simon arrived in Bombay on 3 February 1928. He achieved some limited successes, but Irwin became convinced that a new gesture would be necessary.
Indian responses to Simon's arrival included the All-Parties Conference, a committee of which produced the Nehru Report (May 1928), advocating dominion status for India. However, there was also violence, including the death of Lala Lajpat Rai in November 1928 and the revenge attack of Bhagat Singh in December 1928. Other responses included the Muslim League leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah's 14 points (March 1929).
The Irwin Declaration
In June 1929, a new Labour government took office in the UK, with Ramsay MacDonald Prime Minister for the second time and William Wedgwood Benn as Secretary of State for India. On 13 July 1929, Irwin arrived in the UK on leave, bringing with him a "suggested" draft exchange of letters between MacDonald and Simon. His plan was for Simon to write proposing a Round Table Conference to discuss the findings of the Commission, and that MacDonald would then reply pointing out that the 1917 Montagu Declaration implied a commitment to dominion status (i.e. that India should become completely self-governing, like Canada or Australia). Simon saw the drafts and had serious misgivings about the planned Round Table Conference. The exchange of letters did not mention Dominion Status as the other Commissioners did not favour it, although Simon did not report the depth of their feeling, which he came to share, that such a declaration would undermine the findings of the Commission and that Dominion Status would now become a minimum demand for the Indian leaders rather than an ultimate goal. The author David Dutton finds it "curious" that Irwin, who had believed that Simon would not object to Dominion Status, did not understand this.
The Irwin Declaration of October 1929 committed Britain to eventual Dominion Status for India. Despite such a policy having been implicit for a decade, the Declaration was denounced by many on the Tory Right. Lord Reading (Irwin's predecessor as Viceroy) denounced it, and Simon made his displeasure known. There was brief hope of a breakthrough in Anglo-Indian relations, but the New Delhi Conference of December 1929 between Irwin and the Indian leaders failed to reach agreement. Gandhi now began a campaign of civil disobedience with a view to achieving complete independence. He walked for 24 days to the sea, where he proceeded to make salt, in breach of the government's historic monopoly. Irwin had all the Congress leaders put behind bars, including Gandhi eventually.
Some criticism of Irwin may have been unfair, but he had made an error and the consequences were serious and unrest grew. Irwin's position was seen as excessively lenient by London but as half-hearted in India. With little room for manoeuvre, Irwin resorted to repression using his emergency powers to ban public gatherings and crush rebellious opposition. Gandhi's detention, however, only made matters worse.
Agreement with Mahatma Gandhi
In November 1930, King George V opened the First Round Table Conference in London; no Congress delegates took part because Gandhi was in gaol.
In January 1931, Gandhi was released and at Irwin's invitation they had eight meetings together. Irwin wrote to his aged father that "it was rather like talking to someone who had stepped off another planet onto this for a short visit of a fortnight and whose mental outlook was quite other to that which was regulating most of the affairs on the planet to which he had descended". But they had mutual respect based on their respective religious faiths.
The fortnight-long discussions resulted in the Gandhi–Irwin Pact of 5 March 1931, after which the Civil Disobedience Movement and the boycott of British goods were suspended in exchange for a Second Round Table Conference that represented all interests.
The salient points were:
The Congress would discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement.
The Congress would participate in the Round Table Conference.
The Government would withdraw all ordinances issued to curb the Congress.
The Government would withdraw all prosecutions relating to offences not involving violence.
The Government would release all persons serving sentences of imprisonment for their activities in the civil disobedience movement.
It was also agreed that Gandhi would join the Second Round Table Conference as the sole representative of the Congress.
On 20 March 1931, Irwin paid tribute to Gandhi's honesty, sincerity and patriotism at a dinner given by ruling princes.
On the evening of 23 March 1931, after a trial now widely viewed to have been unlawful and unfair, the Indian Revolutionaries Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev were hanged, in an execution brought forward by 12 hours. The exact extent of political interference is yet to be brought to light.
Assessments
A month following the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, Lord Irwin's term ended and he left India. On Irwin's return to England in April 1931, the situation was calm, but within a year the conference collapsed and Gandhi was again arrested.
Despite the mixed outcomes, Irwin was overall a successful Viceroy; he had charted a clear and balanced course and had not lost the confidence of his home government. He had demonstrated toughness and independence. His successful term as Viceroy ensured that he returned to British politics with significant prestige.
British politics 1931–1935
Irwin returned to the UK on 3 May 1931. He was honoured with the KG (he became chancellor of the order in 1943). In 1931 he declined the Foreign Office in the new National Government, not least because the Tory Right would not have liked it. Officially, he declared that he wanted to spend time at home. He went to Canada, at the invitation of Vincent Massey, to speak at the University of Toronto.
He was still a firm protégé of Stanley Baldwin. In June 1932, on the sudden death of Sir Donald Maclean, he returned to the Cabinet as President of the Board of Education, for the second time, having been apparently genuinely reluctant to accept. His views were somewhat old-fashioned: he declared: "We want a school to train them up to be servants and butlers".
Irwin became Master of the Middleton Hunt in 1932 and was elected as Chancellor of Oxford University in 1933. In 1934 he inherited the title Viscount Halifax on the death of his 94-year-old father.
He helped Hoare draft what became the Government of India Act 1935, the largest single piece of legislation of the 1931–1935 government.
In June 1935, Baldwin became Prime Minister for the third time, and Halifax was appointed Secretary of State for War. He was pleased to give up the Education job. He felt the country was unprepared for war, but he resisted the Chiefs of Staffs' demands for rearmament.
In November 1935, after the general election, Halifax became Lord Privy Seal and Leader of the House of Lords.
Foreign policy
Colleague of Eden
By this time, Halifax was becoming increasingly influential in foreign affairs. Cabinet met on the morning of 18 December 1935 to discuss the public outcry over the Hoare–Laval Pact. Halifax, who was due to make a statement in the Lords that afternoon, insisted that the Foreign Secretary Samuel Hoare must resign to save the government's position, causing J. H. Thomas, William Ormsby-Gore and Walter Elliott also to come out for his resignation. Anthony Eden was appointed Foreign Secretary in Hoare's place. The following year, Halifax said the provisions of the Pact "were not so frightfully different from those put forward by the Committee of Five [of the League]. But the latter were of respectable parentage: and the Paris ones were too much like the off-the-stage arrangements of nineteenth-century diplomacy".
Effectively, although not formally, Halifax was deputy Foreign Secretary to Eden. Halifax was one of the signatories to the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936. In general they got on well. Halifax and Eden were in agreement about the direction of foreign policy (and in line with prevailing opinion throughout Britain) that Germany's remilitarization of the Rhineland, its "own backyard", would be difficult to oppose and should be welcomed insofar as it continued Germany's seeming progress towards normality after the tribulations of the post-First World War settlement.
In 1936, Neville Chamberlain recorded that Halifax was always saying he wanted to retire from public life. In May 1937, when Neville Chamberlain succeeded Baldwin as Prime Minister, Halifax became Lord President of the Council, as well as remaining Leader of the House of Lords. Chamberlain began increasingly to intervene directly in foreign policy, activity for which his background had not prepared him, and which caused increasing tension with Eden.
In his capacity as Master of the Middleton Hunt, Halifax accepted an invitation from Hermann Göring to go to a hunting exhibition in Berlin and hunt foxes in Pomerania in November 1937. Halifax later put it on the record that, far from this being an attempt by Chamberlain to bypass the Foreign Office, Eden had pressed him to accept. Halifax was not keen about the way the meeting was arranged. Göring was a passionate hunter and gave Halifax the nickname Halalifax, after Halali!, a German hunting call, but Halifax was publicly and correctly regarded as acting on behalf of the British government to renew dialogue with the German government.
On being taken to meet Adolf Hitler at Berchtesgaden, Halifax almost created an incident by nearly handing his coat to him, believing him to be a footman: As I looked out of the car window, on eye level, I saw in the middle of this swept path a pair of black trousered legs, finishing up in silk socks and pumps. I assumed this was a footman who had come down to help me out of the car and up the steps and was proceeding in leisurely fashion to get myself out of the car when I heard von Neurath or somebody throwing a hoarse whisper at my ear of Der Führer, der Führer; and it then dawned upon me that the legs were not the legs of a footman, but of Hitler. A long and barbed meeting with the Führer then ensued. In discussions with Hitler, Halifax spoke of "possible alterations in the European order which might be destined to come about with the passage of time". Ignoring Eden's reservations, he did not object in principle to Hitler's designs on Austria and parts of Czechoslovakia and Poland, although he stressed that only peaceful processes of change would be acceptable.
Writing to Baldwin on the subject of the conversation between Karl Burckhardt (the League of Nations' Commissioner of Danzig) and Hitler, Halifax said: Nationalism and Racialism is a powerful force but I can't feel that it's either unnatural or immoral! I cannot myself doubt that these fellows are genuine haters of Communism, etc.! And I daresay if we were in their position we might feel the same!
In December 1937, Halifax told the Cabinet that "we ought to get on good terms with Germany", as despite the best efforts of Eden and Chamberlain, Britain was still faced with the prospect of war with Germany, Italy and Japan.
By February 1938, Halifax warned Chamberlain of strains in the Cabinet, and tried to broker a deal between Chamberlain and Eden. Eden resigned as Foreign Secretary on 20 February, in protest at Chamberlain's wish to make further concessions to Benito Mussolini, whom Eden regarded as an untrustworthy gangster, without gestures of good faith on his part. Halifax was appointed Foreign Secretary on 21 February 1938, despite some criticism from Labour and elsewhere that so important a job was being given to a peer.
Halifax commented "I have had enough obloquy for one lifetime" (i.e., as Viceroy of India) before accepting appointment as Foreign Secretary. Chamberlain preferred him to the excitable Eden: "I thank God for a steady unruffled Foreign Secretary."
Foreign Secretary
Analysis
Halifax's political line as Foreign Secretary must be seen in the context of existing British foreign policy, which was predicated on a broad consensus that in none of the democracies was there popular support for war, military pressure, or even rearmament. There was debate about the extent to which the dictatorships' very separate interests could be teased apart. It was clear that an alignment of Germany and Italy would divide Britain's forces in any general war and that, without at least a neutral Italy, Britain would be unable to move large naval forces east to confront Japan, given strong isolationist sentiment in America. For many, especially in the Foreign Office, appeasement was a necessary compromise to buy time for rearmament, a process to which Britain was already heavily committed. Others, especially Churchill, hoped that a strong military alliance with France would permit a more robust foreign policy towards the dictators. Many shared Churchill's confidence in the large French Army, although fewer shared his belief that France would be a resilient ally.
Chamberlain embraced the policy of appeasement as a moral force for good, as did many others who were deeply opposed to war and defence spending. By comparison, Halifax's policy appears more pragmatic, like that of Samuel Hoare, coupled to a firm commitment to rearmament, albeit unenthusiastically. All parties recognised the hostility of public opinion to war or military preparations, and the difficulty of acting without a readiness on the part of America or the Soviet Union to play their part (the Labour Party opposed rearmament until well after the Munich Agreement). Nonetheless, Halifax was criticised as an appeaser, along with Chamberlain, Hoare, and twelve others, in the anonymous 1940 book Guilty Men.
Munich
Hitler's annexation of Austria in March 1938 made Halifax keener on British rearmament. Czechoslovakia was clearly next on the agenda, but neither Britain nor France believed they had the military capacity to support her, and in the summer of 1938, Halifax still wanted to urge the Czechs in private to make concessions to Germany, which was making demand about the status of the Sudeten Germans.
Halifax remained in London and did not accompany Chamberlain on his dramatic flights to Germany in the autumn of 1938. This was once seen as a sign of Chamberlain's dominance of his Cabinet.
It appears that a frank conversation with his pugnacious Permanent Secretary, Sir Alexander Cadogan, brought Halifax to the sharp realisation that the road to appeasement had taken Britain into a series of concessions that were unwise and that were unlikely to secure the necessary pacification of Germany.
On 25 September 1938, Halifax spoke out in Cabinet against the inflated demands presented by Hitler in the Godesberg Memorandum after his second summit meeting with Chamberlain. It is now known that Halifax, under Cadogan's influence, persuaded the Cabinet to reject the Bad Godesberg terms. Britain and Germany came close to war until Chamberlain flew to Munich. Chamberlain could hardly afford to lose a second Foreign Secretary, and his dominance of his Cabinet was never so overwhelming again.
The eventual Munich Agreement, signed after Chamberlain's third summit meeting with Hitler, was apparently popular around the world and humiliating to many in the British government, but it was short of Hitler's desires (and of Chamberlain's proposed concessions) and increased Hitler's determination to return to destroy Czechoslovakia in the spring.
On 3 October 1938, Halifax defended the Munich Agreement in the House of Lords, in much more measured terms than the Prime Minister had done, not as a triumph but as the lesser of two evils.
The Munich crisis had seen Halifax begin to take a stronger line than Chamberlain against further concessions to Germany. Andrew Roberts argues that from this point on, Halifax set his face firmly towards a policy of deterrence. He hoped that increased rearmament—including strengthening of alliances with and economic support to the countries of Eastern Europe, and the reintroduction of conscription—coupled with a firmer line towards Germany, Italy, and Japan would reduce the risks of those three hostile powers acting in combination. (It is of note that, when war did begin, neither Japan nor Italy was prepared to join in until the pendulum had swung much further in Germany's favour.)
After Munich
After Munich, Halifax (successfully) advised Chamberlain against capitalising on his popularity by calling a snap general election; instead he urged (in vain) that Chamberlain widen the National Coalition by offering jobs not just to Churchill and Eden but also to Labour and Liberal figures. Halifax was also disgusted by the anti-Jewish pogrom of Kristallnacht (10 November). He advocated British financial aid to the countries of central and eastern Europe to discourage them from coming under Germany's influence.
With Hitler's lack of commitment regarding the Munich Agreement becoming clearer, Halifax worked steadily to assemble a stronger British position, pushing Chamberlain to take economic steps to underpin British interests in Eastern Europe and prevent additional military supplies from reaching Germany, such as tungsten.
In January 1939, Halifax accompanied Chamberlain to Rome for talks with Mussolini. That month Halifax pushed for staff talks with France, in view of the danger of war with both Germany and Italy simultaneously. After Hitler broke the Munich agreement and occupied the rump of "Czecho-slovakia" (the hyphen had been added after Munich), Chamberlain gave a speech in Birmingham on 17 March 1939, pledging that Britain would go to war to defend Poland. Halifax had been one of the drivers in this change of policy. By March 1939, Eden, then out of office, observed that thanks to Halifax the government are "now doing what we would wish".
Halifax granted a guarantee to Poland on 31 March 1939, triggered by alarming intelligence of German preparations, in hopes of sending clear signals to Germany that, in Halifax's words, there would be "no more Munichs".
The Foreign Office received intelligence in early April 1939 that Italy was about to invade Albania. At a Cabinet meeting on 5 April 1939, Halifax rejected these reports. Two days later, Italy invaded Albania; Halifax met Sir Alexander Cadogan and "decided we can't do anything to stop it".
Although he disliked the Soviet regime, not least because of its atheism, Halifax was quicker than Chamberlain to realise that Britain should attempt to ally with the USSR. He told the Foreign Affairs committee: "Soviet Russia is something between that of the unconquerable steamroller and looking on her as entirely useless militarily. We cannot ignore a country with a population of 180,000,000 people."
The negotiations (in summer 1939) failed, and the USSR allied with Germany instead on 23 August. It has been suggested that Halifax should have led the negotiations himself, but this would not have suited Halifax's purpose because his government were not carrying out the negotiations in good faith. The Foreign Office confirmed to the US chargé d'affaires on 8 August 1939 that "the military mission, which had now left Moscow, had been told to make every effort to prolong discussions until 1 October 1939". Halifax disclosed to the Foreign Affairs Committee on 10 July 1939: "Although the French were in favour of the military conversations commencing, the French Government thought that the military conversations would be spun out over a long time and as long as they were taking place we should be preventing Soviet Russia from entering the German camp."
While H Roberts has spoken of Halifax's fellow Foreign Minister (of the Soviet Union), Litvinov, as having acute perceptive skills and an ability "to detect major trends in the 1930s and to anticipate the course of events indicates his tremendous understanding of the decade", Halifax had completely misunderstood Hitler. Halifax said: "Hitler had a very low opinion of the Soviet Union, and our action [in aligning with the USSR] would confirm to him the idea that we were a weak and feeble folk." On the contrary, what made Hitler worried was the thought of a joint pact between France, Britain and the Soviet Union, in order to prevent a pact between Germany and the Soviet Union. Halifax was not to know that during April 1939 Hitler told von Weizsäcker that he was contemplating a reconciliation with the Soviet Union; on 2 August 1939 Hitler asked von Neurath, former Foreign Minister and career diplomat at the time of the Weimar Republic, whether the German people would accept such an ideological shift from anti-communism to signing a pact with the Soviet Union. Neurath assured Hitler he "could do what he liked with the [National Socialist] Party".
With Poland now looking likely to be carved up between Germany and the USSR (as indeed soon took place), the diarist "Chips" Channon, PPS to Halifax's junior minister Rab Butler, recorded (25 August 1939) that "the barometer of war kept shifting" and that "the Polish guarantee was [Halifax]'s pet scheme and favourite god-child" (Butler opposed the guarantee).
When Germany invaded Poland, Halifax refused any negotiations while German troops remained on Polish soil. However, he stood solid with Chamberlain, who delayed in giving a commitment to go to war until the French also committed. The two of them were the objects of the Cabinet revolt which insisted that Britain honour the guarantee to Poland. Britain declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939.
Phoney War
After the outbreak of war, Halifax's diplomacy aimed to dissuade the Soviets from formally joining the Axis. He opposed the bombing of Germany, lest the Germans retaliate.
Swedish intermediary Birger Dahlerus had approached Britain for peace talks in August 1939, just before the outbreak of war. Again, on 1 November 1939, Halifax replied to an approach through Swedish channels that no peace was possible with Hitler in power. Even that aroused the wrath of Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, who sent a private note to Halifax rebuking him that such talk was dangerous. Halifax remained opposed to any hint of a compromise peace during the Phoney War.
Churchill as Prime Minister
On 8 May 1940, Chamberlain's government survived a motion of no confidence brought about by the deteriorating military situation in Norway. The government had a nominal majority of 213 in the House: at the end of the "Norway Debate", they won the vote with a majority of only 81; 33 Conservatives and 8 of their allies voted with the opposition parties, and 60 abstained. Churchill had only grudgingly been appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. Nevertheless, he mounted a strong and passionate defence of Chamberlain and his government in the debate preceding the vote.
Under ordinary circumstances, such a weak vote would not have been politically disastrous, but it was decisive at a time when the Prime Minister was being strongly criticised by both sides of the House and there was a strong desire for national unity. Talking to Churchill after the vote, Chamberlain admitted his dismay and said that he would try for a coalition government with the Labour and Liberal Parties, but Churchill opposed that.
At 10.15am the next morning (9 May), Chamberlain met with Halifax and Churchill in the Cabinet Room. Churchill's own account of these events, published eight years later in The Gathering Storm, the first volume of his The Second World War, does not tally exactly with contemporary accounts such as Halifax's own diary and Alexander Cadogan's record of his conversations with Halifax, or accounts given by Chamberlain or by the Chief Whip David Margesson (whose presence at the meeting Churchill does not mention). Churchill described a battle of wills in which Chamberlain opened the meeting by arguing that Churchill could not command the support of the Labour Party after he had had to defend the government at the Norway Debate, only to be met with a lengthy silence before Halifax, with some hesitation, expressed his own unfitness for the job. Other accounts describe Halifax demurring much more rapidly, and Churchill actively agreeing with him. Churchill also misdates the events of 9 May to the following day, and although his writing assistant William Deakin accepted responsibility for this error he later confirmed, in an interview in 1989, that Churchill's account was embellished after numerous retellings and was not meant to be taken seriously.
The description of Chamberlain attempting to persuade Churchill to agree tacitly to Halifax's appointment as Prime Minister is also hard to reconcile with Halifax's having expressed his reluctance to do so to Chamberlain at a meeting between the two men on the morning of the 9th.
At 4.30pm that afternoon Chamberlain held another meeting, attended by Halifax, Churchill, and the leader and the deputy leader of the opposition Labour Party (Clement Attlee and Arthur Greenwood respectively). He asked the Labour leaders if they would agree to serve in a coalition government. They replied that it might be possible but only with a different Prime Minister and that before they could give an official answer, they would need the approval of Labour's National Executive Committee, then in Bournemouth preparing for the annual conference which was to start on the Monday. They were asked to telephone with the result of the consultation by the following afternoon.
In his diary entry for 9 May, written up the following morning, Halifax later wrote:
I had no doubt at all in my own mind that for me to succeed him would create a quite impossible situation. Apart altogether from Churchill's qualities as compared with my own at this particular juncture, what would in fact be my position? Churchill would be running Defence, and in this connexion one could not but remember the relationship between Asquith and Lloyd George had broken down in the first war... I should speedily become a more or less honorary Prime Minister, living in a kind of twilight just outside the things that really mattered.
The Labour leaders telephoned at 5pm on the 10th to report that the party would take part in a coalition government, although it had to be under the leadership of someone other than Chamberlain. Accordingly, Chamberlain went to Buckingham Palace to tender his resignation, recommending that the King ask Churchill to form a government. On doing so, one of Churchill's first actions was to form a new, smaller War Cabinet by replacing six of the Conservative politicians with Greenwood and Attlee, retaining only Halifax and Chamberlain.
Churchill's political position was weak, although he was popular with the Labour and Liberal Parties for his stance against appeasement in the 1930s. He was unpopular in the Conservative Party, however, and he might not have been the choice of the King. Halifax had the support of most of the Conservative Party and of the King and was acceptable to the Labour Party. His position as a peer was a merely technical barrier given the scale of the crisis, and Churchill reportedly was willing to serve under Halifax. As Lord Beaverbrook said, "Chamberlain wanted Halifax. Labour wanted Halifax. Sinclair wanted Halifax. The Lords wanted Halifax. The King wanted Halifax. And Halifax wanted Halifax." Only the last sentence was incorrect, however; Halifax did not want to become Prime Minister. He believed that Churchill's energy and leadership skills were superior to his own.
Unlike Simon, Hoare and Chamberlain, Halifax was not the object of Labour hatred in May 1940. Dutton argues that he "drew back" because of "inner self-doubt". "Political ambition had never been the most compelling motivation". He had a stomach ache, possibly psychosomatic, at the thought of becoming Prime Minister, and also probably thought that he could wield more influence as Churchill's deputy. Like Chamberlain, he served in Churchill's cabinet but was frequently exasperated by Churchill's style of doing business. Like many others, Halifax had serious doubts about Churchill's judgement.
May 1940 War Cabinet Crisis
Germany invaded Belgium, the Netherlands, and France on 10 May 1940, the day that Churchill became Prime Minister. On 22–23 May, the German army reached the English Channel, isolating the British Expeditionary Force at Dunkirk. Churchill soon had a confrontation with Halifax who believed that the United Kingdom should try to negotiate a peace settlement with Hitler, using Mussolini as an intermediary. Halifax believed it better to try to get terms "safeguarding the independence of our Empire, and if possible that of France", in the belief that peace talks would make it easier to get the BEF home. He did not believe that there was any realistic chance of defeating Germany. Churchill disagreed, believing that "nations which went down fighting rose again, but those which surrendered tamely were finished" and that Hitler was unlikely to honour any agreement. Moreover, he believed that this was the view of the British people.
On 24 May, Hitler ordered his armies to halt before they reached Dunkirk, and two days later, the British and French navies began to evacuate the Allied forces. Between 25 and 28 May, Churchill and Halifax each fought to bring the War Cabinet around to their own respective points of view; by 28 May, it seemed as if Halifax had the upper hand and that Churchill might be forced from office. Halifax came close to resignation, which might have brought down Churchill's government.
However, Churchill outmanoeuvred Halifax by calling a meeting of his 25-member Outer Cabinet, to whom he delivered a passionate speech, saying, "If this long island story of ours is to end at last, let it end only when each one of us lies choking in his own blood upon the ground", convincing all who were present that Britain must fight on against Hitler whatever the cost. Churchill also obtained the backing of Neville Chamberlain, who was still Conservative Party leader.
Churchill told the War Cabinet that there would be no negotiated peace. Halifax had lost. A few weeks later, in July 1940, Halifax rejected German peace offers presented through the Papal Nuncio in Berne and the Portuguese and Finnish prime ministers.
Halifax wrote in his memoirs of an occasion during a short holiday in Yorkshire:
One such interlude early in June 1940 is for ever graven into my memory. It was just after the fall of France, an event which at the time it happened seemed something unbelievable as to be almost surely unreal, and if not unreal then quite immeasurably catastrophic. Dorothy and I had spent a lovely summer evening walking over the Wolds, and on our way home sat in the sun for half an hour at a point looking across the plain of York. All the landscape of the nearer foreground was familiar—its sights, its sounds, its smells; hardly a field that did not call up some half-forgotten bit of association; the red-roofed village and nearby hamlets, gathered as it were for company round the old greystone church, where men and women like ourselves, now long dead and gone, had once knelt in worship and prayer. Here in Yorkshire was a true fragment of the undying England, like the White Cliffs of Dover, or any other part of our land that Englishmen have loved. Then the question came, is it possible that the Prussian jackboot will force its way into this countryside to tread and trample over it at will? The very thought seemed an insult and an outrage; much as if anyone were to be condemned to watch his mother, wife or daughter being raped.
Ambassador to the United States
When Chamberlain retired from the Cabinet due to ill health, Churchill tried to ease Halifax out of the Foreign Office by offering him a job as de facto Deputy Prime Minister, living at 11 Downing Street. Halifax refused, although he agreed to become Leader of the Lords once again.
In December 1940, the Marquess of Lothian, British Ambassador to the United States, died suddenly. Halifax was told to take the job by Churchill, with the proviso that he could still attend meetings of the War Cabinet when he was home on leave in London. Churchill's secretary John Colville recorded on 20 December that Churchill thought the Washington job was a great opportunity for Halifax to help bring the United States into the war. Colville recorded Churchill's view that Halifax "would never live down the reputation for appeasement which he and the F.O. had won themselves here. He had no future in this country." Colville thought Churchill had been influenced by the monthly censorship reports, which showed that Halifax had inherited some of Chamberlain's unpopularity. Halifax was the last man linked with appeasement to leave the Cabinet, as Chamberlain had by then died, and both Hoare and Simon had already moved to other jobs. Halifax and his wife desperately tried to persuade Eden to take the Washington job instead, but to no avail. Eden was restored to the Foreign Office in Halifax's place.
Halifax set sail for the still neutral United States in January 1941. He and his wife departed from the Royal Navy base at Scapa Flow, Scotland. They had been accompanied there from London by a large party which included Churchill and others, including Harry Hopkins, whom Roosevelt had sent to Britain to assess Britain's determination and situation.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt welcomed him in person when he arrived. Casting aside diplomatic protocols, Roosevelt took the presidential yacht the Potomac to greet Halifax as his ship made harbour in the Chesapeake Bay. Initially Halifax damaged himself by a series of public relations disasters. Two weeks after his arrival in the United States, Halifax went to Capitol Hill, meeting with House and Senate leaders. Upon leaving, Halifax told reporters that he had inquired about the timetable for passage of the Lend-Lease Act. Isolationists seized upon the meetings to decry British meddling in American political affairs. He likened Washington politics to "a disorderly day's rabbit shooting".
Halifax was initially a cautious and elusive public figure, not an effective public diplomat like his predecessor. His relations with Roosevelt were satisfactory, but Halifax kept a low profile. Churchill's close engagement with the United States and his investment in personal communication with the President meant a more constrained role for the British Ambassador. Communications technology meant that Churchill could communicate directly with Roosevelt and was a regular visitor to Washington.
Halifax's cousin Angus McDonnell helped him find his feet, and he soon led a very effective propaganda effort. Even an incident that autumn where he was pelted with rotten eggs and tomatoes by isolationists helped his reputation in the long run. He maintained good relations with Roosevelt and Harry Hopkins, and toured the country, meeting many more ordinary Americans than his predecessor had done. He became especially popular after Pearl Harbor.
Relations also increasingly turned on military issues channelled through the Joint Chiefs of Staff secretariat in Washington. Halifax wearied of Washington, especially after the death in action of his middle son Peter in November 1942, and the serious wounding of his younger son Richard in January 1943. In March 1943 he vainly asked Anthony Eden to be relieved of his post, but had to stay.
In May 1944 he was created Earl of Halifax, the fourth creation of the title.
Halifax took part in a plethora of international conferences over the UN and the Soviet Union.
With Labour in power under Clement Attlee from July 1945, Halifax agreed to Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin's request to stay on until May 1946. In February 1946, he was present at Churchill's "Iron Curtain" speech at Fulton, Missouri, of which he did not entirely approve. He believed that Churchill's view of the Soviet threat was exaggerated and urged him to be more conciliatory. He also helped John Maynard Keynes negotiate the Anglo-American loan, which was finalised in July 1946.
The final year of his Ambassadorship also witnessed the transition to President Harry S. Truman. Those years contained fraught moments and challenges for the relationship, as American power eclipsed that of Britain, and Britain's interests and rights were ignored on occasion, in particular, the cessation of nuclear co-operation after construction of the atom bomb. However, the partnership in World War II was immensely successful and as close as any other such partnership. It was a demanding post by any standards, but Halifax could reasonably claim to have played his part, and he enjoyed a notably longer term than his less successful successor Archibald Clark Kerr, 1st Baron Inverchapel.
Later life
Back in the United Kingdom, Halifax refused to rejoin the Conservative front bench, arguing that it would be inappropriate as he had been working for the Labour Government then still in office. The Labour Government were proposing that India become fully independent by May 1948 (later brought forward to August 1947) with no plans in place to protect minorities. Viscount Templewood (as Samuel Hoare was now known) opposed the plan, but Halifax spoke in the government's favour, arguing that it was not appropriate to oppose the plan if no alternative was suggested. He persuaded many wavering peers to support the government.
In retirement he returned to largely honorary pursuits. He was Chancellor of the Order of the Garter. He was an active governor of Eton and Chancellor of Oxford University. He was an honorary Fellow of All Souls from 1934. He was Chancellor of the University of Sheffield and High Steward of Westminster. He was Master of the Middleton Hunt. He was President of the Pilgrims Society, a society dedicated to better Anglo-American relations. From 1947 he was chairman of the General Advisory Council of the BBC. From 1957 he was Grand Master of the Order of Saint Michael and Saint George.
By the mid-1950s his health was failing. One of his last major speeches in the House of Lords was in November 1956, when he criticised the government's Suez policy and the damage it was doing to Anglo-American relations. He did little to challenge the critical view of appeasement which was then fashionable. His 1957 autobiography Fulness of Days was described in the Dictionary of National Biography as "gently evasive". David Dutton describes it as "an extremely reticent book which added little to the historical record". He gave the impression that he had been Chamberlain's faithful subordinate, omitting to mention his role in changing policy in spring 1939.
He died of a heart attack at his estate at Garrowby on 23 December 1959, aged 78. His widow survived him until 1976.
Halifax had sold Temple Newsam to the City of Leeds for less than market value in 1925, and in 1948 he donated 164 of his paintings to a museum being opened there by Leeds City Council. His will was valued for probate at £338,800 10s 8d (not including settled land – land tied up in family trusts so that no individual has full control over it), equivalent to around £7m at 2016 prices. Despite his great wealth, Halifax was notoriously mean with money. Rab Butler recounted a tale of how he had once been having a meeting with Halifax, his boss at the time. An official brought in two cups of tea and four biscuits for them; Halifax passed two of the biscuits back, instructing the official not to charge him for them.
Assessments
Halifax could not pronounce his "r"s. He had professional charm and the natural authority of an aristocrat, the latter aided by his immense height. He stood .
Harold Begbie described Halifax as "the highest kind of Englishman now in politics" whose "life and doctrine were in complete harmony with a very lofty moral principle, but who has no harsh judgement for men who err and go astray."
Harold Macmillan said that Halifax possessed a "sweet and Christian nature."
Rab Butler called him "this strange and imposing figure—half unworldly saint, half cunning politician."
In 1968, the official records were released of Halifax's years as Foreign Secretary (the "fifty-year rule" was replaced by the "thirty-year rule"). Conservative historian Maurice Cowling argued that Halifax's stance of increasing resistance to Hitler, especially the Polish guarantee in the spring of 1939, was motivated not so much by considerations of strategy but by a need to keep ahead of a sea-change in British domestic opinion. He wrote in 1975: "To history, until yesterday, Halifax was the arch-appeaser. This, it is now recognised, was a mistake. His role, however, was complicated. In these pages he is not the man who stopped the rot, but the embodiment of Conservative wisdom who decided that Hitler must be obstructed because Labour could not otherwise be resisted."
David Dutton argues that Halifax, like Chamberlain, was slow to appreciate the sheer evil of Hitler and was overly confident that negotiation could yield results. His period as Foreign Secretary was "the pivot of his career and it remains the period upon which his historical reputation ultimately depends"; just as Eden saved his reputation by resigning in time, so Halifax damaged his by being Foreign Secretary in 1938–40. "He deserves some credit for abandoning, or at least for decisively modifying, the policy of appeasement". His refusal to seize the premiership in May 1940 was "the most significant act of his long career". He argues that later that month, far from being a potential Quisling, Halifax based his policies on rational considerations, and that "on rational grounds, there had been much to be said for the Foreign Secretary's line that Britain should at least have investigated what peace terms were on offer." However, his "most important role in public life" was, in Dutton's view, as Ambassador to the United States, where he helped to smooth a relationship which was "often more fraught than early interpretations … tended to suggest".
Halifax College at the University of York is named after him. Lady Irwin College, a women's college in Delhi, was established under the patronage of Dorothy, Lady Irwin, in 1931.
Styles
16 April 1881 – 8 August 1885: Edward Frederick Lindley Wood
8 August 1885 – 1910: The Hon. Edward Frederick Lindley Wood
1910 – 25 October 1922: The Hon. Edward Frederick Lindley Wood MP
25 October 1922 – 22 December 1925: The Rt. Hon. Edward Frederick Lindley Wood MP
22 December 1925 – 3 April 1926: The Rt. Hon. The Lord Irwin PC
3 April 1926 – 18 April 1931: His Excellency The Rt. Hon. The Lord Irwin PC, Viceroy and Governor-General of India
18 April 1931 – 19 January 1934: The Rt. Hon. The Lord Irwin PC
19 January 1934 – December 1940: The Rt. Hon. The Viscount Halifax PC
December 1940 – 1944: His Excellency The Rt. Hon. The Viscount Halifax PC, HM Ambassador to the United States of America
1944–1946: His Excellency The Rt. Hon. The 1st Earl of Halifax PC, HM Ambassador to the United States of America
1946–1959: The Rt. Hon. The 1st Earl of Halifax PC
Honours
Honours of Edward Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax
Marriage and family
Halifax married Lady Dorothy Evelyn Augusta Onslow (1885–1976), daughter of William Onslow, 4th Earl of Onslow, former Governor-General of New Zealand, on 21 September 1909.
They had five children together:
Lady Anne Dorothy Wood, (31 July 1910 – 25 March 1995); married Charles Duncombe, 3rd Earl of Feversham, on 14 December 1936.
Lady Mary Agnes Wood (31 July 1910 – 3 August 1910)
Charles Ingram Courtenay Wood, 2nd Earl of Halifax (3 October 1912 – 19 March 1980)
Major Hon. Francis Hugh Peter Courtenay Wood (born 5 October 1916, killed in action 26 October 1942)
Richard Frederick Wood, Baron Holderness (5 October 1920 – 11 August 2002); MP from 1950, holding office from 1955.
See also
List of covers of Time magazine (1920s) – 12 April 1926
Notes
Bibliography
Churchill, Winston S., Their Finest Hour. New York, 1949.
Churchill, Winston S., The Gathering Storm. Boston, 1948.
Colville, John, The Fringes of Power: 10 Downing Street Diaries 1939–1955. New York, 1985.
Dalton, Hugh, The Fateful Years, Memoirs 1939–1945. London, 1957.
Gilbert, Martin, Churchill: A Life. New York, 1991.
Gilbert, Martin, Finest Hour: Winston S. Churchill 1939–1941. London, 1983.
Gilbert, Martin (ed.), The Churchill War Papers Volume I: At the Admiralty. September 1939 – May 1940. London, 1993.
Gilbert, Martin (ed.), The Churchill War Papers Volume II: Never Surrender. May 1940 – December 1940. London, 19.
Gries, Thomas E. (ed.), The Second World War: Europe and the Mediterranean. West Point, New York 2002.
Halifax, Lord, Fullness of Days. New York, 1957.
Howard, Anthony, RAB: The Life of R. A. Butler, Jonathan Cape 1987 .
Jago, Michael, Rab Butler: The Best Prime Minister We Never Had?, Biteback Publishing 2015 .
Jenkins, Roy, Churchill. London: Pan, 2002. .
Liddell-Hart, B. H., History of the Second World War. Old Saybrook, CT: Konecky & Konecky, 1970. .
Lukacs, John, Five Days in London: May 1940. Yale University, 1999 .
, essay on Halifax (pp. 81–89) written by David Dutton.
Roberts, Andrew, The 'Holy Fox': The Life of Lord Halifax. London, 1991.
Schwoerer, Lois G. "Lord Halifax's Visit To Germany: November 1937." Historian 32.3 (1970): 353–375.
Young, Peter (ed.), Illustrated World War II Encyclopedia. Volume 2. Jaspard Polus, Monaco 1966.
References
Christopher Andrew, The Defence of the Realm: The Authorized History of MI5 (London: Allen Lane, 2009).
A Gentleman with a Duster [pseud. for Harold Begbie], The Conservative Mind (London: Mills & Boon, 1924).
Lord Butler, The Art of the Possible (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1971).
Maurice Cowling, The Impact of Hitler: British Politics and British Policy, 1933–1940 (Cambridge University Press, 1975).
Keith Feiling, A Life of Neville Chamberlain (London: Macmillan, 1970).
The Earl of Halifax, Fulness of Days (London: Collins, 1957).
Andrew Roberts, The Holy Fox: The Life of Lord Halifax (Phoenix, 1997 (originally published 1991)).
Further reading
Alan Campbell-Johnson and R. Hale. Viscount Halifax: A Biography. 1941
Earl of Birkenhead. Earl of Halifax: The Life of Lord Halifax. Hamilton, 1965.
External links
Lord Irwin
Biography, spartacus-educational.com
Bibliography
Lord Halifax, Our War Aims – Now and After, radio broadcast November 1939
1881 births
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Wood, Edward
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Wood family | [
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224893 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20highest-paid%20Major%20League%20Baseball%20players | List of highest-paid Major League Baseball players | The highest-paid player in Major League Baseball (MLB) from the 2018 Major League Baseball season is Los Angeles Angels' Center Fielder Mike Trout with an annual salary of $35.54 million on a 12-year contract for $426,500,000. MLB does not have a hard salary cap, instead employing a luxury tax which applies to teams whose total payroll exceeds certain set thresholds for a given season. Free agency did not exist in MLB prior to the end of the reserve clause in the 1970s, allowing owners before that time to wholly dictate the terms of player negotiations and resulting in significantly lower salaries. Babe Ruth, widely regarded as one of the greatest baseball players ever, earned an estimated $856,850 ($ inflation-adjusted from 1934 dollars) over his entire playing career. When asked whether he thought he deserved to earn $80,000 a year ($ inflation-adjusted), while the president, Herbert Hoover, had a $75,000 salary, Ruth famously remarked, "What the hell has Hoover got to do with it? Besides, I had a better year than he did."
Alex Rodriguez has signed two record-breaking contracts over the course of his career. First, he signed a $252 million, 10-year contract with the Texas Rangers in December 2000 ($ inflation-adjusted from 2000 dollars). Sandy Alderson called the deal "stupefying", while Sports Illustrated noted that Rodriguez's early salaries under the contract ($21 million) would be greater than the annual payroll of the entire Minnesota Twins team that year ($15.8 million). The deal was the largest sports contract in history, doubling the total value of Kevin Garnett's $126 million National Basketball Association contract (the previous record holder) and more than doubling Mike Hampton's $121 million contract, the previous MLB record which had been signed just days before. The Rangers later traded Rodriguez to the Yankees in exchange for Alfonso Soriano before the 2004 season, though they agreed to pay $67 million of the $179 million outstanding on the contract. Despite this, he opted out of the remainder of his deal after the 2007 season and renegotiated a new $275 million, 10-year agreement with the Yankees, breaking his own record for the largest sports contract. Under this deal, Rodriguez also received $6 million when he tied the career home run total of Willie Mays (660), and would have received $6 million more had he tied Babe Ruth (714), Hank Aaron (755), and Barry Bonds (762), along with another $6 million for breaking Bonds' mark.
First base was the highest-paid position in 2010; regular starters at that position earned an average salary of $9,504,165 in compared to an overall average of $3,014,572. Pitcher Nolan Ryan was the first player to earn an annual salary above $1 million, signing a $4.5 million, 4-year contract with the Houston Astros in 1979. Kirby Puckett and Rickey Henderson signed the first contracts which paid an average of $3 million a year in November 1989, in 1990 Jose Canseco signed for 5 years and $23.5 million, making him the first player to earn an average of $4 million a year. It was until 2010 when the MLB average salary rose above that same mark. Five of the twenty highest-paid players in 2013 were members of the Yankees. Their team payroll for 2013 was $228,835,490, roughly $12 million above the second-largest Los Angeles Dodgers. The Yankees have drawn criticism for their payroll, with some claiming it undermines the parity of MLB.
Key
Highest annual salaries in 2019
This table refers to the salary for 2019 alone, not the overall average value or amount of the contract.
Career earnings as of the end of the 2019 season
Earnings up to date as of the end of the 2019 season.
Salary progression
This list documents the progression of the highest average annual value contracts/contract extensions.
See also
Highest-paid NBA players by season
List of player salaries in the NHL
List of highest-paid American television stars
List of highest-paid film actors
List of salaries
Footnotes
"Earnings" as discussed here refers to salaries paid to players under MLB contracts and does not include advertising or other sources of income. All values are listed in nominal dollars.
"Average annual value" is calculated as the total value of a contract (less bonuses) divided by the number of years. A $20 million/2-year contract would have an average annual value of $10 million, even if the player actually received $9 million one season and $11 million in the other. This also does not include contracts for less than a season prorated in value for a full season such as Roger Clemens' 2006 and 2007 contracts. All values are listed in nominal dollars.
Dave Winfield initially negotiated a 10-year deal in 1980 worth a projected $25 million ($2.5 million per year). However, Yankees owner George Steinbrenner reportedly had not fully understood a cost of living adjustment provision in it and the 10-year contract was renegotiated a few months later. The final precise value is unclear, although it fell between $20 and $25 million in total value ($2–2.5 million a year).
Hershiser and Frank Viola both won the 1988 Cy Young Award and Viola signed an identically sized $7.9 million, 3-year contract two months after Hershiser.
Rickey Henderson signed a $12 million, 4-year contract with the Oakland Athletics on November 28, 1989, 6 days after Puckett signed his $9 million, 3-year contract.
Roger Clemens signed a contract extension during the 2000 season covering 2001 and 2002 along with a player option for 2003. Clemens was paid $10.3 million each year for 2001 and 2002, with the same $10.3 million available if he elected to play in 2003 under his option. However, Clemens also received $10.3 million if he rejected the option. As a result, he could effectively collect the full $30.9 million of contract value for only two years of play ($15.45 million annually). However, the Yankees valued this deal as a $10.3 million annually, three-year deal. He became a free agent after the 2002 season and ultimately re-signed with the Yankees for a new, one-year contract in which they bought out the previous option.
References
Bibliography
Major League Baseball labor relations
MLB players
Major league baseball | [
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224894 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyrocket | Skyrocket | A skyrocket is a type of firework that uses a solid-fuel rocket to rise quickly into the sky; a bottle rocket is a small skyrocket. At the apex of its ascent, it is usual for a variety of effects (stars, bangs, crackles, etc.) to be emitted. Skyrockets use various stabilisation techniques to ensure the flight follows a predictable course, often a long stick attached to the side of the motor, but also including spin-stabilisation or fins.
These rockets have been made at least since the early decades of the 20th century, and in many countries, including Japan, China, and Macao. The older type of bottle rocket was typically a black powder skyrocket with an engine about 2 inches (5 cm) long and up to 0.375-inch (9-mm) diameter, mounted on a thin bamboo splint and often having a small report charge. Modern bottle rockets are small and very cheap. They are often sold by the box (but more commonly by the pack, or by the gross, a packet of 144 rockets) for less than US$0.20 each.
Construction
A bottle rocket consists of three major parts including:
The rocket engine will typically use a black powder-type fuel, possibly with additives that produce a decorative spark trail as the rocket ascends, but other chemical reactions have also been used for thrust. The fuel is pressed to form a solid grain inside a cardboard tube, which is sealed at the top but open at the bottom with an air gap. When the fuel is ignited from the bottom, hot gases expand in the air gap and are expelled downward to propel the rocket upward. Other fuels are possible; a common alternative is whistle mix, to produce a whistling rocket.
The nose cone, in addition to serving an aerodynamic role, typically contains the rocket's payload. This may include exploding fireworks, colored stars, a parachute, confetti, or other decorative items.
The guide stick, in a bottle rocket lacking fins or other stabilizers, provides stability in flight. The stick's length and weight are sized to achieve this.
Professional displays
A common misconception about professional fireworks displays is that skyrockets are used to propel the pyrotechnic effects into the air. In reality, skyrockets are more widely used as a consumer item. Professional fireworks displays utilize mortars to fire aerial shells into the air, not rockets.
Sale and regulation
Bottle rockets are specifically illegal in many jurisdictions, even those where most other consumer fireworks are legal. They are sometimes considered to present a unique hazard, due to their ability to fly in many directions other than vertically.
Canada
Bottle rockets are banned under the Explosives Act, thus making importation, possession, transportation, storage or manufacturing illegal in Canada.
India
In India, bottle rockets are set off during the Hindu festival of Diwali, and are sold in the millions.
Norway
Skyrockets were officially banned in Norway starting from the new years eve of 2008/09. Skyrockets are strictly forbidden, and carries heavy fines for anyone who are caught launching them.
Philippines
In the Philippines, Republic Act 7183 was enacted to regulate and to control the sale, distribution, manufacture and use of fireworks and firecrackers for public safety. According to the said law, skyrockets (known in the Philippines as kwitis) are legal and are designed to propel from before exploding. Despite being legal, it poses danger to those using it. In 2012, it was recorded that skyrockets were the second most harmful firecracker after piccolo.
Thailand
In Thailand's Isan region, many are made by hand and sold in conjunction with Rocket Festivals. The largest bottle rockets used at the festivals are Bang Fai rockets which can be up to 20 metres long and charged with up to 500 kg of black powder.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom firework rockets are sold by weight, e.g.: , , 1 lb. This is not the weight of the rocket itself, but rather of a lead sphere whose diameter matches that of the rocket motor. Rocket weight in the UK is officially defined as "the weight of a lead sphere that is just supported by a tube that the rocket motor will just fit into."
Image gallery
See also
Water rocket, a model rocket propelled by water and compressed air, sometimes referred to as a "bottle rocket" as they are often constructed from soda bottles.
References
External links
http://www.cyber-heritage.co.uk/gallery3/ - examples of skyrockets, with data such as thrust, size, total mass, propellant (often black powder) and its mass, and burn time
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224900 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ange-F%C3%A9lix%20Patass%C3%A9 | Ange-Félix Patassé | Ange-Félix Patassé (January 25, 1937 – April 5, 2011) was a Central African politician who was President of the Central African Republic from 1993 until 2003, when he was deposed by the rebel leader François Bozizé. Patassé was the first president in the CAR's history (since 1960) to be chosen in what was generally regarded as a fairly democratic election (1993) in that it was brought about by donor pressure on President André Kolingba and assisted by the United Nations Electoral Assistance Unit. He was chosen a second time in a fair election (1999) as well. However, during his first term in office (1993–1999), three military mutinies in 1996–1997 led to increasing conflict between so-called "northerners" (like Patassé) and "southerners" (like his predecessor President André Kolingba). Expatriate mediators and peacekeeping troops were brought in to negotiate peace accords between Patassé and the mutineers and to maintain law and order. During his second term as president, Patassé increasingly lost the support of many of his long-time allies as well as the French, who had intervened to support him during his first term in office. Patassé was ousted in March 2003 and went into exile in Togo.
Background
Patassé was born in Paoua, the capital of the northwestern province of Ouham Pendé in the colony of Ubangi-Shari in French Equatorial Africa, and he belonged to the Sara-Kaba ethnic group which predominates in the region around Paoua. Patassé's father, Paul Ngakoutou, who had served in the Free French military forces during the Second World War and afterwards worked for the colonial administration in the Province of Ouham-Pendé, was a member of the Sara-kaba people and was raised in a small village to the northeast of Boguila. Patassé's mother, Véronique Goumba, belonged to the Kare ethnic group of northwestern Ubangi-Shari. As Patassé spent much of his youth in Paoua he was associated with the Ouham-Pendé province and many of his most loyal political supporters were ethnic Kaba. After attending school in Ubangi-Shari, Patassé studied in an agricultural institute in Puy-de-Dôme, France, where he received a Technical Baccalaureate which allowed him to enroll in the Superior Academy of Tropical Agriculture in Nogent-sur-Marne, and then in the National Agronomical Institute in Paris. Specializing in zootechnology, he received a diploma from the Center for the Artificial Insemination of Domestic Animals in Rambouillet, France. He finished his studies in Paris in 1959, a year before the independence of the Central African Republic.
Political career
1960s–1970s: Rise to power
Patassé joined the Central African civil service in 1959, shortly before independence. He became an agricultural engineer and agricultural inspector in the Ministry of Agriculture in July 1963, under President David Dacko. In December 1965, Dacko appointed him Director of Agriculture and Minister of Development. In 1966, Jean-Bédel Bokassa took power in a coup d'état. Patassé was the "cousin" of President Bokassa's principal wife, Catherine Denguiadé, and gained the confidence of the new president, serving in almost all the governments formed by Bokassa. After Bokassa's creation of the Council for the Central African Revolution (in imitation of the Libyan Revolutionary Command Council), Patassé was named a member of the Council of the Revolution with the rank of Prime Minister in charge of Posts and Communications, Tourism, Water, Forests, Hunting and Fishing, as well as Custodian of the Seats of State (September 4, 1976 – December 14, 1976). During this period Patassé followed Bokassa in becoming a convert to Islam for a few months, and changed his name to Mustafa Patassé. After Bokassa became Emperor Bokassa I, Patassé was named Prime Minister and Head of the first Imperial Government. He remained in this position for 2 1/2 years, when a public announcement was made that Patassé had stepped down from office due to health problems. Patassé then left for France, where he remained in exile until the overthrow of Bokassa in September 1979. Shortly before Bokassa's overthrow, Patassé announced his opposition to the Emperor and founded the Front de Libération du Peuple Centrafricain (FLPC; Front for the Liberation of the Central African People).
Emperor Bokassa was overthrown and President David Dacko restored to power by the French in 1979. Dacko ordered Patassé to be put under house arrest. Patassé attempted to escape to the Republic of Chad, but failed and was arrested again. He was later released due to alleged health problems.
Ministerial roles under Bokassa
Minister of Development (January 1, 1966 – April 5, 1968)
Minister of Transport and Energy (April 5, 1968 – September 17, 1969)
Minister of State for Development, Tourism, Transport and Energy (September 17, 1969 – February 4, 1970)
Minister of State for Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Waters, Forests, Hunting, Tourism and Transport (February 4, 1970 – June 25, 1970)
Minister of State for Development (June 25, 1970 – August 19, 1970)
Minister of State for Transport and Commerce (August 19, 1970 – November 25, 1970)
Minister of State for the Organization of Transport by Roads, Rivers and Air (November 25, 1970 – October 19, 1971)
Minister of State for Civil Aviation (October 19, 1971 – May 13, 1972)
Minister of State for delegated by the President of the Republic for Rural Development (May 13, 1972 – March 20, 1973)
Minister of State for Public Health and Social Affairs (March 20, 1973 – October 16, 1973)
Minister of State delegated by the President of the Republic for Missions (October 16, 1973 – February 1, 1974)
Minister of State for Tourism, Waters, Forests, Hunting and Fishing (June 15, 1974 – April 4, 1976)
Minister of State serving as Agricultural Councilor for the Head of State (April 10, 1976 – May 24, 1976)
Minister of State for Tourism, Water, Forests, Hunting and Fishing (May 24, 1976 – September 4, 1976)
1980s: Return to politics and further exile
Patassé returned to the CAR to present himself as a candidate for the presidential election of March 15, 1981, after which it was announced that Patassé gained 38% of the votes and thus came in second, after President Dacko. Patassé denounced the election results as rigged. Several months later, on September 1, 1981, General André Kolingba overthrew Dacko in a bloodless coup and took power, after which he forbade political activity in the country. Patassé felt obliged to leave the Central African Republic to live in exile once again, but on February 27, 1982, Patassé returned to the Central African Republic and participated in an unsuccessful coup d'état against General Kolingba with the help of a few military officers such as General François Bozizé. Four days later, having failed to gain the support of the military forces, Patassé went in disguise to the French Embassy to seek refuge. After heated negotiations between President Kolingba and the French, Patassé was allowed to leave for exile in Togo. After remaining abroad for almost a decade, of which several years were spent in France, Patassé returned to the Central African Republic in 1992 to participate in presidential elections as head of the Movement for the Liberation of the Central African People (MLPC). The donor community, with the fall of the Soviet Union, saw no need to prop up the Kolingba regime and so had pressed for change helping to organize elections with some help from the UN Electoral Assistance Unit and with logistical support from the French army.
1990s: Return to power
After the Kolingba regime sabotaged a first set of elections in 1992, which Patassé would have probably won, a second set of elections was held and on the second round on September 19, 1993, he came in first with 37 percent of the vote—well ahead of his nearest competitors, Kolingba, David Dacko and Abel Goumba. He defeated Goumba in the runoff. Largely thanks to the foreign pressure notably from the USA and technical support from the UN, for the first time the elections were fair and democratic. Patassé thus became the first president in the nation's history to gain power by such means. When he took office on October 22, 1993; it marked the first (and to date, only) time in the country's history that a sitting government peacefully surrendered power to the opposition.
He had the support of most of his own sara-kaba people, the largest ethno-linguistic group in the Central African Republic, as well as the Souma people of his "hometown" of Paoua and the Kare people of his mother. Most of his supporters lived in the most populous northwestern savanna regions of the CAR, and thus came to be called "northerners", whereas all previous presidents were from either the forest or Ubangi river regions in the south, and so their supporters came to be called "southerners". As a populist, Patassé promoted himself as a candidate who represented a majority of the population against the privileges of southerners who held a disproportionate number of lucrative jobs in the public and parastatal sectors of the economy. As President, Patassé began to replace many "southerners" with "northerners" in these jobs which infuriated many Yakoma people in particular who had benefited from the patronage of former President Kolingba.
During Patassé's first six-year term in office (October 22, 1993 – 1999), the economy appeared to improve a little as the flow of donor money started up again following the elections and the apparent legitimacy they brought. There were three consecutive mutinies in 1996–1997, during which destruction of buildings and property had an adverse impact on the economy. The first mutiny began in May 1996. Patassé's government successfully regained control with the help of François Bozizé and the French, but his obvious dependency on the French, against whom he had regularly railed, reduced his standing further. His subsequent use of Libyan troops as a body guard did nothing to help his reputation, either locally or with the donor community and the USA even closed their embassy temporarily. The last and most serious mutiny continued until early 1997, when a semblance of order was restored after the signing of the Bangui Agreements, and with the help of troops from Burkina Faso, Chad, Gabon, Mali, Senegal, and Togo. The Security Council of the United Nations approved a mission for peace, MINURCA, in 1998. MINURCA was made up of 1,350 African soldiers. These mutinies greatly increased the tension between "northerners" and "southerners" in the CAR and thus polarized society to a greater extent than before.
In the presidential election of September 1999, Patassé won easily, defeating former presidents Kolingba and Dacko, winning in the first round with about 51.6% of the vote. Opposition leaders accused the elections of being rigged. During his second term, Patassé, whose rule had always been erratic and arbitrary, became increasingly unpopular. In 2000, he may have had his former prime-minister Jean-Luc Mandaba and his son poisoned on suspicion of planning a coup. There were failed coup attempts against him in 2001 and 2002, which he suspected Andre Kolingba and/or General François Bozizé were involved in, but when Patassé attempted to have Bozizé arrested, the general left the country for Chad with military forces which were loyal to him.
2003–2008: Ouster and criminal charges
Patassé left the country for a conference in Niger in 2003, and in his absence Bozizé seized Bangui on March 15. Although this takeover was internationally condemned, no attempt was made to depose the new leader. Patassé then went into exile in Togo.
Although nominated as the MLPC's presidential candidate in November 2004, on December 30, 2004 Patassé was barred from running in the 2005 presidential election due to what the Constitutional Court considered problems with his birth certificate and land title. He was one of seven candidates barred, while five, including Bozizé, were permitted to stand. After an agreement signed in Libreville, Gabon on January 22, 2005, all barred presidential candidates were permitted to stand in the March 13 election except for Patassé, on the grounds that he was the subject of judicial proceedings. The MLPC instead backed his last prime minister, Martin Ziguélé, for president.
Patassé was accused of stealing 70 billion Central African francs from the country's treasury. He denied this and in an interview with Agence France-Presse on December 21, 2004, he stated that he had no idea where he could have found so much money to steal in a country with a budget of only 90–100 billion francs. He was also accused of war crimes in connection with the violence that followed a failed 2002 coup attempt, in which rebels from the northern Democratic Republic of the Congo came to Patassé's assistance, but were accused of committing many atrocities in the process. Patassé, the Congolese rebel leader Jean-Pierre Bemba and three others were charged in September 2004. Hague referral for African pair However, the government of the Central African Republic was unable to arrest them, so the courts referred the matter in April 2006 to the International Criminal Court.
In March 2006, the Central African government accused Patassé of recruiting rebels and foreign mercenaries, establishing a training camp for them on the Sudanese border, and planning to destabilize the country. Acute typhoid fever kills 16, 144 infected afriquecentrale.info - Bangui accuse le tyran Patassé
At an extraordinary congress of the MLPC in June 2006, Patassé was suspended from the party for one year, while Ziguélé was elected as President of the MPLC. Patassé suspendu du MLPC : webzinemaker In August 2006 a court in the Central African Republic sentenced Patassé in absentia to 20 years of hard labor after a trial over the financial misconduct charges. At the MLPC's third ordinary congress in June 2007, Patassé was suspended from the party for three years, until the next party congress, with the threat of being expelled from the party altogether if he speaks on its behalf without approval while he is suspended. AGENCE CENTRAFRIQUE PRESSE
2008–2011: Return to Bangui, last presidential campaign, and death
On December 7, 2008, Patassé returned to the Central African Republic for the first time since his ouster in order to participate in a national dialogue, with the government's permission. Arriving at the airport in Bangui, he kissed the ground and said that he had "not come to judge but to find grounds for entente and to tackle the problems of the Central African Republic". At the dialogue, Patassé said that the political situation should be resolved not through removing Bozizé from office, but through "democratic, transparent and fair elections in 2010".
Patassé said in June 2009 that he would be leaving his Togolese exile and returning to Bangui in preparation for the 2010 presidential election, in which he planned to stand as a candidate. Although Ziguélé had taken over the MPLC, Patassé declared that he would convene a party congress upon his return. He eventually returned to Bangui on October 30, 2009, amidst a "discreet atmosphere". He subsequently met with Bozizé on November 9. Following the meeting, Patassé thanked Bozizé in a statement and said that they had discussed the Central African Republic's problems "in a brotherly atmosphere". He also reiterated his intention to stand as a presidential candidate in 2010.
Patassé placed second in the January 2011 presidential election, far behind Bozizé, although ill-health had impeded his campaigning. He suffered from diabetes and was prevented from leaving the country for treatment in Equatorial Guinea in March 2011. He was eventually allowed to travel, but was hospitalised at Douala in Cameroon en route to Malabo, and died there on April 5, 2011. There were calls for a state funeral.
Personal life
While in exile in Togo from 1982 to 1992, Patassé separated from his first wife, Lucienne. He then married a Togolese woman, Angèle, and during his subsequent exile in Togo, beginning in 2003, he lived with her there. She died in Lomé on December 3, 2007 at the age of 52.
Further reading
Jean-Marc Aractingi, La Politique à mes trousses (Politics at my heels), Editions l'Harmattan, Paris, 2006, Central Africa Chapter ().
O’Toole, Thomas. "The Central African Republic: Political Reform and Social Malaise." In John F. Clark & David E. Gardinier, eds., Political Reform in Francophone Africa. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1997.
Mehler, Andreas. "The Shaky Foundations, Adverse Circumstances, and Limited Achievements of Democratic Transition in the Central African Republic." In The Fate of Africa's Democratic Experiments: Elites and Institutions, ed. by Leonardo A. Villalón and Peter VonDoepp. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005, pp. 126–152.
Bradshaw, Richard. "Ending a Central African Mutiny." Christian Science Monitor, January 11, 1998.
Kalck, Pierre. Historical Dictionary of the Central African Republic. 3rd ed. Trans. Thomas O'Toole. Metuchen, N.J. & London: The Scarecrow Press, 2004.
Saulnier, Pierre. Le Centrafrique: Entre mythe et réalité. Paris, L’Harmattan, 1998.
Titley, Brian. Dark Age: The Political Odyssey of Emperor Bokassa. London & Montreal: McGill–Queen's University Press, 1997.
References
Heads of state of the Central African Republic
Leaders ousted by a coup
Prime Ministers of the Central African Republic
Movement for the Liberation of the Central African People politicians
1937 births
2011 deaths
1990s in the Central African Republic
2000s in the Central African Republic
People from Ouham-Pendé
Sara people
Converts to Islam from Christianity
Converts to Christianity from Islam
Agriculture ministers of the Central African Republic
Energy ministers of the Central African Republic
Health ministers of the Central African Republic
Tourism ministers of the Central African Republic
Transport ministers of the Central African Republic | [
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224901 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Bonneville | Lake Bonneville | Lake Bonneville was the largest Late Pleistocene paleolake in the Great Basin of western North America. The Western Interior Seaway preceded Lake Bonneville.
Lake Bonneville was a pluvial lake that formed in response to an increase in precipitation and a decrease in evaporation as a result of cooler temperatures. Lake Bonneville covered much of what is now western Utah and at its highest level extended into present-day Idaho and Nevada. Many other hydrographically closed basins in the Great Basin contained expanded lakes during the Late Pleistocene, including Lake Lahontan in northwestern Nevada.
Geologic description
Shorelines of Lake Bonneville are visible above Salt Lake City along the western front of the Wasatch Mountains and on other mountains throughout the Bonneville basin. These shorelines appear as shelves or benches that protrude from the mountainside above the valley floor, are visible on the ground from long distances and on satellite images, and have both depositional and erosional segments along their lengths. Three shorelines of Lake Bonneville that can be traced throughout the basin, have been given names: Stansbury, Bonneville, and Provo. The Stansbury and Bonneville shorelines formed during the transgressive phase of Lake Bonneville; the Provo shoreline formed during the overflowing phase. Numerous other unnamed shorelines, which cannot be mapped everywhere in the basin, some of which formed during the transgressive phase and some during the regressive phase, are also present on piedmont slopes and alluvial fans. At its maximum, when Lake Bonneville was more than deep and almost in surface area, it covered almost as much area as modern Lake Michigan although its shoreline was more complex with many islands and peninsulas. Great Salt Lake, Utah Lake, and Sevier Lake are the largest post-Bonneville lakes in the Bonneville basin.
Causes of lake expansion and contraction
Lake Bonneville was not a "proglacial” lake, although it did form between about 30,000 and 13,000 years ago when glaciers at many places on Earth were expanded relative to today during the last major glaciation. For most of its existence (that is, during the transgressive plus regressive phases) Lake Bonneville had no river outlet and occupied a hydrographically closed basin. Changes in lake level were the result of changes in water balance caused by climate change (a simplified version of the water-balance equation is inputs equal outputs plus-or-minus storage changes). Storage changes are equal to volume changes, and changes in volume are correlated with changes in lake level. When inputs (i.e., precipitation; runoff in rivers) were greater than outputs (i.e., evaporation from the lake surface; evapotranspiration in the basin), lake level rose, and when outputs were greater than inputs, lake level fell. Changes in global atmospheric circulation led to changes in the water budget of Lake Bonneville and other lakes in the Great Basin of western North America. Mountain glaciers in the Bonneville drainage basin stored less than 5% of the water that Lake Bonneville held at its maximum, so that even if all the mountain glaciers in the basin melted at once and the water flowed into the lake (this didn't happen—it took thousands of years for the mountain glaciers to melt, and Lake Bonneville was falling by that time), it would have had little effect on lake level. Lake Bonneville had no river connection with the huge North American ice sheets. While Lake Bonneville existed the patterns of wave- and current-forming winds were not significantly affected by the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets in northern North America.
The name “Bonneville”
Lake Bonneville was named by the geologist G.K. Gilbert after Benjamin Louis Eulalie de Bonneville (1796–1878), a French-born officer in the United States Army who was also a fur trapper and explorer in the American West. Bonneville's adventures were popularized by Washington Irving in the 1800s, but Captain Bonneville probably never saw Great Salt Lake or the Great Basin. G.K. Gilbert was one of the greatest geologists of the 19th Century, and his monumental work on Lake Bonneville, published in 1890, set the stage for scientific research on the paleolake that continues today. Although a general description and understanding of Lake Bonneville has been established by the work of many people, details of the paleolake, including its history and connections to global environmental systems, will be pursued for many years to come.
Geologic history
Lake Bonneville began to rise from elevations similar to those of modern Great Salt Lake about 30,000 years ago. During its transgressive phase in the closed basin (an endorheic basin), lake level oscillated because of changes in climate but the lake gradually rose until about 18,000 years ago when it reached its highest elevation, marked by the Bonneville shoreline. At that level the lake had risen to the lowest point on its basin rim and had begun to overflow into the Snake River drainage near Red Rock Pass in what is now southeastern Idaho. The overflow, which would have begun as a trickle across the dam formed by the Marsh Creek alluvial fan, quickly evolved into a tremendous flood, the Bonneville flood, which charged down the Marsh Creek valley to the Portneuf River, into the Snake River and then into the Columbia River and Pacific Ocean. Groundwater sapping on the north slope of the Marsh Creek alluvial fan, which began long before the lake had reached its highest level, added to the instability and ultimate collapse of the fan-dam.
The Bonneville flood probably lasted less than a year, during which time almost of water flowed out of the lake basin with a maximum discharge of about . Downcutting during the flood through the Marsh Creek alluvial-fan deposits and into the underlying Neogene sand, mud, and landslide debris, caused lake level to drop about . River flow from the lake across the Red Rock Pass threshold and out of the lake basin continued non-catastrophically for about 3000 years after the flood ended; the Provo shoreline formed during this overflowing phase. The Provo shoreline is distinguished from other shorelines of Lake Bonneville by its topographic position, strong development, and thick accumulations of tufa. At the end of the overflowing phase, about 15,000 years ago, climate change and a shift to a negative water balance (more water evaporated off the surface of the lake than entered by rivers or direct precipitation) caused the lake to return to its closed-basin status as it declined to lower levels during the regressive phase. By 13,000 years ago the lake had fallen to an elevation similar to the average elevation of modern Great Salt Lake. During the regressive phase lake level declined approximately in about 2000 years because of a change to warmer and drier climate ( is roughly 2/3 of the maximum depth of Lake Bonneville). Although Lake Bonneville and the Great Salt Lake are collectively one lake system, the name “Lake Bonneville” is applied to the lake during the period from 30,000 to 13,000 years ago, and the name “Great Salt Lake” since 13,000 years ago.
Lake Bonneville was anomalous in the long-term history of the basin. As the largest of four deep lakes in the basin during the past 800,000 years, Lake Bonneville plus the other three deep Pleistocene lakes, persisted for less than 10% of the time. The conditions experienced in the basin today are typical of over 90% of the past 800,000 years: a dry desert basin with a few scattered low-elevation lakes, the largest of which (Great Salt Lake) was hypersaline. For most of the time between the end of the youngest of the deep pre-Bonneville lakes (the Little Valley lake cycle, about 150,000 years ago) and the initial rise of Lake Bonneville about 30,000 years ago, the lake would have resembled modern Great Salt Lake in surface area and depth. A short episode of slightly higher lake levels during the Cutler Dam lake cycle occurred about 60,000 years ago; at this time a moderate-sized lake rose above the level of Great Salt Lake, but not as high as Lake Bonneville.
In his monograph on Lake Bonneville, G.K. Gilbert called the offshore deposits of Lake Bonneville the “White Marl.” Although the name “White Marl” has not been used by the geologic community in a formal sense, the informal term “white marl” (or “Bonneville marl”) is frequently employed. The Bonneville marl at locations far from sources of clastic sediment (gravel, sand, and silt), such as river deltas or active wave zones, is dominated by clay-sized particles of calcium carbonate that precipitated chemically from the lake water. Most of this calcium carbonate is in the form of the mineral calcite, but aragonite is common in Bonneville marl in the Sevier basin and in the lower part of the Bonneville marl stratigraphic section in the main body. Aragonite is the dominant carbonate mineral in sediments of post-Bonneville Great Salt Lake. Dropstones, probably mostly derived from shore ice, but possibly also from floating root balls, are common in the marl, and consist of granule- to boulder-sized clasts.
The Bonneville flood had catastrophic effects along the Snake River in what is now Idaho, but the influence of the flood can also be detected within the lake basin where a distinctive layer of sediment was deposited. The Bonneville flood bed can be identified in many surface exposures below the Provo shoreline and in sediment cores. The flood bed is characterized by an abrupt contact at its base between massive marl, which was deposited in the deepest water of Lake Bonneville, and finely laminated or ripple-laminated sandy marl, which was deposited by bottom currents during the flood. In places the Bonneville flood bed is composed of reworked ostracode shells. The contact at the top of the flood bed is transitional to massive marl that was deposited in the lake floor during Provo time. The flood bed is best developed and most obvious in straits between partially submerged mountain ranges or in places where bottom currents were strong as lake water flowed toward its outlet at Red Rock Pass. Because the Bonneville flood bed was deposited in less than a year, it is useful as a well-dated (~18,000 years ago) stratigraphic marker within the Bonneville deposits.
Previous publications, regarded the “Gilbert shoreline” as one of the prominent shorelines in the Bonneville basin, but this interpretation has been revised. The “Gilbert shoreline” consists of a line on a map that connects lacustrine shoreline features, such as barrier beaches, but there is no evidence that all the barriers formed at the same time. It is now clear that some of those barrier beaches are transgressive-phase Bonneville in age and some are regressive-phase Bonneville in age. The Gilbert episode was a rise of Great Salt Lake about higher than modern average levels, which culminated 11,600 years ago. But a mappable shoreline of the Gilbert episode has not been recognized.
Isostasy
The shorelines of Lake Bonneville have been warped by isostatic processes, as was recognized by Gilbert and extensively studied since Gilbert's day. Earth's crust subsided beneath the weight of the water while the lake existed, but when the lake evaporated and the water load was considerably reduced, the crust beneath the lake basin rebounded. As a result, the elevation of the Bonneville shoreline is higher in the Lakeside Mountains, elevation , west of the Great Salt Lake near the center of the Lake Bonneville water load, than at Red Rock Pass, , where the lake was very shallow. As an example of isostatic deformation of the shorelines, the elevation of the Bonneville shoreline near Salt Lake City is , but on Antelope Island in the Great Salt Lake, the elevation of the same shoreline is .
Fossils, volcanic ashes, etc.
In addition to the abundant geological features produced by Lake Bonneville, such as shorelines and sediments, fossilized fish bones and scales reveal information about the physical and chemical characteristics of the paleolake. Pollen from plants that lived in the Bonneville basin is abundant in Bonneville marl. Invertebrate fossils in Lake Bonneville deposits include mollusks and ostracodes, and bones of extinct mammals are found in Pleistocene deposits in the Bonneville basin. Volcanic ashes in sediments of Lake Bonneville help with correlations and aid in deciphering lake history. Lake Bonneville shorelines, and those of other paleolakes on Earth, are good analogs for shorelines on other planets, such as Mars.
Climate Oscillations, the Wasatch Fault and a Bonneville Flood theory
Lake Bonneville rose to its high stand during the final 20,000 years of the Pleistocene epoch, corresponding with the glacial maximum of the Laurentide and Cordillera Ice Sheets. This colder and wetter period in conjunction with lake-effect snows from the expanding Lake Bonneville resulted in glaciers in the Wasatch. At its maximum the glacier in Little Cottonwood canyon extended to the mouth of the canyon and was calving ice bergs into the lake.
Lake Bonneville shoreline and strata evidence suggests that the lake experienced several dramatic short-term level oscillations during its life. A long-standing and well-accepted theory attributes these level fluctuations to climate oscillations.
The Wasatch Fault runs along the eastern edge of the Lake Bonneville basin and was submerged when the lake was at its high stand (see figure). The fault naturally divides into segments and since the time of Lake Bonneville these segments have appeared to have slipped (failed) independently (e.g. an earthquake in the Salt Lake valley has not tended to occur at the same time as one in Weber or in Provo).
A 2020 paper presented at the Geological Society of America Annual Meeting reported evidence of massive earthquake-induced surging in Lake Bonneville at the time of the Bonneville Flood. The proposal in that presentation was that a multi-segment failure on the Wasatch Fault resulted in lake surging within the Bonneville Basin and, as that surge moved up into the Cache Valley towards Red Rock Pass and the Zenda Threshold, the topography concentrated the energy into a wall of water which overtopped and broke the natural dam resulting in the Bonneville Flood.
In 2021 additional evidence was presented in support of that theory. In that same body of work, arguments were presented that the Lake Bonneville level oscillations previously attributed to climate episodes were instead due to multi-segment earthquake events on the Wasatch Fault which resulted in surging in the lake. The known and suspected earthquake-induced lake level oscillations are: the Hansel Valley event, the Stansbury Oscillation, U1, U2, the Keg Mountain Oscillation, and the Provo Level Oscillation. (see figure).
Shoreline evidence in the western deserts and a newly identified surge-debris boulder deposit in Little Cottonwood Canyon in the Wasatch Mountains (see photo) indicate that the lake surging at the eastern and western extremes was over 42 m (~140’) high for at least two of these events, including the one that corresponded with the Bonneville Flood.
A more recent level fluctuation corresponding with the Gilbert shoreline was during the Younger Dryas and was a likely result of that climate event rather than earthquake-induced surging.
In the 2021 study, a correlation was hypothesized between basalt ash eruptions which formed deposits in the lake sediments and the earthquakes which resulted in at least three of these lake surging events (Stansbury, Keg Mountain and Provo).
The outstanding question from these new findings is: were the multi-segment earthquake events a product of crust depression (isostasy) due to the weight of Lake Bonneville, or is there a longer-term cycle of multi-segment events on the Wasatch Fault which might place the Wasatch front communities at a higher risk today?
See also
List of prehistoric lakes
Lake Lahontan
Bonneville cutthroat trout: endemic to area formerly covered by Lake Bonneville
Bonneville Salt Flats
References
External links
Brigham Young University - Geology - maps of Lake Bonneville
Utah Geologic Survey- maps of Lake Bonneville, and additional information on Lake Bonneville and Great Salt Lake
Bonneville
Glacial lakes of the United States
Bonneville
Bonneville
Bonneville
Bonneville
Bonneville
Snake River
Megafloods
Natural history of Utah
Natural history of Idaho
Natural history of Nevada
Pleistocene United States
Quaternary Idaho
Quaternary Nevada
Quaternary Utah | [
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224902 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String%20Quartet%20No.%205%20%28Bart%C3%B3k%29 | String Quartet No. 5 (Bartók) | The String Quartet No. 5, Sz. 102, BB 110 by Béla Bartók was written between 6 August and 6 September 1934. It is one of six string quartets by Bartok.
The work is in five movements:
Like the String Quartet No. 4 and several other works by Bartók, the piece is in an arch form.
Additionally, the first movement, which is in a sort of sonata form, is itself arch-like, in that each section of exposition is given in reverse order during the recapitulation – the melodies of each section are also inverted (played upside-down). Bartók himself pointed out that the keys used in the movement ascend in the steps of the whole tone scale: the exposition is in B, C and D; the development is in E; and the recapitulation is in F, A and B.
The three middle movements are all in ternary form, of which the third is in the unevenly-divided aksak time signatures typical of Bulgarian folk music: for the main scherzo, and in the trio. The last movement is again arch-like: Bartók described it as being in the form ABCB′A′ with a coda to round things off.
The two slow movements, the second Adagio molto and the fourth Andante are great examples of Bartók's night music style: eerie dissonances, imitations of natural sounds, and lonely melodies.
The work was commissioned by Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge and is dedicated to her. It was premiered by the Kolisch Quartet in Washington, D.C. on 8 April 1935 and first published in 1936 by Universal Edition.
References
Further reading
Antokoletz, Elliott. The Music of Béla Bartók: A Study of Tonality and Progression in Twentieth-Century Music. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.
Chapman, Roger E. "The Fifth Quartet of Béla Bartók", Music Review (1951).
External links
5
1934 compositions
Music commissioned by Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge | [
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224904 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule%20against%20perpetuities | Rule against perpetuities | The rule against perpetuities is a legal rule in the Anglo-American common law that prevents people from using legal instruments (usually a deed or a will) to exert control over the ownership of private property for a time long beyond the lives of people living at the time the instrument was written. Specifically, the rule forbids a person from creating future interests (traditionally contingent remainders and executory interests) in property that would vest beyond 21 years after the lifetimes of those living at the time of creation of the interest, often expressed as a “life in being plus twenty-one years”. In essence, the rule prevents a person from putting qualifications and criteria in a deed or a will that would continue to affect the ownership of property long after he or she has died, a concept often referred to as control by the "dead hand" or "mortmain".
The basic elements of the rule against perpetuities originated in England in the 17th century and were "crystallized" into a single rule in the 19th century. The rule's classic formulation was given in 1886 by the American legal scholar John Chipman Gray:
The rule against perpetuities serves a number of purposes. First, English courts have long recognized that allowing owners to attach long-lasting contingencies to their property harms the ability of future generations to freely buy and sell the property, since few people would be willing to buy property that had unresolved issues regarding its ownership hanging over it. Second, judges often had concerns about the dead being able to impose excessive limitations on the ownership and use of property by those still living. For this reason, the rule only allows testators (will-makers) to put contingencies on ownership upon the following generation plus 21 years. Lastly, the rule against perpetuities was sometimes used to prevent very large, possibly aristocratic estates from being kept in one family for more than one or two generations at a time.
The rule also applies to options to acquire property. Often, one of the objectives of delaying the time of vesting is to avoid or reduce taxation of some sort. For example, a bequest in a will may be to one’s grandchildren, often with a life interest to one’s surviving spouse and then to the children, to avoid the payment of multiple death duties or inheritance taxes on the testator’s estate. The rule against perpetuities was one of the devices developed to at least limit this tax avoidance strategy.
Historical background
The rule has its origin in the Duke of Norfolk's Case of 1682. That case concerned Henry, 22nd Earl of Arundel, who had tried to create a shifting executory limitation so that some of his property would pass to his eldest son (who was mentally deficient) and then to his second son, and other property would pass to his second son, but then to his fourth son. The estate plan also included provisions for shifting property many generations later if certain conditions should occur.
When his second son, Henry, succeeded to his elder brother's property, he did not want to pass the other property to his younger brother, Charles. Charles sued to enforce his interest, and the court (in this instance, the House of Lords) held that such a shifting condition could not exist indefinitely. The judges believed that tying up property too long beyond the lives of people living at the time was wrong, although the exact period was not determined until another case, Cadell v. Palmer, 150 years later.
The rule against perpetuities is closely related to another doctrine in the common law of property, the rule against unreasonable restraints on alienation. Both stem from an underlying principle or reference in the common law disapproving of restraints on property rights. However, while a violation of the rule against perpetuities is also a violation of the rule against unreasonable restraints on alienation, the reciprocal is not true. As one has stated, "The rule against perpetuities is an ancient, but still vital, rule of property law intended to enhance marketability of property interests by limiting remoteness of vesting." For this reason, another court has declared that the provisions of the rule are predicated upon "public policy" and thus "constitute non-waivable, legal prohibitions.
Common law
Black's Law Dictionary defines the rule against perpetuities as "[t]he common-law rule prohibiting a grant of an estate unless the interest must vest, if at all, no later than 21 years (plus a period of gestation to cover a posthumous birth) after the death of some person alive when the interest was created."
At common law, the length of time was fixed at 21 years after the death of an identifiable person alive at the time the interest was created. This is often expressed as "lives in being plus twenty-one years." Under the common-law rule, one does not look to whether an interest actually will vest more than 21 years after the lives in being. Instead, if there exists any possibility at the time of the grant, however unlikely or remote, that an interest will vest outside of the perpetuities period, the interest is void and is stricken from the grant.
The rule does not apply to interests in the grantor himself. For example, the grant "For A so long as alcohol is not sold on the premises, then to B" would violate the rule as to B. However, the conveyance to B would be stricken, leaving "To A so long as alcohol is not sold on the premises." This would create a fee simple determinable in A, with a possibility of reverter in the grantor (or the grantor's heirs). The grant to B would be void as it is possible alcohol would be sold on the premises more than 21 years after the deaths of A, B, and the grantor. However, as the rule does not apply to grantors, the possibility of reverter in the grantor (or his heirs) would be valid.
Statutory modification
Many jurisdictions have statutes that either cancel out the rule entirely or clarify it as to the period of time and persons affected:
In England and Wales, dispositions of property subject to the rule before 14 July 1964 remain subject to the rule. The Perpetuities and Accumulations Act 1964 provides for the effect of the rule of interests created thereafter. The Perpetuities and Accumulations Act 2009 codified the "wait and see" doctrine developed by courts and made the perpetuity period 125 years.
In Scotland there are similar provisions under the Trusts (Scotland) Act 1921.
In the Republic of Ireland, the rule was abolished as of 1 December 2009.
The states of the United States have differing approaches.
Some states follow the "wait-and-see approach", or "second look doctrine", and/or apply the "cy près doctrine". Under the wait-and-see approach, the validity of a suspect future interest is determined on the basis of facts as they now exist at the end of the measuring life, and not at the time the interest was created. Under the cy près doctrine, if the interest does violate the rule against perpetuities, the court may reform the grant in a way that does not violate the rule and reduce any offensive age contingency to 21 years.
Other states have adopted the Uniform Statutory Rule Against Perpetuities (or some variant of it) which extends the waiting period typically to 90 years after creation of the interest.
At least six states have repealed the rule in its entirety, and many have extended the vesting period of the wait-and-see approach for an extremely long period of time (in Florida, for example, up to 360 years for trusts).
In Australia, each of the states has followed the UK approach to perpetuities, with statutory modification. In New South Wales, for example, the Perpetuities Act 1984 limits perpetuities to 80 years, but also adopts the "wait and see" approach.
Application in the United States
The rule against perpetuities is one of the most difficult topics encountered by law school students. It is notoriously difficult to apply properly: in 1961, the Supreme Court of California ruled that it was not legal malpractice for an attorney to draft a will that inadvertently violated the rule. In the United States, the common law rule has been abolished by statute in Alaska, Idaho, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Rhode Island and South Dakota.
A new US Uniform Statutory Rule Against Perpetuities was published in 1986 that adopts the “wait-and-see approach” with a flat waiting period of 90 years in place of the rule of life in being plus 21 years. , 31 jurisdictions have adopted the new rule: Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Indiana, Kansas, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oregon, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Utah, Virginia, Washington, and West Virginia, and the District of Columbia and the U.S. Virgin Islands. In 2015, the New York State Legislature considered whether or not to adopt the new rule.
Other jurisdictions apply the cy-près doctrine, which validates contingent remainders and executory interests. Under certain circumstances, the traditional rule would have considered these remainders and interests to be void.
Applications
In 1919, lumber baron Wellington R. Burt died, leaving a will that specified that apart from small allowances, his estate was not to be distributed until 21 years after the death of the last of his grandchildren to be born in his lifetime. This condition was met in 2010, 21 years after his granddaughter Marion Landsill died in November 1989. After the heirs reached an agreement, the estate, which had reached an estimated value of between $100–110 million, was finally distributed in May 2011, 92 years after his death.
Real estate developer Henry G. Freeman established the Henry G. Freeman Jr. Pin Money Fund, which was intended to provide an annuity of $12,000 per year to the First Lady of the United States. Freeman died in 1917, but no presidential spouse received any payments from the fund until after Freeman's then-living descendants died out in 1989. Although Freeman's will stated that the payments were intended "to continue in force as long as this glorious government lasts", the trustees of the fund determined that maintaining the trust for more than 21 years after 1989 would violate the rule against perpetuities, and terminated the trust by agreement with then-First Lady Michelle Obama in 2010 to give the fund to charity instead. Hence, only four First Ladies ever received payments from the fund.
Charity-to-charity exception
The rule never applies to conditions placed on a conveyance to a charity that, if violated, would convey the property to another charity. For example, a conveyance "to the Red Cross, so long as it operates an office on the property, but if it does not, then to the World Wildlife Fund" would be valid under the rule, because both parties are charities. Even though the interest of the fund might not vest for hundreds of years, the conveyance would nonetheless be held valid. The exception, however, does not apply if the conveyance, upon violation of the condition, is not from one charity to another charity. Thus, a devise "to John Smith, so long as no one operates a liquor store on the premises, but if someone does operate a liquor store on the premises, then to the Roman Catholic Church" would violate the rule. The exception would not apply to the transfer from John Smith to the Roman Catholic Church because John Smith is not a charity. Also, if the original conveyance was "to John Smith and his heirs for as long as John Smith or his heirs do not use the premises to sell liquor, but if he does, then to the Red Cross" this would violate the rule because it could be more than 21 years before the interest in Red Cross would vest, and therefore, their interest is void. Thus leaving John with a fee simple determinable and the grantor a possibility of reverter.
A famous actual example of this exception applies to Harvard's Widener Library. Eleanor Elkins Widener, the library's benefactor, stipulated that no “additions or alterations” could be made to the façade of the building. If the university ever changes the façade, it loses the building to the Boston Public Library. Because both Harvard and the Boston Public Library are charities, the restriction can apply indefinitely.
Saving clause
In order to satisfy the rule against perpetuities, the class of people must be limited and determinable. Thus, one cannot say in a deed "until the last of the people in the world now living dies, plus 21 years." To avoid problems caused by incorrectly drafted legal instruments, practitioners in some jurisdictions include a "saving clause" almost universally as a form of disclaimer. This standard clause is commonly called the "Kennedy clause" or the "Rockefeller clause" because the determinable "lives in being" are designated as the descendants of Joseph P. Kennedy (the father of John F. Kennedy), or John D. Rockefeller. Both designate well-known families with many descendants, and are consequently suitable for named, identifiable lives in being. For a time, it was popular to use a Royal lives clause, and make the term of a deed run until the last of the descendants of (for example) Queen Victoria now living dies plus 21 years.
Related rules
Jurisdictions may limit usufruct periods. For example, if a corporation builds a ski slope, and gives rights of use (usufruct) as gifts to corporate partners, these cannot last in perpetuity, but must terminate after a period that must be specified, e.g. 10 years. A perpetual usufruct is thus forbidden and "perpetual" might mean a long, but finite period, such as 99 years. Here usufruct is distinct from a share, which may be held in perpetuity.
Cultural references
The rule against perpetuities figures as a prominent plot point in the 1981 film Body Heat. It also figured as a secondary plot line in the 2011 film The Descendants.
See also
Cestui que
Cy-près doctrine
Executory contract
Executory interest
Royal lives clause
Statutes of Mortmain
Thellusson v Woodford
Werling v. Sandy (Ohio 1985)
References
External links
Property law
Equity (law)
Wills and trusts
Common law rules | [
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224907 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justincase | Justincase | Justincase was an American alternative-pop band from Charlotte, North Carolina, best known for their 2002 single "Don't Cry for Us", which was co-written by Michelle Branch, who was one of the band's early champions. Consisting of teen siblings Hannah, Justin, and Nick Tosco, the band was signed to Maverick Records. Justin was lead vocalist and guitarist as well as principal songwriter. Nick played drums, and Hannah was on bass.
History
Band members Justin (the oldest, born 1983), Nick, and Hannah (the youngest) Tosco grew up in a musical household. Their father, John, worked in the Charlotte music scene and also taught guitar, while their mother, Holly Tosco, worked as a piano teacher. Justin was five years old when he wrote his first song, which was about baseball. The trio began playing gigs together before all were in junior high school. Their first concert was at their middle school's talent show in 1998.
The Toscos met Michelle Branch before her debut on Maverick Records and became friends over the Internet before meeting in Las Vegas for a music convention in 2000. Justincase was signed to Maverick Records in late 2001 with the help of Branch.
The band released its self-titled debut album on October 29, 2002. The album included several collaborations with Michelle Branch, including the lead single, "Don't Cry for Us". Michelle Branch promoted the album on MTV's Total Request Live. Other media appearances included the radio show Open House Party and Nickelodeon's TV show All That. After their first music video was shown on MTV, Wal-Mart agreed to sponsor a short tour to further promote the album. The band played several solo shows, and also opened for Nick Carter on his Backstreet Boy tour. Billboard writer David Menconi called Justincase an "act to watch," describing the group as "three clean-cut teenage siblings" whose music is "steeped in classic-rock verities." Newsday critic Kevin Amorim called the band's music "rootsy feel-good Hooters-esque rock (hey, at least it wasn't emo)." Guitar-maker Ibanez published a series of ads featuring the band.
Despite heavy promotion, the album lagged commercially. Lackluster sales numbers caused Maverick to drop the band in 2003, and they have been unable to secure another recording contract. The band is on a self-described "indefinite hiatus" while its members attend college and play the occasional local show. Lead singer Justin Tosco is also performing with Policy, another local band. Justin recently spent one month in Kenya with the program SFS.
Justincase (album)
Justincase is the band's self-titled debut studio album.
Track listing
All songs were written by Justin Tosco, except where noted.
"What I Wouldn't Do" – 3:57
"Don't Cry For Us" (Justin Tosco, John Shanks, Michelle Branch) – 3:42
"I'm There" – 4:11
"Tell Me (What I Mean To You)" (J. Tosco, Dave Bassett) – 4:01
"Letter" (J. Tosco, Greg Wells) - 3:33
"Without You (Feat. Michelle Branch)" (J. Tosco, Shanks) – 3:59
"Inside Your Mind" (J. Tosco, Bassett) – 3:30
"It Was Something" – 3:58
"Constellation" – 3:15
"9:14" – 3:12
"The Best That I Could Do" – 3:32
Personnel
Justin Tosco – lead vocals, guitars, keyboards
Hannah Tosco - bass
Nick Tosco – drums, percussion, backing vocals
Michelle Branch - additional vocals on track 6
Rick Seamster - additional guitar on tracks 8, 10, and 11; harmony on track 8
Jason Adkins - hammond b-3 on track 11
Roger Manning - synthesizer on tracks 4 and 7; hammond b-3 on track 4
Dave Bassett - additional guitar and backing vocals on tracks 4 and 7
John Shanks - additional guitars and programming on tracks 1, 2, 3, 6, and 9
Patrick Warren - additional keyboards on tracks 1, 2, and 3
References
American pop music groups
Family musical groups
Musical groups established in 1998
2002 albums
Maverick Records albums
Albums produced by John Shanks
Albums produced by Greg Wells | [
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224915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20Basin | Great Basin | The Great Basin () is the largest area of contiguous endorheic watersheds – those with no outlets – in North America. It spans nearly all of Nevada, much of Utah, and portions of California, Idaho, Oregon, Wyoming, and Baja California, Mexico. It is noted for both its arid climate and the basin and range topography that varies from the North American low point at Badwater Basin in Death Valley to the highest point of the contiguous United States, less than away at the summit of Mount Whitney. The region spans several physiographic divisions, biomes, ecoregions, and deserts.
Definition
The term "Great Basin" is applied to hydrographic, biological, floristic, physiographic, topographic, and ethnographic geographic areas. The name was originally coined by John C. Fremont, who, based on information gleaned from Joseph R. Walker as well as his own travels, recognized the hydrographic nature of the landform as "having no connection to the ocean". The hydrographic definition is the most commonly used, and is the only one with a definitive border. The other definitions yield not only different geographical boundaries of "Great Basin" regions, but regional borders that vary from source to source.
The Great Basin Desert is defined by plant and animal communities, and, according to the National Park Service, its boundaries approximate the hydrographic Great Basin, but exclude the southern "panhandle".
The Great Basin Floristic Province was defined by botanist Armen Takhtajan to extend well beyond the boundaries of the hydrographically defined Great Basin: it includes the Snake River Plain, the Colorado Plateau, the Uinta Basin, and parts of Arizona north of the Mogollon Rim.
The Great Basin physiographic section is a geographic division of the Basin and Range Province defined by Nevin Fenneman in 1931. The United States Geological Survey adapted Fenneman's scheme in their Physiographic division of the United States. The "section" is somewhat larger than the hydrographic definition.
The Great Basin Culture Area or indigenous peoples of the Great Basin is a cultural classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas and a cultural region located between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada. The culture area covers approximately , or just less than twice the area of the hydrographic Great Basin.
Hydrology
The hydrographic Great Basin is a area that drains internally. All precipitation in the region evaporates, sinks underground or flows into lakes (mostly saline). As observed by Fremont, creeks, streams, or rivers find no outlet to either the Gulf of Mexico or the Pacific Ocean. The region is bounded by the Wasatch Mountains to the east, the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Ranges to the west, and the Snake River Basin to the north. The south rim is less distinct. The Great Basin includes most of Nevada, half of Utah, substantial portions of Oregon and California, and small areas of Idaho, Wyoming, and Baja California, Mexico. The term "Great Basin" is slightly misleading; the region is actually made up of many small basins. The Great Salt Lake, Pyramid Lake, and the Humboldt Sink are a few of the "drains" in the Great Basin. The Salton Sink is another closed basin within the Great Basin.
The Great Basin Divide separates the Great Basin from the watersheds draining to the Pacific Ocean. The southernmost portion of the Great Basin is the watershed area of the Laguna Salada. The Great Basin's longest and largest river is the Bear River of , and the largest single watershed is the Humboldt River drainage of roughly . Most Great Basin precipitation is snow, and the precipitation that neither evaporates nor is extracted for human use will sink into groundwater aquifers, while evaporation of collected water occurs from geographic sinks. Lake Tahoe, North America's largest alpine lake, is part of the Great Basin's central Lahontan subregion.
Ecology
The hydrographic Great Basin contains multiple deserts and ecoregions, each with its own distinctive set of flora and fauna. The ecological boundaries and divisions in the Great Basin are unclear.
The Great Basin overlaps four different deserts: portions of the hot Mojave and Colorado (a region within the Sonoran desert) Deserts to the south, and the cold Great Basin and Oregon High Deserts in the north. The deserts can be distinguished by their plants: the Joshua tree and creosote bush occur in the hot deserts, while the cold deserts have neither. The cold deserts are generally higher than the hot and have more even spread of precipitation throughout the year.
The climate and flora of the Great Basin is strongly dependent on elevation; as the elevation increases, the temperature decreases and precipitation increases. Because of this, forests can occur at higher elevations. Utah juniper/single-leaf pinyon (southern regions) and mountain mahogany (northern regions) form open pinyon-juniper woodland on the slopes of most ranges. Stands of limber pine and Great Basin bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva) can be found in some of the higher ranges. In riparian areas with dependable water cottonwoods (Populus fremontii) and quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) groves exist.
Because the forest ecosystem is distinct from a typical desert, some authorities, such as the World Wildlife Fund, separate the mountains of the Great Basin desert into their own ecoregion: the Great Basin montane forests. Many rare and endemic species occur in this ecoregion, because the individual mountain ranges are isolated from each other. During the Last Glacial Period, the Great Basin was wetter. As it dried during the Holocene epoch, some species retreated to the higher isolated mountains and have high genetic diversity.
Other authorities divide the Great Basin into different ecoregions, depending on their own criteria. Armen Takhtajan defined the "Great Basin floristic province". The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency divides the Great Basin into three ecoregions roughly according to latitude: the Northern Basin and Range ecoregion, the Central Basin and Range ecoregion, and the Mojave Basin and Range ecoregion.
Fauna
Great Basin wildlife includes pronghorn, mule deer, mountain lion, and lagomorphs such as black-tailed jackrabbit and desert cottontail and the coyotes that prey on them. Packrats, kangaroo rats and other small rodents are also common, and are predominantly nocturnal. Elk and bighorn sheep are present but uncommon. Small lizards such as the Great Basin fence lizard, longnose leopard lizard and horned lizard are common, especially in lower elevations. Rattlesnakes and gopher snakes are also present. The Inyo Mountains salamander is endangered. Shorebirds such as phalaropes and curlews can be found in wet areas. American white pelicans are common at Pyramid Lake. Golden eagles are also very common in the Great Basin. Mourning dove, western meadowlark, black-billed magpie, and common raven are other common bird species.
Two endangered species of fish are found in Pyramid Lake: the Cui-ui sucker fish (endangered 1967) and the Lahontan cutthroat trout (threatened 1970).
Large invertebrates include tarantulas (genus Aphonopelma) and Mormon crickets. Exotic species, including chukar, grey partridge, and Himalayan snowcock, have been successfully introduced to the Great Basin, although the latter has only thrived in the Ruby Mountains. Cheatgrass, an invasive species which was unintentionally introduced, forms a critical portion of their diets. Feral horses (mustangs) and feral burros are highly reproductive, and ecosystem-controversial, alien species. Most of the Great Basin is open range and domestic cattle and sheep are widespread.
Geography
The Great Basin includes valleys, basins, lakes and mountain ranges of the Basin and Range Province. Geographic features near the Great Basin include the Continental Divide of the Americas, the Great Divide Basin, and the Gulf of California.
Great Basin physiographic section
The Great Basin physiographic section of the Basin and Range Province contains the Great Basin, but extends into eastern Oregon, southern Idaho, and the Colorado River watershed (including the Las Vegas metropolitan area and the northwest corner of Arizona). The Basin and Range region is the product of geological forces stretching the earth's crust, creating many north–south trending mountain ranges. These ranges are separated by flat valleys or basins. These hundreds of ranges make Nevada the most mountainous state in the country.
Settlements and roads
The Great Basin's two most populous metropolitan areas are the Reno-Sparks metropolitan area to the west and the Wasatch Front to the east (with the latter being significantly more populous than the former). The region between these two areas is sparsely populated, but includes the smaller cities of Elko, Ely, Wendover, West Wendover, and Winnemucca. To the north are; in California Susanville, in Oregon Burns and Hines, in Idaho Malad and in Wyoming Evanston. To the south are Cedar City, Tonopah, and Bishop and the very southern area of the basin has the communities of Pahrump, Palmdale, Victorville, and Palm Springs. Interstate Highways traversing the Great Basin are Interstate 80 (I-80) and I-15, and I-70 and I-84 have their respective endpoints within its boundaries. Other major roadways are U.S. Route 6 (US 6), US 50, US 93, US 95 and US 395. The section of US 50 between Delta, Utah, and Fallon, Nevada, is nicknamed "The Loneliest Road in America", and Nevada State Route 375 is designated the "Extraterrestrial Highway". The Great Basin is traversed by several rail lines including the Union Pacific Railroad's Overland Route (Union Pacific Railroad) through Reno and Ogden, Feather River Route, Central Corridor and Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad.
History
Sediment build-up over thousands of years filled the down-faulted basins between ranges and created relatively flat lacustrine plains from Pleistocene lake beds of the Great Basin. For example, after forming about 32,000 years ago, Lake Bonneville overflowed about 14,500 years ago in the Bonneville Flood through Red Rock Pass and lowered to the "Provo Lake" level (the Great Salt Lake, Utah Lake, Sevier Lake, Rush Lake, and Little Salt Lake remain). Lake Lahontan, Lake Manly, and Lake Mojave were similar Pleistocene lakes.
Paleo-Indian habitation by the Great Basin tribes began as early as 10,000 B.C. (the Numic-speaking Shoshonean peoples arrived as late as 1000 A.D.). Archaeological evidence of habitation sites along the shore of Lake Lahontan date from the end of the ice age when its shoreline was approximately higher along the sides of the surrounding mountains. The Great Basin was inhabited for at least several thousand years by Uto-Aztecan language group-speaking Native American Great Basin tribes, including the Shoshone, Ute, Mono, and Northern Paiute.
European exploration of the Great Basin occurred during the 18th century Spanish colonization of the Americas. The first immigrant American to cross the Great Basin from the Sierra Nevada was Jedediah Strong Smith in 1827. Peter Skene Ogden of the British Hudson's Bay Company explored the Great Salt Lake and Humboldt River regions in the late 1820s, following the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada to the Gulf of California. Benjamin Bonneville explored the northeast portion during an 1832 expedition. The United States had acquired claims to the territory north of the 42nd parallel via the 1819 Adams–Onís Treaty with Spain and 1846 Oregon Treaty with Britain. The US gained claims to most of the rest of the Great Basin via the 1848 Mexican Cession. The first non-indigenous settlement was in 1847 in the Great Salt Lake Valley, leading to first American religious settlement effort of the Mormon provisional State of Deseret in 1849 in present-day Utah and northern Nevada. Later settlements were connected with the eastern regions of the 1848 California Gold Rush, with its immigrants crossing the Great Basin on the California Trail along Nevada's Humboldt River to Carson Pass in the Sierras. The Oregon Territory was established in 1848 and the Utah Territory in 1850.
In 1869 the First Transcontinental Railroad was completed at Promontory Summit in the Great Basin. Around 1902, the San Pedro, Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad was constructed in the lower basin and Mojave Desert for California-Nevada rail service to Las Vegas, Nevada.
To close a 1951 Indian Claims Commission case, the Western Shoshone Claims Distribution Act of 2004 established the United States payment of $117 million to the Great Basin tribe for the acquisition of .
The Dixie Valley, Nevada, earthquake (6.6–7.1) in the Great Basin was in 1954.
Climate
Climate varies throughout the Great Basin by elevation, latitude, and other factors. Higher elevations tend to be cooler and receive more precipitation. The western areas of the basin tend to be drier than the eastern areas because of the rain shadow of the Sierra Nevada. Most of the basin experiences a semi-arid or arid climate with warm summers and cold winters. However, some of the mountainous areas in the basin are high enough in elevation to experience an alpine climate. Due to the region's altitude and aridity, most areas in the Great Basin experience a substantial diurnal temperature variation.
Significant special designations
Great Basin National Park: President Warren G. Harding created Lehman Caves National Monument by presidential proclamation on January 24, 1922. It was incorporated into the national park on October 27, 1986.
Death Valley National Park: Death Valley National Monument was designated in 1933 and the park was substantially expanded and became a national park in 1994.
Joshua Tree National Park was initially created as a National Monument on 10 August 1936, containing , after Minerva Hoyt led activism aimed at persuading the state and federal governments at protecting the area. The park was elevated to a National Park on 31 October 1994 by the Desert Protection Act, which also added 234,000 acres to the park.
Valley of Fire State Park was designated as a National Natural Landmark in 1968
The Golden Spike National Historic Site as authorized as a National Historic Site on April 2, 1957, under non-federal ownership. It was authorized for federal ownership and administration by an act of Congress on July 30, 1965. It was redesignated as a National Historical Park in 2019.
The Juan Bautista de Anza National Historic Trail was designated in 1990.
The Pony Express and California National Historic Trails were designated in 1992.
The Mojave National Preserve was established October 31, 1994 with the passage of the California Desert Protection Act by the US Congress.
The Black Rock Desert–High Rock Canyon Emigrant Trails National Conservation Area was created by the Black Rock Desert–High Rock Canyon Emigrant Trails National Conservation Area Act of 2000.
The Old Spanish National Historic Trail was designated in 2002.
The Great Basin National Heritage Area was designated on October 13, 2006, under P.L.109-338
A section of the Amargosa River was a designated Wild and Scenic River in 2009 and is also a Bureau of Land Management Natural Area.
The Basin and Range National Monument was designated on July 9, 2015, under the authority of the Antiquities Act by President Barack Obama on the boundary of the Great Basin and Mojave Deserts, encompassing Garden and Coal Valleys in Southern Nevada.
See also
Bonneville Salt Flats
Great Basin Landscape Conservation Cooperative
Hastings Cutoff
Hidden Cave, an archaeological cave site located in the Great Basin
Nevada Basin
Salton Sea
References
External links
"Great Basin" from the Utah History Encyclopedia by Gary B. Peterson
Divided regions
Drainage basins of North America
Endorheic basins of the United States
Floristic provinces
Regions of Nevada
Regions of the Western United States
Regions of Utah | [
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224928 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burns%2C%20Baby%20Burns | Burns, Baby Burns | "Burns, Baby Burns" is the fourth episode of the eighth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 17, 1996. In the episode, Mr. Burns reunites with his long-lost son Larry. At first, they get along well, but Mr. Burns soon realizes that his son is an oaf. The episode was directed by Jim Reardon and is the first one written by Ian Maxtone-Graham. It guest starred Rodney Dangerfield as Larry Burns.
Plot
After attending the annual Harvard–Yale football game, Mr. Burns and Smithers take a train back to Springfield. When the train makes an unexpected stop, a man named Larry approaches them selling souvenirs. Seeing Burns, he compares his face with an old photo and notes the resemblance. Suddenly the train pulls away, leaving Larry behind. While on their way home from visiting a cider mill, the Simpsons see Larry hitchhiking and give him a ride. They take him to Burns' mansion, where Larry reveals that he is the old man's son.
Burns admits that Larry was the result of a one-night stand with the daughter of a former flame at a college reunion. At first, he is overjoyed to have a son and treats him as his protégé. He takes him to fancy parties and tries to enroll him at Yale, but Larry's oafish behavior embarrasses him. Larry starts working alongside Homer in Sector 7G at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant and they become friends. Larry invites Homer to dinner at the mansion, where Burns — no longer able to contain his displeasure at Larry's boorishness — says he wishes he had no son.
After Homer convinces Larry to fake a kidnapping so that Burns will admit that he loves his son, he moves into the Simpsons' basement. Homer tells Burns that he can have Larry back if he admits that he loves him. Marge discovers the plan and convinces Homer and Larry to abandon it, but they are spotted as they leave the house. Homer and Larry are chased into a cinema, where they climb atop the marquee and have a brief standoff with the police. Homer gives a heartfelt speech to justify Larry's actions and Burns forgives them for the hoax, but explains he cannot be the family whom Larry needs. Larry understands and reveals he has a wife and children back home who are probably worried about him. After Burns and Larry say their goodbyes, a party spontaneously breaks out in front of the cinema at Larry's incitement.
Production
Ian Maxtone-Graham wrote the episode and it was his first writing credit for The Simpsons, although he had served as a consultant on the show for several months. Maxtone-Graham had previously worked with showrunners Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein on a game show and the two had wanted to hire him as a writer on The Simpsons. The episode started out as a story about Mr. Burns and Grampa both being stationed in Paris during World War II and falling in love with the same woman, who had a love child. Maxtone-Graham had wanted this episode to be about Burns having a child, which is where it went. The other episode idea became "Raging Abe Simpson and His Grumbling Grandson in 'The Curse of the Flying Hellfish', which aired in the previous season. The episode opens with the family visiting Mt. Swartzwelder Historic Cider Mill (a reference to fellow writer John Swartzwelder) because the writers had wanted to do something involving autumn and a cider mill seemed like a good setting for that.
Rodney Dangerfield guest stars in this episode and was a huge favorite of many of the show's writers. Many of the jokes in the episode were specifically written to be "Dangerfield jokes", which were much tougher to write than the staff had originally thought. Dangerfield made a few key changes to his script during the recording of his part; Weinstein kept the annotated script and pen and considers them among his three most prized The Simpsons possessions. Designing Larry Burns was a challenge because the director had wanted him to look like Dangerfield but still have Burns' characteristics such as the pointed nose.
Cultural references
The title of the episode is a reference to a line in the Trammps song "Disco Inferno" ("Burn, baby, burn.") After discovering that Larry Burns is also working in Sector 7G, Homer frantically cleans up and puts away an almost entirely assembled jigsaw puzzle which has an image of Snoopy the dog lying on his doghouse. The puzzle is missing several pieces over where Snoopy's nose should be, which was intentionally drawn that way to avoid infringing copyright laws. The character from Yale that Mr. Burns briefly talks to is based on the fictional character Dink Stover from the book Dink Stover at Yale by Owen Johnson. The episode contains several references to the film Caddyshack in which Dangerfield stars, such as the scene where Larry tries to fit in with Mr. Burns' associates. The final street party, which features the song "Any Way You Want It" by Journey (also featured in Caddyshack), also parodies the way that several films, including Caddyshack, end. The episode ends at a movie theater, which is a reference to several famous criminals who were involved with theatres, such as John Dillinger, Lee Harvey Oswald, and John Wilkes Booth.
Reception
In its original broadcast, "Burns, Baby Burns" finished 64th in ratings for the week of November 11–17, 1996, with a Nielsen rating of 7.7, equivalent to approximately 7.5 million viewing households. It was the fourth-highest-rated show on the Fox network that week, following The X-Files, Melrose Place, and Beverly Hills, 90210.
The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, called it "[a] fun episode, with Rodney Dangerfield putting a lot of pathos into Larry – and Homer's impassioned speech atop the cinema at the climax is one of his funniest moments."
References
External links
1996 American television episodes
The Simpsons (season 8) episodes | [
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224930 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibor | Tibor | Tibor is a masculine given name found throughout Europe.
There are several explanations for the origin of the name:
from Latin name Tiberius, which means "from Tiber", Tiber being a river in Rome.
in old Slavic languages, Tibor means "sacred place".
shortened form of the name Tiborc; which originates from the ancient Latin surname Tiburtius.
from Etruscan name Tibur, which means "honest man"
Some notable men known by this name include:
Tibor Antalpéter
Tibor Benedek
Tibor Feheregyhazi
Tibor Farkas de Boldogfa
Tibor Fischer
Tibor Gécsek
Tibor Ferenc Heim Dr.
Tibor Kalman
Tibor R. Machan
Tibor Mičinec
Tibor Nyilasi
Tibor Ordina
Tibor Parák
Tibor Pleiß
Tibor Renyi
Tibor Radó
Tibor Selymes
Tibor Stark
Tibor Krøyer
Tibor Szasz
Tibor Szele
Tibor Varga (ice hockey)
Tibor Varga (violinist)
Tibor Zsitvay
Tibor Jančić
See also
Ctibor (name)
Tibor is the Hungarian name for Tibru village, Cricău Commune, Alba County, Romania
TIBOR is the short name for the Tokyo Interbank Offered Rate
References
Hungarian masculine given names | [
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] |
224932 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String%20Quartet%20No.%206%20%28Bart%C3%B3k%29 | String Quartet No. 6 (Bartók) | The String Quartet No. 6 in D minor, Sz. 114, BB 119, was the final string quartet that Béla Bartók wrote before his death.
The string quartet was begun in August 1939 in Saanen, Switzerland, where Bartók was a guest of his patron, the conductor Paul Sacher. Shortly after he completed the Divertimento for String Orchestra on the 17th, he started on a commission for his friend, the violinist Zoltán Székely. Székely was acting as intermediary for the New Hungarian Quartet, who had given the Budapest premiere of the String Quartet No. 5. With the outbreak of World War II and his mother's illness, Bartók returned to Budapest, where the quartet was finished in November. After his mother's death, Bartók decided to leave with his family for the United States. Due to the war, communication between Bartók and Székely was difficult, and the quartet was not premiered until 20 January 1941, when the Kolisch Quartet, to whom the work is dedicated, gave its premiere at the Town Hall in New York City.
The work is in four movements:
Each movement opens with a slow melody marked mesto (mournful). This material is employed for only a relatively short introduction in the first movement, but is longer in the second and longer again in the third. In the fourth movement, the mesto material, with reminiscences of the first movement material, consumes the entire movement. It can be seen from Bartók's sketches that he had intended the last movement to have a quick, Romanian folk dance-like character with an aksak rhythmic character, but he abandoned this plan, whether motivated by pure compositional logic or despair at the impending death of his mother and the unfolding catastrophe of the war.
In poor health and financially insecure, Bartók composed relatively little in the United States before his death in 1945, but, in the last year or so of his life, he made some sketches hypothesized to be the slow movement of a never completed seventh quartet.
The quartet was published in 1941 by Boosey & Hawkes.
Sources
External links
6
1939 compositions
Commissioned music
Music dedicated to ensembles or performers | [
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224940 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String%20Quartet%20No.%204%20%28Bart%C3%B3k%29 | String Quartet No. 4 (Bartók) | The String Quartet No. 4 in C major by Béla Bartók was written from July to September 1928 in Budapest. It is one of six string quartets by Bartok.
The work is dedicated to the Pro Arte Quartet but its first public performance was given by the Waldbauer-Kerpely Quartet in Budapest on 20 March 1929. It was first published in the same year by Universal Edition.
Overview
The work is in five movements:
A study of the manuscript sources, as published by László Somfai finds that Bartók originally intended the quartet to have four movements, not five.
This work, like Bartók String Quartet No. 5, and several other pieces by Bartók, exhibits an arch form — the first movement is thematically related to the last, and the second to the fourth, with the third movement standing alone. Also, the outer four movements feature rhythmic sforzandos that cyclically tie them together in terms of climactic areas.
The quartet shares a similar harmonic language to that of the String Quartet No. 3, and as with that work, it has been suggested that Bartók was influenced in his writing by Alban Berg's Lyric Suite (1926) which he had heard in 1927.
The quartet employs a number of extended instrumental techniques. For the whole of the second movement, all four instruments play with mutes, while the entire fourth movement features pizzicato. In the third movement, Bartók sometimes indicates held notes to be played without vibrato, and in various places he asks for glissandi (sliding from one note to another) and so-called Bartók or snap pizzicati, (a pizzicato where the string rebounds against the instrument's fingerboard).
Analysis
Bartók’s musical vocabulary, as demonstrated in his string quartets particularly, departs from traditional use of major and minor keys, focusing more on the chromatic scale and attempting to utilize each note equally. Regardless, Bartók doesn’t follow any form of serialism, instead dividing the chromatic scale into symmetrical units, with tonal centers being based on “axes of symmetry”. He also incorporates whole-tone, pentatonic, and octatonic scales — as well as diatonic and heptatonia seconda scales — as subsets of the chromatic scale.
His use of these subset scales allowed him to incorporate a wide range of folk music in an expanded harmonic system. Indeed, his original studies and settings of many examples gleaned from his extensive explorations of the Hungarian countryside and Eastern and Central Europe served as a major influence upon his expanded musical vocabulary.
Bartók held a long fascination with mathematics and how it pertained to music. He experimented with incorporating the golden section and the Fibonacci sequence into his writing. Though these fascinations aren’t obviously present in his Fourth String Quartet, he did incorporate symmetrical structures: Movements I and V are similar, as are movements II and IV; movement III is at center, greatly contrasting with the other movements.
Movements I and V share similar motifs; the second theme in the first movement is prominent in the fifth. Movements II and IV share similar ideas as well, but the ideas present within these two movements can be considered variations on themes presented earlier, expanding and building on ideas presented in the first and fifth movements. Movement III differs from the other four movements in that it is textured and quiet.
The symmetry of the movements isn’t limited only to the themes; the lengths of the movements show symmetry as well. The first, third and fifth movements are approximately six minutes long, whereas the second and fourth are shorter, at about three minutes each.
I. Allegro
Movement I utilizes whole-tone elements. Though not traditionally tonal, it is centered on ‘C’. The movement gradually progresses from cluster-like elements to full chords. This, in part, helps with building tension through the movement’s six minutes.
II. Prestissimo, con sordino
The second movement moves quicker than the first, giving off a hurried feeling. The chromatic scale is widely utilized, starting off in the lower registers and being answered in higher registers. Fast scales, trills, and vibrato are all used to add color and texture. The pentatonic scale is present and apparent throughout. Additionally, the strings are used to produce horn-like and percussive effects.
III. Non troppo lento
The third movement includes a great example of Bartók's night music style. It completely departs from the first two movements in that it is more consonant, widely using diatonic and many folk-like elements. Usage of the pentatonic scale is more apparent.
IV. Allegretto pizzicato
The fourth movement is similar to the second and is faster than the previous, instilling the same hurry as in the first two movements. The musicians play pizzicato throughout. Bartók also utilizes Bartók pizzicato throughout the movement. Staying symmetrical, the music references and builds on ideas in movement II.
V. Allegro molto
The final movement mirrors the first, the second theme of the first movement seeing extensive use. The randomly accentuated quarter notes sound percussive and horn-like. Inversions and retrogrades of the theme are heard throughout the movement, utilized in different octaves. Overall, the fifth movement is more liberal in using variations of themes present in the first movement.
Discography
Notes
External links
Further reading
Leo Treitler, "Harmonic procedure in the Fourth Quartet of Bartók" in the Journal of Music Theory (November 1959)
4
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224943 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String%20Quartet%20No.%202%20%28Bart%C3%B3k%29 | String Quartet No. 2 (Bartók) | The String Quartet No. 2 in A minor by Béla Bartók was written between 1915 and October 1917 in Rákoskeresztúr in Hungary. It is one of six string quartets by Bartok.
The work is in three movements:
In a letter to André Gertier, Bartók described the first movement as being in sonata form, the second as "a kind of rondo" and the third as "difficult to define" but possibly a sort of ternary form. Zoltán Kodály, who thought of the three movements of this quartet as "life episodes," heard "peaceful life" in the first movement, and for all its roiling emotions, the movement does indeed leave an impression of tranquility at the end.
The brooding, intense last movement (Kodály heard it as "suffering") is particularly funereal because it is as immobile as the second movement is animated. Long stretches are rhythmically static, and the parts that do move are often interrupted by silence.
The work was dedicated to the Waldbauer-Kerpely Quartet, who gave the piece its premiere on 3 March 1918 in Budapest. The work was first published in 1920 by Universal Edition.
Discography
References
Bartók Quartet No. 2, lecture by Roger Parker, followed by a performance by the Badke Quartet, Gresham College, 4 December 2007 (available for download as MP3 or MP4, as well as a text document)
External links
Performance by the Borromeo String Quartet from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in MP3 format
2
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224947 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Bridger | Jim Bridger | James Felix Bridger (March 17, 1804 – July 17, 1881) was an American mountain man, trapper, Army scout, and wilderness guide who explored and trapped in the Western United States in the first half of the 19th century. He was known as Old Gabe in his later years. He was from the Bridger family of Virginia, English immigrants who had been in North America since the early colonial period.
Bridger was part of the second generation of American mountain men and pathfinders that followed the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804 and became well known for participating in numerous early expeditions into the western interior as well as mediating between Native American tribes and westward-migrating European-American settlers. By the end of his life, he had earned a reputation as one of the foremost frontiersmen in the American Old West. He was described as having a strong constitution that allowed him to survive the extreme conditions he encountered while exploring the Rocky Mountains from what would become southern Colorado to the Canadian border. He had conversational knowledge of French, Spanish, and several indigenous languages.
In 1830, Bridger and several associates purchased a fur company from Jedediah Smith and others, which they named the Rocky Mountain Fur Company.
Early life and career
James Felix Bridger was born on March 17, 1804, in Richmond, Virginia. His parents were James Bridger, an innkeeper in Richmond, and his wife Chloe. About 1812, the family moved near St. Louis at the eastern edge of America's vast new western frontier. At age 13, Bridger was orphaned; he had no formal education, was unable to read or write, and was apprenticed to a blacksmith. He was illiterate the whole of his life. On March 20, 1822, at age 18, he left his apprenticeship after responding to an advertisement in a St. Louis newspaper, the Missouri Republican, and joined General William Henry Ashley's fur trapping expedition to the upper Missouri River. The party included Jedediah Smith and many others who would later become famous mountain men. For the next 20 years, he repeatedly traversed the continental interior between the Canada–U.S. border and the southern boundary of present-day Colorado, and from the Missouri River westward to Idaho and Utah, either as an employee of or a partner in the fur trade.
Hugh Glass ordeal
The account of the bear attack and subsequent desertion of Hugh Glass has been repeated by many, but it is of dubious origin that Jim Bridger was involved at all. Bridger was employed by Ashley's at the time of the attack near the forks of the Grand River in present-day Perkins County, South Dakota. John Fitzgerald and a man known as 'Bridges' stayed, waiting for him to die, as the rest of the party moved on. They began digging Glass's grave. Claiming they were interrupted by an Arikara attack, the pair grabbed Glass's rifle, knife, and other equipment and took flight. Bridges and Fitzgerald later caught up with the party and incorrectly reported to Ashley that Glass had died. It is plausible but unlikely that 'Bridges' was in fact Jim Bridger.
Yellowstone and the Great Salt Lake
Bridger was among the first mountain men to explore the natural wonders of the Yellowstone region. In the fall of 1824, Bridger explored the Great Salt Lake region, reaching it by bull boat. He was one of the first people to explore Yellowstone’s springs and geysers. He also shared that the creek split in two, with one side going to the Pacific Ocean and the other side the Atlantic Ocean. Bridger took a raft on the rapids at the Big Horn River; he was the only man to do this.
Guide and adviser
In 1843, Bridger and Louis Vasquez established Fort Bridger on the Blacks Fork of the Green River along the Oregon Trail.
Bridger had explored, trapped, hunted and blazed new trails in the West since 1822 and later worked as a wilderness guide in these areas. He could reportedly assess any wagon train or group, their interests in travel, and give them expert advice on any and all aspects of heading West, over any and all trails, and to any destination the party had in mind, if the leaders sought his advice. In 1846, the Donner Party came to Fort Bridger and were assured by Bridger and Vasquez that Lansford Hastings' proposed shortcut ahead was "a fine, level road, with plenty of water and grass, with the exception before stated (a forty-mile waterless stretch)." The 40-mile stretch was in fact 80 miles, and the "fine level road" was difficult enough to slow the Donner Party, who become trapped in the Sierra Nevada in the winter.
From 16 July 1857 until July 1858, Bridger was employed as a guide during the Utah War. In 1859, Bridger was paid to be the chief guide on the Yellowstone-bound Raynolds Expedition, led by Captain William F. Raynolds. Though unsuccessful in reaching Yellowstone, because of deep snow, the expedition explored Jackson Hole and Pierre's Hole. In 1861, Bridger served as a guide for Edward L. Berthoud. From October 1863 until April 1864, Bridger was employed as a guide at Fort Laramie.
Bridger then served as a scout under Colonel Henry B. Carrington during Red Cloud's War. Bridger was stationed at Fort Phil Kearny during the Fetterman Fight, and the Wagon Box Fight. Bridger was discharged on 21 July 1868.
Suffering from goiter and rheumatism, Bridger returned to Missouri in 1868. He was unsuccessful in collecting back rent from the government for lease on Fort Bridger. By 1875, he was blind.
Bridger Pass and the Bridger Trail
In 1850, while guiding the Stansbury Expedition on its return from Utah, Bridger discovered what would eventually become known as Bridger Pass, an alternate overland route which bypassed South Pass and shortened the Oregon Trail by 61 miles. Bridger Pass, in what is now south-central Wyoming, would later become the chosen route across the Continental Divide, for the Overland Stage, Pony Express, the Union Pacific Railroad Overland Route, and Interstate 80.
In 1864, Bridger blazed the Bridger Trail, an alternative route from Wyoming to the gold fields of Montana that avoided the dangerous Bozeman Trail. In 1865, he served as Chief of Scouts during the Powder River Expedition.
Family and death
In 1835, Bridger married a woman from the Flathead tribe that he named "Emma", with whom he had three children. After her death in 1846 from fever, he married the daughter of a Shoshone chief, who died in childbirth three years later. In 1850, he married Shoshone Chief Washakie's daughter Mary Washakie Bridger and they raised two children. Some of his children were sent back east to be educated. His firstborn Mary Ann was killed by a band of aborigines while being tutored. His son Felix, who fought with the Missouri Artillery, died of sickness on Bridger's farm. His daughter Josephine, who married Jim Baker, also died, leaving his daughter Virginia as his only living child.
Bridger died on his farm near Kansas City, Missouri, on July 17, 1881, at age 77.
Legacy
Historical reputation
Bridger is remembered as one of the most colorful and widely traveled mountain men of the era. In addition to his explorations and his service as a guide and adviser, he was known for his storytelling. His stories about the geysers at Yellowstone, for example, proved to be true. Others were grossly exaggerated or clearly intended to amuse: one of Bridger's stories involved a petrified forest in which there were "petrified birds" singing "petrified songs" (though he may have seen the petrified trees in the Tower Junction area of what is now Yellowstone National Park). Over the years, Bridger became so associated with telling tall tales that many stories invented by others were attributed to him.
Supposedly one of Bridger's favorite yarns to weave to greenhorns told of his pursuit by one hundred Cheyenne warriors. After being chased for several miles, Bridger found himself at the end of a box canyon, with the Indians bearing down on him. At this point, Bridger would go silent, prompting his listener to ask, "What happened then, Mr. Bridger?" Bridger would then reply, "They killed me."
Places and things named for Jim Bridger
Fort Bridger
Fort Bridger, Wyoming
Bridger, Montana
Bridger, South Dakota
Bridger Bay, Utah, a bay in the Great Salt Lake at Antelope Island
Bridger Bay Beach, Utah, a beach on Antelope Island in the Great Salt Lake
Bridger Mountains (Wyoming)
Bridger Mountains (Montana)
Bridger Peak in Utah
Bridger Pointe, a neighborhood complex in Logan, Utah
Bridger Wilderness
Bridger Bowl Ski Area
Bridger-Teton National Forest
Bridger Pass
Bridger Center and Bridger Gondola at Jackson Hole Mountain Resort, Teton Village, WY.
Jim Bridger Power Station
Bridger Lake, a lake and campground near Mountain View, Wyoming
Bridgerland in Cache Valley in Utah and Idaho is a name that is used in many Logan, Utah-based businesses and institutions, such as Bridgerland Television and the Bridgerland Technical College.
Bridgerland Park, a city park in Logan, Utah
James Bridger Middle School in Independence, Missouri
Jim Bridger Drive, Centerville, Utah
Jim Bridger Drive, Eagle Mountain, Utah
Jim Bridger Drive, Huntsville, Utah
Jim Bridger Elementary School in Portland, Oregon
Jim Bridger Elementary School in West Jordan, Utah
Jim Bridger Trail Run outside Bozeman, Montana
Bridger Avenue in Las Vegas, Nevada
Bridger Drive in Logan, Utah
Bridger Drive in Springville, Utah
Bridger Road in Salt Lake City, Utah
Bridger Street in Pocatello, Idaho
The Jim Bridger cabins, a motel in Gardiner, Montana, outside the entrance to Yellowstone National Park.
In 2013, Bridger's Battle was announced as the new name for an old college football rivalry between Utah State and Wyoming. The winner receives a .50-caliber Rocky Mountain Hawken rifle, the "Bridger rifle", as a traveling trophy.
The Weber mandolin company of Montana had a mandolin model named the Bridger.
Media portrayals
Raymond Hatton portrays Bridger in the 1940 film Kit Carson.
Van Heflin plays Bridger in the 1951 film Tomahawk.
Dennis Morgan portrays Bridger in the 1955 film The Gun That Won the West.
Karl Swenson plays Bridger in the episode "The Jim Bridger Story" of NBC's Wagon Train, broadcast on May 10, 1961.
James Wainwright plays Bridger in the 1976 TV movie Bridger, opposite Ben Murphy as Kit Carson.
Gregg Palmer portrays Bridger in the 1977 episode "Kit Carson and the Mountain Man" of NBC's Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color.
Reb Brown portrays Bridger in the 1978 TV miniseries Centennial.
Brad Pitt portrays Lt. Aldo Raine, "a direct-descendent of the mountain man Jim Bridger" in the 2009 film Inglourious Basterds
Will Poulter portrays a fictionalized version of Bridger in the 2015 film The Revenant.
References
Sources
Further reading
"Affidavit discussing Jim Bridger's property and Fort Bridger"
Jim Bridger in Idaho
1804 births
1881 deaths
19th-century American people
American explorers
Mountain men
American hunters
American fur traders
Explorers of the United States
Montana articles lacking sources
People from Franklin County, Missouri
People from Richmond, Virginia
American folklore
Tall tales
History of Idaho
History of Montana
History of Utah
History of Wyoming
History of the Rocky Mountains
Explorers of Montana | [
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224959 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna%20Jarvis | Anna Jarvis | Anna Maria Jarvis (May 1, 1864 – November 24, 1948) was the founder of Mother's Day in the United States. Her mother had frequently expressed a desire for the establishment of such a holiday, and after her mother's death, Jarvis led the movement for the commemoration. However, as the years passed, Jarvis grew disenchanted with the growing commercialization of the observation (she herself did not profit from the day) and even attempted to have Mother's Day rescinded. She died in a sanitarium, her medical bills paid by people in the floral and greeting card industries.
Biography
Family and early life
Anna Maria Jarvis was born to Granville E. and Ann Maria (née Reeves) Jarvis on May 1, 1864, in Webster, Taylor County, West Virginia, the ninth of eleven children. Seven of her siblings died in infancy or early childhood. Her birthplace, today known as the Anna Jarvis House, has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1979. The family moved to Grafton, West Virginia, also in Taylor County, later in her childhood.
Ann Reeves Jarvis was a social activist, founder of Mothers’ Day Work Clubs. As a woman defined by her faith, she was very active within the Andrews Methodist Episcopal Church community. It was during one of her Sunday school lessons in 1876 that her daughter, Anna Jarvis, allegedly found her inspiration for Mother's Day, as Ann closed her lesson with a prayer, stating:
At the encouragement of her mother, Anna Jarvis attended college and was awarded a diploma for the completion of two years of course work at the Augusta Female Seminary in Staunton, Virginia, today known as Mary Baldwin University. Jarvis returned to Grafton to work in the public school system, additionally joining her mother as an active church member, maintaining a close link to her mother.
After her uncle, Dr. James Edmund Reeves, persuaded her to move to Chattanooga, Tennessee, Jarvis worked there as a bank teller for a year. The following year, Jarvis again moved, this time to live with her brother in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in spite of her mother's urging to return to Grafton. Jarvis was successful in Philadelphia, taking a position at Fidelity Mutual Life Insurance Company, where she became the agency's first female literary and advertising editor. Another accomplishment was becoming a shareholder in the Quaker City Cab Company, her brother's business.
Even while she was away from Grafton, Anna Jarvis maintained a close correspondence with her mother. Ann Reeves Jarvis was proud of her daughter's achievements and the letters themselves served to keep mother and daughter closely linked. After the death of Jarvis’ father, Granville, in 1902, she urged her mother to move to Philadelphia to stay with her and her brother. Both brother and sister worried about their mother's health and Ann Reeves Jarvis ultimately agreed to move to Philadelphia in 1904 when her heart problems necessitated it. Jarvis spent the majority of her time taking care of her mother as Ann Reeves Jarvis' health declined. She died on May 9, 1905.
Movement towards Mother's Day
On May 10, 1908, three years after her mother's death, Jarvis held a memorial ceremony to honor her mother and all mothers at Andrews Methodist Episcopal Church, today the International Mother's Day in Grafton, West Virginia, marking the first official observance of Mother's Day. The International Mother's Day Shrine has been a designated National Historic Landmark since October 5, 1992.
Although Jarvis did not attend this service, she sent a telegram that described the significance of the day as well as five hundred white carnations for all who attended the service. As she spoke in Philadelphia at the Wanamaker's Store Auditorium, she moved her audience with the power of her speech.
Commercialization, conflict, and later life
Although the national proclamation represented a public validation of her efforts, Jarvis always believed herself to be the leader of the commemorative day and therefore maintained her established belief in the sentimental significance of the day to honor all mothers and motherhood. Jarvis valued the symbolism of such tangible items as the white carnation emblem, which she described as:
Jarvis frequently referred to her mother's memory during her efforts to maintain the sentimental heart of the day while also maintaining her own role as the founder of the holiday. In addition to her efforts to maintain her position and recognition as the holiday's founder, Jarvis struggled against forces of commercialization that overwhelmed her original message. Among some of these forces were the confection, floral and greeting card industry. The symbols that she had valued for their sentimentality, such as the white carnation, easily became commodified and commercialized.
By the 1920s, as the floral industry continued increasing prices of white carnations and then introduced red carnations to meet the demand for the flower, Anna Jarvis' original symbols began to become re-appropriated, such as the red carnation representing living mothers and the white carnation honoring deceased mothers. She attempted to counter these commercial forces, creating a badge with a Mother's Day emblem as a less ephemeral alternative to the white carnation. Her negative opinion of these commercial forces was evident in her contemporary commentary:
However, her efforts to hold on to the original meaning of the day led to her own economic hardship. While others profited from the day, Jarvis did not, and she spent the later years of her life with her sister Lillie. In 1943, she began organizing a petition to rescind Mother's Day. However, these efforts were halted when she was placed in the Marshall Square Sanitarium in West Chester, Pennsylvania. People connected with the floral and greeting card industries paid the bills to keep her in the sanitarium.
Jarvis died on November 24, 1948, and was buried next to her mother, sister, and brother at West Laurel Hill Cemetery in Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania. Although the Anna M. Jarvis Committee supported her and helped to continue her movement during her declining health, it ultimately disbanded with the assurance that the Jarvis family gravesite would remain under the care of her grandniece who was the only heir to the estate, her oldest brother's granddaughter, as she herself never married or had any children.
See also
International Mother's Day Shrine
Notes
Main references
Further reading
How Jarvis fought the commercialization of the holiday.
Kendall, Norman F. (1937), Mothers Day, A History of its Founding and its Founder
''
External links
Anna Jarvis and Mother's Day
Anna Jarvis, the Germanna Descendant who Founded Mother’s Day
Anna Jarvis and International Mother's Day
1864 births
1948 deaths
People from Taylor County, West Virginia
Mary Baldwin University alumni
Burials at West Laurel Hill Cemetery | [
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224962 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20Bridger | Fort Bridger | Fort Bridger was originally a 19th-century fur trading outpost established in 1842, on Blacks Fork of the Green River, in what is now Uinta County, Wyoming, United States. It became a vital resupply point for wagon trains on the Oregon Trail, California Trail, and Mormon Trail. The Army established a military post here in 1858 during the Utah War, until it was finally closed in 1890. A small town, Fort Bridger, Wyoming, remains near the fort and takes its name from it.
Bridger's Trading Post
The post was established by the mountain man Jim Bridger, after whom it is named, and Louis Vasquez. In December 1843, Bridger wrote Pierre Chouteau Jr., "I have established a small fort, with a blacksmith shop and a supply of iron in the road of emigrants on Black Fork of Green River, which promises fairly." According to Stanley Vestal, "His fort consisted simply of an eight-foot stockade, with a corral adjoining on the north. Within that stockade stood four log cabins with flat dirt roofs. One of these housed Bridger's forge and carpenter's bench, another his store, the third his family and possibles, while the fourth was the home of his partner." On 19 October 1852, Mrs. Benjamin G. Ferris visited with her husband, and described the fort as "- a long, low, strongly-constructed log building, surrounded by a high wall of logs, stuck endwise in the ground." On 9 March 1854, Bridger filed a claim with the General Land Office, for the around the fort.
Richard Francis Burton visited the fort in August 1860, and later wrote, "Colonel Bridger, when an Indian trader, placed this post upon a kind of neutral ground between the Snakes and the Crows (Hapsaroke) on the north, the Oglalas and other Sioux to the east, the Arapahoes and Cheyennes on the south, and various tribes of Yutas (Utahs) on the southwest. Bridger, perhaps the most picturesque figure in early Wyoming, was often called the "Daniel Boone" of the Rockies. Bridger’s Pass, which he discovered, was also named for him.
In 1845, Lansford Hastings published a guide entitled The Emigrant's Guide to Oregon and California, which advised California emigrants to leave the Oregon Trail at Fort Bridger, pass through the Wasatch Range across the Great Salt Lake Desert (an 80-mile waterless drive), loop around the Ruby Mountains, and rejoin the California Trail about seven miles west of modern Elko, Nevada (now Emigrant Pass). The ill-fated Donner-Reed Party followed that route, along which they were met by a rider sent by Hastings to deliver letters to traveling emigrants. On July 12, the Donners and Reeds were given one of these letters, in which among other messages, Hastings claimed to have "worked out a new and better road to California", and said he would be waiting at Fort Bridger to guide the emigrants along the new cutoff.
Mormons and Fort Supply
On 7 July 1847, Orson Pratt was amongst the first party of Mormons to arrive at the fort. He described the fort as, "Bridger's post consists of two adjoining log houses, dirt roofs, and a small picket yard of logs set in the ground, and about eight feet high." Nine native lodges were located nearby.
With the arrival of the Mormon pioneers in 1847, disputes arose between Bridger and the new settlers. By 1853, a militia of Mormons was sent to arrest him for selling alcohol and firearms to the Native Americans, a violation of Federal Law. He escaped capture and temporarily returned to the East. Near the existing fort, the Mormons established their own Fort Supply the same year. In 1855, Mormons took over Fort Bridger, reportedly having bought it for $8,000 in gold coins. The Mormons claimed, over Bridger's denials, they had purchased the fort from Vasquez. There was a deed dated August 3, 1855, recorded October 21, 1858, in Salt Lake City in Records Book B. p. 128, that ostensibly sold Fort Bridger to the LDS Church. Bridger and Vasquez's names were signed by H.F. Morrell in the presence of Alinerin Grow and William Adams Hickman, purportedly pursuant to a power of attorney. Bridger was absent from the area in 1855, acting as guide for Sir St George Gore.
Andrew Jenson noted, "From 1853 to 1857, Fort Bridger was quite an important 'Mormon' outpost." Orson Hyde arrived at the fort on 13 November 1853, with 39 Mormon settlers. They established Fort Supply on Willow Creek, about southwest of Fort Bridger. Jenson goes on to state, "Fort Bridger and Fort Supply were deserted by the 'Mormons' in September, 1857, on the approach of Col. Johnston's army."
Military Post
On 18 November 1857, Bridger leased his surveyed land to the United States, though payment was withheld until Bridger could establish title. Colonel Albert Sidney Johnston was to use the land for his army during the Utah War. Relations had deteriorated between Mormon leaders in Utah Territory and federal authorities in Washington, D.C. President James Buchanan ordered the United States Army to install a new governor, Alfred Cumming to replace Brigham Young. As the army of 2500 advanced in November 1857, the Mormons set fire to the Fort Bridger buildings. Johnston kept his supplies, with a garrison, within the stone walls which remained, while the army wintered at Camp Scott nearby. In June 1858, as the majority of Johnston's Army set off for Salt Lake City, two companies of troops remained behind. The other troops continued on and eventually established Camp Floyd south of Salt Lake City.
Major William Hoffman commanded the army depot of Fort Bridger from 7 June 1858, until 17 August, when he was relieved by Brevet Lt. Col. Edward Canby. Elements of the Sixth and Tenth Infantry, and First Cavalry, erected storehouses and troop quarters. On 14 July 1859, orders established a military reservation at Fort Bridger amounting to . Major Richard C. Gatlin took over command on 7 March 1860. Captain Alfred Cumming took command on 4 June 1860, followed by Captain Franklin Gardner on 7 August 1860. Captain Jesse Gove commanded from 29 May 1861 until 9 August, when the number of troops was reduced due to demands of the American Civil War. Captain M.G. Lewis took over command in December 1862, followed by Major Noyes Baldwin in 1865. Captain Anson Mills assumed command from November 1866 until August 1867.
In 1858, William A. Carter was appointed as post sutler at Fort Bridger. Perhaps more than any other individual, the history of the post revolves around this civilian merchant who remained at the center of the post's activities for his lifetime. When William A. Carter died in November 1881, his wife, Mary Elizabeth Hamilton Carter, became sutter, then renamed as the post trader until 1890. Judge Carter was a probate judge who had served in the army during the Seminole Wars. He managed both his sutler's store, and the post office, under one roof.
Chief Washakie signed the Fort Bridger Treaty of 1868 at the fort on 3 July, which ceded the Shoshone and Bannock lands in southwestern Wyoming, and created the Wind River Indian Reservation.
Lieutenant Colonel Henry Morrow was in command from 9 November 1867 until 17 April 1869. During this time, Fort Bridger troops helped guard construction of the Overland Route (Union Pacific Railroad) and the Overland Stage and Mail route. In the summer of 1870, Yale College Professor Othniel Charles Marsh used the fort as a base camp during a geological expedition. The fort was also host to the geological survey conducted by Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden from 12 September to 1 October 1870. Ultimately, the expansion of the railroads in the west made this and other forts obsolete. Fort Bridger was first abandoned in 1878 but then was re-established two years later. The Army closed the post in 1890 when Wyoming became a state.
Preservation
The historical Fort Bridger has several interesting old buildings still standing: the old Pony Express barn and the Mormon protective wall.
On 27 June 1928, the site of the fort, and remaining buildings, were sold to the Historical Landmark Commission of Wyoming. Dedication ceremonies were held on 25 June 1933 establishing Fort Bridger as a Wyoming Historical Landmark and Museum. The Annual Fort Bridger Muzzle Loading Rendezvous is held every Labor Day weekend.
See also
Charles Howard
References
External links
Fort Bridger page, Wyoming Department of State Parks and Historic Sites
Fort Bridger info from the Wyoming State Historic Preservation Office
Fort Bridger - Legends of America information
fortbridgerrendezvous.net - Additional information about the Fort Bridger Rendezvous.
Mexican–American War forts
1842 establishments in North America
California Trail
Bridger
Fur trade
Military and war museums in Wyoming
Mormon Trail
Oregon Trail
Bridger
Protected areas of Uinta County, Wyoming
Utah War
Wyoming state historic sites
Provincial and state parks in the Rocky Mountains
Museums in Uinta County, Wyoming
Pre-statehood history of Wyoming
National Register of Historic Places in Uinta County, Wyoming
IUCN Category III
Military installations established in 1858
Military installations closed in 1890
1858 establishments in Utah Territory
1890 disestablishments in Wyoming | [
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224967 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webster%2C%20West%20Virginia | Webster, West Virginia | Webster is an unincorporated community in Taylor County, West Virginia, United States. It lies four miles south of Grafton. Its elevation is 1,019 feet above sea level.
History
Webster became a junction on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad in 1854. Webster was the location of a Union encampment during the American Civil War. It was the birthplace of Anna Marie Jarvis, the founder of Mother's Day as a national holiday in the United States. Her birthplace, known as the Anna Jarvis House, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979.
The village of Webster should not be confused with Webster County, West Virginia or its county seat, Webster Springs.
References
Unincorporated communities in Taylor County, West Virginia
Unincorporated communities in West Virginia
Clarksburg micropolitan area | [
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224969 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucia | Lucia | Lucia or Lucía may refer to:
Arts and culture
Lucía, a 1968 Cuban film by Humberto Solás
Lucia (film), a 2013 Kannada-language film
"Lucia", a Swedish children's song published in Barnens svenska sångbok
Lucia Ashton, the title character of Lucia di Lammermoor, a 1836 opera by Gaetano Donizetti
one of the title characters of Mapp and Lucia, a series of novels by E. F. Benson
Lucia & The Best Boys, a Scottish indie rock band formerly known as LUCIA
Places
Lucia (California), a hamlet in Big Sur, California
La Lucia, a suburb in Umhlanga, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
Other uses
Lucia (name), a feminine given name and a surname, including a list of people and fictional characters with the name Lucia or Lucía
222 Lucia, an asteroid
Lucia (butterfly), a butterfly genus from the tribe Luciini
Lucia (moth), a synonym of the moth genus Adrapsa
See also
Lucian (disambiguation)
Saint Lucia (disambiguation)
Santa Lucia (disambiguation)
Lusia (disambiguation)
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224973 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Wanamaker | John Wanamaker | John Wanamaker (July 11, 1838December 12, 1922) was an American merchant and religious, civic and political figure, considered by some to be a proponent of advertising and a "pioneer in marketing". He was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and served as U.S. Postmaster General during the term of U.S. President Benjamin Harrison from 1889 to 1893.
Early life and family
Wanamaker was born on July 11, 1838, in a then-rural, unincorporated area that would in time come to be known as the Grays Ferry neighborhood of South Philadelphia. His parents were John Nelson Wanamaker, a brickmaker and native of Kingwood, New Jersey, and Elizabeth Deshong Kochersperger, daughter of a farmer and innkeeper at Gray's Ferry. Her ancestors came from Rittershoffen in Alsace, France, and from Canton of Bern in Switzerland. At the age of 19 he was hired by the Philadelphia YMCA, he was the first corresponding secretary in the YMCA movement.
In 1860 John Wanamaker married Mary Erringer Brown (18391920).
They had six children (two died in childhood):
Thomas Brown Wanamaker (1862–1908), who married Mary Lowber Welch (1864–1929)
Lewis Rodman Wanamaker (1863–1928), who married Fernanda de Henry and Violet Cruger
Horace Wanamaker (born 1864, died in infancy during the Civil War)
Harriett E. "Nettie" Wanamaker (1865–1870)
Mary Brown "Minnie" Wanamaker (1869–1954), who married Barclay Harding Warburton.
Elizabeth "Lillie" Wanamaker (1876–1927), who married Norman McLeod
John Wanamaker's son, Thomas B., who specialized in store financial matters, purchased a Philadelphia newspaper called The North American in 1899. He irritated his father by giving regular columns to radical intellectuals, such as single-taxer Henry George, Jr., socialist Henry John Nelson (who later became Emma Goldman's lawyer), and socialist Caroline H. Pemberton. The younger Wanamaker also began publishing a Sunday edition, which offended his father's sense of keeping the Sabbath holy.
His younger son Rodman, a Princeton graduate, lived in France early in his career. He is credited with creating a demand for French luxury goods in Philadelphia and the United States that persists to this day. Rodman was credited with the artistic quality that gave the Wanamaker stores their cachet. He was also a patron of fine music, organizing spectacular organ and orchestra concerts in the Wanamaker Philadelphia and New York stores under music director Alexander Russell.
Department store business
Wanamaker opened his first store in 1861, in partnership with his brother in-law Nathan Brown, called "Oak Hall", at Sixth and Market Streets in Philadelphia, adjacent to the site of George Washington's Presidential home. Oak Hall grew substantially based on Wanamaker's then-revolutionary principle: "One price and goods returnable". In 1869, he opened his second store at 818 Chestnut Street and capitalizing on his own name (due to the untimely death of his brother-in-law) and growing reputation, renamed the company John Wanamaker & Co. In 1875, he purchased an abandoned railroad depot and converted it into a large store, called John Wanamaker & Co. "The Grand Depot". Wanamaker's is considered the first department store in Philadelphia.
Wanamaker Building
The "Wanamaker Building" was a large, 12-story granite store in Philadelphia, designed by famous Chicago architect Daniel H. Burnham and completed in 1910, when it was dedicated by US President William Howard Taft. The store stands on the site of "The Grand Depot", encompassing an entire block at the corner of Thirteenth and Market Streets across from Philadelphia's City Hall. The new store, The Wanamaker Building, which still stands today, became a Philadelphia institution. Originally all the space was devoted to the department store and company offices. The building has remained an integral part of the Philadelphia culture. The upper office tower was marketed as the Wanamaker Office Building in 2018.
Grand Court
The Wanamaker Building's most notable feature is its 12-story, marble-clad central atrium, commonly known as the Grand Court. The Grand Court quickly became a Philadelphia favorite, highlighted by the Wanamaker Eagle and the Wanamaker Grand Court Organ. The Grand Court has been featured in major motion pictures, such as: Nasty Habits (1977), Mannequin (1987), Blow Out (1981), and 12 Monkeys (1995).
Wanamaker Organ
The Wanamaker Grand Court Organ was designed by George Ashdown Audsley and built by the Los Angeles Art Organ Company for the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair. The instrument had 10,059 pipes, and cost $105,000 to construct, equal to $ today. Wanamaker bought the organ in 1909 and had it transported from St. Louis aboard 13 freight cars. The organ's installation in Philadelphia took two years. It was played for the first time on June 22, 1911 to coincide with England's King George V's coronation.
More than 8,000 pipes were added to the organ between 1911 and 1917. By 1930, an additional 10,000 pipes were installed, bringing the total number of pipes today to 28,750. The instrument is of the American Symphonic school of design, intended to combine traditional organ resources with the tone colors and beauty of the symphony orchestra. Once a year, usually in June, "Wanamaker Organ Day" is held. This free festival lasts most of the day.
Wanamaker Eagle
John Wanamaker purchased a bronze bird sculpture by August Gaul, during the sculpture's visit to America in 1904 at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. The 2,500-pound sculpture is a focal point of the store's grand court, whose floor had to be reinforced to hold the sculpture. Known as the "Wanamaker Eagle", it became a famous meeting place and "Meet me at the Eagle" became a popular Philadelphia catchphrase.
Christmas Light Show
In November 1955, the store tapped lighting designer, Frederick Yost, to create seasonal displays. Yost designed the Holiday Light Show for the Grand Court, creating a more contemporary display than previous years. Since then the Holiday Light Show has become a beloved annual holiday tradition for generations of Philadelphians. In the 21st century, the light show has been modernized, but has retained the look and feel of the original show. Since 2006 the Macy's Dickens Village has been located on the store's third floor, continuing a cherished Philadelphia Christmas tradition that had begun at a different location in 1985.
Expansion outside Philadelphia
Wanamaker expanded to New York City in 1896, continuing a mercantile business originally started by Alexander Turney Stewart. He expanded internationally with the European Houses of Wanamaker in London and Paris.
Wanamaker was an innovator, creative in his work, a merchandising genius, and proponent of the power of advertising, though modest and with an enduring reputation for honesty. Although he did not invent the fixed price system, he is credited for the creation of the price tag; he popularized it as the industry standard. He also started the "money-back guarantee" that is now standard business practice.
He provided his employees with free medical care, education, recreational facilities, pensions and profit-sharing plans before such benefits were considered standard. Labor activists, however, knew him as a fierce opponent of unionization. During an 1887 organizing drive by the Knights of Labor, he fired the first twelve union members who were discovered by his detectives.
Wanamaker was the first retailer to place a half-page newspaper ad (1874) and the first full-page ad (1879). He initially wrote his own ad copy, but later hired the world's first full-time copywriter John Emory Powers. During Powers's tenure, Wanamaker's revenues doubled from $4 million to $8 million. Wanamaker supposedly said “Half the money I spend on advertising is wasted; the trouble is I don't know which half.”
Postmaster General
In 1889 Wanamaker began the First Penny Savings Bank in order to encourage thrift. That same year he was appointed United States Postmaster General by President Benjamin Harrison; he was accused by the newspapers of the day of buying the post. Wanamaker was credited by his friends with introducing the first commemorative stamp and many efficiencies to the Postal Service. He was the first to make plans for free rural postal service in the United States, although the plan was not implemented until 1896.
In 1890 Wanamaker persuaded Congress to pass an act prohibiting the sale of lottery tickets through the mail, and then he aggressively pursued violators. Those actions effectively ended all state lotteries in the US until they reappeared in 1964, partly as an effort to undermine organized crime.
Wanamaker's tenure at the Post Office was riddled with controversy. He fired some 30,000 postal workers under the then common "spoils system" during his four-year term, as it was customary for a change in political administrations to lead to new appointments for their own supporters. The changeover of so many employees caused severe confusion, inefficiency, and a run-in with civil-service crusader Theodore Roosevelt, a fellow Republican.
In 1890 Wanamaker commissioned a series of stamps that were derided in the national media as the poorest quality stamps ever issued, both for printing quality and materials. When his department store ordered advance copies of the newly translated novel The Kreutzer Sonata by Leo Tolstoy, the deadline was missed, and only the regular discount was offered by the publisher. He retaliated by banning the book from the US Mail on grounds of obscenity.
He was ridiculed for this action by many major U.S. newspapers. In 1891 he ordered changes in the uniforms of letter carriers, and was accused of arranging for all the uniforms to be ordered from a single firm in Baltimore, to which he was believed to have financial ties. In 1893 he made a public prediction at the Chicago World's Fair that U.S. mail would still rely on stagecoach and horseback delivery for a century to come, failing to anticipate the effects of trains, the automobile, and related truck vehicles.
During World War I, Wanamaker publicly proposed that the United States buy Belgium from Germany for the sum of one-hundred billion dollars, as an alternative to the continuing carnage of the war.
Wanamaker was the longest surviving member of President Benjamin Harrison's cabinet.
Philanthropy
Wanamaker was known for his philanthropy to programs to aid the poor in Philadelphia. He co-founded Sunday Breakfast Rescue Mission, a homeless shelter and soup kitchen, in 1878. The Sunday Breakfast Rescue Mission has since expanded to provide more services and still supports the homeless population of Philadelphia.
Wanamaker was an avid collector of art and antiquities. He made several donations to the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Among these donations was a collection of bronze reproductions of artifacts uncovered from the ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum, which Wanamaker had commissioned by the Chiurazzi Foundry in Naples specifically for the museum. They are known collectively as the Wanamaker Bronzes.
Death
He died on December 12, 1922. His funeral was on December 14, 1922, with a service at the Bethany Presbyterian Church. He was interred in the Wanamaker family tomb in the churchyard of the Church of St. James the Less in Philadelphia.
At his death his estate was estimated to be $100 million (USD), ($ today) divided equally among his three living children and granddaughters, Mary "Minnie" Wanamaker Warburton (Mrs. Barclay Warburton), Patricia "Paddy" W. Estelle, and Elizabeth Wanamaker McLeod, who all received substantial stocks, real estate and cash instruments. Second son Rodman was made sole inheritor of the store businesses. Rodman died in 1928, leaving the businesses with a documented worth of $36.7 million [$ today] in a trust. Rodman Wanamaker is credited with founding the Professional Golfers' Association of America and the Millrose Games. The senior Wanamaker's first son, Thomas B. Wanamaker, died in Paris in 1908.
He was the last surviving Cabinet member of the Harrison administration.
Legacy
Bronze busts honoring Wanamaker and other industry magnates stand between the Chicago River and the Merchandise Mart in downtown Chicago, Illinois.
A popular saying illustrating how difficult it was to quantify the response to advertising is attributed to Wanamaker: "Half the money I spend on advertising is wasted; the trouble is I don't know which half."
Beginning in 1908, Wanamaker financed Anna Jarvis's campaign to have a national Mother's Day holiday officially recognized. On May 8, 1914, the U.S. Congress passed a law designating the second Sunday in May as Mother's Day, which also later became an international holiday. A dedicated Pennsylvania historic marker honoring Jarvis and Wananmaker is located at Philadelphia City Hall, across the street from Wanamaker's store, where the earliest Mother's Day ceremonies were held.
Wanamaker's fame was considerable around the world in his heyday. In the original play Pygmalion (1912) by George Bernard Shaw, Alfred Doolittle is left a legacy by an American philanthropist millionaire named "Ezra Wanafeller", combining Wanamaker's name with John D. Rockefeller, Sr.
John Wanamaker owned homes in Philadelphia, Cape May Point and Bay Head, New Jersey, New York City, Florida, London, Paris, and Biarritz. He had a townhouse at 2032 Walnut Street in Philadelphia, which was designed similar to an English manor house and held a Welte Philharmonic Organ. He died in this residence. The facade of this building is still extant. During the 1980 construction of the new Wanamaker House high rise on the adjacent property on Walnut Street, the facade of the original Wanamaker house was closely monitored to ensure its preservation. This monitoring was performed by the Engineering firm, Boucher and James, Inc. Dale Leonard, professional land surveyor. Thomas Edison, a close friend, was a pallbearer at his funeral.
His country estate was the Lindenhurst mansion in Cheltenham Township, Pennsylvania, which stood on York Road, below Washington Lane (). The original mansion was designed by architect E. A. Sargent of New York; President Harrison visited there. A neoclassic mansion was constructed when the original Victorian Lindenhurst burned in 1907, destroying much of Wanamaker's art collection. A railroad station, Chelten Hills (located below Jenkintown, and no longer in existence), was constructed on the property in addition to his vast mansion. The campus of Salus University is today on part of the former estate.
A family trust owned the Wanamaker's store chain, run by a trustee system set up by Rodman Wanamaker's will. In 1978 the business was sold to Carter Hawley Hale, Inc. The 15-store chain was sold to Woodward & Lothrop in 1986, and the downtown store was renamed as Lord & Taylor. Woodies declared bankruptcy in the early 1990s, and with it went the Wanamaker stores, which were sold to May Department Stores Company on June 21, 1995. In August 2006 the flagship Philadelphia store was converted from a Lord & Taylor to a Macy's.
John Wanamaker was instrumental in the foundation of the Williamson College of the Trades (originally, 'Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades') in Elwyn, PA. It was named for his friend and mentor, Isaiah Vansant Williamson. Williamson died in 1889, shortly after he founded the school. Wanamaker was the chairman of the school's first board of trustees, who realized Williamson's vision and planning for the school. The board held a competition for the design of the original campus buildings and selected famed Philadelphia architect, Frank Furness (Furness, Evans & Company). Wanamaker has been memorialized in many ways at the school, most conspicuously in The John Wanamaker Free School of Artisans, which encompasses the instructional trade workshops and is considered the heart of the college. A dormitory, foundations, and groups are also named in his honor. Wanamaker privately wrote a biography of Williamson titled, Life of Isaiah V. Williamson, which was published posthumously in 1928.
John Wanamaker was a Pennsylvania Mason. The John Wanamaker Masonic Humanitarian Medal was created by resolution of the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania at the December Quarterly Communication of 1993. The medal, also called "The Wanamaker Medal" is to be awarded to a person (male or female) who, being a non-Mason, supports the ideals and philosophy of the Masonic Fraternity. At the discretion of the R. W. Grand Master, the medal is awarded to one who personifies the high ideals of John Wanamaker–a public spirited citizen, a lover of all people, and devoted to doing good. The medal has been presented sparingly to maintain the great prestige associated with an award created by resolution of the Pennsylvania Grand Lodge.
John Wanamaker was instrumental in the vision and planning of the Ben Franklin Parkway in Philadelphia.
See also
Luther Standing Bear
Owney (dog)
Timothy Eaton
Wanamaker's Department Store
Wanamaker Organ
References
Further reading
(children's biography)
External links
Wikisource: Life of Isaiah V, Williamson Full text of Biography
John Wanamaker: A retailing innovator
Who Made America? (John Wanamaker, Innovator)
Advertising Hall of Fame
A Short Life of John Wanamaker
1838 births
1922 deaths
Businesspeople from Philadelphia
19th-century American politicians
American businesspeople in retailing
American people of German descent
American people of Swiss descent
Benjamin Harrison administration cabinet members
Pennsylvania Republicans
People from Bay Head, New Jersey
People from Cape May Point, New Jersey
People from Cheltenham, Pennsylvania
Retail company founders
19th-century American businesspeople
United States Postmasters General
Burials at the Church of St. James the Less
Wanamaker family | [
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224985 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Built%20environment | Built environment | In urban planning, architecture, landscape architecture, and civil engineering, the term built environment, or built world, refers to the human-made environment that provides the setting for human activity, including homes, buildings, zoning, streets, sidewalks, open spaces, transportation options, and more. It is defined as "the human-made space in which people live, work and recreate on a day-to-day basis."
The built environment is most relevant in the fields of architecture, landscape architecture, urban planning, public health, sociology, and anthropology, among others.
The built environment is made up of physical features. However, when studied, the built environment often highlights the connection between physical space and social consequences. It impacts how society physically maneuvers and functions, as well as less tangible aspects of society such as socioeconomic inequity. The topic of the built environment also includes the ways in which communities have approached environmental issues that have arisen as a result of the altering of the natural environment for human activities. Various aspects of the built environment contribute to scholarship on housing and segregation, physical activity, food access, climate change, and environmental racism.
History
The term "built environment" places the concept in direct contrast to the supposedly "unbuilt" environment. However, taking a long-term perspective, the distinction between built and unbuilt become less clear because of the significant effect of human activity on the natural environment—whether through "clearing, terracing, ditching, planting, harvesting, fires" or from "accumulated layers of roads, bridges, dams, and buildings."
Early concepts of built environment in urban contexts date to Classical Antiquity: Hippodamus of Miletos, known as the "father of urban planning", developed Greek cities from 498 BC to 408 BC that created order by using grid plans that arranged the city in a more structured pattern. These early city plans eventually gave way to the City Beautiful movement in the late 1800s and early 1900s, inspired by Daniel Hudson Burnham, a reformist for the Progressivism movement who actively promoted "a reform of the landscape in tandem with political change." The effort was in partnership with others who believed that beautifying American cities would improve the moral compass of the cities and encourage the upper class to spend their money in cities. This beautification process included grand baroque parks and European-inspired architectural design to emphasize ideals of European culture as a supposed improvement to society. By mid-19th century, modernist or "indifferent" design influenced the character of work and public spaces, followed by a late twentieth century "revival of interest relating to the concept of place (including the built environment), and its relevance to mental health and other fields of study."
The built environment has significant social implications as well as physical ones. Concern with the built environment can be found in anthropological literature as early as the early 19th century in studies of social and cultural history. Early theories recognized that shelter and city organization was not only utilitarian, but reflected the culture of the societies that erected it. Durkheim, a foundational sociological theorist, similarly recognized that spatial organization is both a product of social factors but also plays a role in reproducing social forms.
Modern built environment
Currently, the built environment is typically used to describe the interdisciplinary field that encompasses the design, construction, management, and use of man-made physical influence as an interrelated whole. The concept also includes the relationship of these elements of the built environment with human activities over time—rather than a particular element in isolation or at a single moment in time, these aspects act together via the multiplier effect. The field is generally not regarded as a traditional profession or academic discipline in its own right, instead drawing upon areas such as economics, law, public policy, sociology, anthropology, public health, management, geography, design, engineering, technology, and environmental sustainability. Within the field of public health, built environments are referred to as building or renovating areas in an effort to improve the community's well-being through construction of “aesthetically, health improved, and environmentally improved landscapes and living structures”. For example: a community forest user group in Nepal is a multidimensional institution, which provides goods and services to local communities through natural resource management (see Climate change adaptation in Nepal).
Technology is playing a pivotal role in shaping the industries of today by augmenting processes, streamlining activities, and integrating innovations to propel the functioning of companies and organizations across a multitude of industries and help them achieve new heights. Building information modeling (BIM) is prominent practice. It involves illustration & pre-execution overview of physical and functional characteristics of places. BIM tools help the planner in making a future ready informed decision regarding a building or other built asset. Smart Building Management, Drone-based Surveying, 3D Printing, Intelligent Transportation System are recent implementations of technology that serve as proof that the modern built environment is not always physically influenced in the digital age.
Prominent features of the built environment
Transportation options
Transportation options within a community play a large role in communities, both socially and physically. These options can include roads, sidewalks, and public transportation infrastructure.
Roads and highways
Roads allow pedestrians and people operating vehicles (whether cars, buses, motorcycles, or bicycles) to reliably access all areas of an urban or regional space. For millennia, road systems have served as the veins of urban spaces, allowing people to travel efficiently between areas within a city or region. Roads circulate people and materials throughout cities, just as "the cardiovascular network distributes energy and materials to cells." Without well-planned roadways, cities operate as collections of smaller isolated neighborhoods with little movement between them to stimulate city-wide economic growth and the socioeconomic mobility of households. While primarily intended to promote transit, can also serve as physical barriers in the built environment. One study out of Cornell University used U.S. Census data to compare the differences between linear distance and distance-by-road in American cities. The results found that road distance was disproportionately high between clusters of different racial groups, while it is much closer to linear distance within neighborhood clusters. Major roadways can also divide social space by reducing walkability and separating business from residential areas.
Sidewalks
Sidewalks are an important feature of the built environment that enable pedestrian mobility and increase walkability. Urban road networks used to be primarily a place for the pedestrian, but have become increasingly dominated by automobiles. The city sidewalk, therefore, is a place safe for bipedal commuters. The quality and service of sidewalks can be impacted by factors like police patrolling, cleanliness, obstructions, and damage to the surface such as cracks. Walkable neighborhoods are proven to be safer and more accessible, with the presence of many pedestrians creating a watchful community. Businesses also benefit from increased foot-traffic near their establishments that encourages people to stop and shop more frequently than if they were driving past the store.
Public transportation
Public transportation is an essential part of urban spaces and the built environment. Public transport raises property values by improving access to surrounding resources, lowers the cost of living by reducing the need for a car, and improves an area's environmental footprint by reducing carbon-rich greenhouse gas emissions. Studies show that land use and transit infrastructure has a great impact on the use of public transit in cities globally. Individuals' decisions to either drive, walk, bike, or use public transit are shown to be influenced by spatial factors such as density.
Research also shows that the availability and nature of bike lanes and trails impacts cyclist numbers and behavior. When the proper infrastructure is implemented, residents are likely to utilize the amenity. However, the construction of bike lanes in America has sometimes been recognized as a symbol of gentrification, as it attracts younger white residents and impacts a location's demographics because of the benefits to the neighborhood.
Buildings
At their most basic level, buildings are used as spaces of shelter for residential and business uses. They are one of the most clear elements of the built environment because of their physical presence and purpose to protect against the natural or "un-built" environment. The location, design, and layout of buildings all have an impact on the function and effectiveness of a building's service as an aspect of the built environment. A building's location can influence its function, and how frequently it is used by people. Additionally, the design of indoor space, as determined by architects and designers, has a great impact on how the space functions and the behavior it promotes.
Parks and green space
Parks provide a number of neighborhood benefits including promotion of physical activity and environmental wellbeing. The location and accessibility of parks also has a great positive influence on the surrounding communities. For example, the addition green spaces to urban space can combat air pollution, provide a break from otherwise monotonous urban networks, and even impact city-wide temperatures by reducing the Heat-island effect.
Impact of the built environment
Housing and segregation
Features in the built environment present physical barriers which constitute the boundaries between neighborhoods. Roads and railways, for instance, play a large role in how people can feasibly navigate their environment. This can result in the isolation of certain communities from various resources and from each other. The placement of roads, highways, and sidewalks also determines what access people have to jobs and childcare close to home, especially in areas where most people do not own vehicles. Walkability directly influences community, so the way a neighborhood is built affects the outcomes and opportunities of the community that lives there. Even less physically imposing features, such as architectural design, can distinguish the boundaries between communities and decrease movement across neighborhood lines.
The segregation of communities is significant because the qualities of any given space directly impact the wellbeing of the people who live and work there. George Galster and Patrick Sharkey refer to this variation in geographic context as "spatial opportunity structure," and claim that the built environment influences socioeconomic outcomes and general welfare. For instance, the history of redlining and housing segregation means that there is less green space in many Black and Hispanic neighborhoods. Access to parks and green space has been proven to be good for mental health which puts these communities at a disadvantage. The historical segregation has contributed to environmental injustice, as these neighborhoods suffer from hotter summers since urban asphalt absorbs more heat than trees and grass. The effects of spacial segregation initiatives in the built environment, such as redlining in the 1930s and 1940s, are long lasting. The inability to feasibly move from forcibly economically depressed areas into more prosperous ones creates fiscal disadvantages that are passed down generationally. With proper public education access tied to the economic prosperity of a neighborhood, many formerly redlined areas continue to lack educational opportunities for residents and, thus, job and higher-income opportunities are limited.
Public health
Historically, action-oriented initiatives to the built environment have often stemmed from issues with public health. Dating back to Georges-Eugene Haussmann's comprehensive plans for urban Paris in the 1850s, concern for lack of air-flow and sanitary living conditions has inspired many strong city planning efforts. Public health research has expanded the list of concerns associated with the built environment to include healthy food access, community gardens, mental health, physical health, walkability, and cycling mobility. Designing areas of cities with good public health is linked to creating opportunities for physical activity, community involvement, and equal opportunity within the built environment. Urban forms that encourage physical activity and provide adequate public resources for involvement and upward mobility are proven to have far healthier populations than those that discourage such uses of the built environment.
Physical activity
Since, the built environment determines how people move throughout a given space, it influences public health by promoting or discouraging health and wellness. Research has indicated that the way neighborhoods are created can affect both the physical activity and mental health of the communities’ residents. Built environments purposefully designed to improve physical activity are also linked to higher rates of physical activity, which in turn, positively affects health. People are generally more active in densely populated areas, areas good street connectivity, and mixed-use communities which incorporate both retail and residential space. As a result, those who prefer to walk and live in walkable environments often have lower obesity rates and drive less compared to those who preferred living in auto-dependent environments.
Neighborhoods with more walkability have lower rates of obesity, as well as increased physical activity among its residents. They also have lower rates of depression, higher social capital, and less alcohol abuse. Walkability features in these neighborhoods include safety, sidewalk construction, as well as destinations in which to walk. In addition, the perception of a walkable neighborhood, one that is perceived to have good sidewalks and connectivity, is correlated with higher rates of physical activity.
Assessments of walkability have been completed through the use of GIS programs, such as the Street Smart Walk Score. This example of a walkability assessment tool determines distances to grocery stores and other amenities, as well as connectivity and intersection frequency using specific addresses. Assessments such as the Street Smart Walk Score can be utilized by city and country planning departments to improve existing walkability of communities.
To implement walkable neighborhoods, community members and local leaders should focus on policy development. An effective framework that has been utilized in an abundance of communities is the Complete Streets concept of community planning that has been developed by the National Complete Streets Coalition (NCSC). NCSC states that the most successful policies are those that reflect input from a broad group of stakeholders, including transportation planners and engineers, elected officials, transit agencies, public health departments, and members of the community. According to Riggs, 2016, policies may focus on a “Complete Streets” investment, which includes sidewalk bulb-outs and refuges to reduce crossing distances or street widths for pedestrians. Other investments should include installing crosswalks, road markings, benches, shelters and sidewalk art installations. Every community will have a unique method of policy development depending on whether it is an urban, suburban, or rural community and how the policy will combine the variety of transportation modalities. Communities may choose to focus on walkability, but will also need to consider biking, wheeling/rolling, driving, and emergency vehicles. The NCSC policy workbook gives descriptive guidance on how to proceed with policy development whether they be council-driven, council-approved, directives, or citizen vote. When deciding how to proceed with walkability policy development, considerations should be made regarding current and past transportation policies, local community and government support, and how transportation policies have been implemented in the past.
Public health also addresses additional components of built environments including “cycling mobility”, which refers to the access that an area has granted to safe biking through multiple bike paths and bike lanes. Both walkability and bikeability have been cited as determinants of physical activity.
Built environments containing recreational facilities have been associated with greater physical activity among children. For example, one study found that walking paths, parks with playgrounds, swimming areas, basketball courts and other various recreational facilities increased physical activity among adolescent girls. Urban planning and its utilization of mixed use development are key factors affecting childhood obesity. Mixed use spaces are composed of residential, commercial, cultural, and institutional components. This type of development helps to reduce the distance residents have to travel to access a grocery store or school. It also creates a more walkable and bike friendly environment for residents.
It has been proven that high-density environments, meaning mixed use spaces and neighborhoods with higher walkability and bikeability, will increase physical activity. A multivariable cross-sectional study done by the Harvard School of Public Health examined the association of walkable built environment characteristics with body mass index (BMI) scores among a large sample of children and adolescents. A series of geographic information system variables were used to characterize a walkable built environment.
A distance less than 15 km to a private or public recreational open space has been linked to an increase in physical activity among children. This may be due to the influence children have on one another when they see others playing.
Also, a higher number of open spaces increases the likelihood of physical activity among children.
A more densely populated residential area can increase children's proximity to their peers creating a more walkable environment.
Less traffic density can also increase physical activity among children because their parents feel safe when they are walking in the neighborhood.
Lower neighborhood speed limits with more sidewalks and intersections also create a safer environment for children increasing their likelihood to walk in the neighborhood.
Finally, a greater variety of land use mix, or mixed use spaces, result in more children walking.
These built environment characteristics that can increase walkability were found to be generally associated with a lower BMI scores among the children sampled. Another study looking at active commuting, those reporting walking, biking, or skateboarding to school more than three times a week, among elementary aged children had significantly lower BMI than non-active commuters. For these reason, mixed use lands within the built environment are imperative to helping address childhood obesity. Urban sprawl, which has been positively associated with increased obesity, and an overall decline in active transportation in recent decades presents a real need for improving health within the built environment. High-density environments bring schools, parks, and grocery stores closer to residents making it convenient to potentially eat healthier foods and exercise on a regular basis. Comprehensive urban planning, such as mixed use development, promotes healthier lifestyles in general.
The strength of the evidence for reducing obesity through environment has been highlighted by the Centers for Disease Control in its Common Community Measures for Obesity Prevention Project, which includes measures of healthy food access and physical activity environments.
Food access
Access to healthy food is also an important component of the built environment. A higher density of convenience stores has been associated with obesity in children. In contrast, improved access to community supermarkets and farmer's markets is correlated with lower overweight status. Specifically in low income neighborhoods, the presence of a local grocery store is correlated with lower BMI/overweight risk. Community gardens are also considered a part of the built environment, and have been shown to increase fruit and vegetable intake among gardeners. Scholars say that community gardens have also been shown to have positive social and psychological impacts that lead to lower levels of stress, hypertension, and an improved sense of wellness, affecting the overall health of the individual and the community.
See also
Center for the Built Environment
City planning
Environmental psychology
Environmental sustainability
Healing environments
Healthy building
International Association of People-Environment Studies
Microbiomes of the built environment
National Building Museum
Natural environment
Public health
Social environment
Urbanism
Urban planning
Vernacular architecture
Weatherization
References
Further reading
Jeb Brugmann, Welcome to the urban revolution: how cities are changing the world, Bloomsbury Press, 2009
Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Random House, New York, 1961
Andrew Knight & Les Ruddock, Advanced Research Methods in the Built Environment, Wiley-Blackwell 2008
Paul Chynoweth, The Built Environment Interdiscipline: A Theoretical Model for Decision Makers in Research and Teaching, Proceedings of the CIB Working Commission (W089) Building Education and Research Conference, Kowloon Sangri-La Hotel, Hong Kong, 10 - 13 April 2006.
Richard J. Jackson with Stacy Sinclair, Designing Healthy Communities, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 2012
Russell P. Lopez, The Built Environment and Public Health, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 2012
External links
Australian Sustainable Built Environment Council (ASBEC)
Faculty of Built Environment, UTM, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
Designing Healthy Communities, link to nonprofit organization and public television documentary of same name
The Built Environment and Health: 11 Profiles of Neighborhood Transformation
World Zip Code
Architectural terminology
Urban studies and planning terminology
Built
Human geography
Cultural landscapes
Environmental social science concepts | [
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224986 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possum%20Bourne | Possum Bourne | Peter Raymond George "Possum" Bourne (13 April 1956 – 30 April 2003) was a champion New Zealand rally car driver. He died under non-competitive circumstances while driving on a public road that was to be the track for an upcoming race.
Awards
He was a three-time winner of the Asia-Pacific Rally Championship and the Australian Rally Championship seven times consecutively, amongst many other titles. In 1993 he became the first New Zealand resident to have a works contract in a FISA rally championship, when he drove a Subaru Legacy for Prodrive.
Family
Bourne lived in Pukekohe, Auckland, near his workshop. He lived with his wife, Peggy Bourne, and three children, Taylor, Spencer, and Jazlin. Bourne earned his nickname, "Possum", on the night he crashed his mother's Humber 80 while trying to avoid a possum in the middle of the road.
His autobiography, Bourne to Rally, was completed just days before his death. A bronze memorial statue of Bourne, unveiled a year after his death, stood overlooking the place of his death. The statue was moved to Pukekohe town square in April 2013, unveiled alongside the 2013 ITM 400 V8 Championship parade. In 2005, Peggy Bourne entered Race to the Sky, despite having had no formal rally driving experience, as a tribute to her late husband. In 2013, his oldest son Taylor Bourne competed in the 2013 Possum Bourne Memorial Rally with his stepfather and MP Mark Mitchell as co-driver. When Taylor completed the event, he went on to say "It's easy to understand why he loved it so much".
Car of choice
Bourne was best known for his exploits behind the wheel of Subaru cars, initially the RX (the turbocharged version of the Leone), then the Legacy (rebadged as the Liberty for the Australian market because of a perceived clash with charity organisation Legacy Australia).
But it would be the Impreza WRX that he would become most associated with, driving for the Subaru World Rally Team in Rally New Zealand, Australia and also in Indonesia, partnered by Richard Burns in the mid 1990s, before going on to win multiple Australian titles with Subaru Rally Team Australia.
Subaru Japan gave him a black, limited edition Subaru Impreza WRX STi for personal use.
Death of Rodger Freeth
Bourne's best friend and co-driver, Dr. Rodger "Roj" Freeth, died in a horrible accident during 1993 Rally Australia, and the crash almost ended Bourne's career. After encouragement from the Freeth family, he returned to the driver's seat. After Freeth's death, Bourne displayed a "ROJ" license plate on the front of his rally cars.
Death
Bourne received serious head injuries in a non-competitive car crash on 18 April 2003, and died in Dunedin Public Hospital on 30 April 2003 after life support was withdrawn. He was driving the Race to the Sky track, on the Waiorau Snow Farm Road which is normally a public road, for the event held in Cardrona, near Wanaka, New Zealand. Driving his Subaru Forester, he collided head on with a Jeep Cherokee driven by rally driver Mike Barltrop who claimed that Bourne was speeding. This treacherous road has over 100 corners and at least 15 hairpins, hence its appeal for rally driving. Barltrop was later arrested on a dangerous driving charge. After pleading guilty to aggravated careless use causing death, Barltrop was sentenced in the Invercargill District Court to 300 hours' community work, disqualified from driving for 18 months, and ordered to pay $10,000 reparations, divided between the intensive care unit of Dunedin Public Hospital and the Possum Bourne Education Trust.
At the time of his death, Bourne had just re-entered the world stage, driving a production-class Subaru Impreza in the PWRC.
Career results
References
External links
Obituary – from The Age
Obituary – AFP
Possum Bourne Motorsport
News story about who was to blame
Interview with Barltrop
Mike Barltrop arrested
1956 births
2003 deaths
New Zealand rally drivers
World Rally Championship drivers
Road incident deaths in New Zealand
Sportspeople from Auckland | [
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224993 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl | Karl | Karl may refer to:
People
Karl (given name), including a list of people and characters with the name
Karl der Große, commonly known in English as Charlemagne
Karl of Austria, last Austrian Emperor
Karl (footballer) (born 1993), Karl Cachoeira Della Vedova Júnior, Brazilian footballer
In myth
Karl (mythology), in Norse mythology, a son of Rig and considered the progenitor of peasants (churl)
Karl, giant in Icelandic myth, associated with Drangey island
Vehicles
Opel Karl, a car
ST Karl, Swedish tugboat requisitioned during the Second World War as ST Empire Henchman
Other uses
Karl, Germany, municipality in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany
Karl-Gerät, AKA Mörser Karl, 600mm German mortar used in the Second World War
KARL project, an open source knowledge management system
Korean Amateur Radio League, a national non-profit organization for amateur radio enthusiasts in South Korea
KARL, a radio station in Minnesota
See also
Carl (disambiguation)
Carle, a name
Karle (disambiguation)
Carll S. Burr, Jr. (1858–1936), New York politician
Carol (disambiguation)
Churl (also churl, ceorl, carl), freeman peasant in the Scandinavian caste system
John L. Karle (1894–1953), New York politician
Karl-Heinz
Karlo (name) | [
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224997 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilinear | Multilinear | Multilinear may refer to:
Multilinear form, a type of mathematical function from a vector space to the underlying field
Multilinear map, a type of mathematical function between vector spaces
Multilinear algebra, a field of mathematics | [
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225009 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus%20Teed | Cyrus Teed | Cyrus Reed Teed (October 18, 1839 – December 22, 1908) was a U.S. eclectic physician and alchemist turned religious leader and self-proclaimed messiah. In 1869, claiming divine inspiration, Teed took on the name Koresh and proposed a new set of scientific and religious ideas he called Koreshanity, including a unique Hollow Earth theory that posits the Earth and sky exist inside the inner surface of a sphere.
In the 1870s, he founded in New York the Koreshan Unity, a commune whose rule of conduct was based on his teachings. Other similar communities were established in Chicago and San Francisco. After 1894 the group concentrated itself in the small Florida town of Estero, seeking to build a "New Jerusalem" in that locale, peaking at 250 residents during the first decade of the 20th century. Following Teed's death late in 1908 the group went into decline, finally disappearing in 1961, leaving the Koreshan State Historic Site behind.
Biography
Early years
Cyrus Reed Teed was born October 18, 1839 in Delaware County, New York.
Teed studied medicine before opening a medical practice in Utica, New York.
Koreshanity
As a young eclectic physician, Teed was always interested in unconventional experiments, such as alchemy, often involving dangerously high levels of electricity. In the autumn of 1869, during an experiment he was badly shocked, and passed out. During his period of unconsciousness, Teed believed he was visited by a divine spirit who told him that he was the messiah. Inspired, once he awoke Teed vowed to apply his scientific knowledge to "redeem humanity." He promptly changed his first name to "Koresh," the Hebrew version of "Cyrus".
Teed denounced the idea that the Earth revolved around the sun and instead pioneered his own theory of the Universe, known as the Cellular Cosmogony. According to this theory, human beings live on the inside of the planet, not the outside; also, the sun is a giant battery-operated contraption, and the stars mere refractions of its light.
Teed's ideas, called Koreshanity, caught on with others. Koreshanity preached cellular cosmogony, alchemy, reincarnation, immortality, celibacy, communism, and a few other radical ideas. Teed started preaching Koreshanity in the 1870s in New York, forming the Koreshan Unity, later moving to Chicago.
Communal leader
One of Teed's fundamental principles involved the gathering of his most devoted followers into communal living groups. A first commune was formed in Chicago in 1888. By 1902 a second Koreshan community was established in that city. Other followers of the so-called Koreshan Unity formed a short-lived community in San Francisco, which lasted from 1891 to 1892. Small church groups existed in other towns.
In 1894 Teed's followers began to congregate in a small Florida town called Estero, where Teed planned to form a "New Jerusalem." The two Chicago societies, including the group's printing plant, were subsequently shut down and moved to Florida. The colony was extensively landscaped and bedecked with numerous exotic tropical plants. The Koreshans built extensively, establishing a bakery, general store, concrete works, power plant, and "World College of Life" in the community. They also published their newspaper from the site, called The Flaming Sword.
The "golden age" of the Koreshan Unity in Estero was 1903 to 1908, when they had over 250 residents and incorporated the town, its territory embracing some 110 square miles — the fifth largest area of any city in the United States at the time.
They tried to run several candidates for county government against the local Democratic Party, but were never successful.
Death and legacy
On October 13, 1906, while meeting the 1:30PM Atlantic Coast Line train from Baltimore, a group of Koreshans got into a fight in front of R. W. Gillams' grocery store in Ft. Myers, Teed tried to break it up and he was severely beaten by a Marshal Sanchez, suffering injuries from which he never recovered. He died on December 22, 1908.
Teed's followers initially expected his resurrection, after which he and his faithful would be taken up to heaven as he had predicted in his book The Immortal Manhood. They kept a constant vigil over his body for two days, after which time it began to show signs of decay. Following Christmas the county health officer stepped in to order his burial. After his death the group went into decline.
In 1921, a hurricane destroyed his tomb on the southern end of Estero island and washed his coffin out to sea.
The last remaining follower, Hedwig Michel, deeded the colony to the State of Florida in 1961. It is now the Koreshan State Historic Site.
Cyrus Teed's son, Douglas Arthur Teed, was an American Impressionist painter, but not a follower of his father's teachings.
See also
List of messiah claimants
Messiah complex
Footnotes
Works
The Immortal Manhood: The Laws and Processes of Its Attainment in the Flesh. Chicago, IL: Guiding Star Publishing House, 1902.
The Cellular Cosmogony; or, The Earth a Concave Sphere. With Ulysses G. Morrow. Estero, FL: Guiding Star Publishing House, 1905.
Further reading
Christoph Brumann, "The Dominance of One and Its Perils: Charismatic Leadership and Branch Structures in Utopian Communes," Journal of Anthropological Research, vol. 56, no. 4 (Winter 2000), pp. 425–451.
Howard D. Fine, "The Koreshan Unity: The Chicago Years of a Utopian Community," Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society, vol. 68, no. 3 (June 1975), pp. 213–227.
Martin Gardner, "Flat and Hollow," in Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science, 2nd Edition. New York: Dover Publications, 1957; pp. 22–27.
Donna Kossy, "Dr. Cyrus Teed" in Kooks: A Guide to the Outer Limits of Human Belief. Revised 2nd Edition. Los Angeles: Feral House, 2001.
James E. Landing, "Cyrus Reed Teed and the Koreshan Unity," in Donald E. Pitzer (ed.), America's Communal Utopias. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2010; pp. 375–395.
Elliott Mackle, "Cyrus Teed and the Lee County Elections of 1906," Florida Historical Quarterly, vol. 57, no. 1 (July 1978), pp. 1–18.
Lyn Millner, "The Allure of Immortality: An American Cult, a Florida Swamp, and a Renegade Prophet," University Press of Florida, 2015.
Sarah A. Tarlow, "Representing Utopia: The Case of Cyrus Teed's Koreshan Unity Settlement," Historical Archaeology, vol. 40, no. 1 (2006), pp. 89–99.
Irvin D. S. Winsboro, "The Koreshan Communitarians' Papers and Publications in Estero, 1894–1963," Florida Historical Quarterly, vol. 83, no. 2 (Fall 2004), pp. 173–190.
External links
Koreshan State Historic Site, official web page.
Unofficial Koreshan State Historic Site, unofficial web page.
American Communal Utopias and The Koreshan Unity: A Bibliography Brief overview and great bibliography of works, if slightly dated.
Turning the Universe Inside-Out: Ulysses Grant Morrow's Naples Experiment Examination of the Naples Experiment, and why it failed.
The Startling Testimony of Plumb-Lines Earlier experiments of Ulysses Grant Morrow
Catherine A. Anthony Ohnemus- Dr. Cyrus Teed and the Koreshan Unity Movement
Biography of Cyrus Reed Teed
1839 births
1908 deaths
Hollow Earth proponents
New religious movements
Pseudohistorians
Self-declared messiahs
Founders of utopian communities
American alchemists
People from Estero, Florida
19th-century alchemists
20th-century alchemists | [
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225017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillside%20Strangler | Hillside Strangler | The Hillside Strangler, later the Hillside Stranglers, is the media epithet for one, later two, American serial killers who terrorized Los Angeles, California, between October 1977 and February 1978, with the nicknames originating from the fact that many of the victims' bodies were discovered in the hills surrounding the city.
It was initially believed that only one person was responsible for the killings. The police, however, knew from the positions of the bodies that two criminals were working together, but withheld that information from the press. The perpetrators were eventually discovered to be the cousins Kenneth Bianchi and Angelo Buono Jr., who were later convicted of kidnapping, raping, torturing and murdering 10 women and girls ranging in age from 12 to 28 years old.
The Hillside Strangler murders began with the deaths of three sex workers who were found strangled and dumped naked on hillsides northeast of Los Angeles between October and early November 1977. It was not until the deaths of five young women who were not sex workers, but girls who had been abducted from middle-class neighborhoods, that the media attention and subsequent "Hillside Strangler" moniker came to prominence.
There were two more deaths in December and February before the murders abruptly stopped. An extensive investigation proved fruitless until the arrest of Bianchi in January 1979 for the murder of two more young women in Washington and the subsequent linking of his past to the Strangler case.
The most expensive trial in the history of the California legal system at that time followed, with Bianchi and Buono eventually being found guilty of those crimes and sentenced to life imprisonment.
Background
In January 1976, Kenneth Bianchi left Rochester, New York and moved to Los Angeles, California to live with his cousin, Angelo Buono Jr. Buono provided a strong role model for the docile Bianchi. When Bianchi was short of money, Buono came up with the idea of getting some girls to work for them as prostitutes. Two teenage runaways, Sabra Hannan and Becky Spears, met Bianchi and Buono, and once under their control, were forced to prostitute themselves. Eventually, Spears happened to meet lawyer David Wood, who was appalled at her situation and arranged for her to escape from the city.
Encouraged by Spears' escape, Hannan ran away from Bianchi and Buono a short time later. With their pimping income gone, they had to find more teenage girls. Impersonating police officers, they eventually found another young woman and installed her in the previous girl's bedroom. Also, they bought from a prostitute named Deborah Noble a supposed "trick list" with names of men who frequented prostitutes. Noble and her friend, Yolanda Washington, delivered the trick list to Buono in October 1977.
Murders
Yolanda Washington
Yolanda Washington happened to mention to Buono that she always worked on a certain stretch of Sunset Boulevard. When Bianchi and Buono found that Deborah Noble had deceived them about the list but were unable to find her, they decided to take out their rage on Washington. Her naked body was found on October 17, 1977, on a hillside near the Ventura Freeway, and Detective Frank Salerno of the Los Angeles Sheriff's Department was called to the scene. It was determined that the corpse was cleaned before being dumped; faint marks were visible around the neck, wrists, and ankles where a rope had been used. The victim had also been raped.
Judith Miller
On November 1, 1977, police were called to Alta Terrace Drive in La Crescenta, a neighborhood 12 miles north of downtown Los Angeles, where the body of a teenage girl was found naked, face up on a parkway in a middle-class residential area. The homeowner had covered her with a tarp in the early morning hours to prevent the neighborhood children from viewing her on their way to school. Ligature marks were on her neck, wrists and ankles, indicating to police she was bound and strangled. The body had been dumped, indicating she was killed elsewhere.
Detective Salerno also found a small piece of light-colored fluff on her eyelid and saved it for the forensic experts. A coroner's report further detailed that she had been raped and sodomized. The girl, who was described as being "small and thin, weighing about 90 pounds and appearing to be about 16 years old", was eventually identified as 15-year-old Judith Lynn Miller, a former student of Hollywood High School, runaway and occasional sex worker.
Miller was last seen alive on October 31, 1977, talking to a man driving a large two-tone sedan on Sunset Blvd next to Carneys Express Limited. The stranglers told her they were undercover police officers, handcuffed her, and took her to Buono's Auto Upholstery Shop at 703 E. Colorado Street in Glendale where she was murdered.
Lissa Kastin
Five days later, on November 6, 1977, the nude body of another woman was discovered near the Chevy Chase Country Club, in Glendale. Like Miller, she bore five-point (neck, wrists and ankles) ligature marks and of having been strangled and brutally raped, but not sodomized. The woman was identified as 21-year-old waitress Elissa Teresa "Lissa" Kastin, who was last seen leaving the restaurant where she worked the night before her body was discovered.
Kastin was also a professional dancer for the all-female dance troupe The L.A. Knockers and, unlike the two previous victims, was not a sex worker, drug user or runaway. The stranglers followed Kastin after she was seen driving home from work, pulled her over on the street she lived on, presented a fake police badge, and told her that they were detectives. They then handcuffed her and told her they needed to take her in for questioning.
Aborted abduction of Catharine Lorre Baker
At some point in early November 1977, the two men approached 24-year-old Catharine Lorre Baker, the daughter of actor Peter Lorre — famous for his role as a serial killer in Fritz Lang's film M — with the intent of abducting and killing her. However, when they found a picture of her sitting on her father's lap among her identification, they let her go without incident, fearing the murder of a celebrity's child may attract an unusually high amount of police and press attention. Lorre did not realize who the men were until they were arrested, at which point she recalled that two men flashing L.A. police badges had approached her in the past.
Dolores Cepeda and Sonja Johnson
On Sunday, November 13, 1977, two girls, 12-year-old Dolores Ann "Dolly" Cepeda and 14-year-old Sonja Marie Johnson, boarded an RTD bus in front of The Eagle Rock Plaza on Colorado Boulevard and headed home. The last time they were seen was getting off the bus on York Boulevard and N Avenue 46 and approaching a two-tone sedan which reportedly had two men inside. Their two corpses were found by a nine-year-old boy who had been treasure hunting in a trash heap on a hillside near Dodger Stadium on November 20, 1977. Both of the girls' bodies had already begun to decompose. It was determined that they had been strangled and raped.
Kristina Weckler
Earlier that same day, November 20, 1977, hikers found the naked body of twenty-year-old Kristina Weckler, a quiet honors student at the Art Center College of Design deemed by Detective Bob Grogan of the Los Angeles Police Department to be a "loving and serious young woman who should have had a bright future ahead of her", on a hillside between Glendale and Eagle Rock. When found by Grogan, ligature marks were on her wrists, ankles and neck, and when he turned her over, bruises on her breasts were obvious and blood oozed from her rectum. Unlike the first three victims there were two puncture marks on her arm, but no signs of the needle tracks that indicated a drug addict. It was later revealed that Weckler had been injected with Windex, a hard-surface cleaner.
Evelyn Jane King
On November 23, 1977, the badly decomposed body of 28-year-old Evelyn Jane King, an aspiring actress who had gone missing on November 9, was discovered in bushes near the Los Feliz off-ramp of the Golden State Freeway. The severity of decomposition prevented determination as to whether she had been raped or tortured but she had been strangled like the others. In response authorities created a task force — initially composed of 30 officers from the LAPD, the Sheriff's Department and the Glendale Police Department — to catch the predator now dubbed the "Hillside Strangler".
Lauren Wagner
On November 29, 1977, police found the body of eighteen-year-old Lauren Rae Wagner, a business student who lived with her parents in the San Fernando Valley, in the hills around Los Angeles's Mount Washington. She had ligature marks on her neck, ankles and wrists. There were also burn marks on her hands indicating she was tortured. Lauren's parents had expected her to come home before midnight, and the next morning when they found her car parked across the street with the door ajar, her father questioned the neighbors.
He found that the woman who lived in the house where Lauren's car had been parked saw her abduction. This woman stated that she saw two men: one was tall and young, the other one was older and shorter with bushy hair. She also stated that she heard Wagner cry out, "You won't get away with this!", during her abduction.
Kimberly Martin
On December 14, 1977, the body of 17-year-old sex worker Kimberly Diane Martin, which was naked and showed signs of torture, was found on a deserted lot near Los Angeles City Hall. Martin had previously joined a call girl agency because she feared exposing herself on the streets with the Strangler on the loose. The killers happened to place a call to her agency from a Hollywood Public Library pay phone and she was the call girl who was dispatched. When the police investigated the apartment she had been dispatched to, they found it vacant and broken into.
Cindy Hudspeth
The body of the final Hillside Strangler victim was discovered in Los Angeles on February 17, 1978, when a helicopter pilot spotted an orange Datsun abandoned midway down a cliff on the Angeles Crest Highway. Police responded to the scene and discovered the nude body of the car's owner, twenty-year-old Cindy Lee Hudspeth - a student and part-time waitress - in the trunk. Her corpse again showed ligature marks, and she had been raped and tortured. She had been strangled and her body placed in the trunk of her car, which was then pushed off the cliff.
Hudspeth's murder had initially been unplanned. Bianchi had arrived at Buono's upholstery shop at closing time on February 16 to discover Hudspeth in the company of Buono, discussing upholstery work she wished him to perform on her car. The two men had a private discussion, opting to make her their next victim.
Investigation and trial
In January 1979, after intensive investigation, police charged Bianchi and Buono with the crimes. Bianchi had fled to Bellingham, Washington, where he was soon arrested by Bellingham Police Department for raping and murdering two women he had lured to a home for a house-sitting job. Bianchi attempted to set up an insanity defense, claiming that he had dissociative identity disorder and that a personality separate from himself committed the murders. Court psychologists, notably Dr. Martin Orne, observed Bianchi and found that he was faking, so Bianchi agreed to plead guilty and testify against Buono in exchange for leniency.
At the conclusion of Buono's trial in 1983, Presiding Judge Ronald M. George, who later became Chief Justice of the California Supreme Court, stated during sentencing, "I would not have the slightest reluctance to impose the death penalty in this case were it within my power to do so. Ironically, although these two defendants utilized almost every form of legalized execution against their victims, the defendants have escaped any form of capital punishment." Bianchi is serving a life sentence at the Washington State Penitentiary in Walla Walla. Buono died of a heart attack on September 21, 2002, at Calipatria State Prison in California, where he was serving a life sentence.
Veronica Compton
In 1980, Bianchi began a relationship with Veronica Compton. During his trial, she testified for the defense. She was later convicted and imprisoned for attempting to strangle a woman she had lured to a motel in an attempt to have authorities believe that the Hillside Strangler was still on the loose and the wrong man was imprisoned. While incarcerated, Bianchi had smuggled a semen filled condom to her in the spine of a book to use to make it look like a rape/murder committed by the Hillside Strangler. She was released in 2003.
Media
Film adaptations
See also
Alphabet murders
List of serial killers in the United States
References
Cited works and further reading
External links
"'Hillside Strangler' dies in prison", CNN, September 22, 2002
Crime Library's story on the Hillside Stranglers
1977 in California
1977 murders in the United States
1978 in California
1978 murders in the United States
American serial killers
American people convicted of child sexual abuse
Crimes in California
Criminal duos
Incidents of violence against women
Male serial killers
Murder in California
Rapes in the United States
Torture in the United States | [
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225023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eightball%20%28comics%29 | Eightball (comics) | Eightball is a comic book by Daniel Clowes and published by Fantagraphics Books. It ran from 1989 to 2004. The first issue appeared soon after the end of Clowes's previous comic book, Lloyd Llewellyn. Eightball has been among the best-selling series in alternative comics.
Early issues of Eightball feature a mixture of very short, often crudely humorous comics ("Zubrick and Pogeybait", "The Sensual Santa"), topical rants and satires ("Art School Confidential", "On Sports"), longer, more reflective self-contained stories ("Caricature", "Immortal Invisible"), and serialized works. The first extended story serialized in Eightball was Like a Velvet Glove Cast in Iron, which ran in issues #1–10. Glove was followed by Ghost World (issues #11–18). Beginning with #19 each issue of Eightball has been devoted to a single storyline, as opposed to the more eclectic format of the earlier issues. Issues #19–21 serialized the graphic novel David Boring, while issues #22 and 23 each consisted of a collection of short, fragmentary stories in diverse styles and formats that meshed into a unified narrative ("Ice Haven" and "The Death Ray"). The issues of Eightball beginning with #19 have been published in full color in a larger magazine-sized format. Eightball #18 included a bound-in copy of Clowes's pamphlet Modern Cartoonist.
Single issues
Book collections
Lout Rampage! (Fantagraphics, 1991, ) – Short stories
Like a Velvet Glove Cast in Iron (Fantagraphics, 1993, ) – Graphic novel
Pussey!: The Complete Saga of Young Dan Pussey (Fantagraphics, 1995, ) – Stories featuring Clowes' character Dan Pussey
Orgy Bound (Fantagraphics, 1996, ) – Short stories
Ghost World (Fantagraphics, 1997, ) – Graphic novel
Caricature (Fantagraphics, 1998, ) – Short stories
David Boring (Pantheon Books, 2000, ) – Graphic novel
Twentieth Century Eightball (Fantagraphics, 2002, ) – Short stories
Ice Haven (Pantheon, 2005, ) – A reformatted version of the contents of Eightball #22
The Complete Eightball 1–18 (Fantagraphics, 2015, )
Film adaptations
Ghost World was adapted by Clowes and director Terry Zwigoff into a 2001 feature film of the same name, for which Clowes and Zwigoff were nominated for an Academy Award for screenplay writing. Additionally, the 2006 Clowes/Zwigoff film Art School Confidential was loosely based on a short story of the same name which appeared in Eightball #7.
Controversy
The comic generated controversy when a high school teacher in Guilford, Connecticut gave Eightball #22 (Ice Haven) to a student as a make-up summer reading assignment. The parents of the student had concerns about the book's appropriateness. The superintendent of Guilford High School said the book was inappropriate for 13-year-olds and placed the teacher on leave. The teacher resigned before the matter was fully investigated. The Guilford school district and principal were criticized for getting police involved and trying the issue in a "kangaroo court".
References
External links
List of all issues of Eightball and their contents
Eightball at Fantagraphics - Order and preview Eightball comic books and merchandise from the publisher
Comics by Daniel Clowes
Humor comics
Satirical comics
Fantagraphics titles
1989 comics debuts
2004 comics endings
Eisner Award winners
Harvey Award winners for Best New Series
Harvey Award winners for Best Continuing or Limited Series
Harvey Award winners for Best Single Issue or Story
Comics anthologies | [
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] |
225024 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech%20from%20the%20throne | Speech from the throne | A speech from the throne (or throne speech) is an event in certain monarchies in which the reigning sovereign, or a representative thereof, reads a prepared speech to members of the nation’s legislature when a session is opened, outlining the government’s agenda and focus for the forthcoming session; or—in some cases—closed. When a session is opened, the address sets forth the government’s priorities with respect to its legislative agenda, for which the cooperation of the legislature is sought. The speech is often accompanied with formal ceremony and is often held annually, although in some places it may occur more or less frequently, whenever a new session of the legislature is opened.
Historically, when monarchs exercised personal influence and overall decision-making in government, a speech from the throne would outline the policies and objectives of the monarch; as such the speech was usually prepared by the monarch's advisers, but the monarch supervised the drafting of the speech at least to some extent and exercised final discretion as to its content. In constitutional monarchies today, whether by law or by convention, the head of state (or representative thereof) reads the speech from the throne, but it is prepared by the ministers in cabinet.
The United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Norway are the only contemporary European monarchies in which the practice of the country's monarch giving a "throne speech" is still observed. In other nations, the monarch may attend or still officially open the country's legislature and may also give a speech but these speeches differ from the traditional throne speech in that they do not outline any government agenda. Many republics have adopted a similar practice in which the head of state, often a president, addresses the legislature; for example, in the United States, the president makes an annual State of the Union address and in the Philippines, the president also makes an annual State of the Nation Address.
Current practice
Of contemporary European monarchies today, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands (Prince's Day), and Norway still practice the traditional "throne speech" given by the monarch, outlining the government's agenda, with similar ceremonial. In other countries the monarch may or may not attend the opening of the country's legislature, and may also give a speech, though these speeches differ from the traditional throne speech in that they do not outline any government agenda.
Commonwealth realms
Terminology
In the United Kingdom, the speech is known as Her Majesty's Most Gracious Speech, the Gracious Address, or, less formally, the Queen's Speech (or King's Speech, when the reigning monarch is male). In Canada, it is known as the Speech from the Throne (often shortened to Throne Speech) (in French: Discours du Trône). Since 1973, the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec has delivered a short inaugural address termed the Allocution, after which the premier reads his or her Discours d'ouverture (Opening Speech), called the Message inaugural from 1974 to 1984.
In Hong Kong, the governor's address was termed the Policy Address during Chris Patten's governorship. In the Irish Free State, the governor-general delivered the Governor-General's Address to Dáil Éireann; only two were ever given, in 1922 and 1923.
The speech
In the Commonwealth realms, the speech from the throne is an oration that forms part of a ceremony marking the opening of parliament. Some records indicate the ceremony has taken place since the Medieval era, while others place its origins in the 16th century, when England was an absolute monarchy. The speech explained to parliament the reasons it was summoned and sometimes set out the sovereign's policies and objectives. The monarch would sometimes speak to parliament in person; Edward III (in 1365), Richard II, and Edward IV (to both houses of parliament on multiple separate occasions) did so. However, various other figures gave the oration on the sovereign's behalf: between 1347 and 1363, it was read by the chief justice; by the chief justice of the common pleas in 1401; the archbishop of Canterbury in 1344, 1368, 1377 (speaking for a presiding Edward III), 1399, and 1422; and in 1343, 1363, and, usually after 1368, by the Lord Chancellor who was then the prolocutor, or chairman of the House of Lords. It was given on his behalf by the bishop of Winchester in 1410; in 1453 and 1467, the bishop of Lincoln; the bishop of Rochester in 1472; and the keeper of the Privy Seal in 1431. It may have been written by or with the input of the king or queen's advisers, but, the monarch, as supreme governor, was the principal author.
Today, within the tenets of constitutional monarchy, the speech is written by the sitting cabinet, with or without the reader's participation, and outlines the legislative programme for the new parliamentary session. Due to the parliamentary tradition of the sovereign being barred from the lower chamber, in those realms possessing a bicameral parliament, the ceremony takes place in the legislature's upper chamber, with members of both houses in attendance. In unicameral parliaments, the speech is read in the one legislative chamber. Unusually, in the Irish Free State, the speech was delivered in the lower house of its bicameral parliament.
In the United Kingdom, the speech is typically read by the reigning sovereign at the State Opening of Parliament. Traditions surrounding the opening and the speech go back to the 16th century; the present ceremony dates from 1852, when the Palace of Westminster was rebuilt after the 1834 fire. The ceremony now usually occurs annually in May (prior to the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 it was usually in November or December) or soon after a general election. The monarch may, however, appoint a delegate to perform the task in his or her place; Elizabeth II did this during her pregnancies in 1959 and 1963, the Lord Chancellor delivering the address instead.
In those countries that share with the UK the same person as their respective sovereign, the speech from the throne will usually be read on the monarch's behalf by his or her viceroy, the governor-general, although the monarch may deliver the address in person: Queen Elizabeth II read the Throne Speech in the Parliament of New Zealand in 1954, 1963, 1970, 1974, 1977, 1986, and 1990, the Parliament of Australia in 1954 and 1974, and the Parliament of Canada in 1957 and 1977. Another member of the royal family may also perform this duty, such as when, on 1 September 1919, the Prince of Wales (later King Edward VIII) read the Speech From the Throne in the Canadian parliament. On two occasions, the administrator of the Government delivered the address to the Parliament of Canada: 16 May 1963 and 30 September 1974.
In the Australian states, the relevant governor reads the speech, though, the Australian monarch may also perform the task: Queen Elizabeth II opened the parliaments of some of the Australian states in 1954 and of New South Wales in 1992. In almost all the Canadian provinces, the relevant lieutenant governor delivers the speech; it is uncertain whether the Canadian monarch can do the same in any legislature of a Canadian province. In Quebec, however, the speech is referred to as the "Opening Address" (). In each of the Canadian territories, the commissioner reads the Throne Speech or Opening Address to the legislature.
In British overseas territories that have instituted this practice, the relevant governor delivers the speech. A throne speech is not typical in the devolved legislatures within the United Kingdom, the nearest equivalent being a statement of the legislative agenda of the executive branch usually given by a first minister. However, the British monarch often undertakes visits and speaks to the devolved bodies in a less official capacity. So far, Queen Elizabeth II has been present and has given an address at all openings of the Scottish parliament, usually speaking reflectively upon its accomplishments and wishing the institution well for its coming term rather than considering the plans of the executive.
It is considered improper for the audience, including members of parliament, to show support or disapproval for any content of the speech while it is being read, as such is reserved to the debate and vote that follows in legislative chambers or chamber. Protest, though, has been expressed during a throne speech, such as when, in 2011, Brigette DePape, a page in the Canadian Senate, interrupted Governor General David Johnston's reading of the Speech From the Throne by standing and holding a sign calling for the then Prime Minister, Stephen Harper, to be stopped.
Formally, the motion that follows the speech merely calls on parliament to thank the monarch or viceroy via an Address in Reply. The debate is, however, often wide-ranging, exploring many aspects of the government's proposed policies, and spread over several days. When the Address in Reply is eventually voted on, the poll is held to constitute a motion of confidence in the government, which, if lost, would result in the end of that government's mandate. In some legislatures, this discussion and vote is preceded by a symbolic raising of other matters, designed to highlight the independence of parliament from the Crown; a practice that originated after King Charles I was tried and executed by parliament. In the British House of Commons, the other business raised is by tradition the Outlawries Bill, while the House of Lords reads the Select Vestries Bill; neither proceeds past the first reading. In the House of Commons of Canada, the bill considered is Bill C-1, an Act Respecting the Administration of Oaths of Office, while in the Senate, it is Bill S-1, an Act Relating to Railways. The texts of these two bills have nothing to do with either oaths of office or railways; instead, they contain near-identical wordings that explain their pro forma function. In Australia and New Zealand, by contrast, no pro forma bills are introduced; there, the respective houses of representatives instead consider some brief and non-controversial business items before debating the Address in Reply.
Netherlands
In the Netherlands, the speech from the throne is held annually on the third Tuesday in September, which is called Prinsjesdag (Prince's Day). Article 65 of the constitution states that "A statement of the policy to be pursued by the Government is given by or on behalf of the King before a joint session of the two Houses of the States General that is held every year on the third Tuesday in September or on such earlier date as may be prescribed by Act of Parliament." The monarch travels from Noordeinde Palace by Golden Coach to the Ridderzaal (Hall of Knights) in the Binnenhof of The Hague to read the speech before a joint session of the States General. Following the speech, the president of the joint session calls out 'Long live the King!’ after which the monarch is greeted with three cheers. The monarch and his retinue leave and the joint session is declared to be closed. The monarch returns to the palace in the coach and, along with other members of the royal house, appears on the palace balcony. Following the 1983 revision of the constitution, a parliamentary session changed from lasting a year to lasting for four years. As a result, the speech no longer marks the opening of a session of parliament but the start of a new parliamentary year.
Norway
In Norway, the monarch is required by article 74 of the constitution to preside over the opening of a session of the Storting (which happens every October) after it has been declared to be legally constituted by the president of the Storting. The monarch delivers the speech before parliamentarians in the chamber of the Storting. The heir to the throne also regularly accompanies the monarch. Upon the monarch's arrival in the chamber, the members of the Storting stand and the first verse of the royal anthem, Kongesangen, is sung. The monarch is handed the speech by the prime minister and proceeds to deliver the speech while all remain standing. Afterwards, the monarch and members take their seats and the Report on the State of the Realm, an account of the government achievement of the past year, is read (traditionally in Nynorsk), customarily by the youngest member of the government present.
The members and monarch rise and the monarch is presented with the report by the prime minister and the monarch returns the speech and report to the president. The president gives some remarks and closes with "May God preserve our King and country", joined by other members of the Storting and the first verse of the national anthem is then sung. After the monarch and his retinue have left, the meeting is adjourned and the speech and report are first debated at the subsequent sitting.
Sweden
In Sweden, the practice of having a speech from the throne given by the monarch was held until 1974, coinciding with the rewrite of the constitution of Sweden which removed formal involvement of the monarch in the legislative process. The old opening of the legislature was called "The Solemn Opening of the Riksdag" () and was full of symbolism. The speech was given before the Riksdag in the Hall of State at the Royal Palace. The King would be seated on the Silver Throne as he gave his speech. Prior to 1907, the monarch and the princes of the royal blood would also wear their royal and princely robes and their crowns and coronets. After Oscar II's death, his successor, Gustav V was not crowned, and thus did not wear the crown when opening the Riksdag. Instead, the crown and sceptre would be placed on cushions beside the throne and the robe would be draped on the throne. After the abolition of the opening ceremony at the palace, last held in 1974 and only once during the reign of Carl XVI Gustaf, the opening is now held at the Riksdag chamber in the presence of the monarch and his family. It is still the monarch who officially opens the annual session but he no longer gives a "speech from the throne"; the monarch is invited by the Speaker and delivers an introductory speech and then declares the session open. After the speech, the Prime Minister delivers a statement of the upcoming government agenda () for the forthcoming legislative year is made.
Other countries
In Spain, speeches from the throne used to be practiced before the declaration of the Second Spanish Republic in 1931. With the restoration of the Spanish monarchy in 1975, the monarch still opens parliament but no longer gives a "speech from the throne". The monarch gives a speech but the speech does not focus or direct government policy.
In Denmark, the monarch attends the opening of the Folketing at Christiansborg Palace, but does not give any official "speech from the throne"; the prime minister makes the statement of government agenda for the forthcoming legislative year, as in Sweden; but unlike Sweden, the Danish monarch is merely a silent observer of the events and remains seated in the royal box.
In Japan, the emperor makes only a short speech of greeting during the Diet opening ceremony; he does not refer to any government policies, instead allowing the Prime Minister to address political matters, as in the contemporary cases in Sweden and Denmark.
In Thailand, the monarch makes a speech at a joint session in the Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall, advising the National Assembly in their work.
Malaysia also has the same practice, with the Yang di-Pertuan Agong making such an address to the Parliament of Malaysia in joint session during its state opening yearly every March.
Many republics also hold a yearly event in which the president gives a speech to a joint session of the legislature, such as the State of the Union address given by the president of the United States. (In most US states, the governor gives a similar State of the State address.) Similarly, the president of the Philippines gives the State of the Nation Address. Often such are on or near the first day of the legislature's new session. However in theory, rather than just outline the priorities for the coming year, the head of state is supposed to provide a report to the legislature on what the country's condition is, hence the term State of the Nation.
See also
Opening of the Canadian parliament
State of the Nation (disambiguation)
National Day Rally
Royal Christmas Message
References
External links
Canada
Speech from the Throne
Parliament of Canada records of past Speeches from the Throne and Motions for Address in Reply
United Kingdom
Queen's Speech in the UK Parliament 2021 – GOV.UK
Queen's Speech in the UK Parliament December 2019 – GOV.UK
Queen's Speech in the UK Parliament October 2019 – GOV.UK
Queen's Speech in the UK Parliament 2017 – GOV.UK
Queen's Speech in the UK Parliament 2016 – GOV.UK
All speeches in Parliament by the Queen – They Work For You
Monarchy
Throne
Canadian traditions
Joint meetings of bicameral legislatures | [
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225026 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AB | AB | AB, Ab, or ab may refer to:
In arts and media
Abhishek Bachchan, an Indian actor
Alter Bridge, an American hard rock band
American Bandstand, a music-performance television show
Amitabh Bachchan, an Indian actor
Analecta Bollandiana, an academic journal
Ancienne Belgique, a Belgian concert hall located in Brussels
In business
Business terminology
Akcinė bendrovė, Lithuanian equivalent of an S.A. corporation
Aktiebolag, Swedish for "corporation", similar to AG, Ltd or Inc
Businesses
A & B High Performance Firearms, a defunct sporting firearms manufacturer
AB Airlines, a defunct British airline
AB Groupe, a French broadcasting group
Activision Blizzard, American holding company for Activision and Blizzard Entertainment
Air Berlin (IATA airline code AB)
Alderson-Broaddus College, a liberal-arts college in West Virginia
Alfa-Beta Vassilopoulos, a Greek supermarket chain
Allen-Bradley, a brand of industrial control products, manufactured by Rockwell Automation
AllianceBernstein (New York Stock Exchange Symbol AB), a US-based asset management firm
American Biograph, AB used as a film logo
Anheuser-Busch, the world's third largest brewing company
Occupations and ranks
Able Seaman (occupation), a civilian occupation
Able Seaman (rank), a naval rank
Airman Basic, the lowest rank in the United States Air Force
Organizations
Afrikaner Broederbond, a South African secret society from 1918 to 1994
Aryan Brotherhood, an American gang
Places
Anzab-e Olya, also called Ab, a village in Iran
AB postcode area, UK, including Aberdeen, Scotland
Atlantic Beach, FL, also called AB, a city in the United States
Albania (WMO country code)
Alberta (Canadian Province/Territory Code)
Air Base, used by the United States Air Force for overseas bases
Aschaffenburg, Germany (on vehicle registration plates)
Science, technology and mathematics
Medicine
AB blood, a blood type in the ABO blood group system
AB toxin, Type III toxin secreted by some pathogenic bacteria
Antibody, a medical abbreviation
Abs, common name for the rectus abdominis muscle, a paired stomach muscle
Other uses in science, technology, and mathematics
AB (star catalogue), Azzopardi / Breysacher catalogue of Wolf Rayet stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud
Aggregate base
Albite, a feldspar mineral
Ammonia borane, a chemical compound.
Alabamine, a former name of Astatine.
AB Class amplifier, a classification of electric amplifier
The category of abelian groups (Ab), in mathematics
NZR Ab class a New Zealand steam locomotive
Antibonding (a.b.), used to describe the character of orbitals in atomic and molecular electronic structure
ApacheBench, a command line tool for Apache HTTP Server
Armed boarding steamer, used by the United Kingdom during World War I, for boarding enemy vessels
In religion
Ab (Egyptian heart-soul concept), a concept of the heart-soul in ancient Egyptian religion
Ab., a Hebrew abbreviation related to Pirkei Avot, a compilation of teachings and maxims from the Mishnaic period
Aitareya Brahmana, an ancient Indian collection of sacred hymns
In sport
Association football
Akademisk Boldklub, a Danish professional football club
Argja Bóltfelag, a Faroese association football club
Rugby union
All Blacks, New Zealand's national rugby union team
Aviron Bayonnais, French rugby union club
Other
AB de Villiers, South African middle order batsman and wicket-keeper
Adrien Broner, American Boxer, nicknamed AB
Allan Border, Australian cricketer, nicknamed A.B.
Antonio Brown, American football player, nicknamed AB
At Bat, in baseball statistics
Other uses
Ab (cuneiform), a written syllable
Ab (given name), a short form of Albert (or occasionally Abraham or Abbott)
Ab (Semitic), a Semitic word for "father"
ab, a Welsh patronymic
Āb (water) or ap, a Persian word for "water"
AB, a South Australian dish made of hot potato chips, gyro meat and sauces, similar to a Halal snack pack
Abkhaz language (ISO 639-1 language code ab), a Northwest Caucasian language spoken mostly by the Abkhaz people
Adult baby, a person who practices paraphilic infantilism
Anno Bengal, a Bengali calendar
Artium baccalaureus, Latin for Bachelor of Arts
Assembly Bill, a type of legislation in the United States
Absolute Beginner, a German rap group
See also
A/B (disambiguation)
BA (disambiguation)
A-flat (disambiguation) ("A"), the musical note, scale, or key
Av, a month in the Hebrew calendar
Aβ, Beta amyloid, peptides of amino acids that are involved in Alzheimer's disease | [
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225027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On%20%28Gary%20Glitter%20album%29 | On (Gary Glitter album) | On is the seventh and final studio album by English singer Gary Glitter, released in 2001.
Background
The album contains new recordings of songs that were only ever performed live during Glitter's last concerts in 1996 and 1997. The album was released in 2001, two years after Glitter's UK conviction for possession of child pornography. It was available only for a short time through Glitter's website, and sold 5,000 copies worldwide. After his conviction, most major retailers had refused to stock and sell his music.
Nine of the twelve titles on the album, including the ballad "Never Want The Rain", were co-written by Glitter with Martin Jenkins. The other three tracks were new recordings of earlier Glitter titles; "Hooked On Hollywood" and "Hello, Hello, I'm Back Again" were co-written by Glitter with Mike Leander, and first recorded in the 1970s. "Ready To Rock" was originally recorded by Glitter for his 1991 album Leader 2. Though Glitter has not issued a new studio album since On, he has continued to release singles.
As children are a major audience of pop music, controversy arose around the release of the album On, due to assertions that Glitter was exploiting children. MP Tom Watson considered writing to the Home Secretary, David Blunkett to block the album's release, saying Glitter should be at the very least "handled with care". In response to the complaints, the British Phonographic Industry issued a statement saying that Glitter was now a free man and there were no legal reasons the album could not be released.
Track listing
All tracks composed by Gary Glitter and Martin Jenkins; except where indicated
"Rock Hard Men Part 1 & 2" 7:04
"Trade" 4:06
"Whooz Been Good to You?" 5:22
"Ready to Rock" (Glitter, Mark Pearson) 4:04
"Loverman" 3:21
"You" 4:22
"Hooked on Hollywood" (Glitter, Mike Leander) 4:10
"Never Want the Rain" 3:20
"(If) Lost on Life Street" (Glitter, Martin Jenkins; spoken lyrics taken from "If" by Rudyard Kipling) 5:03
"Hotshot" 4:14
"Up for Love" 3:51
"Hello, Hello, I'm Back Again (Again!)" (Glitter, Mike Leander) 3:49
This track can only be heard and played on a PC
Personnel
Gary Glitter — lead vocals
Martin Jenkins — additional guitars, drum programming, backing vocals
Bill Leisgang — guitars and dobro
Andy Duncan — drum programming
G. Miller — drum programming, keyboard bass
J. Read — bass
Laurence Cottle — bass
Don Airey — keyboards
The Kick Horns — brass
Produced by Gary Glitter, Martin Jenkins, Kit Woolven and G. Miller
Recorded at The Old Smithy, Somerset; The Stoneroom, London; The Greenhouse, London; Rooster, London; Parkgate, Sussex; and Unit 28, London.
Mixed at Machmain Studio, London.
References
Gary Glitter albums
2001 live albums | [
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] |
225028 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NB | NB | NB, Nb, or nb may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
N.B. (album), an album by Natasha Bedingfield
NB (TV programme), a Scottish arts television programme that aired 1989–1997
Businesses
NB Global, a British investment company
New Balance, a shoe company
Nigerian Breweries, a beverage company
Sterling Airlines, a defunct Danish airline (IATA designator)
National bank (disambiguation) several banks
Language
Nota bene, often abbreviated as NB or n.b., a Latin phrase meaning "note well"
nb, ISO 639-1 code for Bokmål, the written standard of the Norwegian language
牛B (niúbī), a common word in Mandarin Chinese profanity
Places
New Brunswick, a province of Canada, (postal abbreviation: NB)
Nebraska, US, (former postal abbreviation: NB; changed to NE)
Science and technology
Niobium, the chemical element represented by symbol "Nb"
NB class, Australian steam locomotives
Boeing NB, a 1923 training aircraft
Naive Bayes classifier, in statistics
Neuroblastoma, a type of cancer
Nominal bore or nominal pipe size, a set of standard sizes for pipes
Nanobarn (nb), a unit of cross-sectional area
Mazda MX-5 (NB), the second generation of the Mazda MX-5
NB (programming language), an intermediate-stage language known as "New B" that evolved from the "B" language and then further evolved into the "C" language
Other uses
Narrowboat ship prefix
National Battlefield, a protected area in the United States
No-ball in cricket
Non-binary, a term used by people who identify as neither male nor female.
See also | [
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225030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NT | NT | NT or nt may refer to:
Science
Nanotesla (nT), an SI unit of magnetic flux density
Neutronium, a proposed name for a substance composed purely of neutrons
Nit (unit), a deprecated non-SI name for a unit of luminance
Niton (element) (Nt), obsolete name of the element radon
Near Threatened (NT or LR/nt), IUCN Red List category
Number theory (NT), a branch of pure mathematics devoted primarily to the study of the integers.
FloraNT (Index herbariorum code for Northern Territory Herbarium in Alice Springs)
Biology and medicine
Neurotransmitter, chemical signals used in communication between neurons
Nucleotide, a chemical compound
Nuclear transfer, the scientific technique used to clone animals
Nuchal translucency scan, a sonographic prenatal screening scan
Normotension, normal level of blood pressure
Technology
Nested Task flag, a flag in the FLAGS register of Intel x86 processors
Windows NT, a family of operating systems from Microsoft
Network termination, a device connecting the customer's data or telephone equipment to the local exchange carrier's line
NT (cassette), Sony's microcassette-based digital memo recorder
Analogue Nt, an aftermarket Nintendo Entertainment System
Organisations
National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty, better known as the National Trust, a UK conservation organisation
Royal National Theatre, London, England, known as the National Theatre
New Trier High School, a high school in Winnetka, Illinois, US
Nortel (stock symbol), a telecommunications equipment company
Places
Northern Territory, Australia
Northwest Territories, Canada
New Territories, an area of land in Hong Kong
Saudi Arabian–Iraqi neutral zone (obsolete ISO 3166 code)
Netherlands Antilles (FIPS PUB 10-4 territory code)
Transportation
Net tonnage, a measurement used for ships
Binter Canarias (IATA airline designator)
Zeppelin NT, a type of German airship manufactured since the 1990s
Linguistics
Nt (digraph), written Nt or nt, letter in several African languages
n't, a contracted form of the English word not
Sports and games
Nose tackle, a position in American football
Nicktropolis, a Nick.com game
No Trump, in contract bridge and other card games
Psychology
Neurotypical or neurologically typical, someone whose brain development and activity are typical
Intuitive thinker, one of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicators
Other uses
Newfoundland Time, a time zone in Atlantic Canada
Neighbor tone, a nonchord tone that passes from a chord tone directly above or below it and resolves to the same tone
New Taiwan dollar (NT$), the currency of Taiwan
New Testament, the second part of the Christian Bible
National Teacher, teacher in a National school (Ireland)
Norrköpings Tidningar, Swedish newspaper
NT, an abbreviation sometimes used for state in which the town of Springfield is located in The Simpsons TV show
"N.T.", a song by Kool & the Gang from the 1971 album Live at PJ's
"N.T.", a song by Q-Tip from the 1999 album Amplified
Near-threatened species, a category in the IUCN Red List
See also
Neo Tokyo (disambiguation), a common name for a fictional futuristic version of Tokyo | [
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225031 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YT | YT | YT most commonly refers to YouTube, an American online video platform.
YT, Yt or yt may also refer to:
People
Jia Yueting (English nickname "YT", born 1973), Chinese entrepreneur
Y.T., a character in the novel Snow Crash by Neal Stephenson
Places
YT, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code for Mayotte
.yt, the Internet top-level domain for Mayotte
Yukon Territory, in Canada
Science and technology
Yt antigen system, a human blood group system
Yottatesla, an SI unit of magnetic flux density
Yttrium, a chemical element with the former symbol Yt
Transportation
Air Togo, IATA airline designator YT
YT (yard tug), a United States World War II type V ship designation
Words and slang
Yt, a slang for the racist term "whitey"
YT, short for "Yours truly", a valediction
See also
Y&T, an American hard rock/heavy metal band | [
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225034 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AK | AK | AK and A.K. (but not Ak) may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
A.K. (film), a 1985 film directed by Chris Marker
AK (radio program), a weekly program produced by Alaska Public Radio Network from 2003 to 2008, later a segment on Alaska News Nightly
AK (rapper), also known as AK the Razorman, American rapper from Atlanta, Georgia, member of hip hop group P$C
AK-47 (rapper), American rapper from Chicago, Illinois, member of hip hop group Do or Die
AK the Savior, American rapper from Brooklyn, New York, member of The Underachievers
Businesses and organizations
AK Press, a collectively owned and operated independent publisher and book distributor that specializes in radical and anarchist literature
AK Steel Holding Company, a US-based S&P 500 (NYSE:AKS) Steel Manufacturer
Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi, the Turkish Justice and Development Party
Arbeiterkammer, the Austrian Chamber of Labour
Armia Krajowa (Home Army), underground resistance in Nazi-occupied Poland during World War II
Ajnad al-Kavkaz, a Chechen-led militia in the Syrian Civil War
Science
AK, the herbarium code for Auckland War Memorial Museum
Patient AK, a 16-year-old female patient who laughed when her brain was stimulated with electric current during treatment for epilepsy
Actinic keratosis, a skin condition
Applied kinesiology, a method using manual muscle testing that purportedly gives feedback on the functional status of the body
Places
Alaska, a state in the US whose postal abbreviation is "AK"
Azad Kashmir, a region of Pakistan.
Transport
AirAsia (IATA code AK), a Malaysia-based airline
Cargo ships (US Navy hull classification symbol AK)
New Zealand AK class carriage passenger carriages used by KiwiRail on their Great Railway Journeys of New Zealand
Other uses
Akan language (ISO 639-1 code alpha-2 ak)
Kalashnikov rifle (Avtomat Kalashnikova) an originally Soviet/Russian series of rifles, e.g. AK-47, AKM, AK-74, AK-101, AK-103, etc.
AK-47, shortened to "AK"
Knight of the Order of Australia, awarded from 1976 to 1986, and 2014 to 2015
Aktuaalne kaamera, a TV program of the Eesti Televisioon
See also
Ak (disambiguation) | [
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225035 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jock%20Purdon | Jock Purdon | George "Jock" Purdon (16 November 1925 – 1998) was a British poet and songwriter.
Born in Nitshill near Glasgow, a former coal mining village whose mine had closed before Purdon grew up, by a strange twist of fate Jock Purdon spent most of his life as a coal miner in a pit in Chester-le-Street, County Durham. That occupation shaped his poems and songs and gave him the soubriquet "the miners' poet".
Purdon was almost 14 years old when World War II began, and he saw his older brother, Robert, enlist in the Royal Scots regiment, serving as a Commando until killed in France after the Normandy Landings in 1944. When it was his turn to be conscripted, Purdon's National Service number ended in 0, which meant that he would not be joining his brother in the army - he was bound for the pits (coal mines). Because of the labour shortage in 1943, 1 man in 10 (drawn by lot each week, according to the final digit of their number) was conscripted to make up the manpower needs of the coal mining industry, and Purdon was one of the first contingent designated for the mines on 14 December 1943, becoming a so-called "Bevin Boy". Ernest Bevin was the Minister of Labour and National Service in the wartime coalition cabinet.
Purdon married, stayed in Chester-le-Street after the war and worked in the pits digging coal in three foot seams with water up to his knees at times. He saw and shared the hardship of the miners; many of his songs reflect the sense of community that an embattled people develop. But it was not all doom and gloom. While The Easington Explosion laments the deaths of eighty one miners in one accident, Hally's Piebald Galloway laments the loss of the Lumley pit banner, eaten by a Galloway pony; ponies were used to haul coal carts underground.
Mining and politics are inseparable, and Purdon's verses captured his contempt for those who put profit before people. He coined the word "Pitracide", meaning "to murder a pit for economic reasons". His commitment to his ideals and the mining community saw him performing his songs for the benefit of striking miners in the 1984-85 miners' strike and appearing at the Royal Albert Hall in the "Concert for Heroes" in 1986. He is reported to have said, "For me there's three great generals - Geronimo, Alexander the Great and Arthur Scargill".
Purdon was featured on the Channel 4 Everyman TV series; six of his songs appear in Bert Lloyd's definitive collection of pit poems and songs, Come All Ye Bold Miners and he published a radical album of poems and songs entitled Pitworks, Politics & Poetry. In 2004 the Cotia banner (subject of one of Purdon's songs) was remade and carried to the Durham Miners' Gala with pictures of Purdon and fellow miner and folksinger Jack Elliot of Birtley on the back. The banner was unfurled by Tony Benn, who was an admirer of Purdon's poetry and songs.
Further reading
Songs of the Durham Coalfield by Jock Purdon, Pit Lamp Press, Chester-le-Street, 1977
References
1925 births
1998 deaths
British miners
British songwriters
Bevin Boys
Writers from Glasgow
People from Chester-le-Street
Date of death missing
Place of death missing
20th-century British poets
20th-century British musicians
20th-century British male writers | [
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] |
225036 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FL | FL | FL or variations may refer to:
Businesses and organizations
AirTran Airways (IATA airline code), defunct American airline
FL Group, an Icelandic investment company with an emphasis on flight and tourism industry
Foot Locker (ticker symbol), retailer
Numismatics
Florin (disambiguation), various coins
Guilder, various coins also sometimes called "florin"
Places
Florida (United States postal abbreviation)
Liechtenstein (Fürstentum Liechtenstein)
Science and technology
Biology and medicine
FLT3LG (Fms-related tyrosine kinase 3 ligand), a protein
Fluffy transcription factor, gene of Neurospora crassa
Fluorouracil (5-FU), and leucovorin (folinic acid), a chemotherapy regimen for treating colon cancer
Follicular lymphoma in medicine
Frontal lobe, the largest brain lobe
Mathematics and computing
FL (complexity), a class of functions in complexity theory
FL (programming language), a functional programming language
Adobe Flash Professional, software which uses "Fl" as its icon abbreviation
FL Studio, a music production software program
Other uses in science and technology
Femtolitre, a metric unit of volume
Flerovium, chemical element 114
Flight level, a standard nominal altitude of an aircraft, in hundreds of feet
"Fluid", as in fluid ounce (fl oz)
Foot-lambert, a unit of luminance
Friedmann–Lemaître metric in cosmology
Sport
Federal League, a United States baseball league in 1914
English Football League, the governing body of two of the leagues in the English football pyramid
Genealogy
Floruit, Latin for he/she flourished, referring to a time period in which someone was known to be alive or active
Other uses
(fl), a typographical ligature
Flavius, a gens (family name) or praenomen (personal name) in ancient Rome
Flawless, a grade of diamond clarity
Fork length, a standard fish measurement
Free List (Liechtenstein), a center-left political party in Liechtenstein
Volvo FL, a medium weight truck developed by Volvo
See also
FLS (disambiguation) | [
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225037 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GA | GA | GA, Ga, or ga may refer to:
Organisations
Businesses
Garuda Indonesia (IATA airline code GA)
General Assembly, a digital and technology training company
General Atlantic, a private equity company
General Atomics (formerly GA Technologies Inc.), a U.S. defense contractor
General Automation, a former computer manufacturer
Georgia Railroad and Banking Company (AAR mark)
Other organizations
Gamblers Anonymous, a support group for recovering gamblers
or Young Patriots, the youth organization of Eusko Alkartasuna
General assembly (disambiguation)
United Nations General Assembly, the main deliberative organ of the United Nations
Geographical Association, a UK organisation dedicated to the teaching of geography
Geologists' Association, a UK organisation dedicated to the study of geology
Geoscience Australia, an Australian organisation dedicated to geoscientific research
Germantown Academy, an independent school in Fort Washington, United States
Government Arsenal, an agency of the Philippine government under the Department of National Defence
Linguistics
Languages and dialects
Ga language
Irish language (ISO 639-1 code "ga")
General American, an accent of the Midwestern US
Characters
Ga (Indic), a glyph in the Brahmic family of script
Ga (Javanese) (ꦒ), a letter in the Javanese script
Ga (kana), in Japanese
Places
Africa
Ga District, Ghana, a former district of southern Ghana
Gã State, a traditional state in southern Ghana headed by the Gã Mantse
Ga-Rankuwa, a town in South Africa
Gabon (ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code)
The Gambia (FIPS 10-4 country code)
Other places
Goa, in India (ISO 3166-2 country subdivision code GA)
Georgia (U.S. state) (postal abbreviation GA)
Science and technology
Biology and medicine
General anaesthesia, administration of drugs to induce unconsciousness prior to surgery
Gestational age, the age of an embryo/fetus
Gibberellin, a plant growth hormone
Tabun (nerve agent) (NATO designation GA)
Computing
.ga, the country code top-level domain for Gabon
General availability, the final stage in the software development lifecycle
Genetic algorithm, an optimization technique in computer science
Google Analytics, a web analytics service provided by Google
Other uses in science and technology
Gallium (symbol Ga), a chemical element
General aviation, the category of civil aviation encompassing all non-scheduled aircraft flights
Geometric algebra, a Clifford algebra used in a geometric context
Gigaampere (GA), an SI unit of electric current equal to 1,000,000,000 (one billion) amps
Gigaannum (Ga), a unit of time equal to 1,000,000,000 (one billion) years.
Go Ahead, in a telecommunications device for the deaf
Sport
Goal attack, a position in netball
Goals against, a statistic in ice hockey and other sports
Other uses
GA Geijutsuka Art Design Class, an ongoing 2004 manga series by Satoko Kiyuzuki
Gandhara or Ga, a basic note of the scale in Indian music, or Svara
Ga people, an ethnic group of Ghana
General of the Army, a military rank
Global affairs, abbreviated GA, alternative term for International relations, the study of politics, economics and law on a global level
Graduate assistant, a role in academia and in U.S. college sports
Language and nationality disambiguation pages | [
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225038 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HI | HI | HI or Hi may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Hello Internet, a podcast hosted by CGP Grey and Brady Haran
Hi (magazine), teen-lifestyle publication
"Hi" (Ofra Haza song), a song by Ofra Haza, Israel's entry in the 1983 Eurovision Song Contest
Hi, a character in the comic strip Hi and Lois
Hi Records, in music, a Memphis soul and rockabilly label
Hi (album), a 2021 album by Scottish band Texas
"Hi" (Texas song), the title track
Hi (EP), an EP by Psapp
Hi~, a 2015 repackage of South Korean girl group Lovelyz' 2014 album Girls' Invasion
Language
Hi (cuneiform), a cuneiform sign
Hi (kana), a Japanese written character
Hindi, an Indo-Aryan language (ISO 639-1 language code HI)
Hi, a greeting in the English language similar to hello
Organizations and events
Harlem International Film Festival, an annual five-day film festival
Hostelling International, a federation of youth hostel associations
Houston Industries Incorporated, former name of GenOn Energy
University of Iceland, abbreviated "HÍ", from
Places
Hi River, also known as the Ili River, in northwestern China
Hainan, a province of China (Guobiao abbreviation HI)
Hawaii, United States of America
Hotel Indonesia, a hotel in Jakarta, Indonesia
Science and technology
Hydrogen iodide, in chemistry, a diatomic molecule
Health informatics, a discipline at the intersection of information science, computer science, and health care
Historical institutionalism, in sociology, a social science method
Hormonal imprinting, a biological phenomenon
Hemagglutination inhibition, method for quantifying the relative concentration of viruses, bacteria, or antibodies
Other uses
Hi Brigham (1892–1987), American football player
Humorous Interpretation, an event in high school forensics competitions
See also
H I region, in astronomy, an interstellar cloud composed of neutral atomic hydrogen
H&I (disambiguation)
High (disambiguation)
HY (disambiguation)
Hydrogen-1, in physics, an isotope of hydrogen with one proton and zero neutrons (also known as protium) | [
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225039 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IL | IL | IL or Il may refer to:
Businesses and organizations
Image-Line, a Belgian software company
International League, Class Triple-A league in North American Minor League Baseball
Ilyushin, a Russian aircraft manufacturer, whose aircraft are designated with "IL"
Liberal Initiative, a political party in Portugal
Places
İl, the term for 'province' in Turkey, see Provinces of Turkey
Il, Iran, a village in Mazandaran Province, Iran
Israel (ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code IL)
Illinois (US postal abbreviation IL)
Ilmenau, Thuringia, Germany (former vehicle plate code; newer plates use IK for Ilm-Kreis)
Science and technology
Interlingua de Peano, a controlled language of Neo Latin used as an auxiliary language - not to be confused with Interlingua de IALA (IA), a constructed language
Biology, chemistry, and medicine
Interleukin, a family of cytokines, in biochemistry
Introgression line, in plant genetics
Infralimbic prefrontal cortex nucleus
Ionic liquid, in chemistry including pharmaceutics, and food science
Computing
.il, the Internet Top Level Domain (TLD) code for Israel
Internet Link protocol, developed originally as part of Plan 9 from Bell Labs
Insert Line (ANSI), an ANSI X3.64 escape sequence
Instruction list, an EC 61131-3 programming language
Intermediate language, in computer science
Common Intermediate Language, the compiled form of .NET code
Common Language Infrastructure, originally named Microsoft Intermediate Language
Sports
Injured list, a list of injured baseball players
Interleague play in Major League Baseball
Other uses
Il (Korean name), including a list of people with the name
Il (Shugo Chara!), a character from the manga series Shugo Chara! by Peach-Pit
International law
IL (album), a 2016 album of French-Canadian pianist and composer Jean-Michel Blais
Ugaritic spelling of the deity El
Il, king of Umma, a Sumerian king, circa 2400 BCE
IL, one way to write the Roman numeral for 49. | [
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225040 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Orbit | William Orbit | William Mark Wainwright (born 15 December 1956), known professionally as William Orbit, is an English musician and record producer who has sold 200 million recordings worldwide of his own work, his production and songwriting work. He is a recipient of multiple Grammy Awards, Ivor Novello Awards and other music industry awards.
Early life
Orbit (Wainwright) was raised in Palmers Green, a suburb of London. His parents were both schoolteachers; he was the older of two sons. He left school at the age of 16, and subsisted for a number of years in various low-paying jobs, while seeking an outlet for his creativity. Around this time, while rooming with a friend who was trying to start a recording studio, Orbit found his musical calling.
Torch Song and Bassomatic
In 1980 Orbit teamed up with electronic musician Laurie Mayer and Grant Gilbert to form the electronic/synth group Torch Song. They initially self-released recordings in an audio cassette series, generated from their home-built studio in a disused school in Notting Hill Gate, in London, alongside the Grand Union Canal. Richard Law, who was the A&R for IRS Records, was a follower of their music and aesthetic, and took it to industry mogul Miles Copeland, who had discovered and managed the Police and the Bangles in 1981. When Copeland signed them to the label the deal enabled them to build their ideal studio. There they recorded two albums and four singles, the most successful being the dance chart hit "Prepare to Energize", which was featured in the film Bachelor Party. Orbit and Mayer also composed the soundtrack to the ice hockey movie Youngblood, starring Rob Lowe and Patrick Swayze, and recorded "White Night", written by colleague Rico Conning, which was used in The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2. The band re-formed briefly when Orbit worked with Laurie Mayer and Rico Conning. They released their final album, Toward the Unknown Region in 1995.
This first incarnation of Guerilla Studios had a Trident 80B mixing desk and Otari MTR90 MKII 24 track (2 inch tape) multitrack housed in a back garden on the canals of Little Venice in Paddington, and they also ran it as a commercial enterprise.
Bassomatic was another of Orbit's group projects. The band recorded house music in the 1990s. The band included vocalist Sharon Musgrave and rapper Steve Roberts, also known as MC Inna Onestep amongst others. For the second album, singer Sindy Finn replaced Musgrave on vocals. Both albums were released by Guerilla Studios, founded by Orbit with Laurie Mayer and Grant Gilbert.
Bassomatic's first album was 1990's Set the Controls for the Heart of the Bass, the title track derived from Pink Floyd's "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun". This album was re-released in 1997. A subsequent album, Science and Melody, was released in 1991.
Bassomatic's biggest hit single was "Fascinating Rhythm" in 1990, which reached No. 9 in the UK Singles Chart, and performed well on the UK Dance Chart.
Around this time, Orbit's studio chiefly consisted of a pair of Akai S1000 samplers and a Roland Juno-106 synthesiser.
Productions and remixes
Collaborations and productions included Prince, Madonna, Britney Spears, Mel C, Pink, U2, Katie Melua, Ricky Martin, Beth Orton, Sarah McLachlan, Queen, The Joy Formidable, Robbie Williams, All Saints, Kraftwerk, Harry Enfield and Sugababes. When working with Beck, the two of them wrote a song for Pink, "Feel Good Time," which Orbit then produced for the soundtrack for the 2003 film Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle.
He produced the album 13 by Britpop group Blur, in London and Reykjavík, Iceland.
Orbit had created remixes for Madonna previously such as "Justify My Love" and "Erotica" but he didn't meet her personally until 1997. That summer and autumn they worked together and produced her multi-Grammy/award-winning seventh album Ray of Light. The album took four months to record and it was the longest she ever spent recording an album. It was released on 22 February 1998.
In 2000, Orbit continued working for Madonna on her album Music, recorded at The Hit Factory in New York .
At this time he also co-wrote and performed with her, the song "Beautiful Stranger".
In 2011 he worked with a team of writers including Jean-Baptiste Kouame, Julie Frost, Klas Ahlund, and brought their compositions and his production work to contribute to the twelfth studio album by Madonna, MDNA, released on 23 March 2012, by Interscope Records. He co-produced 6 tracks on the album, including "Masterpiece" which won a Golden Globe for Best Original Song in the Miramax movie W.E., at the 69th Golden Globe Awards. After the release of the album, Orbit openly expressed in various media sources his dissatisfaction and disappointment with this Madonna project. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/madonna-mdna-failure-william-orbit_n_1527939
In 2018 he worked on "After All", a song by English-Canadian girl group All Saints from their fifth studio album, Testament (2018). Written by group member Shaznay Lewis along with Peter Hutchings and William Orbit, whilst produced by the latter, it was released as the album's second single on 26 July 2018, by AS Recordings.
Classical work
Inspired and encouraged by Rob Dickins, Orbit's first commercial release in the classical sphere was Pieces in a Modern Style. It was originally released in May 1995 on Orbit's N-Gram Recordings label, and then again in 2000 by Warner Music in the UK and Europe, and on Maverick in the U.S. The album reached No 2 in the UK album charts. The first single release from the album was "Barber’s Adagio for Strings", and a dance remix of the track by Dutch DJ Ferry Corsten was hugely successful. The single reached number 4 in the national singles chart. In 2010 he teamed with Rico Conning and Laurie Mayer to make a follow up album, '′Pieces in a Modern Style 2′', which was released as a two-disc set on the Decca label. The album featured German countertenor Andreas Scholl on an interpretation of Henry Purcell's "Dido’s Lament".
In 2007 he took part in Alex Poots’ Manchester International Festival, and composed a symphonic work in nine movements, "Orchestral Suite" which was performed by the BBC Philharmonic Orchestra, augmented by additional harps, pianos and percussion, and with The Manchester Chorale, conducted by Alexander Shelley at Bridgewater Hall.
Live performance/media/DJ work
In the early '90s, Orbit briefly developed a new label which he called N'Gram. During the N'Gram period, he co-directed a showcase of the label at Queen Elizabeth Hall on London's Southbank. The acts included The Electric Chamber (which performed the Pieces album), Strange Cargo, and Torch Song.
In 2001 he took part in the Stockhausen Electronic Festival at the Barbican Theatre.
In 2013 he took part in the London Electronic Arts Festival.
He participated in the Liberatum International Cultural Festival in Russia, during which he performed DJ sets in Moscow and Novosibirsk, Siberia.
More recently Orbit has deejayed at various clubs in London and Ibiza and at Buckingham Palace for Her Majesty The Queen's annual staff and family Christmas party.
In 2013 Orbit worked with Britney Spears and Will.i.am on her album Britney Jean, with fellow songwriters Ana Diaz and Dan Traynor with whom he wrote and produced the track "Alien".
He was one of the writers and one of the producers on the Chris Brown song "Don't Wake Me Up" which was recorded at Record Plant in LA and for which he received an ASCAP award in 2013. The song has had 180 Million views on YouTube.
This was followed by a production of the Queen track "There Must Be More to Life Than This", which featured archive vocals by Freddie Mercury and Michael Jackson. Orbit went on to produce another Queen song, "Let Me in Your Heart Again".
In 2015 his composition "The Name of the Wave" was used in the Oscar winning documentary Amy directed by Asif Kapadia.
He performed in 2015 in Almaty, Kazakhstan, and at a gala at Banqueting House in London's Whitehall for the charity Together For Short Lives, a group that sponsors and supports children with terminal illness and their families.
Solo discography
Studio albums
A The original 1995 release was credited to the Orbit alias 'The Electric Chamber', but was withdrawn from sale almost immediately. Re-released in 2000 with additional tracks taking the place of un-cleared tracks from the first release.
B CD release has 4 additional tracks which are not available as a digital download
C Released on single CD and double CD including notable remixes, and a digital version with a bonus track
D Available for free download from SoundCloud
Compilations
The Best of Strange Cargos (1996, I.R.S.) – A compilation from Orbit's first three Strange Cargo albums, highlighted by two versions of "Water From A Vine Leaf", another collaboration with Beth Orton
Strange Cargo Vol.1–3 (2000, EMI Records) – 3-CD Box Set
William / Orbit (2002, Universal) – U.S. two-disc publishing CD set to support William Orbit's publishing catalogue
Singles
Ensemble discography
With Bassomatic
With Strange Cargo
With Torch Song
DNV 2012
Production and songwriting credits
Awards and nominations
Awards
Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album — Ray of Light
Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording — "Ray of Light"
Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media — "Beautiful Stranger"
Nominations
Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song — "Beautiful Stranger"
Grammy Award for Album of the Year — Ray of Light
Grammy Award for Record of the Year — "Ray of Light"
Grammy Award for Best Pop Instrumental Album — Pieces in a Modern Style
Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals — "Feel Good Time"
References
External links
1956 births
Ableton Live users
Decca Records artists
Downtempo musicians
English composers
English male composers
English record producers
Grammy Award winners
I.R.S. Records artists
Living people
Maverick Records artists
People from Shoreditch
Progressive house musicians
Sanctuary Records artists
Squatters
Virgin Records artists | [
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225041 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IA | IA | IA, Ia, or ia may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Ia, an 1892 novelette by Arthur Quiller-Couch
"Iä", a fictional word in the works of H. P. Lovecraft
International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees (IATSE), which also goes by IA
International Artists, a record label
Businesses and organizations
Indian Airlines, logo
Indiana Academy, a school
International Academy, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan
International Artists, a record label
Internet Archaeology, an electronic journal
Internet Archive, creators of the Wayback Machine
Iraqi Airways (IATA airline designator IA)
Aircraft model prefix of Fabrica Argentina de Aviones, e.g. FMA IA 62
Impact assessment of public policy
Government, law, and military
Indian Army, the Indian Army
Indonesian Army, the Indonesian Army
Individual augmentee, U.S. military person temporarily assigned to a unit
Indecent assault, sexual criminal offense
Language
Ia (cuneiform), a sign in cuneiform writing
Inter alia (i.a.), Latin meaning "among other things"
Interlingua (ISO 639-2 code: ia)
People
Ia of Persia, fourth-century martyr, feast day September 11
Saint Ia of Cornwall
Mattias Eklundh, Swedish guitarist
Places
Ia or Oia, Greece, on Santorini
Iowa, U.S. (postal abbreviation)
Iá River, a river in Brazil
Science and technology
Archaeology
Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (IA)
IA, The Journal of the Society for Industrial Archeology
Industrial archaeology
Iron Age IA I, IA IIA, etc., in archaeology of Israel
Biology and medicine
IA (chemotherapy), with Idarubicin and cytarabine
Ia (genus), of vespertilionid bats
Phase Ia of a clinical trial
Immunoassay, biochemical test to measure concentrations through antibody or antigen
Computing and electronics
IA (vocaloid), in software
IA-32, Intel Architecture, 32-bit
IA-64, Intel Architecture, 64-bit
Implicit authentication, by a smart device
Human intelligence amplification through technology
Intelligent agent, in artificial intelligence
Information architecture, the structural design of shared information
Information assurance, dealing with trust aspects of information
Other uses in science and technology
Group IA (or Ia), an obsolete designation for the group 1 elements
Type Ia supernova, a subtype of Type I supernova
Interactions of actors theory, by Gordon Pask
Other uses
Intermediate in Arts, an academic degree
Internal audit of an organization's operations
International affairs, alternative term for International relations, the study of politics, economics and law on a global level
Íþróttabandalag Akraness or ÍA, an Icelandic football team
Mazda2, a 2002–present Japanese subcompact car, sold in North America as the Scion iA and Toyota Yaris iA
See also
1A (disambiguation)
AI (disambiguation) | [
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225042 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KS | KS | KS and variants may refer to:
Businesses and organizations
Kampfschwimmer, a German postwar commando frogman force
Kommandittselskap, a Norwegian type of company
Norwegian Association of Local and Regional Authorities
PenAir, Peninsula Airways, Anchorage, Alaska, US (IATA airline code)
Language
Kashmiri language, a Dardic language of Kashmir (ISO 639 alpha-2 language code "ks")
Kernowek Standard, an orthography for Revived Cornish
Kiasu, Hokkien (a Chinese spoken variant) word for 'extreme fear of losing' (怕输)
Places
Kansas (US postal abbreviation KS)
South Kalimantan, Indonesia (ISO 3166-2 province code)
Krems an der Donau, Austria (vehicle plate code)
Kassel, Germany (vehicle plate code)
Khatumo State, an unrecognised proto-state in northern Somalia
Northampton, Great Britain (vehicle plate code)
Košice-okolie District, Slovakia (vehicle plate code)
Science, technology, and mathematics
Kaposi's sarcoma, a tumor caused by Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV8)
Kartagener syndrome, a genetic disorder
Kallmann syndrome, a genetic disorder preventing the start or completion of puberty
Keratan sulfate, any of several sulfated glycosaminoglycans
Kernel streaming, a method of processing streamed data
Ketoacyl synthase, a domain of polyketide synthases with a thiol group on a cysteine side-chain
kilosample (kS), 1000 samples of a digitized signal
Kilosecond (ks), 1000 seconds (16 minutes, 40 seconds)
Klinefelter's Syndrome, caused by a chromosome aneuploidy
Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, a goodness-of-fit test for probability distributions
Other uses
Kammersänger, a German honorary title for a distinguished opera singer
Kaplan–Sheinwold, a contract bridge bidding system
Key Stage, a term used in the British education system
Kill stealing, a practice in online games
King's Scholar, at a UK public school
King's Serjeant, an obsolete UK legal post
Kirk/Spock or K/S, slash fiction
Strikeouts, in baseball
Contracts, in legal shorthand
Slovak koruna, the currency of Slovakia 1993–2008 and of the 1939–1945 Slovak State
See also
K+S, a German chemical company | [
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] |
225045 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzi%20%28disambiguation%29 | Uzi (disambiguation) | Uzi most commonly refers to an Israeli submachine gun family.
Uzi may also refer to:
Music
Performers
Uzi (hip hop artist), Japanese hip-hop artist
Uzi (rapper) (born 1999), French singer
Da Uzi (born 1994), French hip hop artist of Congolese origin
Uzi (band), a 1980s band fronted by Thalia Zedek
Lil Uzi Vert (born 1994), rapper from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Uzi (born 1998), Turkish rapper
Albums
Uzi (Muslimgauze studio album), a 1989 studio album by Muslimgauze
Uzi (Muslimgauze compilation album), also known as The Rape of Palestine, 1989 studio album by Muslimgauze
Songs
"Uzi" (Pinky Ring), a 2001 song by Wu-Tang Clan
People
Uzi (gamer) (born 1997), in-game name of Jian Zi-Hao Chinese League of Legends player
Uzi Arad, Israeli strategist
Uzi Even (born 1940), Israeli professor of chemistry and former politician
Uzi Hitman (1952–2004), musician
Uzi Landau (born 1943), Israeli politician
Uzi Narkiss (1925–1997), Israeli general
Uzi Rubin (born 1957), Israeli defense engineer and analyst
Uzi Vishkin (born 1953), Israeli American professor of computer science and engineering
Places
Uzi, an alternate romanization for Uji, Kyoto, a town in Japan
Uzi Island, an island in Zanzibar, Tanzania
Uzi, Zanzibar, a settlement on Uzi Island, Zanzibar
Uzi, Iran (disambiguation), places in Iran
See also
Uziel (disambiguation)
Uzi fly, a parasitoid of silkworm
Apache Oozie, a workflow scheduling system to manage Hadoop jobs | [
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225046 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me | Me | Me most often refers to:
Me (pronoun), the first-person singular pronoun, referring to the speaker
Me, M.E. or ME may also refer to:
Calendar
Myanmar Era, a lunisolar system traditionally used in Myanmar
Computing
.me, the top-level Internet domain for Montenegro
Me (computer science), a keyword in some programming languages
Windows Me, a computer operating system
MobileMe or me.com, a subscription-based collection of online services
Intel Management Engine, firmware and software for Intel CPUs
Mix/Effects, a section of a vision mixer
Language
Me (cuneiform), a sign in cuneiform writing
Me (kana), a letter in Japanese script
Me (pronoun), the object form of English's first-person singular pronoun
Middle English, a historic phase of the English language
Music
ME (band), an Australian rock group 2008–2015
Me, a solfège syllable, for a note of the third scale degree
Albums
Me (Biff Bang Pow! album), 1991
Me (Buck Brothers album), 2007
Me (Empress Of album), 2015
Me (Fiona album), 2005
Me (James McCartney album), 2013
Me (Jo Dee Messina album) or the title song, 2014
Me (The Mekons album), 1998
Me (Misono album), 2010
Me (Ray Stevens album) or the title song, 1983
Me (Sandie Shaw album), 1965
Me (Super Junior-M album) or the title song, 2008
Me..., by Emi Hinouchi, 2008
EPs
Me (Aoxuan Lee EP), 2019
Me (RaeLynn EP), 2015
Me?, by Park Ye-eun, 2014
Me, by Laura Marano, or the title song, 2019
Songs
"Me" (Bill Anderson song), 1964
"Me" (CLC song), 2019
"Me" (Paula Cole song), 1998
"Me" (Tamia song), 2007
"Me!", by Taylor Swift, 2019
"Me", by Axium from Matter of Time, 2002
"Me", by Dev from The Night the Sun Came Up, 2011
"Me", by Erykah Badu from New Amerykah Part One (4th World War), 2008
"M.E.", by Gary Numan from The Pleasure Principle, 1979
"Me", by Kina, 2000
"Me", by Staind from Dysfunction, 1999
"Me", by Summer Walker from Over It, 2019
"Me", by the 1975 from Music for Cars, 2013
"Me (Without You)", by Andy Gibb from Andy Gibb's Greatest Hits, 1980
People and titles
Maître, a French honorific used for legal professionals
Maritime Law Enforcement Specialist, a U.S. Coast Guard rating
Mary Engelbreit, artist who signs paintings with an "ME" moniker
Master of Engineering, an academic degree
Places
La Mé, a region in Lagunes District, Ivory Coast
ME postcode area, a group of postal districts around Medway, Kent, England
Montenegro's ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code
Maine's U.S. postal abbreviation and ISO 3166-2 code
Publications
Me (book), Elton John's 2019 autobiography
Me (Moth), a 2021 novel in verse by Amber McBride
Me: Stories of My Life, Katharine Hepburn's 1996 autobiography
Religion
Me (mythology), a decree of the gods in Sumerian religion
Me, an honorific form of bap offered to the deceased in Korean ancestral rites
Methodist Episcopal Church, former religious denomination
Science and medicine
Electron rest mass (me), the mass of a stationary electron
Malic enzyme
Methyl group, a hydrocarbon group of atoms
Myalgic encephalomyelitis, an illness also known as chronic fatigue syndrome (ME or ME/CFS)
Medical examiner
Mechanical energy, in physics
Television
ME (TV channel) or For You, a defunct Italian TV channel formerly known as ME
Me (South African TV channel)
Me (Doctor Who) or Ashildr, a fictional character in the sci-fi TV series
Transportation
Middle East Airlines (by IATA code)
Morristown and Erie Railway, New Jersey, US (by reporting mark)
Metra Electric District, a line on Chicago's Metra commuter rail system
See also
Mae (disambiguation)
Mai (disambiguation)
Me TV (disambiguation)
Mee (disambiguation)
Mée (disambiguation)
Mees (disambiguation)
Mei (disambiguation)
MES (disambiguation)
Mi (disambiguation)
Mii (disambiguation)
Myself (disambiguation)
Self (disambiguation) | [
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] |
225047 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MA | MA | Ma, MA, or master
Academia
Master of Arts, a degree award
Marin Academy, a high school in San Rafael, California
Minnehaha Academy, a private high school in Minneapolis, Minnesota
Arts and entertainment
Music
Encyclopaedia Metallum: The Metal Archives, a website devoted to heavy metal bands
Ma (Anjan Dutt album) (1998)
Ma (Rare Earth album) (1973)
Ma (Sagarika album) (1998)
Ma (Zubeen Garg album) (2019)
Massive Attack, a British trip hop band
In music instructions, "but", especially in the phrase ma non troppo (see Glossary of musical terminology#M)
In tonic sol-fa, a flattened me
Other media
Ma (film), a 2019 horror film starring Octavia Spencer and Luke Evans
Ma (The Lion King), a main character in the animated film Lion King 1½
Ma (negative space), a word of Japanese origin used in art and design
"Mature audience", a U.S. television rating system category, abbreviated TV-MA
"MA15+", a classification of the Australian Office of Film and Literature Classification, meaning "Not suitable for ages under 15"
Ma and Pa Kettle, 1940s and 1950s comic film characters
Memory Alpha, a Star Trek-oriented wiki
Miss America, a beauty pageant, and the title awarded at said pageant
MA (journal), a Hungarian art magazine
Businesses and organizations
Malév Hungarian Airlines (IATA designator: MA)
Mastercard (NYSE stock symbol: MA)
Motorcycling Australia
Motorsport Australia
Orange Movement (Movimento Arancione), an Italian political party
Market America, a product brokerage and internet marketing company
Museums Association, UK
Musicians Australia, a trade union run by the Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance
Ethnic groups
Mạ people, a Vietnamese ethnic group
Meshwesh (Ma), an ancient Libyan (i.e., Berber) tribe from Cyrenaica
Human names and individuals
Ma (surname), a common Chinese family name
Maria (Mª or Ma.), according to Spanish naming customs
Ma Barker (1873–1935), American criminal and mother of criminals
Ma Rainey, stage name of early American blues singer Gertrude Pridgett (1886–1939)
Ma Anand Sheela, Osho movement leader convicted of multiple attempted murders
Language
Má, a Chinese word for cannabis
Ma (cuneiform), a cuneiform sign
Ma (Javanese) (ꦩ), a letter in the Javanese script
Ma (kana), a Japanese kana
Ma language, a language spoken in the Democratic Republic of Congo
Ma language (Papuan), a language of Papua New Guinea
Mythology
Ma (myth), in Sumerian mythology, that from which the "primeval land" was formed
Ma (goddess), an Anatolian goddess
Ma, a mythohistoric entrepreneur for whom the Malaysian town of Marang, Terengganu was purportedly named
Places
Ma River, a river in Vietnam and Laos
Ma, Tibet, a village and township in Tibet
Morocco (ISO 3166-1 country code)
.ma, the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Morocco
FIPS 10-4 country code of Madagascar
Maranhão, a state of Brazil, postal code MA
Maluku, a province of Indonesia (ISO 3166-2:ID subdivisions)
Massachusetts, a state of the United States
Science, technology, and mathematics
Chemistry
Methyl anthranilate, used as a bird repellent
Minor actinides, the actinide elements in used nuclear fuel other than uranium and plutonium
Monomethyl aniline, a solvent, chemical intermediate, and gasoline additive
Methylammonium (CH3NH3), e.g., in methylammonium lead halides
Geology
mega-annum (Ma), a million years
Health and medicine
MA (chemotherapy) is an acronym for Mitoxantrone + standard-dose Ara-C (cytarabine) chemotherapy regimen
Marijuana Anonymous, a group recovery program aimed at marijuana addiction
Marketing authorisation, an authorisation granted by a regulatory authority to market a new drug
Medical assistant, a type of health care worker
Metabolic acidosis, a medical condition in which the pH of body is decreased beyond the normal range
Metabolic alkalosis, a medical condition in which the pH of body is elevated beyond the normal range
Methamphetamine, a psychostimulant
Mathematics
MA (complexity), a set of decision problems that can be decided by an Arthur–Merlin protocol
Martin's axiom, an axiom in mathematical logic
Moving-average model (MA), in statistics
Measurements
Mach number (Ma), a measure of speed compared to the speed of sound
Megaannum (Ma), one million (1,000,000) years
Milliampere (mA), and Mega-ampere or Megampere (MA), multiples of Ampere, a unit of electric current
Myr, Mya, or Ma, meaning "million years ago"
Other uses in science and technology
Mechanical advantage (MA), mechanical multiplier of input force
Mechanical alloying (MA), a technique to produce alloys
Ma, a type of interface in an IP Multimedia Subsystem
Other uses
Ma (mom), a synonym for Mother
Ma clique, a group of warlords from 1919 until 1928
Martial arts
Master-at-arms (United States Navy) (MA), an enlisted rating in the US Navy
Metropolitan area
Middle Ages, a period of European history
Motorcycle accident
See also
Maa (disambiguation)
Mother (disambiguation)
Mommy (disambiguation)
Mama (disambiguation)
Mom (disambiguation)
Mum (disambiguation) | [
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225048 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MN | MN | MN may refer to:
Places
Mongolia (ISO 3166-1 country code)
Montenegro (former ISO 3166 country code)
Monaco (FIPS 10-4 country code)
Minnesota, US (postal abbreviation)
Manipur, a state in northeast India
Province of Mantua, or of Mantova, in Italy
County Monaghan, in Ireland (license plate code)
Station code for Madiun railway station
Language
Mongolian language (ISO 639-1 code)
mn (digraph), a combination of letters used in spelling
Science and technology
Manganese, a chemical element with symbol Mn
.mn, the Internet country code top-level domain for Mongolia
Meganewton (MN), a unit of force equal to one million newtons
millinewton (mN), one-thousandth of a newton
Membranous nephropathy
Minimum mode, a hardware mode available to Intel 8086 and 8088 processors
Minute (sometimes "mn")
Number average molecular weight (Mn)
Other uses
Kulula.com (IATA airline designator MN)
MN (film), a 1954 Filipino movie
MN+ an Worldwide Indian Movies Channel
Marine Nationale, the French Navy
Merle Norman Cosmetics, an American cosmetic company
Metro-North Railroad, a commuter railroad in New York City
Model number, an identifying number for each particular type of product a manufacturer makes | [
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225050 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NE | NE | NE, Ne or ne may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Neutral Evil, an alignment in the American role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons
New Edition, an American vocal group
Nicomachean Ethics, a collection of ten books by Greek philosopher Aristotle
Businesses and organizations
National Express, an English public transport operator
Natural England, an English government agency
New England Patriots, a professional American football team in Foxborough, Massachusetts
New Hope (Macau), a Macau political party
SkyEurope Airlines, a Slovakian airline
New Era Cap Company, an American headwear company
Language
Ne (cuneiform), a cuneiform sign
Ne (kana), a Japanese written character
Nepali language
Modern English, sometimes abbreviated NE (to avoid confusion with Middle English)
Places
NE postcode area, UK, a postcode for the City of Newcastle upon Tyne, Tyne and Wear
Ne, Liguria, Italy, a comune in the Province of Genoa
Near East
Niger, ISO 3166-1 country code
.ne, the country code top level domain (ccTLD) for Niger
Canton of Neuchâtel, a canton of Switzerland
Nebraska, US (postal abbreviation)
New England, a region of the United States consisting of six states
Science and technology
Computing
.ne, the country code top level domain (ccTLD) for Niger
ne (text editor), a console text editor
NE (complexity), a class in computational complexity theory
Network element, a manageable logical entity uniting one or more physical devices
New Executable, a computer file format
Other uses in science and technology
Electron density ()
Ne, effective population size
Ne, for Number English, a unit of measure for cotton fiber
Neon, a chemical element with symbol Ne
Inequality operator, a term used in programming languages as a "not equal to" operator
Nash equilibrium, a solution concept in game theory
Norepinephrine, a neurotransmitter
Other uses
N.E. and N.E.2d, abbreviations for North Eastern Reporter, US law reports
Né, indicating the name given to a male child at birth, equivalent to the feminine née
Nationalencyklopedin, a Swedish national encyclopedia
Nitro Express, a brand of rifle cartridges
Northeast (direction), one of the four ordinal directions | [
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225051 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NV | NV | NV, nv, nV or Nv may refer to:
Places
Nevada, a state in the United States of America
North Vietnam
North Vancouver (disambiguation)
Businesses and organizations
Naamloze vennootschap (NV), a Dutch term for a public limited-liability company
Iranian Naft Airlines, Iranian airline (IATA code)
Air Central NV, Japanese airline (former IATA code)
North Vista Secondary School, Singapore
NV (Portland, Oregon), a residential tower in Oregon
NV Homes, a real estate development company now part of NVR, Inc.
Language
Navajo language, ISO 639-1 code nv
Radical 38 (女), "nü" in pinyin but often typed as "nv" as "v" is an alternate way to express "ü"
Music
nv (album), 1995 album by Battery
NV (album), a 2015 collaborative album by Dragged Into Sunlight and Gnaw Their Tongues
Science and technology
Nv neuron, an artificial neuron
Nv network, a term used in BEAM robotics
Nitrogen-vacancy center, a color center in diamond
nv (neutron flux), a unit of neutron flux equal to one thermal neutron per square centimeter per second
Near vision, an acronym used in eyeglass prescriptions
An abbreviation for NVIDIA, a graphics card company
Other
Abbreviation used by Team EnVyUs, an international eSports organization based in the United States
Nonvintage, an abbreviation used on wine lists. | [
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] |
225053 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NH | NH | NH or Nh may refer to
Businesses and organizations
All Nippon Airways (IATA code NH), formerly Nippon Helicopter, Japan's largest airline
National Agricultural Cooperative Federation, a South Korean cooperative federation also known by its Korean initials NH (Nonghyup)
New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad
NH (media company), formerly , a Dutch broadcasting company
NH Hotel Group, formerly , a Spanish-based hotel chain
NH Media ("Nam Hee"), a South Korean entertainment agency
Nordsjælland Håndbold, a Danish handball team
Places
New Hampshire, US (postal abbreviation NH)
New Haven, a city in Connecticut, United States
Noroton Heights, Connecticut, a town in Connecticut, United States
North Holland, a province in the Netherlands
In science and technology
Nh (digraph), an orthographic concept
National Hose Thread, a threaded connection standard used on hose couplings
Nickel hydride, a type of rechargeable battery
Nh, nihonium, chemical element 113
NH, molecular formula for imidogen
Other uses
National Highway, a road designation in many countries
NetHack, a computer game
Nishan-e-Haider, a Pakistani military award
No-hitter, a baseball term
See also | [
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225057 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ND | ND | ND may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Nancy Drew, a character in the series of books and video games with the same name
Naughty Dog, an American video game developer
Nuclear Dawn, a mod for the game Half-Life 2
nD, a type of alien in the United Kingdom TV series Invasion Earth
Businesses
Norsk Data, a defunct Norwegian computer manufacturer
NetDocuments, a document management company
Language
Nd (digraph), a digraph present in many African languages
Northern Ndebele language, by ISO 639-1 code
Places
North Dakota, a state in the United States
New Delhi, India
Notre Dame (disambiguation), the name of a number of churches and colleges
Nguyen Dynasty
Politics
New Democracy (Canada), a former political party in Canada
New Democracy (Greece), one of the main center-right liberal political parties in Greece
National Democrats (Sweden), a far-right political party in Sweden
New Democrats (France), a left wing party in France
National Democracy (Poland), former Polish political movement.
Nuclear disarmament, the dismantlement and proposed dismantling of nuclear weapons
Science and technology
Mathematics
nd (elliptic function), one of Jacobi's elliptic functions
Medicine
NADH dehydrogenase, an enzyme
Non-distended, an abdominal distension clinical examination value
Doctor of Naturopathic Medicine, a degree in naturopathic medicine
Notifiable disease, any disease that is required by law to be reported to government authorities
Physics
ND Experiment, a particle physics experiment in Novosibirsk, Russia
nD, the refractive index of a medium at a wavelength of 589.8 nm
Other uses in science and technology
Neighbor Discovery Protocol, an Internet protocol
Neodymium, a chemical element with the symbol “Nd”
Neutral density filter, a type of filter used in photography
Contax N Digital, a digital camera
ND for nominal diameter in piping
ND MX-5 Miata, the fourth generation of the Mazda MX-5
Other uses
National Diploma (Ireland), an academic qualification in the Republic of Ireland
Navy Diver, an occupational rating in the U.S. Navy
Negligent discharge, a careless discharge of a firearm
New Dawn (disambiguation), with various meanings
Norrlands dragonregemente, a cavalry regiment of the Swedish Army
Notitia Dignitatum, a historical document of the late Roman empire
Nuclear disarmament, the dismantlement and proposed dismantling of nuclear weapons
Neurodiversity
n.d. for "no date", an abbreviation used in APA-style bibliographic citations | [
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225063 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SC | SC | SC, Sc or sc may refer to:
Arts and media
Sim City, a city-building simulator game
Snapchat, a multimedia messaging app
Soulcalibur, fighting video game series created by Namco
SoundCloud, an online audio distribution platform and music sharing website
SportsCenter, an American daily sports-news program broadcast on ESPN
SportsCentre, a Canadian daily sports-news program broadcast on TSN
Supreme Commander, a real-time strategy video game
Businesses
SC Paragliding, a defunct Ukrainian aircraft manufacturer
SCTV (Indonesia) (Surya Citra Television), an Indonesian television network
Shandong Airlines, IATA airline designation
Standard Chartered, a multinational bank company headquartered in London England
Education
Scots College, Wellington, New Zealand
Southland College, Philippines
St. Christopher's School, Harare, Zimbabwe
University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
South Carolina Gamecocks, the Division I athletic program
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States
Southern California Trojans, the Division I athletic program
Sierra Canyon School, California, United States
Language
Sc (digraph), a combination of letters used in the spelling of some languages
"sc.", abbreviation for scilicet, Latin for "it is permitted to know"; See viz.
Sardinian language, ISO 639 language code
small caps
Government, law, and military
SC convoys, a series of Allied convoys that ran during the battle of the Atlantic during World War II
Scheduled Castes, officially designated groups of historically disadvantaged people in India
Security Check, a level of security clearance in the United Kingdom
Post-nominal letters for Senior Counsel, or State Counsel in some countries
Special constable, auxiliary police constable
Star of Courage (Australia), an Australian decoration
Star of Courage (Canada), a Canadian decoration
Statutes of Canada, a compilation of all the federal laws passed by the Parliament of Canada since Confederation in 1867
The Supreme Court, the highest court in many legal jurisdictions
United Nations Security Council
Submarine chaser boat
Sacrosanctum Concilium one of the constitutions of the Second Vatican Council.
Places
Santa Catarina (state), ISO 3166-2 and Brazilian state abbreviation
Saint Kitts and Nevis, NATO country code
Secunderabad Railway Station, station code, Hyderabad, India
Seychelles, ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code
Sichuan, Guobiao abbreviation SC, a province of China
South Carolina, a state in the Eastern US
Southern California, a US urban area centred on Los Angeles
State College, a city in Pennsylvania, US
Science and technology
Computing
.sc, the country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Seychelles
SC, a type of optical fiber connector, of a push-pull coupling style
SC (complexity), a complexity class in computer science, named after Stephen Cook
sc.exe, a "Service Control" utility for managing Microsoft Windows services
sc (spreadsheet calculator), a text-based Unix spreadsheet program
PC/SC, specification for smart-card integration into computers
Scientific computation, a discipline in computing
ACM/IEEE Supercomputing Conference, known as SC or Supercomputing Conference
Other uses in science and technology
Lexus SC, an automobile
sc (elliptic function), one of Jacobi's elliptic functions
Scandium, chemical symbol Sc, an element
Schmidt number (Sc), in fluid dynamics
Sophrocattleya (abbreviation Sc), an orchid genus
Subcutaneous injection or administration, abbreviation
Superior colliculus, a brain region involved with eye movements
Clayey sand, in the Unified Soil Classification System
Sodium cyanide
Switched capacitor, an electronic circuit element implementing a filter
See also
SCC (disambiguation)
SC2 (disambiguation)
SCSC (disambiguation) | [
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225064 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TN | TN |
Businesses and organizations
Air Tahiti Nui (IATA airline designation "TN" since 1998), a French Polynesian airline
Texas and Northern Railway, an American railway (reporting mark "TN")
Todo Noticias, an Argentine cable news network
Trans Australia Airlines (IATA airline designation "TN" until 1994), a defunct Australian airline
Transports en commun de Neuchâtel et environs, a public transport operator in Neuchâtel, Switzerland
Places
Tamil Nadu, a state in southern India (ISO abbreviation "IN-TN")
Tennessee, US (postal abbreviation "TN")
North Tipperary, Ireland (former code "TN")
Tonbridge, a region in England (postcode "TN")
Tunisia (ISO 3166-1 country code "TN")
Trentino, a province in Italy (ISO abbreviation "IT-TN")
Science and technology
.tn, the country code top level domain (ccTLD) for Tunisia
TN network, a type of earthing system for protection in electricity network
Neel Temperature, the temperature at which an antiferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic (represented as TN)
Tetraodon, a genus of pufferfish
Trigeminal neuralgia, a neuropathic disorder
Transposon (when immediately followed by a number), a DNA sequence that can change positions
Twisted nematic field effect, the technology that made LCD displays practical
Other uses
TN status ("Treaty national", or "Trade NAFTA"), an immigration status of a Canadian or Mexican citizen working in the USA under the NAFTA agreement
Telephone number, in the telecommunications industry
Tom Next (or Tomorrow Next), a financial trade which starts tomorrow and settles in the next trading day
Trillion ("TN" or "tn"), a number equal to 1012 (short scale) or 1018 (long scale)
Tswana language (ISO 639-1 language code)
Translators Note ("TN" or "t/n")
Turbonave, an Italian ship prefix, indicating that the ship was propelled by a turbine engine. | [
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225067 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TX | TX | TX, T-X, or Tx may refer to:
Texas, abbreviated as TX
Companies
Consumer product companies
Tianxiang TX, a Chinese brand of drones and UAVs by Tianxiang Aerospace Science and Technology Co.
TX Watch Company, a former watch company by the Timex Group
Media and telecommunication companies
TX Digital Illusions, a former American video game developer
TX Group, a Swiss media company
TX Network, a Japanese television network
Transportation companies
Air Caraïbes (IATA airline designator TX)
Electronics and machines
Canon TX, a 35mm single-lens reflex camera
Palm TX, a personal digital assistant
Sony Xperia TX, a smartphone
Media
Fenix TX, a pop punk band from Houston, Texas, formerly known as Riverfenix
Fenix TX, the band's first album after their name change
T-X (Terminatrix), the antagonist in the movie Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines
Science and technology
Astronomy
TX Camelopardalis, a star in the Camelopardalis constellation
TX Piscium, a carbon star in the Pisces constellation
Linguistics
Tx (digraph)
Medicine
Caspase 4, an enzyme
Therapy, Tx or Tx in medical shorthand
Treatment group, in an experiment, such as basic research or clinical trials
Traction (orthopedics)
Transplant, in the context of organ transplantation
In the TNM staging system for cancer:
Size or extent of tumor cannot be evaluated
Wildcard for any T stage (for example, a chemotherapy regimen prescribed for any T, any N, M1 = TxNxM1)
Telecommunications
Transmission (telecommunications), generally
Tx, the transmit signal in the RS-232 serial communication protocol
Transportation
Aircraft and airlines
Boeing T-7 Red Hawk, known as the T-X until 2019
T-X program
Sperwill TX, a British paramotor
Automobiles
Exeed TX, a 2019–present Chinese mid-size SUV
Fairthrope TX, a 1967 British sports coupe
Howmet TX, a 1968 American sports prototype racing car
LEVC TX, a 2017–present British electric taxi cab
Buses
TX series, a line of coaches manufactured by Vanhool
Rail
Tsukuba Express, a Japanese railway line abbreviated as TX | [
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225069 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WA | WA | Wa or WA may refer to:
Print media
Wa, a fictional country in Kara-Tur of the Forgotten Realms universe
Weimarer Ausgabe, Weimar edition of Martin Luther's works
The Wine Advocate, a bimonthly wine publication based in the US
Businesses and organizations
Weerbaarheidsafdeling, a paramilitary militia of the National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands
Western Airlines (IATA airline designator WA) (defunct)
Western Arms, a Japan-based airsoft manufacturer
"World Archery", brand name of the World Archery Federation
KLM Cityhopper (IATA airline designator WA)
Language
Wa (Javanese) (ꦮ), a letter in the Javanese script
Wa (kana), romanisation of the Japanese kana わ and ワ
Wa language, a group of languages spoken by the Wa people
Walloon language (ISO 639 language code wa)
Places
Asia
Wa (Japan) (倭), an old Chinese name for Japan
Wa Land, the natural and historical region inhabited mainly by the Wa people in Myanmar and China
Wa Self-Administered Division, a current administrative division in Myanmar
Wa State, a de facto independent state in Myanmar
Elsewhere
WA postcode area in north west England
Wa, Ghana, a city in northern Ghana
Roman Catholic Diocese of Wa, Ghana
Washington (state), US, standard abbreviation
State of Western Australia
Schools
Westford Academy, a public high school in Westford, Massachusetts, United States
Woodstock Academy, a public high school in Woodstock, Connecticut, United States
Worcester Academy, a private high school in Worcester, Massachusetts, United States
Technology
wa (watercraft), outrigger proa of the Caroline Islands
Other uses
Nüwa or Wa, a Chinese goddess (媧)
Wa (Japanese culture) (和), a Japanese social construct
, pronounced wa, used in conversation to mark a change in topic
Wa (unit), a Thai unit of measurement
Wa people (佤), an ethnic group in China and Myanmar
Wing attack, one of the positions in netball
Language and nationality disambiguation pages | [
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] |
225070 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WV%20%28disambiguation%29 | WV (disambiguation) | WV is West Virginia, a US state.
WV may also refer to:
Computing
wv (software), software formerly known as MSWordView or wvware
WavPack, software whose file extension is .wv
Wireless Village, an instant messaging protocol and presence services
Other uses
WV postcode area, England
WV, a prefix for tombs found in the West Valley of the Valley of the Kings
WandaVision, a 2021 Disney+ miniseries
Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star, designated WV-1, WV-2, WV-3 in US Navy service
Swe Fly (IATA airline designator WV)
Weerodara Vibhushanaya, a military decoration in Sri Lanka
Wikivoyage, a collaboratively edited, multilingual, free content Internet travel guide
Werke-Verzeichnis, abbreviated to WV, German for 'works catalogue', used in relation to catalogues of classical compositions, such as BWV, BuxWV, and HWV.
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225071 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WI | WI | WI or wi may refer to:
Places
West Indies postal abbreviation
Wiesbaden, a city in southwest Germany
Wisconsin, US (postal abbreviation)
People and characters
Wi (mythology), a Lakota deity
Wi Man of Gojoseon, a military leader from the Han dynasty state of Yan, in modern Korea
Businesses and organizations
Wi, Inc., an American medical device development
West Indies cricket team, in cricket statistics
Women's Institutes, a locally organised group for British women
Other uses
Wi (hangul), a Korean character
Waterfall ice, the ice formed from a frozen waterfall; see
See also
Wii, Nintendo's fifth home video game console
W1 (disambiguation)
WL (disambiguation)
Wiwi (disambiguation) | [
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225072 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WY | WY | Wy or WY may refer to:
Places:
Principality of Wy, an Australian micronation
West Yorkshire, an English county
West Yorkshire Metro transit system
Wyoming, US (postal abbreviation)
Other uses:
WY Records, a record label
Oman Air, the national airline of Oman
WebYeshiva, a website for religious study
Wisin & Yandel, a Puerto Rican reggaeton duo
Weyerhaeuser (NYSE symbol WY), real estate investment trust company | [
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225073 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/He%20%28pronoun%29 | He (pronoun) | In Modern English, he is a singular, masculine, third-person pronoun.
Morphology
In Standard Modern English, he has four shapes representing five distinct word forms:
he: the nominative (subjective) form
him: the accusative (objective) form (also called the oblique case
his: the dependent and independent genitive (possessive) forms
himself: the reflexive form
History
Old English had a single third-person pronoun — from the Proto-Germanic demonstrative base *khi-, from PIE *ko- "this" — which had a plural and three genders in the singular. The modern pronoun it developed out of the neuter singular, starting to appear without the h in the 12th century. Her developed out of the feminine singular dative and genitive forms, while the other feminine forms and the plural were replaced with other words. The older pronoun had the following forms:
In the 12th century, it started to separate and appear without an h. Around the same time, one case was lost, and distinct pronouns started to develop. The -self forms developed in early Middle English, with hine self becoming himself. By the 15th century, the Middle English forms of he had solidified into those we use today.
Gender
He had three genders in Old English, but in Middle English, the neuter and feminine genders split off. Today, he is the only masculine pronoun in English. In the 18th century, it was suggested as a gender-neutral pronoun, and was thereafter often prescribed in manuals of style and school textbooks until around the 1960s. In 2019 the Meriam-Webster dictionary added the singular they after seeing a spike in search interest.
Syntax
Functions
He can appear as a subject, object, determiner or predicative complement. The reflexive form also appears as an adjunct. He occasionally appears as a modifier in a noun phrase.
Subject: He's there; him being there; his being there; he paid for himself to be there.
Object: I saw him; I introduced her to him; He saw himself.
Predicative complement: The only person there was him.
Dependent determiner: I met his friend.
Independent determiner: This is his.
Adjunct: He did it himself.
Modifier: The he goat was missing.
Dependents
Pronouns rarely take dependents, but it is possible for he to have many of the same kind of dependents as other noun phrases.
Relative clause modifier: he who arrives late
Determiner: A: Somebody was here, and he left this. B: I'm that he.
Adjective phrase modifier: the real him
Adverb phrase external modifier: Not even him
Semantics
He's referents are generally limited to individual male persons, excluding the speaker and the addressee. He is always definite and usually specific.
Generic
The pronoun he can also be used to refer to an unspecified person, as in If you see someone in trouble, help him. (See Gender above). This can seem very unnatural, even ungrammatical, as in these examples:
?When somebody gives birth, it's good for him to have assistance.
?If either your mother or father would like to discuss it, I'll talk to him.
Deities
When speaking of God, Jesus Christ or the Holy Spirit, some Christians use the capitalised forms "He", "His" and "Him" in writing, and in some translations of the Bible.
Pronunciation
According to the OED, the following pronunciations are used:
References
Notes
Further reading
"He", The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth edition, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000).
See also
English personal pronouns
Gender neutrality in languages with gendered third-person pronouns
Generic antecedent
Third-person pronoun
English grammar
Modern English personal pronouns
Middle English personal pronouns
Old English personal pronouns
Terms for men | [
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225075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na | Na | NA, N.A., Na, nA or n/a may refer to:
Places
Current
Namibia (ISO country code)
Naples (car number plate code: NA), Italy
North America, a continent
North Africa, a subcontinent
Historical
Netherlands Antilles (former international vehicle registration code: NA)
Na (Chinese state), a small state of the Chinese Zhou dynasty from the 11th to 8th centuries BC
Nakoku, or Na, a state in Kyūshū, Japan from the 1st to early 3rd centuries AD
Names and titles
Na or 羅, a Korean surname related to the Chinese surname Luo
Na, a particle used in Thai noble names
Arts, entertainment, and media
Na (drum), a drum played by Tibetan shamans
Nahal, Shine's pet Bengal tiger on the Nick Jr. TV show Shimmer and Shine
National Academician, a member of the National Academy of Design
New adult fiction, fiction marketed to people 18–30 years old
Virgin New Adventures, a series of Doctor Who novels
Aviation
NA, the tailcode of VFA-94
Nepal Airlines, the national flag carrier airline of Nepal
North American Airlines (IATA code: NA)
Cultures
Mosuo or Na, a small ethnic group in China near Tibet
Na people, a small tribal group in India
Language
Na (cuneiform), a cuneiform sign
Na (Javanese) (ꦤ), a letter in the Javanese script
Na (kana), a Japanese kana
Na dialect, a Sino-Tibetan variety of India
Na language (Narua), a Sino-Tibetan language of Yunnan, China
Nauruan language (ISO code: na)
Organizations
Narcotics Anonymous (NA), a twelve-step program that focuses on recovery from drug addiction
National Alliance (Latvia), a Latvian political party
National Alliance (Netherlands), a former Dutch political party
National Association (disambiguation)
National Association of Professional Base Ball Players, the first professional baseball league
Nepalese Army, the land military force of Nepal
Neurotics Anonymous (N/A), a twelve-step program for recovery from mental and emotional illness
Science and technology
Biology and medicine
Na (tree) or Mesua ferrea, a species of tree native to Sri Lanka
Neuroacanthocytosis, neurological conditions in which the blood contains misshapen, spiculated red blood cells called acanthocytes
Nomina Anatomica, a former international standard for human anatomical nomenclature
Noradrenaline or norepinephrine, a hormone
Nucleic acid analogue, compounds analogous to naturally occurring RNA and DNA, used in medicine and in molecular biology
Chemistry
Avogadro constant (NA)
Nucleophilic addition, a type of reaction in organic chemistry
Sodium (symbol Na), a chemical element
Other uses in science and technology
.na, the top-level domain for Namibia
Naturally aspirated engine
Numerical aperture, a number that characterizes a range of angles in an optical system
nA, the symbol for nanoampere
Other uses
n/a, meaning not applicable, not available, or no answer
N.A., the official designation of federally chartered banks in the United States
NA MX-5 Miata, the first generation of the Mazda Miata
See also
Nå (disambiguation)
Na Na (disambiguation)
Na Na Na (disambiguation) | [
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225076 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MG | MG | MG, Mg, or mg and variants may refer to:
Organizations
MG Cars, an automotive marque of the now defunct MG Car Company
MG Motor, a present-day car manufacturing company
MG JW Automobile, a Pakistani automobile manufacturer
Champion Air (IATA code)
Matematička gimnazija, a school in Belgrade
Monte Generoso railway
Arts and entertainment
MG, a character in The Perhapanauts comics
Match Game, a television game show
Magilla Gorilla, a cartoon character
Music
Main gauche, "left hand" in piano playing
MG (Martin Gore album)
The M.G.'s, from the band Booker T. & the M.G.'s
The MG's (album), an album by the M.G.'s
MG Select, a house duo music production including George Jackson
M:G, real name Maribel Gonzalez, dance music singer
Military
Machine gun (MG-), prefix for model designations, for example, "MG42"
Major general, a military rank
Medal for Gallantry, a military decoration
Places
Madagascar (ISO 3166-1 country code MG)
.mg, the Internet country code top-level domain for Madagascar
Minas Gerais, Brazil
Mongolia (FIPS 10-4 country code MG)
Science and technology
.mg, the Internet country code top-level domain for Madagascar
mg (text editor), a text editing program
Magnesium, a chemical element with symbol Mg
Motor-generator, a device for converting electrical power to another form
Manual Gates, a type of level crossing used in the United Kingdom
Microgrid, a local architecture for power grid within the concept of Smart Grid that can function both connected to and isolanded from the main grid.
Force of gravity, product of mass (m) by acceleration of gravity (g)
Biology and medicine
Michaelis-Gutmann bodies, concentrically layered basophilic inclusions in the urinary tract
Monoglyceride, or monoacylglycerol
Myasthenia gravis, a neuromuscular disease
Mycoplasma gallisepticum, a disease affecting chickens and other birds
Mycoplasma genitalium, a sexually transmitted bacterium
Units of measurement
Milligram (mg), equal to 10−3 grams
Megagram (Mg), equal to 106 grams
Milligauss (mG), equal to 1.0 × 10−7 teslas
Megagauss (MG), equal to 100 teslas
Other uses
Mg (magazine), an American business monthly
Malagasy language
Outlaw motorcycle club (motorcycle gang)
Matt Groening | [
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225083 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20landmark%20United%20Kingdom%20House%20of%20Lords%20cases | List of landmark United Kingdom House of Lords cases | This page lists legal decisions of the House of Lords. Until 30 September 2009, the House of Lords was the highest appellate court for the United Kingdom. Cases were determined not by the House of Lords itself, but by its Judicial Committee, consisting of up to nine legally qualified peers, generally referred to as "Law Lords". On 1 October 2009 its functions were transferred to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom.
For a complete list of all legal cases heard by the House of Lords, see List of United Kingdom House of Lords cases.
See also
List of United Kingdom House of Lords cases
List of Judicial Committee of the Privy Council cases
List of Supreme Court of Judicature cases
External links
House of Lords cases since 1996
United Kingdom
United Kingdom law-related lists
Cases | [
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225086 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashikaga%20Yoshiaki | Ashikaga Yoshiaki | was the 15th and final shōgun of the Ashikaga shogunate in Japan who reigned from 1568 to 1573. His father, Ashikaga Yoshiharu, was the twelfth shōgun, and his brother, Ashikaga Yoshiteru, was the thirteenth shōgun.
Biography
Yoshiaki was a monk of Kokoku-ji temple but after his older brother Yoshiteru was killed by the Miyoshi clan, he returned to secular life and named Yoshiaki.
The absence of an effective central authority in the capital of Japan had lasted until the warlord Oda Nobunaga's armies entered Kyoto in 1568, re-establishing the Muromachi shogunate under the puppet shōgun Ashikaga Yoshiaki to begin the Azuchi–Momoyama period. Ashikaga Yoshihide, the fourteenth shōgun, was deposed without ever entering the capital. His childhood name was Chitosemaru (千歳丸).
Most historians consider 1573 to have been the year in which the Ashikaga shogunate ended. The power of the Ashikaga was effectively destroyed on August 27, 1573, when Nobunaga drove Yoshiaki out of Kyoto. Yoshiaki became a Buddhist monk, shaving his head and taking the name Sho-san, which he later changed to Rei-o In.
Some note that Yoshiaki did not formally relinquish his empty title; and for this reason, the empty shell of the shogunate could be said to have continued for several more years. Despite a renewed central authority in Kyoto and Nobunaga's attempt to unify the country, the struggle for power among warring states continued. Yoshiaki acted as rallying point for anti-Oda forces. He even raised troops himself, and sent them to fight against Oda Nobunaga's army during the Ishiyama Hongan-ji War. Even after Oda Nobunaga had died in 1582, the former shogun continued his efforts to regain power. According to historian Mary Elizabeth Berry, Yoshiaki still resisted Nobunaga's de facto successor Toyotomi Hideyoshi by 1590.
Family
Father: Ashikaga Yoshiharu
Mother: Keijuin (1514–1565)
Concubines:
Osako no Kata
Kosaki no Tsubone
Children:
Ashikaga Yoshihiro (1572–1605)
Isshi Yoshitaka
Nagayama Yoshiari (1575–1635)
Yajima Hideyuki
Events of Yoshiaki's bakufu
1568 – Oda Nobunaga sets Yoshiaki up as shōgun.
1569 – Yoshiaki's Nijō residence is built.
1570 – Ikkō monks defeat Oda Nobunaga.
1571 – Oda Nobunaga destroys Enryaku-ji.
1573 – Takeda Shingen dies; Yoshiaki is deposed.
1574 - Oda Nobunaga demolishes Nagashima.
1580 - Ikkō monks surrender in August.
1582 - Oda Nobunaga dies at Honnō-ji temple.
1588 – Yoshiaki officially resigns from his post as shōgun.
Eras of Yoshiaki's bakufu
The span of years in which Yoshiaki was shōgun are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.
Eiroku (1558–1570)
Genki (1570–1573)
Tenshō (1573–1592)
Notes
References
Ackroyd, Joyce. (1982) Lessons from History: the Tokushi Yoron. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. ; OCLC 7574544
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 585069
1537 births
1597 deaths
16th-century shōguns
Ashikaga shōguns
Yoshiaki
Japanese Buddhist clergy
Azuchi–Momoyama period Buddhist clergy | [
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225089 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20White | James White | James or Jim White may refer to:
Military
James White (general) (1747–1821), American pioneer; founded Knoxville, Tennessee
James White (RAF officer) (1893–1972), World War I fighter ace
Politics
James White (North Carolina politician) (1749–1809), Congressman from North Carolina
James White (Maine politician) (1792–1870), Maine State Treasurer, 1842–1846
James White (English politician) (1809–1883), MP for Plymouth and Brighton
James White (South Australian politician) (1820–1892), land agent and MHA
James White (New South Wales politician) (1828–1890), member of Legislative Assembly, then Council; racehorse owner
James Cobb White (1855–1927), New South Wales politician, member of Legislative Council, nephew of the above
James Bain White (1835–1897), U.S. Representative from Indiana
James T. White (politician) (1837–1892), African-American Baptist minister and politician from Arkansas
James Bamford White (1842–1931), U.S. Representative from Kentucky
Martin White (politician) (James Martin White, 1857–1928), businessman and Member of Parliament for Forfar
James Stephen White (1838–1908), politician from Milwaukee, Wisconsin
James Wharton White (1857–1930), MHA in South Australia
J. D. White (James Dundas White, 1866–1951), Member of Parliament for Dunbartonshire and Glasgow Tradeston
James White (Scottish politician) (1922–2009), MP for Glasgow Pollok
James White (Irish politician) (1938–2014), Irish businessman, hotelier and politician
James F. White (born 1941), American politician
Jim White (politician) (born 1944), member of the South Dakota Senate
James White (Texas politician) (born 1964), member of Texas House of Representatives
James White (New Mexico politician), member of the New Mexico House of Representatives
Religion
James White (Archdeacon of Armagh) (died 1530)
James Springer White (1821–1881), husband of Ellen G. White and co-founder of the Seventh-day Adventist Church
James Edson White (1849–1928), adventist and author, son of James Springer White and Ellen G. White
James Rowland White (c. 1851–1885), self-proclaimed prophet
James Emery White (born 1961), president of Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary
James White (theologian) (born 1962), American theologian
Sports
Association football
James White (Scottish footballer) (1899–1983), Scottish footballer
Jimmy White (Irish footballer) (fl. 1923–1969), Irish international football (soccer) player
Jimmy White (footballer, born 1942) (1942–2017), English football (soccer) player
Australian rules football
Jim White (footballer, born 1878) (1878–1956), Australian rules footballer for Essendon in 1897
Jim White (footballer, born 1922) (1922–2006), Australian rules footballer
James White (Australian footballer) (born 1980), Australian rules footballer for Richmond
Basketball
Jim White (basketball), American basketball player fl. 1940s
James White (basketball) (born 1982), American basketball player
James White (basketball, born 1993), American basketball player for Columbian Dyip
Gridiron football
Jim White (American football) (1920–1987), American football player
James White (defensive tackle) (born 1953), former NFL defensive/nose tackle for the Minnesota Vikings
James White (running back) (born 1992), New England Patriots running back
Rugby union
Jim White (rugby union), Australian rugby union player
Jimmy White (rugby union) (1911–1997), South African rugby union player
Wrestling
Jim White (wrestler) (1942–2010), wrestler in the Southern United States
James White (wrestler), British Olympic wrestler
Other
James White, known as Deacon White (1847–1939), baseball player
James L. White (coach) (1893–1949), American college baseball, basketball and football head coach
Jim White (cricketer) (1901–1964), Australian cricketer
James White (baseball), American Negro league baseball player
James White (cross-country) (born 1941), American high school cross country coach
Jimmy White (born 1962), English snooker player
Arts and media
James White (writer and translator) (1759–1799), historical novelist
James White (sculptor) (1861–1918), English-born sculptor who emigrated to Australia
James H. White (1872–1944), Canadian film pioneer
James White (author) (1928–1999), writer of science fiction novellas, short stories, and novels
James L. White (poet) (1936–1981), poet and author
James C. White (1937–2009), American radio talk show host
James P. White (writer) (born 1940), author and editor
James L. White (1947–2015), American screenwriter
Jimmy White (singer) (born 1955), American singer-songwriter and record producer
Jim White (journalist) (1957), British sports television announcer and journalist, now with STV
Jim White (musician) (born 1957), American southern singer/songwriter
Jim White (presenter) (born 1957) Scottish sports television announcer and journalist
Jim White (drummer) (born 1962), Australian drummer for Dirty Three
James Chance or James White (born 1963), American musician
James White (rapper), American rapper with German hip-hop group C-Block
James Gordon White, screenwriter
Others
James White (1775–1820), advertising agent and author
James White (1812–1884), Scottish lawyer and chemicals manufacturer
James Terry White (1845–1920), editor of The National Cyclopaedia of American Biography
James Landrum White (1847–1925), shape note singing teacher and composer
James White (geographer) (1863–1928), Canadian geographer
James White (financier) (1877–1927), English property speculator
James Larkin White (1882–1946), discoverer and explorer of Carlsbad Caverns
James White (art expert) (1913–2003), Irish art expert and author
James Boyd White (born 1938), American law professor, literary critic, scholar and philosopher
James J. White (born 1934), law professor, legal scholar
James White (engineer) (1938–2009), American polymer scientist
James Clarke White (dermatologist) (1833–1916), American dermatologist and professor at Harvard Medical School
James Clarke White (neurosurgeon) (died 1981), American neurosurgeon and professor at Harvard Medical School
Jimmy White, a member of the gang that committed the Great Train Robbery
Other uses
James White (film), a 2015 drama
See also
James Whyte (disambiguation) | [
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225093 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10th%20United%20States%20Congress | 10th United States Congress | The 10th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1807, to March 4, 1809, during the seventh and eighth years of Thomas Jefferson's presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the 1800 census; both chambers had an overwhelming Democratic-Republican majority.
Major events
May 22, 1807: Former Vice President of the United States Aaron Burr was indicted for treason. He was acquitted September 1, 1807
June 1807: Chesapeake-Leopard Affair: The British warship captured and boarded the .
August 17, 1807: The Clermont, Robert Fulton's first American steamboat, left New York City for Albany, New York, on the Hudson River, inaugurating the first commercial steamboat service in the world.
January 1, 1808: The importation of slaves into the United States was banned
Major legislation
December 22, 1807: Embargo Act of 1807, ch. 5,
March 1, 1809: Non-Intercourse Act (1809), ch. 24,
Territories organized
February 3, 1809: Illinois Territory was organized from a portion of Indiana Territory,
Party summary
The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this Congress. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section.
Senate
House of Representatives
Leadership
Senate
President: George Clinton (DR)
President pro tempore: Samuel Smith (DR), elected April 16, 1808
Stephen R. Bradley (DR), elected December 28, 1808
John Milledge (DR), elected January 30, 1809
House of Representatives
Speaker: Joseph Bradley Varnum (DR)
Members
This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed in order of seniority, and representatives are listed by district.
Skip to House of Representatives, below
Senate
Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election.
Connecticut
1. James Hillhouse (F)
3. Uriah Tracy (F), died July 19, 1807
Chauncey Goodrich (F), from October 25, 1807
Delaware
1. Samuel White (F)
2. James A. Bayard (F)
Georgia
2. Abraham Baldwin (DR), until March 4, 1807
George Jones (DR), August 27, 1807 – November 7, 1807
William H. Crawford (DR), from November 7, 1807
3. John Milledge (DR)
Kentucky
2. Buckner Thruston (DR)
3. John Pope (DR)
Maryland
1. Samuel Smith (DR)
3. Philip Reed (DR)
Massachusetts
2. Timothy Pickering (F)
1. John Quincy Adams (F), until June 8, 1808
James Lloyd (F), from June 9, 1808
New Hampshire
2. Nicholas Gilman (DR)
3. Nahum Parker (DR)
New Jersey
1. John Condit (DR)
2. Aaron Kitchell (DR)
New York
3. John Smith (DR)
1. Samuel L. Mitchill (DR)
North Carolina
2. James Turner (DR)
3. Jesse Franklin (DR)
Ohio
1. John Smith (DR), until April 25, 1808
Return J. Meigs Jr. (DR), from December 12, 1808
3. Edward Tiffin (DR)
Pennsylvania
1. Samuel Maclay (DR), until January 4, 1809
Michael Leib (DR), from January 9, 1809
3. Andrew Gregg (DR)
Rhode Island
1. Benjamin Howland (DR)
2. James Fenner (DR), until September 1807
Elisha Mathewson (DR), from October 26, 1807
South Carolina
2. Thomas Sumter (DR)
3. John Gaillard (DR)
Tennessee
1. Joseph Anderson (DR)
2. Daniel Smith (DR)
Vermont
3. Stephen R. Bradley (DR)
1. Israel Smith (DR), until October 1, 1807
Jonathan Robinson (DR), from October 10, 1807
Virginia
2. William B. Giles (DR)
1. Andrew Moore (DR)
House of Representatives
The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their district numbers.
Connecticut
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.(7 Federalists)
. Epaphroditus Champion (F)
. Samuel W. Dana (F)
. John Davenport (F)
. Jonathan O. Moseley (F)
. Timothy Pitkin (F)
. Lewis B. Sturges (F)
. Benjamin Tallmadge (F)
Delaware
(1 Federalist)
. Nicholas Van Dyke (F), from October 6, 1807
Georgia
(4 Democratic-Republicans)
. William W. Bibb (DR)
. Howell Cobb (DR)
. Dennis Smelt (DR)
. George M. Troup (DR)
Kentucky
(6 Democratic-Republicans)
. Matthew Lyon (DR)
. John Boyle (DR)
. John Rowan (DR)
. Richard M. Johnson (DR)
. Benjamin Howard (DR)
. Joseph Desha (DR)
Maryland
The 5th district was a plural district with two representatives.(6-3 Democratic-Republican)
. John Campbell (F)
. Archibald Van Horne (DR)
. Philip B. Key (F)
. Roger Nelson (DR)
. William McCreery (DR)
. Nicholas R. Moore (DR)
. John Montgomery (DR)
. Edward Lloyd (DR)
. Charles Goldsborough (F)
Massachusetts
(11-6 Democratic-Republican)
. Josiah Quincy (F)
. Jacob Crowninshield (DR), until April 15, 1808
Joseph Story (DR), from May 23, 1808
. Edward St. Loe Livermore (F)
. Joseph Bradley Varnum (DR)
. William Ely (F)
. Samuel Taggart (F)
. Joseph Barker (DR)
. Isaiah L. Green (DR)
. Josiah Dean (DR)
. Jabez Upham (F)
. William Stedman (F)
. Barnabas Bidwell (DR), until July 13, 1807
Ezekiel Bacon (DR), from September 16, 1807
. Ebenezer Seaver (DR)
. Richard Cutts (DR)
. Daniel Ilsley (DR)
. Orchard Cook (DR)
. John Chandler (DR)
New Hampshire
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.(6 Democratic-Republicans)
. Peter Carleton (DR)
. Daniel M. Durell (DR)
. Francis Gardner (DR)
. Jedediah K. Smith (DR)
. Clement Storer (DR)
New Jersey
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.(6 Democratic-Republicans)
. Ezra Darby (DR), until January 27, 1808
Adam Boyd (DR), from March 8, 1808
. William Helms (DR)
. John Lambert (DR)
. Thomas Newbold (DR)
. James Sloan (DR)
. Henry Southard (DR)
New York
(15-2 Democratic-Republican)
. Samuel Riker (DR)
. and . Joint district with two seats: Gurdon S. Mumford (DR)
. and . Joint district with two seats: George Clinton Jr. (DR)
. Philip Van Cortlandt (DR)
. John Blake Jr. (DR)
. Daniel C. Verplanck (DR)
. Barent Gardenier (F)
. James I. Van Alen (DR)
. Killian K. Van Rensselaer (F)
. Josiah Masters (DR)
. John Thompson (DR)
. David Thomas (DR), until February 17, 1808
Nathan Wilson (DR), from November 7, 1808
. Peter Swart (DR)
. John Russell (DR)
. William Kirkpatrick (DR)
. Reuben Humphrey (DR)
. John Harris (DR)
North Carolina
(12 Democratic-Republicans)
. Lemuel Sawyer (DR)
. Willis Alston (DR)
. Thomas Blount (DR)
. William Blackledge (DR)
. Thomas Kenan (DR)
. Nathaniel Macon (DR)
. John Culpepper (F), until January 2, 1808, and then from February 23, 1808
. Richard Stanford (DR)
. Marmaduke Williams (DR)
. Evan S. Alexander (DR)
. James Holland (DR)
. Meshack Franklin (DR)
Ohio
(1 Democratic-Republican)
. Jeremiah Morrow (DR)
Pennsylvania
There were four plural districts, the 1st, 2nd, & 3rd had three representatives each, the 4th had two representatives.(14-3 Democratic-Republican)
. Joseph Clay (DR), until March 28, 1808
Benjamin Say (DR), from November 16, 1808
. John Porter (DR)
. Jacob Richards (DR)
. Robert Brown (DR)
. William Milnor (F)
. John Pugh (DR)
. John Hiester (DR)
. Robert Jenkins (F)
. Matthias Richards (DR)
. David Bard (DR)
. Robert Whitehill (DR)
. Daniel Montgomery Jr. (DR)
. James Kelly (F)
. John Rea (DR)
. William Findley (DR)
. John Smilie (DR)
. William Hoge (DR)
. Samuel Smith (DR)
Rhode Island
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.(2 Democratic-Republicans)
. Nehemiah Knight (DR), until June 13, 1808
Richard Jackson Jr. (F), from November 11, 1808
. Isaac Wilbour (DR)
South Carolina
(8 Democratic-Republicans)
. Robert Marion (DR)
. William Butler Sr. (DR)
. David R. Williams (DR)
. John Taylor (DR)
. Richard Winn (DR)
. Joseph Calhoun (DR), from June 2, 1807
. Thomas Moore (DR)
. Lemuel J. Alston (DR)
Tennessee
(3 Democratic-Republicans)
. John Rhea (DR)
. George W. Campbell (DR)
. Jesse Wharton (DR)
Vermont
(3-1 Democratic-Republican)
. James Witherell (DR), until May 1, 1808
Samuel Shaw (DR), from September 6, 1808
. James Elliott (F)
. James Fisk (DR)
. Martin Chittenden (F)
Virginia
(21-1 Democratic-Republican)
. John G. Jackson (DR)
. John Morrow (DR)
. John Smith (DR)
. David Holmes (DR)
. Alexander Wilson (DR)
. Abram Trigg (DR)
. Joseph Lewis Jr. (F)
. Walter Jones (DR)
. John Love (DR)
. John Dawson (DR)
. James M. Garnett (DR)
. Burwell Bassett (DR)
. William A. Burwell (DR)
. Matthew Clay (DR)
. John Randolph (DR)
. John W. Eppes (DR)
. John Claiborne (DR), until October 9, 1808
Thomas Gholson Jr. (DR), from November 7, 1808
. Peterson Goodwyn (DR)
. Edwin Gray (DR)
. Thomas Newton Jr. (DR)
. Wilson C. Nicholas (DR)
. John Clopton (DR)
Non-voting members
(no representation)
. Benjamin Parke, until March 1, 1808
Jesse B. Thomas, from October 22, 1808
. George Poindexter
. Daniel Clark
Changes in membership
The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress.
Senate
There were 5 resignations, 2 deaths, and 1 interim appointment. Neither party had a net change.
|-
| Georgia(2)
| | Abraham Baldwin (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died March 4, 1807.Temporary successor appointed August 27, 1807, to continue the term.
| | George Jones (DR)
| August 27, 1807
|-
| Connecticut(3)
| | Uriah Tracy (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died July 19, 1807.Successor elected October 25, 1807, to finish the term.
| | Chauncey Goodrich (F)
| October 25, 1807
|-
| Rhode Island(2)
| | James Fenner (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned September, 1807 to become Governor of Rhode Island.Successor elected to finish the term.
| | Elisha Mathewson (DR)
| October 26, 1807
|-
| Vermont(1)
| | Israel Smith (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned October 1, 1807, to become Governor of Vermont.Successor elected to finish the term.
| | Jonathan Robinson (DR)
| October 10, 1807
|-
| Georgia(2)
| | George Jones (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Successor elected November 7, 1807, to finish the term, in place of a temporary appointee.
| | William H. Crawford (DR)
| November 7, 1807
|-
| Ohio(1)
| | John Smith (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned April 25, 1808.Successor appointed to finish the term ending March 4, 1809.
| | Return J. Meigs Jr. (DR)
| December 12, 1808
|-
| Massachusetts(1)
| | John Quincy Adams (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned June 8, 1808, having broken with his party and lost re-election to the next term.Winner elected to finish the term, having already won election to the next term.
| | James Lloyd (F)
| June 9, 1808
|-
| Pennsylvania(1)
| | Samuel Maclay (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned January 4, 1809, believing he would lose re-election.Winner was elected to finish the term, having already won election to the next term.
| | Michael Leib (DR)
| January 9, 1809
|}
House of Representatives
Of the voting members, there were 4 resignations, 4 deaths, and 2 vacancies from the beginning of this Congress. Democratic-Republicans had no net change and Federalists picked up 2 seats.
|-
|
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Levi Casey (DR) died before the end of the preceding Congress
| | Joseph Calhoun (DR)
| Seated June 2, 1807
|-
|
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | James M. Broom (F) resigned before the beginning of this Congress
| | Nicholas Van Dyke (F)
| Seated October 6, 1807
|-
|
| | Barnabas Bidwell (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned July 13, 1807, after becoming attorney General of Massachusetts
| | Ezekiel Bacon (DR)
| Seated September 16, 1807
|-
|
| | John Culpepper (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Seat declared vacant January 2, 1808
| | John Culpepper (F)
| Seated February 23, 1808
|-
|
| | Ezra Darby (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died January 27, 1808
| | Adam Boyd (DR)
| Seated March 8, 1808
|-
|
| Benjamin Parke
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned March 1, 1808
| Jesse B. Thomas
| October 22, 1808
|-
|
| | Joseph Clay (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned March 28, 1808
| | Benjamin Say (DR)
| Seated November 16, 1808
|-
|
| | Jacob Crowninshield (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died April 15, 1808
| | Joseph Story (DR)
| Seated May 23, 1808
|-
|
| | David Thomas (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned May 1, 1808, after becoming New York State Treasurer
| | Nathan Wilson (DR)
| November 7, 1808
|-
|
| | James Witherell (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned May 1, 1808, after becoming judge of Supreme Court for Michigan Territory
| | Samuel Shaw (DR)
| Seated September 6, 1808
|-
|
| | Nehemiah Knight (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died June 13, 1808
| | Richard Jackson Jr. (F)
| Seated November 11, 1808
|-
|
| | John Claiborne (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died October 9, 1808
| | Thomas Gholson Jr. (DR)
| Seated November 7, 1808
|}
Committees
Lists of committees and their party leaders.
Senate
Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: John Quincy Adams)
Engrossed Bills (Chairman: Andrew Gregg then Francis Malbone)
Whole
House of Representatives
Accounts (Chairman: Nicholas R. Moore)
Affairs with Algiers (Select)
Claims (Chairman: David Holmes)
Commerce and Manufactures (Chairman: Thomas Newton Jr.)
Conduct of Peter J. Bruin (Select)
District of Columbia (Chairman: David Holmes)
Elections (Chairman: William Findley)
Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: John Rhea)
Public Lands (Chairman: John Boyle then Jeremiah Morrow)
Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: John Clopton)
Rules (Select)
Standards of Official Conduct
Ways and Means (Chairman: George W. Campbell)
Whole
Joint committees
Enrolled Bills (Chairman: Sen. James Turner)
The Library (Chairman: N/A)
Employees
Legislative branch agency directors
Architect of the Capitol: Benjamin Latrobe
Librarian of Congress: Patrick Magruder
Senate
Chaplain: John J. Sayrs (Episcopalian), until November 10, 1807
Alexander T. McCormick (Episcopalian), elected November 10, 1807
Robert Elliott (Presbyterian), elected November 10, 1808
Secretary: Samuel A. Otis
Sergeant at Arms: James Mathers
House of Representatives
Chaplain: Robert Elliott Presbyterian, until October 30, 1807
Obadiah B. Brown, Baptist, from October 30, 1807
Clerk: John J. Beckley, until April 8, 1807 (died)
Patrick Magruder, from April 8, 1807
Doorkeeper: Thomas Claxton
Reading Clerks:
Sergeant at Arms: Joseph Wheaton, until October 27, 1807
Thomas Dunn, from October 27, 1807
See also
1806 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
1806 and 1807 United States Senate elections
1806 and 1807 United States House of Representatives elections
1808 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
1808 United States presidential election
1808 and 1809 United States Senate elections
1808 and 1809 United States House of Representatives elections
Notes
References
External links
Statutes at Large, 1789-1875
Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress
U.S. House of Representatives: House History
U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists | [
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225094 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11th%20United%20States%20Congress | 11th United States Congress | The 11th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1809, to March 4, 1811, during the first two years of James Madison's presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Second Census of the United States in 1800. Both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority.
Major events
March 4, 1809: James Madison became President of the United States
October 27, 1810: Annexation of West Florida from Spain
Major legislation
May 1, 1810: Macon's Bill Number 2, ch. 39,
Constitutional amendments
May 1, 1810: Approved an amendment to the United States Constitution that would strip United States citizenship from any citizen who accepted a title of nobility from a foreign country, and submitted it to the state legislatures for ratification
This amendment, commonly known as the Titles of Nobility Amendment, has not been ratified and is still pending before the states.
Party summary
The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this congress. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section.
Senate
House of Representatives
Leadership
Senate
President: George Clinton (DR)
President pro tempore: John Milledge (DR)
Andrew Gregg (DR), from June 26, 1809
John Gaillard (DR), from February 28, 1810
John Pope (DR), from February 23, 1811
House of Representatives
Speaker: Joseph B. Varnum (DR)
Members
This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class, and representatives are listed by district.
Skip to House of Representatives, below
Senate
Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began with this Congress, requiring re-election in 1814; Class 2 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring re-election in 1810; and Class 3 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring re-election in 1812.
Connecticut
1. James Hillhouse (F), until June 10, 1810
Samuel W. Dana (F), from December 4, 1810
3. Chauncey Goodrich (F)
Delaware
1. Samuel White (F), until November 4, 1809
Outerbridge Horsey (F), from January 12, 1810
2. James A. Bayard (F)
Georgia
2. William H. Crawford (DR)
3. John Milledge (DR), until November 14, 1809
Charles Tait (DR), from November 27, 1809
Kentucky
2. Buckner Thruston (DR), until December 18, 1809
Henry Clay (DR), from November 4, 1810
3. John Pope (DR)
Maryland
1. Samuel Smith (DR)
3. Philip Reed (DR)
Massachusetts
1. James Lloyd (F)
2. Timothy Pickering (F)
New Hampshire
2. Nicholas Gilman (DR)
3. Nahum Parker (DR), until June 1, 1810
Charles Cutts (F), from June 21, 1810
New Jersey
1. John Lambert (DR)
2. Aaron Kitchell (DR), until March 12, 1809
John Condit (DR), from March 21, 1809
New York
1. Obadiah German (DR)
3. John Smith (DR)
North Carolina
2. James Turner (DR)
3. Jesse Franklin (DR)
Ohio
1. Return J. Meigs Jr. (DR), until December 10, 1810, or before
Thomas Worthington (DR), from December 15, 1810
3. Stanley Griswold (DR), May 18, 1809 – December 11, 1809
Alexander Campbell (DR), from December 11, 1809
Pennsylvania
1. Michael Leib (DR)
3. Andrew Gregg (DR)
Rhode Island
1. Francis Malbone (F), until June 4, 1809
Christopher G. Champlin (F), from June 26, 1809
2. Elisha Mathewson (DR)
South Carolina
2. Thomas Sumter (DR), until December 16, 1810
John Taylor (DR), from December 31, 1810
3. John Gaillard (DR)
Tennessee
1. Joseph Anderson (DR)
2. Daniel Smith (DR), until March 31, 1809
Jenkin Whiteside (DR), from April 11, 1809
Vermont
1. Jonathan Robinson (DR)
3. Stephen R. Bradley (DR)
Virginia
1. Richard Brent (DR)
2. William B. Giles (DR)
House of Representatives
The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their districts.
Connecticut
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Epaphroditus Champion (F)
. Samuel W. Dana (F), until May 10, 1810
Ebenezer Huntington (F), from October 11, 1810
. John Davenport (F)
. Jonathan O. Moseley (F)
. Timothy Pitkin (F)
. Lewis B. Sturges (F)
. Benjamin Tallmadge (F)
Delaware
. Nicholas Van Dyke (F)
Georgia
. William W. Bibb (DR)
. Howell Cobb (DR)
. Dennis Smelt (DR)
. George M. Troup (DR)
Kentucky
. Matthew Lyon (DR)
. Samuel McKee (DR)
. Henry Crist (DR)
. Richard M. Johnson (DR)
. Benjamin Howard (DR), until April 10, 1810
William T. Barry (DR), from August 8, 1810
. Joseph Desha (DR)
Maryland
The 5th district was a plural district with two representatives.
. John Campbell (F)
. Archibald Van Horne (DR)
. Philip B. Key (F)
. Roger Nelson (DR), until May 14, 1810
Samuel Ringgold (DR), from October 15, 1810
. Alexander McKim (DR)
. Nicholas R. Moore (DR)
. John Montgomery (DR)
. John Brown (DR), until sometime in 1810 ()
Robert Wright (DR), from November 29, 1810
. Charles Goldsborough (F)
Massachusetts
. Josiah Quincy (F)
. Benjamin Pickman Jr. (F)
. Edward St. Loe Livermore (F)
. Joseph Bradley Varnum (DR)
. William Ely (F)
. Samuel Taggart (F)
. William Baylies (F), until June 28, 1809
Charles Turner Jr. (DR), from June 28, 1809
. Gideon Gardner (DR)
. Laban Wheaton (F)
. Jabez Upham (F), until sometime in 1810 ()
Joseph Allen (F), from October 8, 1810
. William Stedman (F), until July 16, 1810
Abijah Bigelow (F), from October 8, 1810
. Ezekiel Bacon (DR)
. Ebenezer Seaver (DR)
. Richard Cutts (DR)
. Ezekiel Whitman (F)
. Orchard Cook (DR)
. Barzillai Gannett (DR)
New Hampshire
. Daniel Blaisdell (F)
. John C. Chamberlain (F)
. William Hale (F)
. Nathaniel A. Haven (F)
. James Wilson (F)
New Jersey
. Adam Boyd (DR)
. James Cox (DR), until September 12, 1810
John A. Scudder (DR), from October 31, 1810
. William Helms (DR)
. Jacob Hufty (DR)
. Thomas Newbold (DR)
. Henry Southard (DR)
New York
There were two plural districts, the 2nd & 6th, each had two representatives.
. Ebenezer Sage (DR)
. William Denning (DR), until sometime before late April 1810
Samuel L. Mitchill (DR), from December 4, 1810
. Gurdon S. Mumford (DR)
. Jonathan Fisk (DR)
. James Emott (F)
. Barent Gardenier (F)
. Herman Knickerbocker (F)
. Robert Le Roy Livingston (F)
. Killian K. Van Rensselaer (F)
. John Thompson (DR)
. Thomas Sammons (F)
. John Nicholson (DR)
. Thomas R. Gold (F)
. Erastus Root (DR)
. Uri Tracy (DR)
. Vincent Mathews (F)
. Peter B. Porter (DR)
North Carolina
. Lemuel Sawyer (DR)
. Willis Alston (DR)
. William Kennedy (DR)
. John Stanly (F)
. Thomas Kenan (DR)
. Nathaniel Macon (DR)
. Archibald McBryde (F)
. Richard Stanford (DR)
. James Cochran (DR)
. Joseph Pearson (F)
. James Holland (DR)
. Meshack Franklin (DR)
Ohio
. Jeremiah Morrow (DR)
Pennsylvania
There were four plural districts, the 1st, 2nd, & 3rd had three representatives each, the 4th had two representatives.
. William Anderson (DR)
. John Porter (DR)
. Benjamin Say (DR), until sometime in June 1809 ()
Adam Seybert (DR), from October 10, 1809
. Robert Brown (DR)
. William Milnor (F)
. John Ross (DR)
. Daniel Hiester (DR)
. Robert Jenkins (F)
. Matthias Richards (DR)
. David Bard (DR)
. Robert Whitehill (DR)
. George Smith (DR)
. William Crawford (DR)
. John Rea (DR)
. William Findley (DR)
. John Smilie (DR)
. Aaron Lyle (DR)
. Samuel Smith (DR)
Rhode Island
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Richard Jackson Jr. (F)
. Elisha R. Potter (F)
South Carolina
. Robert Marion (DR), until December 4, 1810
Langdon Cheves (DR), from December 31, 1810
. William Butler Sr. (DR)
. Robert Witherspoon (DR)
. John Taylor (DR), until December 30, 1810, vacant thereafter
. Richard Winn (DR)
. Joseph Calhoun (DR)
. Thomas Moore (DR)
. Lemuel J. Alston (DR)
Tennessee
. John Rhea (DR)
. Robert Weakley (DR)
. Pleasant M. Miller (DR)
Vermont
. Samuel Shaw (DR)
. Jonathan H. Hubbard (F)
. William Chamberlain (F)
. Martin Chittenden (F)
Virginia
. John G. Jackson (DR), until September 28, 1810
William McKinley (DR), from December 21, 1810
. James Stephenson (F)
. John Smith (DR)
. Jacob Swoope (F)
. James Breckinridge (F)
. Daniel Sheffey (F)
. Joseph Lewis Jr. (F)
. Walter Jones (DR)
. John Love (DR)
. John Dawson (DR)
. John Roane (DR)
. Burwell Bassett (DR)
. William A. Burwell (DR)
. Matthew Clay (DR)
. John Randolph (DR)
. John W. Eppes (DR)
. Thomas Gholson Jr. (DR)
. Peterson Goodwyn (DR)
. Edwin Gray (DR)
. Thomas Newton Jr. (DR)
. Wilson C. Nicholas (DR), until November 27, 1809
David S. Garland (DR), from January 17, 1810
. John Clopton (DR)
Non-voting members
. Jonathan Jennings, from November 27, 1809
. George Poindexter
. Julien De L. Poydras
Changes in membership
The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress.
Senate
There were 8 resignations, 2 deaths, 1 interim appointment, and 1 vacancy from before this Congress.
|-
| Ohio(3)
| Vacant
| Edward Tiffin (DR) resigned at the end of the previous Congress.Successor was appointed to continue the term.
| | Stanley Griswold (DR)
| Seated May 18, 1809
|-
| New Jersey(2)
| | Aaron Kitchell (DR)
| Resigned March 12, 1809.Successor was appointed to continue the term and subsequently elected to finish the term.
| | John Condit (DR)
| Seated March 21, 1809
|-
| Tennessee(2)
| | Daniel Smith (DR)
| Resigned March 31, 1809.Successor was elected April 11, 1809 to finish the term.
| | Jenkin Whiteside (DR)
| Seated April 11, 1809
|-
| Rhode Island(1)
| | Francis Malbone (F)
| Died June 4, 1809.Successor was elected to finish the term.
| | Christopher G. Champlin (F)
| Seated June 26, 1809
|-
| Delaware(1)
| | Samuel White (F)
| Died November 4, 1809.Successor was appointed to continue the term and subsequently elected to finish the term.
| | Outerbridge Horsey (F)
| Seated January 12, 1810
|-
| Georgia(3)
| | John Milledge (DR)
| Resigned November 14, 1809.Successor was elected to finish the term.
| | Charles Tait (DR)
| Seated November 27, 1809
|-
| Ohio(3)
| | Stanley Griswold (DR)
| Appointee was not elected to finish the term.Successor elected December 11, 1809.
| | Alexander Campbell (DR)
| Seated December 11, 1809
|-
| Kentucky(2)
| | Buckner Thruston (DR)
| Appointed judge of the US District Court of the District of Columbia December 18, 1809
| | Henry Clay (DR)
| Seated November 4, 1810
|-
| New Hampshire(3)
| | Nahum Parker (DR)
| Resigned June 1, 1810
| | Charles Cutts (F)
| Seated June 21, 1810
|-
| Connecticut(1)
| | James Hillhouse (F)
| Resigned June 10, 1810
| | Samuel W. Dana (F)
| Seated December 4, 1810
|-
| Ohio(1)
| | Return J. Meigs Jr. (DR)
| Resigned on or before December 10, 1810, to become Governor of Ohio
| | Thomas Worthington (DR)
| Seated December 15, 1810
|-
| South Carolina(2)
| | Thomas Sumter (DR)
| Resigned December 16, 1810
| | John Taylor (DR)
| Seated December 31, 1810
|}
House of Representatives
Of the voting members, there were 12 resignations, 1 death, and 1 change due to a contested election.
|-
|
| Vacant
| failure to elect
| Jonathan Jennings
| Seated November 27, 1809
|-
|
| | Benjamin Say (DR)
| Resigned June, 1809
| | Adam Seybert (DR)
| Seated October 10, 1809
|-
|
| | William Baylies (F)
| Lost contested election June 28, 1809
| | Charles Turner Jr. (DR)
| June 28, 1809
|-
|
| | Wilson C. Nicholas (DR)
| Resigned November 27, 1809
| | David S. Garland (DR)
| Seated January 17, 1810
|-
|
| | John Brown (DR)
| Resigned sometime in 1810
| | Robert Wright (DR)
| Seated November 29, 1810
|-
|
| | Jabez Upham (F)
| Resigned sometime in 1810
| | Joseph Allen (F)
| October 8, 1810
|-
|
| | William Denning (DR)
| Resigned sometime in 1810
| | Samuel L. Mitchill (DR)
| December 4, 1810
|-
|
| | Benjamin Howard (DR)
| Resigned April 10, 1810, after becoming Governor of Louisiana Territory
| | William T. Barry (DR)
| Seated August 8, 1810
|-
|
| | Samuel W. Dana (F)
| Resigned May 10, 1810, after being elected to US Senate
| | Ebenezer Huntington (F)
| October 11, 1810
|-
|
| | Roger Nelson (DR)
| Resigned May 14, 1810
| | Samuel Ringgold (DR)
| Seated October 15, 1810
|-
|
| | William Stedman (F)
| Resigned July 16, 1810
| | Abijah Bigelow (F)
| October 8, 1810
|-
|
| | James Cox (DR)
| Died September 12, 1810
| | John A. Scudder (DR)
| Seated October 31, 1810
|-
|
| | John G. Jackson (DR)
| Resigned September 28, 1810
| | William McKinley (DR)
| Seated December 21, 1810
|-
|
| | Robert Marion (DR)
| Resigned December 4, 1810
| | Langdon Cheves (DR)
| Seated December 31, 1810
|-
|
| | John Taylor (DR)
| Resigned December 30, 1810, after becoming US Senator
| Vacant
| Not filled for remainder of term
|}
Committees
Lists of committees and their party leaders.
Senate
Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: N/A)
Engrossed Bills (Chairman: Nicholas Gilman)
National University (Chairman: N/A)
Whole
House of Representatives
Accounts (Chairman: Nicholas R. Moore then William Milnor then Nicholas R. Moore)
Arms Exports (Select)
Claims (Chairman: Richard M. Johnson then Erastus Root)
Commerce and Manufactures (Chairman: Thomas Newton Jr.)
District of Columbia (Chairman: John Love then Archibald Van Horne)
Elections (Chairman: William Findley)
Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: John Rhea)
Public Lands (Chairman: Jeremiah Morrow)
Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: Henry Southard)
Rules (Select)
Standards of Official Conduct
Ways and Means (Chairman: John W. Eppes)
Whole
Joint committees
Enrolled Bills (Chairman: James Turner)
The Library (Chairman: N/A)
Employees
Legislative branch agency directors
Architect of the Capitol: Benjamin Latrobe
Librarian of Congress: Patrick Magruder
Senate
Chaplain: James J. Wilmer (Episcopalian), until December 5, 1809
Obadiah B. Brown (Baptist), from December 5, 1809
Walter D. Addison (Episcopalian), from December 12, 1810
Secretary: Samuel A. Otis
Sergeant at Arms: James Mathers
House of Representatives
Chaplain: Robert Elliott, Baptist, until May 27, 1809
Jesse Lee, Methodist, from May 27, 1809
Clerk: Patrick Magruder
Doorkeeper: Thomas Claxton
Reading Clerks:
Sergeant at Arms: Thomas Dunn
See also
1808 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
1808 United States presidential election
1808 and 1809 United States Senate elections
1808 and 1809 United States House of Representatives elections
1810 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
1810 and 1811 United States Senate elections
1810 and 1811 United States House of Representatives elections
Notes
References
External links
Statutes at Large, 1789-1875
Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress
U.S. House of Representatives: House History
U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists | [
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225095 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12th%20United%20States%20Congress | 12th United States Congress | The 12th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1811, to March 4, 1813, during the third and fourth years of James Madison's presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Second Census of the United States in 1800. Both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority.
Major events
November 6, 1811: Battle of Tippecanoe: William Henry Harrison defeated Tecumseh's forces
December 16, 1811: New Madrid earthquake
April 4, 1812: President Madison enacted a 90-day embargo on trade with the United Kingdom
April 20, 1812: Vice President George Clinton died
June 18, 1812: War of 1812: United States declared war on Great Britain
August 16, 1812: War of 1812: Detroit surrendered to the British.
October 13, 1812: War of 1812: the Battle of Queenston Heights
November 5, 1812: Elections of 1812:
1812 United States presidential election: Incumbent James Madison beat DeWitt Clinton.
United States Senate elections, 1812 and 1813
United States House of Representatives elections, 1812 and 1813
Major legislation
States admitted and territories organized
April 30, 1812: Louisiana was admitted as a state into the Union. It was formerly known as the Territory of Orleans
June 4, 1812: Missouri Territory was organized. It was formerly known as Louisiana Territory
Party summary
The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this congress. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section.
Senate
During this congress, two new Senate seats were added for the new state of Louisiana.
House of Representatives
During this congress, one new House seat was added for the new state of Louisiana.
Leadership
Senate
President: George Clinton (DR), until April 20, 1812; vacant thereafter.
President pro tempore: William H. Crawford (DR)
House of Representatives
Speaker: Henry Clay (DR)
Members
This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class, and representatives are listed by district.
Senate
Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring re-election in 1814; Class 2 meant their term began with this Congress, requiring re-election in 1816; and Class 3 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring re-election in 1812
Skip to House of Representatives, below
Connecticut
1. Samuel W. Dana (F)
3. Chauncey Goodrich (F)
Delaware
1. Outerbridge Horsey (F)
2. James A. Bayard (F)
Georgia
2. William H. Crawford (DR)
3. Charles Tait (DR)
Kentucky
2. George M. Bibb (DR)
3. John Pope (DR)
Louisiana
2. Jean N. Destréhan (DR), September 3, 1812 – October 1, 1812
Thomas Posey (DR), October 8, 1812 – February 4, 1813
James Brown (DR), from February 5, 1813
3. Allan B. Magruder (DR), from September 3, 1812
Maryland
1. Samuel Smith (DR)
3. Philip Reed (DR)
Massachusetts
1. James Lloyd (F)
2. Joseph Bradley Varnum (DR), from June 29, 1811
New Hampshire
2. Nicholas Gilman (DR)
3. Charles Cutts (F)
New Jersey
1. John Lambert (DR)
2. John Condit (DR)
New York
1. Obadiah German (DR)
3. John Smith (DR)
North Carolina
2. James Turner (DR)
3. Jesse Franklin (DR)
Ohio
1. Thomas Worthington (DR)
3. Alexander Campbell (DR)
Pennsylvania
1. Michael Leib (DR)
3. Andrew Gregg (DR)
Rhode Island
1. Christopher G. Champlin (F), until October 2, 1811
William Hunter (F), from October 28, 1811
2. Jeremiah B. Howell (DR)
South Carolina
2. John Taylor (DR)
3. John Gaillard (DR)
Tennessee
1. Joseph Anderson (DR)
2. Jenkin Whiteside (DR), until October 8, 1811
George W. Campbell (DR), from October 8, 1811
Vermont
1. Jonathan Robinson (DR)
3. Stephen R. Bradley (DR)
Virginia
1. Richard Brent (DR)
2. William B. Giles (DR)
House of Representatives
The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their district numbers.
Connecticut
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Epaphroditus Champion (F)
. John Davenport (F)
. Lyman Law (F)
. Jonathan O. Moseley (F)
. Timothy Pitkin (F)
. Lewis B. Sturges (F)
. Benjamin Tallmadge (F)
Delaware
. Henry M. Ridgely (F)
Georgia
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. William W. Bibb (DR)
. Howell Cobb (DR), until before October, 1812
William Barnett (DR), from October 5, 1812
. Bolling Hall (DR)
. George M. Troup (DR)
Kentucky
. Anthony New (DR)
. Samuel McKee (DR)
. Stephen Ormsby (DR)
. Richard M. Johnson (DR)
. Henry Clay (DR)
. Joseph Desha (DR)
Louisiana
. Thomas B. Robertson (DR), from December 23, 1812 (newly admitted state)
Maryland
The 5th district was a plural district with two representatives.
. Philip Stuart (F)
. Joseph Kent (DR)
. Philip B. Key (F)
. Samuel Ringgold (DR)
. Peter Little (DR)
. Alexander McKim (DR)
. John Montgomery (DR), until April 29, 1811
Stevenson Archer (DR), from October 26, 1811
. Robert Wright (DR)
. Charles Goldsborough (F)
Massachusetts
. Josiah Quincy (F)
. William Reed (F)
. Leonard White (F)
. Joseph Bradley Varnum (DR), until June 29, 1811
William M. Richardson (DR), from November 4, 1811
. William Ely (F)
. Samuel Taggart (F)
. Charles Turner Jr. (DR)
. Isaiah L. Green (DR)
. Laban Wheaton (F)
. Elijah Brigham (F)
. Abijah Bigelow (F)
. Ezekiel Bacon (DR)
. Ebenezer Seaver (DR)
. Richard Cutts (DR)
. William Widgery (DR)
. Peleg Tallman (DR)
. Barzillai Gannett (DR), until sometime in 1812 before April 6 ()
Francis Carr (DR), from April 6, 1812
New Hampshire
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Josiah Bartlett Jr. (DR)
. Samuel Dinsmoor (DR)
. Obed Hall (DR)
. John A. Harper (DR)
. George Sullivan (F)
New Jersey
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Adam Boyd (DR)
. Lewis Condict (DR)
. Jacob Hufty (DR)
. George C. Maxwell (DR)
. James Morgan (DR)
. Thomas Newbold (DR)
New York
There were two plural districts, the 2nd & 6th each had two representatives.
. Ebenezer Sage (DR)
. Samuel L. Mitchill (DR)
. William Paulding Jr. (DR)
. Pierre Van Cortlandt Jr. (DR)
. James Emott (F)
. Thomas B. Cooke (DR)
. Asa Fitch (F)
. Robert Le Roy Livingston (F), until May 6, 1812
Thomas P. Grosvenor (F) from January 29, 1813
. Harmanus Bleecker (F)
. Benjamin Pond (DR)
. Thomas Sammons (DR)
. Silas Stow (DR)
. Thomas R. Gold (F)
. Arunah Metcalf (DR)
. Uri Tracy (DR)
. Daniel Avery (DR)
. Peter B. Porter (DR)
North Carolina
. Lemuel Sawyer (DR)
. Willis Alston (DR)
. Thomas Blount (DR), until February 7, 1812
William Kennedy (DR), from January 30, 1813
. William Blackledge (DR)
. William R. King (DR)
. Nathaniel Macon (DR)
. Archibald McBryde (F)
. Richard Stanford (DR)
. James Cochran (DR)
. Joseph Pearson (F)
. Israel Pickens (DR)
. Meshack Franklin (DR)
Ohio
. Jeremiah Morrow (DR)
Pennsylvania
There were four plural districts, the 1st, 2nd, & 3rd had three representatives each, the 4th had two representatives.
. William Anderson (DR)
. James Milnor (F)
. Adam Seybert (DR)
. Robert Brown (DR)
. Jonathan Roberts (DR)
. William Rodman (DR)
. Roger Davis (DR)
. John M. Hyneman (DR)
. Joseph Lefever (DR)
. David Bard (DR)
. Robert Whitehill (DR)
. George Smith (DR)
. William Crawford (DR)
. William Piper (DR)
. William Findley (DR)
. John Smilie (DR), until December 30, 1812, vacant thereafter
. Aaron Lyle (DR)
. Abner Lacock (DR)
Rhode Island
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Richard Jackson Jr. (F)
. Elisha R. Potter (F)
South Carolina
. Langdon Cheves (DR)
. William Butler Sr. (DR)
. David R. Williams (DR)
. William Lowndes (DR)
. Richard Winn (DR)
. John C. Calhoun (DR)
. Thomas Moore (DR)
. Elias Earle (DR)
Tennessee
. John Rhea (DR)
. John Sevier (DR)
. Felix Grundy (DR)
Vermont
. Samuel Shaw (DR)
. William Strong (DR)
. James Fisk (DR)
. Martin Chittenden (F)
Virginia
. Thomas Wilson (F)
. John Baker (F)
. John Smith (DR)
. William McCoy (DR)
. James Breckinridge (F)
. Daniel Sheffey (F)
. Joseph Lewis Jr. (F)
. John P. Hungerford (DR), until November 29, 1811
John Taliaferro (DR), from November 29, 1811
. Aylett Hawes (DR)
. John Dawson (DR)
. John Roane (DR)
. Burwell Bassett (DR)
. William A. Burwell (DR)
. Matthew Clay (DR)
. John Randolph (DR)
. James Pleasants (DR)
. Thomas Gholson Jr. (DR)
. Peterson Goodwyn (DR)
. Edwin Gray (DR)
. Thomas Newton Jr. (DR)
. Hugh Nelson (DR)
. John Clopton (DR)
Non-voting members
. Shadrack Bond, from December 3, 1812
. Jonathan Jennings
. George Poindexter
. Edward Hempstead, from November 9, 1812
, vacant until April 29, 1812
Changes in membership
The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress.
Senate
Replacements: 1
Democratic-Republicans: no net change
Federalists: no net change
Deaths: 0
Resignations: 4
Interim appointments: 1
Seats of newly admitted states: 2
Vacancies:1
Total seats with changes: 6
|-
| Massachusetts(2)
| Vacant
| Legislature elected late.Successor elected June 29, 1811.
| | Joseph B. Varnum (DR)
| June 29, 1811
|-
| Rhode Island(1)
| | Christopher G. Champlin (F)
| Resigned October 2, 1811Successor elected October 28, 1811.
| | William Hunter (F)
| October 28, 1811
|-
| Tennessee(2)
| | Jenkin Whiteside (DR)
| Resigned October 8, 1811.Successor elected October 8, 1811.
| | George W. Campbell (DR)
| October 8, 1811
|-
| Louisiana(3)
| New seat
| Louisiana was admitted to the Union on April 30, 1812.Inaugural Senator elected September 3, 1812, for the term ending March 4, 1813.
| | Allan B. Magruder (DR)
| September 3, 1812
|-
| rowspan=3 | Louisiana(2)
| New seat
| Louisiana was admitted to the Union on April 30, 1812.Inaugural Senator elected September 3, 1812, for the term ending March 4, 1817.
| | Jean Noel Destréhan (DR)
| September 3, 1812
|-
| | Jean N. Destréhan (DR)
| Resigned October 1, 1812, without having qualified.Successor appointed October 8, 1812, to continue the term ending March 4, 1817.
| | Thomas Posey (DR)
| October 8, 1812
|-
| | Thomas Posey (DR)
| Appointee lost election to finish the term.Successor elected February 4, 1813.
| | James Brown (DR)
| February 5, 1813
|}
House of Representatives
Replacements: 3
Democratic-Republicans: no net change
Federalists: no net change
Deaths: 2
Resignations: 5
Contested election: 1
Seats of newly admitted states: 1
Vacancies: 1
Total seats with changes: 10
|-
|
| | John Montgomery (DR)
| Resigned April 29, 1811, to become attorney General of Maryland
| | Stevenson Archer (DR)
| Seated October 26, 1811
|-
|
| | Joseph B. Varnum (DR)
| Resigned June 29, 1811, to become U.S. Senator
| | William M. Richardson (DR)
| Seated November 4, 1811
|-
|
| | John Hungerford (DR)
| Lost contested election November 29, 1811
| | John Taliaferro (DR)
| Seated November 29, 1811
|-
|
| | Barzillai Gannett (DR)
| Resigned sometime in 1812 before April 6 ()
| | Francis Carr (DR)
| Seated April 6, 1812
|-
|
| | Thomas Blount (DR)
| Died February 7, 1812
| | William Kennedy (DR)
| Seated January 30, 1813
|-
|
| colspan=2 rowspan=2 | Julien de Lallande Poydras had resigned in the previous Congress, and the seat remained vacant until the territory became the state of Louisiana on April 30, 1812
| rowspan=2 | Thomas B. Robertson (DR)
| rowspan=2 | Seated April 30, 1812
|-
|
|-
|
| | Robert Le Roy Livingston (F)
| Resigned May 6, 1812
| | Thomas P. Grosvenor (F)
| Seated January 29, 1813
|-
|
| | Howell Cobb (DR)
| Resigned sometime before October 1812 ()
| | William Barnett (DR)
| Seated October 5, 1812
|-
|
| colspan=2 | Territory delegate seat established
| Edward Hempstead
| Seated November 9, 1812
|-
|
| colspan=2 | Territory delegate seat established
| Shadrach Bond
| Seated December 3, 1812
|-
|
| | John Smilie (DR)
| Died December 30, 1812
| Vacant
| Not filled until next Congress
|}
Committees
Lists of committees and their party leaders.
Senate
Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: Michael Leib)
Engrossed Bills (Chairman: Nicholas Gilman)
National University
Whole
House of Representatives
Accounts (Chairman: Charles Turner Jr.)
Apportionment of Representatives (Select)
Bankruptcy (Select)
Claims (Chairman: Burwell Bassett then Thomas Gholson Jr.)
Commerce and Manufactures (Chairman: Thomas Newton Jr.)
District of Columbia (Chairman: Joseph Lewis Jr.)
Elections (Chairman: William Findley)
Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: John Rhea)
Public Lands (Chairman: Jeremiah Morrow)
Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: Adam Seybert then Burwell Bassett)
Rules (Select)
Standards of Official Conduct
Ways and Means (Chairman: Ezekiel Bacon then Langdon Cheves)
Whole
Joint committees
Enrolled Bills (Chairman: )
The Library (Chairman: N/A)
Employees
Legislative branch agency directors
Architect of the Capitol: Benjamin Latrobe, until July 1, 1811; vacant thereafter
Librarian of Congress: Patrick Magruder
Senate
Chaplain: Walter D. Addison (Presbyterian), until November 13, 1811
John Brackenridge (Presbyterian), from November 13, 1811
Secretary: Samuel A. Otis
Sergeant at Arms: James Mathers, died
Mountjoy Bayly, elected November 6, 1811
House of Representatives
Chaplain: Jesse Lee (Methodist), until November 13, 1811
Nicholas Snethen (Methodist), elected November 13, 1811
Jesse Lee (Methodist), elected November 2, 1812
Clerk: Patrick Magruder
Doorkeeper: Thomas Claxton
Reading Clerks:
Sergeant at Arms: Thomas Dunn
See also
1810 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
1810 and 1811 United States Senate elections
1810 and 1811 United States House of Representatives elections
United States elections, 1812 (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
1812 United States presidential election
1812 and 1813 United States Senate elections
1812 and 1813 United States House of Representatives elections
Notes
References
External links
Statutes at Large, 1789-1875
Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress
U.S. House of Representatives: House History
U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists | [
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225096 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/13th%20United%20States%20Congress | 13th United States Congress | The 13th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1813, to March 4, 1815, during the fifth and sixth years of James Madison's presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Third Census of the United States in 1810. Both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority. The first two sessions were held at the Capitol building while the third, convened after the Burning of Washington, took place in the First Patent Building.
Major events
September 10, 1813: War of 1812: Battle of Lake Erie
October 5, 1813: War of 1812: Battle of the Thames
March 27, 1814: Creek War: Battle of Horseshoe Bend
July 25, 1814: War of 1812: Battle of Lundy's Lane
August 25, 1814: War of 1812: Burning of Washington
September 11, 1814: War of 1812: Battle of Lake Champlain
September 13, 1814: War of 1812: Bombardment of Fort McHenry at Baltimore
November 7, 1814: War of 1812: Forces under Gen. Andrew Jackson seized Pensacola
November 23, 1814: Vice President Elbridge Gerry died
December 15, 1814: Hartford Convention convened through January 5, 1815, in which New England Federalists met to discuss their grievances concerning the ongoing War of 1812 and the political problems arising from the federal government's increasing power. Despite radical outcries among Federalists for New England secession and a separate peace with Great Britain, moderates outnumbered them and extreme proposals were not a major focus of the debate.
December 24, 1814: War of 1812: Treaty of Ghent signed
January 8, 1815: War of 1812: Battle of New Orleans
Major legislation
Treaties ratified
February 17, 1815: War of 1812: Senate ratified the Treaty of Ghent,
Party summary
The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this congress. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section.
Senate
House of Representatives
Following the 1810 census, the size of the House was increased to 182 seats from 142.
Leadership
Senate
President: Elbridge Gerry (DR), until November 23, 1814; thereafter vacant.
President pro tempore: William H. Crawford (DR), March 4, 1813 – March 23, 1813
Joseph B. Varnum (DR), December 6, 1813 – February 3, 1814
John Gaillard (DR), from November 25, 1814
House of Representatives
Speaker: Henry Clay (DR), until January 19, 1814
Langdon Cheves, (DR), from January 19, 1814
Members
This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class, and representatives are listed by district.
Senate
Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring reelection in 1814; Class 2 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring reelection in 1816; and Class 3 meant their term began in this Congress, requiring reelection in 1818.
Connecticut
1. Samuel W. Dana (F)
3. Chauncey Goodrich (F), until May 13, 1813
David Daggett (F), from May 13, 1813
Delaware
1. Outerbridge Horsey (F)
2. William H. Wells (F), from May 28, 1813
Georgia
2. William H. Crawford (DR), until March 23, 1813
William B. Bulloch (DR), April 8, 1813 – November 6, 1813
William W. Bibb (DR), from November 6, 1813
3. Charles Tait (DR)
Kentucky
2. George M. Bibb (DR), until August 23, 1814
George Walker (DR), August 30, 1814 – December 16, 1814
William T. Barry (DR), from December 16, 1814
3. Jesse Bledsoe (DR), until December 24, 1814
Isham Talbot (DR), from February 2, 1815
Louisiana
2. James Brown (DR)
3. Eligius Fromentin (DR)
Maryland
1. Samuel Smith (DR)
3. Robert H. Goldsborough (F), from May 21, 1813
Massachusetts
1. James Lloyd (F), until May 1, 1813
Christopher Gore (F), from May 5, 1813
2. Joseph Bradley Varnum (DR)
New Hampshire
2. Nicholas Gilman (DR), until May 2, 1814
Thomas W. Thompson (F), from June 24, 1814
3. Charles Cutts (F), April 2, 1813 – June 10, 1813
Jeremiah Mason (F), from June 10, 1813
New Jersey
1. John Lambert (DR)
2. John Condit (DR)
New York
1. Obadiah German (DR)
3. Rufus King (F)
North Carolina
2. James Turner (DR)
3. David Stone (DR), until December 24, 1814
Francis Locke Jr. (DR), from sometime thereafter (date unknown)
Ohio
1. Thomas Worthington (DR), until December 1, 1814
Joseph Kerr (DR), from December 10, 1814
3. Jeremiah Morrow (DR)
Pennsylvania
1. Michael Leib (DR), until February 14, 1814
Jonathan Roberts (DR), from February 24, 1814
3. Abner Lacock (DR)
Rhode Island
1. William Hunter (F)
2. Jeremiah B. Howell (DR)
South Carolina
2. John Taylor (DR)
3. John Gaillard (DR)
Tennessee
1. Joseph Anderson (DR)
2. George W. Campbell (DR), until February 11, 1814
Jesse Wharton (DR), from March 17, 1814
Vermont
1. Jonathan Robinson (DR)
3. Dudley Chase (DR)
Virginia
1. Richard Brent (DR), until December 30, 1814
James Barbour (DR), from January 2, 1815
2. William B. Giles (DR), until March 3, 1815
House of Representatives
Connecticut
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Epaphroditus Champion (F)
. John Davenport (F)
. Lyman Law (F)
. Jonathan O. Moseley (F)
. Timothy Pitkin (F)
. Lewis B. Sturges (F)
. Benjamin Tallmadge (F)
Delaware
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Thomas Cooper (F)
. Henry M. Ridgely (F)
Georgia
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. William Barnett (DR)
. William W. Bibb (DR), until November 6, 1813
Alfred Cuthbert (DR), from December 13, 1813
. John Forsyth (DR)
. Bolling Hall (DR)
. Thomas Telfair (DR)
. George M. Troup (DR)
Kentucky
. James Clark (DR)
. Henry Clay (DR), until January 19, 1814
Joseph H. Hawkins (DR), from March 29, 1814
. Richard M. Johnson (DR)
. Joseph Desha (DR)
. Samuel Hopkins (DR)
. Solomon P. Sharp (DR)
. Samuel McKee (DR)
. Stephen Ormsby (DR), from April 20, 1813
. Thomas Montgomery (DR)
. William P. Duval (DR)
Louisiana
. Thomas B. Robertson (DR)
Maryland
The 5th district was a plural district with two representatives.
. Philip Stuart (F)
. Joseph Kent (DR)
. Alexander C. Hanson (F)
. Samuel Ringgold (DR)
. Alexander McKim (DR)
. Nicholas R. Moore (DR)
. Stevenson Archer (DR)
. Robert Wright (DR)
. Charles Goldsborough (F)
Massachusetts
. Artemas Ward Jr. (F)
. William Reed (F)
. Timothy Pickering (F)
. William M. Richardson (DR), until April 18, 1814
Samuel Dana (DR), from September 22, 1814
. William Ely (F)
. Samuel Taggart (F)
. William Baylies (F)
. John Reed Jr. (F)
. Laban Wheaton (F)
. Elijah Brigham (F)
. Abijah Bigelow (F)
. Daniel Dewey (F), until February 24, 1814
John W. Hulbert (F), from November 2, 1814
. Nathaniel Ruggles (F)
. Cyrus King (F)
. George Bradbury (F)
. Samuel Davis (F)
. Abiel Wood (DR)
. John Wilson (F)
. James Parker (DR)
. Levi Hubbard (DR)
New Hampshire
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Bradbury Cilley (F)
. William Hale (F)
. Samuel Smith (F)
. Roger Vose (F)
. Daniel Webster (F)
. Jeduthun Wilcox (F)
New Jersey
There were three plural districts, each had two representatives each.
. Lewis Condict (DR)
. Thomas Ward (DR)
. James Schureman (F)
. Richard Stockton (F)
. William Coxe Jr. (F)
. Jacob Hufty (F), until May 20, 1814
Thomas Bines (DR), from November 2, 1814
New York
There were six plural districts, the 1st, 2nd, 12th, 15th, 20th & 21st, each had two representatives.
. John Lefferts (DR)
. Ebenezer Sage (DR)
. Egbert Benson (F), until August 2, 1813
William Irving (DR), from January 22, 1814
. Jotham Post Jr. (F)
. Peter Denoyelles (DR)
. Thomas J. Oakley (F)
. Thomas P. Grosvenor (F)
. Jonathan Fisk (DR)
. Abraham J. Hasbrouck (DR)
. Samuel Sherwood (F)
. John Lovett (F)
. Hosea Moffitt (F)
. John W. Taylor (DR)
. Zebulon R. Shipherd (F)
. Elisha I. Winter (F)
. Alexander Boyd (F)
. Jacob Markell (F)
. John M. Bowers (F), from June 21, 1813, until December 20, 1813
Isaac Williams Jr. (DR), from January 24, 1814
. Joel Thompson (F)
. Morris S. Miller (F)
. William S. Smith (F)
. Moss Kent (F)
. James Geddes (F)
. Daniel Avery (DR)
. Oliver C. Comstock (DR)
. Samuel M. Hopkins (F)
. Nathaniel W. Howell (F)
North Carolina
. William H. Murfree (DR)
. Willis Alston (DR)
. William Kennedy (DR)
. William Gaston (F)
. William R. King (DR)
. Nathaniel Macon (DR)
. John Culpepper (F)
. Richard Stanford (DR)
. Bartlett Yancey (DR)
. Joseph Pearson (F)
. Peter Forney (DR)
. Israel Pickens (DR)
. Meshack Franklin (DR)
Ohio
. John McLean (DR)
. John Alexander (DR)
. William Creighton Jr. (DR), from May 4, 1813
. James Caldwell (DR)
. James Kilbourne (DR)
. Reasin Beall (DR), from April 20, 1813, until June 7, 1814
David Clendenin (DR), from October 11, 1814
Pennsylvania
There were six plural districts, the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, 6th & 10th had two representatives each, the 1st had four representatives.
. William Anderson (DR)
. John Conard (DR)
. Charles J. Ingersoll (DR)
. Adam Seybert (DR)
. Roger Davis (DR)
. Jonathan Roberts (DR), until February 24, 1814
Samuel Henderson (F), from October 11, 1814
. John Gloninger (F), until August 2, 1813
Edward Crouch (DR), from October 12, 1813
. James Whitehill (DR), until September 1, 1814
Amos Slaymaker (F), from October 11, 1814
. Hugh Glasgow (DR)
. William Crawford (DR)
. Robert Whitehill (DR), until April 8, 1813
John Rea (DR), from May 11, 1813
. Robert Brown (DR)
. Samuel D. Ingham (DR)
. John M. Hyneman (DR), until August 2, 1813
Daniel Udree (DR), from October 12, 1813
. William Piper (DR)
. David Bard (DR)
. Jared Irwin (DR)
. Isaac Smith (DR)
. William Findley (DR)
. Aaron Lyle (DR)
. Isaac Griffin (DR), from May 24, 1813
. Adamson Tannehill (DR)
. Thomas Wilson (DR), from May 14, 1813
Rhode Island
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Richard Jackson Jr. (F)
. Elisha R. Potter (F)
South Carolina
. Langdon Cheves (DR)
. William Lowndes (DR)
. Theodore Gourdin (DR)
. John J. Chappell (DR)
. David R. Evans (DR)
. John C. Calhoun (DR)
. Elias Earle (DR)
. Samuel Farrow (DR)
. John Kershaw (DR)
Tennessee
. John Rhea (DR)
. John Sevier (DR)
. Thomas K. Harris (DR)
. John H. Bowen (DR)
. Felix Grundy (DR), until July 1814
Newton Cannon (DR), from September 16, 1814
. Parry W. Humphreys (DR)
Vermont
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. William C. Bradley (DR)
. Ezra Butler (DR)
. James Fisk (DR)
. Charles Rich (DR)
. Richard Skinner (DR)
. William Strong (DR)
Virginia
. John G. Jackson (DR)
. Francis White (F)
. John Smith (DR)
. William McCoy (DR)
. James Breckinridge (F)
. Daniel Sheffey (F)
. Hugh Caperton (F)
. Joseph Lewis Jr. (F)
. John P. Hungerford (DR)
. Aylett Hawes (DR)
. John Dawson (DR), until March 31, 1814
Philip P. Barbour (DR), from September 19, 1814
. John Roane (DR)
. Thomas M. Bayly (F)
. William A. Burwell (DR)
. John Kerr (DR)
. John W. Eppes (DR)
. James Pleasants (DR)
. Thomas Gholson Jr. (DR)
. Peterson Goodwyn (DR)
. James Johnson (DR)
. Thomas Newton Jr. (DR)
. Hugh Nelson (DR)
. John Clopton (DR)
Non-voting delegates
. Shadrach Bond, until August 2, 1813
Benjamin Stephenson, from November 14, 1814
. Jonathan Jennings
. William Lattimore
. Edward Hempstead, until September 17, 1814
Rufus Easton, from September 17, 1814
Changes in membership
The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress.
Senate
Replacements: 9
Democratic-Republicans: 2 seat net loss
Federalists: 2 seat net gain
Deaths: 2
Resignations: 10
Interim appointments: 3
Vacancies: 3
Total seats with changes: 15
|-
| New Hampshire(3)
| Vacant
| Legislature had failed to elect a Senator.Successor was appointed April 2, 1813 to continue the term.
| | Charles Cutts (DR)
| Appointed April 2, 1813
|-
| Maryland(3)
| Vacant
| Legislature had failed to elect a Senator.Successor was elected late May 21, 1813 to finish the term.
| | Robert H. Goldsborough (F)
| Seated May 21, 1813
|-
| Delaware(2)
| Vacant
| James A. Bayard (F) resigned at the end of the previous Congress.Successor elected May 28, 1813 to finish the term.
| | William H. Wells (F)
| Seated May 28, 1813
|-
| Georgia(2)
| | William H. Crawford (DR)
| Resigned March 23, 1813.Successor appointed April 8, 1813, to continue the term.
| | William Bulloch (DR)
| Seated April 8, 1813
|-
| Connecticut(3)
| | Chauncey Goodrich (F)
| Resigned May 1813 to become Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut.Successor elected May 13, 1813, to finish the term.
| | David Daggett (F)
| Seated May 13, 1813
|-
| Massachusetts(1)
| | James Lloyd (F)
| Resigned May 1, 1813.Successor elected May 5, 1813.
| | Christopher Gore (F)
| Seated May 5, 1813
|-
| New Hampshire(3)
| | Charles Cutts (DR)
| Interim appointee was not elected.Successor elected June 10, 1813.
| | Jeremiah Mason (F)
| Seated June 10, 1813
|-
| Georgia(2)
| | William Bulloch (DR)
| Interim appointee was not elected to finish the term.Successor elected November 6, 1813 to finish the term.
| | William W. Bibb (DR)
| Seated November 6, 1813
|-
| Tennessee(2)
| | George W. Campbell (DR)
| Resigned February 11, 1814 after being appointed US Secretary of the Treasury.Successor appointed March 17, 1814, to continue the term.
| | Jesse Wharton (DR)
| Seated March 17, 1814
|-
| Pennsylvania(1)
| | Michael Leib (DR)
| Resigned February 14, 1814 after becoming Postmaster of Philadelphia.Successor elected February 24, 1814, to finish term.
| | Jonathan Roberts (DR)
| Seated February 24, 1814
|-
| New Hampshire(2)
| | Nicholas Gilman (DR)
| Died May 2, 1814.Successor elected June 24, 1814, to finish the term.
| | Thomas W. Thompson (F)
| Seated June 24, 1814
|-
| Kentucky(2)
| | George M. Bibb (DR)
| Resigned August 23, 1814.Successor appointed August 30, 1814, to continue the term.
| | George Walker (DR)
| Seated August 30, 1814
|-
| Ohio(1)
| | Thomas Worthington (DR)
| Resigned December 1, 1814 after being elected Governor.Successor elected December 10, 1814, to finish the term ending.
| | Joseph Kerr (DR)
| Seated December 10, 1814
|-
| Kentucky(2)
| | George Walker (DR)
| Interim appointee was not elected to finish term.Successor elected December 16, 1814 to finish term.
| | William T. Barry (DR)
| Seated December 16, 1814
|-
| North Carolina(3)
| | David Stone (DR)
| Resigned December 24, 1814.Successor elected December 24, 1814, to finish the term, but failed to qualify.
| | Francis Locke Jr.
| Never seated for failing to qualify
|-
| Kentucky(3)
| | Jesse Bledsoe (DR)
| Resigned December 24, 1814.Successor elected February 2, 1815, to finish the term.
| | Isham Talbot (DR)
| Seated February 2, 1815
|-
| Virginia(1)
| | Richard Brent (DR)
| Died December 30, 1814.Winner elected January 2, 1815, to finish term, having already won election to the next term.
| | James Barbour (DR)
| Seated January 2, 1815
|-
| Virginia(2)
| | William B. Giles (DR)
| Resigned March 3, 1815.Successor was not elected until the next Congress.
| colspan=2 | Vacant for remainder of this Congress.
|}
House of Representatives
Replacements: 13
Democratic-Republicans: 17-seat net gain
Federalists: 2-seat net loss
Deaths: 6
Resignations: 13
Contested election: 1
Vacancies: 4
Total seats with changes: 19
|-
|
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Rep.-elect John Simpson died before this Congress began
| | Stephen Ormsby (DR)
| Seated May 28, 1813
|-
|
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Rep.-elect John Stark Edwards died before this Congress began
| | Reasin Beall (DR)
| Seated June 8, 1813
|-
|
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Rep.-elect Abner Lacock resigned before commencement of Congress after being elected US Senator
| | Thomas Wilson (DR)
| Seated May 28, 1813
|-
|
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Rep.-elect John Smilie died before this Congress began
| | Isaac Griffin (DR)
| Seated May 24, 1813
|-
|
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Rep-elect William Dowse died on February 18, 1813
| | John M. Bowers (F)
| Seated June 21, 1813
|-
|
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Duncan McArthur Resigned April 5, 1813, having not qualified
| | William Creighton Jr. (DR)
| Seated June 15, 1813
|-
|
| | Robert Whitehill (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died April 8, 1813
| | John Rea (DR)
| Seated May 28, 1813
|-
|
| | Egbert Benson (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned August 2, 1813
| | William Irving (DR)
| Seated January 22, 1814
|-
|
| | John Gloninger (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned August 2, 1813
| | Edward Crouch (DR)
| Seated December 6, 1813
|-
|
| | John M. Hyneman (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned August 2, 1813
| | Daniel Udree (DR)
| Seated December 6, 1813
|-
|
| Shadrach Bond
| style="font-size:80%" | Until August 2, 1813
| Benjamin Stephenson
| Seated November 14, 1814
|-
|
| | William W. Bibb (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned November 6, 1813, after being elected to US Senate
| | Alfred Cuthbert (DR)
| Seated February 7, 1814
|-
|
| | John M. Bowers (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Contested election, Bowers ousted on December 20, 1813
| | Isaac Williams Jr. (DR)
| Seated January 24, 1814
|-
|
| | Felix Grundy (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" |Resigned in July 1814
| | Newton Cannon (DR)
| Seated October 15, 1814
|-
|
| | Henry Clay (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned January 19, 1814
| | Joseph H. Hawkins (DR)
| Seated March 29, 1814
|-
|
| | Daniel Dewey (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned February 24, 1814, after being appointed Associate Judge of Massachusetts Supreme Court
| | John W. Hulbert (F)
| Seated September 26, 1814
|-
|
| | Jonathan Roberts (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned February 24, 1814, after being elected US Senator
| | Samuel Henderson (F)
| Seated November 29, 1814
|-
|
| | John Dawson (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died March 31, 1814
| | Philip P. Barbour (DR)
| Seated September 19, 1814
|-
|
| | William M. Richardson (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned April 18, 1814
| | Samuel Dana (DR)
| Seated September 22, 1814
|-
|
| | Jacob Hufty (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died May 20, 1814
| | Thomas Bines (DR)
| Seated November 2, 1814
|-
|
| | Reasin Beall (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned June 7, 1814
| | David Clendenin (DR)
| Seated December 22, 1814
|-
|
| | James Whitehill (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned September 1, 1814
| | Amos Slaymaker (F)
| Seated December 12, 1814
|-
|
| Edward Hempstead
| style="font-size:80%" | Until September 17, 1814
| Rufus Easton
| Seated November 16, 1814
|}
Committees
Lists of committees and their party leaders.
Senate
Army Supply Contracts (Select) (Chairman: N/A)
Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: Michael Leib)
Engrossed Bills (Chairman: Jeremiah B. Howell)
National University (Chairman: N/A)
Whole
House of Representatives
Accounts (Chairman: Israel Pickens then Nicholas R. Moore then John Kershaw)
Banks of the District of Columbia (Select)
Claims (Chairman: Stevenson Archer then Bartlett Yancey)
Commerce and Manufactures (Chairman: Thomas Newton Jr.)
District of Columbia (Chairman: John Dawson)
Elections (Chairman: James Fisk)
Judiciary (Chairman: Charles J. Ingersoll)
Pensions and Revolutionary War Claims (Chairman: Samuel D. Ingham then John J. Chappell)
Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: John Rhea)
Public Expenditures (Chairman: James Pleasants then Nathaniel Macon)
Public Lands (Chairman: Samuel McKee)
Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: Willis Alston then Lewis Condict then Richard Stanford)
Rules (Select)
Standards of Official Conduct
Ways and Means (Chairman: John W. Eppes)
Whole
Joint committees
Enrolled Bills (Chairman: N/A)
The Library (Chairman: N/A)
Employees
Librarian of Congress: Patrick Magruder
Senate
Chaplain: John Brackenridge (Presbyterian), until September 27, 1814
Jesse Lee, Methodist, elected September 27, 1814
Secretary: Samuel A. Otis, until April 22, 1814
Charles Cutts, elected October 12, 1814
Sergeant at Arms: Mountjoy Bayly
House of Representatives
Chaplain: Jesse Lee (Methodist), until September 27, 1814
Obadiah B. Brown (Baptist), elected September 27, 1814
Clerk: Patrick Magruder, until January 30, 1815
Thomas Dougherty, elected January 30, 1815
Doorkeeper: Thomas Claxton
Reading Clerks:
Sergeant at Arms: Thomas Dunn
See also
1812 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
1812 United States presidential election
1812 and 1813 United States Senate elections
1812 and 1813 United States House of Representatives elections
1814 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
1814 and 1815 United States Senate elections
1814 and 1815 United States House of Representatives elections
Notes
References
External links
Statutes at Large, 1789–1875
Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress
U.S. House of Representatives: House History
U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists | [
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225097 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14th%20United%20States%20Congress | 14th United States Congress | The 14th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in the Old Brick Capitol in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1815, to March 4, 1817, during the seventh and eighth years of James Madison's presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Third Census of the United States in 1810. Both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority.
Major events
November 1816: James Monroe defeated Rufus King in the U.S. presidential election.
Major legislation
April 10, 1816: Establishment of the Second Bank of the United States
April 27, 1816: Dallas tariff
Proposed, but not enacted
March 3, 1817: Bonus Bill of 1817 (vetoed)
Treaties
August 24, 1816: Treaty of St. Louis signed
States admitted and territories organized
December 11, 1816: Indiana was admitted as the 19th state,
March 3, 1817: Alabama Territory was created from a portion of the Mississippi Territory
Party summary
The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this congress. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section.
Senate
During this congress, two Senate seats were added for the new state of Indiana.
House of Representatives
During this congress, one House seat was added for the new state of Indiana.
Leadership
Senate
President: Vacant
President pro tempore: John Gaillard (DR) of South Carolina, first elected December 4, 1815
House of Representatives
Speaker: Henry Clay (DR) of Kentucky
Members
This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class and representatives are listed by district.
Skip to House of Representatives, below
Senate
Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began with this Congress, requiring re-election in 1820; Class 2 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring re-election in 1816; and Class 3 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring re-election in 1818.
Connecticut
1. Samuel W. Dana (F)
3. David Daggett (F)
Delaware
1. Outerbridge Horsey (F)
2. William H. Wells (F)
Georgia
2. William W. Bibb (DR), until November 9, 1816
George Troup (DR), from November 13, 1816
3. Charles Tait (DR)
Indiana
1. James Noble (DR), from December 11, 1816
3. Waller Taylor (DR), from December 11, 1816
Kentucky
2. William T. Barry (DR), until May 1, 1816
Martin D. Hardin (F), from November 13, 1816
3. Isham Talbot (DR)
Louisiana
2. James Brown (DR)
3. Eligius Fromentin (DR)
Maryland
1. Robert G. Harper (F), January 1816 – December 1816
Alexander C. Hanson (F), from December 20, 1816
3. Robert H. Goldsborough (F)
Massachusetts
1. Christopher Gore (F), until May 30, 1816
Eli P. Ashmun (F), from June 12, 1816
2. Joseph Bradley Varnum (DR)
New Hampshire
2. Thomas W. Thompson (F)
3. Jeremiah Mason (F)
New Jersey
1. James J. Wilson (DR)
2. John Condit (DR)
New York
1. Nathan Sanford (DR)
3. Rufus King (F)
North Carolina
2. James Turner (DR), until November 21, 1816
Montfort Stokes (DR), from December 4, 1816
3. Francis Locke Jr. (DR), until December 5, 1815
Nathaniel Macon (DR), from December 13, 1815
Ohio
1. Benjamin Ruggles (DR)
3. Jeremiah Morrow (DR)
Pennsylvania
1. Jonathan Roberts (DR)
3. Abner Lacock (DR)
Rhode Island
1. William Hunter (F)
2. Jeremiah B. Howell (DR)
South Carolina
2. John Taylor (DR), until November 1816
William Smith (DR), from December 4, 1816
3. John Gaillard (DR)
Tennessee
1. George W. Campbell (DR), from October 10, 1815
2. Jesse Wharton (DR), until October 10, 1815
John Williams (DR), from October 10, 1815
Vermont
1. Isaac Tichenor (F)
3. Dudley Chase (DR)
Virginia
1. James Barbour (DR)
2. Armistead T. Mason (DR), from January 3, 1816
House of Representatives
Connecticut
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Epaphroditus Champion (F)
. John Davenport (F)
. Lyman Law (F)
. Jonathan O. Moseley (F)
. Timothy Pitkin (F)
. Lewis B. Sturges (F)
. Benjamin Tallmadge (F)
Delaware
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Thomas Clayton (F)
. Thomas Cooper (F)
Georgia
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Alfred Cuthbert (DR), until November 9, 1816
Zadock Cook (DR), from December 2, 1816
. John Forsyth (DR)
. Bolling Hall (DR)
. Wilson Lumpkin (DR)
. Thomas Telfair (DR)
. Richard Henry Wilde (DR)
Indiana
. William Hendricks (DR), from December 11, 1816 (newly admitted state)
Kentucky
. James Clark (DR), until August 1816
Thomas Fletcher (DR), from December 2, 1816
. Henry Clay (DR), from October 30, 1815
. Richard M. Johnson (DR)
. Joseph Desha (DR)
. Alney McLean (DR)
. Solomon P. Sharp (DR)
. Samuel McKee (DR)
. Stephen Ormsby (DR)
. Micah Taul (DR)
. Benjamin Hardin (DR)
Louisiana
. Thomas B. Robertson (DR)
Maryland
The 5th district was a plural district with two representatives.
. Philip Stuart (F)
. John C. Herbert (F)
. Alexander C. Hanson (F), until ????, 1816
George Peter (F), from October 7, 1816
. George Baer Jr. (F)
. Nicholas R. Moore (DR), until ????, 1815
Samuel Smith (DR), from February 4, 1816
. William Pinkney (DR), until April 18, 1816
Peter Little (DR), from December 2, 1816
. Stevenson Archer (DR)
. Robert Wright (DR)
. Charles Goldsborough (F)
Massachusetts
. Artemas Ward Jr. (F)
. Timothy Pickering (F)
. Jeremiah Nelson (F)
. Asahel Stearns (F)
. Elijah H. Mills (F)
. Samuel Taggart (F)
. John W. Hulbert (F)
. William Baylies (F)
. John Reed Jr. (F)
. Laban Wheaton (F)
. Elijah Brigham (F), until February 22, 1816
Benjamin Adams (F), from December 2, 1816
. Solomon Strong (F)
. Nathaniel Ruggles (F)
. Cyrus King (F)
. George Bradbury (F)
. Benjamin Brown (F)
. James Carr (F)
. Thomas Rice (F)
. Samuel S. Conner (DR)
. Albion K. Parris (DR)
New Hampshire
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Charles H. Atherton (F)
. Bradbury Cilley (F)
. William Hale (F)
. Roger Vose (F)
. Daniel Webster (F)
. Jeduthun Wilcox (F)
New Jersey
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Ezra Baker (DR)
. Ephraim Bateman (DR)
. Benjamin Bennet (DR)
. Lewis Condict (DR)
. Henry Southard (DR)
. Thomas Ward (DR)
New York
There were six plural districts, the 1st, 2nd, 12th, 15th, 20th & 21st, each had two representatives.
. Henry Crocheron (DR)
. George Townsend (DR)
. William Irving (DR)
. Peter H. Wendover (DR)
. Jonathan Ward (DR)
. Abraham H. Schenck (DR)
. Thomas P. Grosvenor (F)
. Jonathan Fisk (DR), until March ????, 1815
James W. Wilkin (DR), from December 4, 1815
. Samuel Betts (DR)
. Erastus Root (DR), from December 26, 1815
. John Lovett (F)
. Hosea Moffitt (F)
. John W. Taylor (DR)
. Asa Adgate (DR), from December 7, 1815
. John Savage (DR)
. John B. Yates (DR)
. Daniel Cady (F)
. James Birdsall (DR)
. Jabez D. Hammond (DR)
. Thomas R. Gold (F)
. Westel Willoughby Jr. (DR), from December 13, 1815
. Moss Kent (F)
. Victory Birdseye (DR)
. Oliver C. Comstock (DR)
. Enos T. Throop (DR), until June 4, 1816
Daniel Avery (DR), from December 3, 1816
. Micah Brooks (DR),
. Peter B. Porter (DR), until January 23, 1816
Archibald S. Clarke (DR), from December 2, 1816
North Carolina
. William H. Murfree (DR)
. Joseph H. Bryan (DR)
. James W. Clark (DR)
. William Gaston (F)
. William R. King (DR), until November 4, 1816
Charles Hooks (DR), from December 2, 1816
. Nathaniel Macon (DR), until December 13, 1815
Weldon N. Edwards (DR), from February 7, 1816
. John Culpepper (F)
. Richard Stanford (DR), until April 9, 1816
Samuel Dickens (DR), from December 2, 1816
. Bartlett Yancey (DR)
. William C. Love (DR)
. Daniel M. Forney (DR)
. Israel Pickens (DR)
. Lewis Williams (DR)
Ohio
. John McLean (DR), until ????, 1816
William Henry Harrison (DR), from December 2, 1816
. John Alexander (DR)
. William Creighton Jr. (DR)
. James Caldwell (DR)
. James Kilbourne (DR)
. David Clendenin (DR)
Pennsylvania
There were six plural districts, the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, 6th & 10th had two representatives each, the 1st had four representatives.
. Joseph Hopkinson (F)
. William Milnor (F)
. Thomas Smith (F)
. Jonathan Williams (DR), until May 16, 1815
John Sergeant (F), from December 6, 1815
. William Darlington (DR)
. John Hahn (DR)
. James M. Wallace (DR), from October 10, 1815
. John Whiteside (DR)
. Hugh Glasgow (DR)
. William Crawford (DR)
. William Maclay (DR)
. Samuel D. Ingham (DR)
. John Ross (DR)
. Joseph Hiester (DR)
. William Piper (DR)
. David Bard (DR), until March 12, 1815
Thomas Burnside (DR), from December 11, 1815, until April ????, 1816
William P. Maclay (DR), from December 3, 1816
. Jared Irwin (DR)
. William Wilson (DR)
. William Findley (DR)
. Aaron Lyle (DR)
. Isaac Griffin (DR)
. John Woods (F)
. Thomas Wilson (DR)
Rhode Island
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. John L. Boss Jr. (F)
. James B. Mason (F)
South Carolina
. Henry Middleton (DR)
. William Lowndes (DR)
. Benjamin Huger (F)
. John J. Chappell (DR)
. William Woodward (DR)
. John C. Calhoun (DR)
. John Taylor (DR)
. Thomas Moore (DR)
. William Mayrant (DR), until October 21, 1816
Stephen D. Miller (DR), from January 2, 1817
Tennessee
. Samuel Powell (DR)
. John Sevier (DR), until September 24, 1815
William G. Blount (DR), from January 8, 1816
. Isaac Thomas (DR)
. Bennett H. Henderson (DR)
. Newton Cannon (DR)
. James B. Reynolds (DR)
David Crockett
Vermont
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Daniel Chipman (F), until May 5, 1816
. Luther Jewett (F)
. Chauncey Langdon (F)
. Asa Lyon (F)
. Charles Marsh (F)
. John Noyes (F)
Virginia
. John G. Jackson (DR)
. Magnus Tate (F)
. Henry St. George Tucker (DR)
. William McCoy (DR)
. James Breckinridge (F)
. Daniel Sheffey (F)
. Ballard Smith (DR)
. Joseph Lewis Jr. (F)
. John P. Hungerford (DR)
. Aylett Hawes (DR)
. Philip P. Barbour (DR)
. William H. Roane (DR)
. Burwell Bassett (DR)
. William A. Burwell (DR)
. Matthew Clay (DR), until May 27, 1815
John Kerr (DR), from December 5, 1815
. John Randolph (DR)
. James Pleasants (DR)
. Thomas Gholson Jr. (DR), until July 4, 1816
Thomas M. Nelson (DR), from December 6, 1816
. Peterson Goodwyn (DR)
. James Johnson (DR)
. Thomas Newton Jr. (DR)
. Hugh Nelson (DR)
. John Clopton (DR), until September 11, 1816
John Tyler (DR), from December 17, 1816
Non-voting members
. Benjamin Stephenson
Nathaniel Pope
. Jonathan Jennings, until December 11, 1816
. William Lattimore
. Rufus Easton, until August 5, 1816
John Scott, August 6, 1816 – January 13, 1817
Changes in membership
The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress.
Senate
|-
| Tennessee(1)
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | For unknown reasons, a Senator was not elected until after the term began.Winner elected October 10, 1815.
| | George W. Campbell (DR)
| Took seat October 10, 1815
|-
| Tennessee(2)
| | Jesse Wharton (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Appointee was not elected to finish the term.Successor elected October 10, 1815.
| | John Williams (DR)
| Seated October 10, 1815
|-
| North Carolina(3)
| | Francis Locke Jr.
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned when successor was elected, having never qualified.Successor elected December 5, 1815 to finish term.
| | Nathaniel Macon (DR)
| Seated December 13, 1815
|-
| Virginia(2)
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Resignation of William B. Giles (DR) in the previous congress.Successor elected January 3, 1816 to finish the term.
| | Armistead T. Mason (DR)
| Took seat January 3, 1816
|-
| Maryland(1)
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Legislature failed to elect in time for the term.Successor elected January 29, 1816 for the term.
| | Robert G. Harper (F)
| Took seat January 29, 1816
|-
| Kentucky(2)
| | William T. Barry (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned May 1, 1816 after being appointed to a judicial position.Successor appointed November 13, 1816, to continue the term and then finished the term either by special election or by the appointment.
| | Martin D. Hardin (F)
| Seated November 13, 1816
|-
| Massachusetts(1)
| | Christopher Gore (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned May 30, 1816.Successor elected June 12, 1816, to finish the term.
| | Eli P. Ashmun (F)
| Seated June 12, 1816
|-
| South Carolina(2)
| | John Taylor (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned November 1816.Successor elected December 4, 1816, to finish the term.
| | William Smith (DR)
| Seated December 4, 1816
|-
| Georgia(2)
| | William W. Bibb (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned November 9, 1816 after being appointed Governor of Alabama Territory.Successor elected November 13, 1816, to finish the term, having already been elected to the next term.
| | George Troup (DR)
| Seated November 13, 1816
|-
| North Carolina(2)
| | James Turner (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned November 21, 1816 due to ill health.Successor elected December 4, 1816, to finish the term.
| | Montfort Stokes (DR)
| Seated December 4, 1816
|-
| Maryland(1)
| | Robert G. Harper (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned December 6, 1816.Successor elected December 20, 1816, to finish the term.
| | Alexander C. Hanson (F)
| Seated December 20, 1816
|-
| Indiana(1)
| rowspan=2 | New seats
| rowspan=2 style="font-size:80%" | Indiana was admitted to the Union on December 11, 1816.
| | James Noble (DR)
| rowspan=2 | Seated December 11, 1816
|-
| Indiana(3)
| | Waller Taylor (DR)
|}
House of Representatives
|-
|
| Vacant
| Member-elect Benjamin Pond died during previous congress
| | Asa Adgate (DR)
| December 7, 1815
|-
|
| Vacant
| Amos Ellmaker resigned on July 3, 1815, upon State appointment as judge
| | James M. Wallace (DR)
| December 4, 1815
|-
|
| Vacant
| Seat declared vacant by the governor, “caused by the acceptance of Henry Clay to sign a commercial convention as Minister Plenipotentiary to Great Britain”, but Clay was elected to fill his own vacancy
| | Henry Clay (DR)
| December 4, 1815
|-
|
| Vacant
| Credentials for incumbent William S. Smith (F) were issued by the Secretary of State of New York, but Smith did not take or claim the seat, contested by Willoughby Jr.
| | Westel Willoughby Jr. (DR)
| December 13, 1815
|-
|
| Vacant
| Credentials for John Adams (F) were issued by the Secretary of State of New York, but Adams did not take or claim the seat, contested by Root
| | Erastus Root (DR)
| December 26, 1815
|-
|
| | Nicholas R. Moore (DR)
| Resigned sometime in 1815 before Congress convened
| | Samuel Smith (DR)
| February 4, 1816
|-
|
| | Jonathan Fisk (DR)
| Resigned sometime in March, 1815, upon appointment as United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York
| | James W. Wilkin (DR)
| December 4, 1815
|-
|
| | David Bard (DR)
| Died March 12, 1815
| | Thomas Burnside (DR)
| December 11, 1815
|-
|
| | Jonathan Williams (DR)
| Died May 16, 1815
| | John Sergeant (F)
| December 6, 1815
|-
|
| | Matthew Clay (DR)
| Died May 27, 1815
| | John Kerr (DR)
| December 5, 1815
|-
|
| | John Sevier (DR)
| Died September 24, 1815
| | William G. Blount (DR)
| January 8, 1816
|-
|
| | Nathaniel Macon (DR)
| Resigned December 13, 1815, after being elected to the U.S. Senate
| | Weldon N. Edwards (DR)
| February 7, 1816
|-
|
| | Alexander C. Hanson (F)
| Resigned sometime in 1816
| | George Peter (F)
| October 7, 1816
|-
|
| | John McLean (DR)
| Resigned sometime in 1816
| | William Henry Harrison (DR)
| December 2, 1816
|-
|
| | Peter B. Porter (DR)
| Resigned January 23, 1816
| | Archibald S. Clarke (DR)
| December 2, 1816
|-
|
| | Elijah Brigham (F)
| Died February 22, 1816
| | Benjamin Adams (F)
| December 2, 1816
|-
|
| | Thomas Burnside (DR)
| Resigned April, 1816
| | William P. Maclay (DR)
| December 3, 1816
|-
|
| | Richard Stanford (DR)
| Died April 9, 1816
| | Samuel Dickens (DR)
| December 2, 1816
|-
|
| | William Pinkney (DR)
| Resigned April 18, 1816, upon appointment as Minister Plenipotentiary to Russia
| | Peter Little (DR)
| December 2, 1816
|-
|
| | Daniel Chipman (F)
| Resigned May 5, 1816
| colspan=2 | Vacant until next Congress
|-
|
| | Enos T. Throop (DR)
| Resigned June 4, 1816
| | Daniel Avery (DR)
| December 3, 1816
|-
|
| | Thomas Gholson Jr. (DR)
| Died July 4, 1816
| | Thomas M. Nelson (DR)
| December 4, 1816
|-
|
| | James Clark (DR)
| Resigned sometime in August, 1816
| | Thomas Fletcher (DR)
| December 2, 1816
|-
|
| Rufus Easton
| Served throughout the first session; Scott presented credentials at the beginning of the second session and was contested by Easton
| John Scott
| December 2, 1816
|-
|
| Benjamin Stephenson
| Term ended September 3, 1816
| Nathaniel Pope
| December 2, 1816
|-
|
| | John Clopton (DR)
| Died September 11, 1816
| | John Tyler (DR)
| December 17, 1816
|-
|
| | William Mayrant (DR)
| Resigned October 21, 1816
| | Stephen D. Miller (DR)
| January 2, 1817
|-
|
| | William R. King (DR)
| Resigned November 4, 1816
| | Charles Hooks (DR)
| December 2, 1816
|-
|
| | Alfred Cuthbert (DR)
| Resigned November 9, 1816
| | Zadock Cook (DR)
| January 23, 1817
|-
|
| Jonathan Jennings (Territorial delegate)
| Indiana was admitted to the Union on December 11, 1816
| | William Hendricks (DR)
| December 11, 1816
|-
|
| John Scott
| His election was contested by his predecessor Easton. On January 13, 1817, the election was declared illegal, but the seat was declared vacant.
| Vacant until next Congress
|}
Committees
Lists of committees and their party leaders.
Senate
Attorney General's Office (Select)
Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: Abner Lacock)
Claims (Chairman: Jonathan Roberts)
Commerce and Manufactures (Chairman: William Hunter)
Compensation of Members of Congress (Select)
District of Columbia (Chairman: Armistead Mason)
Engrossed Bills (Chairman: Eligius Fromentin)
Finance (Select)
Indiana Admission to the Union (Select)
Judiciary (Chairman: Dudley Chase)
Military Affairs (Chairman: John Williams)
Militia (Chairman: Joseph Varnum)
Memorial of the Mississippi Territory (Chairman: N/A)
National University (Chairman: N/A)
Naval Affairs (Chairman: Charles Tait)
Pensions (Chairman: Jeremiah Howell)
Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: James J. Wilson)
Public Lands (Chairman: Jeremiah Morrow)
Slave Trade (Select)
Weights and Measures (Select)
Whole
House of Representatives
Accounts (Chairman: John McLean then Peter Little)
Assent of Congress to an Act of the Virginia Legislature (Select)
Attorney General's Office (Select)
Banks of the District of Columbia (Select)
Berkshire Association (Select)
Bible Society of Philadelphia (Select)
Bonus of the National Banks (Select)
Bounty Lands Communication (Select)
Claims (Chairman: Bartlett Yancey)
Commerce and Manufactures (Chairman: Thomas Newton Jr.)
District of Columbia (Chairman: Henry S. Tucker)
Elections (Chairman: John W. Taylor)
Expenditures in the Navy Department (Chairman: Stevenson Archer)
Expenditures in the Post Office Department (Chairman: Newton Cannon)
Expenditures in the State Department (Chairman: John B. Yates)
Expenditures in the Treasury Department (Chairman: Samuel Smith)
Expenditures in the War Department (Chairman: Erastus Root)
Expenditures on Public Buildings (Chairman: Lewis Condict)
Judiciary (Chairman: Hugh Nelson)
Pensions and Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: John J. Chappell)
Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: Samuel D. Ingham)
Private Land Claims (Chairman: Solomon P. Sharp)
Public Expenditures (Chairman: William H. Murfree then Israel Pickens)
Public Lands (Chairman: Thomas B. Robertson)
Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: Lewis Condict)
Rules (Select)
Standards of Official Conduct
Ways and Means (Chairman: William Lowndes)
Whole
Joint committees
Enrolled Bills
Employees
Legislative branch agency directors
Architect of the Capitol: Benjamin Latrobe, from April 6, 1815
Librarian of Congress: George Watterston
Senate
Chaplain: Jesse Lee (Methodist), until December 8, 1815
John Glendie (Presbyterian), elected December 8, 1815
Sereno Edwards Dwight, (Congregationalist) elected December 16, 1816
Secretary: Charles Cutts
Sergeant at Arms: Mountjoy Bayly
House of Representatives
Chaplain: Obadiah B. Brown (Baptist), until December 7, 1815
Spencer H. Cone (Baptist), December 7, 1815 – December 2, 1816
Burgiss Allison (Baptist), elected December 2, 1816
Clerk: Thomas Dougherty
Doorkeeper: Thomas Claxton
Reading Clerks:
Sergeant at Arms: Thomas Dunn
See also
1814 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
1814 and 1815 United States Senate elections
1814 and 1815 United States House of Representatives elections
1816 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
1816 United States presidential election
1816 and 1817 United States Senate elections
1816 and 1817 United States House of Representatives elections
Notes
References
External links
Statutes at Large, 1789–1875
Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress
U.S. House of Representatives: House History
U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists | [
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225098 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15th%20United%20States%20Congress | 15th United States Congress | The 15th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in the Old Brick Capitol in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1817, to March 4, 1819, during the first two years of James Monroe's presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Third Census of the United States in 1810. Both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority.
Letter of December 1818
Two major treaties with the United Kingdom were approved, finalized and signed during the 15th Congress, both the Rush–Bagot Treaty and the Treaty of 1818, both of which pertained to the United States-Canada border, and both of which were overwhelmingly popular in the United States. President James Monroe and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams were credited with the accomplishments. A letter signed by many members of congress expressing "Gratitude, amity and brotherhood with Great Britain" was addressed to British Prime Minister Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool, British Secretary of State for War and the Colonies Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst, British foreign secretary Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh and Britain's minister plenipotentiary and envoy extraordinaire to the United States Charles Bagot. The letter also attacked King Louis XVIII of France for insulting remarks he had made towards American diplomats and about the United States, as well as his refusal to pay reparations owed to the United States from damages incurred during the Quasi-War. The letter was signed in December 1818 by Joel Abbot, Thomas W. Cobb, Zadock Cook, Joel Crawford, John Forsyth, William Terrell, Charles Tait, William Smith, John Gaillard, Henry Middleton, William Lowndes, James Ervin, Joseph Bellinger, Starling Tucker, Eldred Simkins, Elias Earle, Wilson Nesbitt, Stephen Decatur Miller, Montfort Stokes, Nathaniel Macon, Lemuel Sawyer, Joseph Hunter Bryan, Thomas H. Hall, Jesse Slocumb, James Owen, Weldon Nathaniel Edwards, James Stewart, James Strudwick Smith, Thomas Settle, George Mumford, Daniel Munroe Forney, Felix Walker, Lewis Williams, John J. Crittenden, Isham Talbot, David Trimble, Henry Clay, Richard Mentor Johnson, Joseph Desha, Anthony New, David Walker, George Robertson, Richard Clough Anderson Jr., Tunstall Quarles, Thomas Speed, William Hendricks, James Noble, Waller Taylor, John Eaton, John Williams, John Rhea, William Grainger Blount, Francis Jones, Samuel E. Hogg, Thomas Claiborne, George W.L. Marr, George Poindexter, Prentiss Mellen, Harrison Gray Otis, Enoch Lincoln, Jonathan Mason, Nathaniel Silsbee, Jeremiah Nelson, Timothy Fuller, Elijah H. Mills, Samuel Clesson Allen, Henry Shaw, Zabdiel Sampson, Walter Folger Jr., Marcus Morton, Benjamin Adams, Solomon Strong, Nathaniel Ruggles, John Holmes, Ezekiel Whitman, Benjamin Orr, John Wilson, Thomas Rice, Joshua Gage and Albion Parris, all of whom also voted to ratify both of the aforementioned treaties. Several governors also signed the letter, which was entirely symbolic and intended as a gesture of goodwill, including Gabriel Slaughter, William Rabun, John Geddes, John Branch, John Brooks, James Patton Preston and David Holmes. This was significant because the governors and the members of congress were from different regions (both Massachusetts and several southern states were represented), and because signers came from both the Whig Party and the Democratic-Republicans. Many members of congress and Washington DC had a very hostile relationship with France's notoriously combative ambassador Jean-Guillaume, baron Hyde de Neuville, which contributed to the letters contents as per France.
Major events
March 4, 1817: James Monroe became President of the United States
July 4, 1817: Construction on the Erie Canal began
November 20, 1817: The first Seminole War began in Florida
January 2, 1819: The Panic of 1819, the first major financial crisis in the United States, began.
February 2, 1819: Dartmouth College v. Woodward: Supreme Court allowed Dartmouth to keep its charter and remain a private institution.
Major legislation
April 4, 1818: Flag Act of 1818, Sess. 1, ch. 34,
Treaties
April 29, 1817: Rush–Bagot Treaty signed between the U.S. and the United Kingdom
October 20, 1818: Treaty of 1818 between the U.S. and the United Kingdom established the northern boundary as the 49th parallel from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains, also creating the Northwest Angle.
February 22, 1819: Adams-Onís Treaty: Spain ceded Florida to the United States
States admitted and territories created
December 10, 1817: Mississippi admitted as the 20th state
December 3, 1818: Illinois admitted as the 21st state
March 2, 1819: Arkansas Territory was created, ; it was formerly part of the Missouri Territory
Party summary
The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this congress. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section.
Senate
During this congress, two Senate seats were added for each of the new states of Mississippi and Illinois.
House of Representatives
During this congress, one House seat was added for each of the new states of Mississippi and Illinois.
Leadership
Senate
President: Daniel D. Tompkins (DR)
President pro tempore:
John Gaillard (DR), elected March 4, 1817
James Barbour (DR), elected February 15, 1819
House of Representatives
Speaker: Henry Clay (DR)
Members
This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class and representatives are listed by district.
Skip to House of Representatives, below
Senate
Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring re-election in 1820; Class 2 meant their term began with this Congress, requiring re-election in 1822; and Class 3 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring re-election in 1818.
Connecticut
1. Samuel W. Dana (F)
3. David Daggett (F)
Delaware
1. Outerbridge Horsey (F)
2. Nicholas Van Dyke (F)
Georgia
2. George Troup (DR), until September 23, 1818
John Forsyth (DR), November 23, 1818 – February 17, 1819
3. Charles Tait (DR)
Illinois
2. Jesse B. Thomas (DR), from December 3, 1818 (newly admitted state)
3. Ninian Edwards (DR), from December 3, 1818 (newly admitted state)
Indiana
1. James Noble (DR)
3. Waller Taylor (DR)
Kentucky
2. John J. Crittenden (DR), until March 3, 1819
3. Isham Talbot (DR)
Louisiana
2. William C. C. Claiborne (DR), died November 23, 1817
Henry Johnson (DR), from January 12, 1818
3. Eligius Fromentin (DR)
Maryland
1. Alexander C. Hanson (F)
3. Robert H. Goldsborough (F)
Massachusetts
1. Eli P. Ashmun (F), until May 10, 1818
Prentiss Mellen (F), from June 5, 1818
2. Harrison Gray Otis (F)
Mississippi
1. Walter Leake (DR), from December 10, 1817 (newly admitted state)
2. Thomas H. Williams (DR), from December 10, 1817 (newly admitted state)
New Hampshire
2. David L. Morril (DR)
3. Jeremiah Mason (F), until June 16, 1817
Clement Storer (DR), from June 27, 1817
New Jersey
1. James J. Wilson (DR)
2. Mahlon Dickerson (DR)
New York
1. Nathan Sanford (DR)
3. Rufus King (F)
North Carolina
2. Montfort Stokes (DR)
3. Nathaniel Macon (DR)
Ohio
1. Benjamin Ruggles (DR)
3. Jeremiah Morrow (DR)
Pennsylvania
1. Jonathan Roberts (DR)
3. Abner Lacock (DR)
Rhode Island
1. William Hunter (F)
2. James Burrill Jr. (F)
South Carolina
2. William Smith (DR)
3. John Gaillard (DR)
Tennessee
1. George W. Campbell (DR), until April 20, 1818
John Eaton (DR), from September 5, 1818
2. John Williams (DR)
Vermont
1. Isaac Tichenor (F)
3. Dudley Chase (DR), until November 3, 1817
James Fisk (DR), November 4, 1817 – January 8, 1818
William A. Palmer (DR), from October 20, 1818
Virginia
1. James Barbour (DR)
2. John W. Eppes (DR)
House of Representatives
The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their district numbers.
Connecticut
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Uriel Holmes (F), until 1818
Sylvester Gilbert (DR), from November 16, 1818
. Ebenezer Huntington (F)
. Jonathan O. Moseley (F)
. Timothy Pitkin (F)
. Samuel B. Sherwood (F)
. Nathaniel Terry (F)
. Thomas S. Williams (F)
Delaware
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Willard Hall (DR)
. Louis McLane (F)
Georgia
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Joel Abbot (DR)
. Thomas W. Cobb (DR)
. Zadock Cook (DR)
. Joel Crawford (DR)
. John Forsyth (DR), until November 23, 1818
Robert R. Reid (DR), from February 18, 1819
. William Terrell (DR)
Illinois
. John McLean (DR), from December 3, 1818 (newly admitted state)
Indiana
. William Hendricks (DR)
Kentucky
. David Trimble (DR)
. Henry Clay (DR)
. Richard M. Johnson (DR)
. Joseph Desha (DR)
. Anthony New (DR)
. David Walker (DR)
. George Robertson (DR)
. Richard C. Anderson Jr. (DR)
. Tunstal Quarles (DR)
. Thomas Speed (DR)
Louisiana
. Thomas B. Robertson (DR), until April 20, 1818
Thomas Butler (DR), from November 16, 1818
Maryland
The 5th district was a plural district with two representatives.
. Philip Stuart (F)
. John C. Herbert (F)
. George Peter (F)
. Samuel Ringgold (DR)
. Peter Little (DR)
. Samuel Smith (DR)
. Philip Reed (DR)
. Thomas Culbreth (DR)
. Thomas Bayly (F)
Massachusetts
. Jonathan Mason (F)
. Nathaniel Silsbee (DR)
. Jeremiah Nelson (F)
. Timothy Fuller (DR)
. Elijah H. Mills (F)
. Samuel C. Allen (F)
. Henry Shaw (DR)
. Zabdiel Sampson (DR)
. Walter Folger Jr. (DR)
. Marcus Morton (DR)
. Benjamin Adams (F)
. Solomon Strong (F)
. Nathaniel Ruggles (F)
. John Holmes (DR)
. Ezekiel Whitman (F)
. Benjamin Orr (F)
. John Wilson (F)
. Thomas Rice (F)
. Joshua Gage (DR)
. Albion K. Parris (DR), until February 3, 1818
Enoch Lincoln (DR), from November 4, 1818
Mississippi
. George Poindexter (DR), from December 10, 1817
New Hampshire
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Josiah Butler (DR)
. Clifton Clagett (DR)
. Salma Hale (DR)
. Arthur Livermore (DR)
. John F. Parrott (DR)
. Nathaniel Upham (DR)
New Jersey
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Ephraim Bateman (DR)
. Benjamin Bennet (DR)
. Joseph Bloomfield (DR)
. Charles Kinsey (DR)
. John Linn (DR)
. Henry Southard (DR)
New York
There were six plural districts, the 1st, 2nd, 12th, 15th, 20th & 21st, each had two representatives.
. Tredwell Scudder (DR)
. George Townsend (DR)
. William Irving (DR)
. Peter H. Wendover (DR)
. Caleb Tompkins (DR)
. James Tallmadge Jr. (DR), from December 1, 1817
. Philip J. Schuyler (F)
. James W. Wilkin (DR)
. Josiah Hasbrouck (DR)
. Dorrance Kirtland (DR)
. Rensselaer Westerlo (F)
. John P. Cushman (F)
. John W. Taylor (DR)
. John Palmer (DR)
. John Savage (DR)
. Thomas Lawyer (DR)
. John Herkimer (DR)
. John R. Drake (DR)
. Isaac Williams Jr. (DR)
. Henry R. Storrs (F)
. Thomas H. Hubbard (DR)
. David A. Ogden (F)
. James Porter (DR)
. Oliver C. Comstock (DR)
. Daniel Cruger (DR)
. Benjamin Ellicott (DR)
. John C. Spencer (DR)
North Carolina
. Lemuel Sawyer (DR)
. Joseph H. Bryan (DR)
. Thomas H. Hall (DR)
. Jesse Slocumb (F)
. James Owen (DR)
. Weldon N. Edwards (DR)
.James Stewart (F), from January 5, 1818
. James S. Smith (DR)
. Thomas Settle (DR)
. George Mumford (DR), until December 31, 1818
Charles Fisher (DR), from February 11, 1819
. Daniel M. Forney (DR), until 1818
William Davidson (F), from December 2, 1818
. Felix Walker (DR)
. Lewis Williams (DR)
Ohio
. William Henry Harrison (DR)
. John W. Campbell (DR)
. Levi Barber (DR)
. Samuel Herrick (DR)
. Philemon Beecher (F)
. Peter Hitchcock (DR)
Pennsylvania
There were six plural districts, the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, 6th & 10th had two representatives each, the 1st had four representatives.
. William Anderson (DR)
. Joseph Hopkinson (F)
. John Sergeant (F)
. Adam Seybert (DR)
. Isaac Darlington (F)
. Levi Pawling (F)
. James M. Wallace (DR)
. John Whiteside (DR)
. Jacob Spangler (DR), until April 20, 1818
Jacob Hostetter (DR), from November 16, 1818
. Andrew Boden (DR)
. William Maclay (DR)
. Samuel D. Ingham (DR), until July 6, 1818
Samuel Moore (DR), from October 13, 1818
. John Ross (DR), until February 24, 1818
Thomas J. Rogers (DR), from March 3, 1818
. Joseph Hiester (DR)
. Alexander Ogle (DR)
. William P. Maclay (DR)
. John Murray (DR), from October 14, 1817
. William Wilson (DR)
. David Marchand (DR)
. Thomas Patterson (DR)
. Christian Tarr (DR)
. Henry Baldwin (DR)
. Robert Moore (DR)
Rhode Island
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. John L. Boss Jr. (F)
. James B. Mason (F)
South Carolina
. Henry Middleton (DR)
. William Lowndes (DR)
. James Ervin (DR)
. Joseph Bellinger (DR)
. Starling Tucker (DR)
. John C. Calhoun (DR), until November 3, 1817
Eldred Simkins (DR), from January 24, 1818
. Elias Earle (DR)
. Wilson Nesbitt (DR)
. Stephen D. Miller (DR)
Tennessee
. John Rhea (DR)
. William G. Blount (DR)
. Francis Jones (DR)
. Samuel Hogg (DR)
. Thomas Claiborne (DR)
. George W. L. Marr (DR)
Vermont
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Heman Allen (DR), until April 20, 1818; vacant thereafter
. Samuel C. Crafts (DR)
. William Hunter (DR)
. Orsamus C. Merrill (DR)
. Charles Rich (DR)
. Mark Richards (DR)
Virginia
. James Pindall (F)
. Edward Colston (F)
. Henry St. George Tucker (DR)
. William McCoy (DR)
. John Floyd (DR)
. Alexander Smyth (DR)
. Ballard Smith (DR)
. Charles F. Mercer (F)
. William Lee Ball (DR)
. George F. Strother (DR)
. Philip P. Barbour (DR)
. Robert S. Garnett (DR)
. Burwell Bassett (DR)
. William A. Burwell (DR)
. William J. Lewis (DR)
. Archibald Austin (DR)
. James Pleasants (DR)
. Thomas M. Nelson (DR)
. Peterson Goodwyn (DR), until February 21, 1818
John Pegram (DR), from April 21, 1818
. James Johnson (DR)
. Thomas Newton Jr. (DR)
. Hugh Nelson (DR)
. John Tyler (DR)
Non-voting members
. John Crowell, from January 29, 1818
. Nathaniel Pope, until November 30, 1818, vacant thereafter
. Vacant until statehood December 10, 1817
. John Scott, from August 4, 1817
Changes in membership
The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress.
Senate
|-
| New Hampshire(3)
| | Jeremiah Mason (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned June 16, 1817
| | Clement Storer (DR)
| Seated June 27, 1817
|-
| Vermont(3)
| | Dudley Chase (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned November 3, 1817, to become Chief Justice of the Vermont Supreme Court
| | James Fisk (DR)
| Seated November 4, 1817
|-
| Louisiana(2)
| | William C. C. Claiborne (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died November 23, 1817
| | Henry Johnson (DR)
| Seated January 12, 1818
|-
| Mississippi(1)
| rowspan=2 | New seats
| rowspan=2 style="font-size:80%" | Mississippi was admitted to the Union on December 10, 1817
| | Walter Leake (DR)
| rowspan=2 | Installed December 10, 1817
|-
| Mississippi(2)
| | Thomas H. Williams (DR)
|-
| Vermont(3)
| | James Fisk (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned January 8, 1818, to become Vermont Collector of Customs.Winner elected October 20, 1818.
| | William A. Palmer (DR)
| Seated October 20, 1818
|-
| Tennessee(1)
| | George W. Campbell (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned April 20, 1818, to become Ambassador to Russia
| | John Eaton (DR)
| Seated September 5, 1818
|-
| Massachusetts(1)
| | Eli P. Ashmun (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned May 10, 1818.Winner elected June 5, 1818.
| | Prentiss Mellen (F)
| Seated June 5, 1818
|-
| Georgia(2)
| | George Troup (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned September 23, 1818, to run for Governor of Georgia.Winner elected September 23, 1818.
| | John Forsyth (DR)
| Seated November 23, 1818
|-
| Illinois(2)
| rowspan=2 | New seats
| rowspan=2 style="font-size:80%" | Illinois was admitted to the Union on December 3, 1818.
| | Jesse B. Thomas (DR)
| rowspan=2 | Installed December 3, 1818
|-
| Illinois(3)
| | Ninian Edwards (DR)
|-
| Georgia(2)
| | John Forsyth (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned February 17, 1819, to become U.S. Minister to Spain.Winner was elected in the next Congress.
| colspan=2 rowspan=2 | Not filled until next Congress
|-
| Kentucky(2)
| | John J. Crittenden (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned March 3, 1819, to return to private practice.Winner was elected in the next Congress.
|}
House of Representatives
|-
| nowrap |
| Vacant
| Member-elect Henry B. Lee died before this Congress began
| | James Tallmadge Jr. (DR)
| Seated June 6, 1817
|-
|
| Vacant
| Seat remained vacant from March 4, 1817, to August 4, 1817
| John Scott
| Seated August 4, 1817
|-
|
| Vacant
| Member-elect David Scott resigned before this Congress began
| | John Murray (DR)
| Seated October 14, 1817
|-
|
| Vacant
| Member-elect Alexander McMillan died before this Congress began
| | James Stewart (F)
| Seated January 5, 1818
|-
|
| | John C. Calhoun (DR)
| Resigned November 3, 1817, after being appointed United States Secretary of War
| | Eldred Simkins (DR)
| Seated January 24, 1818
|-
|
| rowspan=2 | Vacant
| rowspan=2 | Seat remained vacant until Mississippi was admitted to the Union December 10, 1817
| rowspan=2 | George Poindexter (DR)
| rowspan=2 | Seated December 10, 1817
|-
|
|-
|
| | Uriel Holmes (F)
| Resigned sometime in 1818
| | Sylvester Gilbert (DR)
| Seated November 16, 1818
|-
|
| | Daniel Forney (DR)
| Resigned sometime in 1818
| | William Davidson (F)
| Seated December 2, 1818
|-
|
| Vacant
| The first delegate from this new territory was not seated until January 29, 1818.
| John Crowell
| Seated January 29, 1818
|-
|
| | Albion K. Parris (DR
| Resigned February 3, 1818
| | Enoch Lincoln (DR)
| Seated November 4, 1818
|-
|
| | Peterson Goodwyn (DR)
| Died February 21, 1818
| | John Pegram (DR)
| Seated April 21, 1818
|-
|
| | John Ross (DR)
| Resigned February 24, 1818, to become President Judge of Pennsylvania's 7th Judicial Circuit
| | Thomas J. Rogers (DR)
| Seated March 3, 1818
|-
|
| | Thomas B. Robertson (DR)
| Resigned April 20, 1818
| | Thomas Butler (DR)
| Seated November 16, 1818
|-
|
| | Jacob Spangler (DR)
| Resigned April 20, 1818
| | Jacob Hostetter (DR)
| Seated November 16, 1818
|-
|
| | Samuel D. Ingham (DR)
| Resigned July 6, 1818
| | Samuel Moore (DR)
| Seated October 13, 1818
|-
|
| | John Forsyth (DR)
| Resigned November 23, 1818, after being elected to the U.S. Senate
| | Robert R. Reid (DR)
| Seated February 18, 1819
|-
|
| rowspan=2 | Nathaniel Pope
| rowspan=2 | Pope's term ended November 30, 1818, and the seat remained vacant until Illinois was admitted to the Union December 3, 1818
| rowspan=2 | John McLean (DR)
| rowspan=2 | Seated December 3, 1818
|-
|
|-
|
| | George Mumford (DR)
| Died December 31, 1818
| | Charles Fisher (DR)
| Seated February 11, 1819
|-
|
| | Heman Allen (DR)
| resigned April 20, 1818
| Vacant
|}
Committees
Lists of committees and their party leaders.
Senate
Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: Abner Lacock)
Claims (Chairman: Jonathan Roberts then Robert Henry Goldsborough)
Commerce and Manufactures (Chairman: Nathan Sanford)
District of Columbia (Chairman: Robert Henry Goldsborough)
Engrossed Bills (Chairman: John J. Crittenden)
Finance (Chairman: George W. Campbell then John Wayles Eppes)
Foreign Relations (Chairman: James Barbour then Nathaniel Macon)
Indian Title to Certain Lands (Select)
Judiciary (Chairman: John J. Crittenden then James Burrill Jr.)
Military Affairs (Chairman: George M. Troup then John Williams)
Militia (Chairman: Clement Storer then Benjamin Ruggles)
Mississippi's Admission to the Union (Select)
Naval Affairs (Chairman: Charles Tait then Nathan Sanford)
Pensions (Chairman: James Noble then Abner Lacock)
Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: James J. Wilson then Montfort Stokes)
Public Lands (Chairman: Jeremiah Morrow)
Seminole War (Select)
Slave Trade (Select)
Whole
House of Representatives
Accounts (Chairman: Peter Little)
Alabama's Admission to the Union (Select)
Arkansas Territory (Select)
Bank of the United States (Select)
Claims (Chairman: Lewis Williams)
Commerce and Manufactures (Chairman: Thomas Newton Jr.)
District of Columbia (Chairman: John C. Herbert)
Elections (Chairman: John W. Taylor)
Expenditures in the Navy Department (Chairman: James Pleasants)
Expenditures in the Post Office Department (Chairman: Samuel D. Ingham)
Expenditures in the State Department (Chairman: John Forsyth)
Expenditures in the Treasury Department (Chairman: William Lowndes)
Expenditures in the War Department (Chairman: Richard M. Johnson)
Expenditures on Public Buildings (Chairman: Henry S. Tucker)
Judiciary (Chairman: Hugh Nelson)
Pensions and Revolutionary War Claims (Chairman: John Rhea)
Private Land Claims (Chairman: Samuel Herrick then George Robertson)
Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: Samuel D. Ingham then Arthur Livermore)
Public Expenditures (Chairman: Joseph Desha)
Public Lands (Chairman: Thomas B. Robertson then George Poindexter)
Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: John Savage then John W. Taylor)
Rules (Select)
Standards of Official Conduct
Ways and Means (Chairman: William Lowndes then Samuel Smith)
Whole
Joint committees
Enrolled Bills
The Library (Chairman: N/A)
Employees
Legislative branch agency directors
Architect of the Capitol: Benjamin H. Latrobe, resigned November 20, 1817
Charles Bulfinch, appointed January 8, 1818
Librarian of Congress: George Watterston
Senate
Chaplain: Sereno Edwards Dwight, Congregationalist, until December 9, 1817
William D. Hawley, Episcopalian, elected December 9, 1817
John Clark, Presbyterian, elected November 19, 1818
Secretary: Charles Cutts
Sergeant at Arms: Mountjoy Bayly
House of Representatives
Chaplain: Burgiss Allison (Baptist)
Clerk: Thomas Dougherty
Doorkeeper: Thomas Claxton
Reading Clerks:
Sergeant at Arms: Thomas Dunn
See also
1816 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
1816 United States presidential election
1816 and 1817 United States Senate elections
1816 and 1817 United States House of Representatives elections
1818 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
1818 and 1819 United States Senate elections
1818 and 1819 United States House of Representatives elections
Notes
References
External links
Statutes at Large, 1789–1875
Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress
U.S. House of Representatives: House History
U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists | [
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225099 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16th%20United%20States%20Congress | 16th United States Congress | The 16th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1819, to March 4, 1821, during the third and fourth years of James Monroe's presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Third Census of the United States in 1810. Both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority.
Major events
A "speech for Buncombe County, North Carolina" given by North Carolina representative Felix Walker in 1820 was credited with introducing into the language the term "bunkum".
March 6, 1819: McCulloch v. Maryland: Supreme Court ruled that the Bank of the United States is constitutional.
July 3, 1820: United States House of Representatives elections, 1820 began in Louisiana
August 7, 1820: 1820 United States Census conducted, eventually determining a population of 9,638,453, of which 1,538,022 were slaves.
December 3, 1820: U.S. presidential election, 1820: James Monroe was re-elected, virtually unopposed.
Major legislation
March 6, 1820: Missouri Compromise, Sess. 1, ch. 22,
April 24, 1820: Land Act of 1820, Sess. 1, ch. 51,
Proposed but not enacted
Tallmadge Amendment would allow Missouri into the Union as a slave state, but would also implement gradual emancipation in Missouri. The amendment passed the House of Representatives, but not the Senate. The Tallmadge Amendment led to the passage of the Missouri Compromise.
Treaties
February 22, 1819: Adams-Onís Treaty (Transcontinental Treaty of 1819): Spain ceded Florida to the United States.
States admitted
December 14, 1819: Alabama was admitted as the 22nd state, .
March 15, 1820: Maine was admitted as the 23rd state. It was formerly the District of Maine, part of Massachusetts, .
Party summary
The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this congress. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section.
Senate
During this congress, two Senate seats were added for each of the new states of Alabama and Maine.
House of Representatives
During this congress, one House seat was added for the new state of Alabama and one seat was reapportioned from Massachusetts to the new state of Maine. For the beginning of the next congress, six more seats from Massachusetts would be reapportioned to Maine.
Leadership
Senate
President: Daniel D. Tompkins (DR)
President pro tempore: James Barbour, (DR), until December 26, 1819
John Gaillard, (DR), elected January 25, 1820
House of Representatives
Speaker: Henry Clay (DR), until October 28, 1820
John Taylor, (DR), elected November 15, 1820
Members
This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class and representatives are listed by district.
Skip to House of Representatives, below
Senate
Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring re-election in 1820; Class 2 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring re-election in 1822; and Class 3 meant their term began in this Congress, requiring re-election in 1824.
Alabama
2. William R. King (DR), from December 14, 1819 (newly admitted state)
3. John W. Walker (DR), from December 14, 1819 (newly admitted state)
Connecticut
1. Samuel W. Dana (F)
3. James Lanman (DR)
Delaware
1. Outerbridge Horsey (F)
2. Nicholas Van Dyke (F)
Georgia
2. Freeman Walker (DR), from November 6, 1819
3. John Elliott (DR)
Illinois
2. Jesse B. Thomas (DR)
3. Ninian Edwards (DR)
Indiana
1. James Noble (DR)
3. Waller Taylor (DR)
Kentucky
2. Richard M. Johnson (DR), from December 10, 1819
3. William Logan (DR), until May 28, 1820
Isham Talbot (DR), from October 19, 1820
Louisiana
2. Henry Johnson (DR)
3. James Brown (DR)
Maine
1. John Holmes (DR), from June 13, 1820 (newly admitted state)
2. John Chandler (DR), from June 14, 1820 (newly admitted state)
Maryland
1. Alexander C. Hanson (F), until April 23, 1819
William Pinkney (DR), from December 21, 1819
3. Edward Lloyd (DR), from December 21, 1819
Massachusetts
1. Prentiss Mellen (F), until May 15, 1820
Elijah H. Mills (F), from June 12, 1820
2. Harrison Gray Otis (F)
Mississippi
1. Walter Leake (DR), until May 15, 1820
David Holmes (DR), from August 30, 1820
2. Thomas H. Williams (DR)
New Hampshire
2. David L. Morril (DR)
3. John F. Parrott (DR)
New Jersey
1. James J. Wilson (DR), until January 8, 1821
Samuel L. Southard (DR), from January 26, 1821
2. Mahlon Dickerson (DR)
New York
1. Nathan Sanford (DR)
3. Rufus King (F), from January 25, 1820
North Carolina
2. Montfort Stokes (DR)
3. Nathaniel Macon (DR)
Ohio
1. Benjamin Ruggles (DR)
3. William A. Trimble (DR)
Pennsylvania
1. Jonathan Roberts (DR)
3. Walter Lowrie (DR)
Rhode Island
1. William Hunter (F)
2. James Burrill Jr. (F), until December 25, 1820
Nehemiah R. Knight (DR), from January 9, 1821
South Carolina
2. William Smith (DR)
3. John Gaillard (DR)
Tennessee
1. John H. Eaton (DR)
2. John Williams (DR)
Vermont
1. Isaac Tichenor (F)
3. William A. Palmer (DR)
Virginia
1. James Barbour (DR)
2. John W. Eppes (DR), until December 4, 1819
James Pleasants (DR), from December 10, 1819
House of Representatives
Alabama
. John Crowell (DR), from December 14, 1819 (newly admitted state)
Connecticut
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Henry W. Edwards (DR)
. Samuel A. Foote (DR)
. Jonathan O. Moseley (DR)
. Elisha Phelps (DR)
. John Russ (DR)
. James Stevens (DR)
. Gideon Tomlinson (DR)
Delaware
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Willard Hall (DR), until January 22, 1821, vacant thereafter
. Louis McLane (F)
Georgia
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Joel Abbot (DR)
. Thomas W. Cobb (DR)
. Joel Crawford (DR)
. John A. Cuthbert (DR)
. Robert R. Reid (DR)
. William Terrell (DR)
Illinois
. Daniel P. Cook (DR)
Indiana
. William Hendricks (DR)
Kentucky
. David Trimble (DR)
. Henry Clay (DR)
. William Brown (DR)
. Thomas Metcalfe (DR)
. Alney McLean (DR)
. David Walker (DR), until March 1, 1820
Francis Johnson (DR), from November 13, 1820
. George Robertson (DR)
. Richard C. Anderson Jr. (DR)
. Tunstal Quarles (DR), until June 15, 1820
Thomas Montgomery (DR), from November 13, 1820
. Benjamin Hardin (DR)
Louisiana
. Thomas Butler (DR)
Maine
. Joseph Dane (F), seated December 11, 1820 (newly admitted state)
Maryland
The 5th district was a plural district with two representatives.
. Raphael Neale (F)
. Joseph Kent (DR)
. Henry R. Warfield (F)
. Samuel Ringgold (DR)
. Peter Little (DR)
. Samuel Smith (DR)
. Stevenson Archer (DR)
. Thomas Culbreth (DR)
. Thomas Bayly (F)
Massachusetts
. Jonathan Mason (F), until May 15, 1820
Benjamin Gorham (DR), from November 27, 1820
. Nathaniel Silsbee (DR)
. Jeremiah Nelson (F)
. Timothy Fuller (DR)
. Samuel Lathrop (F)
. Samuel C. Allen (F)
. Henry Shaw (DR)
. Zabdiel Sampson (DR), until July 26, 1820
Aaron Hobart (DR), from December 18, 1820
. Walter Folger Jr. (DR)
. Marcus Morton (DR)
. Benjamin Adams (F)
. Jonas Kendall (F)
. Edward Dowse (DR), until May 26, 1820
William Eustis (DR), from November 13, 1820
. John Holmes (DR), until March 15, 1820, vacant thereafter
. Ezekiel Whitman (F)
. Mark L. Hill (DR)
. Martin Kinsley (DR)
. James Parker (DR)
. Joshua Cushman (DR)
. Enoch Lincoln (DR)
Mississippi
. Christopher Rankin (DR)
New Hampshire
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Joseph Buffum Jr. (DR)
. Josiah Butler (DR)
. Clifton Clagett (DR)
. Arthur Livermore (DR)
. William Plumer Jr. (DR)
. Nathaniel Upham (DR)
New Jersey
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Ephraim Bateman (DR)
. Joseph Bloomfield (DR)
. John Condit (DR), until November 4, 1819
Charles Kinsey (DR), from February 16, 1820
. John Linn (DR), until January 5, 1821, vacant thereafter
. Bernard Smith (DR)
. Henry Southard (DR)
New York
There were six plural districts, the 1st, 2nd, 12th, 15th, 20th & 21st, each had two representatives.
. James Guyon Jr. (DR), from January 14, 1820
. Silas Wood (F)
. Henry Meigs (DR)
. Peter H. Wendover (DR)
. Caleb Tompkins (DR)
. Randall S. Street (F)
. James Strong (F)
. Walter Case (DR)
. Jacob H. De Witt (DR)
. Robert Clark (DR)
. Solomon Van Rensselaer (F)
. John D. Dickinson (F)
. John W. Taylor (DR)
. Ezra C. Gross (DR)
. Nathaniel Pitcher (DR)
. Harmanus Peek (DR)
. John Fay (DR)
. Joseph S. Lyman (DR)
. Robert Monell (DR)
. Henry R. Storrs (F)
. Aaron Hackley Jr. (DR)
. William D. Ford (DR)
. George Hall (DR)
. Caleb Baker (DR)
. Jonathan Richmond (DR)
. Nathaniel Allen (DR)
. Albert H. Tracy (DR)
North Carolina
. Lemuel Sawyer (DR)
. Hutchins G. Burton (DR), from December 6, 1819
. Thomas H. Hall (DR)
. Jesse Slocumb (F), until December 20, 1820
William S. Blackledge (DR), from February 7, 1821
. Charles Hooks (DR)
. Weldon N. Edwards (DR)
. John Culpepper (F)
. James S. Smith (DR)
. Thomas Settle (DR)
. Charles Fisher (DR)
. William Davidson (F)
. Felix Walker (DR)
. Lewis Williams (DR)
Ohio
. Thomas R. Ross (DR)
. John W. Campbell (DR)
. Henry Brush (DR)
. Samuel Herrick (DR)
. Philemon Beecher (F)
. John Sloane (DR)
Pennsylvania
There were six plural districts, the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, 6th & 10th had two representatives each, the 1st had four representatives.
. Samuel Edwards (F)
. Thomas Forrest (F)
. Joseph Hemphill (F)
. John Sergeant (F)
. William Darlington (DR)
. Samuel Gross (DR)
. Jacob Hibshman (DR)
. James M. Wallace (DR)
. Jacob Hostetter (DR)
. Andrew Boden (DR)
. David Fullerton (DR), until May 15, 1820
Thomas G. McCullough (F), from November 13, 1820
. Samuel Moore (DR)
. Thomas J. Rogers (DR)
. Joseph Hiester (DR), until December 1820
Daniel Udree (DR), from January 8, 1821
. Robert Philson (DR)
. William P. Maclay (DR)
. George Denison (DR)
. John Murray (DR)
. David Marchand (DR)
. Thomas Patterson (DR)
. Christian Tarr (DR)
. Henry Baldwin (DR)
. Robert Moore (DR)
Rhode Island
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Samuel Eddy (DR)
. Nathaniel Hazard (DR), until December 17, 1820; vacant thereafter
South Carolina
. Charles Pinckney (DR)
. William Lowndes (DR)
. James Ervin (DR)
. James Overstreet (DR)
. Starling Tucker (DR)
. Eldred Simkins (DR)
. Elias Earle (DR)
. John McCreary (DR)
. Joseph Brevard (DR)
Tennessee
. John Rhea (DR)
. John Cocke (DR)
. Francis Jones (DR)
. Robert Allen (DR)
. Newton Cannon (DR)
. Henry H. Bryan (DR)
Vermont
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Samuel C. Crafts (DR)
. Ezra Meech (DR)
. Orsamus C. Merrill (DR), until January 12, 1820
Rollin C. Mallary (DR), from January 13, 1820
. Charles Rich (DR)
. Mark Richards (DR)
. William Strong (DR)
Virginia
. James Pindall (F), until July 26, 1820
Edward B. Jackson (DR), from November 13, 1820
. Thomas Van Swearingen (F)
. Jared Williams (DR)
. William McCoy (DR)
. John Floyd (DR)
. Alexander Smyth (DR)
. Ballard Smith (DR)
. Charles F. Mercer (F)
. William Lee Ball (DR)
. George F. Strother (DR), until February 10, 1820
Thomas L. Moore (DR), from November 13, 1820
. Philip P. Barbour (DR)
. Robert S. Garnett (DR)
. Severn E. Parker (DR)
. William A. Burwell (DR), until February 16, 1821, vacant for remainder of term
. George Tucker (DR)
. John Randolph (DR)
. James Pleasants (DR), until December 14, 1819
William S. Archer (DR), from January 18, 1820
. Mark Alexander (DR)
. James Jones (DR)
. James Johnson (DR), until February 1, 1820
John C. Gray (DR), from November 13, 1820
. Thomas Newton Jr. (DR)
. Hugh Nelson (DR)
. John Tyler (DR)
Non-voting members
: Vacant until statehood
. James W. Bates, from December 21, 1819
. William Woodbridge, until August 9, 1820
Solomon Sibley, from November 20, 1820
. John Scott
Changes in membership
The count below reflects changes from the beginning of this Congress.
Senate
There were 5 resignations, 2 deaths, 2 vacancies before the Congress, and 4 new seats. The Democratic-Republicans had a 7-seat net gain and the Federalists had a 1-seat net loss.
|-
| Georgia(2)
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | John Forsyth had resigned before the beginning of the Congress.
| | Freeman Walker (DR)
| Elected November 6, 1819
|-
| Kentucky(2)
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | John J. Crittenden had resigned before the beginning of the Congress.
| | Richard Mentor Johnson (DR)
| Elected December 10, 1819
|-
| Maryland(3)
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Legislature did not elect until after the term began.
| | Edward Lloyd (DR)
| Elected December 14, 1819, and qualified December 21, 1819
|-
| New York(3)
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Legislature failed to elect, held late election.
| | Rufus King (F)
| Elected January 8, 1820, and qualified January 25, 1820
|-
| Maryland(1)
| | Alexander C. Hanson (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died April 23, 1819
| | William Pinkney (DR)
| Elected December 21, 1819
|-
| Virginia(2)
| | John W. Eppes (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned December 4, 1819
| | James Pleasants (DR)
| Elected December 10, 1819
|-
| Alabama(2)
| rowspan=2 | New seats
| rowspan=2 style="font-size:80%" | Alabama was admitted to the Union December 14, 1819.
| | John W. Walker (DR)
| Elected December 14, 1819
|-
| Alabama(3)
| | William R. King (DR)
| Elected December 14, 1819
|-
| Maine(2)
| rowspan=2 | New seats
| rowspan=2 style="font-size:80%" |Maine was admitted to the Union March 15, 1820.
| | John Holmes (DR)
| Elected June 13, 1820
|-
| Maine(1)
| | John Chandler (DR)
| Elected June 14, 1820
|-
| Massachusetts(1)
| | Prentiss Mellen (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned May 15, 1820
| | Elijah H. Mills (F)
| Elected June 12, 1820
|-
| Mississippi(1)
| | Walter Leake (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned May 15, 1820, after becoming US Marshal for Mississippi
| | David Holmes (DR)
| Appointed August 30, 1820
|-
| Kentucky(3)
| | William Logan (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned May 28, 1820, to run for Governor of Kentucky
| | Isham Talbot (DR)
| Elected October 19, 1820
|-
| Rhode Island(2)
| | James Burrill Jr. (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died December 25, 1820
| | Nehemiah R. Knight (DR)
| Elected January 9, 1821
|-
| New Jersey(1)
| | James J. Wilson (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned January 8, 1821
| | Samuel L. Southard (DR)
| Appointed January 26, 1821
|}
House of Representatives
There were 13 resignations, 5 deaths, 2 contested elections, and 2 new seats. The Democratic-Republicans had a 1-seat net gain and the Federalists had no net change.
|-
|
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" |
| | Hutchins G. Burton (DR)
| Seated December 6, 1819
|-
|
| rowspan=2 | Vacant
| rowspan=2 style="font-size:80%" | Seat remained vacant until statehood
| rowspan=2 | John Crowell (DR)
| rowspan=2 | Seated December 14, 1819
|-
|
|-
|
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Arkansas Territory organized July 4, 1819
| James W. Bates
| Seated December 21, 1819
|-
|
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Contested election. Representative-elect Ebenezer Sage never qualified.
| | James Guyon Jr. (DR)
| Seated January 14, 1820
|-
|
| | John Condit (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned November 4, 1819
| | Charles Kinsey (DR)
| Seated February 16, 1820
|-
|
| | James Pleasants (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned December 14, 1819
| | William S. Archer (DR)
| Seated January 18, 1820
|-
|
| | Orsamus C. Merrill (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Contested election, served until January 12, 1820
| | Rollin C. Mallary (DR)
| Seated January 13, 1820
|-
|
| | James Johnson (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned February 1, 1820
| | John C. Gray (DR)
| Seated November 13, 1820
|-
|
| | George F. Strother (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned February 10, 1820
| | Thomas L. Moore (DR)
| Seated November 13, 1820
|-
|
| | David Walker (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died March 1, 1820
| | Francis Johnson (DR)
| Seated November 13, 1820
|-
|
| | John Holmes (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned March 15, 1820, to become U.S. Senator from Maine.
| District moved to Maine
| District inactive until 1903
|-
|
| New seat
| style="font-size:80%" | Massachusetts's 14th district became Maine's at-large district
| | Joseph Dane (F)
| Seated November 6, 1820
|-
|
| | Jonathan Mason (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned May 15, 1820
| | Benjamin Gorham (DR)
| Seated November 27, 1820
|-
|
| | David Fullerton (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned May 15, 1820
| | Thomas G. McCullough (F)
| rowspan= 4 | Seated November 13, 1820
|-
|
| | Edward Dowse (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned May 26, 1820
| | William Eustis (DR)
|-
|
| | Tunstall Quarles (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned June 15, 1820
| | Thomas Montgomery (DR)
|-
|
| | James Pindall (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned July 26, 1820
| | Edward B. Jackson (DR)
|-
|
| | Zabdiel Sampson (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned July 26, 1820
| | Aaron Hobart (DR)
| Seated December 18, 1820
|-
|
| William Woodbridge
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned August 9, 1820
| Solomon Sibley
| Seated November 20, 1820
|-
|
| | Joseph Hiester (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned sometime in December 1820
| | Daniel Udree (DR)
| Seated January 8, 1821
|-
|
| | Nathaniel Hazard (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died December 17, 1820
| Vacant
| Not filled in this Congress
|-
|
| | Jesse Slocumb (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died December 20, 1820
| | William S. Blackledge (DR)
| Seated February 7, 1821
|-
|
| | John Linn (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died January 5, 1821
| Vacant
| Not filled in this Congress
|-
|
| | Willard Hall (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned January 22, 1821
| Vacant
| Not filled in this Congress
|-
|
| | William A. Burwell (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died February 16, 1821
| Vacant
| Not filled in this Congress
|}
Committees
Lists of committees and their party leaders.
Senate
Amendments to the Constitution (Select)
American Colonization Society (Select)
Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: Jonathan Roberts)
Claims (Chairman: Jonathan Roberts then James J. Wilson)
Commerce and Manufactures (Chairman: Nathan Sanford then Mahlon Dickerson)
Constitution of the State of Alabama (Select)
District of Columbia (Chairman: Outerbridge Horsey)
Engrossed Bills (Chairman: Prentiss Mellen)
Finance (Chairman: Nathan Sanford)
Foreign Relations (Chairman: James Brown then James Barbour)
Indian Affairs (Chairman: David Holmes)
Judiciary (Chairman: William Smith)
Land Commissioner Reports (Select)
Military Affairs (Chairman: John Williams)
Militia (Chairman: James Noble)
Missouri's Admission to the Union (Select)
Naval Affairs (Chairman: James Pleasants)
Pensions (Chairman: Nicholas Van Dyke then James Noble)
Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: Montfort Stokes)
Public Buildings (Select)
Public Lands (Chairman: Thomas Hill Williams then Jesse B. Thomas)
Purchase of Fire Engines (Select)
Reduction of Congressional Salaries (Select)
Roads and Canals (Select) (Chairman: Rufus King)
Whole
House of Representatives
Accounts (Chairman: James S. Smith)
Agriculture (Chairman: Thomas Forrest)
Apportionment of Representatives (Select)
Army Appropriations Inquiry (Select)
Bank of the United States (Select)
Brownstown Treaty (Select)
Claims (Chairman: Lewis Williams)
Commerce (Chairman: Thomas Newton Jr.)
District of Columbia (Chairman: Joseph Kent)
Elections (Chairman: John W. Taylor then David Trimble)
Expenditures in the Navy Department (Chairman: Stevenson Archer)
Expenditures in the Post Office Department (Chairman: Arthur Livermore)
Expenditures in the State Department (Chairman: John Holmes)
Expenditures in the Treasury Department (Chairman: David Trimble)
Expenditures in the War Department (Chairman: Henry Brush)
Expenditures on Public Buildings (Chairman: Henry Meigs)
Judiciary (Chairman: John Sergeant)
Manufactures (Chairman: Henry Baldwin)
Pensions and Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: John Rhea)
Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: Arthur Livermore)
Private Land Claims (Chairman: John W. Campbell)
Public Expenditures (Chairman: Eldred Simkins)
Public Lands (Chairman: Richard C. Anderson)
Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: Marcus Morton)
Rules (Select)
Standards of Official Conduct
Ways and Means (Chairman: Samuel Smith)
Whole
Joint committees
Enrolled Bills
Investigate Safety of Roofs over Senate and House Wings of the Capitol
The Library
Officers
Legislative branch agency directors
Architect of the Capitol: Charles Bulfinch
Librarian of Congress: George Watterston
Senate
Chaplain: John Clark (Presbyterian), until December 9, 1819
Reuben Post (Presbyterian), elected December 9, 1819
William Ryland (Methodist), elected November 17, 1820
Secretary: Charles Cutts
Sergeant at Arms: Mountjoy Bayly
House of Representatives
Chaplain: Burgiss Allison (Baptist), until November 16, 1820
John N. Campbell (Presbyterian), elected November 16, 1820
Clerk: Thomas Dougherty
Doorkeeper: Thomas Claxton
Reading Clerks:
Sergeant at Arms: Thomas Dunn
See also
1818 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
1818 and 1819 United States Senate elections
1818 and 1819 United States House of Representatives elections
1820 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
1820 United States presidential election
1820 and 1821 United States Senate elections
1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections
Notes
References
External links
Statutes at Large, 1789–1875
Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress
U.S. House of Representatives: House History
U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists | [
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225100 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/17th%20United%20States%20Congress | 17th United States Congress | The 17th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. While its term was officially March 4, 1821, to March 4, 1823, during the fifth and sixth years of James Monroe's presidency, its first session began on December 3, 1821, ending on May 8, 1822, and its second session began on December 2, 1822, to March 3, 1823. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the third Census of the United States in 1810. Both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority.
The members William Smith, John Gaillard, Joseph Gist, John Wilson, George McDuffie, Starling Tucker, James Overstreet, Thomas R. Mitchell, William Lowndes, Joel Roberts Poinsett, and James Blair were described as being "outspokenly pro-British" in their outlook. All of whom signed a "letter of brotherhood and solidarity" addressed to British Prime Minister Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool and the British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh in 1822. The same letter harshly comdemned the actions of France and specifically those of King Louis XVIII.
Major events
March 5, 1821: Second inauguration of James Monroe as President of the United States.
July 10, 1821: In accordance with the terms of the 1819 Adams–Onís Treaty, sovereignty over Spanish Florida is officially transferred to the United States from Spain.
Major legislation
States admitted and territories organized
August 10, 1821: Missouri was admitted as the 24th U.S. state
March 30, 1822: Florida Territory was formed from the lands ceded by Spain known by the name East and West Florida
Party summary
The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this congress. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section.
Senate
During this congress, two Senate seats were added for the new state of Missouri.
House of Representatives
For the beginning of this congress, six seats from Massachusetts were reapportioned to the new state of Maine (one seat had already moved during the previous congress), . During this congress, one House seat was added for the new state of Missouri, .
Leadership
Senate
President: Daniel D. Tompkins (DR)
President pro tempore: John Gaillard (DR), elected December 3, 1821
House of Representatives
Speaker: Philip P. Barbour (DR), elected December 4, 1821
Members
This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class, and representatives are listed by district.
Skip to House of Representatives, below
Senate
Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began with this Congress, requiring reelection in 1826; Class 2 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring reelection in 1822; and Class 3 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring reelection in 1824.
Alabama
2. William R. King (DR)
3. John W. Walker (DR), until December 12, 1822
William Kelly (DR), from December 12, 1822
Connecticut
1. Elijah Boardman (DR)
3. James Lanman (DR)
Delaware
1. Caesar A. Rodney (DR), January 24, 1822 – January 29, 1823, vacant for remainder of term
2. Nicholas Van Dyke (F)
Georgia
2. Freeman Walker (DR), until August 6, 1821
Nicholas Ware (DR), from November 10, 1821
3. John Elliott (DR)
Illinois
2. Jesse B. Thomas (DR)
3. Ninian Edwards (DR)
Indiana
1. James Noble (DR)
3. Waller Taylor (DR)
Kentucky
2. Richard M. Johnson (DR)
3. Isham Talbot (DR)
Louisiana
2. Henry Johnson (DR)
3. James Brown (DR)
Maine
1. John Holmes (DR)
2. John Chandler (DR)
Maryland
1. William Pinkney (DR), until February 25, 1822
Samuel Smith (DR), from December 17, 1822
3. Edward Lloyd (DR)
Massachusetts
1. Elijah H. Mills (F)
2. Harrison Gray Otis (F), until May 30, 1822
James Lloyd (F), from June 5, 1822
Mississippi
1. David Holmes (DR)
2. Thomas H. Williams (DR)
Missouri
1. Thomas H. Benton (DR), from August 10, 1821 (newly admitted state)
3. David Barton (DR), from August 10, 1821 (newly admitted state)
New Hampshire
2. David L. Morril (DR)
3. John F. Parrott (DR)
New Jersey
1. Samuel L. Southard (DR)
2. Mahlon Dickerson (DR)
New York
1. Martin Van Buren (DR)
3. Rufus King (F)
North Carolina
2. Montfort Stokes (DR)
3. Nathaniel Macon (DR)
Ohio
1. Benjamin Ruggles (DR)
3. William A. Trimble (DR), until December 13, 1821
Ethan Allen Brown (DR), from January 3, 1822
Pennsylvania
1. William Findlay (DR), from December 10, 1821
3. Walter Lowrie (DR)
Rhode Island
1. James DeWolf (DR)
2. Nehemiah R. Knight (DR)
South Carolina
2. William Smith (DR)
3. John Gaillard (DR)
Tennessee
1. John H. Eaton (DR), from September 27, 1821
2. John Williams (DR)
Vermont
1. Horatio Seymour (DR)
3. William A. Palmer (DR)
Virginia
1. James Barbour (DR)
2. James Pleasants (DR), until December 15, 1822
John Taylor of Caroline (DR), from December 18, 1822
House of Representatives
The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their district numbers.
Alabama
. Gabriel Moore (DR)
Connecticut
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Noyes Barber (DR)
. Daniel Burrows (DR)
. Henry W. Edwards (DR)
. John Russ (DR)
. Ansel Sterling (DR)
. Ebenezer Stoddard (DR)
. Gideon Tomlinson (DR)
Delaware
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Louis McLane (F)
. Caesar A. Rodney (DR), until January 24, 1822
Daniel Rodney (F), from October 1, 1822
Georgia
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Joel Abbot (DR)
. Alfred Cuthbert (DR)
. George R. Gilmer (DR)
. Robert R. Reid (DR)
. Edward F. Tattnall (DR)
. Wiley Thompson (DR)
Illinois
. Daniel P. Cook (DR)
Indiana
. William Hendricks (DR), until July 25, 1822
Jonathan Jennings (DR), from December 2, 1822
Kentucky
. David Trimble (DR)
. Samuel H. Woodson (DR)
. John T. Johnson (DR)
. Thomas Metcalfe (DR)
. Anthony New (DR)
. Francis Johnson (DR)
. George Robertson (DR), until sometime in 1821 before the convening of Congress
John S. Smith (DR), from August 6, 1821
. Wingfield Bullock (DR), until October 13, 1821
James D. Breckinridge (DR), from November 21, 1821
. Thomas Montgomery (DR)
. Benjamin Hardin (DR)
Louisiana
. Josiah S. Johnston (DR)
Maine
. Joseph Dane (F)
. Ezekiel Whitman (F), until June 1, 1822
Mark Harris (DR), from December 2, 1822
. Mark L. Hill (DR)
. William D. Williamson (DR)
. Ebenezer Herrick (DR)
. Joshua Cushman (DR)
. Enoch Lincoln (DR)
Maryland
The 5th district was a plural district with two representatives.
. Raphael Neale (F)
. Joseph Kent (DR)
. Henry R. Warfield (F)
. John Nelson (DR)
. Peter Little (DR)
. Samuel Smith (DR), until December 17, 1822
Isaac McKim (DR), from January 4, 1823
. Jeremiah Cosden (DR), until March 19, 1822
Philip Reed (DR), from March 19, 1822
. Robert Wright (DR)
. Thomas Bayly (F)
Massachusetts
. Benjamin Gorham (DR)
. Gideon Barstow (DR)
. Jeremiah Nelson (F)
. Timothy Fuller (DR)
. Samuel Lathrop (F)
. Samuel C. Allen (F)
. Henry W. Dwight (F)
. Aaron Hobart (DR)
. John Reed Jr. (F)
. Francis Baylies (F)
. Jonathan Russell (DR)
. Lewis Bigelow (F)
. William Eustis (DR)
Mississippi
. Christopher Rankin (DR)
Missouri
. John Scott (DR), from August 10, 1821 (newly admitted state)
New Hampshire
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Josiah Butler (DR)
. Matthew Harvey (DR)
. Aaron Matson (DR)
. William Plumer Jr. (DR)
. Nathaniel Upham (DR)
. Thomas Whipple Jr. (DR)
New Jersey
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Ephraim Bateman (DR)
. George Cassedy (DR)
. Lewis Condict (DR)
. George Holcombe (DR)
. James Matlack (DR)
. Samuel Swan (DR)
New York
There were five plural districts: the 1st, 2nd, 12th, 15th & 20th each had two representatives.
. Cadwallader D. Colden (F), from December 12, 1821
. Silas Wood (F)
. Churchill C. Cambreleng (DR)
. John J. Morgan (DR)
. Jeremiah H. Pierson (DR)
. William W. Van Wyck (DR)
. Walter Patterson (F)
. Selah Tuthill (DR), until September 7, 1821
Charles Borland Jr. (DR), from December 3, 1821
. Charles H. Ruggles (F)
. Richard McCarty (DR)
. Solomon Van Rensselaer (F), until January 14, 1822
Stephen Van Rensselaer (F), from March 12, 1822
. John D. Dickinson (F)
. John W. Taylor (DR)
. Nathaniel Pitcher (DR)
. Reuben H. Walworth (DR)
. John Gebhard (DR)
. Alfred Conkling (DR)
. Samuel Campbell (DR)
. James Hawkes (DR)
. Joseph Kirkland (F)
. Thomas H. Hubbard (DR)
. Micah Sterling (F)
. Elisha Litchfield (DR)
. William B. Rochester (DR)
. David Woodcock (DR)
. Elijah Spencer (DR)
. Albert H. Tracy (DR)
North Carolina
. Lemuel Sawyer (DR)
. Hutchins G. Burton (DR)
. Thomas H. Hall (DR)
. William S. Blackledge (DR)
. Charles Hooks (DR)
. Weldon N. Edwards (DR)
. Archibald McNeill (F)
. Josiah Crudup (DR)
. Romulus M. Saunders (DR)
. John Long (DR)
. Henry W. Connor (DR)
. Felix Walker (DR)
. Lewis Williams (DR)
Ohio
. Thomas R. Ross (DR)
. John W. Campbell (DR)
. Levi Barber (DR)
. David Chambers (DR), from October 9, 1821
. Joseph Vance (DR)
. John Sloane (DR)
Pennsylvania
There were six plural districts: the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, 6th & 10th had two representatives each, and the 1st had four representatives.
. Samuel Edwards (F)
. Joseph Hemphill (F)
. William Milnor (F), until May 8, 1822
Thomas Forrest (F), from October 8, 1822
. John Sergeant (F)
. William Darlington (DR)
. Samuel Gross (DR)
. James Buchanan (F)
. John Phillips (F)
. James S. Mitchell (DR)
. John Findlay (DR), from October 9, 1821
. James McSherry (F)
. Samuel Moore (DR), until May 20, 1822
Samuel D. Ingham (DR), from October 8, 1822
. Thomas J. Rogers (DR)
. Ludwig Worman (F), until October 17, 1822
Daniel Udree (DR), from October 17, 1822
. John Tod (DR)
. John Brown (DR)
. George Denison (DR)
. Thomas Murray Jr. (DR), from October 9, 1821
. George Plumer (DR)
. Thomas Patterson (DR)
. Andrew Stewart (DR)
. Henry Baldwin (DR), until May 8, 1822
Walter Forward (DR), from October 8, 1822
. Patrick Farrelly (DR)
Rhode Island
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Job Durfee (DR)
. Samuel Eddy (DR)
South Carolina
. Joel R. Poinsett (DR)
. William Lowndes (DR), until May 8, 1822
James Hamilton Jr. (DR), from December 13, 1822
. Thomas R. Mitchell (DR)
. James Overstreet (DR), until May 24, 1822
Andrew R. Govan (DR), from December 4, 1822
. Starling Tucker (DR)
. George McDuffie (DR)
. John Wilson (DR)
. Joseph Gist (DR)
. James Blair (DR), until May 8, 1822
John Carter (DR), from December 11, 1822
Tennessee
. John Rhea (DR)
. John Cocke (DR)
. Francis Jones (DR)
. Robert Allen (DR)
. Newton Cannon (DR)
. Vacant
Vermont
. Rollin C. Mallary (DR)
. Phineas White (DR)
. Charles Rich (DR)
. Elias Keyes (DR)
. Samuel C. Crafts (DR)
. John Mattocks (DR)
Virginia
. Edward B. Jackson (DR)
. Thomas Van Swearingen (F), until August 19, 1822
James Stephenson (F), from October 28, 1822
. Jared Williams (DR)
. William McCoy (DR)
. John Floyd (DR)
. Alexander Smyth (DR)
. William Smith (DR)
. Charles F. Mercer (F)
. William Lee Ball (DR)
. Thomas L. Moore (DR)
. Philip P. Barbour (DR)
. Robert S. Garnett (DR)
. Burwell Bassett (DR)
. Jabez Leftwich (DR)
. George Tucker (DR)
. John Randolph (DR)
. William S. Archer (DR)
. Mark Alexander (DR)
. James Jones (DR)
. Arthur Smith (DR)
. Thomas Newton Jr. (DR)
. Hugh Nelson (DR), until January 14, 1823, vacant thereafter
. Andrew Stevenson (DR)
Non-voting members
. James W. Bates
. Joseph M. Hernández, from September 30, 1822
. Solomon Sibley
. Vacant until statehood
Changes in membership
The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress.
Senate
Replacements: 5
Democratic-Republicans: no net change
Federalists: no net change
Deaths: 2
Resignations: 6
Seats of newly admitted states: 2
Vacancies: 3
Total seats with changes: 12
|-
| Tennessee(1)
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Legislature failed to re-elect John Eaton (DR). Late election held.
| | John Eaton (DR)
| Elected September 27, 1821
|-
| Pennsylvania(1)
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Seat remained vacant at end of previous Congress
| | William Findlay (DR)
| Elected December 10, 1821
|-
| Delaware(1)
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Seat remained vacant at end of previous Congress
| | Caesar A. Rodney (DR)
| Elected January 24, 1822
|-
| Georgia(2)
| | Freeman Walker (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned August 6, 1821
| | Nicholas Ware (DR)
| Elected November 10, 1821
|-
| Missouri(1)
| rowspan=2 | New seats
| rowspan=2 style="font-size:80%" | Missouri was admitted to the Union.
| | Thomas Hart Benton (DR)
| Elected August 10, 1821
|-
| Missouri(3)
| | David Barton (DR)
| Elected August 10, 1821
|-
| Ohio(3)
| | William A. Trimble (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died December 13, 1821
| | Ethan Allen Brown (DR)
| Elected January 3, 1822
|-
| Maryland(1)
| | William Pinkney (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died February 25, 1822
| | Samuel Smith (DR)
| Elected December 17, 1822
|-
| Massachusetts(2)
| | Harrison Gray Otis (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned May 30, 1822, to run for Mayor of Boston
| | James Lloyd (F)
| Elected June 5, 1822
|-
| Alabama(3)
| | John W. Walker (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned December 12, 1822, due to failing health
| | William Kelly (DR)
| Elected December 12, 1822
|-
| Virginia(2)
| | James Pleasants (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned December 15, 1822, after being elected Governor of Virginia
| | John Taylor (DR)
| Elected December 18, 1822
|-
| Delaware(1)
| | Caesar A. Rodney (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned January 29, 1823, to accept a diplomatic appointment
| Vacant
| Not filled in this Congress
|}
House of Representatives
Replacements: 13
Democratic-Republicans: 1 seat net gain
Federalists: 1 seat net loss
Deaths: 5
Resignations: 15
Contested election: 2
Seats of newly admitted states: 1
Total seats with changes: 23
|-
|
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Rep. Henry Hunter Bryan was re-elected but did not take his seat
| Vacant
|
|-
|
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Rep.-elect John C. Wright resigned his seat in the next Congress on March 3, 1821
| | David Chambers (DR)
| Seated December 3, 1821
|-
|
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Rep.-elect James Duncan resigned before Congress met
| | John Findlay (DR)
| Seated December 12, 1821
|-
|
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Rep.-elect William Cox Ellis resigned before Congress met
| | Thomas Murray Jr. (DR)
| Seated December 12, 1821
|-
|
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Credentials for Peter Sharpe were issued by the Secretary of State of New York, but Sharpe never claimed or took the seat, Sharpe's election was contested by Colden, see United States House of Representatives elections in New York, 1821
| | Cadwallader D. Colden (F)
| Seated December 12, 1821
|-
|
| | George Robertson (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | resigned before Congress met
| | John S. Smith (DR)
| Seated December 3, 1821
|-
| nowrap |
| rowspan=2 | Vacant
| rowspan=2 style="font-size:80%" | Missouri was admitted to the Union on August 10, 1821
| rowspan=2 | John Scott (DR)
| rowspan=2 | Seated December 3, 1821
|-
|
|-
|
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Selah Tuthill (DR) was elected after the Congress term had already begun, and died on September 7, 1821, before Congress met. It is uncertain whether credentials were ever issued for Tuthill.
| | Charles Borland Jr. (DR)
| Seated December 3, 1821
|-
|
| | Wingfield Bullock (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died October 13, 1821, before Congress met
| | James D. Breckinridge (DR)
| Seated January 2, 1822
|-
|
| | Solomon Van Rensselaer (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned January 14, 1822, upon appointment as Postmaster of Albany
| | Stephen Van Rensselaer (F)
| Seated March 12, 1822
|-
|
| | Caesar A. Rodney (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned on January 24, 1822, after being elected to the US Senate
| | Daniel Rodney (F)
| Seated December 2, 1822
|-
|
| | Jeremiah Cosden (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Cosden's election was contested by Reed
| | Philip Reed (DR)
| Seated March 19, 1822
|-
|
| | William Milnor (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned on May 8, 1822, to run for Mayor of Philadelphia
| | Thomas Forrest (F)
| Seated December 2, 1822
|-
|
| | Henry Baldwin (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned on May 8, 1822
| | Walter Forward (DR)
| Seated December 2, 1822
|-
|
| | James Blair (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned on May 8, 1822
| | John Carter (DR)
| Seated December 11, 1822
|-
|
| | William Lowndes (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned on May 8, 1822
| | James Hamilton Jr. (DR)
| Seated January 6, 1823
|-
|
| | Samuel Moore (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned on May 20, 1822
| | Samuel D. Ingham (DR)
| Seated December 2, 1822
|-
|
| | James Overstreet (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died May 24, 1822
| | Andrew R. Govan (DR)
| Seated December 4, 1822
|-
|
| | Ezekiel Whitman (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned on June 1, 1822, after becoming a judge of a Court of Common Pleas in Maine
| | Mark Harris (DR)
| Seated December 2, 1822
|-
|
| | William Hendricks (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned on July 25, 1822, after his election as Governor of Indiana
| | Jonathan Jennings (DR)
| Seated December 2, 1822
|-
|
| | Thomas Van Swearingen (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died on August 19, 1822
| | James Stephenson (F)
| Seated December 2, 1822
|-
|
| Vacant
| style="font-size:80%" | Florida Territory was organized on March 30, 1822
| Joseph M. Hernández
| Seated January 3, 1823
|-
|
| | Ludwig Worman (F)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died October 17, 1822
| | Daniel Udree (DR)
| Seated December 23, 1822
|-
|
| | Samuel Smith (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned on December 17, 1822, after his election to the US Senate
| | Isaac McKim (DR)
| Seated January 8, 1823
|-
|
| | Hugh Nelson (DR)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned on January 14, 1823, upon appointment as Minister to Spain
| Vacant
|
|}
Committees
Lists of committees and their party leaders.
Senate
Amendments to the Constitution (Select)
Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: James Lanman then Nathaniel Macon)
Claims (Chairman: Benjamin Ruggles)
Commerce and Manufactures (Chairman: Mahlon Dickerson)
Debt Imprisonment Abolition (Select)
District of Columbia (Chairman: James Barbour)
Engrossed Bills (Chairman: James Lanman)
Finance (Chairman: John Holmes then Walter Lowrie)
Foreign Relations (Chairman: Rufus King then James Barbour)
Indian Affairs (Chairman: Henry Johnson)
Judiciary (Chairman: William Smith)
Military Affairs (Chairman: John Williams)
Militia (Chairman: James Noble)
National Road from Cumberland to Wheeling (Select)
Naval Affairs (Chairman: James Pleasants)
Pensions (Chairman: James Noble)
Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: Montfort Stokes)
Public Lands (Chairman: Jesse B. Thomas)
Roads and Canals (Select)
Tariff Regulation (Select)
Whole
House of Representatives
Accountability of Public Moneys (Select)
Accounts (Chairman: Samuel C. Allen)
Agriculture (Chairman: Josiah Butler)
Arkansas Territorial Limits (Select)
Claims (Chairman: Lewis Williams)
Commerce (Chairman: Thomas Newton Jr.)
District of Columbia (Chairman: Joseph Kent)
Elections (Chairman: John Sloane)
Expenditures in the Navy Department (Chairman: Samuel Edwards)
Expenditures in the Post Office Department (Chairman: George Denison)
Expenditures in the State Department (Chairman: Silas Wood)
Expenditures in the Treasury Department (Chairman: Albert H. Tracy)
Expenditures in the War Department (Chairman: Starling Tucker)
Expenditures on Public Buildings (Chairman: Hugh Nelson)
Foreign Affairs (Chairman: Jonathan Russell)
Indian Affairs (Chairman: Thomas Metcalfe)
Judiciary (Chairman: John Sergeant then Hugh Nelson)
Manufactures (Chairman: John Tod)
Military Affairs (Chairman: William Eustis)
Naval Affairs (Chairman: Timothy Fuller)
Pensions and Revolutionary War Claims (Chairman: John Rhea)
Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: Francis Johnson)
Private Land Claims (Chairman: Samuel Campbell)
Public Expenditures (Chairman: Thomas Montgomery)
Public Lands (Chairman: Christopher Rankin)
Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: Thomas R. Ross)
Rules (Select)
Standards of Official Conduct
Ways and Means (Chairman: Samuel Smith)
Whole
Joint committees
Enrolled Bills
The Library
Employees
Legislative branch agency directors
Architect of the Capitol: Charles Bulfinch
Librarian of Congress: George Watterston
Senate
Chaplain: William Ryland (Methodist), until December 9, 1822
Charles P. McIlvaine (Episcopalian), elected December 9, 1822
Secretary: Charles Cutts
Sergeant at Arms: Mountjoy Bayly
House of Representatives
Chaplain: John Nicholson Campbell (Presbyterian), until December 10, 1821
Jared Sparks (Unitarian), elected December 10, 1821
John Brackenridge (Presbyterian), elected December 5, 1822
Clerk: Thomas Dougherty (died)
Matthew St. Clair Clarke, elected December 3, 1822
Doorkeeper: Benjamin Birch, elected December 4, 1821
Reading Clerks:
Sergeant at Arms: Thomas Dunn
See also
1820 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
1820 United States presidential election
1820 and 1821 United States Senate elections
1820 and 1821 United States House of Representatives elections
1822 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
1822 and 1823 United States Senate elections
1822 and 1823 United States House of Representatives elections
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Statutes at Large, 1789-1875
Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress
U.S. House of Representatives: House History
U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists | [
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225101 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18th%20United%20States%20Congress | 18th United States Congress | The 18th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1823, to March 4, 1825, during the seventh and eighth years of James Monroe's presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Fourth Census of the United States in 1820. Both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority.
Major events
August 1823: Arikara War fought between the Arikara nation and the United States, the first American military conflict with the Plains Indians.
December 2, 1823: Monroe Doctrine: President James Monroe delivered a speech to the Congress, announcing a new policy of forbidding European interference in the Americas and establishing American neutrality in future European conflicts.
February 9, 1825: John Quincy Adams elected as President of the United States by the House of Representatives in accordance with the contingent election provision of the Twelfth Amendment, as no candidate had received a majority of the electoral votes cast in the 1824 presidential election. The House was required to choose between Adams, Andrew Jackson, and William Crawford (the top three presidential electoral-vote recipients), with the delegation from each of the 24 states having one vote. Adams was elected on the first ballot by 13 to 7 to 4.
{| class="wikitable"
! | States for Adams
! | States for Jackson
! | States for Crawford
|-style="vertical-align:top"
|
Connecticut
Illinois
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Missouri
New Hampshire
New York
Ohio
Rhode Island
Vermont
|
Alabama
Indiana
Mississippi
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
South Carolina
Tennessee
|
Delaware
Georgia
North Carolina
Virginia
|-
| |Total: 13 (54%)
| |Total: 7 (29%)
| |Total: 4 (17%)
|}
Major legislation
January 7, 1824: Tariff of 1824, Sess. 1, ch. 4,
March 3, 1825: Crimes Act of 1825, Sess. 2, ch. 65,
Party summary
The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this Congress, and includes members from vacancies and newly admitted states, when they were first seated. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section.
Senate
House of Representatives
Leadership
Senate
President: Daniel D. Tompkins (DR)
President pro tempore: John Gaillard (DR)
House of Representatives
Speaker: Henry Clay (DR)
Members
This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class, and representatives are listed by district.
Skip to House of Representatives, below
Senate
Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring re-election in 1826; Class 2 meant their term began with this Congress, requiring re-election in 1828; and Class 3 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring re-election in 1824.
Alabama
2. William R. King (DR)
3. William Kelly (DR)
Connecticut
1. Elijah Boardman (DR), until August 18, 1823
Henry W. Edwards (DR), from October 8, 1823
3. James Lanman (DR)
Delaware
1. Thomas Clayton (F), from January 8, 1824
2. Nicholas Van Dyke (F), from January 7, 1824
Georgia
2. Nicholas Ware (DR), until September 7, 1824
Thomas W. Cobb (DR), from December 6, 1824
3. John Elliott (DR)
Illinois
2. Jesse B. Thomas (DR)
3. Ninian Edwards (DR), until March 4, 1824
John McLean (DR), from November 23, 1824
Indiana
1. James Noble (DR)
3. Waller Taylor (DR)
Kentucky
2. Richard M. Johnson (DR)
3. Isham Talbot (DR)
Louisiana
2. Henry Johnson (DR), until May 27, 1824
Dominique J. Bouligny (DR), from November 19, 1824
3. James Brown (DR), until December 10, 1823
Josiah S. Johnston (DR), from January 15, 1824
Maine
1. John Holmes (DR)
2. John Chandler (DR)
Maryland
1. Samuel Smith (DR)
3. Edward Lloyd (DR)
Massachusetts
1. Elijah H. Mills (F)
2. James Lloyd (F)
Mississippi
1. David Holmes (DR)
2. Thomas H. Williams (DR)
Missouri
1. Thomas H. Benton (DR)
3. David Barton (DR)
New Hampshire
2. Samuel Bell (DR)
3. John F. Parrott (DR)
New Jersey
1. Joseph McIlvaine (DR), from November 12, 1823
2. Mahlon Dickerson (DR)
New York
1. Martin Van Buren (DR)
3. Rufus King (F)
North Carolina
2. John Branch (DR)
3. Nathaniel Macon (DR)
Ohio
1. Benjamin Ruggles (DR)
3. Ethan Allen Brown (DR)
Pennsylvania
1. William Findlay (DR)
3. Walter Lowrie (DR)
Rhode Island
1. James De Wolf (DR)
2. Nehemiah R. Knight (DR)
South Carolina
2. Robert Y. Hayne (DR)
3. John Gaillard (DR)
Tennessee
1. John H. Eaton (DR)
2. Andrew Jackson (DR)
Vermont
1. Horatio Seymour (DR)
3. William A. Palmer (DR)
Virginia
1. James Barbour (DR)
2. John Taylor (DR), until August 21, 1824
Littleton W. Tazewell (DR), from December 7, 1824
House of Representatives
The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their district numbers.
Alabama
. Gabriel Moore (DR-J)
. John McKee (DR-J)
. George W. Owen (DR-J)
Connecticut
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Noyes Barber (DR-A)
. Samuel A. Foot (DR-A)
. Ansel Sterling (DR-A)
. Ebenezer Stoddard (DR-A)
. Gideon Tomlinson (DR-A)
. Lemuel Whitman (DR-A)
Delaware
. Louis McLane (F-C)
Georgia
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Joel Abbot (DR-C)
. George Cary (DR-C)
. Thomas W. Cobb (DR-C), until December 6, 1824
Richard Henry Wilde (DR-C), from February 7, 1825
. Alfred Cuthbert (DR-C)
. John Forsyth (DR-C)
. Edward F. Tattnall (DR-C)
. Wiley Thompson (DR-C)
Illinois
. Daniel P. Cook (DR-A)
Indiana
. William Prince (DR-J), until September 8, 1824
Jacob Call (DR-J), from December 23, 1824
. Jonathan Jennings (DR-J)
. John Test (DR-J)
Kentucky
. David Trimble (DR-A)
. Thomas Metcalfe (DR-A)
. Henry Clay (DR-A)
. Robert P. Letcher (DR-A)
. John T. Johnson (DR-J)
. David White (DR-A)
. Thomas P. Moore (DR-J)
. Richard A. Buckner (DR-A)
. Charles A. Wickliffe (DR-J)
. Francis Johnson (DR-A)
. Philip Thompson (DR-A)
. Robert P. Henry (DR-J)
Louisiana
. Edward Livingston (DR-J)
. Henry H. Gurley (DR-A)
. William L. Brent (DR-A)
Maine
. William Burleigh (DR-A)
. Stephen Longfellow (F-A)
. Ebenezer Herrick (DR-A)
. Joshua Cushman (DR-A)
. Enoch Lincoln (DR-A)
. Jeremiah O'Brien (DR-A)
. David Kidder (DR-A)
Maryland
The 5th district was a plural district with two representatives.
. Raphael Neale (F-A)
. Joseph Kent (DR-A)
. Henry R. Warfield (F-A)
. John Lee (F-J)
. Peter Little (DR-J)
. Isaac McKim (DR-J)
. George E. Mitchell (DR-A)
. William Hayward Jr. (DR-C)
. John S. Spence (DR-A)
Massachusetts
. Daniel Webster (F-A)
. Benjamin W. Crowninshield (DR-A)
. Jeremiah Nelson (F-A)
. Timothy Fuller (DR-A)
. Jonas Sibley (DR-A)
. John Locke (DR-A)
. Samuel C. Allen (F-A)
. Samuel Lathrop (F-A)
. Henry W. Dwight (F-A)
. John Bailey (DR-A), from December 13, 1824
. Aaron Hobart (DR-A)
. Francis Baylies (F-J)
. John Reed Jr. (F-A)
Mississippi
. Christopher Rankin (DR-J)
Missouri
. John Scott (DR-A)
New Hampshire
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Ichabod Bartlett (DR-A)
. Matthew Harvey (DR-A)
. Arthur Livermore (DR-A)
. Aaron Matson (DR-A)
. William Plumer Jr. (DR-A)
. Thomas Whipple Jr. (DR-A)
New Jersey
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. George Cassedy (DR-J)
. Lewis Condict (DR-J)
. Daniel Garrison (DR-J)
. George Holcombe (DR-J)
. James Matlack (DR-A)
. Samuel Swan (DR-J)
New York
There were three plural districts: the 20th & 26th had two representatives each, the 3rd had three representatives.
. Silas Wood (DR-A)
. Jacob Tyson (DR-C)
. Churchill C. Cambreleng (DR-C)
. John J. Morgan (DR-J)
. Peter Sharpe (DR-A)
. Joel Frost (DR-C)
. William W. Van Wyck (DR-A)
. Hector Craig (DR-J)
. Lemuel Jenkins (DR-C)
. James Strong (F-A)
. James L. Hogeboom (DR-C)
. Stephen Van Rensselaer (F-A)
. Charles A. Foote (DR-C)
. Lewis Eaton (DR-C)
. Isaac Williams Jr. (DR-A)
. Henry R. Storrs (F-A)
. John Herkimer (DR-A)
. John W. Cady (DR-A)
. John W. Taylor (DR-A)
. Henry C. Martindale (F-A)
. John Richards (DR-C)
. Ela Collins (DR-C)
. Egbert Ten Eyck (DR-C)
. Lot Clark (DR-C)
. Justin Dwinell (DR-C)
. Elisha Litchfield (DR-C)
. Rowland Day (DR-C)
. Samuel Lawrence (DR-A)
. Dudley Marvin (DR-A)
. Robert S. Rose (DR-A)
. Moses Hayden (DR-A)
. William B. Rochester (DR-A), until April 23, 1823
William Woods (DR-A), from November 3, 1823
. Isaac Wilson (DR-A), until January 7, 1824
Parmenio Adams (DR-A), from January 7, 1824
. Albert H. Tracy (DR-A)
North Carolina
. Alfred M. Gatlin (DR-C)
. Hutchins G. Burton (DR-C), until March 23, 1824
George Outlaw (DR-C), from January 19, 1825
. Thomas H. Hall (DR-C)
. Richard D. Spaight Jr. (DR-C)
. Charles Hooks (DR-C)
. Weldon N. Edwards (DR-C)
. John Culpepper (F-A)
. Willie P. Mangum (DR-C)
. Romulus M. Saunders (DR-C)
. John Long (DR-C)
. Henry W. Connor (DR-J)
. Robert B. Vance (DR-J)
. Lewis Williams (DR-C)
Ohio
. James W. Gazlay (DR-J)
. Thomas R. Ross (DR-C)
. William McLean (DR-A)
. Joseph Vance (DR-A)
. John W. Campbell (DR-J)
. Duncan McArthur (DR-A)
. Samuel F. Vinton (DR-A)
. William Wilson (DR-C)
. Philemon Beecher (DR-A)
. John Patterson (DR-A)
. John C. Wright (DR-A)
. John Sloane (DR-A)
. Elisha Whittlesey (DR-A)
. Mordecai Bartley (DR-A)
Pennsylvania
There were six plural districts: the 7th, 8th, 11th, and 16th had two representatives each, the 4th and 9th had three representatives each.
. Samuel Breck (F-A)
. Joseph Hemphill (F-J)
. Daniel H. Miller (DR-J)
. James Buchanan (F-J)
. Samuel Edwards (F-J)
. Isaac Wayne (F-J)
. Philip S. Markley (DR-J)
. Robert Harris (DR-J)
. Daniel Udree (DR-J)
. Henry Wilson (DR-J)
. Samuel D. Ingham (DR-J)
. Thomas J. Rogers (DR-J), until April 20, 1824
George Wolf (DR-J), from December 9, 1824
. William Cox Ellis (F-J)
. George Kremer (DR-J)
. Samuel McKean (DR-J)
. James S. Mitchell (DR-J)
. John Findlay (DR-J)
. James Wilson (DR-J)
. John Brown (DR-J)
. John Tod (DR-J), until ????, 1824
Alexander Thomson (DR-J), from December 6, 1824
. Andrew Stewart (DR-J)
. Thomas Patterson (DR-J)
. James Allison Jr. (DR-J)
. Walter Forward (DR-J)
. George Plumer (DR-J)
. Patrick Farrelly (DR-J)
Rhode Island
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Job Durfee (DR-A)
. Samuel Eddy (DR-A)
South Carolina
. Joel R. Poinsett (DR-J)
. James Hamilton Jr. (DR-J)
. Robert B. Campbell (DR-J)
. Andrew R. Govan (DR-J)
. George McDuffie (DR-J)
. John Wilson (DR-J)
. Joseph Gist (DR-J)
. John Carter (DR-J)
. Starling Tucker (DR-J)
Tennessee
. John Blair (DR-J)
. John Cocke (DR-J)
. James I. Standifer (DR-J)
. Jacob C. Isacks (DR-J)
. Robert Allen (DR-J)
. James T. Sandford (DR-J)
. Samuel Houston (DR-J)
. James B. Reynolds (DR-J)
. Adam R. Alexander (DR-J)
Vermont
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Rollin C. Mallary (DR-A)
. William C. Bradley (DR-A)
. Charles Rich (DR-A), until October 15, 1824
Henry Olin (DR-A), from December 13, 1824
. Daniel A. A. Buck (DR-A)
. Samuel C. Crafts (DR-A)
Virginia
. Thomas Newton Jr. (DR-A)
. Arthur Smith (DR-C)
. William S. Archer (DR-C)
. Mark Alexander (DR-C)
. John Randolph (DR-C)
. George Tucker (DR-C)
. Jabez Leftwich (DR-C)
. Burwell Bassett (DR-C)
. Andrew Stevenson (DR-C)
. William C. Rives (DR-C)
. Philip P. Barbour (DR-C)
. Robert S. Garnett (DR-C)
. William Lee Ball (DR-C), until February 29, 1824
John Taliaferro (DR-C), from March 24, 1824
. Charles F. Mercer (DR-C)
. John S. Barbour (DR-C)
. James Stephenson (F-C)
. Jared Williams (DR-C)
. Joseph Johnson (DR-J)
. William McCoy (DR-C)
. John Floyd (DR-C)
. William Smith (DR-C)
. Alexander Smyth (DR-C)
Non-voting members
. Henry W. Conway
. Richard K. Call
. Gabriel Richard
Changes in membership
The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress.
Senate
Deaths: 3
Resignations: 3
Vacancy: 2
Total seats with changes: 8
|-
| New Jersey(1)
| Vacant
| Samuel L. Southard resigned at end of previous Congress.Successor elected November 12, 1823.
| | Joseph McIlvaine (DR)
| November 12, 1823
|-
| Delaware(2)
| Vacant
| Legislature had failed to elect.Incumbent was re-elected late January 7, 1824.
| | Nicholas Van Dyke (F)
| January 7, 1824
|-
| Delaware(1)
| Vacant
| Caesar A. Rodney resigned in previous term.Successor elected January 8, 1824.
| | Thomas Clayton (F)
| January 8, 1824
|-
| Connecticut(1)
| | Elijah Boardman (DR)
| Died August 18, 1823.Successor appointed October 8, 1823, and later elected May 5, 1824.
| | Henry W. Edwards (DR)
| October 8, 1823
|-
| Louisiana(3)
| | James Brown (DR)
| Resigned December 10, 1823, after being appointed Minister to France.Successor appointed January 15, 1824.
| | Josiah S. Johnston (DR)
| January 15, 1824
|-
| Illinois(3)
| | Ninian Edwards (DR)
| Resigned March 4, 1824, after being appointed Minister to Mexico.Successor elected November, 1824.
| | John McLean (DR)
| November 23, 1824
|-
| Louisiana(2)
| | Henry Johnson (DR)
| Resigned May 27, 1824, to run for Governor of Louisiana.Successor elected November 19, 1824.
| | Dominique J. Bouligny (DR)
| November 19, 1824
|-
| Virginia(2)
| | John Taylor (DR)
| Died August 21, 1824.Successor elected December 7, 1824.
| | Littleton W. Tazewell (DR)
| December 7, 1824
|-
| Georgia(2)
| | Nicholas Ware (DR)
| Died September 7, 1824.Successor elected December 6, 1824.
| | Thomas W. Cobb (DR)
| December 6, 1824
|}
House of Representatives
Deaths: 3
Resignations: 5
Contested election: 2
Total seats with changes: 10
|-
|
| Vacant
| John Bailey was declared not entitled to seat in previous election.Bailey was then re-elected.
| | John Bailey (A-DR)
| Seated December 13, 1824.
|-
|
| | William B. Rochester (A-DR)
| Resigned April 21, 1823.New member elected.
| | William Woods (A-DR)
| Seated November 3, 1823.
|-
|
| | John Tod (J-DR)
| Resigned sometime in 1824.New member elected.
| | Alexander Thomson (J-DR)
| Seated December 6, 1824.
|-
|
| | Isaac Wilson (A-DR)
| Lost contested election January 7, 1824.New member seated.
| | Parmenio Adams (A-DR)
| Seated January 7, 1824.
|-
|
| | William Lee Ball (C-DR)
| Died February 29, 1824.New member elected.
| | John Taliaferro (C-DR)
| Seated March 24, 1824.
|-
|
| | Hutchins G. Burton (C-DR)
| Resigned March 23, 1824 when elected Governor of North Carolina.New member elected.
| | George Outlaw (C-DR)
| Seated January 19, 1825.
|-
|
| | Thomas J. Rogers (J-DR)
| Resigned April 20, 1824.New member elected.
| | George Wolf (J-DR)
| Seated December 9, 1824.
|-
|
| | William Prince (J-DR)
| Died September 8, 1824.New member elected.
| | Jacob Call (J-DR)
| Seated December 23, 1824.
|-
|
| | Charles Rich (A-DR)
| Died October 15, 1824.New member elected.
| | Henry Olin (A-DR)
| Seated December 13, 1824.
|-
|
| | Thomas W. Cobb (C-DR)
| Resigned December 6, 1824 when elected U.S. Senator.New member elected.
| | Richard H. Wilde (C-DR)
| Seated February 7, 1825.
|}
Committees
Lists of committees and their party leaders.
Senate
Amendments to the Constitution (Select)
Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: Horatio Seymour)
Banks in Which Deposits Have Been Made (Select)
Claims (Chairman: Benjamin Ruggles)
Commerce and Manufactures (Chairman: Mahlon Dickerson)
Debt Imprisonment Abolition (Select)
District of Columbia (Chairman: Edward Lloyd)
Engrossed Bills (Chairman: James Lanman)
Finance (Chairman: Samuel Smith)
Foreign Relations (Chairman: James Barbour)
Indian Affairs (Chairman: Thomas Hart Benton)
Judiciary (Chairman: Martin Van Buren)
Marquis de La Fayette (Select)
Memorial of the Legislature of Arkansas (Select)
Military Affairs (Chairman: Andrew Jackson)
Militia (Chairman: John Chandler)
National Road from Cumberland to Wheeling (Select)
Naval Affairs (Chairman: James Lloyd)
Peale's Portrait of Washington (Select)
Pensions (Chairman: James Noble)
Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: James Lanman)
Public Lands (Chairman: David Barton)
Roads and Canals (Select) (Chairman: James Brown then Ethan Allen Brown)
Tariff Regulation (Select)
Whole
House of Representatives
Accounts (Chairman: Samuel C. Allen)
Agriculture (Chairman: Stephen Van Rensselaer)
Arms Contracts (Select)
Banking Memorials (Select)
Claims (Chairman: Lewis Williams)
Commerce (Chairman: Thomas Newton Jr.)
District of Columbia (Chairman: Joseph Kent)
Elections (Chairman: John Sloane)
Expenditures in the Navy Department (Chairman: Samuel Edwards)
Expenditures in the Post Office Department (Chairman: William Van Wyck)
Expenditures in the State Department (Chairman: Silas Wood)
Expenditures in the Treasury Department (Chairman: Weldon N. Edwards)
Expenditures in the War Department
Expenditures on Public Buildings (Chairman: Jeremiah Nelson)
Foreign Affairs (Chairman: John Forsyth)
Indian Affairs (Chairman: John Cocke)
Judiciary (Chairman: Daniel Webster)
Manufactures (Chairman: John Tod then Walter Forward)
Military Affairs (Chairman: James Hamilton Jr.)
Naval Affairs (Chairman: Benjamin W. Crowninshield)
Pensions and Revolutionary War Claims (Chairman: Peter Little)
Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: John T. Johnson)
Public Expenditures (Chairman: Thomas W. Cobb then Duncan McArthur)
Public Lands (Chairman: Christopher Rankin)
Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: Thomas C. Ross then Samuel Lathrop)
Standards of Official Conduct
Ways and Means (Chairman: Louis McLane)
Whole
Joint committees
Enrolled Bills
The Library
Employees
Legislative branch agency directors
Architect of the Capitol: Charles Bulfinch
Librarian of Congress: George Watterston
Senate
Chaplain: Charles P. McIlvaine (Episcopalian), until December 10, 1823
William Staughton (Baptist), elected December 10, 1823
Charles P. McIlvaine (Episcopalian), elected December 14, 1824
Secretary: Charles Cutts
Sergeant at Arms: Mountjoy Bayly
House of Representatives
Chaplain: John Brackenridge (Presbyterian), until December 8, 1823
Henry B. Bascom (Methodist), elected December 8, 1823
Reuben Post (Presbyterian), elected December 9, 1824
Clerk: Matthew St. Clair Clarke
Doorkeeper: Benjamin Birch
Reading Clerks:
Sergeant at Arms: Thomas Dunn, elected December 1, 1823, died
John O. Dunn, elected December 6, 1824
See also
1822 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
1822 and 1823 United States Senate elections
1822 and 1823 United States House of Representatives elections
1824 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
1824 United States presidential election
1824 and 1825 United States Senate elections
1824 and 1825 United States House of Representatives elections
Notes
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Statutes at Large, 1789-1875
Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress
U.S. House of Representatives: House History
U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists | [
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225102 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th%20United%20States%20Congress | 19th United States Congress | The 19th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1825, to March 4, 1827, during the first two years of the administration of U.S. President John Quincy Adams. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Fourth Census of the United States in 1820. The Senate had a majority of Jackson Men, while the House had an Anti-Jackson (pro-Adams) majority.
Major events
March 4, 1825: John Quincy Adams inaugurated as President of the United States
October 26, 1825: The Erie Canal opened, providing passage from Albany, New York, to Buffalo and Lake Erie.
July 4, 1826: Both Thomas Jefferson and John Adams died on the 50th Anniversary of America's Independence
Major legislation
Treaties signed
November 7, 1825: Treaty of St. Louis: 1,400 Missouri Shawnees were forcibly relocated from Missouri to Kansas
January 24, 1826: Treaty of Washington between the United States government and the Creek National Council, in which they ceded much of their land in Georgia
Party summary
The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this congress. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section.
Senate
House of Representatives
Leadership
Senate
President: John C. Calhoun (J)
President pro tempore: John Gaillard (J), until December 4, 1825
Nathaniel Macon (J), from May 20, 1826
House of Representatives
Speaker: John W. Taylor (A)
Members
This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class and representatives are listed by district.
(J) following a name means the member was of the Jackson faction. (A) that the person was a member of the Adams (anti-Jackson) faction.
Skip to House of Representatives, below
Senate
Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term ended with this Congress, facing re-election in 1826/1827; Class 2 meant their term began in the last Congress, facing re-election in 1828/1829; and Class 3 meant their term began in this Congress, facing re-election in 1830/1831.
Alabama
2. William R. D. King (J)
3. Henry H. Chambers (J), until January 24, 1826
Israel Pickens (J), February 17, 1826 – November 27, 1826
John McKinley (J), from November 27, 1826
Connecticut
1. Henry W. Edwards (J)
3. Calvin Willey (A), from May 4, 1825
Delaware
1. Thomas Clayton (A)
2. Nicholas Van Dyke (A), until May 21, 1826
Daniel Rodney (A), November 8, 1826 – January 12, 1827
Henry M. Ridgely (J), from January 23, 1827
Georgia
2. Thomas W. Cobb (J)
3. John Macpherson Berrien (J)
Illinois
2. Jesse B. Thomas (A)
3. Elias K. Kane (J)
Indiana
1. James Noble (A)
3. William Hendricks (A)
Kentucky
2. Richard M. Johnson (J)
3. John Rowan (J)
Louisiana
2. Dominique J. Bouligny (A)
3. Josiah S. Johnston (A)
Maine
1. John Holmes (A)
2. John Chandler (J)
Maryland
1. Samuel Smith (J)
3. Edward Lloyd (J), until January 14, 1826
Ezekiel F. Chambers (A), from January 24, 1826
Massachusetts
1. Elijah H. Mills (A)
2. James Lloyd (A), died May 23, 1826
Nathaniel Silsbee (A), from May 31, 1826
Mississippi
1. David Holmes (J), until September 25, 1825
Powhatan Ellis (J), September 28, 1825 – January 28, 1826
Thomas B. Reed (J), from January 28, 1826
2. Thomas H. Williams (J)
Missouri
1. Thomas H. Benton (J)
3. David Barton (A)
New Hampshire
2. Samuel Bell (A)
3. Levi Woodbury (J), from March 16, 1825
New Jersey
1. Joseph McIlvaine (A), until August 19, 1826
Ephraim Bateman (A), from November 10, 1826
2. Mahlon Dickerson (J)
New York
1. Martin Van Buren (J)
3. Nathan Sanford (A), from January 14, 1826
North Carolina
2. John Branch (J)
3. Nathaniel Macon (J)
Ohio
1. Benjamin Ruggles (A)
3. William Henry Harrison (A)
Pennsylvania
1. William Findlay (J)
3. William Marks (A)
Rhode Island
1. James De Wolf (A), until October 31, 1825
Asher Robbins (A), from October 31, 1825
2. Nehemiah R. Knight (A)
South Carolina
2. Robert Y. Hayne (J)
3. John Gaillard (J), until February 26, 1826
William Harper (J), March 8, 1826 – November 29, 1826
William Smith (J), from November 29, 1826
Tennessee
1. John H. Eaton (J)
2. Andrew Jackson (J), until October 14, 1825
Hugh Lawson White (J), from October 28, 1825
Vermont
1. Horatio Seymour (A)
3. Dudley Chase (A)
Virginia
1. James Barbour (J), until March 7, 1825
John Randolph (J), from December 26, 1825
2. Littleton W. Tazewell (J)
House of Representatives
Alabama
. Gabriel Moore (J)
. John McKee (J)
. George W. Owen (J)
Connecticut
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. John Baldwin (A)
. Noyes Barber (A)
. Ralph I. Ingersoll (A)
. Orange Merwin (A)
. Elisha Phelps (A)
. Gideon Tomlinson (A)
Delaware
. Louis McLane (J)
Georgia
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. George Cary (J)
. Alfred Cuthbert (J)
. John Forsyth (J)
. Charles E. Haynes (J)
. James Meriwether (J)
. Edward F. Tattnall (J)
. Wiley Thompson (J)
Illinois
. Daniel P. Cook (A)
Indiana
. Ratliff Boon (J)
. Jonathan Jennings (A)
. John Test (A)
Kentucky
. David Trimble (A)
. Thomas Metcalfe (A)
. Henry Clay (A), until March 6, 1825
James Clark (A), from August 1, 1825
. Robert P. Letcher (A)
. James Johnson (J), until August 13, 1826
Robert L. McHatton (J), from December 7, 1826
. Joseph Lecompte (J)
. Thomas P. Moore (J)
. Richard A. Buckner (A)
. Charles A. Wickliffe (J)
. Francis Johnson (A)
. William S. Young (A)
. Robert P. Henry (J), until August 25, 1826
John F. Henry (A), from December 11, 1826
Louisiana
. Edward Livingston (J)
. Henry H. Gurley (A)
. William L. Brent (A)
Maine
. William Burleigh (A)
. John Anderson (J)
. Ebenezer Herrick (A)
. Peleg Sprague (A)
. Enoch Lincoln (A), until 1826 (before September 11, 1826, )
James W. Ripley (J), from September 11, 1826
. Jeremiah O'Brien (A)
. David Kidder (A)
Maryland
The 5th district was a plural district with two representatives.
. Clement Dorsey (A)
. Joseph Kent (A), until January 6, 1826
John C. Weems (J), from February 1, 1826
. George Peter (J)
. Thomas C. Worthington (A)
. John Barney (A)
. Peter Little (A)
. George E. Mitchell (J)
. John L. Kerr (A)
. Robert N. Martin (A)
Massachusetts
. Daniel Webster (A)
. Benjamin W. Crowninshield (A)
. John Varnum (A)
. Edward Everett (A)
. John Davis (A)
. John Locke (A)
. Samuel C. Allen (A)
. Samuel Lathrop (A)
. Henry W. Dwight (A)
. John Bailey (A)
. Aaron Hobart (A)
. Francis Baylies (J)
. John Reed Jr. (A)
Mississippi
. Christopher Rankin (J), until March 14, 1826
William Haile (J), from July 10, 1826
Missouri
. John Scott (A)
New Hampshire
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Ichabod Bartlett (A)
. Titus Brown (A)
. Nehemiah Eastman (A)
. Jonathan Harvey (J)
. Joseph Healy (A)
. Thomas Whipple Jr. (A)
New Jersey
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. George Cassedy (J)
. Lewis Condict (A)
. Daniel Garrison (J)
. George Holcombe (J)
. Samuel Swan (A)
. Ebenezer Tucker (A)
New York
There were three plural districts: the 20th & 26th had two representatives each, the 3rd had three representatives.
. Silas Wood (A)
. Joshua Sands (A)
. Churchill C. Cambreleng (J)
. Jeromus Johnson (J)
. Gulian C. Verplanck (J)
. Aaron Ward (A)
. Bartow White (A)
. John Hallock Jr. (J)
. Abraham B. Hasbrouck (A)
. James Strong (A)
. William McManus (A)
. Stephen Van Rensselaer (A)
. Henry Ashley (J)
. William Dietz (J)
. William G. Angel (J)
. Henry R. Storrs (A)
. Michael Hoffman (J)
. Henry Markell (A)
. John W. Taylor (A)
. Henry C. Martindale (A)
. Henry H. Ross (A)
. Nicoll Fosdick (A)
. Egbert Ten Eyck (J), until December 15, 1825
Daniel Hugunin Jr. (A), from December 15, 1825
. Elias Whitmore (A)
. John Miller (A)
. Luther Badger (A)
. Charles Kellogg (A)
. Charles Humphrey (A)
. Dudley Marvin (A)
. Robert S. Rose (A)
. Moses Hayden (A)
. Timothy H. Porter (A)
. Parmenio Adams (A)
. Daniel G. Garnsey (J)
North Carolina
. Lemuel Sawyer (J)
. Willis Alston (J)
. Richard Hines (J)
. John H. Bryan (J)
. Gabriel Holmes (J)
. Weldon N. Edwards (J)
. Archibald McNeill (J)
. Willie P. Mangum (J), until March 18, 1826
Daniel L. Barringer (J), from December 4, 1826
. Romulus M. Saunders (J)
. John Long (A)
. Henry W. Connor (J)
. Samuel P. Carson (J)
. Lewis Williams (A)
Ohio
. James Findlay (J)
. John Woods (A)
. William McLean (A)
. Joseph Vance (A)
. John W. Campbell (A)
. John Thomson (J)
. Samuel F. Vinton (A)
. William Wilson (A)
. Philemon Beecher (A)
. David Jennings (A), until May 25, 1826
Thomas Shannon (A), from December 4, 1826
. John C. Wright (A)
. John Sloane (A)
. Elisha Whittlesey (A)
. Mordecai Bartley (A)
Pennsylvania
There were six plural districts: the 7th, 8th, 11th & 16th had two representatives each, the 4th & 9th had three representatives each.
. John Wurts (J)
. Joseph Hemphill (J), until 1826 (before October 10, 1826 — )
Thomas Kittera (A), from October 10, 1826
. Daniel H. Miller (J)
. James Buchanan (J)
. Samuel Edwards (J)
. Charles Miner (A)
. Philip S. Markley (A)
. Robert Harris (J)
. William Addams (J)
. Henry Wilson (J), until August 14, 1826
Jacob Krebs (J), from December 4, 1826
. Samuel D. Ingham (J)
. George Wolf (J)
. George Kremer (J)
. Samuel McKean (J)
. Espy Van Horne (J)
. James S. Mitchell (J)
. John Findlay (J)
. James Wilson (A)
. John Mitchell (J)
. Alexander Thomson (J), until May 1, 1826
Chauncey Forward (J), from December 4, 1826
. Andrew Stewart (J)
. Joseph Lawrence (A)
. James Allison Jr. (J), until August 26, 1825 (before the assembling of Congress)
Robert Orr Jr. (J), from October 11, 1825
. James S. Stevenson (J)
. George Plumer (J)
. Patrick Farrelly (J), until January 12, 1826
Thomas H. Sill (A), from March 14, 1826
Rhode Island
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Tristam Burges (A)
. Dutee J. Pearce (A)
South Carolina
. Joel R. Poinsett (J), until March 7, 1825
William Drayton (J), from May 17, 1825
. James Hamilton Jr. (J)
. Thomas R. Mitchell (J)
. Andrew R. Govan (J)
. George McDuffie (J)
. John Wilson (J)
. Joseph Gist (J)
. John Carter (J)
. Starling Tucker (J)
Tennessee
. John Blair (J)
. John Cocke (J)
. James C. Mitchell (J)
. Jacob C. Isacks (J)
. Robert Allen (J)
. James K. Polk (J)
. Samuel Houston (J)
. John H. Marable (J)
. Adam R. Alexander (J)
Vermont
. William C. Bradley (A)
. Rollin C. Mallary (A)
. George E. Wales (A)
. Ezra Meech (J)
. John Mattocks (A)
Virginia
. Thomas Newton Jr. (A)
. James Trezvant (J)
. William S. Archer (J)
. Mark Alexander (J)
. John Randolph (J), until December 26, 1825
George W. Crump (J), from January 21, 1826
. Thomas Davenport (J)
. Nathaniel H. Claiborne (J)
. Burwell Bassett (J)
. Andrew Stevenson (J)
. William C. Rives (J)
. Robert Taylor (A)
. Robert S. Garnett (J)
. John Taliaferro (A)
. Charles F. Mercer (A)
. John S. Barbour (J)
. William Armstrong (A)
. Alfred H. Powell (A)
. Joseph Johnson (J)
. William McCoy (J)
. John Floyd (J)
. William Smith (J)
. Benjamin Estil (A)
Non-voting members
. Henry W. Conway
. Joseph M. White
. Austin E. Wing
Changes in membership
This count reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress.
Senate
Replacements: 7
Anti-Jacksonian (A): 3-seat net gain
Jacksonian (J): no net change
Deaths: 4
Resignations: 6
Interim appointments: 4
Total seats with changes: 13
|-
| New Hampshire(3)
| Vacant
| Seat remained vacant
| | Levi Woodbury (J)
| Installed March 16, 1825
|-
| Connecticut(3)
| Vacant
| Seat remained vacant
| | Calvin Willey (A)
| Installed May 4, 1825
|-
| New York(3)
| Vacant
| Seat remained vacant
| | Nathan Sanford (A)
| Installed January 14, 1826, after resigning as Chancellor of New York
|-
| Virginia(1)
| | James Barbour (J)
| Resigned March 7, 1825, after being appointed US Secretary of War
| | John Randolph (J)
| Appointed December 26, 1825
|-
| Mississippi(1)
| | David Holmes (J)
| Resigned September 25, 1825, after being elected Governor of Mississippi
| | Powhatan Ellis (J)
| Appointed September 28, 1825
|-
| Tennessee(2)
| | Andrew Jackson (J)
| Resigned October 14, 1825
| | Hugh Lawson White (J)
| Installed October 28, 1825
|-
| Rhode Island(1)
| | James De Wolf (A)
| Resigned October 31, 1825
| | Asher Robbins (A)
| Appointed October 31, 1825
|-
| Maryland(3)
| | Edward Lloyd (J)
| Resigned January 14, 1826, after being elected to the Maryland State Senate
| | Ezekiel F. Chambers (A)
| Elected January 24, 1826
|-
| Alabama(3)
| | Henry H. Chambers (J)
| Died January 24, 1826
| | Israel Pickens (J)
| Appointed February 17, 1826
|-
| Mississippi(1)
| | Powhatan Ellis (J)
| Successor elected January 28, 1826
| | Thomas B. Reed (J)
| Installed January 28, 1826
|-
| South Carolina(3)
| | John Gaillard (J)
| Died February 26, 1826
| | William Harper (J)
| Appointed March 8, 1826
|-
| Delaware(2)
| | Nicholas Van Dyke (A)
| Died May 21, 1826
| | Daniel Rodney (A)
| Appointed November 8, 1826
|-
| Massachusetts(2)
| | James Lloyd (A)
| Resigned May 23, 1826
| | Nathaniel Silsbee (A)
| Installed May 31, 1826
|-
| New Jersey(1)
| | Joseph McIlvaine (A)
| Died August 19, 1826
| | Ephraim Bateman(A)
| Installed November 10, 1826
|-
| Alabama(3)
| | Israel Pickens (J)
| Successor elected November 27, 1826
| | John McKinley (J)
| Installed November 27, 1826
|-
| South Carolina(3)
| | William Harper (J)
| Successor elected November 29, 1826
| | William Smith (J)
| Installed November 29, 1826
|-
| Delaware(2)
| | Daniel Rodney (A)
| Resigned January 12, 1827, after successor was elected
| | Henry M. Ridgely (J)
| Installed January 23, 1827
|}
House of Representatives
Replacements: 11
Anti-Jackson: 1 seat net gain
Jackson: 1 seat net loss
Deaths: 5
Resignations: 10
Contested election: 1
Total seats with changes: 16
|-
|
| | Henry Clay (A)
| Resigned March 6, 1825, after being appointed US Secretary of State
| | James Clark (A)
| Seated August 1, 1825
|-
|
| | Joel R. Poinsett (J)
| Resigned March 7, 1825, after being appointed Minister to Mexico
| | William Drayton (J)
| Seated May 17, 1825
|-
|
| | James Allison Jr. (J)
| Resigned August 26, 1825 before the assembling of Congress
| | Robert Orr Jr. (J)
| Seated October 11, 1825
|-
|
| | Egbert Ten Eyck (J)
| Lost contested election December 15, 1825
| | Daniel Hugunin Jr. (A)
| Seated December 15, 1825
|-
|
| | John Randolph (J)
| Resigned December 26, 1825, after being appointed to the US Senate
| | George W. Crump (J)
| Seated January 21, 1826
|-
|
| | Joseph Kent (A)
| Resigned January 6, 1826, after being elected Governor of Maryland
| | John C. Weems (J)
| Seated February 1, 1826
|-
|
| | Patrick Farrelly (J)
| Died January 12, 1826
| | Thomas H. Sill (A)
| Seated March 14, 1826
|-
|
| | Christopher Rankin (J)
| Died March 14, 1826
| | William Haile (J)
| Seated July 10, 1826
|-
|
| | Willie P. Mangum (J)
| Resigned March 18, 1826
| | Daniel L. Barringer (J)
| Seated December 4, 1826
|-
|
| | Alexander Thomson (J)
| Resigned May 1, 1826
| | Chauncey Forward (J)
| Seated December 4, 1826
|-
|
| | David Jennings (A)
| Resigned May 25, 1826
| | Thomas Shannon (A)
| Seated December 4, 1826
|-
|
| | James Johnson (J)
| Died August 13, 1826
| | Robert L. McHatton (J)
| Seated December 7, 1826
|-
|
| | Henry Wilson (J)
| Died August 14, 1826
| | Jacob Krebs (J)
| Seated December 4, 1826
|-
|
| | Robert P. Henry (J)
| Died August 25, 1826
| | John F. Henry (A)
| Seated December 11, 1826
|-
|
| | Enoch Lincoln (A)
| Resigned before September 11, 1826
| | James W. Ripley (J)
| Seated September 11, 1826
|-
|
| | Joseph Hemphill (J)
| Resigned before October 10, 1826
| | Thomas Kittera (A)
| Seated October 10, 1826
|}
Committees
Lists of committees and their party leaders.
Senate
Agriculture (Chairman: William Findlay then Calvin Willey)
Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: Horatio Seymour then Elias Kane)
Bankruptcy (Select)
Claims (Chairman: Benjamin Ruggles)
Commerce (Chairman: James Lloyd then Josiah S. Johnston)
Debt Imprisonment Abolition (Select)
Distributing Public Revenue Among the States (Select)
District of Columbia (Chairman: Edward Lloyd then Ezekiel F. Chambers)
Engrossed Bills (Chairman: William Marks)
Finance (Chairman: Samuel Smith)
Foreign Relations (Chairman: Nathaniel Macon then Littleton Tazewell)
French Spoilations (Select)
Georgia and the Creek Indians (Select)
Indian Affairs (Chairman: Thomas Hart Benton)
Judiciary (Chairman: Martin Van Buren)
Manufactures (Chairman: Mahlon Dickerson)
Military Affairs (Chairman: William Henry Harrison)
Militia (Chairman: John Chandler)
Naval Affairs (Chairman: Robert Y. Hayne)
Pensions (Chairman: James Noble)
Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: Richard M. Johnson
Private Land Claims (Chairman: William South)
Public Lands (Chairman: David Barton)
Roads and Canals (Select) (Chairman: William Hendricks)
Tariff Regulation (Select)
Whole
House of Representatives
Accounts (Chairman: Samuel C. Allen)
Agriculture (Chairman: Stephen Van Rensselaer)
American Colonization Society (Select)
Apportionment of Representatives (Select)
Bills of Exchange (Select)
Claims (Chairman: Lewis Williams)
Commerce (Chairman: Thomas Newton Jr. then Gideon Tomlinson)
District of Columbia (Chairman: Mark Alexander)
Elections (Chairman: John Sloane)
Expenditures in the Navy Department (Chairman: Jeremiah O'Brien)
Expenditures in the Post Office Department (Chairman: William Wilson)
Expenditures in the State Department (Chairman: John Bailey)
Expenditures in the Treasury Department (Chairman: William Burleigh)
Expenditures in the War Department (Chairman: John Mattocks)
Expenditures on Public Buildings (Chairman: Joseph Johnson)
Foreign Affairs (Chairman: John Forsyth)
Indian Affairs (Chairman: John Cocke)
Judiciary (Chairman: Daniel Webster)
Manufactures (Chairman: Rollin C. Mallary)
Military Affairs (Chairman: James Hamilton Jr.)
Military Pensions (Chairman: Tristram Burges)
Naval Affairs (Chairman: Henry R. Storrs)
Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: Samuel D. Ingham)
Public Expenditures (Chairman: Weldon N. Edwards)
Public Lands (Chairman: Christopher Rankin then John Scott)
Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: Thomas P. Moore)
Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: Robert Allen)
Rules (Select)
Standards of Official Conduct
Territories (Chairman: James Strong)
Ways and Means (Chairman: Louis McLane)
Whole
Joint committees
Enrolled Bills
The Library
Police and Preservation of the Capital
Employees
Legislative branch agency directors
Architect of the Capitol: Charles Bulfinch
Librarian of Congress: George Watterston
Senate
Chaplain: Charles P. McIlvaine (Episcopal), until December 12, 1825
William Staughton (Baptist), elected December 12, 1825
William Ryland (Methodist), elected December 8, 1826
Secretary: Charles Cutts, until December 12, 1825
Walter Lowrie, elected December 12, 1825
Sergeant at Arms: Mountjoy Bayly
House of Representatives
Chaplain: Reuben Post (Presbyterian)
Clerk: Matthew St. Clair Clarke
Doorkeeper: Benjamin Birch
Reading Clerks:
Sergeant at Arms: John O. Dunn
See also
1824 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
1824 United States presidential election
1824 and 1825 United States Senate elections
1826 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
1826 and 1827 United States Senate elections
1826 and 1827 United States House of Representatives elections
Notes
References
External links
Statutes at Large, 1789-1875
Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress
U.S. House of Representatives: House History
U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists | [
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225107 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madison%20Smartt%20Bell | Madison Smartt Bell | Madison Smartt Bell (born August 1, 1957 in Nashville, Tennessee) is an American novelist. While established as a writer by several early novels, he is especially known for his trilogy of novels about Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian Revolution, published 1995–2004.
Early life and education
Raised in Nashville, Tennessee, Madison Smartt Bell is a graduate of Montgomery Bell Academy. He is a graduate of Princeton University, where he won the Ward Mathis Prize and the Francis Leymoyne Page award, and Hollins University, where he won the Andrew James Purdy fiction award. He later lived in New York City and London before settling in Baltimore, Maryland.
Career
Bell is a Professor of English at Goucher College in Towson, Maryland, where he was Director of the Creative Writing Program from 1998 to 2004.
Bell has taught in various creative writing programs, including the Iowa Writers' Workshop, the Poetry Center of the 92nd Street Y, and the Johns Hopkins Writing Seminars.
In addition, he has written essays and reviews for Harper's, The New York Review of Books, and the New York Times Book Review.
His papers are held at Princeton University and at East Carolina University. The latter contains papers related to novels and other writing early in his career, up to 1990.
Personal life
Bell is married to the poet Elizabeth Spires, who also teaches at Goucher College. They have a daughter, Celia Dovell Bell.
Awards
All Souls' Rising, a novel about Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian Revolution, was a finalist for the 1995 National Book Award and the 1996 PEN/Faulkner Award. It won the 1996 Anisfield-Wolf Award for the best book of the year dealing with matters of race.
He won a Strauss Living Award from the American Academy of Arts and Letters.
Bibliography
Fiction
The Washington Square Ensemble (novel) (Viking Press, 1983) (Penguin Contemporary American Fiction Series, 1984)
Waiting For The End Of The World (novel) (Ticknor & Fields, 1985) (Penguin Contemporary American Fiction Series, 1986)
Straight Cut (novel) (Ticknor & Fields, 1986) (Penguin mass-market paperback, 1987) (re-issued by Hard Case Crime in 2006)
Zero db (short fiction) (Ticknor & Fields, 1987) (Penguin Contemporary American Fiction Series, 1988)
The Year Of Silence (novel) (Ticknor & Fields, 1987) (Penguin Contemporary American Fiction Series, 1989)
Soldier's Joy (novel) (Ticknor & Fields, 1989) (Penguin Contemporary American Fiction Series, 1990)
Barking Man (short fiction) (Ticknor & Fields, 1990) (Penguin Contemporary American Fiction Series, 1991) (Quality Paperback Club, 1991)
Doctor Sleep (novel) (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1991) (Penguin Contemporary American Fiction Series, 1992), (adapted for film as Close Your Eyes (2002), now also known as Doctor Sleep)
Save Me, Joe Louis (novel) (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1993) (Penguin Contemporary American Fiction Series, 1994)
All Souls' Rising (novel, 1st part of Haiti Trilogy) (Pantheon, 1995) (Penguin Contemporary American Fiction Series, 1996)
Ten Indians (novel) (Pantheon, 1996) (Penguin Contemporary American Fiction Series, 1997)
Master of the Crossroads (novel, 2nd part of Haiti Trilogy) (Pantheon, 2000)
Anything Goes (Pantheon, 2002)
The Stone That the Builder Refused (novel, 3rd part of Haiti Trilogy) (Pantheon, 2004)
Charm City (Crown: 2007)
Devil's Dream (novel about Nathan Bedford Forrest and the American Civil War) (Pantheon, 2009)
The Color of Night (Vintage, 2011)
Zig Zag Wanderer (Concord Free Press, 2013)
Behind the Moon (City Lights Publishers, 2017)
Non-fiction
Narrative Design: A Writer's Guide to Structure (textbook) (W.W. Norton, 1997)
Narrative Design: Working with Imagination, Craft, and Form (trade paperback edition) (Norton, 2000)
Lavoisier in the Year One: The Birth of a New Science in an Age of Revolution (non-fiction) (Norton, released June 13, 2005)
Freedom's Gate: A Brief Life of Toussaint L'Ouverture (non-fiction) (Pantheon, 2007)
Child of Light: A Biography of Robert Stone (non-fiction), (Doubleday, 2020)
References
External links
KEVIN LANAHAN, "Bell's 'Stone' caps acclaimed Haiti trilogy", SUNY Albany, Writers Institute
Stuart Wright Collection: Madison Smartt Bell Papers, 1922-1990 (#1169-001), East Carolina Manuscript Collection, J. Y. Joyner Library, East Carolina University
Jeremy D. Popkin, "Madison Smartt Bell’s Haitian Revolution Trilogy", Fiction and Film for Scholars of France, H-France
Close Your Eyes, IMDb
20th-century American novelists
Novelists from Tennessee
People from Nashville, Tennessee
Writers from Baltimore
1957 births
Living people
Hollins University alumni
Princeton University alumni
Iowa Writers' Workshop faculty
21st-century American novelists
American male biographers
Goucher College faculty and staff
20th-century American biographers
21st-century American biographers
American male novelists
American male essayists
American male short story writers
20th-century American short story writers
21st-century American short story writers
20th-century American essayists
21st-century American essayists
20th-century American male writers
PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction winners
21st-century American male writers
Novelists from Maryland
Novelists from Iowa | [
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225108 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land%20of%20Nod | Land of Nod | The Land of Nod (Hebrew: – ʾereṣ-Nōḏ) is a place mentioned in the Book of Genesis of the Hebrew Bible, located "on the east of Eden" (qiḏmaṯ-ʿḖḏen), where Cain was exiled by God after Cain had murdered his brother Abel. According to Genesis 4:16:
Genesis 4:17 relates that after arriving in the Land of Nod, Cain's wife bore him a son, Enoch, in whose name he built the first city.
Name
"Nod" () is the Hebrew root of the verb "to wander" (). Therefore, to dwell in the land of Nod can mean to live a wandering life. Gesenius defines () as follows:
TO BE MOVED, TO BE AGITATED (Arab. Med. Waw id.), used of a reed shaken by the wind, 1Ki.14:15; hence to wander, to be a fugitive, Jer. 4:1; Gen. 4:12, 14; Ps.56:9; to flee, Ps. 11:1; Jer. 49:30. Figuratively, Isa. 17:11, "the harvest has fled" ["but see ," which some take in this place as the subst.].
Much as Cain's name is connected to the verb meaning "to get" in Genesis 4:1, the name "Nod" closely resembles the word "nad" (), usually translated as "vagabond", in Genesis 4:12. (In the Septuagint's rendering of the same verse God curses Cain to τρέμων, "trembling".)
A Greek version of Nod written as appearing in the Onomastica Vaticana possibly derives from the plural , which relates to resting and sleeping. This derivation, coincidentally or not, connects with the English pun on "nod".
Interpretation
Josephus wrote in Antiquities of the Jews (c. AD 93) that Cain continued his wickedness in Nod: resorting to violence and robbery; establishing weights and measures; transforming human culture from innocence into craftiness and deceit; establishing property lines; and building a fortified city.
Nod is said to be outside of the presence or face of God. Origen defined Nod as the land of trembling and wrote that it symbolized the condition of all who forsake God. Early commentators treated it as the opposite of Eden (worse still than the land of exile for the rest of humanity). In the English tradition Nod was sometimes described as a desert inhabited only by ferocious beasts or monsters. Others interpreted Nod as dark or even underground—away from the face of God.
Augustine described unconverted Jews as dwellers in the land of Nod, which he defined as commotion and "carnal disquietude".
Places named "Land of Nod"
Land of Nod is the name of a small hamlet in the East Riding of Yorkshire, England. It is located at the far end of a two-mile-long (3.2 km) road, which joins the A614 road at Holme-on-Spalding-Moor ().
The name "Land of Nod" was accorded locally to the northerly 3,000 acres (1,214.1 hectares) of the Great Plot lying north of Woburn, Massachusetts, at its foundation in 1640-42, "the name being probably suggested by a comparison of its forlorn condition — so far remote from church ordinances — with the Nod to which Cain wandered when he went 'from the presence of the Lord'." Its Native American name was Nena Saawaattawattocks.
Land of Nod Road is the name of a residential road in Windham, Maine, US (), and a private road in Headley Down, Hampshire, UK ().
Popular culture references
The Land of Nod can refer to the mythical land of sleep, a pun on Land of Nod (Gen. 4:16). To "go off to the land of Nod" plays with the phrase to "nod off", meaning to go to sleep.
In Neil Gaiman's popular graphic novel series, "The Sandman", the characters Cain and Able are denizens of the fictional land of Dreams, most likely a reference to Cain's banishment to the Land of Nod in the Bible.
The first recorded use of the phrase to mean "sleep" comes from Jonathan Swift in his Complete Collection of Genteel and Ingenious Conversation (1737) and Gulliver's Travels.
A later instance of this usage appears in the poem "The Land of Nod" by Robert Louis Stevenson from the A Child's Garden of Verses (1885) collection.
The Tom Waits song "Singapore" mentions the Land of Nod, saying "I've fallen for a tawny moor/Took off to the Land of Nod"
The Bob Dylan song "Tweedle Dee & Tweedle Dum" mentions the Land of Nod, saying "Living in the Land of Nod/Trustin’ their fate to the hands of God"
In the video game series Command and Conquer the name of the evil political-religious terrorist group, the Brotherhood of Nod (led by the seemingly immortal prophet Kane), derives its name from the Nod of this Bible verse.
References
Sources
Byron, John. Cain and Abel in text and tradition : Jewish and Christian interpretations of the first sibling rivalry. Leiden: Brill, 2011.
Delaney, David Kevin. The Sevenfold Vengeance of Cain: Genesis 4 in Early Jewish and Christian Interpretation. PhD dissertation accepted at University of Virginia, May 1996.
External links
Genesis 4:16 at BibleGateway.com
Matthew Kempf, The wandering Cainidae, or, The ancient nomads : a lecture delivered to the Medical Society of Dubois County, and to the citizens of Huntingburgh, Indiana, April 22, 1879
Book of Genesis
Torah places
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225110 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walker%20Evans | Walker Evans | Walker Evans (November 3, 1903 – April 10, 1975) was an American photographer and photojournalist best known for his work for the Farm Security Administration (FSA) documenting the effects of the Great Depression. Much of Evans's work from the FSA period uses the large-format, 8×10-inch (200×250 mm) view camera. He said that his goal as a photographer was to make pictures that are "literate, authoritative, transcendent".
Many of his works are in the permanent collections of museums and have been the subject of retrospectives at such institutions as the Metropolitan Museum of Art or George Eastman Museum.
Biography
Early life
He was born in St. Louis, Missouri to Jessie (née Crane) and Walker Evans. His father was an advertising director. Walker was raised in an affluent environment; he spent his youth in Toledo, Ohio; Chicago; and New York City. He attended the Loomis Institute and Mercersburg Academy, then graduated from Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts in 1922. He studied French literature for a year at Williams College, spending much of his time in the school's library, before dropping out. He returned to New York and worked as a night attendant in the map room of the Public Library. After spending a year in Paris in 1926, he returned to the United States to join a literary and art crowd in New York City. John Cheever, Hart Crane, and Lincoln Kirstein were among his friends. He was a clerk for a stockbroker firm on Wall Street from 1927 to 1929.
Evans took up photography in 1928 around the time he was living in Ossining, New York. His influences included Eugène Atget and August Sander. In 1930, he published three photographs (Brooklyn Bridge) in the poetry book The Bridge by Hart Crane. In 1931, he made a photo series of Victorian houses in the Boston vicinity sponsored by Lincoln Kirstein.
In May and June 1933, Evans took photographs in Cuba on assignment for Lippincott, the publisher of Carleton Beals' The Crime of Cuba (1933), a "strident account" of the dictatorship of Gerardo Machado. There, Evans drank nightly with Ernest Hemingway, who lent him money to extend his two-week stay an additional week. His photographs documented street life, the presence of police, beggars and dockworkers in rags, and other waterfront scenes. He also helped Hemingway acquire photos from newspaper archives that documented some of the political violence Hemingway described in To Have and Have Not (1937). Fearing that his photographs might be deemed critical of the government and confiscated by Cuban authorities, he left 46 prints with Hemingway. He had no difficulties when returning to the United States, and 31 of his photos appeared in Beals' book. The cache of prints left with Hemingway was discovered in Havana in 2002 and exhibited at an exhibition in Key West.
Depression-era photography
The Depression years of 1935–36 were ones of remarkable productivity and accomplishment for Evans. In 1935, Evans spent two months on a fixed-term photographic campaign in West Virginia and Pennsylvania. In June 1935, he accepted a job from the U.S. Department of the Interior to photograph a government-built resettlement community of unemployed coal miners in West Virginia. He quickly parlayed this temporary employment into a full-time position as an “information specialist” in the Resettlement Administration (RA) (later Farm Security Administration), a New Deal agency in the Department of Agriculture. From October 1935 on, he continued to do photographic work for the RA and later the Farm Security Administration (FSA), primarily in the Southern United States.
In the summer of 1936, while on leave from the FSA, writer James Agee and he were sent by Fortune on assignment to Hale County, Alabama for a story the magazine subsequently opted not to run. In 1941, Evans's photographs and Agee's text detailing the duo's stay with three White tenant families in southern Alabama during the Great Depression were published as the groundbreaking book Let Us Now Praise Famous Men. Its detailed account of three farming families paints a deeply moving portrait of rural poverty. Critic Janet Malcolm notes that a contradiction existed between a kind of anguished dissonance in Agee's prose and the quiet, magisterial beauty of Evans's photographs of sharecroppers.
The three families headed by Bud Fields, Floyd Burroughs, and Frank Tingle, lived in the Hale County town of Akron, Alabama, and the owners of the land on which the families worked told them that Evans and Agee were "Soviet agents", although Allie Mae Burroughs, Floyd's wife, recalled during later interviews her discounting that information. Evans's photographs of the families made them icons of Depression-era misery and poverty. In September 2005, Fortune revisited Hale County and the descendants of the three families for its 75th-anniversary issue. Charles Burroughs, who was four years old when Evans and Agee visited the family, was "still angry" at them for not even sending the family a copy of the book; the son of Floyd Burroughs was also reportedly angry because the family was "cast in a light that they couldn't do any better, that they were doomed, ignorant".
Evans continued to work for the FSA until 1938. That year, an exhibition, Walker Evans: American Photographs, was held at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. This was the first exhibition in the museum devoted to the work of a single photographer. The catalogue included an accompanying essay by Lincoln Kirstein, whom Evans had befriended in his early days in New York.
In 1938, Evans also took his first photographs in the New York City Subway with a camera hidden in his coat. These were collected in book form in 1966 under the title Many Are Called. In 1938 and 1939, Evans worked with and mentored Helen Levitt.
Like such other photographers as Henri Cartier-Bresson, Evans rarely spent time in the darkroom making prints from his own negatives. He loosely supervised the making of prints of most of his photographs, sometimes only attaching handwritten notes to negatives with instructions on some aspect of the printing procedure.
Later work
Evans was a passionate reader and writer, and in 1945 became a staff writer at Time. Shortly afterward, he became an editor at Fortune through 1965. That year, he became a professor of photography on the faculty for graphic design at the Yale University School of Art.
In one of his last photographic projects, Evans completed a black-and-white portfolio of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.'s offices and partners for publication in "Partners in Banking", published in 1968 to celebrate the private bank's 150th anniversary. In 1973 and 1974, Evans used the new Polaroid SX-70 instant camera for his last work; the company provided him with an unlimited supply of film, and the camera's simplicity and speed were easier for the aged photographer.
The first definitive retrospective of his photographs, which "individually evoke an incontrovertible sense of specific places, and collectively a sense of America", according to a press release, was on view at New York's Museum of Modern Art in early 1971. Selected by John Szarkowski, the exhibit was titled simply Walker Evans.
Death and legacy
Evans died at his apartment in New Haven, Connecticut in 1975. The last person Evans talked to was Hank O'Neal. In reference to the newly created A Vision Shared project, O'Neal recounts, "The picture on the back of the book, of him taking a picture – he actually called me up and told me he had found it”. “And then the next morning I got up and I had a phone call from Leslie Katz, who ran the Eakins Press. And Leslie said: ‘Isn’t it terrible about Walker Evans?’ And I said: ‘What are you talking about?’ He said: ‘He died last night.’ I said: ‘Cut it out. I talked to him last night twice’ ... So an hour and a half after we had our conversation, he died. He had a stroke and died."
In 1994, the estate of Walker Evans handed over its holdings to New York City's Metropolitan Museum of Art. The Metropolitan Museum of Art is the sole copyright holder for all works of art in all media by Walker Evans. The only exception is a group of about 1,000 negatives in collection of the Library of Congress, which were produced for the Resettlement Administration and Farm Security Administration; these works are in the public domain.
In 2000, Evans was inducted into the St. Louis Walk of Fame.
Collections
Addison Gallery of American Art, Andover, Massachusetts: 142 works (as of June 2021)
Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
George Eastman Museum, Rochester, New York
J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, California: 1338 works (as of January 2019
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
Museum of Modern Art, New York City: 205 works (as of January 2019)
Whitney Museum of American Art, New York City: 16 works (as of January 2019)
National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia: 36 works (as of April 2019)
International Photography Hall of Fame, St. Louis, Missouri
References
Sources
"Furniture Store Sign, Birmingham, Alabama"
Walker Evans exhibition in the argus fotokunst art gallery in Berlin.
Further reading
External links
Biography of Evans at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Getty Collections: Walker Evans: Catalogue of the Collection by Judith Keller – available to read online or download
Salt Lake Utah Article and photographs regarding Walker Evans' time spent in Ossining, NY.
Luminous-Lint page
Tod Papageorge on Walker Evans and Robert Frank
Walker Evan's Cats
American photojournalists
American portrait photographers
Social documentary photographers
1903 births
1975 deaths
Social realist artists
Phillips Academy alumni
Williams College alumni
People from Old Lyme, Connecticut
20th-century American photographers | [
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225111 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranians | Iranians | Iranians may refer to:
Iranian peoples, an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group living predominantly in Iran and other parts of the Middle East and the Caucasus, as well as parts of Central Asia and South Asia
Speakers of the Iranian languages
The inhabitants of Iran
Demographics of Iran
See also
Iranian (disambiguation) | [
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225112 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio%20Data%20System | Radio Data System | Radio Data System (RDS) is a communications protocol standard for embedding small amounts of digital information in conventional FM radio broadcasts. RDS standardizes several types of information transmitted, including time, station identification and program information.
The standard began as a project of the European Broadcasting Union (EBU), but has since become an international standard of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). Radio Broadcast Data System (RBDS) is the official name used for the U.S. version of RDS. The two standards are only slightly different, with receivers able to work with either system and only minor inconsistencies in the displayed data.
Both versions carry data at 1,187.5 bits per second on a 57 kHz subcarrier, so there are exactly 48 cycles of subcarrier during every data bit. The RBDS/RDS subcarrier was set to the third harmonic of the 19 kHz FM stereo pilot tone to minimize interference and intermodulation between the data signal, the stereo pilot and the 38 kHz DSB-SC stereo difference signal. (The stereo difference signal extends up 38 kHz + 15 kHz = 53 kHz, leaving 4 kHz for the lower sideband of the RDS signal.)
The data is sent with an error correction code, but receivers may choose to use it only for error detection purposes. RDS defines many features including how private (in-house) or other undefined features can be "packaged" in unused program groups.
Development
RDS was inspired by the development of the Autofahrer-Rundfunk-Informationssystem (ARI) in Germany by the Institut für Rundfunktechnik (IRT) and the radio manufacturer Blaupunkt. ARI used a 57-kHz subcarrier to indicate the presence of traffic information in an FM radio broadcast.
The EBU Technical Committee launched a project at its 1974 Paris meeting to develop a technology with similar purposes to ARI, but which was more flexible and which would enable automated retuning of a receiver where a broadcast network transmitted the same radio programme on a number of different frequencies. The modulation system was based on that used in a Swedish paging system and the baseband coding was a new design, mainly developed by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) and the IRT. The EBU issued the first RDS specification in 1984.
Enhancements to the alternative frequencies functionality were added to the standard and it was subsequently published as a European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) standard in 1990.
In 1992 the U.S. National Radio Systems Committee issued the North American version of the RDS standard, called the Radio Broadcast Data System. The CENELEC standard was updated in 1992 with the addition of Traffic Message Channel and in 1998 with Open Data Applications and, in 2000, RDS was published worldwide as IEC standard 62106.
RDS2
The RDS-Forum (Geneva/CH) decided at its annual meeting (8-9 June 2015) in Glion/Montreux to bring the new standard RDS2 on the way. The standard will be created in close collaboration with U.S. colleagues from NRSC RBDS-Subcommittee and should offer a unified platform for FM broadcasting and data services worldwide.
Key features
Seamless support for frequencies from 64 MHz to 108 MHz (AF, EON)
New character coding: UTF-8 (old EBU Charset remains for compatibility mode for the old 0A/2A Groups).
New ODA handling, "B" groups are assigned as signalling group to the "A" groups.
Long PS-Name, up to 32 byte with UTF-8 character set. (Indian, Chinese, Arabic, and more)
RadioText (eRT) 128 byte long with UTF-8 character set.
Increased capacity from 11.4 up to 57 "A"-groups per second. (2,109 bit/s. net capacity with the single modulation-type multiple subcarriers (SMMS) technology)
Graphical RadioText – supports HTML/CSS templates (for smartphones, car radios, computers/tablets)
Supports return channel over gRT if the receiver has IP or SMS capability.
Broadcaster's graphical logo – a maximum 4 kilobyte picture (JPEG, PNG, or GIF)
Hybrid Radio feature (partly based on Radio France development)
Content and implementation
The following information fields are normally contained in the RDS data:
AF (alternative frequencies list) This provides the receiver with a list of frequencies that allows a receiver to re-tune to a different frequency providing the same station when the first signal becomes too weak (e.g., when moving out of range). Before performing the switch, a radio will check for a matching PI code to ensure the AF is the same station. This is often used in car stereo systems, allowing the head unit to automatically tune into the stronger signal on the move, optionally with the same regional code (so that, in the case of national broadcasting stations, the user can keep listening to the original radio program).
CT (clock time and date) Can synchronize a clock in the receiver or the main clock in a car. Due to transmission vagaries, CT can only be accurate to within 100 ms of UTC. CT is not usually transmitted if a broadcaster has no way to regularly synchronise the clock within the RDS encoder.
EON (enhanced other networks information) Informs the receiver about other networks or stations, linked to the one being listened to, for dynamically changing data such as the TA flag turning on for a particular station of the network in a particular moment due to a traffic programme being broadcast, and automatically and temporarily allows the radio to tune into that station.
PI (programme identification)This is the unique 4 character hexadecimal code that identifies the station. Every station in a country should use a unique 3 character code with the correct country prefix character. In the US, PI is determined by applying a formula to the station's call sign, or randomly assigned by the NRSC to FM translators (which have a longer call sign, making them incompatible with the formula). The PI code is the most important RDS parameter and the most frequently transmitted within the RDS data structure. The RDS standard for non US use defines country codes for all countries so that no where with common borders has the same code. This removes the need to coordinate codes between different countries. Any transmission that carries the same code is considered by receivers to be the same and can be switched to as an alternative frequency to improve reception (even if it is not specifically listed as an alternative frequency).
PS (programme service name) This is simply an eight-character static display that represents the call letters or station identity name. Most RDS capable receivers display this information and, if the station is stored in the receiver's presets, will cache this information with the PI code, frequency and other details associated with that preset. In some countries, stations use the PS to dynamically send other information. This is prohibited in some countries and was not its intended use within the RDS system.
PTY (programme type) This coding of up to 31 pre-defined programme types (e.g., in Europe: PTY1 News, PTY6 Drama, PTY11 Rock music) allows users to find similar programming by genre. PTY31 is reserved for emergency announcements in the event of natural disasters or other major calamities.
REG (regional) This is mainly used in countries where national broadcasters run "region-specific" programming such as regional opt-outs on some of their transmitters. This functionality allows the user to "lock-down" the set to their current region or let the radio tune into other region-specific programming as they move into the other region.
RT (radio text) This function allows a radio station to transmit a 64 (or less commonly 32) character free-form text message that can be either static (such as station slogans) or in sync with the programming (such as the title and artist of the currently playing song).
RT+ (radio text plus) An enhancement of the original RT which allows Artist, Title and some other metadata to be sent to receivers.
TA, TP (traffic announcement, traffic programme)The receiver can often be set to pay special attention to this flag (taking advantage of the EON linkage if it's available) and, for example, pause a CD or retune to receive a traffic bulletin. The TP flag is used to allow the user to find only those stations that regularly broadcast traffic bulletins whereas the TA flag is used to signal an actual traffic bulletin in progress, with radio units perhaps performing other actions such as pausing a CD/MP3 (so the radio can be heard) or raising the volume during the traffic bulletin.
TMC (traffic message channel) Digitally encoded traffic information. Not all RDS equipment supports this, but it is often available for automotive navigation systems. In many countries only encrypted traffic data is broadcast, and so an appropriate decoder, possibly tied to a subscription service, is required to use the traffic data. The subscription is often paid by the vehicle manufacturer and is therefore transparent to the user.
US NRSC FM Translator Announcements The National Radio Systems Committee has introduced a unique Radio Data System Program Identification code for US FM translators. One type of metadata transmitted by RDS subcarrier is the PI code, which is used by the receiver to uniquely identify the audio program being broadcast by the FM station. In the U.S., the PI code has historically been derived from a radio station's call sign, which can become complicated when used in conjunction with FM translators. A new algorithm just for FM translators has been created that assigns a unique PI code to each FM translator. This algorithm has been implemented using a web-based tool and a list of all known PI codes for all FM translators in the US.
RDS support
As far as implementation is concerned, most car stereos will support at least AF, EON, REG, PS and TA/TP.
More expensive car stereos will offer TMC, RT and / or PTY, perhaps with "NEWS" override.
Home systems, especially hi-fi receivers, will mainly support functions like PS, RT and PTY.
There are a growing number of RDS implementations in portable audio and navigation devices thanks to lower-priced, small-footprint solutions.
RDS compatibility
The RDS sub-carrier at 57 kHz occupies ±2 kHz of the composite spectrum which in theory keeps it above the upper cutoff of the stereo subcarrier at 53 kHz. However the 53 kHz cutoff is entirely dependent on the performance of the 15 kHz low pass filters used before the stereo encoder. In older equipment, these filters were only designed to protect the 19 kHz pilot and sometimes did not provide sufficient protection to the RDS subcarrier when a significant amount of stereo information was present. In this situation, stereo enhancement devices combined with aggressive audio processing could render the RDS subcarrier unreceivable.
Composite clipping systems may also degrade the RDS sub-carrier because of the harmonics created by the clipping. More modern composite clippers include filtering to protect the RDS subcarrier.
The RDS subcarrier typically uses 2–4 kHz of carrier deviation. Therefore, the deviation available for the program material is reduced by this amount, assuming the usual 75 kHz deviation limit is not exceeded.
Program types
The following table lists the RDS and RBDS (North American) program type (PTY) codes and their meanings:
{| class="wikitable"
|+Program type (PTY) code assignment
!PTY code ||RDS program type ||RBDS program type
|rowspan=17|
!PTY code ||RDS program type ||RBDS program type
|-
|0 ||colspan=2|No programme type or undefined
|16 ||Weather ||Rhythm and blues
|-
|1 ||News ||News
|17 ||Finance ||Soft rhythm and blues
|-
|2 ||Current affairs||Information
|18 ||Children's programmes||Language
|-
|3 ||Information ||Sports
|19 ||Social affairs||Religious music
|-
|4 ||Sport ||Talk
|20 ||Religion ||Religious talk
|-
|5 ||Education ||Rock
|21 ||Phone-in ||Personality
|-
|6 ||Drama ||Classic rock
|22 ||Travel ||Public
|-
|7 ||Culture ||Adult hits
|23 ||Leisure ||College
|-
|8 ||Science ||Soft rock
|24 ||Jazz music ||Spanish Talk
|-
|9 ||Varied ||Top 40
|25 ||Country music ||Spanish Music
|-
|10 ||Pop music ||Country
|26 ||National music ||Hip hop
|-
|11 ||Rock music ||Oldies
|27 ||Oldies music ||rowspan=2 bgcolor=lightgrey|Unassigned
|-
|12 ||Easy listening ||Soft music
|28 ||Folk music
|-
|13 ||Light classical||Nostalgia
|29 ||Documentary ||Weather
|-
|14 ||Serious classical||Jazz
|30 ||Alarm test ||Emergency test
|-
|15 ||Other music ||Classical
|31 ||Alarm ||Emergency
|}
The PTY codes have undergone several expansions. The first RDS standard only defined 0–15 and 31. The later RBDS standard implemented in the U.S. assigned the same meanings to codes 0, 1 and 31, but made no attempt to match the rest of the original RDS plan and created its own list for codes 2–22 and 30, including commercially important (in the U.S.) radio formats such as top 40, religious, country, jazz and R&B which were not in the RDS list. This included mismatched codes for information. sport, and rock. Later RBDS standards added types 23 (College) and 29 (Weather), while the RDS type code list grew to its current size, importing some types (e.g. jazz and country) from the RDBS list. RDBS types 24–26 were added in April 2011. The code mismatches are mainly a problem for people taking portable radios into or out of North America.
RDS technical specification
The RDS standard as specified in EN 50067:1998 is separated into these sections according to the OSI model. (The network and transport layers are excluded, as this is a unidirectional broadcast standard.)
Data channel (Physical layer)
Baseband coding (Data-link layer)
Message format (Session and presentation layer)
Data channel (Physical layer)
The physical layer in the standard describes how the bitstream is retrieved from the radio signal. The RDS hardware first demodulates the 57 kHz RDS subcarrier signal to extract a differential Manchester encoded signal which contains both the bit clock and the differentially encoded bitstream. This allows the RDS decoder to tolerate phase inversion of its input.
Baseband coding (Data-link layer)
At the data link layer, 26 consecutive bits form a "block", consisting of 16 data bits followed by 10 error correction bits. Four blocks make a 104-bit "group". The error correction bits also encode the "offset", or block number within a 4-block group.
The error correction is done using a 10-bit cyclic redundancy check, with polynomial . (Neither a preset nor post-invert is used, as they are not necessary with a fixed-size data field.) The CRC is also summed with one of five "offset" words which identify the block: A, B, C, C′, or D. Four consecutive blocks (ABCD or ABC′D) make up a "group" of 104 bits (64 data bits + 40 check bits). There are slightly over 11.4 groups transmitted per second.
There is no gap between blocks. The receiver synchronizes to groups and blocks by checking CRCs on each 26 bits until synchronization is achieved. Once synchronized (the offset word is predictable), the code is capable of correcting up to 5-bit burst errors.
This basic modulation and block structure was originally developed for the "mobile search" protocol, with the difference that MBS (or the North American equivalent MMBS "modified MBS") does not use an offset word. To allow the two systems to interoperate (and to allow FM radio stations to transmit RBDS data while maintaining their pager contracts), the RBDS standard defines a sixth all-zero offset word E. Groups of four E blocks may be mixed with RBDS groups, and ignored by RBDS receivers. (Likewise, the RBS offset words are chosen to appear as uncorrectable errors to MBS receivers.)
Data within each block (and group) is transmitted most significant bit first, and thus are numbered from bit 15 (transmitted first) to bit 0 (transmitted last).
The most frequently information transmitted is a 16-bit "program identification" code, identifying the transmitting radio station. Blocks A and C′ always include the PI code; offset C is used when the third block contains something else.
Shared structure
Block 1 always contains the 16-bit program identifier. The first 11 bits (bits 15–5) of block 2 are also the same in all groups.
The first 4 bits (bits 15–11) of block 2 are the "group type code", which describe the interpretation of the remaining data. Each group type comes "A" and "B" variants, distinguished by the fifth "B" bit (bit 10): If B=0, then the group is 0A through 15A, and contains 5+16+16 = 37 bits of data. If B=1, block 2 contains a PI code (and is encoded with offset word C′), the group is one of 0B through 15B, and contains 21 bits of data.
Within Block 1 and Block 2 are structures that will always be present in both group versions, for fast and responsive identifications. The first block of every group, will always be the program identification code. The second block dedicates the first 4 bits for Application/Group Type.
Meaning of Block 2 Bits
GTYPE: Group Type
B0: If B0=0 then Message Group Type A else Type B
TP: Traffic Program. Indicates this channel includes periodic traffic reports.
PTY: Program Type (See .)
????: Rest of the bits are group type dependent
Message version A
Message version B
Block 3 is used for repeating program identification code.
Program identification code (PI code)
This allows for quick identification of radio program type, based on country, coverage area, and program reference number. While the country code is specified by the standard, bit 11 to bit 0 is specified by each country local authorities.
Country codes are re-used, but only in geographically distant regions beyond FM broadcast range from each other. For example, country code F is assigned to France, Norway, Belarus and Egypt.
Group type
This is a short list of the full group type. Each group type may have a secondary version available
Traffic Program
This can be considered an additional program type bit, and indicates that the station broadcasts periodic traffic reports. By including it in every group, a receiver can quickly search for a station which includes traffic reports.
Another bit, traffic announcement (TA), is sent in block types 0A, 0B and 15B to indicate that such a report is in progress. It is common for otherwise-simulcast transmitters to have periodic local traffic reports which are customized to the individual transmitter. The traffic announcement bit tells a receiver that a transmitter-specific broadcast is in progress, and it should avoid switching frequencies while they are in progress.
(There is a different form of traffic announcement bit in block type 14B, which indicates the presence of a traffic announcement on a different frequency, so that radio receivers can automatically switch.)
RDS message examples
These are non-comprehensive examples that cover just the simple messages likes station name, radio text, and date/time.
Group type 0 - Version B - Station name
As we have already described previous fields above, these dot points below show just the application specific fields.
TA : Traffic Announcement
M/S : Music/Speech
The station name and decoder identification code is sent progressively over 4 groups, where the offset is defined by bit C1 and C0.
Group type 2 - Radio text
As we have already described previous fields above, these dot points below show just the application specific fields.
A/B : Text A/B flag is used to detect if a screen clear is requested.
C3 to C0 : Is the text segment offset value
The station name and decoder identification code is sent progressively over 4 groups, where the offset is defined by bit C1 and C0.
Group type 4 – Version A – Clock time and data
When group type 4A is used, it shall be transmitted every minute according to EN 50067.
The clock time group is inserted so that the minute edge will occur within ±0.1 seconds of the end of the clock time group.
Time and date are packed as these:
Note: The local time offset is expressed in multiples of half hours within the range −15.5h to +15.5h. It is expressed in signed magnitude form, with the most significant bit being the "Local Offset Sign" bit (LOS), 0 = + (east of Greenwich), 1 = −.
Example RDS usage
The following three images illustrate how RDS can be used on an FM radio station; the latter two were taken when the radio was tuned to Nottingham radio station Trent FM. All the images are of the display on the Sony XDR-S1 DAB/FM/MW/LW portable radio.
RDS decoder chipsets
Companies such as ST Microelectronics, Silicon Labs in Austin, Texas and NXP Semiconductors (formerly Philips) offer single-chip solutions that are found in these devices.
See also
High-level RDS APIs
Advanced Multimedia Supplements (JSR-234) (in Java programming language)
OpenMAX AL (in C programming language)
Related technologies
ALERT FM – RBDS emergency notification system
HEARO – a defunct RBDS emergency notification system
Data Radio Channel (DARC)
DirectBand
PSIP
UECP – protocol (Universal Encoder Communication Protocol)
RDS OF THINGS – Using RDS in Smart City applications.
Related topics
Digital radio
Error correction
FM broadcasting
Internet radio device
Modem
Radio receiver
Teletext – ≈6.5kbit/s data transmission over Analog TV channel
Notes
References
The Directory of European FM Broadcasting, European FM Handbook 2002–2003, 13th edition, published July 1, 2002, B5 format,
Dietmar Kopitz, Bev Marks, RDS: Radio Data System (Mobile Communications Library),
MSB VMA report,
http://www.interactive-radio-system.com/docs/EN50067_RDS_Standard.pdf
(31 pages)
External links
FARWAY IRFC, TV and Radio Transmission , Radio Data System Encoders
Specification of the RDS standard, available via the RDS Forum
"NRSC-4 National Radio Systems Committee United States RBDS Standard – Specification of the radio broadcast data system (RBDS)"
The RDS Forum is the professional association of the users of the Radio Data System broadcast technology
RDS: "The Radio Data System", "The Broadcasters Guide to RDS"
RDS Features Serving as Tuning Aids
xRDS "Extending the RDS data transmission capacity"
"xRDS presentation at the RDS Forum meeting 2011"
RDSList.com
GR-RDS on Github – A GNU Radio-based open source implementation of an RDS receiver and transmitter
Decoding RDS TMC program and circuit.
FM Broadcast and TV Broadcast Aural Subcarriers - Clifton Laboratories
Broadcast engineering
Radio technology
Digital radio | [
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] |
225116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RDS | RDS | RDS may refer to:
Broadcasting
Radio Data System, a communications-protocol standard used with commercial FM
Radio Dimensione Suono, an Italian radio station
RDS Info, a sister sports news channel to Réseau des sports
Réseau des sports, a French-language television network in Canada
Companies and organizations
Research Data Services (RDS), part of Australian Research Data Commons
Research Defence Society, a former British lobby group
Retained Duty System, used by a Retained Firefighter to distinguish between whole time fire service
Rough Draft Studios, an animation production studio in Glendale, California
Royal Dublin Society, for promoting agriculture, arts, industry, and science in Ireland
Shell plc, formerly Royal Dutch Shell, oil and gas company
Computing
Amazon Relational Database Service, Amazon's cloud-based Relational Database Service
Random dot stereogram, a form of 3-D image
Reliable Datagram Sockets, a computer-networking protocol
Remote Data Services, a deprecated component of Microsoft Data Access Components
Remote Desktop Services, Microsoft's mechanism for remote access
Research Data Services (RDS), part of Australian Research Data Commons
Romania Data Systems, an ISP in Romania
Science and Medicine
Rate-determining step, the slowest step of a chemical reaction
Reflectance difference spectroscopy, a spectroscopic technique
Reward deficiency syndrome, a term coined by neuroscientist Kenneth Blum
Respiratory distress syndrome (disambiguation), a lung disease with two forms
Relational developmental systems, a psychological metatheory
Weaponry
Soviet nuclear tests
RDS-1, 1949, known as Joe-1 in the United States
RDS-2, 1951
RDS-3, 1951
RDS-4, 1953
RDS-5, 1953
RDS-6, 1953
RDS-9, 1955
RDS-37, 1955
RDS-220, 1961, known as "Tsar Bomba"
Red dot sight, type of firearm reflector sight
Other
RDS Arena, a stadium within the grounds of the Royal Dublin Society
Rajolibanda Diversion Scheme, an irrigation project in Mahbubunagar district in Karnataka, India
Retiree Drug Subsidy, a program offered by the U.S. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services
Reddish South railway station, England has the National Rail station code "RDS" | [
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225119 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuze%20Beverage | Fuze Beverage | Fuze Beverage ( ), commercially referred to as simply Fuze (marketed in Switzerland, Turkey, Georgia and Kazakhstan as Fuse), is a manufacturer of teas and non-carbonated fruit drinks enriched with vitamins. Currently the brand consists of five vitamin-infused lines: Slenderize, Refresh, Tea, Defensify, Magdalotopuss, and Vitalize. The use of vitamins, amino acids, and herbs, and alternative sweeteners such as crystalline fructose places Fuze products in what is known in the industry as the new age beverage category.
Company history
Fuze Beverage was founded by Lance Collins and creative director Paula Grant in the basement of Collins' Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey home in 2000. Bruce Lewin put the "fuel in the rocket" (obtained funding for the fledgling company) in 2001. He subsequently joined Fuze's board and became a major shareholder. Joe Rosamilia was also one of the founding investor/directors.
The brand was launched, first in the Northern California market in 2001 with three flavors packaged in fruit-themed bottles: mixed berry, banana colada and cranberry raspberry. In 2002 the brand launched two additional flavors, peach mango and tropical punch; the same year, the company grew to 30 employees and moved out of Collins' basement.
The company continued to expand rapidly, launching new flavors throughout 2004 and 2005. Since 2005, Fuze products may be found in most major retailers, with sales exceeding 11 million cases by 2006.
The company's growth attracted the attention of The Coca-Cola Company, which purchased Fuze Beverage in February 2007 for an estimated $250 million. Coke also gained the rights to NOS Energy Drinks and WaterPlus as part of the purchase. It was one of Coke's largest acquisitions since it bought Odwalla Inc. for $186 million in 2001. The move was seen as a strategic effort to expand the company's portfolio of non-carbonated beverages, and specifically to compete with PepsiCo's SoBe line of fruit juice blends and enhanced waters. It also confirmed a strategy shift from Coke's long-time practice of developing new products in house in favor of buying innovative beverage companies. Fuze launched over 40 new products and line extensions since its inception. Coke named Carl Sweat, previously senior vice president of sales and marketing of its retail division, as president and general manager to lead Fuze as a separate entity. Company founder Lance Collins was named head of innovation and strategy.
With Coke's distribution system and relationships, sales more than doubled from 2007 to 2008. In 2009, Fuze entered into an agreement to sell its products fountain-style in over 22,000 Subway sandwich shops. Sweat departed the company in 2009 for a post in the global beverage unit at Starbucks.
False marketing of Fuze
Fuze beverages are marketed as natural health products and are fortified with a variety of vitamins, antioxidants and electrolytes, which are usually considered to be a factor in the maintenance of good health. Fuze beverages are labelled as Enhanced Real Fruit Beverage(s) and contain a mix of concentrated fruit juices and fruit purees in addition to other ingredients. However, the exact amount of fruit juices per 547 ml bottle is unclear due to the product label, which presents medicinal and non-medicinal ingredients in separate lists; this information is also absent from the Fuze product website. It has been estimated that Fuze beverages contain between 1.0% and 5.0% actual fruit content.
Fuze's Slenderize line of products has the widest selection of flavors, and it is implied that these products will assist in weight loss either by satisfying a dieter's cravings for sweets or by incorporating the drink into a more filling smoothie mix using fresh fruit and yogurt. However, to date there is no scientific evidence to support these claims or other previous assertions that Fuze products may help consumers avoid cancer, heart disease, colds, flu, and infections of the lungs and kidneys.
Ingredients
Some consumers may choose Fuze products over other drinks because they wish to avoid high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), which has been tentatively linked to obesity and diabetes; the alternative sweetener used in Fuze is crystalline fructose, which is chemically distinct from HFCS, although it is produced by allowing the fructose to crystallize "from a fructose-enriched corn syrup". Since crystalline fructose is about 5.0% sweeter than high-fructose corn syrup, it adds fewer calories to a sweetened food or drink compared with table sugar or HFCS, resulting in Fuze products' lower calorie content than other bottled drinks.
Some Fuze products, such as Fuze Iced Tea, are sweetened with HFCS and sucralose, an artificial sweetener.
References
External links
Official Fuze website
Drink companies of the United States
Coca-Cola brands
Food and drink companies based in New Jersey
Food and drink companies established in 2000
Juice brands
Tea brands in the United States
Coca-Cola acquisitions | [
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225123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Prout | Samuel Prout | Samuel Prout (; 17 September 1783 – 10 February 1852) was a British watercolourist, and one of the masters of watercolour architectural painting. Prout secured the position of Painter in Water-Colours in Ordinary to King George IV in 1829 and afterwards to Queen Victoria. John Ruskin, whose work often emulated Prout's, wrote in 1844, "Sometimes I tire of Turner, but never of Prout". Prout is often compared to his contemporaries: Turner, Constable and Ruskin, whom he taught. He was the uncle of the artist John Skinner Prout.
Biography
Samuel Prout was born at Plymouth, the fourth of fourteen children born to Samuel Prout Senior, a naval outfitter in the dockyard city, and Mary Cater. Attending Plymouth Grammar School he came under the influence of Headmaster Dr. John Bidlake who encouraged the young Prout and Benjamin Robert Haydon in their artistic apprenticeship. They spent whole summer days drawing the quiet cottages, rustic bridges and romantic watermills of the beautiful valleys of Devon. With John Britton, he made a journey through Cornwall to try his hand in furnishing sketches for Britton's Beauties of England. In 1803 he moved to London, where he stayed until 1812. Marrying Elizabeth Gillespie in 1810, they had four children; Rebecca Elizabeth (b. 1813), Elizabeth Delsey (b. 1817), Isabella Anne (b. 1820), and Samuel Gllespie (b. 1822).
In London, Prout saw new possibilities, and endeavoured to correct and improve his style by studying the works of the rising school of landscape. To earn a living, he painted marine pieces for Palser the printseller, took students, and published drawing books for learners. He was one of the first to use lithography.
It was not however until about 1818 that Prout discovered his niche. Happening time to make his first visit to the Continent, and to study the quaint streets and market-places of continental cities, he suddenly found himself in a new and enchanting province of art. His eye caught the picturesque features of the architecture, and his hand recorded them with skill. The composition of his drawings was exquisitely natural; their colour exhibited "the truest and happiest association in sun and shade"; the picturesque remnants of ancient architecture were rendered with the happiest breadth and largeness, with the heartiest perception and enjoyment of their time-worn ruggedness; and the solemnity of great cathedrals was brought out with striking effect.
He established his reputation with these street scenes, and gained praise from his erstwhile student John Ruskin. Until Prout, says Ruskin, excessive and clumsy artificiality characterized the picturesque: what ruins early artists drew "looked as if broken down on purpose; what weeds they put on seemed put on for ornament". To Prout, therefore, goes credit for the creation of the essential characteristics lacking in earlier art, in particular "that feeling which results from the influence, among the noble lines of architecture, of the rent and the rust, the fissure, the lichen, and the weed, and from the writings upon the pages of ancient walls of the confused hieroglyphics of human history". Prout, in other words, does not unfeelingly depict signs of age and decay chiefly for the sake of interesting textures, but rather employs these textures and other characteristics of the picturesque to create deeply felt impressions of age nobly endured. Though they are often compared, neither Turner nor Prout were vulgar artists, and while Turner concentrated upon the infinite beauties of nature, Prout was more interested by the cityscape.
Prout was appointed the coveted title of 'Painter in Water-Colours in Ordinary' to King George IV in 1829, and afterwards to Queen Victoria.
At the time of his death there was hardly a place in France, Germany, Italy (especially Venice) or the Netherlands where his face had not been seen searching for antique gables and sculptured pieces of stone. He died after a stroke at his home, 5 De Crespigny Terrace, Denmark Hill, London and was buried at West Norwood Cemetery.
A large quantity of his original sketchbooks, lithographs, account books, letters and family materials are held at the North Devon Athenaeum, Barnstaple, Devon. The collection was sold at auction in 2010, and much was acquired by Plymouth City Museum & Art Gallery, adding to its existing holdings of his work.
Samuel Gillespie Prout followed in his father's footsteps by also painting watercolours. Another member of the family, John Skinner Prout made a career for himself painting and writing books in Tasmania.
References
Further reading
By Samuel Prout
Picturesque Delineations in the Counties of Devon and Cornwall T. Palser, London 1812.
Prout's Village Scenery T. Palser, London 1813.
Rudiments of Landscape in Progressive Studies (R. Ackermann London, 1813)
Picturesque Studies of Cottages R. Ackermann 1816
Sketches of the Thames Estuary T Palser London 1817
Marine Sketches Rowney & Forster, London 1820.
Picturesque Buildings in Normandy Rodwell and Martin, London 1821.
Views in the North of England R. Ackermann 1821.
Studies from Nature Rodwell & Martin London 1823
Illustrations of the Rhine J. Dickinson 1824.
Views in Germany J. Dickinson 1826.
Interior and Exteriors Ackermann & Co 1834
Hints on Light and ShadowAckermann & Co 1838
Prout's Microcosm Tilt & Bogue, London 1841.
About Samuel Prout
Ruskin, John. A memoir of Prout (in Art Journal 1849)
Prout compared to Turner in Tate exhibition. Tate Exhibition Turner/Prout
Sabine Baring-Gould on Samuel Prout, s:Devonshire Characters and Strange Events/Samuel Prout
Ruskin, John. Notes on the Fine Art Society's Loan Collection of Drawings by Samuel Prout and William Hunt (The Fine Art Society, 1880) .
Various.
Lockett, Richard. Samuel Prout (1783–1852) (Batsford Ltd, 1985).
Graham, Paul. West Norwood Cemetery: The Dickens Connection (Friends of West Norwood Cemetery, 1995).
External links
Samuel Prout at the Tate Gallery, London
Samuel Prout at The Louvre, Paris
Sketches by Samuel Prout: in France, Belgium, Germany, Italy and Switzerland, 1915
Gainsborough to Ruskin Exhibition at the Morgan, New York
Samuel Prout at the Manchester Art Gallery, UK
Samuel Prout at the National Gallery of Art, Washington DC
Samuel Prout in Tate exhibition "Ruskin, Turner and the Pre-Raphaelites"
Samuel Prout at Open Library
1783 births
1852 deaths
19th-century English painters
English male painters
People from Plymouth
Burials at West Norwood Cemetery
English watercolourists | [
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225124 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrocarrils%20de%20la%20Generalitat%20de%20Catalunya | Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat de Catalunya | Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat de Catalunya (, "Catalan Government Railways"), or FGC, is a railway company which operates several unconnected lines in Catalonia, Spain.
The lines operated include metro and commuter lines in and around the city of Barcelona, tourist mountain railways, and rural railway lines. They include of gauge route, of route, of route, and of broad gauge route, making the FGC one of the few railway companies to operate on four different gauges.
Whilst most lines are conventional adhesion railways, the FGC also operates two rack railways and four funicular railways.
In 2018, the network carried 87.2 million passengers.
History
FGC was founded on September 5, 1979 to manage lines whose ownership was transferred from the state-owned FEVE to the Generalitat of Catalonia in 1978 as part of the process of regional devolution under the Spanish Constitution of 1978. Its oldest line, the standard gauge Línia Barcelona-Vallès however dates back to 1863 which was built and operated by Companyia del Ferrocarril de Barcelona a Sarrià from 1863 until 1874, and Ferrocarril de Sarrià a Barcelona (FSB) (with Ferrocarrils de Catalunya (FCC)) from 1874 until severe financial difficulties forced FSB and FCC to be acquired by FEVE in 1977, which operated it until FGC took over the line in 1979. The second oldest line the Llobregat–Anoia line was opened in 1892 as an interurban tram using metre gauge tracks, which was taken over by the Companyia General dels Ferrocarrils Catalans (CGFC) in 1912 and transformed it into a train line; CGFC being later taken over by FSB and FCC, followed by the broad gauge Lleida – La Pobla de Segur line in 1951 and operated by RENFE until it was transferred to FGC in 2005–2010.
Barcelona metro and commuter lines
FGC operates some of the Barcelona commuter rail network. Voice announcements and signs on trains and stations of lines operated by FGC are exclusively in the Catalan language, unlike in the lines operated by Transports Metropolitans de Barcelona and Renfe which remain bilingual or trilingual (Catalan, Spanish or "Castellano" and eventually English) in order to serve a large and diverse userbase. All lines are overhead DC electrified at 1.5 kV. There are two distinct (and separate) systems:
The Metro del Vallès and Línia de Balmes are 8 standard-gauge lines that run from Plaça de Catalunya railway station to Av. Tibidabo (L7, brown on the map), Sarrià (L6, purple) and Sant Cugat del Vallès (S5), and then on to Sabadell (S2) or Terrassa (S1). In rush hour some of them only arrive at Universitat Auntònoma (S6) or at Rubi (S7). The eighth line is the L12, a shuttle subway service between Sarrià and Reina Elisenda.
The Metro del Baix Llobregat and Llobregat–Anoia line are metre-gauge lines that run from the Plaça d'Espanya railway station to Molí Nou-Ciutat Cooperativa (in Sant Boi de Llobregat, L8 - pink on the map), Martorell-Enllaç (S8) and then on to Olesa de Montserrat (S4) and Manresa (R5), or Igualada (R6). There is also an unelectrified metre-gauge freight line to the port of Barcelona, which diverges from the main line between Sant Boi and Cornellà. Along the Llobregat valley, FGC runs on the right bank through Sant Boi de Llobregat, Sant Vicenç dels Horts, Pallejà and on to Martorell (Enllaç), whereas the broad gauge line R4 runs on the left bank through towns Sant Joan Despí, Sant Feliu de Llobregat, Molins de Rei and on to Martorell.
The line numbering is as follows:
L-prefixed lines (L for Línia - line) are treated as part of the Barcelona metro system, which consists of L1-L5 for the metro proper, L6-L8 on the FGC, L9 and L10 partially open and partially under construction, and L11, a short light rail line system in the northwest - see Barcelona Metro. L6 and L7 used to be known as U6 and U7 (U for Urbà - urban), while L8 was formerly known as S3.
S-prefixed lines (S for Suburbà) are suburban lines, extending into metropolitan fare zone 2 or 3.
R-prefixed lines (R for Rodalies) are Interurban lines, extending beyond zone 3. Lines R1-R4, R7 and R8 are run by Rodalies de Catalunya (currently operated by RENFE), R5 and R6 are run and operated by FGC.
Mountain railway, tourist and funicular lines
The FGC operates three mountain railway lines:
The Montserrat Rack Railway, which runs from Monistrol, on FGC's suburban line to Manresa (R5), to the mountain-top monastery of Montserrat. This line re-opened in 2003, having opened in 1892 and closed in 1957. It is of metre gauge using the Abt rack railway system.
The Vall de Núria Rack Railway, in the Pyrenees mountains of northern Catalonia. This is also of metre gauge using the Abt rack railway system, and the two lines, although many kilometres apart, occasionally swap stock.
The Ferrocarril Turístic de l'Alt Llobregat, which runs from La Pobla de Lillet to Clot del Moro, also in northern Catalonia. This line is of gauge, and operates using adhesion only.
The FGC also operates four funicular railways:
The Funicular de Sant Joan, from the upper station of the Montserrat Rack Railway to the summit of the mountain of Montserrat.
The Funicular de Santa Cova, also from the upper station of the Montserrat Rack Railway to a nearby shrine.
The Funicular de Gelida, connecting the town of Gelida with its railway station.
The Funicular de Vallvidrera, connecting a station on the Metro del Vallès suburban line to the top of the Tibidabo hill.
Broad-gauge lines
On 1 January 2005, ownership of the non-electrified broad-gauge line from Lleida to La Pobla de Segur passed from RENFE to FGC. This is the most derelict line in Catalonia — the stretch from Lleida to Balaguer had been upgraded (using second-hand rails) in the recent past, but from Balaguer northwards the track was in an appalling state. FGC has a number of plans for this line, including increasing the service frequency from three trains a day to a 30-minute service from Balaguer to Lleida, along the lines of a commuter railway; replacing all the rails and sleepers; introducing new trains to replace the ancient diesel stock currently used; and promotion of the line to tourists (it passes through some scenic countryside at its northern end). There were even plans to extend the line to the Pyrenees and possibly on to connect with railways in France — the plan when the line was built, but never carried out. Recent budget cuts had left the line in a worse state than it was on RENFE days, with then three daily services from Lleida to Balaguer and only one running the whole length up to La Pobla de Segur.
, the service on the line is as follows:
Monday to Friday: 1 train Lleida - La Pobla de Segur and return, 3 trains Lleida - Balaguer and return
Saturday: 1 train Lleida - La Pobla de Segur and return, 2 trains Lleida - Balaguer and return
Sunday: 1 train Lleida - La Pobla de Segur and return, 2 trains Lleida - Balaguer and return
However, as of 2019, the service has improved, following the introduction of new Stadler GTW trains. There are now 6 trains a day between Lleida and Balaguer on weekdays, and 4 trains a day between Lleida and La Pobla de Segur.
Freight
FGC currently operates two types of freight services on the Llobregat–Anoia line; one of which carries potash and salt from Súria and Sallent respectively to Martorell for cleaning and processing before being sent to the Port of Barcelona, and the other carries cars from SEAT's main factory in Martorell to the Port of Barcelona.
In September 2012, FGC announced that it was planning to start operating freight services across the Spanish rail network, as an open access operator. Initial routes would be Barcelona – Sevilla and Barcelona – Madrid.
See also
FEVE
History of rail transport in Spain
List of FGC lines
RENFE
Transportation in Spain
References
External links
FGC website
Companies based in Barcelona
Railway companies of Spain
Rail transport in Catalonia
Transport operators in Barcelona
600 mm gauge railways in Spain
Metre gauge railways in Spain
Standard gauge railways in Spain
Iberian gauge railways
Spanish companies established in 1979
Railway companies established in 1979 | [
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225127 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proximity%20fuze | Proximity fuze | A proximity fuze (or fuse) is a fuze that detonates an explosive device automatically when the distance to the target becomes smaller than a predetermined value. Proximity fuzes are designed for targets such as planes, missiles, ships at sea, and ground forces. They provide a more sophisticated trigger mechanism than the common contact fuze or timed fuze. It is estimated that it increases the lethality by 5 to 10 times, compared to these other fuzes.
Background
Before the invention of the proximity fuze, detonation was induced by direct contact, a timer set at launch or an altimeter. All of these earlier methods have disadvantages. The probability of a direct hit on a small moving target is low; a shell that just misses the target will not explode. A time- or height-triggered fuze requires good prediction by the gunner and accurate timing by the fuze. If either is wrong, then even accurately aimed shells may explode harmlessly before reaching the target or after passing it. At the start of The Blitz, it was estimated that it took 20,000 rounds to shoot down a single aircraft. Other estimates put the figure as high as 100,000 or as low as 2,500 rounds for each aircraft. With a proximity fuze, the shell or missile need only pass close by the target at some time during its flight. The proximity fuze makes the problem simpler than the previous methods.
Proximity fuzes are also useful for producing air bursts against ground targets. A contact fuze would explode when it hit the ground; it would not be very effective at scattering shrapnel. A timer fuze can be set to explode a few meters above the ground but the timing is vital and usually requires observers to provide information for adjusting the timing. Observers may not be practical in many situations, the ground may be uneven, and the practice is slow in any event. Proximity fuzes fitted to such weapons as artillery and mortar shells solve this problem by having a range of set burst heights [e.g. ] above ground that are selected by gun crews. The shell bursts at the appropriate height above ground.
World War II
The idea of a proximity fuse had long been considered militarily useful. Several ideas had been considered, including optical systems that shone a light, sometimes infrared, and triggered when the reflection reached a certain threshold, various ground-triggered means using radio signals, and capacitive or inductive methods similar to a metal detector. All of these suffered from the large size of pre-WWII electronics and their fragility, as well as the complexity of the required circuitry.
British military researchers at the Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE) Samuel C. Curran, William A. S. Butement, Edward S. Shire, and Amherst F. H. Thomson conceived of the idea of a proximity fuze in the early stages of World War II. Their system involved a small, short range, Doppler radar. British tests were then carried out with "unrotated projectiles," in this case rockets. However, British scientists were uncertain whether a fuze could be developed for anti-aircraft shells, which had to withstand much higher accelerations than rockets. The British shared a wide range of possible ideas for designing a fuze, including a photoelectric fuze and a radio fuze, with United States during the Tizard Mission in late 1940. To work in shells, a fuze needed to be miniaturized, survive the high acceleration of cannon launch, and be reliable.
The National Defense Research Committee assigned the task to the physicist Merle A. Tuve at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. Also eventually pulled in were researchers from the National Bureau of Standards (this research unit of NBS later became part of the Army Research Laboratory). Work was split in 1942, with Tuve's group working on proximity fuzes for shells, while the National Bureau of Standards researchers focused on the technically easier task of bombs and rockets. Work on the radio shell fuze was completed by Tuve's group, known as Section T, at The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab (APL). Over 100 American companies were mobilized to build some 20 million shell fuzes.
The proximity fuze was one of the most important technological innovations of World War II. It was so important that it was a secret guarded to a similar level as the atom bomb project or D-Day invasion. Adm. Lewis L. Strauss wrote that,
The fuze was later found to be able to detonate artillery shells in air bursts, greatly increasing their anti-personnel effects.
In Germany, more than 30 (perhaps as many as 50) different proximity fuze designs were developed, or researched, for anti-aircraft use, but none saw service. These included acoustic fuzes triggered by engine sound, one based on electrostatic fields developed by Rheinmetall Borsig, and radio fuzes. In mid-November 1939, a German neon lamp tube and a design of a prototype proximity fuze based on capacitive effects was received by British Intelligence as part of the Oslo Report.
In the post-World War II era, a number of new proximity fuze systems were developed, including radio, optical, and other means. A common form used in modern air-to-air weapons uses a laser as an optical source and time-of-flight for ranging.
Design in the UK
The first reference to the concept of radar in the UK was made by W. A. S. Butement and P. E. Pollard, who constructed a small breadboard model of a pulsed radar in 1931. They suggested the system would be useful for the coast artillery units, who could accurately measure the range to shipping even at night. The War Office proved uninterested in the concept and told the two to work on other issues.
In 1936, the Air Ministry took over Bawdsey Manor to further develop their prototype radar systems that would emerge the next year as Chain Home. The Army was suddenly extremely interested in the topic of radar, and sent Butement and Pollard to Bawdsey to form what became known as the "Army Cell". Their first project was a revival of their original work on coast defense, but they were soon told to start a second project to develop a range-only radar to aid anti-aircraft guns.
As these projects moved from development into prototype form in the late 1930s, Butement turned his attention to other concepts, and among these was the idea of a proximity fuse:
In May 1940 a formal proposal from Butement, Edward S. Shire, and Amherst F.H. Thompson was sent to the British Air Defence Establishment based on the second of the two concepts. A breadboard circuit was constructed and the concept was tested in the laboratory by moving a sheet of tin at various distances. Early field testing connected the circuit to a thyratron trigger operating a tower-mounted camera which photographed passing aircraft to determine distance of fuze function.
Prototype fuzes were then constructed in June 1940, and installed in "unrotated projectiles", the British cover name for solid-fueled rockets, and fired at targets supported by balloons. Rockets have relatively low acceleration and no spin creating centrifugal force, so the stresses on the delicate electronic fuze are relatively benign. It was understood that the limited application was not ideal; a proximity fuze would be useful on all types of artillery and especially anti-aircraft artillery, but those had very high accelerations.
As early as September 1939, John Cockcroft began a development effort at Pye Ltd. to develop tubes capable of withstanding these much greater forces. Pye's research was transferred to the United States as part of the technology package delivered by the Tizard Mission when the United States entered the war. Pye's group was apparently unable to get their rugged pentodes to function reliably under high pressures until 6 August 1941, which was after the successful tests by the American group.
Looking for a short-term solution to the valve problem, in 1940 the British ordered 20,000 miniature tubes from Western Electric Company and Radio Corporation of America that were intended for use in hearing aids. An American team under Admiral Harold G. Bowen, Sr. correctly deduced that the tubes were meant for experiments with proximity fuzes for bombs and rockets.
In September 1940, the Tizard Mission travelled to the US to introduce their researchers to a number of UK developments, and the topic of proximity fuses was raised. The details of the British experiments were passed to the United States Naval Research Laboratory and National Defense Research Committee (NDRC). Information was also shared with Canada in 1940 and the National Research Council of Canada delegated work on the fuze to a team at the University of Toronto.
Improvement in the US
Prior to and following receipt of circuitry designs from the British, various experiments were carried out by Richard B. Roberts, Henry H. Porter, and Robert B. Brode under the direction of NDRC Section T Chairman Merle Tuve. Tuve's group was known as Section T, not APL, throughout the war. As Tuve later put it in an interview: "We heard some rumors of circuits they were using in the rockets over in England, then they gave us the circuits, but I had already articulated the thing into the rockets, the bombs and shell." As Tuve understood, the circuitry of the fuze was rudimentary. In his words, "The one outstanding characteristic in this situation is the fact that success of this type of fuze is not dependent on a basic technical idea—all of the ideas are simple and well known everywhere." The critical work of adapting the fuze for anti-aircraft shells was done in the United States, not in England. Tuve claimed that despite being pleased by the outcome of the Butement et al. vs. Varian patent suit (which saved the U.S. Navy millions of dollars), the fuze design delivered by the Tizard Mission was "not the one we made to work!"
A key improvement was introduced by Lloyd Berkner, who developed a system using separate transmitter and receiver circuits. In December 1940, Tuve invited Harry Diamond and Wilbur S. Hinman, Jr, of the United States National Bureau of Standards (NBS) to investigate Berkner's improved fuze and develop a proximity fuze for rockets and bombs to use against the German Luftwaffe.
In just two days, Diamond was able to come up with a new fuze design and managed to demonstrate its feasibility through extensive testing at the Naval Proving Ground at Dahlgren, Virginia. On 6 May 1941, the NBS team built six fuzes which were placed in air-dropped bombs and successfully tested over water.
Given their previous work on radio and radiosondes at NBS, Diamond and Hinman developed the first all solid-state radio doppler proximity fuze, which employed the Doppler effect of reflected radio waves using a diode detector arrangement that they devised. The use of the Doppler effect developed by this group was later incorporated in all radio proximity fuzes for bomb, rocket, and mortar applications. Later, the Ordnance Development Division of the National Bureau of Standards (which became the Harry Diamond Laboratories – and later merged into the Army Research Laboratory – in honor of its former chief in subsequent years) developed the first automated production techniques for manufacturing radio proximity fuzes at a low cost.
While working for a defense contractor in the mid-1940s, Soviet spy Julius Rosenberg stole a working model of an American proximity fuze and delivered it to Soviet intelligence. It was not a fuze for anti-aircraft shells, the most valuable type.
In the US, NDRC focused on radio fuzes for use with anti-aircraft artillery, where acceleration was up to 20,000 as opposed to about 100 for rockets and much less for dropped bombs. In addition to extreme acceleration, artillery shells were spun by the rifling of the gun barrels to close to 30,000 rpm, creating immense centrifugal force. Working with Western Electric Company and Raytheon Company, miniature hearing-aid tubes were modified to withstand this extreme stress. The T-3 fuze had a 52% success against a water target when tested in January, 1942. The United States Navy accepted that failure rate. A simulated battle conditions test was started on 12 August 1942. Gun batteries aboard cruiser tested proximity-fuzed ammunition against radio-controlled drone aircraft targets over Chesapeake Bay. The tests were to be conducted over two days, but the testing stopped when drones were destroyed early on the first day. The three drones were destroyed with just four projectiles.
A particularly successful application was the 90 mm shell with VT fuze with the SCR-584 automatic tracking radar and the M-9 electronic fire control computer. The combination of these three inventions was successful in shooting down many V-1 flying bombs aimed at London and Antwerp, otherwise difficult targets for anti-aircraft guns due to their small size and high speed.
VT (Variable Time)
The Allied fuze used constructive and destructive interference to detect its target. The design had four or five tubes. One tube was an oscillator connected to an antenna; it functioned as both a transmitter and an autodyne detector (receiver). When the target was far away, little of the oscillator's transmitted energy would be reflected to the fuze. When a target was nearby, it would reflect a significant portion of the oscillator's signal. The amplitude of the reflected signal corresponded to the closeness of the target. This reflected signal would affect the oscillator's plate current, thereby enabling detection.
However, the phase relationship between the oscillator's transmitted signal and the signal reflected from the target varied depended on the round trip distance between the fuze and the target. When the reflected signal was in phase, the oscillator amplitude would increase and the oscillator's plate current would also increase. But when the reflected signal was out of phase then the combined radio signal amplitude would decrease, which would decrease the plate current. So the changing phase relationship between the oscillator signal and the reflected signal complicated the measurement of the amplitude of that small reflected signal.
This problem was resolved by taking advantage of the change in frequency of the reflected signal. The distance between the fuze and the target was not constant but rather constantly changing due to the high speed of the fuze and any motion of the target. When the distance between the fuze and the target changed rapidly, then the phase relationship also changed rapidly. The signals were in-phase one instant and out-of-phase a few hundred microseconds later. The result was a heterodyne beat frequency which corresponded to the velocity difference. Viewed another way, the received signal frequency was Doppler-shifted from the oscillator frequency by the relative motion of the fuze and target. Consequently, a low frequency signal, corresponding to the frequency difference between the oscillator and the received signal, developed at the oscillator's plate terminal. Two of the four tubes in the VT fuze were used to detect, filter, and amplify this low frequency signal. Note here that the amplitude of this low frequency 'beat' signal corresponds to the amplitude of the signal reflected from the target. If the amplified beat frequency signal's amplitude was large enough, indicating a nearby object, then it triggered the fourth tube – a gas-filled thyratron. Upon being triggered, the thyratron conducted a large current that set off the electrical detonator.
In order to be used with gun projectiles, which experience extremely high acceleration and centrifugal forces, the fuze design also needed to utilize many shock hardening techniques. These included planar electrodes and packing the components in wax and oil to equalize the stresses. To prevent premature detonation, the inbuilt battery that armed the shell had a several millisecond delay before its electrolytes were activated, giving the projectile time to clear the area of the gun.
The designation VT means variable time. Captain S. R. Shumaker, Director of the Bureau of Ordnance's Research and Development Division, coined the term to be descriptive without hinting at the technology.
Development
The anti-aircraft artillery range at Kirtland Air Force Base in New Mexico was used as one of the test facilities for the proximity fuze, where almost 50,000 test firings were conducted from 1942 to 1945. Testing also occurred at Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland, where about 15,000 bombs were fired. Other locations include Ft. Fisher in North Carolina and Blossom Point, Maryland.
US Navy development and early production was outsourced to the Wurlitzer company, at their barrel organ factory in North Tonawanda, New York.
Production
First large scale production of tubes for the new fuzes was at a General Electric plant in Cleveland, Ohio formerly used for manufacture of Christmas-tree lamps. Fuze assembly was completed at General Electric plants in Schenectady, New York and Bridgeport, Connecticut. Once inspections of the finished product were complete, a sample of the fuzes produced from each lot was shipped to the National Bureau of Standards, where they were subjected to a series of rigorous tests at the specially built Control Testing Laboratory. These tests included low- and high-temperature tests, humidity tests, and sudden jolt tests.
By 1944, a large proportion of the American electronics industry concentrated on making the fuzes. Procurement contracts increased from $60 million in 1942, to $200 million in 1943, to $300 million in 1944 and were topped by $450 million in 1945. As volume increased, efficiency came into play and the cost per fuze fell from $732 in 1942 to $18 in 1945. This permitted the purchase of over 22 million fuzes for approximately one billion dollars ($14.6 billion in 2021 USD). The main suppliers were Crosley, RCA, Eastman Kodak, McQuay-Norris and Sylvania. There were also over two thousand suppliers and subsuppliers, ranging from powder manufacturers to machine shops. It was among the first mass-production applications of printed circuits.
Deployment
Vannevar Bush, head of the U.S. Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) during the war, credited the proximity fuze with three significant effects.
It was important in defense from Japanese Kamikaze attacks in the Pacific. Bush estimated a sevenfold increase in the effectiveness of 5-inch anti-aircraft artillery with this innovation.
It was an important part of the radar-controlled anti-aircraft batteries that finally neutralized the German V-1 attacks on England.
It was used in Europe starting in the Battle of the Bulge where it was very effective in artillery shells fired against German infantry formations, and changed the tactics of land warfare.
At first the fuzes were only used in situations where they could not be captured by the Germans. They were used in land-based artillery in the South Pacific in 1944. Also in 1944, fuzes were allocated to the British Army's Anti-Aircraft Command, that was engaged in defending Britain against the V-1 flying bomb. As most of the British heavy anti-aircraft guns were deployed in a long, thin coastal strip, dud shells fell into the sea, safely out of reach of capture. Over the course of the German V-1 campaign, the proportion of flying bombs flying through the coastal gun belt that were destroyed rose from 17% to 74%, reaching 82% during one day. A minor problem encountered by the British was that the fuze was sensitive enough to detonate the shell if it passed too close to a seabird and a number of seabird "kills" were recorded.
The Pentagon refused to allow the Allied field artillery use of the fuzes in 1944, although the United States Navy fired proximity-fuzed anti-aircraft shells during the July 1943 invasion of Sicily. After General Dwight D. Eisenhower demanded he be allowed to use the fuzes, 200,000 shells with VT fuzes (code named "POZIT") were used in the Battle of the Bulge in December 1944. They made the Allied heavy artillery far more devastating, as all the shells now exploded just before hitting the ground. German divisions were caught out in open as they had felt safe from timed fire because it was thought that the bad weather would prevent accurate observation. U.S. General George S. Patton credited the introduction of proximity fuzes with saving Liège and stated that their use required a revision of the tactics of land warfare.
Bombs and rockets fitted with radio proximity fuzes were in limited service with both the USAAF and USN at the end of WW2. The main targets for these proximity fuze detonated bombs and rockets were anti-aircraft emplacements and airfields.
Sensor types
Radio
Radio frequency sensing (radar) is the main sensing principle for artillery shells.
The device described in World War II patent works as follows: The shell contains a micro-transmitter which uses the shell body as an antenna and emits a continuous wave of roughly 180–220 MHz. As the shell approaches a reflecting object, an interference pattern is created. This pattern changes with shrinking distance: every half wavelength in distance (a half wavelength at this frequency is about 0.7 meters), the transmitter is in or out of resonance. This causes a small cycling of the radiated power and consequently the oscillator supply current of about 200–800 Hz, the Doppler frequency. This signal is sent through a band pass filter, amplified, and triggers the detonation when it exceeds a given amplitude.
Optical
Optical sensing was developed in 1935, and patented in the United Kingdom in 1936, by a Swedish inventor, probably Edward W. Brandt, using a petoscope. It was first tested as a part of a detonation device for bombs that were to be dropped over bomber aircraft, part of the UK's Air Ministry's "bombs on bombers" concept. It was considered (and later patented by Brandt) for use with anti-aircraft missiles fired from the ground. It used then a toroidal lens, that concentrated all light from a plane perpendicular to the missile's main axis onto a photocell. When the cell current changed a certain amount in a certain time interval, the detonation was triggered.
Some modern air-to-air missiles (e.g. the ASRAAM and AA-12 Adder) use lasers to trigger detonation. They project narrow beams of laser light perpendicular to the flight of the missile. As the missile cruises towards its target the laser energy simply beams out into space. As the missile passes its target some of the energy strikes the target and is reflected to the missile, where detectors sense it and detonate the warhead.
Acoustic
Acoustic proximity fuzes are actuated by the acoustic emissions from a target (example an aircraft's engine or ship's propeller). Actuation can be either through an electronic circuit coupled to a microphone, or hydrophone, or mechanically using a resonating vibratory reed connected to diaphragm tone filter.
During WW2, the Germans had at least five acoustic fuzes for anti-aircraft use under development, though none saw operational service. The most developmentally advanced of the German acoustic fuze designs was the Rheinmetall-Borsig Kranich (German for Crane) which was a mechanical device utilizing a diaphragm tone filter sensitive to frequencies between 140 and 500Hz connected to a resonating vibratory reed switch used to fire an electrical igniter. The Schmetterling, Enzian, Rheintochter and X4 guided missiles were all designed for use with the Kranich acoustic proximity fuze.
During WW2, the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC) investigated the use of acoustic proximity fuzes for anti-aircraft weapons but concluded that there were more promising technological approaches. The NDRC research highlighted the speed of sound as a major limitation in the design and use of acoustic fuzes, particularly in relation to missiles and high-speed aircraft.
Hydroacoustic influence is widely used as a detonation mechanism for naval mines and torpedoes. A ship's propeller rotating in water produces a powerful hydroacoustic noise which can be picked up using a hydrophone and used for homing and detonation. Influence firing mechanisms often use a combination of acoustic and magnetic induction receivers.
Magnetic
Magnetic sensing can only be applied to detect huge masses of iron such as ships. It is used in mines and torpedoes. Fuzes of this type can be defeated by degaussing, using non-metal hulls for ships (especially minesweepers) or by magnetic induction loops fitted to aircraft or towed buoys.
Pressure
Some naval mines use pressure fuzes which are able to detect the pressure wave of a ship passing overhead. Pressure sensors are usually used in combination with other fuze detonation technologies such as acoustic and magnetic induction.
During WW2, pressure activated fuzes were developed for sticks (or trains) of bombs to create above ground airbursts. The first bomb in the stick was fitted with an impact fuze while the other bombs were fitted with pressure sensitive diaphragm actuated detonators. The blast from the first bomb was used to trigger the fuze of the second bomb which would explode above ground and in this turn would detonate the third bomb with the process repeated all the way till the last bomb in the string. Due to the forward speed of the bomber, bombs fitted with pressure detonators would all explode at about the same height above ground along a horizontal trajectory. This design was used in both the British No44 “Pistol” and the German Rheinmetall-Borsig BAZ 55A fuzes.
Gallery
See also
Allied technological cooperation during World War II
Contact fuze
M734 proximity fuze
Precision bombing
Precision-guided munition
Guided bomb
Guidance system
Terminal guidance
Proximity sensor
Artillery fuze
Magnetic proximity fuze
Missile
Notes
References
Bibliography
. Baldwin was a member of the (APL) team headed by Tuve that did most of the design work.
Holmes, Jamie (2020), 12 Seconds of Silence: How a Team of Inventors, Tinkerers, and Spies Took Down a Nazi Superweapon, Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Further reading
External links
Battleship New Jersey, Developing the Proximity Fuse via YouTube
1945 newsreel explaining how it works
The Radio Proximity Fuze - A survey Southwest Museum of Engineering,Communications and Computation
Proximity Fuze History Southwest Museum of Engineering,Communications and Computation
The Proximity (Variable-Time) Fuze - The Pacific War: The U.S. Navy
The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory
Science and technology during World War II
Artillery ammunition
Explosive projectiles
Fuzes
British inventions
Military projects of the United States
Secret military programs
World War II Allied electronics | [
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225128 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Wilkie | David Wilkie | David Wilkie may refer to:
David Wilkie (artist) (1785–1841), Scottish painter
David Wilkie (surgeon) (1882–1938), British surgeon, scientist and philanthropist
David Wilkie (footballer) (1914–2011), Australian rules footballer
David Wilkie (swimmer) (born 1954), Scottish swimmer
David Wilkie (ice hockey) (born 1974), American ice hockey player
David Wilkie (taxicab driver) (1949–1984), Welsh taxi driver killed during the UK miners' strike of 1984–85
Adam Purple, American activist and guerrilla gardener born as David Lloyd Wilkie | [
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225136 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham%20Raimbach | Abraham Raimbach | Abraham Raimbach (16 February 1776 in London17 January 1843), was an English engraver of Swiss descent.
He was born in Cecil Court in the West End of London. Educated at Archbishop Tenison's Library School, he was apprenticed to the engraver J. Hall from 1789 to 1796. For nine years, part of his working-time was devoted to the study of drawing in the Royal Academy and to carrying out occasional engravings for the booksellers, whilst his leisure hours were employed in painting portraits in miniature. Having formed an intimacy with Sir David Wilkie, Raimbach in 1812 began to engrave some of Wilkie's best pictures. At his death, he held a gold medal awarded for his Village Politicians at the Paris Exhibition of 1814. He was elected corresponding member of the Académie des Beaux-Arts in 1835.
He is buried in St Mary's Churchyard, Hendon.
References
External links
1776 births
1843 deaths
English engravers | [
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225139 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrocarrils%20de%20la%20Generalitat%20Valenciana | Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat Valenciana | Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat Valenciana (, "Valencian Government Railways") or FGV is a Valencian public railway company which operates several lines, in the autonomous community of Valencia, Spain.
The company currently operates the city metro and tram system of Valencia (Valencia Metro) and Alicante (Alicante Tram).
It also operates a non-electrified long line, between Benidorm and Dénia, in Alicante province.
The company is owned by the Generalitat Valenciana (i.e. the regional government body of the Valencian Community).
History
Establishment of FGV
FGV was founded as a company in 1986, and on 1 January 1987 took over all remaining narrow gauge railways in the Valencian Community. These had previously been part of the nationally owned FEVE system.
The newly formed railway system consisted of various electrified suburban lines around Valencia and the diesel-worked Alicante to Denia railway. Much of the infrastructure was in a poor state following years of neglect by the FEVE administration and patronage was consequently low.
Investment in the Valencia system
The early years of FGV saw much investment in the Valencia suburban system. The lines to the north and south of the city were connected by cross-town tunnels which were developed into the current metro system. FGV also introduced the first modern tram in Spain, partly running on the alignment of narrow gauge railways.
Both the metro and trams systems are being developed through the addition of new lines. Projects are also in hand to modernise the classic parts of the system through realignments and new rolling stock.
Investment in the Alicante system
In Alicante too, the narrow gauge railway is being developed into a modern tramway. It has been extended through a tunnel to Mercado and will ultimately reach the RENFE railway station through an extension of this tunnel. The tram system is also being extended in other directions.
The Alicante to Dénia railway line is being electrified as far as Benidorm and will be served by tram-trains (vehicles that can run on both railway and tramway infrastructure). The remaining section to Denia will continue to be diesel-worked for the time being and trainsets have been modernised for this purpose.
In Benidorm, a local tram service is also being planned. This will branch off the main railway line and serve the centre of this town.
Future projects
FGV is seeking to take over the Xàtiva to Alcoi railway from Renfe. The mountain railway is currently in a poor state and served only by three trains per day and direction. The company also provided assessment to the city of Rosario in Argentina for its future Rosario Tramway, a project which is largely based on the Valencia system.
Rolling stock
In use
Former rolling stock
References
External links
Railway companies of Spain
Transport in the Valencian Community
Rail transport in the Valencian Community
Metre gauge railways in Spain | [
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225140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Allan%20%28painter%29 | David Allan (painter) | David Allan (13 February 1744 – 6 August 1796) was a Scottish painter, limner, and illustrator, best known for historical subjects and genre works.
Life
He was born in Alloa in central Scotland. On leaving Foulis's Academy of painting at Glasgow (1762), after seven years' successful study, he obtained the patronage of Charles Cathcart, 9th Lord Cathcart and of Erskine of Mar, on whose estate he had been born. In 1764 Erskine made it possible for Allan to travel to Rome. He remained in Italy until 1777, studying under Gavin Hamilton and copying the old masters.
In 1771 Allan sent two history paintings, Pompey the Great after his Defeat and Cleopatra Weeping Over the Ashes of Mark Antony (both now lost) to the exhibition of the Royal Academy of Arts in London. In 1773, still in Rome, his Hector’s Farewell from Andromache won the Accademia di San Luca's gold medal.
Among the original works which he then painted was the Origin of Portraiture, now in the National Gallery of Scotland — representing a Corinthian maid drawing her lover's shadow — well known through Domenico Cunego's excellent engraving. This won him the gold medal given by the Accademia di San Luca in 1773 for the best specimen of historical composition. While in Italy he also visited the kingdom of Naples, where he was well received by the British ambassador Sir William Hamilton, who was brother-in-law to Allan's patron Lord Cathcart. Allan made many lively drawings of street life in Rome and Naples.
Returning from Rome in 1777, he lived for a time in London, and occupied himself with portrait-painting. In 1780 he removed to Edinburgh, where, on the death of Alexander Runciman in 1786, he was appointed director and master of the Academy of Arts. He set up at Writers Court next to the City Chambers. There he painted and etched in aquatint a variety of works, including those by which he is best known, such as Scotch Wedding, Highland Dance, Repentance Stool and his Illustrations of the Gentle Shepherd (based on Allan Ramsay's poem The Gentle Shepherd). He was sometimes called the "Scottish Hogarth", although he lacked Hogarth's satirical qualities. Among his students was Alexander Carse whose early works show Allan's influence. He also produced illustrations for a version of James Macpherson's Ossian poems.
In his final years Allan lived at the head of Dicksons Close on the Royal Mile, east of the Tron Kirk. He died in Edinburgh. His grave is located in the Old Calton Burial Ground. The headstone, which features a portrait relief, was paid for and erected by the Royal Scottish Academy.
References
Further reading
External links
Works in the National Galleries of Scotland
1744 births
1796 deaths
History painters
People from Alloa
Burials at Old Calton Burial Ground
Scottish illustrators
18th-century Scottish painters
Scottish male painters | [
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225143 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Wilkie%20%28artist%29 | David Wilkie (artist) | Sir David Wilkie (18 November 1785 – 1 June 1841) was a Scottish painter, especially known for his genre scenes. He painted successfully in a wide variety of genres, including historical scenes, portraits, including formal royal ones, and scenes from his travels to Europe and the Middle East. His main base was in London, but he died and was buried at sea, off Gibraltar, returning from his first trip to the Middle East. He was sometimes known as the "people's painter".
He was Principal Painter in Ordinary to King William IV and Queen Victoria. Apart from royal portraits, his best-known painting today is probably The Chelsea Pensioners reading the Waterloo Dispatch of 1822 in Apsley House.
Early life
David Wilkie was born in Pitlessie Fife in Scotland on 18 November 1785. He was the son of the parish minister of Cults, Fife. Caroline Wilkie was a relative. He developed a love for art at an early age. In 1799, after he had attended school at Pitlessie, Kingskettle and Cupar, his father reluctantly agreed to his becoming a painter. Through the influence of the Earl of Leven Wilkie was admitted to the Trustees' Academy in Edinburgh, and began the study of art under John Graham. From William Allan (afterwards Sir William Allan and president of the Royal Scottish Academy) and John Burnet, the engraver of Wilkie's works, we have an interesting account of his early studies, of his indomitable perseverance and power of close application, of his habit of haunting fairs and marketplaces, and transferring to his sketchbook all that struck him as characteristic and telling in figure or incident, and of his admiration for the works of Alexander Carse and David Allan, two Scottish painters of scenes from humble life.
Among his pictures of this period might be mentioned a subject from Macbeth, Ceres in Search of Proserpine, and Diana and Calisto, which in 1803 gained a premium of ten guineas at the Trustees' Academy, while his pencil portraits of himself and his mother, dated that year, and now in the possession of the Duke of Buccleuch, prove that Wilkie had already attained considerable certainty of touch and power of rendering character. A scene from Allan Ramsay, and a sketch from Hector Macneill's ballad Scotland's Skaith, afterwards developed into the well-known Village Politicians.
In 1804, Wilkie left the Trustees' Academy and returned to Cults. He established himself in the manse there, and began his first important subject-picture, Pitlessie Fair (illustration), which includes about 140 figures, and in which he introduced portraits of his neighbours and of several members of his family circle. In addition to this elaborate figure-piece, Wilkie was much employed at the time upon portraits, both at home and in Kinghorn, St Andrews and Aberdeen. In the spring of 1805 he left Scotland for London, carrying with him his Bounty-Money, or the Village Recruit, which he soon disposed of for £6, and began to study in the schools of the Royal Academy. One of his first patrons in London was Robert Stodart, a pianoforte maker, a distant connection of the Wilkie family, who commissioned his portrait and other works and introduced the young artist to the dowager countess of Mansfield. This lady's son was the purchaser of the Village Politicians, which attracted great attention when it was exhibited in the Royal Academy of 1806, where it was followed in the succeeding year by The Blind Fiddler, a commission from the painter's lifelong friend Sir George Beaumont.
Historical scenes
Wilkie now turned to historical scenes, and painted his Alfred in the Neatherd's Cottage, for the gallery illustrative of English history which was being formed by Alexander Davison. After its completion he returned to genre-painting, producing the Card-Players and the admirable picture of the Rent Day which was composed during recovery from a fever contracted in 1807 while on a visit to his native village. His next great work was the Ale-House Door, afterwards entitled The Village Festival (now in the National Gallery), which was purchased by John Julius Angerstein for 800 guineas. It was followed in 1813 by the well-known Blind Man's Buff, a commission from the Prince Regent, to which a companion picture, the Penny Wedding, was added in 1818.
Honours
In November 1809 he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, when he had hardly attained the age prescribed by its laws, and in February 1811 he became a full Academician. In 1812 he opened an exhibition of his collected works in Pall Mall, but the experiment was financially unsuccessful.
Travels on the Continent
In 1814 he executed the Letter of Introduction, one of the most delicately finished and perfect of his cabinet pictures. In the same year he made his first visit to the continent, and in Paris entered upon a profitable and delighted study of the works of art collected in the Louvre. Interesting particulars of the time are preserved in his own matter-of-fact diary, and in the more sprightly and flowing pages of the journal of Benjamin Haydon, his fellow traveller and brother Cedomir. On his return he began Distraining for Rent, one of the most popular and dramatic of his works. In 1816 he made a tour through Netherlands and Belgium in company with Raimbach, the engraver of many of his paintings. Reading the Will, a commission from the king of Bavaria, now in the New Pinakothek at Munich, was completed in 1820; and two years later the great picture of The Chelsea Pensioners reading the Waterloo Dispatch, commissioned by the Duke of Wellington in 1816, at a cost of 1200 guineas, was exhibited at the Royal Academy. On his return to Scotland in 1817, he painted Sir Walter Scott and his Family, (titled The Abbotsford Family) a cabinet-sized picture with small full-length figures in the dress of Scottish peasants, the result of a commission by Sir Adam Ferguson, during a visit to Abbotsford.
The visit of King George IV to Scotland
In 1822 Wilkie visited Edinburgh, in order to select from the Visit of King George IV to Scotland a fitting subject for a picture. The Reception of the King at the Entrance of Holyrood Palace was the incident ultimately chosen; and in the following year, when the artist, upon the death of Raeburn, had been appointed Royal Limner for Scotland, he received sittings from the monarch, and began to work diligently upon the subject. But several years elapsed before its completion; for, like all such ceremonial works, it proved a harassing commission, uncongenial to the painter while in progress and unsatisfactory when finished. His health suffered from the strain to which he was subjected, and his condition was aggravated by heavy domestic trials and responsibilities.
Three more years of foreign travel
In 1825 he sought relief in foreign travel: after visiting Paris, he went to Italy, where, in Rome, he received the news of fresh disasters through the failure of his publishers. A residence at Toplitz and Carlsbad was tried in 1826, with little good result, and then Wilkie returned to Italy, to Venice and Florence. The summer of 1827 was spent in Geneva, where he had sufficiently recovered to paint his Princess Doria Washing the Pilgrims' Feet, a work which, like several small pictures executed in Rome, was strongly influenced by the Italian art by which the painter had been surrounded. In October he passed into Spain, whence he returned to Britain in June 1828.
It is impossible to overestimate the influence upon Wilkie's art of these three years of foreign travel. It amounts to nothing short of a complete change of style. Up to the period of his leaving Britain he had been mainly influenced by the Dutch genre-painters, whose technique he had carefully studied, whose works he frequently kept beside him in his studio for reference as he painted, and whose method he applied to the rendering of those scenes of English and Scottish life of which he was so close and faithful an observer. Teniers, in particular, appears to have been his chief master; and in his earlier productions we find the sharp, precise, spirited touch, the rather subdued colouring, and the clear, silvery grey tone which distinguish this master; while in his subjects of a slightly later period – those, such as the Chelsea Pensioners, the Highland Whisky Still and the Rabbit on the Wall, executed in what Burnet styles his second manner, which, however, may be regarded as only the development and maturity of his first – he begins to unite to the qualities of Teniers that greater richness and fulness of effect which are characteristic of Ostade. But now he experienced the spell of the Italian masters, and of Diego Velázquez and the great Spaniards.
Later years
In the works which Wilkie produced in his final period he exchanged the detailed handling, the delicate finish and the reticent hues of his earlier works for a style distinguished by breadth of touch, largeness of effect, richness of tone and full force of melting and powerful colour. His subjects, too, were no longer the homely things of the genre-painter: with his broader method he attempted the portrayal of scenes from history, suggested for the most part by the associations of his foreign travel. His change of style and change of subject were severely criticized at the time; to some extent he lost his hold upon the public, who regretted the familiar subjects and the interest and pathos of his earlier productions, and were less ready to follow him into the historic scenes towards which this final phase of his art sought to lead them. The popular verdict had in it a basis of truth: Wilkie was indeed greatest as a genre-painter. But on technical grounds his change of style was criticized with undue severity. While his later works are admittedly more frequently faulty in form and draftsmanship than those of his earlier period, some of them at least (The Bride at her Toilet, 1838, for instance) show a true gain and development in power of handling, and in mastery over complex and forcible colour harmonies. Most of Wilkie's foreign subjects – the Pifferari, Princess Doria, the Maid of Saragossa, the Spanish Podado, a Guerilla Council of War, the Guerilla Taking Leave of his Family and the Guerilla's Return to his Family – passed into the English royal collection; but the dramatic Two Spanish Monks of Toledo, also entitled the Confessor Confessing, became the property of the Marquess of Lansdowne.
On his return to the UK Wilkie completed the Reception of the King at the Entrance of Holyrood Palace – a curious example of a union of his earlier and later styles, a "mixture" which was very justly pronounced by Haydon to be "like oil and water". His Preaching of John Knox before the Lords of the Congregation had also been begun before he left for abroad; but it was painted throughout in the later style, and consequently presents a more satisfactory unity and harmony of treatment and handling. It was one of the most successful pictures of the artist's later period.
In the beginning of 1830 Wilkie was appointed to succeed Sir Thomas Lawrence as painter in ordinary to the king, and in 1836 he received the honour of knighthood. The main figure-pictures which occupied him until the end were Columbus in the Convent at La Rabida (1835); Napoleon and Pius VII at Fontainebleau (1836); Empress Josephine and the Fortune-Teller (1837); Queen Victoria Presiding at her First Council (exhibited 1838); and General Sir David Baird Discovering the Body of Sultan Tippoo Sahib (completed 1839). His time was also much occupied with portraiture, many of his works of this class being royal commissions. His portraits are pictorial and excellent in general distribution, but the faces are frequently wanting in drawing and character. He seldom succeeded in showing his sitters at their best, and his female portraits, in particular, rarely gave satisfaction. A favourable example of his cabinet-sized portraits is that of Sir Robert Liston; his likeness of W. Esdaile is an admirable three-quarter length; and one of his finest full-lengths is the gallery portrait of Lord Kellie, in the town hall of Cupar.
In the autumn of 1840 Wilkie resolved on a voyage to the East. Passing through the Netherlands and Germany, he reached Constantinople, where, while detained by the war in Syria, he painted a portrait of the young sultan. He then sailed for Smyrna and travelled to Jerusalem, where he remained for some five busy weeks. The last work of all upon which he was engaged was a portrait of Muhammad Ali Pasha, done at Alexandria. On his return voyage he suffered from an attack of illness at Malta, and remained ill for the remainder of the journey to Gibraltar, eventually dying at sea off Gibraltar, en route to Britain, on the morning of 1 June 1841. His body was consigned to the deep in the Bay of Gibraltar. Wilkie's death was commemorated by Joseph Mallord William Turner in the oil painting titled Peace—Burial at Sea.
Achievements
An elaborate Life of Sir David Wilkie, by Allan Cunningham, containing the painter's journals and his observant and well-considered "Critical Remarks on Works of Art", was published in 1843. Redgrave's Century of Painters of the English School and John Burnet's Practical Essays on the Fine Arts may also be referred to for a critical estimate of his works. A list of the exceptionally numerous and excellent engravings from his pictures will be found in The Art Union for January 1840. Apart from his skill as a painter Wilkie was an admirable etcher. The best of his plates, such as the Gentleman at his Desk (Laing, VII), the Pope examining a Censer (Laing, VIII), and the Seat of Hands (Laing, IV), are worthy to rank with the work of the greatest figure-etchers. During his lifetime he issued a portfolio of seven plates, and in 1875 David Laing catalogued and published the complete series of his etchings and dry-points, supplying the place of a few copper-plates that had been lost by reproductions, in his Etchings of David Wilkie and Andrew Geddes.
Legacy
Wilkie stood as godfather to the son of his fellow Academician William Collins. The boy was named after both men, and achieved fame as the novelist Wilkie Collins.
In fiction
A painting which might be a real Wilkie or only a copy (the question is only resolved in the latter half of the book) plays a role in the novel Winter Solstice by Rosamunde Pilcher.
See also
List of Orientalist artists
Orientalism
Notes
References
Further reading
Bayne, William, Sir David Wilkie, RA., (Illustrated with twenty plates, etc.), London : Walter Scott Publishing Co., 1903, (Series: The makers of British art).
Gower, Ronald Sutherland. Sir David Wilkie (London: G. Bell and sons, 1902)
Macmillan, Duncan (1984), Scottish Painting: The Later Enlightenment, in Parker, Geoff (ed.), Cencrastus No. 19, Winter 1984, pp. 25 - 27,
Pinnington, Edward, Sir David Wilkie and the Scots School of Painters, Edinburgh: Oliphant, Anderson and Ferrier, 1900, ("Famous Scots Series").
Woodward, John (ed.). Paintings and drawings by Sir David Wilkie, R.A (1900).
External links
Works in the National Galleries of Scotland
Profile on Royal Academy of Arts Collections
1785 births
1841 deaths
19th-century Scottish painters
Scottish male painters
Principal Painters in Ordinary
19th-century painters of historical subjects
Orientalist painters
People from Fife
Royal Academicians
Alumni of the Edinburgh College of Art
19th-century male artists
Knights Bachelor
People who died at sea | [
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225153 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juche | Juche | Juche ( ), officially the Juche idea () and also translated as Juche thought and Jucheism, is the state ideology of North Korea, described by the country's government as "Kim Il-sung's original, brilliant and revolutionary contribution to national and international thought". It postulates that "man is the master of his destiny", that the masses are to act as the "masters of the revolution and construction", and that by becoming self-reliant and strong, a nation can achieve true socialism.
Kim Il-sung developed the ideology, which was originally viewed as a variant of Marxism–Leninism until it was declared a distinct ideology by his son and successor, Kim Jong-il. Consequently, the North Korean government adapted Juche into a set of principles used to justify its policy decisions: political independence (), economic self-sufficiency (), and military self-reliance (). Juche incorporates the historical materialist ideas of Marxism–Leninism but also strongly emphasizes the individual, the nation state and its sovereignty. As Kim Jong-il emerged as Kim's likely successor in the 1970s, loyalty to the leader was increasingly emphasized as an essential part of Juche, as expressed in the Ten Principles for the Establishment of a Monolithic Ideological System.
Juche has been described by critics as ultranationalist and a deviation from Marxism–Leninism.
Etymology
Juche comes from the Sino-Japanese word (modern spelling: ), whose Japanese reading is shutai. The word was coined in 1887 to translate the concept of in German philosophy (subject, meaning "the entity perceiving or acting upon an object or environment") into Japanese. The word migrated to the Korean language at around the turn of the century and retained this meaning. Shutai went on to appear in Japanese translations of Karl Marx's writings. North Korean editions of Marx used the word Juche even before the word was attributed to Kim Il-sung in its supposedly novel meaning in 1955.
In contemporary political discourse on North Korea, Juche has a connotation of "self-reliance", "autonomy" and "independence". It is often defined in opposition to the Korean concept of Sadae, or reliance on the great powers. South Koreans use the word without reference to the North Korean ideology.
The North Korean government officially refers to the ideology as Juche sasang () in Korean and the Juche idea in English. Juche sasang literally means "subject idea" and has also been translated as Juche thought or Jucheism. Adherents of Juche are sometimes referred to as "Jucheists".
History
Origin
Official statements by the North Korean government attribute the origin of Juche to Kim Il-sung's experiences in the Anti-Imperialist Youth League in 1930 in his liberation struggle against Japan.Hyung-chan Kim and Tong-gyu Kim. Human Remolding in North Korea: A Social History of Education. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. 2005. p. 10. The first documented reference to Juche as an ideology appeared in 1955 in a speech given by Kim Il-sung entitled "On Eliminating Dogmatism and Formalism and Establishing Juche in Ideological Work". The speech had been delivered to promote a political purge similar to the earlier Yan'an Rectification Movement in China.
Hwang Jang-yop, scholar and Kim's top adviser on ideology, discovered Kim's 1955 speech in the late 1950s when Kim, having established a cult of personality, sought to develop his own version of Marxism–Leninism.
Development
In his 1955 speech, the first known to refer to Juche, Kim Il-sung said: To make revolution in Korea we must know Korean history and geography as well as the customs of the Korean people. Only then is it possible to educate our people in a way that suits them and to inspire in them an ardent love for their native place and their motherland.
In the 1965 speech "On Socialist Construction in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the South Korean Revolution" given on 14 April 1965, Kim Il-sung outlined the three fundamental principles of Juche:
Political independence ()
Economic self-sufficiency ()
Military self-reliance ()
On the Juche Idea, the main work on Juche, was published in North Korea in Kim Jong-il's name in 1982. In North Korea it functions as "the authoritative and comprehensive explanation of Juche". According to the treatise, the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK) is responsible for educating the masses in the ways of Juche thinking. According to the treatise, Juche is inexorably linked with Kim Il-sung and it "represents the guiding idea of the Korean Revolution... we are confronted with the honorable task of modeling the whole society on the Juche idea". Kim Jong-il states in the work that Juche is not a creative application of Marxism–Leninism, but rather "a new era in the development of human history" while criticizing the "communists and nationalists" of the 1920s for their elitist posture, claiming that they were "divorced from the masses". The WPK's break with basic premises of Marxism–Leninism emerges more clearly in the article "Let Us March Under the Banner of Marxism–Leninism and the Juche Idea".
In August 1997, the promulgated regulations regarding the use of the Juche calendar. Gregorian calendar dates are used for years before 1912 while years from 1912 (the year of Kim Il-sung's birth) are described as "Juche years". The Gregorian year , for example, is "Juche " as − 1911 = . When used, "Juche years" are often accompanied by the Gregorian equivalent, i.e. "Juche , " or "Juche ()".
International outreach
Kim believed that Juche principles could be applied around the world, not just in Korea. Since 1976 North Korea has organized international seminars on Juche. The International Scientific Seminar on the Juche Idea took place in Antananarivo from 28 to 30 September 1976 under the sponsorship of the Democratic Republic of Madagascar. Many prominent party and government officials, public figures, representatives of revolutionary and progressive organizations, scientists and journalists from more than fifty countries attended. Malagasy President Didier Ratsiraka expressed strong sympathies and support for North Korea. An excerpt from the opening speech says:
The North Korean government established the International Institute of the Juche Idea (initially the International Juche Research Centre) in Tokyo in 1978 in order to supervise the activities of international Juche research groups. The Juche Tower in Pyongyang, completed in 1982, incorporated commemorative plaques from supporters and Juche Study Groups from around the world. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the Black Panther Party of the United States expressed sympathy for the Juche ideology. In 2016, the Nepal Workers and Peasants Party identified Juche as the guiding idea in its governance of the city of Bhaktapur.
Concepts
Kimilsungism–Kimjongilism Kimilsungism () and the Ten Principles for the Establishment of a Monolithic Ideological System were formally introduced by Kim Jong-il in 1974. Kim Jong-il reportedly did so to strengthen his position within the Workers' Party of Korea, taking advantage of his father's political supremacy. Kimilsungism refers to the ideas of Kim Il-sung, while the Ten Principles serve as a guide for North Korean political and social life. Kim Jong-il argued that his father's ideas had evolved and they therefore deserved their own distinct name. North Korean state media had previously described Kim Il-sung's ideas as "contemporary Marxism–Leninism"; by calling them "Kimilsungism", Kim Jong-il sought to elevate the ideas of his father to the same level of prestige as Stalinism and Maoism. Not long after the introduction of "Kimilsungism" into the North Korean lexicon, Kim Jong-il began promoting the slogan " of the Whole Society" ().
Political analyst Lim Jae-cheon argues that there is no discernible difference between Kimilsungism and Juche, and that the two terms are interchangeable. However, in his 1976 speech "On Correctly Understanding the Originality of Kimilsungism", Kim Jong-il said that Kimilsungism comprises the "Juche idea and a far-reaching revolutionary theory and leadership method evolved from this idea". He further added that "Kimilsungism is an original idea that cannot be explained within the frameworks of Marxism–Leninism. The Juche idea, which constitutes the quintessence of Kimilsungism, is an idea newly discovered in the history of mankind". Kim Jong-il went further, stating that Marxism–Leninism had become obsolete and must be replaced by Kimilsungism:
According to analyst Shin Gi-wook, the ideas of Juche and Kimilsungism are in essence the "expressions of North Korean particularism over supposedly more universalistic Marxism–Leninism". In many ways, the new terminology signaled a move from socialism to nationalism. This was evident in a speech presented by Kim Jong-il in 1982, during celebrations of his father's 70th birthday, in which he stated that love for the nation came before love for socialism. This particularism gave birth to such concepts as "A Theory of the Korean Nation as Number One and Socialism of Our Style".
Following the death of Kim Jong-il in December 2011, Kimilsungism became Kimilsungism–Kimjongilism''' () at the 4th Conference of the Workers' Party of Korea in April 2012. As well as stating that the WPK was "the party of Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il", the conference proclaimed Kimilsungism–Kimjongilism as "the only guiding idea of the party". In the 4th Conference's aftermath, the Korean Central News Agency (KCNA) stated that "the Korean people have long called the revolutionary policies ideas of the President [Kim Il-sung] and Kim Jong-il as Kimilsungism–Kimjongilism and recognized it as the guiding of the nation". Kim Jong-un, the WPK First Secretary, said:
Kimilsungism–Kimjongilism is an integral system of the idea, theory and method of Juche and a great revolutionary ideology representative of the Juche era. Guided by Kimilsungism–Kimjongilism, we should conduct Party building and Party activities, so as to sustain the revolutionary character of our Party and advance the revolution and construction in line with the ideas and intentions of the President and the General.
Socialism of Our Style
Socialism of Our Style, also referred to as Korean-style socialism and our-style socialism within North Korea, is an ideological concept Kim Jong-il introduced on 27 December 1990 in the speech "Socialism of Our Country is a Socialism of Our Style as Embodied by the Juche idea". Speaking after the Revolutions of 1989 that brought down the Eastern Bloc countries, Kim Jong-il explicitly stated that North Korea needed—and survived because of—Socialism of Our Style. He argued that socialism in Eastern Europe failed because they "imitated the Soviet experience in a mechanical manner". According to Kim, they failed to understand that the Soviet experience was based on specific historical and social circumstances and could not be used by other countries aside from the Soviet Union itself. He added that "if experience is considered absolute and accepted dogmatically it is impossible to build Socialism properly, as the times change and the specific situation of each country is different from another". Kim Jong-il went on to criticize "dogmatic application" of Marxism–Leninism, stating:
North Korea would not encounter such difficulties because of the conceiving of Juche. In his words, North Korea was "a backward, colonial semifeudal society" when the communists took over, but since the North Korean communists did not accept Marxism because it was based on European capitalist experiences, or Leninism, which was based on Russia's experience, they conceived of Juche. Additionally, he believed the situation in North Korea was also more complex because of the American presence in South Korea. Thanks to Kim Il-sung, Kim Jong-il argued, the revolution had "put forward original lines and policies suited to our people's aspirations and the specific situation of our country". "The Juche idea is a revolutionary theory which occupies the highest stage of development of the revolutionary ideology of the working class", Kim Jong-il said, further stating that the originality and superiority of the Juche idea defined and strengthened Korean socialism. He then conceded by stating that Socialism of Our Style was "a man-centered Socialism", explicitly making a break with basic Marxist–Leninist thought, which argues that material forces are the driving force of historical progress, not people. Socialism of Our Style was presented as an organic sociopolitical theory, using the language of Marxism–Leninism, saying:
"Great Leader" theory
Unlike Marxism–Leninism, which considers developments in the material conditions of production and exchange as the driving force of historical progress (known as historical materialism), Juche considers human beings in general the driving force in history. It is summarized as "the popular masses are placed in the center of everything, and the leader is the center of the masses". Juche, North Korea maintains, is a "man-centered ideology" in which "man is the master of everything and decides everything". In contrast to Marxism–Leninism, in which a people's decisions are conditioned their relations to the means of production, Juche argues that people's decisions take consideration of, but are independent from, external factors. Just like Marxism–Leninism, Juche believes history is law-governed, but that it is only man who drives progress, stating that "the popular masses are the drivers of history". However, for the masses to be successful, they need a "Great Leader". Marxism–Leninism argues that the popular masses will lead (on the basis of their relation to production), but in North Korea the role of a Great Leader should be essential for leadership. This theory allegedly helped Kim Il-sung establish a unitary, one-man rule over North Korea.
The theory turns the Great Leader into an absolutist, supreme leader. The working class is not to think for themselves, but instead to think through the Great Leader. The Great Leader is the "top brain" (i.e. "mastermind") of the working class, meaning that he is the only legitimate representative of the working class. Class struggle can be realized only through the Great Leader and difficult tasks in general and revolutionary changes in particular can be introduced only through and by the Great Leader. In historical development, it is the Great Leader who is the leading force of the working class. The Great Leader is also a flawless and incorruptible human being who never commits mistakes, who is always benevolent and who always rules for the masses. For the Great Leader system to function, a unitary ideological system must be in place; the Ten Principles for a Monolithic Ideological System was thus introduced by Kim Jong-il for this purpose.
The "masses"
Unlike the Joseon dynasty, where there was a huge gap between the upper and lower classes, North Korea had adopted the concept of a gathered-together "people". Instead of a strict social hierarchy, North Korea had in theory divided the nation into three classes, namely peasant, worker and samuwon (intellectuals and professionals), where each was just as important as the other. The samuwon class consisted of clerks, small traders, bureaucrats, professors and writers. This was a unique class that was created to increase education and literacy of North Korea's population.
Normally, Marxist–Leninist states would value only the farmers or laborers, thus in the Soviet Union the intelligentsia was not defined as an independent class of its own, but rather as a "social stratum" that recruited itself from members of almost all classes: proletariat, petite bourgeoisie and bourgeoisie. However, a "peasant intelligentsia" was never mentioned. Correspondingly, the "proletarian intelligentsia" was exalted for bringing forth progressive scientists and communist theoreticians whereas the "bourgeois intelligentsia" was condemned for producing "bourgeois ideology", which were all non-Marxist-Leninist worldviews. Language reforms followed revolutions more than once, such as the New Korean Orthography in North Korea (which failed due to Korean ethnic nationalist fears of precluding Korean unification), or the simplification of Chinese characters under Mao Zedong (a consequence of the divergent orthographic choices of Taiwan and the People's Republic of China), or the simplification of the Russian language after the 1917 revolution in Russia and consequent struggle against illiteracy, known in Soviet Russia as Likbez (Likvidaciya Bezgramotnosti, liquidation of illiteracy).
They believed in rapid industrialization through labor and in subjecting nature to human will. By restructuring social classes into a mass of people who are theoretically all equal, the North Korean government claimed it would be able to attain self-reliance or Juche in upcoming years. This is questionable, because the country suffers massive food shortages annually and is heavily dependent on foreign aid.
Songun Songun () was first mentioned on 7 April 1997 in Rodong Sinmun under the headline "There Is a Victory for Socialism in the Guns and Bombs of the People's Army". It defined the military-centered thinking of the time by stating; "the revolutionary philosophy to safeguard our own style of socialism under any circumstances". The concept was credited to "Respected General Kim Jong-il". In a joint editorial on 16 June 1998 entitled "Our Party's Military-First Politics Will Inevitably Achieve Victory and Will Never Be Defeated" by Kulloja (the WPK theoretical magazine) and Rodong Sinmun, it was stated that Songun meant "the leadership method under the principle of giving priority to the military and resolving the problems that may occur in the course of revolution and construction as well as establishing the military as the main body of the revolution in the course of achieving the total tasks of socialism". While the article clearly referred to "our Party", this was not a reference to the WPK but rather to the personal leadership of Kim Jong-il. On 5 September 1998, the North Korean Constitution was revised and it made clear that the National Defence Commission, the highest military body, was the supreme body of the state. This date is considered the beginning of the Songun era.
Juche in practice
In the view of some observers, Juche is not mere rhetoric, but rather an ideal of self-reliance that North Korea has attempted to put into practice.
Diplomacy
Based on On the Juche Idea, Kim Jong-il argued: "Independence is not in conflict with internationalism but is the basis of its strengthening". He stated that North Korea co-operated with socialist countries, the "international communist movement" and "newly-emerging nations" on the basis of non-interference, equality and mutual benefit.
North Korea emerged from Soviet occupation and fought alongside the Chinese communists in the Chinese Civil War and the Korean War. However, it soon asserted its independence from both the Soviet Union and China. Though it rejected de-Stalinization, it avoided taking sides in the Sino-Soviet split. As the Communist Bloc split, introduced market reforms and collapsed, North Korea increasingly emphasized Juche in both theory and practice.
North Korea was admitted to the Non-Aligned Movement in 1975 and began to present itself as a leader of the Third World. It fostered diplomatic relations with developing countries and promoted Juche as a model for others to follow.
National survival has been seen as a guiding principle of North Korea's diplomatic strategy. Even in the midst of economic and political crises, North Korea continues to emphasize its independence on the world stage.
Economics
In On the Juche Idea, Kim Jong-il stated: "In order to implement the principle of economic self-sufficiency, one must build an independent national economy". More specifically, he stated, "Heavy industry with the machine-building industry as its backbone is the pillar of an independent national economy". He also emphasized the importance of technological independence and self-sufficiency in resources. However, he stated that this did not rule out international economic co-operation.
In 1956, Kim Il-sung declared Juche to be the guiding principle of the North Korean economy. After the devastation of the Korean War, North Korea began to rebuild its economy with a base in heavy industry, with the aim of becoming as self-sufficient as possible. As a result, North Korea developed what has been called the "most autarkic industrial economy in the world". North Korea received a lot of economic aid and technical assistance from the Soviet Union and China, but it did not join Comecon, the communist common market. In the 1990s, it had one of the world's lowest rates for dependence on petroleum, using hydroelectric power and coal instead of imported oil. Its textile industry uses vinylon, known as the "Juche fiber", which was invented by a Korean and which is made from locally available coal and limestone. The history of the development of vinylon often featured in propaganda that preached the virtues of technological self-reliance. North Korea had 10,000 CNC machines in 2010. The first domestic homemade CNC machine was introduced in 1995 and in 2017 it has around 15,000 machines.
Commentators have often pointed out the discrepancy between the principle of self-sufficiency and North Korea's dependence on foreign aid, especially during its economic crisis in the 1990s. The pursuit of economic autarky has been blamed for contributing to the crisis. On this view, attempts at self-sufficiency led to inefficiency and to the neglect of export opportunities in industries where there was a comparative advantage.
Defense
In On the Juche Idea, Kim Jong-il stated: "Self-reliance in defense is a fundamental principle of an independent sovereign state". He stated that it was possible to get aid from friends and allies, but that this would be effective only if the state was militarily strong in its own right. He advocated a state where "all the people are under arms and the whole country becomes a fortress". He also advocated the development of a local defense industry to avoid dependence on foreign arms suppliers.
North Korea has attempted to put Kim Il-sung's ideas into practice. The Korean People's Army is one of the largest on earth. It has developed its own nuclear missile. It produces UDMH fuel for liquid fueled missiles and Tumansky RD-9 Turbojet engines, which power Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-19 and Shenyang J-6. CNC machines are used for production of missiles and centrifuges. North Korea's propaganda since the Korean War has contrasted its military autonomy with the presence of American forces in the South.
Religious features of Juche
Some South Korean scholars categorize Juche as a national religion or compare its facets to those of some religions. For instance, Juche has been compared to pre-existing religions in Korea (notably neo-Confucianism and Korean shamanism) due to their shared familiar principles. While the influence of traditional East Asian religions on Juche is widely disputed, the ideology has been thought of by several academic studies as having aspects of a national and indigenous religious movement in addition to being a political philosophy due to the following features: the presence of a sacred leader, rituals, and familism. Despite the religious features of Juche, it is a highly atheistic ideology that discourages the practice of mainstream religions. This draws from Juches Marxist−Leninist origins. North Korea is officially an atheist state (although the native religion Cheondoism is tolerated and even maintains a political party), but some argue that it maintains a cult of personality identical to a religion.
Presence of a sacred leader
The ideology teaches that the role of a Great Leader is essential for the popular masses to succeed in their revolutionary movement because without leadership they are unable to survive. This is the foundation of the personality cult directed at Kim Il-sung. The personality cult explains how the Juche ideology has been able to endure until today, even during the North Korean government's undeniable dependence on foreign assistance during its famine in the 1990s. The concept of a "sacred leader" in Juche as well as the cult around the Kim family has been compared to the State Shinto ideology of Imperial Japan in which the Emperor was seen as a divine being.
Through the fundamental belief in the essential role of the Great Leader, the former North Korean leader Kim Il-sung has become the "supreme deity for the people" and the Juche doctrine is reinforced in North Korea's constitution as the country's guiding principle. The parallel relationship structure between Kim Il-sung and his people to religious founders or leaders and their followers has led many scholars to consider Juche a religious movement as much as a political ideology. However, those familiar with cults would again posit that Juche bypasses the tenets of religion completely and instead meets the criteria of a totalitarian cult.Juches emphasis on the political and sacred role of the leader and the ensuing worshipping by the popular masses has been critiqued by various Western Marxist intellectuals. They argue that the North Korean working class or the proletariat has been stripped of their honor and therefore call the cult of personality non-Marxist and non-democratic.
Rituals
The religious behavior of Juche can also be seen in the perspectives of the North Korean people through refugee interviews from former participants in North Korea's ritual occasions. One pertinent example is the Arirang Festival, which is a gymnastics and artistic festival held in the Rungnado May Day Stadium in Pyongyang. All components of the festival, from the selection of performers, mobilization of resources, recruitment of the audience and publicity for the show have been compared to facets of a national religious event.
The Arirang Festival has been described to demonstrate the power of the North Korean government to arrange a form of religious gathering. It has done so by "appropriating a mass of bodies for calisthenic and performative arts representing the leader as the Father and his faithful followers". The Festival's effectiveness in transforming its participants into loyal disciples of Juche seems to originate from the collectivist principle of "one for all and all for one" and the ensuing emotional bond and loyalty to the leader. According to the accounts of refugees who have been recruited to mass gymnastics, the collectivist principle has been nurtured through physical punishment such as beatings and more importantly the organization of recruits into small units, whose performances were held accountable by larger units. The Festival's ritual components of collectivism serve to reinforce a "certain structure of sociality and affect", establishing Kim Il Sung as the "Father" in both the body and psyche of the performers.
Familism
Charles K. Armstrong argues that familism has transformed itself into a kind of political religion in the form of Juche. With the emergence of Juche as North Korea's guiding political principle since the 1960s, the familial relationship within the micro-family unit has been translated into a national, macro-unit with Kim Il-sung representing the father figure and the North Korean people representing his children. Juche is thus based on the language of family relationships with its East Asian or neo-Confucian "resonances of filial piety and maternal love".
Armstrong also notes that North Korea has actually transferred the "filial piety of nationalism in the family of the leader himself" by positioning Kim Il-sung as the universal patriarch. He argues that while the official pursuit of the Juche ideology in the 1960s signaled North Korea's desire to separate from the "fraternity of international socialism", the ideology also replaced Stalin as the father figure with Kim Il-sung. In effect, North Korea's familial nationalism has supplanted the "rather abstract, class-oriented language of socialism with a more easily understandable and identifiable language of familial connections, love and obligations".
The cult of personality surrounding Kim expanded into a family cult when Kim Jong-il became the heir apparent after assuming important posts in the WPK and military in the early 1980s. Armstrong calls this a "family romance", which is a term Freud had used to describe "the neurotic replacement of a child's real parents with fantasy substitutes". Through the establishment of the North Korean family romance with the language, symbols, and rituals related to familism, Kim Il Sung has been consecrated even further posthumously as the Great Father.
Analysis and criticism Juche has been described by critics as an ultranationalist ideology and a departure from Marxist–Leninist ideas. Shin Gi-wook argues that "there is no trace of Marxism–Leninism or the Stalinist notion of nationhood [in North Korea]. Instead, the government stresses the importance of the Korean people's blood, soul and national traits, echoing earlier Korean nationalists such as Sin Chaeho, Yi Kwangsu and Choe Namson. Brian Reynolds Myers argues that Juche has more in common with Japanese fascism than Marxism–Leninism. Some critics have gone further, arguing that Juche is "meaningless on logical and naturalistic grounds", and cannot be described as a true political ideology.
Several Western analysts, such as Robert E. Kelly, argue that Juche exists solely to protect the Kim family's monopoly over political power in North Korea. However, Brian Reynolds Myers dismisses the idea that Juche is North Korea's leading ideology, regarding its public exaltation as being designed to deceive foreigners. He argues that it exists to be praised and not actually read. Based on his own experiences living in North Korea, Felix Abt describes Myers' arguments as "shaky" and "questionable". Having seen the extent to which North Korean university students actually believe in Juche, Abt says it is "rather absurd" to describe the ideology as "window-dressing" for foreigners. He also questions how only three decades of Japanese occupation could simply upend the impact of "thousands of years" of history in Korea.
Charles K. Armstrong says that "North Korean communism would not only be quite distinctive from the Soviet model, it would in some respects turn Marxism–Leninism upside-down". The key differences are that the North Koreans place the primacy of ideology over materialism, retaining the vocabulary of family lineage and nationalism and giving it primacy over class struggle and supporting social distinction and hierarchy over classless society and egalitarianism. He concluded that North Korea may look "Stalinist in form", but that it was "nationalist in content". Derek Ford, by contrast, emphasizes the continuity between Marxism, Leninism, and Juche. Ford, however, has also credited North Korea's resilience after the collapse of the Soviet Union with the Juche ideology.
Suh Dae-sook argues that Kim Il-sung failed to explain the difference between socialist patriotism, which Kim stated that he supported, and nationalism, which Kim stated that he opposed. Suh also criticized Kim Il-sung's initial conceptualization of Juche'', saying that he had failed to explain how Marxism–Leninism had been applied to Korean conditions.
See also
Autarky
Great man theory
Ilminism
Juche faction, a political faction within South Korea's student movements
Kim Il-sung bibliography
Kim Jong-il bibliography
References
Citations
Sources
Books
Journal articles
Further reading
External links
"Revolutionary View of the Leader" on GlobalSecurity.org
Economic ideologies
Economy of North Korea
Government of North Korea
State ideologies
Kim Il-sung
Kim Jong-il
Korean nationalism
Korean philosophy
Nationalism by country
North Korean culture
Political theories
Politics of North Korea
Identity politics in Korea
Propaganda in North Korea
Totalitarianism
Isolationism
Types of socialism
Far-left politics
Workers' Party of Korea | [
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225160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matroska | Matroska | The Matroska Multimedia Container is a free and open container format, a file format that can hold an unlimited number of video, audio, picture, or subtitle tracks in one file. It is a universal format for storing common multimedia content, like movies or TV shows. Matroska is similar in concept to other containers like AVI, MP4, or Advanced Systems Format (ASF), but is entirely open in specification, with implementations consisting mostly of open source software. Matroska file extensions are .mkv for video (which may include subtitles or audio), .mk3d for stereoscopic video, .mka for audio-only files, and .mks for subtitles only.
History
The project was announced on 6 December 2002 as a fork of the Multimedia Container Format (MCF), after disagreements between MCF lead developer Lasse Kärkkäinen and soon-to-be Matroska founder Steve Lhomme about the use of the Extensible Binary Meta Language (EBML) instead of a binary format. This coincided with a 6-month coding break by the MCF's lead developer for his military service, during which most of the community quickly migrated to the new project.
In 2010, it was announced that the WebM audio/video format would be based on a profile of the Matroska container format together with VP8 video and Vorbis audio.
On 31 October 2014, Microsoft confirmed that Windows 10 would support HEVC and Matroska out of the box, according to a statement from Gabriel Aul, the leader of Microsoft Operating Systems Group's Data and Fundamentals Team. Windows 10 Technical Preview Build 9860 added platform level support for HEVC and Matroska.
"Matroska" is derived from matryoshka ( ), the Russian word for the hollow wooden dolls which open to expose another smaller doll, that in turn opens to expose another doll, and so on. The logo writes it as "Matroška"; the letter š, an "s" with a caron over it, represents the "sh" sound () in various languages. Interestingly, the exact transcript of "matroska" in Russian ( ) has completely different root and meaning – sailor suit.
Design
The use of EBML allows extension for future format changes. The Matroska team has expressed some of their long-term goals on Doom9.org and Hydrogen Audio forums. Thus, the following are "goals", not necessarily existing features, of Matroska:
Creating a modern, flexible, extensible, cross-platform multimedia container format
Developing robust streaming support (both this format and the WebM subset are streamable)
Developing a menu system similar to that of DVDs based on EBML (, there is only a mostly empty draft)
Developing a set of tools for the creation and editing of Matroska files (MKVToolNix, for example)
Developing libraries to allow developers to add Matroska support to their applications (made open source by Matroska developers)
Working with hardware manufacturers to include Matroska support in embedded multimedia devices
Development
Matroska is supported by a non-profit organization (association loi 1901) in France, and the specifications are open to everyone. It is a royalty-free open standard that is free to use, and its technical specifications are available for private and commercial use. The Matroska development team licenses its libraries under the LGPL, with parsing and playback libraries available under BSD licenses.
Support
Players supporting Matroska include Foobar2000, Media Player Classic – Home Cinema (MPC-HC), and VLC media player.
Encoders and rippers supporting Matroska include Handbrake and MakeMKV.
Multiplexers and demultiplexers supporting Matroska include MKVToolNix.
Windows 10 supports Matroska natively.
See also
Comparison of video container formats
List of open-source codecs
MKVToolNix
References
External links
Matroska Multimedia Container — Sustainability of Digital Formats: Planning for Library of Congress Collections
Computer-related introductions in 2002
Digital container formats
Free digital container formats
Open formats | [
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225161 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Des%20Knaben%20Wunderhorn | Des Knaben Wunderhorn | Des Knaben Wunderhorn: Alte deutsche Lieder (German; "The boy's magic horn: old German songs") is a collection of German folk poems and songs edited by Achim von Arnim and Clemens Brentano, and published in Heidelberg, Baden. The book was published in three editions: the first in 1805 followed by two more volumes in 1808.
The collection of love, soldiers, wandering, and children's songs was an important source of idealized folklore in the Romantic nationalism of the 19th century. Des Knaben Wunderhorn became widely popular across the German-speaking world; Goethe, one of the most influential writers of the time, declared that Des Knaben Wunderhorn "has its place in every household".
Cultural-historical background
Arnim and Brentano, like other early 19th-century song collectors, such as the Englishman Thomas Percy, freely modified the poems in their collection. The editors, both poets themselves, invented some of their own poems. Some poems were modified to fit poetic meter, to conform to then-modern German spelling, or otherwise to conform more closely to an idealized, Romantic "folk style" (Naturpoesie). A 20th-century critical edition by Heinz Rölleke describes the origin of each poem in the collection. Brentano was motivated more by writing his own material than by a strict preservation of the original folk songs.
The young proponents of Romanticism, strongly taken by national sentiments, devoted themselves to the collection and study of the origins of Germanic history in folk songs, fairy-tales, myths, sagas (Nibelung), and Germanic literature. Everything untouched by the negative effects of modern civilization in their eyes, was considered good and helpful for the "Gesundung der Nation" (Recovery of the nation). It was under Brentano's direction that the Brothers Grimm began collecting their fairytales.
Publication of the collection took place during the War of the Fourth Coalition, in which Napoleon achieved what seemed at the time a decisive military victory and established a complete French dominance over Germany. Thus, the aspiration for "Recovery of the nation" had a very clear and concrete political aspect.
Des Knaben Wunderhorn in music
Selected poems from this collection have been set to music (Lieder) by a number of composers, including Weber, Loewe, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Brahms, Zemlinsky, Schoenberg, Zeisl and Webern.
Gustav Mahler numbered the collection among his favourite books and set its poems to music throughout much of his life. The text of the first of his four Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen, begun in 1884, is based directly on the Wunderhorn poem "Wann [sic] mein Schatz," pulling from the first two stanzas. Between 1887 and 1901, he wrote two dozen settings of Wunderhorn texts, several of which were incorporated into (or composed as movements for) his Second, Third and Fourth symphonies. In 1899, he published a collection of a dozen Wunderhorn settings that has since become known, slightly confusingly, simply as “Songs from ‘Des Knaben Wunderhorn.’”
References
Further reading
Carpenter, Humphrey and Mari Prichard (1984). The Oxford Companion to Children's Literature. New York: Oxford University Press.
External links
Des Knaben Wunderhorn. Georg Müller, 1908.
List of songs from the collection with names of composers and texts
1805 books
1808 books
German poetry collections
Ballad collections
19th-century German literature
German folk music | [
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225164 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festival%20of%20San%20Ferm%C3%ADn | Festival of San Fermín | The festival of San Fermín is a weeklong, historically rooted celebration held annually in the city of Pamplona, Navarre, in northern Spain.
The celebrations start at noon on July 6 and continue until midnight on July 14. A firework starts off the celebrations and the popular song is sung at the end. The most famous event is the running of the bulls, which begins at 8 in the morning from July 7 to 14, but the festival involves many other traditional and folkloric events. It is known locally as Sanfermines and is held in honour of Saint Fermin, the co-patron of Navarre.
Its events were central to the plot of The Sun Also Rises by Ernest Hemingway, which brought it to the general attention of the English-speaking world. It has become probably the most internationally renowned festival in Spain with over a million people coming to participate.
History
Saint Fermín
Fermín is said to have been the son of a Roman of senatorial rank in Pamplona in the 3rd century, who was converted to Christianity by Saint Honestus, a disciple of Saint Saturninus. According to tradition, he was baptised by Saturninus (in Navarre also known as Saint Cernin) at the spot now known as the "Small Well of Saint Cernin" Fermín was ordained a priest in Toulouse, and returned to Pamplona as its first bishop. On a later preaching voyage, Fermín was dragged to death; and is now considered a martyr in the Catholic Church. It is believed he died on September 25, AD 303. There is no written record of veneration of the Saint in Pamplona until the 12th century. Saint Fermín, as well as Saint Francis Xavier, are now the two patrons of Navarre. In Pamplona, Saint Fermín is now sometimes said to have met his end by being dragged through the streets with angry bulls running after him, hence the tradition.
The celebration of the festival has its origin in the combination of two different medieval events. Commercial secular fairs were held at the beginning of the summer. As cattle merchants came into town with their animals, eventually bullfighting came to be organised as a part of the tradition. Specifically, they were first documented in the 14th century. On the other hand, religious ceremonies honouring the saint were held on October 10. However, in 1591 they were transferred to July 7 to take place at the same time as the fair, when Pamplona's weather is better. This is considered to be the beginning of the Sanfermines. During medieval times acts included an opening speech, musicians, tournaments, theatre, bullfights, dances or even fireworks. Bullrunning appears in 17th and 18th century chronicles together with the presence of foreigners and the first concerns about the excessive drinking and dissolute behaviour during the event. Finally, the Parade of Giants was created in the mid-19th century. The first official bullring was constructed in 1844.
Present
The worldwide fame of the modern festival, and the great number of foreign visitors it receives every year, are closely related to the description in Ernest Hemingway's book The Sun Also Rises and the reports he made as a journalist. He was fascinated when he first visited in 1923, and returned many times until 1959. Hemingway was also deeply fond of bullrunnings and bullfights, but he did not participate in the running. Different city locations such as La Perla Hotel or the Iruña Café are famous in part due to the fact that the writer used to visit them. Another famous American author, James Michener, wrote extensively about the festival and bullfighting in his non-fiction book Iberia. His writing explained the art and business of bullfighting with tremendous 'gracia' by explaining the importance of 'pundonor'.
Past
The San Fermín Festival of the past was not like it is today: it has changed gradually both for better and for worse. Originally most of the youth looked forward to the festivities all year, saving money until they had at least fifty pesetas, the minimum necessary to watch the running of the bulls, have a snack and wine, eat lunch and dinner out, and eat churros with brandy a couple of times each San Fermín day.
After the religious function, the group formed by the Authorities and village, they came back to the Home of “the town”, at about 90 minutes after leaving it. Then was effectuated the move, to contemplate the bulls that while they were waiting to move, they grazed in the grove.
The COVID-19 pandemic caused the festival to be cancelled in 2020 and 2021.
One day events
Chupinazo
The opening of the festival is marked by setting off the firework chupinazo (or txupinazo in Basque language). The rocket is launched at 12:00 noon on July 6 from a city hall balcony with thousands of people celebrating the act in the city hall square and other locations in Pamplona. The chupinazo has officially marked the beginning of the fiesta since 1941. The person who sets it off is decided by the city mayor. Nevertheless, since 1979 tradition has been that each year after city elections the chupinazo is set off by a person from the different city council political groups beginning with the mayor and then political groups ordered by number of representatives. There have been exceptions to this tradition with some non-politicians being in charge of the act when they had performed significant achievements during the year. Examples of these exceptions were a player of the local soccer team, or the president of the "giants and big-heads" group in its 150 years anniversary.
Riau-Riau
The Riau-Riau was a mass activity held on July 6. The members of the city council parade from the City Hall to a nearby chapel dedicated to Saint Fermín with participants dancing to the Astrain Waltz along the way. The ritual was introduced in 1911 by Ignacio Baleztena Ascárate. The procession was removed from the festival calendar in 1992 for the sake of public order, as political activists used the "Riau-Riau" to promote clashes with authorities. Protesting youths would often block the way and it often took up to five hours for the city councilors to walk the 500 meters to the Saint Fermin chapel. Nevertheless, in recent years it has been held unofficially without the participation of the members of the city council. In 1996 and 2012 there were two failed attempts to restore the original act with the participation of the city council, both of them being cancelled due to the violent clashes with some participants.
Saint Fermín procession
The key day of the festival is July 7, when thousands of people accompany the 15th-century statue of Saint Fermin through the old part of Pamplona. The statue is accompanied by dancers and street entertainers, and different political and religious authorities including the city mayor. During procession a Jota (an ancient traditional dance) is performed for the saint, a rose is offered in the Saint Fermin well, and the "gigantes" (enormous wood-framed and papier-mâché puppet figures managed from inside) dance and twirl while the cathedral bell named María (Mary) peals.
Struendo
"El Struendo" ("The Roar") is a single day event with more than 50 years of tradition. It has been purposely left outside the official program and each year is celebrated on a different day, usually on a weekday so as to keep the crowds manageable. People gather at 23:59 at the Town Hall and make as much noise as possible for several hours with drums, cymbals, bowls, whistles, pans, or other objects.
Pobre de mí
After nine days of partying, the people of Pamplona meet in the City Hall Plaza at midnight on July 14, singing the traditional mournful notes of the Pobre de Mí ('Poor Me'), in a candlelit ending. The city mayor closes the festival with participants lighting a candle and removing their red handkerchief as the song is played by the local band, followed by a fireworks display at the city hall. This closing ceremony tradition started out in the 1920s, and signifies the end of San Fermeenee.
Daily events
Running of the bulls
The running of the bulls (In Spanish encierro or los toros de san Fermin) involves hundreds of people running in front of six bulls and another six steers down an 825-meter (0.51 mile) stretch of narrow streets of a section of the old town of Pamplona. The run ends in the Pamplona's bullring taking a mean time of around 3 minutes where the bulls would be held until the afternoon's bullfight when they would be killed. Bullruns are held between July 7 and 14 and a different "encaste" (sub-breed) of bull appears for each day of the festival.
The event begins at 08:00 when a first firecracker is lit to announce the release of the bulls from their corral. Before the year 1924 it started at 6 and at 7 between 1924 and 1974. Runners gather earlier at the beginning of the itinerary to ask for the protection of the Saint by singing a chant three times before a small statue of San Fermín which has been placed in a raised niche in a wall: “A San Fermín pedimos, por ser nuestro patrón, nos guíe en el encierro, dándonos su bendición”. (which means “To San Fermin we ask to be our patron saint and to guide us in the running of the bulls, giving to us his blessing”.) A second cracker signals that the last bull has left the corral. There are six fighting bulls accompanied by six oxen (often white and brown coloured) that guide them to the "plaza" and followed by three more not fighting oxen. There are also some shepherds guiding the bulls, wearing green T-shirts and holding long poles. Once all of the bulls have entered the arena, a third rocket is released while a fourth firecracker indicates that the bulls are in their bullpens and the run has concluded. After the end of the run young cows with wrapped horns are released in the bullring and toss the participants, to the amusement of the crowd.
The circuit has only changed slightly since 1852 as the former bullring was located close to the present one. Before that date the bullrunning ended in the "castle plaza", still not far from the present bullring. While the origin of this tradition was the necessity to move the bulls from outside the city to the bullring for the bullfight it is not clear when citizens began to run in front of them. There are written records in 1787 that the tradition was already well established with no memory of its beginning. The tradition of singing for protection to the saint dates back to 1962.
The event is dangerous. Since 1925, 15 people have been killed during the event – most recently on July 10, 2009—and every year between 200 and 300 people are injured during the run although most injuries are contusions due to falls and are not serious.
Giants and big-heads parade
Every day, during the morning, there is a parade of gigantes y cabezudos (English: "giants and big-heads", respectively), with the giant figures being more than 150 years old. The eight giant figures were built by Tadeo Amorena, a painter from Pamplona, in 1860, and represent four pairs of kings and queens of four different races and places (Europe, Asia, America and Africa). Their height is around each, and they are carried by a dancer inside a wooden structure. During the parade, giants dance following the rhythm of traditional music. The remaining 17 figures include 6 kilikis, 5 big-heads, and 6 zaldikos, built at different times between 1860 and 1941. Kilikis and big-heads are caricaturesque, but human-like figures that are carried as helmets. Big-heads masks are up to tall, and kilikis slightly smaller. While big-heads simply precede the giants and wave their hands at spectators, kilikis run after children, hitting them with a foam truncheon. Zaldikos, figures representing horses with their riders, also run after children with a truncheon.
Traditional sports
There are exhibitions and competitions of Basque rural sports every morning in the "Plaza de los Fueros", a square close to the city citadel, although they were formerly held in the bullring. Sports include stone lifting, wood cutting, or hay bale lifting. On the other hand, the Jai alai tournament of Sanfermin is a prestigious competition of this variety of basque pelota. It is held in one of the courts of the city. Betting is common during these events.
Bullfight
Every afternoon from July 7 to 14 there is a bullfight in which the 6 bulls that have been driven to the bullring during the bullrunning of that day are killed. It begins at 18:00. In addition the 5th bullfight with younger bulls and not fully trained bullfighters is performed while the 6th features bullfighters on horses (in Spanish "rejoneo"). While the bullring of the city is the fourth largest in size in the world, it is full every afternoon and tickets are hard to find.
Fireworks
Every night at 23:00, a firework spectacle is held at the citadel park. Fireworks spectacles have been known to occur in Sanfermin as far back as 1595. Since the year 2000 an international fireworks contest is held. Thousands of people watch them seated on the grass around the citadel.
See also
Fiestas of International Tourist Interest of Spain
Notes
References
External links
Fiesta of San Fermín at Spanish National Television website, RTVE.es
The running of the bulls Encierros San Fermín Live at 07.15 AM Central European Time, GMT+2
Official guide to the fiesta of San Fermín.
Unofficial website on San Fermín and on encierro
photosanfermin.com San Fermín social network
Tips to run in safety and to contribute in preserving the Festival
Patronal festivals in Spain
July events
Navarre culture
Tourist attractions in Navarre
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] |
225166 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarkin | Tarkin | Tarkin may refer to:
Grand Moff Tarkin, a fictional character in the Star Wars franchise
Star Wars: Tarkin, a 2014 novel about the character
Tarkin, Scottish saint called also Talarican
Tarkin (codec), an Ogg video codec
See also
Takin
Tarin (disambiguation)
Tarquin (disambiguation) | [
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225168 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASF | ASF | ASF may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Alabama Shakespeare Festival, a drama festival
Asimov's Science Fiction, a U.S.-based English-language science fiction magazine containing SF stories
Science and technology
Biological
African swine fever virus (ASFV), the causative agent of African swine fever (ASF)
Altered Schaedler Flora, a standardized consortium of gastrointestinal microbial species
Serine/arginine-rich splicing factor 1, a protein also known as alternative splicing factor 1 (ASF)
Computing
Advanced Synchronization Facility, a proposed extension to the x86 instruction set architecture
Advanced Systems Format (formerly "Advanced Streaming Format", .asf), a Microsoft streaming format
Alert Standard Format, a protocol for remote management and control of systems in OS-absent environments
Anti Spam Filtering, software and hardware protection layers used to fight email spam
Apache Software Foundation, an umbrella non-profit organization that owns the Apache brandname
APL programming language data files (file extension .asf)
Atmel Software Framework, a set of source files, libraries and reference projects that aid in application development for Atmel microcontrollers
Other uses
Acrylic silicone fluoropolymer, a car wax chemical
Air superiority fighter
Alaska Satellite Facility, a NASA data center
Amperes per square foot, a unit of current density often used in electroplating
Organizations
Acid Survivors Foundation, in Bangladesh
Airports Security Force, an aviation security division in Pakistan
African Standby Force, an international peace force controlled by the African Union
The American-Scandinavian Foundation, a non-profit organization
American Steel Foundries
Army Service Forces, a 1940s-era US military command, distinct from the Army Air Forces or Army Ground Forces.
ASF Mexico (American School Foundation, A.C.)
Asian Sailing Federation
Australian Softball Federation
Australian Speleological Federation, a caving body in Australia
Avocats Sans Frontières, an international non-governmental organization
Superior Auditor of the Federation (Spanish: Auditoría Superior de la Federación)
Swiss Football Association, in French (Association Suisse de Football) and Italian (Associazione Svizzera di Football)
Anglican Students Fellowship, a religious fellowship for Anglican undergraduate students in tertiary institutions specifically mainly Universities predominantly in Nigeria.
Other uses
alt.seduction.fast, a Usenet group
Ashfield railway station, Glasgow, Scotland, National Rail designation
Narimanovo Airport, Astrakhan, Russia, IATA code
ASF may refer to Dr.Amirmahdi Sarikhani fard, who has been getting his doctorate for Dentistry.
See also | [
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225169 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows%20Media%20Video | Windows Media Video | Windows Media Video (WMV) is a series of video codecs and their corresponding video coding formats developed by Microsoft. It is part of the Windows Media framework. WMV consists of three distinct codecs: The original video compression technology known as WMV, was originally designed for Internet streaming applications, as a competitor to RealVideo. The other compression technologies, WMV Screen and WMV Image, cater for specialized content. After standardization by the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE), WMV version 9 was adapted for physical-delivery formats such as HD DVD and Blu-ray Disc and became known as VC-1. Microsoft also developed a digital container format called Advanced Systems Format to store video encoded by Windows Media Video.
History
In 2003, Microsoft drafted a video compression specification based on its WMV 9 format and submitted it to SMPTE for standardization. The standard was officially approved in March 2006 as SMPTE 421M, better known as VC-1, thus making the WMV 9 format an open standard. VC-1 became one of the three video formats for the Blu-ray video disc, along with H.262/MPEG-2 Part 2 and H.264/MPEG-4 AVC.
Container format
A WMV file uses the Advanced Systems Format (ASF) container format to encapsulate the encoded multimedia content. While the ASF can encapsulate multimedia in other encodings than those the WMV file standard specifies, those ASF files should use the file extension and not the file extension.
The ASF container can optionally support digital rights management using a combination of elliptic curve cryptography key exchange, DES block cipher, a custom block cipher, RC4 stream cipher and the SHA-1 hashing function.
Although WMV is generally packed into the ASF container format, it can also be put into the Matroska container format (with file extension ), or AVI container format (extension ). One common way to store WMV in an AVI file is to use the WMV 9 Video Compression Manager (VCM) codec implementation.
Video compression formats
Windows Media Video
Windows Media Video (WMV) is the most recognized video compression format within the WMV family. Usage of the term WMV often refers to the Microsoft Windows Media Video format only. Its main competitors are MPEG-4 AVC, AVS, RealVideo, and MPEG-4 ASP. The first version of the format, WMV 7, was introduced in 1999, and was built upon Microsoft's implementation of MPEG-4 Part 2. Continued proprietary development led to newer versions of the format, but the bit stream syntax was not frozen until WMV 9. While all versions of WMV support variable bit rate, average bit rate, and constant bit rate, WMV 9 introduced several important features including native support for interlaced video, non-square pixels, and frame interpolation. WMV 9 also introduced a new profile titled Windows Media Video 9 Professional, which is activated automatically whenever the video resolution exceeds 300,000 pixels (e.g., 528 px × 576 px, 640 px × 480 px or 768 px × 432 px and beyond) and the bitrate 1000 kbit/s. It is targeted towards high-definition video content, at resolutions such as 720p and 1080p.
The Simple and Main profile levels in WMV 9 are compliant with the same profile levels in the VC-1 specification. The Advanced Profile in VC-1 is implemented in a new WMV format called Windows Media Video 9 Advanced Profile. It improves compression efficiency for interlaced content and is made transport-independent, making it able to be encapsulated in an MPEG transport stream or RTP packet format. The format is not compatible with previous WMV 9 formats, however.
WMV is a mandatory video format for PlaysForSure-certified online stores and devices, as well as Portable Media Center devices. The Microsoft Zune, Xbox 360, Windows Mobile-powered devices with Windows Media Player, as well as many uncertified devices, support the format. WMV HD mandates the use of WMV 9 for its certification program, at quality levels specified by Microsoft. WMV used to be the only supported video format for the Microsoft Silverlight platform, but the H.264 format is now also supported starting with version 3.
Windows Media Video Screen
Windows Media Video Screen (WMV Screen) are video formats that specialise in screencast content. They can capture live screen content, or convert video from third-party screen-capture programs into WMV 9 Screen files. They work best when the source material is mainly static and contains a small color palette.
One of the uses for the format is computer step-by-step demonstration videos. The first version of the format was WMV 7 Screen. The second version, WMV 9 Screen, supports VBR encoding in addition to CBR. Additionally there is MSA1 (aka “MS ATC Screen codec” or “MSS3”) which is used in Live Meeting 2007. FourCCs for the formats are MSS1, MSS2 and MSA1.
Windows Media Video Image
Windows Media Video Image (WMV Image) is a video slideshow format. The format works by applying timing, panning and transition effects to a series of images during playback. The codec achieves a higher compression ratio and image quality than WMV 9 for still images as files encoded with WMV Image store static images rather than full-motion video.
Since the format relies on the decoder (player) to generate video frames in real-time, playing WMV Image files even at moderate resolutions (e.g. 30 frames per second at 1024 px × 768 px resolution) requires heavy computer processing. The latest version of the format, WMV 9.1 Image, used by Photo Story 3, features additional transformation effects, but is not compatible with the original WMV 9 Image format.
Hardware support for WMV Image is available from Portable Media Centers, Windows Mobile-powered devices with Windows Media Player 10 Mobile.
Since no known domestic DVD player supports this format, users of Photo Story 3 wishing to generate material capable of being played in a DVD player will first have to convert to MPEG-2 before burning a DVD (average file sizes in MPEG-2 are 5 to 6 times the .wmv file).
Versions
Audio compression formats
The audio format used in conjunction with Windows Media Video is typically some version of Windows Media Audio, or in rarer cases, the deprecated Sipro ACELP.net audio format. Microsoft recommends that ASF files containing non-Windows Media formats use the generic file extension.
Players
Software that can play WMV files includes Windows Media Player, RealPlayer, MPlayer, Media Player Classic, VLC Media Player and K-Multimedia Player. The Microsoft Zune media management software supports the WMV format, but uses a Zune-specific variation of Windows Media DRM which is used by PlaysForSure. Many third-party players exist for various platforms such as Linux that use the FFmpeg implementation of the WMV format.
On the Macintosh platform, Microsoft released a PowerPC version of Windows Media Player for Mac OS X in 2003, but further development of the software ceased. From January 2006 to May 2014, Microsoft endorsed and distributed the 3rd party Flip4Mac, a QuickTime Component developed by Telestream that allowed Macintosh users to play WMV files in any player that used the QuickTime framework. Telestream ended sales of Flip4Mac on 1 July 2019 and officially ended support on 28 June 2020.
Encoders
Many programs can export video in WMV format; a few examples are Windows Movie Maker, Windows Media Encoder, Microsoft Expression Encoder, Sorenson Squeeze, Sony Vegas Pro, AVS Video Editor, VSDC Free Video Editor, Telestream Episode, Telestream FlipFactory, and FFmpeg.
Programs that encode using the WMV Image format include Windows Media Encoder, AVS Video Editor, and Photo Story.
Digital rights management
While none of the WMV formats themselves contain any digital rights management facilities, the ASF container format, in which a WMV stream may be encapsulated, can. Windows Media DRM, which can be used in conjunction with WMV, supports time-limited subscription video services such as those offered by CinemaNow. Windows Media DRM, a component of PlaysForSure and Windows Media Connect, is supported on many modern portable video devices and streaming media clients such as the Xbox 360.
Criticism
WMV has been the subject of numerous complaints from users and the press. Users dislike the digital rights management system which is sometimes attached to WMV files. In 2007, the loss of the ability to restore licenses for WMV files in the Windows Media Player 11 was not positively received.
See also
JPEG XR/HDHD, an image file format and format developed by Microsoft
References
External links
Description of the algorithm used for Windows Media encryption
Demonstration of WMV 9 delivering 720p video at 1.8 mbit/s ABR
Demonstration of WMV 9 delivering 1080p video at 10 mbit/s ABR
History of Windows Media Player (archived 2009)
Video codecs
Microsoft proprietary codecs
Microsoft Windows multimedia technology
Digital rights management systems | [
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225170 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnotiformes | Gymnotiformes | The Gymnotiformes are an order of teleost bony fishes commonly known as the Neotropical or South American knifefish. They have long bodies and swim using undulations of their elongated anal fin. Found almost exclusively in fresh water (the only exceptions are species that occasionally may visit brackish water to feed), these mostly nocturnal fish are capable of producing electric fields for navigation, communication, and, in the case of the electric eel (Electrophorus electricus), attack and defense. A few species are familiar to the aquarium trade, such as the black ghost knifefish (Apteronotus albifrons), the glass knifefish (Eigenmannia virescens), and the banded knifefish (Gymnotus carapo).
Description
Aside from the electric eel (Electrophorus electricus), Gymnotiformes are slender fish with narrow bodies and tapering tails, hence the common name of "knifefishes". They have neither pelvic fins nor dorsal fins, but do possess greatly elongated anal fins that stretch along almost the entire underside of their bodies. The fish swim by rippling this fin, keeping their bodies rigid. This means of propulsion allows them to move backwards as easily as they move forward.
The knifefish has approximately one hundred and fifty fin rays along its ribbon-fin. These individual fin rays can be curved nearly twice the maximum recorded curvature for ray-finned fish fin rays during locomotion. These fin rays are curved into the direction of motion, indicating that the knifefish has active control of the fin ray curvature, and that this curvature is not the result of passive bending due to fluid loading.
Different wave patterns produced along the length of the elongated anal fin allow for various forms of thrust. The wave motion of the fin resembles traveling sinusoidal waves. A forward traveling wave can be associated with forward motion, while a wave in the reverse direction produces thrust in the opposite direction. This undulating motion of the fin produced a system of linked vortex tubes that were produced along the bottom edge of the fin. A jet was produced at an angle to the fin that was directly related to the vortex tubes, and this jet provides propulsion that moves the fish forward. The wave motion of the fin is similar to that of other marine creatures, such as the undulation of the body of an eel, however the wake vortex produced by the knifefish was found to be a reverse Kármán vortex. This type of vortex is also produced by some fish, such as trout, through the oscillations of their caudal fins. The speed at which the fish moved through the water had no correlation to the amplitude of its undulations, however it was directly related to the frequency of the waves generated.
Studies have shown that the natural angle between the body of the knifefish and its fin is essential for efficient forward motion, for if the anal fin was located directly underneath, then an upwards force would be generated with forward thrust, which would require an additional downwards force in order to maintain neutral buoyancy. A combination of forward and reverse wave patterns, which meet towards the center of the anal fin, produce a heave force allowing for hovering, or upwards movement.
The ghost knifefish can vary the undulation of the waves, as well as the angle of attack of the fin to achieve various directional changes. The pectoral fins of these fishes can help to control roll and pitch control. By rolling they can generate a vertical thrust to quickly, and efficiently, ambush their prey. The forward movement is determined exclusively by the ribbon fins and the contribution of the pectoral fins for forward movement was negligible. The body is kept relatively rigid and there is very little motion of the center of mass motion during locomotion compared to the body size of the fish.
The caudal fin is absent, or in the apteronotids, greatly reduced. The gill opening is restricted. The anal opening is under the head or the pectoral fins.
These fish possess electric organs that allow them to produce electricity. In most gymnotiforms, the electric organs are derived from muscle cells. However, adult apteronotids are one exception, as theirs are derived from nerve cells (spinal electromotor neurons). In gymnotiforms, the electric organ discharge may be continuous or pulsed. If continuous, it is generated day and night throughout the entire life of the individual. Certain aspects of the electric signal are unique to each species, especially a combination of the pulse waveform, duration, amplitude, phase and frequency.
The electric organs of most Gymnotiformes produce tiny discharges of just a few millivolts, far too weak to cause any harm to other fish. Instead, they are used to help navigate the environment, including locating the bottom-dwelling invertebrates that compose their diets. They may also be used to send signals between fish of the same species. In addition to this low-level field, the electric eel also has the capability to produce much more powerful discharges to stun prey.
Taxonomy
There are currently about 250 valid gymnotiform species in 34 genera and five families, with many additional species known but yet to be formally described. The actual number of species in the wild is unknown. Gymnotiformes is thought to be the sister group to the Siluriformes from which they diverged in the Cretaceous period (about 120 million years ago).
The families are classified over suborders and superfamilies as below.
Order Gymnotiformes
Suborder Gymnotoidei
Family Gymnotidae (banded knifefishes and electric eels)
Suborder Sternopygoidei
Superfamily Rhamphichthyoidea
Family Rhamphichthyidae (sand knifefishes)
Family Hypopomidae (bluntnose knifefishes)
Superfamily Apteronotoidea
Family Sternopygidae (glass and rat-tail knifefishes)
Family Apteronotidae (ghost knifefishes)
Distribution and habitat
Gymnotiform fishes inhabit freshwater rivers and streams throughout the humid Neotropics, ranging from southern Mexico to northern Argentina. They are nocturnal fishes. The families Gymnotidae and Hypopomidae are most diverse (numbers of species) and abundant (numbers of individuals) in small nonfloodplain streams and rivers, and in floodplain "floating meadows" of aquatic macrophytes (e.g., Eichornium, the Amazonian water hyacinth). Apteronotidae and Sternopygidae are most diverse and abundant in large rivers. Species of Rhamphichthyidae are moderately diverse in all these habitat types.
Evolution
Gymnotiformes are among the more derived members of Ostariophysi, a lineage of primary freshwater fishes. The only known fossils are from the Miocene about 7 million years ago (Mya) of Bolivia.
Gymnotiformes has no extant species in Africa. This may be because they did not spread into Africa before South America and Africa split, or it may be that they were out-competed by Mormyridae, which are similar in that they also use electrolocation.
Approximately 150 Mya, the ancestor to modern-day Gymnotiformes and Siluriformes were estimated to have convergently evolved ampullary receptors, allowing for passive electroreceptive capabilities. As this characteristic occurred after the prior loss of electroreception among the subclass Neopterygii after having been present in the common ancestor of vertebrates, the ampullary receptors of Gymnotiformes are not homologous with those of other jawed non-teleost species, such as chondricthyans.
Gymnotiformes and Mormyridae have developed their electric organs and electrosensory systems (ESSs) through convergent evolution. As Arnegard et al. (2005) and Albert and Crampton (2005) show, their last common ancestor was roughly 140 to 208 Mya, and at this time they did not possess ESSs. Each species of Mormyrus (family: Mormyridae) and Gymnotus (family: Gymnotidae) have evolved a unique waveform that allows the individual fish to identify between species, genders, individuals and even between mates with better fitness levels. The differences include the direction of the initial phase of the wave (positive or negative, which correlates to the direction of the current through the electrocytes in the electric organ), the amplitude of the wave, the frequency of the wave, and the number of phases of the wave.
One significant force driving this evolution is predation. The most common predators of Gymnotiformes include the closely related Siluriformes (catfish), as well as predation within families (E. electricus is one of the largest predators of Gymnotus). These predators sense electric fields, but only at low frequencies, thus certain species of Gymnotiformes, such as those in Gymnotus, have shifted the frequency of their signals so they can be effectively invisible.
Sexual selection is another driving force with an unusual influence, in that females exhibit preference for males with low-frequency signals (which are more easily detected by predators), but most males exhibit this frequency only intermittently. Females prefer males with low-frequency signals because they indicate a higher fitness of the male. Since these low-frequency signals are more conspicuous to predators, the emitting of such signals by males shows that they are capable of evading predation. Therefore, the production of low-frequency signals is under competing evolutionary forces: it is selected against due to the eavesdropping of electric predators, but is favored by sexual selection due to its attractiveness to females. Females also prefer males with longer pulses, also energetically expensive, and large tail lengths. These signs indicate some ability to exploit resources, thus indicating better lifetime reproductive success.
Genetic drift is also a factor contributing to the diversity of electric signals observed in Gymnotiformes. Reduced gene flow due to geographical barriers has led to vast differences signal morphology in different streams and drainages.
See also
Electric fish
Bioelectromagnetism
References
External links
Photos of various gymnotiforms
Electroreceptive animals
Extant Late Jurassic first appearances
Ray-finned fish orders | [
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225176 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simo%2C%20Finland | Simo, Finland | Simo is a municipality located in the province of Lapland, Finland, about from the Swedish border.
The municipality has a population of () and covers an area of of which is water. The population density is . In 2001, Simo's debt per capita was 946.39 Euros.
Simo's three largest neighbouring towns are Oulu ( inhabitants), Kemi ( inhabitants) and Tornio ( inhabitants). Some of the bigger neighbouring municipalities are Keminmaa ( inhabitants) and Ii ( inhabitants).
History
Early history
The oldest residential areas of Simo are the Simonkylä and Maksniemi regions. The oldest records of human habitation within Simo is found in the village of Simonkylä, which was occupied during the 1300s. In the 1500s the population of Simo began to grow as a result of migration, the population increased especially in the villages of Simonkylä and Simoniemi. Simo was known for its large farms and fishermen.
Development over the course of time
In the 1800s the population gradually began to expand along the beaches of the Simojoki river. In the year of 1865, a large municipal reform occurred in which the municipality, named Simo, received its actual borders, even though the area had long been referred to as Simo and the residents as simolaiset.
Lapland War
During the Lapland War, the village of Maksniemi suffered serious damage. Bridges along the Simojoki river were blown up by the German forces, which is why for quite some time after the war Simojoki had to be crossed by ferry. The destruction of the connection that the bridges provided was important as it cut off the municipality of Simo from Finnish Highway Four.
Landscape
Simo is situated by the Bothnian Bay, at the mouth of river Simojoki. In Simo there is a rural landscape and also in the planning of the centre an attempt has been made to emphasise the nature vicinity. Simo consists of many small and vital village communities. Simo's sights include Simo's Church which was completed in 1846 during the late Empire time and light infantryman place with its statues which will be a memory from the war of independence when the route goes through Simo's wildernesses.
Islands within Simo
Islands within Simo are inclusive of Haahka, Halttari, Harvakari, Härkäletto, Junkiletto, Koivuluoto, Korkiakari, Kuralanletto, Laitakari, Lammasletto, Leipäre, Leipäreenkrunni, Lissabon, Louekari, Montaja, Munakari, Möyly, Oravainen, Paavonletto, Palokarinletto, Paskaletto, Pensasletot, Peurankallio, Pihlajakari, Pikku-Leipäre, Pirttisaari, Rajaletto, Saapaskari, Selkäkari, Selkäkarinmatala, Tiuranen, Tiurasenkalla, Tiurasenkrunni, Tynttyrit, Vatunki, Ykskivi and Ööperit.
School systems
Simo has three elementary schools, one secondary school and a high school. The nearest university is in Oulu.
Industry
In Simo there is no industry. In 2007–2011, Fennovoima considered to build a 1,500 to 2,500 megawatt nuclear power plant in Karsikko and Laitakari. However, Fennovoima announced in October 2011 that the power plant would be built at Pyhäjoki.
Villages
The villages of Simo are inclusive of Alaniemi, Asemakylä, Hamari, Karisuvanto, Koivuoja, Maksniemi, Malininperä, Matala, Ojalanperä, Onkalonperä, Patokoski, Pömiö, Simoniemi, Simonkylä, Siperianperä, Soikko, Taininiemi, Viantie and Ylikärppä.
Notable individuals
Aarne Orjatsalo, actor
Esko Tavia, Mayor of Simo from 2002 - 2015
Juha Marttila, MTK chairman
Martti Miettunen, Minister of State, three times Prime Minister
Matti Lackman, Ph.D, principal investigator and philosopher
Seppo Lohi, Doctor of Theology
Tuomas Lohi, Mayor of Kempele
Veikko Huovinen, writer (born in Simo)
References
External links
Municipality of Simo – Official website
Populated coastal places in Finland
Populated places established in 1608
1608 establishments in Sweden | [
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