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225178	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20rights	Personality rights	The right of publicity, sometimes referred to as personality rights, is the right of an individual to control the commercial use of one's identity, such as name, image, likeness, or other unequivocal identifiers. It is generally considered a property right as opposed to a personal right, and as such, the validity of the right of publicity can survive the death of the individual (to varying degrees depending on the jurisdiction). Classification Personality rights are generally considered to consist of two types of rights: the right of publicity, or the right to keep one's image and likeness from being commercially exploited without permission or contractual compensation, which is similar (but not identical) to the use of a trademark; and the right to privacy, or the right to be left alone and not have one's personality represented publicly without permission. In common law jurisdictions, publicity rights fall into the realm of the tort of passing off. United States jurisprudence has substantially extended this right. A commonly cited justification for this doctrine, from a policy standpoint, is the notion of natural rights and the idea that every individual should have a right to control how their right of publicity is commercialized by a third party, if at all. Often, though certainly not always, the motivation to engage in such commercialization is to help propel sales or visibility for a product or service, which usually amounts to some form of commercial speech (which in turn receives the lowest level of judicial scrutiny). Civil law and common law jurisdictions In contrast with common law jurisdictions, most civil law jurisdictions have specific civil code provisions that protect an individual's image, personal data and other generally private information. Exceptions have been carved out of these general, broad privacy rights when dealing with news and public figures. Thus, while it may violate an ordinary citizen's privacy to speak about their medical records, one is generally allowed to report on more intimate details in the lives of celebrities and politicians. Unlike most common law jurisdictions the personality rights in civil law are generally inheritable, thus one can make a claim against someone who invades the privacy of a deceased relative if the memory of their character is besmirched by such publication. Personality rights have developed out of common law concepts of property, trespass and intentional tort. Thus personality rights are, generally speaking, judge-made law, though there are jurisdictions where some aspects of personality rights are statutory. In some jurisdictions, publicity rights and privacy rights are not clearly distinguished, and the term publicity right is generally used. In a publicity rights case the issue to decide is whether a significant section of the public would be misled into believing (incorrectly) that a commercial arrangement had been concluded between a plaintiff and a defendant under which the plaintiff agreed to the advertising involving the image or reputation of a famous person. The actionable misrepresentation requires a suggestion that the plaintiff has endorsed or licensed the defendant's products, or somehow can exercise control over those products. This is done by way of the tort of passing off. The meaning of the law is best illustrated by principal cases on the subject. Country-specific jurisdictions Australia In Australia, false association or endorsement is actionable via the law of passing off, not a separate law of "right of personality". The Henderson case was a decision of the Supreme Court of New South Wales (both the first instance and appellate jurisdiction). The plaintiffs were ballroom dancers and they sued the defendant in passing off alleging it wrongfully published their photograph on the cover of a gramophone record entitled Strictly for Dancing: Vol. 1. An injunction was granted on the ground that the use suggested the plaintiffs recommended or approved of the defendant's goods, or had some connection with the goods. However, in the 1988 case of Honey v Australian Airlines, Gary Honey, a well known Australian athlete failed in his attempt to get a damages award after Australian Airlines used a photograph of him in action on a poster without his permission. The judge held, in essence, that the poster depicted excellence in general rather than a particular person. Canada Statutory protection The provinces of British Columbia, Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Saskatchewan have enacted privacy legislation dealing with personality rights, which have the following traits: An appropriation of personality can be achieved through the use of a person's name, likeness, or voice (but British Columbia has a more restrictive definition). The plaintiff must be identified or identifiable by the use made of his persona. An action for the appropriation of personality can only succeed where the defendant intended to commit the wrong (but British Columbia has no "intention" requirement). The defendant's use of the plaintiff's persona must have resulted in a gain or advantage for the defendant (but British Columbia has a more restrictive definition, relating only to commercial gain). An appropriation of personality is actionable without proof of damages. The right of action for appropriation of personality is extinguished upon the death of the person whose privacy was violated. The following constitute statutory defences in all four provinces: (i) that the plaintiff consented to the use of his persona; (ii) that the use of the plaintiff's persona was incidental to the exercise of a lawful right of defence of person or property; (iii) that the use was authorized or required under a provincial law or by a court, or any process of a court; and (iv) that the act was that of a peace officer acting in the course of his or her duties. The Manitoba Act provides additional defences. Common law provinces Canadian common law recognizes a limited right to personality. It was first acknowledged in the 1971 Ontario decision of Krouse v. Chrysler Canada Ltd., where the Court held that where a person has marketable value in their likeness and it has been used in a manner that suggests an endorsement of a product then there is grounds for an action in appropriation of personality. This right was later expanded upon in Athans v. Canadian Adventure Camps (1977) where the Court held that the personality right included both image and name. In Gould Estate v. Stoddart Publishing Co. Ltd. (1998), the Ontario Court of Appeal concluded that simply writing about somebody, even for the purpose of generating a profit, does not constitute appropriation of personality. The general tort of appropriation of personality is still in development, but it is currently being argued that it will be recognized in all common law provinces, with certain characteristics: Athans confirms that there is "a proprietary right in the exclusive marketing for gain of his personality, image and name..." There is always a requirement that the plaintiff be identifiable. An action for appropriation of personality will have to be intentional for a plaintiff to recover at common law. There is a requirement that the defendant must have acted for the purpose of commercial gain, but Gould suggests that this may be restricted to "endorsement-type situations". It is a matter of uncertainty whether the common law tort of appropriation of personality is actionable per se or whether damages must be shown. Privacy rights are extinguished upon death, but personality rights are inheritable. A defendant will not be liable for an appropriation of personality at common law where: (i) he has consented to the use of his persona; (ii) the use made of his personality rights was merely incidental to another purpose; or (iii) the publication constituted a matter of public interest. Quebec In 1994, the new Civil Code of Quebec introduced new provisions that enshrine the right to privacy as an attribute of personality: In Aubry v Éditions Vice-Versa Inc, the Supreme Court of Canada also affirmed that under Quebec's Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms privacy provisions, a photographer can take photographs in public places but may not publish the picture unless permission has been obtained from the subject, except where the subject appears in an incidental manner, or whose professional success depends on public opinion. The relevant provisions of the Charter are: Therefore, the following general characteristics may be drawn: An appropriation of personality can be realized through the use of a person's name, likeness, or voice. The plaintiff must be recognizable in order an appropriation of personality to be actionable. There is no need for the courts to look for an element of intent. Distinctions based on commercial purposes are irrelevant, and inconsistent with s 9.1 of the Quebec Charter. The plaintiff is required to show that she suffered damage through the appropriation of her personality rights. Quebec law may allow an action to be taken by the estate of a deceased person, provided that it can be proved that there is a patrimonial aspect at stake. A defendant will not be liable for an appropriation of personality under Quebec law where: (i) the plaintiff expressly or impliedly consented to the appropriation of his personality; (ii) the use of the individual's persona is incidental to another purpose; (iii) the appropriation of personality is authorized by law; or (iv) the publication is a matter of public interest. Cyprus In Cyprus, people depicted in photographs can oppose their use in advertisements and their publication in magazines, even if it was taken in a public place. Denmark In Denmark, the Danish Penal Code chapters 26 and 27, provides certain personality rights. The governmental Danish Data Protection Agency, has made a declaration regarding publication on the Internet of pictures taken of persons in a public area: The predominant point of reference, is that any publication of a portrait photograph requires consent [of the person depicted]. The reasoning for this, is that such a publication might provide the depicted person with discomfort, possibly with other information such as name, of the publication for all with access to the internet, and the considerations of this discomfort is judged as more important than a possible interest in publication. A portrait photograph is defined as a photograph, with the purpose of depicting one or more specific person(s). The personality rights however may be contracted for persons who are generally accepted as public persons. France In France personality rights are protected under article 9 of the French civil code. While publicly known facts and images of public figures are not generally protected, use of someone's image or personal history has been held actionable under French law. The most famous case in recent history is perhaps the publication of the book on François Mitterrand called Le Grand Secret in which Mitterrand's doctor published a book that not only revealed private facts about Mitterrand's life, but also revealed medical confidences protected by doctor–patient privilege. Germany In Germany personality rights are protected under the German civil code, where the concept of an "absolute person of contemporary history" allows the depiction of individuals who are part of history but still gives them some protection of their rights of privacy outside the public sphere. A succinct statement of the German law can be found in the following judicial statement from the Marlene Dietrich case: the general right of personality has been recognised in the case law of the Bundesgerichtshof since 1954 as a basic right constitutionally guaranteed by Arts 1 and 2 of the Basic Law and at the same time as an "other right" protected in civil law under § 823 (1) of the BGB (established case law since BGHZ 13, 334, 338 - readers' letters). It guarantees as against all the world the protection of human dignity and the right to free development of the personality. Special forms of manifestation of the general right of personality are the right to one's own picture (§§ 22 ff. of the KUG) and the right to one's name (§ 12 of the BGB). They guarantee protection of the personality for the sphere regulated by them. In addition to the general personality rights, there are special rules that forbid taking intimate pictures without consent (§ 184k StGB), and that forbid taking pictures which violate the “most personal sphere” of those pictured (§ 201 StGB - in particular, photos of private situations such as inside the bedroom, and photos of helpless persons, such as accident victims). In contrast to the general rules about the right to one's image, these rules also apply to just taking images, not only to publishing them. Portugal In Portugal personality rights are protected under the tutela geral da personalidade on article 70 of the Portuguese Civil Code and, also, in article 17 of the Constitution of the Portuguese Republic. Some personality rights, like the right to image or honor are specifically typified in the civil code in the articles following the tutela geral. Greece The relevant Greek laws include 57 AK and 2472/1997. As regarding photography: Taking a picture of a person in a public space: Requires consent. Taking a photo or video of someone or drawing them in a painting constitutes an illegal act by itself according to Article 57 of the Greek Civil Code (57 ΑΚ, 57 Αστικός Κώδικας) even without any publication of the resulting photo, video or drawing. The law assumes that consent has been provided silently if the depicted person has been paid for the photography session. The law also provides some exceptions for persons of contemporary history. Furthermore, the law 2472/1997 also applies in many circumstances, even in photographing political rallies in public places or in photographing the police; Greece also requires photographers to obtain a government permit before photographing people participating in political protests in public places. Publishing pictures of a person in a public space: Requires consent. The publication of photographs of identifiable police officers beating civilians in public places may be against the law 2472/1997 and as such these images should be turned to the authorities for review. Commercial use of a published picture of a person in a public space: Requires consent. Guernsey The relevant Guernsey law was enacted on 3 December 2012 under the name of Image Rights Bailiwick of Guernsey Ordinance 2012 and allows for the registration of a personality right, together with images associated with that personality. Images are widely defined and can be any number of personal attributes, such as likeness, mannerisms, gestures, voice, nickname etc. Personalities able to register fall into 5 categories, namely sole, joint, group, legal and fictional character. In addition, humans can be registered up to 100 years after the date of death, making the law very favourable for estate managers and trustees. Hong Kong In Hong Kong, as in most other common law jurisdictions, there is no separate "personality right", and false association or endorsement is actionable under the law of passing off. The main case on this point relates to Cantopop singer/actor Andy Lau and Hang Seng Bank over the allegedly unauthorized use of Lau's image on credit cards, which has led to the observation that only limited personality rights exist in this jurisdiction. Jamaica In a 1994 case involving the estate of Bob Marley, the Supreme Court of Jamaica acknowledged a property right of personality which survived his death. Japan In October 2007, J-pop duo Pink Lady sued Kobunsha for 3.7 million after the publisher's magazine Josei Jishin used photos of the duo on an article on dieting through dancing without their permission. The case was rejected by the Tokyo District Court. In February 2012, the Supreme Court rejected the duo's appeal based on the right of publicity. Korea While personality rights are said to exist to some extent by both influence of constitution, and tort liability, cases filed to enforce such rights against shopping malls have been unsuccessful. People's Republic of China In the People's Republic of China, rights of personality are established by statute. According to article 100 and 101 of the General Principle of Civil Law of the People's Republic of China, the right of name and the right of image are protected. It is prohibited to use another's image for commercial use without that person's consent. In the new Tort Liabilities Law which came into effect on Jan 1, 2021, the right of privacy is mentioned for the first time in the legislation. Iran There are few studies on the right to fame in Iranian law. However, through general principles, an attempt has been made to support celebrities. South Africa In South Africa personality rights are protected under the South African law of delict and the Bill of Rights, which also provides for freedom of expression and freedom of association. After much uncertainty concerning the recognition of image rights in South Africa, the Supreme Court of Appeal provided clarity in the landmark case of Grütter v Lombard. In South Africa, a person's right to identity is violated if the attributes of that person is used without permission in a way which cannot be reconciled with the true image of that person. Apart from the unauthorized use of a person's image, this kind of infringement also entails some kind of misrepresentation concerning the individual, such as that the individual approves or endorses a particular product or service or that an attorney is a partner in a firm, while this is not the case. Secondly, the right to identity is violated if the attributes of a person is used without authorization by another person for commercial gain. Apart from the unauthorized use of the individual's image, such use also primarily entails a commercial motive which is exclusively aimed at promoting a service or product or to solicit clients or customers. The mere fact that the user may benefit or profit from any product or service in respect of which the individual's attributes have incidentally been used, is not in itself sufficient. This violation of the right to identity therefore also entails unauthorized use of the individual's attributes with a commercial purpose, whether it is done by means of advertisement or the manufacture and distribution of merchandise covered with the attributes of the individual. Personality rights are not absolute and it goes without saying that the use of a person's attributes must be unlawful before a plaintiff will succeed with any claim. With the use of a person's image, the personality rights, privacy, human dignity and freedom of association of the individual must often be weighed against the user's right to freedom of expression. The use of a person's image can be justified on the grounds of consent, truth and public interest, fair comment and jest. Spain According to the agency (Spanish) Data Protection for the collection and dissemination on Internet of images of a person without their consent may be a serious breach of the Data Protection Act which would be punishable by a minimum fine of 60,000 euros. According to El Mundo Data Protection Agency decided to investigate ex officio by the mere distribution of the image of a person on the Internet without their consent. United States In the United States, the right of publicity is a state law–based right, as opposed to federal, and recognition of the right can vary from state to state. The rationale underlying the right of publicity in the United States is rooted in both privacy and economic exploitation. The rights are based in tort law, and parallel Prosser's "Four Torts" which might be summarized as: 1) Intrusion upon physical solitude; 2) public disclosure of private facts; 3) depiction in a false light; and 4) appropriation of name and likeness. If looking at it through the prism of Prosser's four torts, violation of a right of publicity most closely aligns with appropriation. The right of publicity often is manifest in advertising or merchandise. In states without a specific right of publicity statute, the right of publicity is usually recognized via common law. The right of publicity has evolved rapidly, with a history of reported cases in the United States and worldwide. The right of publicity is defined as the right of all individuals to control commercial use of their names, images, likenesses, or other identifying aspects of identity. In certain contexts, the right of publicity is limited (under U.S. law) by the First Amendment. The right of publicity can be referred to as publicity rights or even personality rights. The term "right of publicity" was coined by Judge Jerome Frank in 1953. The extent of recognition of this right in the U.S. is largely driven by statute or case law. Because the right of publicity is primarily governed by state (as opposed to federal) law, the degree of recognition of the right of publicity can vary from one state to the next. The right of publicity is not simply an analog to trademark law, though it could be noted that the right of publicity has some commonality with the protection of trademarks as long as one understands that the right of publicity is a distinct legal doctrine, with its own policies, objectives and standards, including notable differences from trademark law. For example, falsity or likelihood of confusion generally do not have to be established to present a colorable right of publicity claim. At a national level, the U.S. Supreme Court held in the 1977 case Zacchini v. Scripps-Howard Broadcasting Co. that the First Amendment did not immunize a television station from liability for broadcasting Hugo Zacchini's human cannonball act without his consent. This was the first, and so far the only, U.S. Supreme Court ruling on rights of publicity and it served to confirm the overall validity of the doctrine and the interests it protects. Indiana has one of the stronger right of publicity statutes in the U.S., providing recognition of the right for 100 years after death, and protecting not only the usual "name, image and likeness", but also signature, photograph, gestures, distinctive appearances, and mannerisms. Notably, Oklahoma also provides 100 years of protection after death, and Tennessee's statute provides rights that do not ever expire if use is continuous. There are other notable characteristics of the Indiana law, though most of the major movement in right of publicity emanates from New York and California, with a significant body of case law which suggest potentially contradictory positions with respect to recognition of the right of publicity under certain circumstances. Some states recognize the right through statute and some others through common law. California has both statutory and common-law strains of authority protecting slightly different forms of the right. The right of publicity shares characteristics of a property right and as such is transferable to the person's heirs after their death. The Celebrities Rights Act was passed in California in 1985 and it extended the personality rights for a celebrity to 70 years after their death. Previously, the 1979 Lugosi v. Universal Pictures decision by the California Supreme Court held that Bela Lugosi's personality rights could not pass to his heirs. In October 1990, actor Crispin Glover filed a lawsuit against Universal Studios for both the unauthorized use of his likeness and the use of footage of him from Back to the Future in Back to the Future Part II; his permission had not been sought for the latter and he received no payment. After a motion to dismiss was denied, the case was settled for an undisclosed amount. The Screen Actors Guild changed its rules to prohibit its members from unauthorized mimicking of other SAG members. In September 2002, Tom Cruise and Nicole Kidman sued luxury cosmetics company Sephora for allegedly using a picture of them without permission in a brochure promoting perfumes. In March 2003, eight members of the cast of The Sopranos alleged that electronics retailer Best Buy used their images in newspaper ads without permission. In the July 2003 case of ETW Corp. v. Jireh Publishing ruled that a painting of the golfer Tiger Woods and others is protected by the US Constitution's First Amendment and treads neither on the golfer's trademarks nor publicity rights. Similarly in the July 2003 case of Johnny and Edgar Winter v. DC Comics, a depiction of blues music duo the Winter brothers in a comic book as worms called the Autumn Brothers obtained First Amendment protection from publicity rights suit. In May 2005, Toney v. Oreal USA Inc. clarified the distinction between the purview of copyright versus the nature of publicity rights. The 2006 New York County Supreme Court case Nussenzweig v. DiCorcia, after dismissing the complaint on statute of limitations grounds, held in the alternative that personality rights are limited by First Amendment rights of artistic freedom of expression. The decision was affirmed on appeal by the Appellate Division and the Court of Appeals, but those courts only addressed the statute of limitations holding, not the First Amendment holding. In 2008, a federal judge in California ruled that Marilyn Monroe's right of publicity were not protectable in California. The court reasoned that since Monroe was domiciled in New York at the time of her death, and New York does not protect a celebrity's deceased right of publicity and that her right of publicity ended upon her death. In the 2009 case of James "Jim" Brown v. Electronic Arts, Inc., the District Court of the Central District of California dismissed athlete Jim Brown's theory of false endorsement under the Lanham Act and determined that the First Amendment protects the unauthorized use of a trademark in an artistic work when the mark has artistic relevance to the work and does not explicitly mislead as to the source or content of the work. Applying this test, the court found a lack of implied endorsement and held that the First Amendment protected Electronic Arts in its use of a virtual football player that resembled Mr. Brown. On April 29, 2020, the NCAA Board of Governors supported proposed rules for college athletes expected to take effect in 2021. The rules would allow athletes to be paid for use of their name, image and likeness (NIL) in endorsements and appearances. U.S. states that recognize rights of publicity See also Notes References Sources Further reading Cornelius, Steve. "Image Rights in South Africa" 2008/3-4 International Sports Law Journal 71. Cornelius, Steve. "Commercial Appropriation of a Person's Image" 2011 Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal 182. Cornelius, Steve. "Commercial Appropriation of Image: How Could Two Courts Get it so Wrong?" 2011/3-4 International Sports Law Journal 165. External links Harvard Law School primer on personality rights and copyright Text of every individual state's right of publicity statute in the U.S. US constitutional constraints on state right of publicity laws by Jerry Marr Case of Princess Caroline of Monaco (1995) German Federal Supreme Court (English translation) Privacy rights cases under French law (English translation) Privacy/personality rights under German law (English translation) Personality rights US Library of Congress Das Recht am eigenen Bild, speech by G. Hug at a symposium in 2002 in Vitznau in Switzerland on personality rights in Switzerland regarding the publication of images of people. (In German.) Legal resource for personality rights cases in the U.S. "Personality Rights in Canada: An Introduction", School of Law, University of Edinburgh Personality Rights Database - Personality rights in Argentina, Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Mexico, South Africa, Spain, UK and US Douglas v Hello! - An OK! result, Gillian Black (University of Edinburgh), SCRIPT-ed, June 2007 Video Gamemaker's Unauthorized Use of Jim Brown's Likeness Protected by the First Amendment by Jack C. 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225179	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial%20design%20right	Industrial design right	An industrial design right is an intellectual property right that protects the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern and color in three-dimensional form containing aesthetic value. An industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Under the Hague Agreement Concerning the International Deposit of Industrial Designs, a WIPO-administered treaty, a procedure for an international registration exists. To qualify for registration, the national laws of most member states of WIPO require the design to be novel. An applicant can file for a single international deposit with WIPO or with the national office in a country party to the treaty. The design will then be protected in as many member countries of the treaty as desired. Design rights started in the United Kingdom in 1787 with the Designing and Printing of Linen Act and have expanded from there. Registering for an industrial design right is related to granting a patent. Law making Kenya According to industrial property Act 2001, an industrial design is defined as "any composition of lines or colours or any three-dimensional form whether or not associated with lines or colours, provided that such composition or form gives a special appearance to a product of industry or handicraft and can serve as pattern for a product of industry or handicraft" . An industrial design is registrable if it is new. An industrial design is deemed to be new if it has not been disclosed to the public, anywhere in the world, by publication in tangible form or, in Kenya by use or in any other way, prior to the filing date or, where applicable, the priority date of the application for registration. However a disclosure of the industrial design is not taken into consideration if it occurred not earlier than twelve months before the filing date or, where applicable, the priority date of the application and if it was by reason or in consequence of acts committed by the applicant or his predecessor in title; or an evident abuse committed by a third party in relation to the applicant or his predecessor in title. India India's Design Act, 2000 was enacted to consolidate and amend the law relating to protection of design and to comply with the articles 25 and 26 of Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights TRIPS agreement. The new act, (earlier Patent and Design Act, 1911 was repealed by this act) now defines "design" to mean only the features of shape, configuration, pattern, ornament, or composition of lines or colours applied to any article, whether in two- or three-dimensional, or in both forms, by any industrial process or means, whether manual or mechanical or chemical, separate or combined, which in the finished article appeal to and are judged solely by the eye; but does not include any mode or principle of construction. Indonesia In Indonesia the protection of the Right to Industrial Design shall be granted for 10 (ten) years commencing from the filing date and there is not any renewal or annuity after the given period. Industrial Designs that are Granted Protection 1. The Right to Industrial Design shall be granted for an Industrial Design that is novel/new 2. An Industrial Design shall be deemed new if on the filing date, such Industrial Design is not the same as any previous disclosure. 3. The previous disclosure as referred to in point 2 shall be one which before : a. The filing date or b. The Priority Date, if the applicant is filed with priority right. c. Has been announced or used in Indonesia or outside Indonesia. An industrial design shall not be deemed to have been announced if within the period of 6 (six) months at the latest before the filing date, such industrial design a. Has been displayed in a national or international exhibition in Indonesia or overseas that is official or deemed to be official; or, b. Has been used in Indonesia by the designer in an experiment for the purposes of education, research or development. Canada Canadian law affords ten years of protection to industrial designs that are registered; there is no protection for unregistered designs. The Industrial Design Act defines "design" or "industrial design" to mean "features of shape, configuration, pattern or ornament and any combination of those features that, in a finished article, appeal to and are judged solely by the eye." The design must also be original: in 2012, the Patent Appeal Board rejected a design for a trash can, and gave guidance as to what the Act requires: The degree of originality required to register an original design is greater than that laid down by Canadian copyright legislation, but less than that required to register a patent. The articles being compared should not be examined side by side, but separate so that imperfect recollection comes into play. One is to look at the design as a whole. Any change must be substantial. It must not be trivial or infinitesimal. During the existence of an exclusive right, no person can "make, import for the purpose of trade or business, or sell, rent, or offer or expose for sale or rent, any article in respect of which the design is registered." The rule also applies to kits and substantial differences are in reference to previously published designs. Registering an industrial design in Canada may be appropriate for a variety of articles such as consumer products, vehicles, sports equipment, packaging, etc., having an original aesthetic appearance, and may even be used to protect new technologies such as electronic icons. Industrial designs can also serve to complement other forms of intellectual property rights such as patents and trade-marks. The Canadian courts see infrequent litigation concerning industrial designs the first case in almost two decades took place in 2012 between Bodum and Trudeau Corporation concerning visual features of double wall drinking glasses. It is possible for a registered design to also receive protection under Canadian copyright or trademark law: a "useful article" (ie, one with a utilitarian function) will receive copyright protection where it is reproduced in a quantity of fifty or less, but that limitation does not apply with respect to: a graphic or photographic representation that is applied to the face of an article a trade-mark or a representation thereof or a label material that has a woven or knitted pattern or that is suitable for piece goods or surface coverings or for making wearing apparel a representation of a real or fictitious being, event or place that is applied to an article as a feature of shape, configuration, pattern or ornament where a registered design has become publicly identifiable with the product, it may be eligible for registration as a "distinguishing guise" under trademark law, but such registration cannot be used to limit the development of any art or industry European Union Registered and unregistered community designs are available which provide a unitary right covering the European Community. Protection for a registered community design is for up to 25 years, subject to the payment of renewal fees every five years. The unregistered community design lasts for three years after a design is made available to the public and infringement only occurs if the protected design has been copied. United Kingdom Legislation given in Britain during the years 1787 to 1839 protected designs for textiles. The Copyright of Design Act passed in 1842 allowed other material designs, such as those for metal and earthenware objects, to be registered with a diamond mark to indicate the date of registration. In addition to the design protection available under community designs, UK law provides its own national registered design right (Registered Designs Act 1949, later amended by Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988) and an unregistered design right. The unregistered right, which exists automatically if the requirements are met, can last for up to 15 years. The registered design right can last up to 25 years subject to the payment of maintenance fees. The topography of semi-conductor circuits are also covered by integrated circuit layout design protection, a form of protection which lasts 10 years. Japan Article 1 of the Japanese Design Law states: "This law was designed to protect and utilize designs and to encourage creation of designs in order to contribute to industrial development". The protection period in Japan is 20 years from the day of registration. United States U.S. design patents last fifteen years from the date of grant if filed on or after May 13, 2015 (fourteen years if filed before May 13, 2015) and cover the ornamental aspects of utilitarian objects. Objects that lack a use beyond that conferred by their appearance or the information they convey, may be covered by copyright—a form of intellectual property of much longer duration that exists as soon as a qualifying work is created. In some circumstances, rights may also be acquired in trade dress, but trade dress protection is akin to trademark rights and requires that the design have source significance or "secondary meaning." It is useful only to prevent source misrepresentations; trade dress protection. Australia In Australia, design patent registration lasts for 5 years, with an option to be extended once for an additional 5 years. For the patent to be granted, a formalities exam is needed. If infringement action is to be taken, the design needs to become certified which involves a substantive examination. Duration of design rights Depending on the jurisdiction registered design rights have a duration between 15 and 50 years. Members of the WIPO Hague system have to publish their maximum term of protection for design rights. These terms are presented in the table below. Some of the jurisdiction below are unions or collaborative office for design registration like the African Intellectual Property Organization, the European Union and the Benelux. Bibliography Brian W. Gray & Effie Bouzalas, editors, Industrial Design Rights: An International Perspective (Kluwer Law International: The Hague, 2001) See also Design patent (US patent law) Geschmacksmuster (German design law) Industrial design rights in the European Union Open-design movement Utility model References External links Information about industrial design rights on the Kenya Industrial Property Institute website. Information about industrial design rights on the IPAustralia website. Information about industrial design rights on the UK Patent Office web site International Designs on the WIPO web site Hague System for the International Registration of Industrial Designs on the WIPO web site www.handsoffmydesign.com e-Learning about European Union Design Protection Ebook on legal protection * [http://www.thehagueuniversity.com/ www.thehagueuniversity.com Industrial Design Engineering (IDE) – full time] of textile designs Intellectual property law	[ 0.9874383211135864, 0.23786766827106476, -0.13234610855579376, 0.02940467745065689, 0.01753346435725689, -0.15193016827106476, -0.2781623601913452, 0.17434780299663544, -0.17279449105262756, -0.4343927204608917, -0.5533125400543213, 0.9695432186126709, -0.02441716007888317, 0.5181769132614136, -0.5209490060806274, 0.5958383679389954, 0.028030123561620712, 0.37974727153778076, -0.12389632314443588, -0.14986050128936768, -0.10989739745855331, -0.33764150738716125, -0.10940828174352646, -0.18811434507369995, 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225181	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrocarril%20de%20S%C3%B3ller	Ferrocarril de Sóller	The Ferrocarril de Sóller (; ), acronym FS, is an interurban railway and the name for the company which operates the electrified narrow gauge tracks running between the towns of Sóller and Palma on the Spanish island of Mallorca (stopping at various smaller towns such as Bunyola and Son Sardina). The historic electric train takes a route north from the capital across the plains, winding through mountains and 13 tunnels of the Serra de Tramuntana, finally ending in the large railway station of the northern town of Sóller. Work began on the railway in 1911 on the profits of the orange and lemon trade, which at the time was booming. For this reason, it is sometimes known as the Orange Express. The train is now not only a mode of transport between these two key Mallorcan settlements, but also an attraction in itself, as of 2019 carrying over 1 million passengers a year. At the official prices charged at the station, single tickets from Palma to Sóller or vice versa cost €18 (2018), and returns are €25. The return ticket from Palma can be extended with a return ticket on the Sóller tram for an additional 7 Euros, which represents a 50% saving since the onboard tram fare is 7 Euros each way. Palma railway station Palma Railway Station (Coordinates: ) is a subtle, relatively small brown brick building with a large "Ferrocarril de Sóller" sign on its façade, partly given up to a museum, cleverly renovated so that the large glass windows reflect the railway tracks to make them look as if they go on into the rooms. The station is just off the Plaça de Espanya and borders a large and popular park which lies on top of the underground Estació Intermodal. Several old railway buildings (one with a large brick chimney) lie untouched in the park and there are several train-themed play structures, each one a carriage named after a settlement along the line. Sóller railway station Sóller Railway Station (Coordinates: ) on the other hand is much larger, developed from a fortified house dating from 1606, Ca'n Mayol. The station is also home to the tram which runs from Sóller to Port de Sóller and (inside the building) a museum dedicated to the works of Picasso and Joan Miró. 2019 anonymous takeover bid In 2019 an anonymous group of investors launched hostile €25m takeover bid for the railway, represented by Goros Investments. Most of the 172,000 shares in the private company are owned by about 800 local people. a local tour operator and restaurateur and a company that runs boat trips around the north-east of the island are the two largest shareholders. See also Tranvía de Sóller References Notes Bibliography External links Homepage of Ferrocarril de Sóller Timetable, Prices and History of Train to Sóller Video of Ferrocarril de Sóller on travelchannel.co.uk. 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225183	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euskotren%20Trena	Euskotren Trena	Euskotren Trena, formerly known just as Euskotren is a commuter, inter-city and urban transit train-operating company that operates local and inter-city passenger services in the provinces of Biscay and Gipuzkoa, in the Basque Country, Spain. It is one of the four commercial brands under which Euskotren operates, as a public company managed by the Basque government. The entire network uses narrow gauge rail tracks which have been owned by the Basque Government since their transferral from the Spanish government; the rail tracks and stations were part of the FEVE network until its transferral. Euskotren Trena also operates the Donostia/San Sebastián metro under the brand Metro Donostialdea. Euskotren Trena operates the railway services and networks, while Euskotren Tranbia operates the tram networks, Euskotren Autobusa the bus services and Euskotren Kargo the freight rail services. Since 2006 Euskotren Trena has been the commercial brand for the operator of the railway network in the Basque Country, which is Euskotren, while the network itself is owned by the public entity Euskal Trenbide Sarea. In 2012 the commercial brand was changed from simply Euskotren to Euskotren Trena, adding the Basque word trena. Services Introduction Euskotren Trena operates the railway network owned by Euskal Trenbide Sarea (Basque Railway Network) in the Basque provinces of Biscay and Gipuzkoa, as well as a short track and a station in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department of France. The initial network was a continuation of the FEVE (narrow gauge railways) regional services and FTS urban services around Bilbao. The services have since then improved to become a commuter rail system along with Inter-city rail services. The network connects the city of Bilbao with municipalities across the Greater Bilbao area and the province of Biscay, such as Durango, Bermeo and Lezama. In the province of Gipuzkoa it connects the city of San Sebastián with other cities and towns such as Zarautz, Lasarte-Oria and Irun, as well as Hendaye across the border in France. The inter-city rail services connect the cities of Bilbao and San Sebastián with each other and with Hendaye. Since August 2012, Euskotren Trena has operated the San Sebastián metro system, based on the Topo network, under the brand Metro Donostialdea. Euskotren Trena is operated by Euskotren. Lines The Euskotren Trena network consists of the following lines: Biscay-Gipuzkoa Bilbao-Donostia line – Inter-city rail service from Bilbao-Matiko to Donostia-Amara. Bilbao, Biscay Bilbao Metro Line 3 – Kukullaga to Matiko. Airport line – Under construction, metro extension will connect the district of Uribarri with the Bilbao Airport. Bilbao Metro Line L (Lanzadera), a shuttle service connecting Lutxana with Zangroiz and Sondika with trains every hour. Txorierri commuter rail line – Kukullaga to Lezama. (Part of the section were closed due to under construction of Bilbao Metro Line 3 extension to Airport). Urdaibai commuter rail line – Bilbao-Atxuri to Bermeo Durangaldea commuter rail line – Bilbao-Atxuri to Ermua/Eibar. Larreineta funicular – Funicular line from Escontrilla to Larreineta. Donostia, Gipuzkoa Metro Donostialdea – Previously known as "Topo line", renamed Metro Donostialdea, urban transit system serving the Donostialdea region and Hendaye. Metro Donostialdea Branch line – Amara San Sebastián to Altza. Azpeitia-Lasao line – Steam locomotive from Azpeitia to Lasao, touristic part of the Basque Museum of Railways. Kostaldea commuter rail line – Ermua to Donostia-Amara. Tranbia commuter rail line – Local service from Ermua to Eibar The network connects to the Bilbao tram line, Metro Bilbao, FEVE, RENFE and Cercanías services. The Euskotren trena lines do not appear with other train lines in standard printed network maps, but separate maps are available. The Euskotren Trena lines appear together with other railway networks of the Basque Country in the Moveuskadi.com service provided by the Basque Government. Former or closed lines Sections of the Txorierri line. The railway service on the Txorierri line between Casco Viejo and Deusto was suspended in May 2010 for a period of three years, because of the construction of Line 3 of Metro Bilbao. The closed stations are Deusto, Unibertsitatea, Matiko and Zumalakarregi. The Loruri-Ciudad Jardín station, formerly closed, was open to provide a service to the users of the now closed stations. Urola line. The Urola line, formerly served by the Urola Railway, was closed by Eusko Trenbideak in 1986, after a futile attempt to renovate it. The service was replaced by a bus line between the municipalities of Zumaia and Zumarraga. Bilbao-Plentzia line. Bilbao-Plentzia was the line with the most users at the time of its closure. The original line connected downtown Bilbao, starting at Casco Viejo Station with the town of Plentzia, at Plentzia Station. During the construction of the Line 1 of Metro Bilbao, it was decided that the section between San Inazio and Plentzia would be managed by Metro Bilbao, as part of line 1, instead of Euskotren. The Casco Viejo Station was then connected to the Txorierri line, and the Ciudad Jardín and Mallona stations were closed (due their proximity to the station in Casco Viejo). The Deusto-San Inazio section was eventually closed due to the construction of a new highway where the railway tracks were located. Lutxana-Sondika line. The line between Sondika and Lutxana (in Erandio), both in the Greater Bilbao area was closed in 1996 after an attempt to re-open it for passenger services. However, the tracks are still in use; Euskotren Trena uses it for testing new units. Service frequencies As of January 2014, typical services frequencies for weekdays are: Bilbao-Donostia line – one train per hour between Bilbao-Atxuri and Donostia-Amara. Durangaldea line – two trains per hour between Bilbao-Atxuri and Ermua in each direction, with one continuing to Donostia-Amara, and some express trains between Bilbao and Durango, Traña and Zaldibar. Kostaldea line – one train per hour between Ermua and Donostia-Amara in each direction (the ones starting at Donostia-Amara continuing to Bilbao-Atxuri). Tranbia Ermua-Eibar line – four trains per hour between Ermua and Eibar in each direction. Topo line – four trains per hour between Lasarte-Oria and Irun, with two continuing to Hendaye. Two trains per hour between Hendaye and Lasarte-Oria. Urdaibai line – two trains per hour between Bilbao-Atxuri and Bermeo in each direction and four express trains per day between Bilbao and Gernika. Txorierri line – two trains per hour between Casco Viejo and Lezama in each direction. Three trains per hour during peak times. Larreineta funicular – one funicular per hour between Larreineta and Escontrilla. Two per hour during peak times. Stations The Euskotren Trena network serves the following stations (the Bilbao-Donostia line stations are included in the sections of Durangaldea and Kostaldea): Current operations Euskotren, which operates the Euskotren Trena brand has its central offices in the Bilbao-Atxuri Station, in the district of Ibaiondo, in Bilbao. There are operations centres in several stations, including those of Durango and Donostia-San Sebastián. Currently, the rolling stock is maintained at depots in Abadiño, Gernika and Errenteria. New depots are being built in Irun. Ticketing Euskotren Trena uses both regular paper tickets and the Barik card available only on some lines. Users can acquire single tickets and return tickets at the vending machines available at every station, and monthly and yearly travel cards are also available. Young people and elderly people also may acquire special tickets. The Barik travel ticket was initially only available on the Txorierri line, and it will be available for use on all lines once it is fully implemented. The ticket pricing is based on zone-based rules. Rolling stock Euskotren Trena operates a fleet of 58 electric multiple units (EMU), all built by CAF. Former rolling stock Livery The new rolling stock (UT-900) is painted with the new Euskotren Trena livery, white with black contrast and blue and orange circles in the doors. Older rolling stock maintains the blue and white colours, common in Euskotren from 2002. Current developments The developments of the network operated by Euskotren, under the commercial brand of Euskotren Trena, are being conducted by Euskal Trenbide Sarea, which has control of the Basque railway network. The developments do not include any expansion of the lines or new lines (those not yet proposed or planned) but the improvements of the current network, with new stations, alternate routes and a second rail track in areas where there is only one, as well as the elimination, or at least reduction, of all the level crossings. Euba-Iurreta section. The section between Euba, in Amorebieta-Etxano and Iurreta is currently being upgraded to include a second track, in order to improve frequencies and eliminate ten level crossings. This development is part of the Durango+ project, which aims to improve the service and frequencies in the Durangaldea region. It was scheduled to be finished in 2013. Iurreta-Durango-Abadiño section. The section immediately after Euba-Iurreta is the Iurreta-Durango-Abadiño section, which is being constructed underground, in order to eliminate the level crossings and tracks that go through Durango and Abadiño. Two new stations will emanate from this project: an underground station for Durango to replace the current overground one and the Fauste Landako station and a semi-underground station for the neighbourhood of Matiena, in Abadiño (also replacing the current one). The Durango depot will be moved to new facilities in Lebario, Abadiño. It was expected to be finished in 2013. Abadiño-Berriz section. The section between Abadiño and Berriz is being renewed in order to add a second rail track. This section includes the new depot and offices at Lebario, and a new train station in Berriz. Eibar-Elgoibar section. The section between Eibar and Elgoibar is being completely renewed with: A new station in Eibar, at a cost of €200,000 which replaces the whole station with the addition of lifts, removal of level crossings and the incorporation of new platforms. Txarakua-Azitain section. The incorporation of a second rail track to improve frequency of trains. It was scheduled to be opened in late 2012. See also Bilbao rail network Euskotren Notes References External links Euskotren Rail transport in the Basque Country (autonomous community) Metre gauge railways in Spain Spanish brands	[ 0.6272490620613098, -0.46829092502593994, 0.17033034563064575, 0.43115517497062683, 0.25591549277305603, 0.3220122754573822, 0.008130989968776703, 0.63043612241745, 0.052780549973249435, -0.5224828720092773, -0.30581313371658325, 0.5173104405403137, -0.04259653016924858, -0.17505067586898804, -0.049886465072631836, -0.03393903374671936, 0.7346788644790649, 0.5739590525627136, -0.25232994556427, -1.1561598777770996, -0.3559636175632477, 0.3321790099143982, 0.37486961483955383, 0.011322268284857273, -0.03914685919880867, -0.5723641514778137, 0.0926055833697319, 0.400625079870224, 0.026283973827958107, 0.17850664258003235, 0.5881108641624451, 0.2615130543708801, -0.3975261151790619, -0.02761269547045231, 0.23875360190868378, 0.34590786695480347, -0.07642368227243423, -1.0183597803115845, 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225184	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001%E2%80%9302%20FIS%20Alpine%20Ski%20World%20Cup	2001–02 FIS Alpine Ski World Cup	The 36th World Cup began in October 2001 and ended in March 2002 at the World Cup finals held in Altenmarkt, Austria. The overall winners were Stephan Eberharter and Michaela Dorfmeister, both from Austria. The schedule for the 36th World Cup season included a nearly four-week-long break in February for the Winter Olympics in the United States at Salt Lake City, Utah. This was the first season that colored dye was used on the snow to mark the courses. Calendar Men Ladies Men Overall Downhill Super G Giant slalom Slalom Combined Ladies Overall Downhill Super G Giant slalom Slalom Combined Footnotes References External links FIS-ski.com - World Cup standings - 2002 2001–02 World Cup World Cup	[ 0.04081576317548752, 0.26660624146461487, 0.030232036486268044, 0.6815216541290283, -0.8014981746673584, -0.2977992594242096, 0.877972424030304, -0.16269877552986145, -0.5322478413581848, -0.0008872298058122396, 0.8745120167732239, -0.39563965797424316, 0.2127583771944046, 0.06922666728496552, -0.3354858160018921, 0.025930890813469887, 0.5361658334732056, 0.008437290787696838, 0.4806075096130371, -0.534268856048584, 0.6740868091583252, -0.3953331410884857, -0.21213892102241516, 0.6012814044952393, -0.19864600896835327, 0.20487046241760254, 0.1580805629491806, -0.11651680618524551, -0.04909424111247063, -0.3100975453853607, -0.2536015510559082, -0.3304140269756317, 0.09925101697444916, 0.5533018112182617, -0.20100811123847961, 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225188	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SFM	SFM	SFM may refer to: In entertainment: SFM Holiday Network, a defunct "occasional" U.S. television network "Sing for Me" (Christina Aguilera song), also released by Ginny Blackmore with the title "SFM" In organizations: SFM Entertainment, a television distribution company Scuderia Ferrari, the racing division of the Ferrari automobile company, formerly known as Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro Seaside FM, a radio station in East Yorkshire, UK Serveis Ferroviaris de Mallorca, a railway operating on the Spanish island of Majorca Società per le Strade Ferrate Meridionali, an Italian railway company of the 19th century In places: Sanford Seacoast Regional Airport (IATA code), in Sanford, Maine Science Fiction Museum and Hall of Fame, formerly part of what is now the EMP Museum in Seattle, Washington In science and technology: Sales force management (likewise Sales drive management), it-method for business; also SFM system (likewise Sales Force Automation) SFMBT1 or "scm-like with four MBT domains 1", a gene Scanning force microscopy or atomic force microscopy, a very high-resolution type of scanning probe microscopy Shoulder-fired missile Source Filmmaker, video capture and editing software Spectral flatness measurement, used in digital audio signal processing Structure from motion, a process used in computer vision Surface feet per minute, a unit of velocity used in machining to identify the machinability ratings of a material Sustainable forest management, the management of forests according to the principles of sustainable development In other uses: SFM Junak, a brand of Polish motorcycles ŠK Senec, formerly known as ŠK SFM Senec, a Slovak soccer club See also SFMA (disambiguation)	[ 0.5186616778373718, -0.22956609725952148, 0.07193844765424728, 0.008953995071351528, -0.27185845375061035, -0.40464526414871216, 0.21176253259181976, 0.7471089363098145, -0.9119915962219238, 0.5281848311424255, -0.611545979976654, 0.21631783246994019, 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225190	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Raeburn	Henry Raeburn	Sir Henry Raeburn (; 4 March 1756 – 8 July 1823) was a Scottish portrait painter. He served as Portrait Painter to King George IV in Scotland. Biography Raeburn was born the son of a manufacturer in Stockbridge, on the Water of Leith: a former village now within the city of Edinburgh. He had an older brother, born in 1744, called William Raeburn. His ancestors were believed to have been soldiers, and may have taken the name "Raeburn" from a hill farm in Annandale, held by Sir Walter Scott's family. Orphaned, he was supported by William and placed in Heriot's Hospital, where he received an education. At the age of fifteen he was apprenticed to the goldsmith James Gilliland of Edinburgh, and various pieces of jewellery, mourning rings and the like, adorned with minute drawings on ivory by his hand, still exist. When the medical student Charles Darwin died in 1778, his friend and professor Andrew Duncan took a lock of his student's hair to the jeweller whose apprentice, Raeburn, made a memorial locket. Soon he took to the production of carefully finished portrait miniatures; meeting with success and patronage, he extended his practice to oil painting, at which he was self-taught. Gilliland watched the progress of his pupil with interest, and introduced him to David Martin, who had been the favourite assistant of Allan Ramsay the Latter, and was now the leading portrait painter in Edinburgh. Raeburn was especially aided by the loan of portraits to copy. Soon he had gained sufficient skill to make him decide to devote himself exclusively to painting. George Chalmers (1776; Dunfermline Town Hall) is his earliest known portrait. In his early twenties, Raeburn was asked to paint the portrait of a young lady he had noticed when he was sketching from nature in the fields. Ann was the daughter of Peter Edgar of Bridgelands, and widow of Count James Leslie of Deanhaugh. Fascinated by the handsome and intellectual young artist, she became his wife within a month, bringing him an ample fortune. The acquisition of wealth did not affect his enthusiasm or his industry, but spurred him on to acquire a thorough knowledge of his craft. It was usual for artists to visit Italy, and Raeburn set off with his wife. In London he was kindly received by Sir Joshua Reynolds, the president of the Royal Academy, who advised him on what to study in Rome, especially recommending the works of Michelangelo, and gave Raeburn letters of introduction for Italy. In Rome he met his fellow Scot Gavin Hamilton, Pompeo Girolamo Batoni and Byers, an antique dealer whose advice proved particularly useful, especially the recommendation that "he should never copy an object from memory, but, from the principal figure to the minutest accessory, have it placed before him." After two years of study in Italy he returned to Edinburgh in 1787, and began a successful career as a portrait painter. In that year he executed a seated portrait of the second Lord President Dundas. Examples of his earlier portraiture include a bust of Mrs Johnstone of Baldovie and a three-quarter-length of Dr James Hutton: works which, if somewhat timid and tentative in handling and not as confident as his later work, nevertheless have delicacy and character. The portraits of John Clerk, Lord Eldin, and of Principal Hill of St Andrews belong to a later period. Raeburn was fortunate in the time in which he practised portraiture. Sir Walter Scott, Hugh Blair, Henry Mackenzie, Lord Woodhouselee, William Robertson, John Home, Robert Fergusson, and Dugald Stewart were resident in Edinburgh, and were all painted by Raeburn. Mature works include his own portrait and that of the Rev. Sir Henry Moncrieff Wellwood, a bust of Dr Wardrop of Torbane Hill, two full-lengths of Adam Rolland of Gask, the remarkable paintings of Lord Newton and Dr Alexander Adam in the National Gallery of Scotland, and that of William Macdonald of St Martin's. Apart from himself, Raeburn painted only two artists, one of whom was Sir Francis Leggatt Chantrey, the most important and famous British sculptor of the first half of the 19th century. It has recently been revealed that Raeburn and Chantrey were close friends and that Raeburn took exceptional care over the execution of his portrait of the sculptor, one of the painter's mature bust-length masterpieces. It was commonly believed that Raeburn was less successful in painting female portraits, but the exquisite full-length of his wife, the smaller likeness of Mrs R. Scott Moncrieff in the National Gallery of Scotland, and that of Mrs Robert Bell, and others, argue against this. Raeburn spent his life in Edinburgh, rarely visiting London, and then only for brief periods, thus preserving his individuality. Although he, personally, may have lost advantages resulting from closer association with the leaders of English art, and from contact with a wider public, Scottish art gained much from his disinclination to leave his native land. He became the acknowledged chief of the school which was growing up in Scotland during the early 19th century, and his example and influence at a critical period were of major importance. So varied were his other interests that sitters used to say of him, "You would never take him for a painter till he seizes the brush and palette." In 1812 he was elected president of the Society of Artists in Edinburgh; and in 1814 associate, and in the following year full member, of the Royal Scottish Academy. On 29 August 1822 he received a knighthood during the visit of King George IV to Scotland and appointed His Majesty's limner for Scotland at the Earl of Hopetoun house. He died in Edinburgh not long after on 8 July 1823. Raeburn had all the essential qualities of a popular and successful portrait painter. He was able to produce a telling and forcible likeness; his work is distinguished by powerful characterisation, stark realism, dramatic and unusual lighting effects, and swift and broad handling of the most resolute sort. David Wilkie recorded that, while travelling in Spain and studying the works of Diego Velázquez, the brushwork reminded him constantly of the "square touch" of Raeburn. Scottish physician and writer John Brown wrote that Raeburn "never fails in giving a likeness at once vivid, unmistakable and pleasing. He paints the truth, and he paints it with love". Raeburn has been described as a "famously intuitive" portrait painter. He was unusual amongst many of his contemporaries, such as Reynolds, in the extent of his philosophy of painting directly from life; he made no preliminary sketches. This attitude partly explains the often coarse modelling and clashing colour combinations he employed, in contrast to the more refined style of Thomas Gainsborough and Reynolds. However these qualities and those mentioned above anticipate many of the later developments in painting of the 19th century from romanticism to Impressionism. Sir Henry Raeburn died in St Bernard's House Stockbridge, Edinburgh. He is buried in St. Cuthbert's churchyard against the east wall (the monument erected by Raeburn in advance) but also has a secondary memorial in the Church of St John the Evangelist, Edinburgh. His studio on York Place was taken over by the artist Colvin Smith. Subjects Raeburn made more than a thousand paintings spanning 50 years. His subjects include: Rev Robert Dickson Sir George Abercromby, 4th Baronet Countess of Aboyne, (Lady Mary Douglas, daughter of James, fourteenth Earl of Morton) Dr Alexander Adam Robert Adam Mrs Robert Adam Archibald Alison Alexander Allan David Anderson Sir David Baird Mrs Henry Balfour (Jane Elliot) Lady Belhaven Mrs George Bell Mrs E Bethune The Binning children Hugh Blair Mrs Irvine J Boswell Helen Boyle Andrew Buchanon John Campbell of John Campbell Snr & Co. Colonel Alexander Campbell of Possil Mrs Alexander Campbell of Possil Sir Duncan Campbell, Scots Guards Master John Campbell of Saddell Rev. Alexander Carlyle Alexander Carre of Cavers Master Cathcart Sir Francis Leggatt Chantrey Charles Christie Miss Jean Christie John Clerk, Lord Eldin Mrs Jean Cockburn Ross Jacobina Copland William Creech John Crichton-Stuart, 2nd Marquess of Bute James Cruikshank Mrs James Cruikshank John Cuninghame of Craigends Mrs Alexander Dirom, (Anne Fotheringham) Lady Harriet Don, with her son Lord Douglas (Earl of Home), as a student Elizabeth Douglas of Brigton (née Graham) Margaret Douglas, of Brigton, afterwards Mrs. Hunter, of Burnside Rev. Robert Douglas, D.D., of Galashiels; died 1820 The Drummond children George Duff James Duff, 4th Earl Fife Norwich Duff Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville Thomas Elder (Lord Provost of Edinburgh) Lady Elibank William Fairlie Archibald Farquharson of Finzean Robert Fergusson and his brother Lieutenant-General Sir Ronald Fergusson, "The Archers" (Royal Company of Archers) William Forbes of Callendar (1756–1823), coppersmith and landowner Mrs Gevine Eleanor Margaret Gibson-Carmichael Karl Ludwig Giesecke William Glendonwyn Mrs Glendowyn and her daughter Mary Niel Gow John Gray of Carntyne Mrs James Gregory (Isabella McLeod) Mrs Elizabeth Hamilton (1757–1816), writer and educationalist Major James Lee Harvey, Gordon Highlanders Thomas Robert Hay, 11th Earl of Kinnoull Captain Hay of Spot Mrs Andrew Hay (Elizabeth Robinson) Mrs Alexander Henderson Principal George Hill of St Andrews Mrs George Hill John Home The Rt Hon Charles Hope-Weir Hugh Hope Thomas Charles Hope, physician and chemist Francis Horner, political economist Dr James Hutton, geologist Captain Charles Inglis, naval officer Sir Patrick Inglis, 5th Baronet of Sunnyside John Jameson, founder of Jameson Irish whiskey, and his wife Margaret Haig Francis Jeffrey, Lord Jeffrey John Johnstone, Betty Johnstone and Miss Wedderburn Mrs Johnston of Straiton Mrs Johnstone of Baldovie Dr Colin Lauder (1750–1831), FRCS, & Burgess of Edinburgh Zepherina Loughnan, Mrs Henry Veitch of Eliock William Macdonald of St Martin's Colonel Alexander Ranaldson MacDonell of Glengarry (1771–1828) Allan MacDougall WS of Gallanach and Hayfield Lt. Gen. General Hay MacDowall Mrs George Mackay of Bighouse (Louisa Campbell) Henry Mackenzie Francis MacNab, The MacNab Robert Macqueen, Lord Braxfield (1722–1799), Lord Justice-Clerk 1798 George Malcolm Mrs Malcolm Mrs Hugh Smyth Mercer (née Wilson) Captain Patrick Miller Robert Scott Moncrieff Alexander Monro Sir James Montgomery, 2nd Baronet of Stanhope Thomas Mure of Warriston Sir William Nairne, Lord Dunsinane, 5th Baronet of Nairne Sir William Napier, Baronet Lord Newton Rev. Principal Nicoll, D.D. Mrs George Paterson of Huntly Castle Mrs James Paterson The Patterson children John Playfair Henry Raeburn Lady Raeburn Miss Davidson Reid John Rennie the Elder, engineer Professor William Richardson William Robertson Adam Rolland of Gask Daniel Rutherford Colonel Francis James Scott Sir Walter Scott, 1st Bt Alexander Shaw Mrs Simpson Sir John Sinclair, 1st Baronet Andrew Spottiswoode Dugald Stewart Mrs Anne Stewart Lieutenant General William Stuart (1778–1837) John Swinton, Lord Swinton John Tait and his grandson John Tait of Harvieston Rev John Thomson (1778–1840) of Duddingston Eliza Tod of Drygrange (née Pringle) Lady Anne Torphicen Captain Willian Tytler Miss Eleanor Urquhart James Usher of Toftfield Rev Robert Walker (1755–1808) Skating on Duddingston Loch Dr Wardrop of Torbane Hill Rev Sir Henry Moncrieff Wellwood Hugh William Williams Lord Woodhouselee Dr Rev David Johnston (1934 - 1824) Founder of Edinburgh Asylum for the Industrious Blind (now Royal Blind) Notes Bibliography Andrew, William Raeburn. Life of Sir Henry Raeburn, R. A. (London: W. H. Allen & co., 1886). Armstrong, Sir W. Sir Henry Raeburn (London, 1901.) Masters in Art, volume 6 (Boston, 1905) p. 423 ff. Coltman, V. (2013). Henry Raeburn's Portraits of Distant Sons in the Global British Empire. Art Bulletin, 95(2), 294–311. Clouston, R. S. Sir Henry Raeburn (London: G. Newnes, 1907). Caw, James Lewis. Raeburn (London, T. C. and E. C. Jack, 1909) – with colour plates of his paintings. Greig, James. Sir Henry Raeburn: His Life and Works (London: "The Connoisseur", 1911) Macmillan, Duncan (1984), Scottish Painting: Ramsay to Raeburn, in Parker, Geoffrey (ed.), Cencrastus No. 17, Summer 1984, pp. 25 - 29, External links Works in the National Galleries of Scotland Gallery of works by Henry Raeburn Profile on Royal Academy of Arts Collections 1756 births 1823 deaths 18th-century Scottish painters Scottish male painters 19th-century Scottish painters artists from Edinburgh People educated at George Heriot's School Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh Members of the Royal Company of Archers People of the Scottish Enlightenment Royal Scottish Academicians Scottish jewellers Scottish knights Scottish portrait painters Royal Academicians Knights Bachelor	[ 0.22667793929576874, -0.12973608076572418, -0.6417469382286072, -0.2948552668094635, 0.7003298997879028, 0.899833619594574, 1.0400558710098267, -0.19951008260250092, -0.3777962923049927, -0.4436160624027252, -0.24642574787139893, 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225191	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeo%20Batoni	Pompeo Batoni	Pompeo Girolamo Batoni (25 January 1708 – 4 February 1787) was an Italian painter who displayed a solid technical knowledge in his portrait work and in his numerous allegorical and mythological pictures. The high number of foreign visitors travelling throughout Italy and reaching Rome during their "Grand Tour" led the artist to specialize in portraits. Batoni won international fame largely thanks to his customers, mostly British of noble origin, whom he portrayed, often with famous Italian landscapes in the background. Such Grand Tour portraits by Batoni were in British private collections, thus ensuring the genre's popularity in Great Britain. One generation later, Sir Joshua Reynolds would take up this tradition and become the leading English portrait painter. Although Batoni was considered the best Italian painter of his time, contemporary chronicles mention his rivalry with Anton Raphael Mengs. In addition to art-loving nobility, Batoni's subjects included the kings and queens of Poland, Portugal and Prussia, the Holy Roman Emperors Joseph II and Leopold II (a fact which earned him noble dignity), as well the popes Benedict XIV, Clement XIII and Pius VI, Elector Karl Theodor of Bavaria, and many more. He also received numerous orders for altarpieces for churches in Italy (Rome, Brescia, Lucca, Parma, etc.), as well as for mythological and allegorical subjects. Batoni's style took inspiration and incorporated elements of classical antiquity, French Rococo, Bolognese classicism, and the work of artists such as Nicolas Poussin, Claude Lorrain, and especially Raphael. As such Pompeo Batoni is considered a precursor of Neoclassicism. Biography Early life Pompeo Batoni was born in Lucca, the son of a goldsmith, Paolino Batoni and his wife, Chiara Sesti. On 5 February 1708 he was baptized in the Basilica of San Frediano. He moved to Rome in 1727, and apprenticed with Agostino Masucci, Sebastiano Conca and/or Francesco Imperiali (1679–1740). Career Batoni owed his first independent commission to the rains that struck Rome in April 1732. Seeking shelter from a sudden storm, Forte Gabrielli di Gubbio, count of Baccaresca took cover under the portico of the Palazzo dei Conservatori on the Capitoline Hill. Here the nobleman met the young artist who was drawing the ancient bas-reliefs and the paintings of the staircase of the palace. Impressed by his skill and the purity of the design, Gabrielli asked Batoni to see some of his works, and when conducted to the painter's studio he was so awed by his talent that he offered him to paint a new altarpiece for the chapel of his family in San Gregorio Magno al Celio, the Madonna on a Throne with Child and four Saints and Blesseds of the Gabrielli family (1732–33), a second version of which (1736) is now at the Gallerie dell'Accademia in Venice. The Gabrielli Madonna obtained general admiration and by the early 1740s Batoni started to receive other independent commissions. His celebrated painting, The Ecstasy of Saint Catherine of Siena (1743) illustrates his academic refinement of the late-Baroque style. Another masterpiece, his Fall of Simon Magus was painted initially for the St Peter's Basilica. Batoni became a highly-fashionable painter in Rome, particularly after his rival, the proto-neoclassicist Anton Raphael Mengs, departed for Spain in 1761. Batoni befriended Winckelmann and, like him, aimed in his painting to the restrained classicism of painters from earlier centuries, such as Raphael and Poussin, rather than to the work of the Venetian artists then in vogue. Commenting on Batoni, the art historians Boni and de Rossi said of Batoni and Mengs the other prominent painter in Rome during the second half of the 18th century, that Mengs was made painter by philosophy: Batoni by nature...(Batoni) was more painter than philosopher, (Mengs) more philosopher than painter. In 1741, he was inducted into the Accademia di San Luca. He was greatly in demand for portraits, particularly by the British travelling through Rome, who took pleasure in commissioning standing portraits set in the milieu of antiquities, ruins, and works of art. There are records of over 200 portraits by Batoni of visiting British patrons. Such "Grand Tour" portraits by Batoni came to proliferate in the British private collections, thus ensuring the genre's popularity in the United Kingdom, where Reynolds would become its leading practitioner. In 1760 the painter Benjamin West, while visiting Rome would complain that Italian artists "talked of nothing, looked at nothing but the works of Pompeo Batoni". In 1769, the double portrait of the emperor Joseph II and his brother Pietro Leopoldo I (then Grand Duke of Tuscany, later emperor Leopold II), won an Austrian nobility for Batoni. He also portrayed Pope Clement XIII and Pope Pius VI. It is believed he painted the staffage (background figures) for some of the landscape paintings of Hendrik Frans van Lint. According to a rumour, before dying in Rome in 1787, he bequeathed his palette and brushes to Jacques-Louis David, to whom, full of admiration for his Oath of the Horatii, Batoni would have confessed: "Only the two of us can call themselves painters". Death His late years were affected by declining health; he died in Rome in 1787 at the age of 79, and was buried at his parish church of San Lorenzo in Lucina. Batoni's last will executors were cardinal Filippo Carandini and James Byres, the Scottish antiquary, but the estate was insolvent and his widow was forced by the events to petition the Grand Duke of Tuscany, whom Batoni had painted in 1769, for financial assistance, offering in exchange her husband's unfinished self-portrait, today at the Uffizi in Florence. Personal life From 1759 Batoni lived in a large house at 25, Via Bocca di Leone in Rome, which included a studio as well as exhibition rooms and a drawing academy. He was married twice, in 1729 to Caterina Setti (died 1742), and then in 1747 to Lucia Fattori, and had twelve children; three of his sons assisted in his studio. Influence Vincenzo Camuccini is said to have frequented his studio. The Italian Angelo Banchero of Sestri Ponente, Benigno Bossi of Arcisate, Paolo Girolamo Brusco of Genoa, Antonio Cavallucci of Sermoneta, Marco Cavicchia of Arpino, Adamo Chiusole, Antonio Concioli of Pergola, Domenico Conti Bazzani of Mantua, Domenico Corvi of Viterbo, Felice Giani of San Sebastiano Curone, Gregorio Giusti of Pistoia, Gaspare Landi of Piacenza, Nicola Antonio Monti of Ascoli Piceno, Giuseppe Pirovani of Pavia, Pasquale Ciaramponi of Treia, and Carlo Giuseppe Ratti of Savona, were among his students or were influenced by his work. Among the foreigners, Henry Benbridge of Philadelphia, Maria Cosway of Florence, Ivan Martos of Poltava, Johann Gottlieb Puhlmann of Zieko, and Johannes Wiedewelt of Copenhagen were among Batoni's most notable followers. Criticism and exhibitions Pompeo Batoni was among the most celebrated Italian painters in his day, and his patrons and collectors included royals and aristocrats from all over Europe. His fame and reputation decreased over the 19th century until 20th-century scholars dedicated their critical attention to him and again revived his fame among the general public. Among them the following can be noted: the German Ernst Emmerling, the Englishmen John Steegman and Benedict Nicolson, the Italian Isa Belli Barsali, and the Americans Anthony M. Clark and Edgar Peters Bowron. The first exhibition devoted to Pompeo Batoni was held in his hometown of Lucca in 1967, after which two other were organized in London and New York in 1982. He was again the subject of a major exhibition at the Museum of Fine Arts in Houston, the National Gallery in London, and the Ducal Palace in Lucca in 2007-2008. A portrait of George Oakley Aldrich, a fellow of Merton College, Oxford from the 1750s, identified in the Bodleian Library in Oxford by art historian Bendor Grosvenor and visual sociology researcher Emma Dabiri, is the subject of an episode of BBC Four's Britain's Lost Masterpieces first broadcast on 30 October 2019. After a full restoration by Simon Gillespie, the programme concludes with a positive attribution to Batoni made by expert in British 18th-century portraiture Prof. Robin Simon. List of works Allegory and History (In chronological order) The Virgin Mary enthroned with saints of the Gabrielli di Gubbio family — (1732–33), San Gregorio al Celio, Rome; and (1736), Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice The five allegories of the Arts — (1740) Stadelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt am Main Apollo and Two Muses - (1741) Museum of King John III's Palace at Wilanów, Warsaw Catherine of Siena in Ecstasy — (1743) Museo di villa Guinigi, Lucca Achilles and Lycomedes — (1745) Uffizi, Florence Time orders Old Age to destroy Beauty — (1746) National Gallery, London Fall of Simon Magus — (1746–1755) St Peter's Basilica, Rome Aeneas escaping from Troy — (1750) Sabauda Gallery, Turin Vulcan - (1750) National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa Cleopatra shows Octavian the bust of Caesar - (1755) Musée des Beaux-Arts de Dijon Martyrdom of Saint Lucia — (1759) Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, Madrid The Holy Family — (1760) Capitoline Museum, Rome Diana and Cupid — (1761) Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Madonna — Church of Santa Maria in Monterone, Rome Portraits Portrait of a Man in a Blue Suit — (1760s) Dallas Museum of Art Portrait of Richard Milles — (1760-1770) National Gallery, London Portrait of Humphry Morice — (1761) National Gallery, London Portrait of Charles Crowle — (1761–1762) Louvre, Paris Portrait of Lord Dundas — (1764) Aske Hall, Yorkshire, England Portrait of Manuel de Rodas — (1765) Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, Madrid Portrait of Abbondio Rezzonico — (1766) Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica, Rome Portrait of Sir Gregory Page Turner — (1768) Private Collection Portrait of Leopold, Grand Duke of Tuscany — (1768) Private Collection Portrait of Thomas Estcourt, Esquire — (1772) John Hay Library, Brown University Selfportrait — (1773–1774) Uffizi, Florence Portrait of Thomas William Coke — (1774) Holkham Hall, Norfolk, England Portrait of a Man (John Scott?) — (1770) National Gallery, London Portrait of Pius VI — (1775–1776) Sabauda Gallery, Turin Portrait of Douglas, 8th Duke of Hamilton — (1775–1776) Inveraray Castle Portrait of Francis Basset — (1778) Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, Madrid Portrait of Francis Basset 1st Baron of Dunstanville — (1778) Prado Museum, Madrid Portrait of George Legge Viscount Lewisham — (1778) Prado Museum, Madrid Portrait of Pope Pius VI — (ca.1780) Royal Castle, Warsaw Portrait of Pierre André de Suffren — (c.1785) Portrait of the Countess Maria Benedetta di San Martino — (1785) Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid Gallery Portraits Other subjects Footnotes References and further reading E. Peters Bowron and P. Kerber, Pompeo Batoni, Prince of Painters in Eighteenth-Century Rome (2008) External links Pompeo Batoni in "A World History of Art" at all-art.org (not secure) Apollo and Two Muses at the Wilanów Palace Museum UK National Portrait Gallery Images of Frederick North, 2nd Earl of Guilford, Augustus Fitzroy, 3rd Duke of Grafton, and Philip Metcalfe. Europe in the age of enlightenment and revolution, a catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Batoni (see index) 1708 births 1787 deaths 18th-century Italian painters Italian male painters Painters from Lucca Italian neoclassical painters	[ -0.014845888130366802, -0.4565410017967224, -0.7389958500862122, 0.19564880430698395, 0.007841309532523155, 1.0419672727584839, 0.30615758895874023, -0.030578114092350006, -1.4033554792404175, -0.5785886645317078, -0.19399942457675934, 0.24418297410011292, -0.45903918147087097, -0.007999537512660027, -0.014996678568422794, -0.24321775138378143, 0.3152906000614166, -0.33432531356811523, -0.3681389093399048, -0.1234121322631836, -0.0457538366317749, -0.2983770966529846, 0.12355039268732071, -0.49603036046028137, -0.8338701128959656, 0.025720002129673958, -0.13256341218948364, 0.09993087500333786, 0.999476969242096, 0.13683414459228516, 0.03410130366683006, 0.23646694421768188, 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225192	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petri%20net	Petri net	A Petri net, also known as a place/transition (PT) net, is one of several mathematical modeling languages for the description of distributed systems. It is a class of discrete event dynamic system. A Petri net is a directed bipartite graph that has two types of elements, places and transitions, depicted as white circles and rectangles, respectively. A place can contain any number of tokens, depicted as black circles. A transition is enabled if all places connected to it as inputs contain at least one token. Some sources state that Petri nets were invented in August 1939 by Carl Adam Petri—at the age of 13—for the purpose of describing chemical processes. Like industry standards such as UML activity diagrams, Business Process Model and Notation and event-driven process chains, Petri nets offer a graphical notation for stepwise processes that include choice, iteration, and concurrent execution. Unlike these standards, Petri nets have an exact mathematical definition of their execution semantics, with a well-developed mathematical theory for process analysis . Petri net basics A Petri net consists of places, transitions, and arcs. Arcs run from a place to a transition or vice versa, never between places or between transitions. The places from which an arc runs to a transition are called the input places of the transition; the places to which arcs run from a transition are called the output places of the transition. Graphically, places in a Petri net may contain a discrete number of marks called tokens. Any distribution of tokens over the places will represent a configuration of the net called a marking. In an abstract sense relating to a Petri net diagram, a transition of a Petri net may fire if it is enabled, i.e. there are sufficient tokens in all of its input places; when the transition fires, it consumes the required input tokens, and creates tokens in its output places. A firing is atomic, i.e. a single non-interruptible step. Unless an execution policy (e.g. a strict ordering of transitions, describing precedence) is defined, the execution of Petri nets is nondeterministic: when multiple transitions are enabled at the same time, they will fire in any order. Since firing is nondeterministic, and multiple tokens may be present anywhere in the net (even in the same place), Petri nets are well suited for modeling the concurrent behavior of distributed systems. Formal definition and basic terminology Petri nets are state-transition systems that extend a class of nets called elementary nets. Definition 1. A net is a tuple where and are disjoint finite sets of places and transitions, respectively. is a set of (directed) arcs (or flow relations). Definition 2. Given a net N = (P, T, F), a configuration is a set C so that C ⊆ P. Definition 3. An elementary net is a net of the form EN = (N, C) where N = (P, T, F) is a net. C is such that C ⊆ P is a configuration. Definition 4. A Petri net is a net of the form PN = (N, M, W), which extends the elementary net so that N = (P, T, F) is a net. M : P → Z is a place multiset, where Z is a countable set. M extends the concept of configuration and is commonly described with reference to Petri net diagrams as a marking. W : F → Z is an arc multiset, so that the count (or weight) for each arc is a measure of the arc multiplicity. If a Petri net is equivalent to an elementary net, then Z can be the countable set {0,1} and those elements in P that map to 1 under M form a configuration. Similarly, if a Petri net is not an elementary net, then the multiset M can be interpreted as representing a non-singleton set of configurations. In this respect, M extends the concept of configuration for elementary nets to Petri nets. In the diagram of a Petri net (see top figure right), places are conventionally depicted with circles, transitions with long narrow rectangles and arcs as one-way arrows that show connections of places to transitions or transitions to places. If the diagram were of an elementary net, then those places in a configuration would be conventionally depicted as circles, where each circle encompasses a single dot called a token. In the given diagram of a Petri net (see right), the place circles may encompass more than one token to show the number of times a place appears in a configuration. The configuration of tokens distributed over an entire Petri net diagram is called a marking. In the top figure (see right), the place p1 is an input place of transition t; whereas, the place p2 is an output place to the same transition. Let PN0 (top figure) be a Petri net with a marking configured M0, and PN1 (bottom figure) be a Petri net with a marking configured M1. The configuration of PN0 enables transition t through the property that all input places have sufficient number of tokens (shown in the figures as dots) "equal to or greater" than the multiplicities on their respective arcs to t. Once and only once a transition is enabled will the transition fire. In this example, the firing of transition t generates a map that has the marking configured M1 in the image of M0 and results in Petri net PN1, seen in the bottom figure. In the diagram, the firing rule for a transition can be characterised by subtracting a number of tokens from its input places equal to the multiplicity of the respective input arcs and accumulating a new number of tokens at the output places equal to the multiplicity of the respective output arcs. Remark 1. The precise meaning of "equal to or greater" will depend on the precise algebraic properties of addition being applied on Z in the firing rule, where subtle variations on the algebraic properties can lead to other classes of Petri nets; for example, algebraic Petri nets. The following formal definition is loosely based on . Many alternative definitions exist. Syntax A Petri net graph (called Petri net by some, but see below) is a 3-tuple , where S is a finite set of places T is a finite set of transitions S and T are disjoint, i.e. no object can be both a place and a transition is a multiset of arcs, i.e. it assigns to each arc a non-negative integer arc multiplicity (or weight); note that no arc may connect two places or two transitions. The flow relation is the set of arcs: . In many textbooks, arcs can only have multiplicity 1. These texts often define Petri nets using F instead of W. When using this convention, a Petri net graph is a bipartite multigraph with node partitions S and T. The preset of a transition t is the set of its input places: ; its postset is the set of its output places: . Definitions of pre- and postsets of places are analogous. A marking of a Petri net (graph) is a multiset of its places, i.e., a mapping . We say the marking assigns to each place a number of tokens. A Petri net (called marked Petri net by some, see above) is a 4-tuple , where is a Petri net graph; is the initial marking, a marking of the Petri net graph. Execution semantics In words firing a transition in a marking consumes tokens from each of its input places , and produces tokens in each of its output places a transition is enabled (it may fire) in if there are enough tokens in its input places for the consumptions to be possible, i.e. if and only if . We are generally interested in what may happen when transitions may continually fire in arbitrary order. We say that a marking is reachable from a marking in one step if ; we say that it is reachable from if , where is the reflexive transitive closure of ; that is, if it is reachable in 0 or more steps. For a (marked) Petri net , we are interested in the firings that can be performed starting with the initial marking . Its set of reachable markings is the set The reachability graph of is the transition relation restricted to its reachable markings . It is the state space of the net. A firing sequence for a Petri net with graph and initial marking is a sequence of transitions such that . The set of firing sequences is denoted as . Variations on the definition As already remarked, a common variation is to disallow arc multiplicities and replace the bag of arcs W with a simple set, called the flow relation, . This does not limit expressive power as both can represent each other. Another common variation, e.g. in, Desel and Juhás (2001), is to allow capacities to be defined on places. This is discussed under extensions below. Formulation in terms of vectors and matrices The markings of a Petri net can be regarded as vectors of nonnegative integers of length . Its transition relation can be described as a pair of by matrices: , defined by , defined by Then their difference can be used to describe the reachable markings in terms of matrix multiplication, as follows. For any sequence of transitions , write for the vector that maps every transition to its number of occurrences in . Then, we have . Note that it must be required that is a firing sequence; allowing arbitrary sequences of transitions will generally produce a larger set. Mathematical properties of Petri nets One thing that makes Petri nets interesting is that they provide a balance between modeling power and analyzability: many things one would like to know about concurrent systems can be automatically determined for Petri nets, although some of those things are very expensive to determine in the general case. Several subclasses of Petri nets have been studied that can still model interesting classes of concurrent systems, while these problems become easier. An overview of such decision problems, with decidability and complexity results for Petri nets and some subclasses, can be found in Esparza and Nielsen (1995). Reachability The reachability problem for Petri nets is to decide, given a Petri net N and a marking M, whether . It is a matter of walking the reachability-graph defined above, until either the requested-marking is reached or it can no longer be found. This is harder than it may seem at first: the reachability graph is generally infinite, and it isn't easy to determine when it is safe to stop. In fact, this problem was shown to be EXPSPACE-hard years before it was shown to be decidable at all (Mayr, 1981). Papers continue to be published on how to do it efficiently. In 2018, Czerwiński et al. improved the lower bound and showed that the problem is not ELEMENTARY. In 2021, this problem was shown to be non-primitive recursive, independently by Jerome Leroux and by Wojciech Czerwiński and Łukasz Orlikowski. These results thus close the long-standing complexity gap. While reachability seems to be a good tool to find erroneous states, for practical problems the constructed graph usually has far too many states to calculate. To alleviate this problem, linear temporal logic is usually used in conjunction with the tableau method to prove that such states cannot be reached. Linear temporal logic uses the semi-decision technique to find if indeed a state can be reached, by finding a set of necessary conditions for the state to be reached then proving that those conditions cannot be satisfied. Liveness Petri nets can be described as having different degrees of liveness . A Petri net is called -live if and only if all of its transitions are -live, where a transition is dead, if it can never fire, i.e. it is not in any firing sequence in -live (potentially fireable), if and only if it may fire, i.e. it is in some firing sequence in -live if it can fire arbitrarily often, i.e. if for every positive integer , it occurs at least times in some firing sequence in -live if it can fire infinitely often, i.e. if there is some fixed (necessarily infinite) firing sequence in which for every positive integer , the transition occurs at least times, -live (live) if it may always fire, i.e. it is -live in every reachable marking in Note that these are increasingly stringent requirements: -liveness implies -liveness, for . These definitions are in accordance with Murata's overview, which additionally uses -live as a term for dead. Boundedness A place in a Petri net is called k-bounded if it does not contain more than k tokens in all reachable markings, including the initial marking; it is said to be safe if it is 1-bounded; it is bounded if it is k-bounded for some k. A (marked) Petri net is called k-bounded, safe, or bounded when all of its places are. A Petri net (graph) is called (structurally) bounded if it is bounded for every possible initial marking. Note that a Petri net is bounded if and only if its reachability graph is finite. Boundedness is decidable by looking at covering, by constructing the Karp–Miller Tree. It can be useful to explicitly impose a bound on places in a given net. This can be used to model limited system resources. Some definitions of Petri nets explicitly allow this as a syntactic feature. Formally, Petri nets with place capacities can be defined as tuples , where is a Petri net, an assignment of capacities to (some or all) places, and the transition relation is the usual one restricted to the markings in which each place with a capacity has at most that many tokens. For example, if in the net N, both places are assigned capacity 2, we obtain a Petri net with place capacities, say N2; its reachability graph is displayed on the right. Alternatively, places can be made bounded by extending the net. To be exact, a place can be made k-bounded by adding a "counter-place" with flow opposite to that of the place, and adding tokens to make the total in both places k. Discrete, continuous, and hybrid Petri nets As well as for discrete events, there are Petri nets for continuous and hybrid discrete-continuous processes that are useful in discrete, continuous and hybrid control theory, and related to discrete, continuous and hybrid automata. Extensions There are many extensions to Petri nets. Some of them are completely backwards-compatible (e.g. coloured Petri nets) with the original Petri net, some add properties that cannot be modelled in the original Petri net formalism (e.g. timed Petri nets). Although backwards-compatible models do not extend the computational power of Petri nets, they may have more succinct representations and may be more convenient for modeling. Extensions that cannot be transformed into Petri nets are sometimes very powerful, but usually lack the full range of mathematical tools available to analyse ordinary Petri nets. The term high-level Petri net is used for many Petri net formalisms that extend the basic P/T net formalism; this includes coloured Petri nets, hierarchical Petri nets such as Nets within Nets, and all other extensions sketched in this section. The term is also used specifically for the type of coloured nets supported by CPN Tools. A short list of possible extensions follows: Additional types of arcs; two common types are a reset arc does not impose a precondition on firing, and empties the place when the transition fires; this makes reachability undecidable, while some other properties, such as termination, remain decidable; an inhibitor arc imposes the precondition that the transition may only fire when the place is empty; this allows arbitrary computations on numbers of tokens to be expressed, which makes the formalism Turing complete and implies existence of a universal net. In a standard Petri net, tokens are indistinguishable. In a Coloured Petri net, every token has a value. In popular tools for coloured Petri nets such as CPN Tools, the values of tokens are typed, and can be tested (using guard expressions) and manipulated with a functional programming language. A subsidiary of coloured Petri nets are the well-formed Petri nets, where the arc and guard expressions are restricted to make it easier to analyse the net. Another popular extension of Petri nets is hierarchy; this in the form of different views supporting levels of refinement and abstraction was studied by Fehling. Another form of hierarchy is found in so-called object Petri nets or object systems where a Petri net can contain Petri nets as its tokens inducing a hierarchy of nested Petri nets that communicate by synchronisation of transitions on different levels. See for an informal introduction to object Petri nets. A vector addition system with states (VASS) is an equivalent formalism to Petri nets. However, it can be superficially viewed as a generalisation of Petri nets. Consider a finite state automaton where each transition is labelled by a transition from the Petri net. The Petri net is then synchronised with the finite state automaton, i.e., a transition in the automaton is taken at the same time as the corresponding transition in the Petri net. It is only possible to take a transition in the automaton if the corresponding transition in the Petri net is enabled, and it is only possible to fire a transition in the Petri net if there is a transition from the current state in the automaton labelled by it. (The definition of VASS is usually formulated slightly differently.) Prioritised Petri nets add priorities to transitions, whereby a transition cannot fire, if a higher-priority transition is enabled (i.e. can fire). Thus, transitions are in priority groups, and e.g. priority group 3 can only fire if all transitions are disabled in groups 1 and 2. Within a priority group, firing is still non-deterministic. The non-deterministic property has been a very valuable one, as it lets the user abstract a large number of properties (depending on what the net is used for). In certain cases, however, the need arises to also model the timing, not only the structure of a model. For these cases, timed Petri nets have evolved, where there are transitions that are timed, and possibly transitions which are not timed (if there are, transitions that are not timed have a higher priority than timed ones). A subsidiary of timed Petri nets are the stochastic Petri nets that add nondeterministic time through adjustable randomness of the transitions. The exponential random distribution is usually used to 'time' these nets. In this case, the nets' reachability graph can be used as a continuous time Markov chain (CTMC). Dualistic Petri Nets (dP-Nets) is a Petri Net extension developed by E. Dawis, et al. to better represent real-world process. dP-Nets balance the duality of change/no-change, action/passivity, (transformation) time/space, etc., between the bipartite Petri Net constructs of transformation and place resulting in the unique characteristic of transformation marking, i.e., when the transformation is "working" it is marked. This allows for the transformation to fire (or be marked) multiple times representing the real-world behavior of process throughput. Marking of the transformation assumes that transformation time must be greater than zero. A zero transformation time used in many typical Petri Nets may be mathematically appealing but impractical in representing real-world processes. dP-Nets also exploit the power of Petri Nets' hierarchical abstraction to depict Process architecture. Complex process systems are modeled as a series of simpler nets interconnected through various levels of hierarchical abstraction. The process architecture of a packet switch is demonstrated in, where development requirements are organized around the structure of the designed system. There are many more extensions to Petri nets, however, it is important to keep in mind, that as the complexity of the net increases in terms of extended properties, the harder it is to use standard tools to evaluate certain properties of the net. For this reason, it is a good idea to use the most simple net type possible for a given modelling task. Restrictions Instead of extending the Petri net formalism, we can also look at restricting it, and look at particular types of Petri nets, obtained by restricting the syntax in a particular way. Ordinary Petri nets are the nets where all arc weights are 1. Restricting further, the following types of ordinary Petri nets are commonly used and studied: In a state machine (SM), every transition has one incoming arc, and one outgoing arc, and all markings have exactly one token. As a consequence, there can not be concurrency, but there can be conflict (i.e. nondeterminism): mathematically, In a marked graph (MG), every place has one incoming arc, and one outgoing arc. This means, that there can not be conflict, but there can be concurrency: mathematically, In a free choice net (FC), every arc from a place to a transition is either the only arc from that place or the only arc to that transition, i.e. there can be both concurrency and conflict, but not at the same time: mathematically, Extended free choice (EFC) – a Petri net that can be transformed into an FC. In an asymmetric choice net (AC), concurrency and conflict (in sum, confusion) may occur, but not symmetrically: mathematically, Workflow nets Workflow nets (WF-nets) are a subclass of Petri nets intending to model the workflow of process activities. The WF-net transitions are assigned to tasks or activities, and places are assigned to the pre/post conditions. The WF-nets have additional structural and operational requirements, mainly the addition of a single input (source) place with no previous transitions, and output place (sink) with no following transitions. Accordingly, start and termination markings can be defined that represent the process status. WF-nets have the soundness property, indicating that a process with a start marking of k tokens in its source place, can reach the termination state marking with k tokens in its sink place (defined as k-sound WF-net). Additionally, all the transitions in the process could fire (i.e., for each transition there is a reachable state in which the transition is enabled). A general sound (G-sound) WF-net is defined as being k-sound for every k > 0. A directed path in the Petri net is defined as the sequence of nodes (places and transitions) linked by the directed arcs. An elementary path includes every node in the sequence only once. A well-handled Petri net is a net in which there are no fully distinct elementary paths between a place and a transition (or transition and a place), i.e., if there are two paths between the pair of nodes then these paths share a node. An acyclic well-handled WF-net is sound (G-sound). Extended WF-net is a Petri net that is composed of a WF-net with additional transition t (feedback transition). The sink place is connected as the input place of transition t and the source place as its output place. Firing of the transition causes iteration of the process (Note, the extended WF-net is not a WF-net). WRI (Well-handled with Regular Iteration) WF-net, is an extended acyclic well-handled WF-net. WRI-WF-net can be built as composition of nets, i.e., replacing a transition within a WRI-WF-net with a subnet which is a WRI-WF-net. The result is also WRI-WF-net. WRI-WF-nets are G-sound, therefore by using only WRI-WF-net building blocks, one can get WF-nets that are G-sound by construction. The Design structure matrix (DSM) can model process relations, and be utilized for process planning. The DSM-nets are realization of DSM-based plans into workflow processes by Petri nets, and are equivalent to WRI-WF-nets. The DSM-net construction process ensures the soundness property of the resulting net. Other models of concurrency Other ways of modelling concurrent computation have been proposed, including vector addition systems, communicating finite-state machines, Kahn process networks, process algebra, the actor model, and trace theory. Different models provide tradeoffs of concepts such as compositionality, modularity, and locality. An approach to relating some of these models of concurrency is proposed in the chapter by Winskel and Nielsen. Application areas Boolean differential calculus Business process modeling Computational biology Concurrent programming Control engineering Data analysis Diagnosis (artificial intelligence) Discrete process control Game theory Hardware design Kahn process networks Process modeling Reliability engineering Simulation Software design Workflow management systems See also Finite-state machine Petri Net Markup Language Petriscript Process architecture Vector addition systems Machine learning References Further reading External links Petri Nets World Petri Net Markup Language Java implementation of Petri nets in the jBPT library (see jbpt-petri module) Java Petri net simulator Petia Wohed's Flash-based tutorial introduction to Workflow Technology with Petri Nets List of Petri net tools Formal specification languages Models of computation Concurrency (computer science) Diagrams Software modeling language Modeling languages	[ 0.2254282832145691, -0.5269836187362671, 0.14423812925815582, 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225193	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl%20Adam%20Petri	Carl Adam Petri	Carl Adam Petri (12 July 1926 in Leipzig – 2 July 2010 in Siegburg) was a German mathematician and computer scientist. Life and work Petri created his major scientific contribution, the concept of the Petri net, in 1939 at the age of 13, for the purpose of describing chemical processes. In 1941 his father told him about Konrad Zuse's work on computing machines and Carl Adam started building his own analog computer. After earning his Abitur at Thomasschule in 1944, he was drafted into the Wehrmacht. He was taken into British captivity until 1949, when he departed England. Petri started studying mathematics at the Technischen Hochschule Hannover (today, the Leibniz University Hannover) in 1950. He documented the Petri net in 1962 as part of his dissertation, Kommunikation mit Automaten (communication with automata). He worked from 1959 until 1962 at the University of Bonn and received his PhD degree in 1962 from the Technische Universität Darmstadt. From 1963 to 1968 he established and directed the computing centre of Bonn University. In 1968 he became head of Forschungsinstitut für Informationssysteme of the newly founded Gesellschaft für Mathematik und Datenverarbeitung (GMD). He retired in 1991. In 1988 Petri became honorary professor of the University of Hamburg. He was a member of the Academia Europaea. Petri's work significantly advanced the fields of parallel computing and distributed computing, and it helped define the modern studies of complex systems and workflow management systems. His contributions have been in the broader area of network theory, which includes coordination models and theories of interaction, and eventually led to the formal study of software connectors. Books, Papers, and Presentations 1962 Kommunikation mit Automaten (dissertation) by Carl Adam Petri 1976 Nicht-sequentielle Prozesse (work report) by Carl Adam Petri Kommunikationsdisziplinen (internal report) by Carl Adam Petri 1977 General net theory (from "Computing System Design: Proc. of the Joint IBM University of Newcastle upon Tyne Seminar") by Carl Adam Petri Communication disciplines (from "Computing System Design: Proc. of the Joint IBM University of Newcastle upon Tyne Seminar") by Carl Adam Petri 1979 Concurrency as a basis of systems thinking (from "Proceedings 5th Scandinavian Logic Symposium") by Carl Adam Petri Ansätze zur Organisationstheorie rechnergestützter Informationssysteme (book) by Carl Adam Petri 1980 Concurrency (from "Net Theory and Applications, Proceedings of the Advanced Course on General Net Theory of Processes and Systems, Hamburg, October 8–19, 1979") by Carl Adam Petri Introduction to General Net Theory (from "Net Theory and Applications, Proc. of the Advanced Course on General Net Theory of Processes and Systems, Hamburg, 1979") by Carl Adam Petri 1982 State-Transition Structures in Physics and Computation (article in "International Journal of Theoretical Physics") by Carl Adam Petri 1987 Concurrency Theory (from "Petri Nets: Central Models and Their Properties, Advances in Petri Nets 1986, Part I, Proceedings of an Advanced Course, Bad Honnef, September 1986") by Carl Adam Petri 1996 Nets, Time and Space (from "Theoretical Computer Science") by Carl Adam Petri 1997 Ansprache anläßlich der Verleihung des Werner-von-Siemens-Rings by Carl Adam Petri 2008 Petri Nets by Carl Adam Petri and Wolfgang Reisig Awards Petri was honored with the following awards: 1993: Konrad Zuse Medal of the Gesellschaft für Informatik. 1997: Werner von Siemens Ring, a prestigious German award in technical sciences. 1999: Doctorate Honoris Causa from the Universidad de Zaragoza 2003: honored by Her Majesty the Queen of the Netherlands with the title Commander in the Order of the Netherlands Lion. 2007: honored for his lifetime achievements by the "Academy of Transdisciplinary Learning and Advanced Studies (ATLAS)" with a "Academy Gold Medal of Honor". 2008: Computer Pioneer Award from the IEEE for his inspiration of Petri nets. See also Petri net Discrete Event Dynamic Systems (DEDS) References External links Prof. Dr. Carl Adam Petri 1926 births 2010 deaths Scientists from Leipzig Technische Universität Darmstadt alumni German computer scientists 20th-century German mathematicians Werner von Siemens Ring laureates Formal methods people University of Bonn faculty University of Hamburg faculty Petri nets Members of Academia Europaea Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany Commanders of the Order of the Netherlands Lion	[ -0.7759509086608887, 0.7805449962615967, -0.5615082383155823, -0.08042973279953003, -0.26091599464416504, 1.2108933925628662, 0.8971523642539978, -0.1768082231283188, 0.04442719370126724, -0.14683009684085846, -0.12092453241348267, -0.09552325308322906, 0.06175156682729721, 0.45023801922798157, 0.22245632112026215, 0.03901286795735359, -0.017116069793701172, -0.1238001137971878, -0.7247730493545532, 0.1863708645105362, -0.2658955454826355, 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225195	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two%20guineas%20%28British%20coin%29	Two guineas (British coin)	The Two Guineas was a gold coin first minted in England in 1664 with a face value of forty shillings. The source of the gold used, also provided the coin its name - the "Guinea", with the regular addition of an elephant or castle symbol on the earliest issues to denote bullion supplied by the Royal African Company. For most of its period of production, the coin weighed between 16.7 and 16.8 grams and was 31-32 millimetres in diameter, although the earliest coins of Charles II were about 0.1 grams lighter and 1 millimetre smaller. The Two guinea coin was produced in 1664, 1665 (possibly only 1 coin), 1669, 1671, and 1675-1684 inclusive; until 1669 the weight limits were 16.6-16.8 grams, afterward 16.5-16.7 grams. The obverse and reverse of this coin were designed by John Roettiers. The obverse showed a fine right-facing bust of the king wearing a laurel wreath, surrounded by the legend CAROLVS II DEI GRATIA, while the reverse showed four crowned cruciform shields bearing the arms of England, Scotland, France, and Ireland, between which were four sceptres, and in the centre were four interlinked "C"s, surrounded by the inscription MAG BR FRA ET HIB REX [date]. The coin was considered too thin to have an edge inscription like the larger contemporary Five Guineas coin, but still required a milled edge to deter counterfeiters from simply gilding contemporary silver Halfcrown coins as well as clipping or filing down of the coin's weight. Until 1669, the milling was perpendicular to the coin, visibly providing vertical grooving, however from 1671 onwards, the milling was obliquely grained. John Roettiers continued to engrave the dies for this denomination into the reign of King James II. In this reign, the coins weighed 16.7 grams, and were only minted in 1687 and 1688. By the early part of this reign the value of the guinea had increased to nearly thirty shillings. The kings' head faces left in this reign, and is surrounded by the inscription IACOBUS II DEI GRATIA, while the obverse is the same as in Charles II's reign except for omitting the interlinked "C"s in the centre of the coin. The edge of the coins are milled diagonally. With the removal of James II in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, his daughter Mary, and her husband Prince William of Orange ruled jointly by agreement as co-monarchs. Their heads appear conjoined on the two guinea piece in Roman style, with William's head uppermost, with the legend GVLIELMVS ET MARIA DEI GRATIA. In a departure from the previous reigns the reverse featured a totally new design of a large crowned shield which bore the arms of France in the first quarter, of Scotland in the second quarter, of Ireland in the third quarter, and of England in the fourth quarter, the whole ensemble having a small shield in the centre bearing the rampant lion of Nassau; the legend on the obverse read MAG BR FR ET HIB REX ET REGINA date. The weight tolerance of the coin in this reign was 16.7-16.8 grams. The two guinea coin of this reign was probably the work of James and/or Norbert Roettier and, apart from a rare issue in 1691, it was only produced in 1693 and 1694. Following the death of Queen Mary from smallpox in 1694, William continued to reign as William III. The Two guinea coin was only produced in 1701, the design probably being the work of Johann Crocker a.k.a. John Croker, since James Roettier had died in 1698 and his brother Norbert had moved to France in 1695. The coins of William III's reign weighed 16.7 grams. William's head faces right on his coins, with the legend GVLIELMVS III DEI GRATIA, while the reverse design of William and Mary's reign was judged to be unsuccessful, so the design reverted to that used by Charles II and James II, but with a small shield with the lion of Nassau in the centre, with the legend MAG BR FRA ET HIB REX date. The coin had a diagonal milled edge. The reign of Queen Anne (1702-1714) did not produce any two guinea coins until after the Union of England and Scotland, the coins being produced in 1709, 1711, 1713 and 1714. The obverse of the coin throughout her reign shows the left-facing effigy of the queen, with the legend ANNA DEI GRATIA. The design of the reverse was similar to that of the previous reign, with four crowned cruciform shields bearing the arms of England and Scotland joined, Ireland, and France, separated by sceptres and with a central rose, and the legend MAG BRI FR ET HIB REG date. With the union, the English and Scottish arms appear conjoined on one shield, with the left half being the English arms and the right half being the Scottish arms, and the order of arms appearing on the shields becomes England and Scotland, France, England and Scotland, Ireland. The centre of the reverse design shows Star of the Order of the Garter. The edge of the coin is milled diagonally. During the reign of George I, the Royal Proclamation of December 1717 retariffed the Guinea at 21-shillings, and hence its double at forty-two shillings. In reality the value of the Guinea had fluctuated over the years, between twenty and thirty shillings, consequently Two-Guineas were only irregularly issued during this reign, and for the years 1717, 1720, and 1726. They bear the abbreviated titles of the new Hanoverian dynasty in addition to the usual British, French, and Irish claims. The obverse features a right-facing portrait of the king with the legend GEORGIVS D G M BR FR ET HIB REX F D. The reverse follows the same general design as before, except the order of the shields is England and Scotland, France, Ireland, and Hanover, with the legend BRVN ET L DVX S R I A TH ET EL date -- Duke of Brunswick and Luneburg, Arch-Treasurer and Elector of the Holy Roman Empire. The edge of the coin is milled diagonally, and the coins of this reign weighed 16.8 grams. George II's Two guinea pieces mark the last of the denomination struck for currency issue. Dates struck included 1734, 1735, 1738–1740, 1748, and the last issue in 1753. The coin weighed 16.8 grams. In the early part of the reign the edge of the coin was milled diagonally, but from 1739 following the activities of a particularly bold gang of guinea filers, for whom a reward was posted, the milling was changed to produce the shape of a chevron or arrow-head. The obverse has a left-facing bust of the king (with an "intermediate head" in 1739 and 1740, and an older head from 1748), with the legend GEORGIVS II DEI GRATIA (GEORGIUS II DEI GRATIA in 1739 and 1740), while the reverse features a single large crowned shield with the quarters containing the arms of England+Scotland, France, Hanover, and Ireland, and the legend M B F ET H REX F D B ET L D S R I A T ET E -- King of Great Britain, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, Duke of Brunswick and Luneburg, Arch-Treasurer and Elector of the Holy Roman Empire. George II's reign is also marked by the introduction of pattern or proof issues of the Two Guinea, struck from carefully prepared and highly polished dies. An example of John Croker's pattern of the Two Guinea of 1733, struck in advance of the first currency issue of the reign recently sold for £38,000 at auction in London. George III (1760-1820) No currency issue Two Guinea coins were struck during George III's reign, however the Royal Mint still engaged in the production of proofs and patterns of the denomination in anticipation of future coinage. As a result, the then Chief Engraver John Sigismund Tanner produced trials of the intended coin for 1768, 1770 and 1773, and latterly his assistant Richard Yeo created a trial coin for 1777. All were created in small quantities and are now extremely sought after by collectors. The present auction record for a Two Guinea, either currency issue or proof is held by an example of the 1768 Pattern, which sold for over £120,000 in New York in January 2014. 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225196	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th%20United%20States%20Congress	20th United States Congress	The 20th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1827, to March 4, 1829, during the third and fourth years of John Quincy Adams's presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Fourth Census of the United States in 1820. Both chambers had a Jacksonian majority. Major events December 3, 1828: U.S. presidential election, 1828: Challenger Andrew Jackson beat incumbent John Quincy Adams and was elected President of the United States Major legislation May 24, 1828: Tariff of Abominations, ch. 111, Party summary The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this congress. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section. Senate House of Representatives Leadership Senate President: John C. Calhoun (J) President pro tempore: Samuel Smith (J) House of Representatives Speaker: Andrew Stevenson (J) Members This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class and members of the House are listed by district. Skip to House of Representatives, below Senate Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began with this Congress, facing re-election in 1832; Class 2 meant their term ended with this Congress, facing re-election in 1828; and Class 3 meant their term began in the last Congress, facing re-election in 1830. Alabama 2. William R. King (J) 3. John McKinley (J) Connecticut 1. Samuel A. Foot (NR) 3. Calvin Willey (NR) Delaware 1. Louis McLane (J) 2. Henry M. Ridgely (J) Georgia 2. Thomas W. Cobb (J), until November 7, 1828 Oliver H. Prince (J), from November 7, 1828 3. John Macpherson Berrien (J) Illinois 2. Jesse B. Thomas (NR) 3. Elias K. Kane (J) Indiana 1. James Noble (NR) 3. William Hendricks (NR) Kentucky 2. Richard M. Johnson (J) 3. John Rowan (J) Louisiana 2. Dominique J. Bouligny (NR) 3. Josiah S. Johnston (NR) Maine 1. Albion K. Parris (J), until August 26, 1828 John Holmes (NR), from January 15, 1829 2. John Chandler (J) Maryland 1. Samuel Smith (J) 3. Ezekiel F. Chambers (NR) Massachusetts 1. Daniel Webster (NR), from June 8, 1827 2. Nathaniel Silsbee (NR) Mississippi 1. Powhatan Ellis (J) 2. Thomas H. Williams (J) Missouri 1. Thomas H. Benton (J) 3. David Barton (NR) New Hampshire 2. Samuel Bell (NR) 3. Levi Woodbury (J) New Jersey 1. Ephraim Bateman (NR), until January 12, 1829 Mahlon Dickerson (J), from January 30, 1829 2. Mahlon Dickerson (J), until January 30, 1829, vacant thereafter New York 1. Martin Van Buren (J), until December 20, 1828 Charles E. Dudley (J), from January 15, 1829 3. Nathan Sanford (NR) North Carolina 2. John Branch (J) 3. Nathaniel Macon (J), until November 14, 1828 James Iredell Jr. (J), from December 15, 1828 Ohio 1. Benjamin Ruggles (NR) 3. William Henry Harrison (NR), until May 20, 1828 Jacob Burnet (NR), from December 10, 1828 Pennsylvania 1. Isaac D. Barnard (J) 3. William Marks (NR) Rhode Island 1. Asher Robbins (NR) 2. Nehemiah R. Knight (NR) South Carolina 2. Robert Y. Hayne (J) 3. William Smith (J) Tennessee 1. John H. Eaton (J) 2. Hugh Lawson White (J) Vermont 1. Horatio Seymour (NR) 3. Dudley Chase (NR) Virginia 1. John Tyler (J) 2. Littleton W. Tazewell (J) House of Representatives The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their district numbers. Alabama . Gabriel Moore (J) . John McKee (J) . George W. Owen (J) Connecticut All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . John Baldwin (NR) . Noyes Barber (NR) . Ralph I. Ingersoll (NR) . Orange Merwin (NR) . Elisha Phelps (NR) . David Plant (NR) Delaware . Kensey Johns Jr. (NR), from October 2, 1827 Georgia Two representatives replacing those who had resigned were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Edward F. Tattnall (J), until sometime in 1827 George R. Gilmer (J), from October 1, 1827 . John Forsyth (J), until November 7, 1827 Richard Henry Wilde (J), from November 17, 1827 . Wiley Thompson (J) . Wilson Lumpkin (J) . Charles E. Haynes (J) . Tomlinson Fort (J) . John Floyd (J) Illinois . Joseph Duncan (J) Indiana . Thomas H. Blake (NR) . Jonathan Jennings (NR) . Oliver H. Smith (J) Kentucky . Henry Daniel (J) . Thomas Metcalfe (NR), until June 1, 1828 John Chambers (NR), from December 1, 1828 . James Clark (NR) . Robert P. Letcher (NR) . Robert L. McHatton (J) . Joseph Lecompte (J) . Thomas P. Moore (J) . Richard A. Buckner (NR) . Charles A. Wickliffe (J) . Joel Yancey (J) . William S. Young (NR), until September 20, 1827 John Calhoon (NR), November 5, 1827 – November 7, 1827 Thomas Chilton (J), from December 22, 1827 . Chittenden Lyon (J) Louisiana . Edward Livingston (J) . Henry H. Gurley (NR) . William L. Brent (NR) Maine . William Burleigh (NR), until July 2, 1827 Rufus McIntire (J), from September 10, 1827 . John Anderson (J) . Joseph F. Wingate (NR) . Peleg Sprague (NR) . James W. Ripley (J) . Jeremiah O'Brien (NR) . Samuel Butman (NR) Maryland The 5th district was a plural district with two representatives. . Clement Dorsey (NR) . John C. Weems (J) . George C. Washington (NR) . Michael C. Sprigg (J) . John Barney (NR) . Peter Little (NR) . Levin Gale (J) . John L. Kerr (NR) . Ephraim K. Wilson (NR) Massachusetts . Daniel Webster (NR), until May 30, 1827 Benjamin Gorham (NR), from July 23, 1827 . Benjamin W. Crowninshield (NR) . John Varnum (NR) . Edward Everett (NR) . John Davis (NR) . John Locke (NR) . Samuel C. Allen (NR) . Isaac C. Bates (NR) . Henry W. Dwight (NR) . John Bailey (NR) . Joseph Richardson (NR) . James L. Hodges (NR) . John Reed Jr. (NR) Mississippi . William Haile (J), until September 12, 1828 Thomas Hinds (J), from October 21, 1828 Missouri . Edward Bates (NR) New Hampshire All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . David Barker Jr. (NR) . Ichabod Bartlett (NR) . Titus Brown (NR) . Jonathan Harvey (J) . Joseph Healy (NR) . Thomas Whipple Jr. (NR) New Jersey All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Lewis Condict (NR) . George Holcombe (J), until January 14, 1828 James F. Randolph (NR), from December 1, 1828 . Isaac Pierson (NR) . Samuel Swan (NR) . Hedge Thompson (NR), until July 23, 1828 Thomas Sinnickson (NR), from December 1, 1828 . Ebenezer Tucker (NR) New York There were three plural districts: the 20th & 26th had two representatives each, and the 3rd had three representatives. . Silas Wood (NR) . John J. Wood (J) . Churchill C. Cambreleng (J) . Jeromus Johnson (J) . Gulian C. Verplanck (J) . Aaron Ward (NR) . Thomas J. Oakley (J), until May 9, 1828 Thomas Taber II (J), from November 5, 1828 . John Hallock Jr. (J) . George O. Belden (J) . James Strong (NR) . John D. Dickinson (NR) . Stephen Van Rensselaer (NR) . Selah R. Hobbie (J) . John I. De Graff (J) . Samuel Chase (NR) . Henry R. Storrs (NR) . Michael Hoffman (J) . Henry Markell (NR) . John W. Taylor (NR) . Henry C. Martindale (NR) . Richard Keese (J) . Rudolph Bunner (J) . Silas Wright Jr. (J), until February 16, 1829, vacant thereafter . John C. Clark (J) . John G. Stower (J) . Jonas Earll Jr. (J) . Nathaniel Garrow (J) . David Woodcock (NR) . Dudley Marvin (NR) . John Maynard (NR) . Daniel D. Barnard (NR) . John Magee (J) . David E. Evans (J), until May 2, 1827 Phineas L. Tracy (NR), from November 5, 1827 . Daniel G. Garnsey (J) North Carolina . Lemuel Sawyer (J) . Willis Alston (J) . Thomas H. Hall (J) . John H. Bryan (NR) . Gabriel Holmes (J) . Daniel Turner (J) . John Culpepper (NR) . Daniel L. Barringer (J) . Augustine H. Shepperd (J) . John Long (NR) . Henry W. Connor (J) . Samuel P. Carson (J) . Lewis Williams (NR) Ohio . James Findlay (J) . John Woods (NR) . William McLean (NR) . Joseph Vance (NR) . William Russell (J) . William Creighton Jr. (NR), until sometime in 1828 Francis S. Muhlenberg (NR), from December 19, 1828 . Samuel F. Vinton (NR) . William Wilson (NR), until June 6, 1827 William Stanbery (J), from October 9, 1827 . Philemon Beecher (NR) . John Davenport (NR) . John C. Wright (NR) . John Sloane (NR) . Elisha Whittlesey (NR) . Mordecai Bartley (NR) Pennsylvania There were six plural districts: the 7th, 8th, 11th & 16th had two representatives each, and the 4th & 9th had three representatives each. . Joel B. Sutherland (J) . John Sergeant (NR) . Daniel H. Miller (J) . Samuel Anderson (NR) . James Buchanan (J) . Charles Miner (NR) . John B. Sterigere (J) . Innis Green (J) . William Addams (J) . Joseph Fry Jr. (J) . Samuel D. Ingham (J) . George Wolf (J) . George Kremer (J) . Samuel McKean (J) . Espy Van Horne (J) . Adam King (J) . William Ramsey (J) . James Wilson (NR) . John Mitchell (J) . Chauncey Forward (J) . Andrew Stewart (NR) . Joseph Lawrence (NR) . Robert Orr Jr. (J) . James S. Stevenson (J) . Richard Coulter (J) . Stephen Barlow (J) Rhode Island Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Tristam Burges (NR) . Dutee J. Pearce (NR) South Carolina . William Drayton (J) . James Hamilton Jr. (J) . Thomas R. Mitchell (J) . William D. Martin (J) . George McDuffie (J) . Warren R. Davis (J) . William T. Nuckolls (J) . John Carter (J) . Starling Tucker (J) Tennessee . John Blair (J) . Pryor Lea (J) . James C. Mitchell (J) . Jacob C. Isacks (J) . Robert Desha (J) . James K. Polk (J) . John Bell (J) . John H. Marable (J) . Davy Crockett (J) Vermont . Jonathan Hunt (NR) . Rollin C. Mallary (NR) . George E. Wales (NR) . Benjamin Swift (NR) . Daniel A. A. Buck (NR) Virginia . Thomas Newton Jr. (NR) . James Trezvant (J) . William S. Archer (J) . Mark Alexander (J) . John Randolph (J) . Thomas Davenport (J) . Nathaniel H. Claiborne (J) . Burwell Bassett (J) . Andrew Stevenson (J) . William C. Rives (J) . Philip P. Barbour (J) . John Roane (J) . John Taliaferro (NR) . Charles F. Mercer (NR) . John S. Barbour (J) . William Armstrong (NR) . Robert Allen (J) . Isaac Leffler (NR) . William McCoy (J) . John Floyd (J) . Lewis Maxwell (NR) . Alexander Smyth (J) Non-voting members . Henry W. Conway, until November 9, 1827 Ambrose H. Sevier, from February 13, 1828 . Joseph M. White . Austin E. Wing (NR) Changes in membership The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress. Senate Replacements: 6 National Republican (NR): no net change Jacksonian (J): no net change Deaths: 0 Resignations: 7 Interim appointments: 0 Total seats with changes: 8 \|- \| Massachusetts(1) \| Vacant \| style="font-size:80%" \| Seat remained vacant because legislature had failed to elect.Winner was elected June 8, 1827. \| \| Daniel Webster (NR) \| Installed December 17, 1827 \|- \| Ohio(3) \| \| William Henry Harrison (NR) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned May 20, 1828, to become U.S. Minister Plenipotentiary to Gran Colombia.A special election was held December 10, 1828. \| \| Jacob Burnet (NR) \| Installed December 10, 1828 \|- \| Maine(1) \| \| Albion K. Parris (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned August 26, 1828, after being appointed to the Maine Supreme Judicial Court.A special election was held January 15, 1829. \| \| John Holmes (NR) \| Installed January 15, 1829 \|- \| Georgia(2) \| \| Thomas W. Cobb (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned before November 7, 1828.A special election was held November 7, 1828. \| \| Oliver H. Prince (J) \| Installed November 7, 1828 \|- \| North Carolina(3) \| \| Nathaniel Macon (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned November 14, 1828.A special election was held December 15, 1828. \| \| James Iredell Jr. (J) \| Installed December 15, 1828 \|- \| New York(1) \| \| Martin Van Buren (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned December 20, 1828, to become Governor of New York.A special election was held January 15, 1829. \| \| Charles E. Dudley (J) \| Installed January 15, 1829 \|- \| New Jersey(1) \| \| Ephraim Bateman (NR) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned January 12, 1829, due to failing health.A special election was held January 30, 1829. \| \| Mahlon Dickerson (J) \| Installed January 30, 1829 \|- \| New Jersey(2) \| \| Mahlon Dickerson (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned January 30, 1829, after being elected to New Jersey's Class 1 U.S. Senate seat. \| Vacant \| Not filled in this Congress \|} House of Representatives Replacements: 9 National Republican (NR): 1-seat net loss Jacksonian (J): 1-seat net gain Deaths: 5 Resignations: 9 Contested election: 1 Total seats with changes: 15 \|- \| \| \| Edward F. Tattnall (J) \| Resigned some time in 1827 before the assembling of Congress \| \| George R. Gilmer (J) \| Seated October 1, 1827 \|- \| \| Vacant \| Louis McLane (J) resigned despite winning reelection in 1826 after being elected to the US Senate. \| \| Kensey Johns Jr. (NR) \| Seated October 2, 1827 \|- \| \| \| David E. Evans (J) \| Resigned May 2, 1827 \| \| Phineas L. Tracy (NR) \| Seated November 5, 1827 \|- \| \| \| Daniel Webster (NR) \| Resigned May 30, 1827, to run for the US Senate \| \| Benjamin Gorham (NR) \| Seated July 23, 1827 \|- \| \| \| William Wilson (NR) \| Died June 6, 1827 \| \| William Stanbery (J) \| Seated October 9, 1827 \|- \| \| \| William Burleigh (NR) \| Died July 2, 1827 \| \| Rufus McIntire (J) \| Seated September 10, 1827 \|- \| \| \| William S. Young (NR) \| Died September 20, 1827 \| \| John Calhoon (NR) \| Seated November 5, 1827 \|- \| \| \| John Calhoon (NR) \| Resigned November 7, 1827, to avoid an election dispute \| \| Thomas Chilton (J) \| Seated December 22, 1827 \|- \| \| \| John Forsyth (J) \| Resigned November 7, 1827, after being elected Governor of Georgia \| \| Richard H. Wilde (J) \| Seated November 17, 1827 \|- \| \| Henry W. Conway \| Died November 9, 1827 \| Ambrose H. Sevier \| Seated February 13, 1828 \|- \| \| \| George Holcombe (J) \| Died January 14, 1828 \| \| James F. Randolph (NR) \| Seated December 1, 1828 \|- \| \| \| Thomas J. Oakley (J) \| Resigned May 9, 1828, after being appointed judge of the Superior Court of New York City \| \| Thomas Taber II (J) \| Seated November 5, 1828 \|- \| \| \| Thomas Metcalfe (NR) \| Resigned June 1, 1828, after being elected Governor of Kentucky \| \| John Chambers (NR) \| Seated December 1, 1828 \|- \| \| \| Hedge Thompson (NR) \| Died July 23, 1828 \| \| Thomas Sinnickson (NR) \| Seated December 1, 1828 \|- \| \| \| William Haile (J) \| Resigned September 12, 1828 \| \| Thomas Hinds (J) \| Seated October 21, 1828 \|- \| \| \| William Creighton Jr. (NR) \| Resigned before December 19, 1828, after being nominated as a judge to district court \| \| Francis S. Muhlenberg (NR) \| Seated December 19, 1828 \|- \| \| \| Silas Wright (J) \| Resigned February 16, 1829 \| Vacant \| Not filled this Congress \|} Committees Lists of committees and their party leaders. Senate Agriculture (Chairman: John Branch) Alabama Land Purchase (Select) Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: Elias Kane) Claims (Chairman: Benjamin Ruggles) Commerce (Chairman: Levi Woodbury) Debt Imprisonment Abolition (Select) Distributing Public Revenue Among the States (Select) District of Columbia (Chairman: John Eaton) Engrossed Bills (Chairman: William Marks) Finance (Chairman: Samuel Smith) Foreign Relations (Chairman: Nathaniel Macon then Littleton Tazewell) French Spoilations (Select) Indian Affairs (Chairman: Thomas Hart Benton then Hugh Lawson White) Judiciary (Chairman: Martin Van Buren then John M. Berrien) Manufactures (Chairman: Samuel Smith) Military Affairs (Chairman: William Henry Harrison then Thomas Hart Benton) Militia (Chairman: John Chandler) Naval Affairs (Chairman: Robert Y. Hayne) Pensions (Chairman: James Noble) Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: Richard M. Johnson) Private Land Claims (Chairman: William Smith) Public Lands (Chairman: David Barton) Revolutionary Officers (Select) Roads and Canals (Select) (Chairman: William Hendricks) Tariff Regulation (Select) Vaccination (Select) Whole House of Representatives Accounts (Chairman: Samuel C. Allen) Agriculture (Chairman: Stephen Van Rensselaer) Assault on the President's Secretary (Select) American Colonization Society (Select) Claims (Chairman: Lewis Williams) Commerce (Chairman: Churchill C. Cambreleng) District of Columbia (Chairman: Mark Alexander) Elections (Chairman: John Sloane) Ethics (Chairman: N/A) Expenditures in the Navy Department (Chairman: Peter Little) Expenditures in the Post Office Department (Chairman: Gabriel Holmes) Expenditures in the State Department (Chairman: John Blair) Expenditures in the Treasury Department (Chairman: Thomas H. Hall) Expenditures in the War Department (Chairman: Charles Eaton Haynes) Expenditures on Public Buildings (Chairman: Michael C. Sprigg) Foreign Affairs (Chairman: Edward Everett) Indian Affairs (Chairman: William McLean) Judiciary (Chairman: Philip P. Barbour) Manufactures (Chairman: Rollin C. Mallary) Military Affairs (Chairman: James Hamilton Jr.) Military Pensions (Chairman: Tristam Burges) Naval Affairs (Chairman: Michael Hoffman) Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: Samuel D. Ingham then Samuel McKean) Private Land Claims (Chairman: Richard Aylett Buckner) Public Expenditures (Chairman: Jeromus Johnson) Public Lands (Chairman: Jacob C. Isacks) Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: Dutee J. Pearce) Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: George Wolf) Rules (Select) Standards of Official Conduct Territories (Chairman: James Strong) Ways and Means (Chairman: George McDuffie) Whole Joint committees Enrolled Bills The Library To Prepare a Code of Laws for the District of Columbia Employees Legislative branch agency directors Architect of the Capitol: Charles Bulfinch Librarian of Congress: George Watterston Senate Chaplain: William Ryland (Methodist) Secretary: Walter Lowrie Sergeant at Arms: Mountjoy Bayly House of Representatives Chaplain: Reuben Post (Presbyterian) Clerk: Matthew St. Clair Clarke Doorkeeper: Benjamin Birch Reading Clerks: Sergeant at Arms: John O. Dunn See also 1826 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress) 1826 and 1827 United States Senate elections 1826 and 1827 United States House of Representatives elections 1828 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress) 1828 United States presidential election 1828 and 1829 United States Senate elections 1828 and 1829 United States House of Representatives elections Notes References External links Statutes at Large, 1789-1875 Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress U.S. House of Representatives: House History U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists	[ -0.2285660356283188, -0.39541563391685486, -0.6959208846092224, 0.45985352993011475, -0.10367036610841751, 0.33073246479034424, 0.2660587728023529, -0.23892517387866974, -1.0570300817489624, -0.17464083433151245, -0.19597983360290527, -0.08658701926469803, 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225197	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/21st%20United%20States%20Congress	21st United States Congress	The 21st United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1829, to March 4, 1831, during the first two years of Andrew Jackson's presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Fourth Census of the United States in 1820. Both chambers had a Jacksonian majority. Major events March 4, 1829: Andrew Jackson became 7th President of the United States May 10–14, 1830: Confrontational meetings between the French Chargé d'affaires in Washington DC and a group of leaders consisting of Mark Alexander, William S. Archer, Robert H. Adams, Thomas Hinds, Dixon H. Lewis, Clement Comer Clay, Powhatan Ellis and John McKinley grew incredibly contentious and hostile. Arguments began when the aforementioned representatives and senators charged that France owed the United States reparations from damages incurred during the Quasi-War. At one point Thomas Hinds threatened the French Chargé d'affaires with a pistol. Eventually, only intervention by John Forsyth prevented a major diplomatic incident. Shortly after this the governor of Virginia John Floyd formally asked France's economic attaché to leave Virginia. This foreshadowed conflict with France over the same issue that would dominate American politics in 1835, at that point the main instigator on the American side would be President Andrew Jackson. May 28 – US congress passes the Indian Removal Act. September 27 – Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek with Choctaw nation. (First removal treaty signed after the Removal Act.) Major legislation May 28, 1830: Indian Removal Act, ch. 148, Not enacted May 27, 1830: Maysville Road Bill vetoed Treaties September 27, 1830: The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, the first removal treaty after the passage of the Indian Removal Act, is signed with the Choctaw. February 24, 1831: Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek proclaimed. Party summary The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this congress. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section. Senate House of Representatives Leadership Senate President: John C. Calhoun (J) President pro tempore: Samuel Smith (J) House of Representatives Speaker: Andrew Stevenson (J) Members This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class, and representatives are listed by district. Skip to House of Representatives, below Senate Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began in the last Congress, facing re-election in 1832; Class 2 meant their term began with this Congress, facing re-election in 1834; and Class 3 meant their term ended with this Congress, facing re-election in 1830. Alabama 2. William R. King (J) 3. John McKinley (J) Connecticut 1. Samuel A. Foot (NR) 3. Calvin Willey (NR) Delaware 1. Louis McLane (J), until April 16, 1829 Arnold Naudain (NR), from January 7, 1830 2. John M. Clayton (NR) Georgia 2. George Troup (J) 3. John M. Berrien (J), until March 9, 1829 John Forsyth (J), from November 9, 1829 Illinois 2. John McLean (J), until October 14, 1830 David J. Baker (J), November 12, 1830 – December 11, 1830 John M. Robinson (J), from December 11, 1830 3. Elias Kane (J) Indiana 1. James Noble (NR), until February 26, 1831, vacant for remainder of term 3. William Hendricks (NR) Kentucky 2. George M. Bibb (J) 3. John Rowan (J) Louisiana 2. Edward Livingston (J) 3. Josiah S. Johnston (NR) Maine 1. John Holmes (NR) 2. Peleg Sprague (NR) Maryland 1. Samuel Smith (J) 3. Ezekiel F. Chambers (NR) Massachusetts 1. Daniel Webster (NR) 2. Nathaniel Silsbee (NR) Mississippi 1. Powhatan Ellis (J) 2. Thomas B. Reed (J), until November 26, 1829 Robert H. Adams (J), January 6, 1830 – July 2, 1830 George Poindexter (J), from October 15, 1830 Missouri 1. Thomas H. Benton (J) 3. David Barton (NR) New Hampshire 2. Samuel Bell (NR) 3. Levi Woodbury (J) New Jersey 1. Mahlon Dickerson (J) 2. Theodore Frelinghuysen (NR) New York 1. Charles E. Dudley (J) 3. Nathan Sanford (NR) North Carolina 2. John Branch (J), until March 9, 1829 Bedford Brown (J), from December 9, 1829 3. James Iredell Jr. (J) Ohio 1. Benjamin Ruggles (NR) 3. Jacob Burnet (NR) Pennsylvania 1. Isaac D. Barnard (J) 3. William Marks (NR) Rhode Island 1. Asher Robbins (NR) 2. Nehemiah R. Knight (NR) South Carolina 2. Robert Y. Hayne (J) 3. William Smith (J) Tennessee 1. John Eaton (J), until March 9, 1829 Felix Grundy (J), from October 19, 1829 2. Hugh Lawson White (J) Vermont 1. Horatio Seymour (NR) 3. Dudley Chase (NR) Virginia 1. John Tyler (J) 2. Littleton W. Tazewell (J) House of Representatives Members are listed by their districts. Alabama . Clement C. Clay (J) . Robert E. B. Baylor (J) . Dixon H. Lewis (J) Connecticut All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Noyes Barber (NR) . William W. Ellsworth (NR) . Jabez W. Huntington (NR) . Ralph I. Ingersoll (NR) . William L. Storrs (NR) . Ebenezer Young (NR) Delaware . Kensey Johns Jr. (NR) Georgia All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Thomas F. Foster (J) . Charles E. Haynes (J) . Henry G. Lamar (J), from December 7, 1829 . Wilson Lumpkin (J) . Wiley Thompson (J) . James M. Wayne (J) . Richard Henry Wilde (J) Illinois . Joseph Duncan (J) Indiana . Ratliff Boon (J) . Jonathan Jennings (NR) . John Test (NR) Kentucky . Henry Daniel (J) . Nicholas D. Coleman (J) . James Clark (NR) . Robert P. Letcher (NR) . Richard M. Johnson (J) . Joseph Lecompte (J) . John Kincaid (J) . Nathan Gaither (J) . Charles A. Wickliffe (J) . Joel Yancey (J) . Thomas Chilton (J) . Chittenden Lyon (J) Louisiana . Edward D. White (NR) . Henry H. Gurley (NR) . Walter H. Overton (J) Maine . Rufus McIntire (J) . John Anderson (J) . Joseph F. Wingate (NR) . George Evans (NR), from July 20, 1829 . James W. Ripley (J), until March 12, 1830 Cornelius Holland (J), from December 6, 1830 . Leonard Jarvis (J) . Samuel Butman (NR) Maryland The 5th district was a plural district with two representatives. . Clement Dorsey (NR) . Benedict J. Semmes (NR) . George C. Washington (NR) . Michael C. Sprigg (J) . Elias Brown (J) . Benjamin C. Howard (J) . George E. Mitchell (J), from December 7, 1829 . Richard Spencer (J) . Ephraim K. Wilson (J) Massachusetts . Benjamin Gorham (NR) . Benjamin W. Crowninshield (NR) . John Varnum (NR) . Edward Everett (NR) . John Davis (NR) . Joseph G. Kendall (NR) . George J. Grennell Jr. (NR) . Isaac C. Bates (NR) . Henry W. Dwight (NR) . John Bailey (NR) . Joseph Richardson (NR) . James L. Hodges (NR) . John Reed Jr. (NR) Mississippi . Thomas Hinds (J) Missouri . Spencer D. Pettis (J) New Hampshire All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . John Brodhead (J) . Thomas Chandler (J) . Joseph Hammons (J) . Jonathan Harvey (J) . Henry Hubbard (J) . John W. Weeks (J) New Jersey All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Lewis Condict (NR) . Richard M. Cooper (NR) . Thomas H. Hughes (NR) . Isaac Pierson (NR) . James F. Randolph (NR) . Samuel Swan (NR) New York There were three plural districts, the 20th & 26th had two representatives each, the 3rd had three representatives. . James Lent (J) . Jacob Crocheron (J) . Churchill C. Cambreleng (J) . Gulian C. Verplanck (J) . Campbell P. White (J) . Henry B. Cowles (NR) . Abraham Bockee (J) . Hector Craig (J), until July 12, 1830 Samuel W. Eager (NR), from November 2, 1830 . Charles G. DeWitt (J) . James Strong (NR) . John D. Dickinson (NR) . Ambrose Spencer (NR) . Perkins King (J) . Peter I. Borst (J) . William G. Angel (J) . Henry R. Storrs (NR) . Michael Hoffman (J) . Benedict Arnold (NR) . John W. Taylor (NR) . Henry C. Martindale (NR) . Isaac Finch (NR) . Joseph Hawkins (NR) . George Fisher (NR), until February 5, 1830 Jonah Sanford (J), from November 3, 1830 . Robert Monell (J), until February 21, 1831, vacant thereafter . Thomas Beekman (NR) . Jonas Earll Jr. (J) . Gershom Powers (J) . Thomas Maxwell (J) . Jehiel H. Halsey (J) . Robert S. Rose (Anti-M) . Timothy Childs (Anti-M) . John Magee (J) . Phineas L. Tracy (Anti-M) . Ebenezer F. Norton (J) North Carolina . William B. Shepard (NR) . Willis Alston (J) . Thomas H. Hall (J) . Jesse Speight (J) . Gabriel Holmes (J), until September 26, 1829 Edward B. Dudley (J), from November 10, 1829 . Robert Potter (J) . Edmund Deberry (NR) . Daniel L. Barringer (J) . Augustine H. Shepperd (J) . Abraham Rencher (J) . Henry W. Connor (J) . Samuel P. Carson (J) . Lewis Williams (NR) Ohio . James Findlay (J) . James Shields (J) . Joseph H. Crane (NR) . Joseph Vance (NR) . William Russell (J) . William Creighton Jr. (NR) . Samuel F. Vinton (NR) . William Stanbery (J) . William W. Irvin (J) . William Kennon Sr. (J) . John M. Goodenow (J), until April 9, 1830 Humphrey H. Leavitt (J), from December 6, 1830 . John Thomson (J) . Elisha Whittlesey (NR) . Mordecai Bartley (NR) Pennsylvania There were six plural districts, the 7th, 8th, 11th & 16th had two representatives each, the 4th & 9th had three representatives each. . Joel B. Sutherland (J) . Joseph Hemphill (J) . Daniel H. Miller (J) . James Buchanan (J) . Joshua Evans Jr. (J) . George G. Leiper (J) . John B. Sterigere (J) . Innis Green (J) . Joseph Fry Jr. (J) . Henry A. P. Muhlenberg (J) . Samuel D. Ingham (J), until March 1829 Peter Ihrie Jr. (J), from October 13, 1829 . George Wolf (J), until March 1829 Samuel A. Smith (J), from October 13, 1829 . James Ford (J) . Alem Marr (J) . Philander Stephens (J) . Adam King (J) . Thomas H. Crawford (J) . William Ramsey (J) . John Scott (J) . Chauncey Forward (J) . Thomas Irwin (J) . William McCreery (J) . Harmar Denny (Anti-M), from December 15, 1829, after William Wilkins resigned before qualifying . John Gilmore (J) . Richard Coulter (J) . Thomas H. Sill (NR) Rhode Island Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Tristam Burges (NR) . Dutee J. Pearce (NR) South Carolina . William Drayton (J) . Robert W. Barnwell (J) . John Campbell (J) . William D. Martin (J) . George McDuffie (J) . Warren R. Davis (J) . William T. Nuckolls (J) . James Blair (J) . Starling Tucker (J) Tennessee . John Blair (J) . Pryor Lea (J) . James I. Standifer (J) . Jacob C. Isacks (J) . Robert Desha (J) . James K. Polk (J) . John Bell (J) . Cave Johnson (J) . David Crockett (NR) Vermont . Jonathan Hunt (NR) . Rollin C. Mallary (NR) . Horace Everett (NR) . Benjamin Swift (NR) . William Cahoon (Anti-M) Virginia . Thomas Newton Jr. (NR), until March 9, 1830 George Loyall (J), from March 9, 1830 . James Trezvant (J) . William S. Archer (J) . Mark Alexander (J) . Thomas T. Bouldin (J) . Thomas Davenport (J) . Nathaniel H. Claiborne (J) . Richard Coke Jr. (J) . Andrew Stevenson (J) . William C. Rives (J), until April 17, 1829 William F. Gordon (J), from January 25, 1830 . Philip P. Barbour (J), until October 15, 1830 John M. Patton (J), from November 25, 1830 . John Roane (J) . John Taliaferro (NR) . Charles F. Mercer (NR) . John S. Barbour (J) . William Armstrong (NR) . Robert Allen (J) . Philip Doddridge (NR) . William McCoy (J) . Robert Craig (J) . Lewis Maxwell (NR) . Alexander Smyth (J), until April 17, 1830 Joseph Draper (J), from December 6, 1830 Non-voting members . Ambrose H. Sevier . Joseph M. White . John Biddle, until February 21, 1831, vacant thereafter Changes in membership The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress. Senate Replacements: 4 Jacksonians (J): no net change National Republicans (NR): no net change Deaths: 4 Resignations: 4 Interim appointments: 1 Total seats with changes: 7 \|- \| Georgia(3) \| \| John M. Berrien (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned March 9, 1829, to become U.S. Attorney General.Successor elected November 9, 1829. \| \| John Forsyth (J) \| Installed November 9, 1829 \|- \| North Carolina(2) \| \| John Branch (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned March 9, 1829, after being appointed U.S. Secretary of the Navy.Successor elected December 9, 1829. \| \| Bedford Brown (J) \| Installed December 9, 1829 \|- \| Tennessee(1) \| \| John Eaton (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned March 9, 1829, after being appointed U.S. Secretary of War.Successor elected October 19, 1829. \| \| Felix Grundy (J) \| Installed October 19, 1829 \|- \| Delaware(1) \| \| Louis McLane (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned April 29, 1829, to become U.S. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the United Kingdom.Successor elected January 7, 1830. \| \| Arnold Naudain (NR) \| Installed January 7, 1830 \|- \| Mississippi(2) \| \| Thomas B. Reed (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died November 26, 1829.Successor elected January 6, 1830. \| \| Robert H. Adams (J) \| Installed January 6, 1830 \|- \| Mississippi(2) \| \| Robert H. Adams (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died July 2, 1830.Successor appointed October 15, 1830, to continue the term, and subsequently elected. \| \| George Poindexter (J) \| Installed October 15, 1830 \|- \| Illinois(2) \| \| John McLean (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died October 14, 1830.Successor appointed November 12, 1830, to continue the term. \| \| David J. Baker (J) \| Installed November 12, 1830 \|- \| Illinois(2) \| \| David J. Baker (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Appointee retired with elected successor qualified.Successor elected December 11, 1830. \| \| John M. Robinson (J) \| Installed December 11, 1830 \|- \| Indiana(1) \| \| James Noble (NR) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died February 26, 1831.Seat filled next Congress. \| Vacant \| Not filled this Congress \|} House of Representatives Replacements: 5 Jacksonians (J): 1 seat net loss National Republicans (NR): 1 seat net gain Deaths: 2 Resignations: 10 Contested election: 2 Total seats with changes: 15 \|- \| \| Vacant \| style="font-size:80%" \| Maryland elected its members October 5, 1829 after the term began but before Congress convened. Rep-elect sworn in December after convening. \| \| George Edward Mitchell (J) \| Seated December 7, 1829 \|- \| \| Vacant \| style="font-size:80%" \| George Gilmer (Jacksonian) was redistricted from the 1st district and re-elected but failed to accept the position within the legal time frame. Governor ordered a new election. \| \| Henry G. Lamar (J) \| Seated December 7, 1829 \|- \| \| Vacant \| style="font-size:80%" \| Peleg Sprague resigned in previous Congress \| \| George Evans (NR) \| Seated July 20, 1829 \|- \| \| Vacant \| style="font-size:80%" \| William Wilkins resigned before qualifying \| \| Harmar Denny (AM) \| Seated December 15, 1829 \|- \| \| \| George Wolf (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned in 1829 before the convening of Congress \| \| Samuel A. Smith (J) \| Seated October 13, 1829 \|- \| \| \| William C. Rives (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned some time in 1829 \| \| William F. Gordon (J) \| Seated January 25, 1830 \|- \| \| \| Samuel D. Ingham (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned in March 1829 after being appointed Secretary of the Treasury \| \| Peter Ihrie Jr. (J) \| Seated October 13, 1829 \|- \| \| \| Gabriel Holmes (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died September 26, 1829 \| \| Edward B. Dudley (J) \| Seated November 10, 1829 \|- \| \| \| George Fisher (NR) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Lost contested election February 5, 1830, to Silas Wright who in turn failed to qualify \| \| Jonah Sanford (J) \| Seated November 3, 1830 \|- \| \| \| Thomas Newton Jr. (NR) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Lost contested election March 9, 1830 \| \| George Loyall (J) \| Seated March 9, 1830 \|- \| \| \| James W. Ripley (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned March 12, 1830 \| \| Cornelius Holland (J) \| Seated December 6, 1830 \|- \| \| \| John M. Goodenow (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned April 9, 1830, after being appointed judge of the Supreme Court of Ohio \| \| Humphrey H. Leavitt (J) \| Seated December 6, 1830 \|- \| \| \| Alexander Smyth (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died April 17, 1830 \| \| Joseph Draper (J) \| Seated December 6, 1830 \|- \| \| \| Hector Craig (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned July 12, 1830 \| \| Samuel W. Eager (NR) \| Seated November 2, 1830 \|- \| \| \| Philip P. Barbour (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned October 15, 1830, after being appointed judge of US Circuit Court of the Eastern District of Virginia \| \| John M. Patton (J) \| Seated November 25, 1830 \|- \| \| \| Robert Monell (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \|Resigned February 21, 1831 \| Vacant \| Not filled this term \|- \| \| John Biddle \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned February 21, 1831 \| Vacant \| Not filled this term \|} Committees Lists of committees and their party leaders. Senate Accounts of James Monroe (Select) Agriculture (Chairman: William Marks) Amending the Constitution on the Election of the President and Vice President (Select) Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: Elias Kane then James Iredell) Claims (Chairman: Benjamin Ruggles) Commerce (Chairman: Levi Woodbury) Distributing Public Revenue Among the States (Select) District of Columbia (Chairman: Ezekiel F. Chambers) Dueling (Select) Engrossed Bills (Chairman: William Marks) Finance (Chairman: Samuel Smith) Foreign Relations (Chairman: Littleton Tazewell) French Spoilations (Select) Impeachment of James H. Peck (Select) Indian Affairs (Chairman: Hugh Lawson White) Judiciary (Chairman: John Rowan) Manufactures (Chairman: Mahlon Dickerson) Memorial of the Manufacturers Iron (Select) Mileage of Members of Congress (Select) Military Affairs (Chairman: Thomas Hart Benton) Militia (Chairman: Isaac D. Barnard) Naval Affairs (Chairman: Robert Y. Hayne) Nomination of Amos Kendall (Select) Pensions (Chairman: John Holmes) Post Office Department (Select) Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: George M. Bibb) Private Land Claims (Chairman: Jacob Burnet) Public Lands (Chairman: David Barton) Roads and Canals (Select) (Chairman: William Hendricks) Tariff Regulation (Select) Whole House of Representatives Accounts (Chairman: Jehiel H. Halsey) Agriculture (Chairman: Ambrose Spencer) American Colonization Society (Select) Claims (Chairman: Elisha Whittlesey) Commerce (Chairman: Churchill C. Cambreleng) District of Columbia (Chairman: Gershom Powers) Elections (Chairman: Willis Alston) Establishing an Assay Office in the Gold Region (Select) Expenditures in the Navy Department (Chairman: Augustine H. Shepperd) Expenditures in the Post Office Department (Chairman: Joel Yancey) Expenditures in the State Department (Chairman: Jonas Earll) Expenditures in the Treasury Department (Chairman: George G. Leiper) Expenditures in the War Department (Chairman: Lewis Maxwell) Expenditures on Public Buildings (Chairman: Michael C. Sprigg) Foreign Affairs (Chairman: William S. Archer) Indian Affairs (Chairman: John Bell) Judiciary (Chairman: James Buchanan) Manufactures (Chairman: Rollin C. Mallary) Military Affairs (Chairman: William Drayton) Military Pensions (Chairman: Isaac C. Bates) Naval Affairs (Chairman: Michael Hoffman) Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: Richard M. Johnson) Private Land Claims (Chairman: Ralph R. Gurley) Public Expenditures (Chairman: Thomas H. Hall) Public Lands (Chairman: Jacob C. Isacks then Charles A. Wickliffe) Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: Dutee J. Pearce) Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: Tristam Burges) Revolutionary Pensions (Chairman: N/A) Rules (Select) Standards of Official Conduct Territories (Chairman: James Clark) Ways and Means (Chairman: George McDuffie) Whole Joint committees Enrolled Bills The Library Employees Legislative branch agency directors Architect of the Capitol: Charles Bulfinch, until June 25, 1829 (office abolished) Librarian of Congress: John Silva Meehan Senate Chaplain: William Ryland (Methodist), until December 14, 1829 Henry V. Johns (Episcopalian), elected December 14, 1829 Secretary: Walter Lowrie Sergeant at Arms: Mountjoy Bayly House of Representatives Chaplain: Reuben Post (Presbyterian), until December 13, 1830 Ralph R. Gurley (Presbyterian), elected December 13, 1830 Clerk: Matthew St. Clair Clarke Doorkeeper: Benjamin Birch Reading Clerks: Sergeant at Arms: John O. Dunn See also 1828 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress) 1828 United States presidential election 1828 and 1829 United States Senate elections 1828 and 1829 United States House of Representatives elections 1830 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress) 1830 and 1831 United States Senate elections 1830 and 1831 United States House of Representatives elections Notes References External links From American Memory at the Library of Congress: Statutes at Large, 1789-1875 Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress Other U.S. government websites: House Document No. 108-222 from the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress (1774–2005) House History from the U.S. House of Representatives Statistics and Lists from the U.S. Senate	[ -0.267079621553421, -0.410883367061615, -0.5322531461715698, 0.4159672260284424, -0.05215596407651901, 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225198	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/22nd%20United%20States%20Congress	22nd United States Congress	The 22nd United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1831, to March 4, 1833, during the third and fourth years of Andrew Jackson's presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Fourth Census of the United States in 1820. Both chambers had a Jacksonian majority. Major events December 28, 1832: Vice President John C. Calhoun resigned. The first Vice President of the United States to do so. Nullification Crisis Major legislation July 14, 1832: Tariff of 1832, ch. 227, March 2, 1833: Tariff of 1833 (Compromise Tariff), ch. 55, March 2, 1833: Force Bill, ch. 57, Party summary The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this congress. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section. Senate House of Representatives Leadership Senate President: John C. Calhoun (J), resigned December 28, 1832; thereafter vacant. President pro tempore: Samuel Smith (J), first elected December 5, 1831 Littleton W. Tazewell (J), elected July 9, 1832 Hugh Lawson White (J), elected December 3, 1832 House of Representatives Speaker: Andrew Stevenson (J) Members This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed in order of seniority, and representatives are listed by district. Skip to House of Representatives, below Senate Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring re-election in 1832; Class 2 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring re-election in 1834; and Class 3 meant their term began in this Congress, requiring re-election in 1836. Alabama 2. William R. King (J) 3. Gabriel Moore (J) Connecticut 1. Samuel A. Foot (NR) 3. Gideon Tomlinson (NR) Delaware 1. Arnold Naudain (NR) 2. John M. Clayton (NR) Georgia 2. George M. Troup (J) 3. John Forsyth (J) Illinois 2. John M. Robinson (J) 3. Elias K. Kane (J) Indiana 1. Robert Hanna (NR), from August 19, 1831 - January 3, 1832 John Tipton (J), from January 3, 1832 3. William Hendricks (NR) Kentucky 2. George M. Bibb (J) 3. Henry Clay (NR), from November 10, 1831 Louisiana 2. Edward Livingston (J), until May 24, 1831 George A. Waggaman (NR), from November 15, 1831 3. Josiah S. Johnston (NR) Maine 1. John Holmes (NR) 2. Peleg Sprague (NR) Maryland 1. Samuel Smith (J) 3. Ezekiel F. Chambers (NR) Massachusetts 1. Daniel Webster (NR) 2. Nathaniel Silsbee (NR) Mississippi 1. Powhatan Ellis (J), until July 16, 1832 John Black (J), from November 12, 1832 2. George Poindexter (NR) Missouri 1. Thomas H. Benton (J) 3. Alexander Buckner (J) New Hampshire 2. Samuel Bell (NR) 3. Isaac Hill (J) New Jersey 1. Mahlon Dickerson (J) 2. Theodore Frelinghuysen (NR) New York 1. Charles E. Dudley (J) 3. William L. Marcy (J), until January 1, 1833 Silas Wright Jr. (J), from January 4, 1833 North Carolina 2. Bedford Brown (J) 3. Willie P. Mangum (J) Ohio 1. Benjamin Ruggles (NR) 3. Thomas Ewing (NR) Pennsylvania 1. Isaac D. Barnard (J), until December 6, 1831 George M. Dallas (J), from December 13, 1831 3. William Wilkins (J) Rhode Island 1. Asher Robbins (NR) 2. Nehemiah R. Knight (NR) South Carolina 2. Robert Y. Hayne (N), until December 3, 1832 John C. Calhoun (N), from December 29, 1832 3. Stephen D. Miller (N), until March 2, 1833, vacant for remainder of term Tennessee 1. Felix Grundy (J) 2. Hugh Lawson White (J) Vermont 1. Horatio Seymour (NR) 3. Samuel Prentiss (NR) Virginia 1. John Tyler (J) 2. Littleton W. Tazewell (J), until July 16, 1832 William C. Rives (J), from December 10, 1832 House of Representatives The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their district numbers. Alabama . Clement C. Clay (J) . Samuel W. Mardis (J) . Dixon H. Lewis (J) Connecticut All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Noyes Barber (NR) . William W. Ellsworth (NR) . Jabez W. Huntington (NR) . Ralph I. Ingersoll (NR) . William L. Storrs (NR) . Ebenezer Young (NR) Delaware . John J. Milligan (NR) Georgia All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Thomas F. Foster (J) . Henry G. Lamar (J) . Wilson Lumpkin (J), until ????, 1831 Augustin S. Clayton (J), from January 21, 1832 . Daniel Newnan (J) . Wiley Thompson (J) . James M. Wayne (J) . Richard Henry Wilde (J) Illinois . Joseph Duncan (J) Indiana . Ratliff Boon (J) . John Carr (J) . Johnathan McCarty (J) Kentucky . Henry Daniel (J) . Thomas A. Marshall (NR) . Chilton Allan (NR) . Robert P. Letcher (NR) . Richard M. Johnson (J) . Joseph Lecompte (J) . John Adair (J) . Nathan Gaither (J) . Charles A. Wickliffe (J) . Christopher Tompkins (NR) . Albert G. Hawes (J) . Chittenden Lyon (J) Louisiana . Edward D. White (NR) . Philemon Thomas (J) . Henry A. Bullard (NR) Maine . Rufus McIntire (J) . John Anderson (J) . Edward Kavanagh (J) . George Evans (NR) . Cornelius Holland (J) . Leonard Jarvis (J) . James Bates (J) Maryland The 5th district was a plural district with two representatives. . Daniel Jenifer (NR) . Benedict J. Semmes (NR) . George C. Washington (NR) . Francis Thomas (J) . Benjamin C. Howard (J) . John T. H. Worthington (J) . George E. Mitchell (J), until June 28, 1832 Charles S. Sewall (J), from October 1, 1832 . John L. Kerr (NR) . John S. Spence (NR) Massachusetts . Nathan Appleton (NR) . Rufus Choate (NR) . Jeremiah Nelson (NR) . Edward Everett (NR) . John Davis (NR) . Joseph G. Kendall (NR) . George J. Grennell Jr. (NR) . Isaac C. Bates (NR) . George N. Briggs (NR) . Henry A. S. Dearborn (NR) . John Quincy Adams (NR) . James L. Hodges (NR) . John Reed Jr. (NR) Mississippi . Franklin E. Plummer (J) Missouri . Spencer D. Pettis (J), until August 28, 1831 William H. Ashley (J), from October 31, 1831 New Hampshire All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . John Brodhead (J) . Thomas Chandler (J) . Joseph Hammons (J) . Joseph M. Harper (J) . Henry Hubbard (J) . John W. Weeks (J) New Jersey All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Lewis Condict (NR) . Silas Condit (NR) . Richard M. Cooper (NR) . Thomas H. Hughes (NR) . James F. Randolph (NR) . Isaac Southard (NR) New York There were three plural districts, the 20th & 26th had two representatives each, the 3rd had three representatives. . James Lent (J), until February 22, 1833, vacant thereafter . John T. Bergen (J) . Churchill C. Cambreleng (J) . Gulian C. Verplanck (J) . Campbell P. White (J) . Aaron Ward (J) . Edmund H. Pendleton (NR) . Samuel J. Wilkin (NR) . John C. Brodhead (J) . John King (J) . Job Pierson (J) . Gerrit Y. Lansing (J) . Erastus Root (J) . Joseph Bouck (J) . William G. Angel (J) . Samuel Beardsley (J) . Michael Hoffman (J) . Nathan Soule (J) . John W. Taylor (NR) . Nathaniel Pitcher (J) . William Hogan (J) . Charles Dayan (J) . Daniel Wardwell (J) . John A. Collier (Anti-M) . Edward C. Reed (J) . Freeborn G. Jewett (J) . Ulysses F. Doubleday (J) . Gamaliel H. Barstow (Anti-M) . William Babcock (Anti-M) . John Dickson (Anti-M) . Frederick Whittlesey (Anti-M) . Grattan H. Wheeler (Anti-M) . Phineas L. Tracy (Anti-M) . Bates Cooke (Anti-M) North Carolina . William B. Shepard (NR) . John Branch (J), from May 12, 1831 . Thomas H. Hall (J) . Jesse Speight (J) . James I. McKay (J) . Robert Potter (J), until November ????, 1831 Micajah T. Hawkins (J), from December 15, 1831 . Lauchlin Bethune (J) . Daniel L. Barringer (J) . Augustine H. Shepperd (J) . Abraham Rencher (J) . Henry W. Connor (J) . Samuel P. Carson (J) . Lewis Williams (NR) Ohio . James Findlay (J) . Thomas Corwin (NR) . Joseph H. Crane (NR) . Joseph Vance (NR) . William Russell (J) . William Creighton Jr. (NR) . Samuel F. Vinton (NR) . William Stanbery (NR) . William W. Irvin (J) . William S. Kennon Sr. (J) . Humphrey H. Leavitt (J) . John Thomson (J) . Elisha Whittlesey (NR) . Eleutheros Cooke (NR) Pennsylvania There were six plural districts, the 7th, 8th, 11th & 16th had two representatives each, the 4th & 9th had three representatives each. . Joel B. Sutherland (J) . Henry Horn (J) . John G. Watmough (NR) . Joshua Evans Jr. (J) . William Hiester (Anti-M) . David Potts Jr. (Anti-M) . Joel K. Mann (J) . John C. Bucher (J) . Henry King (J) . Henry A. P. Muhlenberg (J) . Peter Ihrie Jr. (J) . Samuel A. Smith (J) . Lewis Dewart (J) . James Ford (J) . Philander Stephens (J) . Adam King (J) . Thomas H. Crawford (J) . William Ramsey (J), until September 29, 1831 Robert McCoy (J), from November 22, 1831 . Robert Allison (Anti-M) . George Burd (NR) . Andrew Stewart (Anti-M) . Thomas M.T. McKennan (Anti-M) . Harmar Denny (Anti-M) . John Gilmore (J) . Richard Coulter (J) . John Banks (Anti-M) Rhode Island Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Tristam Burges (NR) . Dutee J. Pearce (NR) South Carolina . William Drayton (J) . Robert W. Barnwell (N) . Thomas R. Mitchell (J) . John Myers Felder (J) . George McDuffie (N) . Warren R. Davis (N) . William T. Nuckolls (J) . James Blair (J) . John K. Griffin (N) Tennessee . John Blair (J) . Thomas D. Arnold (NR) . James I. Standifer (J) . Jacob C. Isacks (J) . William Hall (J) . James K. Polk (J) . John Bell (J) . Cave Johnson (J) . William Fitzgerald (J) Vermont . Jonathan Hunt (NR), until May 15, 1832 Hiland Hall (NR), from January 1, 1833 . Rollin C. Mallary (NR), until April 15, 1831 William Slade (Anti-M), from November 1, 1831 . Horace Everett (NR) . Heman Allen (NR) . William Cahoon (Anti-M) Virginia . Thomas Newton Jr. (NR) . John Y. Mason (J) . William S. Archer (J) . Mark Alexander (J) . Thomas T. Bouldin (J) . Thomas Davenport (J) . Nathaniel H. Claiborne (J) . Richard Coke Jr. (J) . Andrew Stevenson (J) . William F. Gordon (J) . John M. Patton (J) . John J. Roane (J) . Joseph W. Chinn (J) . Charles F. Mercer (NR) . John S. Barbour (J) . William Armstrong (NR) . Robert Allen (J) . Philip Doddridge (NR), until November 19, 1832 Joseph Johnson (J), from January 21, 1833 . William McCoy (J) . Robert Craig (J) . Lewis Maxwell (NR) . Charles C. Johnston (J), until June 17, 1832 Joseph Draper (J), from December 6, 1832 Non-voting members . Ambrose H. Sevier (J) . Joseph M. White . Austin E. Wing Changes in membership These counts reflect changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress. Senate Replacements: 7 Jacksonians: no net change National Republicans: no net change Nullifiers: no net change Deaths: 0 Resignations: 7 Interim appointments: 1 Total seats with changes: 9 \|- \| Indiana(1) \| Vacant \| style="font-size:80%" \| James Noble had died February 26, 1831, in the previous Congress.Successor appointed August 19, 1831. \| \| Robert Hanna (NR) \| Installed August 19, 1831 \|- \| Kentucky(3) \| Vacant \| style="font-size:80%" \| Legislature elected late November 10, 1831. \| \| Henry Clay (NR) \| Installed November 10, 1831 \|- \| Louisiana(2) \| \| Edward Livingston (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned May 24, 1831, after being appointed U.S. Secretary of State.Successor elected November 15, 1831. \| \| George A. Waggaman (NR) \| Installed November 15, 1831 \|- \| Pennsylvania(1) \| \| Isaac D. Barnard (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned December 6, 1831, due to ill health.Successor elected December 13, 1831. \| \| George M. Dallas (J) \| Installed December 13, 1831 \|- \| Indiana(1) \| \| Robert Hanna (NR) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Appointee retired when elected successor qualified.Successor elected January 3, 1832. \| \| John Tipton (J) \| Installed January 3, 1832 \|- \| Mississippi(1) \| \| Powhatan Ellis (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned July 16, 1832, after being appointed U.S. District Judge.Successor appointed November 12, 1832, to finish the term. \| \| John Black (J) \| Installed November 12, 1832 \|- \| Virginia(2) \| \| Littleton Waller Tazewell (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned July 16, 1832.Successor elected December 10, 1832. \| \| William C. Rives (J) \| Installed December 10, 1832 \|- \| South Carolina(2) \| \| Robert Y. Hayne (N) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned December 13, 1832, to become Governor of South Carolina.Successor elected December 29, 1832. \| \| John C. Calhoun (N) \| Installed December 29, 1832 \|- \| New York(3) \| \| William L. Marcy (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned January 1, 1833, after becoming Governor of New York.Successor elected January 14, 1833. \| \| Silas Wright (J) \| Installed January 4, 1833 \|- \| South Carolina(3) \| \| Stephen D. Miller (N) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned March 2, 1833, due to ill health. \| Vacant \| Not filled this term \|} House of Representatives Replacements: 9 Jacksonians: 1-seat net gain National Republicans: 2-seat net loss Anti-Masonics: 1-seat net gain Deaths: 8 Resignations: 2 Contested election: 0 Total seats with changes: 11 \|- \| \| Vacant \| Vacancy in term \| \| John Branch (J) \| Seated May 12, 1831 \|- \| \| \| Wilson Lumpkin (J) \| Resigned some time in 1831 before the convening of Congress \| \| Augustin S. Clayton (J) \| Seated January 21, 1832 \|- \| \| \| Rollin C. Mallary (NR) \| Died April 15, 1831 \| \| William Slade (AM) \| Seated November 1, 1831 \|- \| \| \| Spencer D. Pettis (NR) \| Died August 28, 1831 \| \| William H. Ashley (NR) \| Seated October 31, 1831 \|- \| \| \| William Ramsey (J) \| Died September 29, 1831 \| \| Robert McCoy (J) \| Seated November 22, 1831 \|- \| \| \| Robert Potter (J) \| Resigned November ????, 1831 \| \| Micajah T. Hawkins (J) \| Seated December 15, 1831 \|- \| \| \| Jonathan Hunt (NR) \| Died May 15, 1832.A special election was held and a new member elected January 1, 1833 on the fourth ballot. \| \| Hiland Hall (NR) \| Seated January 21, 1833 \|- \| \| \| Charles C. Johnston (J) \| Died June 17, 1832 \| \| Joseph Draper (J) \| Seated December 6, 1832 \|- \| \| \| George E. Mitchell (J) \| Died June 28, 1832 \| \| Charles S. Sewall (J) \| Seated October 1, 1832 \|- \| \| \| Philip Doddridge (NR) \| Died November 19, 1832 \| \| Joseph Johnson (J) \| Seated January 21, 1833 \|- \| \| \| James Lent (J) \| Died February 22, 1833 \| Vacant \| Not filled this Congress \|} Committees Lists of committees and their party leaders. Senate Accounts of James Monroe (Select) Agriculture (Chairman: Horatio Seymour) Amending the Constitution on the Election of the President and Vice President (Select) Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: Nehemiah Knight) Claims (Chairman: Benjamin Ruggles) Commerce (Chairman: John Forsyth then William R. King) Distributing Public Revenue Among the States (Select) District of Columbia (Chairman: Ezekiel F. Chambers) Dueling (Select) Engrossed Bills (Chairman: John M. Robinson then Asher Robbins) Finance (Chairman: Samuel Smith then John Forsyth) Foreign Relations (Chairman: Littleton Tazewell then John Forsyth) French Spoilations (Select) Impeachment of James H. Peck (Select) Indian Affairs (Chairman: Hugh Lawson White then George M. Troup) Judiciary (Chairman: William L. Marcy then William Wilkins) Manufactures (Chairman: Mahlon Dickerson) Memorial of the Manufacturers Iron (Select) Mileage of Members of Congress (Select) Military Affairs (Chairman: Thomas Hart Benton) Militia (Chairman: Isaac Barnard) Naval Affairs (Chairman: Robert Y. Hayne) Nomination of Amos Kendall (Select) Pensions (Chairman: Samuel A. Foot) Post Office Department (Select) Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: George M. Bibb) Private Land Claims (Chairman: Elias Kane) Public Lands (Chairman: William R. King then Elias Kane) Roads and Canals (Select) (Chairman: William Hendricks) Tariff Regulation (Select) Whole House of Representatives Accounts (Chairman: N/A) Agriculture (Chairman: Erastus Root) American Colonization Society (Select) Claims (Chairman: N/A) Commerce (Chairman: N/A) District of Columbia (Chairman: N/A) Elections (Chairman: N/A) Establishing an Assay Office in the Gold Region (Select) Expenditures in the Navy Department (Chairman: N/A) Expenditures in the Post Office Department (Chairman: N/A) Expenditures in the State Department (Chairman: N/A) Expenditures in the Treasury Department (Chairman: N/A) Expenditures in the War Department (Chairman: N/A) Expenditures on Public Buildings (Chairman: N/A) Foreign Affairs (Chairman: William S. Archer) Indian Affairs (Chairman: N/A) Judiciary (Chairman: Warren R. Davis then John Bell) Manufactures (Chairman: Michael Hoffman) Military Affairs (Chairman: N/A) Naval Affairs (Chairman: N/A) Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: Richard M. Johnson then Henry W. Connor) Public Expenditures (Chairman: N/A) Public Lands (Chairman: Charles A. Wickliffe) Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: N/A) Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: N/A) Revolutionary Pensions (Chairman: N/A) Rules (Select) Standards of Official Conduct (Chairman: N/A) Territories (Chairman: N/A) Ways and Means (Chairman: George McDuffie then Gulian C. Verplanck) Whole Joint committees Enrolled Bills The Library Employees Librarian of Congress: John Silva Meehan Senate Chaplain: Henry V. Johns (Episcopal), until December 19, 1831 John P. Durbin (Methodist), elected December 19, 1831 Charles C. Pise (Roman Catholic), elected December 11, 1832 Secretary: Walter Lowrie Sergeant at Arms: Mountjoy Bayly House of Representatives Chaplain: Ralph R. Gurley (Presbyterian), until December 13, 1831 Reuben Post (Presbyterian) elected December 13, 1831 William Hammett (Presbyterian), elected December 12, 1832 Clerk: Matthew St. Clair Clarke Doorkeeper: Overton Carr, elected December 5, 1831 Reading Clerks: Sergeant at Arms: John O. Dunn See also 1830 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress) 1830 and 1831 United States Senate elections 1830 and 1831 United States House of Representatives elections 1832 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress) 1832 United States presidential election 1832 and 1833 United States Senate elections 1832 and 1833 United States House of Representatives elections Notes References External links Statutes at Large, 1789-1875 Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress U.S. House of Representatives: House History U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists	[ -0.28459060192108154, -0.3187885284423828, -0.6774706840515137, 0.4676845669746399, -0.09290363639593124, 0.546807587146759, 0.5219818353652954, -0.09837494045495987, -1.2265368700027466, -0.04415818303823471, -0.26454976201057434, -0.17124006152153015, -0.8086410164833069, 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225199	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/23rd%20United%20States%20Congress	23rd United States Congress	The 23rd United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1833, to March 4, 1835, during the fifth and sixth years of Andrew Jackson's presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Fifth Census of the United States in 1830. The Senate had an Anti-Jacksonian or National Republican majority, and the House had a Jacksonian or Democratic majority. Major events March 28, 1834: Senate censured President Andrew Jackson for defunding the Second Bank of the United States January 30, 1835: Richard Lawrence unsuccessfully tried to assassinate President Jackson in the United States Capitol; this was the first assassination attempt against a President of the United States. Major legislation Party summary The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this congress. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section. Senate House of Representatives For the beginning of this congress, the size of the House was increased from 213 seats to 240 seats, following the 1830 United States Census. Leadership Senate President: Martin Van Buren (J) President pro tempore: Hugh Lawson White (J), until December 15, 1833 George Poindexter (NR), June 28, 1834 – November 30, 1834 John Tyler (NR), from March 3, 1835 House of Representatives Speaker: Andrew Stevenson (J), until June 2, 1834 John Bell (J), after June 2, 1834 Members This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class, and representatives are listed by district. Skip to House of Representatives, below Senate Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began with this Congress, requiring reelection in 1838; Class 2 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring reelection in 1834; and Class 3 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring reelection in 1836. Alabama 2. William R. King (J) 3. Gabriel Moore (NR) Connecticut 1. Nathan Smith (NR) 3. Gideon Tomlinson (NR) Delaware 1. Arnold Naudain (NR) 2. John M. Clayton (NR) Georgia 2. George Troup (J), until November 8, 1833 John P. King (J), from November 21, 1833 3. John Forsyth (J), until July 27, 1834 Alfred Cuthbert (J), from January 12, 1835 Illinois 2. John M. Robinson (J) 3. Elias Kane (J) Indiana 1. John Tipton (J) 3. William Hendricks (NR) Kentucky 2. George M. Bibb (J) 3. Henry Clay (NR) Louisiana 2. George A. Waggaman (NR) 3. Josiah S. Johnston (NR), until May 19, 1833 Alexander Porter (NR), from December 19, 1833 Maine 1. Ether Shepley (J) 2. Peleg Sprague (NR), until January 1, 1835 John Ruggles (J), from January 20, 1835 Maryland 1. Joseph Kent (NR) 3. Ezekiel F. Chambers (NR), until December 20, 1834 Robert H. Goldsborough (NR), from January 13, 1835 Massachusetts 1. Daniel Webster (NR) 2. Nathaniel Silsbee (NR) Mississippi 1. John Black (NR), from November 22, 1833 2. George Poindexter (NR) Missouri 1. Thomas H. Benton (J) 3. Alexander Buckner (J), until June 5, 1833 Lewis F. Linn (J), from October 25, 1833 New Hampshire 2. Samuel Bell (NR) 3. Isaac Hill (J) New Jersey 1. Samuel L. Southard (NR) 2. Theodore Frelinghuysen (NR) New York 1. Nathaniel P. Tallmadge (J) 3. Silas Wright (J) North Carolina 2. Bedford Brown (J) 3. Willie P. Mangum (NR) Ohio 1. Thomas Morris (J) 3. Thomas Ewing (NR) Pennsylvania 1. Samuel McKean (J), from December 7, 1833 3. William Wilkins (J), until June 30, 1834 James Buchanan (J), from December 6, 1834 Rhode Island 1. Asher Robbins (NR) 2. Nehemiah R. Knight (NR) South Carolina 2. John C. Calhoun (N) 3. William C. Preston (N), from November 26, 1833 Tennessee 1. Felix Grundy (J) 2. Hugh Lawson White (J) Vermont 1. Benjamin Swift (NR) 3. Samuel Prentiss (NR) Virginia 1. John Tyler (NR) 2. William Rives (J), until February 22, 1834 Benjamin W. Leigh (NR), from February 26, 1834 House of Representatives Alabama . Clement C. Clay (J) . John McKinley (J) . Samuel W. Mardis (J) . Dixon H. Lewis (N) . John Murphy (J) Connecticut All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Noyes Barber (NR) . William W. Ellsworth (NR), until July 8, 1834 Joseph Trumbull (NR), from December 1, 1834 . Jabez W. Huntington (NR), until August 16, 1834 Phineas Miner (NR), from December 1, 1834 . Samuel A. Foote (NR), until May 9, 1834 Ebenezer Jackson Jr. (NR), from December 1, 1834 . Samuel Tweedy (NR) . Ebenezer Young (NR) Delaware . John J. Milligan (NR) Georgia All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Augustin S. Clayton (J) . John E. Coffee (J) . Thomas F. Foster (J) . Roger L. Gamble (J) . George R. Gilmer (J) . Seaborn Jones (J) . William Schley (J) . James M. Wayne (J), until January 13, 1835, vacant thereafter . Richard Henry Wilde (J) Illinois . Charles Slade (J), until July 26, 1834 John Reynolds (J), from December 1, 1834 . Zadok Casey (J) . Joseph Duncan (J), until September 21, 1834 William L. May (J), from December 1, 1834 Indiana . Ratliff Boon (J) . John Ewing (NR) . John Carr (J) . Amos Lane (J) . Johnathan McCarty (J) . George L. Kinnard (J) . Edward A. Hannegan (J) Kentucky . Chittenden Lyon (J) . Albert G. Hawes (J) . Christopher Tompkins (NR) . Martin Beaty (NR) . Robert P. Letcher (NR), from August 6, 1834 . Thomas Chilton (NR) . Benjamin Hardin (NR) . Patrick H. Pope (J) . James Love (NR) . Chilton Allan (NR) . Amos Davis (NR) . Thomas A. Marshall (NR) . Richard M. Johnson (J) Louisiana . Edward D. White (NR), until November 15, 1834 Henry Johnson (NR), from December 1, 1834 . Philemon Thomas (J) . Henry A. Bullard (NR), until January 4, 1834 Rice Garland (NR), from April 28, 1834 Maine . Rufus McIntire (J) . Francis O. J. Smith (J) . Edward Kavanagh (J) . George Evans (NR) . Moses Mason Jr. (J) . Leonard Jarvis (J) . Joseph Hall (J) . Gorham Parks (J) Maryland . Littleton P. Dennis (NR), until April 14, 1834 John N. Steele (NR), from June 9, 1834 . Richard B. Carmichael (J) . James Turner (J) . James P. Heath (J) . Isaac McKim (J) . William Cost Johnson (NR) . Francis Thomas (J) . John T. Stoddert (J) Massachusetts . Benjamin Gorham (NR) . Rufus Choate (NR), until June 30, 1834 Stephen C. Phillips (NR), from December 1, 1834 . Gayton P. Osgood (J) . Edward Everett (NR) . John Davis (NR), until January 14, 1834 Levi Lincoln Jr. (NR), from March 5, 1834 . George Grennell Jr. (NR) . George N. Briggs (NR) . Isaac C. Bates (NR) . William Jackson (AM) . William Baylies (NR) . John Reed Jr. (NR) . John Quincy Adams (AM) Mississippi All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Harry Cage (J) . Franklin E. Plummer (J) Missouri All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . William H. Ashley (J) . John Bull (NR) New Hampshire All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Benning M. Bean (J) . Robert Burns (J) . Joseph M. Harper (J) . Henry Hubbard (J) . Franklin Pierce (J) New Jersey All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Philemon Dickerson (J) . Samuel Fowler (J) . Thomas Lee (J) . James Parker (J) . Ferdinand S. Schenck (J) . William N. Shinn (J) New York There were five plural districts, the 8th, 17th, 22nd & 23rd had two representatives each, the 3rd had four representatives. . Abel Huntington (J) . Isaac B. Van Houten (J) . Churchill C. Cambreleng (J) . Cornelius V. Lawrence (J), until May 14, 1834 John J. Morgan (J), from December 1, 1834 . Dudley Selden (J), until July 1, 1834 Charles G. Ferris (J), from December 1, 1834 . Campbell P. White (J) . Aaron Ward (J) . Abraham Bockee (J) . John W. Brown (J) . Charles Bodle (J) . John Adams (J) . Aaron Vanderpoel (J) . Job Pierson (J) . Gerrit Y. Lansing (J) . John Cramer (J) . Henry C. Martindale (AM) . Reuben Whallon (J) . Ransom H. Gillet (J) . Charles McVean (J) . Abijah Mann Jr. (J) . Samuel Beardsley (J) . Joel Turrill (J) . Daniel Wardwell (J) . Sherman Page (J) . Noadiah Johnson (J) . Henry Mitchell (J) . Nicoll Halsey (J) . Samuel G. Hathaway (J) . William K. Fuller (J) . William Taylor (J) . Rowland Day (J) . Samuel Clark (J) . John Dickson (AM) . Edward Howell (J) . Frederick Whittlesey (AM) . George W. Lay (AM) . Philo C. Fuller (AM) . Abner Hazeltine (AM) . Millard Fillmore (AM) . Gideon Hard (AM) North Carolina . William B. Shepard (NR) . Jesse A. Bynum (J) . Thomas H. Hall (J) . Jesse Speight (J) . James I. McKay (J) . Micajah T. Hawkins (J) . Edmund Deberry (NR) . Daniel L. Barringer (NR) . Augustine H. Shepperd (NR) . Abraham Rencher (NR) . Henry W. Connor (J) . James Graham (NR) . Lewis Williams (NR) Ohio . Robert T. Lytle (J), until March 10, 1834, and from December 27, 1834 . Taylor Webster (J) . Joseph H. Crane (NR) . Thomas Corwin (NR) . Thomas L. Hamer (J) . Samuel F. Vinton (NR) . William Allen (J) . Jeremiah McLene (J) . John Chaney (J) . Joseph Vance (NR) . James M. Bell (NR) . Robert Mitchell (J) . David Spangler (NR) . William Patterson (J) . Jonathan Sloane (AM) . Elisha Whittlesey (AM) . John Thomson (J) . Benjamin Jones (J) . Humphrey H. Leavitt (J), until July 10, 1834 Daniel Kilgore (J), from December 1, 1834 Pennsylvania There were two plural districts, the 2nd had two representatives, the 4th had three representatives. . Joel B. Sutherland (J) . Horace Binney (NR) . James Harper (NR) . John G. Watmough (NR) . Edward Darlington (AM) . William Hiester (AM) . David Potts Jr. (AM) . Joel K. Mann (J) . Robert Ramsey (J) . David D. Wagener (J) . Henry King (J) . Henry A. P. Muhlenberg (J) . William Clark (AM) . Charles A. Barnitz (AM) . George Chambers (AM) . Jesse Miller (J) . Joseph Henderson (J) . Andrew Beaumont (J) . Joseph B. Anthony (J) . John Laporte (J) . George Burd (NR) . Richard Coulter (J) . Andrew Stewart (AM) . Thomas M. T. McKennan (AM) . Harmar Denny (AM) . Samuel S. Harrison (J) . John Banks (AM) . John Galbraith (J) Rhode Island Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Tristam Burges (NR) . Dutee J. Pearce (AM) South Carolina . Henry L. Pinckney (N) . William J. Grayson (N) . Thomas D. Singleton (N), until November 25, 1833 Robert B. Campbell (N), from February 27, 1834 . John Myers Felder (N) . George McDuffie (N), until ????, 1834 Francis W. Pickens (N), from December 8, 1834 . Warren R. Davis (N), until January 29, 1835, vacant thereafter . William K. Clowney (N) . James Blair (J), until April 1, 1834 Richard I. Manning (J), from December 8, 1834 . John K. Griffin (N) Tennessee . John Blair (J) . Samuel Bunch (J) . Luke Lea (J) . James I. Standifer (J) . John B. Forester (J) . Balie Peyton (J) . John Bell (J) . David W. Dickinson (J) . James K. Polk (J) . William M. Inge (J) . Cave Johnson (J) . David Crockett (NR) . William C. Dunlap (J) Vermont . Hiland Hall (NR) . William Slade (AM) . Horace Everett (NR) . Heman Allen (NR) . Benjamin F. Deming (AM), until July 11, 1834 Henry F. Janes (AM), from December 2, 1834 Virginia . George Loyall (J) . John Y. Mason (J) . William S. Archer (J) . James H. Gholson (NR) . John Randolph (J), until May 24, 1833 Thomas T. Bouldin (J), from December 2, 1833, until February 11, 1834 James W. Bouldin (J), from March 28, 1834 . Thomas Davenport (NR) . Nathaniel H. Claiborne (J) . Henry A. Wise (J) . William P. Taylor (NR) . Joseph W. Chinn (J) . Andrew Stevenson (J), until June 2, 1834 John Robertson (NR), from December 1, 1834 . William F. Gordon (J) . John M. Patton (J) . Charles F. Mercer (NR) . Edward Lucas (J) . James M. H. Beale (J) . Samuel M. Moore (NR) . John H. Fulton (J) . William McComas (J) . John J. Allen (NR) . Edgar C. Wilson (NR) Non-voting members . Ambrose H. Sevier (J) . Joseph M. White (J) . Lucius Lyon (J) Changes in membership The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress. Senate \|- \| South Carolina(3) \| colspan=2 style="font-size:80%" \| Vacant since March 3, 1833, due to the resignation of Stephen Decatur Miller (N).Successor was elected November 26, 1833. \| \| William C. Preston (N) \| November 26, 1833 \|- \| Mississippi(1) \| colspan=2 style="font-size:80%" \| Vacant from the start of this Congress due to the state legislature's failure to elect.Appointee who had held the seat at the end of the previous Congress was elected November 22, 1833. \| \| John Black (NR) \| November 22, 1833 \|- \| Pennsylvania(1) \| colspan=2 style="font-size:80%" \| Vacant from the start of this Congress due to the state legislature's failure to elect.Successor was elected December 7, 1833. \| \| Samuel McKean (J) \| December 7, 1833 \|- \| Louisiana(3) \| \| Josiah S. Johnston (NR) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died May 19, 1833.Successor was elected December 19, 1833. \| \| Alexander Porter (NR) \| December 19, 1833 \|- \| Missouri(3) \| \| Alexander Buckner (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died June 6, 1833.Successor was appointed December 19, 1833, and subsequently elected to finish the term. \| \| Lewis F. Linn (J) \| October 25, 1833 \|- \| Georgia(2) \| \| George Troup (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned November 8, 1833.Successor was elected November 21, 1833. \| \| John P. King (D) \| November 21, 1833 \|- \| Virginia(2) \| \| William Rives (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned February 22, 1834.Successor was elected February 26, 1834. \| \| Benjamin W. Leigh (NR) \| February 26, 1834 \|- \| Pennsylvania(3) \| \| William Wilkins (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned June 30, 1834, to become U.S. Minister to Russia.Successor elected December 6, 1834. \| \| James Buchanan (J) \| December 6, 1834 \|- \| Georgia(3) \| \| John Forsyth (J) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned July 27, 1834, to become U.S. Secretary of State.Successor elected January 12, 1835. \| \| Alfred Cuthbert (J) \| January 12, 1835 \|- \| Maryland(3) \| \| Ezekiel F. Chambers (NR) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned December 20, 1834, to become judge of the Maryland Court of Appeals.Successor elected January 13, 1835. \| \| Robert H. Goldsborough (NR) \| January 13, 1835 \|- \| Maine(2) \| \| Peleg Sprague (NR) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned January 1, 1835.Successor elected January 20, 1835. \| \| John Ruggles (J) \| January 20, 1835 \|} House of Representatives Replacements: 18 Jacksonian: 1 seat net loss National Republican: 1 seat net gain Deaths: 8 Resignations: 15 Contested election: 1 Total seats with changes: 23 \|- \| \| Vacant \| Contested election of Thomas P. Moore. House denied either party the seat and declared new election \| \| Robert P. Letcher (NR) \| Seated August 6, 1834 \|- \| \| \| Joel B. Sutherland (J) \| Resigned before the term to become a judge, but then left that judgeship to seek his old seat and re-elected October 8, 1833. \| \| Joel B. Sutherland (J) \| Seated December 2, 1833 \|- \| \| \| John Randolph (J) \| Died May 24, 1833 \| \| Thomas T. Bouldin (J) \| Seated December 2, 1833 \|- \| \| \| Thomas D. Singleton (N) \| Died November 25, 1833 \| \| Robert B. Campbell (N) \| Seated February 27, 1834 \|- \| \| \| George McDuffie (N) \| Resigned some time in 1834. \| \| Francis W. Pickens (N) \| Seated December 8, 1834 \|- \| \| \| Henry A. Bullard (NR) \| Resigned January 4, 1834, after being appointed as a judge of the Supreme Court of Louisiana \| \| Rice Garland (NR) \| Seated April 28, 1834 \|- \| \| \| John Davis (NR) \| Resigned January 14, 1834, after being elected Governor of Massachusetts \| \| Levi Lincoln (NR) \| Seated March 5, 1834 \|- \| \| \| Thomas T. Bouldin (J) \| Died February 11, 1834 \| \| James W. Bouldin (J) \| Seated March 28, 1834 \|- \| \| \| Robert T. Lytle (J) \| Resigned March 10, 1834 \| \| Robert T. Lytle (J) \| Re-seated December 27, 1834 \|- \| \| \| James Blair (J) \| Died April 1, 1834 \| \| Richard I. Manning (J) \| Seated December 8, 1834 \|- \| \| \| Littleton P. Dennis (J) \| Died April 14, 1834 \| \| John N. Steele (J) \| Seated June 9, 1834 \|- \| \| \| Samuel A. Foot (NR) \| Resigned May 9, 1834, after becoming Governor of Connecticut \| \| Ebenezer Jackson Jr. (NR) \| Seated December 1, 1834 \|- \| \| \| Cornelius V. Lawrence (J) \| Resigned May 14, 1834, after becoming Mayor of New York City. This was a plural district with 4 representatives. \| \| John J. Morgan (J) \| Seated December 1, 1834 \|- \| \| \| Andrew Stevenson (J) \| Resigned June 2, 1834 \| \| John Robertson (NR) \| Seated December 1, 1834 \|- \| \| \| Rufus Choate (NR) \| Resigned June 30, 1834 \| \| Stephen C. Phillips (NR) \| Seated December 1, 1834 \|- \| \| \| Dudley Selden (J) \| Resigned July 1, 1834. This was a plural district with 4 representatives. \| \| Charles G. Ferris (J) \| Seated December 1, 1834 \|- \| \| \| William W. Ellsworth (NR) \| Resigned July 8, 1834 \| \| Joseph Trumbull (NR) \| Seated December 1, 1834 \|- \| \| \| Humphrey H. Leavitt (J) \| Resigned July 10, 1834, after becoming judge of the US District Court of Ohio \| \| Daniel Kilgore (J) \| Seated December 1, 1834 \|- \| \| \| Benjamin F. Deming (AM) \| Died July 11, 1834 \| \| Henry F. Janes (AM) \| Seated December 2, 1834 \|- \| \| \| Charles Slade (J) \| Died July 26, 1834 \| \| John Reynolds (J) \| Seated December 1, 1834 \|- \| \| \| Jabez W. Huntington (NR) \| Resigned August 16, 1834, after being appointed judge of the Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors \| \| Phineas Miner (NR) \| Seated December 1, 1834 \|- \| \| \| Joseph Duncan (J) \| Resigned September 21, 1834, after being elected Governor of Illinois \| \| William L. May (J) \| Seated December 1, 1834 \|- \| \| \| Edward D. White (NR) \| Resigned November 15, 1834, to become Governor of Louisiana \| \| Henry Johnson (NR) \| Seated December 1, 1834 \|- \| \| \| James M. Wayne (J) \| Resigned January 13, 1835, after being appointed an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court \| colspan=2 rowspan=2 \| Not filled in this Congress \|- \| \| \| Warren R. Davis (N) \| Died January 29, 1835 \|} Committees Lists of committees and their party leaders. Senate Agriculture (Chairman: Bedford Brown) Amendments to the Constitution (Select) Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: Nehemiah Knight) Claims (Chairman: Samuel Bell) Commerce (Chairman: Nathaniel Silsbee) Distributing Public Revenue Among the States (Select) District of Columbia (Chairman: Ezekiel F. Chambers then John Tyler) Engrossed Bills (Chairman: Ether Shepley) Establishing Branches of the Mint (Select) Executive Patronage (Select) Finance (Chairman: Daniel Webster) Foreign Relations (Chairman: William Wilkins then Henry Clay) French Spoilations (Select) Indian Affairs (Chairman: Hugh Lawson White) Judiciary (Chairman: John M. Clayton) Manufactures (Chairman: Theodore Frelinghuysen) Michigan and Arkansas Admission to the Union (Select) Mileage of Members of Congress (Select) Military Affairs (Chairman: Nathaniel Silsbee) Militia (Chairman: John M. Robinson) Naval Affairs (Chairman: Samuel Southard) Pensions (Chairman: Gideon Tomlinson) Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: Felix Grundy) President's Message Refusing to Furnish a Paper to Senate (Select) Private Land Claims (Chairman: William Hendricks) Public Lands (Chairman: George Poindexter) Purchasing Boyd Reilly's Gas Apparatus (Select) Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: Gabriel Moore) Roads and Canals (Chairman: William Hendricks) Shiloh National Park (Select) Tariff Regulation (Select) Whole House of Representatives Accounts (Chairman: Joel K. Mann) Agriculture (Chairman: Abraham Bockee) Bank of the United States (Select) Biennial Register (Select) Boundary of the Chickasaw Indians (Select) Claims (Chairman: Elisha Whittlesey) Commerce (Chairman: Joel B. Sutherland) District of Columbia (Chairman: Joseph Chinn) Elections (Chairman: Nathaniel Claiborne) Establishing an Assay Office in the Gold Region (Select) Expenditures in the Navy Department (Chairman: Joseph Hall) Expenditures in the Post Office Department (Chairman: Albert G. Hawes) Expenditures in the State Department (Chairman: Augustine Henry Shepperd) Expenditures in the Treasury Department (Chairman: Heman Allen) Expenditures in the War Department (Chairman: Frederick Whittlesey) Expenditures on Public Buildings (Chairman: Reuben Whallon) Foreign Affairs (Chairman: William S. Archer then John Young Mason) Foreign Relations (Chairman: William S. Archer then John Young Mason) Indian Affairs (Chairman: Dixon H. Lewis) Invalid Pensions (Chairman: Tristam Burges) Judiciary (Chairman: John Bell then Thomas F. Foster) Manufactures (Chairman: John Quincy Adams) Military Affairs (Chairman: Richard M. Johnson) Naval Affairs (Chairman: Campbell P. White) Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: Henry W. Connor) Private Land Claims (Chairman: Cave Johnson) Public Expenditures (Chairman: Thomas Davenport) Public Lands (Chairman: Clement C. Clay) Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: John Dickson) Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: Henry A. P. Muhlenberg) Revolutionary Pensions (Chairman: Daniel Wardwell) Roads and Canals (Chairman: Charles F. Mercer) Rules (Select) Standards of Official Conduct Territories (Chairman: Lewis Williams) Ways and Means (Chairman: James K. Polk) Whole Joint committees Enrolled Bills The Library Employees Librarian of Congress: John Silva Meehan Senate Secretary: Walter Lowrie Sergeant at Arms: Mountjoy Bayly, until December 9, 1833 John Shackford, elected December 9, 1833 Chaplain: Charles C. Pise (Roman Catholic), until December 10, 1833 Frederick W. Hatch (Episcopalian), elected December 10, 1833 House of Representatives Clerk: Matthew St. Clair Clarke, until December 2, 1833 Walter S. Franklin, elected December 2, 1833 Sergeant at Arms: John O. Dunn, until December 6, 1833 Thomas B. Randolph, elected December 6, 1833 Doorkeeper: Overton Carr Postmaster: William J. McCormick Reading Clerks: Chaplain: William H. Hammett (Methodist), until December 9, 1833 Thomas H. Stockton (Methodist), elected December 9, 1833 Edward D. Smith (Presbyterian), elected December 10, 1834 See also 1832 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress) 1832 United States presidential election 1832 and 1833 United States Senate elections 1832 and 1833 United States House of Representatives elections 1834 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress) 1834 and 1835 United States Senate elections 1834 and 1835 United States House of Representatives elections Notes References External links Statutes at Large, 1789–1875 Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress U.S. House of Representatives: House History U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists	[ -0.1550508439540863, -0.3355954885482788, -0.7946749925613403, 0.5297791957855225, -0.13101419806480408, 0.4739871919155121, 0.4412001669406891, -0.03707046061754227, -1.1772977113723755, -0.02275095321238041, -0.23667271435260773, 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225200	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/24th%20United%20States%20Congress	24th United States Congress	The 24th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1835, to March 4, 1837, during the seventh and eighth years of Andrew Jackson's presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Fifth Census of the United States in 1830. Both chambers had a Jacksonian majority. Tensions with France Throughout 1835 relations between the United States and France reached an all-time low. Andrew Jackson had America's ambassador to France travel aboard a gunboat and after negotiations broke down had the American ambassador recalled back to the United States and forced the French ambassador to leave. President Jackson and the French government traded threats and insults throughout the duration of the year. In this conflict President Jackson got support from many members of the House of Representatives. In late November 1835 Linn Boyd, Albert G. Hawes, Richard M. Johnson, John E. Coffee, Seaton Grantland, Charles Eaton Haynes, Jabez Young Jackson, George Welshman Owens, Thomas Glascock, William Schley, Reuben Chapman, Joshua L. Martin, Joab Lawler, Jesse Atherton Bynum, Jesse Speight, James Iver McKay, Micajah Thomas Hawkins, William Montgomery, Henry William Connor and James Rogers (congressman) all put in writing that if President Jackson were to formally declare war on France he would have their full support. Shortly after this when the government of the United Kingdom sought to intervene, the same twenty Congressmen signed a letter stating that they welcomed the "wholesome and moderating influence" of British Prime Minister William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne, British foreign secretary Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston and the British Secretary of State for War and the Colonies Charles Grant, 1st Baron Glenelg, who the letter referred to as "our thoughtful cousins." The same document referred to the France's leader Louis Philippe I as "dastardly and pusinallimous." Senators Bedford Brown, Robert J. Walker, Felix Grundy, John Pendleton King and Alfred Cuthbert all wrote to President Jackson saying that they felt the same way as the aforementioned twenty members of the house "with respects to our relations with Britain and France" and "any potential war" that might break out between the United States and France. In a series of popular outbursts in July 1836, effigies of Louis Philippe I were burnt in Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama and Mississippi. In October 1836 it became known the French were "backing down," celebrations that were "overtly triumphant" and "distinctly anti-French" were held throughout Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi during the last two weeks of October 1836. Major events December 28, 1835: The Second Seminole War began. Seminole fighter Osceola and his warriors attack government agent Thompson outside Fort King in central Florida. 1835: Toledo War fought between Ohio and Michigan Territory over the city of Toledo and the Toledo Strip. February 3, 1836: United States Whig Party held its first convention in Albany, New York. February 23, 1836: Siege of the Alamo began in San Antonio, Texas. July 11, 1836: President Andrew Jackson issued the Specie Circular, beginning the failure of the land speculation economy that would lead to the Panic of 1837. July 13, 1836: United States patent #1 was granted after filing 9,957 unnumbered patents. November 3 – December 7, 1836: 1836 presidential election: Martin Van Buren defeated William Henry Harrison, but Virginia's electors refused to vote for Van Buren's running mate, Richard Mentor Johnson, thereby denying victory to any vice presidential candidate. December 4, 1836: Whig Party held its first national convention, in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. December 15, 1836: 1836 U.S. Patent Office fire February 8, 1837: Richard Mentor Johnson defeated Francis Granger to win the (first and to date only) contingent election for Vice President of the United States. Major legislation July 4, 1836: Patent Act of 1836, Mar 3, 1837: Eighth and Ninth Circuits Act of 1837, Treaties December 29, 1835: Treaty of New Echota signed, ceding all the lands of the Cherokee east of the Mississippi to the United States States admitted and territories formed June 15, 1836: Arkansas admitted as the 25th state July 3, 1836: Wisconsin Territory established; approved April 20, 1836 January 26, 1837: Michigan admitted as the 26th state ; contingently approved June 15, 1836 Party summary The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this congress. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section. Senate During this congress two Senate seats were added for each of the new states of Arkansas and Michigan. House of Representatives During this congress one House seat was added for each of the new states of Arkansas and Michigan. Leadership Senate President: Martin Van Buren (J) President pro tempore: William R. King (J) House of Representatives Speaker: James K. Polk (J) Members This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class, and representatives are listed by district. Skip to House of Representatives, below Senate Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring re-election in 1838; Class 2 meant their term began with this Congress, requiring re-election in 1840; and Class 3 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring re-election in 1836. Alabama 2. William R. D. King (J) 3. Gabriel Moore (NR) Arkansas 2. William S. Fulton (J), from September 18, 1836 (newly admitted state) 3. Ambrose H. Sevier (J), from September 18, 1836 (newly admitted state) Connecticut 1. Nathan Smith (NR), until December 6, 1835 John M. Niles (J), from December 21, 1835 3. Gideon Tomlinson (NR) Delaware 1. Arnold Naudain (NR), until June 16, 1836 Richard H. Bayard (NR), from June 17, 1836 2. John M. Clayton (NR), until December 29, 1836 Thomas Clayton (NR), from January 9, 1837 Georgia 2. John P. King (J) 3. Alfred Cuthbert (J) Illinois 2. John M. Robinson (J) 3. Elias K. Kane (J), until December 12, 1835 William L. D. Ewing (J), from December 30, 1835 Indiana 1. John Tipton (J) 3. William Hendricks (NR) Kentucky 2. John J. Crittenden (NR) 3. Henry Clay (NR) Louisiana 2. Robert C. Nicholas (J), from January 13, 1836 3. Alexander Porter (NR), until January 5, 1837 Alexander Mouton (J), from January 12, 1837 Maine 1. Ether Shepley (J), until March 3, 1836 Judah Dana (J), from December 7, 1836 2. John Ruggles (J) Maryland 1. Joseph Kent (NR) 3. Robert H. Goldsborough (NR), until October 5, 1836 John S. Spence (NR), from December 31, 1836 Massachusetts 1. Daniel Webster (NR) 2. John Davis (NR) Michigan 1. Lucius Lyon (J), from January 26, 1837 (newly admitted state) 2. John Norvell (J), from January 26, 1837 (newly admitted state) Mississippi 1. John Black (NR) 2. Robert J. Walker (J) Missouri 1. Thomas H. Benton (J) 3. Lewis F. Linn (J) New Hampshire 2. Henry Hubbard (J) 3. Isaac Hill (J), until May 30, 1836 John Page (J), from June 8, 1836 New Jersey 1. Samuel L. Southard (NR) 2. Garret D. Wall (J) New York 1. Nathaniel P. Tallmadge (J) 3. Silas Wright Jr. (J) North Carolina 2. Bedford Brown (J) 3. Willie P. Mangum (NR), until November 26, 1836 Robert Strange (J), from December 5, 1836 Ohio 1. Thomas Morris (J) 3. Thomas Ewing (NR) Pennsylvania 1. Samuel McKean (J) 3. James Buchanan (J) Rhode Island 1. Asher Robbins (NR) 2. Nehemiah R. Knight (NR) South Carolina 2. John C. Calhoun (N) 3. William C. Preston (N) Tennessee 1. Felix Grundy (J) 2. Hugh Lawson White (NR) Vermont 1. Benjamin Swift (NR) 3. Samuel Prentiss (NR) Virginia 1. John Tyler (NR), until February 29, 1836 William C. Rives (J), from March 4, 1836 2. Benjamin W. Leigh (NR), until July 4, 1836 Richard E. Parker (J), from December 12, 1836 House of Representatives The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their district numbers. Alabama . Reuben Chapman (J) . Joshua L. Martin (J) . Joab Lawler (J) . Dixon H. Lewis (N) . Francis S. Lyon (NR) Arkansas . Archibald Yell (J), from August 1, 1836 (newly admitted state) Connecticut All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Elisha Haley (J) . Samuel Ingham (J) . Andrew T. Judson (J), until July 4, 1836 Orrin Holt (J), from December 5, 1836 . Lancelot Phelps (J) . Isaac Toucey (J) . Zalmon Wildman (J), until December 10, 1835 Thomas T. Whittlesey (J), from April 29, 1836 Delaware . John J. Milligan (NR) Georgia All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . John E. Coffee (J), until September 25, 1836 William C. Dawson (SR), from November 7, 1836 . Seaton Grantland (J) . Charles E. Haynes (J) . Jabez Y. Jackson (J), from October 5, 1835 . George W. Owens (J) . John W. A. Sanford (J), until July 25, 1835 Thomas Glascock (J), from October 5, 1835 . William Schley (J), until July 1, 1835 Jesse F. Cleveland (J), from October 5, 1835 . James C. Terrell (J), until July 8, 1835 Hopkins Holsey (J), from October 5, 1835 . George W. B. Towns (J), until September 1, 1836 Julius C. Alford (NR), from January 2, 1837 Illinois . John Reynolds (J) . Zadok Casey (J) . William L. May (J) Indiana . Ratliff Boon (J) . John W. Davis (J) . John Carr (J) . Amos Lane (J) . Johnathan McCarty (NR) . George L. Kinnard (J), until November 26, 1836 William Herod (NR), from January 25, 1837 . Edward A. Hannegan (J) Kentucky . Linn Boyd (J) . Albert G. Hawes (J) . Joseph R. Underwood (NR) . Sherrod Williams (NR) . James Harlan (NR) . John Calhoon (NR) . Benjamin Hardin (NR) . William J. Graves (NR) . John White (NR) . Chilton Allan (NR) . Richard French (J) . John Chambers (NR) . Richard M. Johnson (J) Louisiana . Henry Johnson (NR) . Eleazar W. Ripley (J) . Rice Garland (NR) Maine . John Fairfield (J) . Francis O. J. Smith (J) . Jeremiah Bailey (NR) . George Evans (NR) . Moses Mason Jr. (J) . Leonard Jarvis (J) . Joseph Hall (J) . Gorham Parks (J) Maryland The 4th district was a plural district with two representatives. . John N. Steele (NR) . James A. Pearce (NR) . James Turner (J) . Benjamin C. Howard (J) . Isaac McKim (J) . George C. Washington (NR) . Francis Thomas (J) . Daniel Jenifer (NR) Massachusetts . Abbott Lawrence (NR) . Stephen C. Phillips (NR) . Caleb Cushing (NR) . Samuel Hoar (NR) . Levi Lincoln Jr. (NR) . George J. Grennell Jr. (NR) . George N. Briggs (NR) . William B. Calhoun (NR) . William Jackson (AM) . Nathaniel B. Borden (J) . John Reed Jr. (AM) . John Quincy Adams (AM) Michigan . Isaac E. Crary (J), from January 26, 1837 (newly admitted state) Mississippi Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . John F. H. Claiborne (J) . David Dickson (NR), until July 31, 1836 Samuel J. Gholson (J), from December 1, 1836 Missouri Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . William H. Ashley (NR) . Albert G. Harrison (J) New Hampshire All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Benning M. Bean (J) . Robert Burns (J) . Samuel Cushman (J) . Franklin Pierce (J) . Joseph Weeks (J) New Jersey All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Philemon Dickerson (J), until November 3, 1836 William Chetwood (NR), from December 5, 1836 . Samuel Fowler (J) . Thomas Lee (J) . James Parker (J) . Ferdinand S. Schenck (J) . William N. Shinn (J) New York There were four plural districts, the 8th, 17th, 22nd & 23rd had two representatives each, the 3rd had four representatives. . Abel Huntington (J) . Samuel Barton (J) . Churchill C. Cambreleng (J) . Campbell P. White (J), until October 2, 1835 Gideon Lee (J), from November 4, 1835 . John McKeon (J) . Ely Moore (J) . Aaron Ward (J) . Abraham Bockee (J) . John W. Brown (J) . Nicholas Sickles (J) . Valentine Efner (J) . Aaron Vanderpoel (J) . Hiram P. Hunt (NR) . Gerrit Y. Lansing (J) . John Cramer (J) . David A. Russell (NR) . Dudley Farlin (J) . Ransom H. Gillet (J) . Matthias J. Bovee (J) . Abijah Mann Jr. (J) . Samuel Beardsley (J), until March 29, 1836 Rutger B. Miller (J), from November 9, 1836 . Joel Turrill (J) . Daniel Wardwell (J) . Sherman Page (J) . William Seymour (J) . William Mason (J) . Stephen B. Leonard (J) . Joseph Reynolds (J) . William K. Fuller (J) . William Taylor (J) . Ulysses F. Doubleday (J) . Graham H. Chapin (J) . Francis Granger (NR) . Joshua Lee (J) . Timothy Childs (NR) . George W. Lay (NR) . Philo C. Fuller (NR), until September 2, 1836 John Young (NR), from November 9, 1836 . Abner Hazeltine (NR) . Thomas C. Love (NR) . Gideon Hard (NR) North Carolina . William B. Shepard (NR) . Jesse A. Bynum (J) . Ebenezer Pettigrew (NR) . Jesse Speight (J) . James I. McKay (J) . Micajah T. Hawkins (J) . Edmund Deberry (NR) . William Montgomery (J) . Augustine H. Shepperd (NR) . Abraham Rencher (NR) . Henry W. Connor (J) . James Graham (NR), until March 29, 1836, and from December 5, 1836 . Lewis Williams (NR) Ohio . Bellamy Storer (NR) . Taylor Webster (J) . Joseph H. Crane (NR) . Thomas Corwin (NR) . Thomas L. Hamer (J) . Samuel F. Vinton (NR) . William K. Bond (NR) . Jeremiah McLene (J) . John Chaney (J) . Samson Mason (NR) . William Kennon Sr. (J) . Elias Howell (NR) . David Spangler (NR) . William Patterson (J) . Jonathan Sloane (AM) . Elisha Whittlesey (NR) . John Thomson (J) . Benjamin Jones (J) . Daniel Kilgore (J) Pennsylvania There were two plural districts, the 2nd had two representatives, the 4th had three representatives. . Joel B. Sutherland (J) . James Harper (NR) . Joseph R. Ingersoll (NR) . Michael W. Ash (J) . Edward Darlington (AM) . William Hiester (AM) . David Potts Jr. (AM) . Jacob Fry Jr. (J) . Mathias Morris (NR) . David D. Wagener (J) . Edward B. Hubley (J) . Henry A. P. Muhlenberg (J) . William Clark (AM) . Henry Logan (J) . George Chambers (AM) . Jesse Miller (J), until October 30, 1836 James Black (J), from December 5, 1836 . Joseph Henderson (J) . Andrew Beaumont (J) . Joseph B. Anthony (J) . John Laporte (J) . Job Mann (J) . John J. Klingensmith Jr. (J) . Andrew Buchanan (J) . Thomas M. T. McKennan (AM) . Harmar Denny (AM) . Samuel S. Harrison (J) . John Banks (AM), until March 31, 1836 John J. Pearson (NR), from December 5, 1836 . John Galbraith (J) Rhode Island Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Dutee J. Pearce (AM) . William Sprague (AM) South Carolina . Henry L. Pinckney (N) . William J. Grayson (N) . Robert B. Campbell (N) . James H. Hammond (N), until February 26, 1836 Franklin H. Elmore (N), from December 10, 1836 . Francis W. Pickens (N) . Waddy Thompson Jr. (NR), from September 10, 1835 . James Rogers (J) . Richard I. Manning (J), until May 1, 1836 John P. Richardson (J), from December 19, 1836 . John K. Griffin (N) Tennessee . William B. Carter (NR) . Samuel Bunch (NR) . Luke Lea (NR) . James I. Standifer (NR) . John B. Forester (NR) . Balie Peyton (NR) . John Bell (NR) . Abram P. Maury (NR) . James K. Polk (J) . Ebenezer J. Shields (NR) . Cave Johnson (J) . Adam Huntsman (J) . William C. Dunlap (J) Vermont . Hiland Hall (NR) . William Slade (AM) . Horace Everett (NR) . Heman Allen (NR) . Henry F. Janes (AM) Virginia . George Loyall (J) . John Y. Mason (J), until January 11, 1837 . John W. Jones (J) . George C. Dromgoole (J) . James W. Bouldin (J) . Walter Coles (J) . Nathaniel H. Claiborne (NR) . Henry A. Wise (J) . John Roane (J) . John Taliaferro (NR) . John Robertson (NR) . James Garland (J) . John M. Patton (J) . Charles F. Mercer (NR) . Edward Lucas (J) . James M. H. Beale (J) . Robert Craig (J) . George W. Hopkins (J) . William McComas (NR) . Joseph Johnson (J) . William S. Morgan (J) Non-voting members . Ambrose H. Sevier (J), until June 15, 1836 . Joseph M. White (J) . George Wallace Jones (J), until January 26, 1837 . George Wallace Jones (J), from January 26, 1837 Changes in membership The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress. Senate Replacements: 11 National Republicans: 5-seat net loss Jacksonians: 10-seat net gain Deaths: 3 Resignations: 8 Interim appointments: 0 Seats of newly admitted states: 4 Total seats with changes: 16 \|- \| Louisiana(2) \| Vacant \| Senator-elect Charles E.A. Gayarre had resigned on account of ill-health.Successor was elected January 13, 1836. \| \| Robert C. Nicholas (J) \| January 13, 1836 \|- \| Connecticut(1) \| \| Nathan Smith (NR) \| Died December 6, 1835Successor was elected December 21, 1835. \| \| John M. Niles (J) \| December 21, 1835. \|- \| Illinois(3) \| \| Elias Kane (J) \| Died December 12, 1835Successor was appointed December 30, 1835. \| \| William Lee D. Ewing (J) \| December 30, 1835 \|- \| Virginia(1) \| \| John Tyler (NR) \| Resigned February 29, 1836Successor was elected March 4, 1836. \| \| William C. Rives (J) \| March 4, 1836 \|- \| Maine(1) \| \| Ether Shepley (J) \| Resigned March 3, 1836Successor was appointed December 7, 1836. \| \| Judah Dana (J) \| December 7, 1836 \|- \| New Hampshire(3) \| \| Isaac Hill (J) \| Resigned May 30, 1836, to become Governor of New Hampshire.Successor was elected June 8, 1836. \| \| John Page (J) \| June 8, 1836 \|- \| Delaware(1) \| \| Arnold Naudain (NR) \| Resigned June 16, 1836Successor was elected June 17, 1836. \| \| Richard H. Bayard (NR) \| June 17, 1836 \|- \| Virginia(2) \| \| Benjamin W. Leigh (NR) \| Resigned July 4, 1836Successor was elected December 12, 1836. \| \| Richard E. Parker (J) \| December 12, 1836 \|- \| Arkansas(2) \| rowspan=2 \| New seats \| rowspan=2 \| Arkansas was admitted to the Union.Its new Senators were elected September 18, 1836. \| \| William S. Fulton (J) \| September 18, 1836. \|- \| Arkansas(3) \| \| Ambrose H. Sevier (J) \| September 18, 1836. \|- \| Maryland(3) \| \| Robert H. Goldsborough (NR) \| Died October 5, 1836Successor was elected December 31, 1836. \| \| John S. Spence (NR) \| December 31, 1836 \|- \| North Carolina(3) \| \| Willie P. Mangum (NR) \| Resigned November 26, 1836Successor was elected December 5, 1836. \| \| Robert Strange (J) \| December 5, 1836 \|- \| Delaware(2) \| \| John M. Clayton (NR) \| Resigned December 29, 1836Successor was elected January 9, 1837. \| \| Thomas Clayton (NR) \| January 9, 1837 \|- \| Louisiana(3) \| \| Alexander Porter (NR) \| Resigned January 5, 1837, due to ill health.Successor was elected January 12, 1837. \| \| Alexandre Mouton (J) \| January 12, 1837 \|- \| Michigan(1) \| rowspan=2 \| New seats \| rowspan=2 \| Michigan was admitted to the Union.Its new Senators were elected January 6, 1837. \| \| Lucius Lyon (J) \| January 26, 1837. \|- \| Michigan(2) \| \| John Norvell (J) \| January 26, 1837. \|} House of Representatives Replacements: 18 National Republicans: 5-seat net gain Anti-Masonics: 1-seat net loss Jacksonians: 2-seat net loss Nullifiers: No net change Deaths: 5 Resignations: 13 Contested election: 0 Seats of newly admitted states: 2 Total seats with changes: 24 \|- \| \| Vacant \| Rep. Warren R. Davis died during previous congress \| \| Waddy Thompson Jr. (NR) \| Seated September 10, 1835 \|- \| \| Vacant \| Rep. James M. Wayne resigned in previous congress \| \| Jabez Y. Jackson (J) \| Seated October 5, 1835 \|- \| \| \| William Schley (J) \| Resigned July 1, 1835 when nominated for Governor of Georgia. \| \| Jesse F. Cleveland (J) \| Seated October 5, 1835 \|- \| \| \| James C. Terrell (J) \| Resigned July 8, 1835, due to ill health \| \| Hopkins Holsey (J) \| Seated October 5, 1835 \|- \| \| \| John W. A. Sanford (J) \| Resigned July 25, 1835, to assist in the Cherokee Indian removal \| \| Thomas Glascock (J) \| Seated October 5, 1835 \|- \| \| \| Campbell P. White (J) \| Resigned October 2, 1835 \| \| Gideon Lee (J) \| Seated November 4, 1835 \|- \| \| \| Zalmon Wildman (J) \| Died December 10, 1835 \| \| Thomas T. Whittlesey (J) \| Seated April 29, 1836 \|- \| \| \| James H. Hammond (N) \| Resigned February 26, 1836, because of ill health \| \| Franklin H. Elmore (N) \| Seated December 10, 1836 \|- \| \| \| Samuel Beardsley (J) \| Resigned March 29, 1836 \| \| Rutger B. Miller (J) \| Seated November 9, 1836 \|- \| \| \| James Graham (NR) \| Seat declared vacant March 29, 1836 \| \| James Graham (NR) \| Seated December 5, 1836 \|- \| \| \| John Banks (AM) \| Resigned March 31, 1836 \| \| John J. Pearson (NR) \| Seated December 5, 1836 \|- \| \| \| Richard I. Manning (J) \| Died May 1, 1836 \| \| John P. Richardson (J) \| Seated December 19, 1836 \|- \| nowrap \| \| \| Ambrose H. Sevier (J) \| colspan=3 \| Seat was eliminated when Arkansas achieved statehood June 15, 1836 \|- \| \| \| Andrew T. Judson (J) \| Resigned July 4, 1836 to become judge of the United States District Court for the District of Connecticut. \| \| Orrin Holt (J) \| Seated December 5, 1836 \|- \| \| \| David Dickson (NR) \| Died July 31, 1836 \| \| Samuel J. Gholson (J) \| Seated December 1, 1836 \|- \| nowrap \| \| Vacant \| Arkansas was admitted to the Union on June 15, 1836 \| \| Archibald Yell (J) \| Seated August 1, 1836 \|- \| \| \| George W. Towns (J) \| Resigned September 1, 1836 \| \| Julius C. Alford (NR) \| Seated January 2, 1837 \|- \| \| \| Philo C. Fuller (NR) \| Resigned September 2, 1836 \| \| John Young (NR) \| Seated November 9, 1836 \|- \| \| \| John E. Coffee (J) \| Died September 25, 1836 \| \| William C. Dawson (NR) \| Seated November 7, 1836 \|- \| \| \| Jesse Miller (J) \| Resigned October 30, 1836 \| \| James Black (J) \| Seated December 5, 1836 \|- \| \| \| Philemon Dickerson (J) \| Resigned November 3, 1836 to become Governor of New Jersey. \| \| William Chetwood (NR) \| Seated December 5, 1836 \|- \| \| \| George L. Kinnard (J) \| Died November 26, 1836 \| \| William Herod (NR) \| Seated January 25, 1837 \|- \| \| \| John Y. Mason (J) \| Resigned January 11, 1837 \| Vacant \| Not filled this congress \|- \| nowrap \| \| \| George Wallace Jones (J) \| colspan=3 \| Seat was eliminated when Michigan achieved statehood January 26, 1837 \|- \| nowrap \| \| Vacant \| Michigan was admitted to the Union on January 26, 1837 \| \| Isaac E. Crary (J) \| Seated January 26, 1837 \|- \| \| Vacant \| Wisconsin Territory was organized on April 3, 1836 \| \| George Wallace Jones (J) \| Seated January 26, 1837 \|} Committees Lists of committees and their party leaders. Senate Agriculture (Chairman: Bedford Brown then John Page) Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: Samuel McKean) Claims (Chairman: Arnold Naudain then Henry Hubbard) Commerce (Chairman: Robert Henry Goldsborough then John Davis) Constitution of the State of Arkansas (Select) Distributing Public Revenue Among the States (Select) District of Columbia (Chairman: John Tyler then Joseph Kent) Engrossed Bills (Chairman: Ether Shepley then Thomas Morris) Finance (Chairman: Daniel Webster then Silas Wright) Foreign Relations (Chairman: Henry Clay then James Buchanan) Incendiary Publications (Select) Indian Affairs (Chairman: Hugh Lawson White then Ambrose Sevier) Judiciary (Chairman: John M. Clayton then Felix Grundy) Letter from Mr. Poindexter (Select) Manufactures (Chairman: Nehemiah Knight) Mileage of Members of Congress (Select) Military Affairs (Chairman: Thomas Hart Benton) Militia (Chairman: John M. Robinson) Naval Affairs (Chairman: Samuel Southard then William C. Rives) Ohio-Michigan Boundary (Select) Patent Office (Select) Pensions (Chairman: Gideon Tomlinson) Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: Felix Grundy) Private Land Claims (Chairman: John Black then Lewis Linn) Public Lands (Chairman: Thomas Ewing then Robert J. Walker) Purchasing Boyd Reilly's Gas Apparatus (Select) (Chairman: N/A) Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: Gabriel Moore then Bedford Brown) Roads and Canals (Chairman: William Hendricks) Sale of Public Lands (Select) Tariff Regulation (Select) Whole House of Representatives Accounts (Chairman: N/A) Agriculture (Chairman: Abraham Bockee) Amendment to the Constitution (Select) Banks of the District of Columbia (Select) Claims (Chairman: N/A) Commerce (Chairman: N/A) District of Columbia (Chairman: N/A) Elections (Chairman: N/A) Expenditures in the Navy Department (Chairman: N/A) Expenditures in the Post Office Department (Chairman: N/A) Expenditures in the State Department (Chairman: N/A) Expenditures in the Treasury Department (Chairman: N/A) Expenditures in the War Department (Chairman: N/A) Expenditures on Public Buildings (Chairman: N/A) Foreign Affairs (Chairman: Benjamin C. Howard) Indian Affairs (Chairman: N/A) Invalid Pensions (Chairman: N/A) Judiciary (Chairman: Samuel Beardsley then Francis Thomas) Manufactures (Chairman: N/A) Military Affairs (Chairman: N/A) Militia (Chairman: N/A) Naval Affairs (Chairman: N/A) Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: N/A) Public Expenditures (Chairman: N/A) Public Lands (Chairman: Ratliff Boon) Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: N/A) Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: N/A) Roads and Canals (Chairman: N/A) Rules (Select) Standards of Official Conduct Territories (Chairman: N/A) Ways and Means (Chairman: Churchill C. Cambreleng) Whole Joint committees Enrolled Bills The Library Employees Librarian of Congress: John Silva Meehan Senate Chaplain: Frederick Winslow Hatch (Episcopalian), until December 23, 1835 Edward Y. Higbee (Episcopalian), elected December 23, 1835 John R. Goodman (Episcopalian), elected December 28, 1836 Secretary: Walter Lowrie until December 11, 1836 Asbury Dickins, elected December 12, 1836 Sergeant at Arms: John Shackford House of Representatives Chaplain: Edward Dunlap Smith (Presbyterian), until December 7, 1835 Thomas H. Stockton (Methodist), elected December 7, 1835 Oliver C. Comstock (Baptist), elected December 5, 1836 Clerk: Walter S. Franklin Doorkeeper: Overton Carr Sergeant at Arms: Thomas B. Randolph, until December 15, 1835 Roderick Dorsey, elected December 15, 1835 Reading Clerks: Postmaster: William J. McCormick See also 1834 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress) 1834 and 1835 United States Senate elections 1834 and 1835 United States House of Representatives elections 1836 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress) 1836 United States presidential election 1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections 1836 and 1837 United States House of Representatives elections Notes References External links Statutes at Large, 1789–1875 Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress U.S. House of Representatives: House History U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists	[ -0.2367166429758072, -0.14926300942897797, -0.8549622893333435, 0.33214858174324036, -0.23084037005901337, 0.5472041368484497, 0.5496759414672852, 0.10461719334125519, -1.0090798139572144, -0.1633995622396469, -0.31137415766716003, -0.1497153639793396, 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225202	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/25th%20United%20States%20Congress	25th United States Congress	The 25th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1837, to March 4, 1839, during the first two years of Martin Van Buren's presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Fifth Census of the United States in 1830. Both chambers had a Democratic majority. Major events March 4, 1837: Martin Van Buren became President of the United States May 10, 1837: Panic of 1837 January 6, 1838: First public demonstration of Samuel Morse's telegraph May 26, 1838: Trail of Tears: The Cherokee removal began Major legislation Territories organized June 12, 1838: Iowa Territory was formed from the Wisconsin Territory. Party summary The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this congress. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section. Senate House of Representatives Leadership Senate President: Richard Mentor Johnson (D) President pro tempore: William R. King (D) House of Representatives Speaker: James K. Polk (D) Members This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class, and representatives by district. Skip to House of Representatives, below Senate Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term ended with this Congress, ending in 1839; Class 2 meant their term began in the last Congress, ending in 1841; and Class 3 meant their term began in this Congress, ending in 1843. Alabama 2. William R. King (D) 3. John McKinley (D), until April 22, 1837 Clement C. Clay (D), from June 19, 1837 Arkansas 2. William S. Fulton (D) 3. Ambrose H. Sevier (D) Connecticut 1. John M. Niles (D) 3. Perry Smith (D) Delaware 1. Richard H. Bayard (W) 2. Thomas Clayton (W) Georgia 2. John P. King (D), until November 1, 1837 Wilson Lumpkin (D), from November 22, 1837 3. Alfred Cuthbert (D) Illinois 2. John M. Robinson (D) 3. Richard M. Young (D) Indiana 1. John Tipton (D) 3. Oliver H. Smith (W) Kentucky 2. John J. Crittenden (W) 3. Henry Clay (W) Louisiana 2. Robert C. Nicholas (D) 3. Alexander Mouton (D) Maine 1. Reuel Williams (D) 2. John Ruggles (D) Maryland 1. Joseph Kent (W), until November 24, 1837 William D. Merrick (W), from January 4, 1838 3. John S. Spence (W) Massachusetts 1. Daniel Webster (W) 2. John Davis (W) Michigan 1. Lucius Lyon (D) 2. John Norvell (D) Mississippi 1. John Black (W), until January 22, 1838 James F. Trotter (D), from January 22, 1838, until July 10, 1838 Thomas H. Williams (D), from November 12, 1838 2. Robert J. Walker (D) Missouri 1. Thomas H. Benton (D) 3. Lewis F. Linn (D) New Hampshire 2. Henry Hubbard (D) 3. Franklin Pierce (D) New Jersey 1. Samuel L. Southard (W) 2. Garret D. Wall (D) New York 1. Nathaniel P. Tallmadge (D) 3. Silas Wright Jr. (D) North Carolina 2. Bedford Brown (D) 3. Robert Strange (D) Ohio 1. Thomas Morris (D) 3. William Allen (D) Pennsylvania 1. Samuel McKean (D) 3. James Buchanan (D) Rhode Island 1. Asher Robbins (W) 2. Nehemiah R. Knight (W) South Carolina 2. John C. Calhoun (D) 3. William C. Preston (W) Tennessee 1. Felix Grundy (D), until July 4, 1838 Ephraim H. Foster (W), from September 17, 1838 – March 3, 1839 2. Hugh Lawson White (W) Vermont 1. Benjamin Swift (W) 3. Samuel Prentiss (W) Virginia 1. William C. Rives (D) 2. Richard E. Parker (D), until March 4, 1837 William H. Roane (D), from March 14, 1837 House of Representatives The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their district numbers. Alabama . Reuben Chapman (D) . Joshua L. Martin (D) . Joab Lawler (W), until May 8, 1838 George W. Crabb (W), from September 4, 1838 . Dixon H. Lewis (D) . Francis S. Lyon (W) Arkansas . Archibald Yell (D) Connecticut All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Isaac Toucey (D) . Samuel Ingham (D) . Elisha Haley (D) . Thomas T. Whittlesey (D) . Lancelot Phelps (D) . Orrin Holt (D) Delaware . John J. Milligan (W) Georgia All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Jesse F. Cleveland (D) . William C. Dawson (W) . Thomas Glascock (D) . Seaton Grantland (D) . Charles E. Haynes (D) . Hopkins Holsey (D) . Jabez Y. Jackson (D) . George W. Owens (D) . George W. B. Towns (D) Illinois . Adam W. Snyder (D) . Zadok Casey (D) . William L. May (D) Indiana . Ratliff Boon (D) . John Ewing (W) . William Graham (W) . George H. Dunn (W) . James Rariden (W) . William Herod (W) . Albert S. White (W) Kentucky . John L. Murray (D) . Edward Rumsey (W) . Joseph R. Underwood (W) . Sherrod Williams (W) . James Harlan (W) . John Calhoon (W) . John Pope (W) . William J. Graves (W) . John White (W) . Richard Hawes (W) . Richard H. Menefee (W) . John Chambers (W) . William W. Southgate (W) Louisiana . Henry Johnson (W) . Eleazar W. Ripley (D), until March 2, 1839 . Rice Garland (W) Maine . John Fairfield (D), until December 24, 1838 . Francis O. J. Smith (D) . Jonathan Cilley (D), until February 24, 1838 Edward Robinson (W), from April 28, 1838 . George Evans (W) . Timothy J. Carter (D), until March 14, 1838 Virgil D. Parris (D), from May 29, 1838 . Hugh J. Anderson (D) . Joseph C. Noyes (W) . Thomas Davee (D) Maryland The 4th district was a plural district with two representatives. . John Dennis (W) . James A. Pearce (W) . John T. H. Worthington (D) . Benjamin C. Howard (D) . Isaac McKim (D), until April 1, 1838 John P. Kennedy (W), from April 25, 1838 . William Cost Johnson (W) . Francis Thomas (D) . Daniel Jenifer (W) Massachusetts . Richard Fletcher (W) . Stephen C. Phillips (W), until September 28, 1838 Leverett Saltonstall (W), from December 25, 1838 . Caleb Cushing (W) . William Parmenter (D) . Levi Lincoln Jr. (W) . George Grennell Jr. (W) . George N. Briggs (W) . William B. Calhoun (W) . William S. Hastings (W) . Nathaniel B. Borden (D) . John Reed Jr. (W) . John Quincy Adams (W) Michigan . Isaac E. Crary (D) Mississippi Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . John F. H. Claiborne (D), from July 18, 1837, until February 5, 1838 Seargent S. Prentiss (W), from May 30, 1838 . Samuel J. Gholson (D), from July 18, 1837, until February 5, 1838 Thomas J. Word (W), from May 30, 1838 Missouri Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Albert G. Harrison (D) . John Miller (D) New Hampshire All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Charles G. Atherton (D) . Samuel Cushman (D) . James Farrington (D) . Joseph Weeks (D) . Jared W. Williams (D) New Jersey All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . John B. Aycrigg (W) . William Halstead (W) . John P. B. Maxwell (W) . Joseph F. Randolph (W) . Charles C. Stratton (W) . Thomas Jones Yorke (W) New York There were four plural districts, the 8th, 17th, 22nd & 23rd had two representatives each, the 3rd had four representatives. . Thomas B. Jackson (D) . Abraham Vanderveer (D) . Churchill C. Cambreleng (D) . Edward Curtis (W) . Ogden Hoffman (W) . Ely Moore (D) . Gouverneur Kemble (D) . Obadiah Titus (D) . Nathaniel Jones (D) . John C. Brodhead (D) . Robert McClellan (D) . Zadock Pratt (D) . Henry Vail (D) . Albert Gallup (D) . John I. De Graff (D) . David A. Russell (W) . John Palmer (D) . James B. Spencer (D) . John Edwards (D) . Arphaxed Loomis (D) . Henry A. Foster (D) . Abraham P. Grant (D) . Isaac H. Bronson (D) . John H. Prentiss (D) . Amasa J. Parker (D) . John C. Clark (D) . Andrew D. W. Bruyn (D), until July 27, 1838 Cyrus Beers (D), from December 3, 1838 . Hiram Gray (D) . Bennet Bicknell (D) . William Taylor (D) . William H. Noble (D) . Samuel Birdsall (D) . Mark H. Sibley (W) . John T. Andrews (D) . Timothy Childs (W) . William Patterson (W), until August 14, 1838 Harvey Putnam (W), from November 7, 1838 . Luther C. Peck (W) . Richard P. Marvin (W) . Millard Fillmore (W) . Charles F. Mitchell (W) North Carolina . Samuel T. Sawyer (W) . Jesse A. Bynum (D) . Edward Stanly (W) . Charles B. Shepard (W) . James I. McKay (D) . Micajah T. Hawkins (D) . Edmund Deberry (W) . William Montgomery (D) . Augustine H. Shepperd (W) . Abraham Rencher (W) . Henry W. Connor (D) . James Graham (W) . Lewis Williams (W) Ohio . Alexander Duncan (D) . Taylor Webster (D) . Patrick G. Goode (W) . Thomas Corwin (W) . Thomas L. Hamer (D) . Calvary Morris (W) . William K. Bond (W) . Joseph Ridgway (W) . John Chaney (D) . Samson Mason (W) . James Alexander Jr. (W) . Alexander Harper (W) . Daniel P. Leadbetter (D) . William H. Hunter (D) . John W. Allen (W) . Elisha Whittlesey (W), until July 9, 1838 Joshua R. Giddings (W), from December 3, 1838 . Andrew W. Loomis (W), until October 20, 1837 Charles D. Coffin (W), from December 20, 1837 . Matthias Shepler (D) . Daniel Kilgore (D), until July 4, 1838 Henry Swearingen (D), from December 3, 1838 Pennsylvania There were two plural districts, the 2nd had two representatives, the 4th had three representatives. . Lemuel Paynter (D) . John Sergeant (W) . George W. Toland (W) . Francis J. Harper (D), until March 18, 1837 Charles Naylor (W), from June 29, 1837 . Edward Darlington (AM) . Edward Davies (AM) . David Potts Jr. (AM) . Jacob Fry Jr. (D) . Mathias Morris (W) . David D. Wagener (D) . Edward B. Hubley (D) . Henry A. P. Muhlenberg (D), until February 9, 1838 George M. Keim (D), from March 17, 1838 . Luther Reily (D) . Henry Logan (D) . Daniel Sheffer (D) . Charles McClure (D) . William W. Potter (D) . David Petrikin (D) . Robert H. Hammond (D) . Samuel W. Morris (D) . Charles Ogle (AM) . John J. Klingensmith Jr. (D) . Andrew Buchanan (D) . Thomas M. T. McKennan (AM) . Richard Biddle (AM) . William Beatty (D) . Thomas Henry (AM) . Arnold Plumer (D) Rhode Island Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Robert B. Cranston (W) . Joseph L. Tillinghast (W) South Carolina . Hugh S. Legaré (D) . Robert Rhett (D) . John Campbell (N) . Franklin H. Elmore (States Rights D) . Francis W. Pickens (N) . Waddy Thompson Jr. (W) . William K. Clowney (N) . John P. Richardson (D) . John K. Griffin (N) Tennessee . William B. Carter (W) . Abraham McClellan (D) . Joseph L. Williams (W) . James I. Standifer (W), until August 20, 1837 William Stone (W), from September 14, 1837 . Hopkins L. Turney (D) . William B. Campbell (W) . John Bell (W) . Abram P. Maury (W) . James K. Polk (D) . Ebenezer J. Shields (W) . Richard Cheatham (W) . John W. Crockett (W) . Christopher H. Williams (W) Vermont . Hiland Hall (W) . William Slade (W) . Horace Everett (W) . Heman Allen (W) . Isaac Fletcher (D) Virginia . Francis Mallory (W) . Francis E. Rives (D) . John W. Jones (D) . George C. Dromgoole (D) . James W. Bouldin (D) . Walter Coles (D) . Archibald Stuart (D) . Henry A. Wise (W) . Robert M. T. Hunter (W) . John Taliaferro (W) . John Robertson (W) . James Garland (D) . John M. Patton (D), until April 7, 1838 Linn Banks (D), from April 28, 1838 . Charles F. Mercer (W) . James M. Mason (D) . Isaac S. Pennybacker (D) . Robert Craig (D) . George W. Hopkins (D) . Andrew Beirne (D) . Joseph Johnson (D) . William S. Morgan (D) Non-voting members . Charles Downing . William W. Chapman (D), from September 10, 1838 . George Wallace Jones (D), until January 14, 1839 James D. Doty (D), from January 14, 1839 Changes in membership The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress. Senate Replacements: 6 Democrats: no net change Whigs: no net change Deaths: 1 Resignations: 6 Total seats with changes: 7 \|- \| Virginia(2) \| \| Richard E. Parker (D) \| Resigned March 4, 1837, after accepting a seat on the Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals \| \| William H. Roane (D) \| Elected March 14, 1837 \|- \| Alabama(3) \| \| John McKinley (D) \| Resigned April 22, 1837, after being appointed Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court \| \| Clement C. Clay (D) \| Elected June 19, 1837 \|- \| Georgia(2) \| \| John P. King (D) \| Resigned November 1, 1837 \| \| Wilson Lumpkin (D) \| Elected November 22, 1837 \|- \| Maryland(1) \| \| Joseph Kent (W) \| Died November 24, 1837 \| \| William D. Merrick (W) \| Elected January 4, 1838 \|- \| Mississippi(1) \| \| John Black (W) \| Resigned January 22, 1838 \| \| James F. Trotter (D) \| Appointed January 22, 1838 \|- \| Tennessee(1) \| \| Felix Grundy (D) \| Resigned July 4, 1838, after being appointed United States Attorney General \| \| Ephraim H. Foster (W) \| Elected September 17, 1838 \|- \| Mississippi(1) \| \| James F. Trotter (D) \| Resigned July 10, 1838 \| \| Thomas H. Williams (D) \| Appointed November 12, 1838, and subsequently elected \|- \| Tennessee(1) \| \| Ephraim H. Foster (W) \| Resigned March 3, 1839 before start of new Congress under orders of state legislature. \| Vacant \| \|} House of Representatives Replacements: 16 Democrats: 5-seat net loss Whigs: 5-seat net gain Deaths: 9 Resignations: 6 Contested election:1 Total seats with changes: 20 \|- \| \| Vacant \| Rep-elect Claiborne presented credentials July 18, 1837 \| \| John F. H. Claiborne (D) \| Seated July 18, 1837 \|- \| \| Vacant \| Rep-elect Gholson presented credentials July 18, 1837 \| \| Samuel J. Gholson (D) \| Seated July 18, 1837 \|- \| \| \| Francis J. Harper (D) \| Died March 18, 1837 \| \| Charles Naylor (W) \| Seated June 29, 1837 \|- \| \| \| James I. Standifer (W) \| Died August 20, 1837 \| \| William Stone (W) \| Seated September 14, 1837 \|- \| \| \| Elisha Whittlesey (W) \| Resigned October 20, 1837 \| \| Charles D. Coffin (W) \| Seated December 20, 1837 \|- \| \| \| John F. H. Claiborne (D) \| Seat declared vacant February 5, 1838 \| \| Seargent S. Prentiss (W) \| Seated May 30, 1838 \|- \| \| \| Samuel J. Gholson (D) \| Seat declared vacant February 5, 1838 \| \| Thomas J. Word (W) \| Seated May 30, 1838 \|- \| \| \| Henry A. P. Muhlenberg (D) \| Resigned February 9, 1838, after being appointed Minister to Austrian Empire \| \| George M. Keim (D) \| Seated March 17, 1838 \|- \| \| \| Jonathan Cilley (D) \| Killed in a duel February 24, 1838, by Rep. William J. Graves \| \| Edward Robinson (W) \| Seated April 28, 1838 \|- \| \| \| Timothy J. Carter (D) \| Died March 14, 1838 \| \| Virgil D. Parris (D) \| Seated May 29, 1838 \|- \| \| \| Isaac McKim (D) \| Died April 1, 1838 \| \| John P. Kennedy (W) \| Seated April 25, 1838 \|- \| \| \| John M. Patton (D) \| Resigned April 7, 1838 \| \| Linn Banks (D) \| Seated April 28, 1838 \|- \| \| \| Joab Lawler (W) \| Died May 8, 1838 \| \| George W. Crabb (W) \| Seated October 5, 1835 \|- \| \| \| Daniel Kilgore (D) \| Resigned July 4, 1838 \| \| Henry Swearingen (D) \| Seated December 3, 1838 \|- \| \| \| Elisha Whittlesey (W) \| Resigned July 9, 1838 \| \| Joshua R. Giddings (W) \| Seated December 3, 1838 \|- \| \| \| Andrew D. Bruyn (D) \| Died July 27, 1838 \| \| Cyrus Beers (D) \| Seated December 3, 1838 \|- \| \| \| William Patterson (W) \| Died August 14, 1838 \| \| Harvey Putnam (W) \| Seated November 7, 1838 \|- \| \| New seat \| Iowa Territory seated its first delegate September 10, 1838 \| \| George Wallace Jones (D) \| Seated September 10, 1838 \|- \| \| \| Stephen C. Phillips (W) \| Seat declared vacant September 28, 1838 \| \| Leverett Saltonstall (W) \| Seated December 15, 1838 \|- \| \| \| John Fairfield (D) \| Resigned December 24, 1838, after being elected Governor of Maine \| Vacant \| Not filled this congress \|- \| \| \| George Wallace Jones (D) \| Lost contested election January 14, 1839 \| \| James D. Doty (D) \| Seated January 14, 1839 \|- \| \| \| Eleazar W. Ripley (D) \| Died March 2, 1839 \| Vacant \| Not filled this congress \|} Committees Lists of committees and their party leaders. Senate Agriculture (Chairman: Perry Smith) Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: Samuel McKean) Claims (Chairman: Henry Hubbard) Commerce (Chairman: William R. King) Danger of Steam Vessels (Select) Distributing Public Revenue Among the States (Select) District of Columbia (Chairman: William H. Roane) Engrossed Bills (Chairman: John Norvell) Finance (Chairman: Silas Wright) Foreign Relations (Chairman: James Buchanan) Indian Affairs (Chairman: Hugh Lawson White) Judiciary (Chairman: Felix Grundy) Letter of Mr. Ruggles (Select) Manufactures (Chairman: John M. Niles) Memorial of A. B. Quinby (Select) Memorial of the Citizens of Georgetown (DC) for the Retrocession of that Part of the District (Select) Memorial of Duff Green (Select) Memorial of Edward D. Tippett (Select) Mileage of Members of Congress (Select) Military Affairs (Chairman: Thomas Hart Benton) Militia (Chairman: Clement C. Clay) Naval Affairs (Chairman: William C. Rives) Occupation of the Columbia River (Select) Oregon Territory (Select) Patents and the Patent Office (Chairman: John Ruggles then Robert Strange) Pensions (Chairman: Thomas Morris) Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: John M. Robinson) Private Land Claims (Chairman: Lewis F. Linn) Public Buildings and Grounds (Chairman: N/A) Public Lands (Chairman: Robert J. Walker) Purchasing Boyd Reilly's Gas Apparatus (Select) Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: Bedford Brown) Roads and Canals (Chairman: Thomas Tipton) Tariff Regulation (Select) Whole House of Representatives Accounts (Chairman: Joseph Johnson) Agriculture (Chairman: Edmund Deberry) Amendment to the Constitution (Select) Claims (Chairman: John Chambers) Commerce (Chairman: Samuel Cushman) District of Columbia (Chairman: James W. Bouldin) Elections (Chairman: James Buchanan) Expenditures in the Navy Department (Chairman: Richard Brodhead) Expenditures in the Post Office Department (Chairman: Timothy Childs) Expenditures in the State Department (Chairman: Mathias Morris) Expenditures in the Treasury Department (Chairman: Heman Allen) Expenditures in the War Department (Chairman: William K. Clowney) Expenditures on Public Buildings (Chairman: Samuel T. Sawyer) Foreign Affairs (Chairman: Benjamin C. Howard) Indian Affairs (Chairman: John Bell) Invalid Pensions (Chairman: William Taylor) Judiciary (Chairman: Francis Thomas) Manufactures (Chairman: John Quincy Adams) Mileage (Chairman: William C. Dawson) Military Affairs (Chairman: James I. McKay) Militia (Chairman: David D. Wagener) Naval Affairs (Chairman: Samuel D. Ingham) Patents (Chairman: Isaac Fletcher) Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: Henry W. Connor) Private Land Claims (Chairman: William L. May) Public Buildings and Grounds (Chairman: Levi Lincoln Jr.) Public Expenditures (Chairman: Elisha Haley) Public Lands (Chairman: Henry W. Connor) Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: Matthias Shepler) Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: Robert Craig) Revolutionary Pensions (Chairman: William S. Morgan) Roads and Canals (Chairman: Charles F. Mercer) Rules (Select) Standards of Official Conduct Territories (Chairman: Isaac H. Bronson) Ways and Means (Chairman: Churchill C. Cambreleng) Whole Joint committees Enrolled Bills The Library Employees Librarian of Congress: John Silva Meehan Senate Chaplain: John R. Goodman (Episcopalian), until September 11, 1837 Henry Slicer (Methodist), elected September 11, 1837 Secretary: Asbury Dickins Sergeant at Arms: John Shackford (died) Stephen Haight, elected September 4, 1837 House of Representatives Chaplain: Septimus Tustin (Presbyterian), elected September 4, 1837 Levi R. Reese (Methodist), elected December 4, 1837 Clerk: Walter S. Franklin, until September 20, 1838 (died) Hugh A. Garland, elected December 3, 1838 Doorkeeper: Overton Carr Postmaster: William J. McCormick Reading Clerks: Sergeant at Arms: Roderick Dorsey See also 1836 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress) 1836 United States presidential election 1836 and 1837 United States Senate elections 1836 and 1837 United States House of Representatives elections 1838 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress) 1838 and 1839 United States Senate elections 1838 and 1839 United States House of Representatives elections Notes References External links Statutes at Large, 1789-1875 Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress U.S. House of Representatives: House History U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists	[ -0.22922654449939728, -0.025514237582683563, -0.7493299245834351, 0.32944443821907043, -0.2181897610425949, 0.48712050914764404, 0.4969991445541382, -0.2290785163640976, -1.1417200565338135, -0.0736035630106926, 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225203	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/26th%20United%20States%20Congress	26th United States Congress	The 26th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1839, to March 4, 1841, during the third and fourth years of Martin Van Buren's presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Fifth Census of the United States in 1830. Both chambers had a Democratic majority. Major events 1839: The first state law permitting women to own property was passed in Jackson, Mississippi January 19, 1840: Captain Charles Wilkes circumnavigated Antarctica, claiming what becomes known as Wilkes Land for the United States. November 7, 1840: U.S. presidential election, 1840: William Henry Harrison defeated Martin Van Buren February 18, 1841: The first ongoing filibuster in the United States Senate began and lasted until March 11 Major legislation Party summary Senate House of Representatives Leadership Senate President: Richard M. Johnson (D) President pro tempore: William R. King (D) House of Representatives Speaker: Robert M. T. Hunter (W) Elected on the 11th ballot Members This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class, and representatives are listed by district. Skip to House of Representatives, below Senate Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began with this Congress, requiring reelection in 1844; Class 2 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring reelection in 1840; and Class 3 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring reelection in 1842. Alabama 2. William R. King (D) 3. Clement C. Clay (D) Arkansas 2. William S. Fulton (D) 3. Ambrose H. Sevier (D) Connecticut 1. Thaddeus Betts (W), until April 7, 1840 Jabez W. Huntington (W), from May 4, 1840 3. Perry Smith (D) Delaware 1. Richard H. Bayard (W), until September 19, 1839 Richard H. Bayard (W), from January 12, 1841 2. Thomas Clayton (W) Georgia 2. Wilson Lumpkin (D) 3. Alfred Cuthbert (D) Illinois 2. John M. Robinson (D) 3. Richard M. Young (D) Indiana 1. Albert S. White (W) 3. Oliver H. Smith (W) Kentucky 2. John J. Crittenden (W) 3. Henry Clay (W) Louisiana 2. Robert C. Nicholas (D) 3. Alexander Mouton (D) Maine 1. Reuel Williams (D) 2. John Ruggles (D) Maryland 1. William D. Merrick (W) 3. John S. Spence (W), until October 24, 1840 John L. Kerr (W), from January 5, 1841 Massachusetts 1. Daniel Webster (W), until February 22, 1841 Rufus Choate (W), from February 23, 1841 2. John Davis (W), until January 5, 1841 Isaac C. Bates (W), from January 13, 1841 Michigan 1. Augustus S. Porter (W), from January 20, 1840 2. John Norvell (D) Mississippi 1. John Henderson (W) 2. Robert J. Walker (D) Missouri 1. Thomas H. Benton (D) 3. Lewis F. Linn (D) New Hampshire 2. Henry Hubbard (D) 3. Franklin Pierce (D) New Jersey 1. Samuel L. Southard (W) 2. Garret D. Wall (D) New York 1. Nathaniel P. Tallmadge (W), from January 14, 1840 3. Silas Wright Jr. (D) North Carolina 2. Bedford Brown (D), until November 16, 1840 Willie P. Mangum (W), from November 25, 1840 3. Robert Strange (D), until November 16, 1840 William A. Graham (W), from November 25, 1840 Ohio 1. Benjamin Tappan (D) 3. William Allen (D) Pennsylvania 1. Daniel Sturgeon (D), from January 14, 1840 3. James Buchanan (D) Rhode Island 1. Nathan F. Dixon (W) 2. Nehemiah R. Knight (W) South Carolina 2. John C. Calhoun (D) 3. William C. Preston (W) Tennessee 1. Felix Grundy (D), November 19, 1839 – December 19, 1840 Alfred O. P. Nicholson (D), from December 25, 1840 2. Hugh Lawson White (W), until January 13, 1840 Alexander O. Anderson (D), from February 26, 1840 Vermont 1. Samuel S. Phelps (W) 3. Samuel Prentiss (W) Virginia 1. William C. Rives (W), from January 18, 1841 2. William H. Roane (D) House of Representatives The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their district numbers. Alabama . Reuben Chapman (D) . David Hubbard (D) . George W. Crabb (W) . Dixon H. Lewis (D) . James Dellet (W) Arkansas . Edward Cross (D) Connecticut . Joseph Trumbull (W) . William L. Storrs (W), until June ???, 1840 William W. Boardman (W), from December 7, 1840 . Thomas W. Williams (W) . Thomas B. Osborne (W) . Truman Smith (W) . John H. Brockway (W) Delaware . Thomas Robinson Jr. (D) Georgia All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Julius C. Alford (W) . Edward J. Black (W) . Walter T. Colquitt (W), until July 21, 1840 Hines Holt (W), from February 1, 1841 . Mark A. Cooper (W) . William C. Dawson (W) . Richard W. Habersham (W) . Thomas Butler King (W) . Eugenius A. Nisbet (W) . Lott Warren (W) Illinois . John Reynolds (D) . Zadok Casey (D) . John T. Stuart (W) Indiana . George H. Proffit (W) . John W. Davis (D) . John Carr (D) . Thomas Smith (D) . James Rariden (W) . William W. Wick (D) . Tilghman A. Howard (D), until July 1, 1840 Henry S. Lane (W), from August 3, 1840 Kentucky . Linn Boyd (D) . Philip Triplett (W) . Joseph R. Underwood (W) . Sherrod Williams (W) . Simeon H. Anderson (W), until August 11, 1840 John B. Thompson (W), from December 7, 1840 . Willis Green (W) . John Pope (W) . William J. Graves (W) . John White (W) . Richard Hawes (W) . Landaff W. Andrews (W) . Garrett Davis (W) . William O. Butler (D) Louisiana . Edward D. White (W) . Thomas W. Chinn (W) . Rice Garland (W), until July 21, 1840 John Moore (W), from December 17, 1840 Maine . Nathan Clifford (D) . Albert Smith (D) . Benjamin Randall (W) . George Evans (W), until March 3, 1841 . Virgil D. Parris (D) . Hugh J. Anderson (D) . Joshua A. Lowell (D) . Thomas Davee (D) Maryland The 4th district was a plural district with two representatives. . John Dennis (W) . Philip F. Thomas (D) . John T. H. Worthington (D) . James Carroll (D) . Solomon Hillen Jr. (D) . William Cost Johnson (W) . Francis Thomas (D) . Daniel Jenifer (W) Massachusetts . Abbott Lawrence (W), until September 18, 1840 Robert C. Winthrop (W), from November 9, 1840 . Leverett Saltonstall (W) . Caleb Cushing (W) . William Parmenter (D) . Levi Lincoln Jr. (W) . James C. Alvord (W), until September 27, 1839 Osmyn Baker (W), from January 14, 1840 . George N. Briggs (W) . William B. Calhoun (W) . William S. Hastings (W) . Henry Williams (D) . John Reed Jr. (W) . John Quincy Adams (W) Michigan . Isaac E. Crary (D) Mississippi Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Albert G. Brown (D) . Jacob Thompson (D) Missouri Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Albert G. Harrison (D), until September 7, 1839 John Jameson (D), from December 12, 1839 . John Miller (D) New Hampshire All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Charles G. Atherton (D) . Edmund Burke (D) . Ira A. Eastman (D) . Tristram Shaw (D) . Jared W. Williams (D) New Jersey All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . William R. Cooper (D) . Philemon Dickerson (D) . Joseph Kille (D) . Joseph F. Randolph (W) . Daniel B. Ryall (D) . Peter D. Vroom (D) New York There were four plural districts, the 8th, 17th, 22nd & 23rd had two representatives each, the 3rd had four representatives. . Thomas B. Jackson (D) . James De la Montanya (D) . Edward Curtis (W) . Moses H. Grinnell (W) . Ogden Hoffman (W) . James Monroe (W) . Gouverneur Kemble (D) . Charles Johnston (W) . Nathaniel Jones (D) . Rufus Palen (W) . John Ely (D) . Aaron Vanderpoel (D) . Hiram P. Hunt (W) . Daniel D. Barnard (W) . Anson Brown (W), until June 14, 1840 Nicholas B. Doe (W), from December 7, 1840 . David A. Russell (W) . Augustus C. Hand (D) . John Fine (D) . Peter J. Wagner (W) . Andrew W. Doig (D) . David P. Brewster (D) . John G. Floyd (D) . Thomas C. Chittenden (W) . John H. Prentiss (D) . Judson Allen (D) . John C. Clark (W) . Amasa Dana (D) . Stephen B. Leonard (D) . Nehemiah H. Earll (D) . Edward Rogers (D) . Christopher Morgan (W) . Theron R. Strong (D) . Francis Granger (W) . Meredith Mallory (D) . Thomas Kempshall (W) . Seth M. Gates (W) . Luther C. Peck (W) . Richard P. Marvin (W) . Millard Fillmore (W) . Charles F. Mitchell (W) North Carolina . Kenneth Rayner (W) . Jesse A. Bynum (D) . Edward Stanly (W) . Charles B. Shepard (D) . James I. McKay (D) . Micajah T. Hawkins (D) . Edmund Deberry (W) . William Montgomery (D) . John Hill (D) . Charles Fisher (D) . Henry W. Connor (D) . James Graham (W) . Lewis Williams (W) Ohio . Alexander Duncan (D) . John B. Weller (D) . Patrick G. Goode (W) . Thomas Corwin (W), until May 30, 1840 Jeremiah Morrow (W), from October 13, 1840 . William Doan (D) . Calvary Morris (W) . William K. Bond (W) . Joseph Ridgway (W) . William Medill (D) . Samson Mason (W) . Isaac Parrish (D) . Jonathan Taylor (D) . Daniel P. Leadbetter (D) . George Sweeny (D) . John W. Allen (W) . Joshua R. Giddings (W) . John Hastings (D) . David A. Starkweather (D) . Henry Swearingen (D) Pennsylvania There were two plural districts, the 2nd had two representatives, the 4th had three representatives. . Lemuel Paynter (D) . John Sergeant (W) . George W. Toland (W) . Charles Naylor (W) . Edward Davies (AM) . John Edwards (AM) . Francis James (AM) . Joseph Fornance (D) . John Davis (D) . David D. Wagener (D) . Peter Newhard (D) . George M. Keim (D) . William Simonton (W) . James Gerry (D) . James Cooper (W) . William S. Ramsey (D), until October 17, 1840 Charles McClure (D), from December 7, 1840 . William W. Potter (D), until October 28, 1839 George McCulloch (D), from November 20, 1839 . David Petrikin (D) . Robert H. Hammond (D) . Samuel W. Morris (D) . Charles Ogle (AM) . Albert G. Marchand (D) . Enos Hook (D) . Isaac Leet (D) . Richard Biddle (AM), until July 21, 1840 Henry M. Brackenridge (W), from October 13, 1840 . William Beatty (D) . Thomas Henry (AM) . John Galbraith (D) Rhode Island . Robert B. Cranston (W) . Joseph L. Tillinghast (W) South Carolina . Isaac E. Holmes (D) . Robert Rhett (D) . John Campbell (D) . Sampson H. Butler (D) . Francis W. Pickens (D) . Waddy Thompson Jr. (W) . James Rogers (D) . Thomas D. Sumter (D) . John K. Griffin (D) Tennessee . William B. Carter (W) . Abraham McClellan (D) . Joseph L. Williams (W) . Julius W. Blackwell (D) . Hopkins L. Turney (D) . William B. Campbell (W) . John Bell (W) . Meredith P. Gentry (W) . Harvey M. Watterson (D) . Aaron V. Brown (D) . Cave Johnson (D) . John W. Crockett (W) . Christopher H. Williams (W) Vermont . Hiland Hall (W) . William Slade (W) . Horace Everett (W) . John Smith (D) . Isaac Fletcher (D) Virginia . Joel Holleman (D), until December 1840 Francis Mallory (W), from December 28, 1840 . Francis E. Rives (D) . John W. Jones (D) . George C. Dromgoole (D) . John Hill (W) . Walter Coles (D) . William L. Goggin (W) . Henry A. Wise (W) . Robert M. T. Hunter (W) . John Taliaferro (W) . John M. Botts (W) . James Garland (C) . Linn Banks (D) . Charles F. Mercer (W), until December 26, 1839 William M. McCarty (W), from January 25, 1840 . William Lucas (D) . Green B. Samuels (D) . Robert Craig (D) . George W. Hopkins (C) . Andrew Beirne (D) . Joseph Johnson (D) . Lewis Steenrod (D) Non-voting members . Charles Downing . William W. Chapman (D), until October 27, 1840 Augustus C. Dodge (D), from October 28, 1840 . James D. Doty (D) Changes in membership The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress. Senate Replacements: 8 Democrats: 0-seat net loss Whigs: 0-seat net gain Deaths: 3 Resignations: 7 Interim appointments: 0 Total seats with changes: 11 \|- \| Tennessee(1) \| colspan=2 style="font-size:80%" \| Vacant after previous Congress \| \| Felix Grundy (D) \| Elected November 19, 1839 \|- \| New York(1) \| colspan=2 style="font-size:80%" \| Vacant after previous Congress \| \| Nathaniel P. Tallmadge (W) \| Elected January 14, 1840 \|- \| Pennsylvania(1) \| colspan=2 style="font-size:80%" \| Vacant after previous Congress \| \| Daniel Sturgeon (D) \| Elected January 14, 1840 \|- \| Michigan(1) \| colspan=2 style="font-size:80%" \| Vacant after legislature failed to reelect incumbent. \| \| Augustus S. Porter (W) \| Elected January 20, 1840 \|- \| Virginia(1) \| colspan=2 style="font-size:80%" \| Vacant after legislature failed to reelect incumbent. \| \| William C. Rives (W) \| Elected January 18, 1841 \|- \| Delaware(1) \| \| Richard H. Bayard (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned September 19, 1839, to become Chief Justice of the Delaware Supreme Court \| \| Richard H. Bayard (W) \| Elected January 12, 1841, to his former position \|- \| Tennessee(2) \| \| Hugh Lawson White (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned January 13, 1840, because he could not conscientiously obey the intentions of his constituents \| \| Alexander O. Anderson (D) \| Elected February 26, 1840 \|- \| Connecticut(1) \| \| Thaddeus Betts (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died April 7, 1840 \| \| Jabez W. Huntington (W) \| Elected May 4, 1840 \|- \| Maryland(3) \| \| John S. Spence (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died October 24, 1840 \| \| John L. Kerr (W) \| Elected January 5, 1841 \|- \| North Carolina(2) \| \| Bedford Brown (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned November 16, 1840, because he could not obey instructions of the North Carolina General Assembly \| \| Willie P. Mangum (W) \| Elected November 25, 1840 \|- \| North Carolina(3) \| \| Robert Strange (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned November 16, 1840 \| \| William A. Graham (W) \| Elected November 25, 1840 \|- \| Tennessee(1) \| \| Felix Grundy (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died December 19, 1840 \| \| Alfred O. P. Nicholson (D) \| Elected December 25, 1840 \|- \| Massachusetts(2) \| \| John Davis (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned January 5, 1841, after being elected Governor of Massachusetts \| \| Isaac C. Bates (W) \| Elected January 13, 1841 \|- \| Massachusetts(1) \| \| Daniel Webster (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned February 22, 1841 \| \| Rufus Choate (W) \| Elected February 23, 1841 \|} House of Representatives Replacements: 15 Democrats: 2-seat net loss Whigs: 3-seat net gain Anti-Masonic: 1-seat net loss Deaths: 6 Resignations: 10 Contested election: 0 Total seats with changes: 17 \|- \| \| Vacant \| style="font-size:80%" \| Rep-elect Howard presented credentials August 5, 1839 \| \| Tilghman Howard (D) \| Seated August 5, 1839 \|- \| \| \| Albert G. Harrison (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died September 7, 1839 \| \| John Jameson (D) \| Seated December 12, 1839 \|- \| \| \| James C. Alvord (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died September 27, 1839 \| \| Osmyn Baker (W) \| Seated January 14, 1840 \|- \| \| \| William W. Potter (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died October 28, 1839 \| \| George McCulloch (D) \| Seated November 20, 1839 \|- \| \| \| Charles F. Mercer (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned December 26, 1839 \| \| William M. McCarty (W) \| Seated January 25, 1840 \|- \| \| \| Thomas Corwin (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned May 30, 1840, having become a candidate for Governor of Ohio \| \| Jeremiah Morrow (W) \| Seated October 13, 1840 \|- \| \| \| William L. Storrs (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned some time in June, 1840 \| \| William W. Boardman (W) \| Seated December 7, 1840 \|- \| \| \| Anson Brown (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died June 14, 1840 \| \| Nicholas B. Doe (W) \| Seated December 7, 1840 \|- \| \| \| Tilghman Howard (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned July 1, 1840 \| \| Henry S. Lane (W) \| Seated August 3, 1840 \|- \| \| \| Walter T. Colquitt (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned July 21, 1840 \| \| Hines Holt (W) \| Seated February 1, 1841 \|- \| \| \| Rice Garland (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned July 21, 1840, to accept appointment as judge of Louisiana Supreme Court \| \| John Moore (W) \| Seated December 17, 1840 \|- \| \| \| Richard Biddle (AM) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned July 21, 1840 \| \| Henry M. Brackenridge (W) \| Seated October 13, 1840 \|- \| \| \| Simeon H. Anderson (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died August 11, 1840 \| \| John B. Thompson (W) \| Seated December 7, 1840 \|- \| \| \| Abbott Lawrence (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned September 18, 1840 \| \| Robert C. Winthrop (W) \| Seated November 9, 1840 \|- \| \| \| William S. Ramsey (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died October 17, 1840 \| \| Charles McClure (D) \| Seated December 7, 1840 \|- \| \| \| William W. Chapman (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Term expired by law October 27, 1840 \| \| Augustus C. Dodge (D) \| Seated October 28, 1840 \|- \| \| \| Joel Holleman (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned in December 1840 \| \| Francis Mallory (W) \| Seated December 28, 1840 \|- \| \| \| George Evans (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned March 3, 1841, after being elected to the US Senate \| Vacant \| Not filled this term \|} Committees Lists of committees and their party leaders. Senate Agriculture (Chairman: Alexander Mouton) Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: Nehemiah R. Knight) Claims (Chairman: Henry Hubbard) Commerce (Chairman: William R. King) Distributing Public Revenue Among the States (Select) District of Columbia (Chairman: Richard H. Bayard)& Engrossed Bills (Chairman: Oliver Smith then John Henderson) Finance (Chairman: Silas Wright) Fiscal Corporation of the United States (Select) Foreign Relations (Chairman: James Buchanan) Indian Affairs (Chairman: Ambrose H. Sevier) Judiciary (Chairman: Garret D. Wall) Manufactures (Chairman: Wilson Lumpkin) Military Affairs (Chairman: Thomas Hart Benton) Militia (Chairman: Clement C. Clay) Naval Affairs (Chairman: Reuel Williams) Patents and the Patent Office (Chairman: Daniel Sturgeon) Pensions (Chairman: Franklin Pierce) Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: John M. Robinson) Printing (Chairman: N/A) Private Land Claims (Chairman: Lewis F. Linn) Public Buildings and Grounds (Chairman: William S. Fulton) Public Lands (Chairman: Robert J. Walker) Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: Perry Smith) Roads and Canals (Chairman: Richard M. Young) Tariff Regulation (Select) Whole House of Representatives Accounts (Chairman: Joseph Johnson) Agriculture (Chairman: Edmund Deberry) Apportionment of Representatives (Select) Claims (Chairman: David A. Russell) Commerce (Chairman: Edward Curtis) District of Columbia (Chairman: William C. Johnson) Elections (Chairman: Francis E. Rives) Expenditures in the Navy Department (Chairman: Leverett Saltonstall I) Expenditures in the Post Office Department (Chairman: Richard P. Marvin) Expenditures in the State Department (Chairman: Joseph R. Underwood) Expenditures in the Treasury Department (Chairman: George Evans) Expenditures in the War Department (Chairman: Peter J. Wagner) Expenditures on Public Buildings (Chairman: Edward Stanly) Foreign Affairs (Chairman: Francis W. Pickens) Indian Affairs (Chairman: John Bell) Invalid Pensions (Chairman: Sherrod Williams) Judiciary (Chairman: John Sergeant) Manufactures (Chairman: John Quincy Adams) Memorial of the Agricultural Bank of Mississippi (Select) Mileage (Chairman: Thomas W. Williams) Military Affairs (Chairman: Waddy Thompson Jr.) Militia (Chairman: George M. Keim) Naval Affairs (Chairman: Francis Thomas) Patents (Chairman: Issac Fletcher) Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: James I. McKay) Private Land Claims (Chairman: William B. Calhoun) Public Buildings and Grounds (Chairman: Stephen B. Leonard) Public Expenditures (Chairman: William K. Bond) Public Lands (Chairman: William C. Johnson then Jeremiah Morrow then Reuben Chapman then Jeremiah Morrow) Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: Luther C. Peck) Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: Joseph F. Randolph) Revolutionary Pensions (Chairman: John Taliaferro) Roads and Canals (Chairman: Charles Ogle) Rules (Select) Standards of Official Conduct Territories (Chairman: John Pope) Ways and Means (Chairman: John W. Jones) Whole Joint committees Enrolled Bills (Chairman: Sen. Benjamin Tappan) The Library (Chairman: N/A) Employees Librarian of Congress: John Silva Meehan Senate Chaplain: Henry Slicer (Methodist), until December 31, 1839 George G. Cookman (Methodist), from December 31, 1839 Secretary: Asbury Dickins Sergeant at Arms: Stephen Haight House of Representatives Chaplain: Levi M. Reese (Methodist), until February 4, 1840 Joshua Bates (Congregationalist), elected February 4, 1840 Thomas W. Braxton (Baptist), elected December 7, 1840 Clerk: Hugh A. Garland Doorkeeper: Joseph Follansbee, elected December 23, 1839 Postmaster: William J. McCormick, elected December 23, 1839 Reading Clerks: Sergeant at Arms: Roderick Dorsey See also 1838 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress) 1838 and 1839 United States Senate elections 1838 and 1839 United States House of Representatives elections 1840 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress) 1840 United States presidential election 1840 and 1841 United States Senate elections 1840 and 1841 United States House of Representatives elections Notes References External links Statutes at Large, 1789-1875 Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress U.S. House of Representatives: House History U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists	[ -0.3393595218658447, -0.09807910025119781, -0.8288692831993103, 0.303130179643631, -0.2255001664161682, 0.588736355304718, 0.5635916590690613, -0.16790588200092316, -1.0512948036193848, 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225204	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/27th%20United%20States%20Congress	27th United States Congress	The 27th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. between March 4, 1841, and March 4, 1843, during the one-month administration of U.S. President William Henry Harrison and the first two years of the presidency of his successor, John Tyler. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Fifth Census of the United States in 1830. Both chambers had a Whig majority. Major events March 4, 1841: William Henry Harrison was inaugurated as President of the United States April 4, 1841: President Harrison died and Vice President John Tyler became President August 16, 1841: President Tyler's veto of a bill to re-establish the Second Bank of the United States led Whig Party members to riot outside the White House in the most violent demonstration on White House grounds in U.S. history. May 19, 1842: Dorr Rebellion December 17, 1842: Samuel W. Trotti of South Carolina, became the first Italian American to serve in Congress. Major legislation April 19, 1841: Bankruptcy Act of 1841, ch. 9, September 4, 1841: Preemption Act of 1841, ch. 16, August 4, 1842: Armed Occupation Act, August 30, 1842: Tariff of 1842 ("Black Tariff"), ch. 270, Treaties August 9, 1842: Webster-Ashburton Treaty signed, establishing the United States–Canada border east of the Rocky Mountains. Party summary Senate House of Representatives Leadership Senate President: John Tyler (W), until April 4, 1841, thereafter vacant Presidents pro tempore: William R. King (D), elected March 4, 1841 Samuel L. Southard (W), elected March 11, 1841 Willie P. Mangum (W), elected May 31, 1842 House of Representatives Speaker: John D. White (W) Members This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed in order of seniority, and representatives are listed by district. Skip to House of Representatives, below Senate Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring re-election in 1844; Class 2 meant their term began with this Congress, requiring re-election in 1846; and Class 3 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring re-election in 1842. Alabama 2. William R. King (D) 3. Clement C. Clay (D), until November 15, 1841 Arthur P. Bagby (D), from November 24, 1841 Arkansas 2. William Fulton (D) 3. Ambrose Sevier (D) Connecticut 1. Jabez W. Huntington (W) 3. Perry Smith (D) Delaware 1. Richard H. Bayard (W) 2. Thomas Clayton (W) Georgia 2. John Berrien (W) 3. Alfred Cuthbert (D) Illinois 2. Samuel McRoberts (D) 3. Richard M. Young (D) Indiana 1. Albert White (W) 3. Oliver H. Smith (W) Kentucky 2. James T. Morehead (W) 3. Henry Clay (W), until March 31, 1842 John J. Crittenden (W), from March 31, 1842 Louisiana 2. Alexander Barrow (W) 3. Alexander Mouton (D), until March 1, 1842 Charles Conrad (W), from April 14, 1842 Maine 1. Reuel Williams (D), until February 15, 1843 2. George Evans (W) Maryland 1. William Merrick (W) 3. John L. Kerr (W) Massachusetts 1. Rufus Choate (W) 2. Isaac C. Bates (W) Michigan 1. Augustus S. Porter (W) 2. William Woodbridge (W) Mississippi 1. John Henderson (W) 2. Robert J. Walker (D) Missouri 1. Thomas Benton (D) 3. Lewis F. Linn (D) New Hampshire 2. Levi Woodbury (D) 3. Franklin Pierce (D), until February 28, 1842 Leonard Wilcox (D), from March 1, 1842 New Jersey 1. Samuel L. Southard (W), until June 26, 1842 William L. Dayton (W), from July 2, 1842 2. Jacob W. Miller (W) New York 1. Nathaniel P. Tallmadge (W) 3. Silas Wright (D) North Carolina 2. Willie Mangum (W) 3. William Graham (W) Ohio 1. Benjamin Tappan (D) 3. William Allen (D) Pennsylvania 1. Daniel Sturgeon (D) 3. James Buchanan (D) Rhode Island 1. Nathan Dixon (W), until January 29, 1842 William Sprague (W), from February 18, 1842 2. James F. Simmons (W) South Carolina 2. John C. Calhoun (D) 3. William C. Preston (W), until November 29, 1842 George McDuffie (D), from December 23, 1842 Tennessee 1. Alfred O. P. Nicholson (D), until February 7, 1842 2. vacant Vermont 1. Samuel S. Phelps (W) 3. Samuel Prentiss (W), until April 11, 1842 Samuel C. Crafts (W), from April 23, 1842 Virginia 1. William C. Rives (W) 2. William S. Archer (W) House of Representatives Alabama All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Reuben Chapman (D) . George S. Houston (D) . Dixon H. Lewis (D) . William W. Payne (D) . Benjamin Shields (D) Arkansas . Edward Cross (D) Connecticut . Joseph Trumbull (W) . William W. Boardman (W) . Thomas W. Williams (W) . Thomas B. Osborne (W) . Truman Smith (W) . John H. Brockway (W) Delaware . George B. Rodney (W) Georgia All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Julius C. Alford (W), until October 1, 1841 Edward J. Black (D), from January 3, 1842 . William C. Dawson (W), until November 13, 1841 Walter T. Colquitt (D), from January 3, 1842 . Thomas F. Foster (W) . Roger L. Gamble (W) . Richard W. Habersham (W), until December 2, 1842 George W. Crawford (W), from January 7, 1843 . Thomas Butler King (W) . James Meriwether (W) . Eugenius Nisbet (W), until October 12, 1841 Mark A. Cooper (D), from January 3, 1842 . Lott Warren (W) Illinois . John Reynolds (D) . Zadok Casey (Ind. D) . John T. Stuart (W) Indiana . George H. Proffit (W) . Richard W. Thompson (W) . Joseph L. White (W) . James H. Cravens (W) . Andrew Kennedy (D) . David Wallace (W) . Henry S. Lane (W) Kentucky . Linn Boyd (D) . Philip Triplett (W) . Joseph R. Underwood (W) . Bryan Owsley (W) . John B. Thompson (W) . Willis Green (W) . John Pope (W) . James Sprigg (W) . John White (W) . Thomas F. Marshall (W) . Landaff W. Andrews (W) . Garrett Davis (W) . William O. Butler (D) Louisiana . Edward D. White (W) . John B. Dawson (D) . John Moore (W) Maine . Nathan Clifford (D) . William P. Fessenden (W) . Benjamin Randall (W) . David Bronson (W), from May 31, 1841 . Nathaniel Littlefield (D) . Alfred Marshall (D) . Joshua A. Lowell (D) . Elisha Allen (W) Maryland The 4th district was a plural district with two representatives. . Isaac Jones (W) . James A. Pearce (W) . James W. Williams (D), until December 2, 1842 Charles S. Sewall (D), from January 2, 1843 . John P. Kennedy (W) . Alexander Randall (W) . William Cost Johnson (W) . John Mason (D) . Augustus R. Sollers (W) Massachusetts . Robert C. Winthrop (W), until May 25, 1842 Nathan Appleton (W), from June 9, 1842, until September 28, 1842 Robert C. Winthrop (W), from November 29, 1842 . Leverett Saltonstall (W) . Caleb Cushing (W) . William Parmenter (D) . Levi Lincoln Jr. (W), until March 16, 1841 Charles Hudson (W), from May 3, 1841 . Osmyn Baker (W) . George N. Briggs (W) . William B. Calhoun (W) . William S. Hastings (W), until June 17, 1842 . Nathaniel B. Borden (W) . Barker Burnell (W) . John Quincy Adams (W) Michigan . Jacob M. Howard (W) Mississippi All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . William M. Gwin (D) . Jacob Thompson (D) Missouri All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . John C. Edwards (D) . John Miller (D) New Hampshire All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Charles G. Atherton (D) . Edmund Burke (D) . Ira A. Eastman (D) . John R. Reding (D) . Tristram Shaw (D) New Jersey All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . John B. Aycrigg (W) . William Halstead (W) . John P. B. Maxwell (W) . Joseph F. Randolph (W) . Charles C. Stratton (W) . Thomas J. Yorke (W) New York There were four plural districts, the 8th, 17th, 22nd & 23rd had two representatives each, the 3rd had four representatives. . Charles A. Floyd (D) . Joseph Egbert (D) . Charles G. Ferris (D) . John McKeon (D) . James I. Roosevelt (D) . Fernando Wood (D) . Aaron Ward (D) . Richard D. Davis (D) . James G. Clinton (D) . John Van Buren (D) . Jacob Houck Jr. (D) . Robert McClellan (D) . Hiram P. Hunt (W) . Daniel D. Barnard (W) . Archibald L. Linn (W) . Bernard Blair (W) . Thomas A. Tomlinson (W) . Henry Bell Van Rensselaer (W) . John Sanford (D) . Andrew W. Doig (D) . David P. Brewster (D) . John G. Floyd (D) . Thomas C. Chittenden (W) . Samuel S. Bowne (D) . Samuel Gordon (D) . John C. Clark (W) . Samuel Partridge (D) . Lewis Riggs (D) . Victory Birdseye (W) . A. Lawrence Foster (W) . Christopher Morgan (W) . John Maynard (W) . Francis Granger (W), until March 5, 1841 John Greig (W), from May 21, 1841, until September 25, 1841 Francis Granger (W), from November 27, 1841 . William M. Oliver (D) . Timothy Childs (W) . Seth M. Gates (W) . John Young (W) . Staley N. Clarke (W) . Millard Fillmore (W) . Alfred Babcock (W) North Carolina . Kenneth Rayner (W) . John R. J. Daniel (D) . Edward Stanly (W) . William Washington (W) . James I. McKay (D) . Archibald H. Arrington (D) . Edmund Deberry (W) . Romulus M. Saunders (D) . Augustine H. Shepperd (W) . Abraham Rencher (W) . Greene Caldwell (D) . James Graham (W) . Lewis Williams (W), until February 23, 1842 Anderson Mitchell (W), from April 27, 1842 Ohio . Nathanael G. Pendleton (W) . John B. Weller (D) . Patrick Goode (W) . Jeremiah Morrow (W) . William Doan (D) . Calvary Morris (W) . William Russell (W) . Joseph Ridgway (W) . William Medill (D) . Samson Mason (W) . Benjamin S. Cowen (W) . Joshua Mathiot (W) . James Mathews (D) . George Sweeny (D) . Sherlock Andrews (W) . Joshua R. Giddings (W), until March 22, 1842, and from December 5, 1842 . John Hastings (D) . Ezra Dean (D) . Samuel Stokely (W) Pennsylvania There were two plural districts, the 2nd had two representatives, the 4th had three representatives. . Charles Brown (D) . George W. Toland (W) . John Sergeant (W), until September 15, 1841 Joseph R. Ingersoll (W), from October 12, 1841 . Charles J. Ingersoll (D) . Jeremiah Brown (W) . John Edwards (W) . Francis James (W) . Joseph Fornance (D) . Robert Ramsey (W) . John Westbrook (D) . Peter Newhard (D) . George M. Keim (D) . William Simonton (W) . James Gerry (D) . James Cooper (W) . Amos Gustine (D) . James Irvin (W) . Benjamin A. Bidlack (D) . John Snyder (D) . Davis Dimock Jr. (D), until January 13, 1842 Almon H. Read (D), from March 18, 1842 . Charles Ogle (W), until May 10, 1841 Henry Black (W), from June 28, 1841, until November 28, 1841 James M. Russell (W), from December 21, 1841 . Albert G. Marchand (D) . Enos Hook (D), until April 18, 1841 Henry W. Beeson (D), from May 31, 1841 . Joseph Lawrence (W), until April 17, 1842 Thomas M. T. McKennan (W), from May 30, 1842 . William W. Irwin (W) . William Jack (D) . Thomas Henry (W) . Arnold Plumer (D) Rhode Island Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Robert B. Cranston (W) . Joseph L. Tillinghast (W) South Carolina . Isaac E. Holmes (D) . Robert Rhett (D) . John Campbell (D) . Sampson H. Butler (D), until September 27, 1842 Samuel W. Trotti (D), from December 17, 1842 . Francis W. Pickens (D) . William Butler (W) . James Rogers (D) . Thomas D. Sumter (D) . Patrick C. Caldwell (D) Tennessee . Thomas D. Arnold (W) . Abraham McClellan (D) . Joseph L. Williams (W) . Thomas Campbell (W) . Hopkins L. Turney (D) . William B. Campbell (W) . Robert L. Caruthers (W) . Meredith P. Gentry (W) . Harvey M. Watterson (D) . Aaron V. Brown (D) . Cave Johnson (D) . Milton Brown (W) . Christopher Williams (W) Vermont . Hiland Hall (W) . William Slade (W) . Horace Everett (W) . Augustus Young (W) . John Mattocks (W) Virginia . Francis Mallory (W) . George B. Cary (D) . John W. Jones (D) . William Goode (D) . Edmund W. Hubard (D) . Walter Coles (D) . William L. Goggin (W) . Henry A. Wise (W) . Robert M. T. Hunter (W) . John Taliaferro (W) . John M. Botts (W) . Thomas W. Gilmer (W) . Linn Banks (D), until December 6, 1841 William Smith (D), from December 6, 1841 . Cuthbert Powell (W) . Richard W. Barton (W) . William Harris (D) . Alexander Stuart (W) . George W. Hopkins (D) . George W. Summers (W) . Samuel Hays (D) . Lewis Steenrod (D) Non-voting members . David Levy Yulee (D) . Augustus C. Dodge (D) . Henry Dodge (D) Changes in membership The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress. Senate Replacements: 9 Democrats: no net change Whigs: no net change Deaths: 2 Resignations: 8 Interim appointments: 0 Vacancy: 1 Total seats with changes: 10 \|- \| Alabama(3) \| \| Clement C. Clay (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned November 15, 1841 \| \| Arthur P. Bagby (D) \| Elected November 24, 1841 \|- \| Rhode Island(1) \| \| Nathan F. Dixon (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died January 29, 1842 \| \| William Sprague (W) \| Elected February 18, 1842 \|- \| Tennessee(1) \| \| Alfred O. P. Nicholson (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned February 7, 1842 \| Vacant \| Not filled this term \|- \| New Hampshire(3) \| \| Franklin Pierce (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned February 28, 1842 \| \| Leonard Wilcox (D) \| Appointed March 1, 1842, and subsequently elected \|- \| Louisiana(3) \| \| Alexandre Mouton (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned March 1, 1842, after being elected Governor of Louisiana \| \| Charles M. Conrad (W) \| Appointed April 14, 1842 \|- \| Kentucky(3) \| \| Henry Clay (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned March 31, 1842 \| \| John J. Crittenden (W) \| Appointed March 31, 1842, and subsequently elected \|- \| Vermont(3) \| \| Samuel Prentiss (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned April 11, 1842, to become judge of the U.S. District Court of Vermont \| \| Samuel C. Crafts (W) \| Appointed April 23, 1842, and subsequently elected \|- \| New Jersey(1) \| \| Samuel L. Southard (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died June 26, 1842 \| \| William L. Dayton (W) \| Appointed July 2, 1842 \|- \| South Carolina(3) \| \| William C. Preston (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned November 29, 1842 \| \| George McDuffie (D) \| Elected December 23, 1842 \|- \| Maine(1) \| \| Reuel Williams (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned February 15, 1843 \| Vacant \| Not filled this term \|} House of Representatives Replacements: 17 Democrats: 3 seat net gain Whigs: 3 seat net loss Deaths: 8 Resignations: 12 Contested election: 1 Total seats with changes: 20 \|- \| \| Vacant \| style="font-size:80%" \| Rep. George Evans resigned in previous congress \| \| David Bronson (W) \| Seated May 31, 1841 \|- \| \| \| Francis Granger (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned March 5, 1841, after being appointed United States Postmaster General \| \| John Greig (W) \| Seated May 21, 1841 \|- \| \| \| Levi Lincoln Jr. (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned March 16, 1841, after being appointed Collector of the port of Boston \| \| Charles Hudson (W) \| Seated May 3, 1841 \|- \| \| \| Enos Hook (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned April 18, 1841 \| \| Henry W. Beeson (D) \| Seated May 31, 1841 \|- \| \| \| Charles Ogle (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died May 10, 1841 \| \| Henry Black (W) \| Seated June 28, 1841 \|- \| \| \| John Sergeant (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned September 15, 1841 \| \| Joseph R. Ingersoll (W) \| Seated October 12, 1841 \|- \| \| \| John Greig (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned September 25, 1841 \| \| Francis Granger (W) \| Seated November 27, 1841 \|- \| \| \| Julius C. Alford (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned October 1, 1841 \| \| Edward J. Black (D) \| Seated January 3, 1842 \|- \| \| \| Eugenius A. Nisbet (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned October 12, 1841 \| \| Mark A. Cooper (D) \| Seated January 3, 1842 \|- \| \| \| William C. Dawson (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned November 13, 1841 \| \| Walter T. Colquitt (D) \| Seated January 3, 1842 \|- \| \| \| Henry Black (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died November 28, 1841 \| \| James M. Russell (W) \| Seated December 21, 1841 \|- \| \| \| Linn Banks (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Lost contested election December 6, 1841 \| \| William Smith (D) \| Seated December 6, 1841 \|- \| \| \| Davis Dimock Jr. (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died January 13, 1842 \| \| Almon H. Read (D) \| Seated March 18, 1842 \|- \| \| \| Lewis Williams (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died February 23, 1842 \| \| Anderson Mitchell (W) \| Seated April 27, 1842 \|- \| \| \| Joshua R. Giddings (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned March 22, 1842, after vote of his censure and re-elected to same seat \| \| Joshua R. Giddings (W) \| Seated December 5, 1842 \|- \| \| \| Joseph Lawrence (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died April 17, 1842 \| \| Thomas M. T. McKennan (W) \| Seated May 30, 1842 \|- \| \| \| Robert C. Winthrop (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned May 25, 1842 \| \| Nathan Appleton (W) \| Seated June 9, 1842 \|- \| \| \| William S. Hastings (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died June 17, 1842 \| Vacant \| Not filled this Congress \|- \| \| \| Sampson H. Butler (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned September 27, 1842 \| \| Samuel W. Trotti (D) \| Seated December 17, 1842 \|- \| \| \| Nathan Appleton (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned September 28, 1842 \| \| Robert C. Winthrop (W) \| Seated November 29, 1842 \|- \| \| \| Richard W. Habersham (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died December 2, 1842 \| \| George W. Crawford (W) \| Seated January 7, 1843 \|- \| \| \| James W. Williams (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died December 2, 1842 \| \| Charles S. Sewall (D) \| Seated January 2, 1843 \|} Committees Lists of committees and their party leaders. Senate Agriculture (Chairman: Lewis F. Linn) Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: Albert S. White then Benjamin Tappan) Claims (Chairman: William A. Graham) Commerce (Chairman: Jabez Huntington) Distributing Public Revenue Among the States (Select) District of Columbia (Chairman: Richard H. Bayard) Finance (Chairman: Clement C. Clay) Fiscal Corporation of the United States (Select) Foreign Relations (Chairman: William C. Rives then William S. Archer) Indian Affairs (Chairman: James T. Morehead then Albert White) Judiciary (Chairman: John M. Berrien) Manufactures (Chairman: George Evans) Military Affairs (Chairman: William C. Preston then John J. Crittenden) Militia (Chairman: Samuel S. Phelps) Naval Affairs (Chairman: Willie P. Mangum) Patents and the Patent Office (Chairman: Samuel Prentiss then John Leeds Kerr then Samuel S. Phelps) Pensions (Chairman: Isaac C. Bates) Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: John Henderson) Printing (Chairman: N/A) Private Land Claims (Chairman: Richard H. Bayard) Public Buildings and Grounds (Chairman: Alexander Barrow) Public Lands (Chairman: Oliver H. Smith) Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: Nathan F. Dixon) Roads and Canals (Chairman: Augustus S. Porter) Tariff Regulation (Select) Whole House of Representatives Accounts (Chairman: Osmyn Baker) Agriculture (Chairman: Edmund Deberry) Apportionment of Representatives (Select) Claims (Chairman: Joshua Giddings) Commerce (Chairman: John P. Kennedy) District of Columbia (Chairman: Joseph R. Underwood) Elections (Chairman: William Halstead) Expenditures in the Navy Department (Chairman: James Iver McKay) Expenditures in the Post Office Department (Chairman: Joshua A. Lowell) Expenditures in the State Department (Chairman: John Van Buren) Expenditures in the Treasury Department (Chairman: A. Lawrence Foster) Expenditures in the War Department (Chairman: James Iver McKay) Expenditures on Public Buildings (Chairman: Cave Johnson) Foreign Affairs (Chairman: Caleb Cushing then John Quincy Adams) Indian Affairs (Chairman: John Quincy Adams) Invalid Pensions (Chairman: Calvary Morris) Judiciary (Chairman: Daniel D. Barnard) Manufactures (Chairman: Leverett Saltonstall I) Memorial of the Agricultural Bank of Mississippi (Select) Mileage (Chairman: Thomas W. Williams) Military Affairs (Chairman: William C. Dawson) Militia (Chairman: George May Keim) Naval Affairs (Chairman: Henry A. Wise) Patents (Chairman: Thomas B. Osborne) Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: George N. Briggs) Private Land Claims (Chairman: John Moore) Public Buildings and Grounds (Chairman: William W. Boardman) Public Expenditures (Chairman: James Graham) Public Lands (Chairman: William C. Johnson then Jeremiah Morrow then Reuben Chapman then Jeremiah Morrow) Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: Francis James) Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: Hiland Hall) Revolutionary Pensions (Chairman: John Taliaferro) Roads and Canals (Chairman: Joseph Lawrence) Rules (Select) Standards of Official Conduct Territories (Chairman: Garrett Davis) Ways and Means (Chairman: Millard Fillmore) Whole Joint committees Enrolled Bills (Chairman: Sen. Augustus Porter then Sen. William Sprague) The Library (Chairman: N/A) Employees Librarian of Congress: John Silva Meehan Senate Secretary: Asbury Dickins Sergeant at Arms: Stephen Haight, until March 8, 1841 Edward Dyer, elected March 8, 1841 Chaplain: George G. Cookman, Methodist, until June 12, 1841 Septimus Tustin, Presbyterian, elected June 12, 1841 House of Representatives Clerk: Hugh A. Garland, until May 31, 1841 Matthew St. Clair Clarke, elected May 31, 1841 Sergeant at Arms: Roderick Dorsey, until June 8, 1841 Eleazor M. Townsend, elected June 8, 1841 Doorkeeper: Joseph Follansbee Postmaster: William J. McCormick Chaplain: John W. French, Episcopalian, elected May 31, 1841 John N. Maffit, Methodist, elected December 6, 1841 Frederick T. Tiffany, Episcopalian, elected December 5, 1842 Reading Clerks: See also 1840 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress) 1840 United States presidential election 1840 and 1841 United States Senate elections 1840 and 1841 United States House of Representatives elections 1842 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress) 1842 and 1843 United States Senate elections 1842 and 1843 United States House of Representatives elections Notes References External links Statutes at Large, 1789-1875 Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress U.S. House of Representatives: House History U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists	[ -0.3591114282608032, 0.007480551954358816, -0.736062228679657, 0.1904880702495575, -0.15324223041534424, 0.7224364876747131, 0.5534507632255554, -0.12131302803754807, -1.0220328569412231, -0.13440245389938354, 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225205	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/29th%20United%20States%20Congress	29th United States Congress	The 29th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1845, to March 4, 1847, during the first two years of James Polk's presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Sixth Census of the United States in 1840. Both chambers had a Democratic majority. Major events March 4, 1845: James K. Polk became President of the United States October 10, 1845: The Naval School (later renamed the United States Naval Academy) opened in Annapolis, Maryland December 2, 1845: President Polk announced to Congress that the Monroe Doctrine should be strictly enforced and that the United States should aggressively expand into the West. April 25, 1846: Open conflict over border disputes of Texas's boundaries began the Mexican–American War Major legislation May 13, 1846: Mexican–American War declared, ch. 16, July 9, 1846: District of Columbia retrocession, ch. 35, July 30, 1846: Walker tariff, ch. 74, Treaties June 15, 1846: Oregon Treaty established the 49th parallel as the border between the United States and Canada, from the Rocky Mountains to the Strait of Juan de Fuca January 13, 1847: Treaty of Cahuenga ended the fighting in the Mexican–American War in California (not a formal treaty between nations but an informal agreement between rival military forces) States admitted December 29, 1845: Texas admitted as the 28th state December 28, 1846: Iowa admitted as the 29th state Party summary Senate During this congress, two Senate seats were added for each of the new states of Texas and Iowa. House of Representatives During this congress, two House seats were added for each of the new states of Texas and Iowa. Leadership Senate President: George M. Dallas (D) President pro tempore: Willie P. Mangum (W), until March 4, 1845 Ambrose Hundley Sevier (D), only on December 27, 1845 David R. Atchison (D), from August 8, 1846 House of Representatives Speaker: John W. Davis (D) Members This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class and representatives are listed by district. Skip to House of Representatives, below Senate Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began with this Congress, facing re-election in 1850; Class 2 meant their term ended with this Congress, facing re-election in 1846; and Class 3 meant their term began in the last Congress, facing re-election in 1848. Alabama 2. Dixon H. Lewis (D) 3. Arthur P. Bagby (D) Arkansas 2. Chester Ashley (D) 3. Ambrose H. Sevier (D) Connecticut 1. Jabez W. Huntington (W) 3. John M. Niles (D) Delaware 1. John M. Clayton (W) 2. Thomas Clayton (W) Florida 1. David Levy Yulee (D), from July 1, 1845 3. James Westcott (D), from July 1, 1845 Georgia 2. John M. Berrien (W), until May, 1845; from November 13, 1845 3. Walter T. Colquitt (D) Illinois 2. James Semple (D) 3. Sidney Breese (D) Indiana 1. Jesse D. Bright (D) 3. Edward A. Hannegan (D) Iowa 2. Vacant after being admitted to the Union December 28, 1846 3. Vacant after being admitted to the Union December 28, 1846 Kentucky 2. James T. Morehead (W) 3. John J. Crittenden (W) Louisiana 2. Alexander Barrow (W), until December 29, 1846 Pierre Soulé (D), from January 21, 1847 3. Henry Johnson (W) Maine 1. John Fairfield (D) 2. George Evans (W) Maryland 1. Reverdy Johnson (W) 3. James Pearce (W) Massachusetts 1. Daniel Webster (W) 2. Isaac C. Bates (W), until March 16, 1845 John Davis (W), from March 24, 1845 Michigan 1. Lewis Cass (D) 2. William Woodbridge (W) Mississippi 1. Jesse Speight (D) 2. Robert J. Walker (D), until March 5, 1845 Joseph W. Chalmers (D), from November 3, 1845 Missouri 1. Thomas H. Benton (D) 3. David R. Atchison (D) New Hampshire 2. Levi Woodbury (D), until September 20, 1845 Benning W. Jenness (D), from December 1, 1845, until June 13, 1846 Joseph Cilley (L), from June 13, 1846 3. Charles G. Atherton (D) New Jersey 1. William L. Dayton (W) 2. Jacob W. Miller (W) New York 1. Daniel S. Dickinson (D) 3. John A. Dix (D) North Carolina 2. Willie P. Mangum (W) 3. William H. Haywood Jr. (D), until July 25, 1846 George E. Badger (W), from November 26, 1846 Ohio 1. Thomas Corwin (W) 3. William Allen (D) Pennsylvania 1. Daniel Sturgeon (D) 3. James Buchanan (D), until March 5, 1845 Simon Cameron (D), from March 13, 1845 Rhode Island 1. Albert C. Greene (W) 2. James F. Simmons (W) South Carolina 2. John C. Calhoun (D), from November 26, 1845 3. George McDuffie (D), until August 17, 1846 Andrew Butler (D), from December 4, 1846 Tennessee 1. Hopkins L. Turney (D) 2. Spencer Jarnagin (W) Texas 1. Thomas J. Rusk (D), from February 21, 1846 (newly admitted state) 2. Sam Houston (D), from February 21, 1846 (newly admitted state) Vermont 1. Samuel S. Phelps (W) 3. William Upham (W) Virginia 1. Isaac S. Pennybacker (D), December 3, 1845 – January 12, 1847 James M. Mason (D), from January 21, 1847 2. William S. Archer (W) House of Representatives The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their district numbers. Alabama . Edmund S. Dargan (D) . Henry W. Hilliard (W) . William L. Yancey (D), until September 1, 1846 James L. Cottrell (D), from December 7, 1846 . William W. Payne (D) . George S. Houston (D) . Reuben Chapman (D) . Felix G. McConnell (D), until September 10, 1846 Franklin W. Bowdon (D), from December 7, 1846 Arkansas . Archibald Yell (D), until July 1, 1846 Thomas W. Newton (W), from February 6, 1847 Connecticut . James Dixon (W) . Samuel D. Hubbard (W) . John A. Rockwell (W) . Truman Smith (W) Delaware . John W. Houston (W) Florida . Edward C. Cabell (W), from October 6, 1845, until January 24, 1846 William H. Brockenbrough (D), from January 24, 1846 Georgia . Thomas Butler King (W) . Seaborn Jones (D) . George W. B. Towns (D), from January 5, 1846 . Hugh A. Haralson (D) . John H. Lumpkin (D) . Howell Cobb (D) . Alexander H. Stephens (W) . Robert A. Toombs (W) Illinois . Robert Smith (D) . John A. McClernand (D) . Orlando B. Ficklin (D) . John Wentworth (D) . Stephen A. Douglas (D), until March 3, 1847 . Joseph P. Hoge (D) . Edward D. Baker (W), until January 15, 1847 John Henry (W), from February 5, 1847 Indiana . Robert D. Owen (D) . Thomas J. Henley (D) . Thomas Smith (D) . Caleb B. Smith (W) . William W. Wick (D) . John W. Davis (D) . Edward W. McGaughey (W) . John Pettit (D) . Charles W. Cathcart (D) . Andrew Kennedy (D) Iowa . S. Clifton Hastings (D), from December 28, 1846 (newly admitted state) . Shepherd Leffler (D), from December 28, 1846 (newly admitted state) Kentucky . Linn Boyd (D) . John H. McHenry (W) . Henry Grider (W) . Joshua F. Bell (W) . Bryan R. Young (W) . John P. Martin (D) . William P. Thomasson (W) . Garrett Davis (W) . Andrew A. Trumbo (W) . John W. Tibbatts (D) Louisiana . John Slidell (D), until November 10, 1845 Emile La Sére (D), from January 29, 1846 . Bannon G. Thibodeaux (W) . John H. Harmanson (D) . Isaac E. Morse (D) Maine . John F. Scamman (D) . Robert P. Dunlap (D) . Luther Severance (W) . John D. McCrate (D) . Cullen Sawtelle (D) . Hannibal Hamlin (D) . Hezekiah Williams (D) Maryland . John G. Chapman (W) . Thomas J. Perry (D) . Thomas W. Ligon (D) . William F. Giles (D) . Albert Constable (D) . Edward H. C. Long (W) Massachusetts . Robert C. Winthrop (W) . Daniel P. King (W) . Amos Abbott (W) . Benjamin Thompson (W) . Charles Hudson (W) . George Ashmun (W) . Julius Rockwell (W) . John Quincy Adams (W) . Artemas Hale (W) . Joseph Grinnell (W) Michigan . Robert McClelland (D) . John S. Chipman (D) . James B. Hunt (D) Mississippi . Stephen Adams (D) . Jefferson Davis (D), until October 28, 1846 Henry T. Ellett (D), from January 26, 1847 . Robert W. Roberts (D) . Jacob Thompson (D) Missouri . James B. Bowlin (D) . John S. Phelps (D) . Sterling Price (D), until August 12, 1846 William McDaniel (D), from December 7, 1846 . James H. Relfe (D) . Leonard H. Sims (D) New Hampshire . James H. Johnson (D) . Mace Moulton (D) . Moses Norris Jr. (D) . Vacant New Jersey . James G. Hampton (W) . Samuel G. Wright (W), until July 30, 1845 George Sykes (D), from November 4, 1845 . John Runk (W) . Joseph E. Edsall (D) . William Wright (W) New York . John W. Lawrence (D) . Henry J. Seaman (A) . William S. Miller (A) . William B. Maclay (D) . Thomas M. Woodruff (A) . William W. Campbell (A) . Joseph H. Anderson (D) . William W. Woodworth (D) . Archibald C. Niven (D) . Samuel Gordon (D) . John F. Collin (D) . Richard P. Herrick (W), until June 20, 1846 Thomas C. Ripley (W), from December 17, 1846 . Bradford R. Wood (D) . Erastus D. Culver (W) . Joseph Russell (D) . Hugh White (W) . Charles S. Benton (D) . Preston King (D) . Orville Hungerford (D) . Timothy Jenkins (D) . Charles Goodyear (D) . Stephen Strong (D) . William J. Hough (D) . Horace Wheaton (D) . George O. Rathbun (D) . Samuel S. Ellsworth (D) . John De Mott (D) . Elias B. Holmes (W) . Charles H. Carroll (W) . Martin Grover (D) . Abner Lewis (W) . William A. Moseley (W) . Albert Smith (W) . Washington Hunt (W) North Carolina . James Graham (W) . Daniel M. Barringer (W) . David S. Reid (D) . Alfred Dockery (W) . James C. Dobbin (D) . James I. McKay (D) . John R. J. Daniel (D) . Henry S. Clark (D) . Asa Biggs (D) Ohio . James J. Faran (D) . Francis A. Cunningham (D) . Robert C. Schenck (W) . Joseph Vance (W) . William Sawyer (D) . Henry St. John (D) . Joseph J. McDowell (D) . Allen G. Thurman (D) . Augustus L. Perrill (D) . Columbus Delano (W) . Jacob Brinkerhoff (D) . Samuel F. Vinton (W) . Isaac Parrish (D) . Alexander Harper (W) . Joseph Morris (D) . John D. Cummins (D) . George Fries (D) . David A. Starkweather (D) . Daniel R. Tilden (W) . Joshua R. Giddings (W) . Joseph M. Root (W) Pennsylvania . Lewis C. Levin (A) . Joseph R. Ingersoll (W) . John H. Campbell (A) . Charles J. Ingersoll (D) . Jacob S. Yost (D) . Jacob Erdman (D) . Abraham R. McIlvaine (W) . John Strohm (W) . John Ritter (D) . Richard Brodhead (D) . Owen D. Leib (D) . David Wilmot (D) . James Pollock (W) . Alexander Ramsey (W) . Moses McClean (D) . James Black (D) . John Blanchard (W) . Andrew Stewart (W) . Henry D. Foster (D) . John H. Ewing (W) . Cornelius Darragh (W) . William S. Garvin (D) . James Thompson (D) . Joseph Buffington (W) Rhode Island . Henry Y. Cranston (W) . Lemuel H. Arnold (W) South Carolina . James A. Black (D) . Richard F. Simpson (D) . Joseph A. Woodward (D) . Alexander D. Sims (D) . Armistead Burt (D) . Isaac E. Holmes (D) . Robert Rhett (D) Tennessee . Andrew Johnson (D) . William M. Cocke (W) . John H. Crozier (W) . Alvan Cullom (D) . George W. Jones (D) . Barclay Martin (D) . Meredith P. Gentry (W) . Joseph H. Peyton (W), until November 11, 1845 Edwin H. Ewing (W), from January 2, 1846 . Lucien B. Chase (D) . Frederick P. Stanton (D) . Milton Brown (W) Texas . David S. Kaufman (D), from March 30, 1846 (newly admitted state) . Timothy Pilsbury (D), from March 30, 1846 (newly admitted state) Vermont . Solomon Foot (W) . Jacob Collamer (W) . George P. Marsh (W) . Paul Dillingham Jr. (D) Virginia . Archibald Atkinson (D) . George C. Dromgoole (D) . William M. Tredway (D) . Edmund W. Hubard (D) . Shelton F. Leake (D) . James A. Seddon (D) . Thomas H. Bayly (D) . Robert M. T. Hunter (D) . John S. Pendleton (W) . Henry Bedinger (D) . William Taylor (D), until January 17, 1846 James McDowell (D), from March 6, 1846 . Augustus A. Chapman (D) . George W. Hopkins (D) . Joseph Johnson (D) . William G. Brown Sr. (D) Non-voting members . Augustus C. Dodge (D), until December 28, 1846 . Morgan L. Martin (D) Changes in membership The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress. Senate Replacements: 8 Democrats (D): no net change Whigs (W): no net change Deaths: 3 Resignations: 6 Interim appointments: 1 Seats of newly admitted states: 4 Total seats with changes: 14 \|- \| Florida(1) \| Vacant \| Florida admitted to the Union at end of previous congress \| \| David L. Yulee (D) \| Elected July 1, 1845 \|- \| Florida(3) \| Vacant \| Florida admitted to the Union at end of previous congress \| \| James Westcott (D) \| Elected July 1, 1845 \|- \| South Carolina(2) \| Vacant \| Senator Daniel E. Huger resigned in previous congress.Successor elected November 26, 1845. \| \| John C. Calhoun (D) \| Elected November 26, 1845 \|- \| Virginia(1) \| Vacant \| Failure to elect \| \| Isaac S. Pennybacker (D) \| Elected December 3, 1845 \|- \| Mississippi(2) \| \| Robert J. Walker (D) \| Resigned March 5, 1845, after being appointed U.S. Secretary of the Treasury.Successor appointed November 3, 1845.Appointee was later elected on an unknown date. \| \| Joseph W. Chalmers (D) \| Appointed November 3, 1845 \|- \| Pennsylvania(3) \| \| James Buchanan (D) \| Resigned March 5, 1845, after being appointed U.S. Secretary of State \| \| Simon Cameron (D) \| Elected March 13, 1845 \|- \| Massachusetts(2) \| \| Isaac C. Bates (W) \| Died March 16, 1845 \| \| John Davis (W) \| Elected March 24, 1845 \|- \| Georgia(2) \| \| John M. Berrien (W) \| Resigned May, 1845 when appointed to the Georgia Supreme Court \| \| John M. Berrien (W) \| Elected November 13, 1845 \|- \| New Hampshire(2) \| \| Levi Woodbury (D) \| Resigned November 20, 1845, to become Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court \| \| Benning W. Jenness (D) \| Appointed December 1, 1845 \|- \| Texas(1) \| colspan=2 \| Texas admitted to the Union December 29, 1845, and remained vacant until February 21, 1846 \| \| Thomas J. Rusk (D) \| Elected February 21, 1846 \|- \| Texas(2) \| colspan=2 \| Texas admitted to the Union December 29, 1845, and remained vacant until February 21, 1846 \| \| Sam Houston (D) \| Elected February 21, 1846 \|- \| New Hampshire(2) \| \| Benning W. Jenness (D) \| Lost election to finish the term.Winner elected June 13, 1846. \| \| Joseph Cilley (L) \| Elected June 13, 1846 \|- \| North Carolina(3) \| \| William H. Haywood Jr. (D) \| Resigned July 25, 1846, after having refused to be instructed by the North Carolina state legislature on a tariff question \| \| George E. Badger (W) \| Elected November 25, 1846 \|- \| South Carolina(3) \| \| George McDuffie (D) \| Resigned August 17, 1846.Successor appointed December 4, 1846, and subsequently elected to finish the term. \| \| Andrew Butler (D) \| Seated December 4, 1846 \|- \| Iowa(2) \| colspan=2 \| Iowa admitted to the Union December 28, 1846 \| Vacant \| Not filled this term \|- \| Iowa(3) \| colspan=2 \| Iowa admitted to the Union December 28, 1846 \| Vacant \| Not filled this term \|- \| Louisiana(2) \| \| Alexander Barrow (W) \| Died December 29, 1846 \| \| Pierre Soulé (D) \| Elected January 21, 1847 \|- \| Virginia(1) \| \| Isaac S. Pennybacker (D) \| Died January 12, 1847 \| \| James M. Mason (D) \| Elected January 21, 1847 \|} House of Representatives Replacements: 12 Democrats (D): 1 seat net gain Whigs (W): 1 seat net loss Deaths: 5 Resignations: 6 Contested election: 1 Seats of newly admitted states: 4 Total seats with changes: 17 \|- \| \| Vacant \| style="font-size:80%" \| Florida admitted to the Union at end of previous congress \| \| Edward C. Cabell (W) \| Seated October 6, 1845 \|- \| \| Vacant \| style="font-size:80%" \| Rep-elect Washington Poe declined the seat \| \| George W. Towns (D) \| Seated January 5, 1846 \|- \| \| colspan=2 style="font-size:80%" \| Texas admitted into the Union December 29, 1845, and seat remained vacant until March 30, 1846 \| \| David S. Kaufman (D) \| Seated March 30, 1846 \|- \| \| colspan=2 style="font-size:80%" \| Texas admitted into the Union December 29, 1845, and seat remained vacant until March 30, 1846 \| \| Timothy Pilsbury (D) \| Seated March 30, 1846 \|- \| \| \| Samuel G. Wright (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died July 30, 1845 \| \| George Sykes (D) \| Seated November 4, 1845 \|- \| \| \| John Slidell (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned November 10, 1845, after being appointed Minister to Mexico, but government refused to accept him \| \| Emile La Sére (D) \| Seated January 29, 1846 \|- \| \| \| Joseph H. Peyton (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died November 11, 1845 \| \| Edwin H. Ewing (W) \| Seated January 2, 1846 \|- \| \| \| William Taylor (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died January 17, 1846 \| \| James McDowell (D) \| Seated March 6, 1846 \|- \| \| \| Edward C. Cabell (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Lost contested election January 24, 1846 \| \| William H. Brockenbrough (D) \| Seated January 24, 1846 \|- \| \| \| Jefferson Davis (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned some time in June, 1846 in order to take part in the Mexican War \| \| Henry T. Ellett (D) \| Seated January 26, 1847 \|- \| \| \| Richard P. Herrick (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died June 20, 1846 \| \| Thomas C. Ripley (W) \| Seated December 17, 1846 \|- \| \| \| Archibald Yell (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned July 1, 1846, in order to take part in the Mexican War \| \| Thomas W. Newton (W) \| Seated February 6, 1847 \|- \| \| \| Sterling Price (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned August 12, 1846, in order to take part in the Mexican War \| \| William McDaniel (D) \| Seated December 7, 1846 \|- \| \| \| William L. Yancey (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned September 1, 1846 \| \| James L. Cottrell (D) \| Seated December 7, 1846 \|- \| \| \| Felix G. McConnell (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died September 10, 1846 \| \| Franklin W. Bowdon (D) \| Seated December 7, 1846 \|- \| \| \| Augustus C. Dodge (D) \| colspan=3 style="font-size:80%" \| Territory was dissolved after Iowa was admitted to the Union December 28, 1846 \|- \| \| colspan=2 style="font-size:80%" \| Iowa admitted into the Union December 28, 1846 \| \| S. Clinton Hastings (D) \| Seated December 28, 1846 \|- \| \| colspan=2 style="font-size:80%" \| Iowa admitted into the Union December 28, 1846 \| \| Shepherd Leffler (D) \| Seated December 28, 1846 \|- \| \| \| Edward D. Baker (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned January 15, 1847, in order to take part in the Mexican War \| \| John Henry (W) \| Seated February 5, 1847 \|- \| \| \| Stephen A. Douglas (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned March 3, 1847, at close of congress after being elected to the US Senate \| Vacant \| Not filled this term \|} Committees Lists of committees and their party leaders. Senate Agriculture (Chairman: Daniel Sturgeon) Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: Jesse Speight) Charges of Corruption Contained in the Daily Times (Select) Claims (Chairman: Isaac S. Pennybacker) Commerce (Chairman: William Haywood then John Adams Dix) Distributing Public Revenue Among the States (Select) District of Columbia (Chairman: William Haywood then Simon Cameron) Finance (Chairman: John C. Calhoun then Dixon H. Lewis) Foreign Relations (Chairman: William Allen then Ambrose H. Sevier) French Spoilations (Select) (Chairman: Daniel Webster) Indian Affairs (Chairman: Ambrose H. Sevier then Arthur P. Bagby) International Copyright Law (Select) (Chairman: Lewis Cass) Judiciary (Chairman: Chester Ashley) Manufactures (Chairman: Daniel S. Dickinson) Memorial on W.T.G. Morton (Select) Memphis Convention (Select) (Chairman: John C. Calhoun) Military Affairs (Chairman: Thomas H. Benton) Militia (Chairman: David R. Atchison) Naval Affairs (Chairman: John Fairfield) Ordnance and War Ships (Select) Patents and the Patent Office (Chairman: Simon Cameron then Walter Colquitt) Pensions (Chairman: Henry Johnson) Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: John M. Niles) Printing (Chairman: Charles G. Atherton) Private Land Claims (Chairman: David Levy Yulee) Public Buildings and Grounds (Chairman: Simon Cameron) Public Lands (Chairman: Sidney Breese) Retrenchment (Chairman: Dixon H. Lewis) Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: Thomas Clayton) Roads and Canals (Chairman: Edward A. Hannegan) Tariff Regulation (Select) Territories (Chairman: James Westcott) Smithsonian Institution (Select) (Chairman: John Adams Dix) Whole House of Representatives Accounts (Chairman: Daniel P. King) Agriculture (Chairman: Joseph H. Anderson) Claims (Chairman: John Reeves Jones Daniel) Commerce (Chairman: Robert McClelland) District of Columbia (Chairman: Robert M.T. Hunter) Elections (Chairman: Hannibal Hamlin) Engraving (Chairman: Jacob S. Yost) Expenditures in the Navy Department (Chairman: John F. Collin) Expenditures in the Post Office Department (Chairman: John H. Harmanson) Expenditures in the State Department (Chairman: Stephen Strong) Expenditures in the Treasury Department (Chairman: John F. Scammon) Expenditures in the War Department (Chairman: Owen D. Leib) Expenditures on Public Buildings (Chairman: Orlando B. Ficklin) Foreign Affairs (Chairman: Charles J. Ingersoll) Indian Affairs (Chairman: John A. McClernand) Invalid Pensions (Chairman: Preston King) Judiciary (Chairman: George O. Rathbun) Manufactures (Chairman: John Quincy Adams) Mileage (Chairman: John P. Martin) Military Affairs (Chairman: Hugh A. Haralson) Militia (Chairman: James A. Black) Naval Affairs (Chairman: Isaac E. Holmes) Patents (Chairman: Thomas J. Henley) Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: George W. Hopkins) Private Land Claims (Chairman: James B. Bowlin) Public Buildings and Grounds (Chairman: Orlando B. Ficklin) Public Expenditures (Chairman: Robert P. Dunlap) Public Lands (Chairman: John A. McClernand) Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: Cullen Sawtelle) Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: Joseph Johnson) Revolutionary Pensions (Chairman: Richard Brodhead) Roads and Canals (Chairman: Robert Smith) Rules (Select) Standards of Official Conduct Territories (Chairman: Stephen A. Douglas) Ways and Means (Chairman: James I. McKay) Whole Joint committees Enrolled Bills (Chairman: Sen. Jesse D. Bright) The Library (Chairman: N/A) Printing (Chairman: N/A) Smithsonian Bequest Employees Librarian of Congress: John Silva Meehan Senate Chaplain: Septimus Tustin (Presbyterian), until December 16, 1846 Henry Slicer (Methodist), elected December 16, 1846 Secretary: Asbury Dickins Sergeant at Arms: Edward Dyer, died September 8, 1845 Robert Beale, elected December 9, 1845 House of Representatives Chaplain: William H. Milburn (Methodist), elected December 3, 1845 William T.S. Sprole (Presbyterian), elected December 7, 1846 Clerk: Benjamin B. French Doorkeeper: Cornelius C. Whitney, elected December 3, 1845 Postmaster: John M. Johnson Reading Clerks: Sergeant at Arms: Newton Lane See also 1844 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress) 1844 United States presidential election 1844 and 1845 United States Senate elections 1844 and 1845 United States House of Representatives elections 1846 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress) 1846 and 1847 United States Senate elections 1846 and 1847 United States House of Representatives elections Notes References External links Statutes at Large, 1789–1875 Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress U.S. House of Representatives: House History U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists	[ -0.2687635123729706, -0.20542608201503754, -0.720373272895813, 0.31986480951309204, 0.0047383555211126804, 0.5274218916893005, 0.508209228515625, -0.019978541880846024, -1.0022305250167847, -0.14708344638347626, 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225206	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/28th%20United%20States%20Congress	28th United States Congress	The 28th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1843, to March 4, 1845, during the third and fourth years of John Tyler's presidency. The apportionment of seats in this House of Representatives was based on the Sixth Census of the United States in 1840. The Senate had a Whig majority, and the House had a Democratic majority. Major events May 24, 1844: The first electrical telegram was sent by Samuel F. B. Morse from the U.S. Capitol to the B&O Railroad "outer depot" in Baltimore, Maryland, saying "What hath God wrought". December 4, 1844: U.S. presidential election, 1844: James K. Polk defeated Henry Clay Major legislation January 23, 1845: Presidential Election Day Act, ch. 1, March 3, 1845: For the first time, Congress overrode a Presidential veto. An act relating to revenue cutters and steamers was thereby enacted as the last Act of the 28th Congress: session II, ch. 78, . Treaties July 3, 1844: Treaty of Wanghia signed (first diplomatic agreement between China and the United States) States admitted March 1, 1845: Resolution for the Annexation of Texas, (Admitted in the next Congress, December 29, 1845.) March 3, 1845: Florida admitted, . The statute also allowed for the provisional admission of Iowa, pending a referendum in that state. (Admitted in the next Congress, December 28, 1846.) Party summary Senate During this congress, two Senate seats were added for the new state of Florida. House of Representatives Following the 1840 United States Census, Congress reapportioned the House to include 223 seats. During this congress, one House seat was added for the new state of Florida. Leadership Senate President: Vacant President pro tempore: Willie P. Mangum (W) House of Representatives Speaker: John W. Jones (D) Members This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class, and representatives are listed by district. Senate Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring reelection in 1844; Class 2 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring reelection in 1846; and Class 3 meant their term began in this Congress, requiring reelection in 1848. Skip to House of Representatives, below Alabama 2. William R. King (D), until April 15, 1844 Dixon H. Lewis (D), from April 22, 1844 3. Arthur P. Bagby (D) Arkansas 2. William S. Fulton (D), until August 15, 1844 Chester Ashley (D), from November 8, 1844 3. Ambrose H. Sevier (D) Connecticut 1. Jabez W. Huntington (W) 3. John M. Niles (D) Delaware 1. Richard H. Bayard (W) 2. Thomas Clayton (W) Florida 1: Vacant from March 3, 1845 admission 2: Vacant from March 3, 1845 admission Georgia 2. John MacPherson Berrien (W) 3. Walter T. Colquitt (D) Illinois 2. Samuel McRoberts (D), until March 27, 1843 James Semple (D), from December 4, 1843 3. Sidney Breese (D) Indiana 1. Albert S. White (W) 3. Edward A. Hannegan (D) Kentucky 2. James T. Morehead (W) 3. John J. Crittenden (W) Louisiana 2. Alexander Barrow (W) 3. Alexander Porter (W), until January 13, 1844 Henry Johnson (W), from February 12, 1844 Maine 1. John Fairfield (D), from December 4, 1843 2. George Evans (W) Maryland 1. William D. Merrick (W) 3. James A. Pearce (W) Massachusetts 1. Rufus Choate (W) 2. Isaac C. Bates (W) Michigan 1. Augustus S. Porter (W) 2. William Woodbridge (W) Mississippi 1. John Henderson (W) 2. Robert J. Walker (D) Missouri 1. Thomas H. Benton (D) 3. Lewis F. Linn (D), until October 3, 1843 David R. Atchison (D), from October 14, 1843 New Hampshire 2. Levi Woodbury (D) 3. Charles G. Atherton (D) New Jersey 1. William L. Dayton (W) 2. Jacob W. Miller (W) New York 1. Nathaniel P. Tallmadge (W), until June 17, 1844 Daniel S. Dickinson (D), from November 30, 1844 3. Silas Wright Jr. (D), until November 26, 1844 Henry A. Foster (D), November 30, 1844 – January 27, 1845 John A. Dix (D), from January 27, 1845 North Carolina 2. Willie P. Mangum (W) 3. William H. Haywood Jr. (D) Ohio 1. Benjamin Tappan (D) 3. William Allen (D) Pennsylvania 1. Daniel Sturgeon (D) 3. James Buchanan (D) Rhode Island 1. William Sprague (W), until January 17, 1844 John B. Francis (LO), from January 25, 1844 2. James F. Simmons (W) South Carolina 2. Daniel E. Huger (D), until March 3, 1845 3. George McDuffie (D) Tennessee 1. Ephraim H. Foster (W), from October 17, 1843 2. Spencer Jarnagin (W), from October 17, 1843 Vermont 1. Samuel S. Phelps (W) 3. William Upham (W) Virginia 1. William C. Rives (W) 2. William S. Archer (W) House of Representatives Representatives are listed by their district numbers. Alabama . James Dellet (W) . James E. Belser (D) . Dixon H. Lewis (D), until April 22, 1844 William L. Yancey (D), from December 2, 1844 . William W. Payne (D) . George S. Houston (D) . Reuben Chapman (D) . Felix G. McConnell (D) Arkansas . Edward Cross (D) Connecticut . Thomas H. Seymour (D) . John Stewart (D) . George S. Catlin (D) . Samuel Simons (D) Delaware . George B. Rodney (W) Florida : Vacant from March 3, 1845 admission Georgia All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Edward J. Black (D) . Howell Cobb (D) . Mark A. Cooper (D), until June 26, 1843 Alexander H. Stephens (W), from October 2, 1843 . Hugh A. Haralson (D) . John B. Lamar (D), until July 29, 1843 Absalom H. Chappell (W), from October 2, 1843 . John H. Lumpkin (D) . John Millen (D), until October 15, 1843 Duncan L. Clinch (W), from February 15, 1844 . William H. Stiles (D) Illinois . Robert Smith (D) . John A. McClernand (D) . Orlando B. Ficklin (D) . John Wentworth (D) . Stephen A. Douglas (D) . Joseph P. Hoge (D) . John J. Hardin (W) Indiana . Robert D. Owen (D) . Thomas J. Henley (D) . Thomas Smith (D) . Caleb B. Smith (W) . William J. Brown (D) . John W. Davis (D) . Joseph A. Wright (D) . John Pettit (D) . Samuel C. Sample (W) . Andrew Kennedy (D) Kentucky . Linn Boyd (D) . Willis Green (W) . Henry Grider (W) . George A. Caldwell (D) . James W. Stone (D) . John White (W) . William P. Thomasson (W) . Garrett Davis (W) . Richard French (D) . John W. Tibbatts (D) Louisiana . John Slidell (D) . Alcée L. La Branche (D) . John B. Dawson (D) . Pierre E. J. B. Bossier (D), until April 24, 1844 Isaac E. Morse (D), from December 2, 1844 Maine . Joshua Herrick (D) . Robert P. Dunlap (D) . Luther Severance (W) . Freeman H. Morse (W) . Benjamin White (D) . Hannibal Hamlin (D) . Shepard Cary (D) from May 10, 1844 Maryland . John M. S. Causin (W) . Francis Brengle (W) . John Wethered (W) . John P. Kennedy (W) . Jacob A. Preston (W) . Thomas A. Spence (W) Massachusetts . Robert C. Winthrop (W) . Daniel P. King (W) . Amos Abbott (W) . William Parmenter (D) . Charles Hudson (W) . Osmyn Baker (W) . Julius Rockwell (W) . John Quincy Adams (W) . Henry Williams (D) . Barker Burnell (W), until June 15, 1843 Joseph Grinnell (W), from December 7, 1843 Michigan . Robert McClelland (D) . Lucius Lyon (D) . James B. Hunt (D) Mississippi All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . William H. Hammett (D) . Robert W. Roberts (D) . Jacob Thompson (D) . Tilghman M. Tucker (D) Missouri All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Gustavus M. Bower (D) . James B. Bowlin (D) . James M. Hughes (D) . John Jameson (D) . James H. Relfe (D) New Hampshire All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Edmund Burke (D) . John P. Hale (D) . Moses Norris Jr. (D) . John R. Reding (D) New Jersey . Lucius Q. C. Elmer (D) . George Sykes (D) . Isaac G. Farlee (D) . Littleton Kirkpatrick (D) . William Wright (Ind. W) New York . Selah B. Strong (D) . Henry C. Murphy (D) . J. Phillips Phoenix (W) . William B. Maclay (D) . Moses G. Leonard (D) . Hamilton Fish (W) . Joseph H. Anderson (D) . Richard D. Davis (D) . James G. Clinton (D) . Jeremiah Russell (D) . Zadock Pratt (D) . David L. Seymour (D) . Daniel D. Barnard (W) . Charles Rogers (W) . Lemuel Stetson (D) . Chesselden Ellis (D) . Charles S. Benton (D) . Preston King (D) . Orville Hungerford (D) . Samuel Beardsley (D), until February 29, 1844 Levi D. Carpenter (D), from November 5, 1844 . Jeremiah E. Cary (D) . Smith M. Purdy (D) . Orville Robinson (D) . Horace Wheaton (D) . George O. Rathbun (D) . Amasa Dana (D) . Byram Green (D) . Thomas J. Paterson (W) . Charles H. Carroll (W) . William S. Hubbell (D) . Asher Tyler (W) . William A. Moseley (W) . Albert Smith (W) . Washington Hunt (W) North Carolina . Thomas L. Clingman (W) . Daniel M. Barringer (W) . David S. Reid (D) . Edmund Deberry (W) . Romulus M. Saunders (D) . James I. McKay (D) . John R. J. Daniel (D) . Archibald H. Arrington (D) . Kenneth Rayner (W) Ohio . Alexander Duncan (D) . John B. Weller (D) . Robert C. Schenck (W) . Joseph Vance (W) . Emery D. Potter (D) . Henry St. John (D) . Joseph J. McDowell (D) . John I. Vanmeter (W) . Elias Florence (W) . Heman Allen Moore (D), until April 3, 1844 Alfred P. Stone (D), from October 8, 1844 . Jacob Brinkerhoff (D) . Samuel F. Vinton (W) . Perley B. Johnson (W) . Alexander Harper (W) . Joseph Morris (D) . James Mathews (D) . William C. McCauslen (D) . Ezra Dean (D) . Daniel R. Tilden (W) . Joshua R. Giddings (W) . Henry R. Brinkerhoff (D), until April 30, 1844 Edward S. Hamlin (W), from October 8, 1844 Pennsylvania . Edward Joy Morris (W) . Joseph R. Ingersoll (W) . John T. Smith (D) . Charles J. Ingersoll (D) . Jacob S. Yost (D) . Michael H. Jenks (W) . Abraham R. McIlvaine (W) . Jeremiah Brown (W) . John Ritter (D) . Richard Brodhead (D) . Benjamin A. Bidlack (D) . Almon H. Read (D), until June 3, 1844 George Fuller (D), from December 2, 1844 . Henry Frick (W), until March 1, 1844 James Pollock (W), from April 5, 1844 . Alexander Ramsey (W) . Henry Nes (Ind. D) . James Black (D) . James Irvin (W) . Andrew Stewart (W) . Henry D. Foster (D) . John Dickey (W) . William Wilkins (D), until February 14, 1844 Cornelius Darragh (W), from March 26, 1844 . Samuel Hays (D) . Charles M. Reed (W) . Joseph Buffington (W) Rhode Island . Henry Y. Cranston (LO) . Elisha R. Potter Jr. (LO) South Carolina . James A. Black (D) . Richard F. Simpson (D) . Joseph A. Woodward (D) . John Campbell (D) . Armistead Burt (D) . Isaac E. Holmes (D) . Robert Rhett (D) Tennessee . Andrew Johnson (D) . William T. Senter (W) . Julius W. Blackwell (D) . Alvan Cullom (D) . George W. Jones (D) . Aaron V. Brown (D) . David W. Dickinson (W) . Joseph H. Peyton (W) . Cave Johnson (D) . John B. Ashe (W) . Milton Brown (W) Vermont . Solomon Foot (W) . Jacob Collamer (W) . George P. Marsh (W) . Paul Dillingham Jr. (D) Virginia . Archibald Atkinson (D) . George C. Dromgoole (D) . Walter Coles (D) . Edmund W. Hubard (D) . Thomas W. Gilmer (D), until February 16, 1844 William L. Goggin (W), from April 25, 1844 . John W. Jones (D) . Henry A. Wise (D), until February 12, 1844 Thomas H. Bayly (D), from May 6, 1844 . Willoughby Newton (W) . Samuel Chilton (W) . William Lucas (D) . William Taylor (D) . Augustus A. Chapman (D) . George W. Hopkins (D) . George W. Summers (W) . Lewis Steenrod (D) Non-voting members . David Levy Yulee (D), until March 3, 1845 . Augustus C. Dodge (D) . Henry Dodge (D) Changes in membership The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress. Senate Replacements: 7 Democrats (D): no net change Whigs (W): 1 seat net loss Law and Order (LO): 1 seat net gain Deaths: 3 Resignations: 5 Interim appointments: 1 Total seats with changes: 10 \|- \| Tennessee(1) \| Vacant \| Senator Alfred O. P. Nicholson (D) resigned in 26th Congress.Successor elected October 17, 1843. \| \| Ephraim H. Foster (W) \| Elected October 17, 1843 \|- \| Tennessee(2) \| Vacant \| Failure to elect.Successor elected October 17, 1843. \| \| Spencer Jarnagin (W) \| Elected October 17, 1843 \|- \| Maine(1) \| Vacant \| Senator Reuel Williams (D) resigned in previous congress.Successor elected December 4, 1843. \| \| John Fairfield (D) \| Elected December 4, 1843 \|- \| Louisiana(3) \| \| Alexander Porter (W) \| Elected but, due to ill health, never took his seat.Incumbent died January 13, 1844.Successor elected February 12, 1844. \| \| Henry Johnson (W) \| Elected February 12, 1844 \|- \| Illinois(2) \| \| Samuel McRoberts (D) \| Died March 27, 1843.Successor appointed December 4, 1843, to continue the term until an election.Appointee was later elected, on an unknown date. \| \| James Semple (D) \| Seated December 4, 1843 \|- \| Missouri(3) \| \| Lewis F. Linn (D) \| Died October 3, 1843.Successor appointed October 14, 1843, to continue the term until an election.Appointee was later elected, on an unknown date in 1843. \| \| David R. Atchison (D) \| Seated October 14, 1843 \|- \| Rhode Island(1) \| \| William Sprague (W) \| Resigned January 17, 1844.Successor elected January 25, 1844. \| \| John B. Francis (LO) \| Seated January 25, 1844 \|- \| Alabama(2) \| \| William R. King (D) \| Resigned April 15, 1844, after being appointed U.S. Minister to France.Successor appointed April 22, 1844, to finish the term. \| \| Dixon H. Lewis (D) \| Seated April 22, 1844 \|- \| New York(1) \| \| Nathaniel P. Tallmadge (W) \| Resigned June 17, 1844, after being appointed Governor of Wisconsin Territory.Successor was appointed November 30, 1945.Appointee was later elected January 18, 1845. \| \| Daniel S. Dickinson (D) \| Seated December 9, 1844 \|- \| Arkansas(2) \| \| William S. Fulton (D) \| Died August 15, 1844.Successor elected November 8, 1844. \| \| Chester Ashley (D) \| Seated November 8, 1844 \|- \| New York(3) \| \| Silas Wright (D) \| Resigned November 26, 1844, after being elected Governor of New York.Successor appointed November 30, 1945. \| \| Henry A. Foster (D) \| Seated December 9, 1844 \|- \| New York(3) \| \| Henry A. Foster (D) \| Appointee was not nominated for election.Successor elected January 18, 1845. \| \| John A. Dix (D) \| Seated January 27, 1845 \|- \| South Carolina(2) \| \| Daniel E. Huger (D) \| Resigned March 3, 1845 \| Vacant \| Not filled this term \|- \| Florida(1) \| colspan=2 \| New state: Florida admitted to the Union March 3, 1845.First Senator wasn't elected until the next Congress. \| Vacant \| Not filled this term \|- \| Florida(2) \| colspan=2 \| New state: Florida admitted to the Union March 3, 1845.First Senator wasn't elected until the next Congress. \| Vacant \| Not filled this term \|} House of Representatives Replacements: 14 Democrats (D): 6 seat net loss Whigs (W): 6 seat net gain Deaths: 7 Resignations: 7 Contested election: 0 Total seats with changes: 16 \|- \| \| \| Barker Burnell (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died June 15, 1843 \| \| Joseph Grinnell (W) \| Seated December 7, 1843 \|- \| \| \| Mark A. Cooper (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned June 26, 1843, to become candidate for Governor of Georgia \| \| Alexander H. Stephens (W) \| Seated October 2, 1843 \|- \| \| \| John B. Lamar (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned July 29, 1843 \| \| Absalom H. Chappell (W) \| Seated October 2, 1843 \|- \| \| \| John Millen (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died October 15, 1843 \| \| Duncan L. Clinch (W) \| Seated February 15, 1844 \|- \| \| \| Henry A. Wise (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned February 12, 1844, after being appointed Minister to Brazil \| \| Thomas H. Bayly (D) \| Seated May 6, 1844 \|- \| \| \| William Wilkens (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned February 14, 1844, after being appointed United States Secretary of War \| \| Cornelius Darragh (W) \| Seated March 26, 1844 \|- \| \| \| Thomas W. Gilmer (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned February 16, 1844, after being appointed United States Secretary of the Navy \| \| William L. Goggin (W) \| Seated April 25, 1844 \|- \| \| \| Henry Frick (W) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died March 1, 1844 \| \| James Pollock (W) \| Seated April 5, 1844 \|- \| \| \| Heman A. Moore (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died April 3, 1844 \| \| Alfred P. Stone (D) \| Seated October 8, 1844 \|- \| \| \| Dixon H. Lewis (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned April 22, 1844, after being appointed US Senator \| \| William L. Yancey (D) \| Seated December 2, 1844 \|- \| \| \| Pierre Bossier (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died April 24, 1844 \| \| Isaac E. Morse (D) \| Seated December 2, 1844 \|- \| \| \| Samuel Beardsley (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Resigned February 29, 1844, after being appointed associate judge of New York Supreme Court \| \| Levi D. Carpenter (D) \| Seated November 5, 1844 \|- \| \| \| Henry R. Brinkerhoff (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died April 30, 1844 \| \| Edward S. Hamlin (W) \| Seated October 8, 1844 \|- \| \| \| Almon H. Read (D) \| style="font-size:80%" \| Died June 3, 1844 \| \| George Fuller (D) \| Seated December 2, 1844 \|- \| \| \| David L. Yulee (D) \| colspan=3 style="font-size:80%" \| Seat was eliminated when Florida achieved statehood March 3, 1845 \|- \| nowrap \| \| colspan=2 style="font-size:80%" \| Florida was admitted to the Union on March 3, 1845 \| Vacant \| Not filled this term \|} Committees Lists of committees and their party leaders. Senate House of Representatives Joint committees Enrolled Bills The Library Smithsonian Bequest Employees Librarian of Congress: John Silva Meehan Senate Chaplain: Septimus Tustin (Presbyterian) Secretary: Asbury Dickins Sergeant at Arms: Edward Dyer House of Representatives Chaplain: Isaac S. Tinsley (Baptist), elected December 16, 1843 William M. Daily (Methodist), from December 4, 1844 Clerk: Matthew St. Clair Clarke, until December 7, 1843 Caleb J. McNulty, elected December 7, 1843 Benjamin B. French, elected January 18, 1845 Doorkeeper: Jesse E. Dow, elected December 7, 1843 Postmaster: William J. McCormick, until January 4, 1844 John M. Johnson, from January 4, 1844 Reading Clerks: Sergeant at Arms: Eleazor M. Townsend, until December 8, 1843 Newton Lane, from December 8, 1843 See also 1842 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress) 1842 and 1843 United States Senate elections 1842 and 1843 United States House of Representatives elections 1844 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress) 1844 United States presidential election 1844 and 1845 United States Senate elections 1844 and 1845 United States House of Representatives elections Notes References External links Statutes at Large, 1789-1875 Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress U.S. House of Representatives: House History U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists	[ -0.24268554151058197, 0.043370023369789124, -0.8465359807014465, 0.38758280873298645, -0.15762902796268463, 0.6136348247528076, 0.5490506887435913, -0.04430544376373291, -0.9941304326057434, -0.0589437298476696, 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225207	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Ernest%20Henley	William Ernest Henley	William Ernest Henley (23 August 184911 July 1903) was a British poet, writer, critic and editor in late Victorian England. Though he wrote several books of poetry, Henley is remembered most often for his 1875 poem "Invictus". A fixture in London literary circles, the one-legged Henley was also the inspiration for Robert Louis Stevenson's character Long John Silver (Treasure Island, 1883), while his young daughter Margaret Henley inspired J. M. Barrie's choice of the name Wendy for the heroine of his play Peter Pan (1904). Early life and education Henley was born in Gloucester on 23 August 1849, to mother, Mary Morgan, a descendant of poet and critic Joseph Warton, and father, William, a bookseller and stationer. William Ernest was the oldest of six children, five sons and a daughter; his father died in 1868. Henley was a pupil at the Crypt School, Gloucester, between 1861 and 1867. A commission had recently attempted to revive the school by securing as headmaster the brilliant and academically distinguished Thomas Edward Brown (1830–1897). Though Brown's tenure was relatively brief (c. 1857–1863), he was a "revelation" to Henley because the poet was "a man of geniusthe first I'd ever seen". After carrying on a lifelong friendship with his former headmaster, Henley penned an admiring obituary for Brown in the New Review (December 1897): "He was singularly kind to me at a moment when I needed kindness even more than I needed encouragement". Nevertheless, Henley was disappointed in the school itself, considered an inferior sister to the Cathedral School, and wrote about its shortcomings in a 1900 article in The Pall Mall Magazine. Much later, in 1893, Henley also received an LLD degree from the University of St Andrews; however two years after that he failed to secure the position of Professor of English literature at the University of Edinburgh. Health issues and Long John Silver From the age of 12, Henley suffered from tuberculosis of the bone that resulted in the amputation of his left leg below the knee in 1868–69. The early years of Henley's life were punctuated by periods of extreme pain due to the draining of his tuberculosis abscesses. However, Henley's younger brother Joseph recalled how after draining his joints the young Henley would "Hop about the room, laughing loudly and playing with zest to pretend he was beyond the reach of pain". According to Robert Louis Stevenson's letters, the idea for the character of Long John Silver was inspired by Stevenson's real-life friend Henley. In a letter to Henley after the publication of Treasure Island (1883), Stevenson wrote, "I will now make a confession: It was the sight of your maimed strength and masterfulness that begot Long John Silver ... the idea of the maimed man, ruling and dreaded by the sound, was entirely taken from you." Stevenson's stepson, Lloyd Osbourne, described Henley as "... a great, glowing, massive-shouldered fellow with a big red beard and a crutch; jovial, astoundingly clever, and with a laugh that rolled like music; he had an unimaginable fire and vitality; he swept one off one's feet." Frequent illness often kept Henley from school, although the misfortunes of his father's business may also have contributed. In 1867, Henley passed the Oxford Local Schools Examination. Soon after passing the examination, Henley moved to London and attempted to establish himself as a journalist. His work over the next eight years was interrupted by long stays in hospitals, because his right foot had also become diseased. Henley contested the diagnosis that a second amputation was the only means to save his life, seeking treatment from the pioneering late 19th-century surgeon Joseph Lister at the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, commencing in August 1873. Henley spent three years in hospital (1873–75), during which he was visited by the authors Leslie Stephen and Robert Louis Stevenson and wrote and published the poems collected as In Hospital. This also marked the beginning of a fifteen-year friendship with Stevenson. Physical appearance Throughout his life, the contrast between Henley's physical appearance and his mental and creative capacities struck acquaintances in completely opposite, but equally forceful ways. Recalling his old friend, Sidney Low commented, "... to me he was the startling image of Pan come to Earth and clothed—the great god Pan...with halting foot and flaming shaggy hair, and arms and shoulders huge and threatening, like those of some Faun or Satyr of the ancient woods, and the brow and eyes of the Olympians." After hearing of Henley's death on 13 July 1903, the author Wilfrid Scawen Blunt recorded his physical and ideological repugnance to the late poet and editor in his diary, "He has the bodily horror of the dwarf, with the dwarf's huge bust and head and shrunken nether limbs, and he has also the dwarf malignity of tongue and defiant attitude towards the world at large. Moreover, I am quite out of sympathy with Henley's deification of brute strength and courage, things I wholly despise." Personal life Henley married Hannah (Anna) Johnson Boyle (1855–1925) on 22 January 1878. Born in Stirling, she was the youngest daughter of Edward Boyle, a mechanical engineer from Edinburgh, and his wife, Mary Ann née Mackie. In the 1891 Scotland Census, William and Anna are recorded as living with their two-year-old daughter, Margaret Emma Henley (b. 1888), in Edinburgh. Margaret was a sickly child, and became immortalised by J. M. Barrie in his children's classic, Peter Pan. Unable to speak clearly, young Margaret had called her friend Barrie her "fwendy-wendy", resulting in the use of the name "Wendy" for a feminine character in the book. Margaret did not survive long enough to read the book; she died in 1894 at the age of five and was buried at the country estate of her father's friend, Harry Cockayne Cust, in Cockayne Hatley, Bedfordshire. After Robert Louis Stevenson received a letter from Henley labelled "Private and Confidential" and dated 9 March 1888, in which the latter accused Stevenson's new wife Fanny of plagiarising his cousin Katharine de Mattos' writing in the story "The Nixie", the two men ended their friendship, though a correspondence of sorts did resume later after mutual friends intervened. Hospital poems As Andrzej Diniejko notes, Henley and the "Henley Regatta" (the name by which his followers were humorously referred) "promoted realism and opposed Decadence" through their own works, and, in Henley's case, "through the works... he published in the journals he edited." Henley published many poems in different collections including In Hospital (written between 1873 and 1875) and A Book of Verses, published in 1891. He is remembered most for his 1875 poem "Invictus", one of his "hospital poems" that were composed during his isolation as a consequence of early, life-threatening battles with tuberculosis; this set of works, one of several types and themes he engaged during his career, are said to have developed the artistic motif of the "poet as a patient" and to have anticipated modern poetry "not only in form, as experiments in free verse containing abrasive narrative shifts and internal monologue, but also in subject matter." Forming the subject matter of the "hospital poems" were often Henley's observations of the plights of the patients in the hospital beds around him. Specifically the poem "Suicide" depicts not only the deepest depths of the human emotions, but also the horrid conditions of the working class Victorian poor in Britain. As Henley observed firsthand, the stress of poverty and the vice of addiction pushed a man to the brink of human endurance. In part, the poem reads:Lack of work and lack of victuals, A debauch of smuggled whisky, And his children in the workhouse Made the world so black a riddle That he plunged for a solution; And, although his knife was edgeless, He was sinking fast towards one, When they came, and found, and saved him. Publishing career After his recovery, Henley began by earning his living as a journalist and publisher. The sum total of Henley's professional and artistic efforts is said to have made him an influential voice in late Victorian England, perhaps with a role as central in his time as that of Samuel Johnson in the eighteenth century. As an editor of a series of literary magazines and journals, Henley was empowered to choose each issue's contributors, as well as to offer his own essays, criticism, and poetic works; like Johnson, he said to have "exerted a considerable influence on the literary culture of his time." For a short period in 1877 and 1878, Henley was hired to edit The London Magazine, "which was a society paper", and "a journal of a type more usual in Paris than London, written for the sake of its contributors rather than of the public." In addition to his inviting its articles and editing all content, Henley anonymously contributed tens of poems to the journal, some of which were described by contemporaries as "brilliant" (later published in a compilation by Gleeson White). In his selection White included a considerable number of pieces from London, and only after he had completed the selection did he discover that the verses were all by one hand, that of Henley. In the following year, H. B. Donkin, in his volume Voluntaries For an East London Hospital (1887), included Henley's unrhymed rhythms recording the poet's memories of the old Edinburgh Infirmary. Later, Alfred Nutt published these and others in his A Book of Verse. In 1889, Henley became editor of the Scots Observer, an Edinburgh journal of the arts and current events. After its headquarters were transferred to London in 1891, it became the National Observer and remained under Henley's editorship until 1893. The paper had almost as many writers as readers, as Henley said, and its fame was confined mainly to the literary class, but it was a lively and influential contributor to the literary life of its era. Serving under Henley as his assistant editor, "right-hand-man", and close friend was Charles Whibley. The journal's outlook was conservative and often sympathetic to the growing imperialism of its time. Among other services to literature, it published Rudyard Kipling's Barrack-Room Ballads (1890–92). Death In 1902, Henley fell from a railway carriage. This accident caused his latent tuberculosis to flare up, and he died of it on 11 July 1903, at the age of 53, at his home in Woking, Surrey. After cremation at the local crematorium his ashes were interred in his daughter's grave in the churchyard at Cockayne Hatley in Bedfordshire. At the time of his death Henley's personal wealth was valued at £840. His widow, Anna, moved to 213 West Campbell-St, Glasgow, where she lived until her death. Memorial There is a bust of Henley in the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral. Legacy During his lifetime Henley had become fairly well known as a poet. His poetry had even made its way to the United States, inspiring several different contributors from across the country to pen articles about him. In 1889 the Chicago Daily Tribune ran an article about the promise that Henley showed in the field of poetry. After Henley's death in 1903 an acquaintance in Boston wrote a piece about her impression of Henley, saying of him, "There was in him something more than the patient resignation of the religious sufferer, who had bowed himself to the uses of adversity. Deep in his nature lay an inner well of cheerfulness, and a spontaneous joy of living, that nothing could drain dry, though it dwindled sadly after the crowning affliction of his little daughter's death." Henley was known as a man of inner resolve and character that transferred into his works, but also made an impression on his peers and friends. The loss of his daughter was a deeply traumatising event in Henley's life but did not truly dampen his outlook on life as a whole. While it has been observed that Henley's poetry "almost fell into undeserved oblivion," the appearance of "Invictus" as a continuing popular reference and the renewed availability of his work, through online databases and archives have meant that Henley's significant influence on culture and literary perspectives in the late-Victorian period is not forgotten. "Invictus" has been cited by ethno-nationalist terrorists as a justification for their actions, including the Oklahoma City bombing in 1995, and the Christchurch mosque shootings in New Zealand in 2019. Works Editions The London, 1877–78, "a society paper" Henley edited for this short period, and to which he contributed "a brilliant series of… poems" which were only later attributed publicly to him in a published compilation from Gleeson White (see below). In 1890, Henley published Views and Reviews, a volume of notable criticisms, which he described as "less a book than a mosaic of scraps and shreds recovered from the shot rubbish of some fourteen years of journalism". The criticisms, covering a wide range of authors (all English or French save Heinrich Heine and Leo Tolstoy), were remarkable for their insight. Robert Louis Stevenson wrote that he had not received the same thrill of poetry so intimate and so deep since George Meredith's "Joy of Earth" and "Love in the Valley": "I did not guess you were so great a magician. These are new tunes; this is an undertone of the true Apollo. These are not verse; they are poetry." In 1895, Henley's poem, "Macaire", was published in a volume with the other plays. With John Stephen Farmer, Henley edited a seven volume dictionary of Slang and its analogues (1890–1904). Henley did other notable work for various publishers: the Lyra Heroica, 1891; A Book of English Prose (with Charles Whibley), 1894; the centenary Burns (with Thomas Finlayson Henderson) in 1896–1897, in which Henley's Essay (published separately in 1898) roused considerable controversy. In 1892 he undertook for Alfred Nutt the general editorship of the Tudor Translations; and in 1897 began for the publisher William Heinemann an edition of Lord Byron, which did not proceed beyond one volume of his letters. Poetry The poems of In Hospital are noteworthy as some of the earliest free verse written in the U.K. . Arguably Henley's best-remembered work is the poem "Invictus", written in 1875. It is said that this was written as a demonstration of his resilience following the amputation of his foot due to tubercular infection. Henley stated that the main theme of his poem was “The idea that one's decisions and iron will to overcome life's obstacles, defines one's fate”. In Ballades and Rondeaus, Chants Royal, Sestinas, Villanelles, &c… (1888), compiled by Gleeson White, including 30 of Henley's works, a "selection of poems in old French forms." The poems were mostly produced by Henley while editing The London in 1877–78, but also included a few works unpublished or from other sources (Belgravia, The Magazine of Art); appearing were a dozen of his ballads, including "Of Dead Actors" and "Of the Nothingness of Things", his rondels "Four Variations" and "The Ways of Death", ten of his Sicilian octaves including "My Love to Me" and "If I were King", a triolet by the same name, three villanelles including "Where's the Use of Sighing", and a pair of burlesques. Editing Slang and its analogues inspired Henley's two translations of ballades by François Villon into thieves' slang. In 1892, Henley published a second volume of poetry, named after the first poem, "The Song of the Sword" but later re-titled London Voluntaries after another section in the second edition (1893). Hawthorn and Lavender, with Other Verses (1901), a collection entirely of Henley's, with the title major work, and 16 additional poems, including a dedication to his wife (and epilogue, both penned in Worthing), the collection is composed of 4 sections; the first, the title piece "Hawthorn and Lavender" in 50 parts over 65 pages. The second section is of 13 short poems, called "London Types", including examples from "Bus-Driver" to "Beefeater" to "Barmaid". The third section contains "Three Prologues" associated with theatrical works that Henley supported, including "Beau Austin" (by Henley and Robert Louis Stevenson, that played at Haymarket Theatre in late 1890), "Richard Savage" (by J. M. Barrie and H. B. Marriott Watson that played at Criterion Theatre in spring 1891, and "Admiral Guinea" (by again by Henley and Stevenson, that played at Avenue Theatre in late 1897). The fourth and final section contains 5 pieces, mostly shorter, and mostly pieces "In Memoriam". A Song of Speed, his last published poem two months before his death. Plays During 1892, Henley also published three plays written with Stevenson: Beau Austin, Deacon Brodie, about a corrupt Scottish deacon turned housebreaker, and Admiral Guinea. Deacon Brodie was produced in Edinburgh in 1884 and later in London. Herbert Beerbohm Tree produced Beau Austin at the Haymarket on 3 November 1890, and Macaire at His Majesty's on 2 May 1901. In art and popular culture George Butterworth set four of Henley's poems to music in his 1912 song cycle Love Blows As the Wind Blows. Henley's poem, "Pro Rege Nostro", became popular during the First World War as a piece of patriotic verse, containing the following refrainWhat have I done for you, England, my England? What is there I would not do, England my own?The same poem and its sentiments have since been parodied by those unhappy with the jingoism they feel it expresses or the propagandistic use to which it was put during WWI to inspire patriotism and sacrifice in the British public and young men heading off to war. The poem is referenced in the title, "England, My England", a short story by D. H. Lawrence, and also in England, Their England, a satiric novel by A. G. Macdonell about 1920s English society. Nelson Mandela recited the poem "Invictus" to other prisoners incarcerated alongside him at Robben Island, some believe because it expressed in its message of self-mastery Mandela's own Victorian ethic. This historical event was captured in fictional form in the Clint Eastwood film Invictus (2009), wherein the poem is referenced several times. In that fictionalised account, the poem becomes a central inspirational gift from actor Morgan Freeman's Mandela to Matt Damon's Springbok rugby team captain Francois Pienaar, on the eve of the underdog Springboks' victory in the post-apartheid 1995 Rugby World Cup held in South Africa. In Chapter Two of her first volume of autobiography, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (1969), Maya Angelou writes in passing that she "enjoyed and respected" Henley's works among others such as Poe's and Kipling's, but had no "loyal passion" for them. Joe Orton, English playwright of the 1960s, based the title and theme of his breakthrough play The Ruffian on the Stair, which was broadcast on BBC radio in 1964, on the opening lines of Henley's poem Madame Life's a Piece in Bloom: Madam Life's a piece in bloomDeath goes dogging everywhere:She's the tenant of the room,He's the ruffian on the stair. Henley's 1887 Villon's Straight Tip to All Cross Coves (a free translation of Francoise Villon's Tout aux tavernes et aux filles) was recited by Ricky Jay as part of his solo show, Ricky Jay and His 52 Assistants (1994). The poem was set to music and release with a video in July 2020 by the folk band Stick in the Wheel. Further reading Carol Rumens, 2010, "Poem of the week: Waiting by W.E. Henley," The Guardian (online), 11 January 2010, see , accessed 9 May 2015. Quote: "Henley's 'Waiting,' from his 'In Hospital' sequence of poems far outshines his better known 'Invictus.'" Andrzej Diniejko, 2011, "William Ernest Henley: A Biographical Sketch," at Victorian Web (online), updated 19 July 2011, see , accessed 9 May 2015. Jerome Hamilton Buckley, 1945, William Ernest Henley: A Study in the Counter-Decadence of the Nineties, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Source appearing at Victorian Web article on Henley. Edward H. Cohen, 1974, The Henley-Stevenson Quarrel, Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press. [Source appearing at Victorian Web article on Henley. John Connell, 1949, W. E. Henley, London: Constable. Victorian Web article on Henley. Donald Davidson, 1937, British Poetry of the Eighteen-Nineties, Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Doran. [Source appearing at Victorian Web article on Henley. Maria H. Frawley, 2004, Invalidism and Identity in Nineteenth-century Britain, Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. Victorian Web article on Henley. Notes James supplies a personal assessment of Henley's manner and influence (p. 271). External links Works by or about William Ernest Henley at HathiTrust Poetry Archive: 137 poems of William Ernest Henley "The Difference", a poem by Florence Earle Coates William Ernest Henley: Profile and Poems at Poets.org William Ernest Henley Collection. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. English literary critics English magazine editors People from Gloucester English amputees 1849 births 1903 deaths People educated at The Crypt School, Gloucester 20th-century deaths from tuberculosis English male poets 19th-century English poets 19th-century English male writers English male non-fiction writers Tuberculosis deaths in England Robert Louis Stevenson	[ 0.19899895787239075, 0.14712470769882202, -0.6585105061531067, -0.4782640337944031, 0.03750106319785118, 1.1151741743087769, 0.639910101890564, -0.28834399580955505, -0.6615655422210693, -0.41891077160835266, -0.3594268262386322, 0.022621789947152138, -0.36554649472236633, 0.11173564195632935, 0.24070744216442108, 0.12584225833415985, -0.4736471474170685, -0.4783533811569214, 0.0003066488716285676, -0.1313319206237793, 0.07562126219272614, -0.32740309834480286, 0.39907801151275635, -0.31628549098968506, -0.2871895134449005, -0.41539183259010315, 0.33857470750808716, 0.11956839263439178, 0.2501930296421051, 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225208	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan%20Ramsay%20%28artist%29	Allan Ramsay (artist)	Allan Ramsay (13 October 171310 August 1784) was a prominent Scottish portrait-painter. Life and career Ramsay was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, the eldest son of Allan Ramsay, poet and author of The Gentle Shepherd. From the age of twenty he studied in London under the Swedish painter Hans Hysing, and at the St. Martin's Lane Academy; leaving in 1736 for Rome and Naples, where he worked for three years under Francesco Solimena and Imperiali (Francesco Fernandi). On his return in 1738 to the British Isles, he first settled in Edinburgh, attracting attention by his head of Duncan Forbes of Culloden and his full-length portrait of the Duke of Argyll, later used on Royal Bank of Scotland banknotes. He later moved to London, where he was employed by the Duke of Bridgewater. His pleasant manners and varied culture, not less than his artistic skill, contributed to render him popular. His only serious competitor was Thomas Hudson, with whom he shared a drapery painter, Joseph van Aken. In 1739 he married his first wife, Anne Bayne, the daughter of Alexander Bayne of Rires (–1737), and Mary Carstairs (1695?–1759). Anne died on 4 February 1743, giving birth to their 3rd child; none of their children reached adulthood. One of his drawing pupils was Margaret Lindsay, eldest daughter of Sir Alexander Lindsay of Evelick and Amelia Murray (granddaughter to David Murray, 5th Viscount of Stormont and sister to the naval officer John Lindsay). He later eloped with her and on 1 March 1752 they married in the Canongate Kirk, Edinburgh; her father never forgave her for marrying an artist. Ramsay already had to maintain a daughter from his previous marriage and his two surviving sisters, but told Sir Alexander that he could provide Margaret with an annual income of £100. He said it would increase ‘as my affairs increase, and I thank God, they are in a way of increasing’ and that his only motive for the marriage was ‘my love for your Daughter, who, I am sensible, is entitled to much more than ever I shall have to bestow upon her’. Three children survived from their long and happy marriage, Amelia (1755–1813), Charlotte (1758–1818?), and John (1768–1845). Ramsay and his new wife spent 1754 to 1757 together in Italy, going to Rome, Florence, Naples and Tivoli, researching, painting and drawing old masters, antiquities and archaeological sites. He earned income painting Grand Tourists' portraits. This and other trips to Italy involved more literary and antiquarian research than art. After their return, Ramsay in 1761 was appointed to succeed John Shackelton as Principal Painter in Ordinary to George III, beating Hudson to the post. The king commissioned so many royal portraits to be given to ambassadors and colonial governors, that Ramsay used the services of numerous assistants—of whom David Martin and Philip Reinagle are the best known. He gave up painting in about 1770 to concentrate on literary pursuits. His health was shattered by an accidental dislocation of the right arm and his second wife's death in 1782. With unflinching pertinacity, he struggled until he had completed a likeness of the king upon which he was engaged at the time, and then started for his beloved Italy. He left a series of 50 royal portraits to be completed by his assistant Reinagle. For several years he lingered in the south, his constitution finally broken. He died at Dover on 10 August 1784. Ramsay was a friend of Samuel Johnson's, who said of him, 'I love Ramsay. You will not find a man in whose conversation there is more instruction, more information, and more elegance, than in Ramsay's.' Art Among his most satisfactory productions are some of his earlier ones, such as the full-length of the Duke of Argyll, and the numerous bust-portraits of Scottish gentlemen and their ladies which he executed before settling in London. They are full of both grace and individuality; the features show excellent draughtsmanship; and the flesh-painting is firm and sound in method, though frequently tending a little to hardness and opacity. His full-length of Lady Mary Coke is remarkable for the skill and delicacy with which the white satin drapery is managed; while the portrait of his brown-eyed second wife Margaret, in the Scottish National Gallery, is described as having a sweetness and tenderness. The portrait of his wife also shows the influence of French art, which Ramsay incorporated into his work. The large collection of his sketches in the possession of the Royal Scottish Academy and the Board of Trustees, Edinburgh also show this French elegance and soft colours. In a documentary broadcast by the BBC in February 2014, Ramsay was shown to be the artist who painted the lost portrait of Charles Edward Stuart in 1745, completed on the verge of his invasion of England. Paintings Ramsay has paintings in the collection of a few British institutions including the National Gallery in London, Sheffield, Derby Art Gallery (attributed), Glasgow Museum and Newstead Abbey. In 2016 a portrait of Richard Mead (King George II’s physician) by Allan Ramsay was discovered by Bendor Grosvenor (using the Art UK website) as part of the British BBC4 television programme Britain's Lost Masterpieces; conservation treatment was carried out by Simon Rollo Gillespie to repair the torn canvas and remove layers of discoloured varnishes. Abolitionism and paintings of Queen Charlotte According to Mario de Valdes y Cocom in 2009 on an edition of PBS Frontline, in several paintings of Queen Charlotte, Ramsay deliberately emphasised "mulatto features" which the queen supposedly inherited via descent from a 13th-century Moorish ancestor. Valdes suggests that copies of these paintings were sent to the colonies to be used by abolitionists as a de facto support for their cause. Other historians question whether the 13th-century ancestor, referred to in various places as a 'Moor' and Berber, was black African. In any event, they contend that the connection, nine and 15 generations removed, was too distant to consider Charlotte 'black' in any cultural way, as her other ancestors were all European. Writings A Dialogue on Taste 1762 ;(Kessinger Publishing 2009) Letters on the Present Disturbances in Great Britain and her American Provinces 1777 ; (Gale ECCO 2010) Observations on the Riot Act 1781 ; (Gale ECCO 2010) References Further reading Macmillan, Duncan (1984), Scottish Painting: Ramsay to Raeburn, in Parker, Geoffrey (ed.), Cencrastus No. 17, Summer 1984, pp. 25 – 29, External links Works in the National Galleries of Scotland Nigel Warburton on the significance of two portraits of Hume and Rousseau Art "4" "2"-Day – Collection of Short Biographies Web Gallery of Art – more examples of Ramsay's work Alastair Smart Archive - Research on Allan Ramsay 1713 births 1784 deaths 18th-century Scottish painters Scottish male painters Principal Painters in Ordinary Scottish portrait painters Artists from Edinburgh People of the Scottish Enlightenment	[ -0.019413145259022713, 0.23283156752586365, -0.09356249868869781, -0.6056907773017883, 0.6123734712600708, 0.4713278114795685, 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225210	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan%20Ramsay%20%28poet%29	Allan Ramsay (poet)	Allan Ramsay (15 October 16867 January 1758) was a Scottish poet (or makar), playwright, publisher, librarian, and impresario of early Enlightenment Edinburgh. Life and career Allan Ramsay was born at Leadhills, Lanarkshire, to John Ramsay, superintendent of Lord Hopetoun's lead-mines and his wife, Alice Bower, a native of Derbyshire. Allan Ramsay and his elder brother Robert probably attended the parish school at Crawfordjohn. In 1701 Allan was apprenticed to a wig-maker in Edinburgh and received his indentures back by 1709. He married Christian Ross in 1712; a few years after he had established himself as a wig-maker (not as a barber, as has been often said) in the High Street, and soon found himself in comfortable circumstances. They had six children. His eldest child was Allan Ramsay, the portrait painter. Ramsay's first efforts in verse-making were inspired by the meetings of the Easy Club (founded in 1712), of which he was an original member; and in 1715 he became the Club Laureate. In the society of the members he assumed the name of Isaac Bickerstaff, and later of Gawin Douglas, the latter partly in memory of his maternal grandfather Douglas of Muthill (Perthshire), and partly to give point to his boast that he was a "poet sprung from a Douglas loin." The choice of the two names has some significance, when we consider his later literary life as the associate of the Queen Anne poets and as a collector of old Lowland Scots poetry. By 1718 he had made some reputation as a writer of occasional verse, which he published in broadsheets, and then (or a year earlier) he turned bookseller in the premises where he had hitherto plied his craft of wig-making. In 1716 he had published a rough transcript of "Christ's Kirk on the Green" from the Bannatyne Manuscript, with some additions of his own. In 1718 he republished the piece with more supplementary verses. In the following year he printed a collection of Scots Songs. The success of these ventures prompted him to collect his poems in 1720 and publish a volume in 1721. The volume was issued by subscription, and brought in the sum of four hundred guineas. Four years later he removed to another shop, in the neighbouring Luckenbooths, where he opened a circulating library and extended his business as a bookseller. Ramsay is considered to have created the first circulating library in Britain when he rented books from his shop in 1726. Between the publication of the collected edition of his poems and his settling down in the Luckenbooths, he had published a few shorter poems and had issued the first instalments of The Tea-Table Miscellany (1723–37) and The Ever Green (1724). The Tea-Table Miscellany is "A Collection of Choice Songs Scots and English," containing some of Ramsay's own, some by his friends, several well-known ballads and songs, and some Caroline verse. Its title was suggested by the programme of The Spectator: as Addison had sought for his speculations the hour set apart "for tea and bread and butter," so Ramsay laid claim to that place for his songs "e'en while the tea's fill'd reeking round." In The Ever Green: being a Collection of Scots Poems wrote by the Ingenious before 1600, Ramsay had another purpose, to reawaken an interest in the older national literature. Nearly all the pieces were taken from the Bannatyne manuscript, though they are by no means verbatim copies. They included his version of "Christ's Kirk" and a remarkable pastiche by the editor entitled "The Vision". While engaged on these two series, he produced, in 1725, his dramatic pastoral The Gentle Shepherd. In the volume of poems published in 1721 Ramsay had shown his bent to this genre, especially in "Patie and Roger," which supplies two of the dramatis personae to his greater work. The success of the drama was remarkable. It passed through several editions, and was performed at the theatre in Edinburgh; its title is still known in every corner of Scotland, even if it be no longer read. In 1726 he published anonymously Poems in English and Latin, on the Archers and Royal Company of Archers, by several Hands for the Royal Company of Archers. He wrote the words to the Archer's March, Sound, sound the music, sound it, Let hills and dales rebound it, Let hills and dales rebound it In praise of Archery. Used as a Game it pleases, The mind to joy it raises, And throws off all diseases Of lazy luxury. Now, now our care beguiling, When all the year looks smiling, When all the year looks smiling With healthful harmony. The sun in glory glowing, With morning dew bestowing Sweet fragrance, life, and growing To flowers and every tree. Tis now the archers royal, An hearty band and loyal, An hearty band and loyal, That in just thought agree, Appear in ancient bravery, Despising all base knavery, Which tends to bring in slavery, Souls worthy to live free. Sound, sound the music, sound it, Fill up the glass and round wi't, Fill up the glass and round wi't, Health and Prosperity To our great chief and officers, To our president and counsellors, To all who like their brave forbears Delight in Archery. Another volume of his poems appeared in 1728. Ramsay wrote little afterwards, though he published a few shorter poems, and new editions of his earlier work. A complete edition of his Poems appeared in London in 1731 and in Dublin in 1733. With a touch of vanity he expressed the fear lest "the coolness of fancy that attends advanced years should make me risk the reputation I had acquired." He was already on terms of intimacy with the leading men of letters in Scotland and England. He corresponded with William Hamilton of Bangour, William Somervile, John Gay and Alexander Pope. Gay probably visited him in Edinburgh, and Pope praised his pastoral—compliments which were undoubtedly responsible for some of Ramsay's unhappy poetic ventures beyond his Scots vernacular. The poet had for many years been a warm supporter of the stage. Some of his prologues and epilogues were written for the London theatres. In 1736 he set about the erection of a new theatre, "at vast expense," in Carrubber's Close, Edinburgh; but the opposition was too strong, and the new house was closed in 1737. In 1755 he retired from his shop to the house on the slope of the Castle Rock, still known as Ramsay Lodge. This house was called by his friends "the goose-pie," because of its octagonal shape. He is buried at Greyfriars Kirkyard, Edinburgh. The grave itself is unmarked but a monument was erected to his memory on the south wall of Greyfriars Kirk in the mid-19th century. Memorials In 1846 Ramsay was depicted as one of sixteen Scottish poets and writers on the lower section of the Scott Monument on Princes Street in Edinburgh. Ramsay's statue was erected in 1850 at the corner of Princes Street Gardens and The Mound in the centre of Edinburgh. There is a hotel located in Carlops named after him. The hotel hosted a festival in his and his son's honour in 2016 on the 330th anniversary of the poet's birth. Further festivals have been held there on Ramsay's birthday from 2017. A bust of Ramsay is in the Hall of Heroes of the National Wallace Monument in Stirling. The Ramsay Obelisk at Ravensneuk on the Penicuik Estate was built in 1759 by Ramsay's friend, Sir James Clerk. Family His eldest daughter Christian Ramsay, lived on New Street off the Canongate. She was an amiable person and also wrote poetry. She never married but lived with many cats. Despite being run over by a hackney coach at the age of 73 (which broke her leg) she lived to be 88. His eldest son, Allan Ramsay was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, was a prominent Scottish portrait-painter. From the age of twenty he studied in London under the Swedish painter Hans Hysing, and at the St. Martin's Lane Academy; leaving in 1736 for Rome and Naples, where he worked for three years under Francesco Solimena and Imperiali (Francesco Fernandi). Work Ramsay's importance in literary history is twofold. As a pastoral writer ("in some respects the best in the world," according to James Henry Leigh Hunt) he contributed, at an early stage, to the naturalistic reaction of the 18th century. His Gentle Shepherd, by its directness of impression and its appreciation of country life, anticipates the attitude of the school which broke with neo-classical tradition. It has the "mixed" faults which make the greater poem of his Scots successor, Thomson, a "transitional" document, but these give it an historical, if not an individual, interest. His chief place is, however, as an editor. He is the connecting-link between the greater "Makars" of the 15th and 16th centuries, and Robert Fergusson and Robert Burns. Ramsay also knew the Scottish bookseller Andrew Millar since the latter's arrival in Edinburgh in 1720 as the thirteen-year-old apprentice of Ramsay's friend James McEuen. From 1713 Ramsay ran a wigmaker's and printseller's shop in Niddrie's Wynd, close to McEuen's High Street premises. He joined the bookselling trade in 1720, and in 1722 relocated to the east side of the Luckenbooths, next to McEuen and facing the Market Cross. He also owned a shop directly opposite McEuen, on the south side of the Cross. McEuen was the first to advertise copies of Ramsay's Poems (1723), in Glasgow. Ramsay revived the interest in vernacular literature, and directly inspired the genius of his greater successors. The preface to his Ever Green is a protest against "imported trimming" and "foreign embroidery in our writings," and a plea for a return to simple Scottish tradition. He had no scholarly interest in the past, and he never hesitated to transform the texts when he could give contemporary " point " to a poem; but his instinct was good, and he did much to stimulate an ignorant public to fresh enjoyment. In this respect, too, he anticipates the reaction in England which followed securely on the publication of Percy's Reliques. The Tea-Table Miscellany was reprinted in 1871 (2 vols., Glasgow; John Crum); The Ever Green in 1875 (2 vols., Glasgow; Robert Forrester); The Poems of Allan Ramsay in 1877 (2 vols., Paisley; Alex. Gardner). These volumes are uniform in size and binding, though issued by different publishers. A selection of the Poems appeared in 1887 (1 vol. 16mo, London; Walter Scott). This volume includes a biographical sketch written by J. Logie Robertson. There are many popular reprints of his most popular work, The Gentle Shepherd, which is set in Carlops and nearby Newhall Estate. Bradshaws Handbook incorrectly states the location as Currie. Since 2015, a Collected Works of Allan Ramsay (general editor Murray Pittock) has been in preparation from Edinburgh University Press: the first volume, the Gentle Shepherd, is expected in 2022. Bibliography Poems. Edinburgh, 1720 (Google) The Tea-Table Miscellany. Edinburgh 1724, 128 pages (Google) The Tea-Table Miscellany. A Collection of Choice Songs, Scots and English. 18th ed., Glasgow, 1782 (Google) The Ever Green The Poems of Allan Ramsay The Gentle Shepherd (1725) Kirk Further reading Campbell, Donald (1975), review of Alexander Manson (ed.), Poems by Allan Ramsay and Robert Fergusson, in Calgacus 1, Winter 1975, p. 57, Notes References Burns Martin, Allan Ramsay: A Study of his Life and Works Oliphant Smeaton, Allan Ramsay, Edinburgh: Oliphant, Anderson and Ferrier, 1896, in the "Famous Scots Series". External links Allan Ramsay at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA) More information, including full text, on Ramsay's Gentle Shepherd at the University of North Texas Music Library's Virtual Rare Book Room The Gentle Shepherd (Full text - 16 MB) Ramsay, Allan (1686-1758), article in The Burns Encyclopedia Andrew Millar Project. [email protected]. University of Edinburgh. 1686 births 1758 deaths Scots Makars People from South Lanarkshire Burials at Greyfriars Kirkyard People of the Scottish Enlightenment Scottish publishers (people) Scottish dramatists and playwrights Scottish librarians 18th-century Scottish writers 18th-century British dramatists and playwrights 18th-century Scottish poets Scottish opera librettists Scottish folk-song collectors Occasional poets	[ -0.29469072818756104, 0.439355731010437, 0.0898561105132103, -0.7094531059265137, 0.18221591413021088, 0.6091938614845276, 1.025498628616333, -0.05593482777476311, -0.3288683295249939, -0.35983309149742126, -0.43216168880462646, -0.26745063066482544, -0.24938376247882843, 0.40554729104042053, 0.2998851537704468, 0.5308392643928528, -0.05109680816531181, -0.2088380753993988, -0.3169947862625122, -0.19542676210403442, -0.7580490708351135, -0.0381835475564003, 0.5365266799926758, 0.02517036348581314, 0.36753585934638977, 0.13589376211166382, 0.7359306812286377, 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225211	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Fergusson	Robert Fergusson	Robert Fergusson (5 September 1750 – 16 October 1774) was a Scottish poet. After formal education at the University of St Andrews, Fergusson led a bohemian life in Edinburgh, the city of his birth, then at the height of intellectual and cultural ferment as part of the Scottish enlightenment. Many of his extant poems were printed from 1771 onwards in Walter Ruddiman's Weekly Magazine, and a collected works was first published early in 1773. Despite a short life, his career was highly influential, especially through its impact on Robert Burns. He wrote both Scottish English and the Scots language, and it is his vivid and masterly writing in the latter leid for which he is principally acclaimed. Life Robert Fergusson was born in Cap and Feather Close, a vennel off Edinburgh's Royal Mile, later demolished to make way for what is today the southern abutment of the North Bridge. His parents, William and Elizabeth (née Forbes), were originally from Aberdeenshire, but had moved to the city two years previously. He was the third of three surviving children by them. Fergusson received formal schooling at the city's High School and then the High School of Dundee. He attended the University of St Andrews with the assistance of a clan Fergusson bursary in September 1765. He was taught rhetoric by Robert Watson, professor of Logic, whose lectures covered English literature. He excelled at mathematics under the tuition of William Wilkie. In March 1768, Principal Thomas Tullideph (nicknamed "Pauly Tam") was minded to expel Fergusson due to his part in a "student riot" but was dissuaded by Prof Wilkie due to Fergusson's imminent graduation (May 1768) and because Fergusson promised to help Wilkie organise lecture notes. In fact, Fergusson did not graduate but this was not uncommon and bore no shame. He did keep his word and aided Prof Wilkie over the summer writing the poem "Eclogue" to his memory later in life. In late summer of 1768 Fergusson returned to Edinburgh. His father had died the previous year, his sister Barbara had married, and his older brother Harry had recently left Scotland, enlisting with the Royal Navy after a business failure. This probably left Fergusson, who had not completed his studies, to support their mother. Any possibility of family support from his maternal uncle, John Forbes of Round Lichnot near Auld Meldrum, ceased when his uncle permanently disowned him after a quarrel. Fergusson, who had rejected the church, medicine and law as career options open to him due to his university training, finally settled in Edinburgh as a copyist, the occupation of his father. Literary career There is good evidence that Fergusson had already been developing literary ambitions as a student at St Andrews where he claimed to have begun drafting a play on the life of William Wallace. His earliest extant poem, also written at this time, is a satirical elegy in Scots on the death of David Gregory, one of the university's professors of maths. Fergusson involved himself in Edinburgh's social and artistic circles mixing with musicians, actors, artists and booksellers who were also publishers. His friend, the theatre-manager William Woods, regularly procured him free admission to theatre productions and in mid-1769 Fergusson struck up a friendship with the Italian castrato singer Giusto Fernando Tenducci, who was touring with a production of Artaxerxes. Fergusson's literary debut came when Tenducci asked him to contribute Scots airs for the Edinburgh run of the opera. Fergusson supplied three, which were performed and published with the libretto. After February 1771 he began to contribute poems to Walter Ruddiman's Weekly Review. These at first were generally conventional English language works that were either satirical or fashionably pastoral in the manner of William Shenstone. His first Scots poem to be published (The Daft Days) appeared on 2 January 1772, and from that date on he submitted works in both languages. Popular reception for his Scots work, as evidenced in a number of verse epistles in its praise, helped persuade Ruddiman to publish a first general edition of his poems which appeared in early 1773 and sold around 500 copies, allowing Fergusson to clear a profit. In mid-1773 Fergusson attempted his own publication of Auld Reekie, now regarded as his masterpiece, a vivid verse portrait of his home city intended as the first part of a planned long poem. It demonstrated his ambition to further extend the range of his Scots writing. This also included an aspiration to make Scots translations of Virgil's Georgics, thus following in the footsteps of Gavin Douglas. However, if any drafts for such a project were made, none survive. The poet was a hard self-critic and is known latterly to have destroyed manuscripts of his writing. Clubs Fergusson was a member of the Cape Club which regularly assembled at a tavern in Craig's Close. Each member had a name and character assigned to him, which he was required to maintain at all gatherings. David Herd (1732–1810), the collector of the classic edition of Ancient and Modern Scottish Songs (1776), was "sovereign" of the Cape (in which he was known as "Sir Scrape") when Fergusson was dubbed a knight of the order, with the title of "Sir Precentor", in allusion to his fine voice. Alexander Runciman, the historical painter, his pupil Jacob More, and Sir Henry Raeburn were all members. The old minute books of the club abound with pencilled sketches by them, one of the most interesting of which, ascribed to Runciman, is a sketch of Fergusson in his character of "Sir Precentor". Death Fergusson's literary energy and active social life were latterly overshadowed by what may have been depression although there are likely to have been other factors. From around mid-1773 his surviving works appear to become more darkly melancholic. In late 1773, in his "Poem to the Memory of John Cunningham" which was written on hearing news of the death of that poet in an asylum in Newcastle, Fergusson expressed fears of a similar fate. His fears were founded. Around the backend of the year 1774, after sustaining a head injury in circumstances that are obscure (he fell heavily down a flight of stairs in Edinburgh, according to his epitaph), Fergusson was submitted against his will into Edinburgh's Darien House "hospital" (close to today's eponymous Bedlam Theatre), where, after a matter of weeks, he suddenly died. He had only just turned 24. He was buried in an unmarked grave on the west side of the Canongate Kirkyard. The poet Robert Burns privately commissioned and paid for a memorial headstone of his own design in 1787, which was erected in 1789. The stone was restored in April 1850 by the poet Robert Gilfillan. In the later nineteenth century, Robert Louis Stevenson intended to renovate the stone, but died before he could do so. The epitaph that Stevenson planned to add to the stone is recorded on a plaque added to the grave by the Saltire Society on the Society's 50th anniversary in 1995. Memorials Fergusson is one of the sixteen Scottish poets and writers depicted on the lower section of the Scott Monument on Princes Street. He appears on the right side of the west face, opposite Robert Burns. A plaque was erected in his memory in St Giles Cathedral in the 1930s. An independent statue outside Canongate Churchyard was unveiled on 17 October 2004, following a competition for a memorial to Fergusson. The sculptor was David Annand. Overview and influence Fergusson's literary output was both urban and pastoral in equal degree. He was often an effective satirist and generally nationalist in themes and outlook. Although small, his canon stands as an important artistic and linguistic bridge between the generation of Allan Ramsay (1686–1758) and most later writers in Scots. His bilingual career was the acknowledged inspiration for the career of Robert Burns. Many leading makars of the twentieth century, such as Robert Garioch or Sydney Goodsir Smith, similarly recognised his importance. More widely, however, his legacy has tended to be unjustly neglected. Many works by Burns either echo or are directly modelled on works by Fergusson. For example, "Leith Races" unquestionably supplied the model for Burns' "Holy Fair". "On seeing a Butterfly in the Street" has reflections in it which strikingly correspond with "To a Mouse". Comparisons, such as between Fergusson's "The Farmer's Ingle" and Burns' "The Cotter's Saturday Night", often demonstrate the creative complexity of the influence. Fergusson's life also had one important non-literary influence. The brutal circumstances of the poet's death prompted one of his visitors in Darien House, the young doctor Andrew Duncan (1744–1828), to pioneer better institutional practices for the treatment of mental health problems through the creation of what is today the Royal Edinburgh Hospital. Editions Ruddiman's 1773 edition of Fergusson's work was reprinted in 1779 with a supplement containing additional poems. A second edition appeared in 1785. There are later editions, by Robert Chambers (1850) and Alexander Grosart (1851). A life of Fergusson is included in David Irving's Lives of the Scottish Poets, and in Robert Chambers's Lives of Illustrious and Distinguished Scotsmen. Grosart also contributed a biography of Fergusson for the "Famous Scots Series", (Edinburgh: Oliphant, Anderson and Ferrier, 1898). Modern editions of Fergusson include the definitive two-volume collection of his works in both Scots and Scottish English, edited by the scholar Matthew McDiarmid, The Poems of Robert Fergusson, published in the 1950s, and Robert Fergusson, Selected Poems, a popular edition of the poetry in Scots, edited by the author James Robertson and first published around the turn of the present century. Further reading Campbell, Donald (1975), review of Alexander Manson (ed.), Poems by Allan Ramsay and Robert Fergusson, in Calgacus 1, Winter 1975, p. 57, See also Habbie stanza Scottish literature Scots language Thomas Chatterton External links Robert Fergusson Society Portrait of Fergusson by Alexander Runciman in the National Gallery of Scotland Robert Fergusson is commemorated in Makars' Court outside The Writers' Museum, Lawnmarket, Edinburgh. Selections for Makars' Court are made by The Writers' Museum, The Saltire Society and The Scottish Poetry Library. Video footage of Robert Fergusson's grave References 1750 births 1774 deaths Alumni of the University of St Andrews People educated at the High School of Dundee Lallans poets Writers from Edinburgh People educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh Scots Makars Burials at the Canongate Kirkyard People of the Scottish Enlightenment 18th-century Scottish writers 18th-century Scottish poets Poets associated with Dundee	[ -0.42096346616744995, 0.41268423199653625, -0.5063918232917786, -0.9020789265632629, 0.15373803675174713, 0.8402022123336792, 1.1455010175704956, 0.28708937764167786, -0.04129171743988991, -0.4410831034183502, -0.2897021174430847, 0.2966652512550354, -0.5295041799545288, -0.0022709034383296967, 0.07766810059547424, 0.3337388038635254, -0.00012841062562074512, -0.5785236358642578, 0.24538105726242065, -0.3261782228946686, -0.4490797817707062, 0.07656882703304291, 0.282578706741333, 0.18995311856269836, 0.3304196000099182, -0.062184881418943405, 0.12381309270858765, 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225212	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20United%20States%20history%20%281970%E2%80%931989%29	Timeline of United States history (1970–1989)	This section of the Timeline of United States history concerns events from 1970 to 1989. 1970s Presidency of Richard M. Nixon 1970 – The first Earth Day is observed. 1970 – Kent State and Jackson State shootings occur during student protests which grow violent. 1970 – American Top 40, hosted by radio personality Casey Kasem, becomes the first successful nationally syndicated radio program featuring a weekly countdown. 1970 – The Public Broadcasting System (PBS) begins operations, succeeding National Educational Television (NET). 1970 – Singer-songwriter-guitarist-musician Jimi Hendrix dies of a drug overdose at the age 27. 1970 – Singer Janis Joplin dies of a drug overdose at the age of 27. 1970 – The Environmental Protection Agency is created. 1970 – The Occupational Safety and Health Act, or OSHA, is signed into law. 1971 – Singer Jim Morrison dies of a drug overdose at the age of 27. 1971 – President Richard Nixon ends the United States Gold standard monetary policy, known as the Nixon Shock 1971 – A ban on radio and television cigarette advertisements goes into effect in the United States 1971 – The landmark situation comedy, All in the Family, premieres on CBS. 1971 – The 26th Amendment is ratified, allowing 18-year-olds to vote. 1971 – In New York Times Co. v. United States, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that the Pentagon Papers may be published, rejecting government injunctions as unconstitutional prior restraint. 1972 – President Richard Nixon visits China, an important step in formally normalizing relations between the United States and China. 1972 – The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty is signed with the USSR. 1972 – First African-American major league baseball player Jackie Robinson dies. 1972 – Watergate scandal: Five men arrested for the burglary of the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate office complex in Washington, D.C. 1972 – U.S. presidential election, 1972: Richard M. Nixon re-elected president, Spiro T. Agnew re-elected vice president 1972 – Apollo 17 flies to the Moon, and becomes the last manned mission there (as of May 2021). 1973 – President Nixon and Vice President Agnew begin second terms. 1973 – Former president Lyndon B. Johnson dies in Stonewall, Texas, of his third and final heart attack. It was at the LBJ ranch. 1973 – State Funeral of President Lyndon Johnson 1973 – Roe v. Wade Supreme Court ruling overturns state laws against abortion. 1973 – The Paris Peace Accords ends direct U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. 1973 – The Senate Watergate hearings begin, highlighted by Fred Thompson's discovery of Nixon's secret tapes. 1973 – Skylab is launched as the USA's first space station. 1973 – Vice President Spiro T. Agnew resigns in disgrace as part of a plea bargain. Representative Gerald R. Ford of Michigan becomes the first person to be appointed Vice President under the 25th Amendment to the Constitution. 1973 – Watergate scandal: President Nixon fires two Attorneys General, and their appointed acting-Attorney General replacement fires the Watergate Special Prosecutor over disposition of the secret tapes. 1973–1974 — The United States is affected by the Arab Oil Embargo; gasoline prices skyrocket as supplies of gasoline and heating oil are in short supply. In response, daylight saving time is started in January (nearly four months earlier than usual), and the national speed limit is lowered to 55 mph. 1974 – The 1974 Super Outbreak, the second-largest series of tornadoes in history (at 148), hits 13 U.S. states and one Canadian province; 315 people are killed and more than 5,000 are injured. 1974 – Hank Aaron of the Atlanta Braves breaks Babe Ruth's home run record by hitting his 715th career home run. 1974 – Watergate scandal: The House Judiciary Committee votes to impeach the President 1974 – Sweet Home Alabama released by Lynyrd Skynyrd. Presidency of Gerald R. Ford 1974 – President Nixon resigns, becoming the first and only U.S. President to step down. Vice President Ford becomes the 38th President. Nelson A. Rockefeller of New York becomes the second person to be appointed Vice President under the 25th Amendment to the Constitution. 1974 – Watergate scandal: Ford pardons Nixon for any crimes he may have committed against the United States while President, believing it to be in the "best interests of the country." 1974 – Restrictions are removed on holding private gold within the United States. 1975 – President Ford signs The Helsinki Accords. 1975 – The movie Jaws is released. It is a landmark in Steven Spielberg's movie career. 1975 – Construction of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System begins. 1975 – The Vietnam War ends. 1975 – Fall of Saigon 1975 – Bill Gates founds Microsoft, which will eventually dominate the home computer operating system market. 1975 – The Apollo–Soyuz Test Project begins, where an American Apollo spacecraft and a Soviet Soyuz spacecraft dock in orbit, marking the first such link-up between spacecraft from the two nations. 1975 – President Ford survives two assassination attempts in a 17-day span. 1975 – The television series Wheel of Fortune and Saturday Night Live premiere on NBC. 1975 – Sony's Betamax becomes the first commercially successful home video recording unit. 1976 – The Copyright Act of 1976 makes sweeping changes to United States copyright law. 1976 – Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne found Apple Inc. 1976 – Americans celebrate the Bicentennial of the United States. 1976 – U.S. presidential election, 1976: Jimmy Carter is elected president, Walter F. Mondale is elected vice president. Presidency of Jimmy Carter 1977 – Carter sworn in as the 39th President, Mondale as Vice President 1977 – The first home personal computer, the Commodore PET, is released for retail sale. 1977 – The television miniseries Roots airs on ABC, to critical acclaim and record audiences. 1977 – The science-fiction space opera film Star Wars debuts in theaters. 1977 – The New York City blackout of 1977 lasts for 25 hours, resulting in looting and other disorder. 1977 – Elvis Presley, the king of rock and roll, dies in his home in Graceland at age 42. 75,000 fans line the streets of Memphis for his funeral 1977 – The Atari 2600 becomes the first successful home video game system, popularizing the use of microprocessor-based hardware and cartridges containing game code 1978 – Volkswagen becomes the second non-American automobile manufacturer (after Rolls-Royce) to open a plant in the United States, commencing production of the Rabbit. 1978 – The Camp David Accords commence, where Prime Minister Menachem Begin (Israel) and President Anwar Sadat (Egypt) begin the peace process at Camp David, Maryland. 1978 – The Humphrey Hawkins Full Employment Act is signed into law, adjusting the government's economic goals to include full employment, growth in production, price stability, and a balance of trade and budget. 1978 – The Senate votes to turn the Panama Canal over to Panamanian control on December 31, 1999. 1978 – Supervisor Harvey Milk and Mayor George Moscone are assassinated by Dan White in San Francisco on November 27. 1979 – The Three Mile Island nuclear accident occurs, America's most catastrophic nuclear power plant accident in its history. 1979 – The Iran hostage crisis begins. In the aftermath, a second energy crisis develops, tripling the price of oil and sending U. S. gasoline prices over $1 per gallon for the first time. 1979 – American Airlines Flight 191 crashes after takeoff from O'Hare International Airport, killing all 271 aboard and two on the ground, making it the deadliest aviation incident on U.S. soil to date. 1979 — Facing bankruptcy, Chrysler receives government loan guarantees upon the request of CEO Lee Iacocca to help revive the company. 1979 – The Sugarhill Gang releases Rapper's Delight, widely considered the first major hip hop song. The hip hop music movement occurred in the Early 1970s, but would evolve over time. 1980s 1980 – The United States boycotts the Summer Olympics in Moscow to protest the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan; also announces a grain embargo against the Soviet Union with the support of the European Commission. 1980 – The Refugee Act is signed into law, reforming United States immigration law and admitted refugees on systematic basis for humanitarian reasons 1980 – The Mount St. Helens eruption in Washington on 18 May kills 57. 1980 – U.S. presidential election, 1980: Ronald Reagan is elected president, with George H. W. Bush elected vice president 1980 – Former Beatle John Lennon is murdered by a gunman on 8 December in New York City. Presidency of Ronald W. Reagan 1981 – Ronald Reagan inaugurated as the 40th President (January 20, 1981 – January 20, 1989); George Bush becomes Vice President. On the same day Iran releases hostages, marking the end of the Iran hostage crisis. 1981 – Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan by John Hinckley Jr. 1981 – 1982 United States is part of the global recession, with national unemployment as high as 9%, with some areas much higher, and inflation as high as 13.5%. Early 1980s recession 1981 – Kemp-Roth Tax Cut 1981 – MTV signs on, becoming the first 24-hour cable network dedicated to airing music videos. 1981 – A hotel walkway collapses in Kansas City, Missouri, killing 114 and injuring over 200; it was the deadliest structural collapse to occur in the United States until 9/11. 1981 – The Space Shuttle Columbia is launched, marking America's first return to space since 1975. 1981 – Sandra Day O'Connor becomes the first woman on the U.S. Supreme Court. 1981 - In August, President Reagan fires 11,345 striking air traffic controllers. Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (1968) 1981–1982 — The killing of 6-year-old Adam Walsh (1981), and the disappearance of Johnny Gosch, a 12-year-old newspaper carrier from Des Moines, Iowa (1982), raise awareness of missing children cases in the United States. 1983 – 241 U.S. Marines are killed by a suicide bomb in Lebanon. 1983 – The United States invades Grenada. 1983 — Singer Karen Carpenter dies from complications of anorexia nervosa, raising awareness of eating disorders. 1983 – Chrysler unveils its minivans — the Dodge Caravan and Plymouth Voyager (as 1984 models) — to the public. 1983 - The Reagan Administration creates the Strategic Defense Initiative, nicknamed Star Wars, to block nuclear missile attacks. 1984 – Most of the Eastern Bloc boycotts the Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. 1984 – U.S. presidential election, 1984: Ronald Reagan is re-elected president, with George H. W. Bush re-elected as vice president. 1984 – The drug problem intensifies as crack (a smokable form of cocaine) is first introduced into the Los Angeles area. 1984 – Awareness of child sexual abuse by pedophiles raised through high-profile media coverage on programs such as 60 Minutes and 20/20. 1985 – President Reagan and Vice President Bush begin their second terms. 1985 – Bernhard Goetz is indicted in New York on charges of attempted murder after shooting four young men who he claimed were intent on mugging him. 1985 – Professional wrestling hits the mainstream with the World Wrestling Federation's WrestleMania I and Saturday Night's Main Event I. The WWF's flagship star, Hulk Hogan, becomes a cultural icon. 1985 – World awareness of famine in Third World countries spark "We Are the World" and Live Aid. Also, awareness of AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) is raised with the death of actor Rock Hudson. 1985 – Country music singer Willie Nelson and John Mellencamp organize the first Farm Aid concert to raise money for family farmers facing financial crisis. 1985 – The Ford Taurus and Mercury Sable (as 1986 models), and the Nintendo Entertainment System are released to the public. 1985 – Gramm Rudman Hollings Balanced Budget Act 1986 – Iran–Contra affair breaks 1986 – The Space Shuttle Challenger explodes 73 seconds after liftoff, killing all seven aboard (including school teacher Christa McAuliffe) and grounding the nation's space program for 2½ years. 1986 – The Firearm Owners Protection Act is signed into law by President Reagan. 1986 – Tax Reform Act of 1986 1986 – The Marshall Islands become independent from the United States. 1986 – The Fox Broadcasting Company launched, becoming the first "fourth major network" since DuMont to offer nightly programming. 1987 – Assorted scandals involve popular televangelists, including Jim Bakker, Oral Roberts, and Jimmy Swaggart. 1987 – During a visit to Berlin, Germany, President Reagan challenges Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev to "Tear down this wall!" (referring to the Berlin Wall). 1987 – The Dow Jones Industrial Average falls 22.6% in a single session on Black Monday. November 22, 1987 – An unidentified man wearing the Max Headroom mask appears out of nowhere on television stations WGN-TV and WTTW in Chicago. It is to this day the most notorious television broadcast interruption. As of 2019, the mystery is still unsolved, However, many people on Reddit claim they were behind the crime. 1987 – Dennis Conner, on board the challenger boat Stars & Stripes, returns the America's Cup to America. 1987 – The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty is signed in Washington, D.C. by President Reagan and Soviet Premier Gorbachev. 1988 – Drunk driving awareness is raised after a drunk driver's car crashes into a church bus near Carrollton, Kentucky, killing 27. 1988 – Severe droughts and massive heat wave gripping the Midwest and Rocky Mountain states. The crisis reaches its peak with the Yellowstone fires of 1988. 1988 – Wrigley Field in Chicago, Illinois, becomes the last Major League Baseball park to add lights for night games. 1988 – Discovery is launched as first post-Challenger Space Shuttle flight. 1988 – U.S. presidential election, 1988: George H. W. Bush is elected president, Dan Quayle vice president. 1988 – The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty goes into effect. Presidency of George H.W. Bush 1989 – Bush was sworn in as the 41st President, Quayle as Vice President. 1989 – Time Inc. and Warner Communications announce plans for a merger, forming Time Warner. 1989 – The tanker Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska's Prince William Sound, dumping 10.8 million US gallons of oil into pristine wildlife habitat. 1989 – Awareness of stalking is raised with the murder of actress Rebecca Schaeffer by an obsessed fan. 1989 – Hurricane Hugo strikes the Caribbean and U.S. Southeast Coast, causing $7 billion in damage. 1989 – The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake kills 63 in the greater San Francisco Bay Area. The quake occurs in the midst of Game 3 of the 1989 World Series, caught live on television broadcasts by ABC. 1989 – President Bush declares a "War on Drugs." 1989 – The animated television sitcom The Simpsons debuts on Fox. 1989 – President Bush and Soviet Premier Gorbachev release statements indicating that the Cold War between their nations may be coming to an end. Symbolic elsewhere around the world was the fall of the Berlin Wall in Germany. See also History of the United States (1964–1980) History of the United States (1980–1991) 1970	[ -0.35771602392196655, 0.3619967997074127, -0.7103821635246277, -0.5982105731964111, -0.3492197096347809, 0.12089501321315765, 0.6340248584747314, 1.03594970703125, -0.9042494893074036, -0.39324885606765747, -0.40044617652893066, 0.27961432933807373, -0.5173412561416626, 1.0738524198532104, -0.5806738138198853, 0.23884057998657227, 0.021594511345028877, -0.05484387278556824, 0.011144212447106838, 0.1316208690404892, 0.11587014049291611, 0.27081018686294556, 0.5723670721054077, -0.7182320952415466, 0.11704803258180618, -0.24903668463230133, -0.02210875414311886, -1.065613865852356, 0.11854498088359833, 0.3683639168739319, -0.6661571264266968, 0.010006165131926537, 0.5482048392295837, 0.2801770567893982, 0.09366284310817719, 0.18350429832935333, 0.09592429548501968, 0.7258495092391968, -0.04411963373422623, -0.3801202178001404, -0.44817936420440674, -0.1467755287885666, 0.2929001450538635, 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225213	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20United%20States%20history%20%281950%E2%80%931969%29	Timeline of United States history (1950–1969)	This section of the Timeline of United States history concerns events from 1950 to 1969. 1950s Presidency of Harry S. Truman 1950 – Senator Joseph McCarthy gains power, and McCarthyism (1950–1954) begins 1950 – McCarran Internal Security Act 1950 – Korean War begins 1950 – The comic strip Peanuts, by Charles M. Schulz, is first published 1950 – NBC airs Broadway Open House a late-night comedy, variety, talk show through 1951. Hosted by Morey Amsterdam and Jerry Lester and Dagmar, it serves as the prototype for The Tonight Show 1950 – Failed assassination attempt by two Puerto Rican nationals on President Harry S. Truman while the President was living at Blair House. 1951 – 22nd Amendment, establishing term limits for president. 1951 – Mutual Security Act 1951 – General Douglas MacArthur fired by President Truman for comments about using nuclear weapons on China 1951 – The first live transcontinental television broadcast takes place in San Francisco, California from the Japanese Peace Treaty Conference. One month later, the situation comedy I Love Lucy premieres on CBS, sparking the rise of television in the American home and the Golden Age of Television. 1951 – See It Now, an American newsmagazine and documentary series broadcast by CBS from 1951 to 1958. It was created by Edward R. Murrow and Fred W. Friendly, Murrow being the host of the show. 1951 – The Catcher in the Rye is published by J. D. Salinger and invigorates the rebellious youth of the period, eventually earning the title of a Classic with its profound impact. 1952 – The debut of the Today show on NBC, originally hosted by Dave Garroway is the fourth longest running talk show on television. 1952 – ANZUS Treaty enters into force 1952 – Immigration and Nationality Act 1952 – In the United States presidential election, Dwight D. Eisenhower elected as president, Richard Nixon elected as vice president Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower 1953 – Eisenhower becomes the 34th President and Nixon Vice President 1953 – Rosenbergs executed 1953 – Korean Armistice Agreement 1953 – Shah of Iran returns to power in CIA-orchestrated coup known as Operation Ajax 1954 – The Tournament of Roses Parade becomes the first event nationally televised in color 1954 – Detonation of Castle Bravo, a 15 megaton Hydrogen bomb on Bikini Atoll. 1,000 times more powerful than the Hiroshima and Nagasaki weapons, it vaporized three islands, displaced the islanders and caused long lasting contamination. 1954 – Joseph McCarthy discredited in Army-McCarthy hearings 1954 – Censure or formal disapproval on Senator Joseph McCarthy after the Army-McCarthy hearings. He died three years later in 1957. 1954 – President Eisenhower proposes the Domino theory: If South Vietnam fell to communism, so too would all nations of Southeast Asia, and eventually worldwide. 1954 – First Indochina War ends after the U.S. kept sending aid to the French. France was defeated by Ho Chi Minh and his army at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. 1954 – The CIA overthrows Guatemala's president Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán (Operation PBSuccess) 1954 – Saint Lawrence Seaway Act, permitting the construction of the system of locks, canals and channels that permits ocean-going vessels to travel from the Atlantic Ocean to the North American Great Lakes, is approved 1954 – Brown v. Board of Education, a landmark decision of the Supreme Court, declares state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students and denying black children equal educational opportunities unconstitutional 1954 – The U.S. becomes a member of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (or SEATO) alliance 1954 – Geneva Conference. U.S. rejects the French decision to recognize Communist control of North Vietnam. U.S. increases aid to South Vietnam. 1954 – The People's Republic of China lays siege on Quemoy and Matsu Islands; Eisenhower sends in Navy to demonstrate an invasion of Taiwan would not be permitted 1954 – The Dow Jones Industrial Average closes at an all-time high of 382.74, the first time the Dow has surpassed its peak level reached just before the Wall Street Crash of 1929 1954 – NBC airs The Tonight Show, the first late-night talk show, originally hosted by Steve Allen 1954 – The Democrats retake both houses of Congress in the Midterms. Will keep the Senate until 1981 and the House until 1994. 1955 – Ray Kroc opens a McDonald's fast food restaurant and, after purchasing the franchise from its original owners, oversees its national (and later, worldwide) expansion 1955 – Murder of Emmett Till 1955 – Rosa Parks remains seated on a bus, the incident which evolves into the Montgomery bus boycott 1955 – AFL and CIO merge in America's largest labor union federation 1955 – Warsaw Pact, which establishes a mutual defense treaty subscribed to by eight communist states in Eastern Europe (including the USSR) 1955 – Disneyland opens at Anaheim, California 1955 – Jonas Salk develops polio vaccine 1955 – Rock and roll music enters the mainstream, with "Rock Around the Clock" by Bill Haley & His Comets becoming the first record to top the Billboard pop charts. Elvis Presley also begins his rise to fame around this same time. 1955 – Actor James Dean is killed in a highway accident 1956 – The controversial 1956 Sugar Bowl takes place. Georgia's pro segregationist governor publicly threatens Georgia' Tech's president to not allow the game to take place, as students riot. 1956 – President Eisenhower secures passages of Interstate Highway Act, which will construct 41,000 miles (66,000 km) of the Interstate Highway System over a 20-year period 1956 – The U.S. refuses to provide military support the Hungarian Revolution 1956 – Elvis Presley appears on The Ed Sullivan Show for the first time. 1956 – Marilyn Monroe marries playwright Arthur Miller. 1956 – Jackson Pollock dies in a car crash 1956 – 1956 United States presidential election: Dwight D. Eisenhower is reelected president, Richard Nixon reelected vice president 1956 – "In God We Trust" adopted as national motto 1957 – President Eisenhower and Vice President Nixon begin second terms 1957 – Eisenhower Doctrine, wherein a country could request American economic assistance and/or aid from military forces if it was being threatened by armed aggression from another state 1957 – Civil Rights Act of 1957, primarily a voting rights bill, becomes the first civil rights legislation enacted by Congress since Reconstruction 1957 – Soviets launch Sputnik; "space race" begins 1957 – Shippingport Atomic Power Station, the first commercial nuclear power plant in the U.S., goes into service 1957 – Little Rock, Arkansas school desegregation. Eisenhower recruits the U.S. National Guard to escort the Little Rock Nine 1958 – National Defense Education Act 1958 - The Affluent Society written by John Galbraith 1958 – NASA formed as the U.S. begins ramping up efforts to explore space 1958 – Jack Kilby invents the integrated circuit 1959 – The NBC western Bonanza becomes the first drama to be broadcast in color 1959 – Cuban Revolution 1959 – Landrum–Griffin Act, a labor law that regulates labor unions' internal affairs and their officials' relationships with employers, becomes law 1959 – Alaska and Hawaii became the 49th and 50th U.S. states; , they are the final two states admitted to the union. 1959 – Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens, and The Big Bopper are killed in Clear Lake, Iowa in a plane crash. 1960s 1960 – U-2 incident, wherein a CIA U-2 spy plane was shot down while flying a reconnaissance mission over Soviet Union airspace 1960 – Greensboro sit-ins, sparked by four African American college students refusing to move from a segregated lunch counter, and the Nashville sit-ins, spur similar actions and increases sentiment in the Civil Rights Movement. 1960 – Author Harper Lee publishes To Kill A Mockingbird 1960 – Civil Rights Act of 1960, establishing federal inspection of local voter registration polls and penalties for those attempting to obstruct someone's attempt to register to vote or actually vote 1960 – National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam formed 1960 – John Fitzgerald Kennedy defeats Vice President under the Eisenhower administration, Republican Richard Milhous Nixon. The campaign included the first televised United States presidential debate. 1960 – 1960 United States presidential election: John F. Kennedy elected president, Lyndon B. Johnson elected vice president 1961 – US breaks diplomatic relations with Cuba 1961 – Eisenhower gives celebrated "military–industrial complex" farewell address Presidency of John F. Kennedy 1961 – John F. Kennedy becomes the 35th President, Johnson, Vice President. 1961 – 23rd Amendment, which grants electors to the District of Columbia 1961 – Peace Corps established. 1961 – Alliance for Progress 1961 – Bay of Pigs Invasion 1961 – Alan Shepard pilots the Freedom 7 capsule to become the first American in space 1961 – Trade embargo on Cuba 1961 – Berlin Crisis of 1961 1961 – Vietnam War officially begins with 900 military advisors landing in Saigon 1961 – OPEC (The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) formed 1962 – Trade Expansion Act 1962 – Andy Warhol becomes famous for his Campbell's Soup Cans painting. 1962 – John Glenn orbits the Earth in Friendship 7, becoming the first American to do so 1962 – Cuban Missile Crisis, the closest nuclear confrontation involving the U.S. and USSR 1962 – Baker v. Carr, enabling federal courts to intervene in and to decide reapportionment cases 1962 – Engel v. Vitale, determines that it is unconstitutional for state officials to compose an official school prayer and require its recitation in public schools 1962 – Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) 1962 – The comic-book superhero Spider-Man debuts in Amazing Fantasy #15 (August 1962) by Marvel Comics. 1962 – Marilyn Monroe dies of an apparent overdose from acute barbiturate poisoning at 36. 1963 – Bob Dylan and Columbia Records release The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan (his second studio album), which becomes a classic 1963 – Atomic Test Ban Treaty 1963 – March on Washington; Martin Luther King Jr. "I Have a Dream" speech 1963 – The Feminine Mystique by Betty Friedan published, sparking the women's liberation movement - 1963 – Community Mental Health Act signed by Kennedy Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson 1963 – Assassination of John F. Kennedy in Dallas; Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson becomes the 36th President. 1963 – The man accused of assassinating President Kennedy, Lee Harvey Oswald, is shot and killed by Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby. The assassination marks the first 24-hour coverage of a major news event by the major networks. 1964 – The Beatles arrive in the U.S., and subsequent appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show, mark the start of the British Invasion (or, an increased number of rock and pop performers from the United Kingdom who became popular around the world, including the U.S.) 1964 – Tonkin Gulf incident; Gulf of Tonkin Resolution 1964 – 24th Amendment, prohibiting both Congress and the states from conditioning the right to vote in federal elections on payment of a poll tax or other types of tax 1964 – President Johnson proposes the Great Society, whose social reforms were aimed at the elimination of poverty and racial injustice. New major spending programs that addressed education, medical care, urban problems, and transportation were launched later in the 1960s. 1964 – Economic Opportunity Act 1964 – Civil Rights Act of 1964, outlawing major forms of legalized discrimination against blacks and women, and ended legalized racial segregation in the United States 1964 – Panama Canal Zone riots 1964 - The Ford Mustang is introduced 1964 – In the election, President Johnson won by one of the largest victories in U.S. history, defeating Arizona Republican Senator Barry Goldwater 1964 – 1964 United States presidential election: Johnson elected president for a full term, Hubert H. Humphrey elected vice president 1965 – President Johnson begins full term, Humphrey becomes Vice President 1965 – President Johnson escalates the United States military involvement in the Vietnam War 1965 – Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), a civil rights activist group, led the first of several anti-war marches in Washington, D.C., with about 25,000 protesters 1965 – President Johnson appoints Thurgood Marshall as the first African-American Supreme Court Justice 1965 – Immigration Act of 1965 1965 – Voting Rights Act 1965 – Medicaid and Medicare enacted 1965 – Higher Education Act of 1965 1965 – Malcolm X an African-American Muslim minister, public speaker, and human rights activist is assassinated in Harlem, New York 1965 – The Watts riots in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles, lasts six days and is the first of several major urban riots due to racial issues. 1966 – Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) established 1966 – Department of Transportation created 1966 – National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act 1966 – Miranda v. Arizona established "Miranda rights" for suspects 1966 – Feminist group National Organization for Women (NOW) formed 1966 – The three major American television networks—NBC, CBS and ABC—have full color lineups in their prime-time schedules. 1966 – Heavyweight boxing champion Muhammad Ali (formerly known as Cassius Clay) declared himself a conscientious objector and refused to go to war. In 1967 Ali was sentenced to five years in prison for draft evasion, but his conviction was later overturned on appeal. In addition, he was stripped of his title and banned from professional boxing for more than three years. 1967 – Jack Ruby died of a pulmonary embolism, secondary to bronchogenic carcinoma (lung cancer), on January 3, 1967 at Parkland Hospital, where Oswald had died and where President Kennedy had been pronounced dead after his assassination. 1967 – The first Super Bowl is played, with the Green Bay Packers defeating the Kansas City Chiefs 35–10. 1967 – Detroit race riot precipitates the "Long Hot Summer of 1967", when race riots erupt in 159 cities nationwide. 1967 – The Outsiders published by S.E. Hinton 1967 – Glassboro Summit Conference between U.S. president Lyndon Johnson and Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin 1967 – The "Summer of Love" embodies the growing counterculture, with the Monterey Pop Festival and Scott McKenzie's "San Francisco (Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair)" among the highlights. 1967 – 25th Amendment establishes succession to the Presidency and procedures for filling a vacancy in the office of the Vice President 1967 – American Samoa becomes self-governing under a new constitution 1968 – On March 31, incumbent President Lyndon B. Johnson announces to the nation on television that he will not seek re-election for the Election of 1968, Opposition toward him and the Democratic Party was growing. The escalation of Vietnam was one of these issues. 1968 – Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. 1968 – The National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam launches the Tet Offensive 1968 – Civil Rights Act of 1968, commonly known as the Fair Housing Act 1968 – New York Senator Robert F. Kennedy is assassinated in Los Angeles, after winning the California primary for the Democratic Party's nomination for President, by Sirhan Sirhan. 1968 – Police clashes with anti-war protesters in Chicago, outside the 1968 Democratic National Convention 1968 – U.S. signs Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 1968 – 1968 United States presidential election: Richard Nixon elected president, Spiro T. Agnew elected vice president; Shirley Chisholm becomes first black woman elected to U.S. Congress 1968 – East L.A. walkouts, or Chicano Blowouts 1968 – Apollo 8 and its three-astronaut crew orbit the Moon, Earthrise photograph taken 1968 – Music group Simon and Garfunkel release "Mrs. Robinson" from their album The Graduate. 1968 – President Johnson awards medals of honor to soldiers from Vietnam. Presidency of Richard M. Nixon 1969 – Nixon becomes the 37th President, Agnew Vice President 1969 – "Vietnamization" begins 1969 – Author Maya Angelou publishes I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings 1969 – Stonewall riots in New York City marks the start of the modern gay rights movement in the U.S. 1969 – Chappaquiddick incident, where Sen. Edward M. Kennedy drives off a bridge on his way home from a party on Chappaquiddick Island, Massachusetts, killing his passenger, Mary Jo Kopechne 1969 – Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin walk on the Moon on the Apollo 11 mission 1969 – The Woodstock Festival in White Lake, New York, becomes an enormously successful musical and cultural gathering; a milestone for the baby-boom generation 1969 – Warren E. Burger appointed Chief Justice of the United States to replace Earl Warren 1969 – U.S. bombs North Vietnamese positions in Cambodia and Laos 1969 – Sesame Street premieres on National Educational Television. 1969 – Secret peace talks with Vietnam begin 1969 - Although 100-1 shots at the beginning of the season, the New York Mets win the World Series. See also History of the United States (1945–1964) History of the United States (1964–1980) Timeline of 1960s counterculture References Kutler, Stanley L., ed. Encyclopedia of the United States in the Twentieth Century (4 vol, 1996) Morris, Richard, ed. Encyclopedia of American History (7th ed. 1996) Schlesinger Jr., Arthur M. 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14436904	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity%20sector%20in%20Haiti	Electricity sector in Haiti	The largely government owned electricity sector in Haiti referred to as Électricité d'Haïti (ED'H for "Haiti Electric Utility", faced a deep crisis characterized by dramatic shortages and the lowest coverage of electricity in the Western Hemisphere in 2006. with only about 38.5% of the population having regular access to electricity. In addition, Haiti's large share of thermal generation (70%) makes the country especially vulnerable to rising and unstable oil prices. Haiti has the smallest public sector in the LAC region, which in this case is reflected by a weak institutional capacity within the Ministry of Public Works, Transport and Communications (MTPTC). Since the MTPTC is the main government body in charge of the electricity sector, this lack of capacity affects directly the performance of the sector. Overviews Renewable energy In 2017, the World Bank invested a total of $35 million to Haiti in order to improve access and expansion of renewable energy. The two projects are "Renewable Energy for All" and "Haiti Modern Energy Services for All". The money for the "Renewable Energy for All" is being split between three different sectors including: Public Administration - Energy and Extractives, Energy Transmission and Distribution, and Solar Energy. The project will be completed at the end of 2024. The World Bank's Country Director for Haiti, Anabela Abreau, has noted that "Haiti has significant untapped sources for renewable energy". Wind energy In 2011, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Granted $15,000 to a group of researchers from Princeton University to design wind turbines to be used around the country. Wind energy has become an important focus for the Haitian government. The areas with the highest wind potential are located in the West, North-west, and North of Haiti. In 2017, construction for the new Irois power plant began. This power plant will produce wind, solar, and diesel energy. With a production capacity of 160 kWh, this hybrid power plant will be the first-ever constructed in Haiti. Solar energy In 2017, imports of solar equipment into the country were no longer taxed hoping to encourage the use of solar energy. According to a study by the Worldwatch Institute, Haiti has the ability to produce a sufficient amount of electricity from renewable resources and solar energy has very strong potential. The total capacity of solar energy installed is 0.7 MW. 80% of the solar energy produced is used for lighting; the other 20% is used for vaccines, seafood conservation, pumping, audiovisual and communication. Recently, many solar companies have seen Haiti as a huge market potential for solar energy. The founder of 10Power estimates that the potential solar power market is worth over $500 million. In 2013, the completion of Hôpital Universitaire de Mirebalais came to an end. This hospital is the largest solar-powered hospital in the world. The hospital has over 1,800 solar panels. Hydropower energy Hydropower is the second largest source of energy for Haiti. They have a capacity of 1000 GWh. Most hydropower plants do not operate to full capacity. However, as of 2018, Haiti's Peligre Hydroelectric power plant has been restored to full capacity. In 2011, the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) gave a $20 million grant to go towards restoring the Peligre Hydroelectric plant. The country has the potential to create 896 GWh yearly. There has been talk of developing micro-hydropower for rural areas of Haiti. Hydropower is seen as a possible alternative for those who don't have access to grid electricity. Biomass With the use of agriculture and forestry waste, it can be turned into energy and can be turned into something similar to natural gas. Haiti has much agricultural waste that can be used for biomass energy. However, it has setbacks such as finding a way to economically collect the waste and also the effects of taking away these materials from their natural ecosystems. Currently, Haiti produces about 1 MW of electricity from bagasse. Government targets Through the National Development Plan of the Energy Sector of Haiti, the Haitian government has specific energy goals they would like to reach by 2032. These include the promotion of alternative energy sources, strengthen the State's regulatory role in the field of energy, improve the production and distribution of energy, and improve the provision of electricity. The current president of Haiti, Jovenal Moïse, has plans to provide electricity in rural areas and by the end of his presidency he wants to provide constant electricity for all Haitians. The government has goals of adopting more policies in favor of renewable energy. By 2020, they want to increase the use of renewable energy by 50%. Jobs in renewable energy In 2018, USAID Local Enterprise and Value Chain Enhancement (LEVE) project gave grants to local vocational schools to help develop solar energy training courses. Due to the projected growth of the solar power energy industry in Haiti, USAID LEVE is helping improve these schools' relationships with the private solar energy sector. Electricity supply and demand Voltage and frequency Electricity in Haiti is 110 volts, alternating at 60 cycles per second. Installed capacity Most of the generation infrastructure in Haiti is very old and costly to maintain and operate. In 2006, total installed capacity was only 270 MW, of which about 70% was thermal and 30% hydroelectric. There are currently three large thermal plants and one hydroelectric plant serving the metropolitan area and some smaller thermal and hydroelectric plants in the provinces. The most important plants are: Péligre, an hydroelectric plant with 54 MW of installed capacity. However, its actual power varies between 30 MW in the rainy season and 10 MW in the dry one. Carrefour, a 50 MW thermal plant with just 12 MW of actually available capacity. Varreux 1 and 2, two thermal plants with installed capacities of 33 MW and 21 MW respectively which can just provide 12.5 MW. The large difference between installed and available capacity stems from serious maintenance deficiencies which have led, for example, to just one quarter of hydroelectric capacity to be available. The repairs carried out in Varreux and Carrefour should allow for 15 MW of additional capacity. Generation in 2003 was 550 GWh, with 54% coming from thermal sources and the remaining from hydroelectric ones. Demand In 2003, total electricity consumption in Haiti was 510 GWh, Average per capita consumption in 2004 was 75 kWh, the lowest in the LAC region. The share for each sector is as follows: Residential: 60% Industrial : 20% Transport : 15% Services : 5% Demand vs supply The Haitian electricity sector has a national installed capacity that is largely insufficient to meet a demand of 157 MW in Port-au-Prince and of 550 MW at the national level. This electricity shortage has created a situation in which tens of thousands of households and institutions (e.g. hospitals, schools) have to rely on their own diesel generators and as a result spend large portions of their income on fuel to run those generators. In order to partially address this deficit, the government has signed contracts with Sogener, Haytrac and Epower which are private power suppliers, for a total of about 135 MW. For the medium and long term, according to recent estimates, Haiti needs about 200 MW of new generation capacity by the year 2010 and up to 750 MW by 2020. Access to electricity In Haiti, only 38.5% of the population have access to electricity “officially”, although the Ministry of Public Works estimate that the coverage could be higher when irregular connections are considered. In the Urban areas the total electrification rate is 72% (2013 est.) but only 15% in rural areas. Some towns in Haiti, such as Fort-Liberté, the capital of Nord-Est, have an electricity distribution network, but have been effectively abandoned by the national utility EdH for about a decade. Users thus have to rely entirely on small, privately owned generators to meet their electricity demand. Service quality Interruption frequency and duration Those who have access to electricity received on average 10 hours of electricity a day, with disparities among the areas covered. People have freezers and refrigerators to cool food, not to preserve it. These coolers consume too much electricity to run off batteries, for those who can afford them. Therefore, they are disconnected when the power is off. Distribution and transmission losses The public utility Electricité d’Haïti (EDH), a member of Caribbean Electric Utility Services Corporation (CARILEC), suffers from high inefficiencies, with more than 75% estimated technical and commercial system losses. This high percentage results from improper maintenance due to lack of financing; triggering incidents (e.g. fires); theft; obsolescence of information systems, which prevents proper identification of customers, billing and accounting and in turn impacts quality of service and losses. The ratio of energy unpaid to energy produced is among the highest in the world, with an estimated 35% of the energy produced being stolen. Many residents cannot afford the high costs of electricity, so resort to stealing. EDH's financial situation is precarious. Utility bills cover less than 50% of electricity generated. In some cases, third parties install transformers to steal electricity from EDH high voltage lines and charge consumers for the stolen electricity. The combined losses require an annual subsidy from the Government of Haiti of $120 million to maintain operations. Responsibilities in the electricity sector Policy and regulation The institutional framework of the electricity sector in Haiti is weak. The entity in charge of the energy sector is the Ministry of Public Works, Transports and Communications (MTPTC). The minister is also the president of the executive board of the state-owned power company, EdH (Haiti Electricity Company). The board of directors of EdH, which had not met for many years, began to meet again beginning in September 2005 (although recent meetings have not happened), aiming at better transparency for the management of the public utility. However, the elimination of the secretary for energy, mines and telecommunications (SEEMT) in 2005 deprived the government of the technical capacity required to address the crisis in the electricity sector. The Council of Modernization of Public Enterprises (CMEP), which was created as a technical entity to oversee the reform process of public enterprises, is officially in charge of following up on the medium term program to rehabilitate EDH. Generation, transmission and distribution Electricité d’Haïti (EdH) holds the monopoly for electricity generation, transmission and distribution in the country. However, as a result of the inability of EdH to meet the electricity demand, the private sector has been present for ten years in the generation subsector through private power suppliers who sell their electricity to EdH at an agreed price. After the expiration of the existing contract with Alstom, Sogener is currently the only IPP that generates and sells electricity to EdH. Renewable energy resources Besides hydroelectric generation, which accounts for about 26% of total installed capacity, no other renewable sources are being exploited for electricity generation in Haiti. Hydroelectricity A project for a new 32 MW hydroelectric plan (Artibonite 4C) is on implementation phase. This new plant would have 10 MW of guaranteed capacity and would cost about US$120 million. The Brazilian Army made the base project and it was already donated to the Haitian Government. Wind Haiti presents an interesting wind potential. Haiti's Wind Potential Atlas has revealed a potential capacity of 50 MW in the area of Lake Azueï (close to Port-au-Prince) alone. Solar In Haiti, the concept of Solar electricity was embraced by Hôpital Universitaire de Mirebalais, featuring 1,800 solar panels. Rural electrification projects could apply off-grid solar technology. Since only about 13% of the people even have grid access, distributed solar pv is the only energy source that can supply all the people electricity for now. History of the electricity sector History Haiti has limited energy resources: no petroleum or gas resources, small hydroelectricity potential and rapidly declining supplies of wood fuels. With very limited access to electricity, most of the population in Haiti depends on charcoal as a source of energy. The National Electricity Company (Electricité d’Haïti – EDH) was created in 1971 to operate the newly built Péligre hydroelectric plant and the nation's power system. Electricity consumption increased sixfold between 1970 and 1987, but just 10% of the population had access to electricity by 1986, a number that, if not accounting for illegal connections, has not varied much in the last 20 years. In the late 1980s, installed capacity was estimated at 147 MW (compared with 240 MW in 2003). The Organic Law from the 20th of August 1989 defined EDH's responsibilities. EdH administers the hydroelectric plants (Péligre, Guayamouc and other smaller ones), the thermal plants (Varreux and Carrefour), other small generators and the distribution system. However, the system remains largely dysfunctional, with no power links between the capital and the provincial cities, or between provincial cities, and with unpredictable generation due to fluctuating supplies of imported petroleum and hydroelectricity shortfalls in the dry seasons. This situation leads to frequent energy rationing in which large businesses and residential users are forced to rely on expensive back-up generators. In order to try to overcome its financial problems, EDH charges high electricity tariffs (the highest in the Caribbean in the 1980s). As a result, many people established illegal connections (one in four urban residents as per estimates at the end of the 1980s), a practice that has prevailed ever since. 2000s developments In March 2004, following the resignation of President Jean-Bertrand Aristide, a transition government was created. This government, together with the donor community, prepared the Interim Cooperation Framework (ICF), which set a strategy for increasing political and social stability and promoting economic growth. This framework was to guide investments of the international community until September 2007. One of the top priorities laid out was the re-establishment of continuous electricity service. The progress assessment conducted by the ICF in the end of 2005, showed that only 25% of the objectives for the electricity sector had been met. The electricity sector currently faces crucial problems: existence of a limited pool of experts, political interference, weakness in the institutional framework, fragmentation of the main actors and lack of strategic coordination and leadership. The lack of financial resources for maintenance, poor management practices, fraud and corruption and political interference lay at the core of these problems, which reflect into poor and unreliable provision of electricity services to end users, which in turn results in lack of willingness of affected consumers to pay for mediocre or often non-existent services. After the election of René Préval as President of Haiti, the Ministry of Public Works, Transport and Communications (MTPTC) released in 2006 a draft Strategy for the Development of the Electricity Sub-Sector for the period 2006-2011. According to this strategy, in the medium to long term, EDH should undertake the following actions: (i) renovate the existing generation and distribution installations, (ii) construct medium-sized plants in the North, South and Artibonite regions when the interconnections are ready, (iii) build the national transmission network to connect the networks of the North, the Artibonite, the South, the West and the South, (iv) build a 120 to 260 MW oil-fired or coal-fired plant, and (v) undertake a vast rural and urban electrification program. However, priorities are not defined yet and financing for the implementation of the strategy is still to be obtained. Tariffs and subsidies Tariffs The average residential tariff in 2006 was US$0.176/kWh, which is considerably higher than the weighted averages for the LAC region (US$0.115/kWh). However, this average tariff is still lower than the price charged to EdH by the private producers (US$0.210/kWh and US$0.206/kWh for Alstom (before expiration of their contract) and Sogener respectively). In August 2009, the electricity tariff was increased to 12-14 HTG/kWh resp. US$0.30 - 0.35. Subsidies The inability of EdH to cover its operating expenses, has led the Haitian State, through the Ministry of Finance, to heavily subsidize the sector with transfers for the purchase of fuel and for the purchase of electricity from two independent power producers (IPPs). These payments, which represent 1% of GDP, have created an unsustainable fiscal burden for the government. Investment and financing Investment in the electricity sector in Haiti has been very low. The combination of a culture of non-payment for electricity services, fairly high consumer tariffs, a low base of metered customers, a lack of support from the authorities to combat corruption and fraud, a weak anti-fraud unit in EdH and widespread electricity theft had led to extremely low levels of cost recovery, which in turn has resulted in an inefficient and decrepit electricity network and a high level of financial losses. According to studies financed by different donors, some of which need to be updated, there is an important need for investment in generation, transmission and distribution. The estimates are: Generation: US$135 to US$395 million (including medium-term hydroelectricity projects) Transmission and distribution: US$55 million In fact, investment in the transmission network is essential since there is almost no reliable network between the main production and consumption centers and the existing lines thus would not be able to transmit newly generated electricity to the consumers. As part of its Strategy for the Development of the Electricity Sub-Sector, the Haitian government hopes to be able to undertake the rehabilitation and renovation of the electricity system in the capitals of the ten departments and in some other cities. The cost of this project has been estimated at US$42 million. Summary of private participation in the electricity sector Electricité d’Haïti (EdH) holds the monopoly for electricity generation, transmission and distribution in the country. However, as a result of the inability of EdH to meet the electricity demand, the private sector has been present for ten years in the generation subsector through private power suppliers who sell their electricity to EdH at an agreed price. After the expiration of the existing contract with Alstom, Sogener is currently the only IPP that generates and sells electricity to EdH. Currently, 23% of generation capacity is in private hands. Electricity and the environment Responsibility for the environment The Ministry of the Environment (MDE), created in 1994, is the institution in charge of promoting sustainable development and support the conservation of the environment. Greenhouse gas emissions OLADE (Latin American Energy Organization) estimated that CO2 emissions from electricity production in Haiti in 2003 were 206,000 tons of CO2, which corresponds to 12% of total emissions from the energy sector. Clean Development Mechanism projects in electricity Currently (November 2007), there aren’t any CDM projects in Haiti. External assistance External assistance from donors is essential for the improvement of the electricity sector in Haïti considering the lack of auto-financing on the part of EdH and insufficient local skills. World Bank The World Bank is providing US$6 million grant for an Electricity Loss Reduction Project (PREPSEL) This is a three-year pro project whose main objectives are: (i) install new commercial and technical service systems for the EdH and (ii) carry out investments in networks and commercialization in one zone of Port-au-Prince and for the large customers of EdH (accounting for 70% of revenues). Implementation of this project is being coordinated with the IDB's project through a shared Project Coordination Unit. The Haiti Economic Governance Reform Operation II (EGRO II), for which the World Bank has committed a US$23 million grant, includes two conditions that are related to the electricity sector: (i) the government should publish a monthly dashboard to monitor financial transfers from the State to the electricity sector and contracts (achieved), (ii) the government and EDH cannot sign new contracts (and amendments) without a competitive bidding process. Inter-American Development Bank The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) is implementing the US$18 million Rehabilitation of the Electricity Distribution System in Port-au-Prince project This project is a follow up of the World Bank's PREPSEL project. It will apply the PREPSEL approach in another zone of Port-au-Prince, benefiting from the two systems (Customer Management System - CMS - and Technical Service Management System - TSMS -) installed by PREPSEL for EdH. The IDB project will also finance the implementation of the Resource Management System (accounting system for EdH). In December 2007, the IDB approved a US$750,000 technical cooperation donation for the design of EDH's Mid-Term Investment Plan. The objective of the Program is to identify the necessary activities at the feasibility level that are required to rehabilitate and efficiently operate the Peligre Hydroelectric Dam. The rehabilitation would include the refurbishment of electro-mechanic components and the main electricity-generating equipment. Canadian International Development Agency The Canadian International Development Agency's (CIDA) main project in Haiti has been the Jacmel Model Transfer project, which consists in the creation of the semi-autonomous center in Jacmel. The agency is currently financing the strengthening of the Jacmel center (US$4 million), which will undergo works for rehabilitation in generation, transmission and distribution. The success of this project provided Jacmel with 24 hours of electricity a day, an achievement that is currently facing difficulties. In addition, CIDA plans to replicate the Jacmel model to Les Cayes (US$16.2 million). It is also financing the repair of the Saut Mathurine micro-hydro plant and part of the Bourdet hydro plant, both near Les Cayes, for US$4.3 million United States Agency for International Development The United States Agency for International Development USAID has provided US$4.5 million for the rehabilitation of four micro-electricity plants: Drouet, Délugé, Caracol and Onte Verde. This project is to be executed in the period 2007-2008. Sources Ministère des Travaux Publics, Transports et Communications, 2006. Stratégie de développement du sous-secteur de l’Electricité en Haïti World Bank, 2006. Electricity loss reduction project. PAD See also Haiti Economy of Haiti Water supply and sanitation in Haiti History of Haiti Notes External links Sogener IDB projects in Haiti World Bank projects in Haiti Electric power in Haiti Haiti	[ 0.4831426739692688, -0.0689149871468544, -0.16945531964302063, 0.05781998857855797, -0.33786943554878235, 0.21382780373096466, -0.17475773394107819, 0.4412729740142822, -0.591713547706604, -0.1086714044213295, -0.10509622097015381, 0.49803128838539124, -0.6416683197021484, 0.3020472526550293, -0.5628936290740967, 0.851974606513977, 0.7597962617874146, 0.5232282876968384, 0.087863489985466, -0.2810922861099243, -0.48264965415000916, 0.21466122567653656, 0.8265731930732727, 0.5377033352851868, -0.15743599832057953, -0.45345020294189453, -0.13956713676452637, 0.6016533970832825, -0.054954882711172104, -0.2682400643825531, -0.21712972223758698, 0.28599798679351807, -0.25098997354507446, -0.21797806024551392, 0.07347984611988068, -0.13163937628269196, -0.4238962233066559, -0.6128033995628357, 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225214	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20United%20States%20history%20%281930%E2%80%931949%29	Timeline of United States history (1930–1949)	This section of the Timeline of United States history concerns events from 1930 to 1949. 1930s Presidency of Herbert C. Hoover 1930 – The Motion Picture Production Code becomes set of industry censorship guidelines governing production of the vast majority of United States motion pictures released by major studios; is effective for 38 years 1930 – Frozen vegetables, packaged by Clarence Birdseye, become the first frozen food to go on sale 1930 – The Democrats take Congress in the Midterms. Will keep it until 1946. 1930 - Hawley-Smoot Tariff 1930 - Clyde Tombaugh discovered Pluto 1930 - Sinclair Lewis is the first American to win Nobel Prize for Literature 1931 – Empire State Building opens in New York. 1931 – Japanese invasion of Manchuria, start of World War II in the Pacific. 1931 – The Whitney Museum of American Art opens to the public in New York City. 1931 - “The Star-Spangled Banner” becomes official U.S. national anthem 1931 - Hoover vetoes Veteran Bonus 1931 - Pearl Buck publishes The Good Earth 1932 – Stimson Doctrine 1932 – Norris-La Guardia Act 1932 – Hans Hofmann – influential artist and teacher emigrated to the United States from Germany. 1932 - Son of Charles Lindbergh was kidnapped and later found dead 1932 – Bonus Army marches on DC 1932 – Reconstruction Finance Corporation 1932 – Ford introduces the Model B, the first low-priced car to have a V-8 engine 1932 – U.S. presidential election, 1932: Franklin D. Roosevelt elected president, John N. Garner elected vice president 1932 - American speed skaters and bobsledders earn medals in the Winter Olympics 1933 – Chicago Mayor Anton Cermak killed during a failed assassination attempt on President-elect Roosevelt. 1933 - Over 12 million or 25% of Americans were unemployed 1933 – 20th Amendment, establishing the beginning and ending of the terms of the elected federal offices. Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt 1933 – Roosevelt becomes the 32nd President and Garner Vice President. They are the last president and vice president to be inaugurated on March 4. It also began his "Hundred Days" 1933 – President Roosevelt establishes the New Deal, a response to the Great Depression, and focusing on what historians call the "3 Rs": relief, recovery and reform 1933 - Emergency Banking Act 1933 – Sweeping new programs proposed under President Roosevelt take effect: the Agricultural Adjustment Act, Civil Works Administration, Civilian Conservation Corps, Farm Credit Administration the Home Owners Loan Corporation, the Tennessee Valley Authority, the Public Works Administration, the National Industrial Recovery Act 1933 - San Francisco Ballet founded 1933 – Giuseppe Zangara assassinates Chicago mayor Anton Cermak; the intended target was President-elect Roosevelt, who was not wounded. 1933 – Frances Perkins appointed United States Secretary of Labor 1933 – 21st Amendment, ending Prohibition 1933 - United States government recognizes the Soviet Union 1934 – Glass–Steagall Act 1934 – U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission established 1934 – Dust Bowl begins, causing major ecological and agricultural damage to the Great Plains states; severe drought, heat waves and other factors were contributors. 1934 – Federal Housing Administration 1934 – Johnson Act 1934 - Indian Reorganization Act 1934 – Philippine Commonwealth established 1934 – Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act 1934 – Tydings–McDuffie Act 1934 – John Dillinger killed 1934 – Indian Reorganization Act 1934 – Share the Wealth society founded by Huey Long 1934 - The first federal prisoners arrived at Alcatraz 1935 – Works Progress Administration 1935 – The F.B.I. is established with J. Edgar Hoover as its first director. 1935 – Neutrality Act 1935 – Motor Carrier Act 1935 – Social Security Act 1935 – Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States 1935 – National Labor Relations Act 1935 – Huey Long assassinated 1935 – Congress of Industrial Organizations formed 1935 – Alcoholics Anonymous founded 1935 – Revenue Act of 1935 1935 - Middletown is published 1936 – Robinson-Patman Act 1936 - Hoover Dam 1936 – Life magazine publishes first issue 1936 – United States v. Butler, which ruled that the processing taxes instituted under the 1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act were unconstitutional 1936 – Second London Naval Treaty 1936 - Jesse Owens won 4 gold medals at the Olympics in Berlin, Germany 1936 – U.S. presidential election, 1936: Franklin D. Roosevelt reelected president, John N. Garner reelected vice president 1936 - 1936 Tupelo–Gainesville tornado outbreak 1936 - Babe Ruth and Ty Cobb named to baseball’s Hall of Fame 1937 – Look magazine publishes first issue 1937 – Neutrality Acts 1937 – President Roosevelt and Vice President Garner begin second terms and attempt to pack the Supreme Court 1937 – Hindenburg disaster, killing 35 people and marking an end to airship travel 1937 – Panay incident, a Japanese attack on the United States Navy gunboat while anchored in the Yangtze River outside of Nanjing 1937 – Golden Gate Bridge completed in San Francisco 1938 – Wheeler-Lea Act 1938 – Fair Labor Standards Act 1938 - Thornton Wilder’s play Our Town wins Pulitzer Prize 1938 - The comic book superhero Superman debuts in Action Comics #1 (June 1938) 1938 – Orson Welles' The War of the Worlds broadcast 1939 – Hatch Act, aimed at corrupt political practices and prevented federal civil servants from campaigning 1939 – Nazi Germany invades Poland; World War II begins 1939 – Cash and carry proposed to replace the Neutrality Acts 1939 – President Roosevelt, appearing at the opening of the 1939 New York World's Fair, becomes the first President to give a speech that is broadcast on television. Semi-regular broadcasts air during the next two years 1940s 1940 – Selective Service Act, establishing the first peacetime draft in U.S. history 1940 – Alien Registration (Smith) Act 1940 – Oldsmobile becomes the first car maker to offer a fully automatic transmission 1940 – Bugs Bunny, Tom and Jerry and Woody Woodpecker make their cartoon debuts 1940 – Billboard magazine publishes its first music popularity chart, the predecessor to today's Hot 100 1940 – U.S. presidential election, 1940: Franklin D. Roosevelt is reelected president to a record third term, Henry A. Wallace is elected vice president 1940 - Color television is demonstrated by the Columbia Broadcasting System 1941 – Regular commercial television broadcasting begins; CBS and NBC television networks launched. 1941 – President Roosevelt begins third term; Wallace becomes Vice President 1941 – Lend-Lease, which supplies the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, China, France and other Allied nations with vast amounts of war material during World War II 1941 – Operation Barbarossa 1941 – Attack on Pearl Harbor; U.S. enters World War II by declaring war on Japan the next day on December 8; and three days later against Germany and Italy. 1941 – Atlantic Charter, drafted by the UK and U.S., to serve as the blueprint for the postwar world after World War II 1942 – Japanese American internment begins, per executive order by President Roosevelt; the order also authorizes the seizure of their property. 1942–1945 – Automobile production in the United States for private consumers halted. 1942 – Casablanca released 1942 - Sugar and gasoline are rationed 1942 – Office of Price Administration 1942 – Cocoanut Grove fire kills 492 people, leads to vast reforms in fire codes and safety standards 1942 – Congress of Racial Equality 1942 – Revenue Act of 1942 1942 – Doolittle Raid 1942 – Battle of the Coral Sea 1942 – Battle of Midway 1942 – Guadalcanal Campaign 1942 – Operation Torch 1942 – U.S.-controlled Commonwealth of the Philippines conquered by Japanese forces 1943 – Office of Price Administration established 1943 – Oklahoma! the first musical written by the team of composer Richard Rodgers and librettist Oscar Hammerstein II opens on Broadway 1943 – Detroit, Michigan race riots 1943 – Allied invasion of Sicily 1943 – Allied invasion of Italy 1943 – Cairo Conference 1943 – Casablanca Conference 1943 – Tehran Conference (meeting between the leaders of USSR, UK, and US to discuss D-day) 1944 – Battle of Monte Cassino 1944 – Dumbarton Oaks Conference 1944 – G.I. Bill 1944 – D-Day (also known as Operation Overlord) 1944 – Bretton Woods Conference 1944 – Battle of Peleliu 1944 – Battle of Leyte 1944 – Battle of the Bulge 1944 – U.S. presidential election, 1944: Franklin D. Roosevelt reelection for a fourth term, becomes the only U.S. president elected four times. Harry S. Truman is elected vice president 1945 – President Roosevelt begins fourth term; Truman becomes Vice President 1945 – Yalta Conference 1945 – Battle of Iwo Jima 1945 – Battle of Okinawa 1945 – Nationwide labor strikes due to inflation; OPA disbanded Presidency of Harry S. Truman 1945 – President Roosevelt dies, Vice President Truman becomes the 33rd President April 12, 1945 - Vice president Truman takes over after being Roosevelt's VP for only 88 days. 1945 – Germany surrenders, end of World War II in Europe 1945 – Carousel opens on Broadway 1945 – Potsdam Conference 1945 - Tennessee Williams’s play The Glass Menagerie opens in New York 1945 – Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Days later, Japan surrenders, ending World War II 1945 – United Nations Conference on International Organization; United Nations established 1945 – United Nations Charter signed in San Francisco, establishing the United Nations; it replaces the League of Nations 1945–1949 – Nuremberg Trials and Subsequent Nuremberg Trials 1946 – Winston Churchill's Iron Curtain speech 1946 – Benjamin Spock's The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care published 1946 – Employment Act 1946 – United States Atomic Energy Act of 1946 1946 – President's Committee on Civil Rights 1946 – Philippines regain independence from the U.S. 1946 – Republicans take control of Congress for the first time in 16 years. 1947 – Presidential Succession Act 1947 – Taft Hartley Act 1947 – U.F.O. crash at Roswell, New Mexico 1947 – National Security Act of 1947 1947 – General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1947 – The Marshall Plan 1947 – Polaroid camera invented 1947 – Truman Doctrine establishes "the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures" 1947 – Federal Employee Loyalty Program 1947 – Jackie Robinson breaks color barrier in baseball 1947 – Studebaker becomes the first automobile manufacturer to introduce a "post-war" model; most automakers wait until 1948 or 1949 1947 – Jackson Pollock begins painting his most famous series of paintings called the drip paintings in Easthampton, New York 1947 – First broadcast of Meet the Press 1947 - World Series is broadcast live on television for the first time 1948 – The Texaco Star Theater, starring Milton Berle, becomes the first major successful U.S. television program; The Toast of the Town also debuts 1948 – Berlin Blockade 1948 – U.S. presidential election, 1948: Harry S. Truman is elected president for a full term, Alben W. Barkley is elected vice president 1948 – Truman desegregates armed forces 1948 – Selective Service Act of 1948: Passed after first such act expired 1948 – Organization of American States: Alliance of North America and South America 1948 – Alger Hiss Case 1949 – President Truman begins full term, Barkley becomes Vice President 1949 – North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) formed 1949 – In China, Communists under Mao Zedong force Chiang Kai-shek's KMT government to retreat to Taiwan 1949 – Soviet Union tests its first atomic bomb 1949 – Department of War becomes the Department of the Army and becomes subordinate to the new Department of Defense 1949 – Germany divided into East and West 1949 – Truman attempts to continue FDR's legacy with his Fair Deal, but most acts don't pass References Kutler, Stanley L., ed. Encyclopedia of the United States in the Twentieth Century (4 vol, 1996) Morris, Richard, ed. Encyclopedia of American History (7th ed. 1996) Schlesinger, Jr., Arther M. The Almanac of American History (1983) See also Causes of the Great Depression Great Contraction Timeline of modern American conservatism History of the United States (1918–1945) History of the United States (1945–1964) 1930	[ -0.35211583971977234, 0.21948955953121185, -1.075419545173645, -0.22031651437282562, -0.3038027882575989, -0.020252658054232597, 0.7945113182067871, 0.7154818177223206, -0.8696907758712769, -0.668624758720398, -0.41563987731933594, 0.09194640815258026, -0.46320927143096924, 1.3313615322113037, -0.4792405366897583, 0.22500035166740417, -0.2635952830314636, 0.224562868475914, 0.13961955904960632, 0.23002077639102936, -0.057950135320425034, 0.12397485226392746, 0.34409281611442566, -0.666732907295227, -0.0523795448243618, -0.4563036859035492, 0.11977828294038773, -1.149057388305664, 0.08300504833459854, 0.3564496636390686, -0.8903083205223083, 0.13090413808822632, 0.21981479227542877, 0.3283979296684265, 0.015621235594153404, -0.12644919753074646, 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225215	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20United%20States%20history%20%281900%E2%80%931929%29	Timeline of United States history (1900–1929)	This section of the Timeline of United States history concerns events from 1900 to 1929. 1900s Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt 1901 – President McKinley assassinated, Vice President Roosevelt becomes the 26th President 1901 – U.S. Steel founded by John Pierpont Morgan 1901 – Hay–Pauncefote Treaty 1901 - Louis Armstrong born 1901 – Jacquan Boyd born 1902 – Drago Doctrine 1902 – First Rose Bowl game played 1902 – Newlands Reclamation Act 1903 – Great Train Robbery movie opens 1903 – Harley–Davidson Motor Company created 1903 – Ford Motor Company formed 1903 – First World Series 1903 – Elkins Act 1903 – Big Stick Diplomacy 1903 – Hay–Bunau–Varilla Treaty 1903 – Hay–Herrán Treaty 1903 – Department of Commerce and Labor created 1903 – The Wright brothers make their first powered flight in the Wright Flyer at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina 1904 – Roosevelt Corollary to Monroe Doctrine 1904 – Panama Canal Zone acquired 1904 – World's Fair St. Louis 1904 – U.S. presidential election, 1904: Theodore Roosevelt elected president for full term; Charles W. Fairbanks elected vice president 1905 – President Roosevelt begins full term, Charles W. Fairbanks becomes Vice President 1905 – Niagara Falls conference 1905 – Industrial Workers of the World 1905 – Albert Einstein publishes his Theory of Relativity 1906 – Susan B. Anthony dies 1906 – Algeciras Conference 1906 – Pure Food and Drug Act and Meat Inspection Act 1906 – Hepburn Act 1906 – Theodore Roosevelt negotiates Treaty of Portsmouth, receives Nobel Peace Prize 1906 – San Francisco earthquake 1907 – Oklahoma becomes a state 1907 – Gentlemen's Agreement 1907 – Coal mine explodes in Monongah, West Virginia, killing at least 361. Worst industrial accident in American history. 1908 – Ford Model T appears on the market 1908 – Root–Takahira Agreement 1908 – Federal Bureau of Investigation established 1908 – Aldrich–Vreeland Act 1908 – U.S. presidential election, 1908: William Howard Taft elected president; James S. Sherman vice president. William Jennings Bryan loses for the third and final time. 1909 – The U.S. penny is changed to the Abraham Lincoln design Presidency of William Howard Taft 1909 – William Howard Taft becomes the 27th President, James S. Sherman becomes Vice President 1909 – Robert Peary claims to have reached the North Pole 1909 – NAACP founded by W. E. B. Du Bois 1909 – Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act 1909 – Taft implements dollar diplomacy 1909 – Pinchot–Ballinger controversy 1910s 1910 - Jacques Cousteau is born 1910 – Mann–Elkins Act 1910 – Mann Act 1911 – Supreme Court breaks up Standard Oil 1911 – Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire 1911 – First Indianapolis 500 is staged; Ray Harroun is the first winner 1912 – RMS Titanic sinks 1912 – New Mexico and Arizona become states 1912 – Girl Scouts of the USA was started by Juliette Gordon Low 1912 – Theodore Roosevelt shot, but not killed, while campaigning for the presidency 1912 – Vice President Sherman dies 1912 – U.S. presidential election, 1912: Woodrow Wilson elected president, Thomas R. Marshall, vice president. Roosevelt becomes the only third party candidate to come in second for well over a century. Presidency of Woodrow Wilson 1913 – Wilson becomes the 28th President and Marshall, Vice President 1913 – Woman Suffrage Procession, a large woman suffrage parade in Washington D.C., is organized by Alice Paul and held on the eve of Wilson's inaugural 1913 – 16th Amendment, establishing an income tax 1913 – End of the Philippine–American War 1913 – The Armory Show opens in New York City introducing Modern art both American and European to the American public. 1913 – 17th Amendment, establishing direct election of U.S. Senators. 1913 – Underwood Tariff 1913 – Henry Ford develops the modern assembly line 1914 – Mother's Day established as a national holiday 1914 – Federal Trade Commission created 1914 – Clayton Antitrust Act 1914 – ABC Powers 1914 – World War I begins when Austria–Hungary declares war on Serbia 1915 – The Birth of a Nation opens 1915 – RMS Lusitania sunk 1915 – First transcontinental telephone is hooked up 1916 – U.S. acquires Virgin Islands 1916 – Jeannette Rankin first woman elected to U.S. congress 1916 – Louis Brandeis appointed to Supreme Court 1916 – Adamson Railway Labor Act 1916 – Federal Farm Loan Act 1916 – Jones Act 1916 – 1916 United States presidential election: Wilson and Marshall reelected by a mere 3,773 votes in California 1916 – Germany agrees to restrict submarine warfare 1916 – The Great Migration begins 1917 – Zimmermann Telegram 1917 – President Wilson and Vice President Marshall begin second terms 1917 – U.S. enters World War I 1917 – Espionage and Sedition Acts 1917 – Lansing–Ishii Agreement 1917 – National Hockey League formed 1917 – U.S. Virgin Islands purchased from Denmark 1917 – Temperance movement leads to prohibition laws in 29 states 1917–1919 – Silent Sentinels hold a vigil outside the White House gates in favor of women's suffrage, a nearly two–and–a–half year demonstration organized by Alice Paul and the National Woman's Party 1917–1920 – First Red Scare, marked by a widespread fear of Bolshevism and anarchism 1918 – President Wilson's Fourteen Points, which assures citizens that the Great War was being fought for a moral cause and for postwar peace in Europe 1918 – Republicans win back Congress in the Midterm elections. 1918 – Armistice agreement ends World War I 1918 – Spanish flu pandemic begins 1918 – Daylight saving time is first adopted 1919 – Treaty of Versailles agreed to by victorious powers. 1919 – President Wilson has massive stroke. First Lady Edith Wilson takes over in a "silent coup". 1919 – United States Senate rejects Treaty of Versailles and League of Nations 1919 – 18th Amendment, establishing Prohibition 1919 – Black Sox Scandal during that year's World Series, with the fallout lasting for decades 1919 – Sherwood Anderson publishes Winesburg, Ohio 1919 – Palmer Raids 1920s 1920 – 19th Amendment, grants women the right to vote 1920 – The Great Steel Strike ends 1920 – Sacco and Vanzetti arrested 1920 – First radio broadcasts, by KDKA in Pittsburgh and WWJ in Detroit 1920 – Volstead Act 1920 – Esch–Cummins Act 1920 – Economy collapses. Depression of 1920–21 begins. 1920 – National Football League is formed 1920 – U.S. presidential election, 1920: Warren G. Harding elected president, and Calvin Coolidge vice president. Presidency of Warren G. Harding 1921 – Harding becomes the 29th President and Coolidge Vice President 1921 – Washington Disarmament Conference of 1921 1921 – Emergency Quota Act 1921 – After refusing to sign the Treaty of Versailles and join the League of Nations, the U.S. Senate signed separate treaties with Germany, Austria, and Hungary. 1922 – Fordney–McCumber Tariff 1922 – Lincoln Memorial is dedicated 1922 – The Nine Power Treaty Early 1920s – Hollywood becomes the center of the movie industry. 1923 – President Harding dies; Vice President Coolidge becomes the 30th President 1923 – Teapot Dome scandal 1923 – The Cotton Club opens in Harlem 1923 – Yankee Stadium was built 1924 – Immigration Act Basic Law 1924 – Indian Citizenship Act 1924 – J. Edgar Hoover is appointed director of the Bureau of Investigation — predecessor to the FBI. 1924 – U.S. presidential election, 1924: Calvin Coolidge elected president for a full term, Charles G. Dawes elected vice president 1924 – The Dawes Plan 1925 – President Coolidge begins full term, Charles G. Dawes becomes Vice President 1925 – Scopes Trial, whose outcome found that the teaching of evolution in the classroom "does not violate church and state or state religion laws but instead, merely prohibits the teaching of evolution on the grounds of intellectual disagreement" 1925 – Nellie Tayloe Ross elected governor of Wyoming 1925 – WSM broadcasts the Grand Ole Opry for the first time. 1925 – Countee Cullen published a book of poems called Color. 1925 – F. Scott Fitzgerald publishes The Great Gatsby 1926 – NBC founded as the U.S.'s first major broadcast network 1926 – United States intervenes in Nicaragua 1926 – Opportunity Magazine publishes Langston Hughes' The Weary Blues 1926 – The Sun Also Rises by Ernest Hemingway is published. 1927 – Sacco and Vanzetti executed, seven years after they were convicted of murdering two men during an armed robbery in Massachusetts 1927 – Charles Lindbergh makes first trans–Atlantic flight 1927 – The Jazz Singer, the first motion picture with sound, is released 1927 – U.S. citizenship granted to inhabitants of U.S. Virgin Islands 1927 – Columbia Broadcasting System (later called CBS) was founded, becomes second national radio network in the U.S. 1927 – The 15,000,000th Model T rolled off the Assembly Line at Ford Motor Company. 1927 – Babe Ruth hits a record 60 home runs in a single season 1928 – Disney's Steamboat Willie opens, the first animated picture to feature Mickey Mouse 1928 – Kellogg–Briand Pact 1928 – Amelia Earhart becomes the first woman to fly across the Atlantic Ocean. 1928 - First color motion pictures are demonstrated by George Eastman 1928 – U.S. presidential election, 1928: Herbert C. Hoover elected president and Charles Curtis vice president 1929 – St. Valentine's Day Massacre See also History of the United States (1865–1918) History of the United States (1918–1945) 1900	[ -0.22139976918697357, 0.26673024892807007, -1.0724862813949585, -0.19592760503292084, -0.28127530217170715, -0.18434885144233704, 0.7749080657958984, 0.8695374131202698, -0.906909704208374, -0.776543915271759, -0.1120610311627388, 0.054814402014017105, -0.4260604679584503, 1.4294004440307617, -0.6107400059700012, 0.1691317856311798, -0.492539644241333, 0.33742281794548035, 0.04001989960670471, 0.09231097996234894, -0.2564452290534973, 0.2551891505718231, 0.38706642389297485, -0.6760812997817993, 0.051011499017477036, -0.4084772765636444, 0.024442538619041443, -1.0253117084503174, -0.1457802951335907, 0.3575821816921234, -0.799210786819458, 0.11950765550136566, 0.2537255585193634, 0.5501934885978699, -0.2664744555950165, -0.24776479601860046, 0.05110830068588257, 0.16027042269706726, 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225216	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20United%20States%20history%20%281860%E2%80%931899%29	Timeline of United States history (1860–1899)	This section of the Timeline of United States history concerns events from 1860 to 1899. 1860s Presidency of James Buchanan April 3, 1860 – Pony Express begins. November 6 – 1860 United States presidential election: Abraham Lincoln elected president and Hannibal Hamlin vice president with only 39% of the vote in a four man race. December 18 – Crittenden Compromise fails. December 20 – President Buchanan fires his cabinet. December 20 – South Carolina secedes from the Union January 9, 1861 – Secessionist forces in South Carolina fire at the USS Star of the West, forcing it to withdraw. January 9 – Mississippi secedes from the Union January 10 – Florida secedes from the Union January 11 – Alabama secedes from the Union January 19 – Georgia secedes from the Union January 26 – Louisiana secedes from the Union February 1 – Texas secedes from the Union February 4 – Secessionist states establish the Confederate States of America February 18 – Jefferson Davis elected Provisional President of the Confederacy March 2 – The Corwin Amendment enshrining slavery forever, is passed by congress. It is not ratified. Presidency of Abraham Lincoln 1861 – Lincoln becomes the 16th President; and Hamlin, Vice President 1861 – American Civil War begins at Fort Sumter 1861 – First Battle of Bull Run (First Battle of Manassas) 1861 – Davis unanimously elected to full term as Confederate president. 1862 – Battle of Hampton Roads (Battle of the Monitor and Merrimack; first ever naval battle between iron-sided ships) 1862 – Homestead Act 1862 – Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act 1862 – Gen. Robert E. Lee placed in command of the Army of Northern Virginia 1862 – Second Battle of Bull Run (Second Battle of Manassas) 1862 – Battle of Antietam (Battle of Sharpsburg) 1862 – Dakota War of 1862 begins 1862–1863 – Lincoln issues Emancipation Proclamation 1863 – Battle of Gettysburg 1863 – The Siege of Vicksburg ends 1863 – New York City draft riots 1863 – Pro-Union Virginia counties become separate state of West Virginia 1863 - Lincoln announces the 10% Plan 1864 – Gen. Ulysses S. Grant put in command of all Union forces 1864 – Wade–Davis Bill 1864 – Sand Creek massacre 1864 – Nevada becomes a state 1864 – U.S. presidential election, 1864; Lincoln is reelected president and Andrew Johnson elected vice president on the "fusion" Union Party ticket. 1864 – Sherman's March to the Sea 1865 – Robert E. Lee made commander-in-chief of all Confederate forces 1865 – President Lincoln begins second term; Andrew Johnson becomes Vice President 1865 – Richmond, Virginia, the Confederate capital, captured by a corps of black Union troops 1865 – Lee surrenders to Grant at Appomattox Court House 1865 – Freedmen's Bureau 1865 - the 13th amendment adopted, setting slaves free forever. Presidency of Andrew Johnson April 15, 1865 – President Abraham Lincoln assassinated; Vice President Andrew Johnson becomes the 17th President April–June 1865 – American Civil War ends as the last elements of the Confederacy surrender 1866 – Civil Rights Act of 1866 1866 – Ku Klux Klan founded 1866 - Tennessee becomes the first Confederate state readmitted to the union 1867 – Tenure of Office Act enacted 1867 – Territory of Alaska purchased from the Russian Empire 1867 - The US Annexes the Midway Islands in the Pacific 1867 – Nebraska becomes a state 1867 - Congress passes a series of Reconstruction acts and the period of Radical Reconstruction begins 1868 – Impeachment of Andrew Johnson, acquitted by the Senate by one vote. 1868 – Fourteenth Amendment is ratified; second of Reconstruction Amendments 1868 – Ulysses S. Grant is elected president and Schuyler Colfax Vice President of USA 1868 - Arkansas, Louisiana, Florida, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Alabama are admitted back into the union 1868 - Boss Tweed gained control of Tammany Hall Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant 1869 – Grant becomes the 18th President and Colfax Vice President 1869 – The First Transcontinental Railroad is completed at Promontory Summit, Utah Territory 1869 - Texas v. White upholds Radical Reconstruction and states that once Texas joins the Union, its union was indissoluble 1870s 1870 – 15th Amendment 1870 – First graduate programs (at Yale and Harvard) 1870 – Black Codes 1870 - Virginia, Mississippi, Texas, and Georgia are readmitted to the union 1871 – Great Chicago Fire 1871 – Treaty of Washington with the British Empire regarding Canada 1871 - The New York Times published evidence of Tweed’s rampant greed. 1871 - Civil Service Reform Act passes 1871 - Ku Klux Klan Act 1872 – Yellowstone National Park created 1872 – Crédit Mobilier scandal 1872 – Amnesty Act 1872 – Alabama Claims 1872 – U.S. presidential election, 1872: Ulysses S. Grant reelected president; Henry Wilson elected vice president 1872 - Victoria Claflin Woodhull, first woman presidential candidate, enters presidential race. 1873 – Panic of 1873 1873 – President Grant begins second term; Henry Wilson becomes Vice President 1873 – Virginius Affair 1873 - One of the first schools of nursing opens at Bellevue Hospital in New York 1874 – Red River Indian War 1874 - National Woman’s Christian Temperance Union formed in Cleveland 1875 – Aristides (horse) wins first Kentucky Derby 1875 – Resumption Act 1875 – Civil Rights Act of 1875 1875 – The Art Students League of New York is founded 1875 – Vice President Wilson dies 1875 - Whiskey Ring Scandal 1876 – National League of baseball founded 1876 – Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia 1876 – Munn v. Illinois establishes public regulation of utilities 1876 – Colorado becomes a state 1876 – Battle of Little Bighorn 1876 - Central Park opens in New York City 1876 – Wild Bill Hickok is killed by a shot to the back of his head by Jack McCall while playing poker in Deadwood, South Dakota. He held aces and eights, now known as the Dead man's hand. 1876 – U.S. presidential election, 1876 seemingly elects Samuel J. Tilden President and Thomas A. Hendricks vice president, but results are disputed with 20 Electoral College votes allegedly in doubt. 1877 – The Electoral Commission awards Rutherford B. Hayes the presidency and William A. Wheeler the vice presidency in return for ending the military occupation of the South. 1877 – Great Railroad Strike of 1877 The Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes 1877 – After only two days as president-elect, Hayes becomes the 19th President and Wheeler Vice President 1877 – Reconstruction ends 1877 – Nez Perce War 1878 – Bland–Allison Act 1878 – Morgan silver dollars first minted 1879 – Thomas Edison creates first commercially viable light bulb 1879 – Knights of Labor go public 1880s 1880 – University of Southern California founded 1880 – U.S. population exceeds 50 million 1880 – U.S. presidential election, 1880: James A. Garfield elected president and Chester A. Arthur vice president. Their popular margin is less than 2,000 votes. Presidency of James A. Garfield 1881 – Garfield becomes the 20th President 1881 – President Garfield is shot by a deranged gunman. Presidency of Chester A. Arthur 1881 – President Garfield dies after 99 days, Vice President Arthur becomes the 21st President 1881 – The Gunfight at the O.K. Corral in Tombstone, Arizona Territory 1881 – Clara Barton creates the American Red Cross 1881 – Tuskegee Institute founded 1881 – Billy the Kid is shot and killed by Sheriff Pat Garrett 1881 – A Century of Dishonor written by Helen Hunt Jackson 1882 – Chinese Exclusion Act 1882 – Jesse James was shot and killed by Robert and Charlie Ford 1883 - The Southern section of the second transcontinental railroad line is completed. 1883 – Buffalo Bill's Wild West show founded. participants include: Sitting Bull, Geronimo, Calamity Jane, and Annie Oakley. 1883 – Civil Rights Cases 109 US 3 1883 legalizes doctrine of segregation 1883 – Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act 1883 – Brooklyn Bridge opens 1883 - Joseph Pulitzer buys the New York World 1884 – U.S. presidential election, 1884: Grover Cleveland elected president and Thomas A. Hendricks elected vice president 1884 – Washington Monument completed First presidency of S.Grover Cleveland 1885 – Grover Cleveland becomes the 22nd President; Thomas A. Hendricks Vice President 1885 – Vice President Hendricks dies 1886 – Haymarket Square Riot 1886 – American Federation of Labor founded in Columbus, Ohio 1886 – Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World) dedicated 1887 – The United States Congress creates Interstate Commerce Commission 1887 – Dawes Act 1887 – Hatch Act 1888 – Publication of Looking Backward by Edward Bellamy 1888 – National Geographic Society founded 1888 – U.S. presidential election, 1888: Benjamin Harrison elected president and Levi P. Morton vice president despite coming in second in the popular vote. Presidency of Benjamin Harrison 1889 – Harrison becomes the 23rd President and Morton becomes Vice President 1889 – Oklahoma Land Rush (April 22, 1889) 1889 – Centennial of the Constitution celebrated. 1889 – North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and Washington become states 1889 – Johnstown Flood in Pennsylvania 1889 – Jane Addams founds Hull House December 6, 1889 – Former confederate president Jefferson Davis dies. 1889 - During a speech given by Benjamin Harrison , he becomes the first U.S. president in history to have a voice recording. 1890s 1890 – Sherman Antitrust Act 1890 – Jacob Riis published "How the Other Half Lives" 1890 – Sherman Silver Purchase Act 1890 – McKinley Tariff 1890 – Yosemite National Park created 1890 – Idaho and Wyoming become states 1890 – Wounded Knee Massacre 1890 – National American Woman Suffrage Association founded 1890 - Reporter Nelly Bly circles globe by train and steamship in 72 days 1891 – Baltimore crisis 1891 – James Naismith invents basketball 1891 - Hamlin Garland publishes Main-Travelled Roads 1892 – Homestead Strike 1892 – General Electric Company founded 1892 – Sierra Club founded by John Muir 1892 - Populist national convention held in Omaha 1892 – U.S. presidential election, 1892: Grover Cleveland elected president and Adlai E. Stevenson, vice president Second presidency of S. Grover Cleveland 1893 – Grover Cleveland becomes the 24th President; Adlai E. Stevenson becomes Vice President 1893 – Panic of 1893 1893 – Sherman Silver Purchase Act repealed 1893 - Columbian Exposition opens in Chicago 1894 – Coxey's Army 1894 – Pullman Strike 1894 – Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act, including income tax 1894 – Sunset Limited service opened on the second transcontinental route by Southern Pacific Railroad 1895 – Lee Shelton shoots Billy Lyons, spawning countless ballads. 1895 – Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. strikes down part of Wilson-Gorman Tariff 1895 - William Randolph Hearst purchases the New York Morning Journal 1896 – Plessy v. Ferguson 163 US 537 1896 affirms the idea of "separate but equal" 1896 – William Jennings Bryan delivers his Cross of Gold speech 1896 – Gold discovered in the Yukon's Klondike 1896 – Utah becomes a state 1896 - Henry Ford builds his first automobile 1896 – U.S. presidential election, 1896: William McKinley elected president and Garret A. Hobart vice president Presidency of William McKinley 1897 – McKinley becomes the 25th President; and Hobart becomes Vice President 1897 – Boston subway completed 1897 – Dingley tariff 1898 – The City of Greater New York is created through the annexation of Brooklyn, Western Queens County, and Staten Island into New York City 1898 – USS Maine explodes in Havana, Cuba harbor, precipitating the Spanish–American War 1898 – De Lôme Letter 1898 – Treaty of Paris (1898) ends Spanish–American War; Philippine–American War begins 1898 – Hawaii annexed 1898 – Newlands Resolution 1898 – American Anti-Imperialist League organized 1899 – Teller Amendment 1899 – Newsboys' strike of 1899 1899 – American Samoa occupied 1899 – Open Door Notes 1899 – Vice President Hobart dies See also Timeline of the American Old West History of the United States (1849–1865) History of the United States (1865–1918) References External links Library of Congress. 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225217	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20United%20States%20history%20%281820%E2%80%931859%29	Timeline of United States history (1820–1859)	This section of the Timeline of United States history concerns events from 1820 to 1859. 1820s Presidency of James Monroe 1820 – Massachusetts divided in two with the admission of Maine as a state. 1820 – U.S. presidential election, 1820: James Monroe reelected president unopposed, Daniel D. Tompkins reelected vice president. 1821 – President Monroe and Vice President Tompkins begin second terms 1821 – Missouri becomes a state 1821 – Florida becomes a U.S. territory; the 1819 Adams–Onís Treaty goes into effect 1823 – Monroe Doctrine proclaimed 1824 – Gibbons v. Ogden (22 US 1 1824) affirms federal over state authority in interstate commerce. Gibbons' business partner is Cornelius Vanderbilt. 1824 – U.S. presidential election, 1824: Presidential results inconclusive. John C. Calhoun elected the vice president. 1825 – John Quincy Adams elected president by the House of Representatives; Presidency of John Quincy Adams 1825 – Adams becomes the sixth President; John C. Calhoun, Vice President 1825 – Erie Canal is finally completed 1826 – Former presidents Thomas Jefferson and John Adams die on the same day, which happens to be on the fiftieth anniversary of the approval of the Declaration of independence. 1828 – U.S. presidential election, 1828: Andrew Jackson elected president; John C. Calhoun reelected vice president December 22, 1828 - First Lady-designate Rachel Jackson dies of a heart attack. Presidency of Andrew Jackson 1829 – Andrew Jackson becomes the 7th President; Vice President Calhoun begins second term 1830s 1830s – Second Great Awakening is the religious revival movement 1830s – Oregon Trail which comes into use by settlers migrating to the Pacific Northwest 1830 – Indian Removal Act 1831 – Nat Turner's revolt 1831 – The Liberator begins publication in 1831 1831 – Cyrus McCormick invents the mechanical reaper 1831 – Petticoat affair (also known as the Eaton affair) 1832 – Worcester v. State of Georgia the Supreme Court rules in favor of Cherokees; President Jackson ignores the ruling 1832 – Maria Stewart is the first black American woman to give speech in front of a mixed audience 1832 – Black Hawk War 1832 – Tariff of 1832 1832 – Ordinance of Nullification passed by South Carolina 1832 – Department of Indian Affairs established 1832 – 1832 United States presidential election: Andrew Jackson reelected president; Martin Van Buren elected vice president 1832 – Jackson vetoes the charter renewal of the Second Bank of the United States, bringing to a head the Bank War and ultimately leading to the Panic of 1837 1832 – John C. Calhoun resigns as vice president 1833 – The Force Bill expands presidential powers 1833 – President Jackson begins second term; Martin Van Buren becomes Vice President 1834 – Slavery debates at Lane Theological Seminary are one of the first major public discussions of the topic 1835 – Mexican President Santa Anna annuls the 1824 constitution, precipitating a civil war which spawns the Texas War for Independence. 1835 – Alexis de Tocqueville's Democracy in America published 1835 – Second Seminole War begins in Florida as members of the Seminole tribe resist relocation 1836 – Mexican President Santa Anna's army defeats Texas rebels at Battle of the Alamo 1836 - Battle of Goliad 1836 - Santa Anna deposed after losing the Battle of San Jacinto and recognizing Texan independence. 1836 – Creek War of 1836 1836 – Samuel Colt invents the revolver 1836 – Original "gag rule" imposed when U.S. House of Representatives bars discussion of antislavery petitions 1836 – Specie Circular issued 1836 – Arkansas becomes a state 1836 - Texas is the Lone Star Republic 1836 – U.S. presidential election, 1836: Martin Van Buren elected president, no one is elected vice president. 1837 - Richard M. Johnson elected vice president by the Senate. Presidency of Martin Van Buren 1837 – Van Buren becomes the eighth President; Johnson, Vice President 1837 – U.S. recognizes the Republic of Texas 1837 – Caroline affair 1837 – Michigan becomes a state 1837 – Oberlin College begins enrolling female students, becoming first coeducational college in the U.S. 1837 – Panic of 1837 1837 – Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge reverses Dartmouth College v. Woodward: property rights can be overridden by public eyed 1838 – Forced removal of the Cherokee Nation from the southeastern U.S. leads to over 4,000 deaths in the Trail of Tears 1838 – Aroostook War 1839 – Amistad case 1840s 1840 – 1840 United States presidential election: William Henry Harrison is elected president; John Tyler is elected vice president 1841 – John Quincy Adams argues the Amistad Case before the Supreme Court Presidency of William Henry Harrison March 4 – Harrison becomes the ninth President; John Tyler, Vice President March 6 - Supreme Court finds for Amistad defendants. Freeing them. April 4 – Harrison dies after only a month in office Presidency of John Tyler April 6, 1841 - Vice President Tyler becomes the tenth President September 11, 1841 - Harrison's former cabinet resigns en masse. Only Daniel Webster remains. 1842 – Webster–Ashburton Treaty 1842 – The Dorr Rebellion: A civil war in Rhode Island 1843 – Attempt to impeach President Tyler fails 1843 - Emigrants begin their journey along the Oregon Trail. 1844 – Oregon message 1844 – U.S. presidential election, 1844, James K. Polk is elected president; George M. Dallas is elected vice president 1845 – Texas annexation Presidency of James K. Polk 1845 – Polk becomes the 11th President ; Dallas, Vice President 1845 – Florida and Texas become states 1846 – The U.S.–Mexican War begins 1846 - Bear Flag revolt in Alta California, which is momentarily independent. 1846 – Iowa becomes a state 1846 – Wilmot Proviso 1846 - The United States and Great Britain sign the Oregon Treaty 1847 - Abraham Lincoln introduces himself to the world by his introduction of the Spot Resolutions in the House. 1848 – U.S. presidential election, 1848; Zachary Taylor is elected president; Millard Fillmore is elected vice president 1847 - Battle of Buena Vista 1847 - Battle of Veracruz 1848 – Wisconsin becomes a state 1848 – The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ends the Mexican–American War 1848 – Dred Scott sues for his freedom Presidency of Zachary Taylor 1849 – Taylor becomes the 12th President; Fillmore, Vice President 1849 – California Gold Rush begins 1850s 1850 – Clayton–Bulwer Treaty 1850 – President Taylor threatens to veto Compromise of 1850 even if it means Civil War. June 3–11 -The secessionist Nashville Convention held in Nashville, Tennessee. Presidency of Millard Fillmore July 9, 1850 – President Taylor dies, Vice President Fillmore becomes the 13th President September 9–20, 1850 – The Compromise of 1850, including the notorious Fugitive Slave Act passed September 9, 1850 – California becomes a state November 1850 - Nashville Convention reconvenes; Satisfied with the Compromise, it declares the Union intact-for the moment. 1852 – U.S. presidential election, 1852: Franklin Pierce elected president; William R. King elected vice president 1853 – Commodore Matthew Perry opens Japan Presidency of Franklin Pierce 1853 – Pierce becomes the 14th President; King, Vice President 1853 – Vice President King dies after only six weeks in office. 1853 – Gadsden Purchase from Mexico 1854 – Kansas–Nebraska Act; nullified Missouri Compromise 1854 – Ostend Manifesto 1854 – Whig Party collapses 1854 – Treaty of Kanagawa with Japan 1854 – Walker Expedition into Nicaragua 1855 – The Farmers' High School, which becomes Penn State University is founded. 1856 – Sack of Lawrence, Kansas 1856 – Pottawatomie massacre 1856 – Preston Brooks beats Charles Sumner with his walking stick on the steps of the U.S. Capitol building 1856 – U.S. presidential election, 1856: James Buchanan elected president; John C. Breckinridge, vice president Presidency of James Buchanan 1857 – Buchanan becomes the 15th President; Breckinridge, Vice President 1857 – Dred Scott v. Sandford 60 US 393 1857 declares that slaves and blacks descended from slaves were not American citizens and cannot sue 1857 – Utah War 1857 – Lecompton Constitution rejected in Kansas Territory 1857 – Panic of 1857 1857 - San Francisco Board of Education established Minns Evening Normal School for current and prospective teachers, which becomes San Jose State University 1858 – Transatlantic cable laid 1858 – Minnesota becomes a state 1858 – Lincoln-Douglas Debates 1858 – U.S. is party to Treaty of Tientsin 1859 – John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry 1859 – Comstock Lode discovered See also History of the United States (1789–1849) History of the United States (1849–1865) Timeline of the American Old West Further reading 1820s John S. Galbraith. "British-American Competition in the Border Fur Trade of the 1820s". Minnesota History, Vol. 36, No. 7 (Sep., 1959), pp. 241–249. Robert Henry Billigmeier and Fred Altschuler Picard, eds. The old land and the new : the journals of two Swiss families in America in the 1820s. Minneapolis : University of Minnesota Press, 1965. Merrill D Peterson. Democracy, liberty and property; the State Constitutional Conventions of the 1820s. Indianapolis, Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1966. Robert A. McCaughey. "From Town to City: Boston in the 1820s". Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 88, No. 2 (Jun., 1973), pp. 191–213. James Brewer Stewart. "Evangelicalism and the Radical Strain in Southern Antislavery Thought During the 1820s". The Journal of Southern History, Vol. 39, No. 3 (Aug., 1973), pp. 379–396. Anne M. Boylan. "Sunday Schools and Changing Evangelical Views of Children in the 1820s". Church History, Vol. 48, No. 3 (Sep., 1979), pp. 320–333 Priscilla Ferguson Clement. "The Philadelphia Welfare Crisis of the 1820s". The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, Vol. 105, No. 2 (Apr., 1981), pp. 150–165. Barbara Cloud. "Oregon in the 1820s: The Congressional Perspective". The Western Historical Quarterly, Vol. 12, No. 2 (Apr., 1981), pp. 145–164. David J Russo. Keepers of our past : local historical writing in the United States, 1820s-1830s. New York : Greenwood Press, 1988. James L. Huston. Virtue Besieged: Virtue, "Equality, and the General Welfare in the Tariff Debates of the 1820s". Journal of the Early Republic, Vol. 14, No. 4 (Winter, 1994), pp. 523–547 George A. Thompson, Jr. "Counterfeiter's Jargon of the 1820s". American Speech, Vol. 71, No. 3 (Autumn, 1996), pp. 334–335. 1830s Miguel Guelbenzu. "Gest's Recollections of Life in the Middle West in the 1830s". Indiana Magazine of History, Vol. 73, No. 2 (June 1977), pp. 125–142. William R. Swagerty. "A View from the Bottom Up: The Work Force of the American Fur Company on the Upper Missouri in the 1830s". Montana: The Magazine of Western History, Vol. 43, No. 1, Fur Trade Issue (Winter, 1993), pp. 18–33. Curtis D. Johnson. "Supply-Side and Demand-Side Revivalism? Evaluating the Social Influences on New York State Evangelism in the 1830s". Social Science History, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Spring, 1995), pp. 1–30. Mary Hershberger. "Mobilizing Women, Anticipating Abolition: The Struggle against Indian Removal in the 1830s". The Journal of American History, Vol. 86, No. 1 (Jun., 1999), pp. 15–40 Christine MacDonald. "Judging Jurisdictions: Geography and Race in Slave Law and Literature of the 1830s". American Literature, Vol. 71, No. 4 (Dec., 1999), pp. 625–655. 1840s Ralph Mann. "Mountains, Land, and Kin Networks: Burkes Garden, Virginia, in the 1840s and 1850s". The Journal of Southern History, Vol. 58, No. 3 (Aug., 1992), pp. 411–434. Harlan D. Parker. "The Musical Cabinet: An Educational Journal of the Boston Area in the 1840s". Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, No. 116 (Spring, 1993), pp. 51–60. John W. Quist. "The Great Majority of Our Subscribers Are Farmers": The Michigan Abolitionist Constituency of the 1840s. 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225218	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20United%20States%20history%20%281790%E2%80%931819%29	Timeline of United States history (1790–1819)	This section of the Timeline of United States history concerns events from 1790 to 1819. 1790s Presidency of George Washington 1790 – Rhode Island ratifies the Constitution and becomes 13th state 1791 – The Bill of Rights, comprising the first ten amendments to the Constitution, is adopted. 1791 – First Bank of the United States chartered 1791 – Vermont becomes the 14th state (formerly the independent Vermont Republic) 1792 – Kentucky becomes the 15th state (formerly Kentucky County, Virginia) 1792 – U.S. presidential election, 1792: George Washington reelected president, John Adams reelected vice president 1793 – Eli Whitney invents cotton gin March 4, 1793 – President Washington and Vice President Adams begin second terms 1793 – Yellow fever outbreak in Philadelphia 1793 – Fugitive Slave Act passed 1793 – Chisholm v. Georgia (2 US 419 1793) paves way for passage of 11th Amendment 1794 – Whiskey Rebellion 1794 – Battle of Fallen Timbers 1795 – Treaty of Greenville 1795 – Jay's Treaty 1795 – 11th Amendment "ratified by 12 of the then 15 states" 1795 – Pinckney's Treaty (also called Treaty of San Lorenzo) 1796 – Tennessee becomes the 16th state (formerly part of North Carolina) 1796 – Treaty of Tripoli 1796 – U.S. presidential election, 1796: John Adams is elected president, Thomas Jefferson vice president Presidency of John Adams 1797 – John Adams becomes the second President (until 1801); in Philadelphia; Thomas Jefferson becomes Vice President 1798 – Alien and Sedition Acts 1798 – the Quasi-War starts 1798 and 1799 – Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions 1798 – Charles Brockden Brown's novel Wieland published 1799 – Charles Brockden Brown's novel Edgar Huntly published 1799 – Fries's Rebellion 1799 – Logan Act 1799 – George Washington dies 1800s 1800 – Library of Congress founded 1800 – Convention of 1800 ends the Quasi-War 1800 – U.S. presidential election, 1800: Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr tie in the Electoral College. 1801 – Thomas Jefferson elected president by the House of Representatives; Aaron Burr elected vice president. 1801 – President Adams appoints John Marshall Chief Justice Presidency of Thomas Jefferson 1801 – Thomas Jefferson becomes the third President; Aaron Burr becomes Vice President 1803 – Marbury v. Madison (5 US 137 1803) allows Supreme Court to invalidate law passed by the United States Congress for first time: the Judiciary Act of 1789 1803 – Louisiana Purchase 1803 – Ohio, formerly part of Connecticut, becomes the 17th state 1804 – 12th Amendment ratified 1804 – New Jersey abolishes slavery 1804 – Burr-Hamilton duel (Alexander Hamilton dies) 1804 – Lewis and Clark set out 1804 – U.S. presidential election, 1804: Thomas Jefferson reelected president; George Clinton elected vice president 1805 – President Jefferson begins second term; George Clinton becomes Vice President 1807 – Embargo Act of 1807 1807 – Robert Fulton invents steamboat 1807 – U.S. slave trade with Africa ends 1808 – U.S. presidential election, 1808: James Madison elected president, George Clinton reelected vice president Presidency of James Madison 1809 – James Madison becomes the fourth President; Vice President Clinton begins second term 1809 – Non-Intercourse Act (March 1) 1810s 1810 – Fletcher v. Peck (10 US 87 1810) marks first time U.S. Supreme Court invalidates a state legislative act 1811 – First Bank of the United States charter expires 1812 – Vice President Clinton dies 1812 – War of 1812, an offshoot of the Napoleonic Wars, begins 1812 – Daniel Webster elected to the United States Congress 1812 – Louisiana becomes the 18th state 1812 – U.S. presidential election, 1812: James Madison reelected president; Elbridge Gerry elected vice president 1813 – President Madison begins second term; Elbridge Gerry becomes Vice President 1813-1814 - Creek War 1814 – British troops burn Washington, D.C. but are forced back at Baltimore 1814 – Vice President Gerry dies 1814 – Treaty of Ghent settles War of 1812 1815 – Battle of New Orleans 1816 – Indiana becomes the 19th state 1816 – Second Bank of the United States chartered 1816 – U.S. presidential election, 1816: James Monroe elected president, Daniel D. Tompkins vice president Presidency of James Monroe 1817 – James Monroe becomes the fifth President; Daniel D. Tompkins, Vice President 1817 – Rush-Bagot Treaty 1817 – Harvard Law School founded 1817 – Mississippi becomes the 20th state 1818 – Cumberland Road opened 1818 – Illinois becomes the 21st state 1818 – Jackson Purchase in Kentucky 1819 – Panic of 1819 1819 – Adams-Onís Treaty, including acquisition of Florida 1819 – McCulloch v. Maryland (17 US 316 1819) prohibits state laws from infringing upon federal constitutional authority 1819 – Dartmouth College v. Woodward (17 US 518 1819) protects principle of honoring contracts and charters 1819 – Alabama becomes the 22nd state in the U.S. See also History of the United States (1789–1849) Timeline of the American Revolution Further reading 1790s Phillips, James Duncan. When Salem sailed the seven seas—in the 1790s. New York, Newcomen Society of England, American Branch, 1946. Flexner, James Thomas. "The scope of painting in the 1790s." Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, January 1950. Arena, C. Richard. "Philadelphia-Spanish New Orleans trade in the 1790s." Louisiana History, v.2, no.4, 1961. Allis, Frederick S. Government through opposition; party politics in the 1790s. New York, Macmillan, 1963. Kuehl, John William. A Federalist journal looks at France : a case study of emerging nationalism in the 1790s (thesis/dissertation). 1964. Howe, John R., Jr. "Republican Thought and the Political Violence of the 1790s." American Quarterly, Vol. 19, No. 2, Part 1 (Summer, 1967), pp. 147–165. Shapiro, Eugene Paul. Robert Hunter and the land system of colonial New York : education in Massachusetts in the 1790s : the Middlekauff-Birdsall interpretation reconsidered (thesis/dissertation). 1972. Sneddon, Leonard James. State politics in the 1790s (thesis/dissertation). 1972. Fussell, G.E. "An Englishman in America in the 1790s." Agricultural History, Vol. 47, No. 2 (Apr., 1973), pp. 114–118. Wrenn, James W. The politics of Monticello : psychosocial studies of Thomas Jefferson and the political conflict of the 1790s (thesis/dissertation). 1973. Arbuckle, Robert D. "John Nicholson and the attempt to promote Pennsylvania industry in the 1790s." Pennsylvania History, Vol. 42, No. 2 (April, 1975), pp. 98–114 Herndon, G. Melvin. "Agriculture in America in the 1790s: An Englishman's View." Agricultural History, Vol. 49, No. 3 (Jul., 1975), pp. 505–516 Soltow, Lee. "Socioeconomic Classes in South Carolina and Massachusetts in the 1790s and the Observations of John Drayton." South Carolina Historical Magazine, Vol. 81, No. 4 (Oct., 1980), pp. 283–305. Hebert. The Pennsylvania French in the 1790s : the story of their survival (thesis/dissertation). 1981. Formisano, Ronald P. The transformation of political culture : Massachusetts parties, 1790s–1840s. New York : Oxford University Press, 1983. Appleby, Joyce Oldham. Capitalism and a new social order : the Republican vision of the 1790s. New York : New York University Press, 1984. Hebert, Catherine A. A survey of the French book trade in Philadelphia in the 1790s. New Kensington, Penn. : Pennsylvania State University, 1985? Welsh, Frank S. 30 Washington Street, ca. 1790s, Easton, Maryland : comparative microscopic paint & color analysis of the interior and exterior to determine the nature and color of the original architectural surface coatings. Bryn Mawr, Pa. : Talbot County Historical Society, 1985 Hall, John A. "That Onerous Task: Jury Service in South Carolina during the Early 1790s." South Carolina Historical Magazine, Vol. 87, No. 1 (Jan., 1986), pp. 1–13. Trupiano, Terri. Charlton Park cook book : historic recipes 1790s-1930s. Hasting, Mich. : Charlton Park Village & Museum, 1986? Ottenberg, June C. "Popularity of Two Operas in Philadelphia in the 1790s ." International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music, Vol. 18, No. 2 (Dec. 1987), pp. 205–216. Watts, Steven. The Republic Reborn: War and the Making of Liberal America, 1790–1820 (Baltimore, 1987) Anderson, Wilby F. The Andersons family history : first to Ross County, Ohio in late 1790s. Clearwater, Fla. : W.F. Anderson, 1989. Worman, Edward A. "The 1790s French Azilum in Pennsylvania." Pennsylvania Magazine, vol. 9, no. 2, April 1989. Newman, Simon Peter. "Principles and not men" : the political culture of leadership in the 1790s. Philadelphia Center for Early American Studies, 1990. Branson, Susan. Politics and gender : the political consciousness of Philadelphia women in the 1790s (thesis/dissertation). 1992. Branson, Susan. The influence of black refugees from St. Domingue on the Philadelphia Community in the 1790s. Paper presented at the 24th Annual Conference of the Association of Caribbean Historians, Nassau, Bahamas, March 29 – April 3, 1992. Spaeth, Catherine Therese Christians. Purgatory or promised land? : French emigres in Philadelphia and their perceptions of America during the 1790s (thesis/dissertation). 1992. Taylor, Alan. "The Art of Hook & Snivey": Political Culture in Upstate New York during the 1790s." The Journal of American History, Vol. 79, No. 4 (Mar., 1993), pp. 1371–1396. Thorn, Jennifer J. Every family a state : achieving human nature in 1790s Anglo-American culture (thesis/dissertation). 1994. Amberg, Julie Sutherland. Political and sentimental discourse in 1790s America : Judith Sargent Murray's The Gleaner, Hannah Webster Foster's The Coquette, and Susanna Haswell Rowson's Reuben and Rachel; or, Tales of Old Times (thesis/dissertation). 1995. Kornfeld, Eve. "Encountering "the Other": American Intellectuals and Indians in the 1790s." William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, Vol. 52, No. 2 (Apr., 1995), pp. 287–314 Rossignol, Marie-Jeanne. "Early Isolationism Revisited: Neutrality and Beyond in the 1790s." Journal of American Studies, 29 (1995), 2, 215–227. Haley, Jacquetta M. Rockland County in the 1790s. New City, NY : Historical Society of Rockland County, 1997. Schoenbachler, Matthew. "Republicanism in the Age of Democratic Revolution: The Democratic-Republican Societies of the 1790s." Journal of the Early Republic, Vol. 18, No. 2 (Summer, 1998), pp. 237–261. Bowling, Kenneth R. and Donald R. Kennon, eds. Neither separate nor equal : Congress in the 1790s. Athens : Ohio University Press, 2000. Labelle, Jean. Melancholy convictions : the unsure state of union in the state of Massachusetts from the late 1790s to 1816 (thesis/dissertation). 2000. Branson, Susan. "Elizabeth Drinker: Quaker Values and Federalist Support in the 1790s." Pennsylvania History, Vol. 68, No. 4, The World of Elizabeth Drinker: Celebrating the Tenth Anniversary of the Publication of Her Diary (Autumn 2001), pp. 465–482 Finkelman, Paul. "Suppressing American Slave Traders in the 1790s." OAH Magazine of History, Vol. 18, No. 3, The Atlantic World (Apr., 2004), pp. 51–55. Lewis, Paul. "Attaining Masculinity: Charles Brockden Brown and Woman Warriors of the 1790s." Early American Literature, Vol. 40, No. 1 (2005), pp. 37–55 Irwin, Douglas A. and Richard Eugene Sylla, eds. Founding choices : American economic policy in the 1790s. Chicago; London : University of Chicago Press, 2011. Papers of the National Bureau of Economic Research conference held at Dartmouth College on May 8–9, 2009. 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225219	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20the%20American%20Revolution	Timeline of the American Revolution	Timeline of the American Revolution — timeline of the political upheaval culminating in the 18th century in which Thirteen Colonies in North America joined together for independence from the British Empire, and after victory in the Revolutionary War combined to form the United States of America. The American Revolution includes political, social, and military aspects. The revolutionary era is generally considered to have begun with the passage of the Stamp Act in 1765 and ended with the ratification of the United States Bill of Rights in 1791. The military phase of the revolution, the American Revolutionary War, lasted from 1775 to 1783. 1600s 1629 The Cambridge Agreement (August 29, 1629) 1683 The Lords of Trade issues quo warranto writs for the charters of several North American colonies, including Massachusetts (June 3). 1684 Revocation of the Charter by Charles II (June 18). The Massachusetts writ is never served for technical reasons, and the agreement is formally vacated when the chancery court issues a scire facias writ formally annulling the charter. The proceedings are arranged so that the time for the colonial authorities to defend the charter expires before they even learn of the event. 1686 Charter arrives in Boston (May 14) establishing the Dominion of New England in America. 1689 1689 Boston revolt (April 18). Leaders of the former Massachusetts Bay Colony reclaim control of the government. In other colonies, members of governments displaced return to power. 1691 William III and Mary II approve the charter (October 7) formally establishing the Province of Massachusetts Bay. 1750s 1754 Albany Congress (June 18–July 11) The first time in the 18th century that American colonial representatives meet to discuss some manner of formal union. 1760s 1760 Pierre de Rigaud, Governor of New France, capitulates (September 8) to Field Marshal Jeffrey Amherst. This ends most fighting in North America between France and Great Britain in the French and Indian War. Amherst becomes the First British Governor-General of territories that would later become Canada plus lands (Ohio Country and Illinois Country) west of the American Colonies. King George II of Great Britain dies (October 25) and is succeeded by his grandson George III. 1761 New England Planters immigrate to Nova Scotia, Canada (1759–1768) to take up lands left vacant after the Expulsion of the Acadians. 1763 The Treaty of Paris (February 10) formally ends the French and Indian War. France cedes most of its territories in North America to Great Britain, but Louisiana west of the Mississippi River is ceded to Spain. Previously allied with France, a Native American confederacy in the Great Lakes region, dissatisfied the policies of the British under Amherst, launch Pontiac's War under the overall command of the eponymous Ottowa chief, which lasts until 1766. King George's Royal Proclamation of 1763 (October 7) establishes administration in territories newly ceded by France. To prevent further violence between settlers and Native Americans, the Proclamation sets a western boundary on the American colonies. The Navigation Acts are re-enforced by George Grenville as a part of his attempt to reassert unified economic control over the British Empire following the Seven Years' War. 1764 The Sugar Act (April 5), intended to raise revenues, and the Currency Act (September 1), prohibiting the colonies from issuing paper money, are passed by Parliament. These Acts, coming during the economic slump that followed the French and Indian War, are resented by the colonists and lead to protest. 1765 To impose control and help defray the cost of keeping troops in America to control the colonists, Parliament enacts (March 22) the Stamp Act, imposing a tax on many types of printed materials used in the colonies. Seen as a violation of rights, the Act sparks violent demonstrations in several Colonies. Virginia's House of Burgesses adopts (May 29) the Virginia Resolves claiming that, under British law, Virginians could be taxed only by an assembly to which they had elected representatives. Delegates from nine colonies attend the Stamp Act Congress which adopts (October 19) a Declaration of Rights and Grievances and petitions Parliament and the king to repeal the Act. Parliament enacts (March 24) the Quartering Act, requiring the Colonies to provide housing, food, and other provisions to British troops. The act is resisted or circumvented in most of the colonies. In 1767 and again in 1769, Parliament suspended the governor and legislature of New York for failure to comply. 1766 The British Parliament repeals (March 18) the unpopular Stamp Act of the previous year, but, in the simultaneous Declaratory Act, asserts its "full power and authority to make laws and statutes ... to bind the colonies and people of America ... in all cases whatsoever". Liberty Pole erected in New York City commons in celebration of the Stamp Act repeal (May 21). An intermittent skirmish with the British garrison over the removal of this and other poles, and their replacement by the Sons of Liberty, rages until the Province of New York is under the control of the revolutionary New York Provincial Congress in 1775 1767 The Townshend Acts, named for Chancellor of the Exchequer Charles Townshend, are passed by Parliament (June 29), placing duties on many items imported into America. 1768 In April, Britain's Secretary of State for the Colonies, Lord Hillsborough, orders colonial governors to stop their own assemblies from endorsing Adams' circular letter. Hillsborough also orders the governor of Massachusetts to dissolve the general court if the Massachusetts assembly does not revoke the letter. By month's end, the assemblies of New Hampshire, Connecticut and New Jersey have endorsed the letter. In May, a British warship, , armed with 50 cannon sails into Boston harbor after a call for help from custom commissioners who are constantly being harassed by Boston agitators. In June, a customs official is locked up in the cabin of Liberty, a sloop owned by John Hancock. Imported wine is then unloaded illegally into Boston without payment of duties. Following this incident, customs officials seize Hancock's sloop. After threats of violence from Bostonians, the customs officials escape to an island off Boston, then request the intervention of British troops. In July, the governor of Massachusetts dissolves the general court after the legislature defies his order to revoke Adams' circular letter. In August, in Boston and New York, merchants agree to boycott most British goods until the Townshend Acts are repealed. In September, at a town meeting in Boston, residents are urged to arm themselves. Later in September, British warships sail into Boston Harbor, then two regiments of British infantry land in Boston and set up permanent residence to keep order. 1769 To the Betrayed Inhabitants of the City and Colony of New York broadside published by the local Sons of Liberty 1770s 1770 Golden Hill incident in which British troops wound civilians, including one death (January 19) Lord North becomes Prime Minister of Great Britain (January 28) Boston Massacre (March 5) 1771 Battle of Alamance in North Carolina (May 16) 1772 Samuel Adams organizes the Committees of Correspondence Pine Tree Riot Gaspee Affair (June 9) Somerset v Stewart A British court rules there is nothing in English common law that supports slavery in England. (June 22) The Watauga Association in what would become Tennessee declares itself independent. 1773 James Rivington's New-York Gazeteer begins publication (April 22) Parliament passes the Tea Act (May 10) Association of the Sons of Liberty in New York published by local Sons of Liberty (December 15) Colonists in all major ports refuse to allow tea to be landed. Boston Tea Party (December 16) 1774 A decisive year. Benjamin Franklin, Massachusetts' agent in London, is ridiculed before Parliament (January 29) Lord Dunmore's War British pass Intolerable Acts, including: Boston Port Act (March 31) Administration of Justice Act (May 20), Massachusetts Government Act (May 20), A second Quartering Act (June 2) Quebec Act Powder Alarm, General Gage's secret raid on the Cambridge powder magazine (September 1) First Continental Congress, September 5 – October 26; 12 colonies send delegates; major actions: Declaration and Resolves, also known as Declaration of Rights (October 14) Continental Association (October 20) Petition to the King (October 26) Suffolk Resolves, Suffolk County, Massachusetts (September 9) Burning of the (October 19) Greenwich Tea Party (December 22) 1775 Paul Revere's Midnight Ride (April 18) Battles of Lexington and Concord, followed by the Siege of Boston (April 19) Gunpowder Incident (April 20) Skenesboro, New York (now Whitehall, New York) captured by Lieutenant Samuel Herrick. (May 9) Fort Ticonderoga captured by Ethan Allen, Benedict Arnold and the Green Mountain Boys. (May 10) Second Continental Congress meets (May 10) Battle of Machias (June 11-12) Congress votes to create Continental Army out of the militia units around Boston and appointed George Washington of Virginia as commanding general. This would later become the modern United States Army (June 14) Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17) Washington arrives in Cambridge, Massachusetts to take command of the Continental Army (July 2) Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms issued (July 6) Olive Branch Petition sent to King George III (July 8) Snow Campaign (November–December) Dunmore's Proclamation issued by Lord Dunmore, colonial governor of Virginia, offering freedom to slaves that abandon their Patriot masters and fight for the British. (November 7) Continental Marines established by Continental Congress. They would become the modern day United States Marine Corps (November 10) Battle of Kemp's Landing (November 15) Siege of Savage's Old Fields (November 19–21) Henry Knox transported fifty-nine captured cannons (taken from Fort Ticonderoga and Fort Crown Point) from upstate New York to Boston, Massachusetts. Trip took 56 days to complete. (December 5, 1775 to January 24, 1776) Battle of Great Bridge (December 9) British forces repulse an attack by Continental Army generals Richard Montgomery and Benedict Arnold at the Battle of Quebec. (December 31) 1776 New Hampshire ratifies the first state constitution (see Constitution of New Hampshire) Burning of Norfolk (January 1) Thomas Paine publishes Common Sense (January 10) David Mathews appointed Mayor of New York, the highest ranking civilian officer for English North America for the duration of the Revolution. Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge (February 27) Battle of the Rice Boats (March 2–3) Battle of Nassau (March 3–4) Fortification of Dorchester Heights results in British forces evacuating Boston (March 4–5) British evacuate Boston (March 17) Pennsylvania Provincial Conference (June 18–25, 1776) Battle of Sullivan's Island (June 28) Thomas Hickey hanged for role in plot to assassinate George Washington (June 28). British Colonial Loyalist New York Mayor David Mathews previously arrested in Flatbush, Brooklyn for his role in the plot (June 22). The Newly formed Continental Army departs its first winter encampment at Cambridge, Massachusetts (April) Battle of Turtle Gut Inlet (June 29) Largest assembly of British naval fleet in history commences off the coasts of Staten Island, Brooklyn and New Jersey (July 3). Second Continental Congress enacts (July 2) a resolution declaring independence from the British Empire, and then approves (July 4) the written "United States Declaration of Independence". Sons of Liberty order enslaved African Americans to topple the statue of King George III in Bowling Green (July 9) Battle of Long Island, a.k.a. Battle of Brooklyn (August 27) British prison ships begin in Wallabout Bay, New York Staten Island Peace Conference (September 11) Landing at Kip's Bay (September 15) Battle of Harlem Heights (September 16) Great Fire of New York (September 21–22) Nathan Hale captured and executed for espionage (September 22) Battle of Valcour Island (October 11) Battle of Pell's Point (October 18) Battle of White Plains (October 29) Battle of Fort Cumberland (November 10–29) Battle of Fort Washington (November 16) Battle of Fort Lee (November 20) Ambush of Geary (December 14) Battle of Iron Works Hill (December 23 – December 26) Battle of Trenton (December 26) 1777 Battle of the Assunpink Creek, also known as the Second Battle of Trenton, (January 2) Battle of Princeton (January 3) Continental Army enters second winter encampment of the war at Morristown (January 6) Forage War (January – March): Battle of Millstone (January 20) Battle of Drake's Farm (February 1) Battle of Quibbletown (February 8) Battle of Spanktown (February 23) Battle of Bound Brook (April 13) Sybil Ludington, 16-year-old daughter of American Colonel Henry Ludington, makes a ride in the early hours of the night (April 26) British regulars, under Major General William Tryon, burn and loot Danbury, Connecticut (April 26) Battle of Ridgefield (April 27) Battle of Thomas Creek (May 17) Meigs Raid (May 23) First Middlebrook encampment (May 28 – July 2) Battle of Short Hills (June 26) Fort Ticonderoga abandoned by the Americans due to advancing British troops placing cannon on Mount Defiance. (July 5) British retake Fort Ticonderoga. (July 6) Battle of Hubbardton (July 7) Delegates in Vermont, which was not one of the Thirteen Colonies, establish a republic and adopt (July 8) a constitution—the first in what is now the territory of the United States to prohibit slavery. (Vermont would become the fourteenth state in 1791.) Battle of Fort Anne (July 8) Siege of Fort Stanwix (August 2–23) Battle of Oriskany (August 6) Battle of Machias (1777) (August 13–14) Battle of Bennington (August 16) Battle of Staten Island (August 22) Siege of Fort Henry (September 1) Battle of Cooch's Bridge (September 3) Battle of Brandywine (September 11) Battle of the Clouds (September 16) Battle of Paoli (Paoli Massacre) (September 20) British occupation of Philadelphia (September 26) Battle of Germantown (October 4) Battle of Red Bank (October 5-November 25) Battle of Forts Clinton and Montgomery (October 6) Two Battles of Saratoga (September 19 and October 7) conclude with the surrender of the British army under General Burgoyne. Battle of Red Bank (October 22) Articles of Confederation adopted by the Second Continental Congress (November 15) Capture of Fort Mifflin, (November 16) and Fort Mercer, (November 18) Battle of Gloucester (1777) (November 25) Battle of White Marsh (December 5 – December 8) Battle of Matson's Ford (December 11) Rivington's Gazetter renamed Royal Gazette (December 13) 1777–1778 – Continental Army in third winter quarters at Valley Forge (December 19 – June 19) 1778 Treaty of Amity and Commerce and Treaty of Alliance with France (February 6) France is the first foreign country to recognise the flag of the United States, on the ship of John Paul Jones (February 14) Battle of Quinton's Bridge (March 18) John Paul Jones, in command of the Ranger, attacks Whitehaven in England, America's first naval engagement outside North America (April 20) The Great Chain across the Hudson is completed (April 30) Battle of Crooked Billet (May 1) Battle of Barren Hill (May 20) Battle of Cobleskill (May 30) British occupation of Philadelphia ends (June) Whaleboat attack on Flatbush, Brooklyn to kidnap New York Mayor David Mathews and other British and Loyalist figures partially succeeds in securing Captain James Moncrief and Theophylact Bache, President of the New York Chamber of Commerce, for future prisoner exchange (June) Battle of Monmouth (June 28) Battle of Wyoming (July 3) Battle of Ushant (July 27) Battle of Rhode Island (August 29) Baylor Massacre (September 27) Battle of Chestnut Neck (October 6) Affair at Little Egg Harbor (October 15) Cherry Valley massacre (November 11) Capture of Savannah (December 29) British successfully launch their southern strategy 1778–1779 – Majority of Continental Army in fourth winter quarters at Middlebrook Cantonment (November 30 – June 3) 1778–1779 – Major General Israel Putnam chooses Redding, Connecticut as his winter encampment to keep an eye on the storehouses in Danbury, Connecticut. 1779 February 14 - Battle of Kettle Creek February 23–25 Siege of Fort Vincennes May 10–24 - Chesapeake raid July 3-14 - Tryon's raid July 5 - Tryon's division lands in East Haven, Connecticut, met with spirited resistance from a band of local militia, take Black Rock Fort July 7 - Battle of Fairfield Destroy 54 barns, 47 storehouses, burned 83 homes, two churches, and municipal buildings including a schoolhouse, the courthouse and the local jail July 11 - Battle of Norwalk weakly opposed by about 50 local militia, easily dispersed. The destruction of the village and its commercial infrastructure destroyed July 16 - Battle of Stony Point July 22 - Battle of Minisink July 24 – August 14 - Penobscot Expedition August 19 - Battle of Paulus Hook September 16 - October 18 Siege of Savannah September 21 - Battle of Baton Rouge September 23 - Battle of Flamborough Head December 1779 - May 1780 Continental Army in fifth winter quarters at Morristown 1780s 1780 January 15 – Congress establishes the Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture to provide for final adjudication of appeals from state court prize cases involving disposition of ships and cargo allegedly seized from the British. January 16 - Battle of Cape St. Vincent January 28 – A stockade known as Fort Nashborough is founded on the banks of the Cumberland River. Two years later the site is renamed Nashville. February 1 – Some 8,000 British forces under General Henry Clinton arrive in Charleston, South Carolina, from New York. February 1 – New York cedes to Congress its western claims, including territory west of Lake Ontario. In 1792 New York will sell the Erie Triangle to Pennsylvania February 3 - Battle of Young's House March 14 – Bombardment of Fort Charlotte: After a two-week siege, Spanish general, colonial governor of Louisiana, and Viceroy of New Spain Bernardo de Gálvez captures Fort Charlotte, taking the port of Mobile (in present-day Alabama) from the British. Fort Charlotte was the last remaining British frontier post capable of threatening New Orleans in Spanish Louisiana. Its fall drove the British from the western reaches of West Florida and reduced the British military presence in West Florida to its capital, Pensacola. March 29-May 12 - Siege of Charleston April 8 – Siege of Charleston: British Army troops under General Henry Clinton and naval forces under Admiral Mariot Arbuthnot besiege Charleston, South Carolina. British ships sail past Fort Moultrie on Sullivan's Island to occupy Charleston Harbor. Washington will order reinforcements to Charleston, but the city falls on May 12 in what is arguably the worst American defeat of the war. May 6 – Siege of Charleston: Fort Moultrie falls to the British. April 2 – Siege of Charleston: American General Benjamin Lincoln surrenders Charleston to the British. The British lose 255 men while capturing a large American garrison. April 14 - Battle of Monck's Corner May 6 - Battle of Lenud's Ferry May 25-August 4 - Bird's invasion of Kentucky May 29 – Battle of Waxhaws: A clash between Continental Army forces under Abraham Buford and a mainly Loyalist force led by Banastre Tarleton occurs near Lancaster, South Carolina in the Waxhaws area (close to present-day Buford). The British destroyed the American forces. June 7 – Battle of Connecticut Farms June 10 - Battle of Mobley's Meeting House June 20 - Battle of Ramsour's Mill June 23 – Battle of Springfield. With the attempted British invasion of New Jersey stopped at Connecticut Farms and Springfield, major fighting in the North ends. June 27 – Robert Morris is appointed Superintendent of Finance, a post akin to Prime Minister, by Congress. July 11 - Expédition Particulière July 12 - Battle of Williamson's Plantation July 20–21 - Battle of Bull's Ferry July 21 - Battle of Colson's Mill August 1 - Battle of Rocky Mount August 6 - Battle of Hanging Rock August 8 - Battle of Piqua August 16 – Battle of Camden. British General Cornwallis gains a humiliating victory over Gates in South Carolina. August 18 - Battle of Fishing Creek August 18 - Battle of Musgrove Mill August 28 - Battle of Black Mingo September 21 - Battle of Wahab's Plantation September 23 – John André captured and the treason of Benedict Arnold is exposed September 26 – Battle of Charlotte October 7 – Battle of Kings Mountain October 16 - Royalton Raid October 19 - Battle of Klock's Field November 9 - Battle of Fishdam Ford November 20 - Battle of Blackstock's Farm December – Continental Army enters sixth winter with encampments in New York’s Hudson Highlands and Pompton and Morristown, New Jersey 1781 The Future King William IV, the only active member of the British Royal Family to visit the former 13 colonies, takes up residence in the Rose and Crown Tavern on Staten Island. January 1–29 - Pennsylvania Line Mutiny January 1–19 - Raid on Richmond January 17 – Battle of Cowpens January 20 - Pompton Mutiny February 24 - Pyle's Massacre March 1 – Articles of Confederation ratified March 8 - Skirmish at Waters Creek March 15 – Battle of Guilford Court House March 16 - Battle of Cape Henry April 25 - Battle of Blandford April 25 - Battle of Hobkirk's Hill April 27 - Action at Osborne's May 22-June 6 - Siege of Augusta May 22-June 19 - Siege of Ninety-Six June 26 - Battle of Spencer's Ordinary July 6 - Battle of Green Spring July 9–24 - Francisco's Fight September 5 – Battle of the Chesapeake September 6 – Battle of Groton Heights September 8 – Battle of Eutaw Springs October 19 – The British surrender at Yorktown December 31 – Bank of North America chartered December – Continental Army returns to Hudson Highlands and Morristown New Jersey for its seventh winter encampment. 1782 February 27 – The British House of Commons votes against further war, informally recognizing American independence. March 8 - Gnadenhutten massacre March 22 - Battle of Little Mountain May 25-June 12 - Crawford expedition August 15–17 - Siege of Bryan Station August 19 - Battle of Blue Licks August 27 – Battle of the Combahee River September 11–13 – Siege of Fort Henry (1782) November – Continental Army moves into its eighth and final winter quarters, at the New Windsor Cantonment and in the Hudson Highlands November 30 – preliminary Articles of Peace are signed by British negotiator Richard Oswald and representatives of the United States of America. December 14 – British evacuate Charleston, South Carolina December 27 – Last skirmish of the conflict takes place near Cedar Bridge Tavern in Barnegat Township, New Jersey. 1783 March 10–15 - Newburgh Conspiracy June 20–24 - Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783 September 3 – The Treaty of Paris (1783) ends the American Revolutionary War November 25 – The British evacuate New York, marking the end of British rule, and General George Washington triumphantly returns with the Continental Army. December 23 – George Washington's resignation as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army 1784 January 14 – The Treaty of Paris is ratified by the Congress. Jay–Gardoqui Treaty April 9 – The Treaty of Paris is ratified by the British May 12 – Ratified treaties are exchanged in Paris between the two nations. August – "The state of Frankland," later known as Franklin, secedes from North Carolina November 1 – Robert Morris resigns as Superintendent of Finance and is not replaced. 1785 May - Congress refuses admission of the State of Franklin to the Union November 28 - Treaty of Hopewell 1786 August 29 – June 1787 - Shays' Rebellion September 11–14 - Annapolis Convention fails 1787 July 13 - Northwest Ordinance May 25 - September 17 - Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia December 7, 12, 18- Delaware, Pennsylvania and New Jersey ratify the Constitution 1788 North Carolina reasserted it claim to its Overmountain region, at which time Franklin ceases to exist. Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, South Carolina, New Hampshire, Virginia and New York ratify the Constitution United States Constitution ratified (June 21) November 2 – Cyrus Griffin resigns as "President of the United States in Congress Assembled", and with the exceptions of John Jay and John Knox remaining as Secretaries of Foreign Affairs and War respectively; and Michael Hillegas remaining as Treasurer, the United States of America temporarily ceases to exist. The first federal Elections for the House of Representatives begin. United States presidential election (December 15, 1788 – January 10, 1789) 1789 March 2 - Philip Pell, only member in attendance, adjourns the Congress of the Confederation sine die March 4 - Members of the 1st United States Congress begin to take their seats, Federal Hall New York April 1 - House of Representatives first achieves a quorum; elects its officers April 6 - Senate first achieves a quorum and elects its officers April 6 - Joint session of Congress counts the Electoral College ballots, certifies that George Washington has been unanimously elected President of the United States April 6 - John Adams receives 34 of 69 votes, is elected as Vice president April 30 - George Washington is inaugurated as the nation's first president at Federal Hall in New York City July 4 - Hamilton tariff July - Charles Thomson resigns as secretary of Congress and hands over the Great Seal, bringing an end to the Confederation Congress September 24 - Judiciary Act of 1789 September 25 - Congress approves twelve articles of amendment to the Constitution, the Bill of Rights November 21 - North Carolina becomes the 12th state to ratify the Constitution, with a vote of 194–77 1790s 1791 Bill of Rights ratified (December 15) 1795 Jay Treaty ratified in June toward resolving post Revolution tensions between the United States and Great Britain. First use of arbitration in modern diplomatic history for Canada–United States border disputes 1796 Six Northwest Territory forts and two Upstate New York forts that remained under British control are ceded to the United States See also Bibliography of the American Revolutionary War Timeline of Colonial America List of George Washington articles References Further reading Cullen, Joseph P. The concise illustrated history of the American Revolution (1972) for secondary schools online 136pp Fremont-Barnes, Gregory, and Richard Alan Ryerson, eds. The Encyclopedia of the American Revolutionary War: A Political, Social, and Military History (5 vol. 2006) George, Lynn. A Timeline of the American Revolution (2002) 24pp; for middle schools online Morris, Richard B. Encyclopedia of American History (7th ed. 1996) online, detailed timeline External links Theamericanrevolution.org: Timeline of the American Revolution American Revolution American Revolution 1775 T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T	[ -0.37731918692588806, -0.36379384994506836, -0.2900235652923584, -0.1609259396791458, 0.23337014019489288, 0.21342311799526215, 0.5416088104248047, 0.7531077861785889, -0.7190514802932739, -0.34804344177246094, -0.2426804155111313, 0.04950012266635895, -0.383623868227005, 0.9890164732933044, -0.8005064129829407, 0.32018446922302246, 0.31198200583457947, 0.2389272153377533, -0.14994622766971588, -0.079226553440094, -0.6050971746444702, 0.3671131432056427, 0.3124077618122101, 0.10529789328575134, 0.5315755009651184, -0.570531964302063, 0.44896218180656433, -0.8924220204353333, 0.12585125863552094, 0.010614962317049503, -0.5570627450942993, -0.11342155933380127, -0.16191525757312775, 0.08543296158313751, -0.07162925601005554, -0.2014818787574768, 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225222	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20pre%E2%80%93United%20States%20history	Timeline of pre–United States history	This section of the timeline of United States history concerns events from before the lead up to the American Revolution (). Antiquity c. 27,000–12,000 years ago – Humans cross the Beringia land bridge into North and then South America. Dates of earliest migration to the Americas is highly debated. c. 15,500 year old arrowhead; oldest verified arrowhead in the Americas, found in Texas. c. 11,500 BCE – Start of Clovis Culture in North America. c. 10,200 BCE – Cooper Bison skull is painted with a red zigzag in present-day Oklahoma, becoming the oldest known painted object in North America. c. 9500 BC – Cordilleran and Laurentide Ice Sheets retreat enough to open a habitable ice-free corridor through the northern half of the continent (North America) along the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains. c. 1000 BCE-1000 CE – Woodland Period of Pre-Columbian Native Americans in Eastern America. 200 CE – Pyramid of the Sun built near modern-day Mexico City. 250–900 CE – Classic Period of the Maya Civilization 600 CE – Emergence of Mississippian culture in North America. 988–1490 986 – Norsemen settle Greenland and Bjarni Herjólfsson sights coast of North America, but doesn't land (see also Norse colonization of the Americas). : Norse settle briefly in L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland. c. 1100 – Oraibi was founded sometime before the year 1100 CE, making it one of the oldest continuously inhabited settlements within the United States. c. 1100-1200 – Cahokia near modern-day St. Louis reaches its apex population c. 1190 – Construction begins on the Cliff Palace by Ancestral Puebloans in modern-day Colorado c. 1325 – Tenochtitlan founded as part of the Aztec Empire c. 1400 – Beginning of the European Age of Discovery. : Norse colony in Greenland dies out. 1473 – João Vaz Corte-Real perhaps reaches Newfoundland; writes about the "Land of Cod fish" in his journal. before 1492 – Population estimates in the New World before European contact may be as high as 112 million people. 1492–1499 1492 – Christopher Columbus, financed by Spain, lands on the island of San Salvador in the Bahamas, discovering the New World for Europe. 1496 – Santo Domingo, the oldest continuously inhabited European settlement in the Americas, is settled. 1497 – John Cabot lands in Newfoundland, beginning the British colonial presence in Continental North America. 1500–1599 c. 1500 – Disappearance of Mississippian culture. 1507 – A new world map by Martin Waldseemuller names the continents of the New World "America" in honor of Amerigo Vespucci. 1508 – First European colony and oldest known European settlement in a United States territory is founded at Caparra, Puerto Rico, by Ponce de Leon. 1513 – Vasco Núñez de Balboa crosses isthmus of Panama, sees the Pacific Ocean. 1513 – Juan Ponce de León defeats Tlaxcala, a small state neighboring the Aztec Empire. 1520s – Spanish begin the conquest of Aztec civilization. 1521 – Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztec empire. 1524 – Giovanni da Verrazzano, working for France, explores coastline from present-day Maine to North Carolina. 1534 – Jacques Cartier plants a cross on the Gaspé Peninsula (modern Quebec) and claimed the land for France. 1540 – Pedro de Tovar comes in contact with the Hopi people at Oraibi as part of the expedition led by Francisco Vázquez de Coronado 1541 – Hernando de Soto discovers the Mississippi River, strengthening Spanish claims to the interior of North America. 1562 – Jean Ribault, leaves France with 150 colonists for the New World, establishing Charlesfort on Parris Island in South Carolina, which was abandoned several years later. 1564 – French Fort Caroline established on the banks of the St. Johns River, Florida; sacked by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés in 1565. 1565 – Admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés founds St. Augustine, Florida, the earliest successful Spanish/European settlement in the future continental United States. 1570s – Iroquois Confederacy founded. 1579 – Francis Drake claims the lands of California for England and Queen Elizabeth I, landing in Drake's Bay and naming it New Albion. 1585 – Sir Walter Raleigh founds Roanoke Colony, the first English settlement in the New World, though he never set foot in it. 1587 – Virginia Dare was born on Roanoke making her the first known English child born in the New World. The first Asians to set foot on what would be the United States occurred when Filipino sailors arrived in Spanish ships at Morro Bay, California; see Landing of the first Filipinos. 1588 – First battle of the English against the Spanish Armada begins, leading to their defeat and the lessening of Spain's influence in the New World and the rise of English influence in the Americas. 1590 – Roanoke Colony found deserted. 1600–1699 1600s 1602 – Captain Bartholomew Gosnold is the first Englishman to land on the New England coast, exploring and naming Cape Cod and Martha's Vineyard. 1605 – First capital of Acadia (French) was established as Port-Royal in modern-day Nova Scotia; it lasted until 1613. George Weymouth explores New England. 1606 – The joint-stock company Virginia Company of London is founded and granted a Royal Charter by James I to settle in the New World. 1607 – Establishment of Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in the Americas. The short lived Popham Colony founded in Maine by the Virginia Company of Plymouth. 1608 – Founding of Quebec (Habitation de Québec) by Samuel de Champlain. 1609 – Henry Hudson explores the Hudson River and Delaware Bay for the Dutch. 1609–10 – The Starving Time at Jamestown. 1610s 1610 – Santa Fe, New Mexico established by Spain 1612 – The Dutch establish a fur trading center with the Native Americans on Manhattan Island. 1614 – Dutch claim New Netherland. John Rolfe successfully harvests tobacco in Jamestown, Virginia, ensuring the colonies success. 1617–19 – Smallpox kills roughly 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Indians 1619 – First Africans in Virginia arrive at Jamestown. House of Burgesses was formed in Jamestown, the first democratically elected legislative body in English North America. 1620s 1620 – Mayflower Compact signed. Plymouth Colony is founded in what would be Massachusetts, by the Plymouth Company. 1622 – Indian massacre of 1622 in Virginia. 1624 – King James I revokes the Virginia Company's charter, and Virginia becomes a royal colony. Foundation of New Amsterdam by the Dutch West India Company; would later be renamed New York. 1625 – King James I dies; King Charles I becomes King of England 1628 – Massachusetts Bay Colony founded. 1630s 1630 – Winthrop Fleet to Massachusetts Bay Colony. Manor of Rensselaerswyck founded. Boston founded. 1632 – Province of Maryland founded. 1634 – Theologian Roger Williams banished from Massachusetts Bay Colony. 1636 – Connecticut Colony founded by Thomas Hooker. Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations founded by Roger Williams. Harvard College founded. 1637 – New Haven Colony founded. 1638 – Pequot War ends in New England. New Sweden established around the southern Delaware River by Peter Minuit. 1639 – Fundamental Agreement of the New Haven Colony signed. Fundamental Orders of Connecticut adopted and the Crown formally recognizes the Virginia Assembly. 1640s 1640 – French and Iroquois Wars escalate to full warfare. 1642 – Beginning of the English Civil War. Montreal founded. 1643 – New England Confederation created. 1643–1645 – Kieft's War in New Netherland. 1644–1646 – Third Anglo–Powhatan War 1649 – Maryland Toleration Act. Execution of King Charles I and the establishment of Commonwealth in England. 1650s 1651 – In the wake of the English Civil War, Virginia acknowledges the authority of the Parliament of England. 1655 – New Sweden becomes incorporated into the Dutch colony of New Netherland 1656 – First Quakers arrive in New England. 1655–1660 – Peach Tree War 1658 – Death of Oliver Cromwell 1659–1663 – Esopus Wars 1660s 1660 – Commmonwealth of England collapses, Charles II is restored to the throne. 1662 – Halfway Covenant adopted. 1663 – King Charles II grants charter for a new colony, (Province of Carolina). 1664 – New Amsterdam captured by the English at the start of the Second Anglo-Dutch War. New Jersey and New York established as Proprietary Colonies of England. 1665 – The Duke's Laws are issued. 1667 – New Netherland ceded to England under Treaty of Breda. 1669 – The Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina are drawn up. 1669–1670 – John Lederer of Virginia explores the Appalachian Mountains. 1670s 1670 – Charles Town (Charleston) founded in present-day South Carolina. 1671 – The Batts-Fallam expedition sponsored by Abraham Wood reaches the New River (West Virginia). 1672 – Blue Laws enacted in Connecticut. 1672–73 – Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette explore the Illinois Country. 1674 – New Netherland permanently relinquished to English with Treaty of Westminster. 1675 – King Philip's War (1675–76) in New England. 1676 – Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia; Bacon writes the "Declaration of the People of Virginia". 1677 – Colonists in North Carolina rebel against Thomas Colepeper, 2nd Baron Colepeper. Edmund Andros, Governor of New York, negotiates the Covenant Chain with the Iroquois. Province of Maine absorbed by Massachusetts Bay Colony. 1679 – War between the Westo and colonial South Carolina results in the destruction of the Westo. The Province of New Hampshire is created out of the Massachusetts Bay Colony by royal decree from King Charles II. 1680s 1680 - Pueblo Revolution 1681 – William Penn receives a royal charter from Charles II to establish Pennsylvania. 1682 – René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle explored the Ohio River Valley and the Mississippi River Valley, and he claimed the entire territory for France as far south as the Gulf of Mexico. William Penn publishes "Frame of Government of Pennsylvania" that provides for a precursor of a bicameral government. Philadelphia founded. 1685 – Charles II dies and his brother the Duke of York becomes King James II. Fort St. Louis (French colonization of Texas) established near Arenosa Creek on Matagorda Bay by French explorer Robert Cavelier de La Salle; the fort was abandoned in 1688. 1686 – Arkansas Post established by Henri de Tonti as the first European settlement in the lower Mississippi River Valley. 1688–97 – King William's War, the North American theater of the Nine Years' War. 1688 – The Glorious Revolution occurs; King James II flees to France and is replaced by William and Mary of Orange. 1689 – The English Parliament presents the English Bill of Rights to William and Mary and is later used as one of the models for the United States Bill of Rights. The Boston Revolt and Leisler's Rebellion occurs. Toleration Act of 1688 is passed by Parliament which gives limited freedom of religion to all English subject. 1690s c. 1690 – Spanish authorities, concerned that France posed a competitive threat, constructed several missions in East Texas; see Spanish Missions in Texas. 1690 – The first newspaper issue in the English colonies is published in Boston, the Public Occurrences. 1692 – Salem Witch Trials 1693 – College of William & Mary founded in Williamsburg, Virginia. Rice culture introduced in the Province of Carolina. 1694 – Mary II dies, William III takes sole rule over England. 1696 – Cahokia, Illinois established by French missionaries from Quebec and is one of the earliest permanent settlements in the region. 1697 – The Treaty of Ryswick ends King William's War and restores all colonial possessions to pre-war ownership. 1699 – Capital of Virginia moved from Jamestown to Williamsburg; Jamestown is slowly abandoned. The Wool Act, forbade the export of wool from the American colonies. Free blacks ordered to leave the Colony of Virginia. 1700–1759 1700s 1700 – José Romo de Vivar becomes one of the earliest European (Spanish) settlers in the future state of Arizona. 1701 – The Collegiate school at Saybrook is founded in Connecticut; it will later be renamed as Yale College. Delaware Colony granted charter, separating it from Pennsylvania. 1702 – William III dies, is succeeded by Queen Anne. Queen Anne's War (War of the Spanish Succession) begins. East Jersey and West Jersey become crown colonies. Mobile, Alabama founded. 1703 – Kaskaskia, Illinois established as a small mission station for the French. 1704 – The first regular newspaper publishes its initial edition in Boston, the News-Letter and was begun by John Campbell. The Province of Carolina allows the arming of the enslaved population during time of war. 1705 – The House of Burgesses passes the Virginia Slave Codes of 1705. 1706 – Benjamin Franklin born in Boston. Albuquerque founded and named for the viceroy of New Spain, Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, 10th Duke of Alburquerque. 1710s 1710 – Francis Nicholson takes Port Royal. 1711–15 – North Carolina fights the Tuscarora War with the Tuscarora people. 1712 – New York Slave Revolt of 1712. 1713 – The Treaty of Utrecht is signed, bringing an end to Queen Anne's War; England gains Nova Scotia. 1714 – Queen Anne dies; succeeded by George I. Natchitoches established by Louis Juchereau de St. Denis, making it the oldest permanent European settlement in the modern state of Louisiana. 1715 – South Carolina begins the Yamasee War. 1718 – Mission San Antonio de Valero (The Alamo) built as the first Spanish mission along the San Antonio River. New Orleans founded by the French. Blackbeard is killed in battle by lieutenant Robert Maynard in the waters off the Province of North Carolina. 1720s 1723 – The House of Burgesses passes an act to deal with slave rebellions. The French establish Fort Orleans along the Missouri River near Brunswick, Missouri. 1725 – Father Rale's War (1722–25) 1727 – George I dies, is succeeded by George II. British construct Fort Oswego. 1729 – Province of Carolina proprietors sell out to Crown. City of Baltimore founded. 1730s c. 1730 – For the first time, the majority of the enslaved population in Chesapeake, Virginia were born in the Americas. 1732 – The Province of Georgia is founded by General James Oglethorpe. 1735 – John Peter Zenger is found innocent of libel by the New York City trial on August 4. 1739 – The Stono Rebellion in the Province of South Carolina is crushed. 1739-40 – George Whitefield begins his travels throughout the colonies. His message of everyday Christians having a personal connection with God resonates and begins the First Great Awakening. 1740s 1740 – The Plantation Act of 1740 is passed to encourage immigration to the Thirteen Colonies and regularize the colonial naturalization procedures. Battle of Cartagena de Indias, where the colonists are called "Americans" for the first time. James Oglethorpe fails to take St. Augustine. South Carolina enacts the Negro Act of 1740. 1741 – The New York Conspiracy of 1741 is suppressed. 1744 – King George's War (1744–48) 1745 – New Englanders take Louisbourg. 1746 – Princeton University founded, with Jonathan Dickinson as its first president. 1747 – Founding of the Ohio Company. 1749 – Province of Georgia overturns its ban on slavery. Father Le Loutre's War (1749–55) 1750s c. 1750 – Population of the Thirteen Colonies is roughly 1.5 million. 1750 – Thomas Walker passes through the Cumberland Gap. 1754 – French and Indian War begins, aka the Seven Years' War; first engagement at the Battle of Jumonville Glen. Albany Congress, in which a "Union of Colonies" is proposed. Columbia University founded as King's College by George II Royal Charter. 1757 – Siege of Fort William Henry. 1758 – Siege of Louisbourg; Battle of Fort Frontenac; Battle of Fort Duquesne. The first black Baptist church is founded in Lunenburg, Virginia. 1759 – Quebec is taken, British victory assured in French and Indian War. See Timeline of the American Revolution for events starting from 1760. 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225224	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Runciman	Alexander Runciman	Alexander Runciman (15 August 1736, in Edinburgh – 4 October 1785, in Edinburgh) was a Scottish painter of historical and mythological subjects. He was the elder brother of John Runciman, also a painter. Life He was born in Edinburgh, and studied at the Foulis Academy, Glasgow, and from 1750 to 1762 he was apprenticed to the landscape painter Robert Norie, later becoming a partner in the Norie family firm. He also worked as a stage painter for the Theatre Royal in Edinburgh. In 1767, he went to Rome, where he spent five years. His brother John accompanied him, but died in Naples in the winter of 1768–69. During Runciman's stay in Italy he became acquainted with other artists such as Henry Fuseli and the sculptor Johan Tobias Sergel. Runciman's earliest efforts had been in landscape; he now turned to historical and imaginative subjects, exhibiting his Nausicaa at Play with her Maidens in 1767 at the Free Society of British Artists, Edinburgh. On his return from Italy after a brief time in London, where in 1772 he exhibited in the Royal Academy, he settled in Edinburgh, and was appointed master of the Trustees' Academy. He was patronised by Sir James Clerk, whose hall at Penicuik House he decorated with a series of subjects from Ossian which took inspiration from Gavin Hamilton's Iliad pictures. He also created various religious paintings and an altar-piece in the Cowgate Episcopal Church, Edinburgh, and easel pictures of Cymon and Iphigenia, Sigismunda Weeping over the Heart of Tancre, and Agrippina with the Ashes of Germanicus. In 1773 he is listed as sharing a studio with a Mr McLarin at the foot of Old Assembly Close off the Royal Mile (facing what is now called the Cowgate). He enjoyed a strong reputation as a landscape painter is his lifetime. Runciman died in Edinburgh and is buried in Canongate Churchyard. The grave is unmarked but a stone plaque was erected by the RSA in 1866 on the west-facing wall of the church to his memory (also commemorating his brother John who died in Naples). Known Works see Robert Fergusson East Lothian Landscape Dunvegan Castle The Blind Ossian Singing Self portrait with John Brown The Witches Showing MacBeth the Apparitions Fingal Encounters Carbon Carglass Agrippina with the Ashes of Germanicus Hubert and Arthur Agrippina Landing at Brundisium A View near Perth Italian River Landscape with a Hermit David Steuart Erskine Temple of the Sibyl at Tipoli Murals in the east apse in St Patrick's Church South Gray's Close, Edinburgh.St Patrick's, Cowgate, Edinburgh References Duncan Macmillan, "Runciman, Alexander (1736–1785)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 accessed 25 June 2007 Further reading Macmillan, Duncan (1984), Scottish Painting: Ramsay to Raeburn, in Parker, Geoffrey (ed.), Cencrastus No. 17, Summer 1984, pp. 25 - 29, 1736 births 1785 deaths 18th-century Scottish painters Scottish male painters Scottish landscape painters Artists from Edinburgh Scottish scenic designers Burials at the Canongate 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225225	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mest%20%28album%29	Mest (album)	Mest is the fourth studio album by the pop punk band Mest. It was released in 2003 on Maverick Records. From June to August 2003, the group went on the 2003 edition of Warped Tour. "Jaded (These Years)" was released to radio on July 1, 2003. The album peaked at #64 on the Billboard 200. Track listing "Until I Met You" (Lovato/Madden) – 3:02 "Rooftops" (Lovato) – 3:54 "Jaded (These Years)" featuring Benji Madden (Lovato/Madden/Feldmann) – 3:10 "Night Alone" (Rangel) – 3:29 "Burning Bridges" (Lovato) – 3:30 "Walking on Broken Glass" (Feldmann/Lovato) – 3:35 "Your Promise" (Feldmann/Rangel) – 3:15 "2000 Miles" (Lovato) – 2:48 "Shell of Myself" (Rangel) – 3:47 "Lost, Broken, Confused" (Lovato) – 2:51 "Chance of a Lifetime" (Feldmann/Lovato) – 3:09 "Return to Self-Loathing" (Feldmann/Rangel) – 3:55 "Paradise (122nd and Highland)"/25 to Life (Hidden Track) (Feldmann/Lovato) – 8:34 Japan bonus tracks "Got to Go" "Cadillac" (live) References Mest albums 2003 albums Maverick Records albums Albums produced by John Feldmann	[ -0.5036748051643372, 0.28155818581581116, 0.03023735247552395, -0.06827902793884277, -0.6011509895324707, 0.7052872180938721, 0.5730365514755249, -0.13100899755954742, 0.12834268808364868, -0.5003899335861206, 0.017967840656638145, 0.5780069231987, 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225226	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Armitage	Peter Armitage	Peter Armitage CBE (born 15 June 1924) is a statistician specialising in medical statistics. Peter Armitage attended Huddersfield College and went on to read mathematics at Trinity College, Cambridge. Armitage belonged to the generation of mathematicians who came to maturity in the Second World War. He joined the weapons procurement agency, the Ministry of Supply where he worked on statistical problems with George Barnard. After the war he resumed his studies and then worked as a statistician for the Medical Research Council from 1947 to 1961. From 1961 to 1976, he was Professor of Medical Statistics at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine where he succeeded Austin Bradford Hill. His main work there was on sequential analysis. He moved to Oxford as Professor of Biomathematics and became Professor of Applied Statistics and head of the new Department of Statistics, retiring in 1990. He was president of the Royal Statistical Society in 1982–4. He was president of the International Society for Clinical Biostatistics in 1990–1991. He is editor-in-chief of the Encyclopedia of Biostatistics. He lives in Wallingford, Oxfordshire. References Basic career information is in the entry in Who's Who 2005 There are recollections in Peter Armitage "Purposes, methods, philosophies", Significance Volume 1 Issue 4 Page 170 - December 2004 External links A brief biography at wiley.co.uk (publisher of the Encyclopedia of Biostatics) There is a photograph at the 'Peter Armitage on the Portraits of Statisticians' page Academics of the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Commanders of the Order of the British Empire English statisticians Fellows of St Peter's College, Oxford Living people People educated at Huddersfield New College Presidents of the Royal Statistical Society 1924 births	[ -0.43432021141052246, 0.20662419497966766, -0.5018144845962524, -0.6388916373252869, -0.43565791845321655, 1.086374282836914, 0.690843939781189, -0.3558744192123413, -0.2837173342704773, 0.14991798996925354, -0.005250925663858652, 0.19067741930484772, -0.13425664603710175, 0.26502031087875366, 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225227	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylviidae	Sylviidae	Sylviidae is a family of passerine birds that includes the typical warblers and a number of babblers formerly placed within the Old World babbler family. They are found in Eurasia and Africa. Taxonomy and systematics The scientific name Sylviidae was introduced by the English zoologist William Elford Leach (as Sylviadæ) in a guide to the contents of the British Museum published in 1820. The family became part of an assemblage known as the Old World warblers and was a wastebin taxon with over 400 species of bird in over 70 genera. Advances in classification, particularly helped with molecular data, have led to the splitting out of several new families from within this group. There is now evidence that these Sylvia "warblers" are more closely related to the Old World babblers than the warblers and thus these birds are better referred to as Sylvia babblers, or just sylvids. A molecular phylogenetic study using mitochondrial DNA sequence data published in 2011 found that the species in the genus Sylvia formed two distinct clades. Based on these results, the ornithologists Edward Dickinson and Leslie Christidis in the fourth edition of Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World, chose to split the genus and moved most of the species into a resurrected genus Curruca retaining only the Eurasian blackcap and the garden warbler in Sylvia. In an additional change they moved the African hill babbler and Dohrn's thrush-babbler into Sylvia. The split was not made by the British Ornithologists' Union on the grounds that "a split into two genera would unnecessarily destabilize nomenclature and results in only a minor increase in phylogenetic information content." List of species The family includes 34 species divided into 2 genera: This list is presented according to the IOC taxonomic sequence and can also be sorted alphabetically by common name and binomial. Description Sylviids are small to medium-sized passerine birds. The bill is generally thin and pointed with bristles at the base. Sylviids have a slender shape and an inconspicuous and mostly plain plumage. The wings have ten primaries, which are rounded and short in non-migratory species. Distribution and habitat Most species occur in Asia, and to a lesser extent in Africa. A few range into Europe. 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225229	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Miller%20Shreve	Henry Miller Shreve	Henry Miller Shreve (October 21, 1785 – March 6, 1851) was the American inventor and steamboat captain who opened the Mississippi, Ohio, and Red rivers to steamboat navigation. Shreveport, Louisiana, is named in his honor. Shreve was also instrumental in breaking the Fulton-Livingston monopoly on steamboat traffic on the lower Mississippi. He was the first riverboat captain to travel the Ohio and Mississippi rivers to New Orleans and back, as well as the first to bring a keelboat from the Ohio River up the Mississippi to the Fever River in Illinois. Shreve also made significant improvements to the steamboat and the steam engine, such as separate boilers to power side paddlewheels independently, horizontal cylinders, and multiple decks to allow for passengers and entertainment. Early life Shreve was born to Israel Shreve, a Quaker who had served with honor in the American Revolution, and the former Mary Cokely at Mount Pleasant, the family homestead near Columbus in Mansfield Township, Burlington County, New Jersey. On July 7, 1788, the Shreves left New Jersey for their new home on property owned by George Washington in Fayette County, Pennsylvania. Young Henry's new home was close to the Youghiogheny River near the present day borough of Perryopolis. After his father's death in 1799, Shreve served on several riverboats to help support his family. After purchasing his own boat Shreve began trading between Brownsville, Pennsylvania, where he resided, and ports as far away as New Orleans. On a voyage in 1814, Shreve's barge was registered at New Orleans on February 11. After his boat was loaded with cargo, Shreve and crew hauled and poled the vessel against strong river currents, probably reaching Brownsville before July 1814. The Enterprise A group of Brownsville investors had formed a stock company, the Monongahela and Ohio Steam Boat Company, to conduct steamboat commerce on the Western rivers. To this end, the company commissioned a new steamboat to be constructed at Brownsville. During the winter and spring of 1814, while Shreve was on the voyage to New Orleans, the Enterprise, with an engine and power train designed and built by Daniel French, was constructed. Between June and December 1814, the Enterprise, under the command of Israel Gregg, made two successful voyages transporting passengers and cargo to ports between Brownsville and Louisville, Kentucky. By December, the company had decided to send the Enterprise to New Orleans with a cargo of munitions for General Andrew Jackson's troops to defend the city against an invasion by British forces. Command of the Enterprise was transferred to Henry Shreve because of his firsthand knowledge of the hazards to navigation of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. The Enterprise departed Pittsburgh on December 21, 1814 with the munitions. The Enterprise passed the Falls at Louisville on December 28, 1814. The Enterprise arrived at New Orleans on January 9, 1815. After the American victory at the Battle of New Orleans, a lawsuit was brought by the heirs of Robert Fulton and Robert Livingston against Shreve and the owners of the Enterprise for violating the formers' monopoly against any unauthorized navigation of Louisiana waters by steamboat. Soon after being released from jail, Shreve commanded the Enterprise from New Orleans to Louisville, the first time a northbound steamboat was able to reach that city. Then he navigated the Enterprise to Pittsburgh and finally to her homeport of Brownsville. This long and difficult voyage by the Enterprise, more than against the currents of the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers, demonstrated the ability of steamboats to navigate the western rivers. The Washington Shreve and four partners commissioned George White to build a new steamboat, named the Washington, at Wheeling, Virginia (later West Virginia). The engine and drive train of the Washington were built by Daniel French at Brownsville. The Washington was first launched in 1816. It was the first steamboat with two decks, the predecessor of the showboats of later years. The main deck was used for the boiler, and the upper deck was reserved for passengers. Shreve, for the second time, piloted a steamboat to New Orleans where he once again was sued by the heirs of the Fulton-Livingston monopoly. Shreve took the Washington from New Orleans to Louisville and returned to the Crescent City on March 12, 1817. Shreve and several counterparts were subjected to lawsuits initiated by the monopolists. On March 25, Shreve departed New Orleans and piloted the Washington upriver. He reached Louisville in twenty-five days, equal to the record set by the Enterprise nearly two years earlier. On April 21, Judge Dominic C. Hall declared that the court did not have jurisdiction and hence dismissed all of the suits. This decision eliminated any enforcement of the Livingston-Fulton monopoly in Louisiana courts. Hall's decision and the Washingtons recent voyage from New Orleans to Louisville heralded the forthcoming steamboat era on the western rivers. Clearing the Great Raft The American rivers were still difficult to navigate, however, because of the presence of dead wood called snags, sawyers, or log jams. Shreve was appointed Superintendent of Western River Improvements in 1826 and charged with finding a solution to this problem. He had been working on a design for a "snagboat" since 1821, and he finally had it built in 1837. This craft, the Heliopolis, had a steam-powered windlass used to pull large concentrations of dead wood from the water. As a result of the success of his design, Shreve was ordered in 1832 by Secretary of War Lewis Cass to clear the Great Raft, of dead wood on the Red River. Shreve successfully removed the Raft by 1839. The area of the Red River where the Raft was most concentrated is today his namesake city of Shreveport. Shreve helped to establish Shreveport via the Shreve Town Company. The subject was responsible for shortening the course of rivers by cutting channels through the river bends which had the unfortunate result of creating shallows at the entrances of the Atchafalaya, Red , and Ouachita rivers. Stephen Adolphus Caldwell. (1935). A Banking History of Louisiana. Baton Rouge : Louisiana State University Press. p. 35. In 1841, Shreve was relieved of his superintendent's duties by U.S. President John Tyler. He then retired to his farm near St. Louis. Later life Shreve was twice married. There were three children from his first marriage to the former Mary M. Blair on February 28, 1811, and two children from his union with the former Lydia Rogers of Boston. Shreve spent his final years with his daughter Rebecca's family in St. Louis. He died in the home of his son-in-law, Walker Randolph Carter, and is buried in Bellefontaine Cemetery in St. Louis. Notes References "Henry Miller Shreve", A Dictionary of Louisiana Biography, Vol. II (1988), p. 741 Allen, Luther Prentice (1901),Genealogy and history of the Shreve family from 1641, Greenfield, Illinois: Privately printed, 672 pages; reprinted by Higginson Book Co., Salem, Massachusetts, 1999, Captain Henry Miller Schreve. A Contribution by Judge Samuel Treat of St. Louis, Mo. (From the Democratic Review, February 1848) (Mercer's account of his voyage aboard the Washington in 1816.) Ellis, Franklin (1882), History of Fayette County, Pennsylvania, with biographical sketches of many of its pioneers and prominent men, Philadelphia: L. H. Everts and Company Hunter, Louis C. (1949), Steamboats on the western rivers, an economic and technological history, Cambridge: Harvard University Press Maass, Alfred R., "The right of unrestricted navigation on the Mississippi, 1812–1818", The American Neptune, 60''': 49-59 Puneky, Claire (1970), Louisiana LeadersRand, Clayton (1953), Stars in their Eyes'' 1785 births 1851 deaths 19th-century American inventors American people of the War of 1812 People from Fayette County, Pennsylvania People from Mansfield Township, Burlington County, New Jersey Businesspeople from St. Louis American transportation businesspeople History of Shreveport, Louisiana Burials at Bellefontaine Cemetery	[ -0.07224499434232712, 0.4001922309398651, 0.02595873922109604, 0.3289017379283905, 0.6886680126190186, 0.5968120694160461, 0.4233688414096832, 0.25601547956466675, -0.2576126754283905, -0.35336413979530334, 0.2330087274312973, 0.045928988605737686, -0.5808762311935425, 1.3118587732315063, -0.2118242084980011, 0.2842162549495697, 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225230	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony%20No.%207%20%28Beethoven%29	Symphony No. 7 (Beethoven)	The Symphony No. 7 in A major, Op. 92, is a symphony in four movements composed by Ludwig van Beethoven between 1811 and 1812, while improving his health in the Bohemian spa town of Teplitz. The work is dedicated to Count Moritz von Fries. At its premiere at the University in Vienna on 8 December 1813, Beethoven remarked that it was one of his best works. The second movement, "Allegretto", was so popular that audiences demanded an encore. The "Allegretto" is frequently performed separately to this day. History When Beethoven began composing the 7th symphony, Napoleon was planning his campaign against Russia. After the 3rd Symphony, and possibly the 5th as well, the 7th Symphony seems to be another of Beethoven's musical confrontations with Napoleon, this time in the context of the European wars of liberation from years of Napoleonic domination. Beethoven's life at this time was marked by a worsening hearing loss, which made "conversation notebooks" necessary from 1819 on, with the help of which Beethoven communicated in writing. Premiere The work was premiered with Beethoven himself conducting in Vienna on 8 December 1813 at a charity concert for soldiers wounded in the Battle of Hanau. In Beethoven's address to the participants, the motives are not openly named: "We are moved by nothing but pure patriotism and the joyful sacrifice of our powers for those who have sacrificed so much for us." The program also included the patriotic work Wellington's Victory, exalting the victory of the British over Napoleon's France. The orchestra was led by Beethoven's friend Ignaz Schuppanzigh and included some of the finest musicians of the day: violinist Louis Spohr, composers Johann Nepomuk Hummel, Giacomo Meyerbeer and Antonio Salieri. The Italian guitar virtuoso Mauro Giuliani played cello at the premiere. The piece was very well received, such that the audience demanded the Allegretto movement be encored immediately. Spohr made particular mention of Beethoven's antics on the podium ("as a sforzando occurred, he tore his arms with a great vehemence asunder ... at the entrance of a forte he jumped in the air"), and "the friends of Beethoven made arrangements for a repetition of the concert" by which "Beethoven was extricated from his pecuniary difficulties". Editions The first edition of the score, parts and piano reduction was published in November 1816 by Steiner & Comp. A facsimile of Beethoven's manuscript was published in 2017 by Laaber Verlag. Instrumentation The symphony is scored for 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets in A, 2 bassoons, 2 horns in A (E and D in the inner movements), 2 trumpets in D, timpani, and strings. Form There are four movements: A typical performance time lasts approximately 40 minutes. The work as a whole is known for its use of rhythmic devices suggestive of a dance, such as dotted rhythm and repeated rhythmic figures. It is also tonally subtle, making use of the tensions between the key centres of A, C and F. For instance, the first movement is in A major but has repeated episodes in C major and F major. In addition, the second movement is in A minor with episodes in A major, and the third movement, a scherzo, is in F major. I. Poco sostenuto – Vivace The first movement starts with a long, expanded introduction marked Poco sostenuto (metronome mark: = 69) that is noted for its long ascending scales and a cascading series of applied dominants that facilitates modulations to C major and F major. From the last episode in F major, the movement transitions to Vivace through a series of no fewer than sixty-one repetitions of the note E. The Vivace ( = 104) is in sonata form, and is dominated by lively dance-like dotted rhythms, sudden dynamic changes, and abrupt modulations. The first theme of the Vivace is shown below. The development section opens in C major and contains extensive episodes in F major. The movement finishes with a long coda, which starts similarly as the development section. The coda contains a famous twenty-bar passage consisting of a two-bar motif repeated ten times to the background of a grinding four octave deep pedal point of an E. II. Allegretto The second movement in A minor has a tempo marking of allegretto ("a little lively"), making it slow only in comparison to the other three movements. This movement was encored at the premiere and has remained popular since. Its reliance on the string section makes it a good example of Beethoven's advances in orchestral writing for strings, building on the experimental innovations of Haydn. The movement is structured in ternary form. It begins with the main melody played by the violas and cellos, an ostinato (repeated rhythmic figure, or ground bass, or passacaglia of a quarter note, two eighth notes and two quarter notes). This melody is then played by the second violins while the violas and cellos play a second melody, described by George Grove as, "like a string of beauties hand-in-hand, each afraid to lose her hold on her neighbours". The first violins then take the first melody while the second violins take the second. This progression culminates with the wind section playing the first melody while the first violin plays the second. After this, the music changes from A minor to A major as the clarinets take a calmer melody to the background of light triplets played by the violins. This section ends thirty-seven bars later with a quick descent of the strings on an A minor scale, and the first melody is resumed and elaborated upon in a strict fugato. III. Presto – Assai meno presto The third movement is a scherzo in F major and trio in D major. Here, the trio (based on an Austrian pilgrims' hymn) is played twice rather than once. This expansion of the usual A–B–A structure of ternary form into A–B–A–B–A was quite common in other works of Beethoven of this period, such as his Fourth Symphony, Pastoral Symphony, and String Quartet Op. 59 No. 2. IV. Allegro con brio The last movement is in sonata form. According to music historian Glenn Stanley, Beethoven "exploited the possibility that a string section can realize both angularity and rhythmic contrast if used as an obbligato-like background", particularly in the coda, which contains an example, rare in Beethoven's music, of the dynamic marking . In his book Beethoven and his Nine Symphonies, Sir George Grove wrote, "The force that reigns throughout this movement is literally prodigious, and reminds one of Carlyle's hero Ram Dass, who has 'fire enough in his belly to burn up the entire world.'" Donald Tovey, writing in his Essays in Musical Analysis, commented on this movement's "Bacchic fury" and many other writers have commented on its whirling dance-energy. The main theme is a precise duple time variant of the instrumental ritornello in Beethoven's own arrangement of the Irish folk-song "Save me from the grave and wise", No. 8 of his Twelve Irish Folk Songs, WoO 154. Reception Critics and listeners have often felt stirred or inspired by the Seventh Symphony. For instance, one program-note author writes: ... the final movement zips along at an irrepressible pace that threatens to sweep the entire orchestra off its feet and around the theater, caught up in the sheer joy of performing one of the most perfect symphonies ever written. Composer and music author Antony Hopkins says of the symphony: The Seventh Symphony perhaps more than any of the others gives us a feeling of true spontaneity; the notes seem to fly off the page as we are borne along on a floodtide of inspired invention. Beethoven himself spoke of it fondly as "one of my best works". Who are we to dispute his judgment? Another admirer, composer Richard Wagner, referring to the lively rhythms which permeate the work, called it the "apotheosis of the dance". On the other hand, admiration for the work has not been universal. Friedrich Wieck, who was present during rehearsals, said that the consensus, among musicians and laymen alike, was that Beethoven must have composed the symphony in a drunken state; and the conductor Thomas Beecham commented on the third movement: "What can you do with it? It's like a lot of yaks jumping about." The oft-repeated claim that Carl Maria von Weber considered the chromatic bass line in the coda of the first movement evidence that Beethoven was "ripe for the madhouse" seems to have been the invention of Beethoven's first biographer, Anton Schindler. His possessive adulation of Beethoven is well-known, and he was criticised by his contemporaries for his obsessive attacks on Weber. According to John Warrack, Weber's biographer, Schindler was characteristically evasive when defending Beethoven, and there is "no shred of concrete evidence" that Weber ever made the remark. In popular culture The 1934 horror film The Black Cat features the second movement prominently. The first episode of Cosmos: A Personal Voyage (1980) features the first movement to "underscore the vastness and diversity of Earth with its 'resplendent spaciousness'". The 1995 drama film Mr. Holland's Opus uses the second movement to underscore the high school music teacher Mr. Holland recounting the tragedy of Beethoven's hearing loss, with Holland's son being deaf and unable to share his father's passion for music. The 2006 film The Fall uses the second movement at several points in the film. The 2006 live-action adaption of Nodame Cantabile uses the first movement as the opening theme. The 2007 anime adaptation uses it as the ending theme. The 2007 comedy-drama film The Darjeeling Limited uses the fourth movement. The 2009 science fiction film Knowing uses the second movement during the climactic scene, a mass exodus from apocalyptic Boston. In the 2010 historical drama film The King's Speech, the second movement is used during King George's climactic speech at Buckingham Palace after the commencement of the country's involvement in World War II. The slow build up of the movement "accents his struggle and his perseverance". In the 2016 superhero film X-Men: Apocalypse the second movement is played during the launch of all the world's nuclear weapons. References Sources External links Full Score of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony "Notes on Beethoven's Seventh Symphony" by Christopher H. 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225234	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minim	Minim	Minim may refer to: Minim (music), a note length, British English name for a half note (which usually gets two beats) MINIM (band), an industrial rock band from Spain Minim (unit), a small amount of fluid, essentially a standardized drop Minim (religious order), a member of a religious order founded by St. Francis of Paula Franciscan Minims of the Perpetual Help of Mary Minim (palaeography), a short vertical stroke used in handwriting Minim, a Hebrew word denoting "sectarians" (e.g. Sadducees, Nazoraeans, etc.); see Heresy in Judaism Minim, Martap, a village in Cameroon Minim, in leafcutter ant colonies, member of the caste of smallest-sized workers Mini-M, also known as Inmarsat-M, a global satellite internet, telephony and fax network operated by Inmarsat Minim, French for “little one”, it was used at the University of Notre Dame from the 1840s to the 1920s to describe students in their grade school department. 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225239	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunrei-shiki%20romanization	Kunrei-shiki romanization	is the Cabinet-ordered romanization system for transcribing the Japanese language into the Latin alphabet. Its name is rendered Kunreisiki rômazi in the system itself. Kunrei-shiki is sometimes known as the Monbushō system in English because it is taught in the Monbushō-approved elementary school curriculum. The ISO has standardized Kunrei-shiki, under ISO 3602. Kunrei-shiki is based on the older Nihon-shiki romanization, which was modified for modern standard Japanese. For example, the word かなづかい, romanized kanadukai in Nihon-shiki, is pronounced kanazukai in standard modern Japanese and is romanized as such in Kunrei-shiki. The system competes with the older Hepburn romanization system, which was promoted by SCAP during the Allied occupation of Japan, after World War II. History Before World War II, there was a political conflict between supporters of Hepburn romanisation and supporters of the Nihon-shiki romanisation. In 1930, a board of inquiry, under the aegis of the Minister of Education, was established to determine the proper romanization system. The military increased its control over the civilian government in the Empire of Japan following the February 26 Incident in 1936, and this nationalistic, militaristic government, by cabinet order (訓令 kunrei), announced on 21 September 1937 that a modified form of Nihon-shiki would be officially adopted as Kunrei-shiki. The form at the time differs slightly from the modern form. Originally, the system was called the Kokutei (国定, government-authorized) system. The Japanese military-controlled government gradually introduced Kunrei-shiki, which appeared in secondary education, on railway station signboards, on nautical charts, and on the 1:1,000,000 scale International Map of the World. The military government, which had already led the Empire into the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II, continued to control romanization of the language, such as using Kunrei-shiki in its tourist brochures. In Japan, some use of Nihon-shiki and Modified Hepburn remained, because some individuals supported the use of those systems. After the imperialistic Japanese government was defeated in 1945, General Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP), issued a directive, dated 3 September 1945, that stated that Modified Hepburn was the method to transcribe Japanese names. Some editorials printed in Japanese newspapers advocated for using only Hepburn. Supporters of Hepburn denounced pro-Kunrei-shiki and pro-Nihon-shiki advocates to the SCAP offices by accusing them of being inactive militarists and of collaborating with militarists. Unger said that the nature of Kunrei-shiki led to "pent-up anger" by Hepburn supporters. During the postwar period, several educators and scholars tried to introduce romanized letters as a teaching device and possibility later replacing kanji. However, Kunrei-shiki had associations with Japanese militarism, and the US occupation was reluctant to promote it. On 9 December 1954, the Japanese government re-confirmed Kunrei-shiki as its official system but with slight modifications. Eleanor Jorden, an American linguist, made textbooks with a modified version of Kunrei-shiki, which were used in the 1960s in courses given to US diplomats. The use of her books did not change the US government's hesitation to use Kunrei-shiki. As of 1974, according to the Geographical Survey Institute (now the Geospatial Information Authority of Japan), Kunrei-shiki was used for topographical maps, and Modified Hepburn was used for geological maps and aeronautical charts. As of 1978, the National Diet Library used Kunrei-shiki. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of International Trade and Industry, and many other official organizations instead used Hepburn, as did The Japan Times, the JTB Corporation, and many other private organisations. Legal status The system was originally promulgated as Japanese Cabinet Order No. 3 as of 21 September 1937. Since it had been overturned by the SCAP during the occupation of Japan, the Japanese government repealed it and decreed again, as Japanese Cabinet Order No.1 as of 29 December 1954. It mandated the use of Kunrei-shiki in "the written expression of Japanese generally". Specific alternative spellings could be used in international relations and to follow established precedent. See Permitted Exceptions for details. Kunrei-shiki has been recognised, along with Nihon-shiki, in ISO 3602:1989. Documentation—Romanisation of Japanese (kana script) by the ISO. It was also recommended by the ANSI after it withdrew its own standard, ANSI Z39.11-1972 American National Standard System for the Romanization of Japanese (Modified Hepburn), in 1994. Usage Despite its official recognition, Japanese commonly choose between Nihon-shiki/Kunrei-shiki and Hepburn for any given situation. However, the Japanese government generally uses Hepburn, especially for passports, road signage, and train signage. Most Western publications, as well, and all English-language newspapers use some form of Hepburn. J. Marshall Unger, the author of Literacy and Script Reform in Occupation Japan: Reading between the Lines, said that the Hepburn supporters "understandably" believed that the Kunrei-shiki "compromise" was not fair because of the presence of the "un-English-looking spellings" that the Modified Hepburn supporters had opposed. Andrew Horvat, the author of Japanese Beyond Words: How to Walk and Talk Like a Native Speaker, argued that "by forcing non-native speakers of Japanese with no intentions of learning the language to abide by a system intended for those who have some command of Japanese, the government gave the impression of intolerant language management that would have dire consequences later on." Because Kunrei-shiki is based on Japanese phonology rather than the actual phonetic realization, it can cause non-native speakers to pronounce words incorrectly. John Hinds, the author of Japanese: Descriptive Grammar, describes that as "a major disadvantage." It must be noted, however, that words written with Hepburn system are often pronounced incorrectly as well; for example, while English has the [i] sound of Japanese, in English it is rarely written as 'i', which creates the impression that 'i' is supposed to represent [ɪ] — thus [çiɾa̠ɡa̠na̠] became [hɪɹəɡænə] in English instead of [hiɹəɡænə]. Moreover, whereas Hepburn romanization is English-centric and thus of little to no help for speakers of languages other than English, Kunrei-shiki avoids this problem by not accommodating itself to the orthographic standards of any particular language in the first place and instead only taking into account the morphology of the language it was meant to represent. Additional complications appear with newer kana combinations such as ティーム (チーム) team. In Hepburn, they would be distinguished as different sounds and represented as tīmu and chīmu respectively. That gives better indications of the English pronunciations. For some Japanese-speakers, however, the sounds ティ "ti" and チ "chi" are the same phoneme; both are represented in Kunrei-shiki as tîmu. Such complications may be confusing to those who do not know Japanese phonology well. Use of an apostrophe (t'îmu), not unseen in Wāpuro rōmaji, may be a possible solution. Today, the main users of Kunrei-shiki are native speakers of Japanese, especially within Japan, and linguists studying Japanese. The main advantage of Kunrei-shiki is that it is better able to illustrate Japanese grammar, as Hepburn gives the impression of certain conjugations being irregular (see table, right). The most serious problem of Hepburn in this context is that it may change the stem of a verb, which is not reflected in the underlying morphology of the language. One notable introductory textbook for English-speakers, Eleanor Jorden's Japanese: The Spoken Language, uses her JSL romanization, a system strongly influenced by Kunrei-shiki in its adherence to Japanese phonology, but it is adapted to teaching proper pronunciation of Japanese phonemes. Kunrei-shiki spellings of kana Notes Characters in red are obsolete in modern Japanese. When he (へ) is used as a particle, it is written as e, not he (as in Nihon-shiki). When ha (は) is used as a particle, it is written as wa, not ha. wo (を/ヲ) is used only as a particle, written o. Long vowels are indicated by a circumflex accent: long o is written ô. Vowels that are separated by a morpheme boundary are not considered to be a long vowel. For example, おもう (思う) is written omou, not omô. Syllabic n (ん) is written as n''' before vowels and y but as n before consonants and at the end of a word. Geminate consonants are always marked by doubling the consonant following the sokuon (っ). The first letter in a sentence and all proper nouns are capitalized. ISO 3602 has the strict form; see Nihon-shiki. Permitted exceptions The Cabinet Order makes an exception to the above chart: In international relations and situations for which prior precedent would make a sudden reform difficult, the spelling given by Chart 2 may also be used: The exceptional clause is not to be confused with other systems of romanization (such as Hepburn) and does not specifically relax other requirements, such as marking long vowels. See also List of ISO transliterations Sources Geographical Survey Institute (Kokudo Chiriin). Bulletin of the Geographical Survey Institute, Volumes 20-23. 1974. Gottlieb, Nanette. "The Rōmaji movement in Japan." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (Third Series). January 2010. Volume 20, Issue 1. p. 75-88. Published online on November 30, 2009. Available at Cambridge Journals. DOI doi:10.1017/S1356186309990320. Hadamitzky, Wolfgang. Kanji & Kana Revised Edition (漢字・かな). Tuttle Publishing, 1997. , 9780804820776. Horvat, Andrew. Japanese Beyond Words: How to Walk and Talk Like a Native Speaker. Stone Bridge Press, 2000. , 9781880656426. Hinds, John. Japanese: Descriptive Grammar. Taylor & Francis Group, 1986. , 9780415010337. Kent, Allen, Harold Lancour, and Jay Elwood Daily (Executive Editors). Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science Volume 21. CRC Press, April 1, 1978. , 9780824720216. Unger, J. Marshall. Literacy and Script Reform in Occupation Japan : Reading between the Lines: Reading between the Lines. Oxford University Press. July 8, 1996. , 9780195356380. References External links Horvat, Andrew. "The Romaji (Roomaji) Conundrum." (Archive) – Excerpt from Horvat's book: Japanese Beyond Words: How to Walk and Talk Like a Native Speaker''. Hosted at the David See-Chai Lam Centre for International Communication of Simon Fraser University. 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225240	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%20Cherry%20%28disambiguation%29	Don Cherry (disambiguation)	Don Cherry (born 1934), is a Canadian hockey commentator, retired player and coach. Don Cherry may also refer to: Don Cherry (singer) (1924–2018), American singer and golfer Don Cherry (trumpeter) (1936–1995), American jazz musician Don Cherry (American football) (born 1994), American football linebacker See also	[ -0.04725470766425133, 0.23589709401130676, -0.7651668190956116, -0.015600656159222126, 0.12628856301307678, 0.07021436840295792, 0.5036540627479553, 0.36827602982521057, -0.4362359344959259, 0.02640162967145443, 0.17666228115558624, 0.41651248931884766, -0.18987323343753815, 0.13720768690109253, -0.3563879728317261, 0.447977751493454, -0.6078149080276489, 0.3155248463153839, -0.05798501521348953, -0.11241373419761658, 0.024698467925190926, -0.7609442472457886, 0.35017162561416626, 0.3238069713115692, -0.33230671286582947, 0.5255857706069946, 0.2862756550312042, -0.22463259100914001, -0.36319416761398315, 0.43796199560165405, -0.4321337342262268, 0.07026251405477524, 0.8047091364860535, -0.6161229610443115, -0.13054274022579193, 0.034853558987379074, 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225244	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw%20Malinowski	Bronisław Malinowski	{{Infobox scientist \| name = Bronisław Malinowski \| image = Bronislawmalinowski.jpg \| birth_name = Bronisław Kasper Malinowski \| birth_date = 7 April 1884 \| birth_place = Kraków, Galicia and Lodomeria, Austria-Hungary \| death_date = \| death_place = New Haven, Connecticut, U.S. \| nationality = Polish \| citizenship = Austro-Hungarian, Polish, British \| alma_mater = \| thesis_title = On the Principle of the Economy of Thought (1908) \| workplaces = London School of Economics, Yale University \| doctoral_students = \| notable_students = \| known_for = Father of social anthropology, popularizing fieldwork, participatory observation, ethnography and psychological functionalism \| influences = James FrazerWilliam JamesÉmile DurkheimCharles Gabriel SeligmanEdvard WestermarckWilhelm Wundt \| influenced = Virtually all subsequent social anthropology \| spouses = Elsie Rosaline Masson, Valetta Swann \| children = 3 \| parents = \| father = Lucjan Malinowski \| mother = }} Bronisław Kasper Malinowski (; 7 April 1884 – 16 May 1942) was a Polish-British anthropologist whose writings on ethnography, social theory, and field research have exerted a lasting influence on the discipline of anthropology. Malinowski was born in what was part of the Austrian partition of Poland, and completed his initial studies at Jagiellonian University in his birth city of Kraków. From 1910, at the London School of Economics (LSE), he studied exchange and economics, analysing Aboriginal Australia through ethnographic documents. In 1914 he traveled to Australia. He conducted research in the Trobriand Islands and other regions in New Guinea and Melanesia where he stayed for several years, studying indigenous cultures. Returning to England after World War I, he published his principal work, Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922), which established him as one of Europe's most important anthropologists. He took posts as lecturer and later as chair in anthropology at the LSE, attracting large numbers of students and exerting great influence on the development of British social anthropology. Over the years, he guest-lectured at several American universities; when World War II broke out, he remained in the United States, taking an appointment at Yale University. He died in 1942 and was interred in the United States. In 1967 his widow, Valetta Swann, published his personal diary kept during his fieldwork in Melanesia and New Guinea. It has since been a source of controversy, because of its ethnocentric and egocentric nature. Malinowski's ethnography of the Trobriand Islands described the complex institution of the Kula ring and became foundational for subsequent theories of reciprocity and exchange. He was also widely regarded as an eminent fieldworker, and his texts regarding anthropological field methods were foundational to early anthropology, popularizing the concept of participatory observation. His approach to social theory was a form of psychological functionalism that emphasised how social and cultural institutions serve basic human needs – a perspective opposed to A. R. Radcliffe-Brown's structural functionalism, which emphasised ways in which social institutions function in relation to society as a whole. Biography Early life Malinowski, scion of Polish szlachta (nobility), was born on 7 April 1884 in Kraków – in the Austrian partition of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth – then part of the Austro-Hungarian province known as the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. His father, Lucjan Malinowski, was a professor of Slavic philology at the Jagiellonian University, and his mother was the daughter of a landowning family. As a child he was frail, often suffering from ill health, but excelled academically. On 30 May 1902 he passed his matura examinations (with distinction) at the Jan III Sobieski Secondary School, and later that year began studying at the College of Philosophy of Kraków's Jagiellonian University, where he initially focused on mathematics and the physical sciences. While attending the university he became severely ill (possibly with tuberculosis) and, while he recuperated, his interest turned more toward the social sciences as he took courses in philosophy and education. In 1908 he received a doctorate in philosophy from the Jagiellonian University; his thesis was titled On the Principle of the Economy of Thought. During his student years he became interested in travel abroad, and visited Finland, Italy, the Canary Islands, western Asia, and North Africa; some of those travels were at least partly motivated by health concerns. He also spent three semesters at the University of Leipzig (ca. 1909-1910), where he studied under economist Karl Bücher and psychologist Wilhelm Wundt. After reading James Frazer's The Golden Bough, he decided to become an anthropologist. In 1910 he went to England, becoming a postgraduate student at the London School of Economics, where his mentors included C. G. Seligman and Edvard Westermarck. Career In 1911 Malinowski published, in Polish, his first academic paper, "Totemizm i egzogamia" ("Totemism and Exogamy"), in Lud. The following year he published his first English-language academic paper, and in 1913 his first book, The Family among the Australian Aborigines, and gave his first lectures at the LSE, on topics related to psychology of religion and social psychology. In June 1914 he departed London, travelling to Australia, as the first step in his expedition to Papua (in what would later become Papua New Guinea). The expedition was organized under the aegis of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS). In fact, initially Malinowski's journey to Australia was supposed to last only about half a year, as he was mainly planning on attending a conference there, and travelled there in a capacity of a secretary to Robert Ranulph Marett. Shortly afterward, his situation became complicated due to the outbreak of World War I as although Polish by ethnicity, he was a subject of Austria-Hungary, which was at the state of war with the United Kingdom. Malinowski, at risk of internment, nonetheless decided not to return to Europe from the British-controlled region and after intervention by a number of his colleagues, including Marett as well as Alfred Cort Haddon, British authorities allowed him to stay in the Australian region and even provided him with new funding. His first field trip, lasting from August 1914 to March 1915, took him to the Toulon Island (Mailu Island) and the Woodlark Island. This field trip was described in his 1915 monograph The natives of Mailu. Subsequently, he conducted research in the Trobriand Islands in the Melanesia region. He organized two larger expeditions during that time; from May 1915 to May 1916, and October 1917 to October 1918, in addition to several shorter excursions. It was during this period that he conducted his fieldwork on the Kula ring and advanced the practice of participant observation, which remains the hallmark of ethnographic research today. The ethnographic collection of artifacts from his expeditions is mostly held by the British Museum and the Melbourne Museum. During the breaks in between his expeditions he stayed in Melbourne, writing up his research, and publishing new articles, such as Baloma; the Spirits of the Dead in the Trobriand Islands. In 1916 he received the title of Doctor of Sciences. In 1919, he returned to Europe, staying at Tenerife for over a year before coming back to London on 1921. He resumed teaching at the London School of Economics, accepting a position as a lecturer, declining a job offer from the Polish Jagiellonian University. That year his book Argonauts of the Western Pacific, often described as his masterpiece, was published. For the next two decades, he would establish the London School of Economics as Europe's main centre of anthropology. In 1924 he was promoted to a reader, and in 1927, a full professor. In 1930 he became a corresponding foreign member of the Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1933, he became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1934 he travelled to Southern Africa, carrying out research among several tribes such as the Bemba, Kikuyu, Maragoli, Maasai and the Swazi people. The period 1926-1935 was the most productive time of his career, seeing the publications of many articles and several more books. Malinowski taught intermittently in the United States, which he first visited in 1926. When World War II broke out during one of his American visits, he stayed there. In 1941 he carried out field research among the Mexican peasants in Oaxaca. He took up a position at Yale University as a visiting professor, where he remained until his death. In 1942, he co-founded the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences of America of which he became its first president. Malinowski died in New Haven, Connecticut on 16 May 1942, aged 58, of a stroke while preparing to resume his fieldwork in Oaxaca. He was interred at Evergreen Cemetery in New Haven. Works Except a few works from the early 1910s, all of Malinowski's research was published in English. His first book, The Family among the Australian Aborigines, published in 1913, was based on materials he collected and wrote in the years 1909-1911. It was well-received not just by contemporary reviewers, but also by scholars generations later. In 1963, in his foreword to its new edition, John Arundel Barnes called it an epochal work, and noted how it discredited the previously held theory that Australian Aborigines have no institution of family. Published in 1922, Argonauts of the Western Pacific, about the Trobriand people who live on the small Kiriwana island chain northeast of the island of New Guinea, was widely regarded as a masterpiece and significantly boosted Malinowski's reputation in the world of academia. His later books included the Crime and Custom in Savage Society (1926), Sex and Repression in Savage Society (1927), The Sexual Life of Savages in North-Western Melanesia (1929) and Coral Gardens and Their Magic (1935). A number of his works were published posthumously: A Scientific Theory of Culture and Others Essays (1944), The Dynamics of Culture Change (1945), Freedom & Civilization (1947), and the controversial A Diary in the Strict Sense of the Term (1967). The personal diary of Malinowski, along with several others, written in Polish, was discovered in his Yale University office after his death. First published in 1967, covering the period of his fieldwork in 1914–1915 and 1917–1918 in New Guinea and the Trobriand Islands, it set off a storm of controversy. The year it was published Clifford Geertz called it "gross" and "tiresome", and wrote that it portrayed Malinowski as "a crabbed, self-preoccupied, hypochondriacal narcissist, whose fellow-feeling for the people he lived with was limited in the extreme." Two decades later, however, he praised it as "backstage masterpiece of anthropology, our The Double Helix". Writing in 1987, James Clifford called it "a crucial document for the history of anthropology". Many of Malinowski's works entered public domain in 2013. Ideas and influences Already a year after his death Clyde Kluckhohn described his influence in the field as significant if somewhat controversial, noting that to some he "was a major prophet", and that "no anthropologist has ever had so wide a popular audience". In 1974 Witold Armon described many of his works as "classics". Ethnography and fieldwork Malinowski is often considered one of anthropology's most skilled ethnographers, especially because of his highly methodical and well-theorised approach to the study of social systems. He is often referred to as the first researcher to bring anthropology "off the verandah" (a phrase that is also the name of a André Singer's 1986 documentary about his work), that is, stressing the need for fieldwork enabling the researcher to experience the everyday life of his subjects along with them. Malinowski emphasised the importance of detailed participant observation and argued that anthropologists must have daily contact with their informants if they are to adequately record the "imponderabilia of everyday life" that are so important to understanding a different culture. He stated that the goal of the anthropologist, or ethnographer, is "to grasp the native's point of view, his relation to life, to realize his vision of his world". Because of the impact of his argument, he is sometimes credited with inventing the field of ethnography. Malinowski in his pioneering research literally set up a tent in the middle of villages he studied, in which he lived for extended periods of times, weeks or months. His argument was shaped by his initial experiences as an anthropologist in the mid-1910s in Australia and Oceania, where during his first field trip he found himself grossly unprepared for it, due to not knowing the language of the people he set to study, nor being able to observe their daily customs sufficiently (during that initial trip, he was lodged with a local missionary and just made daily trips to the village, and endeavour which became increasingly difficult once he lost his translator). His pioneering decision to subsequently immerse himself in the life of the natives represents his solution to this problem, and was the message he addressed to new, young anthropologists, aiming to both improve their experience and allow them to produce better data. He advocated that stance from his very first publications, which were often harshly critical of those of his elders in the field of anthropology, who did most of their writing based on second-handed accounts. This could be seen in the relation between Frazer - an influential early anthropologist, nonetheless described as the classic armchair scholar - and Malinowski was complex; Frazer was one of Malinowski's mentors and supporters, and his work is credited with inspiring young Malinowski to become an anthropologist. At the same time, Malinowski was critical of Frazer from his early days, and it has been suggested that what he learned from Frazer was not "how to be an anthropologist" but "how not to do anthropology". Ian Jarvie wrote that many of Malinowski's writing represented an "attack" on Frazer's school of fieldwork, although James A. Boon suggested this conflict has been exaggerated. Functionalism and other theories Malinowski has been credited with originating, or being one of the main originators, of the school of social anthropology known as functionalism. It has been suggested that here he has been inspired by the views of William James. In contrast to Radcliffe-Brown's structural functionalism, Malinowski's psychological functionalism argued that culture functioned to meet the needs of individuals rather than the needs of society as a whole. He reasoned that when the needs of individuals, who comprise society, are met, then the needs of society are met. To Malinowski, the feelings of people and their motives were crucial to understanding the way their society functioned: Apart from fieldwork, Malinowski also challenged the claim to universality of Freud's theory of the Oedipus complex. He initiated a cross-cultural approach in Sex and Repression in Savage Society (1927) where he demonstrated that specific psychological complexes are not universal. In 1920, he published his first scientific article on the Kula ring. In reference to the Kula ring, Malinowski also stated: In these two passages, Malinowski anticipated the distinction between description and analysis, and between the views of actors and analysts. This distinction continues to inform anthropological method and theory. His research from that period on the Trobriand traditional economy, with its particular focus on magic and magicians, has also been described as a significant addition to the economic anthropology. Malinowski likewise influenced the course of African history, serving as an academic mentor to Jomo Kenyatta, the father and first president of modern-day Kenya. Malinowski also wrote the introduction to Facing Mount Kenya, Kenyatta's ethnographic study of the Gikuyu tribe. In a brief passage in his 1979 book Broca's Brain, the late science populariser Carl Sagan criticised Malinowski for thinking that "he had discovered a people in the Trobriand Islands who had not worked out the connection between sexual intercourse and childbirth", arguing that it was more likely that the islanders were simply making fun of Malinowski. Mark Mosko wrote in 2014 that further research on Trobriand people affirmed some of Malinowski's claims about their beliefs on procreation, adding that the dogmas are tied to a complicated system of belief encapsulating magic into beliefs about human and plant procreation, but he also stated that "the preponderance of ethnographic evidence ... refutes Malinowski’s notorious claims of Islanders’ supposed “ignorance of physiological paternity”". Teacher As a teacher, he preferred lectures to discussions. He has been praised for his friendly and egalitarian attitude towards women students. Among his students were such future prominent social scientists as Hilda Beemer Kuper, Edith Clarke, Kazimierz Dobrowolski, Raymond Firth, Meyer Fortes, Jomo Kenyatta, Lucy Mair, Z. K. Matthews, Maria Ossowska, Stanisław Ossowski, Hortense Powdermaker, E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Margaret Read, Audrey Richards, Isaac Schapera, Camilla Wedgwood, Monica Wilson and Fei Xiaotong,. His doctorate students included Feliks Gross, Francis L. K. Hsu, Hilda Kuper, Edmund Leach, Józef Obrębski Ralph Piddington, Audrey Richards, and Andrzej Jan Waligórski,. He is considered to have raised the next generation of anthropologists, particularly British. Remembrance The Malinowski Memorial Lecture, an annual anthropology lecture series at London School of Economics, inaugurated in 1959, is named after him. A student-led anthropology magazine at the LSE, The Argonaut, took its name from Malinowski's Argonauts of the Western Pacific. The Society for Applied Anthropology established the Bronislaw Malinowski Award in his honor in 1950. The award was awarded only until 1952, then went on hiatus until being re-established in 1973; it has been awarded annually since. Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz based a character, Duke of Nevermore, from his novel The 622 Downfalls of Bungo or The Demonic Woman (written in the 1910s but not published until 1972) on Malinowski. The life and work of Malinowski is the subject of a documentary film Tales From The Jungle: Malinowski'' aired by BBC Four channel in 2007. Personal life In 1919 Malinowski married Elsie Rosaline Masson, an Australian photographer, writer, and traveler (daughter of David Orme Masson), with whom he had three daughters: Józefa (born 1920), Wanda (born 1922), and Helena (born 1925). Elsie died in 1935, and in 1940 Malinowski married the English painter Valetta Swann. Malinowski's daughter Helena Malinowska Wayne wrote several articles and a book about her father's life. While Malinowski was brought up in the Roman Catholic faith, after his mother's death he described himself as agnostic. Selected publications See also Maria Czaplicka Zofia Romer List of Poles Archaeology of trade Notes References Sources Sources External links Malinowski; Archive (Real audio stream) of BBC Radio 4 edition of 'Thinking allowed' on Malinowski Baloma; the Spirits of the Dead in the Trobriand Islands, at sacred-texts.com Papers of Bronislaw Malinowski held at LSE Library Malinowski's fieldwork photographs, Trobriand Islands, 1915–1918 About the functional theory (selected chapters) Savage Memory – documentary about Malinowski's legacy More Than Malinowski: Polish Cultural Anthropologists You Should Know Bronislaw Malinowski papers (MS 19). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library. Polish anthropologists Anthropologists of religion Ethnologists 1884 births 1942 deaths Functionalism (social theory) Academics of the London School of Economics Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences Alumni of the London School of Economics Cornell University faculty Jagiellonian University alumni Scientists from Kraków Polish emigrants to the United Kingdom British emigrants to the United States Trobriand Islands Economic anthropologists 20th-century non-fiction writers 20th-century anthropologists Polish Austro-Hungarians	[ -0.32668131589889526, 0.1554926037788391, -0.3424355387687683, -0.25438523292541504, -0.9513176679611206, 0.3115934729576111, 0.7367165684700012, 0.39447692036628723, -0.5433134436607361, 0.17205172777175903, -0.09040486812591553, -0.32224828004837036, 0.2884689271450043, 0.3641297519207001, 0.08988134562969208, 0.35117143392562866, -0.2669319212436676, 0.6106148362159729, -0.13496308028697968, -0.4550749957561493, 0.12963378429412842, 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225245	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%20Cherry%20%28trumpeter%29	Don Cherry (trumpeter)	Donald Eugene Cherry (November 18, 1936 – October 19, 1995) was an American jazz trumpeter. Cherry had a long association with free jazz saxophonist Ornette Coleman, which began in the late 1950s. He also performed alongside musicians such as John Coltrane, Charlie Haden, Sun Ra, Ed Blackwell, the New York Contemporary Five, and Albert Ayler. In the 1970s, Cherry became a pioneer in world fusion music, drawing on traditional African, Middle Eastern, and Hindustani music. He was a member of the ECM group Codona, along with percussionist Naná Vasconcelos and sitar and tabla player Collin Walcott. AllMusic called him "one of the most influential jazz musicians of the late 20th century." Early life Cherry was born in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, to a mother of Choctaw descent and an African-American father. His mother and grandmother played piano and his father played trumpet. His father owned Oklahoma City's Cherry Blossom Club, which hosted performances by Charlie Christian and Fletcher Henderson. In 1940, Cherry moved with his family to Los Angeles, California. He lived in the Watts neighborhood, and his father tended bar at the Plantation Club on Central Avenue, which at the time was the center of a vibrant jazz scene. Cherry recalled skipping school at Fremont High School in order to play with the swing band at Jefferson High School. This resulted in his transfer to Jacob Riis High School, a reform school, where he first met drummer Billy Higgins. Career By the early 1950s Cherry was playing with jazz musicians in Los Angeles, sometimes acting as pianist in Art Farmer's group. While trumpeter Clifford Brown was in Los Angeles with Max Roach, Cherry attended a jam session with Brown and Larance Marable at Eric Dolphy's house, and Brown informally mentored Cherry. He also toured with saxophonist James Clay. Cherry became well known in 1958 when he performed and recorded with Ornette Coleman, first in a quintet with pianist Paul Bley and later in what became the predominantly piano-less quartet which recorded for Atlantic Records. During this period, "his lines ... gathered much of their freedom of motion from the free harmonic structures." Cherry co-led The Avant-Garde session which saw John Coltrane replacing Coleman in the Quartet, recorded and toured with Sonny Rollins, was a member of the New York Contemporary Five with Archie Shepp and John Tchicai, and recorded and toured with both Albert Ayler and George Russell. His first recording as a leader was Complete Communion for Blue Note Records in 1965. The band included Coleman's drummer Ed Blackwell as well as saxophonist Gato Barbieri, whom he had met while touring Europe with Ayler, and bassist Henry Grimes. After a departure from Coleman's quartet, Cherry often played in small groups and duets (many with ex-Coleman drummer Ed Blackwell) during a long sojourn in Scandinavia and other locations. He traveled through Europe, India, Morocco, South Africa, and elsewhere to explore and play with a variety of musicians. In the late 1960s he settled in Tagarp, Sweden with his wife, Swedish designer and textile artist Moki Cherry. In 1968, Don Cherry taught music classes with guest lecturers, performance collaborators, and workshop leaders from around the world at Arbetarnas bildningsförbund (ABF) House, a Swedish labor movement-run education center. For ten years, Don and Moki Cherry lived and worked collaboratively in an abandoned schoolhouse in Tagarp, holding classes and performances, hosting guests and collaborators, and exploring their concept of Organic Music Society. In 1969, Cherry played trumpet and other instruments for beat poet Allen Ginsberg's 1970 LP Songs of Innocence and Experience, a musical adaptation of William Blake's poetry collection of the same name. He appeared on Coleman's 1971 LP Science Fiction, and from 1976 to 1987 reunited with Coleman alumni Dewey Redman, Charlie Haden, and Blackwell in the band Old And New Dreams, recording four albums with them, two for ECM and two for Black Saint, where his "subtlety of rhythmic expansion and contraction" was noted. In the 1970s he ventured into the developing genre of world fusion music. Cherry incorporated influences of Middle Eastern, traditional African, and Indian music into his playing. He studied Indian music with Vasant Rai in the early seventies. From 1978 to 1982, he recorded three albums for ECM with "world jazz" group Codona, consisting of Cherry, percussionist Naná Vasconcelos and sitar and tabla player Collin Walcott. Cherry also collaborated with classical composer Krzysztof Penderecki on the 1971 album Actions. In 1973, he co-composed the score for Alejandro Jodorowsky's film The Holy Mountain, together with Ronald Frangipane and Jodorowsky. During the 1980s, he released the recording El Corazon, a 1982 duet album with Ed Blackwell. He also made two albums as bandleader, Home Boy in 1985 and Art Deco in 1988. Cherry recorded again with the original Ornette Coleman Quartet on Coleman's 1987 album In All Languages, Other playing opportunities in his career came with Carla Bley's Escalator Over The Hill project, and as a sideman on recordings by Lou Reed, Ian Dury, Rip Rig + Panic and Sun Ra. In 1994, Cherry appeared on the Red Hot Organization's compilation CD, Stolen Moments: Red Hot + Cool, on a track titled "Apprehension", alongside The Watts Prophets. The album, meant to raise awareness of the AIDS epidemic in African-American society, was named "Album of the Year" by Time magazine. Death and legacy Cherry died on October 19, 1995, at the age of 58 from liver cancer in Málaga, Spain. Cherry was inducted into the Oklahoma Jazz Hall of Fame in 2011. Family He was married to Monika Karlsson (Moki Cherry), a Swedish painter and textile artist, who also occasionally played tamboura drone on his recordings and jams. His stepdaughter, Neneh Cherry, his step-granddaughters Mabel and Tyson and his sons, David Ornette Cherry, Christian Cherry, and Eagle-Eye Cherry, are also musicians. Instruments Cherry learned to play various brass instruments in high school. Throughout his career, Cherry played pocket cornet (though Cherry identified this as a pocket trumpet), trumpet, cornet, flugelhorn, and bugle. Cherry began his career as a pianist, and would continue playing piano and organ. After returning from a musical and cultural journey through Africa, Cherry often played the donso ngoni, a harp-lute with a gourd body originating from West Africa (see ngoni). During his international journeys, he also collected a variety of non-Western instruments, which he mastered and often played in performances and on recordings. Among these instruments were berimbau, bamboo flutes and assorted percussion instruments. Technique and style Cherry's trumpet influences included Miles Davis, Fats Navarro, Clifford Brown, and Harry Edison. Journalist Howard Mandel suggests Henry "Red" Allen as a precedent (given Allen's "blustery rather than Armstrong-brazen brass sound, jauntily unpredictable melodic streams, squeezed-off and/or half-valve effects and repertoire including novelty vocals") while Ekkehard Jost cites Wild Bill Davison. Some critics have noted shortcomings in Cherry's technique. Ron Wynn writes that "[Cherry's] technique isn't always the most efficient; frequently, his rapid-fired solos contain numerous missed or muffed notes. But he's a master at exploring the trumpet and cornet's expressive, voice-like properties; he bends notes and adds slurs and smears, and his twisting solos are tightly constructed and executed regardless of their flaws." Jost notes the tendency for writers to focus on Cherry's "technical insecurity", but asserts that "the problem lies elsewhere. Perfect technical control in extremely fast tempos was more or less risk-free as long as the improviser had to deal with standard changes that were familiar to him from years of working with them.... In the music of the Ornette Coleman Quartet—a 'new-found-land' where the laws and habits of functional harmony do not apply—there is no use for patterns that had been worked out on that basis." Miles Davis was initially dismissive of Cherry's playing, claiming that "anyone can tell that guy's not a trumpet player—it's just notes that come out, and every note he plays he looks serious about, and people will go for that, especially white people." According to Cherry, however, when Davis attended an Ornette Coleman performance at the Five Spot, he was impressed with Cherry's playing and sat in with the group using Cherry's pocket trumpet. Later, in a 1964 DownBeat blindfold test, Davis indicated that he liked Cherry's playing. Discography As leader 1961: The Avant-Garde (Atlantic) with John Coltrane 1965: Togetherness (Durium) 1965: Complete Communion (Blue Note) 1966: Symphony for Improvisers (Blue Note) 1966: Where Is Brooklyn? (Blue Note) 1966: Live at Cafe Montmartre 1966 (ESP-Disk) 1969: "mu" First Part (BYG Actuel) with Ed Blackwell 1969: Eternal Rhythm (MPS) 1969: Live in Ankara (Sonet) 1970: Human Music (Flying Dutchman) with Jon Appleton 1970: "mu" Second Part (BYG Actuel) with Ed Blackwell 1971: Orient (BYG) 1971: Blue Lake (BYG) 1971: Actions with Krzysztof Penderecki & The New Eternal Rhythm Orchestra (Philips, 1971; Intuition, 2002) 1972: Organic Music Society (Caprice) 1973: Relativity Suite with the Jazz Composer's Orchestra (JCOA) 1974: Eternal Now (Sonet) 1975: Brown Rice (Horizon) 1976: Hear & Now (Atlantic) 1982: El Corazón (ECM) with Ed Blackwell 1985: Home Boy (Sister Out) (Barclay) (France and Germany only) 1988: Art Deco (A&M) 1991: Multikulti (A&M) 1993: Dona Nostra (ECM) 2020: Om Shanti Om (Back Sweat Records) With Old and New Dreams Old and New Dreams (Black Saint, 1976) Old and New Dreams (ECM, 1979) Playing (ECM, 1980) A Tribute to Blackwell (Black Saint, 1987) With Codona Codona (ECM, 1979) Codona 2 (ECM, 1981) Codona 3 (ECM, 1983) As sideman With Ornette Coleman Something Else!!!! (Contemporary, 1958) Tomorrow Is the Question! (Contemporary, 1959) The Shape of Jazz to Come (Atlantic, 1959) Change of the Century (Atlantic, 1960) Twins (Atlantic, 1959–60 [1971]) The Art of the Improvisers (Atlantic, 1959–61 [1970]) To Whom Who Keeps a Record (Atlantic, 1959–60 [1975]) This is our Music (Atlantic, 1960) Free Jazz: A Collective Improvisation (Atlantic, 1960) Ornette! (Atlantic, 1961) Ornette on Tenor (Atlantic, 1961) Crisis (Impulse!, 1969) Science Fiction (Columbia, 1971) Broken Shadows (Columbia, 1971 [1982]) In All Languages (Caravan of Dreams, 1987) With the New York Contemporary Five Consequences (Fontana, 1963) New York Contemporary Five Vol. 1 (Sonet, 1963) New York Contemporary Five Vol. 2 (Sonet, 1963) Bill Dixon 7-tette/Archie Shepp and the New York Contemporary Five (Savoy, 1964) With Albert Ayler Ghosts (Debut, 1964) The Hilversum Session (Osmosis, 1964) New York Eye and Ear Control (ESP, 1965) The Copenhagen Tapes (Ayler, 2002) With Carla Bley Escalator over the Hill (JCOA, 1971) With Paul Bley Live at the Hilcrest Club 1958 (Inner City, 1958 [1976]) Coleman Classics Volume 1 (Improvising Artists, 1958 [1977]) With Bongwater Double Bummer (Shimmy-Disc [1988]) With Charles Brackeen Rhythm X (Strata-East, 1973) With Allen Ginsberg Songs of Innocence and Experience (MGM, 1970) With Charlie Haden Liberation Music Orchestra (Impulse!, 1969) The Golden Number (1976) (one track) The Ballad of the Fallen (ECM, 1986) The Montreal Tapes: with Don Cherry and Ed Blackwell (Verve, 1989 [1994]) With Abdullah Ibrahim The Journey (Chiaroscuro, 1977)With Clifford JordanIn the World (Strata-East, 1969 [1972])With Steve LacyEvidence (New Jazz, 1962)With Michael Mantler The Jazz Composer's Orchestra (ECM, 1968) No Answer (WATT/ECM 1973)With Sunny Murray Sonny's Time Now (Jihad, 1965)With Jim Pepper Comin' and Goin' (Europa, 1983)With Sonny Rollins Our Man in Jazz (RCA Victor, 1962)With George RussellGeorge Russell Sextet at Beethoven Hall (MPS, 1965)With Sun Ra Hiroshima (1983) Stars That Shine Darkly (1983) Purple Night (A&M, 1990) Somewhere Else (Rounder, 1993)With Lou Reed The Bells (1979)With Charlie RouseEpistrophy (Landmark, 1989)With others' Albert Heath and James Mtume along with Herbie Hancock and Ed Blackwell – Kawaida (1969 Alejandro Jodorowsky- The Holy Mountain Soundtrack (1973) Terry Riley – Terry Riley and Don Cherry Duo (B.Free, 1975) Steve Hillage – L (1976) Collin Walcott – Grazing Dreams (ECM, 1977) Latif Khan – Music/Sangam (1978) Johnny Dyani – Song for Biko (1978) Masahiko Togashi - Session In Paris, Vol. 1 "Song Of Soil" (Take One/King, 1979) Bengt Berger – Bitter Funeral Beer (ECM, 1981) Rip Rig + Panic – I Am Cold (1982) Bengt Berger Bitter Funeral Beer Band – Live in Frankfurt (1982) Dag Vag – Almanacka (1983) Frank Lowe – Decision in Paradise (Soul Note, 1984) Jai Uttal – Footprints (1990) Ed Blackwell Project – Vol. 2: "What It Be Like?"'' (1992) (one track) References External links The Slits' memoirs of Don Cherry Discography at eagle-eye-cherry.com Discography Don Cherry biography (in German and English) and bibliography (in English) 1936 births 1995 deaths American jazz trumpeters American male trumpeters American expatriates in Spain African-American jazz musicians Avant-garde jazz trumpeters Modal jazz trumpeters Post-bop trumpeters Free jazz trumpeters Jazz musicians from California Musicians from Los Angeles Musicians from Oklahoma City Antilles Records artists A&M Records artists Atlantic Records artists Chiaroscuro Records artists BYG Actuel artists Blue Note Records artists ECM Records artists Deaths from liver cancer Deaths from hepatitis Deaths from cancer in Spain Pupils of Pran Nath (musician) Pupils of La Monte Young 20th-century American musicians 20th-century trumpeters Jazz musicians from Oklahoma 20th-century American male musicians Male jazz musicians John C. Fremont High School alumni Codona members The Leaders members New York Contemporary Five members Old and New Dreams members Varèse Sarabande Records artists Intakt Records artists Jefferson High School (Los Angeles) alumni American people of Choctaw descent Sonet Records artists 20th-century African-American musicians	[ -0.32051703333854675, -0.11033657193183899, -1.4323451519012451, -0.32454216480255127, -0.08984538912773132, 0.0912502110004425, 0.5243707299232483, 0.42786556482315063, -0.8543304800987244, -0.6013734340667725, 0.5307541489601135, 0.5603550672531128, -0.6381024122238159, -0.06896580755710602, -0.5598806142807007, 0.34970712661743164, 0.3820893168449402, -0.584628164768219, -0.48289725184440613, -0.5470538139343262, 0.10872300714254379, -0.6141071319580078, -0.035164423286914825, 0.16703546047210693, -0.31819483637809753, 0.1444164514541626, -0.3760300576686859, 0.02333052270114422, 0.5907939076423645, -0.014592557214200497, -0.2669169008731842, 0.5262765884399414, 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225247	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count%20of%20St.%20Germain	Count of St. Germain	The Comte de Saint Germain (; – 27 February 1784) was a European adventurer, with an interest in science, alchemy and the arts. He achieved prominence in European high society of the mid 1700s. Prince Charles of Hesse-Kassel considered him to be "one of the greatest philosophers who ever lived". St. Germain used a variety of names and titles, an accepted practice amongst royalty and nobility at the time. These include the Marquis de Montferrat, Comte Bellamarre, Chevalier Schoening, Count Weldon, Comte Soltikoff, Graf Tzarogy and Prinz Ragoczy. In order to deflect enquiries as to his origins, he would make far-fetched claims, such as being 500 years old, leading Voltaire to sarcastically dub him "The Wonderman" and that "He is a man who does not die, and who knows everything". His real name is unknown while his birth and background are obscure, but towards the end of his life, he claimed that he was a son of Prince Francis II Rákóczi of Transylvania. His name has occasionally caused him to be confused with Claude Louis, Comte de Saint-Germain, a noted French general. Background The count claimed to be a son of Francis II Rákóczi, the Prince of Transylvania, which could possibly be unfounded. However, this would account for his wealth and fine education. The will of Francis II Rákóczi mentions his eldest son, Leopold George, who was believed to have died at the age of four. The speculation is that his identity was safeguarded as a protective measure from the persecutions against the Habsburg dynasty. At the time of his arrival in Schleswig in 1779, St. Germain told Prince Charles of Hesse-Kassel that he was 88 years old. This would place his birth in 1691, when Francis II Rákóczi was 15 years old. St. Germain was supposedly educated in Italy by the last of the Medicis, Gian Gastone, his alleged mother's brother-in-law. He was believed to be a student at the University of Siena. Throughout his adult life, he deliberately spun a confusing web to conceal his actual name and origins, using different pseudonyms in the different places of Europe that he visited. Historical figure He appears to have begun to be known under the title of the Count of St Germain during the early 1740s. England According to David Hunter, the count contributed some of the songs to L'incostanza delusa, an opera performed at the Haymarket Theatre in London on all but one of the Saturdays from 9 February to 20 April 1745. Later, in a letter of December of that same year, Horace Walpole mentions the Count St. Germain as being arrested in London on suspicion of espionage (this was during the Jacobite rebellion of 1745), but released without charge: The other day they seized an odd man, who goes by the name of Count St. Germain. He has been here these two years, and will not tell who he is, or whence, but professes [two wonderful things, the first] that he does not go by his right name; and the second that he never had any dealings with any woman – nay, nor with any succedaneum. He sings, plays on the violin wonderfully, composes, is mad, and not very sensible. He is called an Italian, a Spaniard, a Pole; a somebody that married a great fortune in Mexico, and ran away with her jewels to Constantinople; a priest, a fiddler, a vast nobleman. The Prince of Wales has had unsatiated curiosity about him, but in vain. However, nothing has been made out against him; he is released; and, what convinces me that he is not a gentleman, stays here, and talks of his being taken up for a spy. The Count gave two private musical performances in London in April and May 1749. On one such occasion, Lady Jemima Yorke described how she was 'very much entertain'd by him or at him the whole Time – I mean the Oddness of his Manner which it is impossible not to laugh at, otherwise you know he is very sensible & well-bred in conversation'. She continued: 'He is an Odd Creature, and the more I see him the more curious I am to know something about him. He is everything with everybody: he talks Ingeniously with Mr Wray, Philosophy with Lord Willoughby, and is gallant with Miss Yorke, Miss Carpenter, and all the Young Ladies. But the Character and Philosopher is what he seems to pretend to, and to be a good deal conceited of: the Others are put on to comply with Les Manieres du Monde, but that you are to suppose his real characteristic; and I can't but fancy he is a great Pretender in All kinds of Science, as well as that he really has acquired an uncommon Share in some'. Walpole reports that St Germain: 'spoke Italian and French with the greatest facility, though it was evident that neither was his language; he understood Polish, and soon learnt to understand English and talk it a little [...] But Spanish or Portuguese seemed his natural language'. Walpole concludes that the Count was 'a man of Quality who had been in or designed for the Church. He was too great a musician not to have been famous if he had not been a gentleman'. Walpole describes the Count as pale, with 'extremely black' hair and a beard. 'He dressed magnificently, [and] had several jewels' and was clearly receiving 'large remittances, but made no other figure'. France St. Germain appeared in the French court around 1748. In 1749, he was employed by Louis XV for diplomatic missions. A mime and English comedian known as Mi'Lord Gower impersonated St. Germain in Paris salons. His stories were wilder than the real count's (he had advised Jesus, for example). Inevitably, hearsay of his routine got confused with the original. Giacomo Casanova describes in his memoirs several meetings with the "celebrated and learned impostor". Of his first meeting, in Paris in 1757, he writes: The most enjoyable dinner I had was with Madame de Robert Gergi, who came with the famous adventurer, known by the name of the Count de St. Germain. This individual, instead of eating, talked from the beginning of the meal to the end, and I followed his example in one respect as I did not eat, but listened to him with the greatest attention. It may safely be said that as a conversationalist he was unequalled. St. Germain gave himself out for a marvel and always aimed at exciting amazement, which he often succeeded in doing. He was scholar, linguist, musician, and chemist, good-looking, and a perfect ladies' man. For a while he gave them paints and cosmetics; he flattered them, not that he would make them young again (which he modestly confessed was beyond him) but that their beauty would be preserved by means of a wash which, he said, cost him a lot of money, but which he gave away freely. He had contrived to gain the favour of Madame de Pompadour, who had spoken about him to the king, for whom he had made a laboratory, in which the monarch – a martyr to boredom – tried to find a little pleasure or distraction, at all events, by making dyes. The king had given him a suite of rooms at Chambord, and a hundred thousand francs for the construction of a laboratory, and according to St. Germain the dyes discovered by the king would have a materially beneficial influence on the quality of French fabrics. This extraordinary man, intended by nature to be the king of impostors and quacks, would say in an easy, assured manner that he was three hundred years old, that he knew the secret of the Universal Medicine, that he possessed a mastery over nature, that he could melt diamonds, professing himself capable of forming, out of ten or twelve small diamonds, one large one of the finest water without any loss of weight. All this, he said, was a mere trifle to him. Notwithstanding his boastings, his bare-faced lies, and his manifold eccentricities, I cannot say I thought him offensive. In spite of my knowledge of what he was and in spite of my own feelings, I thought him an astonishing man as he was always astonishing me. Dutch Republic In March 1760, at the height of the Seven Years' War, St. Germain travelled to The Hague. In Amsterdam, he stayed at the bankers Adrian and Thomas Hope and pretended he came to borrow money for Louis XV with diamonds as collateral. He assisted Bertrand Philip, Count of Gronsveld starting a porcelain factory in Weesp as furnace and colour specialist. St. Germain tried to open peace negotiations between Britain and France with the help of Duke Louis Ernest of Brunswick-Lüneburg. British diplomats concluded that St. Germain had the backing of the Duc de Belle-Isle and possibly of Madame de Pompadour, who were trying to outmanoeuvre the French Foreign Minister, the pro-Austrian Duc de Choiseul. However, Britain would not treat with St. Germain unless his credentials came directly from the French king. The Duc de Choiseul convinced Louis XV to disavow St. Germain and demand his arrest. Count Bentinck de Rhoon, a Dutch diplomat, regarded the arrest warrant as internal French politicking, in which Holland should not involve itself. However, a direct refusal to extradite St. Germain was also considered impolitic. De Rhoon, therefore, facilitated the departure of St. Germain to England with a passport issued by the British Ambassador, General Joseph Yorke. This passport was made out "in blank", allowing St. Germain to travel in May 1760 from Hellevoetsluis to London under an assumed name, showing that this practice was officially accepted at the time. From St. Peterburg, St. Germain travelled to Berlin, Vienna, Milan, Ubbergen, and Zutphen (June 1762), Amsterdam (August 1762), Venice (1769), Livorno (1770), Neurenberg (1772), Mantua (1773), The Hague (1774), and Bad Schwalbach. Death In 1779, St. Germain arrived in Altona in Schleswig, where he made an acquaintance with Prince Charles of Hesse-Kassel, who also had an interest in mysticism and was a member of several secret societies. The count showed the Prince several of his gems and he convinced the latter that he had invented a new method of colouring cloth. The Prince was impressed and installed the Count in an abandoned factory at Eckernförde he had acquired especially for the Count, and supplied him with the materials and cloths that St. Germain needed to proceed with the project. The two met frequently in the following years, and the Prince outfitted a laboratory for alchemical experiments in his nearby summer residence Louisenlund, where they, among other things, cooperated in creating gemstones and jewelry. The prince later recounts in a letter that he was the only person in whom the count truly confided. He told the prince that he was the son of the Transylvanian Prince Francis II Rákóczi, and that he had been 88 years of age when he arrived in Schleswig. The count died in his residence in the factory on 27 February 1784, while the prince was staying in Kassel, and the death was recorded in the register of the St. Nicolai Church in Eckernförde. He was buried 2 March and the cost of the burial was listed in the accounting books of the church the following day. The official burial site for the count is at Nicolai Church (German St. Nicolaikirche) in Eckernförde. He was buried in a private grave. On 3 April the same year, the mayor and the city council of Eckernförde issued an official proclamation about the auctioning off of the count's remaining effects in case no living relative would appear within a designated time period to lay claim on them. Prince Charles donated the factory to the crown and it was afterward converted into a hospital. Jean Overton Fuller found, during her research, that the count's estate upon his death was a packet of paid and receipted bills and quittances, 82 Reichsthalers and 13 shillings (cash), 29 various groups of items of clothing (this includes gloves, stockings, trousers, shirts, etc.), 14 linen shirts, eight other groups of linen items, and various sundries (razors, buckles, toothbrushes, sunglasses, combs, etc.). No diamonds, jewels, gold, or any other riches were listed, nor were kept cultural items from travels, personal items (like his violin), or any notes of correspondence. Music by the Count The following list of music comes from Appendix II from Jean Overton Fuller's book The Comte de Saint Germain. Trio Sonatas Six sonatas for two violins with a bass for harpsichord or violoncello: Op. 47 I. F major, 4/4, Molto adagio Op. 48 II. B-flat major, 4/4, Allegro Op. 49 III. E-flat major, 4/4, Adagio Op. 50 IV. G minor, 4/4, Tempo giusto Op. 51 V. G major, 4/4, Moderato Op. 52 VI. A major, 3/4, Cantabile lento Violin solos Seven solos for solo violin: Op. 53 I. B-flat major, 4/4, Largo Op. 54 II. E major, 4/4, Adagio Op. 55 III. C minor, 4/4, Adagio Op. 56 IV. E-flat major, 4/4, Adagio Op. 57 V. E-flat major, 4/4, Adagio Op. 58 VI. A major, 4/4, Adagio Op. 59 VII. B-flat major, 4/4, Adagio English songs Op. 4 The Maid That's Made For Love and Me (O Wouldst Thou Know What Sacred Charms). E-flat major (marked B-flat major), 3/4 Op. 7 Jove, When He Saw My Fanny's Face. D major, 3/4 Op. 5 It Is Not That I Love You Less. F major, 3/4 Op. 6 Gentle Love, This Hour Befriend Me. D major, 4/4 Italian arias Numbered in order of their appearance in the Musique Raisonnee, with their page numbers in that volume, * Marks those performed in L'Incostanza Delusa and published in the Favourite Songs from that opera. Op. 8 I. Padre perdona, oh! pene, G minor, 4/4, p. 1 Op. 9 II. Non piangete amarti, E major, 4/4, p. 6 Op. 10 III. Intendo il tuo, F major, 4/4, p. 11 Op. 1 IV. Senza pieta mi credi, G major, 6/8 (marked 3/8 but there are 6 quavers to the bar), p. 16 Op. 11 V. Gia, gia che moria deggio, D major, 3/4, p. 21 Op. 12 VI. Dille che l'amor mio, E major, 4/4, p. 27 Op. 13 VII. Mio ben ricordati, D major, 3/4, p. 32 Op. 2 VIII. Digli, digli, D major, 3/4, p. 36 Op. 3 IX. Per pieta bel Idol mio, F major, 3/8, p. 40 Op. 14 X. Non so, quel dolce moto, B-flat major, 4/4, p. 46 Op. 15 XI. Piango, e ver, ma non procede, G minor, 4/4, p. 51 Op. 16 XII. Dal labbro che t'accende, E major, 3/4, p. 56 Op. 4/17 XIII. Se mai riviene, D minor, 3/4, p. 58 Op. 18 XIV. Parlero non e permesso, E major, 4/4, p. 62 Op. 19 XV. Se tutti i miei pensieri, A major, 4/4, p. 64 Op. 20 XVI. Guadarlo, guaralo in volto, E major, 3/4, p. 66 Op. 21 XVII. Oh Dio mancarmi, D major, 4/4, p. 68 Op. 22 XVIII. Digli che son fedele, E-flat major, 3/4, p. 70 Op. 23 XIX. Pensa che sei cruda, E minor, 4/4, p. 72 Op. 24 XX. Torna torna innocente, G major, 3/8, p. 74 Op. 25 XXI. Un certo non so che veggo, E major, 4/4, p. 76 Op. 26 XXII. Guardami, guardami prima in volto, D major, 4/4, p. 78 Op. 27 XXIII. Parto, se vuoi cosi, E-flat major, 4/4, p. 80 Op. 28 XXIV. Volga al Ciel se ti, D minor, 3/4, p. 82 Op. 29 XXV. Guarda se in questa volta, F major, 4/4, p. 84 Op. 30 XXVI. Quanto mai felice, D major, 3/4, p. 86 Op. 31 XXVII. Ah che neldi'sti, D major, 4/4, p. 88 Op. 32, XXVIII. Dopp'un tuo Sguardo, F major, 3/4, p. 90 Op. 33 XXIX. Serbero fra'Ceppi, G major, 4/4, 92 Op. 34 XXX. Figlio se piu non vivi moro, F major, 4/4, p. 94 Op. 35 XXXI. Non ti respondo, C major, 3/4, p. 96 Op. 36 XXXII. Povero cor perche palpito, G major, 3/4, p. 99 Op. 37 XXXIII. Non v'e piu barbaro, C minor, 3/8, p. 102 Op. 38 XXXIV. Se de'tuoi lumi al fuoco amor, E major, 4/4, p. 106 Op. 39 XXXV. Se tutto tosto me sdegno, E major, 4/4, p. 109 Op. 40 XXXVI. Ai negli occhi un tel incanto, D major, 4/4 (marked 2/4 but there are 4 crotchets to the bar), p. 112 Op. 41 XXXVII. Come poteste de Dio, F major, 4/4, p. 116 Op. 42 XXXVIII. Che sorte crudele, G major, 4/4, p. 119 Op. 43 XXXIX. Se almen potesse al pianto, G minor, 4/4, p. 122 Op. 44 XXXX. Se viver non posso lunghi, D major, 3/8, p. 125 Op. 45 XXXXI. Fedel faro faro cara cara, D major, 3/4, p. 128 Op. 46 XXXXII. Non ha ragione, F major, 4/4, p. 131 Literature about the Count Biographies The best-known biography is Isabel Cooper-Oakley's The Count of St. Germain (1912), which gives a satisfactory biographical sketch. It is a compilation of letters, diaries, and private records written about the count by members of the French aristocracy who knew him in the 18th century. Another interesting biographical sketch can be found in The History of Magic, by Eliphas Levi, originally published in 1913. Numerous French and German biographies also have been published, among them by Peter Krassa, by Marie-Raymonde Delorme, and by Pierre Ceria and François Ethuin. In his work Sages and Seers (1959), Manly Palmer Hall refers to the biography Graf St.-Germain by E. M. Oettinger (1846). Books attributed to the Count Discounting the snippets of political intrigue, a few musical pieces, and one mystical poem, there are only two pieces of writing attributed to the Count: La Très Sainte Trinosophie and the untitled Triangular Manuscript. The first book attributed to the Count of Saint Germain is La Très Sainte Trinosophie (The Most Holy Trinosophia), a beautifully illustrated 18th century manuscript that describes in symbolic terms a journey of spiritual initiation or an alchemical process, depending on the interpretation. This book has been published several times, most notably by Manly P. Hall, in Los Angeles, California, in 1933. The attribution to St. Germain rests on a handwritten note scrawled inside the cover of the original manuscript stating that this was a copy of a text once in St. Germain's possession. However, despite Hall's elaborate introduction describing the Count's legend, The Most Holy Trinosophia shows no definitive connection to him. The second work attributed to St. Germain is the untitled 18th century manuscript in the shape of a triangle. The two known copies of the Triangular Manuscript exist as Hogart Manuscript 209 and 210 (MS 209 and MS 210). Both currently reside in the Manly Palmer Hall Collection of Alchemical Manuscripts at the Getty Research Library. Nick Koss decoded and translated this manuscript in 2011 and it was published as The Triangular Book of St. Germain by Ouroboros Press in 2015. Unlike the first work, it mentions St. Germain directly as its originator. The book describes a magical ritual by which one can perform the two most extraordinary feats that characterized the legend of Count of St. Germain, namely procurement of great wealth and extension of life. In Theosophy Myths, legends, and speculations about St. Germain began to be widespread in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and continue today. They include beliefs that he is immortal, the Wandering Jew, an alchemist with the "Elixir of Life", a Rosicrucian, and that he prophesied the French Revolution. He is said to have met the forger Giuseppe Balsamo (alias Cagliostro) in London and the composer Rameau in Venice. Some groups honor Saint Germain as a supernatural being called an ascended master. In fiction The count has inspired a number of fictional creations: The German writer Karl May wrote two stories with the Graf von Saint Germain appearing as antagonist: Aqua benedetta (1877) and its largely extended version Ein Fürst des Schwindels (1880). The Comte is a significant character in the Victorian time-travel novella, A Peculiar Count in Time, by M .K. Beutymhill. The Comte is the main protagonist in an ongoing series of historical romance/horror novels by Chelsea Quinn Yarbro. The mystic in the Alexander Pushkin story "The Queen of Spades". In The Red Lion: The Elixer of Life by Maria Szepes, he appears as Saint Germain The character of Agliè in the novel Foucault's Pendulum by Umberto Eco is an occultist who claims to be the Count St. Germain. He is the main character of the historical mystery novel based on his early adventures, The Man Who Would Not Die, written by Paul Andrews. He is presented as the son of Prince Rákóczi. He is a significant character in Diana Gabaldon's Outlander series, specifically 1992's Dragonfly in Amber, and an apparent time traveler in Gabaldon's spin-off novella, "The Space Between". In the novelization The Night Strangler, from the TV film of the same title, it is strongly hinted that the immortal villain, Dr. Richard Malcolm, is actually the Count St. Germain. When asked directly, Malcolm laughs ironically but does not deny it. He is the main antagonist in The Ruby Red Trilogy, written by Kerstin Gier. He is the founder of a secret lodge which is controlling people with a time-travelling gene, and he is trying to gain immortality through the said time-travellers. In Kōta Hirano's Drifters, the character of count Saint Germi is inspired by him. He is voiced by Tomokazu Sugita in the anime adaptation. Robert Rankin's character Professor Slocombe, in the various books of The Brentford Trilogy, is often described as bearing an uncanny resemblance to the Comte; when the Professor annotates the Comte's ancient notebooks, even the handwriting is nearly identical. Another character, now quite old, born in the Victorian era, has stated that Professor Slocombe was an old man even then. He is introduced as a supporting character in the novel The Magician, the second book in the fantasy series The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel by Michael Scott. He is a character in Castlevania: Curse of Darkness, where he's a time traveler and voiced by Adam D. Clark. He fights with Zead, who is the avatar of Death. He is a character in Netflix's 2017 Castlevania, appearing as an itinerant magician in search of the "Infinite Corridor" voiced by Bill Nighy. He is mentioned in Raidou Kuzunoha vs. The Soulless Army as a time agent, yet the player never meets him. He is played by James Marsters in the TV series Warehouse 13. He is an immortal who used a ring with a gem from the Philosopher's stone used to revitalize plants and heal people to accumulate wealth throughout the ages. The ring was taken by Marie-Antoinette and buried in the Catacombs beneath Paris. Hoshino Katsura used him as inspiration for the character of the Millennium Earl in the manga series D. Gray Man. In Master of Mosquiton Mosquiton's enemy is an immortal demon loosely based on the Count of St. Germain. He is portrayed by Miya Rurika in the play Azure Moment by Takarazuka Revue. Prominent Bengali fiction author Shariful Hasan made the character Count Saint Germain in his Samvala Trilogy inspired by him. The visual novel Code: Realize − Guardian of Rebirth depicts him as an eccentric aristocrat hosting Arsène Lupin, Impey Barbicane, Victor Frankenstein, and Van Helsing in his manor. In the BBC podcast The Lovecraft Investigations, he is revealed to be the mortal guise of Nyarlathotep and a central antagonist of the series. The character of Jack Elderflower in the novel Gather the Fortunes, by Bryan Camp. In the tabletop role-playing game Unknown Armies by John Scott Tynes and Greg Stolze, he is the First and Last Man, the only immortal character in the setting, whose lifespan encompasses the first and last lives of human beings. In the manga The Case Study of Vanitas, Noe's teacher and Dominique's grandfather tells them he is currently going by that name. He appears as a playable character in the Japanese otome game series Ikemen Vampire. In the series, he is the sire and the host for those who he has given a second lease in life including Napoleon Bonaparte, Isaac Newton, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Leonardo da Vinci, William Shakespeare, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Vincent van Gogh, Theo Van Gogh, Jeanne d'Arc (who is named as Jean d'Arc and is a man), and Osamu Dazai. The series portrays him as a kind, mild-mannered, intelligent, respectable and respected nobleman of immeasurable wealth as well as a protective father or older sibling figure to all his residents including his human butler. He figures prominently in various works by Japanese rock artist Kamijo, including the album Sang and the single "Persona Grata". References Further reading Marie Antoinette von Lowzow, Saint-Germain – Den mystiske greve, Dansk Historisk Håndbogsforlag, Copenhagen, 1984. . (in Danish). Melton, J. Gordon Encyclopedia of American Religions 5th Edition New York:1996 Gale Research Chapter 18--"The Ancient Wisdom Family of Religions" Pages 151–158; see chart on page 154 listing Masters of the Ancient Wisdom; Also see Section 18, Pages 717-757 Descriptions of various Ancient Wisdom religious organizations Chrissochoidis, Ilias. "The Music of the Count of St. Germain: An Edition", Society for Eighteenth-Century Music Newsletter 16 (April 2010), [6–7]. Fleming, Thomas. "The Magnificent Fraud." American Heritage, February 2006 (2006). Hausset, Madame du. "The Private Memoirs of Louis XV: Taken from the Memoirs of Madame Du Hausset, Lady's Maid to Madame De Pompadour." ed Nichols Harvard University, 1895. Hunter, David. "The Great Pretender." Musical Times, no. Winter 2003 (2003). Pope-Hennessey, Una. The Comte De Saint-Germain. Reprint ed, Secret Societies and the French Revolution. Together with Some Kindred Studies by Una Birch. Lexington, Kentucky: Forgotten Books, 1911. Saint-Germain, Count de, ed. The Music of the Comte St.Germain. Edited by Manley Hall. Los Angeles, California: Philosophical Research Society, 1981. Saint-Germain, Count de. The Most Holy Trinosophia. Forgotten Books, N.D. Reprint, 2008. Slemen, Thomas. Strange but True. London: Robinson Publishing, 1998. Walpole, Horace. "Letters of Horace Walpole." ed Charles Duke Yonge. New York: Putman's Sons, 9 Dec. 1745. d'Adhemar, Madame Comtesse le. "Souvenirs Sur Marie-Antoinette." Paris: Impremerie de Bourgogne et Martinet, 1836. Cooper-Oakley, Isabella. The Comte De Saint Germain, the Secret of Kings. 2nd ed. London: Whitefriars Press, 1912. 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225248	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannah%20Szenes	Hannah Szenes	Hannah Szenes (often anglicized as Hannah Senesh or Chanah Senesh; ; ; 17 July 19217 November 1944) was a poet and a Special Operations Executive (SOE) member. She was one of 37 Jewish SOE recruits from Mandate Palestine parachuted by the British into Yugoslavia during the Second World War to assist anti-Nazi forces and ultimately in the rescue of Hungarian Jews about to be deported to the German death camp at Auschwitz. Szenes was arrested at the Hungarian border by Hungarian gendarmes. She was imprisoned and tortured, but refused to reveal details of her mission. She was eventually tried and executed by firing squad. She is regarded as a national heroine in Israel but has largely been forgotten in her birthplace of Hungary according to The Guardian. In Israel her poetry is widely known and the Yad Hana kibbutz as well as several streets, are named after her. Early life Szenes was born on July 17, 1921, to an assimilated Jewish family in Hungary. Her father, Béla, a journalist and playwright, died when Hannah was six years old. She continued to live with her mother, Kathrine, and her brother, György. She enrolled in a Protestant private school for girls that also accepted Catholic and Jewish pupils; however those of the Catholic and Jewish faith had to pay double and three times the amount Protestants paid. After her mother thought it was too expensive, Szenes was declared a "gifted student" and allowed to only pay double the usual amount. This, along with the realization that the situation of the Jews in Hungary was becoming precarious, prompted Szenes to embrace Zionism, and she joined Maccabea, a Hungarian Zionist students organization. Immigration to Nahalal Szenes graduated in 1939 and decided to emigrate to what was then the British Mandate of Palestine in order to study in the Girls' Agricultural School at Nahalal. In 1941, she joined Kibbutz Sdot Yam and then joined the Haganah, the paramilitary group that laid the foundation of the Israel Defense Forces. The scholar of Jewish Mysticism Joseph G. Weiss was in love with her and parts of their correspondence were published after his death. In 1943, she enlisted in the British Women's Auxiliary Air Force as an Aircraftwoman 2nd Class. Later the same year, she was recruited into the Special Operations Executive (SOE) and was sent to Egypt for parachute training. The parachutists’ mission Between 1943 and 1944, the Jewish community in Palestine (Yishuv) decided to send Jewish parachutists behind enemy lines to assist both Allies forces and the Jews in occupied Europe. The mission was a cooperation between the Yishuv and British forces to create Jewish commando unit within the British army. Szenes volunteered and was selected along with 32 others, out of 250 candidates, to be sent on active missions. Arrest and torture On March 14, 1944, she and two colleagues were parachuted into Yugoslavia and joined a partisan group. After landing, they learned the Germans had already occupied Hungary, so the men decided to call off the mission as too dangerous. Szenes continued on and headed for the Hungarian border. At the border, she and her companions were arrested by Hungarian gendarmes, who found her British military transmitter, used to communicate with the SOE and other partisans. She was taken to a prison, stripped, tied to a chair, then whipped and clubbed for three days. She lost several teeth as a result of the beatings. The guards wanted to know the code for her transmitter so they could find out who the parachutists were and trap others. Transferred to a Budapest prison, Szenes was repeatedly interrogated and tortured, but only revealed her name and refused to provide the transmitter code, even when her mother was also arrested. They threatened to kill her mother if she did not cooperate, but she refused. While in prison, Szenes used a mirror to flash signals out of the window to prisoners in other cells and communicated using large cut-out letters that she placed in her cell window one at a time and by drawing the Magen David in the dust. Trial and execution She was tried for treason in Hungary on 28 October 1944 by a court appointed by the fascist Arrow Cross regime. There was an eight-day postponement to give the judges more time to find a verdict, followed by another postponement, this one because of the appointment of a new Judge Advocate. She was executed by a firing squad on November 7, 1944. She kept diary entries until her last day. One of them read: "In the month of July, I shall be twenty-three/I played a number in a game/The dice have rolled. I have lost," and another: "I loved the warm sunlight." Her diary was published in Hebrew in 1946. Her remains were brought to Israel in 1950 and buried in the cemetery on Mount Herzl, Jerusalem. Her tombstone was brought to Israel in November 2007 and placed in Sdot Yam. During the trial of Rudolf Kastner, Hannah's mother testified that during the time her daughter was imprisoned, Kastner's people had advised her not to obtain a lawyer for her daughter. Further, she recalled a conversation with Kastner after the war, telling him, "I don't say that you could have saved my daughter Hannah, but that you didn't try – it makes it harder for me that nothing was done." After the Cold War, a Hungarian military court officially exonerated her. Her kin in Israel were informed on November 5, 1993. Poetry, songs and plays Szenes was a poet and playwright, writing both in Hungarian and Hebrew. The following are four of her better known poems. The best known of these is "A Walk to Caesarea", commonly known as Eli, Eli ("My God, My God"). The well-known melody was composed by David Zahavi. Many singers have sung it, including Ofra Haza, Regina Spektor, and Sophie Milman. It was used to close some versions of the film Schindler's List. In popular culture The Legend of Hannah Senesh, a play about Szenes written by Aharon Megged, was produced and directed by Laurence Merrick at the Princess Theatre in Los Angeles in 1964. Szenes was played by Joan Huntington. Hanna's War, a film about Szenes's life directed by Menahem Golan, was released in 1988. Szenes was portrayed by Maruschka Detmers. Blessed is the Match: The Life and Death of Hannah Senesh, directed by Roberta Grossman, is a documentary film that recounts the events of Hannah's life. It was released in 2008. Darkness (one two three), a musical pilot project of the Association of Global Art, led by the musician and singer , in which Hannah's last poem was composed and sung (English and Hebrew, 2019). See also Jewish Parachutists of Mandate Palestine References Bibliography חנה סנש: חייה, שליחותה ומותה, in Hebrew. 1952. Diario, cartas, iniciación literaria, misión y muerte, memorias de la madre, 1966. in Spanish. 396 pages. Hannah Senesh, Her Life & Diary, Schocken Books, 1972. Masters, Anthony. The Summer That Bled; The Biography of Hannah Senesh. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1972. Goldenberg, Linda. In Kindling Flame: The Story of Hannah Senesh, 1921-1944. New York: Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Books, 1985. Hay, Peter. Ordinary Heroes: Chana Szenes and the Dream of Zion. G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1986. Whitman, Ruth. The Testing of Hannah Senesh Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1986. Maxine Rose Schur, Hannah Szenes: A Song of Light, Philadelphia, 1986. Betzer, Oded. The Paratrooper Who Didn't Return. World Zionist Organization, 1989. Ransom, Candice F. So Young to Die: the Story of Hannah Senesh. Scholastic, 1993. Senesh, Hannah, and Marge Piercy (foreword). Hannah Senesh: Her Life and Diary. Jewish Lights Publishing, 2004. Gozlan, Martine, Hannah Szenes, l'étoile foudroyée. Paris: Ed. de l'Archipel, 2014. In French. Shalom, Avner, Hannah Senesh, ''Poems within the Depth, שירים מן המעמקים, The Association of Global Art Publishing House, Budapest and Caesarea 2018 in English and Hebrew, appendix A and B in Spanish and Lithuanian Websites External links Video Lecture by Dr. Henry Abramson on Hannah Szenes Teacher's Study Guide Hannah Senesh Legacy foundation Jewish Community Day School, Brooklyn, New York Blessed Is The Match, a documentary film about Hannah Blessed Is The Match at Women Make Movies Hannah Szenes Biography at J-Grit: The Internet Index of Tough Jews Hannah Szenes: Poet, Hero, Martyr: Video lecture on Hannah Szenesh by Dr. Henry Abramson Hannah Szenes on Jewish.hu's list of famous Hungarian Jews Chana Szenes – The Match That Burns Forever Sophie Milman Version of Eli, Eli Hungarian people of World War II Hungarian Jews Female resistance members of World War II Jewish parachutists of Mandate Palestine Women in World War II Jewish poets Women diarists Kibbutzniks Executed spies Military 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225249	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997%20standoff%20at%20Roby%2C%20Illinois	1997 standoff at Roby, Illinois	The 1997 standoff at Roby, Illinois, sometimes referred to as Roby Ridge and the Standoff at Roby Ridge, is one of the longest single person standoffs in history. With the involved party being an elderly woman named Shirley Allen, of Roby, Illinois, a former nurse whose family's 1997 attempt to have her involuntarily committed led to a 39-day standoff with Illinois State Police and other law-enforcement agencies. On September 22, 1997, officers of the Christian County, Illinois sheriff's department attempted to serve commitment papers that had been questionably obtained by a court order after a petition by some of her relatives. Though the relatives have said they were concerned about her mental state, many, such as her best friend Marie E. Gribbins (Riech), have alleged that the motive was to gain control of her land; there were two oil wells on her 47-acre (190,000 m2) farm. Illinois State Police Director Terry Gainer said at the time that police were "there for this woman's protection and for the protection of her neighbors. I think we're doing the right thing. We can't afford not to." The police were accused by bystanders of using military tactics against Allen after she allegedly fired a shotgun in the air. Witnesses differ as to who fired first, and indeed, police have offered contradictory statements on this. The police also used tear gas against Allen. She defended herself by crafting a makeshift gas mask using a rag and Vaseline, and lay on the floor to avoid the gas., She also used makeshift armor made out of pillows and magazines to defend herself against rubber bullets. Police also played music at high volume, used a police dog to attempt to take her into custody, and eventually shut off her electricity, gas and water. They arrested a neighbor who tried to bring her food and water. Other neighbors paid Allen's bills and attempted to provide her with food. Numerous protestors stayed at the site during the standoff, including members of the militia movement such as the Midwest Patriot Militia of Illinois. Aftermath After six weeks in a mental hospital, Allen was released when doctors said she posed no danger to herself or others. The standoff drew international attention, and controversies over the cost of the operation as well as involuntary commitment laws ensued. Local authorities spent almost $1 million in relation to the event. Self-described "patriot" and militia groups, as well as the Libertarian Party, called for reform of Illinois mental health laws that provide for the hospitalization of people who do not break the law. There have also been accusations that the police violated her First Amendment rights. Some have dubbed the incident Roby Ridge, an allusion to the 1992 Ruby Ridge standoff. In popular culture Dave vonKleist recorded a song about the standoff, "The Ballad of Shirley Allen". Notes References Further reading External links "The Greatest Showdown On Earth". Weekly Wire. http://www.parascope.com/articles/1097/robyridge.htm https://web.archive.org/web/20110810212744/http://67.151.102.46/story/?id=39536 Shirley Allen at Neohumanism site Year of birth missing (living people) Place of birth missing (living people) Conflicts in 1997 Law enforcement in Illinois	[ 0.2164049595594406, 0.1293378621339798, -0.40947312116622925, -0.2120441198348999, -0.27531832456588745, -0.15131060779094696, 0.7943040132522583, 0.24425844848155975, -0.05708397552371025, -0.041858263313770294, -0.02595895156264305, 0.19711963832378387, -0.521304726600647, 0.07364720106124878, -0.33716049790382385, 0.8914743661880493, 0.6760666966438293, -0.08069857954978943, 0.3356032073497772, -0.688825786113739, 0.01909443363547325, -0.44228702783584595, 0.8056738972663879, 0.42517799139022827, 0.008530213497579098, 0.4976264536380768, 0.5062131285667419, -0.31992805004119873, 0.4820634722709656, 0.5096500515937805, 0.2355385422706604, 0.1551036238670349, 0.0940164178609848, 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225252	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannah%20Snell	Hannah Snell	Hannah Snell (23 April 1723 – 8 February 1792) was an 18th-century British woman who disguised herself as a man and became a soldier. Hannah Snell was mentioned in James Woodforde's diary entry of 21 May 1778 selling buttons, garters, laces etc. Biography Hannah Snell was born in Worcester, England on 23 April 1723. Locals claim that she played a soldier even as a child. In 1740, she moved to London and married James Summes, a Dutch seaman, on 18 January 1744. She gave birth to a daughter, Susannah, who died a year later. Snell borrowed a man's suit from her brother-in-law James Gray, assumed his name, and began to search for Summes, who had abandoned her while she was pregnant with his child. She later learned that her husband had been executed for murder. According to her account, following the death of her daughter, on 23 November 1745, she joined John Guise's regiment, the 6th Regiment of Foot, in the army of the Duke of Cumberland against Bonnie Prince Charlie. She deserted when her sergeant gave her 500 lashes and moved to Portsmouth and joined the Marines. She boarded the ship Swallow at Portsmouth and sailed to Lisbon. Her unit was about to invade Mauritius, but the attack was called off. Her unit then sailed to India. In August 1748, her unit was sent to an expedition to capture the French colony of Pondicherry in India. Later, she also fought in the battle in Devicottail in June 1749. She was wounded in the legs eleven times. She was also shot in her groin and, to avoid revealing her sex, she instructed a local woman to take out the bullet instead of being tended by the regimental surgeon. In 1750, her unit returned to Britain and traveled from Portsmouth to London, where she revealed her sex to her shipmates on 2 June. She petitioned the Duke of Cumberland, the head of the army, for her pension. She also sold her story to London publisher Robert Walker, who published her account, The Female Soldier, in two different editions. She also began to appear on stage in her uniform presenting military drills and singing songs. Three painters painted her portrait in her uniform and The Gentleman's Magazine reported her claims. She was honorably discharged and the Royal Hospital, Chelsea officially recognized Snell's military service in November, and granted her a pension in 1750 (increased in 1785), a rare thing in those days. Snell retired to Wapping and began to keep a pub named The Female Warrior (or The Widow in Masquerade, accounts disagree) but it did not last long. By the mid-1750s, she was living in Newbury in Berkshire. In 1759, she married Richard Eyles there, with whom she had two children. In 1772, she married Richard Habgood of Welford, also in Berkshire, and the two moved to the Midlands. In 1785, she was living with her son George Spence Eyles, a clerk, on Church Street, Stoke Newington. In 1791, her mental condition suddenly worsened. She was admitted to Bethlem Hospital on 20 August and died on 8 February 1792. She was buried at Chelsea Hospital (now the Old Burial Ground, Royal Hospital Chelsea). Cultural references Playwright Shirley Gee has written two fictional dramatisations of Snell's life: a radio play, Against the Wind (1988) and a stage play, Warrior (1989). Hannah Snell is mentioned in the 1969 film The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie as a woman who was prepared to "serve, suffer and sacrifice." References Further reading Matthew Stephens - Hannah Snell: The Secret Life of a Female Marine, 1723–1792 External links Hannah Snell Homepage Excerpts from Hannah Snell: The Secret Life of a Female Marine, 1723-1792 by Matthew Stephens Royal Berkshire History: Hannah Snell 1723 births 1792 deaths Female wartime cross-dressers Women in the British Army Royal Marines ranks People from Worcester, England 18th-century British women	[ -0.00858624093234539, -0.07023121416568756, -0.31727704405784607, 0.0902896448969841, 0.3754562735557556, 1.2531932592391968, 1.230070948600769, -0.02319716475903988, -0.37430334091186523, -0.10903965681791306, -0.12314298748970032, 0.17165808379650116, -0.18606357276439667, 0.005290814209729433, -0.4516963064670563, -0.03593026474118233, -0.3226337730884552, 0.19351735711097717, 0.10702559351921082, -0.09441886842250824, -0.14419405162334442, -0.3096695840358734, 0.028506863862276077, -0.8401867747306824, -0.41694924235343933, 0.1032177060842514, 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225254	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm%20Voigt	Wilhelm Voigt	Friedrich Wilhelm Voigt (13 February 1849 – 3 January 1922) was a German impostor who, in 1906, masqueraded as a Prussian military officer, rounded up a number of soldiers under his "command", and "confiscated" more than 4,000 marks from a municipal treasury. Although he served two years in prison, he became a folk hero as "the Captain of Köpenick" ( ) and was pardoned by Kaiser Wilhelm II. Early life Voigt was born in Tilsit, Prussia (now Sovetsk, Kaliningrad Oblast). In 1863, aged 14, he was sentenced to 14 days in prison for theft, which led to his expulsion from school. He learned shoemaking from his father. Between 1864 and 1891, Voigt was sentenced to prison for a total of 25 years for thefts, forgery and burglary. The longest sentence was a 15-year conviction for an unsuccessful burglary of a court cashier's office. He was released on 12 February 1906. Voigt drifted from place to place until he went to live with his sister in Rixdorf near Berlin. He was briefly employed by a well-reputed shoemaker until the local police expelled him from Berlin as an undesirable, based solely on the fact that he was an ex-convict, on 24 August 1906. Officially he left for Hamburg, although he remained in Berlin as an unregistered resident. Captain of Köpenick On 16 October 1906, Voigt was ready for his next caper. He had purchased parts of used captain's uniforms from different shops and tested their effect on soldiers. He had resigned from the shoe factory ten days previously. He took the uniform out of baggage storage, put it on and went to the local army barracks, stopped four grenadiers and a sergeant on their way back to barracks and told them to come with him and they followed. He dismissed the commanding sergeant to report to his superiors and later commandeered six more soldiers from a shooting range. Then he took a train to Köpenick, east of Berlin, occupied the local city hall with his soldiers and told them to cover all exits. He told the local police to "care for law and order" and to "prevent calls to Berlin for one hour" at the local post office. He had the treasurer von Wiltberg and mayor Georg Langerhans arrested, citing suspicion of crooked bookkeeping, and confiscated 4002 marks and 37 pfennigs, issuing a receipt for the money signed with his former jail director's name. Then he commandeered two carriages and told the grenadiers to take the arrested men to the Neue Wache in Berlin for interrogation. He told the remaining guards to stand in their places for half an hour and then left for the train station. He later changed into civilian clothes and disappeared. Unraveling and capture In the following days, the German press speculated on what had really happened. At the same time the army ran its own investigation. The public seemed to be positively amused by the daring of the culprit. Voigt was arrested on 26 October 1906 after a former cellmate who knew about Voigt's plans had tipped off the police, hoping for the high reward. On 1 December Voigt was sentenced to four years in prison for forgery, impersonating an officer and wrongful imprisonment. However, much of public opinion was on his side. German Kaiser Wilhelm II pardoned him on 16 August 1908. There are some claims that even the Kaiser was amused by the incident, referring to him as an amiable scoundrel, and being pleased with the authority and feelings of reverence that his military obviously commanded in the general population. The British press were also amused, seeing it as confirmation of their stereotypes about Germans. In its 27 October 1906 issue, the editors of The Illustrated London News noted gleefully: For years the Kaiser has been instilling into his people reverence for the omnipotence of militarism, of which the holiest symbol is the German uniform. Offences against this fetish have incurred condign punishment. Officers who have not considered themselves saluted in due form have drawn their swords with impunity on offending privates. In that same issue, writer G. K. Chesterton pointed out: The most absurd part of this absurd fraud (at least, to English eyes) is one which, oddly enough, has received comparatively little comment. I mean the point at which the Mayor asked for a warrant, and the Captain pointed to the bayonets of his soldiery and said, 'These are my authority'. One would have thought anyone would have known that no soldier would talk like that. Aftermath Voigt decided to capitalize on his fame. His wax figure appeared in the wax museum in Unter den Linden four days after his release. He appeared in the museum to sign his pictures but public officials banned the appearances on the same day. He appeared in small theatres in a play that depicted his exploit and signed more photographs as the Captain of Köpenick. In spite of the ban he toured in Dresden, Vienna and Budapest in variety shows, restaurants and amusement parks. In 1909, he published a book in Leipzig, How I became the Captain of Köpenick, which sold well. Although his United States tour almost failed because the immigration authorities refused to grant him a visa, he arrived in 1910 via Canada. He also inspired a waxwork in Madame Tussaud's museum in London. In 1910, he moved to Luxembourg and worked as a waiter and shoemaker. He received a life pension from a rich Berlin dowager. Two years later, he bought a house and retired, but was ruined financially in the post–World War I recession. Voigt died in Luxembourg in 1922. His grave is on the Cimetière Notre-Dame in Luxembourg (). In popular culture Voigt's exploits became the subject of literary references as early as 1911, when British satirical writer Saki defined the term "to koepenick" as "to replace an authority by a spurious imitation that would carry just as much weight for the moment as the displaced original" in his short story "Ministers of Grace". A silent film was made in German in 1926. In 1931, German author Carl Zuckmayer wrote a play about the affair called The Captain of Köpenick, which shifts the focus from the event at Köpenick itself to the prelude, showing how his surroundings and his situation in life had helped Voigt form his plan. An English-language adaptation was written by John Mortimer, and first performed by the National Theatre company at the Old Vic on 9 March 1971 with Paul Scofield in the title role. Several more films were produced about Wilhelm Voigt, most based on Zuckmayer's play; among them Der Hauptmann von Köpenick (1931); The Captain from Köpenick (1945), starring Albert Bassermann; Der Hauptmann von Köpenick (1956), with Heinz Rühmann; a 1956 U.S. TV adaptation starring Emmett Kelly, the circus clown; the 1960 TV movie Der Hauptmann von Köpenick, featuring Rudolf Platte; and the 1997 TV movie Der Hauptmann von Köpenick, starring Harald Juhnke. In 1943 the German Air Force mistakenly thought that a bombing attack which had been carried out on Düren, with the bombers then returning, was a diversion, and the bombers were actually heading for the ball-bearing factory at Schweinfurt; when Schweinfurt was not attacked they were concerned about the Leuna synthetic fuel refinery, then the Skoda Works at Pilsen. They scrambled large numbers of fighters everywhere, whose engine noise sounded like an invading force. After the debacle, Head of the Air Force Hermann Göring sent an ironic telegram to all concerned congratulating them on "the successful defence of the fortress of Koepenick". The basic line of stageplays and movies was the pitiful catch-22 situation of Voigt trying to earn his living honourably in Berlin: "No residence address – no job. No job – no residence (rented room). No residence – no passport. No passport – getting ousted." References External links Wilhelm Voigt: Captain von Köpenick (sniggle.net) The Captain of Kopenick (koepenickia.de) Köpenicki kapten (nukufilm.ee) 1849 births 1922 deaths 1906 crimes in Germany People from Tilsit Impostors 20th-century German criminals Shoemakers People from the Province of Prussia Burials at Notre-Dame Cathedral, Luxembourg 1900s hoaxes	[ 0.04348704591393471, 0.16159120202064514, -0.16098912060260773, 0.24098677933216095, -0.2266709953546524, 0.700476348400116, 1.0670757293701172, -0.44817644357681274, 0.10566405951976776, 0.021188147366046906, -0.005072218365967274, -0.17697744071483612, -0.07219865173101425, 0.3745461404323578, 0.09446236491203308, -0.0204533152282238, 0.11052684485912323, 0.3246576189994812, -0.1933249980211258, -0.2826707363128662, -0.1948658972978592, -0.2427920401096344, 0.1706894487142563, -0.247998908162117, -0.3815014660358429, 0.04261124134063721, 0.36191120743751526, -0.20820501446723938, -0.42179951071739197, 0.26594242453575134, 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225255	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Abagnale	Frank Abagnale	Frank William Abagnale Jr. (; born April 27, 1948) is an American author and convicted felon. He gained notoriety in the late 1970s with biographical claims that included working as an assistant state attorney general in Louisiana, a hospital physician in Georgia, a professor in Utah, and a Pan American World Airways pilot who logged over two million air miles. According to Abagnale, he began to con people and pass bad checks when he was 15 years old. During his teens and early twenties he was arrested multiple times and was convicted and imprisoned in the United States and Europe. In 1980, Abagnale co-wrote a book on his life, Catch Me If You Can, that inspired the film of the same name directed by Steven Spielberg, in which Abagnale was portrayed by actor Leonardo DiCaprio. He has also written four other books. Abagnale runs Abagnale and Associates, a consultancy firm. The veracity of most of Abagnale's claims has been questioned and in many cases outright refuted. In 2002, Abagnale admitted on his website that some facts had been over-dramatized or exaggerated, though he was not specific about what was exaggerated or omitted about his life. In 2020, journalist Alan C. Logan provided documentary evidence that the majority of Abagnale's claims had been at best wildly exaggerated and at worst completely invented. Early life Frank William Abagnale Jr. was born in the Bronx, New York City, on April 27, 1948, to a French-Algerian mother and an Italian-American father. He spent his early life in Bronxville, New York. His parents separated when he was 12 and divorced when he was 15 years old. After the divorce, Abagnale moved with his father, and his new stepmother, to Mount Vernon, New York. According to Abagnale, his first victim was his father, who gave Abagnale a gasoline credit card and a truck and was ultimately liable for a bill amounting to $3,400. Abagnale was only 15 at the time. In his autobiography, Abagnale says, because of this crime, he was sent to a reform school in Westchester County, New York (fitting the description of the Lincolndale Agricultural School) run by Catholic Charities USA. In December 1964, he enlisted in the United States Navy at the age of 16. He was discharged after less than three months and was arrested for forgery shortly thereafter. In 1965, the Federal Bureau of Investigation arrested Abagnale in Eureka, California for car theft after he stole a Ford Mustang from one of his father's neighbors. Abagnale was pictured in the local newspaper, seated in a car, being questioned by special agent Richard Miller of the FBI. He had financed his cross-country trip from New York to California with blank checks stolen from a family business located on the Bronx River Parkway. Abagnale was also charged with impersonating a US customs official, although this charge was dropped. On June 2, 1965, this stolen car case was transferred to the Southern District of New York. Airline pilot After being released into the custody of his father to face the stolen car charges, 17-year-old Abagnale decided to impersonate a pilot. He obtained a uniform at a Manhattan uniform company, but was arrested in Tuckahoe, New York days later. Abagnale was sentenced to three years at the Great Meadow Prison in Comstock, New York. After serving only two years of his sentence, he was released into the custody of his mother. However, he broke the terms of his parole with a stolen car conviction in Boston, Massachusetts, and was returned to Great Meadow for one year. After his release on December 24, 1968, he disguised himself as a TWA pilot and moved to Baton Rouge, Louisiana, where he talked his way into the house of a local music teacher, the father of a Delta Air Lines stewardess he had met in New York. He was arrested on February 14, 1969, initially on vagrancy charges. Upon his arrest he was found to have illegally driven his Florida rental car out of state and to possess falsified airline employee identification. The following day detectives determined that Abagnale had stolen blank checks from his host family and a local business in Baton Rouge, and he was subsequently charged with theft and forgery. Unable to make bail, he was convicted on June 2, 1969, and was sentenced to 12 years of supervised probation, but he soon fled Louisiana for Europe. Europe Two weeks after the Louisiana bench warrant was issued, Abagnale was arrested in Montpellier, France, in September 1969. He had stolen an automobile and defrauded two local families in Klippan, Sweden. He was sentenced to four months for theft in France, but only served three months in Perpignan's prison. He was then extradited to Sweden where he was convicted of gross fraud by forgery. He served two months in a Malmö prison and was banned from returning to Sweden for eight years and required to recompense his Swedish victims (which, they say, he never did). Abagnale was deported back to the United States in June 1970 when his appeal failed. United States After returning to the United States, 22-year-old Abagnale dressed in a pilot's uniform and travelled around college campuses, passing bad checks and claiming he was there to recruit stewardesses for Pan Am. At the University of Arizona, he stated that he was a pilot and a doctor, and according to Paul Holsen, a student at the time, Abagnale conducted physical examinations on several female college students who wanted to be part of flight crews. None of the women were ever enrolled in Abagnale's fictional program. After Abagnale cashed a personal check dressed up as a Pan Am paycheck, on July 30, 1970, in Durham, North Carolina, he again came to the attention of the FBI. He was arrested in Cobb County, Georgia, 3 months later, on November 2, 1970, after cashing 10 fake Pan Am payroll checks in different towns. Abagnale escaped from the Cobb County jail and was picked up 4 days later in New York City. He was sentenced to ten years in 1971 for forging checks that totaled $1,448.60 and he received an additional two years for escaping from the local Cobb County jailhouse. In 1974, Abagnale was released on parole after he had served around two years of his 12-year sentence at Federal Correctional Institution in Petersburg, Virginia. Unwilling to return to his family in New York, he left the choice of parole location up to the court, which decided that he would be paroled in Houston, Texas. After his release, Abagnale stated that he performed numerous jobs, including cook, grocer, and movie projectionist, but he was fired from most of these after it was discovered he had been hired without revealing his criminal past. He again posed as a pilot in 1974 to obtain a job at Camp Manison, a summer children's camp in Texas where he was arrested for stealing cameras from his co-workers. After he received only a fine, he obtained a position at a Houston-area orphanage by pretending to be a pilot with a master's degree. This job had him finding foster homes for the children living at the orphanage. This ruse was eventually discovered by his parole officer, who swiftly removed him from his orphanage work and moved him into living quarters above his own garage so that he "could keep an eye on him". His next position was at Aetna, where he was fired and sued for check fraud. According to Abagnale, he approached a bank with an offer in 1975. He explained to the bank what he had done and offered to speak to the bank's staff and show them various tricks that "paperhangers" use to defraud banks. His offer included the condition that if they did not find his speech helpful, they would owe him nothing; otherwise, they would owe him only $50, with an agreement that they would provide his name to other banks. With that, he began a new career as a speaker and a security consultant. During this time, he falsified his resume to show he had worked with the Los Angeles Police Department and Scotland Yard. In 1977, Abagnale gave public talks wherein he claimed that between the ages of 16 and 21 years old, he was a doctor in a Georgia hospital for one year, an assistant state attorney general for one year, a sociology professor for two semesters, and a Pan American airlines pilot for two years. In addition, Abagnale claimed that he recruited university coeds as Pan American stewardesses travelling with them for three months throughout Europe. He also claimed he eluded the FBI with a daring escape from a commercial airline toilet bowl, while the plane was taxiing at the John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York. In 1978 Abagnale told a Honolulu Advertiser reporter that he was familiar with the toilet apparatus, squeezed himself through the opening, swung down through the lower hatch, landed on the pavement, ran across the runway and hailed a cab. Abagnale claimed he moved the sewage container aside and that no one heard a thing: "I took off running. I thought they were right behind me. What I didn't know was that the door was spring loaded and when it slammed shut the whole assembly fell back into place. Nobody heard anything because of the engines' roar." He moved his wife, Kelly, and their three sons to Tulsa, Oklahoma. He and his family lived in the same house for the next 25 years. After the sons left home for college and careers elsewhere, Kelly suggested that she and Frank should leave Tulsa. They agreed to move to Charleston, South Carolina. In 1976, he founded Abagnale & Associates, which advises companies on secure documents. In 2015, Abagnale was named the AARP Fraud Watch Ambassador, where he helps "to provide online programs and community forums to educate consumers about ways to protect themselves from identity theft and cybercrime." In 2018, he began co-hosting the AARP podcast The Perfect Scam about scammers and how they operate. He has appeared in the media a variety of times. This includes three times as guest on The Tonight Show, an appearance on To Tell the Truth in 1977 and a regular slot on the British network TV series The Secret Cabaret in the 1990s. The book about Abagnale, Catch Me If You Can, was turned into a movie of the same name by Steven Spielberg in 2002, featuring actor Leonardo DiCaprio as Abagnale. The real Abagnale made a cameo appearance in this film as a French police officer taking DiCaprio into custody. Veracity of claims During his appearances on television and in his speeches, Abagnale has often embellished his criminal exploits, stating that he was wanted in 12 countries, has worked extensively for the FBI and escaped several times from FBI custody. He also claimed that he cashed $2.5 million in bad checks and worked as an assistant attorney general and a hospital physician. In addition, he stated that he started a fake stewardess trainee program and logged over 2 million air miles disguised as a pilot. In public lectures describing his life story, Abagnale has consistently maintained that he was "arrested just once", and that was in Montpellier, France. However, public records show Abagnale was arrested in New York (multiple times), California, Massachusetts, Louisiana, Georgia, and Texas. Despite public records showing Abagnale targeted individuals and small family businesses, Abagnale has long claimed publicly that he "never, ever ripped off any individuals''. He made the same claim of never targetting individuals and small businesses to BBC journalist Sarah Montague and the Associated Press. In 2002, Abagnale told the Star Tribune, "As long as I didn't hurt anyone, people never considered me a real criminal, my victims were big corporations. I was a kid ripping off the establishment." However, individuals criminally targeted by Abagnale have described the long-term consequences of victimization: Journalist Ira Perry was unable to find any evidence that Abagnale worked with the FBI; according to one retired FBI special agent in charge, Abagnale was caught trying to pass personal checks in 1978 several years after he claimed that he began working with the FBI. Dating back to the 1980s Abagnale claimed that Joseph Shea, an FBI agent, had pursued him for 5 years (between 1965 and 1970). Abagnale claimed that Shea befriended and supervised him during his parole. However, when Catch Me If You Can was released in theatres, The Atlanta Journal-Constitution reported that Abagnale and Shea only reunited in the late 1980s, almost 20 years after Shea arrested him. Abagnale spotted Shea at an anticrime seminar in Kansas City and sought out Shea to shake his hand. In 2002, Los Angeles Times journalist Bob Baker (1948-2015) reported that there was no FBI task force set up to capture Abagnale. His claim that he passed the Louisiana bar exam, worked for Attorney General Jack P. F. Gremillion, and closed 33 cases, was debunked by several journalists in 1978. There is no record of Abagnale ever being a member of the Louisiana Bar and no evidence he ever worked as an assistant attorney general in Louisiana's Attorney General Office. In 1978, the Louisiana State Bar Association reconciled all those who took the bar exam and concluded that Abagnale never took the exam using his own name or an alias; the State Attorney General's Office examined payments to all employees during the time Abagnale claimed he worked there and concluded that he never worked in the office using his name or an alias. After Abagnale appeared on The Tonight Show, then-First Assistant Attorney General Ken DeJean gave a reporter a series of questions to ask Abagnale about the description of then-Attorney General Jack P. F. Gremillion. Abagnale failed to answer the questions correctly. Abagnale has publicly claimed an intelligence quotient (IQ) of 140: "I have an I.Q. of 140 and retain 90 percent of what I read. So by studying and memorizing the bar exam I was able to get the needed score." In 2021 Abagnale gave the keynote at the American Mensa Conference in Houston, Texas. The organizers claimed he was the subject of an FBI manhunt and cashed millions of dollars' worth of checks while impersonating a pilot and doctor. One of Abagnale's most notable claims was an alleged escape from the United States Penitentiary, Atlanta in 1971: In 1982 Abagnale told the press, "I was and still am the only and youngest man to escape from that prison." However, the Federal Bureau of Prisons confirmed that Abagnale was never housed in the Atlanta Federal Penitentiary: "he was never admitted, so I don't really see how he could have escaped" said acting warden Dwight Amstutz. In 1978, after Abagnale had been a featured speaker at an anti-crime seminar, a San Francisco Chronicle reporter looked into his assertions. Telephone calls to banks, schools, hospitals and other institutions Abagnale mentioned turned up no evidence of his cons under the aliases he used. Abagnale's response was, "Due to the embarrassment involved, I doubt if anyone would confirm the information." He later said he had changed the names. Further doubts were raised about Abagnale's story after an October 1978 appearance on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, with a news article saying: In December 1978, Abagnale's claims were again investigated after he visited Oklahoma City for a talk. As part of his investigation into the story, Perry spoke with Pan Am spokesman Bruce Haxthausen, who responded to the journalists' enquiry saying: In 2002, Abagnale addressed the issue of his story's lack of truthfulness with a statement posted on his company's website, which said in part: "I was interviewed by the co-writer only about four times. I believe he did a great job of telling the story, but he also over-dramatized and exaggerated some of the story. That was his style and what the editor wanted. He always reminded me that he was just telling a story and not writing my biography." However, Abagnale made the primary claims of working as a doctor for a year, an attorney for a year, a PhD professor, and his several escapes on national television in 1977 on the show To Tell the Truth. He also made these claims in print media, namely the Fort Worth Star-Telegram, three years before the publication of his co-written autobiography, effectively nullifying the claim his aforementioned co-author, Stan Redding, exaggerated the story. In 2006, KSL journalist Scott Haws challenged Abagnale with his claim that he worked as a Ph.D-holding sociology professor at Brigham Young University (BYU) for two semesters. Abagnale claimed that he could not recall the details, and that his co-author Redding had exaggerated some things. Haws "refreshed Frank's memory" and showed him his own words, including the Catch Me If You Can Moviebook and the credits that rolled at the end of the film Catch Me If You Can, where Abagnale, not Redding, made the BYU professor claim. Abagnale conceded to Haws that he might have been a guest lecturer. Leading up to 2020, journalist Alan C. Logan conducted an in-depth investigation, as part of publishing a book, on Abagnale's life story. Logan's exhaustive search of earlier newspaper articles, and other public records, cast reasonable doubt on Abagnale's story. Logan also discovered numerous administrative documents that contradicted many of Abagnale's claims. Logan's investigation found that Abagnale's claims were, for the most part, fabrications. Documents show that Abagnale was in Great Meadow Prison in Comstock, New York, between the ages of 17 and 20 (July 26, 1965, and December 24, 1968) as inmate #25367, the time frame during which Abagnale claims to have committed his most significant scams. Logan's investigation uncovered numerous petty crimes that Abagnale has never acknowledged, and with Logan giving evidence to argue that many of Abagnale's most famous scams in fact never occurred. Abagnale has told the press, "I was convicted on 2.5 million dollars' worth of bad checks" and that he later hired a law firm to get all the money back to hotels and other companies. However, federal court records show that Abagnale was convicted of forging 10 Pan American Airlines checks in five states (Texas, Arizona, Utah, California and North Carolina), totalling less than US$1,500. Following parole, he claimed he went to work for the FBI. Logan found no evidence to support Abagnale's claims, including the assertion that he was included in a coffee table book celebrating the 100th anniversary of the FBI. In many interviews and speeches Abagnale has claimed that he has earned millions of dollars from his patents. However, the United States Patent and Trademark Office website shows that Abagnale as a person, and Abagnale and Associates as a business, hold no patents and they are not listed as an inventor on any patent. In his cheque design patents, Canadian inventor Calin A. Sandru merely mentions in the Background section of the invention that KPMG and Abagnale and Associates are groups that affirm that cheque fraud is a significant problem. In 2020 Abagnale was confronted by one of his victims in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. When asked why he talks about being an attorney general and passing the bar exams, and yet failing to acknowledge his arrest and conviction in Baton Rouge, Abagnale said, "That's because I work for the FBI." Abagnale claimed to the Star Tribune that he is an ethics instructor at the FBI Academy, located in Quantico, Virginia: "I teach ethics at the FBI academy, which is ironic, but years ago, someone at the Bureau said, 'who better than you to do this?'—I try to teach young agents the importance of doing the right thing." Logan, girded with public records, shared his findings in detail on the NPR program Watching America, August 13, 2021, broadcast on WHRO. Personal life Abagnale lives on Daniel Island, near Charleston, South Carolina, with his wife Kelly. They have three sons, Scott, Chris, and Sean. Abagnale cites meeting his wife as the motivation for changing his life. He told author Paul Stenning that he met her while working undercover for the FBI when she was a cashier at a grocery store. Books Catch Me If You Can, 1980. . The Art of the Steal, Broadway Books, 2001. . Real U Guide to Identity Theft, 2004. . Stealing Your Life, Random House/Broadway Books, April 2007. . Scam Me If You Can, 2019. . See also The Great Impostor, 1961 movie about Ferdinand Waldo Demara Elliot Castro, Scottish former fraudster References External links Official Abagnale & Associates site Article questioning Abagnale's claims. 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225256	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon%20carbide	Silicon carbide	Silicon carbide (SiC), also known as carborundum (), is a semiconductor containing silicon and carbon. It occurs in nature as the extremely rare mineral moissanite. Synthetic SiC powder has been mass-produced since 1893 for use as an abrasive. Grains of silicon carbide can be bonded together by sintering to form very hard ceramics that are widely used in applications requiring high endurance, such as car brakes, car clutches and ceramic plates in bulletproof vests. Large single crystals of silicon carbide can be grown by the Lely method and they can be cut into gems known as synthetic moissanite. Electronic applications of silicon carbide such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and detectors in early radios were first demonstrated around 1907. SiC is used in semiconductor electronics devices that operate at high temperatures or high voltages, or both. Natural occurrence Naturally occurring moissanite is found in only minute quantities in certain types of meteorite and in corundum deposits and kimberlite. Virtually all the silicon carbide sold in the world, including moissanite jewels, is synthetic. Natural moissanite was first found in 1893 as a small component of the Canyon Diablo meteorite in Arizona by Dr. Ferdinand Henri Moissan, after whom the material was named in 1905. Moissan's discovery of naturally occurring SiC was initially disputed because his sample may have been contaminated by silicon carbide saw blades that were already on the market at that time. While rare on Earth, silicon carbide is remarkably common in space. It is a common form of stardust found around carbon-rich stars, and examples of this stardust have been found in pristine condition in primitive (unaltered) meteorites. The silicon carbide found in space and in meteorites is almost exclusively the beta-polymorph. Analysis of SiC grains found in the Murchison meteorite, a carbonaceous chondrite meteorite, has revealed anomalous isotopic ratios of carbon and silicon, indicating that these grains originated outside the solar system. History Early experiments Non-systematic, less-recognized and often unverified syntheses of silicon carbide include: César-Mansuète Despretz's passing an electric current through a carbon rod embedded in sand (1849) Robert Sydney Marsden's dissolution of silica in molten silver in a graphite crucible (1881) Paul Schuetzenberger's heating of a mixture of silicon and silica in a graphite crucible (1881) Albert Colson's heating of silicon under a stream of ethylene (1882). Wide-scale production Wide-scale production is credited to Edward Goodrich Acheson in 1890. Acheson was attempting to prepare artificial diamonds when he heated a mixture of clay (aluminium silicate) and powdered coke (carbon) in an iron bowl. He called the blue crystals that formed carborundum, believing it to be a new compound of carbon and aluminium, similar to corundum. Moissan also synthesized SiC by several routes, including dissolution of carbon in molten silicon, melting a mixture of calcium carbide and silica, and by reducing silica with carbon in an electric furnace. Acheson patented the method for making silicon carbide powder on February 28, 1893. Acheson also developed the electric batch furnace by which SiC is still made today and formed the Carborundum Company to manufacture bulk SiC, initially for use as an abrasive. In 1900 the company settled with the Electric Smelting and Aluminum Company when a judge's decision gave "priority broadly" to its founders "for reducing ores and other substances by the incandescent method". It is said that Acheson was trying to dissolve carbon in molten corundum (alumina) and discovered the presence of hard, blue-black crystals which he believed to be a compound of carbon and corundum: hence carborundum. It may be that he named the material "carborundum" by analogy to corundum, which is another very hard substance (9 on the Mohs scale). The first use of SiC was as an abrasive. This was followed by electronic applications. In the beginning of the 20th century, silicon carbide was used as a detector in the first radios. In 1907 Henry Joseph Round produced the first LED by applying a voltage to a SiC crystal and observing yellow, green and orange emission at the cathode. The effect was later rediscovered by O. V. Losev in the Soviet Union in 1923. Production Because natural moissanite is extremely scarce, most silicon carbide is synthetic. Silicon carbide is used as an abrasive, as well as a semiconductor and diamond simulant of gem quality. The simplest process to manufacture silicon carbide is to combine silica sand and carbon in an Acheson graphite electric resistance furnace at a high temperature, between and . Fine SiO2 particles in plant material (e.g. rice husks) can be converted to SiC by heating in the excess carbon from the organic material. The silica fume, which is a byproduct of producing silicon metal and ferrosilicon alloys, can also be converted to SiC by heating with graphite at . The material formed in the Acheson furnace varies in purity, according to its distance from the graphite resistor heat source. Colorless, pale yellow and green crystals have the highest purity and are found closest to the resistor. The color changes to blue and black at greater distance from the resistor, and these darker crystals are less pure. Nitrogen and aluminium are common impurities, and they affect the electrical conductivity of SiC. Pure silicon carbide can be made by the Lely process, in which SiC powder is sublimed into high-temperature species of silicon, carbon, silicon dicarbide (SiC2), and disilicon carbide (Si2C) in an argon gas ambient at 2500 °C and redeposited into flake-like single crystals, sized up to 2 × 2 cm, at a slightly colder substrate. This process yields high-quality single crystals, mostly of 6H-SiC phase (because of high growth temperature). A modified Lely process involving induction heating in graphite crucibles yields even larger single crystals of 4 inches (10 cm) in diameter, having a section 81 times larger compared to the conventional Lely process. Cubic SiC is usually grown by the more expensive process of chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of silane, hydrogen and nitrogen. Homoepitaxial and heteroepitaxial SiC layers can be grown employing both gas and liquid phase approaches. To form complex shaped SiC, preceramic polymers can be used as precursors which form the ceramic product through pyrolysis at temperatures in the range 1000–1100 °C. Precursor materials to obtain silicon carbide in such a manner include polycarbosilanes, poly(methylsilyne) and polysilazanes. Silicon carbide materials obtained through the pyrolysis of preceramic polymers are known as polymer derived ceramics or PDCs. Pyrolysis of preceramic polymers is most often conducted under an inert atmosphere at relatively low temperatures. Relative to the CVD process, the pyrolysis method is advantageous because the polymer can be formed into various shapes prior to thermalization into the ceramic. SiC can also be made into wafers by cutting a single crystal either using a diamond wire saw or by using a laser. SiC is a useful semiconductor used in power electronics. Structure and properties Silicon carbide exists in about 250 crystalline forms. Through the inert atmosphere pyrolysis of preceramic polymers, silicon carbide in a glassy amorphous form is also produced. The polymorphism of SiC is characterized by a large family of similar crystalline structures called polytypes. They are variations of the same chemical compound that are identical in two dimensions and differ in the third. Thus, they can be viewed as layers stacked in a certain sequence. Alpha silicon carbide (α-SiC) is the most commonly encountered polymorph, and is formed at temperatures greater than 1700 °C and has a hexagonal crystal structure (similar to Wurtzite). The beta modification (β-SiC), with a zinc blende crystal structure (similar to diamond), is formed at temperatures below 1700 °C. Until recently, the beta form has had relatively few commercial uses, although there is now increasing interest in its use as a support for heterogeneous catalysts, owing to its higher surface area compared to the alpha form. Pure SiC is colorless. The brown to black color of the industrial product results from iron impurities. The rainbow-like luster of the crystals is due to the thin-film interference of a passivation layer of silicon dioxide that forms on the surface. The high sublimation temperature of SiC (approximately 2700 °C) makes it useful for bearings and furnace parts. Silicon carbide does not melt at any known temperature. It is also highly inert chemically. There is currently much interest in its use as a semiconductor material in electronics, where its high thermal conductivity, high electric field breakdown strength and high maximum current density make it more promising than silicon for high-powered devices. SiC also has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion (4.0 × 10−6/K) and experiences no phase transitions that would cause discontinuities in thermal expansion. Electrical conductivity Silicon carbide is a semiconductor, which can be doped n-type by nitrogen or phosphorus and p-type by beryllium, boron, aluminium, or gallium. Metallic conductivity has been achieved by heavy doping with boron, aluminium or nitrogen. Superconductivity has been detected in 3C-SiC:Al, 3C-SiC:B and 6H-SiC:B at the same temperature of 1.5 K. A crucial difference is however observed for the magnetic field behavior between aluminium and boron doping: SiC:Al is type-II, same as SiC:B. On the contrary, SiC:B is type-I. In an attempt to explain this difference, it was noted that Si sites are more important than carbon sites for superconductivity in SiC. Whereas boron substitutes carbon in SiC, Al substitutes Si sites. Therefore, Al and B "see" different environments that might explain different properties of SiC:Al and SiC:B. Uses Abrasive and cutting tools In the arts, silicon carbide is a popular abrasive in modern lapidary due to the durability and low cost of the material. In manufacturing, it is used for its hardness in abrasive machining processes such as grinding, honing, water-jet cutting and sandblasting. Particles of silicon carbide are laminated to paper to create sandpapers and the grip tape on skateboards. In 1982 an exceptionally strong composite of aluminium oxide and silicon carbide whiskers was discovered. Development of this laboratory-produced composite to a commercial product took only three years. In 1985, the first commercial cutting tools made from this alumina and silicon carbide whisker-reinforced composite were introduced into the market. Structural material In the 1980s and 1990s, silicon carbide was studied in several research programs for high-temperature gas turbines in Europe, Japan and the United States. The components were intended to replace nickel superalloy turbine blades or nozzle vanes. However, none of these projects resulted in a production quantity, mainly because of its low impact resistance and its low fracture toughness. Like other hard ceramics (namely alumina and boron carbide), silicon carbide is used in composite armor (e.g. Chobham armor), and in ceramic plates in bulletproof vests. Dragon Skin, which was produced by Pinnacle Armor, used disks of silicon carbide. Improved fracture toughness in SiC armor can be facilitated through the phenomenon of abnormal grain growth or AGG. The growth of abnormally long silicon carbide grains may serve to impart a toughening effect through crack-wake bridging, similar to whisker reinforcement. Similar AGG-toughening effects have been reported in Silicon nitride (Si3N4). Silicon carbide is used as a support and shelving material in high temperature kilns such as for firing ceramics, glass fusing, or glass casting. SiC kiln shelves are considerably lighter and more durable than traditional alumina shelves. In December 2015, infusion of silicon carbide nano-particles in molten magnesium was mentioned as a way to produce a new strong and plastic alloy suitable for use in aeronautics, aerospace, automobile and micro-electronics. Automobile parts Silicon-infiltrated carbon-carbon composite is used for high performance "ceramic" brake disks, as they are able to withstand extreme temperatures. The silicon reacts with the graphite in the carbon-carbon composite to become carbon-fiber-reinforced silicon carbide (C/SiC). These brake disks are used on some road-going sports cars, supercars, as well as other performance cars including the Porsche Carrera GT, the Bugatti Veyron, the Chevrolet Corvette ZR1, the McLaren P1, Bentley, Ferrari, Lamborghini and some specific high-performance Audi cars. Silicon carbide is also used in a sintered form for diesel particulate filters. It's also used as an oil additive to reduce friction, emissions, and harmonics. Foundry crucibles SiC is used in crucibles for holding melting metal in small and large foundry applications. Electric systems The earliest electrical application of SiC was in lightning arresters in electric power systems. These devices must exhibit high resistance until the voltage across them reaches a certain threshold VT at which point their resistance must drop to a lower level and maintain this level until the applied voltage drops below VT. It was recognized early on that SiC had such a voltage-dependent resistance, and so columns of SiC pellets were connected between high-voltage power lines and the earth. When a lightning strike to the line raises the line voltage sufficiently, the SiC column will conduct, allowing strike current to pass harmlessly to the earth instead of along the power line. The SiC columns proved to conduct significantly at normal power-line operating voltages and thus had to be placed in series with a spark gap. This spark gap is ionized and rendered conductive when lightning raises the voltage of the power line conductor, thus effectively connecting the SiC column between the power conductor and the earth. Spark gaps used in lightning arresters are unreliable, either failing to strike an arc when needed or failing to turn off afterwards, in the latter case due to material failure or contamination by dust or salt. Usage of SiC columns was originally intended to eliminate the need for the spark gap in lightning arresters. Gapped SiC arresters were used for lightning-protection and sold under the GE and Westinghouse brand names, among others. The gapped SiC arrester has been largely displaced by no-gap varistors that use columns of zinc oxide pellets. Electronic circuit elements Silicon carbide was the first commercially important semiconductor material. A crystal radio "carborundum" (synthetic silicon carbide) detector diode was patented by Henry Harrison Chase Dunwoody in 1906. It found much early use in shipboard receivers. Power electronic devices Silicon carbide is a semiconductor in research and early mass production providing advantages for fast, high-temperature and/or high-voltage devices. The first devices available were Schottky diodes, followed by junction-gate FETs and MOSFETs for high-power switching. Bipolar transistors and thyristors are currently developed. A major problem for SiC commercialization has been the elimination of defects: edge dislocations, screw dislocations (both hollow and closed core), triangular defects and basal plane dislocations. As a result, devices made of SiC crystals initially displayed poor reverse blocking performance, though researchers have been tentatively finding solutions to improve the breakdown performance. Apart from crystal quality, problems with the interface of SiC with silicon dioxide have hampered the development of SiC-based power MOSFETs and insulated-gate bipolar transistors. Although the mechanism is still unclear, nitriding has dramatically reduced the defects causing the interface problems. In 2008, the first commercial JFETs rated at 1200 V were introduced to the market, followed in 2011 by the first commercial MOSFETs rated at 1200 V. JFETs are now available rated 650 V to 1700 V with resistance as low as 25 mΩ. Beside SiC switches and SiC Schottky diodes (also Schottky barrier diode, SBD) in the popular TO-247 and TO-220 packages, companies started even earlier to implement the bare chips into their power electronic modules. SiC SBD diodes found wide market spread being used in PFC circuits and IGBT power modules. Conferences such as the International Conference on Integrated Power Electronics Systems (CIPS) report regularly about the technological progress of SiC power devices. Major challenges for fully unleashing the capabilities of SiC power devices are: Gate drive: SiC devices often require gate drive voltage levels that are different from their silicon counterparts and may be even unsymmetric, for example, +20 V and −5 V. Packaging: SiC chips may have a higher power density than silicon power devices and are able to handle higher temperatures exceeding the silicon limit of 150 °C. New die attach technologies such as sintering are required to efficiently get the heat out of the devices and ensure a reliable interconnection. LEDs The phenomenon of electroluminescence was discovered in 1907 using silicon carbide and the first commercial LEDs were based on SiC. Yellow LEDs made from 3C-SiC were manufactured in the Soviet Union in the 1970s and blue LEDs (6H-SiC) worldwide in the 1980s. LED production soon stopped when a different material, gallium nitride, showed 10–100 times brighter emission. This difference in efficiency is due to the unfavorable indirect bandgap of SiC, whereas GaN has a direct bandgap which favors light emission. However, SiC is still one of the important LED components – it is a popular substrate for growing GaN devices, and it also serves as a heat spreader in high-power LEDs. Astronomy The low thermal expansion coefficient, high hardness, rigidity and thermal conductivity make silicon carbide a desirable mirror material for astronomical telescopes. The growth technology (chemical vapor deposition) has been scaled up to produce disks of polycrystalline silicon carbide up to in diameter, and several telescopes like the Herschel Space Telescope are already equipped with SiC optics, as well the Gaia space observatory spacecraft subsystems are mounted on a rigid silicon carbide frame, which provides a stable structure that will not expand or contract due to heat. Thin filament pyrometry Silicon carbide fibers are used to measure gas temperatures in an optical technique called thin filament pyrometry. It involves the placement of a thin filament in a hot gas stream. Radiative emissions from the filament can be correlated with filament temperature. Filaments are SiC fibers with a diameter of 15 micrometers, about one fifth that of a human hair. Because the fibers are so thin, they do little to disturb the flame and their temperature remains close to that of the local gas. Temperatures of about 800–2500 K can be measured. Heating elements References to silicon carbide heating elements exist from the early 20th century when they were produced by Acheson's Carborundum Co. in the U.S. and EKL in Berlin. Silicon carbide offered increased operating temperatures compared with metallic heaters. Silicon carbide elements are used today in the melting of glass and non-ferrous metal, heat treatment of metals, float glass production, production of ceramics and electronics components, igniters in pilot lights for gas heaters, etc. Nuclear fuel particles and cladding Silicon carbide is an important material in TRISO-coated fuel particles, the type of nuclear fuel found in high temperature gas cooled reactors such as the Pebble Bed Reactor. A layer of silicon carbide gives coated fuel particles structural support and is the main diffusion barrier to the release of fission products. Silicon carbide composite material has been investigated for use as a replacement for Zircaloy cladding in light water reactors. One of the reasons for this investigation is that, Zircaloy experiences hydrogen embrittlement as a consequence of the corrosion reaction with water. This produces a reduction in fracture toughness with increasing volumetric fraction of radial hydrides. This phenomenon increases drastically with increasing temperature to the detriment of the material. Silicon carbide cladding does not experience this same mechanical degradation, but instead retains strength properties with increasing temperature. The composite consists of SiC fibers wrapped around a SiC inner layer and surrounded by an SiC outer layer. Problems have been reported with the ability to join the pieces of the SiC composite. Jewelry As a gemstone used in jewelry, silicon carbide is called "synthetic moissanite" or just "moissanite" after the mineral name. Moissanite is similar to diamond in several important respects: it is transparent and hard (9–9.5 on the Mohs scale, compared to 10 for diamond), with a refractive index between 2.65 and 2.69 (compared to 2.42 for diamond). Moissanite is somewhat harder than common cubic zirconia. Unlike diamond, moissanite can be strongly birefringent. For this reason, moissanite jewels are cut along the optic axis of the crystal to minimize birefringent effects. It is lighter (density 3.21 g/cm3 vs. 3.53 g/cm3), and much more resistant to heat than diamond. This results in a stone of higher luster, sharper facets, and good resilience. Loose moissanite stones may be placed directly into wax ring moulds for lost-wax casting, as can diamond, as moissanite remains undamaged by temperatures up to . Moissanite has become popular as a diamond substitute, and may be misidentified as diamond, since its thermal conductivity is closer to diamond than any other substitute. Many thermal diamond-testing devices cannot distinguish moissanite from diamond, but the gem is distinct in its birefringence and a very slight green or yellow fluorescence under ultraviolet light. Some moissanite stones also have curved, string-like inclusions, which diamonds never have. Steel production Silicon carbide, dissolved in a basic oxygen furnace used for making steel, acts as a fuel. The additional energy liberated allows the furnace to process more scrap with the same charge of hot metal. It can also be used to raise tap temperatures and adjust the carbon and silicon content. Silicon carbide is cheaper than a combination of ferrosilicon and carbon, produces cleaner steel and lower emissions due to low levels of trace elements, has a low gas content, and does not lower the temperature of steel. Catalyst support The natural resistance to oxidation exhibited by silicon carbide, as well as the discovery of new ways to synthesize the cubic β-SiC form, with its larger surface area, has led to significant interest in its use as a heterogeneous catalyst support. This form has already been employed as a catalyst support for the oxidation of hydrocarbons, such as n-butane, to maleic anhydride. Carborundum printmaking Silicon carbide is used in carborundum printmaking – a collagraph printmaking technique. Carborundum grit is applied in a paste to the surface of an aluminium plate. When the paste is dry, ink is applied and trapped in its granular surface, then wiped from the bare areas of the plate. The ink plate is then printed onto paper in a rolling-bed press used for intaglio printmaking. The result is a print of painted marks embossed into the paper. Carborundum grit is also used in stone Lithography. Its uniform particle size allows it to be used to "Grain" a stone which removes the previous image. In a similar process to sanding, coarser grit Carborundum is applied to the stone and worked with a Levigator, then gradually finer and finer grit is applied until the stone is clean. This creates a grease sensitive surface. Graphene production Silicon carbide can be used in the production of graphene because of its chemical properties that promote the epitaxial production of graphene on the surface of SiC nanostructures. When it comes to its production, silicon is used primarily as a substrate to grow the graphene. But there are actually several methods that can be used to grow the graphene on the silicon carbide. The confinement controlled sublimation (CCS) growth method consists of a SiC chip that is heated under vacuum with graphite. Then the vacuum is released very gradually to control the growth of graphene. This method yields the highest quality graphene layers. But other methods have been reported to yield the same product as well. Another way of growing graphene would be thermally decomposing SiC at a high temperature within a vacuum. But this method turns out to yield graphene layers that contain smaller grains within the layers. So there have been efforts to improve the quality and yield of graphene. One such method is to perform ex situ graphitization of silicon terminated SiC in an atmosphere consisting of argon. This method has proved to yield layers of graphene with larger domain sizes than the layer that would be attainable via other methods. This new method can be very viable to make higher quality graphene for a multitude of technological applications. When it comes to understanding how or when to use these methods of graphene production, most of them mainly produce or grow this graphene on the SiC within a growth enabling environment. It is utilized most often at rather higher temperatures (such as 1300 °C) because of SiC thermal properties. However, there have been certain procedures that have been performed and studied that could potentially yield methods that use lower temperatures to help manufacture graphene. More specifically this different approach to graphene growth has been observed to produce graphene within a temperature environment of around 750 °C. This method entails the combination of certain methods like chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and surface segregation. And when it comes to the substrate, the procedure would consist of coating a SiC substrate with thin films of a transition metal. And after the rapid heat treating of this substance, the carbon atoms would then become more abundant at the surface interface of the transition metal film which would then yield graphene. And this process was found to yield graphene layers that were more continuous throughout the substrate surface. Quantum physics Silicon carbide can host point defects in the crystal lattice which are known as color centers. These defects can produce single photons on demand and thus serve as a platform for single-photon source. Such a device is a fundamental resource for many emerging applications of quantum information science. If one pumps a color center via an external optical source or electrical current, the color center will be brought to the excited state and then relax with the emission of one photon. One well known point defect in silicon carbide is the divacancy which has a similar electronic structure as the nitrogen-vacancy center in diamond. In 4H-SiC, the divacancy has four different configurations which correspond to four zero-phonon lines (ZPL). These ZPL values are written using the notation VSi-VC and the unit eV: hh(1.095), kk(1.096), kh(1.119), and hk(1.150). Fishing rod guides Silicon carbide is used in the manufacturing of fishing guides because of its durability and wear resistance. Silicon Carbide rings are fit into a guide frame, typically made from stainless steel or titanium which keep the line from touching the rod blank. The rings provide a low friction surface which improves casting distance while providing adequate hardness that prevents abrasion from braided fishing line. See also Reaction bonded silicon carbide Globar Carborundum Universal References External links Material Safety Data Sheet for Silicon Carbide Moissanite on Mindat.org CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards Abrasives Carbides Ceramic materials Deoxidizers Diamond simulants Gemstones Inorganic silicon compounds Refractory materials Group IV semiconductors Superhard materials Synthetic minerals	[ 0.2818479537963867, 0.43699440360069275, -0.20107676088809967, 0.42872732877731323, -0.41010144352912903, 0.1937742382287979, -0.3758390247821808, 0.3693269193172455, 0.304276704788208, 0.04211784154176712, -0.18521299958229065, 0.46605250239372253, -0.00698127644136548, 0.5533367395401001, -0.03142333775758743, 0.05480525642633438, 0.7026363015174866, 0.13823193311691284, 0.1200644001364708, -0.172601580619812, -0.18388482928276062, 0.06388740241527557, 0.21041885018348694, -0.306781530380249, 0.12500816583633423, -0.01782722771167755, 0.146070659160614, -0.144903764128685, 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225257	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naked-back%20knifefish	Naked-back knifefish	The naked-back knifefishes are a family (Gymnotidae) of knifefishes found only in fresh waters of Central America and South America. All have organs adapted to the exploitation of bioelectricity. The family has about 43 valid species in two genera. These fish are nocturnal and mostly occur in quiet waters from deep rivers to swamps. In strongly flowing waters, they may bury themselves. Physical characteristics Like the other gymnotiforms, gymnotids have classic knifefish bodies. The body is long and eel-like, the dorsal fin and pelvic fins are absent, and the anal fin is extremely long and used for movement. The sole member of Electrophorus is the electric eel, which produces both strong (up to 600 volts) and weak (<1 V) electric discharges, for use in predation and communication/navigation, respectively. The electric eel is the largest of the gymnotiform fishes, growing up to more than length. Species of Gymnotus range from about in total length. These knife fishes also use electricity to assist in their movement and navigation in the water due to their limited vision. Genera According to FishBase, there are 43 species in two genera: Electrophorus (3 species) Gymnotus (40 species) Historically, Electrophorus was in a separate family Electrophoridae and ITIS continues to do this, but this is contradicted by available evidence and not followed by other authorities. 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225261	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%20pseudoprime	Euler pseudoprime	In arithmetic, an odd composite integer n is called an Euler pseudoprime to base a, if a and n are coprime, and (where mod refers to the modulo operation). The motivation for this definition is the fact that all prime numbers p satisfy the above equation which can be deduced from Fermat's little theorem. Fermat's theorem asserts that if p is prime, and coprime to a, then ap−1 ≡ 1 (mod p). Suppose that p>2 is prime, then p can be expressed as 2q + 1 where q is an integer. Thus, a(2q+1) − 1 ≡ 1 (mod p), which means that a2q − 1 ≡ 0 (mod p). This can be factored as (aq − 1)(aq + 1) ≡ 0 (mod p), which is equivalent to a(p−1)/2 ≡ ±1 (mod p). The equation can be tested rather quickly, which can be used for probabilistic primality testing. These tests are twice as strong as tests based on Fermat's little theorem. Every Euler pseudoprime is also a Fermat pseudoprime. It is not possible to produce a definite test of primality based on whether a number is an Euler pseudoprime because there exist absolute Euler pseudoprimes, numbers which are Euler pseudoprimes to every base relatively prime to themselves. The absolute Euler pseudoprimes are a subset of the absolute Fermat pseudoprimes, or Carmichael numbers, and the smallest absolute Euler pseudoprime is 1729 = 7×13×19. Relation to Euler–Jacobi pseudoprimes The slightly stronger condition that where n is an odd composite, the greatest common divisor of a and n equals 1, and (a/n) is the Jacobi symbol, is the more common definition of an Euler pseudoprime. See, for example, page 115 of the book by Koblitz listed below, page 90 of the book by Riesel, or page 1003 of. A discussion of numbers of this form can be found at Euler–Jacobi pseudoprime. There are no absolute Euler–Jacobi pseudoprimes. A strong probable prime test is even stronger than the Euler-Jacobi test but takes the same computational effort. Because of this advantage over the Euler-Jacobi test, prime-testing software is often based on the strong test. Implementation in Lua function EulerTest(k) a = 2 if k == 1 then return false elseif k == 2 then return true else if (modPow(a,(k-1)/2,k) == 1) or (modPow(a,(k-1)/2,k) == k-1) then return true else return false end end end''' Examples Least Euler pseudoprime to base n See also Probable prime References M. Koblitz, "A Course in Number Theory and Cryptography", Springer-Verlag, 1987. H. Riesel, "Prime numbers and computer methods of factorisation", Birkhäuser, Boston, Mass., 1985. Pseudoprimes	[ -0.4095759689807892, 0.04345304146409035, 0.025043603032827377, -0.2614004611968994, -0.23641881346702576, 0.3374422490596771, -0.09520257264375687, -0.510470449924469, 0.24484919011592865, -0.21301360428333282, -0.5480150580406189, -0.014004930853843689, -0.5441707968711853, -0.12532123923301697, -0.18560275435447693, 0.35705119371414185, 0.6228463649749756, 0.5961740612983704, -0.6734288334846497, -1.038806438446045, 0.27725884318351746, 0.06142611429095268, 0.2117004245519638, -0.3548848330974579, 0.6677526831626892, -0.053912390023469925, 0.22290782630443573, -0.3903861343860626, 0.11786990612745285, 0.3655640184879303, -0.22817939519882202, 0.7004444599151611, 0.33083102107048035, -0.0017091790214180946, 0.8851606845855713, -0.161215677857399, 0.18566402792930603, -0.03261229023337364, 0.35861507058143616, -0.1547023355960846, 0.5383723974227905, -0.39416736364364624, 0.7041624784469604, 0.24031992256641388, -0.3040977418422699, -0.6798477172851562, 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225264	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson%2C%20British%20Columbia	Nelson, British Columbia	Nelson is a city located in the Selkirk Mountains on the West Arm of Kootenay Lake in the Southern Interior of British Columbia, Canada. Known as "The Queen City", and acknowledged for its impressive collection of restored heritage buildings from its glory days in a regional silver rush, Nelson is one of the three cities forming the commercial and population core of the West Kootenay region, the others being Castlegar and Trail. The city is the seat of the Regional District of Central Kootenay. It is represented in the provincial legislature by the riding of Nelson-Creston, and in the Parliament of Canada by the riding of Kootenay—Columbia. History Founding The western Kootenay region of British Columbia, where the city of Nelson is situated, is part of the traditional territories of the Sinixt (or Lakes) and Ktunaxa (Kutenai) peoples. Gold and silver were found in the area in 1867. Following the discovery of silver at nearby Toad Mountain in 1886, the town boomed quickly, leading to incorporation in 1897. Two railways were built to pass through Nelson. Due to its location near transportation corridors, Nelson grew to supply the local mining activity and soon became a transportation and distribution centre for the region. Nelson was named in 1888 after Hugh Nelson, then Lieutenant-Governor of British Columbia. Early 20th century Francis Rattenbury, an architect most noted in British Columbia for the Parliament Buildings in Victoria, the Vancouver Provincial Courthouse, and the second Hotel Vancouver, designed chateau-style civic buildings made of granite, which stand today. By the 1900s, Nelson boasted several fine hotels, a Hudson's Bay Company store and an electric streetcar system. The local forestry and mining industries were well established. The town built its own hydroelectric generating system. English immigrants planted lakeside orchards, and Doukhobors from Russia, sponsored by Tolstoy and the Quakers, tilled the valley benchlands. The Doukhobor museum is located nearby, close to the neighbouring town of Castlegar. During the Vietnam War, many American draft evaders settled in Nelson and the surrounding area. This influx of liberal, mostly educated young people had a significant impact on the area's cultural and political demographics. Nelson's mountainous geography kept growth confined to the narrow valley bottom, except for certain hillside structures such as the local High School and the former Notre Dame University College (NDU) campus. Throughout the '60s and '70s, when more prosperous cities were tearing down and rebuilding their downtowns to the design of the time, Nelson merchants 'modernized' their buildings with covers of aluminum siding. Baker Street In the early 1980s, Nelson suffered a devastating economic downturn when the local Kootenay Forest Products sawmill was closed. Downtown merchants were already suffering from the opening of a large, regional shopping centre on Nelson's central waterfront, the Chahko Mika Mall. At the time, Victoria and Vancouver were experimenting with historical restorations of their oldest areas, with some success. To save downtown and Baker Street from blight, Nelson quickly followed suit, stripping aluminum facades and restoring the buildings to their original brilliance. Local designer Bob Inwood, one of Nelson's many American immigrants, played a major role as a consultant. By 1985, Baker Street was completely transformed. Affirmation of the street's success came in 1986 when Steve Martin chose to produce his feature film Roxanne largely in Nelson, using the local fire hall as a primary set and many historic locations for others. More broadly, the transformation marked the beginning of Nelson's ongoing transition from a resource-based town to an arts and tourism town. A walk down Baker Street through the Historic District is now one of Nelson's promoted visitor activities. Geography Climate Nelson has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb) with four distinct seasons. Winters are cold and snowy while summers are warm and drier with cool temperatures during the night. Demographics In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Nelson recorded a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021. Nelson's poverty rate to over twice the provincial and national averages. Economy Historically Nelson had been noted for its illegal marijuana production, with The Guardian reporting in 2010 that: Nelson has several retail outlets for natural foods, including a year-round market specializing in these products. A local news source claimed the Kootenay Country Co-op is "the largest independent member-owned natural food store in Canada and a respected player nationally in organic retail circles." The Save-On-Foods in Nelson is that company's leading store for organic and natural foods. The Nelson Brewing Company is a microbrewery in Nelson. Arts and culture Nelson is noted as a cultural centre. Attractions Set in the Selkirks, nearly twenty five artists and writers make Nelson their home. In 1998, Nelson was highlighted as the "Number One Small Town Arts Community in Canada" by the publisher of The 100 Best Small Arts Towns in America, and is home to a large and diverse artisan community. The annual Artwalk, a display of artwork at various venues around town, features local talent where trippers and artwalkers (as the locals call them) can get an up close and personal look at the studios and creative processes of local artisans. July, August and September mark three months of exhibitions throughout the downtown core in variety of galleries and local businesses. Each month has a separate grand opening, (usually the first Friday evening of the month), which includes refreshments, musicians, pan-handlers and artwork for locals and visitors to enjoy as they stroll through downtown Nelson. The Cottonwood Community Market, located at Cottonwood Falls Park, takes place every Saturday from May through October. The Downtown Local Market happens on Baker Street every Wednesday from June through September. Marketfest, a lively nighttime street market in the heart of Nelson's downtown, happens on the last Friday of the month in June, July, and August. The markets all offer regional farm produce, delicious foods, and a variety of locally hand-crafted products. Two local hiking trails are popular. The Pulpit Rock Trail offers a short but somewhat challenging hike that ends with a view of the city. After Pulpit Rock the trail continues up the spine of Elephant Mountain (as the locals call it) to more postcard views, and eventually to the radio towers which are visible from everywhere in the city. Hikers venturing beyond Pulpit Rock should have basic wilderness gear and exercise common sense. Public access to the Pulpit Rock trail has been restored with the opening, in the spring of 2009, of a new access point several hundred metres west of the old trail head, which was on private land. In the winter, skiing and snowboarding are Nelson's primary outdoor activities. Thirty minutes south of town is the Whitewater Ski Resort, which provides access, (via one triple chairlift, one double chairlift, one quad chairlift, and a handle tow), to of beginner to advanced terrain. The resort also provides access to hundreds of kilometres of off-piste skiing and back country touring. In 2012 Nelson and Rossland, a small city southwest of Nelson, were jointly voted the best ski locales in North America by the readers of California-based Powder magazine. Mountain biking is part of the local culture, and Nelson offers a wide variety of MTB-oriented trails for all experience levels. Rock climbing is also a popular summer activity. Kootenay Crag, Hall Siding, Grohman Narrows and CIC Bluffs are popular city crags. Slocan Bluffs and Kinnaird are in nearby Slocan City and Castlegar. 2003 saw bouldering take off in Nelson, with extensive new development of bouldering areas in Grohman Narrows and nearby Robson. Nelson is also located close to Kokanee Glacier Provincial Park. On January 13, 2007, Nelson was the broadcast location for the annual Hockey Day in Canada special. Sports Infrastructure Transportation Highways 3A and 6 pass through Nelson, while a scheduled commercial airline service is available at the West Kootenay Regional Airport, approximately southwest of the city. Trail Airport is another airport which is also nearby, while Nelson Airport is several blocks away from downtown Nelson. Public transit in Nelson is provided by the West Kootenay Transit System, which runs several routes within the city and to neighbouring communities. Both Level 2 and Level 3 (DC fast-charging) electric vehicle charging stations have been installed in the city. A carsharing service is available in the city through the Kootenay Carshare Co-operative Education School District 8 Kootenay Lake operates public schools in Nelson and surrounding communities. Nelson Christian Community School. NCCS. K-Gr.8 Saint Joseph's Catholic School The Conseil scolaire francophone de la Colombie-Britannique operates one French-language school: école des Sentiers-alpins. Nelson is home to the Tenth Street, and Silver King campuses of Selkirk College, as well as Kootenay School of the Arts. Kootenay Columbia College of Integrative Health Sciences has three campus locations on Baker Street in Nelson. Media Radio CJLY-FM 93.5 (Kootenay Co-op Radio) CBYN-FM 98.7 (CBC Radio One; repeats CBTK-FM Kelowna) CHNV-FM 103.5 ("The Bridge") CKKC-FM 106.9 ("EZ Rock") Print The Nelson Daily News was a local newspaper which began publishing in 1902. In 2010, it was announced the paper would shut down following a final edition to be published July 16, 2010. The closure occurred shortly after the Nelson Daily News''' acquisition by Black Press, which purchased the paper from Glacier Media Inc. Black Press owns the Nelson Star'', now published weekly. Notable people Greg Adams — former professional hockey player Sarah Allen — actress Edward Applewhaite — politician Nancy Argenta — soprano singer Selwyn G. Blaylock — mining official Robbie Bourdon — freeride mountain biker Margaret Catley-Carlson — civil servant Alana DeLong — politician Benno Friesen — politician, professor Danny Gare — former professional hockey player and coach James E. Gill — geologist, engineer Ona Grauer — actress Robert Hampton Gray — naval officer and pilot John Greyson — director and writer Ted Hargreaves — professional hockey player and coach Lillian Hickey — All-American Girls Professional Baseball League player John Houston — newspaper editor and politician Levi William Humphrey — politician Tim Hus — country and folk singer Martin Michael Johnson — bishop Lionel Kearns — poet and teacher Geoff Kinrade — professional hockey player Laurelee Kopeck — field hockey player Patrick Lane — poet Mike Laughton — professional hockey player Edna Malone — dancer Thomas Middleditch — actor, writer Kliph Nesteroff - writer John Newlove — poet Frederick Niven - writer Bri Price — musician Pat Price — professional hockey player Sandy Santori — politician Adham Shaikh — composer, sound designer Kurt Sorge — freeride mountain biker Norman Symonds — musician Tom Velisek — snowboarder Padma Viswanathan — playwright Jack Wright — tennis player See also Nelson 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225266	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grigori%20Perelman	Grigori Perelman	Grigori Yakovlevich Perelman (; born 13 June 1966) is a Russian mathematician who is known for his contributions to the fields of geometric analysis, Riemannian geometry, and geometric topology. In the 1990s, partly in collaboration with Yuri Burago, Mikhael Gromov, and Anton Petrunin, he made influential contributions to the study of Alexandrov spaces. In 1994, he proved the soul conjecture in Riemannian geometry, which had been an open problem for the previous 20 years. In 2002 and 2003, he developed new techniques in the analysis of Ricci flow, thereby providing a detailed sketch of a proof of the Poincaré conjecture and Thurston's geometrization conjecture, the former of which had been a famous open problem in mathematics for the past century. The full details of Perelman's work were filled in and explained by various authors over the following several years. In August 2006, Perelman was offered the Fields Medal for "his contributions to geometry and his revolutionary insights into the analytical and geometric structure of the Ricci flow", but he declined the award, stating: "I'm not interested in money or fame; I don't want to be on display like an animal in a zoo." On 22 December 2006, the scientific journal Science recognized Perelman's proof of the Poincaré conjecture as the scientific "Breakthrough of the Year", the first such recognition in the area of mathematics. On 18 March 2010, it was announced that he had met the criteria to receive the first Clay Millennium Prize for resolution of the Poincaré conjecture. On 1 July 2010, he rejected the prize of one million dollars, saying that he considered the decision of the board of the Clay Institute to be unfair, in that his contribution to solving the Poincaré conjecture was no greater than that of Richard S. Hamilton, the mathematician who pioneered the Ricci flow partly with the aim of attacking the conjecture. He had previously rejected the prestigious prize of the European Mathematical Society in 1996. Early life and education Grigori Yakovlevich Perelman was born in Leningrad, Soviet Union (now Saint Petersburg, Russia) on 13 June 1966, to Jewish parents Yakov (who now lives in Israel) and Lyubov (who still lives in Saint Petersburg with Grigori). Grigori's mother Lyubov gave up graduate work in mathematics to raise him. Grigori's mathematical talent became apparent at the age of ten, and his mother enrolled him in Sergei Rukshin's after-school mathematics training program. His mathematical education continued at the Leningrad Secondary School 239, a specialized school with advanced mathematics and physics programs. Grigori excelled in all subjects except physical education. In 1982, as a member of the Soviet Union team competing in the International Mathematical Olympiad, an international competition for high school students, he won a gold medal, achieving a perfect score. He continued as a student of The School of Mathematics and Mechanics at the Leningrad State University, without admission examinations and enrolled to the university. After completing his PhD in 1990, Perelman began work at the Leningrad Department of Steklov Institute of Mathematics of the USSR Academy of Sciences, where his advisors were Aleksandr Aleksandrov and Yuri Burago. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, with a strong recommendation from the geometer Mikhail Gromov, Perelman obtained research positions at several universities in the United States. In 1991 Perelman won the Young Mathematician Prize of the St. Petersburg Mathematical Society for his work on Aleksandrov's spaces of curvature bounded from below. In 1992, he was invited to spend a semester each at the Courant Institute in New York University and Stony Brook University where he began work on manifolds with lower bounds on Ricci curvature. From there, he accepted a two-year Miller Research Fellowship at the University of California, Berkeley in 1993. After having proved the soul conjecture in 1994, he was offered jobs at several top universities in the US, including Princeton and Stanford, but he rejected them all and returned to the Steklov Institute in Saint Petersburg in the summer of 1995 for a research-only position. Early research Convex geometry In his undergraduate studies, Perelman dealt with issues in the field of convex geometry. His first published article studied the combinatorial structures arising from intersections of convex polyhedra. With I. V. Polikanova, he established a measure-theoretic formulation of Helly's theorem. In 1987, the year he began graduate studies, he published an article controlling the size of circumscribed cylinders by that of inscribed spheres. Negatively curved hypersurfaces Surfaces of negative curvature were the subject of Perelman's graduate studies. His first result was on the possibility of prescribing the structure of negatively-curved polyhedral surfaces in three-dimensional Euclidean space. He proved that any such metric on the plane which is complete can be continuously immersed as a polyhedral surface. Later, he constructed an example of a smooth hypersurface of four-dimensional Euclidean space which is complete and has Gaussian curvature negative and bounded away from zero. Previous examples of such surfaces were known, but Perelman's was the first to exhibit the saddle property on nonexistence of locally strictly supporting hyperplanes. As such, his construction provided further obstruction to the extension of a well-known theorem of Nikolai Efimov to higher dimensions. Alexandrov spaces Perelman's first works to a have a major impact on the mathematical literature were in the field of Alexandrov spaces, the concept of which dates back to the 1950s. In a very well-known paper coauthored with Yuri Burago and Mikhael Gromov, Perelman established the modern foundations of this field, with the notion of Gromov–Hausdorff convergence as an organizing principle. In a followup unpublished paper, Perelman proved his "stability theorem," asserting that in the collection of all Alexandrov spaces with a fixed curvature bound, all elements of any sufficiently small metric ball around a compact space are mutually homeomorphic. Vitali Kapovitch, who described Perelman's article as being "very hard to read," later wrote a detailed version of Perelman's proof, making use of some further simplifications. Perelman developed a version of Morse theory on Alexandrov spaces. Despite the lack of smoothness in Alexandrov spaces, Perelman and Anton Petrunin were able to consider the gradient flow of certain functions, in unpublished work. They also introduced the notion of an "extremal subset" of Alexandrov spaces, and showed that the interiors of certain extremal subsets define a stratification of the space by topological manifolds. In further unpublished work, Perelman studied DC functions (difference of concave functions) on Alexandrov spaces and established that the set of regular points has the structure of a manifold modeled on DC functions. For his work on Alexandrov spaces, Perelman was recognized with an invited lecture at the 1994 International Congress of Mathematicians. Comparison geometry In 1972, Jeff Cheeger and Detlef Gromoll established their important soul theorem. It asserts that every complete Riemannian metric of nonnegative sectional curvature has a compact nonnegatively curved submanifold, called a soul, whose normal bundle is diffeomorphic to the original space. From the perspective of homotopy theory, this says in particular that every complete Riemannian metric of nonnegative sectional curvature may be taken to be closed. Cheeger and Gromoll conjectured that if the curvature is strictly positive somewhere, then the soul can be taken to be a single point, and hence that the original space must be diffeomorphic to Euclidean space. In 1994, Perelman gave a short proof of Cheeger and Gromoll's conjecture by establishing that, under the condition of nonnegative sectional curvature, Sharafutdinov's retraction is a submersion. Perelman's theorem is significant in establishing a topological obstruction to deforming a nonnegatively curved metric to one which is positively curved, even at a single point. Some of Perelman's work dealt with the construction of various interesting Riemannian manifolds with positive Ricci curvature. He found Riemannian metrics on the connected sum of arbitrarily many complex projective planes with positive Ricci curvature, bounded diameter, and volume bounded away from zero. Also, he found an explicit complete metric on four-dimensional Euclidean space with positive Ricci curvature and Euclidean volume growth, and such that the asymptotic cone is nonuniquely defined. Geometrization and Poincaré conjectures The problems The Poincaré conjecture, proposed by mathematician Henri Poincaré in 1904, was throughout the 20th century regarded as a key problem in topology. On the 3-sphere, defined as the set of points at unit length from the origin in four-dimensional Euclidean space, any loop can be contracted into a point. Poincaré suggested that a converse might be true: if a closed three-dimensional manifold has the property that any loop can be contracted into a point, then it must be topologically equivalent to a 3-sphere. Stephen Smale proved a high-dimensional analogue of Poincaré's conjecture in 1961, and Michael Freedman proved the four-dimensional version in 1982. Despite their work, the case of three-dimensional spaces remained completely unresolved. Moreover, Smale and Freedman's methods have had no impact on the three-dimensional case, as their topological manipulations, moving "problematic regions" out of the way without interfering with other regions, seem to require high dimensions in order to work. In 1982, William Thurston developed a novel viewpoint, making the Poincaré conjecture into a small special case of a hypothetical systematic structure theory of topology in three dimensions. His proposal, known as the Thurston geometrization conjecture, posited that given any closed three-dimensional manifold whatsoever, there is some collection of two-dimensional spheres and tori inside of the manifold which disconnect the space into separate pieces, each of which can be endowed with a uniform geometric structure. Thurston was able to prove his conjecture under some provisional assumptions. In John Morgan's view, it was only with Thurston's systematic viewpoint that most topologists came to believe that the Poincaré conjecture would be true. At the same time that Thurston published his conjecture, Richard Hamilton introduced his theory of the Ricci flow. Hamilton's Ricci flow is a prescription, defined by a partial differential equation formally analogous to the heat equation, for how to deform a Riemannian metric on a manifold. The heat equation, such as when applied in the sciences to physical phenomena such as temperature, models how concentrations of extreme temperatures will spread out until a uniform temperature is achieved throughout an object. In three seminal articles published in the 1980s, Hamilton proved that his equation achieved analogous phenomena, spreading extreme curvatures and uniformizing a Riemannian metric, in certain geometric settings. As a byproduct, he was able to prove some new and striking theorems in the field of Riemannian geometry. Despite formal similarities, Hamilton's equations are significantly more complex and nonlinear than the heat equation, and it is impossible that such uniformization is achieved without contextual assumptions. In completely general settings, it is inevitable that "singularities" occur, meaning that curvature accumulates to infinite levels after a finite amount of "time" has elapsed. Following Shing-Tung Yau's suggestion that a detailed understanding of these singularities could be topologically meaningful, and in particular that their locations might identify the spheres and tori in Thurston's conjecture, Hamilton began a systematic analysis. Throughout the 1990s, he found a number of new technical results and methods, culminating in a 1997 publication constructing a "Ricci flow with surgery" for four-dimensional spaces. As an application of his construction, Hamilton was able to settle a four-dimensional curvature-based analogue of the Poincaré conjecture. Yau has identified this article as one of the most important in the field of geometric analysis, saying that with its publication it became clear that Ricci flow could be powerful enough to settle the Thurston conjecture. The key of Hamilton's analysis was a quantitative understanding of how singularities occur in his four-dimensional setting; the most outstanding difficulty was the quantitative understanding of how singularities occur in three-dimensional settings. Although Hamilton was unable to resolve this issue, in 1999 he published work on Ricci flow in three dimensions, showing that if a three-dimensional version of his surgery techniques could be developed, and if a certain conjecture on the long-time behavior of Ricci flow could be established, then Thurston's conjecture would be resolved. This became known as the Hamilton program. Perelman's work In November 2002 and March 2003, Perelman posted two preprints to the arXiv, in which he claimed to have outlined a proof of Thurston's conjecture. In a third paper posted in July 2003, Perelman outlined an additional argument, sufficient for proving the Poincaré conjecture (but not the Thurston conjecture), the point being to avoid the most technical work in his second preprint. Making use of the Almgren-Pitts min-max theory from the field of geometric measure theory, Tobias Colding and William Minicozzi provided a completely alternative proof of the results in Perelman's third preprint. Perelman's first preprint contained two primary results, both to do with Ricci flow. The first, valid in any dimension, was based on a novel adaptation of Peter Li and Shing-Tung Yau's differential Harnack inequalities to the setting of Ricci flow. By carrying out the proof of the Bishop-Gromov inequality for the resulting Li−Yau length functional, Perelman established his celebrated "noncollapsing theorem" for Ricci flow, asserting that local control of the size of the curvature implies control of volumes. The significance of the noncollapsing theorem is that volume control is one of the preconditions of Hamilton's compactness theorem. As a consequence, Hamilton's compactness and the corresponding existence of subsequential limits could be applied somewhat freely. The "canonical neighborhoods theorem" is the second main result of Perelman's first preprint. In this theorem, Perelman achieved the quantitative understanding of singularities of three-dimensional Ricci flow which had eluded Hamilton. Roughly speaking, Perelman showed that on a microscopic level, every singularity looks either like a cylinder collapsing to its axis, or a sphere collapsing to its center. Perelman's proof of his canonical neighborhoods theorem is a highly technical achievement, based upon extensive arguments by contradiction in which Hamilton's compactness theorem (as facilitated by Perelman's noncollapsing theorem) is applied to construct self-contradictory manifolds. Other results in Perelman's first preprint include the introduction of certain monotonic quantities and a "pseudolocality theorem" which relates curvature control and isoperimetry. However, despite being major results in the theory of Ricci flow, these results were not used in the rest of his work. The first half of Perelman's second preprint, in addition to fixing some incorrect statements and arguments from the first paper, used his canonical neighborhoods theorem to construct a Ricci flow with surgery in three dimensions, systematically excising singular regions as they develop. As an immediate corollary of his construction, Perelman resolved a major conjecture on the topological classification in three dimensions of closed manifolds which admit metrics of positive scalar curvature. His third preprint (or alternatively Colding and Minicozzi's work) showed that on any space satisfying the assumptions of the Poincaré conjecture, the Ricci flow with surgery exists only for finite time, so that the infinite-time analysis of Ricci flow is irrelevant. As a corollary, the construction of Ricci flow with surgery has the Poincaré conjecture as a corollary. In order to settle the Thurston conjecture, the second half of Perelman's second preprint is devoted to an analysis of Ricci flows with surgery, which may exist for infinite time. Perelman was unable to resolve Hamilton's 1999 conjecture on long-time behavior, which would make Thurston's conjecture another corollary of the existence of Ricci flow with surgery. Nonetheless, Perelman was able to adapt Hamilton's arguments to the precise conditions of his new Ricci flow with surgery. The end of Hamilton's argument made use of Jeff Cheeger and Mikhael Gromov's theorem characterizing collapsing manifolds. In Perelman's adaptation, he required use of a new theorem characterizing manifolds in which collapsing is only assumed on a local level. In his preprint, he said the proof of his theorem would be established in another paper, but he did not then release any further details. Proofs were later published by Takashi Shioya and Takao Yamaguchi, John Morgan and Gang Tian, Jianguo Cao and Jian Ge, and Bruce Kleiner and John Lott. Verification Perelman's preprints quickly gained the attention of the mathematical community, although they were widely seen as hard to understand since they had been written somewhat tersely. Against the usual style in academic mathematical publications, many technical details had been omitted. It was soon apparent that Perelman had made major contributions to the foundations of Ricci flow, although it was not immediately clear to the mathematical community that these contributions were sufficient to prove the geometrization conjecture or the Poincaré conjecture. In April 2003, Perelman visited the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Princeton University, Stony Brook University, Columbia University, and New York University to give short series of lectures on his work, and to clarify some details for experts in the relevant fields. In the years afterwards, three detailed expositions appeared, discussed below. Since then, various parts of Perelman's work have also appeared in a number of textbooks and expository articles. In June 2003, Bruce Kleiner and John Lott, both then of the University of Michigan, posted notes on Lott's website which, section by section, filled in details of Perelman's first preprint. In September 2004, their notes were updated to include Perelman's second preprint. Following further revisions and corrections, they posted a version to the arXiv on 25 May 2006, a modified version of which was published in the academic journal Geometry & Topology in 2008. At the 2006 International Congress of Mathematicians, Lott said "It has taken us some time to examine Perelman's work. This is partly due to the originality of Perelman's work and partly to the technical sophistication of his arguments. All indications are that his arguments are correct." In the introduction to their article, Kleiner and Lott explained Since its 2008 publication, Kleiner and Lott's article has subsequently been revised twice for corrections, such as for an incorrect statement of Hamilton's important "compactness theorem" for Ricci flow. The latest revision to their article was in 2013. In June 2006, the Asian Journal of Mathematics published an article by Huai-Dong Cao of Lehigh University and Zhu Xiping of Sun Yat-sen University, giving a complete description of Perelman's proof of the Poincaré and the geometrization conjectures. Unlike Kleiner and Lott's article, which was structured as a collection of annotations to Perelman's papers, Cao and Zhu's article was aimed directly towards explaining the proofs of the Poincaré conjecture and geometrization conjecture. In their introduction, they explain Based also upon the title "A Complete Proof of the Poincaré and Geometrization Conjectures - Application of the Hamilton-Perelman Theory of Ricci Flow" and the phrase "This proof should be considered as the crowning achievement of the Hamilton-Perelman theory of Ricci flow" from the abstract, some people interpreted Cao and Zhu to be taking credit from Perelman for themselves. When asked about the issue, Perelman said that he couldn't see any new contribution by Cao and Zhu and that they "did not quite understand the argument and reworked it." Additionally, one of the pages of Cao and Zhu's article was essentially identical to one from Kleiner and Lott's 2003 posting. In a published erratum, Cao and Zhu attributed this to an oversight, saying that in 2003 they had taken down notes from the initial version of Kleiner and Lott's notes, and in their 2006 writeup had not realized the proper source of the notes. They posted a revised version to the arXiv with revisions in their phrasing and in the relevant page of the proof. In July 2006, John Morgan of Columbia University and Gang Tian of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology posted a paper on the arXiv in which they provided a detailed presentation of Perelman's proof of the Poincaré conjecture. Unlike Kleiner-Lott and Cao-Zhu's expositions, Morgan and Tian's also deals with Perelman's third paper. On 24 August 2006, Morgan delivered a lecture at the ICM in Madrid on the Poincaré conjecture, in which he declared that Perelman's work had been "thoroughly checked." In 2015, Abbas Bahri pointed out a counterexample to one of Morgan and Tian's theorems, which was later fixed by Morgan and Tian and sourced to an incorrectly computed evolution equation. The error, introduced by Morgan and Tian, dealt with details not directly discussed in Perelman's original work. In 2008, Morgan and Tian posted a paper which covered the details of the proof of the geometrization conjecture. Morgan and Tian's two articles have been published in book form by the Clay Mathematics Institute. Fields Medal and Millennium Prize In May 2006, a committee of nine mathematicians voted to award Perelman a Fields Medal for his work on the Ricci flow. However, Perelman declined to accept the prize. Sir John Ball, president of the International Mathematical Union, approached Perelman in Saint Petersburg in June 2006 to persuade him to accept the prize. After 10 hours of attempted persuasion over two days, Ball gave up. Two weeks later, Perelman summed up the conversation as follows: "He proposed to me three alternatives: accept and come; accept and don't come, and we will send you the medal later; third, I don't accept the prize. From the very beginning, I told him I have chosen the third one ... [the prize] was completely irrelevant for me. Everybody understood that if the proof is correct, then no other recognition is needed." "I'm not interested in money or fame,' he is quoted to have said at the time. 'I don't want to be on display like an animal in a zoo. I'm not a hero of mathematics. I'm not even that successful; that is why I don't want to have everybody looking at me." Nevertheless, on 22 August 2006, Perelman was publicly offered the medal at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Madrid "for his contributions to geometry and his revolutionary insights into the analytical and geometric structure of the Ricci flow". He did not attend the ceremony, and declined to accept the medal, making him the only person to decline this prestigious prize. He had previously rejected a prestigious prize from the European Mathematical Society. On 18 March 2010, Perelman was awarded a Millennium Prize for solving the problem. On June 8, 2010, he did not attend a ceremony in his honor at the Institut Océanographique, Paris to accept his $1 million prize. According to Interfax, Perelman refused to accept the Millennium prize in July 2010. He considered the decision of the Clay Institute unfair for not sharing the prize with Richard S. Hamilton, and stated that "the main reason is my disagreement with the organized mathematical community. I don't like their decisions, I consider them unjust." The Clay Institute subsequently used Perelman's prize money to fund the "Poincaré Chair", a temporary position for young promising mathematicians at the Paris Institut Henri Poincaré. Possible withdrawal from mathematics Perelman quit his job at the Steklov Institute in December 2005. His friends are said to have stated that he currently finds mathematics a painful topic to discuss; by 2010, some even said that he had entirely abandoned mathematics. Perelman is quoted in a 2006 article in The New Yorker saying that he was disappointed with the ethical standards of the field of mathematics. The article implies that Perelman refers particularly to alleged efforts of Fields medalist Shing-Tung Yau to downplay Perelman's role in the proof and play up the work of Cao and Zhu. Perelman added, "I can't say I'm outraged. Other people do worse. Of course, there are many mathematicians who are more or less honest. But almost all of them are conformists. They are more or less honest, but they tolerate those who are not honest." He has also said that "It is not people who break ethical standards who are regarded as aliens. It is people like me who are isolated." This, combined with the possibility of being awarded a Fields medal, led him to state he had quit professional mathematics by 2006. He said that "As long as I was not conspicuous, I had a choice. Either to make some ugly thing or, if I didn't do this kind of thing, to be treated as a pet. Now, when I become a very conspicuous person, I cannot stay a pet and say nothing. That is why I had to quit." (The New Yorker authors explained Perelman's reference to "some ugly thing" as "a fuss" on Perelman's part about the ethical breaches he perceived.) It is uncertain whether his resignation from Steklov and subsequent seclusion mean that he has ceased to practice mathematics. Fellow countryman and mathematician Yakov Eliashberg said that, in 2007, Perelman confided to him that he was working on other things but it was too premature to talk about it. He is said to have been interested in the past in the Navier–Stokes equations and the problem of their existence and smoothness. In 2014, Russian media reported that Perelman was working in the field of nanotechnology in Sweden. However, shortly afterwards, he was spotted again in his native hometown, Saint Petersburg. Perelman and the media Perelman has avoided journalists and other members of the media. Masha Gessen, the author of Perfect Rigour: A Genius and the Mathematical Breakthrough of the Century, a book about him, was unable to meet him. A Russian documentary about Perelman in which his work is discussed by several leading mathematicians including Mikhail Gromov was released in 2011 under the title "Иноходец. Урок Перельмана" ("Maverick: Perelman's Lesson"). In April 2011, Aleksandr Zabrovsky, producer of "President-Film" studio, claimed to have held an interview with Perelman and agreed to shoot a film about him, under the tentative title The Formula of the Universe. Zabrovsky says that in the interview, Perelman explained why he rejected the one million dollar prize. A number of journalists believe that Zabrovky's interview is most likely a fake, pointing to contradictions in statements supposedly made by Perelman. The writer Brett Forrest briefly interacted with Perelman in 2012. A reporter who had called him was told: "You are disturbing me. I am picking mushrooms." Complete publication list Dissertation Research papers Unpublished work See also Ancient solution Asteroid 50033 Perelman Homology sphere Hyperbolic manifold "Manifold Destiny" (On The New Yorker article) Spherical space form conjecture Thurston elliptization conjecture Uniformization theorem Notes References Anderson, M.T. 2005. Singularities of the Ricci flow. Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics, Elsevier. The Associated Press, Erratum. Revised version (December 2006): Hamilton-Perelman's Proof of the Poincaré Conjecture and the Geometrization Conjecture (an account of Perelman's talk on his proof at MIT; pdf file; also see Sugaku Seminar 2003-10 pp 4–7 for an extended version in Japanese) (The author is a former PhD student of Bill Thurston.) Further reading (Story of Grigory Perelman based on information from people who interacted with him.) External links 1966 births 20th-century Russian mathematicians 21st-century Russian mathematicians Differential geometers Fields Medalists International Mathematical Olympiad participants Jewish Russian scientists Living people New York University staff People from Saint Petersburg Russian Jews Saint Petersburg State University alumni Soviet Jews Soviet mathematicians Topologists University of California, Berkeley fellows	[ -0.20732136070728302, 0.3636839985847473, -0.18737314641475677, -0.4169837236404419, -0.572620689868927, 1.2240906953811646, -0.25831207633018494, -0.6632434725761414, 0.015685975551605225, -0.20387014746665955, -0.43831712007522583, 0.05296880751848221, -0.5336043834686279, 0.6089106798171997, -0.1179862841963768, 0.6443551778793335, 0.042235758155584335, -0.40451228618621826, -0.43225914239883423, -0.0615786537528038, 0.08598383516073227, 0.01358286663889885, 0.1567704826593399, 0.13144800066947937, -0.6842617392539978, 0.26201555132865906, 0.07253845781087875, 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225268	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrophorus%20electricus	Electrophorus electricus	Electrophorus electricus is the most well-known species of electric eel. It is a South American electric fish. Until the discovery of two additional species in 2019, the genus was classified as the monotypic, with this species the only one in the genus. Despite the name, it is not an eel, but rather a knifefish. It is considered as a freshwater teleost which contains an electrogenic tissue that produces electric discharges. Taxonomic history The species is so unusual that it has been reclassified several times. When originally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1766, he used the name Gymnotus electricus, placing it in the same genus as Gymnotus carapo (banded knifefish) which he had described several years earlier. It was only about a century later, in 1864, that the electric eel was moved to its own genus Electrophorus by Theodore Gill. In September 2019, C. David de Santana et al. published work strongly suggesting a division of the genus into three species based on DNA divergence, ecology and habitat, anatomy and physiology, and electrical ability: E. electricus, E. voltai sp. nov., and E. varii sp. nov. The study found E. electricus to be the sister species to E. voltai, with both species diverging during the Pliocene. Anatomy E. electricus has an elongated, cylindrical body, typically growing to about in length, and in weight, making them the largest species of the Gymnotiformes. Their coloration is dark gray-brown on the back and yellow or orange on the belly. Mature females have a darker color on the abdomen. They have no scales. The mouth is square and positioned at the end of the snout. The anal fin extends the length of the body to the tip of the tail. As in other ostariophysan fishes, the swim bladder has two chambers. The anterior chamber is connected to the inner ear by a series of small bones derived from neck vertebrae called the Weberian apparatus, which greatly enhances its hearing capability. The posterior chamber extends along the whole length of the body and maintains the fish's buoyancy. Electrophorus electricus has a vascularized respiratory system with gas exchange occurring through epithelial tissue in its buccal cavity. As obligate air-breathers, E. electricus must rise to the surface every ten minutes or so to inhale before returning to the bottom. Nearly eighty percent of the oxygen used by the fish is obtained in this way. Physiology E. electricus and other electric eels have three pairs of abdominal organs that produce electricity: the main organ, Hunter's organ, and Sachs' organ. These organs make up four fifths of its body, and give the electric eel the ability to generate two types of electric organ discharges: low voltage and high voltage. These organs are made of electrocytes, lined up so a current of ions can flow through them and stacked so each one adds to a potential difference. The three electrical organs are developed from muscle and exhibit several biochemical properties and morphological features of the muscle sarcolemma; they are found symmetrically along both sides of the eel. When the eel finds its prey, the brain sends a signal through the nervous system to the electrocytes. This opens the ion channels, allowing sodium to flow through, reversing the polarity momentarily. By causing a sudden difference in electric potential, it generates an electric current in a manner similar to a battery, in which stacked plates each produce an electric potential difference. Electric eels are also capable of controlling their prey's nervous systems with their electrical abilities; by controlling their victim's nervous system and muscles via electrical pulses, they can keep prey from escaping or force it to move so they can locate its position. Electric eels use electricity in multiple ways. Low voltages are used to sense the surrounding environment. High voltages are used to detect prey and, separately, stun them, at which point the electric eel applies a suction-feeding bite. Sachs' organ is associated with electrolocation. Inside the organ are many muscle-like cells, called electrocytes. Each cell can only produce 0.15 V, though the organ can transmit a signal of nearly 10 V overall in amplitude at around 25 Hz in frequency. These signals are emitted by the main organ; Hunter's organ can emit signals at rates of several hundred hertz. There are several physiological differences among the three electric organs, which allow them to have very different functions. The main electrical organ and the strong-voltage section of Hunter's organ are rich in calmodulin, a protein that is involved in high-voltage production. Additionally, the three organs have varying amounts of Na+/K+-ATPase, which is a Na+/K+ ion pump that is crucial in the formation of voltage. The main and Hunter’s organs have a high expression of this protein, giving it a high sensitivity to changes in ion concentration, whereas Sachs' organ has a low expression of this protein. The typical output is sufficient to stun or deter virtually any animal. The eels can vary the intensity of the electric discharge, using lower discharges for hunting and higher intensities for stunning prey or defending themselves. They can also concentrate the discharge by curling up and making contact at two points along its body. When agitated, they can produce these intermittent electric shocks over at least an hour without tiring. E. electricus also possesses high frequency–sensitive tuberous receptors, which are distributed in patches over its body. This feature is apparently useful for hunting other Gymnotiformes. E. electricus has been used as a model in the study of bioelectrogenesis. The species is of some interest to researchers, who make use of its acetylcholinesterase and adenosine triphosphate. Despite being the first described species in the genus and thus the most famous example, E. electricus actually has the weakest maximum voltage of the three species in the genus, at only 480 volts (as opposed to 572 volts in E. varii and 860 volts in E. voltai). Ecology and life history Habitat E. electricus is restricted to freshwater habitats in the Guiana Shield. Populations in the Amazon basin, Brazilian Shield, and other parts of the Guiana Shield are now thought to belong to E. varii and E. voltai. Feeding ecology E. electricus feed on invertebrates, although adult eels may also consume fish and small mammals, such as rats. First-born hatchlings eat other eggs and embryos from later clutches. The juveniles eat invertebrates, such as shrimp and crabs. Reproduction E. electricus is known for its unusual breeding behavior. In the dry season, a male eel makes a nest from his saliva into which the female lays her eggs. As many as 3,000 young hatch from the eggs in one nest. Males grow to be larger than females by about . References Further reading External links 1954 educational film about the electric eel from the Moody Institute of Science Electrophoridae Strongly electric fish Freshwater fish of Brazil Freshwater fish of Colombia Vertebrates of Guyana Fish of Peru Fish of the Amazon basin Fish described in 1766 Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus	[ 0.36834269762039185, -0.3391486704349518, -0.4241810739040375, 0.029816433787345886, -0.36286187171936035, 0.0852569118142128, 0.35241594910621643, -0.1043117567896843, -0.3854433298110962, 0.07537401467561722, 0.27030736207962036, -0.17147983610630035, -0.5324296951293945, 0.2871845066547394, 0.5602280497550964, 0.5647518038749695, 0.3014943599700928, 0.7853561043739319, -0.2568802535533905, -0.2035985291004181, 0.0665462464094162, -0.2003757655620575, 0.4796184301376343, -0.36164048314094543, 0.3831738233566284, -0.023704659193754196, -0.2267792820930481, 0.15226547420024872, 0.44208091497421265, -0.4153493344783783, 0.37552765011787415, 0.6745464205741882, 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225270	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrophorus	Electrophorus	An electrophorus or electrophore is a simple manual capacitive electrostatic generator used to produce electrostatic charge via the process of electrostatic induction. A first version of it was invented in 1762 by Swedish professor Johan Carl Wilcke,. Italian scientist Alessandro Volta improved and popularized the device in 1775, and is sometimes erroneously credited with its invention. The word electrophorus was coined by Volta from the Greek ήλεκτρον ('elektron'), and ϕέρω ('phero'), meaning 'electricity bearer'. Description and operation The electrophorus consists of a dielectric plate (originally a 'cake' of resinous material such as pitch or wax, but in modern versions plastic is used) and a metal plate with an insulating handle. The dielectric plate is first charged through the triboelectric effect by rubbing it with fur or cloth. For this discussion, imagine the dielectric gains negative charge by rubbing, as in the illustration below. The metal plate is then placed onto the dielectric plate. The dielectric does not transfer a significant fraction of its surface charge to the metal because the microscopic contact is poor. Instead the electrostatic field of the charged dielectric causes the charges in the metal plate to separate. It develops two regions of charge — the positive charges in the plate are attracted to the side facing down toward the dielectric, charging it positively, while the negative charges are repelled to the side facing up, charging it negatively, with the plate remaining electrically neutral as a whole. Then, the side facing up is momentarily grounded (which can be done by touching it with a finger), draining off the negative charge. Finally, the metal plate, now carrying only one sign of charge (positive in our example), is lifted. Since the charge on the dielectric is not depleted in this process, the charge on the metal plate can be used for experiments, for example by touching it to metal conductors allowing the charge to drain away, and the uncharged metal plate can be placed back on the dielectric and the process repeated to get another charge. This can be repeated as often as desired, so in principle an unlimited amount of induced charge can be obtained from a single charge on the dielectric. For this reason Volta called it elettroforo perpetuo (the perpetual electricity bearer). In actual use the charge on the dielectric will eventually (within a few days at most) leak through the surface of the cake or the atmosphere to recombine with opposite charges around to restore neutrality. One of the largest examples of an electrophorus was built in 1777 by German scientist Georg Christoph Lichtenberg. It was 6 feet (2 m) in diameter, with the metal plate raised and lowered using a pulley system. It could reportedly produce 15 inch (38 cm) sparks. Lichtenberg used its discharges to create the strange treelike marks known as Lichtenberg figures. The source of the charge Charge in the universe is conserved. The electrophorus simply separates positive and negative charges. A positive or negative charge ends up on the metal plate (or other storage conductor), and the opposite charge is stored in another object after grounding (in the earth or the person touching the metal plate). This separation takes work since the lowest energy state implies uncharged objects. Work is done by raising the charged metal plate away from the oppositely charged resinous plate. This additional energy put into the system is converted to potential energy in the form of charge separation (opposite charges that were originally on the plate), so raising the metal plate actually increases its voltage relative to the dielectric plate. The electrophorus is thus actually a manually operated electrostatic generator, using the same principle of electrostatic induction as electrostatic machines such as the Wimshurst machine and the Van de Graaff generator. See also Electret Notes References , pp. 73–105 Volta's 'invention' of the electrophorus pp. 55–57. Place of electrophorus in history of electrostatics, although the author does not mention Wilcke's contribution. 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225275	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evanescence	Evanescence	Evanescence is an American rock band founded in Little Rock, Arkansas, in 1995 by singer, pianist, and keyboardist Amy Lee and guitarist Ben Moody. After recording independent albums, the band released their first full-length album, Fallen, on Wind-up Records in 2003. On the strength of hit singles "Bring Me to Life" and "My Immortal", Fallen sold more than 17 million copies worldwide and helped the band win two Grammy Awards out of six nominations. A year later, Evanescence released their first live album, Anywhere but Home, which sold more than one million copies worldwide. In 2006, the band released their second studio album, The Open Door, which sold more than five million copies. The band reconvened in June 2009 with a new lineup; their next studio album, Evanescence, was released in 2011. It debuted at the top of the Billboard 200 chart with 127,000 copies in sales. The album also debuted at number one on four other different Billboard charts; the Rock Albums, Digital Albums, Alternative Albums, and the Hard Rock Albums charts. The band spent 2012 on tour in promotion of their latest album with other bands including The Pretty Reckless and Fair to Midland. Troy McLawhorn also became a full-time band member during this time. Following the end of the album's tour cycle in 2012, the band entered another hiatus. In 2015, Evanescence emerged from hiatus and announced they would resume touring; however, they stated that new Evanescence material was not being produced, as Lee was focusing on a solo project instead. In addition, Balsamo left the band and was replaced by Jen Majura. In March 2017, Lee stated Evanescence was working on a fourth album for release later in 2017; Synthesis was released worldwide on November 10, 2017, and marked a stylistic change in the band's sound. On March 26, 2021, the band released their fifth studio album, The Bitter Truth. The lineup of the group changed several times over the course of the first two studio albums productions and promotions: David Hodges left in 2002, co-founder Moody left in 2003 (mid-tour), followed by guitarist John LeCompt and drummer Rocky Gray in 2007, and Terry Balsamo in 2015. As a result, none of the band's five studio albums feature the same lineup. The latter two changes led to a hiatus, with temporary band members contributing to tour performances. History 1995–2001: Formation and early years Evanescence was founded by singer, pianist and songwriter Amy Lee and former lead guitarist and songwriter Ben Moody. The two met in 1994 at a Christian youth camp in Little Rock, where Moody heard Lee play Meat Loaf's "I'd Do Anything for Love" on the piano. The band became popular after performing in coffee shops around the Little Rock area. After experimenting with band names, such as Childish Intentions and Stricken, they decided on Evanescence, which means "disappearance" or "fading away" (from the word evanesce, which means "to disappear"). The band released three EPs. The first is the self-titled Evanescence EP (1998), of which about 100 copies were made and distributed at the band's early live performances. The second is the Sound Asleep EP, also known as the Whisper EP (1999). There was also a third EP called Mystary EP (2003). For their first full-length demo CD, Origin (2000), about 2,500 copies were produced and sold to concert audiences. Origin and the EPs contain demo versions of some songs on their debut album, Fallen. During a radio interview, Lee and Moody encouraged fans to download the band's older songs from the Internet, rather than purchase them from online sources such as eBay where the material had been selling for over US$250. 2002–2005: Fallen and Anywhere but Home Having first encountered the band at Ardent Studios in Memphis and been suitably impressed, producer Pete Matthews played their demos to his friend at Wind-up Records, Diana Meltzer. It was when Meltzer heard "My Immortal" that she became interested in signing the band, saying she "knew it was a hit". The Wind-up A&R told HitQuarters that, although they already exhibited huge talent, they were still young and needed to be developed, and "given the time and opportunity they could deliver a breakthrough sound." Once signed the band were relocated to Los Angeles, given an apartment and rehearsal space and enrolled in a gym. Lee was given acting and vocal classes. After almost two years producer Dave Fortman was brought in to produce their first album Fallen. Record label executives initially refused to release the album unless the band would agree to add a full-time male co-vocalist. When the band would not agree to this demand, the label relented and insisted only on having a male vocalist in the album's lead single, "Bring Me to Life". Lee was still not happy about this, but eventually she agreed to the decision. In early 2003, the lineup was completed by Amy Lee and Ben Moody's friends, John LeCompt, Rocky Gray and Will Boyd, all of whom worked on Evanescence's earlier songs. While they were looking to promote Fallen, Evanescence accepted an offer from the video game company Nintendo to perform on the Nintendo Fusion Tour, which they headlined in 2003. Fallen spent 43 weeks in the top 10 of the Billboard 200, peaking at number three; was certified 7× Platinum in the United States; and sold more than 17 million copies worldwide. The album was listed for 104 weeks on the Billboard 200, and it was one of eight albums in the history of the chart to spend at least a year in the top 50. In addition, Fallen was number 6 on CBS's list of "Top Bestselling Albums of the Last 10 Years". Evanescence's major label debut single "Bring Me to Life", featuring guest vocals from Paul McCoy of 12 Stones, was a global hit for the band and reached number five on the American Billboard Hot 100. It provided Evanescence with a UK number-one single, where it stayed for four weeks from June–July 2003. The song also became the official theme for WWE No Way Out 2003. "My Immortal" received similar success, peaking at number seven on the US and UK charts, and both songs were featured on the soundtrack for the action movie Daredevil. "Bring Me to Life" was recognized at the 46th Grammy Awards in 2004, where the band won the awards for Best Hard Rock Performance and Best New Artist and were nominated for three others. The two other singles from Fallen are "Going Under" (No. 5 U.S. Modern Rock Tracks, No. 8 UK Charts) and "Everybody's Fool" (No. 36 U.S. Modern Rock Tracks, No. 23 UK Charts); each was promoted by a music video. On October 22, 2003, Moody left the band during the European tour for Fallen, reportedly because of creative differences. In an interview several months later, Amy Lee said: "...we'd gotten to a point that if something didn't change, we wouldn't have been able to make a second record." This became a point of confusion, as Moody and Lee stated on the Fallen album liner notes that they were best friends. Lee said it was almost a relief that Moody left because of tensions created within the band. During an interview, Lee has said, "I don't know, I just think it's exactly what I would've expected. He's more about kind of the pop influence sort of thing and also, you know, about being commercial and I mean selling albums: That's the part of him we often disagreed on. I wanted to do the more artistic weird thing and he'd wanna do the thing that people would want to hear..." She adds "So that's a lot of the reason [why] it's been so fun writing now, is [that] we're not thinking about that. It's like 'what do we like?', 'what's fun?', like 'what do we want to do that's different?'" Moody was replaced by Terry Balsamo from Cold. In 2004, Evanescence's new lineup released a DVD/CD compilation titled Anywhere but Home. The DVD includes a concert in Paris, as well as behind-the-scenes features, including shots of the band backstage signing autographs and warming up. Also on the CD are the live songs "Breathe No More" (from the Elektra movie soundtrack), "Farther Away", and the band's cover of Korn's "Thoughtless". The album has sold more than a million copies worldwide. 2006–2009: The Open Door A spokesperson for the band's label confirmed on July 14, 2006, that bassist Will Boyd had left the band for "not wanting to do another big tour" and wanting "to be close to his family." Amy Lee originally broke the news to the fans in a post on an unofficial Evanescence site, EvBoard.com. In an interview with MTV, posted on their website on August 10, 2006, Lee announced that Tim McCord, former Revolution Smile guitarist, would switch instruments and play bass for the band. The album progressed slowly for several reasons, including Amy Lee's desire to maximize the creative process and not rush production, other band members' side projects, Balsamo's stroke, and turbulence within their management. Although Lee stated on the fan forum Evboard that Evanescence's new album would be completed in March 2006, the release was pushed back allegedly because "Wind-up...wanted to make a few changes to the upcoming single 'Call Me When You're Sober'", which hit modern rock and alternative rock radio on August 7, 2006. The 13-track album The Open Door was released in Canada and the United States on October 3, 2006; the United Kingdom on October 2, 2006; and Australia on September 30, 2006. The album sold 447,000 copies in the United States in its first week of sales and earned their first No. 1 ranking on the Billboard 200 album chart. The music video for "Call Me When You're Sober" was shot in Los Angeles and is based on the fairy tale Little Red Riding Hood. The Open Door became available for pre-order on the iTunes Store on August 15, 2006; the music video for "Call Me When You're Sober" was also made available. The tour for The Open Door began on October 5, 2006, in Toronto and included locations in Canada, the U.S. and Europe during that year. This first tour continued on January 5, 2007, and included stops in Canada (alongside band Stone Sour), Japan and Australia (alongside band Shihad) and then returned to the U.S. for a second tour in the spring (alongside bands Chevelle and Finger Eleven). As part of their tour, Evanescence performed on April 15, 2007, on the Argentinian festival Quilmes Rock 07 along with Aerosmith, Velvet Revolver and other local bands. They also co-headlined on the Family Values Tour 2007 along with Korn and other bands. The group closed their European tour with a sell-out concert at the Amphi in Ra'anana, Israel, on June 26, 2007, and finished the album tour on December 9, 2007. On May 4, 2007, John LeCompt announced that he had been fired from Evanescence, and also stated that drummer Rocky Gray had decided to quit. They both would join Moody to eventually form the band We Are the Fallen. Wind-up issued a press release on May 17, 2007, stating that two Dark New Day members, drummer Will Hunt and guitarist Troy McLawhorn, would be joining the band to replace LeCompt and Gray. It was initially stated that Hunt and McLawhorn would tour with Evanescence until the end of the Family Values Tour in September 2007, but both continued to play with the band through The Open Door tour. 2009–2014: Evanescence and hiatus In a news posting to the Evanescence website during June 2009, Amy Lee wrote that the band was in the process of writing new material for a new album proposed for release in 2010. She stated that the music would be an evolution of previous works and be "better, stronger, and more interesting". The band played a "secret show" at the Manhattan Center Grand Ballroom in New York City on November 4, 2009, with label mates Civil Twilight. Tickets for the show sold out in five minutes. This performance acted as a warm-up for their headline appearance at the Maquinária Festival in São Paulo, Brazil, which took place on November 8. Evanescence entered the studio on February 22, 2010, to begin recording. Will Hunt returned as drummer while a second drummer and programmer, Will "Science" Hunt, was brought in to assist in writing but ultimately did not join the band. David Campbell, who previously worked on The Open Door, was brought back to handle string arrangements, and the album was scheduled for release by the producer Steve Lillywhite. Lee later said that "Steve wasn't the right fit" and was replaced by producer Nick Raskulinecz. However, it was later revealed the record label scrapped the material recorded with Lillywhite. At the time the band began recording, the album was intended for an August or September 2010 release. However, on June 21, 2010, Lee announced on EvThreads.com that Evanescence had temporarily left the studio to work further on the album and "get our heads into the right creative space". Lee also indicated that record label Wind-up Records was going through "uncertain times", which would further delay the release of the album. The band reentered the studio in early April 2011 with Raskulinecz, who had produced music for Alice in Chains, Deftones, and Foo Fighters, to continue work on the third album. It was reported that the album would be released in late 2011. Over the course of the month, Seether lead vocalist Shaun Morgan announced that Troy McLawhorn was reported to have rejoined Evanescence as a primary guitarist after leaving Seether, but Evanescence's management later stated that this was not the case. On June 12, 2011, Amy Lee announced through her Twitter account that McLawhorn was officially back with Evanescence and that the release date for the new album would be October 4, 2011. Later, on July 11, 2011, it was reported by MTV News that the release date for the album had been pushed back to October 11, and that the first single from the album will be "What You Want". The band recorded the album at Blackbird Studio, Nashville. During an interview with Kerrang!, Lee revealed that the new album's title will be Evanescence. Lee said that the decision for the title of the album was her love towards Evanescence, as well as the record being written more collaboratively than albums from the past. Other themes are the ocean, quest for freedom and falling in love. The Evanescence Tour began on August 17, 2011, with a show at War Memorial Auditorium in Nashville. The band then performed at Rock on the Range in Winnipeg on August 20, 2011, and at Rock in Rio on October 2 alongside Guns N' Roses and System of a Down as well as Brazilian artists Pitty and Detonautas Roque Clube. After a series of events in North America, Evanescence traveled to Europe in November to play a sold-out tour in the UK, Germany and France, with support from The Pretty Reckless and Australian band ME. Evanescence performed at the Nobel Peace Prize Concert on December 11, 2011, where they played "Lost in Paradise" and "Bring Me to Life", before again touring in North America. In February 2012 they toured Japan with Dazzle Vision, and in the same month performed in other southeast Asian countries. March 2012 saw the band tour Australia and New Zealand with Blaqk Audio. Between April and July 2012, Evanescence toured in Europe and North America, with additional stops in Africa and the Middle East. Evanescence paused their tour to take part in the Carnival of Madness Tour alongside Halestorm, Cavo, New Medicine and Chevelle. This tour began on July 31, 2012, in Springfield, Illinois, and ran through September 2, 2012, ending in Buffalo, New York. The Evanescence Tour resumed in October 2012 with stops in South America, Costa Rica and Panama. The tour wrapped with a series of shows in England, ending on November 9, 2012, in London's Wembley Arena. Lee stated the band plans to take an extended break after the tour, saying, "At the end of any really long tour you need to get your head in order. I think at the end of the run we'll go on a break for a while and figure things out." In October 2013, Wind-up Records sold part of their catalog of artists, including Evanescence and their master recordings, to Bicycle Music Company. The combined company Concord Bicycle Music will market the catalog. On January 3, 2014, it was announced that Amy Lee had filed a lawsuit against former record label Wind-up Records, seeking $1.5 million in unpaid royalties owed to the band. In March 2014, via her Twitter account, Lee announced that she and Evanescence had been released from their record label and were independent artists. 2015–2018: Return and Synthesis On April 27, 2015, it was announced that the band would perform at Japan's Ozzfest on November 21, 2015, as the second headline act, making it the band's first live performance since their hiatus. Prior to Ozzfest, Evanescence would play three shows in the United States. On August 7, 2015, Lee announced that long-time guitarist Terry Balsamo had departed the band. His position was filled by German singer and guitarist Jen Majura, bassist for folk metal band Equilibrium. In an October 2015 interview, Lee stated that the band would continue to tour in 2016, but that when it came to recording new music, she was focusing on recording a solo album rather than a new Evanescence album. In late 2016, the band toured select cities in the United States, choosing alternative rock band Veridia as their opener. During this tour, the band played a brand new song titled "Take Cover", an outtake from the scrapped 2010 sessions for their self-titled album. On September 13, 2016, the band announced a vinyl box set titled The Ultimate Collection that includes all of their albums (including Origin) and a new version of "Even in Death", a song which first appeared on Origin. The set was released on December 9, 2016. During an interview with Loudwire, Lee stated "there is Evanescence in the future" and that there had been work on another pre-Fallen song which would be released later. On February 18, 2017, a compilation album titled Lost Whispers was made available for streaming and downloading on Spotify, iTunes and Anghami. It contained the rerecorded "Even in Death", previously released B-sides, the four deluxe edition bonus tracks to Evanescence, and the new song "Lost Whispers". On March 20, 2017, Lee spoke to AOL Build about her solo single, "Speak to Me"; during the interview, she spoke of "a new album" in the works by Evanescence, saying "We're working on something. [...] It's not just a straightforward 'next Evanescence album'," implying a stylistic change. In a March 23 interview with Metal Hammer, Lee stated that "It's something unique, something complex, something a little bit beyond that – and it's definitely new territory for all of us." The album was intended for release later in 2017. In a Facebook post, Lee revealed that the new album is titled Synthesis. According to Lee, the album is an orchestral piece that contains instruments such as brass and other orchestral elements. She also revealed that David Campbell, who worked on all of the band's previous albums, would return to compose for the new project. Lee said that the album is about "orchestra and electronica", and that the band is taking selected songs from their previous albums and stripping out the rock guitars and drums, rebuilding them into a classical arrangement reminiscent of a soundtrack. The album contained two new original songs, one titled "Hi-Lo" starring Lindsey Stirling. The first recording session for Synthesis took place on May 23, 2017, and a remake of "Bring Me To Life" was released as a single on August 18. On August 15, the band announced that recording Synthesis was in its final stages. Evanescence toured with a full orchestra in late 2017 in support of the album, and tickets were sold starting on August 18. The band later toured across the US, Australia and Europe. Each ticket purchased came with a digital copy of Synthesis after its release. On September 14, 2017, the single "Imperfection" was officially released. In March 2018, Evanescence announced that Lindsey Stirling would be joining the second North American leg as part of Evanescence's Synthesis Tour. While their focus would remain on touring, Lee stated during a July 2018 interview on WRIF that the band would begin working on their next studio album. 2019–present: The Bitter Truth On February 4, 2019, the band released dates and locations for a spring/summer 2019 United States concert tour. On September 17, 2019, Evanescence and symphonic metal band Within Temptation announced a seven-city joint European tour titled Worlds Collide originally scheduled for April 2020. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the tour was postponed until fall 2020. The tour was pushed back a second time, and will take place in September 2021. On May 11, 2019, Lee was quoted by Blabbermouth on plans for Evanescence to release a new studio album in 2020. In a November 21, 2019, Reddit AMA, Lee said of the album, "It's dark and heavy. Its also got moments of weird and sparse. Little bit of everything. Definitely some Open Door vibes but not the same." On September 5, 2019, Xbox released a launch trailer for the video game Gears 5 that included a cover of Fleetwood Mac's "The Chain", with vocals credited to Lee. A full version of the song was released by Evanescence on November 22, 2019, and features backing vocals by the other members of the band. A music video for the song was released on January 9, 2020. The cover song will not be included on the band's upcoming fifth album. At the end of January, the band entered the studio with Nick Raskulinecz, who produced their 2011 self-titled album, to work on three "heavy" songs. They would originally record only two songs with him, but ended up recording four. They planned to work with different producers each time they hit the studio to ensure a diverse sound, but this plan was set aside due to the pandemic. On April 17, 2020, the band announced the title of their new album, The Bitter Truth, along with the artwork. The album's first single, "Wasted on You", was released on April 24 along with a music video. The music video was directed by P. R. Brown and included shots of the band members at home amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. The second single, "The Game Is Over", was released on July 1. "Use My Voice", the album's third single, was released on August 14. It features vocal contributions from Lzzy Hale, Taylor Momsen, and Sharon den Adel, and was used in a HeadCount campaign to encourage Americans to vote in the United States presidential election. On December 4, 2020, it was announced the album would be released on March 26, 2021, and contain 12 tracks, including Evanescence outtake "Take Cover". Along with the album's pre-order, the fourth single, "Yeah Right", was released as an instant grab. On March 5, 2021, the band released the fifth single, "Better Without You". The song touches upon Amy Lee's struggle in the music industry. Amy Lee told in a Kerrang! cover story that she considers The Bitter Truth their fourth album, and not 2017's Synthesis, though it is the fifth album overall. In other media Lee claimed that she wrote a song for the 2005 film The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, but that it was rejected because of its dark sound. Lee went on to state that it was just "more great stuff [for The Open Door]". Another song supposedly written for Narnia was the Mozart-inspired "Lacrymosa". The producers of Narnia, however, rebutted her claim, stating this information was "news to them" and that no Evanescence music had been planned for inclusion in the soundtrack. In 2010, Evanescence released "Together Again" as a digital download, a song created for The Open Door but later cut. The song was released to aid the United Nations Foundation in Haiti earthquake recovery efforts. It later received an official release as a digital download on February 23, 2010. Musical style and influences Critics vary in terming Evanescence a rock or metal band, but most identify them as some form of gothic band. Publications such as The New York Times, Rough Guides and Rolling Stone have identified Evanescence as a gothic metal act, while other sources such as IGN, Spin and NME have termed them gothic rock. They have been compared to a variety of bands from differing genres, such as nu metal ensembles like Linkin Park, gothic metal groups like Lacuna Coil, and symphonic metal acts like Nightwish and Within Temptation. David Browne of Blender offers an elaborate description of the band's music as "goth Christian nü-metal with a twist of melancholic Enya." Adrien Begrand of PopMatters describes Evanescence's guitar riffs to be similar to nu metal. Adrian Jackson of My Dying Bride stated that he feels Evanescence is doing something similar to his own gothic metal group, only in a more commercial direction. Other genres and influences used to describe the band's sound include industrial rock, alternative metal, hard rock, alternative rock, post-grunge, and progressive metal. Evanescence cite Pantera, Björk, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Danny Elfman, Tori Amos, Nirvana, Portishead, Massive Attack, Nine Inch Nails, Garbage, Joan Jett, and Plumb as influences. Evanescence was originally promoted in Christian stores. Later, the band made it clear they did not want to be considered part of the Christian rock genre. Terry Hemmings, CEO of Christian music distributor Provident, expressed puzzlement at the band's about-face, saying: "They clearly understood the album would be sold in these [Christian music] channels". After many Christian stores began to remove the band's music from their shelves, Wind-up Records chairman Alan Meltzer then issued a press release in April 2003 requesting formally that they do this. In 2006, Amy Lee told Billboard that she had opposed the "Christian band" identification from the beginning, calling it a "Ben thing". In a 2011 interview with the San Antonio Current, Lee re-affirmed her Christian faith, but once again stressed that Evanescence "has never been a 'Christian band.'" Band members Current members Amy Lee – lead vocals, keyboards, harp (1995–present) Troy McLawhorn – guitar, backing vocals (2011–present; touring musician 2007–2011) Jen Majura – guitar, backing vocals, theremin (2015–present) Tim McCord – bass (2006–present) Will Hunt – drums (2010–present; touring musician 2007–2010) Former members Ben Moody – guitar, bass, drums (1995–2003) David Hodges – keyboards, drums, backing vocals (1999–2002) Will Boyd – bass (2003–2006; touring musician 2002–2003) Rocky Gray – drums (2003–2007; touring musician 2002–2003) John LeCompt – guitar, backing vocals (2003–2007; touring musician 2002–2003) Terry Balsamo – guitar (2003–2015) Timeline Discography Fallen (2003) The Open Door (2006) Evanescence (2011) Synthesis (2017) The Bitter Truth (2021) Bibliography Echoes from the Void - #1-5 (script: Carrie Lee South and Blake Northcott, illustrator: Abigail Larson and Kelly McKernan, letterer: Jacob Bascle, editor: Llexi Leon; Heavy Metal, 2021) Awards and nominations References External links Musical groups established in 1995 American gothic metal musical groups American gothic rock groups American hard rock musical groups American alternative metal musical groups American nu metal musical groups Heavy metal musical groups from Arkansas Alternative rock groups from Arkansas Grammy Award winners Kerrang! 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225276	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalistic%20scandal	Journalistic scandal	Journalism scandals are high-profile incidents or acts, whether intentional or accidental, that run contrary to the generally accepted ethics and standards of journalism, or otherwise violate the 'ideal' mission of journalism: to report news events and issues accurately and fairly. As the investigative and reporting face of the media, journalists are usually required to follow various journalistic standards. These may be written and codified, or customary expectations. Typical standards include references to honesty, avoiding journalistic bias, demonstrating responsibility, striking an appropriate balance between privacy and public interest, shunning financial or romantic conflict of interest, and choosing ethical means to obtain information. Penalties may vary, but have been known to include re-assignment. Journalistic scandals are public scandals arising from incidents where in the eyes of some party, these standards were significantly breached. In most journalistic scandals, deliberate or accidental acts take place that run contrary to the generally accepted ethics and standards of journalism, or otherwise violate the 'ideal' mission of journalism: to report news events and issues accurately and fairly. Common characteristics Journalistic scandals include: plagiarism, fabrication, and omission of information; activities that violate the law, or violate ethical rules; the altering or staging of an event being documented; or making substantial reporting or researching errors with the results leading to libelous or defamatory statements. All journalistic scandals have the common factor that they call into question the integrity and truthfulness of journalism. These scandals shift public focus and scrutiny onto the media itself. Because credibility is journalism's main currency, many news agencies and mass media outlets have strict codes of conduct and enforce them, and use several layers of editorial oversight to catch problems before stories are distributed. However, in some cases, investigations later found that long-established journalistic checks and balances in the newsrooms failed. In some cases, senior editors fail to catch bias, libel, or fabrication inserted into a story by a reporter. In other cases, the checks and balances were omitted in the rush to get an important, 'breaking' news story to press (or on air). Furthermore, in many libel and defamation cases, the publication would have had full support of editorial oversight in case of yellow journalism. 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225282	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adams%20Peak	Adams Peak	Adams Peak may refer to the following places: Adams Peak (Antarctica) Adams Peak (California) See also Adam's Peak, mountain in Sri Lanka	[ -0.30614733695983887, 1.0924665927886963, 0.40118610858917236, -0.6255244016647339, 0.1658930778503418, 0.11916664242744446, 0.6832756400108337, 0.27791261672973633, -0.31593653559684753, -0.359211266040802, -0.2285071164369583, -0.36966779828071594, -0.32834020256996155, 0.36908262968063354, -0.5497286915779114, 0.49673542380332947, -0.12134814262390137, 0.9637680053710938, -0.5102825164794922, -0.5063411593437195, 0.46042439341545105, -0.6432773470878601, 0.15615996718406677, -0.7276248931884766, -0.3316647410392761, 0.20017263293266296, 0.6466513872146606, 0.26172348856925964, 0.3633582293987274, 0.6716131567955017, -0.31503742933273315, 0.06590660661458969, 0.024984415620565414, -0.3354796767234802, 0.17044541239738464, 0.061562661081552505, 0.11637884378433228, 0.17037039995193481, 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225283	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri%20Lankan%20Civil%20War	Sri Lankan Civil War	The Sri Lankan Civil War (; , Ilaṅkai uḷnāṭṭup pōr) was a civil war fought in Sri Lanka from 1983 to 2009. Beginning on 23 July 1983, there was an intermittent insurgency against the government by the Velupillai Prabhakaran-led Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE, also known as the Tamil Tigers). The LTTE fought to create an independent Tamil state called Tamil Eelam in the north-east of the island, due to the continuous discrimination and violent persecution against Sri Lankan Tamils by the Sinhalese dominated Sri Lankan Government. Violent persecution erupted in the form of the 1956, 1958, 1977, 1981 and 1983 anti-Tamil pogroms, as well as the 1981 burning of the Jaffna Public Library. These were carried out by the majority Sinhalese mobs often with state support, in the years following Sri Lanka's independence from the British Empire in 1948. Shortly after gaining independence, Sinhala was recognized as the sole official language of the nation. After a 26-year military campaign, the Sri Lankan Armed Forces militarily defeated the Tamil Tigers in May 2009, bringing the civil war to an end. An estimated 70,000 had been killed by 2007. Immediately following the end of the war, on 20 May 2009, the United Nations estimated a total of 80,000–100,000 deaths. However, in 2011, referring to the final phase of the war in 2009, the Report of the Secretary-General's Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka stated, “A number of credible sources have estimated that there could have been as many as 40,000 civilian deaths.” Other sources quoting discrepancies in the census figures state that up to 140,000 people were unaccounted for during this period alone. In 2012, the Secretary-General's Internal Review Panel on United Nations Action in Sri Lanka stated, 'The Panel of Experts stated that "[a] number of credible sources have estimated that there could have been as many as 40,000 civilian deaths" while some Government sources state the number was well below 10,000. Other sources have referred to credible information indicating that over 70,000 people are unaccounted for.' The Sri Lankan government has repeatedly refused an independent, international investigation to ascertain the full impact of the war, with some reports claiming that government forces were raping and torturing Tamils involved in collating deaths and disappearances. A military whistleblower accused government forces of a cover up with bodies being buried in mass graves and chemicals being used to dissolve skeletons. During the early part of the conflict, the Sri Lankan forces attempted to retake the areas captured by the LTTE. The tactics employed by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam against the actions of Government forces resulted in their listing as a terrorist organisation in 33 countries, including the United States, India, Canada and the member nations of the European Union. The Sri Lankan government forces have also been accused of human rights abuses, systematic impunity for serious human rights violations, lack of respect for habeas corpus in arbitrary detentions, and forced disappearances. After two decades of fighting and four failed tries at peace talks, including the deployment of the Indian Army, the Indian Peace Keeping Force from 1987 to 1990, a lasting negotiated settlement to the conflict appeared possible when a cease-fire was declared in December 2001, and a ceasefire agreement signed with international mediation in 2002. However, limited hostilities renewed in late 2005 and the conflict began to escalate until the government launched a number of major military offensives against the LTTE beginning in July 2006, driving the LTTE out of the entire Eastern province of the island. The LTTE then declared they would "resume their freedom struggle to achieve statehood". In 2007, the government shifted its offensive to the north of the country, and formally announced its withdrawal from the ceasefire agreement on 2 January 2008, alleging that the LTTE violated the agreement over 10,000 times. Since then, aided by the destruction of a number of large arms smuggling vessels that belonged to the LTTE, and an international crackdown on the funding for the Tamil Tigers, the government took control of the entire area previously controlled by the Tamil Tigers, including their de facto capital Kilinochchi, main military base Mullaitivu and the entire A9 highway, leading the LTTE to finally admit defeat on 17 May 2009. Following the LTTE's defeat, pro-LTTE Tamil National Alliance dropped its demand for a separate state, in favour of a federal solution. In May 2010, Mahinda Rajapaksa, the then president of Sri Lanka, appointed the Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission (LLRC) to assess the conflict between the time of the ceasefire agreement in 2002 and the defeat of the LTTE in 2009. Since the end of the civil war, the Sri Lankan state has been subject to much global criticism for violating human rights as a result of committing war crimes through bombing civilian targets, usage of heavy weaponry, the abduction and massacres of Sri Lankan Tamils and sexual violence. The LTTE gained notoriety for carrying out numerous attacks against civilians of all ethnicities, particularly those of Sinhalese and Sri Lankan Muslim ethnicity, using child soldiers, assassinations of politicians, and the use of suicide bombings primarily against military targets. British mercenaries who worked for the private military contractor Keenie Meenie Services, which trained the Special Task Force of the Sri Lanka Police, were investigated by the Metropolitan Police for war crimes. The end of the war and victims are remembered in Remembrance Day and Mullivaikkal Remembrance Day. Origin and evolution The origins of the Sri Lankan Civil War lie in the continuous political rancor between the majority Sinhalese and the minority Tamils. The roots of the modern conflict extend back to the colonial era when the country was known as Ceylon. There was initially little tension among Sri Lanka's two largest ethnic groups, the Sinhalese and the Tamils, when Ponnambalam Arunachalam, a Tamil, was appointed representative of the Sinhalese as well as the Tamils in the national legislative council. In 1919 major Sinhalese and Tamil political organizations united to form the Ceylon National Congress, under the leadership of Arunachalam, to press the colonial government for more constitutional reforms. British colonial administrator William Manning actively encouraged the concept of "communal representation" and created the Colombo town seat in 1920, which alternated between the Tamils and the Sinhalese. After their election to the State Council in 1936, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP) members N.M. Perera and Philip Gunawardena demanded the replacement of English as the official language by Sinhala and Tamil. In November 1936 a motion that "in the Municipal and Police Courts of the Island the proceedings should be in the vernacular" and that "entries in police stations should be recorded in the language in which they are originally stated" were passed by the State Council and referred to the Legal Secretary. However, in 1944 J.R. Jayawardene moved in the State Council that Sinhala should replace English as the official language. In 1948, immediately after independence, a controversial law was passed by the Ceylon Parliament called the Ceylon Citizenship Act, which deliberately discriminated against the Indian Tamil ethnic minority by making it virtually impossible for them to obtain citizenship in the country. Approximately over 700,000 Indian Tamils were made stateless. Over the next three decades more than 300,000 Indian Tamils were deported back to India. It wasn't until 2003–55 years after independence—that all Indian Tamils living in Sri Lanka were granted citizenship, but by this time they only made up 5% of the island's population. In 1956 Prime Minister S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike passed the "Sinhala Only Act", which replaced English with Sinhala as the only official language of the country. This was seen as a deliberate attempt to discourage the Sri Lankan Tamils from working in the Ceylon Civil Service and other public services. The Tamil-speaking minorities of Ceylon (Sri Lankan Tamils, Indian Tamils and Sri Lankan Moors) viewed the Act as linguistic, cultural and economic discrimination against them. Many Tamil-speaking civil servants/public servants were forced to resign because they weren't fluent in Sinhala. This was a prelude to the 1956 Gal Oya riots and the 1958 widespread riots in which hundreds of Tamil civilians perished. Sinhalese civilians too were affected in these outbreaks. The civil war was a direct result of the escalation of the confrontational politics that followed. In the late 1960s several Tamil youth, among them Velupillai Prabhakaran, also became involved in these activities. They carried out several hit-and-run operations against pro-government Tamil politicians, Sri Lanka police and the civil administration. During the 1970s the Policy of standardization was initiated. Under the policy, students were admitted to university in proportion to the number of applicants who sat for the examination in their language. Officially the policy was designed to increase the representation of students from rural areas. In practice the policy reduced the numbers of Sri Lankan Tamil students who had previously, based on their examination scores alone, gained admission in a higher proportion than their participation in the examination. They were now required to gain higher marks than Sinhalese students to gain admission to universities. For instance, the qualifying mark for admission to the medical faculties was 250 out of 400 for Tamil students, but only 229 for Sinhalese. The number of Sri Lankan Tamil students entering universities fell dramatically. The policy was abandoned in 1977. Other forms of official discrimination against the Sri Lankan Tamils included the state-sponsored colonization of traditional Tamil areas by Sinhalese peasants, the banning of the import of Tamil-language media and the preference given by the 1978 Constitution of Sri Lanka to Buddhism, the main religion followed by the Sinhalese. Prabhakaran—together with Chetti Thanabalasingam, a well-known criminal from Kalviyankadu, Jaffna—formed the Tamil New Tigers (TNT) in 1972. This was formed around an ideology that looked back to the 1st Millennium Chola Empire—the Tiger was the emblem of that empire. A further movement, the Eelam Revolutionary Organisation of Students (EROS), formed in Manchester and London; it became the backbone of the Eelamist movement in the diaspora, arranging passports and employment for immigrants and levying a heavy tax on them. It became the basis of the Eelamist logistical organization, later taken over entirely by the LTTE. The formation of the Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) with the Vaddukkodei (Vattukottai) resolution of 1976 led to a hardening of attitudes. The resolution called for the creation of a secular, socialist state of Tamil Eelam, based on the right of self-determination. The TULF clandestinely supported the armed actions of the young militants who were dubbed "our boys". TULF leader Appapillai Amirthalingam even provided letters of reference to the LTTE and to other Tamil insurgent groups to raise funds. Amirthalingam introduced Prabhakaran to N.S. Krishnan, who later became the first international representative of LTTE. It was Krishnan who introduced Prabhakaran to Anton Balasingham, who later became the chief political strategist and chief negotiator of LTTE. The "boys" were the product of the post-war population explosion. Many partially educated, unemployed Tamil youth fell for revolutionary solutions to their problems. The leftist parties had remained "non-communal" for a long time, but the Federal Party (as well as its offshoot, the TULF), deeply conservative and dominated by Vellalar casteism, did not attempt to form a national alliance with the leftists in their fight for language rights. Following the sweeping electoral victory of the United National Party (UNP) in July 1977, the TULF became the leading opposition party, with around one-sixth of the total electoral vote winning on a party platform of secession from Sri Lanka. After the 1977 riots the J.R. Jayewardene government made one concession to the Tamil population; it lifted the policy of standardization for university admission that had driven many Tamil youths into militancy. The concession was regarded by the militants as too little too late, and violent attacks continued. By this time TULF started losing its grip over the militant groups. LTTE ordered civilians to boycott the local government elections of 1983 in which even TULF contested. Voter turnout was as low as 10%. Thereafter, Tamil political parties were unable to represent the interests of the Tamil community. Outbreak of war Eelam War I (1983–1987) Supported by the ongoing politics of conflict in Sri Lanka, politicised Tamil youth in the north and east started to form militant groups. These groups developed independently of the Colombo Tamil leadership, and in the end rejected and annihilated them. The most prominent of these groups was the TNT, which changed its name to the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, or the LTTE, in 1976. The LTTE initially carried out a campaign of violence against the state, particularly targeting policemen and also moderate Tamil politicians who attempted a dialogue with the government. Their first major operation was the assassination of the mayor of Jaffna, Alfred Duraiappah, in 1975 by Prabhakaran. The LTTE's modus operandi of the early war was based on assassinations, whereas the mode of operation of the then government was through setting up a series of checkpoints around the city. The attempted assassination in 1978 of a Tamil Member of Parliament, M. Canagaratnam, was carried out personally by Prabhakaran, the leader of the LTTE. In May 1981 the burning of the Jaffna library, in the presence of two Sinhalese cabinet members, by what witnesses described as uniformed police and Sinhalese mobs, resulted in the destruction of more than 90,000 books, including palm leaf scrolls of immense historical value. This violent example of ethnic biblioclasm was a major turning point in convincing the Tamil people that the government could not protect them or their cultural heritage and persuaded many of them to back a separate state. In July 1983 the LTTE launched a deadly ambush on Sri Lanka army patrol Four Four Bravo outside the town of Thirunelveli, killing an officer and 12 soldiers. Using nationalistic sentiments to their advantage, members of the ruling UNP organized massacres and pogroms in Colombo, the capital, and elsewhere (see Black July). Between 400–3,000 Tamils were estimated to have been killed, and many more fled Sinhalese-majority areas. This is considered the beginning of the civil war. Apart from the LTTE, there initially was a plethora of militant groups (see list). The LTTE's position, adopted from that of the PLO, was that there should be only one. In November 1984, Sinhalese convicts were settled in the Kent and Dollar farms after the Tamil civilians living there were evicted by the Sri Lankan Army. The settlement of prisoners was used to further harass Tamils into leaving the area. The Sinhala settlers confirmed that young Tamil women were abducted, brought there and gang-raped, first by the forces, next by prison guards and finally by prisoners. Initially, the LTTE gained prominence due to devastating attacks such as the Kent and Dollar Farm massacres of 1984, where 62 men, women and children were attacked during the night as they slept and were hacked to death with fatal blows to the head from axes. Attacks were often carried out in revenge for attacks committed by the Sri Lankan Army, such as the Anuradhapura massacre which immediately followed the Valvettithurai massacre. The Anuradhapura massacre itself was answered by government forces with the Kumudini boat massacre in which over 23 Tamil civilians died. Over time the LTTE merged with or largely exterminated almost all the other militant Tamil groups. As a result, many Tamil splinter groups ended up working with the Sri Lankan government as paramilitaries or denounced violence and joined mainstream politics; some Tamil-oriented political parties remained, all opposed to LTTE's vision of an independent state. Peace talks between the LTTE and the government began in Thimphu in 1985, but they soon failed and the war continued. In 1986 many civilians were massacred as part of this conflict. In 1987 government troops pushed LTTE fighters to the northern city of Jaffna. In April 1987 the conflict exploded with ferocity, as both government forces and LTTE fighters engaged in a series of bloody operations. The Sri Lankan military launched an offensive, called "Operation Liberation" or Vadamarachchi Operation, during May–June 1987 to regain control of the territory in the Jaffna peninsula from the LTTE. This marked the Sri Lankan military's first conventional warfare on Sri Lankan soil since independence. The offensive was successful, and LTTE leader Prabhakaran and Sea Tiger leader Thillaiyampalam Sivanesan alias Soosai narrowly escaped from advancing troops at Valvettithurai. Key military personnel involved in the operation were Lt Col. Vipul Boteju, Lt. Col. Sarath Jayawardane, Col. Vijaya Wimalaratne and Brig. Gen. Denzil Kobbekaduwa. In July 1987 the LTTE carried out their first suicide attack. Captain Miller of the Black Tigers drove a small truck carrying explosives through the wall of a fortified Sri Lankan army camp, reportedly killing 40 soldiers. The LTTE carried out over 378 suicide attacks, one of the largest suicide campaigns in the world, and the suicide attack became a trademark of the LTTE and a characteristic of the civil war. Indian intervention (1987–1990) Involvement was particularly strong in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, where ethnic kinship led to strong support for the independence of Sri Lankan Tamils. Throughout the conflict the Indian central and state governments supported both sides in different ways. From August 1983 until May 1987 the Indian government, through its intelligence agency Research and Analysis Wing (RAW), provided arms, training and monetary support to six Sri Lankan Tamil militant groups including LTTE, Tamil Eelam Liberation Organization (TELO), People's Liberation Organisation of Tamil Eelam (PLOTE), Eelam Revolutionary Organisation of Students (EROS) Eelam People's Revolutionary Liberation Front (EPRLF) and Tamil Eelam Liberation Army (TELA). LTTE's rise is widely attributed to the initial backing it received from RAW. It is believed that by supporting different militant groups, the Indian government hoped to keep the Tamil independence movement divided and be able to exert overt control over it. India became more actively involved in the late 1980s, and on 5 June 1987 the Indian Air Force airdropped food parcels to Jaffna while it was under siege by Sri Lankan forces. At a time when the Sri Lankan government stated it was close to defeating the LTTE, India dropped 25 tons of food and medicine by parachute into areas held by the LTTE in a direct move of support to the rebels. Negotiations were held, and the Indo-Sri Lanka Peace Accord was signed on 29 July 1987 by Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and Sri Lankan President Jayewardene. Under this accord the Sri Lankan government made a number of concessions to Tamil demands, including devolution of power to the provinces, a merger—subject to later referendum—of the northern and eastern provinces into a single province, and official status for the Tamil language (this was enacted as the 13th Amendment to the Constitution of Sri Lanka). India agreed to establish order in the north and east through the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) and to cease assisting Tamil insurgents. Militant groups including the LTTE, although initially reluctant, agreed to surrender their arms to the IPKF, which initially oversaw a cease-fire and a modest disarmament of the militant groups. The Sri Lankan armed forces were confined to barracks in the north and east, and Sinhalese settlers were disarmed. In October 1987, 12 LTTE members who were prisoners of the government committed suicide, leading to an anti-Sinhalese pogrom committed by Tamil militants, especially the LTTE, throughout the Eastern Province in which 150 Sinhalese were killed and tens of thousands were made refugees. The signing of the Indo-Lanka Accord, so soon after J.R. Jayawardene's declaration that he would fight the Indians to the last bullet, led to unrest in the south. The arrival of the IPKF to take control of most areas in the north of the country enabled the Sri Lanka government to shift its forces to the south to quell the protests. This led to an uprising by the Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna in the south, which was put down bloodily over the next two years. While most Tamil militant groups laid down their weapons and agreed to seek a peaceful solution to the conflict, the LTTE refused to disarm its fighters. Keen to ensure the success of the accord, the IPKF then tried to demobilize the LTTE by force and ended up in full-scale conflict with them. The three-year-long conflict was also marked by the IPKF being accused of committing various abuses by many human rights groups as well as some within the Indian media. The IPKF also soon met stiff opposition from the Tamils. Simultaneously, nationalist sentiment led many Sinhalese to oppose the continued Indian presence in Sri Lanka. These led to the Sri Lankan government's call for India to quit the island, and the government allegedly entered into a secret deal with the LTTE that culminated in a cease-fire. However, the LTTE and IPKF continued to have frequent clashes. In April 1989 the Ranasinghe Premadasa government ordered the Sri Lanka army to clandestinely hand over arms consignments to the LTTE to fight the IPKF and its proxy Tamil National Army (TNA). Although casualties among the IPKF mounted, and calls for the withdrawal of the IPKF from both sides of the Sri Lankan conflict grew, Gandhi refused to remove the IPKF from Sri Lanka. However, following his defeat in Indian parliamentary elections in December 1989, new Prime Minister V.P. Singh ordered the withdrawal of the IPKF, and their last ship left Sri Lanka on 24 March 1990. The 32-month presence of the IPKF in Sri Lanka resulted in the deaths of 1200 Indian soldiers and over 5000 Sri Lankans. The cost for the Indian government was estimated at over ₹10.3 billion. Rajiv Gandhi's assassination Support for the LTTE in India dropped considerably in 1991, after the assassination of ex-Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi by a female suicide bomber, Thenmozhi Rajaratnam. The Indian press subsequently reported that Prabhakaran decided to eliminate Gandhi, as he considered the ex-Prime Minister to be against the Tamil liberation struggle and feared that he might re-induct the IPKF, which Prabhakaran termed the "satanic force", if he won the 1991 Indian general election. In 1998 a court in India presided over by Special Judge V. Navaneetham found the LTTE and its leader Velupillai Prabhakaran responsible for the assassination. In a 2006 interview, LTTE ideologue Anton Balasingham expressed regret over the assassination, although he stopped short of outright acceptance of responsibility. In a 2011 interview, Kumaran Pathmanathan, who was the Treasurer of LTTE and its chief arms procurer, apologized to India for Velupillai Prabhakaran's "mistake" of killing former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi. He further said Rajiv's assassination was "well planned and done actually with Prabhakaran and (LTTE intelligence chief Pottu Amman). Everyone knows the truth". India remained an outside observer of the conflict after the assassination. Eelam War II (1990–1995) The violence continued unabated despite the steps taken to appease Tamil sentiments, such as the 13th Amendment (enacted in November 1987). Meanwhile, the Chief Minister of the then North and East Provincial Council, Vartharaja Perumal, put forward a 19-point demand to resolve the ethnic crisis. He threatened if these demands were not met that the Provincial Council would go ahead with a unilateral declaration of independence of the northern and eastern provinces, as in the case of Rhodesia. President Premadasa moved to quickly dissolve the Council (March 1990). At the same time LTTE used terror tactics to scare Sinhalese and Muslim farmers away from the north and east of the island, and swiftly took control of a significant portion of the territory. When the Indian Peace-Keeping Force withdrew in 1989–90, the LTTE established many government-like functions in the areas under its control. A tentative cease-fire held in 1990 as the LTTE occupied itself with destroying rival Tamil groups while the government cracked down on the JVP uprising with the Operation Combine. When both major combatants had established their power bases, they turned on each other and the cease-fire broke down. The government then launched an offensive and tried to retake Jaffna but failed. This phase of the war soon acquired the name Eelam War II, and featured unprecedented brutality. On 11 June 1990 the LTTE massacred 600 policemen in the Eastern Province after they had surrendered on promises of safe-conduct. The government placed an embargo on food and medicine entering the Jaffna peninsula and the air force relentlessly bombed LTTE targets in the area. The LTTE responded by attacking Sinhalese and Muslim villages and massacring civilians. One of the largest civilian massacres of the war occurred when the LTTE massacred 166 Muslim civilians at Palliyagodella. The government trained and armed Home Guard Muslim units. Notable international jurist Neelan Thiruchelvam, in a speech at the ICES-Colombo, indicated that the appropriate investigations into massacres and disappearances of civilians including many children in the Sathurukondan, Eastern University, Mylanthanai and the mass murder and burial of school children at Sooriyakanda were hampered by the adoption of emergency regulations which contributed to a climate of impunity. Along roadsides in the north and east, burning bodies became a common sight. Throughout the country, government death squads hunted down, kidnapped or killed Sinhalese or Tamil youth suspected of sympathizing with the JVP or the LTTE, respectively. In October 1990 the LTTE expelled all the Muslims residing in Northern province. A total of 72,000 Muslims were forced to leave their homes, taking nothing but the clothes on their backs. The largest battle of the war took place in July 1991, when 5,000 LTTE fighters surrounded the army's Elephant Pass base, which controlled access to the Jaffna Peninsula. More than 2,000 died on both sides in the month-long siege, before 10,000 government troops arrived to relieve the base. In February 1992 another series of government offensives failed to capture Jaffna. Lt. Gen. Denzil Kobbekaduwa together with Maj. Gen. Vijaya Wimalaratne and Rear Adm. Mohan Jayamaha, died on 8 August 1992 at Araly (Aeraella) point Jaffna due to a land mine blast. Their deaths badly affected military morale. The LTTE also scored a major victory when one of its suicide bombers killed Sri Lankan President Ranasinghe Premadasa in May 1993. In November 1993 the LTTE defeated the army in the Battle of Pooneryn. This attack left 532 Sri Lankan soldiers and 135 sailors either dead or missing in action. Eelam War III (1995–2002) In the 1994 parliamentary elections the UNP was defeated and the People's Alliance, headed by Chandrika Kumaratunga, came to power on a peace platform. During the Presidential election campaign an LTTE bomb attack was carried out during a rally held at Thotalanga, Grandpass, eliminating the entire leadership of UNP, including its presidential candidate, Gamini Dissanayake. Kumaratunga became the president with a 62% majority. A cease-fire was agreed to in January 1995, but the ensuing negotiations proved fruitless. The LTTE broke the cease-fire and blew up two gunboats, SLNS Sooraya and SLNS Ranasuru of the Sri Lanka Navy on 19 April, thereby beginning the next phase of the war, dubbed Eelam War III. The new government then pursued a policy of "war for peace". Determined to retake the key rebel stronghold of Jaffna, which was occupied by 2,000 rebels, it poured troops into the peninsula in the successful Operation Riviresa. In one particular incident in August 1995, Air Force jets bombed St. Peter's church at Navali (Naavaella), killing at least 65 refugees and wounding 150 others. In another instance in the same year, over 40 people were massacred in Nagerkovil and more civilian massacres followed in subsequent years, such as the Kumarapuram massacre, Tampalakamam massacre, Puthukkudiyiruppu massacre, etc., all of them carried out by government forces. Government troops initially cut off the peninsula from the rest of the island, and then, after seven weeks of heavy fighting, succeeded in bringing Jaffna under government control for the first time in nearly a decade. In a high-profile ceremony, Sri Lankan Defense Minister Col. Anuruddha Ratwatte raised the national flag inside the Jaffna Fort on 5 December 1995. The government estimated that approximately 2500 soldiers and rebels were killed in the offensive, and an estimated 7,000 wounded. Many civilians were killed in this conflict, such as the Navaly church bombing in which over 125 civilians died. The LTTE and more than 350,000 civilians, compelled by SL military operations and LTTE pressure to leave Jaffna, fled to the Vanni region in the interior. Most of the refugees returned later the next year. The LTTE responded by launching Operation Unceasing Waves and decisively won the Battle of Mullaitivu on 18 July 1996, leaving 1,173 army troops dead which included 207 officers and men executed after surrendering to the LTTE. The government launched another offensive in August 1996. Another 200,000 civilians fled the violence. The town of Kilinochchi was taken on 29 September. On 13 May 1997, 20,000 government troops tried to open a supply line through the LTTE-controlled Vanni, but failed. As violence continued in the North, LTTE suicide and time bombs were exploded numerous times in populated city areas and public transport in the south of the country, killing hundreds of civilians. In January 1996 the LTTE carried out one of its deadliest suicide bomb attacks at the Central Bank in Colombo, killing 90 and injuring 1,400. In October 1997 it bombed the Sri Lankan World Trade Centre and, in January 1998, detonated a truck bomb in Kandy, damaging the Temple of the Tooth, one of the holiest Buddhist shrines in the world. In response to this bombing, the Sri Lankan government outlawed the LTTE and with some success pressed other governments around the world to do the same, significantly interfering with the group's fund-raising activities. In January 1997 heavy fighting around Paranthan and the Elephant Pass complex took the lives of 223 Army troops. On 27 September 1998 the LTTE launched Operation Unceasing Waves II and, after heavy fighting, captured Kilinochchi, winning the Battle of Kilinochchi. Clashes around the Kilinochchi forward defense line claimed the lives of 1206 soldiers that year. In March 1999, in Operation Rana Gosa, the government tried invading the Vanni from the south.The army made some gains, taking control of Oddusuddan (Oththan-thuduva) and Madhu, but could not dislodge the LTTE from the region. In September 1999 the LTTE massacred 50 Sinhalese civilians at Gonagala. The LTTE returned to the offensive with Operation Unceasing Waves III on 2 November 1999. Nearly all the Vanni rapidly fell back into LTTE hands. The group launched 17 successful attacks in the region, culminating in the overrunning of the Paranthan (Puranthaenna) Chemicals Factory base and the Kurrakkan Kaddukulam (kurakkan-kaela vaeva) base. The death toll amounted to 516 soldiers dead and over 4,000 injured. The rebels also advanced north towards Elephant Pass and Jaffna. The LTTE was successful in cutting all land and sea supply lines of the Sri Lankan armed forces to the south, west and north of the town of Kilinochchi. In December 1999 the LTTE attempted to assassinate President Chandrika Kumaratunga in a suicide attack at a pre-election rally. She lost her right-eye, among other injuries, but was able to defeat opposition leader Ranil Wickremesinghe in the Presidential election and was re-elected to her second term in office. On 22 April 2000 the Elephant Pass military complex, which had separated the Jaffna peninsula from the Vanni mainland for 17 years, fell into the hands of the LTTE, leaving 1,008 soldiers dead. The army then launched Operation Agni Kheela to take back the southern Jaffna Peninsula, but sustained losses. Early peace efforts Exhaustion with the war was building as casualties mounted and there appeared to be no end in sight. By mid-2000 human rights groups estimated that more than one million people in Sri Lanka were internally displaced persons, living in camps, homeless and struggling for survival. As a result, a significant peace movement developed in the late 1990s, with many organizations holding peace camps, conferences, training and peace meditations, and many other efforts to bridge the two sides at all levels. As early as February 2000 Norway was asked to mediate by both sides, and initial international diplomatic moves began to find a negotiated settlement to the conflict. Hopes for peace gained ground as the LTTE declared a unilateral cease-fire in December 2000, but they cancelled it on 24 April 2001 and launched another offensive against the government. After securing a vast area formerly controlled by the military, the LTTE further advanced northwards. This advancement posed a serious threat to the Elephant Pass military complex that housed 17,000 Sri Lankan troops. In July 2001 the LTTE carried out a devastating suicide attack on Bandaranaike International Airport, destroying eight of the air force's planes (two IAI Kfirs, one Mil-17, one Mil-24, three K-8 trainers, one MiG-27) and four Sri Lankan Airlines planes (two Airbus A330s, one A340 and one A320), dampening the economy and causing tourism—a vital foreign exchange earner for the government—to plummet. The impact of the attack was such that that year the Sri Lankan economy recorded a negative growth for the first and only time since its independence. 2002 Peace Process (2002–2006) Beginning of the cease-fire Towards the end of 2001 however, the LTTE began to declare their willingness to explore measures for a peaceful settlement to the conflict. One reason for this action may have been the fear of international pressure and the direct US support of the Sri Lankan government as part of the "war on Terror". On the other hand, the covert operations of the Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol (LRRP) of Sri Lanka army had a profound impact on the Tiger command structure. During this period, Vaithilingam Sornalingam alias Shankar, who had been considered the right-hand man of LTTE leader Prabhakaran, and several other high-profile leaders were hunted down and killed by LRRP units. In the south the government was facing increasing criticism over its "war for peace" strategy, with peace nowhere in sight and the economy in tatters. After losing a no-confidence motion, President Kumaratunga was forced to dissolve parliament and call for fresh elections. The elections, held on 5 December 2001, saw a sweeping victory for the United National Front, led by Ranil Wickremasinghe, who campaigned on a pro-peace platform and pledged to find a negotiated settlement to the conflict. On 19 December, amidst efforts by Norway to bring the government and the Tamil Tigers to the negotiating table, the LTTE announced a 30-day cease-fire with the Sri Lankan government and pledged to halt all attacks against government forces. The new government welcomed the move, and reciprocated it two days later, announcing a month-long cease-fire and agreeing to lift a long-standing economic embargo on rebel-held territory. The cease-fire was by no means acceptable to everyone. Buddhist monks started burning Norwegian flags and agitated against the cease-fire and eventually went to form a political party, Jathika Hela Urumaya, with extremist views. Signing of Memorandum of Understanding The two sides formalized a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on 22 February 2002, and signed a permanent cease-fire agreement (CFA). Norway was named mediator, and it was decided that they, together with the other Nordic countries, monitor the cease-fire through a committee of experts named the Sri Lanka Monitoring Mission. In August the government agreed to lift the ban on the LTTE and paved the way for the resumption of direct negotiations with them. Following the signing of the ceasefire agreement, commercial air flights to Jaffna began and the LTTE opened the key A9 highway, which linked the government-controlled area in the south with Jaffna and ran through LTTE territory, allowing civilian traffic through the Vanni region for the first time in many years (but only after paying a tax to the LTTE). Many foreign countries also offered substantial financial support if peace was achieved and optimism grew that an end to the decades-long conflict was in sight. The much-anticipated peace talks began in Phuket, Thailand, and further rounds followed in Thailand, Norway, Germany and Japan. During the talks both sides agreed to the principle of a federal solution and the Tigers dropped their long-standing demand for a separate state. This was a major compromise on the part of the LTTE, which had always insisted on an independent Tamil state. This also represented a compromise on the part of the government, which had seldom agreed to more than minimal devolution. Both sides also exchanged prisoners of war for the first time. Political changes in the South Following the elections of 2001, for the first time in Sri Lanka's history the President and Prime Minister were of two different parties. This co-habitation was uneasy, especially since Prime Minister Wickremasinghe and the UNP favored a federal solution to the conflict, while hard-line elements within President Kumaratunga's party and other Sinhala nationalist groups allied to her opposed one, as they did not trust the LTTE, which continued to levy taxes, strengthen itself by smuggling in arms and ammunition, recruit child soldiers and engage in killings of members of rival Tamil groups and government intelligence agents following the Millennium City incident. During this time the LTTE also succeeded in setting up a series of vital bases around the Trincomalee Harbour (i.e., Manirasakulam camp) and the Eastern Province. The talks broke down on 21 April 2003 when the Tamil Tigers announced they were suspending any further talks due to their "displeasure" at the handling of some "critical issues". Among the reasons the Tigers gave were their exclusion from reconstruction talks in Washington, DC, on 14 April and a more general insinuation that they were not receiving the full economic rewards of peace. They cited the failure, as they saw it, of peace dividends to transfer to security withdrawals on the ground and the disparity, as they saw it, between the relative calm of the government-held northeast and continuing violence in Tiger-held areas. However, the LTTE maintained it was committed to a settlement to the two-decade conflict, but stated that progress had to be made on the ground before the settlement proceeded. On 31 October the LTTE issued its own peace proposal, calling for an Interim Self Governing Authority (ISGA). The ISGA would be fully controlled by the LTTE and would have broad powers in the north and east (see the full text of the proposals) This provoked a strong backlash among the hard-line elements in the south, who accused Prime Minister Wickremasinghe of handing the north and east to the LTTE. Under pressure from within her own party to take action, Kumaratunga declared a state of emergency and took three key government ministries, the Ministry of Mass Media, the Interior Ministry and the crucial Defense Ministry. She then formed an alliance with the JVP, called the United People's Freedom Alliance, opposed to the ISGA and advocating a harder line on the LTTE, and called for fresh elections. The elections, held on 8 April 2004, resulted in victory for the UPFA with Mahinda Rajapakse appointed as Prime Minister. Split of the LTTE Meanwhile, in March 2004 there had been a major split between the northern and eastern wings of the LTTE. Vinayagamoorthy Muralitharan alias Col. Karuna, the Eastern commander of the LTTE and one of Prabhakaran's trusted lieutenants, pulled 5,000 eastern cadres out of the LTTE, claiming insufficient resources and power were being given to Tamils of the eastern part of the island. It was the biggest expression of dissension in the history of the LTTE and a clash within the LTTE seemed imminent. After the parliamentary elections, brief fighting south of Trincomalee led to a rapid retreat and capitulation of Karuna's group, their leaders eventually going into hiding including Karuna himself, who was helped to escape by Seyed Ali Zahir Moulana, a politician from the ruling party. However, the "Karuna faction" maintained a significant presence in the east and continued to launch attacks against the LTTE. The LTTE accused the army of covertly backing the breakaway group, which subsequently formed a political party named the TamilEela Makkal Viduthalai Pulikal (TMVP) and hope to contest in future elections. The cease-fire largely held through all this turmoil, with over 3000 infractions by the LTTE and some 300 by the SLA recorded by the Sri Lanka Monitoring Mission (SLMM) by 2005. The situation was further complicated by allegations that both sides were carrying out covert operations against each other. The government claimed that the LTTE was killing political opponents, recruiting children, importing arms and killing government security and intelligence officers. The rebels accused the government of supporting paramilitary groups against them, especially the Karuna group. Tsunami and aftermath On 26 December 2004, the Indian Ocean tsunami struck Sri Lanka, killing more than 35,000 people and leaving many more homeless. A great deal of aid arrived from around the world, but there was immediate disagreement over how it should be distributed to the Tamil regions under LTTE control. By 24 June the government and LTTE agreed on the Post-Tsunami Operational Management Structure (P-TOMS), but it received sharp criticism from the JVP, who left the government in protest. The legality of P-TOMS was also challenged in the courts. President Kumaratunga eventually had to scrap P-TOMS, which led to widespread criticism that sufficient aid was not reaching the north and east of the country. However, immediately following the tsunami there was a marked decrease in violence in the north. Sri Lankan Foreign Minister Lakshman Kadirgamar, a Tamil who was highly respected by foreign diplomats and who had been sharply critical of the LTTE, was assassinated at his home on 12 August 2005, allegedly by a LTTE sniper. His assassination led to the marginalization of the LTTE in the international community, and is generally considered to be the moment when the LTTE lost much of the sympathy in the eyes of foreign nations. The result was silence of the international community when the Sri Lankan government took military action against the LTTE in 2006, when the latter closed the Mavil aru sluice. Further political change occurred when the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka declared President Kumaratunga's second and final term over and ordered her to hold fresh presidential elections. The main candidates for the election, which was held in November, were UNF candidate former Prime Minister Ranil Wickremasinghe, who advocated the reopening of talks with the LTTE, and the UPFA candidate Prime Minister Rajapaksa, who called for a tougher line against the LTTE and a renegotiation of the cease-fire. The LTTE openly called for a boycott of the election by Tamils. Many of them were expected to vote for Wickremasinghe, and the loss of their votes proved fatal to his chances, as Rajapakse achieved a narrow victory. Following the election, LTTE leader Velupillai Prabhakaran stated in his annual address that the Tigers would "renew their struggle" in 2006 if the government did not take serious moves toward peace. Eelam War IV (2006–2009) Beginning in December 2005, there was increased guerrilla activity to the northeast, including Claymore mine attacks which killed 150 government troops, clashes between the Sea Tigers and the Sri Lanka navy and the killings of sympathizers on both sides including Taraki Sivaram, a pro-LTTE journalist, and Joseph Pararajasingham, a pro-LTTE MP, both killed allegedly by the government of Sri Lanka. At the beginning of 2006 the focus of the civil war turned to civilian targets, with commuter bus and train bombings carried out by LTTE in most parts of the country, including a series of attacks against commuters in and around Colombo. Talks and further violence In light of this violence, the co-chairs of the Tokyo Donor conference called on both parties to return to the negotiating table. US State Department officials gave warnings to the Tigers, stating that a return to hostilities would mean that the Tigers would face a "more capable and more determined" Sri Lankan military. While the talks were going on there was violence directed towards civilians, such as the killings of five Tamil students on 2 January 2006. In a last-minute effort to salvage an agreement between the parties, Norwegian special envoy Erik Solheim and LTTE theoretician Anton Balasingham arrived on the island. The parties strongly disagreed on the location of the talks; however, continued efforts produced a breakthrough when both parties agreed on 7 February 2006 that new talks could be held in Geneva, Switzerland, on 22 and 23 February. During the weeks after the talks there was a significant decrease in violence. However, the LTTE resumed attacks against the military in April. In light of this violence, the LTTE called for a postponement of the Geneva talks until 24–25 April, and the government initially agreed to this. Following negotiations, both the government and the rebels agreed to have a civilian vessel transport regional LTTE leaders with international truce monitors on 16 April, which involved crossing government-controlled territory. However, the climate shifted drastically when the Tigers cancelled the meeting, claiming not to have agreed to a naval escort. According to the SLMM, the Tamil rebels had previously agreed to the escort. On 20 April 2006 the LTTE officially pulled out of peace talks indefinitely. While they stated that transportation issues had prevented them from meeting their regional leaders, some analysts and the international community were strongly skeptical, seeing the transportation issue as a delaying tactic by the LTTE to avoid attending peace talks in Geneva. Violence continued to spiral and on 23 April 2006, six Sinhalese rice farmers were massacred in their paddy fields by suspected LTTE cadres, and on 13 May 2006 13 Tamil civilians were killed in the islet of Kayts. International condemnation against the LTTE skyrocketed following the attempted assassination of the commander of the Sri Lanka Army, Lt. Gen. Sarath Fonseka, by a female LTTE Black Tiger suicide bomber named Anoja Kugenthirasah, who concealed the explosives by appearing to be pregnant and blew herself up at army headquarters in Colombo. For the first time since the 2001 cease-fire, the Sri Lanka Air Force carried out aerial assaults on rebel positions in the northeastern part of the island in retaliation for the attack. This attack, along with the assassination of Lakshman Kadiragamar a year earlier and an unsuccessful attack against a naval vessel carrying 710 unarmed security force personnel on holiday, marked a turning point, as the European Union decided to proscribe the LTTE as a terrorist organisation on 19 May 2006. It resulted in the freezing of LTTE assets in its 27 member nations. In a statement, the European Parliament said that the LTTE did not represent all the Tamils and called on it to "allow for political pluralism and alternate democratic voices in the northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka". As the north and east of the country continued to be rocked by attacks, new talks were scheduled in Oslo, Norway, between 8–9 June. Delegations from both sides arrived in Oslo, but the talks were cancelled when the LTTE refused to meet directly with the government delegation, claiming its fighters were not allowed safe passage to travel to the talks. Norwegian mediator Erik Solheim told journalists that the LTTE should take direct responsibility for the collapse of the talks. Further violence followed, including the Vankalai massacre. The Sri Lankan army and Tamil Tiger rebels blamed each other for the killings. There was also the Kebithigollewa massacre in which the LTTE attacked a bus, killing at least 64 Sinhalese civilians and prompting more air strikes by the Air Force, and the assassination of Sri Lanka's third highest-ranking army officer and Deputy Chief of Staff General Parami Kulatunga on 26 June by an LTTE suicide bomber. These events led the SLMM to question whether a cease-fire could still be said to exist. Mavil Aru water dispute A new crisis leading to the first large-scale fighting since signing of the cease-fire occurred when the LTTE closed the sluice gates of the Mavil Aru reservoir on 21 July. Mavil Aru was the waterway that provided water to some regions of eastern Sri Lanka, like Trincomalee. After the cease-fire in 2002, the conflict over Mavil Aru was one of the biggest military confrontations between the Sri Lanka Armed Forces and the LTTE. Its relevance is for geo-strategic reasons: within the Mavil Aru area, Sinhala, Muslim and Tamil populations live side by side. It is also the entrance to Koddiyar Bay, the inlet for Trincomalee port and naval base, so the LTTE presence in the area seriously threatened the Sri Lankan security forces' presence and domination. Closure of Mavil Aru affected the water supply to 15,000 families in government-controlled areas. After the initial negotiations and efforts by the SLMM to open the gates failed, the Sri Lanka military initiated an operation to achieve the re-opening of the sluice gates. President Rajapaksa said that the supply of water was a non-negotiable fundamental human right. Additionally, a government spokesman said that "utilities could not be used as bargaining tools" by the rebels. The government deployed its army and air force for the offensive, attacking not only the region of Mavil Aru but also the LTTE positions in Batticaloa, and Vavuniya. Air Force planes attacked LTTE positions on 26 July, and ground troops began an operation to open the gate. The sluice gates were eventually reopened on 8 August, with conflicting reports as to who actually opened them. Initially, the SLMM claimed that they managed to persuade the LTTE to lift the waterway blockade conditionally. The LTTE claimed that it opened the sluice gates "on humanitarian grounds", although this was disputed by military correspondents, who stated the water began flowing immediately after security forces carried out a precise bombing of the Mavil Aru anicut. Eventually, following heavy fighting, government troops gained full control of the Mavil Aru reservoir on 15 August. The consequences of the "Operation Watershed" were about 150 civilians killed and more than 50,000 refugees from Mutur and the villages nearby. It was the precedent of the Eelam War IV. LTTE offensives in Muttur and Jaffna As fierce fighting was ongoing in the vicinity of Mavil Aru, violence spread to Trincomalee, where the LTTE launched an attack on a crucial Sri Lanka Navy base, and to the strategic government-controlled coastal town of Muttur in early August, resulting in the deaths of at least 30 civilians and displacing 25,000 residents of the area. The clashes erupted on 2 August 2006 when the LTTE launched a heavy artillery attack on Muttur and then moved in, gaining control of some parts of the town. The military retaliated, and re-established full control over the town by 5 August, killing over 150 LTTE fighters in heavy clashes. Soon afterwards, 17 persons working for the International French charity Action Against Hunger (ACF) in Muthur, were massacred. They were found lying face down on the floor of their office, shot to death, still wearing their clearly marked T-shirts indicating they were international humanitarian workers. The murders prompted widespread international condemnation. The SLMM claimed that the government was behind the attack, but the government denied the allegation calling it "pathetic and biased", and stated that the SLMM had "no right to make such a statement because they are not professionals in autopsy or post-mortem." Meanwhile, in the north of the country, some of the bloodiest fighting since 2001 took place after the LTTE launched massive attacks on Sri Lanka Army defense lines on the Jaffna peninsula on 11 August. The LTTE used a force of 400–500 fighters in the attacks, which consisted of land and amphibious assaults, and also fired a barrage of artillery at government positions, including the key military airbase at Palaly. The LTTE is estimated to have lost over 200 fighters in the operation, while 90 Sri Lankan soldiers and sailors were also killed. As ground battles were ongoing in the north and the east of the country, the Sri Lanka Air Force carried out an air strike against a facility in the rebel-held Mullaitivu area, killing a number of Tamil girls. Although the LTTE claimed 61 girls were killed, the SLMM stated they were able to count just 19 bodies. The government stated that it was an LTTE training facility and that the children were LTTE child soldiers, although the LTTE claimed the victims were schoolgirls attending a course on first aid at an orphanage. On the same day a convoy carrying the Pakistani High Commissioner to Sri Lanka, Bashir Wali Mohamed, was attacked when a claymore antipersonnel mine concealed within an auto rickshaw blew up as it passed by. The High Commissioner escaped unhurt, but seven people were killed and 17 injured in the blast. The High Commissioner claimed that India was believed to have carried it out, in order to intimidate Pakistan, which is one of the main suppliers of military equipment to the Sri Lankan government. Pakistan had promised one shipload of equipment every 10 days in coming months. Fall of Sampur Since the resumption of violence, concerns were mounting among the military establishment that the strategically crucial Sri Lanka Navy base in Trincomalee was under severe threat from LTTE gun positions located in and around Sampur, which lies across the Koddiyar Bay from Trincomalee. Artillery fired from LTTE bases in the area could potentially cripple the naval base, bringing it to a complete standstill and cutting the only military supply chain to Jaffna. All movements of naval vessels were also under the constant surveillance of the LTTE. These fears were backed up by a US military advisory team which visited the island in 2005. Following clashes in Mavil Aru and Muttur, the LTTE had intensified attacks targeting the naval base in Trincomalee, and in a speech on 21 August Sri Lankan President Mahinda Rajapakse made clear the government intentions were to neutralize the LTTE threat from Sampur. On 28 August the military launched an assault to retake the LTTE camps in Sampur and the adjoining Kaddaiparichchan and Thoppur areas. This led the LTTE to declare that if the offensive continued, the cease-fire would be officially over. After steady progress, security forces led by Brigade Commander Sarath Wijesinghe recaptured Sampur from the LTTE on 4 September and began to establish military bases there, as the LTTE admitted defeat and stated their fighters "withdrew" from the strategically important town. It marked the first significant territorial change of hands since the signing of the cease-fire agreement in 2002. The Sri Lankan military estimated that 33 of its personnel were killed in the offensive, along with over 200 LTTE fighters. LTTE retaliation and further peace talks The LTTE struck back in October. First, they killed nearly 130 soldiers in a fierce battle at Muhamalai, the crossing-point between government- and LTTE-controlled area in the north of the country. Just days later, a suspected LTTE suicide bomber struck a naval convoy in Habarana, in the center of the country, killing about 100 sailors who were returning home on leave. It was the deadliest suicide attack in the history of the conflict. Two days later LTTE Sea Tiger forces launched an attack against the Dakshina naval base in the southern port city of Galle. It was the farthest south any major LTTE attack had taken place, and involved 15 LTTE fighters who arrived in five suicide boats. The attack was repulsed by the government, and the damage to the naval base was minimal. All 15 LTTE fighters were believed to have died in the attack, along with one Navy sailor. Despite these incidents, both parties agreed to unconditionally attend peace talks in Geneva on 28–29 October. However, the peace talks broke down due to disagreements over the reopening of the key A9 highway, which is the link between Jaffna and government-controlled areas in the south. While the LTTE wanted the highway, which was closed following fierce battles in August, to be reopened, the government refused, stating the LTTE would use it to collect taxes from people passing through and would use it to launch further offensives against government troops. Following the dawn of the new year, suspected LTTE fighters carried out two bus bombings in the south of the country, killing 21 civilians. News reports stated that the attacks bore all the hallmarks of an LTTE attack. The Sri Lankan government condemned the attacks and blamed the LTTE for carrying them out, although the LTTE denied any involvement. Government offensive in the East In December 2006 Sri Lankan government officials announced their plans to drive the LTTE out of the Eastern Province of Sri Lanka, and then use the full strength of the military to defeat the LTTE in the north of the country. The government stated that LTTE was firing artillery towards civilian settlements in the east and were using 35,000 people as human shields. These claims were later backed up by civilians in the area, who told reporters that they were held by force by the Tamil Tigers. On 7 November 2006, amidst conflicting claims, over 45 Tamil civilians were killed in what is known as the Vaharai bombing. Subsequently, the army began an offensive against the LTTE on 8 December 2006, in the Batticoloa District with the objective of taking Vakarai, the principal stronghold of the LTTE in the east; the operation was temporarily aborted after a week of fighting due to the large number of civilians in the area and the difficulty in conducting combat operations due to the ongoing monsoon rain. Over the next few weeks an estimated 20,000 civilians fled from to government-controlled areas, fearing the imminent assault. The army launched a new offensive in mid-January, and Vakarai fell to the advancing troops on 19 January. While the offensive in the East was ongoing, the LTTE and others accused the government of murdering 15 civilians in the Padahuthurai bombing on 2 January, when the air force bombed what they claimed to be an LTTE naval base in Illuppaikadavai in northern Sri Lanka. The loss of Vakarai had been predicted to cut off supply routes of the northern Tigers to their cadres in the east, thus weakening the Tigers' already diminishing grip on the east. As the military offensive was ongoing, the LTTE continued to carry out attacks against civilians in government-held territory. On 1 April 2007 the military accused the LTTE of killing six Sinhalese tsunami aid workers in the eastern district of Batticaloa. The next day suspected LTTE fighters set off a bomb aboard a civilian bus in Ampara, which killed 17 people, including three children. Troops mostly operating in small groups of Special Forces and Commando units began a new operation in February to clear the last remaining LTTE fighters from the Eastern Province. As part of the operation, troops captured the key LTTE base in Kokkadicholai on 28 March, and the strategic A5 highway on 12 April, bringing the entire highway under government control for the first time in 15 years. This meant the LTTE's presence in the east was reduced to a 140-square-kilometer pocket of jungle in the Thoppigala area northwest of Batticaloa. After the three-month-long Battle of Thoppigala, the army captured the Thoppigala peak on 11 July 2007, ending the LTTE's military capability in the Eastern Province and concluding Eelam War IV in the Eastern theatre. Government offensive in the North Sporadic fighting in the North had been going on for months, but the intensity of the clashes increased after September 2007. During clashes in the Forward Defence Lines, separating their forces, both sides exchanged heavy artillery fire, after which military incursions followed. By December 2007, the LTTE defences at Uyilankulama, Parappakandal and Thampanai were lost to advancing troops of the Sri Lanka Army. In an interview with the Sunday Observer the Army Commander Lt. Gen. Sarath Fonseka said that the Army had occupied the LTTE's Forward Defence Lines and surrounded the Wanni LTTE bases from all directions. He also said that there were around 3,000 Tigers remaining and that the military intended to annihilate them within the first six months of the next year. A day later there were less optimistic statements by Army, Air Force and Navy Commanders. The Army was to face an estimated 5,000 Tiger cadres in the Wanni. The Commander of the Army intended to shift the current battles in the Forward Defence Lines to a decisive phase in August 2008. In the Commanders' view, it was quite possible to defeat the LTTE in 2008. The military of Sri Lanka claimed that the leader of the LTTE, Velupillai Prabhakaran, was seriously injured during air strikes carried out by the Sri Lanka Air Force on a bunker complex in Jayanthinagar on 26 November 2007. Earlier, on 2 November 2007, S. P. Thamilselvan, the head of the LTTE political wing, was killed during another government air raid. The Sri Lanka Air Force openly vowed to destroy the entire leadership of the LTTE. On 5 January 2008, Colonel Charles, Head of LTTE Military Intelligence, was killed in a claymore mine ambush by a Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol (Sri Lanka) (LRRP). Abrogation of ceasefire agreement Defense secretary Gotabhaya Rajapaksa urged the government to abandon the ceasefire agreement in December 2007, and on 2 January 2008, the Sri Lankan government officially did so. Between February 2002 to May 2007, Sri Lanka Monitoring Mission had documented 3,830 ceasefire violations by the LTTE versus 351 by the security forces. From May 2007, the SLMM ceased making determinations on ceasefire violations. Thus the government stated there was no need for a ceasefire any more. Several donor countries expressed their disappointment at the Sri Lankan government's withdrawal. The LTTE formally responded that since the government had unilaterally withdrawn from the ceasefire agreement without any justification and that they were prepared to continue to honour the agreement, the international community ought to immediately remove the bans it had placed on the LTTE. The government then attempted to open a third front along the Muhamalai Forward Defence Line. After an initial setback on 23 April, the Sri Lankan Army advanced rapidly, capturing the town of Adampan on 9 May, Mannar "Rice Bowl" which consists of the island's most fertile paddy fields on 30 June, Vidattaltivu on 16 July, and Iluppaikkadavai on 20 July. On 21 July 2008, the LTTE announced that it would be declaring a unilateral ceasefire from 28 July to 4 August, to coincide with the 15th summit of the heads of state of SAARC to be held in Colombo. However, the government of Sri Lanka dismissed the LTTE's offer as needless and treacherous. Significant military gains by the government On 2 August 2008, Vellankulam town, the LTTE's last stronghold in Mannar District, fell to the advancing SLA troops, completing the eight-month effort to recapture the district. The Army followed this up by taking control of Mallavi on 2 September, following weeks of heavy military confrontation. The LTTE countered with a surprise attack on the Vavuniya air base on 9 September, in which both sides claimed victory. From Mannar, the Army had entered Kilinochchi District, the last stronghold of the LTTE, at the end of July, with the intention of taking Kilinochchi before the end of the year. On 3 October 2008, a UN aid convoy managed to unload all its cargo in Kilinochchi District and described Kilinochchi town as having been nearly abandoned, but the LTTE were able to kill retired Major General Janaka Perera along with 26 other victims in a suicide blast on 6 October. On 17 October 2008, SLA troops cut off the Mannar-Poonaryn A32 highway north of Nachchikuda, the main remaining Sea Tiger stronghold on the northwestern coast of the island, thus effectively encircling it. They began their assault on 28 October and captured it the next day. After that the Army Task Force 1 continued their advance towards Pooneryn and captured Kiranchchi, Palavi, Veravil, Valaipadu and Devil's Point. On 15 November 2008, troops of the Army Task Force 1 entered the strategically important Tiger stronghold of Pooneryn. Simultaneously, the newly created Army Task Force 3 was introduced into the area of Mankulam with the objective of engaging the LTTE cadres in a new battlefront towards the east of the Jaffna–Kandy A9 highway. SLA troops captured Mankulam and the surrounding area on 17 November 2008. Meanwhile, the situation of more than 200,000 civilians who had been displaced in the latest round of fighting was turning into a humanitarian disaster; however, due to a number of reasons including doubts regarding the sincerity of the LTTE's negotiations, neither Western governments nor India intervened to broker a new ceasefire. Fall of Kilinochchi and subsequent events The Sri Lankan Army began the attack on Kilinochchi on 23 November 2008. Troops were attacking rebels' defences from three directions. However, the LTTE offered a stiff resistance, and the prolonged attack resulted in heavy casualties on both sides. Not until 1 January 2009 were SLA troops able to capture Paranthan, located to the north of Kilinochchi along the A-9 route. This isolated the southern periphery of the Elephant Pass LTTE foothold and also exposed the LTTE's main fortification at Kilinochchi. This made the capture of Kilinochchi, which the rebels had used for over a decade as their de facto administrative capital, far simpler, and they were able to accomplish this on 2 January. The loss of Killinochchi caused a substantial dent in the LTTE's image as a capable, ruthless terrorist group, and observers forecast the LTTE was likely to collapse before long under unbearable military pressure on multiple fronts. The Tigers quickly abandoned their positions on the Jaffna peninsula to make a last stand in the jungles of Mullaitivu, their last main base. The entire Jaffna peninsula was captured by the Sri Lanka Army by 14 January 2009. However, they were unable to hold out for long, and on 25 January, SLA troops captured Mullaitivu. The last Sea Tiger base in Chalai was next to fall on 5 February, reducing the territory under rebel control to less than some 200 km2. This stage of the war was marked by increased brutality against civilians and rapidly mounting civilian casualties. On 19 February 2009, Human Rights Watch issued a report accusing the Sri Lankan army of "slaughtering" the civilians during indiscriminate artillery attacks (including repeated shelling of hospitals) and calling on the Sri Lankan government to end its policy of "detaining displaced persons" in military-controlled internment camps. Human Rights Watch also urged the Tamil Tigers to permit trapped civilians to leave the war zone and to "stop shooting at those who try to flee". The UN was also concerned over the condition of internally displaced persons and estimated that some 200,000 people were being squeezed into a narrow 14 square kilometre patch of land on the coast in Vanni, which the government had declared the 'no-fire zone'. On 20 February 2009, two LTTE planes on a suicide mission carried out a kamikaze style air attack on the Sri Lankan commercial capital Colombo, killing 2 and wounding 45, but both planes were shot down by the Sri Lankan Air Force before they could damage the intended targets which were the Army Headquarters and the main Air Force base. By late March, the Tamil Tigers controlled only one square kilometre outside the no-fire zone, down from about 15,000 km2 a mere three years earlier. Political pressure was placed on President Rajapaksa to find a political solution to the conflict and he called for a meeting with Tamil National Alliance, but they refused until the government resolved the humanitarian crisis faced by civilians trapped in the fighting. The Battle of Aanandapuram, which was described by military analyst/journalist D. B. S. Jeyaraj as the "defining moment" of the 3 decade war, was fought on 5 April. This battle saw the demise of most of the battle-hardened ground commanders of the LTTE, including Velayuthapillai Baheerathakumar alias Theepan, the overall commander of the LTTE northern front fighting formations. SLA soldiers numbering more than 50,000 from 5 divisions participated in the battle encircling the LTTE cadres inside a small littoral strip of territory located between the Paranthan-Mullaitivu A35 highway, Nanthikadal and Chalai Lagoons on one side and the Indian Ocean on the other. Rebel casualties amounted to 625. Fighting in the 'No-Fire Zone' SLA troops were able to push the Tamil Tigers into the no-fire zone set up for civilians. The LTTE then built a long bund in the no-fire zone, trapping over 30,000 civilians, but the SLA was able to destroy this. On 21 April, Sri Lankan troops launched an assault, targeting LTTE leader, Vellupillai Prabhakaran. At the same time, a mass Tamil exodus from the 'no-fire zone' was underway. The next day, two senior LTTE members (LTTE media co-ordinator Velayuthan Thayanithi, alias Daya Master, and a top interpreter Kumar Pancharathnam, alias George) surrendered to the advancing Sri Lankan army. This came as "a rude shock" and a major setback for the rebel leadership. When asked why they had surrendered, both men stressed that rebels were shooting at the civilians and preventing them from escaping from the 'no-fire zone' to safety in government-controlled areas. They also alleged that the LTTE were still abducting and conscripting children as young as 14 years old, and would fire at anyone who tried to resist. By 25 April, the area under the LTTE was reduced to 10 km2. While the Tamil exodus from the 'no-fire zone' continued, the UN estimated that around 6,500 civilians may have been killed and another 14,000 wounded between January 2009 and April 2009. The BBC reported that the land recaptured by the army from the rebels was totally depopulated and utterly devastated. As fighting continued, a group of independent United Nations experts called on the Human Rights Council to urgently set up an international inquiry to address the "critical" situation in Sri Lanka amid fighting between the Army and Tamil rebels. According to the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), over 196,000 people fled the conflict zone, a shrinking pocket of land on the north-east coastline, where clashes continued between government troops and the LTTE, while at least 50,000 people were still trapped there. A UN spokesman in Colombo, Gordon Weiss, said more than 100 children died during the "large-scale killing of civilians" and described the situation in northern Sri Lanka as a "bloodbath". UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon said he was appalled at the killing of hundreds of Sri Lankan civilians caught in the middle of hostilities between the army and separatist Tamil rebels over the weekend. He voiced deep concern over the continued use of heavy weapons in the conflict zone, but also stressed that the "reckless disrespect shown by the LTTE for the safety of civilians has led to thousands of people remaining trapped in the area". On 13 May, the UN Security Council issued the following press statement, "The members of the Security Council strongly condemn the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) for its acts of terrorism over many years, and for its continued use of civilians as human shields, and acknowledge the legitimate right of the Government of Sri Lanka to combat terrorism. The members of the Security Council demand that the LTTE lay down its arms and allow the tens of thousands of civilians still in the conflict zone to leave. The members of the Security Council express deep concern at the reports of continued use of heavy calibre weapons in areas with high concentrations of civilians, and expect the Government of Sri Lanka to fulfil its commitment in this regard." On 16 May 2009, Sri Lankan troops broke through LTTE defences and captured the last section of coastline held by Tamil Tiger rebels. The army reported it was set to "clear" remaining rebel-held land within days. Later the military claimed, citing allegedly intercepted LTTE communications, that rebels were preparing for a mass suicide after being effectively cut off from escape routes. Some rebels were reported to have blown themselves up. End of the war 16 May: Sri Lanka declares victory Addressing the G11 summit in Jordan, President Mahinda Rajapaksa stated "my government, with the total commitment of our armed forces, has in an unprecedented humanitarian operation finally defeated the LTTE militarily". Sri Lankan Commander of the Army Sarath Fonseka also declared victory over LTTE. Sri Lankan troops raced to clear the last LTTE pockets of resistance. As the last LTTE strongpoints crumbled, Sri Lankan troops killed 70 rebels attempting to escape by boat. The whereabouts of LTTE leader Vellupillai Prabhakaran and other major rebel leaders were not certain. 17 May: Tigers admit defeat The LTTE finally admitted defeat on 17 May 2009, with the rebels' chief of international relations Selvarasa Pathmanathan said, "This battle has reached its bitter end ... We have decided to silence our guns. Our only regrets are for the lives lost and that we could not hold out for longer". 18 May: First claim of Prabhakaran's death The Sri Lankan armed forces claimed that the leader of the LTTE, Velupillai Prabhakaran, was killed in the morning of 18 May 2009 while he was trying to flee the conflict zone in an ambulance. The announcement on state television came shortly after the military said it had surrounded Prabhakaran in a tiny patch of jungle in the north-east. The Daily Telegraph wrote that, according to Sri Lankan TV, Prabhakaran was "... killed in a rocket-propelled grenade attack as he tried to escape the war zone in an Ambulance with his closest aides. Colonel Soosai, the leader of his "Sea Tigers" navy, and Pottu Amman, his intelligence chief were also killed in the attack." The head of the Sri Lankan army, General Sarath Fonseka, said the military had defeated the rebels and "liberated the entire country". Military spokesman Brigadier Udaya Nanayakkara stated 250 Tamil Tigers, who were hiding and fighting from within the no fire zone, were killed overnight. 19 May: President addresses the Parliament and Prabhakaran is dead Fighting went on until 9:30 am 19 May 2009. The firing stopped as all LTTE fighters died in the battle. Troops started collecting bodies again. This time, Sergeant Muthu Banda, attached to Sri Lanka Army Task Force VIII, reported to Ravipriya that a body similar to Prabhakaran's had been found. At 9:00 am on 19 May 2009 President Mahinda Rajapaksa delivered a victory address to the Parliament and declared that Sri Lanka had been liberated from terrorism. Around 9:30 am troops attached to Task Force VIII of Sri Lanka Army, reported to its commander, Colonel G.V. Ravipriya that a body similar to Velupillai Prabhakaran has been found among the mangroves in Nandikadal lagoon. It was identified by the officer. At 12:15 pm Army Commander Sarath Fonseka officially announced Prabhakaran's death, through the State television ITN. At around 1:00 pm his body was shown in Swarnavahini for the first time. Prabakaran's identity was confirmed by Karuna Amman, his former confidant, and through DNA testing against his son's genetic material who had been killed earlier by the Sri Lanka Military. However, LTTE Chief of international relations, Selvarasa Pathmanathan on the same day claimed that "Our beloved leader is alive and safe." On 24 May 2009, he admitted the death of Prabhakaran, retracting the previous statement. The Sri Lankan Government had declared victory on 19 May 2009. Combat after 18 May 2009 19 May 2009 – 3 LTTE cadre killed by the Sri Lankan Army at Kachikudichchiaru, Ampara. 20 May 2009 – 5 LTTE cadre killed by the Sri Lankan Army near Periyapillumalai area. 21 May 2009 – 10 LTTE cadre killed by the Sri Lankan Army in the Kadawana jungle area. 27 May 2009 – 11 LTTE cadre killed by the Sri Lankan Army at Kalavanchchikudi in the Batticaloa area. Five T-56 assault rifles, twenty claymore mines (15 kg each), two hand grenades, three anti-personnel mines and medical items were reported recovered by military sources. 5 June 2009 – Special Task Force (STF) personnel while conducting search and clear operation in Darampalawa area in Ampara confronted a group of LTTE cadre and recovered two bodies along with numerous military items. 5 August 2009 – Selvarasa Pathmanathan, the new leader of LTTE was arrested by a Sri Lankan military intelligence unit, with the collaboration of local authorities, in the Tune Hotel, Downtown Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and brought back to Sri Lanka. Reaction The general non-Tamil public of Sri Lanka took to streets to celebrate the end of the decades long war. Streets were filled with joyous scenes of jubilation. Opposition leader Ranil Wickremasinghe, through a telephone call, congratulated President Rajapaksa and the state security forces for their victory over the LTTE. Religious leaders too hailed the end of the bloodshed. International response to the end of the fighting was also positive and welcoming, while some countries expressed concern over the civilian casualties and the humanitarian impact. United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon said, "I am relieved by the conclusion of the military operation, but I am deeply troubled by the loss of so many civilian lives. The task now facing the people of Sri Lanka is immense and requires all hands. It is most important that every effort be undertaken to begin a process of healing and national reconciliation". Time magazine named the end of the Sri Lankan Civil War as one of the top 10 news stories of 2009. Protests Tamil diaspora communities around the world protested the civilian casualties in Northern Province, Sri Lanka and the war in general. Active protests occurred in the major and/or capital cities of India, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Norway, Switzerland, Denmark, Germany and the United States. Impact Casualties The Sri Lankan Civil War was very costly, killing more than 100,000 civilians and over 50,000 fighters from both sides of the conflict. Around 27,000+ LTTE cadres, 23,790+ Sri Lankan Army personnel, 1000+ Sri Lankan police, 1500 Indian soldiers were said to have died in the conflict. In 2008, the LTTE revealed that 22,390 fighters have lost their lives in the armed struggle since 27 November 1982, although it stopped keeping records in 2009. Secretary of Defence Gotabhaya Rajapaksa said in an interview with state television that 23,790 Sri Lankan military personnel were killed since 1981 (it was not specified if police or other non-armed forces personnel were included in this particular figure). The Uppsala Conflict Data Program, a university-based data collection program considered to be "one of the most accurate and well-used data-sources on global armed conflicts", provides free data to the public and has divided Sri Lanka's conflicts into groups based on the actors involved. It reported that, between 1990 and 2009, between 59,193–75,601 people were killed in Sri Lanka during various three types of organized armed conflict: "State-based" conflicts, those that involved the Government of Sri Lanka against rebel groups(LTTE and the JVP), "Non-state" conflicts, those conflicts that did not involve the government of Sri Lanka (e.g. LTTE vs. LTTE-Karuna Faction, and LTTE vs. PLOTE), as well as "One-sided" violence, that involved deliberate attacks against civilians perpetrated by either LTTE or the Government of Sri Lanka. The "Tamil Centre for Human Rights" recorded that from 1983 to 2004, 47,556 Tamil civilians were murdered by both the Sri Lankan government and IPKF forces. Another organization called NESOHR published that from the beginning of the war to the 2002 ceasefire, 4000 to 5000 Tamil civilians were killed in large scale massacres, with a total civilian death of around 40,000. Civilian casualties that occurred on 2009 is of major controversy, as there were no organizations to record the events during the final months of the war. The Sri Lankan government revealed that 9,000 people were killed in the final months of the war, but it did not differentiate between LTTE cadres and civilians. The UN, based on credible witness evidence from aid agencies and civilians evacuated from the Safe Zone by sea, estimated that 6,500 civilians were killed and another 14,000 injured between mid-January 2009, when the Safe Zone was first declared, and mid-April 2009. There are no official casualty figures after this period but estimates of the death toll for the final four months of the civil war (mid-January to mid-May) range from 15,000 to 20,000. A US State Department report has suggested that the actual casualty figures were probably much higher than the UN's estimates and that significant numbers of casualties weren't recorded. A former UN official has claimed that up to 40,000 civilians may have been killed in the final stages of the civil war. Most of the details pertaining to the civilian casualties were reported by four doctors who worked in the no-fire zone. In a joint press conference after the war in July 2009 while still in CID custody, they recanted their initial reports, stating that the casualty figures were exaggerated and were handed to them by the LTTE. However, a leaked US diplomatic cable contains dispatches stating that the doctors upon their release in August 2009 are to have stated to US embassy personnel that they were heavily coached for the press conference and that they had not lied when giving their original statements. A US State Department report has suggested that the actual casualty figures were probably much higher than the UN estimates and that significant numbers of casualties were not recorded. Gordon Weiss, a former UN official has claimed that up to 40,000 civilians may have been killed in the final stages of the war. The U.N Secretary General's experts panel report had said that as many as 40,000 Tamil civilians could have been killed in the final phases of the Sri Lankan civil war. On the contrary, Rajiva Wijesinha the permanent secretary to the Sri Lanka's Ministry of Disaster Management and Human Rights, in June 2009 said that altogether 3,000 to 5,000 civilians may have been killed during the period. In November 2011, a Sri Lankan international terrorism expert, Rohan Gunaratna, estimated the number of civilian casualties to be 1,400 (1200 killed by army cross-fire and 200 by LTTE). His estimate is in part based on information obtained from captured LTTE cadres to which he had been granted access and from coroners working in and around the no-fire zone. In February 2012, the Sri Lankan government released an official estimate of civilian deaths in Northern Province, concluding that 8,649 people have died due to extraordinary circumstances (reasons other than ageing, diseases, natural disasters etc.), in 2009. It also listed 2,635 people as untraceable. However the report did not differentiate civilians from the slain LTTE cadres. Several human rights groups have even claimed that the death toll in the last months of the war could be 70,000. The Sri Lankan government has denied all claims of causing mass casualties against Tamils, arguing that it was "taking care not to harm civilians". Instead, it has blamed the LTTE for the high casualty numbers, stating that they used the civilians as human shields. Both the Sri Lankan government and the LTTE have been accused by the U.N for war crimes during the last phase of the war. While the majority of civilian deaths were that of the Tamil minority, both Sinhalese and Moor civilians died in the war. The LTTE were estimated to be responsible for 3,700 to 4,100 civilian deaths in over 200 separate attacks. In response to the killings of Sinhalese and Muslims, LTTE leader Prabhakaran denied allegations of killing civilians, claiming to condemn such acts of violence; and claimed that LTTE had instead attacked armed home guards who were "death-squads let loose on Tamil civilians" and Sinhalese settlers who were "brought to the Tamil areas to forcibly occupy the land." However, this figure only accounts for those killed in open attacks. Various dissident sources allege that the number of Tamil dissenters and prisoners from rival armed groups clandestinely killed by the LTTE in detention or otherwise ranges from 8,000 – 20,000. Economic cost The total economic cost of the 25-year war is estimated at US$200 billion. This is approximately 5 times the GDP of Sri Lanka in 2009. Sri Lanka had spent US$5.5 billion only on Eelam War IV, which saw the end of LTTE. The government had spent US$2.25 billion to develop the Northern Province under the "Uthuru Wasanthaya" program after the end of the war. Measuring the opportunity cost of war, a report by Strategic Foresight Group states that Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) remained stagnant during periods of civil war and that net FDI increased during periods of ceasefire. Aftermath Political solution After the complete military defeat of the LTTE, President Mahinda Rajapaksa announced that the government is committed to a political solution, and for this purpose action would be taken based on the 13th Amendment to the Constitution. Pro-LTTE political party Tamil National Alliance (TNA), also the largest political group representing Sri Lankan Tamil community, dropped its demand for a separate state, in favour of a federal solution. There are ongoing bilateral talks between President Rajapaksa's UPFA government and the TNA, on a viable political solution and devolution of power. However, in an interview to Headlines Today, television channel from India, Gotabaya Rajapaksa, President of Sri Lanka (former Defence Secretary) and brother of current Prime minister (former President) Mahinda Rajapaksa dismissed "the political solution talk", asserting, among other things, that it was "simply irrelevant" because "we have ended this terrorism" in Sri Lanka. Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission Following the end of the war in May 2009, amid mounting international pressure for an inquiry into the final stages of the war, President Rajapaksa appointed the Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission (LLRC) to look back at the Sri Lankan Civil War, and to provide recommendations for an era of healing and peace building. The commission concluded that the Sri Lankan military didn't deliberately target civilians in the No Fire Zones. The commission acknowledged that hospitals had been shelled, resulting in "considerable civilian casualties", but it did not say who was responsible for the shelling. The commission blamed Sinhalese and Tamil politicians for causing the civil war: the Sinhalese politicians failed to offer a solution acceptable to the Tamil people and the Tamil politicians fanned militant separatism. However the commission has been heavily criticised by human rights groups and UN Secretary-General's Panel of Experts on Accountability due its limited mandate, alleged lack of independence and its failure to meet minimum international standards or offer protection to witnesses. Transitional Justice and steps for non-recurrence In 2015 the Sri Lankan government decided to create a truth commission based on the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa to probe allegations during the war. According to Foreign Minister Mangala Samaraweera a new constitution is expected to solve issues related to the war and ensure non-recurrence. However the government criticized both Sinhala and Tamil extremists for obstructing transitional justice. Humanitarian Impact Internally displaced people Towards the end of the war, as Sri Lankan government forces advanced deeper into Tamil Tiger controlled areas, international concern grew for the fate of the 350,000 civilians trapped. On 21 January 2009, the Sri Lankan military declared a 32 square kilometres (12.4 mi) Safe Zone located northwest of Puthukkudiviruppu, between the A35 Highway and the Chalai Lagoon. Sri Lankan Air Force aircraft dropped leaflets urging civilians to relocate to the safe zone and wait until the army could move them into safer locations. The Sri Lankan military promised not to fire into the area. However, only small numbers of civilians actually crossed into the Safe Zone, and the Sri Lankan government, the United Nations, and human rights organisations accused the LTTE of preventing civilians from leaving. The fighting eventually caused civilians to flee the safe zone to a narrow strip of land between Nanthi Kadal and the Indian Ocean. The Sri Lankan military declared a new Safe Zone northwest of Mullaitivu on 12 February. Over the next three months, the Sri Lankan military repeatedly attacked the Safe Zone with aircraft and artillery to destroy the last remnants of the Tamil Tigers trapped there. The Sri Lankan government claimed that it was trying to hit Tamil Tiger positions, and claimed that these raids started on 15 February and ended on 19 April, the day before the Army breached Tamil Tiger defences, and civilians started to pour out. However, these attacks caused heavy damage. Thousands of civilians were killed or injured, and the Tamil Tigers reportedly held many as human shields. The final stages of the war created 300,000 internally displaced persons (IDPs) who were transferred to camps in Vavuniya District and detained there against their will. The camps were surrounded by barbed wire. This, together with the conditions inside the camps, attracted much criticism from inside and outside Sri Lanka. After the end of the civil war President Rajapaksa gave assurances to foreign diplomats that the bulk of the IDPs would be resettled in accordance with the 180-day plan. By January 2012, almost all the IDPs had been resettled, except 6,554 from the Divisional Secretariats of Mullaitivu district, where the de-mining work was yet to be finished. Since 1983, the civil war caused mass outflow of Tamil civilians from Sri Lanka to South India. After the end of the war, nearly 5,000 of them returned to the country. As of July 2012, 68,152 Sri Lankans were living in South India as refugees. Detainees The continuous defeats of the LTTE had made its cadres abandon the outfit in large numbers. With the end of the hostilities, 11,664 LTTE members, including over 500 child soldiers surrendered to the Sri Lankan military. Among them were 1,601 females. Government took action to rehabilitate these cadres under a "National Action Plan for the Re-integration of Ex-combatants". They were divided into 3 categories; hardcore, non-combatants, and those who were forcefully recruited (including child soldiers). 24 rehabilitation centres were set up in Jaffna, Batticaloa and Vavuniya. Among the apprehended cadres, there had been about 700 hardcore members. Some of these cadres were integrated into State Intelligence Services to tackle the internal and external networks of LTTE. By January 2012, the government had released more than 11,000 cadres, and only 4 rehabilitation centres and 550 detainees remained. Land mines The end of the war left past conflict zones of heavily contaminated with approximately 1.6 million land mines. By March 2021, deminers employed by the Sri Lankan army and 8 foreign funded agencies had cleared leaving about yet to be cleared. Since the end of the war, more than 5,000 Tamil youths have been gathering at selected police stations in Eastern Province to join the police force as the government has called for interviews. The Sri Lankan government had planned to recruit 2,000 new police officers to the department, especially for the services in the northern region of the country. War crimes investigations In March 2014, the United Nations Human Rights Commission drafted a resolution on "Promoting reconciliation, accountability and human rights in Sri Lanka" and requested its High Commissioner Ms. Navi Pillay to undertake a comprehensive investigation into alleged serious violations and human rights abuses that have taken place during the war. Subsequently, the Human Rights Commissioner directed the setting up of OHCHR Investigation in Sri Lanka (OISL). The Sri Lankan state which is accused of perpetuating war crimes, has reportedly refused to cooperate with the inquiry. In August 2014, the state rejected entry visas for investigating U.N. officials. Two months later, in October, Sri Lankan government banned all foreigners from visiting the former war zone altogether. War crimes There were war crimes and crimes against humanity that were committed by the Sri Lankan military and LTTE the rebel during the Sri Lankan Civil War, particularly during the final months of the Eelam War IV phase in 2009. The war crimes include attacks on civilians and civilian buildings by both sides; executions of combatants and prisoners by both sides; enforced disappearances by the Sri Lankan military and paramilitary groups backed by them; acute shortages of food, medicine, and clean water for civilians trapped in the war zone; and child recruitment and attacks on targeting civilian including suicide bombings and attacks on civilian aircraft by the Tamil Tigers. Video footage showing uniformed men speaking Sinhalese and summarily executing eight bound and blindfolded men was broadcast in August 2009 by UK's Channel 4 in a program called "Sri Lanka's Killing Fields". This video was deemed authentic by an UN expert. Reports commissioned by the Sri Lankan government claim the UN authentication was biased and the video was fabricated. A panel of experts appointed by UN Secretary-General (UNSG) Ban Ki-moon to advise him on the issue of accountability with regard to any alleged violations of international human rights and humanitarian law during the final stages of the conflict in Sri Lanka found "credible allegations" which according to them, if proven, indicated that war crimes and crimes against humanity were committed by the Sri Lankan military and the Tamil Tigers. The panel has called on the UNSG to conduct an independent international inquiry into the alleged violations of international law. The Sri Lankan government has denied that its forces committed any war crimes and has strongly opposed any international investigation. It has condemned the UN report as "fundamentally flawed in many respects" and "based on patently biased material which is presented without any verification". The Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission, a formal commission of inquiry was appointed by the Sri Lankan President, to review the conflict from 1983 to 2009 and its report was tabled in the parliament. On 27 July 2012, Sri Lanka brought out a road map fixing time lines for investigating alleged war crimes by its army during the final stages of the war with the LTTE in 2009. The cabinet has approved the action plan for the implementation of the Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation. The UN High Commissioner for Human Rights said in September 2013 that there had been no comprehensive Sri Lankan effort to properly and independently investigate allegations of war crimes. The High Commissioner said she would recommend the Human Rights Council to set up its own probe if Sri Lanka does not show more "credible" progress by March 2014. On 27 March 2014 the United Nations Human Rights Council voted for a resolution paving the way for an inquiry into rights abuses at the end of Sri Lanka's civil war. The United States and the United Kingdom were among the countries which sponsored the resolution, which for the first time called for an international probe. The new government of President Maithripala Sirisena has requested the international community for support on a domestic probe into war crimes. As of March 2015, the UN have expressed their support for this. The Tamil National Alliance has asked for an international investigation into the alleged human rights abuses during the Sri Lankan civil war and has refused a domestic probe. A group of the TNA led by Wigneshwaran has asked for an investigation into the alleged genocide claims but the TNA as a whole was divided on the issue and MP Senathirajah said that the action was unauthorized by the party. The Tamil National Alliance has welcomed a domestic investigation with a hybrid court and R. Sampanthan praised several new initiatives from the new government and said "The government is adopting the correct position," and asked the government to honor to their commitments but some members such as Ananthi Sasitharan had a less optimistic view. In January 2020, President Gotabaya Rajapaksa said that those disappeared during the war were claiming "The unfortunate truth is that these people had died during the battles. Even in the security forces there are about 4,000 personnel listed as missing. But in reality these people had died during the fights, but their bodies had not been recovered" but promised a proper internal investigations and death certificates. During the numerous conflicts in Sri Lanka it was estimated over 20,000 had disappeared in Sri Lanka and the President's statement was heavily criticized by human rIghts organisations. In February 2020, the US State Department and US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo announced that General Shavendra Silva, current commander of the Sri Lankan Army, was banned from entering the United States due to war crimes committed by the 53rd division of the Sri Lankan army, in which he has involvement through command responsibility. Allegations of genocide The first international voice to support the charge of genocide against the Government of Sri Lanka under international law was raised by Human Rights Watch and it has advocated and published the details in December 2009. Leading American expert in international law, Professor Francis A. Boyle hold an emergency meeting with U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon to urge to stop Tamil genocide by providing the evidence of crimes against humanity, genocide against Tamils and the international community's failure to stop the slaughter of Tamil civilians in Sri Lanka. In January 2010, the Permanent People's Tribunal on Sri Lankan held its sessions in Dublin, Ireland. There were four findings: That the Sri Lankan Government and its military are guilty of War Crimes; That the Sri Lankan Government and its military are guilty of crimes against humanity; That the charge of genocide requires further investigation; That the international community, particularly the UK and USA, share responsibility for the breakdown of the peace process.(2) It also found that member states of the United Nations had not "complied with their moral obligation to seek justice for the violations of human rights committed during the last period of the war". On 22 September 2010, the UNROW Human Rights Impact Litigation Clinic, has advocated and litigated on behalf of victims of the armed conflict in Sri Lanka. UNROW Human Rights Impact Litigation Clinic released a report calling for the establishment of a new international tribunal to prosecute those most responsible for the crimes committed during the conflict. UNROW Human Rights Impact Litigation Clinic also submitted evidence of human rights violations committed during the armed conflict to the United Nations Panel of Experts on Sri Lanka, which U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon appointed in 2010. On 3 November 2012, panel of 11 member International Experts, consisting of experts in genocide studies, former UN officials, experts in international law and renowned peace and human rights activists to be convened as Judges appointed by Permanent People's Tribunal to investigate and examine reports submitted by many specialised working groups on the accusation of the crime of Genocide against the Government of Sri Lanka. On 27 March 2013, Tamil Nadu State Assembly has passed resolution which called on the Indian Government to stop considering Sri Lanka as a 'friendly country' and impose economic sanctions, as well as calling for an international inquiry in "genocide and war crimes" against Sri Lankan Tamils. On 10 December 2013, Permanent People's Tribunal unanimously ruled Sri Lanka guilty of the crime of genocide against the Tamil people, while the US and UK were found to be guilty of complicity to this crime. In January, 2015, UNROW Human Rights Impact Litigation Clinic filed a paper on "The Legal Case of the Tamil Genocide" based on the evidence, nature and extent of the violence committed by Government Forces against Tamils. On 12 April 2015, the Northern Provincial Council of Sri Lanka passed a resolution calling the UN to investigate the genocide and direct appropriate measures at the International Court of Justice stating that the Tamils had no faith in the domestic commission. In September 2017, president Maithripala Sirisena refused to let several human rights groups take Jagath Jayasuriya to court for war crimes. He reportedly said "I stated very clearly that I will not allow anyone in the world to touch Jagath Jayasuriya or any other military chief or any war hero in this country," in reference to the lawsuit. His comments are seen as an attempt to pander to the majority ethnic Sinhalese, most of whom oppose legal action against military personnel accused of crimes during the civil war. See also List of civil wars Mailapitiya National War Memorial Pakistan's military assistance to Sri Lanka 1988 Maldives coup d'état Transnational Government of Tamil Eelam Notes References Bibliography Balasingham, Adele: The Will to Freedom – An Inside View of Tamil Resistance. Fairmax Publishing Ltd, 2nd ed. 2003, . Deegalle, Mahinda (ed.): Buddhism, Conflict and Violence in Modern Sri Lanka. Routledge, London, 2006, . Dissanayaka, T.D.S.A.: War or Peace in Sri Lanka, Volume II. Swastika (Pvt.) Ltd., Colombo 1998. Dixit, J.N.: Assignment Colombo, . (Dixit was the Indian High Commissioner during the 1980s negotiations that led to the IPKF presence.) Gamage, S. and Watson, I.B.: Conflict and Community in Contemporary Sri Lanka. Sage, New Delhi 1999. Gamage, S.: Ethnic Conflict, State Reform and Nation Building in Sri Lanka: Analysis of the Context and Suggestions for a Settlement, in: Neelsen, John P. and Malik, Dipak: "Crises of State and Nation: South Asian States between Nation Building and Fragmentation", Manohar, New Delhi (forthcoming). Hoole, R., Somasundaram, D., Sritharan K., and Thiranagama, R. The Broken Palmyra – The Tamil Crisis in Sri Lanka: An Inside Account. The Sri Lanka Studies Institute, Claremont 1990. (Also available online.)The Broken Palmyra – The Tamil Crisis in Sri Lanka: An Inside Account . Johnson, Robert: A Region in Turmoil. Reaktion, New York and London 2005. (Covers Sri Lanka and its regional context.) Narayan Swamy, M. R.: Tigers of Lanka: from Boys to Guerrillas. Konark Publishers; 3rd ed. 2002, . Rajasinghan, K.T.: Sri Lanka: The Untold Story. 2001–2002. (Serialised in Asia Times Online).Sri Lanka: The Untold Story. War and Peace in Sri Lanka: With a Post-Accord Report From Jaffna. /, Institute of Fundamental Studies, Sri Lanka; 1 edition (1 October 1987), By Rohan Gunaratna. Indian intervention in Sri Lanka: The role of India's intelligence agencies. / , South Asian Network on Conflict Research (1993), By Rohan Gunaratna. Bansal, Alok, Mayilvaganan. M and Podder, Sukanya, Sri Lanka: Search for Peace. Manas Publications, New Delhi, 2007. Weiss, Gordon. The cage: The fight for Sri Lanka and the last days of the Tamil Tigers. Random House, 2011. External links Official websites Ministry of Defence, Sri Lanka Government of Sri Lanka Peace Secretariat Government reports Report by Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission, appointed by Sri Lankan President Mahinda Rajapaksa to look back at the Sri Lankan Civil War Humanitarian Operation – Factual Analysis Ministry of Defence report on key military facts Maps Ministry of Defence, Battle Progress Map Final Conflict Zone Maps Interactive Defence Map of Sri Lanka Independent reports, documentaries and texts A Systemic Approach: Reflections on Sri Lanka, by Norbert Ropers, Berghof Foundation Pawns of Peace Evaluation of Norwegian peace efforts in Sri Lanka, 1997–2009 by NORAD Peace and Conflict Timeline (PACT) – an interactive timeline of the Sri Lankan conflict Texts of key agreements in past peace processes and an analysis of the process by Conciliation Resources Understanding Sri Lanka's Defeat of the Tamil Tigers by National Defense University War on the Displaced: Sri Lankan Army and LTTE Abuses against Civilians in the Vanni, Human Rights Watch Sri Lanka's Killing Fields an investigative documentary by ITN/Channel 4 Visiting Sri Lanka; 3 years after the civil war by T. E. Narasimhan, Rediff.com Unholy Ground – Indie documentary on a war-related massacre in one Sri Lankan village Appalling Journalism – Monitoring coverage of, and reporting on, Sri Lanka in the international media 20th-century conflicts 21st-century conflicts Politics of Sri Lanka Military history of Sri Lanka Wars involving Sri Lanka Sri Lankan Tamil politics Tamil Eelam Sri Lanka Riots and civil disorder in Sri Lanka Counter-terrorism in Sri Lanka Separatism in Sri Lanka Ethnicity-based civil wars Separatist rebellion-based civil wars Proxy wars Wars involving India History of Sri Lanka Human shield incidents	[ 0.5180959105491638, -0.5827381610870361, -0.5504749417304993, -0.49057430028915405, -0.04619429260492325, 0.03805519640445709, 0.09941615164279938, 0.1576080620288849, -0.4522417485713959, 0.5227646827697754, -0.13226191699504852, 0.6900821924209595, -0.7461580038070679, 0.7418354749679565, -0.566648006439209, 0.6571480631828308, 0.5744726657867432, 0.1105215772986412, 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225285	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross%20J.%20Connelly	Ross J. Connelly	Ross J. Connelly (born April 25, 1952) is the former Executive Vice President and COO of the Overseas Private Investment Corporation. Prior to OPIC, Connelly worked for Bechtel Corporation; he was an executive (1977) and later a senior principal with Bechtel Investments (1982 - 1991) (which later became the Fremont Group) and the President of Bechtel Energy Resources, Inc. (1991 - 1993). In 1993, Connelly was elected President of Northgas, a Bechtel joint-venture dedicated to developing natural gas resources in northern Russia. He held this position until he left Bechtel in 1995. In 1998, Connelly ran for Maine's first district House of Representatives seat on the Republican ticket and lost to fellow Republican James Longley. In 2000, Connelly directed the Maine branch of George W. Bush's presidential campaign. In October 2001, Bush rewarded Connelly by appointing him to serve on the board of OPIC, the government office that provides political insurance to U.S. companies who want to invest in unstable parts of the world. Since his appointment to the OPIC board, Connelly has traveled to Afghanistan, Russia, Azerbaijan, Serbia, Peru, and the Middle East to promote U.S. overseas investments, in particular the investments of U.S. companies (including Bechtel) in the privatization of foreign oil, power, water, and transportation infrastructures. Connelly has attracted criticism for his role in OPIC projects and investments which critics say will directly benefit his former employers. In his tenure at OPIC, Connelly finalized OPIC's $130 million loan to Lima Airport Partners, a joint venture between Bechtel to privatize Jorge Chávez International Airport in Lima. He has also been involved in OPIC's investments in Serbia, a country where Bechtel has been awarded large highway building contracts. Connelly earned his bachelor's degree in 1974 from Duke University and his master's degree from Georgetown University's Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service in 1977. He and his family have lived near Biddeford, Maine, for over 30 years. 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225286	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superheroes%20%28band%29	Superheroes (band)	Superheroes was a Danish pop/rock band that split up in 2006. Members Thomas Troelsen (Vocals, Synthesiser) Thomas Christensen (drums) Tanja Simonsen (Vocals, Synthesiser) Lars Hovendahl (Bass guitar) Bjarke Staun (Guitar) Asger Tarpgaard (Guitar) Discography Albums Superheroes (2002 Crunchy Frog Records) Igloo (2000 Crunchy Frog Records) Dancing Casanova (1998 Crunchy Frog Records) Singles & EPs "The Ocean Diver" (2003 Crunchy Frog Records) "Las Vegas" (2001 Crunchy Frog Records) "Johnny and I" (1999 Crunchy Frog Records) "See You at the Railroads" (1998 Crunchy Frog Records) "Superheroes" (Demo No Label) External links Superheroes web page Danish pop music groups Danish rock music groups	[ 0.21975484490394592, 0.2080051600933075, -0.25642842054367065, 0.08286630362272263, -0.6779249310493469, 0.1349114179611206, 0.7318456172943115, 0.15304860472679138, -0.3297836184501648, -0.008405870757997036, -0.025770610198378563, -0.12257376313209534, -0.4217675030231476, 0.11544650793075562, -0.19933024048805237, 0.15645860135555267, -0.13209784030914307, 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225290	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Championship%20Auto%20Racing%20Teams	Championship Auto Racing Teams	Championship Auto Racing Teams (CART) was a sanctioning body for American open-wheel car racing that operated from 1979 to 2003. It sanctioned the PPG Indy Car World Series from 1979 until dissolving after the 2003 season. CART was founded in 1979 by United States Auto Club (USAC) Championship Division team owners who disagreed with the direction and leadership of USAC, with the then-novel idea of car owners sanctioning and promoting their own series collectively instead of relying on a neutral body to do so. Through the 1980s, the Indy Car World Series became the pre-eminent open-wheel auto racing series in North America, featuring street circuits, road courses, and oval track racing. CART drivers continued to compete at the USAC-sanctioned Indianapolis 500. Even as the series prospered, concerns about costs, competitiveness, and revenue sharing began to create opposition to CART's organizational structure. Attempts at reform, which saw the company rebranded as IndyCar in 1992 and a compromise board formed, failed. In 1996, an open wheel "split" saw the newly created Indy Racing League (IRL) take full control over the Indianapolis 500 and start a competing oval-based open-wheel series. CART ceased using the IndyCar name but continued its series without participating in the Indianapolis 500. The "split" saw a dramatic fall in general interest for open wheel racing in the United States, which was compounded by the growing popularity of NASCAR, creating a downward trend in sponsorship and attendance at some tracks. After a series of setbacks in the early 2000s saw the departure of major racing teams and engine manufacturers to the IRL, CART went bankrupt at the end of the 2003 season. In 2004, a trio of team owners acquired the assets of the series from bankruptcy, renaming it the Champ Car World Series. Continuing financial difficulties caused Champ Car to file for bankruptcy before its planned 2008 season; its assets and history were merged into the IRL's IndyCar Series, reuniting both series of American open-wheel racing. Vehicles Champ Cars (before 1997, advertised as IndyCars) were single-seat, open-wheel racing cars, with mid-mounted engines. Champ cars had sculpted undersides to create ground effects and prominent wings to create downforce. The cars would use different aerodynamic kits depending on whether they were racing on an oval or a road-course. Teams typically purchased chassis constructed by independent suppliers such as Lola, Swift, Reynard, and March, with some owners, such as Dan Gurney and Roger Penske, constructing their own. The series exclusively used Goodyear tires until 1995, when Firestone entered, creating a spirited competition between the brands. Firestone ultimately became the exclusive supplier in 2000, with their parent company Bridgestone taking over the role in 2003. Champ Cars used turbocharged engines that ran on methanol fuel. Cosworth (branded as Ford-Cosworth), Ilmor (branded as Chevrolet), and Buick engines were common until the mid-1990s, which saw Mercedes-Benz take over as Ilmor's branding and Honda and Toyota enter factory efforts. Engines were typically leased from manufacturers, who conducted research and development during the racing season; one engine could easily dominate competition in the first part of the season and then fall behind. The exclusive availability of more advanced versions of engines to certain teams in the early-1990s became a major source of contention within the organization, and manufacturers fiercely resisted proposals to have engines simply be purchased by teams. In 2003, after the withdrawal of Honda and Toyota, CART purchased a series of identical 2.65L V-8 turbocharged Cosworth engines and leased them to teams under Ford branding. Champ Cars were visually similar, and often compared to, the higher budget and more technical Formula 1 cars, which also featured wings, mid-engines, and an open-wheel design. Due to their use on ovals, Champ Cars weighed more and were more substantial in size, were slower to accelerate but were higher in top speed. Sometimes they had more powerful engines depending on the formulas and regulations of the season (although F1 cars in the mid-80s could regularly be double the power in qualifying set up). Both series tended to downplay comparisons for commercial reasons, but 2002 saw a rare occurrence in both series running the same track (Circuit Gilles Villeneuve in Montreal) within a month of each other. Juan Pablo Montoya won the pole position for the Formula One race with a lap time of 1'12.836, with the slowest being Alex Yoong's 1'17.34; Several weeks later, Cristiano da Matta won pole position in a Champ Car race with a lap time of 1'18.959. History Foundation In 1905 the AAA established a national driving championship and became the first sanctioning body for auto racing in the United States. The AAA ceased sanctioning auto racing in the general outrage over motor racing safety that followed the 1955 Le Mans disaster. In response, Indianapolis Motor Speedway president Tony Hulman formed the United States Auto Club (USAC) to take over the sanctioning of what was called "championship" auto racing, or open wheel racing, whose biggest event was the annual Indianapolis 500 at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway. USAC sanctioned the championship exclusively until 1978, and was the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile's recognized American authority with regard to open wheel racing. Competitors in the championship circuit, coalescing around Dan Gurney, began to become critical of USAC's sanctioning though the 1970s. Notable incidents included the loss of a lucrative sponsorship by Marlboro in 1971 after USAC failed to enforce the brand's exclusivity at events, the existence of dirt tracks, purses that teams said would result in a loss in money even if the team made the podium, and a lack of modern promotion for the non-Indianapolis events in the series. In early 1978, Gurney wrote what came to be known as the "Gurney White Paper", the blueprint for an organization called Championship Auto Racing Teams. Gurney took his inspiration from the improvements Bernie Ecclestone had forced on Formula One with his creation of the Formula One Constructors Association. The White Paper called for the owners to form CART as an advocacy group to promote USAC's national championship. The group would also work to negotiate television rights, sponsorship agreements, and race purses, and ideally hold seats on USAC's governing body. In 1978, the last season that USAC was sole sanctioning body for Championship racing, their 18 race schedule had 4 road course races and 14 oval track races. On April 23, 1978, eight top USAC officials died in an airplane crash, creating an organizational vacuum that severely hampered the 1978 season. In November 1978 Gurney, joined by other leading team owners including Roger Penske and Pat Patrick, took their requests to USAC's Board, but the proposal was rejected, leading to the creation of a new stand-alone series. The first CART race was held on 11 March 1979, with the Sports Car Club of America sanctioning the series. USAC initially tried to ban all CART drivers from the 1979 Indianapolis 500, informing CART teams by telegram during their event at Atlanta Motor Speedway, until CART succeeded in obtaining an injunction to allow its cars to qualify. Of the 20 races held in 1979, 13 were part of the 1979 CART Championship. An attempt by USAC and CART to jointly sanction races in 1980 as the Championship Racing League saw USAC withdraw after 5 races, and by the end of 1981 the only USAC sanctioned asphalt championship race was the Indianapolis 500. CART PPG Indy Car World Series (1982–1991) By 1982, the CART PPG Indy Car World Series was unilaterally recognized as the American national championship in open wheel racing. In 1983, USAC agreed to allow CART to add the Indy 500 to its schedule and have drivers be awarded points in the CART championship in return for retaining the authority to sanction the 500. Beginning with a schedule mainly based on oval speedways like its USAC predecessor, the series began to move into prominent North American road racing circuits such as Road America, Mid-Ohio, and Laguna Seca, replacing the declining Can-Am series. Many racing stars, including Mario Andretti, Bobby Rahal, and Danny Sullivan found success in CART, which by the mid-1980s moved into sanctioning street races, taking over the Detroit Grand Prix and the Grand Prix of Long Beach from Formula One, and expanding to Toronto and Cleveland. CART founded the first full-time driver safety team that traveled with the series, instead of depending on local staff provided by promoters. For the first time, open-wheel racing outside of Indianapolis had developed a stable schedule, enabling more generous sponsorship and television opportunities for the owners. Despite the corresponding increases in attendance, TV revenue, and purses, CART's egalitarian governing structure created its own headaches. CART owners were incredibly diverse: For example, owners such as Carl Haas and Roger Penske owned speedways and had generous contracts with tire, chassis, and engine manufactures, while other teams simply purchased older cars and ran the races they could afford to attend. The diversity of interests led to annual fights and accusations of real and apparent conflicts of interest with regard to rules, sponsorship, driver safety, track selection, and other matters. In 1988, CART joined ACCUS, allowing foreign drivers to compete without risking their FIA superlicenses. This, combined with former F1 champion Emerson Fittipaldi's series title in 1989, attracted drivers from South America and Europe to join what had previously been a mostly American dominated series. A growing contingent of international drivers helped make the series a valuable television property for growing sports cable networks worldwide. CART would host its first race outside North America, in Surfer's Paradise, Australia, in 1991. IndyCar and the "Split" (1992–1996) As the larger teams and engine and chassis manufactures competed for victories, costs were rapidly increasing, pricing out smaller teams. Tony George, by 1989 the president of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway (IMS), and others viewed foreign drivers and street circuits as discouraging predominantly American USAC sprint racing talent, such as Indiana driver Jeff Gordon, from competing in IndyCar. NASCAR, which ran predominantly on ovals, was gaining in popularity in IndyCar's traditional Midwestern US market. CART was regularly accused of only serving the interests of team owners, especially the richest ones, and not of the sport as a whole. CART owners believed that the teams, who took the most risks, paid the drivers, and expended the most cash, should control the general direction of the sport. CART owners also resented George, and felt that his close relationship with USAC meant he could jeopardize the series' involvement in the Indianapolis 500 on a whim. Debate continued for a number of years over the proper oversight mechanism for the sport, with IMS resisting any revenue sharing or control over Indianapolis and owners not wanting to give too much power to track promoters. In an attempt to address these concerns, in 1992, CART rebranded as IndyCar, and later in 1992 formed a compromise board with owners electing five members with voting rights, with the IndyCar CEO (representing the other owners) and George (representing IMS) having non-voting seats. 1993 would see British driver Nigel Mansell, the 1992 F1 Driver's Champion, switch to IndyCar and beat Fittipaldi for the championship. The new board collapsed at the end of the season after a series of controversial decisions, mainly shutting out Japanese manufacturers, cancelling a planned race at Brands Hatch in the United Kingdom, and keeping the schedule exactly the same, that were seen as driven by conflicts of interest of George and the five owners elected to the new board. In March 1994, George announced his resignation from the IndyCar board. That year, Team Penske introduced a Mercedes-Benz engine specifically designed for the 1994 Indianapolis 500 that exploited a rule difference between the USAC and IndyCar, dominating the race and prompting fears that costs would continue to grow out of control. In July, IMS announced the founding of the Indy Racing League, which would be cost controlled and race solely on American ovals and be sanctioned by USAC. After the 1995 Indianapolis 500 saw driver complaints about USAC's oversight, George announced that for the 1996 Indianapolis 500 the top 25 drivers in IRL points would be guaranteed a spot in the race, leaving only eight of the 33 grid positions available to others. This was known as the "25/8 Rule," and was unprecedented, as the 500 had traditionally always put every spot up for open qualification. CART declared they had been locked out of the event and would no longer race at Indianapolis, while George declared that CART was boycotting. To placate sponsors who contractually required the accommodation of large contingents to attend Indianapolis, CART created a rival showcase event, the U.S. 500, at Michigan International Speedway on the same day as the Indy 500 in 1996. In March, Indianapolis Motor Speedway attempted to terminate CART's license to their "IndyCar" trademark in Federal Court. The lead-up to Memorial Day 1996 saw a public relations war, pitting the owners and drivers of CART against George and IMS, which included Indianapolis legends like the Unser and Andretti families publicly criticizing the new rules and labeling the race with less experienced drivers as unsafe. The 1996 Indianapolis 500 did see a series of accidents, with a quarter of the race run under caution before Buddy Lazier won his first race. The US 500, starting halfway through the Indy 500, had a disastrous start with a twelve-car crash, delaying the race for an hour. Jimmy Vasser, who won by 11 seconds, quipped "Who needs milk?" while exiting his car for the podium, referring to the tradition of the Indy 500 winner drinking milk. Both at the time and in retrospect, the weekend was seen as a fiasco that began a serious decline in open-wheel racing, with both the Indy 500 and other Indycar events seeing drastic decline in prominence, TV viewership, and attendance. CART FedEx Championship Series (1997–2000) After a number of competing lawsuits, CART agreed to revert to their formal initialism following the 1996 season, on the condition that the IRL would not use the name before the end of the 2002 season. CART began promoting its vehicles as "champ cars," a term that had previously been used by USAC's championship division. In the early years after the launch of the IRL in 1996, CART was in a far stronger position: It held most of the prestigious races, sponsorship money, most of the "name" drivers and teams, and was the preferred series for manufacturers due to the IRL's ban on engine leases. IRL's primary asset was Indianapolis Motor Speedway and its 500. 1996 and 1997 saw generally well regarding racing with stars such as Jimmy Vasser, rookie sensation Alex Zanardi, and Michael Andretti leading the points standings, while the IRL experienced growing pains, including a rain-soaked 1997 Indianapolis 500, off-putting engine sounds from their new normally-aspirated engines, and the abandonment of USAC sanctioning due to incompetence. CART, in further contrast to IMS's sole ownership of the IRL, opted to proceed with a public stock offering, selling on the NASDAQ as stock symbol MPH. The offering raised US$100 million by selling 35% of the company. While this allowed CART to have sufficient cash reserves to expand and purchase the Indy Lights series, commentators suggested it was short-sighted to subject the notoriously secretive and fluctuating finances of the auto racing industry to public trading requirements. Efforts, led mostly by engine manufacturers, to pressure CART and the IRL to at least adopt uniform engine standards were met with a cold refusal from the IRL, which started to carve a niche in the motorsports landscape by leveraging close relationships with the new NASCAR spec ovals being built, with the series' substantial losses being underwritten by the other revenue streams of IMS. Despite the split, CART saw its annual revenues increase from $38,000,000 in 1995 to $68,800,000 by 1999, street races remained lucrative, and teams were able to make some gains on sponsorship revenues. The success was uneven, as the series' traditional oval races in Michigan and Nazareth began to see dramatic attendance declines, which CART blamed on substandard marketing. Television ratings and revenue were anemic, with the series receiving $5,000,000 annually for the entirety of its television package, less than the rate for some individual NASCAR races. While CART's stock was generally considered healthy, investors noted that the company's valuation tended to fluctuate with the perceived success or failure of IRL merger talks. CART's championship battle in 1999 between young stars Juan Pablo Montoya and Dario Franchitti was overshadowed by the deaths of drivers Gonzalo Rodríguez and Greg Moore within two months of each other. Moore's death at the 1999 Marlboro 500 especially raised serious concerns about safety in the 500 mile races conducted in Fontana and Michigan that saw Champ Cars average speeds of near . In 2000, after years of frustration building behind the scenes, CART owners forced Andrew Craig to resign as CEO, and popular driver/owner Bobby Rahal stepped in as his interim replacement. Seeing the continued success of street racing and the decline of the series' oval dates, the board announced an intention of moving away from traditional venues toward overseas ovals and more street races to generate sanctioning fees, to the frustration of some of the traditional owners and United States based sponsors. Chip Ganassi, under pressure from his main sponsors, also persuaded the board to leave Memorial Day open on the schedule and returned to the Indy 500 with Vasser and Montoya. Montoya put on a dominating performance at Indy, leading 167 of the 200 laps to win. The Ganassi team's primary advantage was the greater engineering put into their IRL-spec car. 2000 would see Team Penske's return to prominence as Gil de Ferran won the driver's title. Decline (2001–2003) For 2001, CART unveiled their most ambitious schedule yet, with 22 races in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Brazil, Japan, the United Kingdom, Germany and Australia. The loss of Homestead-Miami and Gateway to the IRL was to be offset by the addition of Texas Motor Speedway, which had seen an exciting IRL race the year prior. Rahal retired to head Jaguar Racing in Formula 1, leading to marketing expert Joseph Heitzler taking the helm. Brazil was cancelled after track promoters defaulted. The race at Texas Motor Speedway had to be cancelled on race day, due to concerns of drivers blacking out at the high G forces created by Champ cars on the heavily banked course during qualifying. While applauded for putting driver safety first, the cancellation was a publicity disaster, and CART was criticized for not testing cars on the track earlier as requested. A resulting lawsuit, while settled, produced a quarterly loss for CART's stock and forever harmed its relationship with Speedway Motorsports. Despite CART teams sweeping the top 6 positions in the 2001 Indianapolis 500 and a highly competitive four-way points battle among Gil de Ferran, Kenny Brack, Hélio Castroneves, and Michael Andretti, headlines centered on a technological controversy regarding a turbo pop off valve that Honda and Ford had developed, prompting complaints by Toyota. When CART mandated changes in the valve to help equalize the competition, Honda successfully obtained an injunction barring the change, leading to all three manufacturers being upset. Toyota would announce it would move to the IRL for 2003 at the end of the season. The series' first foray into Europe, the German 500, was overshadowed by the 9/11 attacks that occurred the Tuesday before the Saturday race. With the teams unable to leave due to the worldwide shutdown of airspace, CART decided to run the race as scheduled after some controversy, with ESPN refusing to air the race live. The race would see popular former champion Alex Zanardi lose both legs in an accident. The series inaugural event in the United Kingdom would come close to being cancelled due to track concerns. To keep coverage of the Indianapolis 500, ABC/ESPN signed an exclusive television deal for 2002 onwards with the IRL, forcing CART to turn to Speed Channel for cable coverage and buy time on CBS to maintain a broadcast presence. Team Penske announced after the season that they would become permanent entrants in the IRL for 2002 due to pressure from sponsor Marlboro resulting from the American tobacco settlements that prevented cigarette advertising in multiple series. The loss of ESPN/ABC's exposure and engine manufacturer sponsoring began a downward spiral for the series, as race promoters began demanding reduced sanctioning fees for 2002 and sponsors began to review their agreements. Heitzler was fired by the CART board in the offseason, being replaced by Chris Pook, the well-regarded CEO of the Long Beach Grand Prix. Making matters worse was CART's growing ownership instability due to the public offering: Despite an initial agreement for the car owners to maintain 65% of the stock, agreements allowed owners to divest shares in the company. As car owners began to sell off their shares, the board's chronic issues grew more complicated with aggressive stockholders beginning to pressure the board alongside owners. During the 2002 season, Honda announced that it would move to the IRL the following year, causing a drastic decline in CART's stock and leaving Cosworth/Ford as the sole engine manufacturer for 2003. Attempts to subsidize teams to have enough cars racing to avoid breaching sanctioning contracts led to a further decline in cash reserves and the stock price. Team owner Gerald Forsythe was able to purchase enough stock to control 22.5% of the voting shares in concert with the board. Star driver Michael Andretti purchased the prominent Team Green and moved them to the IRL with heavy direction from Honda, and Chip Ganassi Racing left due to pressure from its primary sponsor, Target. Beginning in 2003, after the withdrawal of FedEx as series sponsor, CART re-branded itself as "Bridgestone Presents The Champ Car World Series Powered by Ford". The series ran a near complete schedule of road course races, featuring chassis from the year before. Reformation as Champ Car CART, running out of cash reserves, declared bankruptcy after the 2003 season and its assets were liquidated. The IRL made a strategic bid to keep the series dormant, while a trio of CART owners (Forsythe, Paul Gentilozzi, and Kevin Kalkhoven) along with Dan Pettit made a bid for CART's assets as Open Wheel Racing Series, LLC. The bankruptcy court ruled in favor of the OWRS bid as more beneficial to creditors than the IRL bid, despite it being smaller. Champ Car would continue to run until declaring bankruptcy and being "reunified" with the IRL in February 2008. IndyCar recognizes the records and champions of both series in its historical records. Television In its early years, television coverage of CART races were shared by NBC, ABC and ESPN. NBC left after the 1990 season, and returned for 1994's race in Toronto only. CBS also aired races from 1989 to 1991 and also aired the 1995 race at Nazareth. ABC, ESPN and ESPN2 continued as broadcasters until 2001. In the 2002 and 2003 Champ Car seasons, coverage was split between CBS and Speed Channel (Fox aired the 2002 Toyota Grand Prix of Long Beach). Also from 2002 to 2004, select races aired on high definition channel HDNet such as Road America race in 2003. Outside the United States, Eurosport aired CART and Champ Car in Europe from 1993 until its demise. In Brazil, Rede Record aired the Indy 500 in 1984. From 1985 until 1992, Rede Bandeirantes aired the race and from 1989 onwards, they aired the whole season on TV. Between 1993 and 1994, the CART season was broadcast by Rede Manchete. Following economical difficulties by the former broadcaster and to battle Rede Globo for the lead of audience, SBT took the rights to transmission from Manchete, including its trio of narrators (Téo José, Luiz Carlos Azenha, and Dedê Gomes), and even sending one of their helicopters to get exclusive images from the races. They broadcast the entire season live between 1995 and 2000, although from 1999 onwards, following complaints by Gugu Liberato because of audience size, the races were delayed and transmitted at 11:00PM, after the Programa Silvio Santos, although a few races remained live, such as Surfers' Paradise (because of the time, which was in the middle of the night) and the Rio 200. From 1997 onwards, the series was referred to as "Fórmula Mundial" (Worldwide Formula), following the split between CART and the Indy Racing League. In the first years, the category was able to challenge Globo and its F1 transmission, but after most of the races were reallocated to VT in the night, the audience stagnated. After the contract expired in 2000, SBT opted to not renew it. Record once again broadcast the series between 2001 and 2002, again mostly in VTs (with commentary provided by Oscar Ulisses), but the transmissions were delayed to around 7PM, rather than skipping to the end of the night. After an declining audience in 2002, the broadcaster didn't renovated the contract. In 2003, RedeTV! broadcast the Champ Car series, bringing back commentator Téo José. However, although the races were back on being live, the audience was still rather low and following the decline of the category, they chose to not renew the contact after the end of the 2004 season. The Globo-owned SporTV channel broadcast the 2004 season to replace the IRL, but following the contract expiring at the end of the season, they didn't renovated, marking the end of the CART/Champ Car broadcasting in Brazil. Champions By team Fatalities Four drivers died in CART-sanctioned events: Jim Hickman – (August 1, 1982), Tony Bettenhausen 200, Milwaukee Mile, practice. Jeff Krosnoff – (July 14, 1996), Molson Indy Toronto, Exhibition Place, 3 laps from finish. Gonzalo Rodríguez – (September 11, 1999), Honda Grand Prix of Monterey, Laguna Seca Raceway, qualifying. Greg Moore – (October 31, 1999), Marlboro 500, California Speedway, lap 10. References See also IndyCar Series List of Champ Car circuits List of Champ Car drivers List of Champ Car fatal accidents List of Champ Car pole positions List of Champ Car teams List of Champ Car winners List of Champ Car drivers who never qualified for a race List of American Championship Car Rookie of the Year Winners List of American Championship car racing point scoring systems Auto races in the United States Endurance motor racing Organizations established in 1979 Organizations disestablished in 2003 Defunct auto racing series	[ -0.18289536237716675, 0.5248211026191711, -0.3382403552532196, 0.5129830241203308, -0.2254754900932312, -0.24704356491565704, -0.2753230035305023, 0.5605723857879639, -0.26461535692214966, 0.6138911247253418, 0.518029510974884, 0.4829144775867462, -0.023081565275788307, 0.3963949382305145, -0.4243753254413605, 0.09668971598148346, 0.012810450047254562, 0.1530171036720276, 0.32753968238830566, -0.2636179029941559, -0.2809174954891205, -0.3050462007522583, 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225297	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile%20Gall%C3%A9	Émile Gallé	Émile Gallé (8 May 1846 in Nancy – 23 September 1904 in Nancy) was a French artist and designer who worked in glass, and is considered to be one of the major innovators in the French Art Nouveau movement. He was noted for his designs of Art Nouveau glass art and Art Nouveau furniture, and was a founder of the École de Nancy or Nancy School, a movement of design in the city of Nancy, France. Biography Early life and education Gallé born on 4 March 1846 in the city of Nancy, France. His father, Charles Gallé, was a merchant of glassware and ceramics who had settled in Nancy in 1844, and his father-in-law owned a factory in Nancy which manufactured mirrors. His father took over the direction of his mother's family business, and began to manufacture glassware with a floral design. He also took over a struggling faience factory and began manufacturing new products. The young Gallé studied philosophy and natural science at the Lycée Imperial in Nancy. At the age of sixteen he went to work for the family business as an assistant to his father, making floral designs and emblems for both faience and glass. In his spare time he became an accomplished botanist, studying with D.A. Godron, the director of the Botanical Gardens of Nancy and author of the leading textbooks on French flora. He collected plants from the region and from as far away as Italy and Switzerland. He also took courses in painting and drawing, and made numerous drawings of plants, flowers, animals and insects, which became subjects of decoration. At the age of sixteen he finished the Lycée in Nancy and went to Weimar in Germany from 1862–1866 to continue his studies in philosophy, botany, sculpture and drawing. In 1866, to prepare himself to inherit the family business, he went to work as an apprentice at the glass factory of Burgun and Schwerer in Meisenthal, and made a serious study of the chemistry of glass production. Some of his early glass and faience works for the family factory at Saint-Clémont were displayed at the 1867 Paris Universal Exposition. In early 1870 he designed a complete set of dishware with a rustic animal designs for the family enterprise. During this time he became acquainted with the painter, sculptor and engraver Victor Prouvé, an artist of the romantic "troubadour" style, who became his future collaborator in the Nancy School. He enlisted for military service in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, then was demobilised after the disastrous French defeat in 1871 and the French loss to Germany of much of the province of Lorraine, including Meisenthal where he had done his apprenticeship. Thereafter the Cross of Lorraine, the patriotic symbol of the region, became part of his signature on many of his works of art. After his demobilization Gallé went to London, where he represented his father at an exhibition of the arts of France, then to Paris, where he remained for several months, visiting the Louvre and Cluny Museum, studying examples of ancient Egyptian art, Roman glassware and ceramics, and especially early Islamic enamelled glass, a technique which influenced his own later work. After further travel to Switzerland and Italy, he returned to Nancy and established his own workshop at the glass factory. His father Charles continued as head of the company, but Émile gradually took charge of the design and production. In 1873 he took up residence in La Garenne ("the rabbit warren"), the three-story neoclassical house built by his father and surrounded by gardens. Head of the company and international success In 1874 the elder Gallé turned the family business, the Maison Gallé-Reinemer, over to Émile. The following year Émile married Henriette Grimm, and after years of traveling, settled permanently in Nancy. He regrouped and reorganized the divisions of faience and glass manufacture, and in 1883 built new and larger workshops for glass and faience manufacture also for making furniture. By 1889 he had over three hundred employees. His own office and studio was in the center of the complex. He trained the designers himself, and sent them water colors of floral designs he made in the gardens of his residence. Gallé ordered his designers to use only real flowers and plants as their models, though they could take some liberties in the final design. He wrote in 1889, "it is necessary to have a pronounced bias in favour of models taken from flora and fauna, while giving them free expression." Gallé continued to expand his activities. In 1885 he opened his first shop in Paris at 12 rue Richter, followed by other shops in Frankfurt-am-Maine and London. He also took part on a grand scale in international expositions; beginning with the 1878 Paris Universal Exposition, where his pavilion was thirty meters long; the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago; and especially the 1900 Paris Universal Exposition, which was the summit of his fame. His work at the Exposition was rewarded with two Grand Prizes, a gold medal, and the title of a commander in the Legion of Honor. Later years In 1901, Gallé became the founder and first President of the École de Nancy, the organization of Nancy artists of the new style. created to encourage the arts in Nancy, the glassmaker Antonin Daum, furniture maker Louis Majorelle and Eugene Vallin as Vice Presidents. He had many distinguished patrons, including the Edmond James de Rothschild, and his works were purchased by museums. In the highest form of tribute, his works were imitated by other glass and ceramics firms. Much of his later work used symbolism, and expressed conflict. On one vase, called Fiori Oscuri he engraved the words of Robert de Montesquiou: "I love the hour when everything changes its form, when light and dark struggle together." He became involved in social causes. He was a founder, along with Victor Prouvé, of the Université populaire de Nancy, offering university-level classes to workers. He was treasurer of the Nancy branch of the Human Rights League of France and in 1898, at great risk for his business, one of the first to become actively involved in the defense of Alfred Dreyfus. He also publicly defended the Romanian Jews and spoke up in defense of the Irish Catholics in Britain, and supported William O’Brien, one of the leaders of the Irish revolt. In 1904, his health worsened. He was diagnosed with Leukemia, and died on 23 September 1904. His son-in-law, Professor Pedrizet of Nancy University, took over the direction of the firm, but the new management did not keep up with the new styles, and the firm went out of business in 1931. Only the carved wooden door survives of his original studio, now in the garden of the Musée de l'École de Nancy. Gallé wrote a book on art entitled Écrits pour l'art 1884-89 ("Writings on Art 1884-89"), which was published posthumously in 1908. Glassware Cased glass, cameo glass and enamel glass Cased glass and cameo glass were two techniques often used by Gallé. Cased glass was made of two different layers of glass of different colors, fused together by heat. The first case of layer is made in a cold. When it is finished and cooled, a second layer is blown inside the first Then the piece is placed into the furnace, so the two layers fuse together. This could be repeated for multiple layers of glass. Cameo glass was a means of decorating cased glass. The cased glass of two or more colors was carved with a diamond saw or etched with acid, so that the colors of the layer underneath were visible and created a design. Enamel glass was decorated on the outside by a brush of enamels colored by metallic oxides. . Glass marquetry and patinated glass Gallé continually experimented with new techniques of glass art. One of his major innovations was glass marquetry, or applying layers of glass on an object. He attached then sheets of colored glass onto a hot glass object He could join the laminations or overlay them, adding an infinite number of layers and colors. This technique had been practiced by the Venetians during the Renaissance, but Gallé pushed it much further. While it allowed him almost limitless variations, it also presented great difficulties, since the glass had to be reheated for each new layer, and could easily crack. Another difficulty was the appearance of defects and imperfections caused by contamination of the glass paste by dust or ashes or other materials, which caused what glassmakers called "bubbles", "grease" or stitches" inside the glass. Galleé decided to take advantage of the defects. He wrote in his patent application, "Concerned about such defects, I had the idea of using them as a decorative means, which permitted me, by inducing the effect in various ways, to obtain an entirely new type of decoration, called patina." Gallé proposed dusting the surface of the hot glass, which would give the appearance of fabric, or thick cobweb, or other textures. He proposed to make further decoration the surface with engraving, sand blasting, and wheel carving, and to embed fragments of hot glass into this patina or outer layer. The final result would then be covered with a thin layer of clear crystal, which could be left plain or also patinated. Colors Gallé was particularly innovative in the creation and use of colored glass. As early as 1878 he colored glass with a small quantity of cobalt oxide to make a delicate sapphire tone which he called "Clair de lune", or "moonlight". He sometimes covered this with a glaze of cobalt blue. It was widely imitated by other glassmakers, particularly in Germany and England, where it was called "Mondschein", or "moonlight". He wrote that he created "yellows, some iridescent browns and greens with a base of silver and sulphur, a peacock blue with copper and iron, browns from sulphur and catechu." He also tried out rare metals such as thallium and iridium, which made particularly dark shadows. His most original and characteristic colors were a deep violet made with manganese, usually on an opaline ground; a pink made with selenium or copper, which he created 1889; and a green made with chromium, which he used to case pieces in three or four layers, giving nn exceptional depth and richness of color. His style, with its emphasis on naturalism and floral motifs, was at the forefront of the emerging Art Nouveau movement. His early work was executed using clear glass decorated with enamel, but he soon turned to an original style featuring heavy, opaque glass carved or etched with plant motifs, often in two or more colors as cameo glass. He continued to incorporate experimental techniques into his work, such as metallic foils and air bubbles, and also revitalized the glass industry by establishing a workshop to mass-produce his, and other artists', designs. Flowers A large number of his glass works, especially vases, are inspired by and named for flowers. He was a dedicated botanist, and had an extensive flower garden at this residence as a source of models. He also required his artists to use actual plants as models if they were depicting them. They also had a strong symbolic appeal for Gallé. He wrote in 1893 that according to Saint Paul each flower and fruit has a particular symbolic meaning; the olive leaf is peace, wheat is charity and goodness; the grape is the symbol of the Eucharist; the fig is generosity; the Veronica flower is fidelity, the myrtle is joy, the narcissus is springtime in nature, and so forth. Insects and undersea worlds Natural subjects were always present in his work. Flower, plants, insects and marine creatures were frequent subjects; he created vases that seemed to be brimming with fish and other animals, and others with forest scenes abounding with colorful dragonflies and other insects. Furniture Gallé became interested in wood in 1885, when he was looking for exotic woods to make sculpted bases for his vases. He was intrigued by the extraordinary variety of colors and reflective qualities of the woods being imported into Europe from colonies around the world. Within a year, he had created his own furniture workshop, employing experienced carpenters, sculptors, varnishers and experts in marquetry, as well as craftsmen in bronze and iron to make the knobs, locks, and other hardware. He was aided in design by experienced collaborators such as Victor Prouvé. Unlike some designers of the Arts and Crafts movement, he was willing to use machine tools to speed up the manufacture, if it did not diminish the quality of the final product. He began to experiment, sculpting the locks, using patinas of bronze and heating the locks to get exactly the color he wanted. He created a collection of six hundred different varieties of wood. so he could create marquetry in exactly the color and shade, and nuances of the grain he wanted. By 1889 he was able to mount a very successful display of his furniture at the Paris Universal Exposition. He described his inspiration for furniture design in a long article called "Contemporary furniture decorated following nature" published in the November–December 1900 issue of the Revue des Arts Decoratifs. He argued that true beauty could never be found "in the acceptance of the falseness and mediocrity of prettiness without character or in opulence without spirit." He argued that it could only be found in the concentrated application of the principles of structural and linear growth of Nature. Following this doctrine, every detail and motif in his furniture was taken directly from nature. Ceramics and pottery His early ceramics of Gallé were generally plates and vases with more traditional floral designs. Tne faience, or glazed earthenware of Gallé, rarely achieved the same level of technical quality and fame as his glassware. He largely abandoned it after 1892. However, it contained much of the same imagination and unusual as his glass. His ceramics and glazed earthenware of Gallé oftenl, looked like real earth, employing earthy brown colors, with overlays of leaves and insects See also Art Nouveau glass art References Bibliography External links Le monde des arts: Émile Gallé Emile Gallé biography, signatures, auction results, ... en anglais - Art Deco Ceramic Glass Light Le site créé par les élèves du collège Emile Gallé - Académie Nancy-Metz - France Emile Galle - Poetry in Glass A practical guide to Galle furniture Right or Wrong - Lessons in Art Nouveau and Art Deco Glass Art Nouveau 1846 births 1904 deaths French decorative artists Glass artists Art Nouveau designers Members of the École de Nancy People from Nancy, France	[ -0.004650381859391928, 0.7183875441551208, -0.6068434715270996, -0.19020138680934906, 0.1395612210035324, 0.8230767846107483, 0.04161255434155464, -0.27664998173713684, -0.7581593990325928, -1.0024654865264893, -0.34855350852012634, 0.011277302168309689, -0.1092781350016594, 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225312	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIVB%20Volleyball%20World%20Cup	FIVB Volleyball World Cup	FIVB Volleyball World Cup may refer to FIVB Volleyball Men's World Cup FIVB Volleyball Women's World Cup	[ -0.2528943419456482, -0.18350611627101898, 0.41448354721069336, 0.2191571444272995, -0.29592353105545044, 0.18430770933628082, -0.05611389875411987, 0.575517475605011, -1.3419009447097778, 0.12063515186309814, 0.39986884593963623, -0.16023707389831543, -0.03314723074436188, 0.6177151203155518, 0.24814707040786743, 0.4033428132534027, 0.9596107602119446, 0.6729610562324524, 0.29950135946273804, -0.9447085857391357, 0.17802391946315765, 0.1434226930141449, 1.2784613370895386, -0.12000343948602676, -0.7179029583930969, 0.02108437940478325, 0.25575152039527893, 0.2604373097419739, 0.026315223425626755, -0.05423261970281601, -0.43728628754615784, 0.12914608418941498, 0.576405942440033, 0.10713651031255722, -0.5585542917251587, -0.6013447642326355, 0.2150173932313919, 0.009772374294698238, 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225315	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20Frederick%20III	Emperor Frederick III	Emperor Frederick III may refer to: Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III, German Emperor See also Frederick III (disambiguation)	[ -0.48190492391586304, 0.35386666655540466, -0.07276936620473862, 0.20540298521518707, -1.0493978261947632, 0.32584813237190247, 1.064921259880066, -0.4786936640739441, -0.6345955729484558, -0.8206177353858948, -0.15415050089359283, -0.425448477268219, -0.5903451442718506, 0.33476248383522034, -0.40134090185165405, 0.5417254567146301, 0.15602390468120575, 0.2068805694580078, -0.365017831325531, -0.47267526388168335, 0.19514012336730957, 0.15926840901374817, 0.13483837246894836, -0.22815251350402832, 0.13615019619464874, 0.22368143498897552, 0.8905587196350098, -0.25642892718315125, -0.15764868259429932, 0.08485729247331619, 0.08857105672359467, 0.39234304428100586, 0.09274052828550339, -0.03409823402762413, -0.6065682768821716, -0.48112353682518005, 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225335	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cro-Magnon%20rock%20shelter	Cro-Magnon rock shelter	Cro-Magnon (, ; ) is an Aurignacian (Upper Paleolithic) site, located in a rock shelter at Les Eyzies, a hamlet in the commune of Les Eyzies-de-Tayac-Sireuil, Dordogne, southwestern France. Most notably, it is the site of the discovery of anatomically modern human remains, apparently buried at the site, dated to about 28,000 years ago. Because of its archeological importance, Abri de Cro-Magnon was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List as part of the Prehistoric Sites and Decorated Caves of the Vézère Valley site. Human remains In 1868, workmen found animal bones, flint tools, and human skulls in the rock shelter. French geologist Louis Lartet was called for excavations, and found the partial skeletons of four prehistoric adults and one infant, along with perforated shells used as ornaments, an object made from ivory, and worked reindeer antler. These "Cro-Magnon men" were identified as the prehistoric human race of Europe, as distinct from Neanderthal Man, described a few years earlier by William King based on the Neanderthal 1 fossil discovered in Germany in 1856. Lartet proposed the subspecies name Homo sapiens fossilis in 1869. The term "Cro-Magnon Man" soon came to be used in a general sense to describe the oldest modern people in Europe. By the 1970s, the term was used for any early modern human wherever found, as was the case with the far-flung Jebel Qafzeh remains in Israel and various Paleo-Indians in the Americas. The term "Cro-Magnon" remains in use, but since the late 1990s has typically been restricted to European early modern humans. Cro-Magnon 1 consists of a skull and partial skeletal remains belonging to a male individual, approximately 40 years old. It is dated to 27,680 ± 270 Before Present (BP). The cranial cavity measures . The capacity of a modern adult anatomically modern human's cranial cavity is . Cro-Magnon 2 is a partially preserved female skull with marked facial similarities to Mladeč 2. Cro-Magnon 3 is a partial skull of a male adult. The remains are thought to represent adults who died at an advanced age, who were placed at the site, along with pieces of shell and animal teeth in what appear to have been pendants or necklaces, in an apparent intentional burial. The presence of necklaces and tools suggests the concept of grave goods. Analysis of the pathology of the skeletons shows that the humans of this period led a physically difficult life. In addition to infection, several of the individuals found at the shelter had fused vertebrae in their necks, indicating traumatic injury; the adult female found at the shelter had survived for some time with a skull fracture. As these injuries would be life-threatening even today, this suggests that Cro-Magnons relied on community support and took care of each other's injuries. In addition, Cro-Magnon 1 suffered from a genetic condition called Neurofibromatosis type I, which would have led him to have large cysts or tumours on his face, evident in the depression in the frontal bone and pits of the eyebrows and cheek bones. Compared to Neanderthals, the skeletons showed the same high forehead, upright posture and slender (gracile) skeleton as modern humans. The other specimens from the site are a female, Cro-Magnon 2, and male remains, Cro-Magnon 3. See also Archaic human admixture with modern humans List of human evolution fossils Neanderthal extinction Peopling of Europe Notes and references Notes References External links Cro-Magnon 1: Smithsonian Institution – The Human Origins Program 1868 archaeological discoveries Aurignacian Archaeological sites in France Prehistoric Sites and Decorated Caves of the Vézère Valley Rock shelters	[ -0.2713938355445862, 1.0043014287948608, -0.43614813685417175, -0.07958689332008362, 0.27943599224090576, 0.7967132329940796, 0.3476160168647766, 0.34830331802368164, -0.3475774824619293, -0.48656749725341797, -0.29601752758026123, 0.5000854730606079, 0.27098479866981506, 0.4052385687828064, -0.5341467261314392, 0.30955472588539124, 0.34953346848487854, -0.06661181896924973, 0.18150219321250916, -0.7389206290245056, 0.07571999728679657, -0.6961712837219238, 0.0688815489411354, 0.2946857511997223, 0.11754751950502396, 0.005053272936493158, 0.06577302515506744, 0.2880556583404541, 0.755696713924408, 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225336	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MGCP	MGCP	MGCP may refer to: Glutamate carboxypeptidase II, an enzyme Media Gateway Control Protocol, an implementation of the Media Gateway Control Protocol architecture	[ -0.25315624475479126, 0.10554710030555725, 0.39344868063926697, -0.1882854700088501, -0.5002134442329407, -0.24396224319934845, 0.04585334658622742, -0.17327110469341278, -0.4905781149864197, -0.37012937664985657, -0.2838142216205597, 0.10717058181762695, -0.8687637448310852, 0.34611189365386963, 0.49605682492256165, 0.6537755727767944, 0.7451729774475098, 0.7272121906280518, -0.47411054372787476, -0.6960980296134949, -0.06731794774532318, 0.03774486109614372, 0.38159728050231934, -0.3528299331665039, -0.16111525893211365, -0.20074841380119324, -0.11572904884815216, 0.10276371985673904, 0.3450468182563782, -0.2516576647758484, -0.3094983398914337, 0.5478100776672363, 0.1506360024213791, 0.17768791317939758, -0.19268614053726196, 0.26647189259529114, -0.45173826813697815, 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225337	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1969%20in%20sports	1969 in sports	1969 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. Alpine skiing Alpine Skiing World Cup: Men's overall champion: Karl Schranz, Austria Women's overall champion: Gertrud Gabl, Austria American football Super Bowl III: the New York Jets (AFL) won 16−7 over the Baltimore Colts (NFL) Location: Miami Orange Bowl Attendance: 75,389 MVP: Joe Namath, QB (New York) Game note: Super Bowl is remembered for New York quarterback Joe Namath "guaranteeing" a victory. Rose Bowl (1968 season) The Ohio State Buckeyes won 27–16 over the Southern California Trojans to win the college football national championship College football's centennial year was marked by racial strife. September 28 – Minnesota Vikings' Quarterback Joe Kapp became the last player to throw seven touchdowns in a single game. November 22, 1969 – College Football – Michigan upsets #1 ranked Ohio State 24-12 sending Michigan to the Rose Bowl December 6, 1969 – College Football – #1 Texas beats #2 Arkansas 15–14 in the then Game of the Century. Texas would remain #1 for the rest of the season and were the AP 1969 National Champions following their Cotton Bowl win. Association football September 26 – the Bolivian soccer team is killed in a plane crash near La Paz, Bolivia European Cup – A.C. Milan 4–1 Ajax Inter-Cities Fairs Cup – Newcastle United defeat Újpesti Dózsa 6–2 on aggregate England – First Division Champions: Leeds United England – FA Cup – Manchester City won 1–0 over Leicester City Germany – Bundesliga – Bayern Munich Italy – Serie A: Fiorentina Scotland – First Division Champions: Celtic Scotland – FA Cup: Celtic won 4–0 over Rangers Spain – La Liga: Real Madrid Ecuador – Ecuadorian Serie A Champions: LDU Quito Athletics September – 1969 European Championships in Athletics held in Athens Australian rules football Victorian Football League April 12: Carlton become the first team to score 200 points in a VFL match when they kick 30.30 (210) to Hawthorn 12.10 (82). Alex Jesaulenko kicks 6.12 (48). Richmond wins the 73rd VFL Premiership (Richmond 12.13 (85) d Carlton 8.12 (60)) Brownlow Medal awarded to Kevin Murray (Fitzroy) Bandy 1969 Bandy World Championship is held in Sweden and won by . Baseball The American League expands to 12 teams, adding the adding the Kansas City Royals and Seattle Pilots, and the National League expands to 12 teams, adding the Montreal Expos and San Diego Padres. Due to expansion, Major League Baseball creates four divisions, with two in each league. March 1 – Mickey Mantle of the New York Yankees announces his retirement. April 14 – Montreal Expos outfielder Mack Jones hit a three-run home run and two-run triple that highlighted an 8–7 win over the St. Louis Cardinals in the Expos' first home victory as a franchise at Jarry Park. Jones' blast was also the first MLB home run hit outside the United States. July 20 – San Francisco Giants pitcher Gaylord Perry, some six years after his manager quipped, "They'll put a man on the moon before he hits a home run", hits the first home run of his career just hours after Neil Armstrong lands on the moon. World Series – the New York Mets win 4 games to 1 over the Baltimore Orioles. Basketball NCAA Men's Basketball Championship – UCLA wins 92–72 over Purdue NBA Finals – Boston Celtics won 4 games to 3 over the Los Angeles Lakers 1969 ABA Finals – Oakland Oaks defeat Indiana Pacers 4 games to 1 Boxing June 23 – Joe Frazier scored a 7th-round TKO over Jerry Quarry. August 26 – José Nápoles retained the World Welterweight Championship in a 15-round decision over Emile Griffith. August 31 – death of Rocky Marciano (45), Italian-American World Heavyweight boxing champion, in an air crash Canadian football Grey Cup – Ottawa Rough Riders won 29–11 over the Saskatchewan Roughriders. Vanier Cup – Manitoba Bisons won 24–15 over the McGill Redmen Cricket February 20 – Australia defeat the West Indies at Sydney in the Fifth Test Match to win the series 3-1 March 8 Rioting stops the final match of England's tour of Pakistan on the third day. The match is abandoned and the series drawn. July 15 – England defeat the West Indies at Headingley in the Third Test Match to win the series 2-0 August 26 – England defeat New Zealand at The Oval in the Third Test Match to win the series 2-0 Learie Constantine becomes the first cricketer and the first person of Afro-Caribbean descent to be given a life peerage. Cycling Giro d'Italia won by Felice Gimondi of Italy Tour de France – Eddy Merckx of Belgium UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Harm Ottenbros of Netherlands Figure skating World Figure Skating Championships – Men's champion: Tim Wood, United States Ladies' champion: Gabrielle Seyfert, Germany Pair skating champions: Irina Rodnina & Alexei Ulanov, Soviet Union Ice dancing champions: Diane Towler & Bernard Ford, Great Britain Golf Men's professional Masters Tournament – George Archer U.S. Open – Orville Moody British Open – Tony Jacklin PGA Championship – Raymond Floyd PGA Tour money leader – Frank Beard – $164,707 Ryder Cup – United States and Britain tied 16 all in team golf. Men's amateur British Amateur – Michael Bonallack U.S. Amateur – Steve Melnyk Women's professional LPGA Championship – Betsy Rawls U.S. Women's Open – Donna Caponi LPGA Tour money leader – Carol Mann – $49,152 Harness racing United States Pacing Triple Crown races – Cane Pace – Kat Byrd Little Brown Jug – Laverne Hanover Messenger Stakes – Bye Bye Sam Lindy's Pride won the United States Trotting Triple Crown races – Hambletonian – Lindy's Pride Yonkers Trot – Lindy's Pride Kentucky Futurity – Lindy's Pride Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship – Pacers: Richmond Lass Horse racing February 11 – Diana Crump becomes first woman jockey to ride against men in USA racing February 22 – Barbara Jo Rubin becomes the first female winner of a USA race Steeplechases Cheltenham Gold Cup – What A Myth Grand National – Highland Wedding Flat races Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Rain Lover Canada – Queen's Plate won by Jumpin Joseph France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Levmoss Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Prince Regent English Triple Crown Races: 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Right Tack The Derby – Blakeney St. Leger Stakes – Intermezzo United States Triple Crown Races: Kentucky Derby – Majestic Prince Preakness Stakes – Majestic Prince Belmont Stakes – Arts and Letters Ice hockey Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Phil Esposito, Boston Bruins Hart Memorial Trophy – for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Phil Esposito, Boston Bruins Stanley Cup – Montreal Canadiens won 4 games to 0 over the St. Louis Blues World Hockey Championship Men's champion: Soviet Union defeated Sweden NCAA Men's Ice Hockey Championship – University of Denver Pioneers defeat Cornell University Big Red 4–3 in Colorado Springs, Colorado Goalie Karen Koch is signed to a professional contract with the Marquette Iron Rangers to become the first woman to play professional hockey in North America, if not the world. Motorsport Rugby league 1969–70 European Rugby League Championship 1969 New Zealand rugby league season 1969 NSWRFL season 1968–69 Northern Rugby Football League season / 1969–70 Northern Rugby Football League season Rugby union 75th Five Nations Championship series is won by Wales Snooker World Snooker Championship reverts to a knockout format. John Spencer beats Gary Owen 37-24 Tennis June 6 – death of Rafael Osuna, Mexican tennis player, in an air crash June 21 – death of Maureen Connolly (34), first winner of the women's Grand Slam Australian Rod Laver, one of only two men to ever win the Grand Slam in tennis wins it for the second time Grand Slam in tennis men's results: Australian Open – Rod Laver (Australia) French Open – Rod Laver Wimbledon championships – Rod Laver US Open – Rod Laver Grand Slam in tennis women's results: Australian Open – Margaret Court French Open – Margaret Court Wimbledon championships – Ann Haydon-Jones US Open – Margaret Court Davis Cup – United States wins 5–0 over Romania in world tennis. Awards ABC's Wide World of Sports Athlete of the Year: Mario Andretti, race car driver Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Tom Seaver, Major League Baseball Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Debbie Meyer, Swimming References Sports by year	[ 0.007953339256346226, 0.6048073768615723, -0.16081558167934418, -0.11579406261444092, -1.1014870405197144, -0.17074592411518097, 0.47239604592323303, 0.8915062546730042, -1.0220218896865845, -0.08386928588151932, -0.21427343785762787, 0.5412015914916992, -0.30112984776496887, 0.24062831699848175, -0.18360599875450134, 0.25659486651420593, 0.060072824358940125, -0.15973438322544098, 0.24746283888816833, -0.0486152283847332, 0.06279546767473221, 0.17960968613624573, -0.27862024307250977, -0.23492494225502014, -0.29801031947135925, -0.45891645550727844, 0.04753541201353073, 0.3946387767791748, 0.2137196958065033, -0.3802783787250519, 0.03774097189307213, -0.010300464928150177, 0.2925226390361786, 0.36889004707336426, 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225338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1839%20in%20sports	1839 in sports	1839 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. Boxing Events 12 February — William "Bendigo" Thompson defeats James Burke, who is disqualified for head butting. Jem Ward finally relinquishes his claim to the English Championship title and awards a championship belt to Bendigo. Bendigo suffers a serious knee injury while doing somersaults during a celebration and cannot fight again for several years. The English title is again disputed and claims to it are made by Burke, Ben Caunt and Nicholas Ward, brother of Jem Ward. Cricket Events 1 March — formation of Sussex County Cricket Club out of the Sussex Cricket Fund organisation that had been set up in 1836; Sussex is the oldest county club 10–11 June — Sussex CCC plays its inaugural first-class match versus Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) at Lord's England Most runs – Ned Wenman 332 @ 18.44 (HS 58) Most wickets – James Cobbett 85 (BB 8–?) Football Events A former Rugby School pupil, Albert Pell, begins organising football matches at Cambridge University. Because of the different school variations, a compromise set of rules has to be found and this is the origin of the famous Cambridge Rules that will be published in 1863. It is claimed that Barnes RFC is founded in 1839 but there is no actual evidence. If the claim is true, Barnes is the world's oldest football club (all codes). Horse racing Events The 1839 Grand National is acknowledged to be the first official running of the race, the three earlier races being termed the Great Liverpool Steeplechase England Grand National – Lottery 1,000 Guineas Stakes – Cara 2,000 Guineas Stakes – The Corsair The Derby – Bloomsbury The Oaks – Deception St. Leger Stakes – Charles XII Rowing The Boat Race 3 April — Cambridge wins the 3rd Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race Other events The first Henley Regatta is held on the River Thames by the town of Henley-on-Thames, England. From 1851 it will be the Henley Royal Regatta. The Detroit Boat Club is established on the Detroit River in Michigan. Eventually it will be the oldest sporting club in America. 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225339	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968%20in%20sports	1968 in sports	1968 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. Alpine skiing Alpine Skiing World Cup: Men's overall champion: Jean-Claude Killy, France Women's overall champion: Nancy Greene, Canada American football Super Bowl II – the Green Bay Packers (NFL) won 33–14 over the Oakland Raiders (AFL) Location: Miami Orange Bowl Attendance: 75,546 MVP: Bart Starr, QB (Green Bay) Rose Bowl (1967 season): The Southern California Trojans won 14–3 over the Indiana Hoosiers to win the college football national championship The Cincinnati Bengals were formed November 17 – The Oakland Raiders score two consecutive touchdowns in the last minute of the fourth quarter to beat the New York Jets 43–32, in the infamous "Heidi Game". O. J. Simpson, running back for the USC Trojans, was the overwhelming choice for the Heisman Trophy, with 2,853 points. Second was Leroy Keyes, running back for Purdue, with 1,103 points, followed by Terry Hanratty (QB-Notre Dame), Ted Kwalick (TE-Penn State) and Ted Hendricks (DE-Miami). Association football Brazil – First Division Champions: Botafogo FR England – First Division Champions: Manchester City F.C. England – FA Cup – West Bromwich Albion 1–0 Everton Scotland – First Division Champions: Celtic F.C. Scotland – Cup Winners: Dunfermline Athletic F.C. (defeated Heart of Midlothian 3–1) European Championship – Italy beat Yugoslavia 2–0 in a replay. The original final ended 1–1. Australian rules football Victorian Football League Carlton wins the 72nd VFL Premiership (Carlton 7.14 (56) d Essendon 8.5 (53)) Brownlow Medal awarded to Bob Skilton (South Melbourne) Baseball Kansas City Athletics move to Oakland, California to become the Oakland Athletics. January 23 – Joe Medwick is voted into the Baseball Hall of Fame. Medwick won the Triple Crown in 1937 and batted .300 in 14 of 17 seasons. January 28 – Goose Goslin and Kiki Cuyler are admitted to the Hall of Fame by unanimous vote of the Special Veterans Committee. Goslin was a career .316 hitter who played in four World Series. Cuyler was a .321 career hitter with four stolen base crowns. Denny McLain of the Detroit Tigers became the first pitcher in Major League Baseball to win 30 or more games since Dizzy Dean of the St. Louis Cardinals in 1934. Since McLain, no pitcher has accomplished that feat. Bob Gibson of the St. Louis Cardinals recorded a 1.12 Earned Run Average, a live-ball era record, as well as the major league record in 300 or more innings pitched. World Series – Detroit Tigers won 4 games to 3 over the St. Louis Cardinals. The Series MVP was Mickey Lolich, Detroit. June 24 – Jim Northrup of the Detroit Tigers hits grand slams in consecutive at-bats, 5th and 6th innings. Basketball NCAA Men's Basketball Championship – UCLA wins 78–55 over North Carolina 1968 NBA Finals\|NBA Finals – Boston Celtics won 4 games to 2 over the Los Angeles Lakers Phoenix Suns, one of National Basketball Association club representative, was founded in Arizona on January 22. Boxing May 8 – Bob Foster knocked out Dick Tiger in the fourth round to win the World Light-Heavyweight Championship. Canadian football Grey Cup – Ottawa Rough Riders won 24–21 over the Calgary Stampeders Vanier Cup – Queen's Golden Gaels won 42–14 over the Wilfrid Laurier Golden Hawks Cricket January 31 – Australia secure victory in the Fourth Test match versus India and win the series 4–0 August 27 – England win the final Test match at The Oval against Australia to tie the series 1–1. Australia retain The Ashes August 28 – Basil D'Oliveira is excluded from the MCC South African tour side leading to turmoil in the world of cricket. Cycling Giro d'Italia won by Eddy Merckx of Belgium Tour de France – Jan Janssen of the Netherlands UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Vittorio Adorni of Italy Field hockey Olympic Games (Men's Competition) in Mexico City, Mexico Gold Medal: Pakistan Silver Medal: Australia Bronze Medal: India March 9 – In an international women's field hockey match at Wembley Stadium, England. England beat the Netherlands 1–0. Figure skating World Figure Skating Championships – Men's champion: Emmerich Dänzer, Austria Ladies' champion: Peggy Fleming, United States Pair skating champions: Ludmila Belousova & Oleg Protopopov, Soviet Union Ice dancing champions: Diane Towler & Bernard Ford, Great Britain Golf Men's professional Masters Tournament – Bob Goalby wins after Roberto DeVicenzo makes on a score card error. DeVicenzo writes a 4 instead of the 3 on the 17th hole. U.S. Open – Lee Trevino became the first golfer to shoot in the 60s in every round of the U.S. Open. British Open – Gary Player PGA Championship – Julius Boros PGA Tour money leader – Billy Casper – $205,169 Men's amateur British Amateur – Michael Bonallack U.S. Amateur – Bruce Fleisher Women's professional Women's Western Open – discontinued LPGA Championship – Sandra Post became the youngest golfer to ever win an LPGA major tournament by capturing the LPGA Championship. U.S. Women's Open – Susie Berning Titleholders Championship – not played LPGA Tour money leader – Kathy Whitworth – $48,379 Horse racing Steeplechases Cheltenham Gold Cup – Fort Leney Grand National – Red Alligator Flat races Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Royal Parma Canada – Queen's Plate won by Merger France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Vaguely Noble Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Ribero English Triple Crown Races: 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Sir Ivor The Derby – Sir Ivor St. Leger Stakes – Ribero United States Triple Crown Races: Kentucky Derby – Forward Pass Preakness Stakes – Forward Pass Belmont Stakes – Stage Door Johnny Ice hockey January 15 – death of Bill Masterton, Canadian ice hockey player, as a result of injury sustained during a game Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Stan Mikita, Chicago Black Hawks Hart Memorial Trophy – for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Stan Mikita, Chicago Black Hawks Stanley Cup – Montreal Canadiens win four games to none over the St. Louis Blues World Hockey Championship Men's champion: Soviet Union defeated Czechoslovakia NCAA Men's Ice Hockey Championship – University of Denver Pioneers defeat University of North Dakota Fighting Sioux 4–0 in Duluth, Minnesota Motorsport Rugby league 1968 New Zealand rugby league season 1968 NSWRFL season premiers: South Sydney DRLFC 1967–68 Northern Rugby Football League season / 1968–69 Northern Rugby Football League season 1968 Rugby League World Cup winners: Australia Rugby union 74th Five Nations Championship series is won by France who complete the Grand Slam Snooker World Snooker Championship challenge match: John Pulman beats Eddie Charlton 39–34 Swimming XIX Olympic Games, held in Mexico City (October 17 – October 26) Tennis Australia Australian Men's Singles Championship – William Bowrey (Australia) defeats Juan Gisbert Juan Gisbert, Sr. (Spain) 7–5, 2–6, 9–7, 6–4 Australian Women's Singles Championship – Billie Jean King (USA) defeats Margaret Smith Court (Australia) 6–1, 6–2 England Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Rod Laver (Australia) defeats Tony Roche (Australia) 6–3, 6–4, 6–2 Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Billie Jean King (USA) defeats Judy Tegart Dalton (Australia) 9–7, 7–5 France French Men's Singles Championship – French Women's Singles Championship – USA American Men's Singles Championship – American Women's Singles Championship – Events The "open era" in tennis begins, as all the Grand Slam events open to professionals for the first time Davis Cup 1968 Davis Cup – 4–1 at Memorial Drive Tennis Centre (grass) Adelaide, Australia Multi-sport events 1968 Winter Olympics takes place in Grenoble, France (Feb 6 - Feb 18) Norway wins the most medals (14), and the most gold medals (6) 1968 Summer Olympics takes place in Mexico City, Mexico (Oct 12 - Oct 27) United States wins the most medals (107), and the most gold medals (45) Fifth Winter Universiade held in Innsbruck, Austria Awards Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Denny McLain, Major League Baseball Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Peggy Fleming, Figure skating Births February 3 – Vlade Divac, Yugoslav and Serbian basketball player February 5 – David Flores, Mexican jockey March 22 – Javier Castillejo, Spanish boxer April 19 – Fernando Marroquin, Guatemalan Olympic swimmer August 6 – Olga Markova, Russian long-distance runner December 18 – Mark Cooper, English footballer Deaths April 7 - Jim Clark, 32, racecar driver June 9 – Ronnie Duman, 39, US racecar driver (crashed while competing in the Rex Mays 150) September 30 – Johan Nyström, 94, Swedish Olympic athlete References Sports by year	[ 0.10012460500001907, 0.7681941390037537, -0.2789185643196106, 0.04949651286005974, -1.0674959421157837, -0.28421831130981445, 0.6414739489555359, 0.6466007232666016, -1.0961413383483887, -0.09172440320253372, -0.24048957228660583, 0.3359519839286804, -0.11445759236812592, 0.49954813718795776, -0.10540798306465149, 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225340	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967%20in%20sports	1967 in sports	1967 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. Alpine skiing The first Alpine Skiing World Cup is organised for the three ski events: Downhill, Slalom and Giant Slalom: Men's overall champion: Jean-Claude Killy, France Women's overall champion: Nancy Greene, Canada American football January 15 − Super Bowl I: the Green Bay Packers (NFL) won 35−10 over the Kansas City Chiefs (AFL) Location: Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Attendance: 61,946 MVP: Bart Starr, QB (Green Bay) December 31 – Green Bay Packers defeat Dallas Cowboys 21-17 for the 1967 NFL Championship in a now-legendary game at Lambeau Field known as the Ice Bowl to advance to Super Bowl II in Jan. 1968 Oakland Raiders defeat the Houston Oilers 40-7 for the 1967 American Football League Championship to advance to Super Bowl II in Jan. 1968 The New Orleans Saints are formed. Association football European Cup Celtic win the European Cup Final 2–1 against Internazionale in Lisbon, earning the team the nickname of the Lisbon Lions. The team also won the Scottish League Championship and Scottish Cup and the Scottish league Cup, thus becoming the first team to complete a domestic and European quadruple. England FA Cup final – Tottenham Hotspur 2-1 Chelsea Athletics August – Athletics at the 1967 Pan American Games held at Winnipeg Australian rules football Victorian Football League Richmond wins the 71st VFL Premiership (Richmond 16.18 (114) d Geelong 15.15 (105)) Brownlow Medal awarded to Ross Smith (St Kilda) Bandy 1967 Bandy World Championship is held in Finland and won by . Baseball World Series – St. Louis Cardinals win 4 games to 3 over the Boston Red Sox. The series MVP is pitcher Bob Gibson of St. Louis. October – The Kansas City Athletics become the Oakland Athletics for the 1968 season. Basketball NCAA University Division Basketball Tournament – UCLA wins 79–64 over Dayton. This would be the first of a record seven consecutive titles for the Bruins. NBA Finals – Philadelphia 76ers won 4 games to 2 over the San Francisco Warriors. FIBA World Championship Champions: USSR The American Basketball Association begins play as a rival league to the NBA. Boxing May 9 – Muhammad Ali was stripped of his World Heavyweight Champion titles and was banned from boxing by the various commissions for his refusal to be inducted into the United States Army. October 27 – death of Robert Carmody (29), American boxer, in the Vietnam War Canadian football Grey Cup – Hamilton Tiger-Cats won 24–1 over the Saskatchewan Roughriders Vanier Cup – Alberta Golden Bears win 10–9 over the McMaster Marauders Cycling July 30 – death of Valentín Uriona (26), Spanish road racing cyclist, following a crash during a race Giro d'Italia won by Felice Gimondi of Italy Tour de France – Roger Pingeon of France UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Eddy Merckx of Belgium Field hockey Pan American Games (Men's Competition) in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada Gold Medal: Argentina Silver Medal: Trinidad & Tobago Bronze Medal: United States March 11 – In an international women's field-hockey match at Wembley Stadium, England. England beat Ireland 7–1. Figure skating World Figure Skating Championships – Men's champion: Emmerich Dänzer, Austria Ladies' champion: Peggy Fleming, United States Pair skating champions: Ludmila Belousova & Oleg Protopopov, Soviet Union Ice dancing champions: Diane Towler & Bernard Ford, Great Britain Golf Men's professional Masters Tournament – Gay Brewer U.S. Open – Jack Nicklaus British Open – Roberto DeVicenzo PGA Championship – Don January PGA Tour money leader – Jack Nicklaus – $188,998 Ryder Cup – United States wins 23½ to 8½ over Britain in team golf. Men's amateur British Amateur – Bob Dickson U.S. Amateur – Bob Dickson Women's professional Women's Western Open – Kathy Whitworth LPGA Championship – Kathy Whitworth U.S. Women's Open – Catherine Lacoste Titleholders Championship – not played LPGA Tour money leader – Kathy Whitworth – $32,937 Harness racing United States Pacing Triple Crown races – Cane Pace – Meadow Paige Little Brown Jug – Best Of All Messenger Stakes – Romulus Hanover United States Trotting Triple Crown races – Hambletonian – Speedy Streak Yonkers Trot Kentucky Futurity Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship – Pacers: Binshaw Horse racing Steeplechases Cheltenham Gold Cup – Woodland Venture Grand National – Foinavon Flat races Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Red Handed Canada – Queen's Plate won by Jammed Lovely France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Topyo Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Ribocco English Triple Crown Races: 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Royal Palace The Derby – Royal Palace St. Leger Stakes – Ribocco United States Triple Crown Races: Kentucky Derby – Proud Clarion Preakness Stakes – Damascus Belmont Stakes – Damascus Ice hockey Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Stan Mikita, Chicago Black Hawks Hart Memorial Trophy – for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Stan Mikita, Chicago Black Hawks Stanley Cup – Toronto Maple Leafs won 4 games to 2 over the Montreal Canadiens World Hockey Championship Men's champion: Soviet Union defeated Sweden NCAA Men's Ice Hockey Championship – Cornell University Big Red defeat Boston University Terriers 4–1 in Syracuse, New York The NHL adds six new teams for the 1967–68 season. Lacrosse The inaugural World Lacrosse Championship is held in Toronto, Ontario. The United States win, and Australia is the runner-up. The Vancouver Carlings win the Mann Cup. The Elora Mohawks win the Castrol Cup. The Oshawa Green Gaels win the Minto Cup Motorsport Radiosport Fifth Amateur Radio Direction Finding European Championship held in Cervena, Czechoslovakia. Rugby league 1967 New Zealand rugby league season 1967 NSWRFL season 1966–67 Northern Rugby Football League season / 1967–68 Northern Rugby Football League season 17 December – first Sunday play in professional rugby league. Rugby union 73rd Five Nations Championship series is won by France Snooker No World Snooker Championship challenge matches. John Pulman remains world champion Swimming July 26 – American swimmer Mark Spitz breaks Kevin Berry's nearly three-year-old world record in the men's 200m butterfly (long course) at the Pan American Games in Winnipeg, Manitoba, with a time of 2:06.4. August 30 – John Ferris captures the world record from fellow-American Mark Spitz in the men's 200m butterfly (long course) by swimming 2:06.0 at a meet in Tokyo, Japan. October 8 – Mark Spitz regains his world record in the men's 200m butterfly (long course) at a meet in West Berlin, West Germany, clocking 2:05.7. Tennis Australia Australian Men's Singles Championship – Roy Emerson (Australia) defeats Arthur Ashe (USA) 6–4, 6–1, 6–4 Australian Women's Singles Championship – Nancy Richey (USA) defeats Lesley Turner Bowrey (Australia) 6–1, 6–4 England Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – John Newcombe (Australia) defeats Wilhelm Bungert (West Germany) 6–3, 6–1, 6–1 Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Billie Jean King (USA) defeats Ann Haydon-Jones (Great Britain) 6–3, 6–4 France French Men's Singles Championship – French Women's Singles Championship – USA American Men's Singles Championship – American Women's Singles Championship – Davis Cup 1967 Davis Cup – 4–1 at Milton Courts (grass) Brisbane, Australia Volleyball 1967 Men's European Volleyball Championship won by the USSR 1967 Women's European Volleyball Championship won by the USSR Volleyball at the 1967 Pan American Games won by USA (both men's and women's tournaments) Water sports January 4 – death of Donald Campbell (45), British land and water speed record holder, who was trying to extend the record on Coniston Water, Cumbria Yacht racing The New York Yacht Club retains the America's Cup as Intrepid defeats Australian challenger Dame Pattie, of the Royal Sydney Yacht Squadron, 4 races to 1 Multi-sport events Fifth Pan American Games held in Winnipeg, Canada Fifth Mediterranean Games held in Tunis, Tunisia Fifth Summer Universiade held in Tokyo, Japan Awards Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Carl Yastrzemski, Major League Baseball Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Billie Jean King, Tennis References Sports by year	[ 0.19472499191761017, 0.8077799081802368, -0.26501062512397766, -0.0914803296327591, -1.1586170196533203, -0.345113068819046, 0.5743294954299927, 0.6608734726905823, -1.2373263835906982, 0.14175482094287872, -0.3185541331768036, 0.40888306498527527, -0.1475204974412918, 0.5692407488822937, -0.09089809656143188, 0.14732615649700165, 0.01145349070429802, -0.1590142697095871, 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225341	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1840%20in%20sports	1840 in sports	1840 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. Boxing Events 22 September — James Burke meets Nicholas Ward at Lillingstone Level for the English Championship title, vacant again following the injury to William "Bendigo" Thompson. In highly controversial circumstances, Ward's backers prevail upon the referee to disqualify Burke in the 17th round for an alleged foul. The third contender Ben Caunt enhances his title claim by defeating Bill Brassey in a fight lasting 101 rounds. This victory sets up a bout with Ward the following year. Cricket Events William Lillywhite's tally of 83 wickets is the highest known season total to date England Most runs – Charles Hawkins 274 @ 14.42 (HS 58) Most wickets – William Lillywhite 83 (BB 8–?) Curling Establishment of the original Detroit Curling Club, substantially reorganised in 1885 Horse racing England Grand National – Jerry 1,000 Guineas Stakes – Crucifix 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Crucifix The Derby – Little Wonder The Oaks – Crucifix St. Leger Stakes – Launcelot Rowing The Boat Race 15 April — Cambridge wins the 4th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race References Sports by year	[ -0.09758994728326797, 0.48070937395095825, -0.8429468274116516, -0.043586015701293945, -0.5516304969787598, 0.07414638251066208, 1.051261305809021, 0.812460720539093, -0.8694615960121155, -0.8369789719581604, 0.2090160995721817, -0.29223763942718506, -0.32336679100990295, 0.5217673182487488, -0.21814431250095367, 0.6520748734474182, 0.024985186755657196, -0.15135842561721802, 0.0875542163848877, 0.09736606478691101, -0.37854644656181335, 0.25198349356651306, 0.3307889997959137, -0.2864205539226532, -0.05090433731675148, -1.1455950736999512, 0.139104962348938, 0.09417348355054855, 0.056217171251773834, 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225342	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1841%20in%20sports	1841 in sports	1841 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. Boxing Events 2 February — Ben Caunt fights Nicholas Ward at Crookham Common for the Championship of England. As in Ward's fight with Burke a few months earlier, there is controversy as the referee is again forced by Ward's backers to rule in his favour. The referee disqualifies Caunt in the 7th round for allegedly striking Ward when he is down. Caunt insists he did no such thing and, as in the Burke fight, Ward's backers are accused of fixing the result. 11 May — return bout between Caunt and Ward is won fairly by Caunt who knocks out Ward in the 35th round. Caunt is now the undisputed English champion, especially as Ward announces his retirement. 9 September — Tom Hyer is acclaimed the first American Champion after defeating George McChester at Caldwell's Landing, New York, over 101 rounds. 10 September — Ben Caunt goes to America hoping to arrange a fight with Tom Hyer which would decide an inaugural World Championship. However, Hyer declines to fight Caunt. Cricket Events Formal creation of Nottinghamshire County Cricket Club based on the old Nottingham Cricket Club England Most runs – Fuller Pilch 413 @ 25.81 (HS 67) Most wickets – Alfred Mynn 94 (BB 7–?) Football Events Rugby School is definitely playing a handling game by this time Horse racing England Grand National – Charity 1,000 Guineas Stakes – Potentia 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Ralph The Derby – Coronation The Oaks – Ghuznee St. Leger Stakes – Satirist Rowing The Boat Race 14 April — Cambridge wins the 5th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race References Sports by year	[ 0.09983592480421066, 0.3844960033893585, -1.0995441675186157, -0.17610400915145874, -0.8024834990501404, -0.0012033344246447086, 1.0202312469482422, 0.8540784120559692, -0.8660139441490173, -0.6847971677780151, 0.3165772259235382, -0.37139567732810974, -0.3569682538509369, 0.5548132658004761, -0.3738057613372803, 0.5665456652641296, 0.01367960311472416, -0.4120720624923706, 0.39744627475738525, 0.15927353501319885, -0.07467058300971985, 0.35519224405288696, 0.22132958471775055, -0.2536833882331848, 0.07246050238609314, -1.0927776098251343, 0.1500154286623001, 0.15758192539215088, 0.034683629870414734, -0.4770776629447937, 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225343	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966%20in%20sports	1966 in sports	1966 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. Alpine skiing FIS Alpine World Ski Championships – Men's combined champion: Jean-Claude Killy, France Women's combined champion: Marielle Goitschel, France American football Orange Bowl (1965 season): The Alabama Crimson Tide won 39–28 over the Nebraska Cornhuskers to win the AP Poll national championship after the previous #1 ranked Michigan State Spartans lost in the Rose Bowl and the #2 ranked Arkansas Razorbacks lost in the Cotton Bowl. This was the first time the AP conducted its final rankings at the conclusion of the postseason bowl games. June 8: The AFL and NFL reach an agreement to merge as equals into one league under the NFL name, to take effect with the 1970 season. AFL Championship – Kansas City Chiefs won 31–7 over the Buffalo Bills to advance to Super Bowl I in Jan. 1967 NFL Championship – Green Bay Packers won 34–27 over the Dallas Cowboys to advance to Super Bowl I in Jan. 1967 Each of the two existing top-level professional leagues added a new team for the 1966 season. The Atlanta Falcons joined the NFL, and the Miami Dolphins joined the AFL. 1966 NCAA University Division football season: November 19 – The top-ranked Notre Dame Fighting Irish and the second-ranked Michigan State Spartans play to a 10–10 tie; Notre Dame retains its No. 1 ranking in the polls and are later named AP ansd UPI national champions. Artistic gymnastics World Artistic Gymnastics Championships Men's all-around champion: Mikhail Voronin, USSR Women's all-around champion: Men's team competition champion: Japan Women's team competition champion: Czechoslovakia Association football England FA Cup final – Everton win 3–2 against Sheffield Wednesday International World Cup – England defeats Germany to win the 1966 World Cup Final. FIFA decide to give the right to host the 1974 FIFA World Cup, 1978 FIFA World Cup and 1982 Football World Cup to West Germany, Argentina and Spain respectively Athletics July 17 – American runner Jim Ryun sets a new world record for the mile at 3:51.3 August – 1966 Commonwealth Games held at Kingston, Jamaica September – 1966 European Championships in Athletics held at Budapest December – 1966 Asian Games held at Bangkok Australian rules football Victorian Football League St Kilda wins the 70th VFL Premiership (St Kilda 10.14 (74) d Collingwood 10.13 (73)) Brownlow Medal awarded to Ian Stewart (St Kilda) Baseball Milwaukee Braves move to Atlanta, Georgia and become the Atlanta Braves. January 20 – The BBWAA elects Ted Williams to the Hall of Fame. Williams, the last batter to hit .400, receives 282 of a possible 302 votes. Roberto Clemente is the National League MVP. Frank Robinson is the American League MVP. Sandy Koufax of the Los Angeles Dodgers is the Major League Baseball Cy Young Award Tommie Agee of the Chicago White Sox is the American League MLB Rookie of the Year award Tommy Helms of the Cincinnati Red is the National League MLB Rookie of the Year award Ted Williams is inducted into Baseball Hall of Fame. World Series – Baltimore Orioles win 4 games to 0 over the Los Angeles Dodgers. Series MVP: Frank Robinson, Baltimore College World Series – Ohio State defeats Oklahoma State 8–2 at Johnny Rosenblatt Stadium. Ohio State pitcher Steve Arlin is named tournament Most Outstanding Player Basketball NCAA University Division Basketball Championship – Texas Western wins 72–65 over Kentucky NBA Finals – Boston Celtics won 4 games to 3 over the Los Angeles Lakers. This would be the last of the Celtics' record eight straight NBA titles. NBA MVP – Philadelphia 76ers center Wilt Chamberlain A first season of Basketball Bundesliga was held in Germany on October 1. A first Basketball Super League of Turkey games was held on December 13, replace from three regional (Istanbul, Ankara and Izmir) basketball league were merger. An NBA club, Chicago Bulls was founded in Illinois, United States on January 16. Boxing March 29, Muhammad Ali defeats George Chuvalo in a 15-round unanimous decision April 25 at New York City, World Welterweight Champion Emile Griffith won a 15-round unanimous decision over Dick Tiger to also become the World Middleweight Champion. May 21 Muhammad Ali defeats Henry Cooper with a 6th-round TKO August 6 Muhammad Ali defeats Brian London with a 3rd-round KO September 10 Muhammad Ali defeats Karl Mildenberger with a 12th-round TKO November 14, Muhammad Ali knocks out Cleveland Williams in three rounds to retain the WBC heavyweight title. Canadian football Grey Cup – Saskatchewan Roughriders win 29–14 over the Ottawa Rough Riders Vanier Cup – St. Francis Xavier X-Men win 40–14 over the Wilfrid Laurier Golden Hawks Cycling Giro d'Italia won by Gianni Motta of Italy Tour de France – Lucien Aimar of France Vuelta a España – Francisco Gabica of Spain UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Rudi Altig of Germany Figure skating World Figure Skating Championships – Men's champion: Emmerich Dänzer, Austria Ladies' champion: Peggy Fleming, United States Pair skating champions: Ludmila Belousova & Oleg Protopopov, Soviet Union Ice dancing champions: Diane Towler & Bernard Ford, Great Britain Golf July 24 – Tony Lema (32), American golf champion, died in an air crash at Munster, Indiana Men's professional Masters Tournament – Jack Nicklaus U.S. Open – Billy Casper British Open – Jack Nicklaus becomes the fourth player to win all four major professional championships. PGA Championship – Al Geiberger PGA Tour money leader – Billy Casper – $121,945 Men's amateur British Amateur – Bobby Cole U.S. Amateur – Gary Cowan Women's professional Women's Western Open – Mickey Wright LPGA Championship – Gloria Ehret U.S. Women's Open – Sandra Spuzich Titleholders Championship – Kathy Whitworth LPGA Tour money leader – Kathy Whitworth – $33,517 Harness racing Romeo Hanover wins the United States Pacing Triple Crown races – Cane Pace – Romeo Hanover Little Brown Jug – Romeo Hanover Messenger Stakes – Romeo Hanover United States Trotting Triple Crown races – Hambletonian – Kerry Way Yonkers Trot – Polaris Kentucky Futurity – Governor Armbro Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship – Pacers: Chamfer Star Trotters: Yamamoto Horse racing Steeplechases Cheltenham Gold Cup – Arkle Grand National – Anglo Flat races Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Galilee Canada – Queen's Plate won by Titled Hero France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Bon Mot Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Sodium English Triple Crown Races: 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Kashmir The Derby – Charlottown St. Leger Stakes – Sodium United States Triple Crown Races: Kentucky Derby – Kauai King Preakness Stakes – Kauai King Belmont Stakes – Amberoid Ice hockey Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Bobby Hull, Chicago Black Hawks Hart Memorial Trophy – for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Bobby Hull, Chicago Black Hawks Stanley Cup – Montreal Canadiens won 4–2 over the Detroit Red Wings World Hockey Championship Men's champion: Soviet Union defeated Czechoslovakia NCAA Men's Ice Hockey Championship – Michigan State University Spartans defeat Clarkson University Golden Knights 6–1 in Minneapolis Motorsport Orienteering First Orienteering World Championships held 1–2 October in Fiskars, Finland. Rugby league 1966 New Zealand rugby league season 1966 NSWRFL season 1965–66 Northern Rugby Football League season / 1966–67 Northern Rugby Football League season Rugby union 72nd Five Nations Championship series is won by Wales Snooker World Snooker Championship challenge match: John Pulman beats Fred Davis 5–2 in matches. Speed skating January 4 – death of Inga Artamonova (29), Russian world speed-skating champion, who was murdered by her husband Tennis Australia Australian Men's Singles Championship – Roy Emerson (Australia) defeats Arthur Ashe (USA) 6–4, 6–8, 6–2, 6–3 Australian Women's Singles Championship – Margaret Smith Court (Australia) defeats Nancy Richey (USA) walkover England Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Manuel Santana (Spain) defeats Dennis Ralston (USA) 6–4, 11–9, 6–4 Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Billie Jean King (USA) defeats Maria Bueno (Brazil) 6–3, 3–6, 6–1 France French Men's Singles Championship – Tony Roche defeats István Gulyás 6–1, 6–4, 7–5 French Women's Singles Championship – USA American Men's Singles Championship – Tournament did not start until 1968 American Women's Singles Championship – Tournament did not start until 1968 Davis Cup 1966 Davis Cup – 4–1 at Kooyong Stadium (grass) Melbourne, Australia Volleyball 1966 FIVB Men's World Championship in Prague won by Czechoslovakia Multi-sport events Asian Games held in Bangkok, Thailand 1966 British Empire and Commonwealth Games held in Kingston, Jamaica Central American and Caribbean Games held in San Juan, Puerto Rico Fourth Winter Universiade held in Sestriere, Italy Awards Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Frank Robinson, Major League Baseball Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Kathy Whitworth, LPGA golf References Sports by year	[ 0.16038325428962708, 0.7957218289375305, -0.327357679605484, 0.031337302178144455, -1.0188771486282349, -0.26366814970970154, 0.5841209888458252, 0.5931664705276489, -1.325668454170227, -0.018008338287472725, -0.2919588088989258, 0.2573931813240051, -0.15374261140823364, 0.6454506516456604, -0.20585232973098755, 0.318768173456192, 0.04596484452486038, -0.046375736594200134, 0.24509352445602417, 0.12842145562171936, 0.2536843717098236, 0.1423327475786209, -0.2498166859149933, -0.17393413186073303, -0.27276694774627686, 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225344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1842%20in%20sports	1842 in sports	1842 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. Boxing Events William "Bendigo" Thompson contemplates a comeback but no one will challenge Ben Caunt for his English Championship. Cricket Events 6 August — formation of the original Kent County Cricket Club in Canterbury (it will be reformed as the present club in 1859). 25, 26 & 27 August — the new Kent CCC plays its inaugural first-class match v. All-England at the White Hart Ground, Bromley England Most runs – Nicholas Felix 406 @ 31.23 (HS 88) Most wickets – William Hillyer 127 @ 13.42 (BB 8–?) Horse racing England Grand National – Gaylad 1,000 Guineas Stakes – Firebrand 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Meteor The Derby – Attila The Oaks – Our Nell St. Leger Stakes – Blue Bonnet Rowing The Boat Race 11 June — Oxford wins the 6th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race Other events The first American collegiate rowing club is established at Yale University on the Thames River (Connecticut) References Sports by year	[ 0.20456774532794952, 0.7174047231674194, -0.9478955864906311, -0.11817081272602081, -0.7640820741653442, -0.08620963990688324, 1.1451081037521362, 0.7265529632568359, -0.7254737019538879, -0.6908553838729858, 0.15289387106895447, -0.42959216237068176, -0.21632875502109528, 0.4672015607357025, -0.3557404577732086, 0.5037795901298523, 0.07906672358512878, -0.20895496010780334, 0.3199408948421478, 0.19355344772338867, -0.22681240737438202, 0.25820720195770264, 0.29035472869873047, -0.26894471049308777, 0.06254403293132782, -1.0315862894058228, 0.11215250939130783, 0.19707539677619934, 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225345	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1845%20in%20sports	1845 in sports	1845 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. Baseball Events 23 September — formal organisation of the Knickerbocker Base Ball Club or New York Knickerbockers, initiated by Alexander Joy Cartwright, including adoption of twenty rules. Fourteen of the club rules are the earliest known written rules for playing baseball 22 October — New York Morning News publishes the first known box score for a baseball game, played at Elysian Fields, Hoboken, New Jersey in Hoboken, New Jersey Boxing Events 9 September — William "Bendigo" Thompson finally returns to the ring after recovery from his serious knee injury. He fights Ben Caunt at Stony Stratford for the Championship of England and is victorious after 93 rounds when Caunt is disqualified for going down without having been struck. Caunt denies the accusation and announces his retirement, leaving Bendigo as undisputed champion. Cricket Events 21 & 22 August — the present Surrey County Cricket Club is formed at a meeting which takes place at the new Kennington Oval during a match between two local teams England Most runs – Fuller Pilch 569 @ 21.07 (HS 117) Most wickets – William Hillyer 174 @ 12.30 (BB 8–30) Football Events Written version of Rugby School football rules which allow the ball to be carried and passed by hand. These rules are the earliest that are definitely known to have been written. They are a major step in the evolution of rugby league and rugby union; not to mention Australian rules football, American football, Gaelic football, etc. The Rugby School rules make a clear distinction between the "handling" game and the "dribbling" game. Dribbling is running with the ball at one's feet. Although Eton College rules allow the ball to be touched and controlled by hand, they do not allow running with the ball in the hand or passing of the ball by hand. So, whereas Rugby School has effectively created the first "handling game" rules, Eton could have created the earliest rules of the "dribbling game". Introduction of referees at Eton. Linesmen at the time are called umpires. Horse racing England Grand National – Cure-All 1,000 Guineas Stakes – Picnic 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Idas The Derby – The Merry Monarch The Oaks – Refraction St. Leger Stakes – The Baron Rowing The Boat Race 15 March — Cambridge wins the 7th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race, a revival of the race last contested in 1842 References Sports by year	[ 0.18460288643836975, 0.5678912401199341, -0.829288125038147, -0.10402673482894897, -0.5788695216178894, 0.04971270635724068, 0.9222864508628845, 0.8701071739196777, -1.013117790222168, -0.6960210204124451, 0.24446454644203186, -0.329523503780365, -0.40081965923309326, 0.5377399325370789, -0.273152232170105, 0.6170949935913086, 0.10080976784229279, -0.11535570025444031, 0.2389514148235321, 0.048130862414836884, -0.15206333994865417, 0.40722084045410156, 0.1427558958530426, -0.20965561270713806, -0.10924950987100601, -0.805436372756958, -0.11510167270898819, -0.08820420503616333, 0.20666815340518951, -0.32148534059524536, 0.21269191801548004, 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225346	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1846%20in%20sports	1846 in sports	1846 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. Baseball Events 19 June — first match certainly played under the Knickerbocker rules at Elysian Fields in Hoboken, New Jersey. Boxing Events William Thompson retains the Championships of England but there is no record of any fights involving him in 1846. Cricket Events 25 & 26 May — the earliest-known first-class match at The Oval was Surrey Club v. MCC 25 & 26 June — the new Surrey County Cricket Club played its inaugural first-class match v. Kent County Cricket Club at The Oval, winning by 10 wickets Foundation of the travelling All-England Eleven (AEE) by William Clarke. Making good use of the developing railway network, the team plays its first matches at Sheffield, Manchester and Leeds. England Most runs – Thomas Box 413 @ 20.65 (HS 79) Most wickets – William Hillyer 152 @ 6.83 (BB 7–?) Horse racing England Grand National – Pioneer 1,000 Guineas Stakes – Mendicant 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Sir Tatton Sykes The Derby – Pyrrhus the First The Oaks – Mendicant St. Leger Stakes – Sir Tatton Sykes Rowing The Boat Race 3 April — Cambridge wins the 8th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race References External links Sports by year	[ 0.3473833203315735, 0.7475364804267883, -0.578238844871521, -0.10534507036209106, -0.8332152962684631, -0.17792031168937683, 0.8524097204208374, 0.7605670094490051, -0.965207040309906, -0.454781711101532, 0.044488824903964996, -0.3486720621585846, -0.2671886384487152, 0.6064330339431763, -0.22954992949962616, 0.49650588631629944, -0.08988970518112183, 0.06191064789891243, 0.2220115065574646, 0.09173329919576645, -0.14110034704208374, 0.2684279680252075, 0.26192599534988403, -0.2834169566631317, -0.1701594889163971, -0.7023016810417175, -0.049047861248254776, -0.28814470767974854, -0.09929860383272171, -0.5071540474891663, 0.16443514823913574, 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225347	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1965%20in%20sports	1965 in sports	1965 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. American football NFL Championship: the Green Bay Packers won 23–12 over the Cleveland Browns at Lambeau Field The game was pushed to January 2, 1966, due to a Western Conference tie–breaker (Green Bay 13, Baltimore 10) on December 26, 1965 Orange Bowl (1964 season): The Alabama Crimson Tide lose 21–17 to the Texas Longhorns; still named AP & UPI national champions AFL Championship – Buffalo Bills win 23–0 over the San Diego Chargers Association football England FA Cup final – Liverpool won 2-1 (aet) versus Leeds United Australian rules football Victorian Football League Essendon wins the 69th VFL Premiership (Essendon 14.21 (105) d St Kilda 9.16 (70)) Brownlow Medal awarded to Ian Stewart (St Kilda) and Noel Teasdale (North Melbourne) Bandy 1965 Bandy World Championship is won by host nation . Baseball Houston Colt .45's change name to Houston Astros, and Los Angeles Angels change name to California Angels. World Series – Los Angeles Dodgers win 4 games to 3 over the Minnesota Twins Venezuelan professional baseball club, Tigres de Aragua officially founded in Maracay on October 15. Basketball NCAA Men's Basketball Championship – UCLA Bruins win 91–80 over the Michigan Wolverines NBA Finals – Boston Celtics win 4 games to 1 over the Los Angeles Lakers Taca Brasil de Basquete, as predecessor for Campeonato Brasileiro de Basquete, a first official game held on November 26 in Brazil. Boxing March 30 – José Torres won the Light Heavyweight Championship of the World, stopping Willie Pastrano in nine rounds, at New York City's Madison Square Garden. Canadian football Grey Cup – Hamilton Tiger-Cats win 22–16 over the Winnipeg Blue Bombers Vanier Cup – Toronto Varsity Blues win 14–7 over the Alberta Golden Bears Canadian Junior Championship – Notre-Dame-de-Grace Maple Leafs win 2–1 over the Edmonton Huskies Cricket Imperial Cricket Conference is renamed to International Cricket Conference and new rules are adopted to permit the election of countries from outside the Commonwealth of Nations. Cue sports (pool, snooker, carom billiards) The World Five-pins Championship is inaugurated in Santa Fé, Argentina – Manuel Gomez (of Argentina) takes the title. Cycling Giro d'Italia won by Vittorio Adorni of Italy Tour de France – Felice Gimondi of Italy UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Tom Simpson of Great Britain Field Hockey March 13 – In an international women's field hockey match at Wembley Stadium, England. South Africa beat England 2–1. Figure skating World Figure Skating Championships Men's champion: Alain Calmat, France Ladies' champion: Petra Burka, Canada Pair skating champions: Ludmila Belousova & Oleg Protopopov, Soviet Union Ice dancing champions: Eva Romanová & Pavel Roman, Czechoslovakia Golf Men's professional Masters Tournament – Jack Nicklaus shoots a Masters record 271 (17 under par) to win by nine strokes. U.S. Open – Gary Player becomes the third golfer in history to win all four professional majors. British Open – Peter Thomson PGA Championship – Dave Marr PGA Tour money leader – Jack Nicklaus – $140,752 Ryder Cup – United States wins 19½ to 12½ over Britain in team golf. Men's amateur British Amateur – Michael Bonallack U.S. Amateur – Bob Murphy Women's professional Women's Western Open – Susie Maxwell LPGA Championship – Sandra Haynie U.S. Women's Open – Carol Mann Titleholders Championship – Kathy Whitworth LPGA Tour money leader – Kathy Whitworth – $28,658 Harness racing Bret Hanover wins the United States Pacing Triple Crown races – Cane Pace – Bret Hanover Little Brown Jug – Bret Hanover Messenger Stakes – Bret Hanover United States Trotting Triple Crown races – Hambletonian – Egyptian Candor Yonkers Trot – Noble Victory Kentucky Futurity – Armbro Flight Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship – Pacers: Jay Ar Trotters: Poupette Horse racing Steeplechases Cheltenham Gold Cup – Arkle Grand National – Jay Trump Flat races Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Light Fingers Canada – Queen's Plate won by Whistling Sea France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Sea Bird Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Meadow Court English Triple Crown Races: 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Niksar The Derby – Sea Bird St. Leger Stakes – Provoke United States Triple Crown Races: Kentucky Derby – Lucky Debonair Preakness Stakes – Tom Rolfe Belmont Stakes – Hail To All Ice hockey Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Stan Mikita, Chicago Black Hawks Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Bobby Hull, Chicago Black Hawks Stanley Cup – Montreal Canadiens win 4 games to 3 over the Chicago Black Hawks World Hockey Championship – Soviet Union defeats Czechoslovakia NCAA Men's Ice Hockey Championship – Michigan Technological University Huskies defeat Boston College Eagles 8–2 in Providence, Rhode Island Motorsport Radiosport Fourth Amateur Radio Direction Finding European Championship held in Warsaw, Poland. Rugby league 1965 New Zealand rugby league season 1965 NSWRFL season: St George wins the tenth of a record eleven consecutive premierships in the NSWRL. They were not to win again until 1977, then in 1979 which was their last premiership before their 1999 merger with the Illawarra Steelers. 1964–65 Northern Rugby Football League season / 1965–66 Northern Rugby Football League season Rugby union 71st Five Nations Championship series is won by Wales Snooker World Snooker Championship challenge matches: John Pulman beats Fred Davis 37-36 John Pulman beats Rex Williams 25-22 John Pulman beats Fred Van Rensburg 39-12 Swimming 1 March – The Amateur Swimming Union of Australia stuns the nation with its decision that Olympic champion and 1964 Australian of the Year Dawn Fraser will be banned from all amateur competition for ten years. The decision follows an inquiry into Fraser's alleged misbehaviour during the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. August 15 – US swimmer Kenis Moore breaks the world record in the women's 200m butterfly (long course) during a meet in Maumee, Ohio, clocking 2:26.3. August 21 – Dutch swimming star Ada Kok breaks the world record in the women's 200m butterfly (long course) for the first time, during a meet in Leiden, clocking 2:25.8. September 12 – Ada Kok from the Netherlands betters her own world record in the women's 200m butterfly (long course), during a meet in Groningen, clocking 2:25.3. Tennis Australia Australian Men's Singles Championship – Roy Emerson (Australia) defeats Fred Stolle (Australia) 6–3, 6–4, 6–2 Australian Women's Singles Championship – Margaret Smith Court (Australia) defeats Lesley Turner Bowrey (Australia) 6–3, 6–2 England Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Roy Emerson (Australia) defeats Fred Stolle (Australia) 6–4, 12–10, 4–6, 6–3 Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Maria Bueno (Brazil) defeats Margaret Smith Court (Australia) 6–4, 7–9, 6–3 France French Men's Singles Championship – French Women's Singles Championship – USA American Men's Singles Championship – American Women's Singles Championship – Davis Cup 1965 Davis Cup – 4–1 at White City Stadium (grass) Sydney, Australia Multi-sport events First All-Africa Games held in Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo Fourth Pan Arab Games held in Cairo, Egypt Fourth Summer Universiade held in Budapest, Hungary Awards ABC's Wide World of Sports Athlete of the Year: Jim Clark, Formula One 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225348	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1849%20in%20sports	1849 in sports	1849 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. Boxing Events 7 February — following years of inactivity, American champion Tom Hyer finally returns to the ring and fights Yankee Sullivan at Stillpond Creek in Maryland. Hyer wins in the 16th round. The fight should have taken place at Rock Point, Maryland, on 10 January but the police forced its cancellation. William Thompson retains the Championships of England but there is no record of any fights involving him in 1849. Cricket Events 23, 24 & 25 July — a match between Sheffield and Manchester at Hyde Park Ground, Sheffield is styled "Yorkshire v Lancashire" and is therefore both the first match to involve a Lancashire county team and the inaugural Roses Match. Yorkshire win by 5 wickets. England Most runs – George Parr 529 @ 31.11 (HS 86*) Most wickets – William Hillyer 141 @ 13.20 (BB 8–?) Horse racing England Grand National – Peter Simple 1,000 Guineas Stakes – The Flea 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Nunnykirk The Derby – The Flying Dutchman The Oaks – Lady Evelyn St. Leger Stakes – The Flying Dutchman Rowing The Boat Race 29 April — the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race, last contested in 1846, is revived and this 9th race is won by Cambridge 15 December — Oxford is awarded the 10th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race following the disqualification of Cambridge. This is the first and last time that the race is contested twice in the same year. 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225349	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964%20in%20sports	1964 in sports	1964 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. Alpine skiing Men's Olympic gold medal: Downhill: Egon Zimmermann, Austria Slalom: Josef Stiegler, Austria Giant Slalom: François Bonlieu, France Women's Olympic gold medal: Downhill: Christl Haas, Austria Slalom: Christine Goitschel, France Giant Slalom: Marielle Goitschel, France FIS Alpine World Ski Championships – Men's combined champion: Ludwig Leitner, Germany Women's combined champion: Marielle Goitschel, France American football NFL Championship: the Cleveland Browns won 27–0 over the Baltimore Colts at Cleveland Stadium Cotton Bowl (1963 season): The Texas Longhorns won 28–6 over the Navy Midshipmen to win the college football national championship Heisman Trophy – John Huarte QB, Notre Dame AFL Championship – Buffalo Bills win 20–7 over the San Diego Chargers Association football England FA Cup final – West Ham United won 3–2 over Preston North End International Spain beat the Soviet Union 2–1 to win the European Championship. In October during the celebration of the 1964 Summer Olympics FIFA gives the right to host the Football World Cup in 1970 to Mexico. The 1964 Jutland Series runs from 30 March to 15 November in Denmark Athletics March 6 – Tom O'Hara sets a new world record for the indoor mile run by completing it in 3 minutes and 56.4 seconds Australian rules football Victorian Football League Melbourne wins the 68th VFL Premiership (Melbourne 8.16 (64) d Collingwood 8.12 (60)) Brownlow Medal awarded to Gordon Collis (Carlton) Baseball February 15 – death of Ken Hubbs (22), Chicago Cubs player, in an air crash just before the season began April 17 – The New York Mets play their first game at brand-new Shea Stadium and lose 4–3 to the Pittsburgh Pirates. Willie Stargell hits the first home run in the stadium's history, a second-inning solo shot off the Mets' Jack Fisher. June 21 – Jim Bunning of the Philadelphia Phillies pitched a perfect game in a 6–0 victory over the New York Mets. World Series – St. Louis Cardinals win 4 games to 3 over the New York Yankees. The Series MVP is pitcher, Bob Gibson of St. Louis. AL MVP – Brooks Robinson 3B, Baltimore Orioles NL MVP – Ken Boyer 3B, St. Louis Cardinals AL Rookie of the Year – Tony Oliva OF, Minnesota Twins NL Rookie of the Year – Dick Allen 3B, Philadelphia Phillies Cy Young Award – Dean Chance, Los Angeles Angels Basketball NCAA Men's Basketball Championship – UCLA wins 97–83 over Duke Associated Press College Basketball Player of the Year – Gary Bradds F, Ohio State NBA Finals – Boston Celtics won 4 games to 1 over the San Francisco Warriors NBA MVP – Oscar Robertson G, Cincinnati Royals NBA Rookie of the Year – Jerry Lucas F, Cincinnati Royals Boxing February 25 in Miami Beach, Florida – Cassius Clay defeated Sonny Liston by TKO in the 7th round to win the World Heavyweight Championship. December 14 in Philadelphia, Joey Giardello won a 15-round decision over Rubin "Hurricane" Carter to win the World Middleweight title. Canadian football Grey Cup – B.C. Lions win 34–24 over the Hamilton Tiger-Cats Cycling Giro d'Italia won by Jacques Anquetil of France Tour de France – Jacques Anquetil of France UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Jan Janssen of Netherlands Field hockey Olympic Games (Men's Competition) in Tokyo, Japan Gold Medal: India Silver Medal: Pakistan Bronze Medal: Australia Figure skating World Figure Skating Championships Men's champion: Manfred Schnelldorfer, Germany Ladies' champion: Sjoukje Dijkstra, Netherlands Pair skating champions: Marika Kilius & Hans-Jürgen Bäumler, Germany Ice dancing champions: Eva Romanová & Pavel Roman, Czechoslovakia Golf Men's professional Masters Tournament – Arnold Palmer U.S. Open – Ken Venturi British Open – Tony Lema PGA Championship – Bobby Nichols PGA Tour money leader – Jack Nicklaus – $113,285 Men's amateur British Amateur – Gordon Clark U.S. Amateur – William C. Campbell Women's professional Women's Western Open – Carol Mann LPGA Championship – Mary Mills U.S. Women's Open – Mickey Wright Titleholders Championship – Marilynn Smith LPGA Tour money leader – Mickey Wright – $29,800 Harness racing United States Pacing Triple Crown races – Cane Pace – Race Time Little Brown Jug – Vicar Hanover Messenger Stakes – Race Time Ayres won the United States Trotting Triple Crown races – Hambletonian – Ayres Yonkers Trot – Ayres Kentucky Futurity – Ayres Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship – Pacers: Minuteman Horse racing Northern Dancer becomes the first Canadian–bred horse to win the Kentucky Derby Steeplechases Cheltenham Gold Cup – Arkle Grand National – Team Spirit Flat races Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Polo Prince Canada – Queen's Plate won by Northern Dancer France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Prince Royal Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Santa Claus English Triple Crown Races: 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Baldric The Derby – Santa Claus St. Leger Stakes – Indiana United States Triple Crown Races: Kentucky Derby – Northern Dancer Preakness Stakes – Northern Dancer Belmont Stakes – Quadrangle Ice hockey Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Stan Mikita, Chicago Black Hawks Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Jean Beliveau, Montreal Canadiens Stanley Cup – Toronto Maple Leafs won 4–3 over the Detroit Red Wings World Hockey Championship – Men's champion: Soviet Union defeated Sweden NCAA Men's Ice Hockey Championship – University of Michigan Wolverines defeat University of Denver Pioneers 6–3 in Denver, Colorado Lacrosse Guelph Mohawks win the first Castrol Cup. Vancouver Carlings win the Mann Cup. Oshawa Green Gaels win the Minto Cup. Motorsport Rugby league 1964 New Zealand rugby league season 1964 NSWRFL season 1963–64 Northern Rugby Football League season / 1964–65 Northern Rugby Football League season Rugby union 70th Five Nations Championship series is shared by Scotland and Wales Snooker The World Snooker Championship is revived in a challenge format: John Pulman beats Fred Davis 19-16 John Pulman beats Rex Williams 40-33 Swimming February 29 – in Sydney, Australian swimmer Dawn Fraser sets a new world record in the women's 100m freestyle (long course) competition: 58.9 seconds. March 29 – Australia's Kevin Berry sets a new world record in the men's 200m butterfly (long course) at a meet in Sydney, clocking 2:06.9. July 12 – US swimmer Sharon Stouder breaks the world record in the women's 200m butterfly (long course) with one second, during a meet in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, clocking 2:28.1. August 2 – Sharon Stouder once again breaks the world record in the women's 200m butterfly (long course), this time in Los Altos, California, clocking 2:26.4. October 18 – Kevin Berry breaks his own world record in the men's 200m butterfly (long course) on the last day of the swimming competition at the Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Japan, with a time of 2:06.6. Tennis Australia Australian Men's Singles Championship – Roy Emerson (Australia) defeats Fred Stolle (Australia) 6–3, 6–4, 6–2 Australian Women's Singles Championship – Margaret Smith Court (Australia) defeats Lesley Turner Bowrey (Australia) 6–3, 6–2 France French Men's Singles Championship – Manuel Santana (Spain) defeats Nicola Pietrangeli (Italy) 6–3, 6–1, 4–6, 7–5 French Women's Singles Championship – Margaret Court (Australia) defeats Maria Bueno (Brazil) 5–7, 6–1, 6–2 UK Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Roy Emerson (Australia) defeats Fred Stolle (Australia) 6–4, 12–10, 4–6, 6–3 Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Maria Bueno (Brazil) defeats Margaret Smith Court (Australia) 6–4, 7–9, 6–3 USA American Men's Singles Championship – Roy Emerson (Australia) defeats Fred Stolle (Australia) in straight sets 6–4, 6–2, 6–4 American Women's Singles Championship – Maria Bueno (Brazil) defeats Carole Caldwell Graebner (USA) in straight sets 6–1, 6–0 Davis Cup 1964 Davis Cup – 3–2 at Harold Clark Courts (clay) Cleveland, United States Volleyball Volleyball at the 1964 Summer Olympics won by USSR (men) and Japan (women) Yacht racing The New York Yacht Club retains the America's Cup as Constellation defeats British challenger Sovereign, of the Royal Thames Yacht Club, 4 races to 0 Multi-sport events 1964 Summer Olympics held in Tokyo, Japan United States wins the most gold medals (36) but the Soviet Union wins the most overall medals (96). This Olympic opening ceremony is first time of live Olympic telecast program by geostationary communication satellite. 1964 Winter Olympics held in Innsbruck, Austria USSR wins the most medals (25), and the most gold medals (11). Third Winter Universiade held in Špindleruv Mlýn, Czechoslovakia Awards Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Don Schollander, Swimming Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Mickey Wright, LPGA golf ABC's Wide World of Sports Athlete of the Year: Don Schollander, Swimming Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year – Ken Venturi – Golf References Sports by year	[ 0.08970696479082108, 0.8057911992073059, -0.4134320318698883, 0.05318956449627876, -0.8687277436256409, -0.19602251052856445, 0.6378427147865295, 0.6489405035972595, -1.2590086460113525, -0.18755030632019043, -0.2322564423084259, 0.28224068880081177, -0.10496708005666733, 0.7246205806732178, -0.11128698289394379, 0.14264436066150665, 0.051874589174985886, -0.06473316997289658, 0.3339882791042328, 0.04217778518795967, 0.31657320261001587, 0.06713389605283737, -0.14771538972854614, -0.09521397948265076, -0.2660108506679535, -0.5249157547950745, -0.018871841952204704, 0.16844472289085388, 0.3090020418167114, 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225350	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1852%20in%20sports	1852 in sports	1852 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. Boxing Events 21 August — John Morrissey defeats George Thompson in the 11th round at Mare Island, California and claims the Heavyweight Championship of America, which has been vacated by the now-retired Tom Hyer. His claim is not generally recognised at this time because of the prior claim by Yankee Sullivan, who fought Hyer in 1849. Harry Broome retains the Championship of England but there is no record of any fights involving him in 1851. Chess Events Adolf Anderssen and Jean Dufresne play the Evergreen Game in Berlin. Like Anderssen's Immortal Game of the previous year, it is an informal game. Cricket Events The United All England Eleven (UEE) is established as a rival to William Clarke's All-England Eleven (AEE). Jemmy Dean and John Wisden are the main organisers. Other players representing the UEE in its early years include John Lillywhite, Tom Lockyer, James Grundy, Frederick Miller, Will Mortlock and Tom Sherman. 27 July — John Sherman makes his final first-class appearance for Manchester v. Sheffield at Hyde Park Ground, Sheffield. His career has spanned a record 44 seasons from his debut at Lord's on 20 September 1809 when he played for Beauclerk's XI v. Ladbroke's XI. England Most runs – Nicholas Felix 529 @ 18.24 (HS 70) Most wickets – James Grundy 103 @ 8.83 (BB 7–?) Horse racing England Grand National – Miss Mowbray 1,000 Guineas Stakes – Kate 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Stockwell The Derby – Daniel O'Rourke The Oaks – Songstress St. Leger Stakes – Stockwell Rowing The Boat Race 3 April — Oxford wins the 11th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race, a revival of the race last contested in 1849 Other events 3 August — The first Harvard–Yale Regatta is a 2-length win for Harvard in a single eight-oar, two-mile race on Lake Winnipesaukee, New Hampshire. The Yale club initiated this Race, and the next one in 1855, by challenge to the Harvard club. 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225351	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1854%20in%20sports	1854 in sports	1854 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. Baseball Events The Knickerbockers adopt some rule changes agreed in conference by their delegates with those of the Gothams and Eagles. The Eagles win their first two matches, with the Knickerbockers in mid-November, 21–4 and 22–21. The latter is the first time one team scores 21 but loses in "equal innings". Boxing Events Harry Broome retains the Championship of England but there is no record of any fights involving him in 1851. American champion John Morrissey becomes involved in Democratic politics in New York City and from this develops a bitter rivalry with William Poole, also known as "Bill the Butcher", another prizefighter. Poole is also the leader of a notorious gang called the Bowery Boys who plan to seize ballot boxes and rig an election. Morrissey and others are hired to prevent this. 14 February — Tom Paddock defeats Harry Poulson at Mildenhall in 102 rounds; this is the third and effectively deciding bout between the two. 18 July — Paddock defeats Aaron Jones at Long Reach in 121 rounds. 26 July — Poole and Morrisey agree to fight each other at Amos Dock, New York, to settle their dispute. Morrissey is badly beaten and, worried about the presence of Poole's supporters, concedes defeat. 27 August — Tom Paddock issues challenges to English Champion Harry Broome and to former champion William Perry but both refuse. Paddock responds by claiming the Championship of England, but he is not recognised at this time. 20 October — Morrissey declines a challenge for his American title from retired former champion Tom Hyer. It will be exactly four years until Morrissey defends his title again. Cricket Events The follow-on differential is reduced to 80 (or 60 in one day). England Most runs – Jemmy Dean 516 @ 16.12 (HS 99) Most wickets – John Wisden 106 @ 9.83 (BB 8–41) Football Events Dublin University Football Club is founded by students at Trinity College. It is a rugby union club still based in the college grounds and plays in the AIB League. It is the world's oldest extant football club (all codes) in terms of continuous existence. Horse racing England Grand National – Bourton 1,000 Guineas Stakes – Virago 2,000 Guineas Stakes – The Hermit The Derby – Andover The Oaks – Mincemeat St. Leger Stakes – Knight of St George Rowing The Boat Race 8 April — Oxford wins the 12th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race, last contested in 1852 References Sports by year	[ 0.07544371485710144, 0.8052254915237427, -0.8294146656990051, -0.22716093063354492, -0.7210034728050232, 0.08330632746219635, 1.2048602104187012, 0.44121596217155457, -0.9040685892105103, -0.3233363628387451, -0.06667457520961761, -0.36681994795799255, -0.4105398654937744, 0.5254353284835815, -0.08390393853187561, 0.45578962564468384, 0.37153497338294983, 0.057102274149656296, 0.31806251406669617, 0.024139221757650375, -0.2213624119758606, 0.41293346881866455, 0.3127725422382355, 0.010281122289597988, 0.088660329580307, -0.9994832873344421, 0.14030474424362183, 0.07508495450019836, -0.13106347620487213, -0.6825084686279297, 0.21714860200881958, 0.4357428252696991, 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225352	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1856%20in%20sports	1856 in sports	1856 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. Baseball Events The four established New York (Manhattan) clubs play nine matches between August 30 and October 28. Several other clubs in present New York City play matches against a rival or two. Daily and weekly newspapers cover the game and some matches. 17 October — the Eagle club scores 8 against 2 by Gotham, an extreme example of the main problem with the 21–run rule (revised to nine innings next spring). Boxing Events 26 January — Harry Poulson meets the upcoming Tom Sayers at Appledore, Kent. Sayers enhances his growing reputation by winning in the 109th round. 19 May — Harry Broome finally defends the Championship of England against Tom Paddock at Manningtree. Paddock wins in the 51st round and takes the title. Broome announces his retirement. 2 October — a scheduled bout between Paddock and former champion William Perry is cancelled because Paddock is ill. Paddock pays forfeit and Perry claims the English title but is not recognised. With the American champion John Morrissey refusing to fight again until 1858, the focus shifts to his eventual next opponent, the upcoming John C. Heenan, known as "The Benicia Boy". Cricket Events Surrey begins a period of dominance in the inter-county game, their team at this time including William Caffyn, Tom Lockyer, Edgar Willsher, H. H. Stephenson and Julius Caesar England Most runs – John Lillywhite 620 @ 24.80 (HS 138) Most wickets – John Wisden 73 @ 12.51 (BB 6–33) Horse racing England Grand National – Freetrader 1,000 Guineas Stakes – Manganese 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Fazzoletto The Derby – Ellington The Oaks – Mincepie St. Leger Stakes – Warlock Lacrosse Events The Montreal Lacrosse Club is formed in Montreal by W. George Beers, the first organised lacrosse team. They also develop the first codified rules of lacrosse, which Beers will rewrite in 1867. Rowing The Boat Race 15 March — Cambridge wins the 13th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race. The first twelve Races were contested over 27 years from 1829. From 1856 the event will be annual except during the two World Wars. 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225353	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1963%20in%20sports	1963 in sports	1963 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. American football NFL Championship: the Chicago Bears won 14–10 over the New York Giants at Wrigley Field January 29 – First inductees into the Pro Football Hall of Fame are announced September 7 – the Pro Football Hall of Fame opens in Canton, Ohio with 17 charter members. Rose Bowl (1962 season): The Southern California Trojans won 42–37 over the Wisconsin Badgers to win the college football national championship. This is the first postseason bowl game to feature the #1 and #2 ranked teams in the country. AFL Eastern Division Playoff – Boston Patriots win 26–8 over the Buffalo Bills AFL Championship – San Diego Chargers win 51–10 over the Boston Patriots on January 5, 1964 The Heisman Trophy – Roger Staubach, Navy Instant replay is used for the first time during the broadcast of the Army–Navy Game. Association football FA Cup final – Manchester United won 3–1 over Leicester City August 24 – Founding of the German Football League – Bundesliga Athletics May – Athletics at the 1963 Pan American Games held in São Paulo Australian rules football Victorian Football League Geelong wins the 67th VFL Premiership (Geelong 15.19 (109) d Hawthorn 8.12 (60)) Brownlow Medal awarded to Bob Skilton (South Melbourne) Bandy 1963 Bandy World Championship is held in Sweden and won by . Baseball June 22 – Phillies center fielder Tony Gonzalez plays his 200th straight errorless game to help rookie Ray Culp beat Roger Craig and the Mets 2–0. World Series – Los Angeles Dodgers win 4 games to 0 over the New York Yankees. The series MVP is Sandy Koufax, Los Angeles. Basketball NCAA Men's Basketball Championship – Loyola (Illinois) wins 60–58 over Cincinnati NBA Finals – Boston Celtics win 4 games to 2 over the Los Angeles Lakers Basketball World Championship – Brazil World Champion Boxing July 22 – Sonny Liston wins the Heavyweight Championship of the world by knocking out Floyd Patterson in the 1st round of their bout in Las Vegas. August 27 to September 7 – Pan American Games held in São Paulo, Brazil. Canadian football Grey Cup – Hamilton Tiger-Cats win 21–10 over the B.C. Lions Cycling Giro d'Italia won by Franco Balmamion of Italy Tour de France – Jacques Anquetil of France UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Benoni Beheyt of Belgium Figure skating World Figure Skating Championships Men's champion: Donald McPherson, Canada Ladies' champion: Sjoukje Dijkstra, Netherlands Pair skating champions: Marika Kilius & Hans-Jürgen Bäumler, Germany Ice dancing champions: Eva Romanová & Pavel Roman, Czechoslovakia Golf Men's professional Masters Tournament – Jack Nicklaus U.S. Open – Julius Boros British Open – Bob Charles PGA Championship – Jack Nicklaus PGA Tour money leader – Arnold Palmer – $128,230 Ryder Cup – United States wins 23 to 9 over Britain in team golf. Men's amateur British Amateur – Michael Lunt U.S. Amateur – Deane Beman Women's professional Women's Western Open – Mickey Wright LPGA Championship – Mickey Wright U.S. Women's Open – Mary Mills Titleholders Championship – Marilynn Smith LPGA Tour money leader – Mickey Wright – $31,269 Harness racing United States Pacing Triple Crown races – Cane Pace – Meadow Skipper Little Brown Jug – Overtrick Messenger Stakes – Overtrick Speedy Scot won the Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Triple Crown races – Hambletonian – Speedy Scott Yonkers Trot – Speedy Scott Kentucky Futurity – Speedy Scott Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship – Pacers: Cardigan Bay Horse racing Steeplechases Cheltenham Gold Cup – Mill House Grand National – Ayala Flat races Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Gatum Gatum Canadian Triple Crown: Queen's Plate – Canebora Prince of Wales Stakes – Canebora Breeders' Stakes – Canebora Canebora becomes the country's second Triple Crown winner, and the last until 1989. France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Exbury Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Ragusa English Triple Crown: 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Only for Life The Derby – Relko St. Leger Stakes – Ragusa United States Triple Crown: Kentucky Derby – Chateaugay Preakness Stakes – Candy Spots Belmont Stakes – Chateaugay Ice Hockey Stanley Cup – Toronto Maple Leafs defeat the Detroit Red Wings 4 games to 1. Motorsport Radiosport Third Amateur Radio Direction Finding European Championship held in Vilnius, Lithuania. Rugby league 1963 New Zealand rugby league season 1963 NSWRFL season 1962–63 Northern Rugby Football League season / 1963–64 Northern Rugby Football League season Rugby union 69th Five Nations Championship series is won by England New Zealand All Blacks team tours Great Britain and is defeated only once: 3–0 by Newport RFC on 30 October Swimming July 27 – US swimmer Susan Pitt breaks the world record in the women's 200m butterfly (long course) during a meet in Philadelphia, clocking 2:29.1. Tennis Australia Australian Men's Singles Championship – Roy Emerson (Australia) defeats Ken Fletcher (Australia) 6–3, 6–3, 6–1 Australian Women's Singles Championship – Margaret Smith Court (Australia) defeats Jan Lehane O'Neill (Australia) 6–2, 6–2 England Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Chuck McKinley (USA) defeats Fred Stolle (Australia) 9–7, 6–1, 6–4 Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Margaret Smith Court (Australia) defeats Billie Jean King (USA) 6–3, 6–4 France French Men's Singles Championship – French Women's Singles Championship – USA American Men's Singles Championship – American Women's Singles Championship – Events Federation Cup – USA 2–1 Australia (inaugural event) Davis Cup 1963 Davis Cup – 3–2 at Memorial Drive Tennis Centre (grass) Adelaide, Australia Volleyball Volleyball at the 1963 Pan American Games in São Paulo won by Brazil (both men's and women's tournaments) Multi-sport events Fourth Pan American Games held in São Paulo, Brazil Fourth Mediterranean Games held in Naples, Italy Third Summer Universiade held in Porto Alegre, Brazil Awards Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Sandy Koufax (Major League Baseball) Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Mickey Wright (LPGA golf) ABC's Wide World of Sports Athlete of the year: Valery Brumel (track and field) References Sports by year	[ 0.20340542495250702, 0.7496144771575928, -0.45530807971954346, 0.19631771743297577, -0.8192830681800842, -0.459227055311203, 0.5908124446868896, 0.7171953916549683, -1.2116903066635132, -0.10112659633159637, -0.2737084627151489, 0.3515735864639282, -0.2471601665019989, 0.5224514007568359, -0.24521245062351227, 0.1259940266609192, 0.10508440434932709, -0.09943098574876785, 0.1967630237340927, 0.11795001477003098, 0.3641633689403534, -0.07199716567993164, -0.06584683060646057, -0.07041951268911362, -0.077846959233284, -0.49426746368408203, 0.18116283416748047, 0.3011290431022644, 0.19758491218090057, -0.4314561188220978, 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225354	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1857%20in%20sports	1857 in sports	1857 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. Baseball National championship National Association of Base Ball Players champion – Brooklyn Atlantics In May, sixteen base ball clubs from modern New York City convene and revise the rules including replacement of 21 runs by 9 innings. The convention will be known as the first of the National Association of Base Ball Players although there is yet no annual commitment or formal organization. Boxing Events John Morrissey retains the Championship of America but there is no record of any fights involving him in 1855. 10 February — Tom Sayers defeats Aaron Jones in the 85th round at Medway, Kent. Having beaten Harry Poulson the previous year, Sayers is now the main contender for the Championship of England title disputed by William Perry and Tom Paddock. 16 June — Sayers defeats Perry after 85 rounds at the Isle of Grain. Sayers claims the title but most backers still recognise Paddock, who does not fight this year. Perry's career ends after his defeat by Sayers. Cricket Events The All-England Eleven (AEE) and the United England Eleven (UEE) begin an annual series of matches against each other that will continue until 1869. The fixture is the most important of the season while it lasts. James Grundy becomes the first player known to be given out handled the ball when playing for MCC v. Kent at Lord's. England Most runs – William Caffyn 612 @ 18.00 (HS 90) Most wickets – William Caffyn 126 @ 9.09 (BB 9–29) Football Events 24 October — foundation of Sheffield FC, the world's oldest known association football club (currently playing in the Northern Premier League). Foundation of Liverpool F.C., the rugby union club which is now part of Liverpool St Helens F.C. It will merge with St Helens RUFC in the 1980s but still claims to be the world's oldest "open" rugby football club. Horse racing England Grand National – Emigrant 1,000 Guineas Stakes – Imperieuse 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Vedette The Derby – Blink Bonny The Oaks – Blink Bonny St. Leger Stakes – Imperieuse Rowing The Boat Race 4 April — Oxford wins the 14th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race References Sports by year	[ 0.19009315967559814, 0.581428587436676, -0.9955118894577026, -0.07653390616178513, -0.8338652849197388, 0.15503853559494019, 1.374243140220642, 0.409985214471817, -0.8940414786338806, -0.41919267177581787, 0.2462235391139984, -0.61055988073349, -0.25321853160858154, 0.718412458896637, -0.08432666957378387, 0.41651609539985657, 0.23691201210021973, 0.07613607496023178, 0.5764897465705872, 0.018641775473952293, -0.17947082221508026, 0.4208347797393799, 0.15188460052013397, -0.06352752447128296, 0.13229794800281525, -1.0093985795974731, 0.23082154989242554, -0.12614251673221588, -0.25947147607803345, -0.5588443279266357, -0.039702579379081726, 0.10520152002573013, 0.15937358140945435, 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225355	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1858%20in%20sports	1858 in sports	1858 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. Baseball National championship National Association of Base Ball Players champion – New York Mutuals Events "All New York" and "All Brooklyn" Nines play three matches at the Fashion Race Course in Queens, with the All New York Nine winning the first and third. The series is a great leap forward for commercial baseball. Boxing Events 5 January — Tom Sayers defeats Bill Benjamin in only three rounds at the Isle of Grain and now challenges Tom Paddock for the undisputed Championship of England. 16 June — Sayers and Paddock finally meet at Canvey Island where Sayers wins in 21 rounds to become the undisputed English champion. 20 October — John Morrissey at last defends the Championship of America at Long Point in Canada against John C. Heenan. Heenan breaks two knuckles early in the fight which ends after the 11th round with Heenan unable to continue. Cricket Events John Jackson's season tally of 102 known wickets is a new record and he is the first bowler credited with 100 in a first-class season England Most runs – William Caffyn 516 @ 21.50 (HS 102) Most wickets – John Jackson 102 @ 11.03 (BB 9–27) Football Events Blackheath Rugby Club founded. It claims to be the world's oldest "open" rugby football club given that Liverpool FC (see 1857 in sports) is no longer a single entity. Edinburgh Academicals RFC is founded and is the oldest football club (all codes) in Scotland. 21 October — first written version of the Sheffield Rules is introduced at the first annual general meeting of Sheffield FC for use in its matches Horse racing England Grand National – Little Charley 1,000 Guineas Stakes – Governess 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Fitz-Roland The Derby – Beadsman The Oaks – Governess St. Leger Stakes – Sunbeam Rowing The Boat Race 27 March — Cambridge wins the 15th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race Other 26 May — Brown, Harvard, Trinity, and Yale boat clubs confer as the College Regatta Association but it never conducts a championship References Sports by year	[ 0.1279270052909851, 0.6631647944450378, -0.8260577321052551, -0.008654839359223843, -0.7805324196815491, 0.03966538608074188, 1.2654765844345093, 0.6579074859619141, -0.905434250831604, -0.4189457595348358, 0.046203453093767166, -0.42846351861953735, -0.296815425157547, 0.6010637283325195, -0.18072757124900818, 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225357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1961%20in%20sports	1961 in sports	1961 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. American football NFL Championship: the Green Bay Packers won 37–0 over the New York Giants at Lambeau Field Rose Bowl (1960 season): The Minnesota Golden Gophers lose 17–7 to the Washington Huskies; still voted national champions The Ohio State Buckeyes boycott a trip to the Rose Bowl the following January resulting in student protests on campus. AFL Championship – Houston Oilers won 10–3 over the San Diego Chargers Association football England FA Cup final – Tottenham Hotspur 2-0 Leicester City. Tottenham also were division 1 champions, making them the first British club to win the double. Australian rules football Victorian Football League August 12: Richmond becomes the only team to fail to kick a goal in a match since 1921, scoring only 0.8 (8) to St. Kilda's 12.19 (91). September 23: Hawthorn wins the 65th VFL pennant and its first, beating Footscray 13.16 (94) to 7.9 (51) John James wins the 34th Brownlow Medal Bandy 1961 Bandy World Championship is held in Norway and won by . Baseball The American League expands to 10 teams, adding the Los Angeles Angels and the new Washington Senators. The league schedule is expanded from 154 to 162 games. January 16 – Mickey Mantle becomes the highest paid player in Major League Baseball by signing a contract that will pay him $75,000 per season. April 11 – The former Washington Senators play their first home game in Metropolitan Stadium as the Minnesota Twins July 13 – In his majors debut, Milwaukee Braves outfielder Mack Jones tied a post-1900 National League record by collecting three singles and a double in his first game. Roger Maris hits 61 home runs during the regular season, establishing a record for the longer season. Babe Ruth's record of 60 still stood for the shorter season. October – World Series – New York Yankees win 4 games to 1 over the Cincinnati Reds. The series MVP is Whitey Ford of the Yankees. Basketball NCAA Men's Basketball Championship – Cincinnati wins 70–65 over Ohio St. NBA Finals – Boston Celtics won 4 games to 1 over the St. Louis Hawks The twelfth European basketball championship, Eurobasket 1961, is won by Soviet Union. Boxing June 3 in Los Angeles – Emile Griffith knocked out Gaspar Ortega in the 12th round to retain the Welterweight Championship Canadian football Grey Cup – Winnipeg Blue Bombers win 21–14 over the Hamilton Tiger-Cats Cycling August 1 – death of Adrie Voorting (aged 30), Dutch road bicycle and track cyclist Giro d'Italia won by Ercole Baldini of Italy Tour de France – Jacques Anquetil of France UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Rik Van Looy of Belgium Figure skating The World Figure Skating Championships in Prague are cancelled after the entire USA team of skaters, officials, leaders and chaperones are killed in a plane crash on 15 February en route to the competition. Among the dead are: Bradley Lord (21), USA men's figure skating champion; Maribel Vinson-Owen, USA women's figure skating champion and coach; Maribel Yerxa Owen (20), USA women's figure skating champion; Laurence Owen (16), USA women's figure skating champion. Golf Men's professional Masters Tournament – Gary Player becomes the first international golfer to win the Masters. U.S. Open – Gene Littler The Open – Arnold Palmer PGA Championship – Jerry Barber PGA Tour money leader – Gary Player – $64,540 Ryder Cup – United States wins 14½ to 9½ over Britain in team golf. Men's amateur British Amateur – Michael Bonallack U.S. Amateur – Jack Nicklaus Women's professional Women's Western Open – Mary Lena Faulk LPGA Championship – Mickey Wright U.S. Women's Open – Mickey Wright Titleholders Championship – Mickey Wright LPGA Tour money leader – Mickey Wright – $22,236 Harness racing United States Pacing Triple Crown races – Cane Pace – Cold Front Little Brown Jug – Henry T. Adios Messenger Stakes – Adios Don United States Trotting Triple Crown races – Hambletonian – Harlan Dean Yonkers Trot – Duke Rodney Kentucky Futurity – Duke Rodney Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship – Pacers: Massacre Horse racing Steeplechases Cheltenham Gold Cup – Saffron Tartan Grand National – Nicolaus Silver Flat races Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Lord Fury Canada – Queen's Plate won by Blue Light France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Molvedo Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Your Highness English Triple Crown Races: 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Rockavon The Derby – Psidium St. Leger Stakes – Aurelius United States Triple Crown Races: Kentucky Derby – Carry Back Preakness Stakes – Carry Back Belmont Stakes – Sherluck Ice hockey Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Bernie "Boom-Boom" Geoffrion, Montreal Canadiens Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Bernie "Boom-Boom" Geoffrion, Montreal Canadiens Stanley Cup – Chicago Black Hawks win 4 games to 2 over the Detroit Red Wings World Hockey Championship – Men's champion: Trail Smoke Eaters from Canada NCAA Men's Ice Hockey Championship – University of Denver Pioneers defeat St. Lawrence University Saints 12–2 in Denver, Colorado Motorsport Radiosport First European Amateur Radio Direction Finding Championships held in Stockholm, Sweden. This event was the first organized international competition in the sport. Rugby league 1961 New Zealand rugby league season 1960–61 Northern Rugby Football League season / 1961–62 Northern Rugby Football League season 1961 NSWRFL season Rugby union 67th Five Nations Championship series is won by France Swimming August 13 – USA's Becky Collins breaks the world record in the women's 200m butterfly (long course) during a meet in Philadelphia – 2:32.8. August 19 – US swimmer Carl Robie takes over the world record in the men's 200m butterfly (long course) from his compatriot Michael Troy at a meet in Los Angeles, clocking 2:12.6. Tennis Australia Australian Men's Singles Championship – Roy Emerson (Australia) defeats Rod Laver (Australia) 1–6, 6–3, 7–5, 6–4 Australian Women's Singles Championship – Margaret Smith Court (Australia) defeats Jan Lehane O'Neill (Australia) 6–1, 6–4 England Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Rod Laver (Australia) defeats Chuck McKinley (USA) 6–3, 6–1, 6–4 Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Angela Mortimer Barrett (Great Britain) defeats Christine Truman Janes (Great Britain) 4–6, 6–4, 7–5 France French Men's Singles Championship – French Women's Singles Championship – USA American Men's Singles Championship – American Women's Singles Championship – Davis Cup 1961 Davis Cup – 5–0 at Kooyong Stadium (grass) Melbourne, Australia Multi-sport events Pan Arab Games held in Casablanca, Morocco Second Summer Universiade held in Sofia, Bulgaria Awards Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Roger Maris, Major League Baseball Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Wilma 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225358	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960%20in%20sports	1960 in sports	1960 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. Alpine skiing The men's Olympic Gold Medal: Downhill: Jean Vuarnet, France Slalom: Ernst Hinterseer, Austria Giant Slalom: Roger Staub, Switzerland The women's Olympic Gold Medal: Downhill: Heidi Biebl, West Germany Slalom: Ann Heggtveit, Canada Giant Slalom: Yvonne Rüegg, Switzerland FIS Alpine World Ski Championships: Men's combined champion: Guy Périllat, France Women's combined champion: Ann Heggtveit, Canada, who becomes the first non-European to win a world championship title in Alpine skiing. American football NFL Championship: the Philadelphia Eagles won 17–13 over the Green Bay Packers at Franklin Field in Philadelphia Cotton Bowl (1959 season): The Syracuse Orangemen won 23–17 over the Texas Longhorns to win the college football national championship National Football League names Pete Rozelle commissioner of the league. The league expands to Dallas for the 1960 season and Minneapolis-St.Paul for the 1961 season. The Chicago Cardinals relocate to St. Louis. The American Football League (AFL) played its first season First black pro football placekicker: Gene Mingo (Denver Broncos, AFL) First Hispanic pro football quarterback: Tom Flores (Oakland Raiders, AFL) AFL Championship: Houston Oilers won 24–16 over the Los Angeles Chargers Association football England – FA Cup – Wolverhampton Wanderers won 3–0 over Blackburn Rovers The Soviet Union beat Yugoslavia 2–1 to win the first European Football Championship Australian rules football Victorian Football League Melbourne wins the 64th VFL Premiership to McDonalds (Melbourne 8.14 (62) d Collingwood 2.2 (14)) Brownlow Medal awarded to John Schultz (Footscray) Baseball World Series – Pittsburgh Pirates win 4 games to 3 over the New York Yankees. The Series MVP is New York's Bobby Richardson. October 13 – 1960 World Series Game 7 at Forbes Field – Pittsburgh Pirates player Bill Mazeroski becomes the first person to end a World Series with a home run, and still the only player to do it in the decisive seventh game. The Winnipeg Goldeyes win the Northern League championship. Basketball NBA Finals Boston Celtics win four games to three over the St. Louis Hawks Boxing March 16 – Flash Elorde won the world junior lightweight title with a seventh-round knockout of Harold Gomes in Quezon City, Philippines. June – Floyd Patterson recovered the world heavyweight title from Ingemar Johansson, becoming the first-ever boxer to do so. September 5 – Cassius Clay wins the gold medal in boxing at the Rome Olympic Games. Canadian football Grey Cup – Ottawa Rough Riders defeated the Edmonton Eskimos 34–9 Cycling Tour de France – Gastone Nencini of Italy Giro d'Italia – Jacques Anquetil of France Field hockey Olympic Games (Men's Competition) in Rome, Italy Gold Medal: Pakistan Silver Medal: India Bronze Medal: Spain Figure Skating January 30 - US Figure Skating championship Civic Ice Arena in Seattle January 30 US female championship won by Carol Heiss US male championship won by David Jenkins The Pairs won Nancy Ludington / Ron Ludington Ice dancing won Margie Ackles / Charles Phillips Golf Men's professional Masters Tournament – Arnold Palmer U.S. Open – Arnold Palmer British Open – Kel Nagle PGA Championship – Jay Hebert PGA Tour money leader – Arnold Palmer – $75,263 Men's amateur British Amateur – Joe Carr U.S. Amateur – Deane Beman Women's professional Women's Western Open – Joyce Ziske LPGA Championship – Mickey Wright U.S. Women's Open – Betsy Rawls Titleholders Championship – Fay Crocker LPGA Tour money leader – Louise Suggs – $16,892 Harness racing United States Pacing Triple Crown races – Cane Pace – Countess Adios Little Brown Jug – Bullet Hanover Yonkers Trot Kentucky Futurity Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship – Pacers: Caduceus Horse racing Steeplechases Cheltenham Gold Cup – Pas Seul Grand National – Merryman II Flat races Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Canada – Queen's Plate won by Victoria Park France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Puissant Chef Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Chamour English Triple Crown Races: 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Martial The Derby – St. Paddy St. Leger Stakes – St. Paddy United States Triple Crown Races: Kentucky Derby – Venetian Way Preakness Stakes – Bally Ache Belmont Stakes – Celtic Ash Ice hockey The American Olympic men's ice-hockey team won the United States' first Olympic hockey gold medal with a record of 7–0–0 during the tournament. Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Bobby Hull, Chicago Black Hawks Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Gordie Howe, Detroit Red Wings Stanley Cup – Montreal Canadiens win 4 games to 0 over the Toronto Maple Leafs World Hockey Championship Men's champion: United States is crushed by Canada NCAA Men's Ice Hockey Championship – University of Denver Pioneers defeat Michigan Technological University Huskies 5–3 in Boston Motorsport Olympic Games 1960 Summer Olympics held in Rome, Italy USSR wins the most medals (103), and the most gold medals (43) 1960 Winter Olympics held in Squaw Valley, United States USSR wins the most medals (21), and the most gold medals (7) First Paralympic Games held in Rome, Italy Italy wins the most medals (80) and the most gold medals (29) First Winter Universiade held in Chamonix, France Rugby league 1960 New Zealand rugby league season 1959–60 Northern Rugby Football League season / 1960–61 Northern Rugby Football League season 1960 NSWRFL season 1960 Rugby League World Cup Rugby union 66th Five Nations Championship series is shared by England and France Swimming June 12 – Marianne Heemskerk from the Netherlands breaks the world record in the women's 200m butterfly during a meet in Leipzig, East Germany – 2:34.4. July 10 – US swimmer Michael Troy breaks his own world record in the men's 200m butterfly (long course) at a meet in Evansville, Indiana, clocking 2:15.0. July 23 – Thirteen days after breaking his own world record in the men's 200m butterfly (long course) Troy once again betters the world's best time in that event, this time at a meet in Toledo, Ohio clocking 2:13.4. August 4 – Less than a month before the Summer Olympics in Rome, Italy, Troy again breaks the world record in the men's 200m butterfly (long course), when he clocks 2:13.2 at a meet in Detroit, Michigan. September 2 – Michael Troy wins the men's 200m butterfly (long course) at the Summer Olympics in Rome, Italy by breaking his own world record – 2:12.8. Tennis Australia Australian Men's Singles Championship – Rod Laver (Australia) defeats Neale Fraser (Australia) 5–7, 3–6, 6–3, 8–6, 8–6 Australian Women's Singles Championship – Margaret Smith Court (Australia) defeats Jan Lehane O'Neill (Australia) 7–5, 6–2 England Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Neale Fraser (Australia) defeats Rod Laver (Australia) 6–4, 3–6, 9–7, 7–5 Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Maria Bueno (Brazil) defeats Sandra Reynolds Price (South Africa) 8–6, 6–0 France French Men's Singles Championship – French Women's Singles Championship – USA American Men's Singles Championship – American Women's Singles Championship – Davis Cup 1960 Davis Cup – 4–1 at White City Stadium (grass) Sydney, Australia Volleyball 1960 FIVB Men's World Championship in Rio de Janeiro won by the USSR Awards Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Rafer Johnson, Track and field Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Wilma Rudolph, Track and field References Sports by 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225359	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1959%20in%20sports	1959 in sports	1959 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. American football NFL Championship: the Baltimore Colts won 31–16 over the New York Giants at Baltimore's Memorial Stadium August 14 – The American Football League is founded. Play would begin the following year. Sugar Bowl (1958 season): The Louisiana State Tigers won 7–0 over the Clemson Tigers to win the AP and Coaches Poll national championships Association football Brazil Taca Brasil, as predecessor for Campeonato Brasileiro Serie A, that first officially games held on August 23. Turkey Turkish National League, as predecessor for Super Lig of Turkey, that first officially game held on February 21. Athletics Pan American Games athletics held in Chicago with US sprinter Ray Norton winning three gold medals in the sprint events Baseball March 3 – The San Francisco Giants officially name their new stadium Candlestick Park. May 26 – In what many experts call the greatest pitching performance in history, Harvey Haddix—suffering with a flu and sore throat—hurls a 12 inning perfect game for the Pittsburgh Pirates but loses in the 13th inning 0–1 on a Don Hoak fielding error to the Milwaukee Braves as lightning storms threaten the end of the game. June 25 - Emperor Hirohito, watched Japanese professional baseball game for first time in Korakuen Baseball Stadium, Tokyo, Japan. At final resulting to Tokyo Giants win over Hanshin Tigers 5 to 4 in a home run by Shigeo Nagashima from Minoru Murayama. World Series – Los Angeles Dodgers win 4 games to 2 over the Chicago White Sox. The Series MVP is Larry Sherry, Los Angeles The Havana Sugar Kings defeat the Richmond Virginians to win the International League Governors' Cup. The Minneapolis Millers win the American Association championship. Havana wins 4 games to 3 over Minneapolis to win the Junior World Series. The Salt Lake City Bees win the Pacific Coast League pennant. The Winnipeg Goldeyes win the Northern League championship. Basketball FIBA World Championship Brazil World Champion NCAA Men's Basketball Championship – California wins 71–70 over West Virginia NBA Finals – Boston Celtics win 4 games to 0 over the Minneapolis Lakers Boxing June 26 – in New York City, Ingemar Johansson scored a 3rd-round TKO over Floyd Patterson to win the World Heavyweight Championship August 27 to September 7 – Pan American Games held in Chicago, United States Bowling Nine-pin bowling Nine-pin bowling World Championships – Men's champion: Eberhard Luther, East Germany Women's champion: Hilde Beljan, East Germany Men's team champion: Yugoslavia Women's team champion: East Germany Canadian football Grey Cup – Winnipeg Blue Bombers win 21–7 over the Hamilton Tiger-Cats Cricket During a Currie Cup match against Natal at the Jan Smuts Ground in East London in December, Border set the record (which still stands) for the lowest aggregate score by a first class side in a match. Border scored 34 runs in the match – 16 in the first innings and 18 in the second innings. Curling Inaugural World Curling Championships held in Falkirk and Edinburgh for men only and known as the "Scotch Cup"; it is won by a Canadianteam from Regina, Saskatchewan, skipped by Ernie Richardson Figure skating World Figure Skating Championship – Men's champion: David Jenkins, United States Ladies' champion: Carol Heiss, United States Pair skating champion: Barbara Wagner & Robert Paul, Canada Ice dancing champion: Doreen Denny & Courtney Jones, Great Britain Golf Men's professional Masters Tournament – Art Wall, Jr. U.S. Open – Billy Casper British Open – Gary Player PGA Championship – Bob Rosburg PGA Tour money leader – Art Wall, Jr. – $53,168 Ryder Cup – United States 8½ to 3½ over Britain in team golf Men's amateur British Amateur – Deane Beman U.S. Amateur – Jack Nicklaus Women's professional Women's Western Open – Betsy Rawls LPGA Championship – Betsy Rawls U.S. Women's Open – Mickey Wright Titleholders Championship – Louise Suggs LPGA Tour money leader – Betsy Rawls – $26,774 Horse racing Steeplechases Cheltenham Gold Cup – Roddy Owen Grand National – Oxo Flat races Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Macdougal Canadian Triple Crown races: Queen's Plate – New Providence Prince of Wales Stakes – New Providence Breeders' Stakes – New Providence New Providence becomes the first horse ever to win all three races. France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Saint Crespin Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Fidalgo English Triple Crown races: 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Taboun The Derby – Parthia St. Leger Stakes – Cantelo United States Triple Crown races: Kentucky Derby – Tomy Lee Preakness Stakes – Royal Orbit Belmont Stakes – Sword Dancer Ice hockey Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Dickie Moore, Montreal Canadiens Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Andy Bathgate, New York Rangers Stanley Cup – Montreal Canadiens win 4 games to 1 over the Toronto Maple Leafs World Hockey Championship Men's champion: Belleville McFarlands from Canada NCAA Men's Ice Hockey Championship – University of North Dakota Fighting Sioux defeat Michigan State University Spartans 4–3 in overtime in Troy, New York The Hershey Bears defeat the Buffalo Bisons 4 games to 2 to win the AHL Calder Cup. The Louisville Rebels defeat the Fort Wayne Komets 4 games to 2 to win the IHL Turner Cup. On November 1, Montreal Canadiens goaltender Jacques Plante was injured when struck in the face by a flying puck. He offers to return to play on the condition that he wears his goalie mask. His example soon leads to the mask becoming standard equipment for goalies and a symbol of the game itself. The TV-pucken tournament starts. Motorsport Rugby league 1959 New Zealand rugby league season 1958–59 Northern Rugby Football League season/1959–60 Northern Rugby Football League season 1959 NSWRFL season Rugby union 65th Five Nations Championship series is won by France, the team's first outright championship title Swimming July 11 – US swimmer Michael Troy breaks his own first official world record (2:19.0), set earlier in the day, in the men's 200m butterfly (long course) at a meet in Los Altos, California, clocking 2:16.4. July 19 – US swimmer Becky Collins breaks the world record in the women's 200m butterfly at a meet in Redding, California, clocking 2:37.0. Tennis Australia Australian Men's Singles Championship – Alex Olmedo (USA) defeats Neale Fraser (Australia) 6–1, 6–2, 3–6, 6–3 Australian Women's Singles Championship – Mary Carter Reitano (Australia) defeats Renee Schuurman Haygarth (South Africa) 6–2, 6–3 England Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Alex Olmedo (USA) defeats Rod Laver (Australia) 6–4, 6–3, 6–4 Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Maria Bueno (Brazil) defeats Darlene Hard (USA) 6–4, 6–3 France French Men's Singles Championship – French Women's Singles Championship – USA American Men's Singles Championship – American Women's Singles Championship – Davis Cup 1959 Davis Cup – 3–2 at West Side Tennis Club (grass) New York City, United States Volleyball Volleyball at the 1959 Pan American Games in Chicago won by USA (men) and Brazil (women) Multi-sport events Central American and Caribbean Games held in Caracas, Venezuela Third Pan American Games held in Chicago, United States Third Mediterranean Games held in Beirut, Lebanon First Summer Universiade held in Turin, Italy Awards Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Ingemar Johansson, Boxing Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Maria Bueno, Tennis References Sports by year	[ -0.044324200600385666, 0.3279572129249573, -0.384448766708374, 0.3570359945297241, -0.865397036075592, -0.4785556197166443, 0.48128536343574524, 0.8986247181892395, -1.1360244750976562, -0.02766249142587185, -0.22171692550182343, 0.5061782598495483, -0.22171981632709503, 0.5182981491088867, -0.011119090020656586, -0.02318553812801838, 0.21376274526119232, -0.13458885252475739, 0.04114406183362007, 0.03629525005817413, 0.07044558972120285, 0.01995745114982128, 0.09764139354228973, 0.06452339887619019, -0.3539378345012665, -0.642166256904602, 0.2743520140647888, 0.285724401473999, 0.25852540135383606, -0.44013306498527527, -0.3506934642791748, -0.23813168704509735, 0.4058343470096588, 0.37714317440986633, -0.31988200545310974, -0.4748713970184326, 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225360	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1958%20in%20sports	1958 in sports	1958 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. American football NFL Championship: the Baltimore Colts won 23–17 (OT) over the New York Giants at Yankee Stadium (later called the "Greatest game ever played") Artistic gymnastics World Artistic Gymnastics Championships Men's all-around champion: Boris Shakhlin, USSR Women's all-around champion: Larisa Latynina, USSR Team competition champions: men's – USSR; women's – USSR Association football February 6 – Munich air disaster. 23 people died as a result of the crash at Munich airport including 7 Manchester United players: Geoff Bent (25) Roger Byrne (28) Eddie Colman (21) Mark Jones (24) David Pegg (22) Tommy Taylor (26) Liam Whelan (22) Duncan Edwards (21), who died of his injuries on 21 February Also killed was former Manchester City and England goalkeeper Frank Swift (44), who was then a reporter FIFA World Cup 1958 World Cup held in Sweden. Brazil beat Sweden 5–2 in the final. Europe European Cup – Real Madrid beat A.C. Milan 3–2. Inter-Cities Fairs Cup – FC Barcelona beat London XI 8–2 on aggregate. England First Division – Wolverhampton Wanderers win the 1957–58 title. FA Cup – Bolton Wanderers beat Manchester United 2–0. Athletics Sixth European Championships, held from August 19 to August 24 in Stockholm, Sweden Australian rules football Victorian Football League Collingwood wins the 62nd VFL Premiership (Collingwood 12.10 (82) d Melbourne 9.10 (64)) Brownlow Medal was awarded to Neil Roberts (St Kilda) Baseball January 29 – The Brooklyn Dodgers catcher Roy Campanella suffers a broken neck in an early morning auto accident on Long Island. His spinal column is nearly severed and his legs are permanently paralyzed. January 30 – Commissioner Ford Frick announces that players and coaches, rather than the fans, will vote for the All-Star teams. April 15 – San Francisco Giants pitcher Rubén Gómez won baseball's first regular season game on the West Coast. He started the first game in San Francisco history, beating Don Drysdale and the visiting Los Angeles Dodgers in an 8-0 shutout at Seals Stadium. The two teams moved from New York after the 1957 season. World Series – New York Yankees win 4 games to 3 over the Milwaukee Braves. The Series MVP is pitcher Bob Turley of New York. Basketball NCAA Men's Basketball Championship – Kentucky wins 84–72 over Seattle NBA Finals: St. Louis Hawks win 4 games to 2 over the Boston Celtics A FIBA European Champions Cup (present day of Euro Basketball League), first official game held on February 22, and Rīgas ASK won first season on title. Boxing December 10 – Light-heavyweight champion Archie Moore is knocked down three times in the first round and once more in the fifth round by Yvon Durelle but Moore held on to come back to knock out Durelle in the 11th round. Canadian football The Canadian Football League is officially established in its present form. Grey Cup – Winnipeg Blue Bombers win 35–28 over the Hamilton Tiger-Cats Cycling Tour de France won by Charly Gaul of Luxembourg September 13 – death in a racing accident of Russell Mockridge (30), Australian racing cyclist Figure skating World Figure Skating Championships: Men's champion: David Jenkins, United States Ladies' champion: Carol Heiss, United States Pair skating champions: Barbara Wagner & Robert Paul, Canada Ice dancing champions: June Markham & Courtney Jones, Great Britain Golf Men's professional Masters Tournament – Arnold Palmer U.S. Open – Tommy Bolt British Open – Peter Thomson PGA Championship – Dow Finsterwald PGA Tour money leader – Arnold Palmer – $42,608 Men's amateur British Amateur – Joe Carr U.S. Amateur – Charles Coe Women's professional Women's Western Open – Patty Berg LPGA Championship – Mickey Wright U.S. Women's Open – Mickey Wright Titleholders Championship – Beverly Hanson LPGA Tour money leader – Beverly Hanson – $12,639 Harness racing United States Pacing Triple Crown races: Cane Pace – Raider Frost Little Brown Jug – Shadow Wave Messenger Stakes – O'Brien Hanover United States Trotting Triple Crown races: Hambletonian – Emily's Pride Yonkers Trot – Spunky Hanover Kentucky Futurity – Emily's Pride Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship: Pacers: Free Hall Horse racing Tim Tam, who had won the Kentucky Derby and Preakness, fractured a sesamoid bone and lost his chance for the Triple Crown when he hobbled across the finish line in second place at the Belmont Stakes. Steeplechases Cheltenham Gold Cup – Kerstin Grand National – Mr What Flat races Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Baystone Canada – Queen's Plate won by Caledon Beau France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Ballymoss Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Sindon English Triple Crown Races: 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Pall Mall The Derby – Hard Ridden St. Leger Stakes – Alcide United States Triple Crown Races: Kentucky Derby – Tim Tam Preakness Stakes – Tim Tam Belmont Stakes – Cavan Ice hockey January 18 – Willie O'Ree makes his NHL debut with the Boston Bruins. He is the first Black Canadian to play in the National Hockey League. Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Dickie Moore, Montreal Canadiens Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Gordie Howe, Detroit Red Wings Stanley Cup – Montreal Canadiens win 4–2 over the Boston Bruins World Hockey Championship Men's champion: Whitby Dunlops from Canada defeat the Soviet Union NCAA Men's Ice Hockey Championship – University of Denver Pioneers defeat University of North Dakota Fighting Sioux 6–2 in Minneapolis, Minnesota Motorsport Pétanque The sport's international federation is founded in Marseille Rugby league 1958 New Zealand rugby league season 1958 NSWRFL season 1957–58 Northern Rugby Football League season / 1958–59 Northern Rugby Football League season Rugby union 64th Five Nations Championship series is won by England Skiing Men's FIS World Championships: Downhill: Toni Sailer (Austria) Giant Slalom: Toni Sailer (Austria) Slalom: Josl Rieder (Austria) Combined: Toni Sailer (Austria) Women's FIS World Championships: Downhill: Lucille Wheeler (Canada) Giant Slalom: Lucille Wheeler (Canada) Slalom: Inge Bjoernbakken (Norway) Combined: Frieda Dänzer (Switzerland) Swimming June 29 – US swimmer Nancy Ramey sets the first official world record in the women's 200m butterfly at a meet in Los Angeles, clocking 2:40.5. September 13 – Tineke Lagerberg from the Netherlands takes over the world record in the women's 200m butterfly during a meet in Naarden, the Netherlands – 2:38.9. Tennis Australia Australian Men's Singles Championship – Ashley Cooper (Australia) defeats Malcolm Anderson (Australia) 7–5, 6–3, 6–4 Australian Women's Singles Championship – Angela Mortimer Barrett (Great Britain) defeats Lorraine Coghlan Robinson (Australia) 6–3, 6–4 England Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Ashley Cooper (Australia) defeats Neale Fraser (Australia) 3–6, 6–3, 6–4, 13–11 Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Althea Gibson (USA) defeats Angela Mortimer (Great Britain) 8–6, 6–2 France French Men's Singles Championship – French Women's Singles Championship – USA American Men's Singles Championship – American Women's Singles Championship – Davis Cup 1958 Davis Cup – 3–2 at Milton Courts (grass) Brisbane, Australia Yacht racing The New York Yacht Club retains the America's Cup as Columbia defeats British challenger Sceptre, of the Royal Yacht Squadron, 4 races to 0; it is the first Cup series held in the era of the 12-metre yacht. Multi-sport events Asian Games held in Tokyo, Japan 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games held in Cardiff, Wales Awards Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Herb Elliott, Track and field Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Althea Gibson, Tennis References Sports by year	[ 0.1170482188463211, 0.6091082096099854, -0.28594180941581726, 0.30873775482177734, -0.9025928974151611, -0.4666707217693329, 0.5524442195892334, 0.6100103259086609, -1.0891499519348145, 0.09883271157741547, -0.10962426662445068, 0.3514786958694458, -0.0034196109045296907, 0.5220295786857605, -0.06712912023067474, 0.04789217934012413, 0.2509428858757019, -0.2614303231239319, 0.1840093433856964, 0.05463084205985069, -0.0844433605670929, 0.030686983838677406, -0.17304028570652008, 0.10394842177629471, -0.4464271068572998, -0.39073458313941956, 0.3431266248226166, 0.06422419100999832, 0.0018539332086220384, -0.4941891133785248, -0.3161318302154541, -0.28618302941322327, 0.20336516201496124, 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225363	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20ambassadors%20and%20high%20commissioners%20to%20Canada	List of ambassadors and high commissioners to Canada	This is a list of heads of diplomatic missions to Canada from other countries and entities, such as Ambassadors and High Commissioners, as listed by Global Affairs Canada. Current Ambassadors and High Commissioners Below are the Ambassadors and High Commissioners to Canada, by order of precedence, . Other offices Chargé d'Affaires and other diplomatic heads Vacant offices See also Ambassadors from Canada References Notes External links Foreign Representatives in Canada: Ambassadors by Order of Precedence List Canada List Ambassadors and High Commissioners to Canada	[ 0.3889867961406708, 0.9890069961547852, -0.19276955723762512, 0.31778639554977417, -0.4595186114311218, -0.04220769181847572, 0.4705002009868622, 1.0869812965393066, -0.6678836941719055, -0.31661149859428406, -0.29561278223991394, -0.12252414226531982, 0.14524540305137634, 0.14848986268043518, 0.3332725167274475, 0.148982435464859, 0.024045534431934357, 1.1471320390701294, -0.1260673552751541, -0.913056492805481, 0.2568880319595337, -0.6020633578300476, 0.6571987867355347, -0.32647645473480225, 0.2481612265110016, 0.44776004552841187, 0.920289933681488, 0.2257627695798874, -1.1947522163391113, -0.20108556747436523, 0.08011744171380997, 0.803868293762207, 0.4867672622203827, 0.24644635617733002, 0.12927527725696564, 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225364	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1957%20in%20sports	1957 in sports	1957 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. American football NFL Championship: the Detroit Lions won 59–14 over the Cleveland Browns at Briggs Stadium 1957 college football season: The Auburn Tigers are voted national champions by the AP Poll; do not play in a bowl game on January 1, 1958, due to sanctions Association football European Cup – Real Madrid beat Fiorentina 2–0. England First Division – Manchester United win the 1956–57 title. FA Cup – Aston Villa beat Manchester United 2–1. May 15 – Stanley Matthews makes his last England appearance. Other events February 8 – The Confederation of African Football is founded in Khartoum. Australian rules football June 1 – East Perth kick a score of 3.30 (48) in wet conditions against Swan Districts’ 5.11 (41). It is the most inaccurate score in senior Australian Rules football history with 27 more behinds than goals. August 17 – By beating Essendon by 21 points, Hawthorn secure their first finals position in senior VFL football, which they joined in 1925. It is the longest finals absence in major Australian sporting history. August 31 – Hawthorn beat Carlton 10.11 (71) to 6.12 (48) in their first senior VFL final. It is the first time Hawthorn had finished above the Blues in their 33 years in the League. September 7 – West Perth 12.10 (82) draw with South Fremantle 13.4 (82) for the first senior WANFL drawn match since June 29, 1946, when the Cardinals drew with Swan Districts. The 948-game gap between constitutes the longest non-occurrence of draws in a major Australian Rules competition. September 21 – Melbourne 17.14 (116) beat Essendon 7.13 (55) in the VFL Grand Final. It is their third successive premiership, a feat not equalled until the Brisbane Lions in 2003. September 28 – Port Adelaide win their fourth successive SANFL premiership, beating Norwood 15.15 (105) to 13.16 (94). October 12 – East Fremantle beat East Perth 10.18 (78) to 9.8 (62) in the WANFL Grand Final for their eighteenth senior WANFL premiership, though their first since the unbeaten season of 1946. Bandy 1957 Bandy World Championship is held in Finland and won by . Baseball January 5 – Jackie Robinson retires rather than move across town from the Dodgers to the Giants, to whom he had been traded in December. Roy Sievers lead American league with 42 home runs and 114 RBIs, for the last place Washington Senators. Cy Young Award – Warren Spahn, Milwaukee Braves World Series – Milwaukee Braves defeat the New York Yankees four games to three. May 3 – Walter O'Malley, the owner of the Brooklyn Dodgers, agrees to move the team from Brooklyn, New York, to Los Angeles, California. August 19- Horace Stoneham announces that the Giants are moving from New York to San Francisco, California. October 8 – Walter O'Malley announces that the Dodgers are going to move from Brooklyn, New York, to Los Angeles, California. The Winnipeg Goldeyes win the Northern League championship. Basketball NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship: North Carolina wins 54–53 over Kansas NBA Finals: Boston Celtics won 4 games to 3 over the St. Louis Hawks The tenth European basketball championship, Eurobasket 1957, is won by the Soviet Union. Spanish professional basketball league, Liga Espanola de Baloncesto (Spain Basketball League), a first game held on March 31.(as predecessor for Liga ACB) Boxing September 23 – Carmen Basilio won the World Middleweight Championship by a 15-round decision over Sugar Ray Robinson. Bowling Nine-pin bowling Nine-pin bowling World Championships – Men's champion: Ion Micoroiu, Romania Women's champion: Gertrude Schmidka, Austria Men's team champion: Yugoslavia Women's team champion: Austria Canadian football Grey Cup – Hamilton Tiger-Cats won 32–7 over the Winnipeg Blue Bombers Cycling Giro d'Italia won by Gastone Nencini of Italy Tour de France – Jacques Anquetil of France UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Rik Van Steenbergen of Belgium Figure skating World Figure Skating Championships: Men's champion: David Jenkins, United States Ladies' champion: Carol Heiss, United States Pair skating champions: Barbara Wagner & Robert Paul, Canada Ice dancing champions: June Markham & Courtney Jones, Great Britain Golf Men's professional Masters Tournament – Doug Ford U.S. Open – Dick Mayer British Open – Bobby Locke PGA Championship – Lionel Hebert PGA Tour money leader – Dick Mayer – $65,835 Ryder Cup – Britain wins 7½ to 4½ over the United States in team golf. Men's amateur British Amateur – Reid Jack U.S. Amateur – Hillman Robbins Women's professional Women's Western Open – Patty Berg LPGA Championship – Louise Suggs U.S. Women's Open – Betsy Rawls Titleholders Championship – Patty Berg LPGA Tour money leader – Patty Berg – $16,272 Harness racing United States Pacing Triple Crown races: Cane Pace – Torpid Little Brown Jug – Torpid Messenger Stakes – Meadow Lands United States Trotting Triple Crown races: Hambletonian – Hickory Smoke Yonkers Trot Kentucky Futurity Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship: Pacers: Radiant Venture Horse racing Steeplechases Cheltenham Gold Cup – Linwell Grand National – Sundew Flat races Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Straight Draw Canada – Queen's Plate won by Lyford Cay France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Oroso Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Ballymoss English Triple Crown Races: 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Crepello The Derby – Crepello St. Leger Stakes – Ballymoss United States Triple Crown Races: May 4 – Kentucky Derby – Iron Liege Preakness Stakes – Bold Ruler Belmont Stakes – Gallant Man Ice hockey Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Gordie Howe, Detroit Red Wings Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Gordie Howe, Detroit Red Wings Stanley Cup – Montreal Canadiens win 4 games to 1 over the Boston Bruins World Hockey Championship Men's champion: Sweden defeated the Soviet Union NCAA Men's Ice Hockey Championship – Colorado College Tigers defeat University of Michigan Wolverines 13–6 in Colorado Springs, Colorado Motorsport Rugby league 1957 New Zealand rugby league season 1957 NSWRFL season 1956–57 Northern Rugby Football League season / 1957–58 Northern Rugby Football League season 1957 Rugby League World Cup Rugby union 63rd Five Nations Championship series is won by England who complete the Grand Slam Snooker World Snooker Championship – John Pulman beats Jackie Rea 39-34 Swimming January 31 – death in a road accident of John Marshall (26), Australian Olympic freestyle swimmer Tennis Australia Australian Men's Singles Championship – Ashley Cooper (Australia) defeats Neale Fraser (Australia) 6–3, 9–11, 6–4, 6–2 Australian Women's Singles Championship – Shirley Fry Irvin (USA) defeats Althea Gibson (USA) 6–3, 6–4 England Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Lew Hoad (Australia) defeats Ashley Cooper (Australia) 6–2, 6–1, 6–2 Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Althea Gibson (USA) defeats Darlene Hard (USA) 6–3, 6–2 France French Men's Singles Championship – French Women's Singles Championship – USA American Men's Singles Championship – American Women's Singles Championship – Events Althea Gibson becomes the first black player to win a Wimbledon singles championship Davis Cup 1957 Davis Cup – 3–2 at Kooyong Stadium (grass) Melbourne, Australia Multi-sport events Pan Arab Games held in Beirut, Lebanon Awards Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Ted Williams, Major League Baseball Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Althea Gibson, Tennis References Sports by year	[ 0.337653249502182, 0.6717519760131836, -0.6004266738891602, 0.10350490361452103, -0.9387386441230774, -0.42049506306648254, 0.7769966721534729, 0.3784688413143158, -1.1947461366653442, 0.15297743678092957, 0.09776520729064941, 0.01828121393918991, 0.03414411097764969, 0.6094540953636169, -0.24012327194213867, -0.04615422710776329, 0.14167754352092743, -0.19764946401119232, 0.4724859595298767, 0.006185048725455999, 0.06311125308275223, 0.18382994830608368, -0.21731357276439667, 0.0023299665190279484, -0.22952096164226532, -0.3448863923549652, 0.1781667321920395, -0.07142865657806396, -0.033053021878004074, -0.5597714781761169, -0.47215914726257324, -0.30104923248291016, 0.28288182616233826, 0.6353070735931396, -0.3747389316558838, -0.612781286239624, 0.007998168468475342, -0.24646124243736267, -0.23273086547851562, -0.8300873637199402, -0.9952213764190674, 0.09813322871923447, 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225365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1859%20in%20sports	1859 in sports	1859 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. Australian rules football Events 14 May — Melbourne Football Club is founded 17 May — Australian rules football is codified 15 June — Castlemaine Football Club is founded 18 July — Geelong Football Club is founded Baseball National championship National Association of Base Ball Players champion – Brooklyn Atlantics Events A group in southern Ontario adopts the New York rules in place of the Canadian rules. The Niagara club of Buffalo, New York joins the National Association (by participating in the meeting) although it plays only locally. In Brooklyn, Jim Creighton moves from the local Niagara club to Star at midseason and on to Excelsior for next year, perhaps for monetary reward. Boxing Events John Morrissey announces his retirement and relinquishes the Championship of America, which is awarded to his nearest challenger John C. Heenan. English champion Tom Sayers defends his title twice, defeating Bill Benjamin in 11 rounds and Bob Brettle in seven. Cricket Events 1 March — reorganisation of Kent County Cricket Club into the present club. 21, 22 & 23 July — in a remarkable all-round performance, V. E. Walker of Middlesex, playing for All-England Eleven versus Surrey at The Oval, takes all ten wickets in the Surrey first innings and follows by scoring 108 in the All-England second innings, having been the not out batsman in the first with 20. He takes a further four wickets in Surrey's second innings. All-England win by 392 runs. 7 September — departure of cricket's first-ever touring team. The team of English professionals went to North America and played five matches, winning them all. There were no first-class fixtures. A famous photograph was taken on board ship before they sailed from Liverpool (see above). England Most runs – James Grundy 530 at 17.09 (HS 67) Most wickets – John Jackson 83 at 11.07 (BB 8–32) Horse racing Events The Queen's Plate is initiated by the Toronto Turf Club and will be run for the first time in June 1860. The Queen's Plate is run over 1¼ miles by 3-year-old thoroughbred horses foaled in Canada and is the oldest race for thoroughbreds in Canada. England Grand National – Half Caste 1,000 Guineas Stakes – 2,000 Guineas Stakes – The Promised Land The Derby – Musjid The Oaks – Summerside St. Leger Stakes – Gamester Lacrosse Events Lacrosse is elected Canada's national sport by the Parliament of Canada. Rowing The Boat Race 15 April — Oxford wins the 16th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race Other events 26 July — The third Harvard–Yale Regatta (a single race) is Harvard's third win, following 1852 and 1855. Lake Quinsigamond at Worcester, Massachusetts is the third site but it will be used exclusively through 1870. The event will now be annual with occasional interruptions, primarily during major wars. Tennis Events The first game of lawn tennis is played by Major Harry Gem and his friend Augurio Perera, using a croquet lawn at 8 Ampton Road in Edgbaston, Birmingham. 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225366	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1956%20in%20sports	1956 in sports	1956 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. Alpine skiing The men's Olympic gold medal: Downhill: Toni Sailer, Austria Slalom: Toni Sailer, Austria Giant Slalom: Toni Sailer, Austria The women's Olympic gold medal: Downhill: Madeleine Berthod, Switzerland Slalom: Renée Colliard, Switzerland Giant Slalom: Ossi Reichert, West Germany FIS Alpine World Ski Championships: Men's combined champion: Toni Sailer, Austria Women's combined champion: Madeleine Berthod, Switzerland American football NFL Championship: the New York Giants won 47–7 over the Chicago Bears at Yankee Stadium in the Bronx Orange Bowl (1955 season): The Oklahoma Sooners won 20–6 over the Maryland Terrapins; voted national champions by AP Poll and Coaches Poll 1956 NCAA University Division football season: The Oklahoma Sooners win the college football national championship (don't participate in a bowl game the following January due to "no-repeat rule") 1956 NAIA football season Montana State and St. Joseph tie for the first ever National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics championship game. Association football European Cup – Real Madrid beat Stade de Reims 4–3 in the inaugural final. England First Division – Manchester United win the 1955–56 title. FA Cup – Manchester City beat Birmingham City 3–1. Netherlands Eredivise, a premier football league in Holland, a first regular season games held on September 2. Athletics Betty Cuthbert (Australia) and Bobby Morrow (USA) win three gold medals each in the sprint events at the Olympic Games in Melbourne. Australian rules football Victorian Football League May 12: Stuart Spencer kicks 0.11 for Melbourne against Geelong, equalling the record for the most behinds in a match without scoring a goal. July 21: Melbourne's run of nineteen consecutive wins, the fourth highest on record, is ended by Footscray, who score 10.12 (72) to the Demons' 7.17 (59). September 15: Melbourne wins the 60th VFL Premiership, beating Collingwood 17.19 (121) to 6.12 (48) in the Grand Final. Brownlow Medal awarded to Peter Box (Footscray) South Australian National Football League August 4: Port Adelaide, after starting with thirteen unbeaten games and on target for a rare unbeaten season, are unexpectedly beaten by lowly South Adelaide for their only loss of the season. September 29: Port Adelaide beat West Adelaide for their third successive SANFL premiership, scoring 12.9 (81) to 9.11 (65). West Australian Football League May 12: East Perth kick only 1.4 (10) against Perth at the WACA in heavy rain, with their lone goal coming in total darkness with three minutes remaining. It is not only the lowest score in the WAFL between 1946 and 2002, but the lowest score by any eventual premier club in a major Australian Rules competition since present-day scoring was introduced in the late 1890s. October 13: East Perth 10.17 (77) defeat South Fremantle 9.10 (64) for their first senior WAFL premiership since 1936. Baseball April 17 – Luis Aparicio replaces fellow Venezuelan Chico Carrasquel as the White Sox' everyday shortstop. Aparicio, who played 10 seasons with the White Sox, was elected to the Hall of Fame in 1984 and had his #11 retired by the Sox in the same year. July 14 – Boston Red Sox lefty Mel Parnell pitches a no-hitter against the Chicago White Sox at Fenway Park, winning 4–0. It is only Parnell's third win against two losses and is the sixth straight loss for second-place Chicago. The no-hitter is the first for the Red Sox since 1923. Parnell will go 4-4 before a torn muscle in his pitching arm ends his career as the Red Sox' winningest southpaw. July 25 – Pittsburgh Pirates outfielder Roberto Clemente becomes the first (and to date only) player to hit a walk-off inside-the-park grand slam in a win over the Chicago Cubs at Pittsburgh's old Forbes Field. World Series – New York Yankees win 4 games to 3 over the Brooklyn Dodgers. Yankees pitcher Don Larsen, pitches the only perfect game in World Series history, earning himself MVP honors. It was the only no-hitter thrown in any postseason game until October 6, 2010, in his first postseason appearance, Philadelphia Phillies pitcher Roy Halladay pitched a no-hitter against Cincinnati Reds in the NLDS. December 1 – Cincinnati slugger Frank Robinson is unanimously voted the NL Rookie of the Year. White Sox shortstop Luis Aparicio is voted AL Rookie of the Year with 22 points, beating out Baltimore's Tito Francona and Rocky Colavito of the Indians. Basketball NCAA Men's Basketball Championship: San Francisco wins 83–71 over Iowa NBA Finals: Philadelphia Warriors won 4 games to 1 over the Fort Wayne Pistons Boxing March 19 – At age 48, Dutch boxer Bep van Klaveren contests his last match in Rotterdam. April 27 – Rocky Marciano retires as the only undefeated Heavyweight Champion of the world with a perfect record (49-0). November 30, in Chicago – Floyd Patterson knocks out Archie Moore in the 5th round to win the vacant World Heavyweight title. Canadian football Grey Cup – Edmonton Eskimos win 50–27 over the Montreal Alouettes Cycling Giro d'Italia won by Charly Gaul of Luxembourg Tour de France – Roger Walkowiak of France UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Rik Van Steenbergen of Belgium Field hockey Olympic Games (Men's Competition) in Melbourne, Australia Gold Medal: India Silver Medal: Pakistan Bronze Medal: West Germany Figure skating 1956 Winter Olympics: Men's champion: Hayes Alan Jenkins, United States Ladies' champion: Tenley Albright, United States Pair skating champions: Elisabeth Schwarz & Kurt Oppelt, Austria World Figure Skating Championships: Men's champion: Hayes Alan Jenkins, United States Ladies' champion: Carol Heiss, United States Pair skating champions: Elisabeth Schwarz & Kurt Oppelt, Austria Ice dancing champions: Pamela Weight & Paul Thomas (skater), Great Britain European Figure Skating Championships: Men's champion: Alain Giletti, France Ladies' champion: Ingrid Wendl, Austria Pair skating champions: Elisabeth Schwarz & Kurt Oppelt, Austria Ice dancing champions: Pamela Weight & Paul Thomas (skater), Great Britain Golf Men's professional Masters Tournament – Jack Burke, Jr. U.S. Open – Cary Middlecoff British Open – Peter Thomson 1956 PGA Championship – Jack Burke, Jr. PGA Tour money leader – Ted Kroll – $72,836 Men's amateur British Amateur – John Beharrell U.S. Amateur – Harvie Ward Women's professional Women's Western Open – Beverly Hanson LPGA Championship – Marlene Hagge U.S. Women's Open – Kathy Cornelius Titleholders Championship – Louise Suggs LPGA Tour money leader – Marlene Hagge – $20,235 Harness racing The United States Pacing Triple Crown races is created with the addition of the Messenger Stakes. Cane Pace – Noble Adios Little Brown Jug – Noble Adios Messenger Stakes – Belle Acton United States Trotting Triple Crown races: Hambletonian – The Intruder Yonkers Trot Kentucky Futurity Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship: Pacers: Gentlemen John Horse racing Steeplechases Cheltenham Gold Cup – Limber Hill Grand National – ESB Flat races Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Evening Peal Canada – Queen's Plate won by Canadian Champ France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Ribot Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Talgo English Triple Crown races: 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Gilles de Retz The Derby – Lavandin St. Leger Stakes – Cambremer United States Triple Crown races: May 5 – Kentucky Derby – Needles Preakness Stakes – Fabius Belmont Stakes – Needles Ice hockey Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Jean Beliveau, Montreal Canadiens Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Jean Beliveau, Montreal Canadiens Stanley Cup – Montreal Canadiens win 4 games to 1 over the Detroit Red Wings World Hockey Championship Men's champion: Soviet Union defeated the United States NCAA Men's Ice Hockey Championship – University of Michigan Wolverines defeat Michigan Technological University Huskies 7–5 in Colorado Springs, Colorado HC Dukla Jihlava was founded in Vysocina Region, Czechoslovakia, present day of Czech Republic. Motorsport Rugby league 1955–56 European Rugby League Championship 1956 New Zealand rugby league season 1956 NSWRFL season 1955–56 Northern Rugby Football League season / 1956–57 Northern Rugby Football League season Rugby union 62nd Five Nations Championship series is won by Wales New Zealand All Blacks defeats South African Springboks 3–1 in a Test series Snooker World Snooker Championship – Fred Davis beats John Pulman 38-35 Tennis Australia Australian Men's Singles Championship – Lew Hoad (Australia) defeats Ken Rosewall (Australia) 6–4, 3–6, 6–4, 7–5 Australian Women's Singles Championship – Mary Carter Reitano (Australia) defeats Thelma Coyne Long (Australia) 3–6, 6–2, 9–7 England Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Lew Hoad (Australia) defeats Ken Rosewall (Australia) 6–2, 4–6, 7–5, 6–4 Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Shirley Fry Irvin (USA) defeats Angela Buxton (Great Britain) 6–3, 6–1 France French Men's Singles Championship – French Women's Singles Championship – USA American Men's Singles Championship – American Women's Singles Championship – Davis Cup 1956 Davis Cup – 5–0 at Memorial Drive Tennis Centre (grass) Adelaide, Australia Volleyball Men's World Championship in Paris won by Czechoslovakia Olympic Games 1956 Summer Olympics takes place in Melbourne, Australia Equestrian events take place in Stockholm, Sweden, due to Australian quarantine laws. USSR wins the most medals (98), and the most gold medals (37). 1956 Winter Olympics takes place in Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy USSR wins the most medals (16), and the most gold medals (7). Awards Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Mickey Mantle, Major League Baseball Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Pat McCormick, Diving References Sports by year	[ 0.28200048208236694, 0.8299902677536011, -0.56467205286026, 0.17052742838859558, -0.9870687127113342, -0.31491097807884216, 0.7837711572647095, 0.2737550139427185, -1.2263764142990112, 0.07024269551038742, 0.06900645792484283, -0.029612066224217415, 0.0708843320608139, 0.6406180262565613, -0.16497482359409332, -0.007216060999780893, 0.24101263284683228, -0.17037595808506012, 0.469811350107193, 0.03517066687345505, 0.16221892833709717, 0.14730453491210938, -0.1454717218875885, 0.047594934701919556, -0.12307441234588623, -0.37127798795700073, 0.06992176175117493, -0.09167029708623886, 0.13551399111747742, -0.7186416387557983, -0.31612107157707214, -0.25752538442611694, 0.2697916030883789, 0.620133101940155, -0.31579625606536865, -0.6084795594215393, -0.0425320602953434, -0.3559909164905548, 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225368	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1860%20in%20sports	1860 in sports	1860 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. Baseball National championship National Association of Base Ball Players champion – Brooklyn Atlantics Events The Excelsior club from Brooklyn, led by the fast pitcher Jim Creighton, tours as far as Buffalo, New York, to spread the game. Boxing Events 17 April — one of the most famous fights of the bareknuckle era takes place at Farnborough, Hampshire, when English Champion Tom Sayers meets American Champion John C. Heenan in what is effectively a World Championship bout. After 42 rounds, the crowd breaks into the ring and the fight is stopped, both boxers having taken heavy punishment, although Heenan seemingly had the advantage. The result is a draw. 20 May — Sayers is awarded a special Silver Championship Belt to commemorate the fight and he now announces his retirement from boxing. Heenan is awarded a duplicate belt. But the brutality of the fight is widely publicised and gives rise to condemnation of the sport by a public that is increasingly influenced by Victorian ethics and morality. The legacy of the Heenan–Sayers fight is that it will bring about the demise of bareknuckle fighting in England. 5 November — Tom Paddock fights Sam Hurst for the vacant Heavyweight Championship of England at a venue in Berkshire. Hurst wins in only five rounds and is awarded the championship belt by Tom Sayers. This is Paddock's final fight. Cricket Events John Jackson is again credited with over 100 first-class wickets in the season, establishing a new record with 109 England Most runs – Thomas Hayward 557 @ 26.52 (HS 132) Most wickets – John Jackson 109 @ 9.20 (BB 9–34) Football Events Formation of TSV 1860 München as a physical fitness and gymnastics club. As a club, it is the world's oldest that is currently involved in senior professional association football, but in fact the club does not create a football department until 6 March 1899 or play its first matches until 1902. The now defunct Lausanne Football and Cricket Club is founded in Switzerland, the first football club to be formed outside England, although it is believed to have been primarily a cricket club. 26 December — the earliest known inter-club association football match (i.e., under Sheffield Rules) is played and Sheffield F.C. defeats Hallam F.C. 2–0. Formation of Manchester Football Club, now called Manchester Rugby Club, which is one of the oldest rugby union clubs Golf Major tournaments The inaugural British Open is won by Willie Park senior at Prestwick Golf Club. The tournament is initially limited to professional players but becomes "open" in 1861. Horse racing Events Inaugural running of the Queen's Plate in Canada is won by Don Juan England Grand National – Anatis 1,000 Guineas Stakes – Sagitta 2,000 Guineas Stakes – The Wizard The Derby – Thormanby The Oaks – Butterfly St. Leger Stakes – St Albans Canada Queen's Plate – Don Juan Rowing The Boat Race 31 March — Cambridge wins the 17th Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race Other events Foundation of both Thames Rowing Club and Twickenham Rowing Club in London 24 July — Harvard wins the 4th Harvard–Yale Regatta (a single race). 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225369	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1955%20in%20sports	1955 in sports	1955 in sports describes the year's events in world sport. American football NFL Championship: the Cleveland Browns won 38–14 over the Los Angeles Rams at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Rose Bowl (1954 season): The Ohio State Buckeyes win 20–7 over the Southern California Trojans to win the AP Poll national championship Association football England First Division – Chelsea win the 1954–55 title FA Cup – Newcastle United beat Manchester City 3-1 Peru Sporting Cristal was founded. Athletics March 12 to 16 – Athletics at the 1955 Pan American Games in Mexico City Australian rules football Victorian Football League Melbourne wins the 59th VFL Premiership, defeating Collingwood 8.16 (64) to 5.6 (36) in the Grand Final. Brownlow Medal awarded to Fred Goldsmith (South Melbourne) South Australian National Football League April 30: West Torrens 9.12 (66) draws Norwood 8.18 (66) at Thebarton Oval. It is the first senior SANFL drawn match since West Adelaide 15.14 (104) drew with Port Adelaide 16.8 (104) on 24 May 1941. The intervening 788-game gap constitutes easily the longest non-occurrence of draws in SANFL history and is twice as long as the V/AFL or VFA record, but has been bettered twice in the WAFL. October 1: Port Adelaide 15.11 (101) defeats Norwood 5.8 (38) for their second consecutive premiership West Australian Football League October 8: Perth 11.11 (77) defeat East Fremantle 11.9 (75) for their first premiership since 1907 in champion ruckman Merv McIntosh's final match. Bandy Federation of International Bandy inaugurated at Stockholm by Finland, Norway, Sweden and the USSR. The Soviet Union now adopts the international rules of the game developed in England in the 19th century. Baseball Philadelphia Athletics move to Kansas City, Missouri and become the Kansas City Athletics April 23 – The White Sox tally a franchise record 29 runs at Kansas City. Sherm Lollar is 5-for-6 with a pair of home runs and five RBI, while reserve outfielder Bob Nieman and infielder Walt Dropo drive in seven runs apiece, and Chico Carrasquel hits 5-for-6 with five runs in the 29–6 victory over the Athletics World Series – October 4 – The Brooklyn Dodgers win 4 games to 3 over the New York Yankees; Series MVP is pitcher Johnny Podres, Brooklyn Basketball NCAA Men's Basketball Championship – San Francisco wins 76–73 over La Salle NBA Finals – The Syracuse Nationals beat the Fort Wayne Pistons 4 games to 3 to win the NBA title Eurobasket 1955, the ninth European basketball championship, is won by Hungary March 1 – Allen Fieldhouse opens at the University of Kansas as the Jayhawks defeat Kansas State Bayi Basketball Club, officially founded in Ningbo, Zhejiang Province.(as predecessor for Bayi Rockets, as known well for professional basketball club in China) Brose Bamberg was founded in Bavaria, Germany. Boxing March 12 to 16 – Boxing at the 1955 Pan American Games in Mexico City September 21 – In New York City, Rocky Marciano knocks out the light-heavyweight champion Archie Moore in the 9th round to retain his World Heavyweight Championship belt Bowling Nine-pin bowling Nine-pin bowling World Championships – Men's champion: Eberhard Luther, East Germany Women's champion: Franciška Erjavec, Yugoslavia Men's team champion: East Germany Women's team champion: East Germany Canadian football Grey Cup – Edmonton Eskimos won 34–19 over the Montreal Alouettes Cycling Giro d'Italia won by Fiorenzo Magni of Italy Tour de France – Louison Bobet of France UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Stan Ockers of Belgium Figure skating World Figure Skating Championships – Men's champion: Hayes Alan Jenkins, United States Ladies' champion: Tenley Albright, United States Pair skating champions: Frances Dafoe & Norris Bowden, Canada Ice dancing champions: Jean Westwood & Lawrence Demmy, Great Britain Golf Men's professional Masters Tournament – Cary Middlecoff U.S. Open – Jack Fleck British Open – Peter Thomson PGA Championship – Doug Ford PGA Tour money leader – Julius Boros – $63,122 Ryder Cup – United States team wins 8–4 over the British team. Men's amateur British Amateur – Joe Conrad U.S. Amateur – Harvie Ward Women's professional The LPGA launches the new LPGA Championship annual tournament. Women's Western Open – Patty Berg LPGA Championship – Beverly Hanson U.S. Women's Open – Fay Crocker Titleholders Championship – Patty Berg LPGA Tour money leader – Patty Berg – $16,492 Harness racing The first Cane Pace is held at Yonkers Raceway. Little Brown Jug for pacers won by Quick Chief Cane Pace won by Quick Chief The United States Trotting Triple Crown races are established. Scott Frost will win the first ever crown. Hambletonian – Scott Frost Yonkers Trot – Scott Frost Kentucky Futurity – Scott Frost Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship – Pacers: Tactician Trotters: Battle Cry Horse racing August 31 – In one of the most famous match races in thoroughbred racing history, Nashua beats Swaps at Washington Park racetrack, Swaps only loss in nine starts as a three-year-old. Nashua's owner-breeder, William Woodward, Jr., dreams of owning a Derby winner, and plans to send Nashua to England to train toward that goal but is shot dead by his wife on October 31 before he can proceed. Steeplechases Cheltenham Gold Cup – Gay Donald Grand National – Quare Times Flat races Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Toparoa Canada – Queen's Plate won by Ace Marine France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Ribot Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Panaslipper English Triple Crown Races: 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Our Babu The Derby – Phil Drake St. Leger Stakes – Meld United States Triple Crown Races: Kentucky Derby – Swaps Preakness Stakes – Nashua Belmont Stakes – Nashua Ice hockey Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Bernie "Boom-Boom" Geoffrion, Montreal Canadiens Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Ted Kennedy, Toronto Maple Leafs Stanley Cup – Detroit Red Wings win 4 games to 3 over the Montreal Canadiens World Hockey Championship – Men's champion: Canada's Penticton Vees win 5–0 over the USSR NCAA Men's Ice Hockey Championship – University of Michigan Wolverines defeat Colorado College Tigers 5–3 in Colorado Springs Motorsport Rugby league 1955–56 European Rugby League Championship 1955 New Zealand rugby league season 1955 NSWRFL season 1954–55 Northern Rugby Football League season / 1955–56 Northern Rugby Football League season Rugby union 61st Five Nations Championship series is shared by France and Wales Snooker World Snooker Championship – Fred Davis beats John Pulman 37-34 Tennis Australia Australian Men's Singles Championship – Ken Rosewall (Australia) defeats Lew Hoad (Australia) 9–7, 6–4, 6–4 Australian Women's Singles Championship – Beryl Penrose Collier (Australia) defeats Thelma Coyne Long (Australia) 6–4, 6–3 England Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Tony Trabert (USA) defeats Kurt Nielsen (Denmark) 6–3, 7–5, 6–1 Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Louise Brough Clapp (USA) defeats Beverly Baker Fleitz (USA) 7–5, 8–6 France French Men's Singles Championship – French Women's Singles Championship – USA American Men's Singles Championship – American Women's Singles Championship – Davis Cup 1955 Davis Cup – 5–0 at West Side Tennis Club (grass) New York City, United States Volleyball March 16 to 20 – Volleyball at the 1955 Pan American Games in Mexico City Men's Tournament Gold Medal: USA Silver Medal: Mexico Bronze Medal: Brazil Women's Tournament Gold Medal: Mexico Silver Medal: USA Bronze Medal: Brazil Multi-sport events Second Pan American Games held in Mexico City, Mexico Second Mediterranean Games held in Barcelona, Spain Awards Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Howard "Hopalong" Cassady, College football Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Patty Berg, LPGA golf References Sports by year	[ 0.34666165709495544, 0.7119179368019104, -0.5266401767730713, 0.16638429462909698, -0.9304662346839905, -0.5046221613883972, 0.6429274678230286, 0.29950806498527527, -1.2981120347976685, 0.301337867975235, 0.05888379365205765, 0.24528463184833527, -0.06360262632369995, 0.5863223075866699, -0.2052644044160843, 0.046018313616514206, 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