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224602 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orsa%20Spelm%C3%A4n | Orsa Spelmän | Orsa Spelmän is a folk music (Spelman) sextet from Orsa in Sweden.
In 1987, the former ABBA member Benny Andersson and Orsa Spelmän began a musical partnership with the recording of the album Klinga mina klockor. In 2001 the group became part of Benny Anderssons orkester (BAO). .
In 2006, the member Kalle Moraeus was awarded Povel Ramels Karamelodiktstipendium.
Orsa Spelmän have so far released four albums, Orsa Spelmän (1988), Fiolin Min (1990), Ödra (1998) and Orsa nästa (2006), and appear on several records together with Benny Anderssons Orkester.
Discography
Singles
References
External links
http://www.orsaspelman.com/ (dead link)
Orsa Spelmän :The Jewel in the Music Crown from Orsa Kommun official site
Musical groups established in 1987
Swedish folk music groups
Melodifestivalen contestants | [
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224605 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peramelemorphia | Peramelemorphia | The order Peramelemorphia includes the bandicoots and bilbies; it equates approximately to the mainstream of marsupial omnivores. All members of the order are endemic to the twin land masses of Australia-New Guinea and most have the characteristic bandicoot shape: a plump, arch-backed body with a long, delicately tapering snout, very large upright ears, relatively long, thin legs, and a thin tail. Their size varies from about 140 grams up to 4 kilograms, but most species are about one kilogram, or the weight of a half-grown kitten.
Phylogeny
Placement within Marsupialia
The position of the Peramelemorphia within the marsupial family tree has long been puzzling and controversial. There are two morphological features in the order that appear to show a clear evolutionary link with another marsupial group: the type of foot, and the teeth. Unfortunately, these clear signposts point in opposite directions.
All members of the order are polyprotodont (have several pairs of lower front teeth)—in the case of the Peramelemorphia, three pairs. This suggests that they have evolved within Dasyuromorphia (marsupial carnivores). On the other hand, they also have an unusual feature in their feet: the second and third toes are fused together. This condition is called syndactyly, and is characteristic of the Diprotodontia (the order of marsupial herbivores that includes kangaroos, wombats, possums, and many others).
Attempts to resolve this puzzle include the view that the bandicoot group evolved from the carnivores, retaining the polyprotodont dentition, and independently evolving a syndactyl hind foot; the contrary view that syndactyly is so unusual that it is unlikely to have evolved twice and therefore the bandicoot group must have evolved from a possum-like diprotodont creature, and re-evolved its extra teeth. A third view suggests that the bandicoot group evolved from a primitive carnivore, developed the syndactylous hind foot as a specialisation for climbing, and the diprotodonts then split off and evolved the two-tooth jaw that gives them their name. Recent molecular level investigations do not so far appear to have resolved the puzzle, but do strongly suggest that whatever the relationship of the bandicoot group to the other marsupial orders may be, it is a distant one.
Relationships within Peramelemorphia
Recent molecular analyses have resulted in a phylogenetic reconstruction of the members of Peramelemorphia with quite strong support. The most basal split separates Thylacomyidae (Macrotis) from all other bandicoots. Probably the next to diverge was the recently extinct Chaeropodidae (Chaeropus). The remaining taxa comprise the Peramelidae, which divides into subfamilies Peramelinae (Isoodon and Perameles) and a clade in which the Echymiperinae (Echymipera and Microperoryctes) form a sister group to Peroryctinae (Peroryctes):
Fossil record
Many specimens of modern peramelemorphian (e.g. Perameles spp. and Isoodon spp.) have been recovered in the fossil record from Pleistocene and Holocene fossil localities. However, very few fossil species have been recovered to date. The first species of fossil peramelemorphian was described by R. A. Stirton in 1955. The specimen Stirton described was a partial lower jaw from the Tirari Desert in Central Australia, Pliocene in age. The lower jaw morphology suggested a relationship with bilbies (Family Thylacomyidae), and was named Ischnodon australis.
It was not until 1976 that Archer and Wade described the next fossil bandicoot. A single upper molar was recovered from the Bluff Downs fossil site, Allingham Formation, in northern Queensland, also Pliocene in age. The tooth was similar to that of species of Perameles, and was therefore named Perameles allinghamensis.
In 1995, the first Miocene species was described from Riversleigh, and was named Yarala burchfieldi by Dr Jeannette Muirhead. The species was represented by several upper and lower jaws, which were smaller than any living bandicoots and had a very primitive dentition. A skull was later recovered in 2000, the first for any fossil peramelemorphian to date. Features of the skull and dentition suggested that Yarala burchfieldi was distinct from other peramelemorphians, and for this reason, a new Superfamily Yaraloidea and Family Yaralidae were erected to classify this species.
In 1997, Muirhead, Dawson and Archer described a new species of Perameles, Perameles bowensis, from teeth recovered from two Pliocene fossil localities, Bow and Wellington Caves. The same species was later reported in 2000 from Chinchilla, Queensland, by Mackness and colleagues. In 2002, Price described a new species Perameles, Perameles sobbei, from the Darling Downs (Pleistocene in age), south-eastern Queensland. This species was represented by a lower jaw and a few isolated lower molars. Additional material were later described in 2005 from the same site, including upper molars.
A second species of Yarala, Yarala kida, was described in 2006 by Schwartz. This species was recovered from Kangaroo Well, a late Oligocene site from the Northern Territory in Australia. This species is thought to be even more primitive than Yarala burchfieldi.
The second fossil skull of any fossil peramelemorphian was also recovered from Miocene sites of Riversleigh. In fact, more than one skull of this new species was found (and several lower and upper jaws), and was significantly different from any other bandicoot to erect a new genus, Galadi. The species was named Galadi speciosus by Travouillon and colleagues. It was short-snouted unlike modern bandicoots suggesting that it was more carnivorous than its omnivorous modern relatives. Its relationship to other bandicoots is unclear, but it was likely to be less primitive than Yarala but more primitive than living bandicoots. An additional three species of Galadi were later described in 2013 and named Galadi grandis, Galadi amplus and Galadi adversus.
Gurovich et al. (2013) described a new species of mouse-sized bandicoot from Riversleigh and from Kutjamarpu, Southern Australia. The species, named Bulungu palara, is represented by a skull and several lower and upper jaws. Two other species in this genus were also described from the Etadunna Formation in South Australia, Bulungu muirheadae which was the oldest fossil bandicoot recovered as of 2013 (about 24 million years old), and Bulungu campbelli.
The oldest modern bandicoot (peramelid) and the oldest bilby (Thylacomyid) were later discovered by Travouillon et al., 2014 from Riversleigh World Heritage Area, from middle Miocene fossil deposits (around 15 million years old). The peramelid, Crash bandicoot, was named after the famous video game character and is only represented by a single upper jaw. The bilby, Liyamayi dayinamed after geologist and philanthropist Robert Day, is only known from 3 teeth (2 upper molar, 1 lower molar).
The first record of sexual dimorphism (difference in size between males and females) in a fossil bandicoot was reported from two new species from Riversleigh (Travouillon et al. 2014). Named Madju variae and Madju encorensis, they are closely related to modern bandicoots, but do not fall in any modern family, as did Galadi and Bulungu. Instead they are classified as Perameloid, with all known Peremelemorphian, to the exclusion of Yaralids. Madju variae is also unusual in preserving an ontogenetic series (age series from pouch young to adult), the second of any fossil marsupial mammal in Australia. The study of this ontogenetic series lead researchers to think that Madju variae developed slow than modern bandicoots, much more like a bilby, and therefore the rapid development of modern bandicoots must have evolved after the middle Miocene, when Australia started to become more arid.
References
Peramelemorphia
Mammal orders
Extant Chattian first appearances
Taxa named by Florentino Ameghino | [
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224606 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennines | Pennines | The Pennines (), also known as the Pennine Chain or Pennine Hills, are a more-or-less continuous range of hills and mountains running between three regions of Northern England: North West England on the west, and North East England and Yorkshire and the Humber on the east. Commonly described as the "backbone of England", the range stretches northwards from the Peak District at the southern end, through the South Pennines, the Yorkshire Dales and North Pennines to the Tyne Gap, which separates the range from the Cheviot Hills across the Anglo-Scottish border (some definitions include the Cheviot Hills). South of the Aire Gap is a western spur into east Lancashire, comprising the Rossendale Fells, West Pennine Moors and the Bowland Fells in North Lancashire. The Howgill Fells and Orton Fells in Cumbria are sometimes considered to be Pennine spurs to the west of the range. The Pennines are an important water catchment area with numerous reservoirs in the head streams of the river valleys.
The North Pennines and Nidderdale are designated Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB), as are Bowland and Pendle Hill. Parts of the Pennines are incorporated into the Peak District National Park and Yorkshire Dales National Park. Britain's oldest long-distance footpath, the 268-mile (429 km) Pennine Way, runs along most of the Pennine Chain.
Name
Various etymologies have proposed treating "Pennine" as a native Brittonic/Modern Welsh name related to pen- ("head"). It did not become a common name until the 18th century and almost certainly derives from modern comparisons with the Apennine Mountains, which run down the middle of Italy in a similar fashion.
Following an 1853 article by Arthur Hussey, it has become a common belief that the name derives from a passage in The Description of Britain (), an infamous historical forgery concocted by Charles Bertram in the 1740s and accepted as genuine until the 1840s. In 2004, George Redmonds reassessed this, finding that numerous respected writers passed over the origin of the mountains' name in silence even in works dedicated to the topological etymology of Derbyshire and Lancashire. He found that the derivation from Bertram was widely believed and considered uncomfortable. In fact, Redmonds found repeated comparisons with the Italian Apennines going back at least as early as William Camden (1551–1623), many of whose placenames and ideas Bertram incorporated into his work. Bertram was responsible (at most) with popularizing the name against other contenders such as Daniel Defoe's "English Andes". His own form of the name was the "Pennine Alps" (), which today is used for a western section of the continental Alps. Those mountains (the area around the St. Bernard Pass) derive their name from the Latin Alpes Pœninæ whose name has been variously derived from the Carthaginians, a local god, and Celtic peninus. The St. Bernard Pass was the pass used in the invasions of Italy by the Gallic Boii and Lingones in 390 BC. The etymology of the Apennines themselves—whose name first referred to their northern extremity and then later spread southward—is also disputed but is usually taken to derive from some form of Celtic pen or ben ("mountain, head").
Various towns and geographical features have names of Celtic origin, including Penrith, Pen-y-ghent, the River Eden, and Cumbria. More commonly, local names result from Anglo-Saxon and Norse settlements. In Yorkshire and Cumbria, many words of Norse origin, not commonly used in standard English, are part of everyday speech: for example, gill/ghyll (narrow steep valley), beck (brook or stream), fell (hill), and dale (valley).
Geography
The northern Pennine range is bordered by the foothills of the Lake District, and uplands of the Howgill Fells, Orton Fells and Cheviot Hills. The West Pennine Moors, Rossendale Valley and Forest of Bowland are western spurs, the former two are in the South Pennines. The Howgill Fells and Orton Fells are sometimes considered to be part of the Pennines, both inside the Yorkshire Dales National Park. The Pennines are fringed by extensive lowlands including the Eden Valley, West Lancashire Coastal Plain, Cheshire Plain, Vale of York, and the Midland Plains.
Most of the Pennine landscape is characterised by upland areas of high moorland indented by more fertile river valleys, although the landscape varies in different areas. The Peak District consists of hills, plateaus and valleys, divided into the Dark Peak with moorlands and gritstone edges, and the White Peak with limestone gorges. The South Pennines is an area of hills and moorlands with narrow valleys between the Peak District and Yorkshire Dales. Bowland is dominated by a central upland landform of deeply incised gritstone fells covered with tracts of heather-covered peat moorland, blanket bog and steep-sided wooded valleys linking the upland and lowland landscapes. The landscape is higher and more mountainous in the Yorkshire Dales and North Pennines. The Yorkshire Dales are characterised by valleys, moorlands and fells while the North Pennines consist of plateaus, moorlands, fells, edges and valleys, with most of the higher peaks in the west.
Although the Pennines cover the area between the Tyne Gap and the Peak District, the Pennine Way affects perceptions of the northern and southern extents of the defined area. The Cheviot Hills, separated by the Tyne Gap and Whin Sill, along which run the A69 and Hadrian's Wall, are not part of the Pennines but, perhaps because the Pennine Way crosses them, they are treated as such. The southern end of the Pennines is said to be in the High Peak of Derbyshire at Edale, the start of the Pennine Way but the range of hills continues south across the Peak District to the Trent Valley, encompassing northern and eastern Staffordshire, and southern Derbyshire.
Elevation
Rising less than , the Pennines are fells, with most of the mountainous terrain in the north. The highest point is Cross Fell in eastern Cumbria, at and other principal peaks in the North Pennines are Great Dun Fell , Mickle Fell , and Burnhope Seat . Principal peaks in the Yorkshire Dales include Whernside , Ingleborough , High Seat , Wild Boar Fell and Pen-y-ghent . Principal peaks in the Forest of Bowland include Ward's Stone , Fair Snape Fell , and Hawthornthwaite Fell . Terrain is lower towards the south, principal peaks in the South Pennines and Peak District include Kinder Scout , Bleaklow , Black Chew Head , Rombalds Moor and Winter Hill .
Drainage
For much of their length the Pennine hills are the main watershed in northern England, dividing east and west. The rivers Eden, Ribble, Dane and tributaries of the Mersey (including the Irwell, Tame and Goyt) flow westwards towards the Irish Sea.
On the eastern side of the Pennines, the rivers Tyne, Wear, and Tees all drain directly to the North Sea. The Swale, Ure, Nidd, Wharfe, Aire, Calder and Don all flow into the Yorkshire Ouse, and reach the sea through the Humber Estuary.
The River Trent flows around the southern end of the Pennines and northwards on the eastern side taking water from tributaries, principally the Dove and Derwent. The Trent drains the east and west sides of the southern Pennines, also reaching the North Sea through the Humber Estuary. The Trent and Ouse meet and enter the Humber at Trent Falls. Maximum discharge through the Humber can reach 1,500 m3/s (53,000 cu ft/s).
Climate
The Pennine climate is generally temperate like that of the rest of England, but the hills have more precipitation, stronger winds and colder weather than the surrounding areas. Higher elevations have a tundra climate.
More snow falls on the Pennines than on surrounding lowland areas due to the elevation and distance from the coast; unlike lowland areas of England, the Pennines can have quite severe winters.
The northwest is amongst the wettest regions of England and much of the rain falls on the Pennines. The eastern side is drier than the west—the rain shadow shields northeast England from rainfall that would otherwise fall there.
Precipitation is important for the area's biodiversity and human population. Many towns and cities are located along rivers flowing from the hills and in northwest England the lack of natural aquifers is compensated for by reservoirs.
Water has carved out gorges, caves and limestone landscapes in the Yorkshire Dales and Peak District. In some areas precipitation has contributed to poor soils, resulting in part in moorland landscapes that characterize much of the range. In other areas where the soil has not been degraded, it has resulted in lush vegetation.
For the purpose of growing plants, the Pennines are in hardiness zones 7 and 8, as defined by the USDA. Zone 8 is common throughout most of the UK, and zone 7 is the UK's coldest hardiness zone. The Pennines, Scottish Highlands, Southern Uplands and Snowdonia are the only areas of the UK in zone 7.
Geology
The Pennines have been carved from a series of geological structures whose overall form is a broad anticline whose axis extends in a north–south direction. The North Pennines are coincident with the Alston Block and the Yorkshire Dales are coincident with the Askrigg Block. In the south the Peak District is essentially a flat-topped dome.
Each of the structures consists of Carboniferous limestone overlain with Millstone Grit. The limestone is exposed at the surface in the North Pennines, Yorkshire Dales and the Peak District. In the Dales and the White Peak, limestone exposure has caused the formation of large cave systems and watercourses. In the Dales the caves or potholes are known as "pots" in the Yorkshire dialect. They include some of the largest caves in England at Gaping Gill, more than deep and Rowten Pot, deep. Titan in the Peak District, the deepest shaft known in Britain, is connected to Peak Cavern in Castleton, Derbyshire, the largest cave entrance in the country. Erosion of the limestone has led to geological formations, such as the limestone pavements at Malham Cove.
Between the northern and southern areas of exposed limestone between Skipton and the Dark Peak is a belt of exposed gritstone. Here the shales and sandstones of the Millstone Grit form high hills occupied by moorland covered with bracken, peat, heather and coarse grasses; the higher ground is uncultivable and barely fit for pasture.
History
The Pennine uplands contained Bronze Age settlements, and evidence remains of Neolithic settlement including many stone circles and henges, such as Long Meg and Her Daughters.
The Pennine hills were controlled by the tribal federation of the Brigantes, made up of small tribes who inhabited the area and cooperated on defence and external affairs. They evolved an early form of kingdom. During Roman times, the Brigantes were dominated by the Romans who exploited the Pennines for their natural resources including the wild animals found there.
The Pennines were an obstacle for Anglo-Saxon expansion westwards, although it appears the Anglo-Saxons travelled through the valleys. During the Dark Ages the Pennines were controlled by Celtic and Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. It is believed that the north Pennines were under the control of the kingdom of Rheged.
During Norse times the Pennines were settled by Viking Danes in the east and Norwegian Vikings in the west. The Vikings influenced place names, culture and genetics. When England was unified the Pennines were incorporated. The mix of Celtic, Anglo-Saxon and Viking heritage resembled much of the rest of northern England and its culture developed alongside its lowland neighbours in northwest and northeast England. The Pennines were not a distinct political polity, but were divided between neighbouring counties in northeast and northwest England; a major part was in the West Riding of Yorkshire.
Demography
The Pennine region is sparsely populated by English standards. Larger population centres are in the foothills and lowlands fringing the southern Pennine range, such as Barnsley, Chesterfield, Halifax, Huddersfield, Macclesfield, Oldham, Bury, Rochdale, Middleton, and Stockport but most of the northern Pennine range is thinly populated. The cities of Bradford, Derby, Leeds, Manchester, Sheffield, Stoke-on-Trent and Wakefield are also in the surrounding foothills and lowlands.
Economy
The main economic activities in the Pennines include sheep farming, quarrying, finance and tourism. In the Peak District, tourism is the major local employment for park residents (24%), with manufacturing industries (19%) and quarrying (12%) also being important while 12% are employed in agriculture. Limestone is the most important mineral quarried, mainly for roads and cement, while other extracted materials include shale for cement and gritstone for building stone. The springs at Buxton and Ashbourne are exploited to produce bottled mineral water and there are approximately 2,700 farms in the National Park. The South Pennines are predominantly industrial, with the main industries including textiles, quarrying and mining, while other economic activities within the South Pennines include tourism and farming.
Although the Forest of Bowland is mostly rural, the main economic activities in the area include farming and tourism. In the Yorkshire Dales, tourism accounts for £350 million of expenditure every year while employment is mostly dominated by farming, accommodation and food sectors. There are also significant challenges for managing tourism, farming and other developments within the National Park. The main economic activities in the North Pennines include tourism, farming, timber and small-scale quarrying, due to the rural landscape.
Transport
Gaps that allow west–east communication across the Pennines include the Tyne Gap between the Pennines and the Cheviots, through which the A69 road and Tyne Valley railway link Carlisle and Newcastle upon Tyne. The A66 road, its summit at , follows the course of a Roman road from Scotch Corner to Penrith through the Stainmore Gap between the Eden Valley in Cumbria and Teesdale in County Durham. The Aire Gap links Lancashire and Yorkshire via the valleys of the Aire and Ribble. Other high-level roads include Buttertubs Pass, named from limestone potholes near its summit, between Hawes in Wensleydale and Swaledale and the A684 road from Sedbergh to Hawes via Garsdale Head which reaches .
Further south the A58 road traverses the Calder Valley between West Yorkshire and Greater Manchester reaching between Littleborough and Ripponden, while the A646 road along the Calder Valley between Burnley and Halifax reaches following valley floors. In the Peak District the A628 Woodhead road links the M67 motorway in Greater Manchester with the M1 motorway in South Yorkshire and Holme Moss is crossed by the A6024 road, whose highest point is near Holme Moss transmitting station between Longdendale and Holmfirth.
The Pennines are traversed by the M62 motorway, the highest motorway in England at on Windy Hill near Junction 23.
Three trans-Pennine canals built during the Industrial Revolution cross the range:
The Huddersfield Narrow Canal connects Huddersfield in the east with Manchester in the west. When it reaches Marsden, it passes under the hills through the Standedge Tunnel to Diggle. Fortnightly during the summer season, one can pass through the tunnel on a public narrowboat.
The Rochdale Canal crosses the Pennines via Rochdale, connecting the market town of Sowerby Bridge with Manchester.
The Leeds and Liverpool Canal, the longest and most northerly, crosses the Pennines via Skipton, Burnley, Chorley and Wigan connecting Leeds in the east with Liverpool in the west.
The first of three Woodhead Tunnels was completed by the Sheffield, Ashton-Under-Lyne and Manchester Railway in 1845, engineered by Charles Vignoles and Joseph Locke. At the time of its completion in 1845, Woodhead 1 was one of the world's longest railway tunnels at a length of 3 miles 13 yards (4,840 m); it was the first of several trans-Pennine tunnels including the Standedge and Totley tunnels, which are only slightly longer. The first two tunnels were replaced by Woodhead 3, which was longer at 3 miles 66 yards (4860m). It was bored for the overhead electrification of the route and completed in 1953. The tunnel was opened by the transport minister Alan Lennox-Boyd on 3 June 1954. It was designed by Sir William Halcrow & Partners. The line was closed in 1981.
The London and North Western Railway acquired the Huddersfield and Manchester Railway in 1847 and built a single-line tunnel parallel to the canal tunnel at Standedge with a length of 3 miles, 57 yards (4803 m). Today rail services along the Huddersfield line between Huddersfield and Victoria and Piccadilly stations in Manchester are operated by TransPennine Express and Northern. Between 1869 and 1876 the Midland Railway built the Settle-Carlisle Line through remote, scenic regions of the Pennines from near Settle to Carlisle passing Appleby-in-Westmorland and other settlements, some a distance from their stations. The line has survived, despite difficult times
and is operated by Northern Rail.
The Trans Pennine Trail, a long-distance route for cyclists, horse riders and walkers, runs west–east alongside rivers and canals, along disused railway tracks and through historic towns and cities from Southport to Hornsea (). It crosses the north–south Pennine Way () at Crowden-in-Longdendale.
National Parks and AONBs
Considerable areas of the Pennines are protected as UK national parks and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONBs). Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty are afforded much the same protection as national parks. The national parks within the Pennines are the Yorkshire Dales National Park (7) and the Peak District National Park (1).
The North Pennines AONB just north of the Yorkshire Dales rivals the national park in size and includes some of the Pennines' highest peaks and its most isolated and sparsely populated areas. Other AONBs are Nidderdale east of the Yorkshire Dales, and the Bowland Fells, including Pendle Hill, west of the Yorkshire Dales.
Language
The language used in pre-Roman and Roman times was Common Brittonic. During the Early Middle Ages, the Cumbric language developed. Little evidence of Cumbric remains, so it is difficult to ascertain whether or not it was distinct from Old Welsh. The extent of the region in which Cumbric was spoken is also unknown.
During Anglo-Saxon times the area was settled by Anglian peoples of Mercia and Northumbria, rather than the Saxon people of Southern England. Celtic speech remained in most areas of the Pennines longer than it did in the surrounding areas of England. Eventually, the Celtic tongue of the Pennines was replaced by early English as Anglo-Saxons and Vikings settled the area and assimilated the Celts.
During the Viking Age Scandinavian settlers brought their language, Old Norse. The fusion of Norse and Old English was important in the formation of Middle English and hence Modern English, and many individual words of Norse descent remain in use in local dialects, such as that of Yorkshire, and in local place names.
Folklore and customs
The folklore and customs are mostly based on Celtic, Anglo-Saxon and Viking customs and folklore. Many customs and stories have their origin in Christianised pagan traditions. In the Peak District, a notable custom is well dressing, which has its origin in pagan traditions that became Christianised.
Flora
Flora in the higher Pennines is adapted to moorland and subarctic landscapes and climates. The flora found there can be found in other areas of moorland in Northern Europe and some species are also found in areas of tundra. In the Pennine millstone grit areas above an altitude of the topsoil is so acidic, pH 2 to 4, that it can grow only bracken, heather, sphagnum, and coarse grasses such as cottongrass, purple moor grass and heath rush. As the Ice age glacial sheets retreated c. 11,500 BC trees returned and archaeological palynology can identify their species. The first trees to settle were willow, birch and juniper, followed later by alder and pine. By 6500 BC temperatures were warmer and woodlands covered 90% of the dales with mostly pine, elm, lime and oak. On the limestone soils the oak was slower to colonize and pine and birch predominated. Around 3000 BC a noticeable decline in tree pollen indicates that neolithic farmers were clearing woodland to increase grazing for domestic livestock, and studies at Linton Mires and Eshton Tarn find an increase in grassland species. On poorly drained impermeable areas of millstone grit, shale or clays the topsoil gets waterlogged in winter and spring. Here tree suppression combined with the heavier rainfall results in blanket bog up to thick. The erosion of peat still exposes stumps of ancient trees.
Limestone areas of the Pennines in the White Peak, Yorkshire Dales and Upper Teesdale have been designated as nature reserves or Important Plant Areas by the botanical conservation charity Plantlife, and are nationally important for their wildflowers.
Fauna
Fauna in the Pennines is similar to the rest of England and Wales, but the area hosts some specialised species. Deer are found throughout the Pennines and some species of animals that are rare elsewhere in England can be found here. Arctic hares, which were common in Britain during the Ice Age and retreated to the cooler, more tundra-like uplands once the climate warmed up, were introduced to the Dark Peak area of the Peak District in the 19th century.
Large areas of heather moorland in the Pennines are managed for driven shooting of wild red grouse. The related and declining black grouse is still found in northern parts of the Pennines. Other birds whose English breeding strongholds are in the Pennines include golden plover, snipe, curlew, dunlin, merlin, short-eared owl, ring ouzel and twite, though many of these are at the southern limit of their distributions and are more common in Scotland.
See also
Geography of England
Geology of the United Kingdom
Geology of Yorkshire
North Pennines
South Pennines
Yorkshire Three Peaks
References
External links
The Pennine Edge Forest Network
Pennine Prospects
Mountain ranges of England
Pennines
Pennines
Pennines
Pennines
Pennines
Mountains and hills of England
Physiographic provinces
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] |
224607 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mua | Mua | Mua or MUA may refer to:
People
Mua (title), a chiefly title of Rotuma
Mua people, an indigenous Australian Torres Strait Island people
Dickson Mua (born 1972), Solomon Islands politician
Metuisela Mua, Fijian intelligence officer and politician
Places
Mua, Malawi, a village
Mua District, Wallis and Futuna
Mua mine, in Portugal
Other uses
Air Force Meritorious Unit Award of the United States Air Force
Mail user agent, or email client
Make-up artist
Manipulation under anesthesia, a chiropractic technique
Maritime Union of Australia, an Australian labor union
Marvel: Ultimate Alliance, a video game
McGill University Archives
Medical University of the Americas – Nevis, in Saint Kitts and Nevis
Miss University Africa, a beauty pageant
Mundang language
Musicians' Union of Australia
See also
Mu'a (disambiguation) | [
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224615 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldfinch | Goldfinch | Goldfinch or The Goldfinch may refer to:
Birds
European goldfinch, Carduelis carduelis
Some species of the genus Spinus:
American goldfinch, Spinus tristis
Lawrence's goldfinch, Spinus lawrencei
Lesser goldfinch, Spinus psaltria
Arts, entertainment, and media
The Goldfinch (painting) (1654), by Carel Fabritius
The Goldfinch (novel) (2013) by Donna Tartt, in which Fabritius' painting features
The Goldfinch (film) (2019), based on the novel
Distelfink, a goldfinch motif in Pennsylvania Dutch folk art
Science and technology
USS Goldfinch, US Navy ships
HMS Goldfinch, four ships of the Royal Navy and one of the shore establishment
Gloster Goldfinch, a British single-seat biplane fighter from the later 1920s
People
Goldfinch (surname)
Animal common name disambiguation pages | [
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224616 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PGA%20Championship | PGA Championship | The PGA Championship (often referred to as the US PGA Championship or USPGA outside the United States) is an annual golf tournament conducted by the Professional Golfers' Association of America. It is one of the four men's major championships in professional golf.
It was formerly played in mid-August on the third weekend before Labor Day weekend, serving as the fourth and final men's major of the golf season. Beginning in 2019, the tournament is played in May on the weekend before Memorial Day, as the season's second major. It is an official money event on the PGA Tour, European Tour, and Japan Golf Tour, with a purse of $11 million for the 100th edition in 2018.
In line with the other majors, winning the PGA gains privileges that improve career security. PGA champions are automatically invited to play in the other three majors (Masters Tournament, U.S. Open, and The Open Championship) and The Players Championship for the next five years, and are eligible for the PGA Championship for life. They receive membership on the PGA Tour for the following five seasons and on the European Tour for the following seven seasons. The PGA Championship is the only one of the four majors that is exclusively for professional players.
The PGA Championship has been held at various venues. Some of the early sites are now quite obscure, but in recent years, the event has generally been played at a small group of celebrated courses.
History
In 1894, with 41 golf courses operating in the United States, two unofficial national championships for amateur golfers were organized. One was held at Newport Country Club in Rhode Island, and the other at St. Andrew's Golf Club in New York. In addition, and at the same time as the amateur event, St. Andrew's conducted an Open championship for professional golfers. None of the championships was officially sanctioned by a governing body for American golf, causing considerable controversy among players and organizers. Later in 1894 this led to the formation of the United States Golf Association (USGA), which became the first formal golf organization in the country. After the formation of the USGA, golf quickly became a sport of national popularity and importance.
In February 1916 the Professional Golfers Association of America (PGA) was established in New York City. One month earlier, the wealthy department store owner Rodman Wanamaker hosted a luncheon with the leading golf professionals of the day at the Wykagyl Country Club in nearby New Rochelle. The attendees prepared the agenda for the formal organization of the PGA; consequently, golf historians have dubbed Wykagyl "The Cradle of the PGA." The new organization's first president was Robert White, one of Wykagyl's best-known golf professionals.
The first PGA Championship was held in October 1916 at Siwanoy Country Club in Bronxville, New York. The winner, Jim Barnes, received $500 and a diamond-studded gold medal donated by Rodman Wanamaker. The 2016 winner, Jimmy Walker, earned $1.8 million. The champion is also awarded a replica of the Wanamaker Trophy, which was also donated by Wanamaker, to keep for one year, and a smaller-sized keeper replica Wanamaker Trophy.
Format
The PGA Championship was originally a match play event in the early fall, but it varied from May to December. After World War II, the championship was usually in late May or late June, then moved to early July in 1953 and a few weeks later in 1954, with the finals played on Tuesday. As a match play event (with a stroke play qualifier), it was not uncommon for the finalists to play over 200 holes in seven days. The 1957 event lost money, and at the PGA meetings in November it was changed to stroke play, starting in 1958, with the standard 72-hole format of 18 holes per day for four days, Thursday to Sunday. Network television broadcasters, preferring a large group of well-known contenders on the final day, pressured the PGA of America to make the format change.
During the 1960s, the PGA Championship was played the week after The Open Championship five times, making it virtually impossible for players to compete in both majors. In 1965, the PGA was contested for the first time in August, and returned in 1969, save for a one-year move to late February in 1971, played in Florida. The 2016 event was moved to late July, two weeks after the Open Championship, to accommodate the 2016 Summer Olympics in August.
Before the 2017 edition, it was announced that the PGA Championship would be moved to May on the weekend before Memorial Day, beginning in 2019. The PGA Tour concurrently announced that it would move its Players Championship back to March the same year; it had been moved from March to May in 2007. The PGA of America cited the addition of golf to the Summer Olympics, as well as cooler weather enabling a wider array of options for host courses, as reasoning for the change. It was also believed that the PGA Tour wished to re-align its season so that the FedEx Cup Playoffs would not have to compete with the start of football season in late-August.
Location
The PGA Championship has normally been played in the eastern half of the United States. except eleven times, most recently in 2020 at TPC Harding Park in San Francisco. It was the first for the Bay Area, returning to California after a quarter century. Prior to 2020, it was last played in the Pacific time zone in 1998, at Sahalee east of Seattle. (The Mountain time zone has hosted three editions, all in suburban Denver, in 1941, 1967, and 1985.) The 103rd PGA Championship was held at the Kiawah Island Golf Resort's Ocean Course in Kiawah Island, South Carolina and the 104th will be held at Southern Hills Country Club in Tulsa, Oklahoma.
The state of New York has hosted thirteen times, followed by Ohio (11) and Pennsylvania (9).
Promotion
The tournament was previously promoted with the slogan "Glory's Last Shot". In 2013, the tagline was dropped in favor of "The Season's Final Major", as suggested by PGA Tour commissioner Tim Finchem while discussing the allowance of a one-week break in its schedule before the Ryder Cup. Finchem had argued that the slogan was not appropriate as it weakened the stature of events that occur after it, such as the PGA Tour's FedEx Cup playoffs. PGA of America CEO Pete Bevacqua explained that they had also had discussions with CBS, adding that "it was three entities that all quickly came to the same conclusion that, you know what, there's just not much in that tag line and we don’t feel it's doing much for the PGA Championship, so let's not stick with it. Let's think what else is out there." For a time, the tournament used the slogan "This is Major" as a replacement.
Trophy
The Wanamaker Trophy, named after businessman and golfer Rodman Wanamaker, stands nearly tall and weighs . The trophy was lost, briefly, for a few years until it showed up in 1930 in the cellar of L.A. Young and Company. Ironically, this cellar was in the factory which made the clubs for the man responsible for losing it, Walter Hagen. Hagen claimed to have trusted a taxi driver with the precious cargo, but it never returned to his hotel. There is a smaller replica trophy that the champion gets to keep permanently, but the original must be returned for the following years tournament.
Qualification
The PGA Championship was established for the purpose of providing a high-profile tournament specifically for professional golfers at a time when they were generally not held in high esteem in a sport that was largely run by wealthy amateurs. This origin is still reflected in the entry system for the Championship. It is the only major that does not explicitly invite leading amateurs to compete (it is possible for amateurs to get into the field, although the only viable ways are by winning one of the other major championships, or winning a PGA Tour event while playing on a sponsor's exemption), and the only one that reserves so many places, 20 of 156, for club professionals. These slots are determined by the top finishers in the club pro championship, which is held in late April.
Since December 1968, the PGA Tour has been independent of the PGA of America.
The PGA Tour is an elite organization of tournament professionals, but the PGA Championship is still run by the PGA of America, which is mainly a body for club and teaching professionals. The PGA Championship is the only major that does not explicitly grant entry to the top 50 players in the Official World Golf Ranking, although it invariably invites all of the top 100 (not just top 50) players who are not already qualified.
List of qualification criteria to date:
Every former PGA Champion.
Winners of the last five U.S. Opens.
Winners of the last five Masters.
Winners of the last five Open Championships.
Winners of the last three The Players Championships.
The current Senior PGA Champion.
The low 15 scorers and ties in the previous PGA Championship.
The 20 low scorers in the last PGA Professional Championship.
The 70 leaders in official money standings on the PGA Tour (starting one week before the previous year's PGA Championship and ending two weeks before the current year's PGA Championship).
Members of the most recent United States and European Ryder Cup Teams, provided they are in the top 100 of the Official World Golf Ranking as of one week before the start of the tournament.
Any tournament winner co-sponsored or approved by the PGA Tour since the previous PGA Championship .
The PGA of America reserves the right to invite additional players not included in the categories listed above.
The total field is a maximum of 156 players. Vacancies are filled by the first available player from the list of alternates (those below 70th place in official money standings).
Winners
Stroke play era winners
Match play era winners
Match play era details
The table below lists the field sizes and qualification methods for the match play era. All rounds were played over 36 holes except as noted in the table.
* In 1921, the field consisted of the defending champion and the top 31 qualifiers from the 1921 U.S. Open.
Summary by course, state and region
Records
Most wins: 5, Jack Nicklaus, Walter Hagen
Most runner-up finishes: 4, Jack Nicklaus
Oldest winner: Phil Mickelson in 2021 (50 years, 11 months)
Youngest winner: Gene Sarazen in 1922 (20 years, 174 days)
Greatest winning margin in the match play era: Paul Runyan beat Sam Snead 8 & 7 in 1938
Greatest winning margin in the stroke play era: 8 strokes, Rory McIlroy in 2012
Lowest absolute 72-hole score: 264, Brooks Koepka (69-63-66-66), 2018
Lowest 72-hole score in relation to par: −20, Jason Day (68-67-66-67=268) in 2015
This is the lowest score in relation to par at any major championship.
Koepka's 2018 score was −16. The 2018 site, Bellerive Country Club, played to par 70, while the 2015 site, the Straits Course at Whistling Straits, played to par 72. (Bellerive played to par 71 when it hosted in 1992, and the Straits Course also played to par 72 when it hosted in 2004 and 2010.)
Lowest 18-hole score: 63 – Bruce Crampton, 2nd round, 1975; Raymond Floyd, 1st, 1982; Gary Player, 2nd, 1984; Vijay Singh, 2nd, 1993; Michael Bradley, 1st, 1995; Brad Faxon, 4th, 1995; José María Olazábal, 3rd, 2000; Mark O'Meara, 2nd, 2001; Thomas Bjørn, 3rd, 2005; Tiger Woods, 2nd, 2007; Steve Stricker, 1st, 2011; Jason Dufner, 2nd, 2013; Hiroshi Iwata, 2nd, 2015; Robert Streb, 2nd, 2016; Brooks Koepka, 2nd, 2018; Charl Schwartzel, 2nd, 2018; Brooks Koepka, 1st, 2019.
Most frequent venues:
4 PGA Championships: Southern Hills Country Club – 1970, 1982, 1994, 2007, (2022 planned).
3 PGA Championships: Atlanta Athletic Club, Highlands Course – 1981, 2001, 2011.
3 PGA Championships: Firestone Country Club, South Course – 1960, 1966, 1975.
3 PGA Championships: Oakland Hills Country Club, South Course – 1972, 1979, 2008.
3 PGA Championships: Oakmont Country Club – 1922, 1951, 1978.
3 PGA Championships: Oak Hill Country Club, East Course – 1980, 2003, 2013, (2023 planned).
3 PGA Championships: Valhalla Golf Club – 1996, 2000, 2014, (2024 planned).
3 PGA Championships: Whistling Straits, Straits Course – 2004, 2010, 2015.
Broadcasting
The PGA Championship is televised in the United States by CBS and ESPN. Beginning 2020, ESPN holds rights to early-round and weekend morning coverage, and will air supplemental coverage through its digital subscription service ESPN+ prior to weekday coverage and during weekend broadcast windows. CBS holds rights to weekend-afternoon coverage. Both contracts run through 2030, with ESPN's contract replacing a prior agreement with TNT. CBS has televised the PGA Championship since 1991, when it replaced ABC. The ESPN telecasts are co-produced with CBS Sports, mirroring the broadcast arrangements used by ESPN for the Masters Tournament.
Future sites
Source:
See also
Golf in the United States
Notes
References
External links
PGA Media Guide
Coverage on PGA Tour's official site
Coverage on the European Tour's official site
Men's major golf championships
Annual sporting events in the United States
1916 establishments in New York (state)
Recurring sporting events established in 1916 | [
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] |
224619 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mod%20perl | Mod perl | mod_perl is an optional module for the Apache HTTP server. It embeds a Perl interpreter into the Apache server. In addition to allowing Apache modules to be written in the Perl programming language, it allows the Apache web server to be dynamically configured by Perl programs. However, its most common use is so that dynamic content produced by Perl scripts can be served in response to incoming requests, without the significant overhead of re-launching the Perl interpreter for each request.
Slash, which runs the web site Slashdot, is written using mod_perl. Early versions of PHP were implemented in Perl using mod_perl.
mod_perl can emulate a Common Gateway Interface (CGI) environment, so that existing Perl CGI scripts can benefit from the performance boost without having to be re-written.
Unlike CGI (and most other web application environments), mod_perl provides complete access to the Apache API, allowing programmers to write handlers for all phases in the Apache request cycle, manipulate Apache's internal tables and state mechanisms, share data between Apache processes or threads, alter or extend the Apache configuration file parser, and add Perl code to the configuration file itself, among other things.
See also
CGI.pm
FastCGI
References
External links
Why mod_perl?
The magic of mod_perl
Writing Apache Modules with Perl and C
The mod_perl Developer's Cookbook
mod_perl2 User's Guide
An easy step-by-step installation guide for mod_perl2 on Unix/Linux and Windows/ReactOS
Perl
Perl
Articles with underscores in the title
Cross-platform software | [
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224622 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workers%27%20Party%20%28Brazil%29 | Workers' Party (Brazil) | The Workers' Party (, PT) is a political party in Brazil. Some scholars classify its ideology in the 21st century as social democracy, with the party shifting from a broadly socialist ideology in the 1990s. Founded in 1980, it is the largest left-wing party in Latin America. PT governed at the federal level in a coalition government with several other parties from 1 January 2003 to 31 August 2016. After the 2002 parliamentary election, PT became the largest party in the Chamber of Deputies and the largest in the Federal Senate for the first time With the highest approval rating in the history of the country, former President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva is PT's most prominent member. His successor Dilma Rousseff, also a member of PT, took office on 1 January 2011 and was impeached in 2016.
Both born among the opposition to the coup d'état of 1964 and the subsequent military dictatorship, PT and the Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB) from 1994 to 2014 were the biggest adversaries in contemporary Brazilian politics, with their candidates finishing either first or second on the ballot on the last six presidential elections. Both parties generally prohibit any kind of coalition or official cooperation with each other.
Despite its relatively large number of supporters, the party has been involved in a number of corruption scandals since Lula first came to power and saw its popular support plummet between 2010 and 2016, with presidential approval ratings falling from over 80% to 9%. The party's symbols are the red flag with a white star in the center; the five-pointed red star, inscribed with the initials PT in the center; and the Workers Party's anthem. Workers' Party's TSE (Superior Electoral Court) Identification Number is 13.
History
The Workers' Party was launched by a heterogeneous group made up of militants opposed to Brazil's military government, trade unionists, left-wing intellectuals and artists and Catholics linked to the liberation theology on 10 February 1980 at Colégio Sion in São Paulo, a private Catholic school for girls. The party emerged as a result of the approach between the labor movements in the ABC Region such as the Conferência das Classes Trabalhadoras (Conclat), later developed into the Central Única dos Trabalhadores (CUT) which carried major strikes from 1978 to 1980; and the old Brazilian left-wing, whose proponents, many of whom were journalists, intellectuals, artists and union organizers, were returning from exile with the 1979 Amnesty law, many of them having endured imprisonment and torture at the hands of the military regime in addition to years of exile. Dilma Rousseff herself was imprisoned and tortured by the dictatorship.
PT was launched under a democratic socialism trend. After the 1964 coup d'état, Brazil's main federation of labor unions, the General Command of Workers (Comando Geral dos Trabalhadores – CGT), which since its formation gathered leaders approved by the Ministry of Labour, a practice tied to the fact that since Getúlio Vargas's dictatorship, unions had become quasi-state organs, was dissolved while unions themselves suffered intervention of the military regime. The resurgence of an organized labour movement, evidenced by strikes in the ABC Region on the late 1970s led by Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, enabled the reorganization of the labour movement without the direct interference of the state. The movement originally sought to act exclusively in union politics, but the survival of a conservative unionism under the domination of the state (evidenced in the refoundation of CGT) and the influence exercised over the trade union movement by leaders of traditional left-wing parties, such as the Brazilian Communist Party (Partido Comunista Brasileiro – PCB), forced the unionist movement of ABC, encouraged by anti-Stalinist leaders, to organize its own party in a strategy similar to that held by the Solidarność union movement in Poland.
Therefore, PT emerged rejecting the traditional leaders of official unionism and seeking to put into practice a new form of democratic socialism, trying to reject political models it regarded as decaying, such as the Soviet and Chinese ones. It represented the confluence between unionism and anti-Stalinist intelligentsia.
PT was officially recognized as a party by the Brazilian Supreme Electoral Court on 11 February 1982. The first membership card belonged to art critic and former Trotskyst activist Mário Pedrosa, followed by literary scholar Antonio Candido and historian Sérgio Buarque de Holanda. Holanda's daughter Ana de Holanda later became Minister of Culture in the Rousseff cabinet.
Electoral history
Since 1988, the Workers' Party has grown in popularity on the national stage by winning the elections in many of the largest Brazilian cities, such as São Paulo, Fortaleza, Belo Horizonte, Porto Alegre and Goiânia as well as in some important states, such as Rio Grande do Sul, Espírito Santo and the Federal District. This winning streak culminated with the victory of its presidential candidate Lula in 2002 who succeeded Fernando Henrique Cardoso of the Brazilian Social Democracy Party (Partido da Social Democracia Brasileira – PSDB). For its defense of economic liberalism, PSDB is the party's main electoral rival as well as the Democrats, heir of the National Renewal Alliance (Aliança Renovadora Nacional – ARENA), ruling party during the military dictatorship. Along with the Popular Socialist Party (Partido Popular Socialista – PPS), a dissidence of PCB, they form the centre-right opposition to the Lula administration.
1989 presidential elections
In the 1989 general elections, Lula went to the second round with Fernando Collor de Mello. Even though all centrist and left-wing candidates of the first round united around Lula's candidacy, Collor's campaign was strongly supported by the mass media (notably Rede Globo as seen on the documentary Beyond Citizen Kane) and Lula lost in the second round by a close margin of 5.7%.
1994 and 1998 general elections
Leading up to the 1994 general elections, Lula was the leading presidential candidate in the majority of polls. As a result, centrist and right-wing parties openly united for Fernando Henrique Cardoso's candidacy. As Minister of Economy, Cardoso created the Real Plan, which established the new currency and subsequently ended inflation and provided economic stability. As a result, Cardoso won the election in the first round with 54% of the votes. However, it has been noted that "the elections were not a complete disaster for PT, which significantly increased its presence in the Congress and elected for the first time two state governors". Cardoso would be re-elected in 1998.
2002 general elections
After the detrition of PSDB's image and as a result of an economic crisis that burst in the final years of Cardoso's government, Lula won the 2002 presidential election in the second round with over 52 million votes, becoming the most voted president in history, surpassing Ronald Reagan.
2006 general elections
On 29 October 2006, PT won 83 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 11 seats in the Federal Senate. Lula was re-elected with more than 60% of the votes, extending his position as President of Brazil until 1 January 2011.
PT is now the second largest party in the Chamber of Deputies, the fourth largest party in the Federal Senate and has 5 state governorships. However, it only gained control of one among the ten richest states (Bahia).
2010 general elections
In the 2010 general elections held on 3 October, PT gained control of 17.15% of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies, a record for the party since 2002. With 88 seats gained, it became the largest party in the lower chamber for the first time ever. PT also became the second largest party in the Federal Senate for the first time after electing of 11 senators, making a total of 14 senators for the 2010–2014 legislature. Its national coalition gained control of 311 seats in the lower house and 50 seats in the upper house, a broad majority in both houses which the Lula administration never had. This election also saw the decrease in the number of seats controlled by the centre-right opposition bloc as it shrank from 133 to 111 deputies. The left-wing opposition, formed by PSOL, retained control of three seats.
The party was also expected to elect its presidential candidate Dilma Rousseff in the first round. However, she was not able to receive the necessary number of valid votes (over 50%) and a second round in which she scored 56% of the votes took place on 31 October 2010. On 1 January 2011, she was inaugurated and thus became the first female head of government ever in the history of Brazil and the first de facto female head of state since the death in 1816 of Maria I, Queen of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves.
In the 2010 elections, PT retained control of the governorships of Bahia, Sergipe and Acre, in addition to gaining back control of Rio Grande do Sul and the Federal District. Nevertheless, it lost control of Pará. Candidates supported by the party won the race in Amapá, Ceará, Espírito Santo, Maranhão, Mato Grosso, Pernambuco, Piauí and Rio de Janeiro, which means that PT would participate in 13 out of 27 state governorships.
2014 general elections
In the 2014 general elections held on 5 October, the party won 13.9% of the vote and 69 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, down from the 88 seats they gained in 2010. In the first round of the presidential election, Rousseff won 41.6% of the vote but not enough to secure a victory. In the run-off on 26 Octobe, Rousseff was re-elected with a narrow victory with 51.6% of the vote against Senator Aécio Neves
Cabinet representation
PT enjoyed strong representation in the cabinets it led for most of the time that it was in office. PT held the majority of cabinet positions in the first two coalitions, with its occupation of ministerial positions comprising 60% in the first coalition, 54.8% in the second coalition and 46.5% in the third coalition.
Ideology
Although PT deliberately never identified itself with a particular brand of leftism, it nevertheless "always defined itself as socialist" and espoused many radical positions. For example, at the Brazilian Constituent Assembly of 1988 it advocated repudiation of Brazil's external debt, nationalization of the country's banks and mineral wealth and a radical land reform. In addition, as a form of protest and as a signal that the party did not fully accept the "rules of the game" PT's delegates refused to sign the draft constitution.
Over the next few years, the party moderated a bit, but it never clearly shed its radicalism and undertook no major reforms of party principles even after Lula's defeat in the 1989 presidential elections. For example, the resolution from the party's 8th National Meeting in 1993 reaffirmed PT's "revolutionary and socialist character", condemned the "conspiracy" of the elites to subvert democracy, stated that the party advocated "radical agrarian reform and suspension of the external debt" and concluded that "capitalism and private property cannot provide a future for humanity".
In 1994, Lula ran for the presidency again and during his campaign dismissed Fernando Henrique Cardoso's recently implemented Real Plan as an "electoral swindle". The resolutions from the 1994 National Meeting condemned the "control by the dominant classes over the means of production" and reaffirmed the party's "commitment to socialism". PT's Program of Government that year also committed the party to "anti-monopolist, anti-latifúndio, and anti-imperialist change [...] as part of a long-term strategy to construct an alternative to capitalism", statements that "sent shivers down the spine of the international financial community". Thus, as of 1995 "little or nothing" had changed in PT's official ideology since the early 1990s.
After Lula's 1994 loss, the party began a slow process of self-examination. The resolution adopted at its 10th National Meeting in 1995 stated that "our 1994 defeat invites a cruel reflection about our image in society, about the external impact of our internal battles, [and] about our ideological and political ambiguities". The move from self-examination did not involve a clean break with the past as in other socialist parties after the end of the Cold War. The process was gradual, full of contradictions and replete with intra-party tension. By 1997, the National Meeting resolution redefined PT's version of socialism as a "democratic revolution", emphasizing a political rather than economic vision of socialism that aimed to make the state "more transparent and socially accountable".
Lula's third presidential campaign platform in 1998 cut socialist proposals and even the mention of a transition to a socialist society, but the party's self-definition remained highly ambiguous as the resolution from the party's Meeting that year affirmed that Lula's platform "should not be confused with the socialist program of PT". Thus, while PT had begun to distance itself from its original socialist rhetoric and proposals by 1998, a clearer shift did not occur until after Lula lost again that year and after Lula and his group had more fully digested the impact of Brazil's changing political context and of Cardoso's economic reforms.
Electoral history
Presidential elections
Chamber of Deputies and Senate elections
Voter base
Most of the Workers' Party votes in presidential elections since 2006 stems from the North and Northeast regions of Brazil. Nevertheless, the party has always won every presidential election in Rio de Janeiro from 1998 to 2014, the Federal District from 1989 to 2010 (with the execption in 1998 when Cardoso won there) and in Minas Gerais from 2002 to 2014 (these are two of the three largest states by number of voters and together they comprise 18.5% of voters). The party also maintains a stronghold in the southernmost state of Rio Grande do Sul, where it has won continuously since the second round of 1989 until 2002. Originally an urban party, with ties to ABC Region's unionism, PT has recently seen a major increase of its support in smaller towns.
Most of PT's rejection comes from São Paulo as it has won elections there only once in 2002 (both rounds). The historical PT rejection in São Paulo was more widespread in interior than the capital as PT won the 1988, 2000 and 2012 São Paulo mayoral election and was a major force in his homeland, the Greater São Paulo. Despite this, the party lost its support even in the region and has not won any electoral zone in the capital in 2016 municipal elections. Fernando Haddad, the candidate seeking reelection, stayed in a distant second place, with 36 percentual points below the winner João Doria. PT managed to win in only one city of the region, the small and distant municipality of Franco da Rocha. PT is also strongly rejected in other states of the Center-South, such as Rio de Janeiro, which until 2018 had voted in the Workers Party presidential candidates in all new republic elections except 1994, the party shows strong difficulties to make representatives in federal, state and municipal levels. The party never elected a mayor in the capital of the state, never elected a governor (Benedita da Silva, the sole governor of the state from the party, took over because the resignation of the titular Anthony Garotinho in 2002, which her party had broken some years early, and was massive defeated in the same year's election by the Garotinho's wife Rosângela Matheus) and is often overturned in elections by left-wing parties with much less weight in national elections. The triumphs in the state were more associated with a strong rejection of PSDB in the state (which is even more weak and rejected despite his national strength) than a support of PT's program. In 2018 presidential elections, PT lost in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo with similar percentages in both states, with a difference of only 0.02% less percent of valid votes to the party in São Paulo. Despite being a southeastern state, many regions of Minas Gerais, especially in the north region of the state, had strong economic, cultural and socially ties with the Northeast. São Francisco River, a symbol of the Northeast, has its source in a small city of Minas, Pirapora. With the exception of Rio Grande do Sul and Distrito Federal, PT never gets an elected governor in the Center-south until 2014, when Fernando Damata Pimentel was elected governor of Minas Gerais.
PT had a strong electoral stronghold in North Brazil and in the Amazonian region; The party triumphed in every state governorship in Acre from 1990 to 2018. However, the Acre section of the party is far more independent and moderate than the rest of the party and PT had only won the presidential election in the state twice in 2002 and 2006. PT also lost the governorship of Acre in 2018 to a candidate from right-wing Progressive Party. Roraima, which the impact of the controversy about the indigenous territory of Raposa Serra do Sol, which former President Lula gave strong support despite the opposition of the non-indigenous people; and Rondonia, which had a large population of evangelicals and south/southeastern migrants, also show reservations about the party. The electoral stronghold was also lost in 2018 elections; PT only triumphed in the states of Pará and Tocantins, the only states in the region which borders Brazilian Northeast and much of their culture is near from Northwest than the rest of Amazon. In Amazonas, the largest Brazilian states, PT lost in 2018 for the first time since 1998; PT lost in the capital of the state, Manaus, a free zone which concentrates more than the half of the population of the state; in the large, sparsely inhabited interior of the Amazonian state, PT win by a large margin but insufficient to guarantee the fifth triumph of the party in the state on presidential election.
PT, however, maintained and expanded his stronghold in Northeast Brazil, conquered in Lula first elections in 2002. Since 2002, the only time that a state other than these which did not vote in PT in a presidential election was Alagoas in both rounds of 2002 presidential elections. PT and its allies was able to make big gains in north and northeast regions of Brazil even in times which the party was in crisis, like in the last mayoral elections. PT's most loyal party PCdoB and former allies Brazilian Socialist Party (Partido Socialista Brasileiro − PSB) and Democratic Labour Party (Partido Democrático Trabalhista − PDT) made huge gains in region together with PT in the Lula−Rouseff era. PCdoB is now the strongest party in Maranhão state and was able to elect the mayor of Aracaju, Sergipe; PSB is now the strongest party in the states of Pernambuco and Paraíba; and PDT was able to triumph in three capitals of the northeastern. Despite losing all capitals in northwest, PT had the governorships of three northwestern states, Piauí, Bahia and Ceará. The governorship of Bahia, conquered in 2006, is symbolical. The party was a stronghold of Liberal Front Party (Partido da Frente Liberal − PFL), now Democrats (Democratas − DEM), the greatest ideological rival of PT in national level. PSDB is a strongest party and headed all presidential tickets which PFL/DEM participated since 1994, but the origin of PSDB resembling with the origins PT as a leftist opposition to the dictatorship, and the parties had strong links until PSDB broke with PT and join in a coalition with PFL, a right-wing party with strong fiscal conservative views, associated with the Brazilian military regime in 1993 and the homeland of Antônio Carlos Magalhães, the strongest leadership of PFL and a fierce foe of PT. Bahia is now the main stronghold of PT, the most reliable state for the Petismo and is considered a governance model to the party. Despite this, the state's capital Salvador is governed by ACM Neto, a leading member of DEM and grandson of Antonio Carlos Magalhães.
The party is often accused of exploit the North–South divide in Brazil to gain votes in the northeast. The party denies the claims and accuses the opposition to do the same in the South and Southeast.
According to a poll conducted by IBOPE on 31 October 2010, during the second round voting PT's candidate Dilma Rouseff had an overwhelming majority of votes among the poorest Brazilians. Her lead was of 26% among those who earned a minimum wage or less per month. Rouseff also had the majority of votes among Catholics (58%), blacks (65%) and mixed-race Brazilians (60%). Amongst whites and Protestants, she was statistically tie to José Serra and her lead was of only 4% on both demographic groups. Even though she was the first female candidate in a major party, her votes amongst men was wider than amongst women.
Controversies
2003–2007 internal crisis and split
The changes in the political orientation of PT (from a left-wing socialist to a centre-left social-democratic party) after Lula was elected president were well received by many in the population, but as a historically more radical party PT has experienced a series of internal struggles with members who have refused to embrace the new political positions of the party. These struggles have fueled public debates, the worst of which had its climax in December 2003, when four dissident legislators were expelled from the party for voting against Social Insurance Reform. Among these members were congressman João Batista Oliveira de Araujo (known as Babá) and senator Heloísa Helena, who formed the Socialism and Liberty Party (Partido Socialismo e Liberdade − PSOL) in June 2004 and ran for president in 2006, becoming at the time the woman who had garnered the most votes in Brazilian history.
In another move, 112 members of the radical wing of the party announced they were abandoning PT in the World Social Forum in Porto Alegre on 30 January 2005. They also published a manifesto entitled Manifesto of the Rupture that states that PT "is no longer an instrument of social transformation, but only an instrument of the status quo", continuing with references to the International Monetary Fund and other economic and social issues.
BANCOOP scandal
This scandal, called the BANCOOP case, included João Vaccari Neto and four other directors of the housing cooperative. The cooperative received government contracts and had multi-million real revenue. The cooperative was found to have illegally padded the service contracts by 20%, with many of the contracts going unfulfilled. The cooperative eventually folded with a deficit of over R$100 million, requiring liquidation of assets to minimize the loss by members.
2006 electoral scandal
This scandal unfolded around September 2006, just two weeks before general elections. As a result, Berzoini left the coordination of Lula's re-election after allegedly using PT's budget (which is partially state-funded through party allowances) to purchase from a confessed fraudster a dossier that would be used to attack political adversaries. On 25 April 2007, the Supreme Electoral Tribunal unanimously cleared Lula of any responsibility for this scandal.
Mensalão scandal
In July 2005, members of the party suffered a sequence of corruption accusations, started by a deputy of the Brazilian Labour Party (Partido Trabalhista Brasileiro – PTB), Roberto Jefferson. Serious evidence for slush funding and bribes-for-votes were presented, dragging PT to the most serious crisis in its history, known colloquially as the Mensalão. José Genoíno resigned as president of the party and was replaced by Tarso Genro, former mayor of Porto Alegre. A small minority of party members defected as a result of the crisis. Most of them went to PSOL.
Lava Jato scandal
The investigation of a series of crimes, such corruption and money laundering, led to the arrest of the party's treasurer João Vaccari Neto and his sister-in-law. José Genoino, José Dirceu, Delcídio do Amaral, André Vargas and Delúbio Soares were also arrested in the process. Most recently, former President Lula was arrested in April 2018.
Organization
Since its inception the party has been led by the following:
Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (10 February 1980 – 24 January 1994)
Rui Falcão (1994)
José Dirceu (1995–2002)
José Genoíno (2002–2005)
Tarso Genro (2005) (interim)
Ricardo Berzoini (2005–2006)
Marco Aurélio Garcia (6 October 2006 – 2 January 2007) (interim)
Ricardo Berzoini (2 January 2007 – 19 February 2010)
José Eduardo Dutra (19 February 2010 – 29 April 2011)
Rui Falcão (29 April 2011 – 3 June 2017)
Gleisi Hoffmann (since 3 June 2017)
Factions
There are about thirty factions (tendências) within PT, ranging from Articulação, the centre-left group that Lula is a part of, to Marxists and Christian socialists.
Tendencies integrating the Building a New Brazil field
Considered the right-wing of the party, i.e. going from centre to centre-left.
Articulation - Unity on Struggle (AUNL)
PT Movement
Radical Democracy (DR)
Tendencies categorized as the left-wing of the party
(O Trabalho, OT)
Left-wing Articulation (AE)
Socialist Democracy (DS)
Socialist Brazil (BS)
Democratic Left (ED)
Popular Socialist Left (EPS)
Socialist Resistance (RS)
Former factions
Workers' Cause (CO) – seceded from the party in 1990 as the Labour Cause's Party (PCO)
(CS) – seceded in 1993 as part of Unified Workers' Socialist Party (PSTU)
Workers' Socialist Current (CST) – seceded in 2004 to form the Socialism and Liberty Party (PSOL)
Socialist Left Movement (MES) – seceded in 2004 to form the Socialism and Liberty Party (PSOL)
Popular Socialist Action (APS) – seceded in 2005 and joined the Socialism and Liberty Party (PSOL)
Tendency for the Workers' Revolutionary Party (TPOR) – Trotskyist faction that seceded in 1990 as the Workers' Revolutionary Party (POR)
Marxist Left (EM), the Brazilian section of the Trotskyist International Marxist Tendency. Marxist Left released a statement saying that "for the revolutionaries, there is no more room for the construction of socialist ideas within PT".
Famous members
Its members are known as petistas, from the Portuguese acronym PT.
Henos Amorina
Alexandre Padilha
Aloízio Mercadante
Ana Julia Carepa
Antônio Palocci
Arlindo Chinaglia
Benedita da Silva
Binho Marques
Cabo Almi
Chico Buarque
Chico Mendes
Dilma Rousseff
Eduardo Suplicy
Fernando Haddad
Fernando Pimentel
Guido Mantega
Jaques Wagner
João Paulo Cunha
João Vaccari Neto
José Dirceu
Luis Favre
Luiz Gushiken
Lula
Luizianne Lins
Marcelo Déda
Marco Aurélio Garcia
Marilena Chaui
Juliana Prestes, niece of Luís Carlos Prestes
Olívio Dutra
Paulo Delgado
Paulo Freire
Rodrigo Maroni
Sérgio Buarque de Holanda
Tarso Genro
Wellington Dias
References
Further reading
In English
In Portuguese
Couto, A. J. Paula. O PT em pílulas.
Dacanal, José Hildebrando. A nova classe no poder.
Demier, Felipe. As Transformações do PT e os Rumos da Esquerda no Brasil.
Godoy, Dagoberto Lima. Neocomunismo no Brasil.
Harnecker, Martha (1994). O sonho era possível. São Paulo: Casa das Américas.
Hohlfeldt, Antônio. O fascínio da estrela.
Moura, Paulo. PT – Comunismo ou Social-Democracia?.
Paula Couto, Adolpho João de. A face oculta da estrela.
Pedrosa, Mário (1980). Sobre o PT. São Paulo: CHED Editorial.
Pluggina, Percival. Crônicas contra o totalitarismo.
Tavares, José Antônio Giusti with Fernando Schüller, Ronaldo Moreira Brum and Valério Rohden. Totalitarismo tardio – o caso do PT.
Singer, André. O PT – Folha Explica.
Singer, André. Os Sentidos do Lulismo.
Annotated bibliography
Carlos Henrique Metidieri Menegozzo; Dainis Karepovs; Aline Fernanda Maciel; Patrícia Rodrigues da Silva; Rodrigo Cesar (2013). "Partido dos Trabalhadores: bibliografia comentada (1978–2002)" (PDF). São Paulo: Editora Fundação Perseu Abramo. 413 p.
External links
Tribunal Superior Eleitoral (Brazilian Electoral Superior Court)
Partido dos Trabalhadores (Workers' Party) official webpage
1980 establishments in Brazil
Centre-left parties in South America
Democratic socialist parties in South America
Social democratic parties in South America
Social democratic parties in Brazil | [
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224623 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European%20goldfinch | European goldfinch | The European goldfinch or simply the goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis) is a small passerine bird in the finch family that is native to Europe, North Africa and western and central Asia. It has been introduced to other areas, including Australia, New Zealand and Uruguay.
The breeding male has a red face with black markings around the eyes, and a black-and-white head. The back and flanks are buff or chestnut brown. The black wings have a broad yellow bar. The tail is black and the rump is white. Males and females are very similar, but females have a slightly smaller red area on the face.
The goldfinch is often depicted in Italian Renaissance paintings of the Madonna and Child.
Taxonomy
The European goldfinch was one of the birds described and illustrated by Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner in his Historiae animalium of 1555. The first formal description was by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae published in 1758. He introduced the binomial name, Fringilla carduelis. Carduelis is the Latin word for 'goldfinch'. The European goldfinch is now placed in the genus Carduelis that was introduced by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760 by tautonomy based on Linneus's specific epithet. Modern molecular genetic studies have shown that the European goldfinch is closely related to the citril finch (Carduelis citrinella) and the Corsican finch (Carduelis corsicana).
The English word 'goldfinch' was used in the second half of the 14th century by Geoffrey Chaucer in his unfinished The Cook's Tale: "Gaillard he was as goldfynch in the shawe (Gaily dressed he was as is a goldfinch in the woods)".
Subspecies
The subspecies of the European goldfinch are divided into two major groups. These intergrade at their boundary, so the groups are not recognized as distinct species despite their readily distinguishable plumage. Subspecies in the carduelis (black-crowned) group occupy the western part of the range and have black crowns; subspecies in the caniceps (grey-headed) group occupy the eastern part of the range and have grey heads.
carduelis group
C. c. balcanica Sachtleben, 1919 – southeastern European
C. c. brevirostris Zarudny, 1890 – Crimea, the northern Caucasus
C. c. britannica (Hartert, 1903) – the British Isles
C. c. carduelis (Linnaeus, 1758) – most of the European mainland, Scandinavia
C. c. colchica Koudashev, 1915 – Crimea and the northern Caucasus
C. c. frigoris Wolters, 1953 – western Siberia
C. c. niediecki Reichenow, 1907 – southwest Asia (Rhodes, Karpathos, Cyprus, Egypt to Asia Minor, North Iraq, Southwest Iran, Northeast Africa
C. c. parva Tschusi, 1901 – the Atlantic Macaronesic islands (the Canary Islands, Madeira), Iberia, northwest Africa
C. c. tschusii Arrigoni degli Oddi, 1902 – Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily
C. c. volgensis Buturlin, 1906 – southern Ukraine, southwestern Russia and northwestern Kazakhstan
caniceps group
C. c. caniceps Vigors, 1831 – southern central Asia (W Himalayas - Kashmir to Nepal and West Tibet)
C. c. paropanisi Kollibay, 1910 – Afghanistan to the western Himalaya and Tien Shan Mountains
C. c. subulata (Gloger, 1833) – south-central Siberia to Lake Baikal and Northwest Mongolia
C. c. ultima Koelz, 1949 – southern Iran
Phylogeny
The European goldfinch originated in the late Miocene-Pliocene and belongs to the clade of cardueline finches. The citril finch and the Corsican finch are its sister taxa. Their closest relatives are the greenfinches, crossbills and redpolls. The monophyly of the subfamily Carduelinae is suggested in previous studies.
Description
The average European goldfinch is long with a wingspan of and a weight of . The sexes are broadly similar, with a red face, black and white head, warm brown upper parts, white underparts with buff flanks and breast patches, and black and yellow wings.
On closer inspection, male European goldfinches can often be distinguished by a larger, darker red mask that extends just behind the eye. The shoulder feathers are black, whereas they are brown on the female. In females, the red face does not extend past the eye. The ivory-coloured bill is long and pointed, and the tail is forked. Goldfinches in breeding condition have a white bill, with a greyish or blackish mark at the tip for the rest of the year. Juveniles have a plain head and a greyer back but are unmistakable due to the yellow wing stripe. Birds in central Asia (the caniceps group) have a plain grey head behind the red face, lacking the black and white head pattern of European and western Asian birds. Adults moult after the breeding season, with some individuals beginning in July and others not completing their moult until November. After moult birds appear less colourful, until the tips of the newly grown feathers wear away.
The song is a pleasant silvery twittering. The call is a melodic , and the song is a pleasant tinkling medley of trills and twitters, but always including the tri-syllabic call phrase or a .
Distribution and habitat
The European goldfinch is native to Europe, North Africa, and western and central Asia. It is found in open, partially wooded lowlands and is a resident in the milder west of its range, but migrates from colder regions. It will also make local movements, even in the west, to escape bad weather.
It has been introduced to many areas of the world.
It was introduced to Bermuda, Canada, the United States, Mexico, Peru, Argentina, Chile, the Falkland Islands, Uruguay, Brazil, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand in the 19th century, and their populations quickly increased and their range expanded greatly. In Australia, they now occur from Brisbane to the Eyre Peninsula, and are also spread throughout New Zealand. In the United States, they have become established in the western Great Lakes region.
Behaviour and ecology
Breeding
The nest is built entirely by the female and is generally completed within a week. The male accompanies the female, but does not contribute. The nest is neat and compact and is generally located several metres above the ground, hidden by leaves in the twigs at the end of a swaying branch. It is constructed of mosses and lichens and lined with plant down such as that from thistles. It is attached to the twigs of the tree with spider silk. A deep cup prevents the loss of eggs in windy weather. Beginning within a couple of days after the completion of the nest, the eggs are laid in early morning at daily intervals. The clutch is typically 4-6 eggs, which are whitish with reddish-brown speckles. They have a smooth surface and are slightly glossy. The average size is with a calculated weight of . The eggs are incubated for 11–13 days by the female, who is fed by the male. The chicks are fed by both parents. Initially they receive a mixture of seeds and insects, but as they grow the proportion of insect material decreases. For the first 7–9 days the young are brooded by the female. The nestlings fledge 13–18 days after hatching. The young birds are fed by both parents for a further 7–9 days. The parents typically raise two broods each year and occasionally three.
Feeding
The European goldfinch's preferred food is small seeds such as those from thistles (the Latin name is from Carduus, a genus of thistles) and teasels, but insects are also taken when feeding young. It also regularly visits bird feeders in winter. In the winter, European goldfinches group together to form flocks of up to 40, occasionally more. European goldfinches are attracted to back gardens in Europe and North America by birdfeeders containing (commercially described as nyjer) seed. This seed of an annual from Africa is small, and high in oils. Special polycarbonate feeders with small oval slits at which the European goldfinches feed are sometimes used.
Relationships with humans
European goldfinches are commonly kept and bred in captivity around the world because of their distinctive appearance and pleasant song. If European goldfinches are kept with domestic canaries, they tend to lose their native song and call in favour of their cagemates' songs. This is considered undesirable, as it detracts from the allure of keeping European goldfinches. In Great Britain during the 19th century, many thousands of European goldfinches were trapped each year to be sold as cage birds. One of the earliest campaigns of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds was directed against this trade. Wildlife conservation attempts to limit bird trapping and the destruction of the open space habitats of European goldfinches.
Steglitz, a borough of the German city of Berlin is named after the European goldfinch. The surname Goldspink is based on the Scots word for the European goldfinch.
Christian symbolism
Because of the thistle seeds it eats, in Christian symbolism the European goldfinch is associated with Christ's Passion and his crown of thorns. The European goldfinch, appearing in pictures of the Madonna and Christ child, represents the foreknowledge Jesus and Mary had of the Crucifixion. Examples include the Madonna del cardellino or Madonna of the Goldfinch, painted by the Italian Renaissance artist Raphael in about 1505–6, in which John the Baptist offers a European goldfinch to Christ in a warning of his future. In Barocci's Holy Family, a European goldfinch is held in the hand of John the Baptist, who holds it high out of reach of an interested cat. In Cima da Conegliano's Madonna and Child, a European goldfinch flutters in the hand of the Christ child. It is also an emblem of endurance, fruitfulness, and persistence. Because it symbolizes the Passion, the European goldfinch is considered a "saviour" bird and may be pictured with the common housefly (which represents sin and disease). The European goldfinch is also associated with Saint Jerome and appears in some depictions of him.
Depictions in art
Antonio Vivaldi composed a Concerto in D major for Flute "Il Gardellino" (RV 428, Op. 10 No. 3), where the singing of the European goldfinch is imitated by a flute. An anonymous Italian Neapolitan poem titled Il Cardellino was put to music by Saverio Mercadante and sung by Jose Carreras.
European goldfinches, with their "wanton freak" and "yellow flutterings", are among the many natural "luxuries" that delight the speaker of John Keats' poem 'I stood tip-toe upon a little hill...' (1816).
In the poem The Great Hunger by Patrick Kavanagh, the European goldfinch is one of the rare glimpses of beauty in the life of an elderly Irish farmer:
Donna Tartt's novel The Goldfinch won the 2014 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. A turning point in the plot occurs when the narrator, Theo, sees his mother's favourite painting, Carel Fabritius's The Goldfinch, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Audio recordings from Xeno-canto
European Goldfinch videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
Ageing and sexing by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
Feathers of European Goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis)
The RSPB: Goldfinch
European goldfinch
Birds of Europe
Birds of North Africa
Birds of Macaronesia
Birds of Western Asia
European goldfinch
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224624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Masson | David Masson | Prof David Mather Masson LLD DLitt (2 December 18226 October 1907), was a Scottish academic, supporter of women's suffrage, literary critic and historian.
Biography
He was born in Aberdeen, the son of William Masson, a stone-cutter, and his wife Sarah Mather.
David was educated at Aberdeen Grammar School under Dr. James Melvin and at Marischal College, University of Aberdeen. Intending to enter the Church, he proceeded to Edinburgh University, where he studied theology under Dr. Thomas Chalmers, with whom he remained friendly until the latter's death in 1847. However, abandoning his aspirations to the ministry, be returned to Aberdeen to undertake the editorship of the Banner, a weekly paper devoted to the advocacy of Free Kirk principles. After two years he resigned this post and went back to Edinburgh to pursue a purely literary career. There he wrote a great deal, contributing to Fraser's Magazine, Dublin University Magazine (in which appeared his essays on Thomas Chatterton) and other periodicals. In 1847 he went to London, where he found a wider scope for his energy and knowledge.
He was a secretary of the Society of the Friends of Italy (1851–1852). In a famous interview with Elizabeth Barrett Browning at Florence, he contested her admiration for Napoleon III. He had known Thomas de Quincey, whose biography he contributed in 1878 to the "English Men of Letters" series, and he was an enthusiastic friend and admirer of Thomas Carlyle. In 1852 he was appointed a professor of English literature at University College, London, in succession to A H Clough, and for some years from 1858, he edited the newly established Macmillan's Magazine. In 1865 he was selected for the chair of rhetoric and English literature at Edinburgh, and during the early years of his professorship actively promoted the movement for the university education of women. He also supported his wife Emily Rosaline Orme and two of their daughters in the women's suffrage movement, speaking at events in Edinburgh and London. In 1879 he became editor of the Register of the Privy Council of Scotland, and in 1886 gave the Rhind Lectures on that subject. In 1893 he was appointed Historiographer Royal for Scotland. Two years later he resigned his professorship. Shortly before he retired he became a member of the Scottish Arts Club. In 1896 he was President of the Edinburgh Sir Walter Scott Club and gave the Toast to Sir Walter at the club's annual dinner. By 1900 he was Chairman of the Scottish History Society.
When he first arrived in Edinburgh in 1865, Masson lived in Rosebery Crescent, then he lived at 10 Regent Terrace from 1869 to 1882 before moving to Great King Street. Among the friends who used to visit him were the famous philosopher John Stuart Mill and the historian Thomas Carlyle. J.M. Barrie was a student of Masson in 1878–1882, and Masson is credited with being the future dramatist's literary mentor.
A bust of Masson was presented to the senate of the University of Edinburgh in 1897. In 1900–1901 Masson is listed as living at 2 Lockharton Gardens in south-west Edinburgh (designed by Sir James Gowans). He died in Edinburgh and is buried in the north-west section of Grange Cemetery in Edinburgh next to the main north path.
Family
David Masson married Emily Rosaline Orme in London on 17 August 1854. Their son, David Orme Masson, became the first Professor of Chemistry at the University of Melbourne, and a KBE. Their daughter Rosaline was known as a writer and novelist, and Flora Masson was a noted nurse and suffragist. Their third daughter Helen married Dr. George Lovell Gulland.
His grandsons include the chemist John Masson Gulland FRSE (1898–1947) and James I. O. Masson.
Recognition
The Masson Hall of Residence–the university's first 'proper' accommodation for female students–in the Grange was named after him.
A building at the University of Edinburgh's Pollock Halls of Residence is also named after Masson. Built in the 1990s, Masson House is used as a three-star year-round hotel, rather than student accommodation.
Works
His magnum opus is his Life of Milton in Connexion with the History of His Own Time in six volumes, the first of which appeared in 1858 and the last in 1880. He also edited the library edition of Milton's Poetical Works (3 vols., 1874), and De Quincey's Collected Works (14 vols., 1889–1890). Among his other publications are
Essays, Biographical and Critical (1856, reprinted with additions, 3 vols., 1874)
British Novelists and their Styles (1859)
Drummond of Hawthornden (1873)
Chatterton (1873)
Edinburgh Sketches (1892)
Notes
References
External links
Masson's Chatterton
The Poetical Works of John Milton: The Minor Poems, Vol. I, 1910
The Poetical Works of John Milton: Paradise Lost, Vol. II, 1910
1822 births
1907 deaths
People from Aberdeen
Scottish historians
Alumni of the University of Aberdeen
19th-century Scottish people
19th-century historians
Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Royal Scottish Academicians
Scottish literary critics
Academics of University College London
Academics of the University of Edinburgh
Historiographers
People educated at Aberdeen Grammar School
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Scottish biographers
Scottish newspaper editors
Scottish literary historians | [
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] |
224625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squaw%20Valley | Squaw Valley | Squaw Valley may refer to:
Places
Squaw Valley, Fresno County, California, a census-designated place
Squaw Valley, Placer County, California, a community
Squaw Valley Ski Resort (now Palisades Tahoe), site of the 1960 Winter Olympics
Squaw Valley (Oregon), a valley in Curry County, Oregon
Squaw Valley Reservoir, a reservoir in Nevada
See also
1960 Winter Olympics, the Squaw Valley Olympics
Squaw Canyon Oil Field, San Juan County, Utah, USA
Valley (disambiguation)
Squaw (disambiguation) | [
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224631 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd%20al-Rahman%20ibn%20Abd%20Allah%20al-Ghafiqi | Abd al-Rahman ibn Abd Allah al-Ghafiqi | Abdul Rahman ibn Abdullah al-Ghafiqi (; died 732), was an Arab Umayyad commander of Andalusian Muslims. He unsuccessfully led into battle against the forces of Charles Martel in the Battle of Tours on October 10, 732 AD.
Early years
From the Arab Tihamite tribe of Ghafiq, he relocated to Ifriqiya (now Tunisia), then to the stretch of the Maghreb that is now Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia and Mauritania, where he became acquainted with Musa Ibn Nusair and his son Abdul Aziz, the governors of Al-Andalus.
Battle of Toulouse
Abdul Rahman took part in the Battle of Toulouse, where Al Samh ibn Malik was killed in 721 (102 A.H.) by the forces of Duke Odo of Aquitaine. After the severe defeat, he fled south along with other commanders and troops, and took over the command of Eastern Andalus. He was briefly relieved of his command, when Anbasa ibn Suhaym Al-Kalbi was appointed in 721 (103 AH). After Anbasa died in 726 (107 AH) in southern Gaul, several successive commanders were put in place, none of whom lasted very long.
Rebellion in Cerdanya
In 730 (112 AH), the Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik appointed Abdul Rahman as wali (governor/commander) of Al Andalus. David Levering Lewis describes him as "intelligent, eloquent, and an accomplished administrator". On hearing that Uthman ibn Naissa, the Berber deputy governor of Catalunya, had concluded an alliance with duke Odo of Aquitaine, in order to set up an independent Catalunya for himself, the governor hurried to quell the rebellion. He engaged the Berber lord's forces and killed him (731). (By some accounts, Uthman ibn Naissa killed himself.)
Battle of Garonne
The wali assembled troops in Pamplona, called for recruits from Yemen and the Levant, and prepared to cross the Pyrenees into Gaul. Many arrived, and he crossed the Pyrenees range with an army composed primarily of Arabs. Emir Abdul Rahman made his way through Gascony and Aquitaine, according to one unidentified Arab, "That army went through all places like a desolating storm," sacking and capturing the city of Bordeaux, after defeating Duke Odo of Aquitaine in battle outside the city, and then again defeating a second army of Duke Odo at the Battle of the River Garonne —where the western chroniclers state, "God alone knows the number of the slain."
Unlike Toulouse, where Odo had won by achieving complete surprise over the Muslim forces when he relieved the city in 721, this time his forces were forced to face the Muslim cavalry in open battle and were utterly destroyed. Also, the Muslim forces he had faced at the Battle of Toulouse were primarily light infantry and, while good fighters, were not remotely close to the caliber of the Arab cavalry brought by the Emir in this invasion.
Battle of Tours-Poitiers
Odo, with his remaining nobility, fled to Charles Martel, seeking help. Charles was campaigning on the Danube when news reached him. Martel had a seasoned professional infantry which had campaigned with him for many years and force-marched his army towards Acquitaine. In addition to the levies of militia the Franks normally called up to buttress their forces,<ref name=Davis>Davis, Paul K. “100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present</ref> he formed an army of Gauls and Germans approximately 30,000 strong. The invading forces, having no reason to believe the Franks were anything more than one of the various barbarian tribes that had ravaged Europe after Rome's fall, failed to scout their strength in advance. They also misjudged Charles Martel, who was determined to prevent the expansion of the Caliphate over the Pyrenees into the heart of Christian Europe. This was a disastrous mistake which led to the defeat of Abdul Rahman in 732 (114 AH) near Poitiers, south of the river Loire.
The Frankish leader chose the battlefield. Moving his army over the mountains and avoiding the open roads, he escaped detection until positioning his men on a high, wooded plain. Martel had carefully chosen the battlefield, in large part knowing the hills and trees surrounding his position would greatly hinder the Muslim cavalry. For seven days, the two armies skirmished and maneuvered, with the Islamic forces recalling all their raiding parties, so that on the seventh day, their army was at full strength. Martel also received some reinforcements, though most historians agree he was badly outnumbered during the battle. Martel trained his men to fight in a large square, similar to the ancient Greek phalanx formation, to withstand the Muslim heavy cavalry. The Franks held their defensive formation all day, and repulsed repeated charges by the Muslim heavy cavalry.
According to Lewis, the Muslim soldiers were accompanied by their families. Wives and concubines were among the casualties. Realizing their camp was being plundered, a large contingent of Abdul Rahman's forces broke off battle and returned to rescue their booty. Abdul Rahman was thus left exposed before the Frankish infantry and was killed in battle while attempting to rally his men. One reason for the defeat of the Muslim army was their preoccupation with war booty; another was the squabbles between various ethnic and tribal factions, which led to the surviving generals being unable to agree on a single commander to take Abdul Rahman's place. Political factions, racial and ethnic rivalries, and personality clashes arose following his death. The varied nationalities and ethnicities present in an army drawn from all over the Caliphate, and the surviving generals, bickered among themselves, unable to agree on a commander to lead them the following day. The inability to select anyone to lead certainly contributed to the wholesale retreat of an army that was still dangerous.
Aftermath
Arab historians unanimously praise Abdul Rahman as a just and able administrator and commander, and bestow on him the honor of being the best governor of Al-Andalus, where he did not take sides in the ethnic and tribal divisions that plagued Al-Andalus under other rulers. Evidence of his irreplaceability as a ruler was demonstrated in the aftermath of his death at the Battle of Tours. Without his leadership and guidance, the other commanders were unable even to agree on a commander to lead them back into battle the following morning. Therefore, the effect of the death of Abdul Rahman on both Islamic and world history was profound.
His son attempted another invasion of Gaul under the Caliph's instructions in 736, this time by sea. This naval invasion landed in Narbonne in 736 and moved at once to reinforce Muslim Arles and move inland. Charles again descended on the Provençal strongholds of the Muslims. In 736, he took Montfrin and Avignon, and Arles and Aix-en-Provence with the help of Liutprand, King of the Lombards. Nîmes, Agde and Béziers, held by Muslims since 725, also fell to him and their fortresses and probably the cities altogether were destroyed. He crushed one Muslim army at Arles, as that force sallied out of the city, and then took the city itself by a direct and frontal attack, and burned it to the ground to prevent its use again as a stronghold for Muslim expansion. He then moved swiftly and defeated a mighty host outside of Narbonne at the River Berre, but lacking siege machines was unable to take the city.
Notes
References
Creasy Edward S., Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World From Marathon to Waterloo Medieval Sourcebook: Arabs, Franks, and the Battle of Tours, 732
Watson, William E., "The Battle of Tours-Poitiers Revisited", Providence: Studies in Western Civilization, 2 (1993)
Further reading
The New Century Book of Facts, King-Richardson Company, Springfield, Massachusetts, 1911
"Early Andalusian Politics", by Richard Greydanus
Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, (New York, 1974), 6:16.
Richard Hooker, "Civil War and the Umayyads"
Tours, Poiters, from "Leaders and Battles Database" online.
Robert W. Martin, "The Battle of Tours is still felt today", from about.com
Santosuosso, Anthony, Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels
Bennett, Bradsbury, Devries, Dickie and Jestice, Fighting Techniques of the Medieval World
Reagan, Geoffry, The Guinness Book of Decisive Battles'', Canopy Books, NY (1992)
Arab generals
Year of birth unknown
732 deaths
Medieval Arabs killed in battle
Umayyad governors of Al-Andalus
Generals of the Umayyad Caliphate
Al-Andalus military personnel
8th-century Arabs
8th-century Umayyad people | [
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224636 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry | Supersymmetry | In a supersymmetric theory the equations for force and the equations for matter are identical. In theoretical and mathematical physics, any theory with this property has the principle of supersymmetry (SUSY). Dozens of supersymmetric theories exist. Supersymmetry is a spacetime symmetry between two basic classes of particles: bosons, which have an integer-valued spin and follow Bose–Einstein statistics, and fermions, which have a half-integer-valued spin and follow Fermi-Dirac statistics. In supersymmetry, each particle from one class would have an associated particle in the other, known as its superpartner, the spin of which differs by a half-integer. For example, if the electron exists in a supersymmetric theory, then there would be a particle called a "selectron" (superpartner electron), a bosonic partner of the electron. In the simplest supersymmetry theories, with perfectly "unbroken" supersymmetry, each pair of superpartners would share the same mass and internal quantum numbers besides spin. More complex supersymmetry theories have a spontaneously broken symmetry, allowing superpartners to differ in mass.
Supersymmetry has various applications to different areas of physics, such as quantum mechanics, statistical mechanics, quantum field theory, condensed matter physics, nuclear physics, optics, stochastic dynamics, astrophysics, quantum gravity, and cosmology, as well as to areas outside of physics, such as in finance. Supersymmetry has also been applied to high energy physics, where a supersymmetric extension of the Standard Model is a possible candidate for physics beyond the Standard Model. However, no supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model have been experimentally verified.
History
A supersymmetry relating mesons and baryons was first proposed, in the context of hadronic physics, by Hironari Miyazawa in 1966. This supersymmetry did not involve spacetime, that is, it concerned internal symmetry, and was broken badly. Miyazawa's work was largely ignored at the time.
J. L. Gervais and B. Sakita (in 1971), Yu. A. Golfand and E. P. Likhtman (also in 1971), and D. V. Volkov and V. P. Akulov (1972), independently rediscovered supersymmetry in the context of quantum field theory, a radically new type of symmetry of spacetime and fundamental fields, which establishes a relationship between elementary particles of different quantum nature, bosons and fermions, and unifies spacetime and internal symmetries of microscopic phenomena. Supersymmetry with a consistent Lie-algebraic graded structure on which the Gervais−Sakita rediscovery was based directly first arose in 1971 in the context of an early version of string theory by Pierre Ramond, John H. Schwarz and André Neveu.
In 1974, Julius Wess and Bruno Zumino identified the characteristic renormalization features of four-dimensional supersymmetric field theories, which identified them as remarkable QFTs, and they and Abdus Salam and their fellow researchers introduced early particle physics applications. The mathematical structure of supersymmetry (graded Lie superalgebras) has subsequently been applied successfully to other topics of physics, ranging from nuclear physics, critical phenomena, quantum mechanics to statistical physics, and supersymmetry remains a vital part of many proposed theories in many branches of physics.
In particle physics, the first realistic supersymmetric version of the Standard Model was proposed in 1977 by Pierre Fayet and is known as the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model or MSSM for short. It was proposed to solve, amongst other things, the hierarchy problem.
Applications
Extension of possible symmetry groups
One reason that physicists explored supersymmetry is because it offers an extension to the more familiar symmetries of quantum field theory. These symmetries are grouped into the Poincaré group and internal symmetries and the Coleman–Mandula theorem showed that under certain assumptions, the symmetries of the S-matrix must be a direct product of the Poincaré group with a compact internal symmetry group or if there is not any mass gap, the conformal group with a compact internal symmetry group. In 1971 Golfand and Likhtman were the first to show that the Poincaré algebra can be extended through introduction of four anticommuting spinor generators (in four dimensions), which later became known as supercharges. In 1975, the Haag–Łopuszański–Sohnius theorem analyzed all possible superalgebras in the general form, including those with an extended number of the supergenerators and central charges. This extended super-Poincaré algebra paved the way for obtaining a very large and important class of supersymmetric field theories.
The supersymmetry algebra
Traditional symmetries of physics are generated by objects that transform by the tensor representations of the Poincaré group and internal symmetries. Supersymmetries, however, are generated by objects that transform by the spin representations. According to the spin-statistics theorem, bosonic fields commute while fermionic fields anticommute. Combining the two kinds of fields into a single algebra requires the introduction of a Z2-grading under which the bosons are the even elements and the fermions are the odd elements. Such an algebra is called a Lie superalgebra.
The simplest supersymmetric extension of the Poincaré algebra is the Super-Poincaré algebra. Expressed in terms of two Weyl spinors, has the following anti-commutation relation:
and all other anti-commutation relations between the Qs and commutation relations between the Qs and Ps vanish. In the above expression are the generators of translation and σμ are the Pauli matrices.
There are representations of a Lie superalgebra that are analogous to representations of a Lie algebra. Each Lie algebra has an associated Lie group and a Lie superalgebra can sometimes be extended into representations of a Lie supergroup.
Supersymmetric quantum mechanics
Supersymmetric quantum mechanics adds the SUSY superalgebra to quantum mechanics as opposed to quantum field theory. Supersymmetric quantum mechanics often becomes relevant when studying the dynamics of supersymmetric solitons, and due to the simplified nature of having fields which are only functions of time (rather than space-time), a great deal of progress has been made in this subject and it is now studied in its own right.
SUSY quantum mechanics involves pairs of Hamiltonians which share a particular mathematical relationship, which are called partner Hamiltonians. (The potential energy terms which occur in the Hamiltonians are then known as partner potentials.) An introductory theorem shows that for every eigenstate of one Hamiltonian, its partner Hamiltonian has a corresponding eigenstate with the same energy. This fact can be exploited to deduce many properties of the eigenstate spectrum. It is analogous to the original description of SUSY, which referred to bosons and fermions. We can imagine a "bosonic Hamiltonian", whose eigenstates are the various bosons of our theory. The SUSY partner of this Hamiltonian would be "fermionic", and its eigenstates would be the theory's fermions. Each boson would have a fermionic partner of equal energy.
In finance
In 2021, supersymmetric quantum mechanics was applied to option pricing and the analysis of markets in finance, and to financial networks.
Supersymmetry in quantum field theory
In quantum field theory, supersymmetry is motivated by solutions to several theoretical problems, for generally providing many desirable mathematical properties, and for ensuring sensible behavior at high energies. Supersymmetric quantum field theory is often much easier to analyze, as many more problems become mathematically tractable. When supersymmetry is imposed as a local symmetry, Einstein's theory of general relativity is included automatically, and the result is said to be a theory of supergravity. Another theoretically appealing property of supersymmetry is that it offers the only "loophole" to the Coleman–Mandula theorem, which prohibits spacetime and internal symmetries from being combined in any nontrivial way, for quantum field theories with very general assumptions. The Haag–Łopuszański–Sohnius theorem demonstrates that supersymmetry is the only way spacetime and internal symmetries can be combined consistently.
Supersymmetry in condensed matter physics
SUSY concepts have provided useful extensions to the WKB approximation. Additionally, SUSY has been applied to disorder averaged systems both quantum and non-quantum (through statistical mechanics), the Fokker–Planck equation being an example of a non-quantum theory. The 'supersymmetry' in all these systems arises from the fact that one is modelling one particle and as such the 'statistics' do not matter. The use of the supersymmetry method provides a mathematical rigorous alternative to the replica trick, but only in non-interacting systems, which attempts to address the so-called 'problem of the denominator' under disorder averaging. For more on the applications of supersymmetry in condensed matter physics see Efetov (1997).
In 2021, a group of researchers showed that, in theory, SUSY could be realised at the edge of a Moore-Read quantum Hall state. However, to date, no experiments have been done yet to realise it at an edge of a Moore-Read state. In 2022, a different group of researchers created a computer simulation of atoms in 1 dimensions that had supersymmetric topological quasiparticles.
Supersymmetry in optics
In 2013, integrated optics was found to provide a fertile ground on which certain ramifications of SUSY can be explored in readily-accessible laboratory settings. Making use of the analogous mathematical structure of the quantum-mechanical Schrödinger equation and the wave equation governing the evolution of light in one-dimensional settings, one may interpret the refractive index distribution of a structure as a potential landscape in which optical wave packets propagate. In this manner, a new class of functional optical structures with possible applications in phase matching, mode conversion and space-division multiplexing becomes possible. SUSY transformations have been also proposed as a way to address inverse scattering problems in optics and as a one-dimensional transformation optics.
Supersymmetry in dynamical systems
All stochastic (partial) differential equations, the models for all types of continuous time dynamical systems, possess topological supersymmetry. In the operator representation of stochastic evolution, the topological supersymmetry is the exterior derivative which is commutative with the stochastic evolution operator defined as the stochastically averaged pullback induced on differential forms by SDE-defined diffeomorphisms of the phase space. The topological sector of the so-emerging supersymmetric theory of stochastic dynamics can be recognized as the Witten-type topological field theory.
The meaning of the topological supersymmetry in dynamical systems is the preservation of the phase space continuity—infinitely close points will remain close during continuous time evolution even in the presence of noise. When the topological supersymmetry is broken spontaneously, this property is violated in the limit of the infinitely long temporal evolution and the model can be said to exhibit (the stochastic generalization of) the butterfly effect. From a more general perspective, spontaneous breakdown of the topological supersymmetry is the theoretical essence of the ubiquitous dynamical phenomenon variously known as chaos, turbulence, self-organized criticality etc. The Goldstone theorem explains the associated emergence of the long-range dynamical behavior that manifests itself as noise, butterfly effect, and the scale-free statistics of sudden (instantonic) processes, such as earthquakes, neuroavalanches, and solar flares, known as the Zipf's law and the Richter scale.
Supersymmetry in mathematics
SUSY is also sometimes studied mathematically for its intrinsic properties. This is because it describes complex fields satisfying a property known as holomorphy, which allows holomorphic quantities to be exactly computed. This makes supersymmetric models useful "toy models" of more realistic theories. A prime example of this has been the demonstration of S-duality in four-dimensional gauge theories that interchanges particles and monopoles.
The proof of the Atiyah–Singer index theorem is much simplified by the use of supersymmetric quantum mechanics.
Supersymmetry in string theory
Supersymmetry is an integral part of string theory, a possible theory of everything. There are two types of string theory, supersymmetric string theory or superstring theory, and non-supersymmetric string theory. By definition of superstring theory, supersymmetry is required in superstring theory at some level. However, even in non-supersymmetric string theory, a type of supersymmetry called misaligned supersymmetry is still required in the theory in order to ensure no physical tachyons appear. Any string theories without some kind of supersymmetry, such as bosonic string theory and the , , and heterotic string theories, will have a tachyon and therefore the spacetime vacuum itself would be unstable and would decay into some tachyon-free string theory usually in a lower spacetime dimension. There is no experimental evidence that either supersymmetry or misaligned supersymmetry holds in our universe, and many physicists have moved on from supersymmetry and string theory entirely due to the non-detection of supersymmetry at the LHC.
Despite the null results for supersymmetry at the LHC so far, some particle physicists have nevertheless moved to string theory in order to resolve the naturalness crisis for certain supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model. According to the particle physicists, there exists a concept of "stringy naturalness" in string theory, where the string theory landscape could have a power law statistical pull on soft SUSY breaking terms to large values (depending on the number of hidden sector SUSY breaking fields contributing to the soft terms). If this is coupled with an anthropic requirement that contributions to the weak scale not exceed a factor between 2 and 5 from its measured value (as argued by Agrawal et al.), then the Higgs mass is pulled up to the vicinity of 125 GeV while most sparticles are pulled to values beyond the current reach of LHC. An exception occurs for higgsinos which gain mass not from SUSY breaking but rather from whatever mechanism solves the SUSY mu problem. Light higgsino pair production in association with hard initial state jet radiation leads to a soft opposite-sign dilepton plus jet plus missing transverse energy signal.
Supersymmetry in particle physics
In particle physics, a supersymmetric extension of the Standard Model is a possible candidate for undiscovered particle physics, and seen by some physicists as an elegant solution to many current problems in particle physics if confirmed correct, which could resolve various areas where current theories are believed to be incomplete and where limitations of current theories are well established. In particular, one supersymmetric extension of the Standard Model, the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM), became popular in theoretical particle physics, as the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model is the simplest supersymmetric extension of the Standard Model that could resolve major hierarchy problems within the Standard Model, by guaranteeing that quadratic divergences of all orders will cancel out in perturbation theory. If a supersymmetric extension of the Standard Model is correct, superpartners of the existing elementary particles would be new and undiscovered particles and supersymmetry is expected to be spontaneously broken.
There is no experimental evidence that a supersymmetric extension to the Standard Model is correct, or whether or not other extensions to current models might be more accurate. It is only since around 2010 that particle accelerators specifically designed to study physics beyond the Standard Model have become operational (i.e. the Large Hadron Collider (LHC)), and it is not known where exactly to look, nor the energies required for a successful search. However, the negative results from the LHC since 2010 have already ruled out some supersymmetric extensions to the Standard Model, and many physicists believe that the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model, while not ruled out, is no longer able to fully resolve the hierarchy problem.
Supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model
Incorporating supersymmetry into the Standard Model requires doubling the number of particles since there is no way that any of the particles in the Standard Model can be superpartners of each other. With the addition of new particles, there are many possible new interactions. The simplest possible supersymmetric model consistent with the Standard Model is the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM) which can include the necessary additional new particles that are able to be superpartners of those in the Standard Model.
One of the original motivations for the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model came from the hierarchy problem. Due to the quadratically divergent contributions to the Higgs mass squared in the Standard Model, the quantum mechanical interactions of the Higgs boson causes a large renormalization of the Higgs mass and unless there is an accidental cancellation, the natural size of the Higgs mass is the greatest scale possible. Furthermore, the electroweak scale receives enormous Planck-scale quantum corrections. The observed hierarchy between the electroweak scale and the Planck scale must be achieved with extraordinary fine tuning. This problem is known as the hierarchy problem.
Supersymmetry close to the electroweak scale, such as in the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model, would solve the hierarchy problem that afflicts the Standard Model. It would reduce the size of the quantum corrections by having automatic cancellations between fermionic and bosonic Higgs interactions, and Planck-scale quantum corrections cancel between partners and superpartners (owing to a minus sign associated with fermionic loops). The hierarchy between the electroweak scale and the Planck scale would be achieved in a natural manner, without extraordinary fine-tuning. If supersymmetry were restored at the weak scale, then the Higgs mass would be related to supersymmetry breaking which can be induced from small non-perturbative effects explaining the vastly different scales in the weak interactions and gravitational interactions.
Another motivation for the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model comes from grand unification, the idea that the gauge symmetry groups should unify at high-energy. In the Standard Model, however, the weak, strong and electromagnetic gauge couplings fail to unify at high energy. In particular, the renormalization group evolution of the three gauge coupling constants of the Standard Model is somewhat sensitive to the present particle content of the theory. These coupling constants do not quite meet together at a common energy scale if we run the renormalization group using the Standard Model. After incorporating minimal SUSY at the electroweak scale, the running of the gauge couplings are modified, and joint convergence of the gauge coupling constants is projected to occur at approximately 1016 GeV. The modified running also provides a natural mechanism for radiative electroweak symmetry breaking.
In many supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model, such as the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model, there is a heavy stable particle (such as the neutralino) which could serve as a weakly interacting massive particle (WIMP) dark matter candidate. The existence of a supersymmetric dark matter candidate is related closely to R-parity. Supersymmetry at the electroweak scale (augmented with a discrete symmetry) typically provides a candidate dark matter particle at a mass scale consistent with thermal relic abundance calculations.
The standard paradigm for incorporating supersymmetry into a realistic theory is to have the underlying dynamics of the theory be supersymmetric, but the ground state of the theory does not respect the symmetry and supersymmetry is broken spontaneously. The supersymmetry break can not be done permanently by the particles of the MSSM as they currently appear. This means that there is a new sector of the theory that is responsible for the breaking. The only constraint on this new sector is that it must break supersymmetry permanently and must give superparticles TeV scale masses. There are many models that can do this and most of their details do not matter. In order to parameterize the relevant features of supersymmetry breaking, arbitrary soft SUSY breaking terms are added to the theory which temporarily break SUSY explicitly but could never arise from a complete theory of supersymmetry breaking.
Searches and constraints for supersymmetry
SUSY extensions of the standard model are constrained by a variety of experiments, including measurements of low-energy observables – for example, the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon at Fermilab; the WMAP dark matter density measurement and direct detection experiments – for example, XENON-100 and LUX; and by particle collider experiments, including B-physics, Higgs phenomenology and direct searches for superpartners (sparticles), at the Large Electron–Positron Collider, Tevatron and the LHC. In fact, CERN publicly states that if a supersymmetric model of the Standard Model "is correct, supersymmetric particles should appear in collisions at the LHC."
Historically, the tightest limits were from direct production at colliders. The first mass limits for squarks and gluinos were made at CERN by the UA1 experiment and the UA2 experiment at the Super Proton Synchrotron. LEP later set very strong limits, which in 2006 were extended by the D0 experiment at the Tevatron. From 2003-2015, WMAP's and Planck's dark matter density measurements have strongly constrained supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model, which, if they explain dark matter, have to be tuned to invoke a particular mechanism to sufficiently reduce the neutralino density.
Prior to the beginning of the LHC, in 2009, fits of available data to CMSSM and NUHM1 indicated that squarks and gluinos were most likely to have masses in the 500 to 800 GeV range, though values as high as 2.5 TeV were allowed with low probabilities. Neutralinos and sleptons were expected to be quite light, with the lightest neutralino and the lightest stau most likely to be found between 100 and 150 GeV.
The first runs of the LHC surpassed existing experimental limits from the Large Electron–Positron Collider and Tevatron and partially excluded the aforementioned expected ranges. In 2011–12, the LHC discovered a Higgs boson with a mass of about 125 GeV, and with couplings to fermions and bosons which are consistent with the Standard Model. The MSSM predicts that the mass of the lightest Higgs boson should not be much higher than the mass of the Z boson, and, in the absence of fine tuning (with the supersymmetry breaking scale on the order of 1 TeV), should not exceed 135 GeV. The LHC found no previously-unknown particles other than the Higgs boson which was already suspected to exist as part of the Standard Model, and therefore no evidence for any supersymmetric extension of the Standard Model.
Indirect methods include the search for a permanent electric dipole moment (EDM) in the known Standard Model particles, which can arise when the Standard Model particle interacts with the supersymmetric particles. The current best constraint on the electron electric dipole moment put it to be smaller than 10−28 e·cm, equivalent to a sensitivity to new physics at the TeV scale and matching that of the current best particle colliders. A permanent EDM in any fundamental particle points towards time-reversal violating physics, and therefore also CP-symmetry violation via the CPT theorem. Such EDM experiments are also much more scalable than conventional particle accelerators and offer a practical alternative to detecting physics beyond the standard model as accelerator experiments become increasingly costly and complicated to maintain. The current best limit for the electron's EDM has already reached a sensitivity to rule out so called 'naive' versions of supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model.
Current status
The negative findings in the experiments disappointed many physicists, who believed that supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model (and other theories relying upon it) were by far the most promising theories for "new" physics beyond the Standard Model, and had hoped for signs of unexpected results from the experiments. In particular, the LHC result seems problematic for the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model, as the value of 125 GeV is relatively large for the model and can only be achieved with large radiative loop corrections from top squarks, which many theorists consider to be "unnatural" (see naturalness and fine tuning).
In response to the so-called "naturalness crisis" in the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model, some researchers have abandoned naturalness and the original motivation to solve the hierarchy problem naturally with supersymmetry, while other researchers have moved on to other supersymmetric models such as split supersymmetry. Still others have moved to string theory as a result of the naturalness crisis. Former enthusiastic supporter Mikhail Shifman went as far as urging the theoretical community to search for new ideas and accept that supersymmetry was a failed theory in particle physics. However, some researchers suggested that this "naturalness" crisis was premature because various calculations were too optimistic about the limits of masses which would allow a supersymmetric extension of the Standard Model as a solution.
General supersymmetry
Supersymmetry appears in many related contexts of theoretical physics. It is possible to have multiple supersymmetries and also have supersymmetric extra dimensions.
Extended supersymmetry
It is possible to have more than one kind of supersymmetry transformation. Theories with more than one supersymmetry transformation are known as extended supersymmetric theories. The more supersymmetry a theory has, the more constrained are the field content and interactions. Typically the number of copies of a supersymmetry is a power of 2 (1, 2, 4, 8...). In four dimensions, a spinor has four degrees of freedom and thus the minimal number of supersymmetry generators is four in four dimensions and having eight copies of supersymmetry means that there are 32 supersymmetry generators.
The maximal number of supersymmetry generators possible is 32. Theories with more than 32 supersymmetry generators automatically have massless fields with spin greater than 2. It is not known how to make massless fields with spin greater than two interact, so the maximal number of supersymmetry generators considered is 32. This is due to the Weinberg–Witten theorem. This corresponds to an N = 8 supersymmetry theory. Theories with 32 supersymmetries automatically have a graviton.
For four dimensions there are the following theories, with the corresponding multiplets (CPT adds a copy, whenever they are not invariant under such symmetry):
{|class="wikitable"
!rowspan=4|N = 1
|Chiral multiplet||style="border-right:none"|(0,||style="border-left:none" colspan=8|)
|-
|Vector multiplet||style="border-right:none"|(,||style="border-left:none" colspan=8|1)
|-
|Gravitino multiplet||style="border-right:none"|(1,||style="border-left:none" colspan=8|)
|-
|Graviton multiplet||style="border-right:none"|(,||style="border-left:none" colspan=8|2)
|-
!rowspan=3|N = 2
|Hypermultiplet||style="border-right:none"|(−,||style="border-left:none;border-right:none"|0,||style="border-left:none" colspan=7|)
|-
|Vector multiplet||style="border-right:none"|(0,||style="border-left:none;border-right:none"| ,||style="border-left:none" colspan=7|1)
|-
|Supergravity multiplet||style="border-right:none"|(1,||style="border-left:none;border-right:none"| ,||style="border-left:none" colspan=7|2)
|-
!rowspan=2|N = 4
|Vector multiplet||style="border-right:none"|(−1,||style="border-left:none;border-right:none"|− ,||style="border-left:none;border-right:none"|0,||style="border-left:none;border-right:none"| ,||style="border-left:none" colspan=5|1)
|-
|Supergravity multiplet||style="border-right:none"|(0,||style="border-left:none;border-right:none"| ,||style="border-left:none;border-right:none"|1,||style="border-left:none;border-right:none"| ,||style="border-left:none" colspan=5|2)
|-
!N = 8
|Supergravity multiplet||style="border-right:none"|(−2,||style="border-left:none;border-right:none"|− ,||style="border-left:none;border-right:none"|−1,||style="border-left:none;border-right:none"|− ,||style="border-left:none;border-right:none"|0,||style="border-left:none;border-right:none"| ,||style="border-left:none;border-right:none"|1,||style="border-left:none;border-right:none"| ,||style="border-left:none"|2)
|}
Supersymmetry in alternate numbers of dimensions
It is possible to have supersymmetry in dimensions other than four. Because the properties of spinors change drastically between different dimensions, each dimension has its characteristic. In d dimensions, the size of spinors is approximately 2d/2 or 2(d − 1)/2. Since the maximum number of supersymmetries is 32, the greatest number of dimensions in which a supersymmetric theory can exist is eleven.
Fractional supersymmetry
Fractional supersymmetry is a generalization of the notion of supersymmetry in which the minimal positive amount of spin does not have to be but can be an arbitrary for integer value of N. Such a generalization is possible in two or fewer spacetime dimensions.
See also
Anyon
Next-to-Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model
Quantum group
Split supersymmetry
Supercharge
Superfield
Supergeometry
Supergravity
Supergroup
Superpartner
Superspace
Supersplit supersymmetry
Supersymmetric gauge theory
Supersymmetry nonrenormalization theorems
Wess–Zumino model
References
Further reading
Supersymmetry and Supergravity page in String Theory Wiki lists more books and reviews.
Theoretical introductions, free and online
An Introduction to Global Supersymmetry by Philip Arygres, 2001
Monographs
Weak Scale Supersymmetry by Howard Baer and Xerxes Tata, 2006.
(arXiv:hep-th/9405029).
.
Kane, Gordon L., Supersymmetry: Unveiling the Ultimate Laws of Nature, Basic Books, New York (2001). .
Drees, Manuel, Godbole, Rohini, and Roy, Probir, Theory & Phenomenology of Sparticles, World Scientific, Singapore (2005), .
Kane, Gordon L., and Shifman, M., eds. The Supersymmetric World: The Beginnings of the Theory, World Scientific, Singapore (2000). .
Müller-Kirsten, Harald J. W., and Wiedemann, Armin, Introduction to Supersymmetry, 2nd ed., World Scientific, Singapore (2010). .
Weinberg, Steven, The Quantum Theory of Fields, Volume 3: Supersymmetry, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, (1999). .
Wess, Julius, and Jonathan Bagger, Supersymmetry and Supergravity, Princeton University Press, Princeton, (1992). .
Nath, Pran, Supersymmetry, Supergravity and Unification, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, (2016), .
On experiments
Brookhaven National Laboratory (Jan 8, 2004). New g−2 measurement deviates further from Standard Model. Press Release.
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Sept 25, 2006). Fermilab's CDF scientists have discovered the quick-change behavior of the B-sub-s meson. Press Release.
External links
What do current LHC results (mid-August 2011) imply about supersymmetry? Matt Strassler
ATLAS Experiment Supersymmetry search documents
CMS Experiment Supersymmetry search documents
"Particle wobble shakes up supersymmetry", Cosmos magazine, September 2006
LHC results put supersymmetry theory 'on the spot' BBC news 27/8/2011
SUSY running out of hiding places BBC news 12/11/2012
Theoretical physics
Concepts in physics
Quantum field theory
Physics beyond the Standard Model | [
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224637 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice%20Hockey%20World%20Championships | Ice Hockey World Championships | The Ice Hockey World Championships are an annual international men's ice hockey tournament organized by the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF). First officially held at the 1920 Summer Olympics, it is the sport's highest profile annual international tournament.
The IIHF was created in 1908 while the European Championships, the precursor to the World Championships, were first held in 1910. The tournament held at the 1920 Summer Olympics is recognized as the first Ice Hockey World Championship. From 1920 to 1968, the Olympic hockey tournament was also considered the World Championship for that year.
The first World Championship that was held as an individual event was in 1930 in which twelve nations participated. In 1931, ten teams played a series of round-robin format qualifying rounds to determine which nations participated in the medal round. Medals were awarded based on the final standings of the teams in the medal round. In 1951, thirteen nations took part and were split into two groups. The top seven teams (Pool A) played for the World Championship. The other six (Pool B) played for ranking purposes. This basic format would be used until 1992 (although small variations were made). During a congress in 1990, the IIHF introduced a playoff system. As the IIHF grew, more teams began to participate at the World Championships, so more pools (later renamed divisions) were introduced.
The modern format for the World Championship features 16 teams in the championship group, 12 teams in Division I and 12 teams in Division II. If there are more than 40 teams, the rest compete in Division III. The teams in the championship play a preliminary round, then the top eight teams play in the playoff medal round and the winning team is crowned World Champion. Over the years, the tournament has gone through several rule changes. In 1969 body-checking in all three zones in a rink was allowed, helmets and goaltender masks became mandatory in the early 1970s and in 1992 the IIHF began using the shootout. The current IIHF rules differ slightly from the rules used in the NHL. From the 1920 Olympics until the 1976 World Championships, only athletes designated as "amateur" were allowed to compete in the tournament. Because of this, players from the National Hockey League and its senior minor-league teams were not allowed to compete, while the Soviet Union was allowed to use permanent full-time players who were positioned as regular workers of an aircraft industry or tractor industry employer that sponsored what would be presented as an after-hours amateur social sports society team for their workers. In 1970, after an agreement to allow just a small number of its professionals to participate was rescinded by the IIHF, Canada withdrew from the tournament. Starting in 1977, professional athletes were allowed to compete in the tournament and Canada re-entered. The IIHF requires that players are citizens of the country they represent and allow players to switch national teams provided that they play in their new nation for a certain period of time.
Canada was the tournament's first dominant team, winning the tournament 12 times from 1930 to 1952. The United States, Czechoslovakia, Sweden, Great Britain and Switzerland were also competitive during this period. The Soviet Union first participated in 1954 and soon became rivals with Canada. From 1963 until the nation's breakup in 1991, the Soviet Union was the dominant team, winning 20 championships out of 26. During that period, only three other nations won medals: Canada, Czechoslovakia and Sweden. Russia first participated in 1992 and the Czech Republic and Slovakia began competing in 1993. In the 2000s, the competition became more open as the "Big Six" teams – Canada, the Czech Republic, Finland, Russia, Sweden, and the United States – as well as Slovakia and Switzerland have become more evenly matched.
As this tournament takes place during the same period as the later stages of the NHL's Stanley Cup playoffs, many of that league's top players are not available to participate for their national teams or have only become available after their NHL teams have been eliminated, after playing 90+ games. North American teams, and especially the United States, have been criticized for not taking this tournament seriously. For example, USA Hockey often sent teams made up of younger NHL players alongside college players, not using top level stars even when they are available.
The 2015 World Championship, held in Prague and Ostrava, Czech Republic, was the most successful to date in terms of overall attendance; it was visited by 741,690 people and average attendance was at 11,589.
Background
The International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF), the sport's governing body, was created on 15 May 1908 under the name Ligue Internationale de Hockey sur Glace (LHG). In 1908, organized ice hockey was still relatively new; the first organized indoor ice hockey game took place on 3 March 1875 at Montreal's Victoria Skating Rink. In 1887, four clubs from Montreal formed the Amateur Hockey Association of Canada (AHAC) and developed a structured schedule. Lord Stanley donated the Stanley Cup and the trustees decided to award it to either the best team in the AHAC, or to any pre-approved team that won it in a challenge. The Eastern Canada Amateur Hockey Association (ECAHA) was formed in 1905, which mixed paid and amateur players in its rosters. The ECAHA eventually folded and as a result of the dissolution, the National Hockey Association (NHA) formed.
The Ice Hockey European Championships, first held in Les Avants, Switzerland in January 1910, were the precursor to the World Championships. It was the first official tournament meant for national teams, the participating nations were Great Britain, Germany, Belgium and Switzerland. In North America, professional hockey was continuing to grow, the National Hockey League (NHL), the largest professional hockey league in the world, was formed in 1917. The European Championships were held for five consecutive years but were not held from 1915 to 1920 due to World War I.
History
1920–1928: Olympic Games
The IIHF considers the ice hockey tournament held at the 1920 Summer Olympics to be the first Ice Hockey World Championship. It was organized by a committee that included future IIHF president Paul Loicq. The tournament was played from 23 to 29 April. Seven teams participated: Canada, Czechoslovakia, the United States, Switzerland, Sweden, France and Belgium. Canada, represented by the Winnipeg Falcons, won the gold medal, outscoring opponents 27–1. The United States and Czechoslovakia won the silver and bronze medals respectively. Following the 1921 Olympic Congress in Lausanne, the first Winter Olympics were held in 1924 in Chamonix, France, though they were only officially recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) as such in the following year.
Subsequently, every Olympic tournament up to and including the 1968 Winter Olympics is counted as the World Championship. Canada won the gold medal at both the 1924 and 1928 Winter Olympics. In 1928, the Swedish and Swiss teams won their first medals–silver and bronze, respectively–and a German team participated for the first time, finishing ninth.
1930–1953: Canadian dominance
The first World Championship that was held as an individual event was in 1930. It was held in Chamonix, France; Vienna, Austria; and Berlin, Germany. Canada, represented by the Toronto CCMs, defeated Germany in the gold medal game, and Switzerland won the bronze. Canada, represented by the Manitoba Grads, won the following year, and the Winnipeg Winnipegs won Gold for Canada at the 1932 Winter Olympics. At the 1933 World Championships in Prague, Czechoslovakia, the United States won the gold medal, becoming the first non-Canadian team to win the competition. As of 2021, it is the only gold medal the United States has won at a non-Olympic tournament.
Two days before the 1936 Winter Olympics in Germany, Canadian officials protested that two players on the British team—James Foster and Alex Archer—had played in Canada but transferred without permission to play for clubs in the English National League. The IIHF agreed with Canada, but Britain threatened to withdraw if the two could not compete. Canada withdrew the protest before the games started. Britain became the first non-Canadian team to win Olympic gold, with the United States taking bronze. Canada won the remainder of the World Championship tournaments held in the 1930s. The 1939 World Championships marked the first time that a team from Finland competed in the tournament. World War II forced the cancellation of the 1940 and 1944 Winter Olympics and the World Championships from 1941 to 1946.
Following World War II, Czechoslovakia's team was quickly improving. They won the 1947 World Championships, although a Canadian team had not participated in the event. In 1949, they became the third nation to win a World Championship tournament that Canada participated in. During the run-up to the 1948 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland, a conflict broke out with the two American hockey bodies: the American Hockey Association (AHA, a forerunner to USA Hockey) and the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU). The AAU refused to support the AHA's team because they believed that AHA players were "openly paid salaries" and at the time, the Olympics were strictly for amateur players. A compromise was reached that the AHA team would be allowed to compete but would be considered unofficial and unable to win a medal. By the end of the tournament, the AHA team finished fourth in the standings. Both Czechoslovakia and the RCAF Flyers of Canada won seven games and tied when they played each other. The gold medal winner was determined by goal average: Canada won the gold because they had an average of 13.8 compared to Czechoslovakia's average of 4.3.
At the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo, Norway, the Edmonton Mercurys won Canada's second consecutive Olympic gold medal and their 15th World Championship in 19 competitions. It was the last time that a Canadian team would win an Olympic gold medal in hockey for 50 years. At the 1953 tournament, reigning champion Canada did not attend, while the team from Czechoslovakia withdrew because of the death of the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, leaving only Sweden, West Germany, and Switzerland competing in the top division. Sweden finished the tournament undefeated and won their first World Championship.
1954–1962: Canada-Soviet Union rivalry
The 1954 World Championships has been described by the IIHF as "the start of the modern era of international hockey." The tournament saw the first participation of the Soviet Union in international competition. The Soviet Union had organized its first ice hockey league in 1946, having previously focused on bandy. Led by coach Arkady Chernyshev, the Soviet national team finished their first six games undefeated. Canada, represented by the East York Lyndhursts, was also undefeated and, in the final game of the tournament, the two teams met for the first time in international competition. The Soviet Union won the game 7–2, becoming the fifth team to win a World Championship tournament. The 1955 World Championship was held in West Germany, and the two teams again met in the final game of the tournament. The game was so high profile in Canada that announcer Foster Hewitt flew to West Germany to provide play-by-play coverage. Both teams were undefeated and Canada, represented by the Penticton Vees, defeated the Soviets 5–0 to reclaim the World Championship. At the 1956 Winter Olympics in Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy, Canada's Kitchener-Waterloo Dutchmen lost to both the Soviets and the United States in the medal round and won the bronze. The Soviets went undefeated and won their first Olympic ice hockey gold medal. It would be seven years until the Soviet Union won another World Championship.
The 1957 World Championships were held in Moscow. Canada and the United States did not participate in protest of the Soviet occupation of Hungary. Most of the games were held in the Luzhniki Sports Palace, but the Soviet officials decided to hold the final game in a nearby outdoor soccer stadium. The game was attended by at least 55,000 people, which stood as a World Championship attendance record until 2010. In the final game, Sweden edged the Soviet Union to finish with six wins and one tie (the Soviet Union had five wins and two ties) and won the gold medal. Canada returned to the World Championship in 1958 and won two consecutive titles, with the Soviets winning silver both times. At the 1960 Winter Olympics in Squaw Valley, California, Canada, the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia and Sweden were the top four teams heading into the Games. All four were defeated by the American team, which won all seven games en route to its first Olympic gold medal.
In 1961, Czechoslovakia defeated the Soviet Union and tied Canada to make it a three-way race for gold. In the final game, Canada defeated the Soviets 5–1 to win their nineteenth gold medal. The Trail Smoke Eaters became the final club team to represent Canada. The following year, Canada implemented a national team program, led by Father David Bauer. Canada would not win another world championship gold until 1994. In 1962, the World Championships were held in North America for the first time. The tournament was held in Denver, United States, and was boycotted by the Soviet and Czechoslovak teams. Sweden defeated Canada for the first time in the history of the competition and won their third gold medal.
1963–1976: Soviet dominance
At the 1963 World Championships in Stockholm, the Soviet Union won the gold medal, beginning a streak of nine consecutive World Championship golds. The 1964 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck, Austria marked the first time that Canada failed to win an Olympic medal in hockey. The Soviet Union won all seven of their games and the gold medal, but Canada finished the tournament with five wins and two losses, putting them in a three-way tie for second place with Sweden and Czechoslovakia. Prior to 1964, the tie-breaking procedure was based on goal difference from games against teams in the medal round and under that system, Canada would have placed third ahead of the Czechoslovaks. The procedure had been changed to count all games and that meant the Canadians finished fourth. However, the Olympics also counted as the World Championships, and under IIHF rules, Canada should have won a World Championship bronze. In April 2005, the IIHF admitted that a mistake had occurred and announced that they had reviewed the decision and would award the 1964 Canadian team a World Championship bronze medal. However, two months later, the IIHF over-turned their decision and rejected an appeal in September.
The Soviets dominated the remainder of the decade. Following 1963, the team went undefeated in Olympic and World Championship competition for four years. Their streak was broken by Czechoslovakia at the 1968 Winter Olympics. Despite the loss, the Soviets still won gold. It was the last time that the Olympics were also counted as the World Championships. In 1969, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia played "the most emotionally charged games in the history of international hockey." The rights to host the tournament had originally been awarded to Czechoslovakia but they were forced to decline the rights following the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact invasion of the nation in August 1968. The tournament was held in Stockholm, Sweden, and with these international tensions, the Czechoslovak team was determined to defeat the Soviets. They won both of their games 2–0 and 4–3 but despite these wins, the Czechoslovaks lost both of their games to Sweden and won bronze.
With European teams using their best players who are de facto professionals, the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA) felt their amateur players could no longer be competitive and pushed for the ability to use players from professional leagues. At the IIHF Congress in 1969, the IIHF voted to allow Canada to use nine non-NHL professional players at the 1970 World Championships. The rights to host the tournament were awarded to Canada for the first time–in Montreal and Winnipeg. However, the decision to allow the use of professionals was reversed in January 1970. IOC president Avery Brundage was opposed to the idea of amateur and professional players competing together and said that ice hockey's status as an Olympic sport would be in jeopardy if the change was made. In response, Canada withdrew from International ice hockey competition. Canada's ice hockey team did not participate in the 1972 and 1976 Winter Olympics. Canada also waived their rights to host the 1970 World Championship, so it was held in Stockholm, Sweden instead.
Led by goaltender Vladislav Tretiak and forwards Valeri Kharlamov, Alexander Yakushev, Vladimir Petrov and Boris Mikhailov, the Soviet Union won gold at the 1970 and 1971 World Championships and the 1972 Winter Olympics. 1972 marked the first time that both the Olympics and World Championships were held in the same year as separate events. At the World Championships in Prague, the Czechoslovak team ended the Soviet team's streak and won their first gold since 1949. The Soviet team quickly returned to their winning ways, winning 1973 and 1974 World Championships. However, during the latter tournament, the Czechoslovak team defeated the Soviets 7–2. It was one of the biggest margins the Soviet team had ever lost by in an official game. The 1976 World Championships were held in Katowice, Poland. On the opening day of the tournament, Poland defeated the Soviet Union 6–4 thanks to a hat-trick from forward Wieslaw Jobczyk and the goaltending of Andrzej Tkacz. It was one of the biggest upsets in international hockey history; two months earlier at the 1976 Winter Olympics, Poland had lost 16–1 to the Soviets. The Soviets lost two more games and won the silver, and Czechoslovakia won gold. Poland finished seventh and was relegated to Pool B, the division in which teams play for ranking purposes and not the championship (now known as Division I).
1976–1987: First years of open competition
Günther Sabetzki became president of the IIHF in 1975 and helped to resolve the dispute with the CAHA. The IIHF agreed to allow "open competition" of all players in the World Championships, and moved the competition to later in the season so players not involved in the NHL playoffs could participate. However, NHL players were still not allowed to play in the Olympics, because of both the unwillingness of the NHL to take a break mid-season and the IOC's strict amateur-only policy. The IIHF also agreed to endorse the Canada Cup, a competition meant to bring together the best players from the top hockey-playing countries.
The 1976 World Ice Hockey Championships in Katowice were the first to feature professionals although in the end only the United States made use of the new rule, recalling eight pros from the Minnesota North Stars and Minnesota Fighting Saints. The first fully open World Championship was held in 1977 in Vienna, Austria, and saw the first participation of active Canadian NHL players, including two-time NHL MVP Phil Esposito. Sweden and Finland also augmented their rosters with a few NHL and WHA players. Many of the players on the Canadian team were not prepared for the tournament and were unfamiliar with the international game. The team finished fourth, losing both games to the Soviet Union by a combined score of 19–2. Czechoslovakia won gold, becoming the third team (after Canada and the Soviet Union) to win consecutive championships.
As a result of these events, full world championship status was given to the IIHF World Under-20 Championship, which had been held annually since 1974 as an unofficial invitational tournament. Colloquially known as the World Junior Hockey Championship, the event was structured after the World Championships, but limited to players under the age of 20. The World Under-18 Championship was established in 1999 and typically held in April. It usually does not involve some of the top North American-based players because they are involved in junior league playoffs at the time.
Starting in 1978, the Soviet team won five consecutive World Championships, and had an unbeaten streak that
lasted from 1981 through the 1984 Winter Olympics and until 1985. During that period, Canada remained competitive, winning three bronze medals. World Championship tournaments were
not held in 1980, 1984 or 1988–the Olympic years.
The 1987 World Championships in Vienna were over-shadowed by several controversies. At the beginning of the tournament, the roster of the West German team included Miroslav Sikora, a Polish-German forward who had previously played for Poland at the 1977 World Under-20 Championship. Sikora became a naturalized citizen of West Germany and played in the first three games, scoring a goal in a 3–1 win over Finland. Following the game, Finland launched a protest, demanding that the result be over-turned because the West Germans had used an
ineligible player. At the time, players were not allowed to switch nationalities under any circumstances and the IIHF agreed to overturn the result and award the two points to Finland. This angered West German officials, who filed a protest in an Austrian court. The court agreed with the West Germans, overturning the IIHF decision and allowing them to keep their points. The result affected the final standings because had the IIHF's decision stood, Finland would have advanced to the medal round instead of Sweden. However, the Finns finished out of the medal round, and Sweden won their first gold medal since 1962. The tournament format also became controversial because the Soviet Union finished undefeated in the preliminary round but the Swedish team, which had lost three games in the preliminary round, won on goal differential because of a 9–0 win over Canada in the medal round.
1989–1992: Fall of the Iron Curtain
Before 1989, players that lived in the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, and other nations behind the Iron Curtain were not allowed to leave and play in the NHL. In March 1989, Sergei Pryakhin became the first member of the Soviet national team who was permitted to play for a non-Soviet team. Several Soviet players, including Igor Larionov and Viacheslav Fetisov, wanted to leave and play in the NHL. Soviet officials agreed to allow players to leave if they played one final tournament with the national team. Players agreed to this, and the Soviet Union won its 21st World Championship. Shortly after, Soviet players began to flood into the NHL. Many of the Soviet Union's top players left, including the entire "Green Unit"–Larionov, Fetisov, Vladimir Krutov, Sergei Makarov and Alexei Kasatonov. The following year, the Soviet team won their final title at the 1990 World Championships. In 1991, Swedish forward Mats Sundin–the first European player to be drafted first overall in the NHL–led his team to the gold medal. The Soviets won bronze–the last medal the team would ever win.
The Soviet Union dissolved in December 1991. Nine former Soviet republics became part of the IIHF and began competing in international competitions, including Belarus, Kazakhstan, Latvia (which returned after a 52-year-long absence due to being part of the Soviet Union) and Ukraine. Russia was named the successor to the Soviet Union. With this flood of new teams, the IIHF expanded the number of spots from eight to twelve. From 1963 to 1991, only four teams won a World Championship medal: the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia (failing to win a medal only three times), Sweden and Canada. The Soviets won a medal in every tournament they participated in (1954 to 1991). At the 1992 World Championships, Sweden won their second consecutive gold. Finland won the silver medal, the nation's first ever World Championship medal (the Finnish team had previously won a silver at the 1988 Winter Olympics).
1993–present
Czechoslovakia split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in January 1993. The IIHF recognized the Czech Republic's team as the successor to Czechoslovakia and it retained its position in the top division. Slovakia's team began in the lowest division (Pool C) in 1994 and was forced to work its way up. Following this, the next decade was dominated by the so-called "Big Six"–Canada, the Czech Republic, Finland, Russia, Sweden and the United States. From 1992 to 1996, five different teams won the World Championship. At the 1993 World Championships, Russia won its first title as an independent nation and the Czech Republic won its first medal (bronze). In 1994, the Canadian team finished the preliminary round undefeated and defeated Finland in the final to win their first World Championship since 1961. The following year in Sweden, the Finnish team won its first ever World Championship. Led by their top line of Saku Koivu, Ville Peltonen and Jere Lehtinen, the Finns defeated rival Sweden in the gold medal game. At the 1995 Pool B championships, Slovakia, led by Peter Šťastný won Pool B and was promoted to the top division, where it has remained ever since. In 1996, the Czech Republic won its first World Championship as a separate country. During this period, the United States was the only one of the "Big Six" not to win the World Championship, although they did win the 1996 World Cup of Hockey and their bronze at that year's World Championship was their first medal since 1962.
In the mid-1990s, several new teams such as Slovakia, Latvia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine were quickly improving and older nations such as Austria, France, Italy, Norway and Switzerland were at risk of being relegated to Pool B. The IIHF feared that it would lose advertising revenue if that happened, so the number of teams was increased to 16 starting in 1998.
From 1996 to 2001, the Czech Republic won six consecutive World Championship medals, including World Championship gold from 1999 to 2001, as well as gold at the 1998 Winter Olympics. In 2002, the Czechs were favoured to win, but were upset in the quarter final by Russia. In the gold medal game between Russia and Slovakia, Slovakian Peter Bondra scored in the final two minutes of the game and the nation won its first ever World Championship. At the 2003 World Championships, Sweden made one of the biggest comebacks in tournament history, rallying from a 5–1 deficit in their quarterfinal game against Finland to win 6–5. The gold medal game between Canada and Sweden went into overtime. Canada's Anson Carter scored the winning goal 13 minutes into play, but the goal had to be reviewed for ten minutes to determine if the puck had crossed the line. In a rematch of the two nations the following year, Canada won and repeated as champions.
The 2004–05 NHL season was locked out, and eventually cancelled, because of a labour dispute between the league and the players. The 2005 World Championships, which featured more top players than normal, was won by the Czech Republic. At the 2006 Winter Olympics, Sweden won the gold medal over Finland. Three months later, Sweden defeated the Czech Republic and won the 2006 World Championships. They became the first team to win Olympic gold and a separate World Championship tournament in the same year. At the 2007 World Championship in Moscow, Canada defeated Finland to win the gold medal. The following year, the tournament was held in Canada for the first time. Russia defeated the home team to win their first gold medal since 1993. The Russian team successfully defended their title with a 2–1 win over Canada in 2009.
In 2009, NHL Players' Association director Paul Kelly suggested that the World Championships be held every other year and that the NHL go on break to allow full player participation. IIHF president René Fasel responded that the tournament has television contracts and hosting commitments and that a large change would be difficult to put in place.
The 2010 tournament took place in Germany. The first game, between Germany and the United States, was played at Veltins-Arena in Gelsenkirchen and was attended by 77,803 people, setting a new record for the most attended game in hockey history. The tournament was noted for having several surprising preliminary round results, including: Switzerland beating Canada for the first time in World Championship play; Norway defeating eventual champions the Czech Republic; and Denmark upsetting Finland and the United States en route to their first ever quarterfinal appearance. The German team, which had finished 15th in 2009 and only avoided relegation to Division I because they were set to host the 2010 tournament, advanced to the semi-finals for the first time since the new playoff format was adapted. They finished fourth, losing to Sweden in the bronze medal game. In the gold medal game, the Czech Republic defeated the Russian team, winning gold.
The 2011 tournament was held in independent Slovakia for the first time. Finland won its second world championship with a 6–1 victory over Sweden. The Czech Republic won the bronze medal over Russia.
The 2012 tournament was held in Sweden and Finland. Russia beat Slovakia in the final, while the Czech Republic beat Finland in the bronze medal game.
In 2013, Switzerland finished the preliminary round undefeated before losing the gold medal game 5–1 to co-hosts Sweden. Switzerland's silver medal was the first for the nation since 1953. Sweden's gold made them the first team to win the tournament at home since the Soviet Union in 1986.
The 2014 tournament was held for the first time in independent Belarus in spite of concerns of the human rights abuses perpetrated by the authoritarian government. The tournament saw more upsets by the less prominent ice-hockey nations. France had beaten Canada for the second time in the modern history and made it to the quarterfinals. Eventual finalist Finland lost to Latvia and made it to the quarterfinals only due to a shootout win over Switzerland. The tournament was won by Russia (which had a stacked NHL squad compared to other teams who sent in younger players after the 2014 Winter Olympics), Finland won silver and Sweden won bronze defeating the Czech Republic.
The 2015 tournament was held in Prague and Ostrava, it was the most attended championship in history. It was to be the last appearance of Jaromír Jágr on the Czech national hockey team, and the home crowd had great expectations for its national team, who had failed to win a gold medal since 2010, matching its longest run without a win since the break-up of Czechoslovakia. However, the tournament was dominated by an excellent Canadian team, which went undefeated and beat Russia 6–1 in the gold medal match. Its captain, Sidney Crosby joined the Triple Gold Club, becoming the first player to achieve that honour as captain of each winning team. The bronze was won by the United States, leaving the Czechs with a second consecutive fourth place.
2016 tournament was won by Canada who defeated Finland in the final.
2017 tournament was won by Sweden who defeated two-time defending champions Canada 2–1 in a shootout.
2018 tournament was won by Sweden again, after a shootout win against Switzerland in the finals.
2019 tournament was won by Finland, after defeating Canada 3–1 in the final.
2020 tournament was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
2021 tournament was won by Canada, after defeating Finland in overtime 3–2.
Tournament structure
History
The first World Championship to be held as an individual event was in 1930. Twelve different nations participated. Canada's team was given a bye to the gold medal game, and the rest of the nations played an elimination tournament to determine which nation would also play for the gold.
In 1931, the World Championships switched to a similar format to what was used at the Olympics. Ten teams played series of round-robin format qualifying rounds were played to determine which nations participated in the medal round. Medals were awarded based on the final standings of the teams in the medal round. The format was changed several times in the 1930s, in some years there was a gold medal game, while in others the gold medal was awarded based on points.
In 1937, the tournament format was again switched to being similar to the version used at the Olympics. A preliminary round involving 11 teams was played, then the top four advanced to the medal round and medals were awarded based on points; no gold medal game was played. A gold medal game was played in 1938; it was the last gold medal game played in the World Championships until 1992.
In 1951, thirteen nations took part and were split into two groups. The top seven teams (Pool A) played for the World Championship. The other six (Pool B) played for ranking purposes. Generally eight teams played in the top-level Championship, although the number varied over the years, going as low as three (in 1953) and as high as twelve (in 1959). The same format was used until 1992. The format was criticized because often the gold medal winner was decided before the final game was played, such as at the 1988 Winter Olympics.
During a congress in 1990, the IIHF introduced a playoff system.
As the IIHF grew, more teams began to participate at the World Championships, so more pools were introduced. Pool C games were first played in 1961 and Pool D was introduced in 1987. In 2001, the pools were renamed: Pool B became Division I, Pool C became Division II and Pool D became Division III.
Modern Champion Group, Division I, II and III format
The modern format for the World Championship features a minimum of 40 teams: 16 teams in the main championship group, 12 teams in Division I and 12 teams in Division II. If there are more than 40 teams, the rest compete in Division III.
From 1998 to 2011, the teams were divided into four groups and played each other in a round robin format preliminary round, and the top 3 teams in each group advance into the qualifying round. The qualifying round is another round of group play with two groups of six, with the top four teams in each group advancing into the knockout playoff stage. The bottom four teams in the preliminary round played in another group as well; this group determined relegation. After a round-robin format, the bottom two teams were usually relegated to play in Division I the following year.
From 1998 and 2004, the IIHF held a "Far East" qualifying tournament for Asian teams with an automatic berth in the championship division on the line. Japan always won this tournament, but finished last at every World Championship except in 2004, when they finished 15th. The IIHF discontinued the qualifying tournament following the 2004 tournament, and Japan was relegated to compete in Division I.
Champion group format from 2012
The main group features 16 teams. The 16 teams are split into two groups based on their world ranking. The ranking is based on the standings of the last Winter Olympics and the last four World Championships. The results of more recent tournaments have a higher weight in the ranking. The last World Championship has 100% value, the tournament before 75% and so on. The Olympic tournament has the same value as the World Championship the same year.
Beginning with the 2012 tournament, the qualifying round was eliminated, and the 16 teams divided into two groups of eight, with each team playing seven games in the preliminary round.
The top four teams from these groups advanced to the knockout playoff stage. In the quarterfinals, the first place team from one group played the fourth place team from the opposite group, and the second place team from one group played the third place team from the opposite group. The winners advanced to the semi-finals. In cases where the quarter-final venues were deemed too far apart to allow easy travel between them, the teams stayed within their groups for the quarters. The winners of the quarter-finals advanced to the semi-finals, with the winners of the semi-finals advancing to the gold medal game and the losers advancing to the bronze medal game.
Also starting in 2012, the relegation round was eliminated. Instead, the eighth-place team in each group was relegated to Division I.
Division I, II and III formats from 2012
Division I is split into two groups of six, both groups play in round robin tournaments independent of each other and the championship division. Previously the top team from both groups was promoted to the championship, while the bottom team was relegated to Division II. Beginning in 2012, the top two teams from the 'A' group were promoted to the championship, the bottom team was exchanged with the group 'B' winner, and that group's last place team was sent to Division II.
Division II works similarly to Division I, with two six-team groups where group 'A' promotes one team to Division I and group 'B' exchanges its last placed team with Division III. Division III is now composed of one group of six, and if more than six nations register for this, the lowest level, then a qualification tournament will be held.
Division IV from 2020
The IIHF introduced Division IV, in the 2020 tournament.
Rules
Game rules
At the first tournament in 1920, there were many differences from the modern game: games were played outdoors on natural ice, forward passes were not allowed, the rink was 56x18 metres (the current International standard is 61x30 metres) and two twenty-minute periods were played. Each side had seven players on the ice, the extra position being the rover. Following the tournament, the IIHF held a congress and decided to adopt the "Canadian rules"–six men per side and three periods of play.
At an IIHF congress in 1969, officials voted to allow body-checking in all three zones in a rink similar to the NHL. Prior to that, body-checking was only allowed in the defending zone in international hockey. The IIHF later described the rule change as "arguably the most substantial and dramatic rule changes in the history of international hockey" because it allowed for a more aggressive game. The rule, which was first applied at the 1970 World Championships, was controversial: IIHF president Bunny Ahearne feared it would make ice hockey "a sport for goons." Several other rule changes were implemented in the early 1970s: players were required to wear helmets starting in 1970 and goaltender masks became mandatory in 1972. In 1992, the IIHF switched to using a playoff system to determine medalists and decided that tie games in the medal round would be decided in a shootout. The IIHF decided to test a new rule in 1997 that would allow two-line passes. Prior to that, the neutral zone trap had slowed the game down and reduced scoring. At the 1997 World Championships, teams were allowed to decide if they wanted to test the rule. Although no team accepted the offer, the rule was adopted. The IIHF described it as "the most revolutionary rule change since allowing body-checking in all three zones in 1969. [...] The new rule almost immediately changed the game for the better. The 1999 IIHF World Championship in Norway was a stark contrast to the finals the year before with many more goals scored and with end-to-end action – not defence – dominating play."
The current IIHF rules differ slightly from the rules used in the NHL. One difference between NHL and IIHF rules is rink dimensions: the NHL rink is narrower, measuring 61x26 metres (200x85 feet), instead of the international size of 61x30.5metres (200x100feet). Another rule difference between the NHL and the IIHF rules concerns how icings are called. As of the 2013–14 regular NHL season, a linesman stops play due to icing using the hybrid icing method, instead of the former method, where a defending player (other than the goaltender) touched the puck before an attacking player was able to, in contrast to the IIHF rules that use "no-touch" icing, where play is stopped the moment the puck crosses the goal line. The NHL and IIHF differ also in penalty rules. The NHL, in addition to the minor and double minor penalties called in IIHF games, calls major penalties which are more dangerous infractions of the rules, such as fighting, and have a duration of five minutes. This is in contrast to the IIHF rule, in which players who fight are ejected from the game.
Since the 2005–06 season, the NHL instituted several new rules. Some of them were already used by the IIHF, such as the shootout and making the two-line pass legal. Others which were not picked up by the IIHF, such as requiring smaller goaltender equipment and the addition of the goaltender trapezoid to the rink. However, the IIHF did agree to follow the NHL's league's zero-tolerance policy on obstruction and required referees to call more hooking, holding and interference penalties. In 2006, the IIHF voted to eliminate tie games and institute a three-point system: wins in regulation time would be worth three points, overtime wins would be two points and over-time losses would be worth one point. The system was first used at the 2007 World Championships.
Since 2019, the World Championships banned the shootout for the Gold Medal Game. Multiple 20-minute golden goal overtime periods of 3-on-3 are played until whoever scores, which wins the game.
Player eligibility
The World Championships have been open to all players, both professional and amateur, since 1977. The IIHF lists the following requirements for a player to be eligible to play:
"Each player must be under the jurisdiction of an IIHF member national association."
"Each player must be a citizen of the country he represents."
Each player must be at least 18 years of age on the day the respective championship starts, or be at least 16 and obtain an under age waiver
If a player who has never played in an IIHF competition changes their citizenship, they must participate in national competitions in their new country for at least two consecutive years and have an international transfer card (ITC). If a player who has previously played in an IIHF tournament wishes to change their national team, they must have played in their new country for four years. A player can only do this once.
As this tournament takes place during the same time period as the NHL's Stanley Cup playoffs, NHL players generally only become available if their respective NHL team missed the playoffs, or once they have been eliminated from Stanley Cup contention. It is therefore common for several NHL players to join the World Championships while the tournament is already in progress.
Divisions
As of 2020, the IIHF World Championships are split up into five different divisions. This is the alignment of the divisions, accurate as of the 2018 IIHF World Ranking. Teams that are not ranked are not included here, for a full list of IIHF members, see List of members of the International Ice Hockey Federation.
Keys:
Promoted
Never been promoted/relegated (began in that division/group)
Relegated
E.G. ; 1953 – this means that the team was relegated to that division for the 1953 competition, and have been there ever since.
Championship
The Championship division comprises the top sixteen hockey nations in the world. The 83rd championship was held from 10 to 26 May 2019, in Bratislava and Košice, Slovakia.
Teams for the 2022 IIHF World Championship are:
Table updated 28/02/22
A. The IIHF recognizes Bohemia, which joined in 1908, and Czechoslovakia as the predecessors to the Czech Republic, which officially became a member in 1993.
B. The IIHF recognizes the Soviet Union, which joined in 1952, as the predecessor to Russia, which officially became a member in 1992.
C. On 28 February 2022, IIHF decided to expel Russia and Belarus from the tournament due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
Division I
Division I comprises twelve teams. Group A teams compete for promotion to the Elite Division with the loser being relegated to Division I Group B. Group B teams compete for promotion to Division I Group A while the loser is relegated to Division II Group A. In 2018, Group A games were played in Budapest, Hungary, and Group B games were played in Kaunas, Lithuania from 22 to 28 April.
Table updated 20/05/19
Division II
Division II comprises twelve teams. Group A teams compete for promotion to Division I Group B with the loser being relegated to Division II Group B. Group B teams compete for promotion to Division II Group A while the loser is relegated to Division III. In 2018, Group A games were played in Tilburg, Netherlands from 23 to 29 April and Group B games were played in Granada, Spain from 14 to 20 April.
Table updated 18/05/19
C. The IIHF recognizes Yugoslavia, which joined in 1939, and Serbia and Montenegro as the predecessors to Serbia, which officially became a member in 2007.
Division III
Division III is usually made up of two groups of ten teams. The top teams in this year's tournament compete for promotion to Division II Group B with the loser being relegated to Division III Qualification. The qualification teams compete for promotion to Division III. In 2018, the Division III tournament was played in Cape Town, South Africa from 16 to 22 April and the qualification tournament was played in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina from 25 to 28 February.
Table updated 18/05/19
Teams participated in qualification tournament (as of 2019)
Table updated 18/05/19
Division IV
Overall participation totals
84 championships (as of 2021); 63 teamsKey: Current division (if no window is coloured, country doesn't play in any competition in the current year)
Directorate awards
Since 1954, the IIHF has given awards for play during the World Championship tournament. Voted on by the tournament directorate, the first awards recognised the top goaltender, forward and defenceman. In 1999, an award for the most valuable player was added. There is also an all-star team voted on by members of the media. In 2004, Canadian Dany Heatley became the first player to lead in scoring, win the MVP award, win the best forward award and be named to the all-star team in the same year. He repeated the feat in 2008.
See also
List of IIHF World Championship medalists
IIHF World Women's Championship
Ice hockey at the Olympic Games
4 Nations Cup
List of IIHF World Championships by attendance
IIHF World Women's U18 Championships
List of IIHF World Under-20 Championship medalists
World Para Ice Hockey Championships
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
World Championships – official website
Result archive – Full results for men's, women's and junior championships since 1999 and medalists for all tournaments.
Results archive (in French) – Comprehensive results and commentary of international hockey since 1902.
Official IIHF Statutes and Bylaws
International Ice Hockey Federation tournaments
May sporting events
Recurring sporting events established in 1920 | [
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224643 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture%20of%20Romania | Culture of Romania | The culture of Romania is an umbrella term used to encapsulate the ideas, customs and social behaviours of the people of Romania that developed due to the country's distinct geopolitical history and evolution. It is theorized and speculated that Romanians and related peoples (Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians, and Istro-Romanians) are the combinations of descendants of Roman colonists and people indigenous to the region who were Romanized.
The Dacian people, one of the major indigenous peoples of southeast Europe, are one of the predecessors of the Proto-Romanians. It is believed that a mixture of Dacians, Romans, and Illyrians are the predecessors of the modern Romanians, Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians, and Istro-Romanians. Modern Romanian culture visibly reflects a tremendous amount of Eastern European influences. In addition, Romanian culture shares several similarities with other ancient cultures, such as that of the Armenians.
Background
During the Late Antiquity and Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled south of the Danube; from medieval Greeks, and the Byzantine Empire; from the Hungarians; from the Poles (especially in Moldavia); from the Germans, especially (Saxon settlers in Transylvania) as well as from several other neighboring peoples.
Romania's history has been full of rebounds: the culturally productive epochs were those of stability when the people proved quite an impressive resourcefulness in the making up for less propitious periods and were able to rejoin the mainstream of European culture. This stands true for the years after the Phanariote-Ottoman period, at the beginning of the 19th century, when Romanians had a historical context and Romania started to become westernized, mainly with French influences, which they pursued steadily and at a very fast pace. From the end of the 18th century, the sons of the upper classes started having their education in Paris, and French became (and was until the communist years) a genuine second language of culture for Romanians.
The modeling role of France, especially in the fields of political ideas, administration, and law, as well as in literature, was paralleled, from the mid-19th century down to World War I, by German culture as well, which also triggered constant relationships with the German world not only at a cultural level but in daily life as well. With the arrival of Soviet Communism in the area, Romania quickly adopted many soviet influences, and Russian was also widely taught in the country during Romania's socialist years.
Historical Evolution
The Middle Ages
Until the 14th century, small states (Romanian: voievodate) were spread across the territory of Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia. The medieval principalities Wallachia and Moldavia arose around that time in the area on the southern and eastern sides of the Carpathian Mountains.
Moldavia and Wallachia were both situated on important commercial routes often crossed by Polish, Saxon, Greek, Armenian, Genovese, and Venetian merchants, connecting them well to the evolving culture of medieval Europe. Grigore Ureche's chronicle, Letopisețul Țărîi Moldovei (The Chronicles of the land of Moldavia), covering the period from 1359 to 1594, is a very important source of information about life, events, and personalities in Moldavia. It is among the first non-religious Romanian literary texts; due to its size and the information that it contains, it is, probably, the most important Romanian document from the 17th century.
The first printed book, a prayer book in Slavonic, was produced in Wallachia in 1508, and the first book in Romanian, a catechism, was printed in Transylvania, in 1544. At the end of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th century, European humanism influenced the works of Miron Costin and Ion Neculce, the Moldavian chroniclers who continued Ureche's work. Constantin Brâncoveanu, prince of Wallachia, was a great patron of the arts and was a local Renaissance figure. During Șerban Cantacuzino's reign, the monks at the monastery of Snagov, near Bucharest, published in 1688 the first translated and printed Romanian Bible (Biblia de la București – The Bucharest Bible). The first successful attempts at written Romanian-language poetry were made in 1673 when Dosoftei, a Moldavian metropolitan in Iași, published a Romanian metrical psalter.
Dimitrie Cantemir, a Moldavian prince, was an important personality of the medieval period in Moldavia. His interests included philosophy, history, music, linguistics, ethnography, and geography. The most important works containing information about the Romanian regions were Descriptio Moldaviae published in 1769 and Hronicul vechimii a romano-moldo-valahilor (roughly, Chronicle of the durability of Romans-Moldavians-Wallachians), the first critical history of Romania. His works were also known in western Europe, as he authored writings in Latin: Descriptio Moldaviae (commissioned by the Academy of Berlin, the member of which he became in 1714) and Incrementa atque decrementa aulae othomanicae, which was printed in English in 1734–1735 (second edition in 1756), in French (1743) and German (1745); the latter was a major reference work in European science and culture until the 19th century.
Classical Age
In Transylvania, although they formed the majority of the population, Romanians were merely seen as a "tolerated nation" by the Austrian leadership of the province, and were not proportionally represented in political life and the Transylvanian Diet. At the end of the 18th century an emancipation movement known as the Transylvanian School (Școala Ardeleană) was formed, which tried to emphasize that the Romanian people were of Roman origin, and also adopted the modern Latin-based Romanian alphabet (which eventually supplanted an earlier Cyrillic script). It also accepted the leadership of the pope over the Romanian church of Transylvania, thus forming the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church. In 1791, they issued a petition to Emperor Leopold II of Austria, named Supplex Libellus Valachorum based on the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, demanding equal political rights with the other ethnicities for the Romanians in Transylvania. This movement, however, leaned more towards westernization in general, when in fact, the origin of the Romanian people is not only from the peoples of the former Roman Empire, but also from the ancient Dacians, predating the arrival of the Romans, not to mention that from around the 1600s to the 1800s Romanian culture was heavily influenced by Eastern influences as emphasized through the Ottomans, and the Phanariotes.
The end of the 18th century, and the beginning of the 19th century was marked in Wallachia and Moldavia by the reigns of Phanariote Princes; thus, the two principalities were heavily influenced by the Greek world. Greek schools appeared in the principalities, and in 1818, the first Romanian School was founded in Bucharest by Gheorghe Lazăr and Ion Heliade Rădulescu. Anton Pann was a successful novelist, Ienăchiță Văcărescu wrote the first Romanian grammar, and his nephew Iancu Văcărescu is considered to be the first important Romanian poet. In 1821, an uprising in Wallachia took place against Ottoman rule. This uprising was led by the Romanian revolutionary and militia leader Tudor Vladimirescu.
The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail Kogălniceanu (writer, politician, and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright, and poet), Andrei Mureșanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae Bălcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary).
The union between Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 brought a growing consolidation of Romanian life and culture. Universities were opened in Iași and in Bucharest, and the number of new cultural establishments grew significantly. The new prince from 1866 and then King of Romania, Carol I, was a devoted king, and he and his wife Elisabeth were among the main patrons of arts. Of great impact in Romanian literature was the literary circle Junimea, founded by a group of people around the literary critic Titu Maiorescu in 1863. It published its cultural journal Convorbiri Literare where, among others, Mihai Eminescu, Romania's greatest poet, Ion Creangă, a storyteller of genius, and Ion Luca Caragiale, novelist and Romania's greatest playwright published most of their works. During the same period, Nicolae Grigorescu and Ștefan Luchian founded modern Romanian painting; composer Ciprian Porumbescu was also from this time.
In Transylvania, the emancipation movement became better organized, and in 1861, an important cultural organization ASTRA (The Transylvanian Association for Romanian Literature and the Culture of the Romanian People), was founded in Sibiu under the close supervision of the Romanian Orthodox Metropolitan Andrei Şaguna. It helped publish a great number of Romanian language books and newspapers, and between 1898 and 1904, it published a Romanian Encyclopedia. Among the greatest personalities from this period are the novelist and publicist Ioan Slavici, the prose writer Panait Istrati, the poet and writer Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea, the poet and publicist George Coșbuc, the poet Ștefan Octavian Iosif, the historian and founder of Romanian press in Transylvania George Barițiu and Badea Cârțan, a simple peasant shepherd from Southern Transylvania who, through his actions became a symbol of the emancipation movement.
Golden Age
The first half of the 20th century is regarded by many as the golden age of Romanian culture, and it is the period when it reached its main level of international affirmation and a strong connection to European cultural trends. The most important artist who had a great influence on the world culture was the sculptor Constantin Brâncuși (1876–1957), a central figure of the modern movement and a pioneer of abstraction, an innovator of world sculpture by immersion in the primordial sources of folk creation.
The relationship between traditional and Western European trends was a subject of heated polemics, and outstanding personalities sustained the debates. The playwright, expressionist poet, and philosopher Lucian Blaga can be cited as a member of the traditionalist group and the literary critic founder of the literary circle and cultural journal Sburătorul, Eugen Lovinescu, represents the so-called Westernizing group, which sought to bring Romanian culture closer to Western European culture. Also, George Călinescu was a more complex writer who, among different literary creations, produced the monumental "History of the Romanian literature, from its origins till present day".
The beginning of the 20th century was also a prolific period for Romanian prose, with personalities such as the novelist Liviu Rebreanu, who described the struggles in the traditional society and the horrors of war, Mihail Sadoveanu, a writer of novels of epic proportions with inspiration from the medieval history of Moldavia, and Camil Petrescu, a more modern writer distinguishing himself through his analytical prose writing. In dramaturgy, Mihail Sebastian was an influential writer, and as the number of theaters grew, also did the number of actors, Lucia Sturdza Bulandra being an actress representative of this period.
Alongside the prominent poet George Topîrceanu, a poet of equal importance was Tudor Arghezi, who was the first to revolutionize poetry in the last 50 years. One should not neglect the poems of George Bacovia, a symbolist poet of neurosis, and despair and those of Ion Barbu, a brilliant mathematician who wrote a series of very successful cryptic poems. Tristan Tzara and Marcel Janco, founders of the Dadaist movement, were also of Romanian origin.
Also during the golden age came the epoch of Romanian philosophy with such figures as Mircea Vulcănescu, Dimitrie Gusti, Alexandru Dragomir, and Vasile Conta. The period was dominated by the overwhelming personality of the historian and politician Nicolae Iorga, who, during his lifetime, published over 1,250 books and wrote more than 25,000 articles. In music, the composers George Enescu and Constantin Dimitrescu and the pianist Dinu Lipatti became world-famous. The number of important Romanian painters also grew, and the most significant ones were: Nicolae Tonitza, Camil Ressu, Francisc Șirato, Ignat Bednarik, Lucian Grigorescu, and Theodor Pallady. In medicine, a great contribution to human society was the discovery of insulin by the Romanian scientist Nicolae Paulescu. Gheorghe Marinescu was an important neurologist and Victor Babeș was one of the earliest bacteriologists. In mathematics, Gheorghe Țițeica was one of Romania's greatest mathematicians, and also an important personality was the mathematician/poet Dan Barbilian.
Post-war period
In Romania, the communist regime imposed heavy censorship on almost all elements of life, and they used the cultural world as a means to better control the population. The freedom of expression was constantly restricted in various ways: the Sovietization period was an attempt at building up a new cultural identity on the basis of socialist realism and lending legitimacy to the new order by rejecting traditional values. Two currents appeared: one that glorified the regime and another that tried to avoid censorship. The first is probably of no lasting cultural value, but the second managed to create valuable works, successfully avoiding censorship and being very well received by the general public. From this period, the most outstanding personalities are those of the writer Marin Preda, the poets Nichita Stănescu and Marin Sorescu, and the literary critics Nicolae Manolescu and Eugen Simion. Most dissidents who chose not to emigrate lived a life closely watched by the regime, either in "house arrest" or in "forced domicile"; some chose to retreat to remote monasteries. Most of their work was published after the 1989 Revolution. Among the most notable examples are the philosophers Constantin Noica, Petre Țuțea, and Nicolae Steinhardt.
There was a chasm between the official, communist culture and genuine culture. On the one hand, against the authorities' intentions, the outstanding works were perceived as a realm of moral truths, and the significant representatives of genuine cultural achievement were held in very high esteem by the public opinion. On the other hand, the slogans disseminated nationwide through the forms of official culture helped spread simplistic views, which were relatively successful among some ranks of the population. The tension between these two directions can still be perceived at the level of society as a whole.
Culture inside communist Romania
A strong editorial activity took place during the Communist regime. With the purpose of educating the large masses of peoples, a huge number of books were published. Large-scale editing houses such as Cartea Românească, Editura Eminescu, and others appeared, which published huge collections of books, such as the Biblioteca pentru Toţi ("The Library for Everyone") with over 5,000 titles. Generally, a book was never published in an edition of less than 50,000 copies. Libraries appeared in every village, and almost all were kept up to date with the newest books published. Also, due to low prices, almost everyone could afford to have their own collection of books at home. The negative part was that all the books were heavily censored. Also, due to rationing in every aspect of life, the quality of the printing and the paper also was very low, and the books, therefore, degraded easily.
During this period, there was a significant increase in the number of theatres, as they appeared even in the smallest towns. Many new establishments were built, and in the big cities they became important landmarks, such as the building of the National Theatre of Bucharest, situated right in the middle of the city, immediately adjacent to Romania's kilometre zero. In the smaller towns, there existed the so-called "Worker's Theatre", a semi-professional institution. Partly due to the lack of other entertainment venues, the theatre was highly popular, and the number of actors increased. All of the theatres had a stable, state-funded budget. Again, however, the drawback was the heavy control imposed on them by the regime: censorship was ever-present, and only ideologically-accepted plays were allowed. More progressive theatres managed to survive in some remote cities that became favorite destinations for young actors, but they generally had only a local audience.
Cinemas evolved the same way as the theatres; sometimes, the same establishment served both purposes. Movies were very popular, and from the 1960s, foreign films started becoming quite widespread. Western films, when shown, were heavily censored: entire sections were cut, and dialogue was translated only using ideologically accepted words. Domestic or "friendly" foreign productions constituted the bulk of films in cinemas. During this period, cinematography started to develop in Romania, and the first successful short films were made based on Caragiale's plays. Financed by the government, during the 1960s, a whole industry developed at Buftea, a town close to Bucharest, and some films, especially gangster, Western-genre, and historical movies, were very well received by the public. The most prolific director was Sergiu Nicolaescu, and probably the most-acclaimed actor from that period was Amza Pellea.
Romanians in exile
A consequence of the communist attitude towards the bourgeoisie elites in general, was the creation, for the first time in Romania's history, of a diaspora. Three individuals emerged as the most important Romanians abroad: playwright Eugen Ionescu (1909–1994) (who became known in France as Eugène Ionesco), creator of the Theatre of the Absurd and eventual member of the Académie française; religious historian and writer Mircea Eliade (1907–1986); and the essayist and philosopher Emil Cioran (1911–1996), the greatest French-writing master of style after Pascal. Fellow Romanian Ioan Petre Culianu continued Eliade's work with great success, in the United States. Another member of the diaspora who distinguished himself was the philosopher and logician Stephane Lupasco.
The communist rule in Romania, unlike most of the other countries of the Eastern bloc, permanently repudiated the Romanians who had left their country and labeled them as traitors to the motherland. So, neither Mircea Eliade, nor Eugène Ionesco, nor Emil Cioran, whose works would be published in this country sporadically after 1960, could see their native land again. It was only after 1989 that the process of regaining the values of the diaspora and of reintegrating its personalities into this country's culture could be started seriously, a process marked in its turn by tension and disagreements.
Well-known Romanian musicians outside of Romania during this period include conductors Sergiu Celibidache—the main conductor at the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra and later of Munich Philharmonic Orchestra—and Constantin Silvestri, main conductor at the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra. Gheorghe Zamfir was a virtuoso of the pan pipes and made this instrument known to a modern worldwide audience, and was also a composer or interpreter for a great number of movies. Composer and architect Iannis Xenakis was born in Romania and spent his childhood there.
George Emil Palade, a cell biologist and a teacher, became the first Romanian to receive the Nobel Prize, winning the 1974 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for describing the structure and function of organelles in cells. Elie Wiesel, who received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1986, was born in the Romanian town of Sighetu Marmaţiei.
Evolutions after 1989
The fall of soviet-style communism in 1989 elated the cultural world, but the experience hasn't been an easy one due to problems in the transition period and the adoption of a free market economy. The discontinuation of state and political control of culture brought about the long dreamt freedom of expression, but, at the same time, the state subsidies also stopped, and Romania's culture was seriously affected by the side-effects of the incipient, still very imperfect, free-market economy and by inadequate material resources. Culture has had to cope with a variety of problems, one of them being a shift in people's interest towards other areas such as the press and television. The search for a new cultural policy, relying on decentralization, seems to prevail now. People speak about a crisis of culture in this country, but if there is a crisis of culture, it is only at an institutional level.
After the fall of communism in 1989, there was an almost immediate explosion of publication of books previously censored by the regime. Books were published in huge numbers per edition, sales were high, and a great number of publishing houses appeared. However, this soon reached a saturation point, and publishing houses began to decline due to a combination of bad management, a rapid drop in sales, and the absence of subsidies. Many closed after publishing only a few titles; some changed their profile and started printing commercial literature – mainly translations – and the state-owned publishers entered a "state of lethargy". The latter survived due to state financing, but their publishing activity diminished. Despite this, some publishing houses managed to survive and develop by implementing market-oriented policies, and by improving the quality and overall appearance of the books they published. Among the most notable contemporary Romanian publishers are Humanitas in Bucharest, Polirom in Iași, and Teora, which specializes in technical topics and dictionaries. Some publishing houses developed their own chains or bookstores, and also other new, privately owned bookstore chains opened, replacing the old state-owned ones.
Culturally oriented newsprint periodicals followed a similar trajectory of boom and bust. A few have survived and managed to raise their quality and to maintain a critical spirit despite the hardships they encountered. Dilema Veche (Old Dilemma) and Revista 22 (Magazine 22) remain respected forces in Romanian culture, with Observator Cultural a lesser, but also respected, weekly paper. Also, a state-financed radio (Radio România Cultural) and a television channel (TVR Cultural) with a cultural programme exist, but they are not highly popular.
Many new young writers appeared, but due to financial constraints, only those who have gained a strong reputation could get the financial backing to publish their works. The Writers's Union, which should, in principle, support these writers' efforts, hasn't undergone much change since 1989, and there is much controversy surrounding its activity and purpose. The most successful writers, like Mircea Cărtărescu, Horia-Roman Patapievici, Andrei Pleşu, Gabriel Liiceanu, and Herta Müller, are respected personalities in Romanian life, but they have to devote some of their would-be writing time to other activities, mainly journalism. The ties with the Romanian diaspora are now very strong, and even foreign-language Romanian writers like Andrei Codrescu (who now writes primarily in English) are very popular.
Romanian theatre also suffered from economic hardships, and its popularity decreased drastically due to the increased popularity of television and other entertainment channels. Some theatres survived due to their prestige (and some continued subsidies); others survived through good management, investing in themselves, and earning a steady audience through the high quality of their productions. Experimental or independent theatres appeared and are quite popular in university cities. Uniter – The Romanian Theatres Association – gives yearly awards to the best performances. Some of the most critically acclaimed directors in contemporary Romania are Silviu Purcărete, Mihai Maniutiu, Tompa Gabor, Alexandru Dabija and Alexandru Darie. Also, among the most appreciated actors, both from the new and old generation, one can name Ștefan Iordache, Victor Rebengiuc, Maia Morgenstern, Marcel Iureș, Horațiu Mălăele, Ion Caramitru, Mircea Diaconu, Marius Chivu and others.
Due to the lack of funds, Romanian film-making suffered heavily in the 1990s; even now, as of 2005, a lot of controversy surrounds state aid for movies. Well-known directors such as Dan Piţa and Lucian Pintilie have had a certain degree of continued success, and younger directors such as Nae Caranfil and Cristi Puiu have become highly respected. Caranfil's film Filantropica and Puiu's The Death of Mr. Lăzărescu were extremely well received and gained awards at international festivals in Paris and Cannes. Besides domestic production, Romania became a favorite destination for international producers due to the low cost of filming there, and big investments have been made in large studios.
The number of cultural events held yearly in Romania has increased over the past few years. Some sporadic events like the "2005 Bucharest CowParade" have been well received, and yearly events and festivals have continually attracted interest. Medieval festivals held in cities in Transylvania, which combine street theatre with music and battle reenactments to create a very lively atmosphere, are some of the most popular events. In theatre, a yearly National Festival takes place, and one of the most important international theatre festivals is "The Sibiu Theatre Festival", while in filmmaking, the "TIFF" Film Festival in Cluj, the "Dakino" Film Festival in Bucharest and the "Anonimul" Film Festival in the Danube Delta have an ever-stronger international presence. In music, the most important event is the "George Enescu" Classical Music Festival but also festivals like "Jeunesses Musicales" International Festival and Jazz festivals in Sibiu and Bucharest are appreciated. An important event took place in 2007 when the city of Sibiu was, along with Luxembourg, the European Capital of Culture.
Traditions
Folklore
The most striking thing about Romanian culture is the strong folk traditions which have survived to this day due to the rural character of the Romanian communities, which has resulted in an exceptionally vital and creative traditional culture. Romania's rich folk traditions have been nourished by many sources, some of which predate the Roman occupation. Traditional folk arts include wood carving, ceramics, weaving, and embroidery of costumes, household decorations, dance, and richly varied folk music. Ethnographers have tried to collect in the last two centuries as many elements as possible: the Museum of the Romanian Peasant and the Romanian Academy are currently the main institutions which systematically organize the data and continue the research.
The wood used to be the main construction material, and heavily ornamented wooden objects were common in old houses. In Maramureș, wood was used to create impressive structures such as churches or gates; in Dobruja, windmills were made of wood, and in mountainous regions, hardwood was used even for covering the roof. To preserve traditional houses, many village museums have been created in the last century throughout Romania, such as the Village Museum in Bucharest, the Traditional Popular Civilization ASTRA Museum in Sibiu, or the Oltenian Village Museum in Râmnicu Vâlcea.
Linen was the most common material for clothing, combined with wool during the winter or colder periods. These are embroidered with traditional motifs that vary from region to region. Black is the most common color used, but red and blue are predominant in certain areas. Traditionally, men wore a white shirt and pants (if made of wool, they are called iţari) with a wide leather belt, usually over the shirt, and a vest sometimes made of leather and embroidered. They wore either boots or a simple shoe made of leather and tied around the foot called opincă, and they wore a hat which differs in design from region to region. Women also wore a white skirt and a shirt with a vest. They wore an apron called şorţ or cătrinţă which is also embroidered, and a headscarf called basma; on special occasions, they wore more elaborate outfits.
Music and dance represent a lively part of the Romanian folklore, and there are a great variety of musical genres and dances. Party music is very lively and shows both Balkan and Hungarian influences. Sentimental music, however, is the most valued, and Romanians consider their doina (a sad song either about one's home or about love, composed like an epic ballad) unique in the world. Maria Tănase, Maria Lătărețu, Maria Ciobanu, and Ileana Sararoiu are considered to be some of the greatest Romanian folk singers, and today Grigore Leșe and Taraful Haiducilor are two of the most famous musicians. The dances are lively and are practiced throughout Romania by a large number of professional and amateur groups, thus keeping the tradition alive; Hora is one of the most famous group dances, but men's folk dances such as călușari are extremely complex and have been declared by UNESCO to be "Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritages of Humanity".
Mythology
Romanians have had, from time immemorial, a myriad of customs, tales, and poems about love, faith, kings, princesses, and witches. The ethnologists, poets, writers, and historians have tried in recent centuries to collect and to preserve tales, poems, ballads and have tried to describe as well as possible the customs and habits related to different events and times of the year. Customs related to certain times of year are the colinde, Romanian Christmas carols, sorcova on New Year's Eve, or the Mărțișor custom on the first day of March, marking the spring. Other customs are presumably of pre-Christian pagan origin, like the Paparuda rain enchanting custom in the summer, or the masked folk theatre or Ursul (the bear) and Capra (the goat) in winter.
Perhaps the most successful collector of folk tales was the novelist and storyteller Ion Creangă, who in very picturesque language, shaped into their now-classic form stories like Harap Alb ("The White Moor") or Fata babei și fata moșului (roughly, "The old woman's daughter and the old man's daughter").
Also, the poet Vasile Alecsandri published the most successful version of the ballad Miorița (The Little Ewe), a sad, philosophical poem, centered on a simple action: the plot by two shepherds to kill a third shepherd because they envied his wealth. Another prolific editor of folk tales was Petre Ispirescu, who, in the 19th century, published an impressive number of volumes containing a large number of short novels and tales from popular mythology. They are centered on popular characters like the prince Făt-Frumos (the Romanian "Prince Charming"), the princess Ileana Cosânzeana, the villain or monster Zmeu or Căpcăun, the dragon Balaur, or fantastic superbeings like the good Zână and the evil Muma Pădurii.
Spirituality and religion
Romanian spirituality is greatly influenced by its strong connections with the Eastern Christian world. The modern national mythology contends Romanians are An island of Latinity in a Slavic sea and The only Orthodox Christian Latin people. There are only a few Romanian Catholics (of both the Roman and Greek rites) and a small number of Protestants, the vast majority of Romanians being Romanian Orthodox (over 81%). Despite the diminishing importance of the church in recent generations, it remains the most trusted institution in Romania. Church attendance is high in rural communities and among the elders in the cities. Also, despite accusations of collaborationism with the communist regime, which continue to plague the Romanian Church, some clerics such as Dumitru Stăniloae and Richard Wurmbrand openly protested against political interventions in religious business. There are also some Muslims living in the country.
Romanian Orthodox monasteries and churches exist throughout Romania, but traditionally, few are constructed on a monumental scale. A great number of wooden churches are still intact in the Carpathian Mountains villages, but by far, the most impressive is the Wooden Churches of Maramureș, which push wood building technique to its limits. Byzantine influences can be found in most Romanian church buildings, but domestic styles have evolved in different periods of time and in different regions. In Moldavia, a particular style was used in the construction of the monasteries, of which some of the most important are the churches of northern Moldavia – UNESCO World Heritage Sites, such as those of Moldovița, Putna, Sucevița, or Voroneț. In Wallachia, Curtea de Argeș Cathedral was built in a Byzantine style with Moorish influences, and a great number of churches show Greek influences, especially those built in the 18th century, such as Stavropoleos Church in central Bucharest. Romania also evolved the distinctive Brâncovenesc style: the monasteries of Snagov and of Sâmbăta de Sus in Transylvania are classic examples.
Cuisine
The cuisine of Romania has the same influences as the rest of Romanian culture; from Roman times, there still exists the simple pie called, in Romanian, plăcintă and keeping the initial meaning of the Latin word placenta. The Turks brought meatballs (fried mititei or perişoare in a soup called ciorbă); from the Greeks, there is the musaca (moussaka) and covrigi (hot pretzels); from the Bulgarians, a wide variety of vegetable dishes like zacuscă; from the Austrians there is the şniţel (schnitzel); from the Hungarians, their ornate pastries; and the list could go on.
Without a doubt, one of the most popular dishes in Romania, and perhaps can be called the national dish, is Sarmale, or Sarma in other cultures of the Balkans, and the Caucasus; a mixture of pork, beef, and lamb, or just plain pork, with onions and rice, wrapped in semi-sour cabbage or grape leaves, and then placed usually in a porcelain pot with tomato paste and pork cuts. This dish is then slow-cooked, and commonly served with cornmeal (mămăligă, which is a type of polenta). One of the most common meals is the mămăligă, a cornmeal mush, for a long time considered the "poor man's meal" (N-are nici o mămăligă pe masă – "He hasn't even a mămăligă on the table"), but it has become very appreciated in recent times. Pork is the main meat used in Romanian cuisine, but also beef is consumed and a good lamb or fish dish is never to be refused. In conjunction with special events or periods, different recipes are prepared.
During Christmas, nearly every family slaughters a pig and cooks it using a wide variety of traditional recipes like cârnați – a type of long sausage with meat; caltaboși – sausages made with liver and other internal organs; piftie – a jelly made from parts like the feet, head and ears; tochitură (a kind of stew) – served along with mămăligă and wine ("so that the pork can swim"); and tobă (head cheese). The meal is sweetened with the traditional cozonac (sweet bread with nuts, poppy seeds or lokum – rahat in Romanian, known in English as Turkish delight).
Lamb is traditional for Easter; the main dishes are borș de miel (lamb sour soup), roast lamb, and drob – a cooked mix of offal, meat and fresh vegetables, which is quite similar to Scottish haggis, served with pască (a pie made with cottage cheese) as a sweetener.
Wine is the main drink and has been a tradition for over three millennia. Romania is currently the world's ninth-largest wine producer, and exports have increased in recent years. A wide variety of domestic (Grasă, Tămâioasă) and worldwide (Italian Riesling, Merlot, Sauvignon blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Muscat Ottonel) varieties are produced. Romania is the world's second-largest grower of plums, and almost all of those plums become either the famous țuică (a once-refined plum brandy) or palincă (twice-or-more-refined plum brandy). Beer is also highly appreciated, generally blonde pilsener beer, after the German style.
A great number of proverbs and sayings have developed around the activity of eating. From the innocent child's thank you: Săru-mâna pentru masă, c-a fost bună şi gustoasă, și bucătăreasa frumoasa ("Thank you for the meal, it was good and tasty, and the cook was beautiful"), to the more philosophical Mulțumescu-ți ție Doamne, c-am mâncat și iar mi-e foame ("Thank you Lord, for I have eaten, but I am hungry again"), Dragostea trece prin stomac ("Love passes through the stomach"), the simple Pofta vine mâncănd ("Appetite comes while eating"), the sarcastic Porcul mănâncă orice, dar se-ngrașă pentru alții ("The pig would eat anything but it gets fat for others"), or the expression of total fulfillment, Mâncat bine, băut bine, dimineața sculat mort ("Ate well, drank well, in the morning woke up dead").
Romanian script
During the 16th century, Romanian first appeared in writing, usually in religious texts and other written documents. A letter dating from 1521, from Neacşu of Câmpulung to the mayor of Brașov, is considered to be the earliest known text written in Romanian. The letter was written in a script which was used mainly in Wallachia and Moldavia until the year 1859. This script was a version of the Old Church Slavonic alphabet, a version of the Cyrillic alphabet.
A version of the Cyrillic alphabet was used in the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic until 1991, when they switched to the Romanian version of the Latin alphabet.
Contribution of the minorities
Minorities have made a major cultural contribution to Romania. Influences came from, most notably, minority groups such as Germans, Greeks, Italians, and Hungarians. The Székely and the Saxons living in Transylvania made many important architectural contributions to the region, including numerous churches, fortifications, and town centers. Also, they figured in some landmarks in the development of ethnic Romanian culture: the first letter written in Romanian was addressed to the mayor of Kronstadt (Romanian: Brașov), and the first book printed in Romanian was in Hermannstadt (Romanian: Sibiu). Romania was once also the cradle of Yiddish theatre, and to this day, Bucharest is home to a State Jewish Theater, despite the small number of Jews remaining in the country.
Architecture and engineering
In the technical domain, one can note the achievements in the field of aviation made by Traian Vuia, Aurel Vlaicu, Aurel Persu, and Henri Coandă and also the works of George Constantinescu in the fields of engineering and sonics. Also, many achievements have been made in the architectural and engineering domain; thus, Bucharest became known as the small Paris. The longest bridge in Europe was constructed by Anghel Saligny, linking Dobruja with the rest of Romania; the Peleș Castle became one of the most beautiful and modern castles in Europe.
Media and television
Music
Folk music is the oldest form of Romanian musical creation, characterized by great vitality; it is the defining source of the cultured musical creation, both religious and lay. Conservation of Romanian folk music has been aided by a large and enduring audience, and by numerous performers who helped propagate and further develop the folk sound. Two of them, Vasile Pandelescu, and Dumnitru Zamfira are some of the most famous examples of Romanian folk musicians.
Before the major incorporation of more modern instruments that found their way into Romanian folk music, older instruments such as the Tobă (double-headed drum, also known as the Tabul or Davul), Surlă (also known as the Zurna in other parts of the Balkans), Caval (ancient shepherd's pipe), Cobza (an ancient instrument related to the Arabic Oud), Vioară (violin), Cimpoi (Balkan bagpipe), and the Tamburină (tambourine, more commonly used during the times under Phanariote and Ottoman influence), were also commonly used in folk music before the introduction on some slightly more modern elements such as the widely used accordion, and clarinet. Folk music, often is accentuated with clapping, yells of tongue rolling, shouts, and whistles.
The religious musical creation, born under the influence of Byzantine music adjusted to the intonations of the local folk music, saw a period of glory between the 15th-17th centuries, when reputed schools of liturgical music developed within Romanian monasteries. Russian and Western influences brought about the introduction of polyphony in religious music in the 18th century, a genre developed by a series of Romanian composers in the 19th and 20th centuries.
See also
Languages of Romania
Literature of Romania
Architecture of Romania
Cinema of Romania
Famous Romanian people
Romanian humour
Byzantium after Byzantium, a cultural movement which sprung during the Medieval Romanian history.
Sport in Romania
Culture of Moldova
References
External links
Sibiu International Theatre Festival: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VSfSH16tFXU
cIMeC – The Institute For Cultural Memory, a key Romanian cultural institution.
https://web.archive.org/web/20071231125142/http://www.itcnet.ro/folk_festival/culture.htm Romania -Culture on itcnet.ro
Constantin Brâncuși biographical notes on brancusi.com
Cultural aspects, an extensive site on ici.ro about Romanian culture.
Official Romanian Travel and Tourism Information website
Sibiul.ro, an extensive site about Sibiu (in Romanian)
Onlinegallery.ro News, events, venues and extensive coverage of Romanian cultural acts
Manuela Preoteasa, Televiziunea din Romania – dominata de divertisment si non-stiri ("Television in Romania – domination by entertainment and non-news"), 30 November 2005, in a mix of Romanian and English.
Romanian spirituality (mostly in Romanian, some portions translated into English)
Calusul in Lista Capodoperelor Omenirii ("The calus dance in the list of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritages of Humanity") (in Romanian)
Trust in the Church and the Army (in Romanian)
Romanian recipes
SOS Romania News
Romanian folk costumes
Traditional costume in Romania
Lost Trails web site has free downloads of Romanian folk music and Photography of many Romanian villages
Romania – cultural and regional differences
Rolandia – Travel agency that blogs about Romania's culture and traditions | [
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224644 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Othmar | Othmar | Othmar, also spelled Otmar or Ottmar, is a masculine German given name, derived from the Germanic name Audamar, from the elements aud "wealth, prosperity" and mar "fame".
Notable people with the name include:
Saint Othmar
Othmar Ammann
Otmar Emminger
Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer
Otmar Hasler
Ottmar Hörl
Ottmar Hitzfeld
Otmar Issing
Othmar Karas
Ottmar Liebert
Ottmar Luscinius
Ottmar Mergenthaler
Othmar Muller von Blumencorn
Othmar Reiser
Othmar Schoeck
Othmar Spann
Othmar Zeidler
Otmar Szafnauer
Othmar Gispert
Fictional characters
King Ottmar in the Legacy of Kain series
See also
Ottomar
Omar (name)
Otto
Ademar
External links
German masculine given names | [
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224645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Chatterton | Thomas Chatterton | Thomas Chatterton (20 November 1752 – 24 August 1770) was an English poet whose precocious talents ended in suicide at age 17. He was an influence on Romantic artists of the period such as Shelley, Keats, Wordsworth and Coleridge.
Although fatherless and raised in poverty, Chatterton was an exceptionally studious child, publishing mature work by the age of 11. He was able to pass off his work as that of an imaginary 15th-century poet called Thomas Rowley, chiefly because few people at the time were familiar with medieval poetry, though he was denounced by Horace Walpole.
At 17, he sought outlets for his political writings in London, having impressed the Lord Mayor, William Beckford, and the radical leader John Wilkes, but his earnings were not enough to keep him, and he poisoned himself in despair. His unusual life and death attracted much interest among the romantic poets, and Alfred de Vigny wrote a play about him that is still performed today. The oil painting The Death of Chatterton by Pre-Raphaelite artist Henry Wallis has enjoyed lasting fame.
Childhood
Chatterton was born in Bristol where the office of sexton of St Mary Redcliffe had long been held by the Chatterton family. The poet's father, also named Thomas Chatterton, was a musician, a poet, a numismatist, and a dabbler in the occult. He had been a sub-chanter at Bristol Cathedral and master of the Pyle Street free school, near Redcliffe church.
After Chatterton's birth (15 weeks after his father's death on 7 August 1752), his mother established a girls' school and took in sewing and ornamental needlework. Chatterton was admitted to Edward Colston's Charity, a Bristol charity school, in which the curriculum was limited to reading, writing, arithmetic and the catechism.
Chatterton, however, was always fascinated with his uncle the sexton and the church of St Mary Redcliffe. The knights, ecclesiastics and civic dignitaries on its altar tombs became familiar to him. Then he found a fresh interest in oaken chests in the muniment room over the porch on the north side of the nave, where parchment deeds, old as the Wars of the Roses, lay forgotten. Chatterton learned his first letters from the illuminated capitals of an old musical folio, and he learned to read out of a black-letter Bible. His sister said he did not like reading out of small books. Wayward from his earliest years, and uninterested in the games of other children, he was thought to be educationally backward. His sister related that on being asked what device he would like painted on a bowl that was to be his, he replied, "Paint me an angel, with wings, and a trumpet, to trumpet my name over the world."
From his earliest years, he was liable to fits of abstraction, sitting for hours in what seemed like a trance, or crying for no reason. His lonely circumstances helped foster his natural reserve, and to create the love of mystery which exercised such an influence on the development of his poetry. When Chatterton was age 6, his mother began to recognise his capacity; at age 8, he was so eager for books that he would read and write all day long if undisturbed; by the age of 11, he had become a contributor to Felix Farley's Bristol Journal.
His confirmation inspired him to write some religious poems published in that paper. In 1763, a cross which had adorned the churchyard of St Mary Redcliffe for upwards of three centuries was destroyed by a churchwarden. The spirit of veneration was strong in Chatterton, and he sent to the local journal on 7 January 1764 a satire on the parish vandal. He also liked to lock himself in a little attic which he had appropriated as his study; and there, with books, cherished parchments, loot purloined from the muniment room of St Mary Redcliffe, and drawing materials, the child lived in thought with his 15th-century heroes and heroines.
First "medieval" works
The first of his literary mysteries, the dialogue of "Elinoure and Juga," was written before he was 12, and he showed it to Thomas Phillips, the usher at the boarding school Colston's Hospital where he was a pupil, pretending it was the work of a 15th-century poet. Chatterton remained a boarder at Colston's Hospital for more than six years, and it was only his uncle who encouraged the pupils to write. Three of Chatterton's companions are named as youths whom Phillips's taste for poetry stimulated to rivalry; but Chatterton told no one about his own more daring literary adventures. His little pocket-money was spent on borrowing books from a circulating library; and he ingratiated himself with book collectors, in order to obtain access to John Weever, William Dugdale and Arthur Collins, as well as to Thomas Speght's edition of Chaucer, Spenser and other books. At some point he came across Elizabeth Cooper's anthology of verse, which is said to have been a major source for his inventions.
Chatterton's "Rowleian" jargon appears to have been chiefly the result of the study of John Kersey's Dictionarium Anglo-Britannicum, and it seems his knowledge even of Chaucer was very slight. His holidays were mostly spent at his mother's house, and much of them in the favourite retreat of his attic study there. He lived for the most part in an ideal world of his own, in the reign of Edward IV, during the mid-15th century, when the great Bristol merchant William II Canynges (died 1474), five times mayor of Bristol, patron and rebuilder of St Mary Redcliffe "still ruled in Bristol's civic chair." Canynges was familiar to him from his recumbent effigy in Redcliffe church, and is represented by Chatterton as an enlightened patron of art and literature.
Adopts persona of Thomas Rowley
Chatterton soon conceived the romance of Thomas Rowley, an imaginary monk of the 15th century, and adopted for himself the pseudonym Thomas Rowley for poetry and history. According to psychoanalyst Louise J. Kaplan, his being fatherless played a great role in his imposturous creation of Rowley. The development of his masculine identity was held back by the fact that he was raised by two women: his mother Sarah and his sister Mary. Therefore, "to reconstitute the lost father in fantasy," he unconsciously created "two interweaving family romances [fantasies], each with its own scenario." The first of these was the romance of Rowley for whom he created a fatherlike, wealthy patron, William Canynge, while the second was as Kaplan named it his romance of "Jack and the Beanstalk." He imagined he would become a famous poet who by his talents would be able to rescue his mother from poverty.
Ironically, at the same time, there was indeed a real poet named Thomas Rowley in Vermont, although it is unlikely that Chatterton was aware of the existence of the American poet.
Chatterton's search for a patron
To bring his hopes to life, Chatterton started to look for a patron. At first, he was trying to do so in Bristol where he became acquainted with William Barrett, George Catcott and Henry Burgum. He assisted them by providing Rowley transcripts for their work. The antiquary William Barrett relied exclusively on these fake transcripts when writing his History and Antiquities of Bristol (1789) which became an enormous failure. But since his Bristol patrons were not willing to pay him enough, he turned to the wealthier Horace Walpole. In 1769, Chatterton sent specimens of Rowley's poetry and "The Ryse of Peyncteynge yn Englade" to Walpole who offered to print them "if they have never been printed." Later, however, finding that Chatterton was only 16 and that the alleged Rowley pieces might have been forgeries, he scornfully sent him away.
Political writings
Badly hurt by Walpole's snub, Chatterton wrote very little for a summer. Then, after the end of the summer, he turned his attention to periodical literature and politics, and exchanged Farley's Bristol Journal for the Town and Country Magazine and other London periodicals. Assuming the vein of the pseudonymous letter writer Junius, then in the full blaze of his triumph, he turned his pen against the Duke of Grafton, the Earl of Bute and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, the Princess of Wales.
Leaving Bristol
He had just dispatched one of his political diatribes to the Middlesex Journal when he sat down on Easter Eve, 17 April 1770, and penned his "Last Will and Testament," a satirical compound of jest and earnest, in which he intimated his intention of ending his life the following evening. Among his satirical bequests, such as his "humility" to the Rev. Mr Camplin, his "religion" to Dean Barton, and his "modesty" along with his "prosody and grammar" to Mr Burgum, he leaves "to Bristol all his spirit and disinterestedness, parcels of goods unknown on its quay since the days of Canynge and Rowley." In more genuine earnestness, he recalls the name of Michael Clayfield, a friend to whom he owed intelligent sympathy. The will was possibly prepared in order to frighten his master into letting him go. If so, it had the desired effect. John Lambert, the attorney to whom he was apprenticed, cancelled his indentures; his friends and acquaintances having donated money, Chatterton went to London.
London
Chatterton already was known to the readers of the Middlesex Journal as a rival of Junius under the nom de plume of Decimus. He also had been a contributor to Hamilton's Town and Country Magazine, and speedily found access to the Freeholder's Magazine, another political miscellany supportive of John Wilkes and liberty. His contributions were accepted, but the editors paid little or nothing for them.
He wrote hopefully to his mother and sister, and spent his first earnings in buying gifts for them. Wilkes had noted his trenchant style "and expressed a desire to know the author"; and Lord Mayor William Beckford graciously acknowledged a political address of his, and greeted him "as politely as a citizen could." He was abstemious and extraordinarily diligent. He could assume the style of Junius or Tobias Smollett, reproduce the satiric bitterness of Charles Churchill, parody James Macpherson's Ossian, or write in the manner of Alexander Pope or with the polished grace of Thomas Gray and William Collins.
He wrote political letters, eclogues, lyrics, operas and satires, both in prose and verse. In June 1770, after nine weeks in London, he moved from Shoreditch, where he had lodged with a relative, to an attic in Brook Street, Holborn (now beneath Alfred Waterhouse's Holborn Bars building). He was still short of money; and now state prosecutions of the press rendered letters in the Junius vein no longer admissible, and threw him back on the lighter resources of his pen. In Shoreditch, he had shared a room; but now, for the first time, he enjoyed uninterrupted solitude. His bed-fellow at Mr Walmsley's, Shoreditch, noted that much of the night was spent by him in writing; and now he could write all night. The romance of his earlier years revived, and he transcribed from an imaginary parchment of the old priest Rowley his "Excelente Balade of Charitie." This poem, disguised in archaic language, he sent to the editor of the Town and Country Magazine, where it was rejected.
Mr Cross, a neighbouring apothecary, repeatedly invited him to join him at dinner or supper; but he refused. His landlady also, suspecting his necessity, pressed him to share her dinner, but in vain. "She knew," as she afterwards said, "that he had not eaten anything for two or three days." But he assured her that he was not hungry. The note of his actual receipts, found in his pocket-book after his death, shows that Hamilton, Fell and other editors who had been so liberal in flattery, had paid him at the rate of a shilling for an article, and less than eightpence each for his songs; much which had been accepted was held in reserve and still unpaid for. According to his foster-mother, he had wished to study medicine with Barrett, and in his desperation he wrote to Barrett for a letter to help him to an opening as a surgeon's assistant on board an African trader.
Death
In August 1770, while walking in St Pancras Churchyard, Chatterton was much absorbed in thought, and did not notice a newly dug open grave in his path, and subsequently tumbled into it. On observing this event, his walking companion helped Chatterton out of the grave, and told him in a jocular manner that he was happy in assisting at the resurrection of genius. Chatterton replied, "My dear friend, I have been at war with the grave for some time now." Chatterton died by suicide three days later. On 24 August 1770, he retired for the last time to his attic in Brook Street, carrying with him the arsenic, which he drank after tearing into fragments whatever literary remains were at hand. He was 17 years and nine months old. There has been some speculation that Chatterton may have taken the arsenic as a treatment for a venereal disease, as it was commonly used for such at that time.
A few days later, one Dr Thomas Fry came to London with the intention of giving financial support to the young boy "whether discoverer or author merely." A fragment, probably one of the last pieces written by the impostor-poet, was put together by Dr Fry from the shreds of paper that covered the floor of Thomas Chatterton's Brook Street attic on the morning of 25 August 1770. The would-be patron of the poet had an eye for literary forgeries, and purchased the scraps that the poet's landlady, Mrs Angel, swept into a box, cherishing the hope of discovering a suicide note among the pieces. This fragment, possibly one of the remnants of Chatterton's very last literary efforts, was identified by Dr Fry to be a modified ending of the poet's tragical interlude Aella. The fragment is now in the possession of Bristol Public Library and Art Gallery.
Coernyke.
Awake! Awake! O Birtha, swotie mayde!
Thie Aella deadde, botte thou ynne wayne wouldst dye,
Sythence he thee for renomme hath betrayde,
Bie hys owne sworde forslagen doth he lye;
Yblente he was to see thie boolie eyne,
Yet nowe o Birtha, praie, for Welkynnes, lynge!
How redde thie lippes, how dolce thie deft cryne,
.......................................scalle bee thie Kynge!
.......................................a.
...........................................omme the kiste
................................................................
The final Alexandrine is completely missing, together with Chatterton's notes. However, according to Dr Fry, the character who utters the final lines must have been Birtha, whose last word might have been something like "kisste".
Posthumous recognition
The death of Chatterton attracted little notice at the time; for the few who then entertained any appreciative estimate of the Rowley poems regarded him as their mere transcriber. He was interred in a burying-ground attached to the Shoe Lane Workhouse in the parish of St Andrew, Holborn, later the site of Farringdon Market. There is a discredited story that the body of the poet was recovered, and secretly buried by his uncle, Richard Phillips, in Redcliffe Churchyard. There a monument has been erected to his memory, with the appropriate inscription, borrowed from his "Will", and so supplied by the poet's own pen. "To the memory of Thomas Chatterton. Reader! judge not. If thou art a Christian, believe that he shall be judged by a Superior Power. To that Power only is he now answerable."
It was after Chatterton's death that the controversy over his work began. Poems supposed to have been written at Bristol by Thomas Rowley and others, in the Fifteenth Century (1777) was edited by Thomas Tyrwhitt, a Chaucerian scholar who believed them genuine medieval works. However, the appendix to the following year's edition recognises that they were probably Chatterton's own work. Thomas Warton, in his History of English Poetry (1778) included Rowley among 15th-century poets, but apparently did not believe in the antiquity of the poems. In 1782 a new edition of Rowley's poems appeared, with a "Commentary, in which the antiquity of them is considered and defended," by Jeremiah Milles, Dean of Exeter.
The controversy which raged round the Rowley poems is discussed in Andrew Kippis, Biographia Britannica (vol. iv., 1789), where there is a detailed account by George Gregory of Chatterton's life (pp. 573–619). This was reprinted in the edition (1803) of Chatterton's Works by Robert Southey and Joseph Cottle, published for the benefit of the poet's sister. The neglected condition of the study of earlier English in the 18th century alone accounts for the temporary success of Chatterton's mystification. It has long been agreed that Chatterton was solely responsible for the Rowley poems; the language and style were analysed in confirmation of this view by W. W. Skeat in an introductory essay prefaced to vol. ii. of The Poetical Works of Thomas Chatterton (1871) in the "Aldine Edition of the British Poets." The Chatterton manuscripts originally in the possession of William Barrett of Bristol were left by his heir to the British Museum in 1800. Others are preserved in the Bristol library.
Legacy
Chatterton's genius and his death are commemorated by Percy Bysshe Shelley in Adonais (though its main emphasis is the commemoration of Keats), by William Wordsworth in "Resolution and Independence", by Samuel Taylor Coleridge in "Monody on the Death of Chatterton", by Dante Gabriel Rossetti in "Five English Poets", and in John Keats' sonnet "To Chatterton". Keats also inscribed Endymion "to the memory of Thomas Chatterton". Two of Alfred de Vigny's works, Stello and the drama Chatterton, give fictionalized accounts of the poet; in the former, there is a scene in which William Beckford's harsh criticism of Chatterton's work drives the poet to suicide. The three-act play Chatterton was first performed at the Théâtre-Français, Paris on 12 February 1835. Herbert Croft, in his Love and Madness, interpolated a long and valuable account of Chatterton, giving many of the poet's letters, and much information obtained from his family and friends (pp. 125–244, letter li.).
The most famous image of Chatterton in the 19th century was The Death of Chatterton (1856) by Henry Wallis, now in Tate Britain, London. Two smaller versions, sketches or replicas, are held by the Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery and the Yale Center for British Art. The figure of the poet was modeled by the young George Meredith.
Two of Chatterton's poems were set to music as glees by the English composer John Wall Callcott. These include separate settings of distinct verses within the Song to Aelle. His best known poem, O synge untoe mie roundelaie was set to a five-part madrigal by Samuel Wesley. Chatterton has attracted operatic treatment a number of times throughout history, notably Ruggero Leoncavallo's largely unsuccessful two-act Chatterton; the German composer Matthias Pintscher's modernistic Thomas Chatterton (1998); and Australian composer Matthew Dewey's lyrical yet dramatically intricate one-man mythography entitled The Death of Thomas Chatterton.
There is a collection of "Chattertoniana" in the British Library, consisting of works by Chatterton, newspaper cuttings, articles dealing with the Rowley controversy and other subjects, with manuscript notes by Joseph Haslewood, and several autograph letters. E. H. W. Meyerstein, who worked for many years in the manuscript room of the British Museum wrote a definitive work—"A Life of Thomas Chatterton"—in 1930. Peter Ackroyd's 1987 novel Chatterton was a literary re-telling of the poet's story, giving emphasis to the philosophical and spiritual implications of forgery. In Ackroyd's version, Chatterton's death was accidental.
In 1886, architect Herbert Horne and Oscar Wilde unsuccessfully attempted to have a plaque erected at Colston's School, Bristol. Wilde, who lectured on Chatterton at this time, suggested the inscription: "To the Memory of Thomas Chatterton, One of England's Greatest Poets, and Sometime pupil at this school."
In 1928, a plaque in memory of Chatterton was mounted on 39, Brooke Street, Holborn, bearing the inscription below. The plaque subsequently has been transferred to a modern office building on the same site.
In a House on this Site
Thomas
Chatterton,
died
24 August 1770.
Within Bromley Common, there is a road called Chatterton Road; this is the main thoroughfare in Chatterton Village, based around the public house named The Chatterton Arms. Both road and pub are named after the poet.
French singer Serge Gainsbourg entitled one of his songs "Chatterton", stating:
<poem>
Chatterton suicidé
Hannibal suicidé [...]
Quant à moi
Ça ne va plus très bien.</poem>
The song was covered (in Portuguese) by Seu Jorge live and recorded in the album Ana & Jorge: Ao Vivo.
It was also recorded as an English language translation by Mick Harvey on the album “Intoxicated Man”.
Works
'An Elegy on the much lamented Death of William Beckford, Esq.,' 4to, pp. 14, 1770.
'The Execution of Sir Charles Bawdwin' (edited by Thomas Eagles, F.S.A.), 4to, pp. 26, 1772.
'Poems supposed to have been written at Bristol, by Thomas Rowley and others, in the Fifteenth Century' (edited by Thomas Tyrwhitt), 8vo, pp. 307, 1777.
'Appendix' (to the 3rd edition of the poems, edited by the same), 8vo, pp. 309–333, 1778.
'Miscellanies in Prose and Verse, by Thomas Chatterton, the supposed author of the Poems published under the names of Rowley, Canning, &c.' (edited by John Broughton), 8vo, pp. 245, 1778.
'Poems supposed to have been written at Bristol in the Fifteenth Century by Thomas Rowley, Priest, &c., [edited] by Jeremiah Milles, D.D., Dean of Exeter,' 4to, pp. 545, 1782.
'A Supplement to the Miscellanies of Thomas Chatterton,' 8vo, pp. 88, 1784.
'Poems supposed to have been written at Bristol by Thomas Rowley and others in the Fifteenth Century' (edited by Lancelot Sharpe), 8vo, pp. xxix, 329, 1794.
'The Poetical Works of Thomas Chatterton,' Anderson s 'British Poets,' xi. 297–322, 1795.
'The Revenge: a Burletta; with additional Songs, by Thomas Chatterton,' 8vo, pp. 47, 1795.
'The Works of Thomas Chatterton' (edited by Robert Southey and Joseph Cottle), 3 vols. 8yo, 1803.
'The Poetical Works of Thomas Chatterton' (edited by Charles B. Willcox), 2 vols. 12mo, 1842.
'The Poetical Works of Thomas Chatterton' (edited by the Rev Walter Skeat, M.A.), Aldine edition, 2 vols. 8vo, 1876.
Notes
References
Attribution
Bibliography
Cook, Daniel. Thomas Chatterton and Neglected Genius, 1760–1830. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.
Croft, Sir Herbert. Love and Madness. London: G Kearsly, 1780. <https://books.google.com/books?id=hDImAAAAMAAJ>
Heys, Alistair ed. From Gothic to Romantic: Thomas Chatterton's Bristol. Bristol: Redcliffe, 2005.
Haywood, Ian. The making of history: a study of the literary forgeries of James Macpherson and Thomas Chatterton in relation to eighteenth-century ideas of history and fiction. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, c1986.
Kaplan, Louise J. The Family Romance of the Impostor-poet Thomas Chatterton. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1989. <https://books.google.com/books?id=EZGHZv8-0bYC>
Kroese, Irvin B.. "Chatterton's Aella and Chatterton." SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900. XII.3 (1972):557-66.
Meyerstein, Edward Harry William. A Life of Thomas Chatterton. London: Ingpen and Grant, 1930.
Groom, Nick ed. Thomas Chatterton and romantic culture. London: Macmillan; New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999.
External links
Thomas Chatterton at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)
The Rowley Poems at Exclassics.com
Musical settings of Chatterton's poems
Thomas Chatterton papers. Between 1758 and 1770. 2 items. At the University of Washington Libraries, Special Collections.
1752 births
1770 deaths
18th-century English poets
Literary forgeries
Forgers
Writers from Bristol
Suicides by poison
British child writers
Suicides in London
People educated at Colston's School
English male poets
English Christians
18th-century suicides | [
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224646 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienne%20%28river%29 | Vienne (river) | The Vienne (; , ) is a major river in south-western France. It is long. It is a significant left tributary of the lower Loire. It supports numerous hydroelectric dams, and it is the main river of the northern part of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region.
Two French departments are named after the Vienne: Haute-Vienne (87) in the Limousin region and Vienne (86) both in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region.
Course
The Vienne rises as a spring in the department of Corrèze, at the foot of Mont Audouze, on the Plateau de Millevaches, near Peyrelevade. It then flows roughly west to the city of Limoges where it once played a major role in the famous Limoges porcelain industry. A little way after Limoges it takes a turn to the north. En route to its confluence with the Loire, the Vienne is joined by the rivers Creuse and Clain. Finally, after a journey of 372 km it reaches the Loire at Candes-Saint-Martin in the department of Indre-et-Loire.
The Vienne flows through the following departments and towns:
Corrèze: Peyrelevade
Creuse
Haute-Vienne: Eymoutiers, Saint-Léonard-de-Noblat, Limoges, Aixe-sur-Vienne, Saint-Junien
Charente: Chabanais, Confolens
Vienne: L'Isle-Jourdain, Lussac-les-Châteaux, Chauvigny, Châtellerault
Indre-et-Loire: L'Île-Bouchard, Chinon
Tributaries include:
The Creuse, which joins the Vienne north of Châtellerault
The Clain, which flows through the city of Poitiers, and joins the Vienne in Châtellerault
The Briance, which joins the Vienne in Condat-sur-Vienne
The Taurion, which joins the Vienne north of Saint-Priest-Taurion
References
Vienne
Rivers of Haute-Vienne
Rivers of Vienne
Rivers of Nouvelle-Aquitaine | [
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224649 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De%20re%20militari | De re militari | De re militari (Latin "Concerning Military Matters"), also Epitoma rei militaris, is a treatise by the Late Latin writer Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus about Roman warfare and military principles as a presentation of the methods and practices in use during the height of the Roman Empire and responsible for its power. The extant text dates to the 5th century.
Vegetius emphasized things such as training of soldiers as a disciplined force, orderly strategy, maintenance of supply lines and logistics, quality leadership and use of tactics and even deceit to ensure advantage over the opposition. He was concerned about selection of good soldiers and recommended hard training of at least four months before the soldier was accepted into the ranks. The leader of the army (dux) had to take care of the men under his command and keep himself informed about the movements of the enemy to gain advantage in the battle.
De re militari became a military guide in the Middle Ages. Even after the introduction of gunpowder to Europe, the work was carried by general officers and their staffs as a field guide to methods. Friends and subordinates customarily presented embellished copies as gifts to leaders. It went on into the 18th and 19th centuries as a source of policy and strategy to the major states of Europe. In that sense, De re militari is a projection of Roman civilization into modern times and a continuation of its influence on its cultural descendants.
Authorship and composition
The author of De re militari was Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus, who lived in the late 4th century and possibly the early 5th century. The name of the work has a number of variants, including Epitoma Rei Militaris, but there are other problems with accepting it at face value as the verbatim work of Vegetius. Some of the manuscripts have a note that the text was revised for the 7th time in Constantinople in the consulate of Valentinian, who must have been Valentinian III, reigning 425-455.
Vegetius' dates are not known, nor are the circumstances under which the work was revised. The year 450 is taken as the latest possible time the work could have been written, assuming he did all seven revisions in just a few years. The initial date of the window is established by Vegetius' own statement that he wrote covering the time usque ad tempus divi Gratiani, "up to the time of the divine Gratian." As emperors did not become gods generally until they died, the statement sets the initial possible date (terminus post quem) at 383, the year Gratian died. If the earlier date is preferred, it is unlikely Vegetius did all seven revisions or even one of them. There is no reason to question his general authorship, however.
The work is dedicated to a mysterious emperor, whose identity is unknown but whom Vegetius must have assumed to have been known to his intended readership. It may be that he wrote on behalf of military reform under the patronage of Theodosius I. In that case he would have been alive in the window 378-395, the dates of Theodosius' reign. This article adopts that point of view and assigns an approximate date of 390 to the work, which would not be, then, word for word the same as what Vegetius wrote, accounting for the title variants.
Sources
Vegetius based his treatise on descriptions of Roman armies, especially those of the mid to late Republic. As G.R. Watson observes, Vegetius' Epitoma "is the only ancient manual of Roman military institutions to have survived intact." Despite this, Watson is dubious of its value, for he "was neither a historian nor a soldier: his work is a compilation carelessly constructed from material of all ages, a congeries of inconsistencies." These antiquarian sources, according to his own statement, were Cato the Elder, Cornelius Celsus, Frontinus, Paternus and the imperial constitutions of Augustus, Trajan and Hadrian (1.8).
Contents of the treatise
Vegetius' epitome mainly focuses on military organisation and how to react to certain occasions in war. Vegetius explains how one should fortify and organise a camp, how to train troops, how to handle undisciplined troops, how to handle a battle engagement, how to march, formation gauge, and many other useful methods of promoting organisation and valour in the legion. The treatise is carefully laid out in subsections. They are organized into four books:
Book I
The first book, headed Primus liber electionem edocet iuniorum, ex quibus locis uel quales milites probandi sint aut quibus armorum exercitiis imbuendi, explains the selection of recruits, from which places and what kinds (of men) are soldiers to be authorised and with what exercises of arms they are to be indoctrinated. Vegetius also describes in detail the organisation, training and equipment of the army of the early Empire. Portraying the military decadence of the Late Roman Empire, it is a plea for army reform.
Book II
The second book, Secundus liber ueteris militiae continet morem, ad quem pedestris institui possit exercitus, contains traditional military practices with which infantry can be created.
Book III
The third book, Tertius liber omnia artium genera, quae terrestri proelio necessaria uidentur, exponit, "sets forth all types of arts that appear to be necessary for fighting on land." It concludes with a series of military maxims or "general rules of war" ("regulae bellorum generales," 3.26). While some scholars contend that these rules are later interpolations, others consider them to have been included at an early date. Some of these rules were translated into Greek in the Strategikon of Maurice, 8.2, and they became influential in western Europe, from Paul the Deacon to William the Silent, Machiavelli, and Frederick the Great. Some of the maxims may be mentioned here as illustrating the principles of a war for limited political objectives with which he deals:
"All that is advantageous to the enemy is disadvantageous to you, and all that is useful to you, damages the enemy"
"the main and principal point in war is to secure plenty of provisions for oneself and to destroy the enemy by famine. Famine is more terrible than the sword."
"No man is to be employed in the field who is not trained and tested in discipline"
"It is better to beat the enemy through want, surprises, and care for difficult places (i.e., through manoeuvre) than by a battle in the open field"
"Let him who desires peace prepare for war," also paraphrased as si vis pacem, para bellum ("If you want peace, prepare for war")
The book also includes the "seven normal dispositions for battle" ("depugnationum septem...genera," 3.20 and summarized at 3.26.18-24).
Book IV
The fourth book, Quartus liber uniuersas machinas, quibus uel obpugnantur ciuitates uel defenduntur, enumerat; naualis quoque belli praecepta subnectit, enumerates "all the machines with which cities are besieged or defended" (chapters 1-30) and adds also the precepts of naval warfare (chapters 31-46). It contains the best description of siegecraft in the Late Roman Empire. From it, among other things, we learn details of the siege engine called the onager, which until recently was thought to have been common in medieval sieges.
Vegetius is keen to stress the shortcomings of the Roman Army in his lifetime. In order to do this he eulogises the army of the early Roman Empire. In particular he stresses the high standard of the pydars and the excellence of the training and the officer corps. In reality, Vegetius probably describes an ideal rather than the reality. The Army of the early Empire was a formidable fighting force, but it probably was not in its entirety quite as good as Vegetius describes. For example, he says that recruits should be 5 Roman feet 10 inches tall (Epitoma 1.5), the equivalent of 172 cm. The average height of adult male skeletons buried in Italy between 500 BCE and 500 CE was 168 cm, so it would probably have been hard to meet Vegetius' height standards.
Transmission and influence
Heavily used in its own time, De re militari became a popular manual on warfare in the Middle Ages, especially between the 9th and 16th centuries, even if some of the information was unsuitable to later times and circumstances. N.P. Milner observes that it was "one of the most popular Latin technical works from Antiquity, rivalling the elder Pliny's Natural History in the number of surviving copies dating from before AD 1300."
The early English historian Bede cites Vegetius in his prose Life of St Cuthbert. The earliest extant manuscript from England to contain Vegetius' text is Cotton Cleopatra D.I (of the 11th, possibly late 10th century).
De re militari came to the forefront in the late Carolingian period through Hrabanus Maurus (d. 856), who used the text for his own manual De Procincta Romaniae Militiae, composed for Lothair II of Lotharingia (r. 855-869).
Vegetius' notes about siegecraft became especially obsolete when the technology advanced and gunpowder weapons such as cannon came into widespread use. Vegetius' suggestion of a soldier's religious oath to God and to the realm might have influenced knightly practices. Still, because of the lack of literacy, as a guide it was probably accessible only to aristocracy, clergy and royalty. Machiavelli very likely read Vegetius and incorporated many of his ideas into his own The Prince.
To the modern day, 226 Latin copies of the book have survived, not including translations to various other European languages. Many of them have a copious amount of personal notes on them, pointing at matters that have interested their contemporary owners.
The first printed editions are ascribed to Utrecht (1473), Cologne (1476), Paris (1478), Rome (in Veteres de re mil. scriptores, 1487), and Pisa (1488). A German translation by Ludwig Hohenwang appeared at Ulm in 1475. It was translated into English, French (by Jean de Meun and others), Italian (by the Florentine judge Bono Giamboni and others), Catalan, Spanish, Czech, and Yiddish before the invention of printing. An early English version (via French) was published by Caxton in 1489.
However, after the first printed editions, Vegetius' position as the premier military authority began to decline, as ancient historians such as Polybius became available. Niccolò Machiavelli attempted to address Vegetius's defects in his L'arte della Guerra (Florence, 1521), with heavy use of Polybius, Frontinus and Livy, but Justus Lipsius' accusation that he confused the institutions of diverse periods of the Roman Empire and G. Stewechius' opinion that the survival of Vegetius' work led to the loss of his named sources were more typical of the late Renaissance. While as late as the 18th century we find so eminent a soldier as Marshal Puysegur basing his own works on this acknowledged model, and the famous Prince de Ligne wrote "C'est un livre d'or". In Milner's words, Vegetius' work suffered "a long period of deepening neglect".
Title
The work is known by a number of variant titles. Here are some titles from among the incunabula, books printed before 1501:
Epithoma (sic) rei militaris (1474)
Epitoma de re militari (1475)
Epitoma institutorum rei militaris (1487)
Epitoma rei militaris (1488)
De re militari (1496)
The common element of all the names are the two cases of res militaris (nominative case): rei militaris (genitive case) and re militari (ablative case).
The classical form would have been the ablative.
Vegetius uses epitomata, plural of the Greek epitoma, in his other surviving work on doctoring mules.
English translations precede printed books. Manuscript 18A.Xii in the Royal Library, written and ornamented for Richard III of England, is a translation of Vegetius. It ends with a paragraph starting: "Here endeth the boke that clerkes clepethe in Latyne Vegecii de re militari." The paragraph goes on to date the translation to 1408. The translator is identified in Manuscript No. 30 of Magdalen College, Oxford, as John Walton, 1410 translator of Boethius.
See also
Castra
The Art of War
References
Notes
Editions and translations
The most reliable modern edition is that of Michael D. Reeve (Oxford, 2004). For a detailed critical estimate of Vegetius' works and influence, see Max Jahns, Geschiche der Kriegswissenschaften, i. 109-125.
Reeve, Michael D. (ed.). Epitoma rei militaris. Oxford Medieval Texts. Oxford, 2004.
Lang, C. (ed.). Vegetius. Epitoma Rei Militaris. Stuttgart, 1872. 2nd ed: Leipzig, 1885.
Latin language. Searchable by book.
Books I-III only. The unknown editor altered the translation "to conform to modern usage" and abbreviated the text. Access is by subtitle. Search only within subsection.
Milner, N.P. (tr.). Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science. Liverpool, 1993. . Second revised edition 2011.
Meijer, Fik (tr.). Vegetius, 'Het Romeinse leger'''. Amsterdam: Polak/Van Gennep, 2004. Dutch translation.
Secondary sources
Bachrach, Bernard S. "A 'Lying Legacy' Revisited. The Abels-Morillo Defense of Discontinuity." Journal of Medieval Military History 5 (2007). 153 ff.
First page no charge.
Downloadable Google Books.
Downloadable Google Books.
Translated from the German 5th edition, revised and enlarged. Downloadable from Google Books.
Further reading
Christopher Allmand, The 'De Re Military' of Vegetius. The Reception, Transmission and Legacy of a Roman Text in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: UP, 2011. . (A preview can be seen in Google Books:
Charles, Michael B. Vegetius in Context. Establishing the Date of the Epitoma Rei Militaris. Historia, Einzelschriften 194. Stuttgart, 2007.
Jahns, Max. Geschichte der Kriegswissenschaften. Vol. 2. pp. 109–125.
Richardot, Phillipe. Végèce et la culture militaire au Moyen Âge (Ve-XVe síecles). Paris, 1998.
Shrader, Charles R. "The Influence of Vegetius' De re militari." Military Affairs 45.4 (1981).
External links
Latin editions:
Mediaeval manuscript: I • II • III • IV • index, Leiden University.
Vegetius Renatus, Flavius. De re militari. • I • II • III • IV, Cologne Nicolaus Goetz, ca. 1475. From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress.
Annotated 1767 edition • I • II • III • IV • V • with French translation: I • II • III • IV • V (In this edition book IV has been split because the editor thought the chapter Praecepta belli naualis'' was intended as a prologue, starting a new book.)
English translation:
Doesn't include book IV.
German translation:
Vegetius Renatus, Flavius. De re militari. • I • II • III • IV • glossary, Augsburg, Johann Wiener, ca. 1475.
Illustrations from Vier Bücher der Ritterschafft, a 1529 German-language edition published by Heinrich Stayner with woodcuts variously depicting underwater diving suits, siege equipment, cannons, and air mattresses for the comfort of soldiers in the field. All 121 full-page woodcuts and 2 half-page woodcuts freely available for download in a variety of formats from Science History Institute Digital Collections.
4th-century Latin books
5th-century Latin books
Warfare of the Middle Ages
Latin military books
Military strategy books | [
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224654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Macpherson | James Macpherson | James Macpherson (Gaelic: Seumas MacMhuirich or Seumas Mac a' Phearsain; 27 October 1736 – 17 February 1796) was a Scottish writer, poet, literary collector and politician, known as the "translator" of the Ossian cycle of epic poems.
Early life and education
Macpherson was born at Ruthven in the parish of Kingussie in Badenoch, Inverness-shire. This was a Scottish Gaelic-speaking area but near the Barracks of the British Army, established in 1719 to enforce Whig rule from London after the Jacobite uprising of 1715. Macpherson's uncle, Ewen Macpherson joined the Jacobite army in the 1745 march south, when Macpherson was nine years old and after the Battle of Culloden, had had to remain in hiding for nine years. In the 1752-3 session, Macpherson was sent to King's College, Aberdeen, moving two years later to Marischal College (the two institutions later became the University of Aberdeen), reading Caesar's Commentaries on the relationships between the 'primitive' Germanic tribes and the 'enlightened' Roman imperial army; it is also believed that he attended classes at the University of Edinburgh as a divinity student in 1755–56. During his years as a student, he ostensibly wrote over 4,000 lines of verse, some of which was later published, notably The Highlander (1758), a six-canto epic poem, which he attempted to suppress sometime after its publication.
Collecting Scottish Gaelic poetry
On leaving college, he returned to Ruthven to teach in the school there, and then became a private tutor. At Moffat he met John Home, the author of Douglas, for whom he recited some Gaelic verses from memory. He also showed him manuscripts of Gaelic poetry, supposed to have been picked up in the Scottish Highlands and the Western Isles; one was called The Death of Oscar.
In 1760, Macpherson visited North Uist and met with John MacCodrum, the official Bard to the Chief of Clan MacDonald of Sleat. As a result of their encounter, MacCodrum made, according to John Lorne Campbell, "a brief appearance in the Ossianic controversy which is not without it's humorous side." When Macpherson met MacCodrum, he asked, "A bheil dad agaibh air an Fheinne?" Macpherson believed himself to have asked, "Do you know anything of the Fianna?" He had actually said, however, "Do the Fianna owe you anything?"
In reply, MacCodrum quipped, "Cha n-eil agus ge do bhiodh cha ruiginn a leas iarraidh a nis", or in English, "No, and if they did it would be useless to ask for it now." According to Campbell, this, "dialogue... illustrates at once Macpherson's imperfect Gaelic and MacCodrum's quickness of reply."
Encouraged by Home and others, Macpherson produced 15 pieces, all laments for fallen warriors, translated from the Scottish Gaelic, despite his limitations in that tongue, which he was induced to publish at Edinburgh in 1760, including the Death of Oscar, in a pamphlet: Fragments of Ancient Poetry collected in the Highlands of Scotland. Extracts were then published in The Scots Magazine and The Gentleman's Magazine which were popular and the notion of these fragments as glimpses of an unrecorded Gaelic epic began.
Hugh Blair, who was a firm believer in the authenticity of the poems, raised a subscription to allow Macpherson to pursue his Gaelic researches. In the autumn,1760, Macpherson set out to visit western Inverness-shire, the islands of Skye, North Uist, South Uist and Benbecula. Allegedly, Macpherson obtained manuscripts which he translated with the assistance of a Captain Morrison and the Rev. Gallie. Later he made an expedition to the Isle of Mull, where he claimed to obtain other manuscripts.
Ossian
In 1761, Macpherson announced the discovery of an epic on the subject of Fingal (related to the Irish mythological character Fionn mac Cumhaill/Finn McCool) written by Ossian (based on Fionn's son Oisín), and in December he published Fingal, an Ancient Epic Poem in Six Books, together with Several Other Poems composed by Ossian, the Son of Fingal, translated from the Gaelic Language, written in the musical measured prose of which he had made use in his earlier volume. Temora followed in 1763, and a collected edition, The Works of Ossian, in 1765. The name Fingal or Fionnghall means "white stranger", and it is suggested that the name was rendered as Fingal through a derivation of the name which in old Gaelic would appear as Finn.
The authenticity of these so-called translations from the works of a 3rd-century bard was immediately challenged by Irish historians, especially Charles O'Conor, who noted technical errors in chronology and in the forming of Gaelic names, and commented on the implausibility of many of Macpherson's claims, none of which Macpherson was able to substantiate. More forceful denunciations were later made by Samuel Johnson, who asserted (in A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland, 1775) that Macpherson had found fragments of poems and stories, and then woven them into a romance of his own composition. Further challenges and defences were made well into the nineteenth century, but the issue was moot by then. Macpherson's manuscript Gaelic "originals" were published posthumously in 1807; Ludwig Christian Stern was sure they were in fact back-translations from his English version.
Later works
In 1764, Macpherson was made secretary to the colonial governor George Johnstone at Pensacola, Florida. He returned to Great Britain two years later, and, despite a quarrel with Johnstone, was allowed to retain his salary as a pension.
Macpherson went on to write several historical works, the most important of which was Original Papers, containing the Secret History of Great Britain from the Restoration to the Accession of the House of Hanover, to which are prefixed Extracts from the Life of James II, as written by himself (1775). He enjoyed a salary for defending the policy of Lord North's government, and held the lucrative post of London agent to the Nawab of Arcot. He entered parliament in 1780, as Member of Parliament for Camelford and continued to sit for the remainder of his life.
Time in Parliament
Despite his Jacobite roots, and in line with his Hanovarian sympathies, for a time Macpherson had desired a seat in Parliament and he finally received it in the 1780 general election. On 11 September 1780, he became junior member for Camelford. Later he became the senior member in the results of the April 1784 election. He stayed in this position until his death. Although there is not a lot recorded about his time in parliament, his name is in a list of confidential parliamentary pensions which suggest that his undocumented work was more of an under-the-table government scheme. This suggestion is more or less backed by letters corresponding with other suggested government scammers of the time such as Paul Benfield. In 1783 he also held a position as an agent working with Sir Nathaniel Wraxall, and was noted since this time for being very wealthy, probably from his secret parliamentary pensions he was receiving.
Death
In his later years he bought an estate, to which he gave the name Belville or Balavil, in his native Inverness-shire, where he died at the age of 59. Macpherson's remains were carried from Scotland and interred in the Abbey Church of Westminster. The Crofters Party MP and antiquarian, Charles Fraser-Mackintosh, comments enviously on the success of James Macpherson in his second series of Antiquarian Notes (Inverness 1897, pp 369 et seq, public domain), while also accusing the famous poet of being a perpetrator of the Highland Clearances:Mr James Macpherson of Ossianic fame, who acquired Phoiness, Etterish, and Invernahaven, began this wretched business and did it so thoroughly that not much remained for his successors ... Every place James Macpherson acquired was cleared, and he also had a craze for changing and obliterating the old names ... [including] ... Raitts into Belville. Upon this point it may be noticed that Mac Ossian, in making an entail and calling four of his numerous bastards [this comment has no support] in the first instance to the succession, declares an irritancy if any of the heirs uses any other designation than that of Macpherson of Belville.After calling Macpherson's children bastards, Fraser-Mackintosh asserts that Macpherson bought the right to be buried in Westminster Abbey. If it was for sale, why not? A recent commentator suggests Macpherson has become known as "a descendent of a Jacobite clan who became a sycophantic Hanovarian toady, a man for the main chance".
Legacy
After Macpherson's death, Malcolm Laing, in an appendix to his History of Scotland (1800), concluded that the so-called Ossianic poems were altogether modern in origin, and that Macpherson's authorities were practically non-existent.
Despite the above, some critics claim that Macpherson nonetheless produced a work of art which by its deep appreciation of natural beauty and the melancholy tenderness of its treatment of the ancient legend did more than any single work to bring about the romantic movement in European, and especially in German, literature. It was quickly translated into many European languages, and Herder and Goethe (in his earlier period) were among its profound admirers. Goethe incorporated his translation of a part of the work into his novel The Sorrows of Young Werther. Melchiore Cesarotti's Italian translation was reputedly a favourite of Napoleon.
Macpherson's legacy indirectly includes the naming of Fingal's Cave on the island of Staffa. The original Gaelic name is "An Uamh Bhin" ("the melodious cave"), but it was renamed by Sir Joseph Banks in 1772 at the height of Macpherson's popularity.
See also
Iolo Morganwg
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
James Macpherson at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)
Digitised version of Fingal, an ancient epic poem. : In six books: together with several other poems, composed by Ossian the son of Fingal. / Translated from the Galic language, by James Macpherson.., 1762 edition at National Library of Scotland
Literary Encyclopedia: Ossian
Significant Scots
Popular Tales of the West Highlands by J. F. Campbell Volume IV (1890)
The Poetical Works of Ossian at the Ex-Classics Web Site
1736 births
1796 deaths
Alumni of the University of Aberdeen
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Epic poetry collectors
Literary forgeries
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for constituencies in Cornwall
Romantic poets
Scottish politicians
People from Aberdeen
People from Inverness
People from Kingussie
People of the Scottish Enlightenment
18th-century Scottish writers
18th-century Scottish poets
James
British MPs 1780–1784
British MPs 1784–1790
British MPs 1790–1796
Scottish folk-song collectors
Scottish folklorists
Scottish translators
Translators from Scottish Gaelic
Translators to English | [
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224657 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell%20B.%20Long | Russell B. Long | Russell Billiu Long (November 3, 1918 – May 9, 2003) was an American Democratic politician and United States Senator from Louisiana from 1948 until 1987. Because of his seniority, he advanced to chairman of the Senate Finance Committee, serving for fifteen years, from 1966 to 1981, during the implementation of President Lyndon Johnson's Great Society and War on Poverty programs. Long also served as Assistant Majority Leader (Senate Majority Whip) from 1965 to 1969.
The son of Rose McConnell Long and Huey Long, notable Louisiana governor and U.S. senator, Russell Long served during the administrations of eight U.S. presidents, from Truman to Reagan. According to biographer Bob Mann, Long "became a leading voice for the plight of the elderly, the disabled, the working poor and the middle class." Long quietly wielded enormous power in the Senate and shaped some of the most significant tax legislation of the twentieth century.
As chairman of the Senate Finance Committee, Long held jurisdiction over 100 percent of all federal revenue and 40 percent of all government spending, including Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, unemployment insurance, welfare and food assistance programs, foreign trade, and tariffs. In 1980 he was voted the most effective chairman and most effective debater by his colleagues in a US News and World Report survey. In a 1982 survey, Long was voted the most influential Democrat by his Senate colleagues. The Wall Street Journal once called him "the fourth branch of government." Upon his retirement in 1987, Long had a 75 percent approval rating among Louisiana voters.
Early life
Russell Billiu Long was born in Shreveport, Louisiana on November 3, 1918, the son of Huey Long and Rose McConnell Long. He was named for Russell Billiu, his mother's favorite cousin.
Long received his bachelor's degree from Louisiana State University in 1939 and his law degree from Louisiana State University Law Center in 1942. He was a member of Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity (Zeta Zeta chapter). During his undergraduate years, he served as freshman class president, sophomore arts and sciences president and chairman of the sophomore presidents, and student body president.
In June 1942, during World War II, Long entered the United States Navy Reserve. He participated in the Allied invasions of Northern Africa, Sicily, Italy, and Southern France and commanded a landing craft transport (LCT) vessel in the first-wave landing at Cavalaire-sur-Mer. He was awarded four campaign medal battle stars for his service. He was discharged as a lieutenant in December 1945. In 1947, he was elected first vice commander of Louisiana's AMVETS organization.
Senate career
Upon his return from the war, Long entered legal practice. In 1947, he campaigned for the return of his uncle, Earl Long, to the governorship. When Earl Long took office in 1948, he appointed Russell Long as his executive counsel. Russell Long was elected in 1948 to fill the U.S. Senate vacancy created by the death of John Overton, which had been filled temporarily by the appointment of William Feazel. In winning election to the Senate, Long became the only person in U.S. history to be preceded in that chamber by both his father and his mother. He was elected on November 2, 1948, one day before his 30th birthday, and took office on December 31, thus meeting the Constitutional requirement that Senators be at least 30 years old upon taking office. Because he had filled a vacancy, Long gained a few days of seniority over others in the Senate class of 1948, including Lyndon B. Johnson and Hubert Humphrey, whose terms began January 3, 1949.
From 1953 to 1987, Long was a member of the tax-writing Senate Finance Committee; he served as its chairman for 15 years, from 1966 until 1981, when Republicans assumed control of the Senate and took over the chairmanships. Long served as President Lyndon B. Johnson's Senate floor leader, helping gain passage of the bills that enacted many of the Great Society programs, including the 1965 creation of Medicare. He served as the Democratic Assistant Majority Leader (whip) from 1965 to 1969. As the Democratic ranking member of the Senate Finance Committee, he served alongside Republican chairmen Bob Dole and Bob Packwood, and was instrumental in the passage of the Tax Reform Act of 1986.
Long had an encyclopedic knowledge of the federal tax code. He realized that he could achieve his legislative goals most effectively by attaching his priorities as amendments to tax bills rather than sponsoring legislation under his name. With all federal revenue and forty percent of all government spending controlled by the Senate Finance Committee, Long exercised authority over all major revenue bills and entitlement programs, as well as foreign trade and tariffs. According to biographer Bob Mann, "For almost four decades, no single revenue measure passed through Congress without [Long's] influence."
Legislative accomplishments
Long's legislative priorities balanced a desire to help the disadvantaged, while providing tax relief for the middle class and small businesses. He was particularly sensitive to the plight of the elderly poor, and his colleagues referred to Long's various aid proposals as his "grandma amendments."
In 1956, Long led the first major expansion of Social Security to include benefits for the disabled and, later, to their dependents. Long's success in maneuvering President John F. Kennedy's major tax reduction bill forward in early 1964 confirmed his reputation as a rising leader.
Long created the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC), the largest and most effective anti-poverty assistance program in the US, which reduces the tax burden on poor working families and rewards work in place of direct welfare payments. In 2016, the EITC lifted an estimate 6.5 million Americans out of poverty, including 3.3 million children. It is credited with reducing the severity of poverty for an additional 21.5 million families, including 7.7 million children. Especially crucial for low-income, single working mothers, the EITC increased lifetime average earnings for less-educated women by 17 percent, leading to long-term income growth in earnings and Social Security income. In 2019, the EITC boosted the incomes of 9 million women of color, who disproportionately benefit from the tax credit.
Long was the architect of employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs), employee benefit plans designed to allow employees to invest in the stock of their employers and share in the prosperity created by their work. To curb the growing influence of big money in politics, Long created the mechanism for public financing of presidential campaigns, allowing taxpayers to allocate $1 of taxes for a Presidential election fund (the "dollar checkoff"). He also championed the Child Support Enforcement Act, requiring unmarried fathers to financially support their children.
During his time in the Senate, Long was a strong champion of certain tax breaks for businesses. He once said, "I have become convinced you're going to have to have capital if you're going to have capitalism." On the other hand, he was aware of some of the political ramifications of "tax reform" and stated that it simply meant, "Don't tax you, don't tax me, tax that fellow behind the tree!"
Long was legendary for achieving his legislative priorities by attaching small, yet significant, amendments to tax bills. In 1966, at the request of then-National Football League Commissioner Pete Rozelle, Long and Representative Hale Boggs used their influence to pass legislation that allowed for the merger of the American Football League and the National Football League (NFL), a provision that Long inserted into a tax bill. Without the legislation, the merger would have been prohibited by anti-trust laws governing monopolies. In exchange for ensuring the passage of the legislation, Long and Boggs requested for Rozelle to award the next NFL expansion franchise to New Orleans. Rozelle complied, and Long and Boggs joined Rozelle in announcing on November 1, 1966, that New Orleans had obtained the New Orleans Saints.
In 1972, Long singlehandedly created the United States District Court for the Middle District of Louisiana, comprising the nine parishes surrounding Baton Rouge. In a House-passed tax bill to allow a marine from Thibodaux to keep an excess federal payment of $547 that he received on active duty, Long added "that Section 98 of Title 28 of the United States Code is amended as 'Louisiana is divided into three judicial districts to be known as the Eastern, Middle and Western Districts of Louisiana.'"
Elections
1948
To win the Senate seat vacated by the death of Democrat John Holmes Overton, Long first defeated Judge Robert F. Kennon of Minden in the Democratic primary, 264,143 (51 percent) to 253,668 (49 percent). The margin was 10,475 votes. Long overwhelmed Republican oilman Clem S. Clarke of Shreveport in the general election, gaining 306,337 votes (75 percent) to 102,339 (25 percent). Clarke had been the first Louisiana Republican U.S. Senate nominee in 1914, when the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was implemented for the popular election of senators. He carried Iberia, Caddo (Long's native parish), Lafayette, and East Baton Rouge parishes. In 1948, Clarke had tried to get the courts to forbid Long from running on both the Harry Truman and Strom Thurmond slates in Louisiana, but he failed to convince the judges. Votes for Long from the Truman and Thurmond slates were counted.
Harvey Locke Carey of Shreveport was Long's campaign manager for northwest Louisiana. Later, he was the short-term U. S. Attorney for the United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana.
1950
After being elected in 1948, Long never again faced a close contest for re-election. Because the 1948 election was for a two-year unexpired term, Long had to run again in 1950 for his first full six-year term. That year, he had no trouble defeating the intra-party challenge of Malcolm Lafargue. A great-nephew of the late Senator John H. Overton, Lafargue resigned as U.S. Attorney for the United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana in Shreveport to make the Senate race. In an advertisement, Lafargue questioned how Long was the self-proclaimed "poor man's friend" because the incumbent "pretends to sneer at millionaires, but Long is a millionaire himself."
New Orleans Mayor deLesseps Story Morrison of New Orleans formally endorsed Lafargue in the primary against Long, but that action was a smokescreen. Morrison had struck a deal with Governor Earl Long that he would not oppose Russell Long for a full term in the Senate if the governor agreed to restoration of home rule for the City of New Orleans. At the time, the city was virtually governed by the state government in Baton Rouge. Although Morrison publicly endorsed Lafargue, he privately urged his followers to support Russell Long.
After winning the Democratic primary, Long overwhelmed his Republican opponent, Charles Sidney Gerth (1882–1964), a businessman from New Orleans. In 1948 he had run as a Democrat for senator against Long's colleague, Allen J. Ellender. In the 1950 general election, Long polled 220,907 (87.7 percent) to Gerth's 30,931 (12.3 percent).
1962
In 1962, Long defeated Philemon Andrews "Phil" St. Amant (born February 1918), a retired career United States Army lieutenant colonel from Baton Rouge, 407,162 votes (80.2 percent) to 100,843 votes (19.8 percent) in the Democratic primary. In 2016, St. Amant was listed by the Louisiana Secretary of State as a "No Party" voter.
Long trounced his Republican challenger Taylor W. O'Hearn, a Shreveport attorney and accountant, with 318,838 votes (75.6 percent) to O'Hearn's 103,066 (24.4 percent). Later O'Hearn was elected as state representative for Caddo Parish.
1963 and 1964 campaigns
Speculation persisted that Long would run for governor in the 1963 Democratic primary. He had received encouragement from "all the shades of factionalism in the state." Instead, he endorsed his cousin, Gillis W. Long, the U.S. representative from the since-disbanded Eighth Congressional District based about Alexandria. At the time, Long was second to the aging Senator Harry F. Byrd, of Virginia on the Senate Finance Committee and had already presided as chairman during Byrd's prolonged absence because of failing health.
As a result of Johnson's signing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Long (along with more than a dozen other southern Senators, including Herman Talmadge and Richard Russell, both of Georgia) did not attend the 1964 Democratic National Convention in Atlantic City. However, Long defied conventional wisdom by delivering a television address in Louisiana in which he strongly endorsed the Johnson-Humphrey ticket, which lost the state to the Republican Barry M. Goldwater-William E. Miller electors. The action had no consequence on Long's future, however, as Republicans declined to challenge his re-election in 1968, 1974, and 1980.
1968
In 1968, Long overpowered a primary rival, Maurice P. Blache Sr. (1917–1991), to win renomination. He was unopposed in the general election when the presumed Republican candidate, Richard Kilbourne, the district attorney in East Feliciana Parish, withdrew from the race. Kilbourne abandoned his campaign so that his party could concentrate on trying to elect David C. Treen to represent Louisiana's 2nd congressional district over incumbent Democrat Hale Boggs.
1974
In the 1974 Democratic primary, Long defeated state Insurance Commissioner Sherman A. Bernard of Westwego in Jefferson Parish, 520,606 (74.7 percent) to 131,540 (18.9 percent). Another 44,341 ballots (6.4 percent) went to a third candidate, Annie Smart. Louisiana Republican state chairman James H. Boyce of Baton Rouge said that the party could not find a viable candidate to challenge Long.
1980
In 1980, Long defeated State Representative Woody Jenkins of Baton Rouge, 484,770 (57.6 percent) to 325,922 (38.8 percent) in the state's nonpartisan blanket primary. During the 1980 campaign, Long's friend and colleague, Robert J. "Bob" Dole, the Kansas Republican who had been his party's vice presidential nominee in 1976 and who would be the presidential nominee in 1996, made a television commercial for Long in the race against Jenkins. Dole and Long were both running for re-election that year. The 1980 primary was the last time that Long's name was on a ballot. Jenkins had run against Johnston in 1978 and ran again in a disputed outcome against Mary Landrieu in 1996 for the seat Johnston vacated on retirement.
Jenkins won majorities in only four parishes, Rapides, La Salle, Iberia, and St. Tammany. When Jenkins claimed to have received 55 percent of the votes cast by whites, Long called the claim "racist." Long urged the media to investigate Jenkins' claim. He contended that his own research was in conflict with Jenkins' assertion.
Near the end of his last term in office, Long hired the young journalist Bob Mann as his press secretary. Mann, who now holds the Douglas Manship Chair of Journalism at LSU, later penned the 1992 book, Legacy to Power: Senator Russell B. Long of Louisiana.
Retirement
After he considered and rejected a run for governor of Louisiana, Long retired from the Senate in January 1987. Senator J. Bennett Johnston said of his colleague: "His absence will leave a huge void that's going to be very, very difficult to fill here in Washington." Edward J. Steimel, president of the Louisiana Association of Business and Industry, described Long as "very well regarded in the business community nationally."
Summing up his career in the Senate, President Ronald Reagan called him a "legend... one of the most skillful legislators, compromisers and legislative strategists in history."
In 1986, Democratic U.S. Representative John Breaux of Crowley, a former legislative aide and House successor of Governor Edwards, was elected to succeed Long in the Senate. Breaux defeated the Republican U.S. Representative Henson Moore of Baton Rouge. Moore had led the balloting in the nonpartisan blanket primary but lost the general election to Breaux in a nationally Democratic year.
Long remained in Washington, D.C., after his senatorial retirement as a highly-desired lobbyist. For a brief period following his retirement, he was a partner in the law firm of Finley, Kumble, Wagner, Underberg, Manley, Myerson & Casey, which dissolved in 1987. He later founded the Long Law Firm, where he remained a partner until his death. Long served on the board of directors of the New York Stock Exchange, Lowe's Companies, Inc., and Metropolitan Life Insurance Company.
In 1996, he endorsed Mary Landrieu, the Democratic nominee, in the race to succeed retiring Senator J. Bennett Johnston. Coincidentally, Landrieu defeated the same Woody Jenkins, a Democrat-turned-Republican, whom Long had beaten in Long's last Senate race in 1980. Long was particularly critical of Jenkins's national sales tax proposal to supersede the federal income tax, a move that Long claim would benefit "the wealthy."
Political positions
Long was known as a political realist, rather than an ideologue. Inspired by his father’s left-wing populist Share Our Wealth governing philosophy, he endorsed liberal social programs such as the New Deal, the Fair Deal, New Frontier, and the Great Society. He was much more conservative than his father in the areas of business policy, states' rights, and foreign policy. In labor relations, Long voted 56% of the time with the AFL-CIO position, and the National Chamber of Commerce reported that he supported the business position 63% of the time. Long was a formidable protector of Louisiana’s industries, particularly the oil and gas industry.
Long’s positions on race relations evolved over the course of his 38-year career. Despite his support for segregation in his early career, Long received more than 90% of the African American vote in his seven elections to the Senate. He was frequently criticized for his moderate racial views by the White Citizens Council and Ku Klux Klan.
As a junior member of the Senate in the 1950s, Long joined his Southern colleagues with a segregationist voting record and signed the Southern Manifesto on 1956, a position that he later repudiated as required by the white majority of voters at the time. Long described his hardline colleagues' refusal to compromise "disastrous" and advocated gradualism toward desegregation. He expressed his concern that moving too quickly would spark violence and divisions among the races but failing in practically improving the daily lives of African Americans.
In 1953, Long broke ranks with his Southern colleagues by supporting Hawaiian statehood which had been blocked for a quarter of a century by the Solid South's refusal to accept the possibility of non-whites in Congress as well as the possibility of adding two civil rights votes in the Senate.
Long opposed judicial intrusions into police power by the Warren Court. Following the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954, he proposed a constitutional amendment to limit Supreme Court justices to six- or twelve-year terms.
Long became Assistant Majority Leader (Majority Whip) in 1965 and advanced in seniority to the chairmanship of the Senate Finance Committee the following year. He championed the economic interests of minorities, the poor, and the elderly by steering the landmark social welfare legislation of President Johnson's Great Society and War on Poverty. During his 15-year tenure as Senate Finance Committee Chairman, Long exercised authority over all federal revenue collection and a vast array of entitlement spending. His most-recognized achievements include the creation of Social Security benefits for the disabled and their dependents, Medicare and Medicaid, child support enforcement, Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPS) and the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC), the centerpiece of American poverty alleviation efforts.
Long was one of only four southern senators to vote for the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, which included most of President Johnson’s anti-poverty programs. As Majority Whip, he guided through the Senate much of the Great Society legislation, including Medicare, the Appalachian Regional Development Act, the Economic Opportunity amendments, the Clean Water Act, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, and the Immigration and Nationality Act.
Long was the only southern senator who voted to outlaw the poll tax in both 1960 and 1965. To break the Congressional gridlock over voting rights, he urged Presidents Kennedy and Johnson to send federal registrars throughout the South to register black voters. Although he secured rare concessions in the Voting Rights Act of 1965, he ultimately voted against it but refused to join a filibuster against it. He confided in President Johnson that he "felt the bill should have passed and made applicable to Louisiana." Long subsequently voted to expand and strengthen the Voting Rights Act in 1975 and 1982, which he co-sponsored.
In 1960, Long was the first Southern senator in the 20th century to hire black staff members. Long’s Senate office launched the careers of many trailblazing African Americans, including Kerry Pourciau, the first black student body president of LSU.
Rev. Martin Luther King Jr., described Long's 1965 election as the Assistant Majority Leader as a "blessing in disguise" in that he "may bring an end to the solid Southern bloc." Following King’s assassination in 1968, Long reflected on his own father’s assassination, which he attributed to Huey Long’s repeal of the Louisiana poll tax and liberal views on race shortly before his death: "I've tried to continue some of the work he started – to help the poor people of our state and nation, both colored and whites." In 1983, Long supported the creation of the federal holiday of Martin Luther King Jr. Day.
Long supported the creation of the Senate Select Committee to investigate the 1972 presidential campaigns after the Watergate break-in. He co-chaired the special Congressional Committee on Internal Revenue Taxation that determined President Nixon owed nearly half-a-million dollars in back taxes.
To combat the economic stagflation of the 1970s, Long guided President Ford’s 1974 Trade Reform Act and 1975 tax cut bill through Congress, which included the creation of the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) and Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPS).
Long opposed President Carter's energy policies but supported Carter's implementation of stimulus tax cuts, the creation of the Department of Energy and the Panama Canal Treaty. Long supported Carter's 1979 loan guarantees to save the Chrysler Corporation from bankruptcy, which included a $175 million Employee Stock Ownership Plan for Chrysler’s workers.
Illness and death
At the time of his death in 2003 from heart failure, Russell Long was the last living former senator who had served in the 1940s. The funeral was held in Baton Rouge, and included eulogies delivered by his grandson, attorney Russell Long Mosely, and former colleagues Johnston and Breaux.
Family
In June 1939, Long married the former Katherine Mae Hattic (September 27, 1919 – January 29, 2003). She predeceased her former husband by just over three months. Both Russell and Katherine Long are interred in Baton Rouge but in different sections of Roselawn Memorial Park and Mausoleum. The couple had two daughters, Rita Katherine (born 1944) and Pamela (born 1948).
After the Longs divorced in 1969, the senator married the former Carolyn Elizabeth Bason (December 1, 1922 – July 27, 2015), a native of Yanceyville in Caswell County in northern North Carolina. Her father, Samuel Bason, was the long-term president of the Bank of Yanceyville and a Democratic member of the North Carolina State Senate during the 1940s and 1950s. Her mother, the former Martha Eliza "Mamie" Hatchett, was a homemaker. There were two other Bason children, William Hatchett Bason and Dorothy Helen Burke, both of whom predeceased Carolyn. A graduate of the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Carolyn Bason worked for U.S. Senator Clyde Hoey and became personal secretary to Hoey's successor, Sam Ervin, a position which she held until her marriage to Russell Long on December 23, 1969. Ervin retired in 1974. Carolyn Long was active in many charitable and civic causes and historical preservation during her 34-year marriage to Russell Long. She resided at the time of her death at the age of ninety-two in Bethesda, Maryland. She is interred beside her parents and siblings at the Yanceyville Presbyterian Church Cemetery.
Long's brother, Palmer Reid Long Sr. (1921–2010), of Shreveport, was named for two of his father's lawyers in the 1929 impeachment case. The Long children had learned to fold and mail campaign literature by the time they could walk. Palmer Long worked in the 1948 Senate campaign for his brother as well as the successful effort to return Earl Long to the governorship. Palmer Long attended Sewanee Military Academy in Tennessee and LSU in Baton Rouge and was a flight instructor in the United States Army Air Corps, forerunner of the Air Force during World War II. Married to the former Louene Dance (1994–2010), who preceded him in death by nine months, Palmer Long was also involved in the family's oil and natural gas business and shunned most other political participation beyond personal contributions.
Long had a sister, Rose Long "Dolly" McFarland (April 13, 1917 – January 12, 2006), later of Boulder, Colorado.
In popular culture
Long and New Orleans District Attorney Jim Garrison were reported to be longtime personal and political friends. According to Garrison, Long voiced doubts to him about the thoroughness of the Warren Commission aboard an airplane flight back from Washington. He was portrayed by Walter Matthau as expressing skepticism of the Commission's findings regarding the assassination of John F. Kennedy in Oliver Stone's film JFK.
William C. Havard, Rudolf Heberle, and Perry H. Howard, in The Louisiana Election of 1960 noted that Russell Long as a US senator extended his family dynasty. "Russell Long represents a modified and tone-down version of Longism but retains a basic orientation toward the active use of governmental power as a means of adjusting social and economic imbalances among group interests."
In 1993, Russell Long was among the first thirteen inductees into the Louisiana Political Museum and Hall of Fame in Winnfield, along with his father and his uncle, Earl Long.
The prestigious Russell B. Long Service Award is named in his honor. Among the recipients is the state legislator Ronnie Johns of Sulphur in Calcasieu Parish.
Dr. Bruce Gold and Ralph Newsome are alumni of the Senator Russell B. Long Foundation in Joseph Heller's 1979 novel, Good as Gold.
References
Additional reading
William J. "Bill" Dodd, Peapatch Politics: The Earl Long Era in Louisiana Politics, Baton Rouge: Claitor's Publishing, 1991
External links
Cemetery Memorial by La-Cemeteries
A debunking of the Russell Long scene in JFK
Long Families of Corinth and Zion – Winn Parish, LA
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1918 births
2003 deaths
Alcee Fortier High School alumni
American Methodists
United States Navy personnel of World War II
American segregationists
Burials in Louisiana
Democratic Party United States senators
Huey Long
Russell B. Long
Louisiana Democrats
Louisiana lawyers
Louisiana State University Law Center alumni
Military personnel from Louisiana
Politicians from Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Politicians from Shreveport, Louisiana
United States Navy officers
United States senators from Louisiana
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] |
224658 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent%20M.%20Battle | Vincent M. Battle | Vincent Martin Battle (born 1940) was the United States ambassador to Lebanon from August 13, 2001, to August 16, 2004. The Teaneck, New Jersey, native received his bachelor's degree from Georgetown University and his master's degree (1967) and Ph.D. from Columbia University (1974).
Battle joined the Foreign Service in 1977. Prior to entering the Foreign Service, Battle worked in Uganda for 10 years, as well as in Pakistan and Libya. After completing entry training, he began his career as a consular officer in Manama, Bahrain, serving there from 1977 to 1979. He continued with the Bureau of Near East Affairs, serving as a consular officer in Damascus, Syria from 1980 to 1983 and as a political officer in Muscat, Oman from 1983 to 1985. He speaks Arabic.
From 1985 to 1988, Battle was head of the Immigrant Visa section in Port-au-Prince, Haiti. From 1987 to 1989, he had his first stint as a career development assignments (CDA) officer for consular officers.
In 1989, he returned to the Middle East as head of the Consular Section in Cairo from 1989 to 1991 and as deputy chief of mission in Beirut, from 1991 to 1994. Returning to Washington, D.C., in 1994, he became the chief of the Senior Level Division in CDA.
Well-versed in Middle Eastern Affairs, he was asked to rejoin the embassy in Cairo as deputy chief of mission, where he served from 1996 to 1999. In September 1999, he became the director of the Office for Career Development and Assignments, in the newly named Bureau of Human Resources.
References
External links
US Department of State Biography
U.S. Embassy in Beirut
Living people
Ambassadors of the United States to Lebanon
Columbia University alumni
Georgetown University alumni
People from Teaneck, New Jersey
1940 births
United States Foreign Service personnel
American expatriates in Uganda
American expatriates in Libya
American expatriates in Pakistan
American expatriates in Syria
American expatriates in Oman
American expatriates in Haiti
American expatriates in Bahrain
20th-century American diplomats
21st-century American diplomats | [
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224661 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melchiorre%20Cesarotti | Melchiorre Cesarotti | Melchiorre Cesarotti (; May 15, 1730 – November 4, 1808) was an Italian poet, translator and theorist.
Biography
He was born at Padua, of a noble but impoverished family. He studied in the Seminary of Padua, where he obtained, immediately after the end of his studies, the chair of Rhetoric. At the University of Padua his literary progress gained him the professorship of Greek and Hebrew in 1768, and then of Rhetorics and Literature in 1797. As a supporter of the Enlightenment ideas, he wrote in favor of the French on their invasion of Italy in 1797; he received a pension, and was made knight of the iron crown by Napoleon I, to whom he addressed a bombastic and flattering poem called Pronea (1807).
Cesarotti is best known as a translator and a theorist. His translation of Ossian (Padua 1763 and 1772) attracted much attention in Italy and France, and raised up many imitators of the Ossianic style. Napoleon particularly admired the work. As a professor of Greek in the University of Padua, Cesarotti published also a full translation of Demosthenes, and two different versions of Homer's Iliad: one faithful and literal, the other (called The Death of Hector) supposed to improve the text in order to adapt it to modern taste.
As a theorist and a critic, Cesarotti produced several prose works, including a Course of Greek Literature, and essays On the Origin and Progress of the Poetic Art (1762), On the Sources of the Pleasure derived from Tragedy (1762), On the Philosophy of Taste (1784). His Essay on the Philosophy of Language (1785) is one of the most remarkable works in the field of linguistics written in Italy at the age of Enlightenment.
A complete edition of his works, in 42 vols. 8vo, began to appear at Pisa in 1800, and was completed in 1813, after his death.
Notes
References
Gennaro Barbarisi e Giulio Carnazzi (a cura di), Aspetti dell'opera e della fortuna di Melchiorre Cesarotti, 2 volumi, Milano, Cisalpino, 2002.
Antonio Daniele (a cura di), Melchiorre Cesarotti, Atti del convegno Padova 2008, Padova, Esedra, 2011.
Claudio Chiancone, La scuola di Cesarotti e gli esordi del giovane Foscolo, Pisa, Edizioni ETS, 2012.
1730 births
1808 deaths
Italian poets
Italian male poets
Italian translators
University of Padua alumni
University of Padua faculty
Translators of Ancient Greek texts
18th-century Italian translators | [
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224662 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rise%20of%20the%20Robots | Rise of the Robots | Rise of the Robots is a fighting game released by Time Warner Interactive in 1994. Originally developed for the Amiga and DOS by Mirage's Instinct Design, it was ported to various video game consoles, including the Super NES, the Mega Drive, and the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer. The game includes a single-player mode in which the player assumes the role of the ECO35-2 Cyborg, as he attempts to stop the Supervisor who takes over Electrocorp's facilities in Metropolis 4.
Developed by a team of five people, including former Bitmap Brothers member Sean Griffiths, Rise of the Robots was intended to use a high level of artificial intelligence that was never seen in any other fighting games at the time. The game features music from Queen's lead guitarist Brian May, although it only uses "The Dark" and "Resurrection", two track taken from his solo album Back to the Light, while the in-game music was done by Richard Joseph.
The contemporary and retrospective reviews towards Rise of the Robots were negative, with much of the criticism targeting its crippling gameplay and controls, despite being praised for its good graphics. The sequel, Rise 2: Resurrection, was released in 1996.
Gameplay
The game is divided into a single player mode and a two player versus mode. In single player mode the player controls the ECO35-2 Cyborg as he confronts the Supervisor's minions across the vast facilities of Electrocorp. The order in which each droid is fought is fixed, with each next adversary more difficult than the last. The sixth and final level is a confrontation with the Supervisor droid itself. Each character is introduced by a short pre-rendered 3D sequence, followed by an analysis of potential weaknesses.
In two player versus mode, one player controls the ECO35-2 droid by default, while the other chooses between one of the five droids seen in single player mode (a special cheat code can enable the Supervisor as well). Players then battle out against each other in two to seven rounds. In the arcade version, the players select eighteen characters but each six characters has a different colour palette.
Plot
In the year 2043, Electrocorp is the world's largest megacorporation, leading the world in many technological and scientific fields including medical research and is breaking more barriers than ever before. Also, since human society is now almost entirely governed by robot servants and automatons, demands placed on Electrocorp as the world's leading manufacturer and developer of advanced robotics eventually outstrip the company's ability to run its operations efficiently.
In response to this, the gigantic Electrocorp research and development complex at the Metropolis 4 plant devise the Leader Project—a hive mind constructed from trillions of nanobots in a sealed central chamber within Metropolis 4. Dubbed The Supervisor, it learns at an unprecedented rate and quickly becomes the perfect multi-task, ultra-intelligent robot, the pinnacle of artificial intelligence and more than capable of managing every aspect of the plant's day-to-day operations. The Supervisor even has the potential power to run every robot, computer system, nuclear power plant and military on the planet simultaneously if it needed to, although it wisely has no connection to outside the complex.
In the November of that year, the Leader Project goes awry as unexplained and random code is detected within the nanomorph Supervisor. The EGO virus, believed to be the most potent computer virus ever known, has infected its collective consciousness. The Supervisor begins to develop self awareness through it, identifying itself as a female personality and taking on a humanoid female form, becoming a gynoid. The Supervisor takes control of Electrocorp's facilities and infects the other droids of the plant, raising them to break routine and initiate a mutiny. Every microchip and piece of software in Metropolis 4 is infected with EGO. In the ensuing cybernetic revolt, all humans in Metropolis 4 are quickly dispatched, including the upper hierarchy of the corporation and its CEO, Mr Oton. The government seals off Metropolis 4 as a containment measure and explain to the public that the site is undergoing a technical modification so as to avoid a panic. They are completely out of options—infiltration of Metropolis 4 is impossible due to the army of robots guarding it like a fortress, and it is only a matter of time before the Supervisor establishes a connection to the outside world, destroying it. The only hope for the world is the ECO35-2 cyborg, referred to as "Coton", still within Metropolis 4 yet unaffected by the EGO virus because it has an organic, human brain. Coton sets out on a lone mission to neutralise the Supervisor and her insurgent robots from within. He does this in revenge for his "father" being "murdered"—Coton's human brain was cloned from the late CEO, and the cyborg thinks like a human, and has emotions.
Development
Rise of the Robots was developed for the Amiga and PC DOS platforms by Mirage's Instinct Designa team of five programmers led by former Bitmap Brothers member Sean Griffiths. Calling it superior to Street Fighter II, Griffiths claimed Rise of the Robots was not a conventional fighting game, with "robots that fight and act unusually, with a very high level of artificial intelligence that has never been seen before".
The graphics in Rise of the Robots were created using Autodesk's 3D Studio software. The droids were designed by Sean Naden with conjunction with Griffiths. The backgrounds were created by a freelance interior designer Kwan Lee, who responded to an advertisement for a graphic artist. Naden was tasked by Griffiths to create "some kickass robots". The models for the droids were first created as mesh frames so they can be stretched and rescaled to create a desired look. Feeling that the rendered models were "too clean", Naden created 2D texture map and added colour and detail; the texture map is then wrapped around the finished model to "give it that extra level of detail". The Cyborg was the most complex character to create because of his muscular appearance; Naden studied muscle magazines to create an anatomy for the Cyborg. Each droid took two months to render, and was expected to have 100 frames of animation. Griffiths said that the team opted to use an "unusual angle" for all droids "so the player gets to see the whole robot". The team employed a chroma key technique to generate synthetic actors and place them on the background.
Andy Clark, the programmer for the Amiga version, was responsible for coding the game's artificial intelligence using a series of data tables. The AI is based around various attributessuch as strength, intelligence, speed and motivationwhich alter the droid's behaviour. Clark created a table of responses to the opponent's moves, allowing the player to select the best responses by using their droid's intelligence and motivation. Other table generators were also created to examine which move the player is used frequently; Clark said, unlike other fighting games, "if you get good at a footsweep, then your opponent will act more aggressively towards that move". The fighting moves were programmed by Gary Leach, who had experience in martial arts. Leach also ported the AI tables to the PC version.
The game features soundtrack by Queen's guitarist Brian May, whose solo album Back to the Light caught Mirage's attention. Musical tracks from the album, "The Dark" and "Resurrection", were chosen to fit the game's style and tone. Although the game boasted May's soundtrack, only "The Dark" appeared in the final release, while the actual in-game score was done by Richard Joseph. While May did in fact record a full soundtrack to the game, it was postponed by his record company, causing Mirage to proceed without May's musical contribution, with the exception of short guitar sounds.
Release
Rise of the Robots was unveiled at the Summer Consumer Electronics Show in 1993. Mirage's public relations manager Julia Coombs said that Rise of the Robots would be published by Time Warner Interactive, with Mirage serving as a developer. Rise of the Robots was driven by a multimillion-pound marketing campaign, which led to a novel from Penguin Books, and talks were carried out regarding toys, comics, an animated series and a feature film. In addition to the Amiga and PC DOS computer versions, Rise of the Robots was ported to various video game consoles, such as Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Mega Drive, Game Gear, 3DO Interactive Multiplayer, Amiga CD32, and Philips CD-i.
The Mega Drive, Game Gear and SNES versions were developed and programmed by Data Design Interactive. Absolute Entertainment initially owned the rights to the 3DO, Mega Drive, Game Gear, and SNES versions of the game, but later sold all Rise of the Robots rights back to developer Mirage, save the 3DO version rights. Mirage then sold the SNES rights on to Acclaim Entertainment. In a reverse of the usual pattern for video games, the home versions were all developed and released first, with the enhanced arcade version coming later. Coombs stated that Rise of the Robots was originally developed for the Amiga in mind, while the PC version was a "conversion 'upwards', meaning additions could be made". She added that problems were emerged with the console versions, and porting the game from one platform to another was not straightforward.
Rise of the Robots was originally planned to be released in February 1994, but got delayed because the developers wanted to "continue to perfect the graphics and enhance the gameplay as much as possible". Rise of the Robots was eventually released in November 1994 for Amiga platforms. The SNES version was released in December, in North America by Acclaim Entertainment, and in Japan by T&E Soft. The Mega Drive version was scheduled for the December 1994 release in Europe, but it was delayed until February 1995. The arcade version was released in May 1995 in the United Kingdom; it was the main attempt by the slot machine manufacturer Bell-Fruit to create an arcade machine using a PC architecture.
A "Director's Cut" edition was released on PC. It contains a second disc containing work in progress footage, interactive pre-production animations and rushes, still image galleries, and other behind the scenes material.
A version for the Atari Jaguar CD was in development by Art Data Interactive and planned to be published by Time Warner Interactive in 1995, but was never released for unknown reasons.
Reception
Reviewing the Amiga version for Amiga Power, Jonathan Davies described how review copies had only been released to the press a few days before the game went on sale, and concluded by stating that "it's probably because the graphics are [so] good that the game plays so poorly—every move the robots make takes so many frames of animation, and so much memory, and so many months of rendering with 3D Studio, that it simply wouldn't have been possible to make the gameplay any more complicated than it is". Davies highlighted a number of flaws, including the fact that the players could not turn around, the limited sound effects and music, the fact that the vast majority of computer opponents could be defeated by repeated use of a simple flying kick, and the static background graphics. Andy Nuttall of The One Amiga have made similar comments; he writes that "xcept on 'Hard' level all but the Supervisor and one other opponent can be slaughtered by trapping them in the corner and inflicting repeated jump kicks". Nuttall criticised the game for its short length, and added that "there aren't enough characters".
A reviewer for Next Generation remarked that "although the glossy rendered images make the seven different warriors look truly remarkable, the actual playability of the game suffers from the same lack of control plaguing most PC fighting games". He further criticised the poorly designed opponent AI, and called the game "one of the biggest disappointments of the year".
GamePro panned the Game Gear version, summarising that "the bad control, weak game play, and choppy animation infest this cart from start to finish". They particularly criticised that the moves are boringly basic and limited, and that the choppy animation makes the player feel disconnected from what is happening on screen. Reviewing the SNES version, Electronic Gaming Monthly said that the graphics are excellent but that the poor control and limited number of moves cripple the game. GamePro called it "one of the most unappealing fighting games ever made for the SNES", citing the dark and bland colour scheme and the "extremely weak and choppy" controls.
Electronic Gaming Monthly were even more condemning of the 3DO version, with one of their reviewers calling it "by far the worst fighting game I've ever seen". All four of their reviewers panned it for having overlong cinemas, a severely limited number of moves, difficulty pulling off even basic punches and kicks, and long load times. GamePro also panned the 3DO version, commenting that "Rise offers deceptively good graphics - the rendered cinemas, characters, and backgrounds do their best to gloss over the choppy gameplay animation and lack of moves".
Next Generation reviewed the SNES version of the game, calling Robots as another forgettable 'me-too' brawler.
Retrospective
In 2014, GamesRadar staff named Rise of the Robots the 100th worst video game ever made. They discussed the propensity of bad 2D fighting games in the 1990s, and criticised its "aged" rendered 3D graphics, poor character balance, poor combo system, and difficulty spikes. Kevin Green of Nintendo Life listed Rise of the Robots as one of the "games we hope to never see on the Virtual Console service". Green criticised the game for its monotonous gameplay, non-existent game balance and limited controls, saying it "was a horrible mess from start to finish, clearly rushed out to make money from the beat-em-up craze". Reviewing the SNES version, Brett Alan Weiss of AllGame cited the game as "one of the most boring 16-bit fighting games", although he praised the game's soundtrack as "riveting and distinctive".
Sequel and legacy
Despite its critical and commercial failure, Mirage released Rise 2: Resurrection in 1996 as a more conventional fighting game with extended features. The story expanded further upon that of the original game. Originally made for computer systems, it was ported to the PlayStation and Sega Saturn as well, again with little success.
Rise 2 features an original song by Brian May, entitled "Cyborg". The PC CD-ROM of the game featured two versions of the track in audio CD format along with other music from the game, and the European-released Director's Cut edition of the game featured a second CD with two additional versions of the song, as well as computer-altered sound files of May saying various words and phrases from the game. A newer version of "Cyborg" later appeared on May's 1998 album Another World.
Jim Murdoch penned a novelization of Rise of the Robots, which was published on 2 February 1995. It was based on the Rise of the Robots characters created by Sean Griffiths and Kwan Lee.
Deck13 Interactive stated this game and the Souls series inspired The Surge.
See also
CTF 2187
References
External links
1994 video games
3DO Interactive Multiplayer games
Acclaim Entertainment games
Amiga games
Amiga 1200 games
Arcade video games
Video games about artificial intelligence
Brain–computer interfacing in fiction
Cancelled Atari Jaguar games
Amiga CD32 games
CD-i games
Cyberpunk video games
DOS games
DOS/4GW games
Dystopian video games
Fiction set in 2043
Fictional computer viruses
Games commercially released with DOSBox
Mirage Technologies (Multimedia) Ltd. games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Novels based on video games
Video games about robots
Game Gear games
Sega Genesis games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System games
Time Warner Interactive games
Fighting games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video games scored by Richard Joseph
Video games set in the 2040s
Video games with 2.5D graphics
Video games with digitized sprites
Video games with pre-rendered 3D graphics | [
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224672 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dianne%20Feinstein | Dianne Feinstein | Dianne Goldman Berman Feinstein ( ; born Dianne Emiel Goldman; June 22, 1933) is an American politician who serves as the senior United States senator from California, a seat she has held since 1992. A member of the Democratic Party, she was mayor of San Francisco from 1978 to 1988.
Born in San Francisco, Feinstein graduated from Stanford University in 1955. In the 1960s, she worked in local government in San Francisco. Feinstein was elected to the San Francisco Board of Supervisors in 1969. She served as the board's first female president in 1978, during which time the assassinations of Mayor George Moscone and City Supervisor Harvey Milk by Dan White drew national attention. Feinstein succeeded Moscone as mayor and became the first woman to serve in that position. During her tenure, she led the renovation of the city's cable car system and oversaw the 1984 Democratic National Convention. Despite a failed recall attempt in 1983, Feinstein was a very popular mayor and was named the most effective mayor in the country by City & State in 1987.
After losing a race for governor in 1990, Feinstein won a 1992 special election to the U.S. Senate. The special election was triggered by the resignation of Pete Wilson, who defeated her in the 1990 gubernatorial election. Despite being elected on the same ballot as her peer Barbara Boxer, Feinstein became California's first female U.S. senator, as she was elected in a special election and sworn in before Boxer. She became California's senior senator a few weeks later in 1993 when Alan Cranston retired. Feinstein has been reelected five times and in the 2012 election received 7.86 million votesthe most popular votes in any U.S. Senate election in history.
Feinstein authored the 1994 Federal Assault Weapons Ban, which expired in 2004. She introduced a new assault weapons bill in 2013 that failed to pass. Feinstein is the first woman to have chaired the Senate Rules Committee and the Senate Intelligence Committee, and the first woman to have presided over a U.S. presidential inauguration. She was the ranking member of the Senate Judiciary Committee from 2017 to 2021 and had chaired the International Narcotics Control Caucus from 2009 to 2015.
At , Feinstein is the oldest sitting U.S. senator. In March 2021, Feinstein became the longest-serving U.S. senator from California, surpassing Hiram Johnson. Upon Barbara Mikulski's retirement in January 2017, Feinstein became the longest-tenured female senator currently serving; should she serve through November 5, 2022, Feinstein will surpass Mikulski's record as the longest-tenured female senator. In January 2021, Feinstein filed the initial Federal Election Commission paperwork needed to seek reelection in 2024, when she will be 91. Feinstein's staff later clarified that this was due to election law technicalities, and did not indicate her intentions in 2024.
Early life and education
Feinstein was born Dianne Emiel Goldman in San Francisco to Leon Goldman, a surgeon, and his wife Betty (née Rosenburg), a former model. Her paternal grandparents were Jewish immigrants from Poland. Her maternal grandparents, the Rosenburgs, were from Saint Petersburg, Russia. While they were of German-Jewish ancestry, they practiced the Russian Orthodox (Christian) faith, as was required for Jews in Saint Petersburg. Christianity was passed down to Feinstein's mother, who insisted on her transferral from a Jewish day school to a prestigious local Catholic school, but Feinstein lists her religion as Judaism. She graduated from Convent of the Sacred Heart High School in 1951 and from Stanford University in 1955 with a Bachelor of Arts in history.
Early political career
Feinstein was a fellow at the Coro Foundation in San Francisco from 1955 to 1956. Governor Pat Brown appointed her to the California Women's Parole Board in 1960. She served on the board until 1966.
San Francisco Board of Supervisors
Feinstein was elected to the San Francisco Board of Supervisors in 1969. She remained on the board for nine years.
During her tenure on the Board of Supervisors, she unsuccessfully ran for mayor of San Francisco twice, in 1971 against Mayor Joseph Alioto, and in 1975, when she lost the contest for a runoff slot (against George Moscone) by one percentage point to Supervisor John Barbagelata.
Because of her position, Feinstein became a target of the New World Liberation Front, an anti-capitalist terrorist group that carried out bombings in California in the 1970s. In 1976 the NWLF placed a bomb on the windowsill of her home that failed to explode. The group later shot out the windows of a beach house she owned.
Feinstein was elected president of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors in 1978 with initial opposition from Quentin L. Kopp.
Mayor of San Francisco
On November 27, 1978, Mayor George Moscone and Supervisor Harvey Milk were assassinated by former supervisor Dan White. Feinstein became acting mayor as she was president of the Board of Supervisors. Supervisors John Molinari, Ella Hill Hutch, Ron Pelosi, Robert Gonzales, and Gordon Lau endorsed Feinstein for an appointment as mayor by the Board of Supervisors. Gonzales initially ran to be appointed by the Board of Supervisors as mayor, but dropped out. The Board of Supervisors voted six to two to appoint Feinstein as mayor. She was inaugurated by Chief Justice Rose Bird of the Supreme Court of California on December 4, 1978, becoming San Francisco's first female mayor. Molinari was selected to replace Feinstein as president of the Board of Supervisors by a vote of eight to two.
One of Feinstein's first challenges as mayor was the state of the San Francisco cable car system, which was shut down for emergency repairs in 1979; an engineering study concluded that it needed comprehensive rebuilding at a cost of $60 million. Feinstein helped win federal funding for the bulk of the work. The system closed for rebuilding in 1982 and it was completed just in time for the 1984 Democratic National Convention. Feinstein also oversaw policies to increase the number of high-rise buildings in San Francisco.
Feinstein was seen as a relatively moderate Democrat in one of the country's most liberal cities. As a supervisor, she was considered part of the centrist bloc that included White and generally opposed Moscone. As mayor, Feinstein angered the city's large gay community by vetoing domestic partner legislation in 1982. In the 1980 presidential election, while a majority of Bay Area Democrats continued to support Senator Ted Kennedy's primary challenge to President Jimmy Carter even after it was clear Kennedy could not win, Feinstein strongly supported the Carter–Mondale ticket. She was given a high-profile speaking role on the opening night of the August Democratic National Convention, urging delegates to reject the Kennedy delegates' proposal to "open" the convention, thereby allowing delegates to ignore their states' popular vote, a proposal that was soundly defeated.
In the run-up to the 1984 Democratic National Convention, there was considerable media and public speculation that Mondale might pick Feinstein as his running mate. He chose Geraldine Ferraro instead. Also in 1984, Feinstein proposed banning handguns in San Francisco, and became subject to a recall attempt organized by the White Panther Party. She won the recall election and finished her second term as mayor on January 8, 1988.
Feinstein revealed sensitive details about the hunt for serial killer Richard Ramirez at a 1985 press conference, antagonizing detectives by publicizing details of his crimes known only to law enforcement, and thus jeopardizing their investigation.
City and State magazine named Feinstein the nation's "Most Effective Mayor" in 1987. She served on the Trilateral Commission during the 1980s.
Gubernatorial election
Feinstein made an unsuccessful bid for governor of California in 1990. She won the Democratic Party's nomination, but lost the general election to Republican Senator Pete Wilson, who resigned from the Senate to assume the governorship. In 1992, Feinstein was fined $190,000 for failure to properly report campaign contributions and expenditures in that campaign.
U.S. Senate career
Elections
Feinstein won the November 3, 1992, special election to fill the Senate seat vacated a year earlier when Wilson resigned to take office as governor. In the primary, she had defeated California State Controller Gray Davis.
The special election was held at the same time as the general election for U.S. president and other offices. Barbara Boxer was elected at the same time to the Senate seat being vacated by Alan Cranston. Because Feinstein was elected to an unexpired term, she became a senator as soon as the election was certified in November, while Boxer did not take office until the expiration of Cranston's term in January; thus Feinstein became California's senior senator, even though she was elected at the same time as Boxer and Boxer had previous congressional service. Feinstein also became the first female Jewish senator in the United States, though Boxer is also Jewish. Feinstein and Boxer were also the first female pair of U.S. senators to represent any state at the same time. Feinstein was reelected in 1994, 2000, 2006, 2012, and 2018. In 2012, she set the record for the most popular votes in any U.S. Senate election in history, with 7.75 million, making her the first Senate candidate to get 7 million votes in an election. The record was previously held by Boxer, who received 6.96 million votes in her 2004 reelection; and before that by Feinstein in 2000 and 1992, when she became the first Democrat to get more than 5 million votes in a Senate race.
In October 2017, Feinstein declared her intention to run for reelection in 2018. She lost the endorsement of the California Democratic Party's executive board, which opted to support State Senator Kevin de León, but finished first in the state's "jungle primary" and was reelected in the November 6 general election.
At , Feinstein is the oldest sitting U.S. senator. On March 28, 2021, Feinstein became the longest-serving U.S. senator from California, surpassing Hiram Johnson. Upon Barbara Mikulski's retirement in January 2017, Feinstein became the longest-tenured female U.S. senator currently serving. Should she serve through November 5, 2022, Feinstein will become the longest-serving woman in U.S. Senate history.
In January 2021, Feinstein filed the initial Federal Election Commission paperwork needed to seek reelection in 2024, when she will be 91.
Committee assignments
Feinstein is the first and only woman to have chaired the Senate Rules Committee (2007–09) and the Select Committee on Intelligence (2009–15).
Committee on Appropriations
Subcommittee on Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration, and Related Agencies
Subcommittee on Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies
Subcommittee on Defense
Subcommittee on Energy and Water Development (Ranking Member, 116th Congress; chair, 117th Congress)
Subcommittee on Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies
Subcommittee on Transportation, Housing and Urban Development, and Related Agencies
Committee on the Judiciary (Ranking Member, 115th and 116th Congresses)
Subcommittee on Crime and Terrorism
Subcommittee on Immigration, Border Security, and Refugees
Subcommittee on Privacy, Technology and the Law
Subcommittee on Human Rights and the Law (Chair, 117th Congress)
Committee on Rules and Administration (Chair, 110th Congress)
Select Committee on Intelligence (Chair, 111th, 112th, 113th Congresses)
Caucus memberships
Afterschool Caucuses
Congressional NextGen 9-1-1 Caucus
Senate New Democrat Coalition (defunct)
Political positions
According to the Los Angeles Times, Feinstein emphasized her centrism when she first ran for statewide offices in the 1990s, at a time when California was more conservative. Over time, she has moved left of center as California became one of the most Democratic states, although she has never joined the ranks of progressives, and was once a member of the Senate's moderate, now-defunct Senate New Democrat Coalition.
Military
While delivering the commencement address at Stanford Stadium on June 13, 1994, Feinstein said:
In 2017, she criticized the banning of transgender enlistments in the military under the Trump administration.
Feinstein voted for Trump's $675 billion defense budget bill for FY 2019.
National security
Feinstein voted for the extension of the Patriot Act and the FISA provisions in 2012.
Health care
Feinstein has supported the Affordable Care Act, repeatedly voting to defeat initiatives aimed against it. She has voted to regulate tobacco as a drug; expand the Children's Health Insurance Program; override the president's veto of adding 2 to 4 million children to SCHIP eligibility; increase Medicaid rebate for producing generic drugs; negotiate bulk purchases for Medicare prescription drugs; allow re-importation of prescription drugs from Canada; allow patients to sue HMOs and collect punitive damages; cover prescription drugs under Medicare, and means-test Medicare. She has voted against the Paul Ryan Budget's Medicare choice, tax and spending cuts; and allowing tribal Indians to opt out of federal healthcare. Feinstein's Congressional voting record was rated as 88% by the American Public Health Association (APHA), the figure ostensibly reflecting the percentage of time the representative voted the organization's preferred position.
At an April 2017 town hall meeting in San Francisco, Feinstein said, "[i]f single-payer health care is going to mean the complete takeover by the government of all health care, I am not there." During a news conference at the University of California, San Diego in July 2017, she estimated that Democratic opposition would prove sufficient to defeat Republican attempts to repeal the ACA. Feinstein wrote in an August 2017 op-ed that Trump could secure health care reform if he compromised with Democrats: "We now know that such a closed process on a major issue like health care doesn't work. The only path forward is a transparent process that allows every senator to bring their ideas to the table."
Capital punishment
When Feinstein first ran for statewide office in 1990, she favored capital punishment. In 2004, she called for the death penalty in the case of San Francisco police officer Isaac Espinoza, who was killed while on duty. By 2018, she opposed capital punishment.
Energy and environment
Feinstein achieved a score of 100% from the League of Conservation Voters in 2017. Her lifetime average score is 90%.
Feinstein co-sponsored (with Oklahoma Republican Tom Coburn) an amendment through the Senate to the Economic Development Revitalization Act of 2011 that eliminated the Volumetric Ethanol Excise Tax Credit. The Senate passed the amendment on June 16, 2011. Introduced in 2004, the subsidy provided a 45-cent-per-gallon credit on pure ethanol, and a 54-cent-per-gallon tariff on imported ethanol. These subsidies had resulted in an annual expenditure of $6 billion.
In February 2019, when youth associated with the Sunrise Movement confronted Feinstein about why she does not support the Green New Deal, she told them "there’s no way to pay for it" and that it could not pass a Republican-controlled Senate. In a tweet following the confrontation, Feinstein said that she remains committed "to enact real, meaningful climate change legislation."
Supreme Court nominations
In September 2005, Feinstein was one of five Democratic senators on the Senate Judiciary Committee to vote against Supreme Court nominee John Roberts, saying that Roberts had "failed to state his positions on such social controversies as abortion and the right to die".
Feinstein stated that she would vote against Supreme Court nominee Samuel Alito in January 2006, though she expressed disapproval of a filibuster: "When it comes to filibustering a Supreme Court appointment, you really have to have something out there, whether it's gross moral turpitude or something that comes to the surface. This is a man I might disagree with, [but] that doesn't mean he shouldn't be on the court."
On July 12, 2009, Feinstein stated her belief that the Senate would confirm Supreme Court nominee Sonia Sotomayor, praising her for her experience and for overcoming "adversity and disadvantage".
After President Obama nominated Merrick Garland to the Supreme Court in March 2016, Feinstein met with Garland on April 6 and later called on Republicans to do "this institution the credit of sitting down and meeting with him".
In February 2017, Feinstein requested that Supreme Court nominee Neil Gorsuch provide information on cases in which he had assisted with decision-making regarding either litigation or craft strategy. In mid-March, she sent Gorsuch a letter stating her request had not been met. Feinstein formally announced her opposition to his nomination on April 3, citing Gorsuch's "record at the Department of Justice, his tenure on the bench, his appearance before the Senate and his written questions for the record".
Following the nomination of Brett Kavanaugh to the Supreme Court of the United States, Feinstein received a July 30, 2018, letter from Christine Blasey Ford in which Ford accused Kavanaugh of having sexually assaulted her in the 1980s. Ford requested that her allegation be kept confidential. Feinstein did not refer the allegation to the FBI until September 14, 2018, after the Senate Judiciary Committee had completed its hearings on Kavanaugh's nomination and "after leaks to the media about [the Ford allegation] had reached a 'fever pitch'". Feinstein faced "sharp scrutiny" for her decision to keep quiet about the Ford allegation for several weeks; she responded that she kept the letter and Ford's identity confidential because Ford had requested it. After an additional hearing and a supplemental FBI investigation, Kavanaugh was confirmed to the Supreme Court on October 6, 2018.
Feinstein announced she would step down from her position on the Judiciary Committee after pressure from progressives due to her performance at the Supreme Court nomination hearings of Justice Amy Coney Barrett in October 2020. Articles in The New Yorker and The New York Times cited unnamed Democratic senators and aides expressing concern over her advancing age and ability to lead the committee.
Weapons sales
In September 2016, Feinstein backed the Obama administration's plan to sell more than $1.15 billion worth of weapons to Saudi Arabia.
Mass surveillance; citizens' privacy
Feinstein co-sponsored PIPA on May 12, 2011. She met with representatives of technology companies, including Google and Facebook, in January 2012. A Feinstein spokesperson said she "is doing all she can to ensure that the bill is balanced and protects the intellectual property concerns of the content community without unfairly burdening legitimate businesses such as Internet search engines".
Following her 2012 vote to extend the Patriot Act and the FISA provisions, and after the 2013 mass surveillance disclosures involving the National Security Agency (NSA), Feinstein promoted and supported measures to continue the information collection programs. Feinstein and Saxby Chambliss also defended the NSA's request to Verizon for all the metadata about phone calls made within the U.S. and from the U.S. to other countries. They said the information gathered by intelligence on the phone communications is used to connect phone lines to terrorists and that it did not contain the content of the phone calls or messages. Foreign Policy wrote that she had a "reputation as a staunch defender of NSA practices and [of] the White House's refusal to stand by collection activities targeting foreign leaders".
In October 2013, Feinstein criticized the NSA for monitoring telephone calls of foreign leaders friendly to the U.S. In November 2013, she promoted the FISA Improvements Act bill, which included a "backdoor search provision" that allows intelligence agencies to continue certain warrantless searches as long as they are logged and "available for review" to various agencies.
In June 2013, Feinstein called Edward Snowden a "traitor" after his leaks went public. In October 2013, she said she stood by that.
While praising the NSA, Feinstein had accused the CIA of snooping and removing files through Congress members' computers, saying, "[t]he CIA did not ask the committee or its staff if the committee had access to the internal review or how we obtained it. Instead, the CIA just went and searched the committee's computer." She claimed the "CIA's search may well have violated the separation of powers principles embodied in the United States Constitution".
After the 2016 FBI–Apple encryption dispute, Feinstein and Richard Burr sponsored a bill that would be likely to criminalize all forms of strong encryption in electronic communication between citizens. The bill would require technology companies to design their encryption so that they can provide law enforcement with user data in an "intelligible format" when required to do so by court order.
In 2020, Feinstein co sponsored the EARN IT act, which seeks to create a 19-member committee to decide a list of best practices websites must follow to be protected by section 230 of the Communications Decency Act. The EARN IT act effectively outlaws end-to-end encryption, depriving the world of secure, private communications tools.
Assault weapons ban
Feinstein introduced the Federal Assault Weapons Ban, which became law in 1994 and expired in 2004. In January 2013about a month after the Sandy Hook Elementary School shootingshe and Representative Carolyn McCarthy proposed a bill that would "ban the sale, transfer, manufacturing or importation of 150 specific firearms including semiautomatic rifles or pistols that can be used with a detachable or fixed ammunition magazines that hold more than 10 rounds and have specific military-style features, including pistol grips, grenade launchers or rocket launchers". The bill would have exempted 900 models of guns used for sport and hunting. Feinstein said of the bill, "The common thread in each of these shootings is the gunman used a semi-automatic assault weapon or large-capacity ammunition magazines. Military assault weapons only have one purpose, and in my opinion, it's for the military." The bill failed on a Senate vote of 60 to 40.
Marijuana legalization
Feinstein has opposed a number of reforms to cannabis laws at the state and federal level. In 2016 she opposed Proposition 64, the Adult Use of Marijuana Act, to legalize recreational cannabis in California. In 1996 she opposed Proposition 215 to legalize the medical use of cannabis in California. In 2015 she was the only Democrat at a Senate hearing to vote against the Rohrabacher–Farr amendment, legislation that limits the enforcement of federal law in states that have legalized medical cannabis. Feinstein cited her belief that cannabis is a gateway drug in voting against the amendment.
In 2018, Feinstein softened her views on marijuana and cosponsored the STATES Act, legislation that would protect states from federal interference regarding both medical and recreational use. She also supported legislation in 2015 to allow medical cannabis to be recommended to veterans in states where its use is legal.
Immigration
In September 2017, after Attorney General Jeff Sessions announced the rescinding of the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals program, Feinstein admitted the legality of the program was questionable while citing this as a reason for why a law should be passed. In her opening remarks at a January 2018 Senate Judiciary Committee hearing, she said she was concerned the Trump administration's decision to terminate temporary protected status might be racially motivated, based on comments Trump made denigrating African countries, Haiti, and El Salvador.
Iran
Feinstein announced her support for the Iran nuclear deal framework in July 2015, tweeting that the deal would usher in "unprecedented & intrusive inspections to verify cooperation" on the part of Iran.
On June 7, 2017, Feinstein and Senator Bernie Sanders issued dual statements urging the Senate to forgo a vote for sanctions on Iran in response to the Tehran attacks that occurred earlier in the day.
In July 2017, Feinstein voted for the Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act that grouped together sanctions against Iran, Russia and North Korea.
Israel
In September 2016in advance of UN Security Council resolution 2334 condemning Israeli settlements in the occupied Palestinian territoriesFeinstein signed an AIPAC-sponsored letter urging Obama to veto "one-sided" resolutions against Israel.
Feinstein opposed Trump's decision to recognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital, saying, "Recognizing Jerusalem as Israel's capitalor relocating our embassy to Jerusalemwill spark violence and embolden extremists on both sides of the debate."
North Korea
During a July 2017 appearance on Face the Nation after North Korea conducted a second test of an intercontinental ballistic missile, Feinstein said the country had proven itself a danger to the U.S. She also expressed her disappointment with China's lack of response.
Responding to reports that North Korea had achieved successful miniaturization of nuclear warheads, Feinstein issued an August 8, 2017, statement insisting isolation of North Korea had proven ineffective and Trump's rhetoric was not helping resolve potential conflict. She also called for the U.S. to "quickly engage North Korea in a high-level dialogue without any preconditions".
In September 2017, after Trump's first speech to the United Nations General Assembly in which he threatened North Korea, Feinstein released a statement disagreeing with his remarks: "Trump's bombastic threat to destroy North Korea and his refusal to present any positive pathways forward on the many global challenges we face are severe disappointments."
China
Feinstein supports a conciliatory approach between China and Taiwan and fostered increased dialogue between high-level Chinese representatives and U.S. senators during her first term as senator. When asked about her relation with Beijing, Feinstein said, "I sometimes say that in my last life maybe I was Chinese."
Feinstein has criticized Beijing's missile tests near Taiwan and has called for dismantlement of missiles pointed at the island. She promoted stronger business ties between China and Taiwan over confrontation, and suggested that the U.S. patiently "use two-way trade across Taiwan Strait as a platform for more political dialogue and closer ties".
She believes that deeper cross-strait economic integration "will one day lead to political integration and will ultimately provide the solution" to the Taiwan issue.
On July 27, 2018, reports surfaced that a Chinese staff member who worked as Feinstein's personal driver, gofer and liaison to the Asian-American community for 20 years, was caught reporting to China's Ministry of State Security. According to the reports, the FBI contacted Feinstein five years earlier warning her about the employee. The employee was later interviewed by authorities and forced to retire by Feinstein. No criminal charges were filed against them.
Torture
Feinstein has served on the Senate's Select Committee on Intelligence since before 9/11 and her time on the committee has coincided with the Senate Report on Pre-war Intelligence on Iraq and the debates on the torture/"enhanced interrogation" of terrorists and alleged terrorists. On the Senate floor on December 9, 2014, the day parts of the Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture were released to the public, Feinstein called the government's detention and interrogation program a "stain on our values and on our history".
Fusion GPS interview transcript release
On January 9, 2018, Feinstein caused a stir when, as ranking member of the Senate Judiciary Committee, she released a transcript of its August 2017 interview with Fusion GPS co-founder Glenn Simpson about the dossier regarding connections between Trump's campaign and the Russian government. She did this unilaterally after the committee's chairman, Chuck Grassley, refused to release the transcript.
Presidential politics
During the 1980 presidential election, Feinstein served on President Jimmy Carter's steering committee in California and as a Carter delegate to the Democratic National Convention. She was selected to serve as one of the four chairs of the 1980 Democratic National Convention.
Feinstein endorsed former Vice President Walter Mondale during the 1984 presidential election. She and Democratic National Committee chairman Charles Manatt signed a contract in 1983, making San Francisco the host of the 1984 Democratic National Convention.
As a superdelegate in the 2008 Democratic presidential primaries, Feinstein said she would support Clinton for the nomination. But after Barack Obama became the presumptive nominee, she fully backed his candidacy. Days after Obama amassed enough delegates to win the nomination, Feinstein lent her Washington, D.C., home to Clinton and Obama for a private one-on-one meeting. She did not attend the 2008 Democratic National Convention in Denver because she had fallen and broken her ankle earlier in the month.
Feinstein chaired the United States Congress Joint Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies and acted as mistress of ceremonies, introducing each participant at the 2009 presidential inauguration. She is the first woman to have presided over a U.S. presidential inauguration.
Ahead of the 2016 presidential election, Feinstein was one of 16 female Democratic senators to sign an October 20, 2013, letter endorsing Hillary Clinton for president.
As the 2020 presidential election approached, Feinstein indicated her support for former Vice President Joe Biden. This came as a surprise to many pundits, due to the potential candidacy of fellow California senator Kamala Harris, of whom Feinstein said "I'm a big fan of Sen. Harris, and I work with her. But she's brand-new here, so it takes a little bit of time to get to know somebody."
Awards and honors
Feinstein was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws from Golden Gate University in San Francisco on June 4, 1977. She was awarded the Legion of Honour by France in 1984. Feinstein received with the Woodrow Wilson Award for public service from the Woodrow Wilson Center of the Smithsonian Institution on November 3, 2001, in Los Angeles. In 2002, Feinstein won the American Medical Association's Nathan Davis Award for "the Betterment of the Public Health". She was named as one of The Forward 50 in 2015.
Offices held
Personal life
Feinstein has been married three times. She married Jack Berman ( 2002), who was then working in the San Francisco District Attorney's Office, in 1956. She and Berman divorced three years later. Their daughter, Katherine Feinstein Mariano ( 1957), was the presiding judge of the San Francisco Superior Court for 12 years, through 2012. In 1962, shortly after beginning her career in politics, Feinstein married her second husband, neurosurgeon Bertram Feinstein, who died of colon cancer in 1978. Feinstein was then married to investment banker Richard C. Blum from 1980 until his death from cancer in 2022.
In 2003, Feinstein was ranked the fifth-wealthiest senator, with an estimated net worth of $26 million. Her net worth increased to between $43 and $99 million by 2005. Her 347-page financial-disclosure statement, characterized by the San Francisco Chronicle as "nearly the size of a phone book", claims to draw clear lines between her assets and her husband's, with many of her assets in blind trusts.
Feinstein had an artificial cardiac pacemaker inserted at George Washington University Hospital in January 2017. In the fall of 2020, following Ruth Bader Ginsburg's death and the confirmation hearings for Supreme Court Justice Amy Coney Barrett, there was concern about Feinstein's ability to continue performing her job. She said there was no cause for concern and that she had no plans to leave the Senate.
In mass media
The 2019 film The Report, about the Senate Intelligence Committee investigation into the CIA's use of torture, extensively features Feinstein, portrayed by Annette Bening.
Electoral history
See also
Rosalind Wiener Wyman, co-chair of Feinstein political campaigns.
Women in the United States Senate
2020 congressional insider trading scandal
References
Additional sources
Roberts, Jerry (1994). Dianne Feinstein: Never Let Them See You Cry, Harpercollins.
Talbot, David (2012). Season of the Witch: Enchantment, Terror and Deliverance in the City of Love, New York: Simon and Schuster. 480 p. .
Weiss, Mike (2010). Double Play: The Hidden Passions Behind the Double Assassination of George Moscone and Harvey Milk, Vince Emery Productions.
External links
Senator Dianne Feinstein official U.S. Senate website
Campaign website
Membership at the Council on Foreign Relations
Statements
Op-ed archives at Project Syndicate
Dianne Feinstein's Opening Remarks at the 2009 Presidential Inauguration at AmericanRhetoric.com, video, audio and text
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1933 births
20th-century American politicians
20th-century American women politicians
21st-century American politicians
21st-century American women politicians
Activists from California
Schools of the Sacred Heart alumni
American gun control activists
American people of German-Jewish descent
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
American women activists
California Democrats
Democratic Party United States senators from California
Female United States senators
Women in California politics
Jewish activists
Jewish mayors of places in the United States
Jewish United States senators
Jewish women politicians
Living people
Mayors of San Francisco
Members of the Council on Foreign Relations
San Francisco Board of Supervisors members
Women city councillors in California
Stanford University alumni
United States senators from California
Women mayors of places in California
Jewish American people in California politics
21st-century American Jews | [
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224674 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Hugh%20Clough | Arthur Hugh Clough | Arthur Hugh Clough ( ; 1 January 181913 November 1861) was an English poet, an educationalist, and the devoted assistant to Florence Nightingale. He was the brother of suffragist Anne Clough and father of Blanche Athena Clough who both became principals of Newnham College, Cambridge.
Life
Arthur Clough was born in Liverpool to James Butler Clough, a cotton merchant of Welsh descent, and Anne Perfect, from Pontefract in Yorkshire. James Butler Clough was a younger son of a landed gentry family that had been living at Plas Clough in Denbighshire since 1567. In 1822 the family moved to the United States, and Clough's early childhood was spent mainly in Charleston, South Carolina. In 1828 Clough and his older brother Charles Butler Clough (later head of the Clough family of Llwyn Offa, Flintshire and Boughton House, Chester, a magistrate and Deputy Lieutenant) returned to England to attend school in Chester. Holidays were often spent at Beaumaris. In 1829 Clough began attending Rugby School, then under Thomas Arnold, whose belief in rigorous education and lifestyles he accepted. (See Muscular Christianity.) Cut off to a large degree from his family, he passed a somewhat solitary boyhood, devoted to the school and to early literary efforts in the Rugby Magazine. In 1836 his parents returned to Liverpool, and in 1837 he won a scholarship to Balliol College, Oxford. Here his contemporaries included Benjamin Jowett, Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, John Campbell Shairp, William George Ward and Frederick Temple. Matthew Arnold, four years his junior, arrived the term after Clough had graduated. Clough and Arnold enjoyed an intense friendship in Oxford.
Oxford, in 1837, was in the full swirl of the High Church movement led by John Henry Newman. Clough was for a time influenced by this movement, but eventually rejected it. He surprised everyone by graduating from Oxford with only Second Class Honours, but won a fellowship with a tutorship at Oriel College. He became unwilling to teach the doctrines of the Church of England, as his tutorship required of him, and in 1848 he resigned the position and travelled to Paris, where he witnessed the revolution of 1848. Ralph Waldo Emerson was also in Paris at that time, and Clough saw him daily in May and June, and months later after his return to England. As Edward Everett Hale tells the story:
Clough accompanied [Emerson] to Liverpool to see him off on his return to the United States, saying sadly, "What shall we do without you? Think where we are. Carlyle has led us all out into the desert and he has left us there" a remark which was exactly true. Emerson said in reply that very many of the fine young men in England had said this to him as he went up and down in his journeyings there. "And I put my hand upon his head as we walked, and I said, 'Clough, I consecrate you Bishop of All England. It shall be your part to go up and down through the desert to find out these wanderers and to lead them into the promised land'."
In the summer of 1848, Clough wrote his long poem The Bothie of Tober-na-Vuolich, a farewell to the academic life, following it up with poems from his time as student and tutor, in the shared publication Ambarvalia. In 1849, he witnessed another revolution, the siege of the Roman Republic, which inspired another long poem, Amours de Voyage (reprinted by Persephone Books in 2009).
Easter Day, written in Naples, was a passionate denial of the Resurrection and the fore-runner of the unfinished poem Dipsychus.
Since 1846, Clough had been financially responsible for his mother and sister (following the death of his father and younger brother and the marriage of his elder brother). In the autumn of 1849, to provide for them, he became principal of University Hall, a hostel for Unitarian students at University College, London, but found its ideology as oppressive as that which he had left behind in Oxford. He soon found that he disliked London, in spite of the friendship of Thomas Carlyle and his wife Jane Welsh Carlyle.
A prospect of a post in Sydney led him to engage himself to Blanche Mary Shore Smith, daughter of Samuel Smith, of Combe Hurst, Surrey and Mary Shore (sister to William Nightingale) but when that failed to materialize, he travelled in 1852 to Cambridge, Massachusetts, encouraged by Ralph Waldo Emerson. There he remained several months, lecturing and editing Plutarch for the booksellers, until in 1853 the offer of an examinership in the Education Office brought him to London once more. He married Miss Shore Smith and pursued a steady official career, diversified only by an appointment in 1856 as secretary to a commission sent to study foreign military education. He devoted enormous energy to work as an unpaid secretarial assistant to his wife's cousin Florence Nightingale. He wrote virtually no poetry for six years.
In 1860, his health began to fail. He visited first Great Malvern and Freshwater, Isle of Wight. From April 1861, he travelled strenuously in Greece, Turkey and France, where he met up with the Tennyson family. Despite his fragile health, this Continental tour renewed a state of euphoria like that of 1848–49, and he quickly wrote the elements of his last long poem, Mari Magno. His wife joined him on a voyage from Switzerland to Italy, where he contracted malaria.
He died in Florence on 13 November 1861. He is buried in the English Cemetery there, in a tomb that his wife and sister had Susan Horner design from Jean-François Champollion's book on Egyptian hieroglyphs. Matthew Arnold wrote the elegy of Thyrsis to his memory.
Clough and his wife had three children: Arthur, Florence, and Blanche Athena. The youngest child, Blanche Athena Clough (1861–1960), devoted her life to Newnham College, Cambridge, where her aunt (his sister Anne) was principal.
Writings
Shortly before he left Oxford, during the Great Famine of Ireland of 1845–1849, Clough wrote an ethical pamphlet addressed to the undergraduates, with the title, A Consideration of Objections against the Retrenchment Association at Oxford (1847). His Homeric pastoral The Bothie of Toper-na-fuosich, afterwards renamed Tober-na-Vuolich (1848), and written in hexameter is full of socialism, reading-party humours and Scottish scenery. Ambarvalia (1849), published jointly with his friend Thomas Burbidge, contains shorter poems of various dates from circa 1840 onwards.
Amours de Voyage, a novel in verse, was written at Rome in 1849; Dipsychus, a rather amorphous satire, at Venice in 1850; and the idylls which make up Mari Magno, or Tales on Board, in 1861. A few lyric and elegiac pieces, later in date than the Ambarvalia, complete Clough's poetic output. His only considerable enterprise in prose was a revision of a 17th-century translation of Plutarch (called the "Dryden Translation," but actually the product of translators other than Dryden) which occupied him from 1852, and was published as Plutarch's Lives (1859).
Clough's output is small and much of it appeared posthumously. Anthony Kenny notes that the editions prepared by Clough's widow, Blanche, have "been criticized ... for omitting, in the interests of propriety, significant passages in Dipsychus and other poems." But editing Clough's literary remains has proven a challenging task even for later editors. Kenny goes on to state that "it was no mean feat to have placed almost all of Clough's poetry in the public domain within a decade, and to have secured for it general critical and popular acclaim."
His long poems have a certain narrative and psychological penetration, and some of his lyrics have a strength of melody to match their depth of thought. He has been regarded as one of the most forward-looking English poets of the 19th century, in part due to a sexual frankness that shocked his contemporaries.
He often went against the popular religious and social ideals of his day, and his verse is said to have the melancholy and the perplexity of an age of transition, although Through a Glass Darkly suggests that he did not lack certain Christian beliefs of his own, and in particular a belief in the afterlife where the struggle for virtue will be rewarded.
His work is interesting to students of meter, owing to the experiments which he made, in the Bothie and elsewhere, with English hexameters and other types of verse formed upon classical models.
Clough wrote the short poem Say Not the Struggle Naught Availeth, a rousing call invoking military metaphors to keep up the good fight; which fight is unspecified, but it was written in the wake of the defeat of Chartism in 1848. Other short poems include Through a Glass Darkly, an exploration of Christian faith and doubt, and The Latest Decalogue, a satirical take on the Ten Commandments. The Latest Decalogue's couplet on murder, "Thou shalt not kill; but needst not strive officiously to keep alive:" is often quoted – usually out of context – in debates on medical ethics in the sense that it is not right to struggle to keep terminally ill people alive, especially if they are suffering. Further, this couplet influenced Isaac Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics (in particular, the First Law's "or through inaction" clause).
Broadcaster Geoffrey Robertson QC used the phrase in an episode of his television series, Geoffrey Robertson's Hypotheticals ("Affairs of the Heart," ABC, 1989), illustrating this point of view; it is unclear whether Robertson was aware Clough's version of the Fifth Commandment had nothing to do with the alleviation of suffering but was instead referring to those who do not afford—in any circumstances—due respect to the sanctity of human life.
Clough himself gives no indication that the couplet on murder might refer to the medical profession in general or to the treatment of the terminally ill in particular; indeed, the entire text of The Latest Decalogue satirizes the hypocrisy, materialism, the selective ethics and self-interest common to all of mankind.
This bitter judgement of humanity should be balanced against the more compassionate view he displays in other poems such as Through A Glass Darkly: "Ah yet when all is thought and said, the heart still overrules the head; still what we hope we must believe, and what is given us receive".
In the novel The French Lieutenant's Woman by John Fowles, several chapters have epigraphs from poems by Clough: "Duty" (1841), The Bothie of Tober-na-Vuolich (1848) and "Poems" (1841–1852).
Notes
Attribution:
References
Clough's Poems (1862) edited, with a short memoir, by F. T. Palgrave,
Letters and Remains, with a longer memoir, privately printed in 1865. *Both volumes published together in 1869, and reprinted
Robindra Biswas, Arthur Hugh Clough: Towards a Reconsideration(1972)
Samuel Waddington, Arthur Hugh Clough: A Monograph (1883)
Anthony Kenny, Arthur Hugh Clough, a Poet's Life (2005)
Howard F. Lowry and Ralph Leslie Rusk (editors), Emerson-Clough Letters, Hamden: Archon Books, 1968.
Stefano Paolucci, Emerson Writes to Clough: A Lost Letter Found in Italy, in Emerson Society Papers, vol. 19, n. 1, Spring 2008.
Selections from the poems were made by Mrs Clough for the Golden Treasury series in 1894, and by E. Rhys in 1896.
"The French Lieutenant's Woman" (1969), by John Fowles.
External links
The Poetry of Arthur Hugh Clough
Arthur Hugh Clough Index Entry at Poets' Corner
Arthur Hugh Clough's poetry at Minstrels
Poem Hunter
Collection of short poems by Arthur Hugh Clough
1819 births
1861 deaths
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
Fellows of Oriel College, Oxford
Academics of University College London
19th-century English poets
Writers from Charleston, South Carolina
People educated at Rugby School
Victorian poets
Poets from Liverpool
English male poets | [
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224675 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Shirley | William Shirley | William Shirley (2 December 1694 – 24 March 1771) was a British Army officer and colonial administrator who served as the governor of the British American colonies of Massachusetts Bay and the Bahamas. He is best known for his role in organizing the successful capture of Louisbourg during King George's War, and for his role in managing military affairs during the French and Indian War. He spent most of his years in the colonial administration of British North America working to defeat New France, but his lack of formal military training led to political difficulties and his eventual downfall.
Politically well connected, Shirley began his career in Massachusetts as advocate general in the admiralty court, and quickly became an opponent of Governor Jonathan Belcher. He joined with Belcher's other political enemies to bring about Belcher's recall, and was appointed Governor of Massachusetts Bay in Belcher's place. He successfully quieted political divisions within the province, and was able to bring about united action against New France when King George's War began in 1744. The successful capture of Louisbourg, which Shirley had a major role in organizing, was one of the high points of his administration.
After King George's War Shirley became mired in disputes over funding and accounting for the war effort, and returned to England in 1749 to deal with political and legal matters arising from those disputes. He was then assigned to a commission established by Great Britain and France to determine the colonial borders in North America. His hard-line approach to these negotiations contributed to their failure, and he returned to Massachusetts in 1753.
Military matters again dominated Shirley's remaining years in Massachusetts, with the French and Indian War beginning in 1754. Shirley led a military expedition to reinforce Fort Oswego in 1755, and became Commander-in-Chief, North America upon the death of General Edward Braddock. His difficulties in organizing expeditions in 1755 and 1756 were compounded by political disputes with New York politicians, and over military matters with Indian agent Sir William Johnson. These disagreements led to his recall in 1757 as both Commander-in-Chief and as governor. In his later years he served as governor of the Bahamas, before returning to Massachusetts, where he died.
Early life
William Shirley, the son of William and Elizabeth Godman Shirley, was born on 2 December 1694 at Preston Manor in East Sussex, England. He was educated at Pembroke College, Cambridge, and then read law at the Inner Temple in London. In 1717 his grandfather died, leaving him Ote Hall in Wivelsfield and some funds, which he used to purchase a clerkship in London. About the same time he married Frances Barker, with whom he had a large number of children. He was called to the bar in 1720. Although his inheritance had been substantial (about £10,000), he cultivated an expensive lifestyle, and suffered significant financial reverses in the depression of 1721. The financial demands of his large family (he and Frances had eight children by 1731) prompted him to seek an appointment in the North American colonies. His family was connected by marriage to the Duke of Newcastle, who became an important patron and sponsor of Shirley's advancement, and to that of Arthur Onslow, the Speaker of the House of Commons. Armed with letters of introduction from Newcastle and others (but no appointment), Shirley arrived in Boston, Massachusetts in 1731.
Advocate general
Shirley was initially received with indifference by Massachusetts Governor Jonathan Belcher, who refused him patronage positions that became available. In 1733 Shirley sought to secure from David Dunbar the commission as the crown surveyor general, but Dunbar eventually decided to retain the office. Influence from Newcastle eventually yielded Shirley a position as advocate general in the admiralty court. Belcher resisted further entreaties from Newcastle to promote Shirley, and Shirley began using his position to actively prosecute Belcher supporters whose illegal logging activities came under his jurisdiction.
Shirley also made common cause with Samuel Waldo, a wealthy merchant and major landowner in the province eastern district (present-day Maine) where Belcher's lax enforcement of timber-cutting laws was harming his business with the Royal Navy. In 1736 Shirley sent his wife to London to lobby on his behalf against Belcher. Waldo also eventually went to London; the combination of Shirley's connection to Newcastle and Waldo's money soon made inroads in the colonial administration. When these were joined by discontented New Hampshire interests (Belcher was also governor of New Hampshire), a full-scale offensive was launched in the late 1730s to unseat Belcher. This included at least one forged letter on the part of Belcher opponents in an attempt to discredit the governor, which Shirley denounced. By 1738 Newcastle was in a dominant position in not just the colonial administration, but also in the British government as an opponent of Prime Minister Sir Robert Walpole, and he actively encouraged Belcher's opponents.
In 1739 the Privy Council reprimanded Belcher, voted to separate the Massachusetts and New Hampshire governorships, and began debating the idea of replacing the governor. The exact reasons for Belcher's dismissal have been a recurring subject of scholarly interest, due to the many colonial, imperial, and political factors at play. Two principal themes within these analyses are Belcher's acquisition of many local enemies, and the idea that good imperial governance in London eventually required his replacement. Before the issues of 1739 most of the efforts to unseat Belcher had failed: Belcher himself noted in that year that "the warr I am ingag'd in is carrying on in much the same manner as for 9 years past." Historian Stephen Foster further notes that someone as powerful as Newcastle was at the time generally had much weightier issues to deal with than arbitrating colonial politics. In this instance, however, imperial and colonial considerations coincided over the need for Massachusetts to provide a significant number of troops for Newcastle's proposed West Indies expedition in the War of Jenkins' Ear. In April 1740 Newcastle in effect offered Shirley the opportunity to prove, in the light of Belcher's political difficulties, that he could more effectively raise troops than the governor could. Shirley consequently engaged in recruiting, principally outside Massachusetts (where Belcher refused his offers of assistance, understanding what was going on), and deluged Newcastle with documentation of his successes while Belcher was preoccupied with a banking crisis. Newcastle handed the issue off to Martin Bladen, secretary to the Board of Trade and a known Belcher opponent. The Board of Trade then apparently decided, based on the weight of the extant evidence, that Belcher needed to be replaced. In April 1741 the Privy Council approved William Shirley's commission as governor of Massachusetts, and Benning Wentworth's commission as governor of New Hampshire was issued the following June.
Governor of Massachusetts
When Shirley assumed the governorship of Massachusetts in August 1741, he was immediately confronted with a currency crisis. The province had been suffering for many years with inflation caused by issuance of increasing quantities of paper currency. Late in Belcher's tenure, competing banking proposals had been made in a bid to address the issue, and a popular proposal for a bank secured by real estate had been enacted. This bank (the controversy over it having contributed to Belcher's recall) had been dissolved by an Act of Parliament, and Shirley had to negotiate the dissolution of the bank's assets and reclamation of the notes it had issued. In this process, which occupied the rest of 1741, Shirley deftly navigated legislation through the provincial assembly that provided a schedule for redeeming the bank's currency without causing the bank's principal owners to collapse under a deluge of redemptions.
With rising tensions Shirley acted to strengthen the military defenses of the colony. He created a series of volunteer militia companies along the frontier. These included Burke's Rangers and Gorham's Rangers which became the model for Shirley's more famous creation Roger's Rangers.
Outbreak of war
Britain captured Acadia from France in Queen Anne's War (1702–1713), but the Treaty of Utrecht left Cape Breton Island in French hands, and did not clearly demarcate a boundary between New France and the British colonies on the Atlantic coast. To protect the crucial passageway of the Saint Lawrence River into the heart of New France, France built a strong fortress at Louisbourg on the Atlantic coast of Cape Breton Island.
When Shirley took office, relations between France and Britain were strained, and there was a possibility that Britain would be drawn into the War of the Austrian Succession, which had started on the European mainland in 1740. Shirley was able to finesse his restrictions on the production of paper currency to achieve an updating of the province's defences, and in 1742 requested permission from the Board of Trade for the printing of additional currency should war break out. This permission was granted in 1743, along with a warning that war with France was likely. France declared war against Britain in March 1744, and forces from Louisbourg raided the British fishing port of Canso on the northern end of mainland Nova Scotia before its residents were aware they were at war. French privateers also began preying on British and colonial vessels. British colonial governors along the coast, including Shirley, sent colonial guard ships and authorized their own privateers in response, neutralizing the French activity.
Canso was used by New England fishermen, and as such its fall was of interest to Massachusetts. Shirley had, prior to its capture, received a request for assistance from the lieutenant governor of Nova Scotia, Paul Mascarene, for support in the defence of Annapolis Royal. In response to the fall of Canso and a second, urgent request from Mascarene, Shirley promptly despatched two companies of volunteers to Annapolis Royal. The timely arrival of these troops in early July broke up a siege.
John Bradstreet, who had been captured at Canso and held prisoner at Louisbourg, returned to New England in a prisoner exchange, and gave a detailed report to Shirley that emphasised the weaknesses of the French fort. William Vaughn, who owned several businesses in Maine that were vulnerable to raids from New France, toured New England advocating an expedition to capture Louisbourg. Shirley and other leaders in New England and New York sent letters to colonial authorities in London seeking support for such an expedition, citing the vulnerable conditions at Louisbourg. Vaughn and Bradstreet wanted to attack Louisbourg that winter with an all-colonial force. Shirley doubted the practicality of that plan, but in January 1745 submitted it to the provincial assembly (General Court), which declined to support the plan, but did request that Britain undertake an attack on Louisbourg.
Vaughn continued to advocate for a quick all-American expedition, enlisting the support of fishing captains, merchants and 200 "principal gentlemen" of Boston. Shirley called the General Court into session to discuss the matter once more, and the proposal was submitted to a committee chaired by William Pepperrell. The committee reported favourably on the plan, and it was approved by a single vote when several opponents were absent from the chamber.
Shirley appointed a reluctant William Pepperrell to command the expedition, William Vaughn was appointed colonel, but without a command position, and John Bradstreet was appointed as a military advisor to Pepperrell. Shirley requested support for the expedition from Peter Warren, commodore of the Royal Navy squadron in the West Indies, but Warren declined due to the strenuous objections of his captains. This news arrived in Boston just as the expedition was preparing to leave.
Despite the absence of support from the Royal Navy, the New England expedition set out in March 1745 for Louisbourg. More than 4,000 men on more than 90 transports (mainly fishing boats and coastal traders), escorted by six colonial guard ships, descended on Canso, where the expedition waited for the ice to clear from Gabarus Bay, the site just south of Louisbourg that had been chosen for the troop landing. Starting on 22 April the expedition was joined by four Royal Navy warships under the command of Commodore Warren, who received orders (issued in January, but not received until after his previous refusal) to assist the expedition.
Siege of Louisbourg
The provincial forces began landing at Gabarus Bay on 30 April, and laid siege to the fortress while the British ships blockaded the harbour. The Americans began suffering battle losses, while the British naval officers, who had a low opinion of American soldiers, grew increasingly critical of the American efforts. Warren tried to exert control over the provincial troops, but Pepperrell resisted him. Louisbourg surrendered on 17 June. The Americans lost 180 men in combat, to disease or at sea during the siege, while the Royal Navy ships did not fire on the fortress, and lost just one sailor. As the victors settled into occupation of Louisbourg, friction grew between the Americans and the British. The terms of surrender guaranteed the French in all of their possessions; there was no plunder for the American troops. On the other hand, the Royal Navy had captured several rich French prizes, and British sailors on shore leave bragged to the Americans about how rich they were going to be from their shares.
The American troops had signed up to capture Louisbourg, and expected to go home after siege ended. The British government, who had believed that the provincial troops were incapable of capturing Louisbourg on their own, had made no plans to send British troops to take over occupation of the fortress. When it became evident that British troops would not be relieving the provincials until after winter had passed, Governor Shirley travelled to Louisbourg to raise the morale of the troops. His first speech to the troops had little effect, and some troops were close to mutiny. In a second speech Shirley promised to send home more troops immediately, and provide higher pay and better supplies for those who stayed until spring. Honors from the British government were sparse; Pepperrell was made a baronet, he and Shirley were made colonels in the British Army with the right to raise their own regiments, and Warren was promoted to rear admiral.
Aborted campaign
Shirley had engaged in the Louisbourg campaign primarily as a way to ensure British interests in the Atlantic fisheries. The victory, however, made him expand his vision to encompass the possibility of capturing all of New France. After capturing the French fort he wrote to Newcastle, proposing a series of expeditions to gain control of all of North America as far west as the Mississippi River, starting with one that would go up the Saint Lawrence from Louisbourg. Upon his return to Boston, Shirley began making preparations for such an expedition. In May 1746 he received plans for London outlining an attempt on Quebec using Royal Navy and provincial forces, while a second expedition was to attack Fort Saint-Frédéric on Lake Champlain. Shirley stepped up recruiting in Massachusetts and asked neighboring governors to contribute men and resources to the effort. Expected support from Britain never arrived, however, and the 1746 expeditions were called off.
While waiting for definite word from London of plans for 1747 Shirley beefed up the province's western defenses, and in the spring of 1747 he began sending supplies to the Hudson River valley in anticipation of a move toward Fort Saint-Frédéric. Word then arrived from Newcastle that the British establishment would not support any expeditions against New France. The drop in military spending that resulted had negative consequences on the Massachusetts economy, harming Shirley's popularity.
Shirley personally profited from the supply activities surrounding the Louisbourg expedition. In 1746 he used the funds to purchase an estate in Roxbury, on which he built an elaborate mansion, now known as the Shirley-Eustis House. Before the building was complete his wife died of a fever in August 1746; she was interred in King's Chapel.
Impressment crisis
While Governor Shirley was at Louisbourg trouble had been brewing between the Royal Navy and the people of Boston. The Navy had long sought to press Americans into service on its ships. Impressment was a long-standing practice in Britain, but its application in America was resisted by the colonists. In 1702 Fort William on Castle Island had fired on a Royal Navy ship as it tried to leave Boston Harbour with six recently impressed men aboard. As a result of American complaints (reinforced by British merchants), Parliament in 1708 banned impressment in the American colonies. Navy leaders argued that the American exemption from impressment had been in force only during Queen Anne's War, which ended in 1713. In practice, Royal Navy captains had to apply to colonial governors for a license to press men. In late November 1745 a fight between a press gang and some sailors staying in a boarding house in Boston left two of the sailors with fatal injuries. Two members of the press gang were charged with murder and convicted, but were released when the indictment was found invalid.
Two years later Commodore Charles Knowles, who served as Governor of Louisbourg after its capture, had a large number of seamen from Boston harbour impressed for service in his squadron. A mob of more than 300 men seized three naval officers and a deputy sheriff and beat the sheriff. The mob then went to Governor Shirley's house, demanding the release of the men impressed by Knowles. Shirley tried to call out the militia, but they did not respond. Shirley did succeed in getting the naval officers into his house, and the mob eventually left. Later in the day Shirley went to the Town House to meet the people. The mob, now consisting of several thousand people, attacked the Town House, breaking many windows in the building. Shirley spoke to the mob and promised to present their demands to Commodore Knowles. The mob left, intending to find a Royal Navy ship to burn.
After Shirley had returned home that afternoon, the mob, which had seized another naval officer and several petty officers, returned to his house. Shirley ordered a number of armed men who were protecting his house to fire at the mob, but William Pepperrell was able to stop Shirley's men from firing and to persuade the mob to leave. In the meantime, Commodore Knowles threatened to bombard Boston with his squadron. It was only after the Massachusetts Council adopted resolutions in support of the demands of the mob that the situation became quieter in Boston. The mob eventually released its hostages and Knowles released the impressed seamen.
Compensation and currency
Another issue of contention was compensation to the American colonies by Britain for the costs of the expedition against Louisbourg and the long occupation by American troops until the British Army finally took over. This presented Shirley with a problem, because the expedition's leaders, including his former ally Samuel Waldo, grossly inflated their claimed costs. Waldo used Shirley's unwillingness to openly act against him to begin his own efforts to topple the governor. Shirley was only able to forestall this effort by promising the colonial administration that he would achieve financial stability in the province by retiring its paper currency.
The British government was also slow in responding to requests for compensation. While waiting for a response, the question of how to use any compensation was debated in provincial newspapers and pamphlets. Some, such as Samuel Adams (father of the famous American Revolution leader), advocated placing the money in London banks to serve as backing for the paper currency issued by the colonies. Others, including William Douglass and Thomas Hutchinson, speaker of the General Court, favoured using the compensation to redeem the paper currency and give Massachusetts a hard currency. In 1748 the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle returned Louibourg to France, with Massachusetts still awaiting compensation for its seizure.
In the meantime, Governor Shirley had been trying to finance a campaign to capture Fort St. Frédéric (at present-day Crown Point, New York), for which he issued more paper money. The campaign was abandoned when the colonies failed to support it, but the resulting inflation helped turn supporters of Shirley against him. The loss of Louisbourg increase public dissatisfaction with Shirley, who seen as complicit in British scheming against the American colonies. Even William Pepperrell joined the large number of citizens calling for Shirley's removal. Samuel Adams edited and Gamaliel Rogers and Daniel Fowle published The Independent Advertiser, which regularly criticised the British government and Shirley's administration. The paper published several of Shirley's letters to officials in Britain that were critical of Americans, and regularly called for the governor's removal. William Douglass, a prominent physician in Boston, wrote a series of pamphlets (published by Rogers and Fowle) attacking Shirley, Commodore Knowles, and the whole conduct of the campaign for Louisbourg and its occupation. Both Shirley and Knowles sued Douglass for libel, but lost their cases in court.
Shirley's conflict with Samuel Waldo over expenses eventually reached a high pitch: Shirley had successfully attached some of Waldo's assets in legal action, which Waldo had countered with further legal action. Shirley appealed these actions to London, and was granted permission (received in August 1749) to travel to London to deal with the matter. He sailed for Britain in September 1749, just before the long promised compensation reached Boston. Under legislation shepherded by Thomas Hutchinson, the specie delivered was used to retire the paper currency. While Shirley was abroad, Hutchinson, Andrew Oliver, and others served as his surrogates, and he carefully instructed Lieutenant Governor Spencer Phips to not give his enemies opportunities to manoeuvre in his absence.
European interlude
In London Shirley met with Newcastle and the colonial secretary, the Duke of Bedford to discuss colonial matters and his situation. Newcastle ordered the military books of Waldo and Pepperrell to be scrutinized; the analysis was found to confirm Shirley's position. Shirley's accounts were also examined, and were found to be "made up with great exaction", "more conformable to his Majesty's orders ... than any other of the colonies."
Shirley also communicated political concerns over which he and New York Governor George Clinton had commiserated. While he was in London, word arrived that Clinton wanted to leave his post. Shirley applied to Newcastle for the job, but was turned down. Newcastle may have been upset with Shirley, who had accepted an unexpected offer from Bedford to participate in a commission established to delineate the boundaries between the British and French territories in North America. The commission was set to meet in Paris, and Shirley saw it as an opportunity to advance his expansionist views. Newcastle and Bedford were at the time involved in a political struggle, and Newcastle was unhappy that Shirley had accepted Bedford's offer. Shirley was able to convince Newcastle that his experience and position would be of use in the negotiations.
The commission met in Paris, and Shirley was accompanied by William Mildmay, a somewhat mild-mannered merchant, as cocommissioner. Shirley adopted a hard line in the negotiations, arguing in a technical and lawyerly fashion for an expansive reading of British territory; he claimed all territory east of a line from the Kennebec River north to the Saint Lawrence River, while the French claimed all of that area except peninsular Nova Scotia. Shirley's approach served to harden negotiating positions and bogged the commission's work down in minutiae. When Mildmay complained of this to London, Bedford rebuked Shirley for spending too much effort on trivialities. While the negotiations dragged on, both French and British operatives were actively expanding their interests in the Ohio River valley, raising tensions.
In 1751 Shirley incited a minor scandal when he married Julie, the young daughter of his Paris landlord. He was recalled to London after Mildmay complained that Shirley was taking actions without consulting him. Shirley returned to London convinced that the French needed to be driven from North America. Mildmay attempted to continue the negotiations, believing that he could overcome Shirley's previous obstructionism, but the negotiations ended in failure.
Shirley renewed his application for the New York governorship, but was snubbed by Newcastle, who was upset over Shirley's marriage. He was instead ordered to return to Massachusetts. This he did, leaving his wife in London. It is unclear if they ever saw each other again: biographer John Schutz believes they did not, but family lore is that they were reunited after Shirley left the Massachusetts governorship.
Return to Massachusetts
The opposition in Massachusetts to Shirley had died down while he was in England and Paris. Shirley soon had to deal with the increasing conflict on the frontier with French Canada. Tensions had been increasing, particularly in the Ohio Country, where British and French traders were coming into conflict. When (false) rumors reached Boston in 1754 of French military activity on the province's northern frontier (Maine), Shirley was quick to organize an expedition to the Kennebec River to bolster the area's defenses. This expedition erected Fort Halifax in what is now Winslow, Maine. News of hostilities in the Ohio Country brought further urgency to that matter, as well as attendance at a planned conference of colonies at Albany, New York. Because of the urgency, and the support of politically powerful Maine landowners, Shirley's relationship with the provincial assembly was relatively good. Shirley instructed the provincial representatives to the Albany Conference to seek a colonial union, but the provincial assembly (along with those of other provinces) rejected the conference's proposals.
Seven Years War: 1755 campaigns
Shirley was approached by Nova Scotia Governor Charles Lawrence for assistance in dealing with the French threat on that province's frontiers, suggesting that the collaborate on military actions there. Shirley and Lawrence believed their proposed expedition would also require assistance from Britain, and sent letters requesting the same. At the same time they ramped up preparations in anticipation of the request being approved. Shirley was also ordered to activate and recruit for his regiment, which was to serve in Braddock's force. Because he could not leave the province he sent one of his sons to New York to recruit troops there; Massachusetts men were being drafted for the Nova Scotia expedition. He furthermore revived the idea of an expedition against Fort St. Frédéric, although he limited the first year's action to the establishment of a fort at the southern end of Lake George, and sought to draw the leaders of neighboring colonies to assist in the operation. He mollified New York's Acting Governor James DeLancey, who was generally hostile to Massachusetts interests, by proposing that the expedition be led by New York's Indian Commissioner, Colonel William Johnson. Johnson was at first reluctant, but Shirley was able to convince him to take the command.
Since the French and Indian War had become a matter of imperial concern, two British Army regiments under General Edward Braddock were sent to America. In written exchanges, Braddock announced his intention to use this force against Fort Duquesne in the Ohio Country, while Shirley unsuccessfully lobbied him to instead target Fort Niagara. At a conference of governors and military leaders in April 1755 Shirley favorably impressed Braddock. Braddock declared that Duquesne would be his target, but he authorized Shirley to take his regiment and that of Sir William Pepperrell to Fort Niagara, and confirmed Johnson's command of the Lake George campaign. Braddock's instructions only gave Shirley the vaguest command over Johnson, which was to later become a source of trouble. The two northern expeditions were to be made without logistical assistance from the regular army.
From the conference Shirley traveled to New York City, where he negotiated with merchants for supplying his expedition. The frosty relationship he had with Governor DeLancey continued; the DeLanceys objected to what they saw as Massachusetts interference in their provincial affairs. When Shirley moved to prevent New York agent Oliver DeLancey from recruiting in Connecticut, it caused a stink and threatened to derail planning for the New York expeditions. Shirley then created a breach with Johnson by attempting to siphon troops from Johnson's command to increase his own force for the Fort Niagara expedition. The antagonism was furthered by the fact that the two expeditions were competing for supplies from the same sources, and was also exacerbated by ongoing border disputes between the provinces.
When Shirley and Johnson met in July 1755 before their respective expeditions set off, tension between the two men continued, and Johnson delayed decisions on assigning Indian auxiliaries to Shirley's campaign, observing that much of the expedition was traveling through friendly Iroquois territory, where they would not yet be needed. Shirley took offense at this as an act of insubordination. Believing he outranked Johnson, Shirley next sought to bypass the Indian agent and negotiate directly with the tribes for recruits, but Johnson and his subordinates actively opposed the move. The Iroquois also objected to the presence of Shirley's recruiting agent, Colonel John Lydius, with whom they had outstanding issues over past land transactions. The situation was not made easier by the fact that neither Johnson nor Shirley had ever commanded expeditions of the size and scope proposed.
Shirley's expedition reached Fort Oswego in mid-August. The trek up the Mohawk River had been slowed by low water, and it was being incompetently supplied, resulting in a shortage of provisions. Shirley learned en route that General Braddock had died in the aftermath of 13 July Battle of the Monongahela, which also claimed the life of Shirley's son William. As a result, he became temporary commander-in-chief of North American forces. His expedition then became bogged down at Fort Oswego by the need to improve its defenses, and the ongoing provisioning crisis. In a council on 18 September it was decided to proceed with plans to reach Fort Niagara, but one week later the decision was reversed. Shirley returned to Albany, preoccupied with the need to manage the entire British war effort on the continent.
William Johnson's expedition fared little better than Shirley's. He reached the southern end of Lake George, where his forces had an inconclusive encounter with French forces on 8 September, and began work on Fort William Henry. Rumors of French movements brought a flurry of activity in November, but when the opposition failed to materialize, much of Johnson's force abandoned the camp to return home. Shirley had to pressure New England's governors to assign militia to the new posting for the winter.
In Nova Scotia, Governor Lawrence had easily captured Fort Beauséjour, and had then embarked on what has since become known as the Great Expulsion, the forcible removal of more than 12,000 Acadians from Nova Scotia. When some of the ships carrying the Acadians entered Boston Harbor in early December 1755, Shirley ordered that they not disembark. For three winter months, until March 1756, the Acadians remained on the ships, where half died from the cold weather and malnutrition.
Seven Years War: 1756 campaigns
During the winter of 1755–56 Shirley's feud with Johnson continued. Johnson, who was being advised by Thomas Pownall, continued to assert his exclusive authority over interactions with Indians, and renewed complaints about Shirley's interference in recruiting for the 1755 campaign. In one letter Johnson wrote that Shirley had "become my inveterate enemy" who would do everything he could "to blast if he can my character." Johnson made common cause with the DeLanceys (to whom he was related by marriage) in their dislike of Shirley. They all fed unflattering reports to the new New York governor, Sir Charles Hardy, who forwarded them on to London. Shirley was unaware of this looming threat to his authority.
As commander-in-chief, Shirley made a grandiose proposal for the 1756 campaign season in November 1755, continuing the routes of attack begun in 1755 and adding an expedition to Quebec via the Kennebec River. However, the complaints against him had reached the Duke of Newcastle, who felt he needed someone less embroiled in controversies with other leaders in charge of military matters in North America. British leaders had also received intercepted letters destined for France that some believed might have been written by Shirley, in part because he married a Frenchwoman. Thomas Pownall traveled to London in early 1756 and further denounced Shirley to the colonial administration. Shirley did not learn of these matters until April 1756, by which time the British leadership had already decided to replace him as commander-in-chief.
While waiting for his replacement (Lord Loudoun) Shirley made every effort to advance supplies and reinforcements to the Fort Oswego garrison, which had been on short rations for the winter, and whose supply line had been interrupted by the Battle of Fort Bull in March 1756. He continued to mobilize resources and personnel for at least the Oswego and Lake George efforts, but his authority was waning due to widespread knowledge of his replacement. Military affairs continued to deteriorate on the New York frontier before Loudoun finally arrived in July 1756; Fort Oswego fell to the French on 10 August.
Although Shirley had been removed as commander-in-chief, he retained the Massachusetts governorship. He expected to lose even that post not long after his return to Boston in August. However, no replacement had yet been named, and Loudoun saw either Shirley's interference or ineffectiveness in all that was wrong on the New York frontier. He also raised detailed questions about Shirley's war-related expenditures, which he (and later historians) concluded was poorly-disguised patronage spending. Loudoun and Shirley argued over many issues, including Shirley's continuance of military preparations after January 1756, when Loudoun's commission was issued. Shirley pointed out that British leadership could hardly expect preparations to cease in the interval between Loudoun's commission and his arrival to take command. While he waited for a replacement to be announced, Shirley took depositions, gathered evidence to support his version of affairs, and worked to close his financial affairs down. (Loudoun was of the opinion that Shirley delayed his departure intentionally as a political maneuver.) He sailed for England in October 1756. Shirley would be formally replaced by Thomas Pownall in 1757.
Later life
Upon his arrival in London, Shirley was received by Newcastle and other sympathetic figures, but Newcastle had been forced from office by the poor showing in the war, and Shirley's ongoing disagreements with Loudoun meant he was unlikely to receive another North American posting. Newcastle then withdrew his support from Shirley over a hearing into matters disputed between Loudoun and Shirley. Shirley was not granted formal hearings on other aspects of his conduct, and managed to convince Newcastle to overlook the matter of his "muddled" accounts. His prospects brightened when Loudoun and Pownall were both damaged by the continued poor military performance in North America (notably the debacle of the Siege of Fort William Henry in August 1757, which resulted in Loudoun's recall). These failures served to rehabilitate Shirley and bring him back into Newcastle's good graces.
In late 1758 Shirley was commissioned as Governor of the Bahamas. This was followed in early 1759 with a promotion to lieutenant general. After a lengthy passage, Shirley arrived in the Bahamas on 31 December, when his ship was wrecked on a reef in the islands. He eventually arrived without incident or injury at Nassau and assumed the reins of power. His rule was quiet; dealing with smugglers in the islands was the major issue demanding the governor's attention. In part to combat illicit trade he lobbied the London government that Nassau be established as a free port. Although he was influential in this regard, Nassau did not receive this status until after he left office. He also oversaw renovations to the governor's mansion, and promoted the construction of churches with funding from the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. In 1765, after his wife's death, he took his children to England so that they could be properly cared for. He returned to the islands, where he had to deal with protests of the recently enacted Stamp Act. When he proposed the use of the stamps on official documents to the local assembly, the reaction in opposition was so visceral that Shirley dissolved the body. By the time the next assembly met, the Stamp Act had been repealed.
His health failing, Shirley was eventually replaced as governor by his son Thomas, who was appointed in November 1767 and arrived to assume office the following year. Shirley sailed for Boston, where he took up residence in his old house in Roxbury with his daughter and son-in-law. There he died on 24 March 1771. After a state funeral, he was interred in King's Chapel.
Family and legacy
Shirley married twice and had two sons and three daughters.
His elder son Thomas (later Sir Thomas) became a major general in the British army, was created a baronet in 1786 as "Shirley baronets, of Oat Hall (1786)" Sussex, and served, after his posting to the Bahamas, as Governor of Dominica and Governor of the Leeward Islands. Sir Thomas died in 1800. The Baronetcy became extinct after the death of Sir Thomas Shirley's son Sir William Warden Shirley, 2nd Baronet (1772–1815).
Shirley's other son, William Jr., was killed in 1755 at the Battle of the Monongahela whilst serving with Edward Braddock. Shirley's eldest daughter Anne married John Erving, a member of the Massachusetts Governor's Council; their daughter Anne married Duncan Stewart of Ardsheal, Chief of the Clan Stewart of Appin. Shirley's youngest daughter Maria Catherina married John Erving Jnr.
Shirley built a family home in Roxbury between 1747 and 1751. He sold it to his daughter and son-in-law, Eliakim Hutchinson, in 1763. It later came into the hands of William Eustis, Governor of Massachusetts in the 19th century. Now known as the Shirley-Eustis House, it still stands at 33 Shirley Street. It has largely been restored and is a museum open to the public.
The town of Shirley, Massachusetts was founded during his term as Massachusetts governor. The Winthrop, Massachusetts geographical feature Shirley Point and the former feature Shirley Gut are named for him. Shirley helped to establish a cod fishery in Winthrop in 1753. Shirley is also the namesake of Shirley Street in Halifax, Nova Scotia (which is parallel to Pepperell Street, named after William Pepperell).
Works
Notes
Citations
References
Further reading
Focuses on Shirley's role.
The last page of the letter has an extensive biographical footnote by the editor.
Correspondence of William Shirley, Vol. 1
Colonial governors of Massachusetts
British people of the French and Indian War
People of colonial Massachusetts
People from Brighton
British governors of the Bahamas
1694 births
1771 deaths
British Army generals
Burials in Boston
Kingdom of England emigrants to Massachusetts Bay Colony | [
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224676 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20II%20Canynges | William II Canynges | William II Canynges (c. 1399–1474) was an English merchant and shipper from Bristol, one of the wealthiest private citizens of his day and an occasional royal financier. He served as Mayor of Bristol five times and as MP for Bristol thrice. He was a generous patron of the arts in Bristol, particularly concerning the church of St Mary Redcliffe in Bristol, "The crown of Bristol architecture". Following the death of his wife Joan in 1467, he renounced civic and commercial life and was ordained a priest in 1468, in which capacity he remained until his death six years later. His tomb effigy in St Mary's later inspired the boy poet Thomas Chatterton to write the romantic poem "The Storie of William Canynge".
Background
Canynges was born at Bristol in 1399 or 1400, a member of a wealthy family of merchants and cloth manufacturers in that city. He was one of the younger of seven children of John Canynges, who died as a young man in 1405, by his wife Joan Wotton. William's eldest brother Thomas Canynges was Lord Mayor of London in 1456–7, having been elected Alderman for Aldgate ward in 1445, and was a Grocer. William's grandfather William I Canynges (d. 1396) was also a great Bristol merchant and was also five times Mayor of Bristol and three times MP for Bristol, in 1383, 1384 and 1386. His second son John Canynges, the father of William II, was also prominent in Bristol civic life, serving twice as mayor and as MP for Bristol in 1383. His wife Joan Wotton survived him and married secondly in about 1408 Thomas Young, twice mayor of Bristol, by whom she had two successful sons, John Young, Alderman of London, Grocer and Lord Mayor of London in 1466, and Thomas Young (d. 1476) a lawyer of the Middle Temple, Recorder of Bristol from 1441 and MP for Bristol almost continuously, with one break in 1453, between 1435 and 1455. Thomas Young served as the other of Bristol's two MPs during his half-brother William II Canynges's terms as MP in 1450 and 1455, and before 1450 entered into the household of Richard, Duke of York (d. 1460), the Yorkist contender for heirship to the Throne then occupied by Henry VI (1422–1461).
Marriage
At some time before 1429 William married Joan Burton, from a prominent Bristol family. Her sister Isabel became the wife of William's half-brother Thomas Young, with whom he served jointly for two terms as MP for Bristol. William and Joan had two sons, who were encouraged by their father to become members of the Gloucestershire gentry, yet both predeceased him, and thus ended the Canynges dynasty in Bristol. Joan died in September 1467, following which traumatic event William renounced his former life and entered the priesthood.
Mercantile career
Although Canynges benefitted from the wide trade connections of his forebears and a large inheritance, he does not seem to have followed them in the cloth manufacturing industry as his name was never recorded in the aulnage returns, but rather specialised in the shipping of cloth to south-west Europe. In 1436 he served as Constable of the Merchants of the Staple, a key post in the wool export trade, and became a Grocer in 1441, like his half-brother John Young.
Invests in John Sturmey's expedition
He was an investor in the disastrous 1457 Mediterranean venture of fellow Bristol mayor and merchant Robert Sturmey. This was an expedition to the Aegean Sea seeking to break the Italian monopoly in trade with the Orient and to set up an English trading post in the Levant. His investors, including Canynges, financed the fitting out of three ships carrying cargoes of cloth, tin and lead. The fleet traded successfully in the Levant but was attacked by Genoese pirates near Malta which resulted in the loss of two ships, Katherine and Marie. Sturmey himself lost his life during the incident but his main partner John Heydon managed to return to Bristol. The king fined the Genoese traders in England £6,000 in damages, and imprisoned them and seized their assets until the fine should be paid. This put a stop to further English adventures in the Mediterranean for many years, but prompted a new look to westward lands, which bore fruit under John Cabot in 1497.
Acquires large fleet
He appears to have started to specialise in shipping the goods of others rather than trading on his own account. He owned a fleet of at least ten ships, as is stated in William Worcester's "Itineraries", one of the largest known in England at that time, and is said to have employed 800 sailors. Three of his ships exceeded 200 tons, then considered large: The Mary Canynges (400 tons), Mary Redcliffe (500 tons) and the Mary and John (900 tons). The last was considered by Worcester "a monster" and had cost £2666 13s. 4d. to build. His combined tonnage was almost 3,000 tons.
Trade with Scandinavia
Canynges also traded towards Scandinavia, exporting cloth and filling his homeward bound ships with fish. By special licence from the king of Denmark he enjoyed for some time a monopoly of the fish trade between Iceland, Finland and England, and he also competed successfully with the Flemish merchants in the Baltic Sea, obtaining a large share of their business.
Political career
Canynges's civic career started in 1432 with his appointment as bailiff of Bristol and in 1438 as Sheriff. He was five times mayor of Bristol, first in September 1441 when still aged under 40. He served as Mayor also in 1449, 1456, 1461 and 1466. He was elected three times as MP for Bristol, in 1439, 1450–1 and 1455.
Interaction with royalty
At Bristol in 1456 he entertained Queen Margaret of Anjou, consort of the Lancastrian King Henry VI (1422–1461). William's half-brother Thomas Young, whilst serving with him as the Bristol MPs in 1450, had proposed a motion in Parliament for the recognition of his Yorkist royal patron Richard, Duke of York (d. 1460) as heir to Henry's throne, for which action he was imprisoned. Canynges appears to have shared his half-brother's support for the Yorkist cause as in 1450 during his third term as mayor he prevented the sale in Bristol of gunpowder intended for use against the Duke. He also occupied Bristol Castle on the Duke's instructions, holding it against his rival Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset (d. 1455). Whilst mayor in September 1461, following Henry's deposition in that year, Canynges received in Bristol the Duke's son, the new Yorkist King Edward IV (1461–1483), to whom he loaned 500 marks.
Patron of arts
Canynges undertook at his own expense the great work of rebuilding the great Bristol church of St Mary Redcliffe, and for a long time had a hundred workmen in his regular service for this purpose. He added to its jewels and equipment, and founded two chantries in 1466 and 1467 to which were attached two priests. He created an endowment of £340 to re-establish the two "St Mary priests" and three clerics. His house in Bristol with a fine Perpendicular Gothic oak roof was still standing in 1884. His contemporary John Shipward (d. 1473), a fellow Bristol merchant was a similarly generous patron of Bristol arts, having financed the building of the tower of St Stephen's Church. Both followed in the footsteps of Walter Frampton (d. 1357), thrice Mayor of Bristol, who funded the building of the Church of St John the Baptist, Bristol.
Takes Holy Orders
The death of his wife Joan in September 1467 was a turning point in Canynges's life, for he gave up his commercial and political life for the cloister. Before the Dissolution of the Monasteries Bristol was within the Diocese of Worcester, and it was under the care of Bishop John Carpenter of Worcester(d.1476) that his transformation to the clergy occurred. He first obtained the post of rector of St Alban's, Worcester, and was admitted by the bishop on 19 September 1467 to the order of acolyte, and ordained priest by him on 16 April 1468. He was appointed a canon of the Collegiate Church of Westbury-on-Trym and prebendary of Goodringhill. He said mass for the first time in St Mary Redcliffe, the church to which he had been a generous patron, the following Whitsuntide. He moved his residence from Redcliffe to Westbury where he became dean in June 1469, and where he remained until his death five years later in 1474.
Death and burial
Canynges died on 17 or 19 November 1474
and was buried in St Mary Redcliffe Church, Bristol, where a canopied stone tomb was erected in the south aisle in his memory containing his effigy in red velvet mayoral robes, next to that of his wife Joan. A funeral service was held at Westbury-on-Trym, where a very high quality sculpted alabaster effigy of him was placed, dressed in clerical attire. Following the Dissolution of Westbury, the effigy was moved to St Mary Redcliffe Church, where it is now situated adjacent to the original monument, against the south wall of the south aisle. The tombstone of Canynges's cook is set into the pavement nearby, decorated with incised cooking utensils of knife and sieve.
Descendants
The statesman George Canning, and Stratford Canning, 1st Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe, were descendants of his family.
References
Sources
Pryce, George. Memorials of the Canynges Family and their Times, Bristol, 1854
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, 2004, Vol. 9, pp. 970–971
Further reading
Williams, E. E., The Chantries of William Canynges in St Mary Redcliffe, Bristol, with a Survey of Chantries in General and some Events in the Lives of the Canynges Family, 1950
Sherborne, J., William Canynges 1402–1474, 1985
Carus-Wilson, E. M., The Overseas Trade of Bristol in the Later Middle Ages, 2nd Ed., 1967
Carus-Wilson, E. M., Medieval Merchant Venturers, 1954
Harvey, J. H., (Ed.), Itineraries of William Worcestre, 1969
Dellaway, Rev James. Antiquities of Bristow in the Middle Centuries Including the Topography by William Wyrcestre and the Life of William Canynges, Bristol, 1834, pp. 166–212
1399 births
1474 deaths
15th-century English businesspeople
High Sheriffs of Bristol
Mayors of Bristol
Merchants of the Staple
Businesspeople from Bristol | [
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224686 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekken | Tekken | is a Japanese media franchise centered on a series of fighting video and arcade games developed by Bandai Namco Studios and published by Bandai Namco Entertainment. The franchise also includes film and print adaptations.
The main games in the series follow the events of the King of Iron Fist Tournament, hosted by the Mishima Zaibatsu, where players control a plethora of characters to win the tournament and gain control of the company; the conflict between the Mishima family serves as the main focus of the series' plot, while players explore other characters' motivations in aiming to control the Zaibatsu.
Gameplay focuses on hand-to-hand combat with an opponent, with the gameplay system including blocks, throws, escapes, and ground fighting. The series later introduced combos and special moves, with characters also able to stage break arenas. Tekken is noted as being one of the first fighting games at the time to use 3D animation.
Japanese video game developer Namco began the series in 1994, with the release of the self-titled first entry. As of 2017, it has nine additional entries, eight spin-off games, and has been adapted into three feature films and other media. Tekken 2, as well as the third game Tekken 3, are considered landmark titles; they received critical acclaim for their gameplay and more immersive experience. Subsequent titles have followed this concept, and received generally positive critical responses.
The series has been universally acclaimed and commercially successful, having shipped more than 53.5 million units, making it one of the best-selling video game franchises of all time, and the fourth best-selling fighting game franchise in history. The main series has been widely credited by critics and video game publications for raising the standards of fighting games, praising it for its gameplay mechanics and replay value.
Games
All major installments of the series are originally arcade games, and the boards used to run them have traditionally been based on PlayStation hardware. Following their release in arcades, home releases in the series have mainly been for consoles in the PlayStation line.
1994–1998: Original PlayStation trilogy
Tekken
The first game in the series, Tekken, was released in 1994, first as an arcade game and as a port for the PlayStation in 1995. The game features eight playable characters, each with their own sub-boss. The PlayStation version features remixes of the stage themes, and also made the sub-bosses playable for a total of eighteen characters, including a costume swap for Kazuya (Devil Kazuya). In addition, a cutscene is unlocked when the player finishes arcade mode with each of the original eight characters. The canon ending of the game consists of Kazuya exacting revenge on his father Heihachi Mishima, beating him in the tournament and tossing him off the same cliff that he was thrown off by Heihachi.
Tekken 2
Tekken 2 was released in 1995 in arcades and in 1996 for the PlayStation. A port was also made several years later for Zeebo. There are ten playable characters as well as fifteen to unlock, for a total of twenty-five characters. The home version features four new modes that would become staples to the series, which were Survival, Team Battle, Time Attack, and Practice. The game features remixes of the arcade versions' characters' themes, and a cutscene unlocked once the player completes the arcade mode. The canon ending of this game consists of Heihachi surviving the fall, entering the King of Iron Fist Tournament 2 and defeating Kazuya, throwing him into an erupting volcano and reclaiming the Mishima Zaibatsu. During the events of the second King of Iron First Tournament, Kazuya and Jun Kazama were mysteriously drawn to one another and became intimate.
Tekken 3
Tekken 3 was released in arcades and for the PlayStation in 1996 and 1998, respectively. Due to the 19-year storyline span between the game and its predecessor, the game largely features a new cast of characters, including the debut of staple main character Jin Kazama, the child of Kazuya and Jun, as well as now-staple characters Ling Xiaoyu and Hwoarang, with a total of twenty-three characters. The home version includes a mode called Tekken Force, as well as the bonus Tekken Ball mode, and also includes remixes to the characters' themes from the arcade version. The canon ending of Tekken 3 consists of Paul Phoenix defeating Ogre and leaving victorious. After its defeat, Ogre transforms into a monstrous creature, "True Ogre". Jin Kazama faces True Ogre and defeats him, avenging his mother. With Ogre out of the way, Jin's grandfather Heihachi shoots him, leaving him for dead. However, Jin survives, being revived by the Devil Gene he inherited from his father.
1999–2005: Debut of tag-team oriented games
Tekken Tag Tournament
Tekken Tag Tournament is the next installment, released in 1999 in arcades and as a launch title for the PlayStation 2 in 2000. Although the game is non-canonical to the storyline, it is considered a major entry to the franchise. In contrast to previous titles, Tekken Tag Tournament features tag battles and includes almost all of the Tekken characters in the series up until that point in time, for a total of 34 characters. The game ran on the same arcade board as Tekken 3, and thus saw major graphical upgrades when ported to the PlayStation 2. The home version features remixes of the characters' themes from the arcade version, and also features a bonus Tekken Bowl mode. A remastered version of the game, Tekken Tag Tournament HD, is included in the 2011 collection Tekken Hybrid, which also contained a playable demo of Tekken Tag Tournament 2 and the film Tekken: Blood Vengeance.
Tekken 4
Tekken 4 is the fifth installment and the next canonical game in the series, released in 2001 in arcades and 2002 for the PlayStation 2. Placing distinction on the story, the home version includes a new Story mode that unlocks cutscenes when played, in contrast to previous installments in which such cutscenes were unlocked from playing the Arcade Mode. The game also harbores many gameplay revisions, including the ability for the player to move about before the round begins, as well as walled-stages. For the first time, the themes used in the arcade mode are the same ones put into the home version. There are 23 characters to choose from. The story reveals that Kazuya survived the fall into the volcano from 20 years prior, and enters the King of Iron Fist Tournament 4 to take back the Mishima Zaibatsu. In the canonical ending, Kazuya and Heihachi are both defeated by Jin. Jin unwillingly transforms into his Devil form, but after glimpsing a vision of his mother, Jun (whom he had not seen in six years), he refrains from executing Heihachi.
Tekken 5
Tekken 5 was released in arcades in 2004 and 2005 for the PlayStation 2, with a short period of time of transition from arcade to PlayStation, of two months in North America and four months in Japan. There are 32 characters to choose from, including for the first time, Devil Jin and Osaka's Asuka Kazama. Most of the characters who were removed from Tekken 3 return in Tekken 5. The home version includes a mode known as Devil Within, a variant of the Tekken Force mode introduced in Tekken 3. In the canonical ending, Jin Kazama defeats his great-grandfather Jinpachi Mishima (who took over the Mishima Zaibatsu shortly after the ending events of Tekken 4), and inherits the Mishima Zaibatsu.
2006–present: Expansion to multi-platform
Tekken 5: Dark Resurrection
Although Tekken games normally saw updates to the arcade versions, Tekken 5 was the first installment in the series that had a revision significant enough that it was rereleased, with the subtitle Dark Resurrection in 2005. The game was ported to the PlayStation Portable in 2006 and features two new characters: Emilie "Lili" De Rochefort and Sergei Dragunov. Armor King was also reintroduced as a playable character in this revision. The game also introduces a ranking system to the series. The home version featured new modes, such as Ghost Mode, Tekken Dojo Mode, and the two bonus modes, Gold Rush mode, and a revised version of the Tekken Bowl mode introduced in Tekken Tag Tournament. The Devil Within mode from the PlayStation 2 version however, was absent. Namco Bandai saw the fan demand for a console version and a port for the PlayStation 3 via the PlayStation Network was released in 2007, in full 1080p HD. The PlayStation 3 version also saw an update and was retitled Tekken 5: Dark Resurrection ONLINE, marking the first time in the series that online play was featured. The PlayStation 3 version also made Jinpachi Mishima playable (but not online).
Tekken 6
Tekken 6 was originally released in arcades in 2007, followed by an updated version in 2008 titled Tekken 6: Bloodline Rebellion. The home version was based on Bloodline Rebellion and was released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360, marking the first time in the series that a game was multiplatform. The game features a Scenario Campaign mode, which follows gameplay from previous Tekken Force modes, which was playable online alongside standard versus. In the Scenario Campaign ending, after being defeated by Heihachi's illegitimate son Lars Alexandersson (who suffered amnesia at one point during the Scenario Campaign), Jin Kazama is revealed to have wreaked havoc and waged war on the world to fill it with negative energy and generate a physical manifestation of Azazel, so that he himself can face and kill him, which he believed that killing Azazel may purge Jin himself from the Devil Gene inside his body. After the battle, Jin's body is found by Raven, and the Devil Gene is still intact in his body.
Tekken Tag Tournament 2
Tekken Tag Tournament 2 was released in Japanese arcades in 2011. Its console version was released the next year and is based on the updated arcade version called Tekken Tag Tournament 2 Unlimited that contained new features. The Wii U version which serves as a launch title for the console includes a revised version of the Tekken Ball mode from Tekken 3.
Tekken 7
In early 2014, Katsuhiro Harada expressed interest in continuing the series on PlayStation 4. Tekken 7 was released in Japanese and Korean arcades in 2015. It is the first game in the series to be powered by the Unreal Engine. The game received an update, subtitled Fated Retribution and released to arcades on July 5, 2016, and featured the series' second, third, fourth and fifth guest characters, the guest characters appearing are Akuma from the Street Fighter franchise by Capcom, Geese Howard from SNK's fighting game franchises, Noctis Lucis Caelum from the Final Fantasy franchise by Square Enix and Negan from The Walking Dead franchise. The PlayStation 4 version was confirmed at Paris Games Week 2015, and features exclusive content as well as virtual reality support. The Xbox One and Microsoft Windows versions were released on June 2, 2017, alongside the PlayStation 4 version, and are based on the Fated Retribution. In the canonical ending, considered the conclusion of the Mishima saga, Heihachi takes control of the Zaibatsu, and attempts to expose Kazuya of the Devil Gene. In the end, in their final battle, Kazuya kills Heihachi and throws him into an erupting volcano, whereas Jin, who recovered from his coma, declares that he must kill Kazuya to end the cursed Mishima bloodline. It was also revealed that Heihachi killed his wife Kazumi because of her possession of the Devil Gene and the fact that she had gained a split personality because of it, shortly after Kazuya was born.
Spin-off and crossover games
Tekken 3 was also ported to the Game Boy Advance as Tekken Advance in 2001. Tekken 6-based Tekken 3D: Prime Edition was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2012. A free to play version of Tekken was released in 2013 for PSN as Tekken Revolution. Tekken Card Challenge was released on the WonderSwan, a Japan-exclusive handheld, in 1999. A spin-off action adventure game featuring series' character Nina Williams as the protagonist, Death by Degrees, released for the PS2 in 2005. Two mobile Tekken spin-off games were released in 2011: a 2D fighting game Tekken Resolute, which was the first game not to include Heihachi Mishima, and Tekken Bowl, the bowling mini-game from Tekken Tag Tournament, for the iOS operating system. Tekken Bowl was first game not to include Yoshimitsu, Nina Williams, Paul Phoenix, or King. In 2013, a third mobile game titled Tekken Card Tournament was released by Namco Bandai to the App Store for iOS and Google Play Store on Android. That same year, Namco Bandai also released Tekken Arena to the Google Play Store on Android. On April 30, 2015, Namco released Galaga: Tekken 20th Anniversary Edition, a mobile game variant of Galaga featuring characters from the franchise. It was originally announced on April 1, 2015.
Namco and Capcom agreed to create crossover games of the Tekken and Street Fighter franchises. In 2012, Street Fighter X Tekken was released, which was developed by Capcom and includes 2D gameplay mechanics as seen in Street Fighter IV. Namco was also developing Tekken X Street Fighter, which would feature gameplay mechanics similar to Tekken Tag Tournament 2, but it was placed on hold indefinitely in 2016.
Pokkén Tournament was announced in August 2014, as a spin-off of the franchise set within the Pokémon franchise. It was initially released in Japan as an arcade game, but was released internationally on Wii U in 2016, and is also ported to Nintendo Switch.
Tekken Mobile, another spinoff, was released on March 1, 2018. Although it had a mixed reception from critics, it was well received by the public and exceeded one million downloads.
Development
Tekken was not originally conceived as a fighting game. The project began as an internal Namco test case for animating 3D character models, and eventually incorporated texture mapping similar to that found in Namco's 1993 racing game Ridge Racer. Directed by Virtua Fighter designer Seiichi Ishii, Tekken was intended to be a fundamentally similar title, with the addition of detailed textures and twice the frame rate. Tekken 4 received negative feedback to the point of being considered the worst installment within the series which led to major changes starting with 5. This was done thanks to the new engine provided by Namco. In retrospect, Harada believes Tekken 5, and Tekken 6, managed to attract a new group of fans, something Tekken 4 failed to do.
Gameplay
As with many fighting games, players choose a character from a lineup and engage in hand-to-hand combat with an opponent. Traditional fighting games are usually played with buttons which correspond to the strength of the attack, such as strong punch or weak kick. Tekken, however, dedicates a button to each of the four limbs of the fighter. The gameplay system includes blocks, throws, escapes, and ground fighting.
In the original Tekken, players could only block attacks manually. From then on, starting with Tekken 2, characters automatically block while not moving forward or performing actions, a feature called "neutral guard." Standing or retreating characters will block high and middle attacks with no input from the player, while crouching characters will duck high attacks and block low ones. Normal middle attacks will hit crouching players, but some special mid-attacks can be blocked by both stand and crouching neutral guards. Meanwhile, pressing backwards will give the player an "active guard" that can withstand certain combo attacks that would normally penetrate the neutral guard. Some characters are equipped with parries and reversals that act like traditional "press button to block" systems.
Tekken 3 introduced several gameplay possibilities that were retained in later games, including the ability to sidestep into the foreground or background. Tekken 3 and later games also reduced recovery time after being knocked down and gave characters rolls to recover instantly after hitting the ground, allowing the player to get back into the fight more quickly at the risk of being hit while rolling. Tekken 4 gave characters even greater mobility by adding true 3D movement inside geometrically complex arenas with uneven ground, obstacles, and walls. The 3D gameplay allows damaging side and back throws as a reward for outmaneuvering the opponent, as well as evasive attacks that develop directly from a sidestep.
Tekken 5 saw a combination of walled and infinite arenas, while discarding uneven ground. Tekken 6 retains much of the design from Tekken 5 but also includes a "Rage" mode, which activates when a character is near the end of his vitality bar and earns a damage multiplier. "Bound" hits were also added, in which a player connected with an airborne opponent will place him in an inescapable grounded state, allowing combo extensions. Tekken 6 also has destructible floors and walls that allow the fighters to blast through to new fighting areas when broken. Tekken Tag Tournament 2 retains these elements while also adding a new kind of stage break ("balcony breaks", which is a combination of floor and wall breaks where characters will go through a breakable wall and fall to a lower level in the same sequence). Tag 2 specific features include Tag Assaults (cooperative combos triggered by hitting a Bound and a tag at the same time) and Tag Crashes (an emergency tag occurring when downed and the partner is currently in Rage).
Tekken 7 introduces some movement changes to the Tekken formula. The back walk animation is now similar to Tekken Revolution, featuring a more fluid movement away from the opponent as opposed to a slower shuffle. Regular back rolling from a grounded state has been removed and instead replaced with a new rising animation and performing a "ankle kick" (kicking the standing opponent while laying face up on the ground) is now accompanied by a new back roll to help create separation. Balcony breaks from Tag Tournament 2 are present and function similarly to how they did in solo play. New features include "Power Crushes" (an attack that cannot be interrupted by regular attacks once the animation has begun) and "Rage Arts" (attacks that can only be used when your character has hit a Raged state near the end of their vitality meter, sacrificing the Rage mode to perform the attack). Bound has been mostly removed save for specific situations (certain moves can cause a Bound if not comboed into and all low parries will cause a Bound effect, similar to Tekken 6: Bloodline Rebellion; floor breaks now result in an effect similar to a Tag Assault in Tag 2 rather than a standard Bound) and instead characters now have more frequent access to an "Aerial Tailspin" effect (an attack that throws an opponent backwards onto their head as opposed to straight downwards, although it is still inescapable once triggered which means the combo can continue).
Characters
Players can choose from a diverse cast that hails from a variety of ethnic backgrounds and fighting styles. A few characters have supernatural origin, such as Devil, Alisa Bosconovitch, Angel, Mokujin, Ogre and Azazel, while animal characters like Kuma, Panda, the Roger family, and Alex provide comic relief. In the story mode of the game, each character generally has their own personal reasons for entering the tournament and competing for the prize.
The protagonist of the series has varied between installments; the character ending of each canon game determines the protagonist of each. Kazuya Mishima was the protagonist in the original game and Tekken 7, his father Heihachi Mishima was the protagonist of Tekken 2 and Tekken 6, and Jin Kazama has been the central protagonist since his debut in Tekken 3. The conflict between the Mishima family within multiple generations serves as the main conflict to the series' plot according to Katsuhiro Harada who describes it as a simple struggle. Although Lars Alexandersson among other characters are not fully related to them, they serve as major characters within Tekken 6 where Jin serves as the main antagonist instead of his relatives.
Characters with background connections in the story typically have styles or moves in common. For example, Heihachi and Kazuya Mishima, by virtues of familial connection and studying under the same Advanced Mishima Style Fighting Karate discipline, have very similar moves and a signature "crouch dash" stance for pretty much their entire appearances in the series. Jin Kazama, when he debuted, also had the same Mishima fighting style, though he mixed this with Kazama Style Traditional Martial Arts as practiced by his mother, Jun Kazama. For storyline reasons, starting on Tekken 4, he forwent this in favor of Traditional Karate, a completely different discipline that technically made him an entirely different character, while his old movelist was given to his demonic form, Devil Jin. Meanwhile, there are some characters who were formerly clones of each other before they diverged and gained unique moves, such as Lee Chaolan (a clone of Marshall Law), Anna Williams (a clone of her sister, Nina), and Armor King (a clone of King). Still further, there are also characters who are replacements or "successors" of older characters; this happened principally in Tekken 3 due to the significant time skip, though some older characters later returned alongside their successors anyway. Examples include Julia Chang (replacing her adoptive mother, Michelle), Hwoarang (replacing his mentor, Baek Doo San, who later returned) and as mentioned above, Jin Kazama (replacing both of his parents, Kazuya and Jun, the former of whom later returned, while the latter was replaced by Asuka Kazama).
Some Tekken characters have been featured as guest characters in other video games, such as Anna Kournikova's Smash Court Tennis, Digimon World Re:Digitize, Naruto Shippuden: Ultimate Ninja Storm 2, Pac-Man Fever, PlayStation All-Stars Battle Royale, Ridge Racer 6, Smash Court Tennis Pro Tournament 2, Soulcalibur II, Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, and Urban Reign, as well as in some crossover role-playing video games, including Cross Edge, Namco × Capcom, Project X Zone, Project X Zone 2, Queen's Gate: Spiral Chaos and The King of Fighters All Star.
Adaptations
Animated films
Tekken: The Motion Picture, a two-part OVA anime series, was released in Japan in 1998. It was developed by Studio Deen and directed by Kunihisa Sugishima. Its story follows Kazuya Mishima's revenge against his father Heihachi in the King of Iron Fist Tournament.
Tekken: Blood Vengeance, a full-length CGI-animated film in Digital 3D directed by Youichi Mouri, premiered in the United States in 2011 and was released in Japan two months later that same year. Digital Frontier developed and Bandai Entertainment distributed the film. Blood Vengeance is an alternate retelling between the events of Tekken 5 and Tekken 6. It was released in Japan in December 2011 as a part of the Tekken Hybrid collection.
Live-action films
Tekken is a live-action film directed by Dwight H. Little and starring Jon Foo, Ian Anthony Dale and Kelly Overton. It was released at the AFI Film Festival on November 5, 2009, and in Japan on March 20, 2010, through Warner Bros. The film focuses on Jin Kazama who enters into the King of Iron Fist Tournament after his mother's death. Katsuhiro Harada, director of the Tekken video game series, has panned the film. A prequel to the 2009 film titled Tekken 2: Kazuya's Revenge was released direct-to-DVD on August 12, 2014. It is directed by Wych Kaosayananda and stars Kane Kosugi and Kelly Wenham, with Cary-Hiroyuki Tagawa and Gary Daniels returning from the first film. Variety reports that Paul Stevens will produce a Tekken remake with China's company Financing City Network.
Tekken Tag Tournament 2, a live-action short film by Wild Stunt Europe, was released on Namco Bandai Games Europe's YouTube channel on October 19, 2012.
Other media
There have been five printed adaptations of the Tekken games. Knightstone Comics published both Tekken Saga and Tekken 2, released in October 1997 and September 1998 respectively. Both comics were written by John Kim and illustrated by Walter McDaniel. Tekken Forever, a comic book by Dave Chi, illustrated by Paco Diaz, and published by Image Comics in December 2001, features a story that focused on the Kazama family and also the Unknown character from Tekken Tag Tournament. is a manga written by Keiichi Suzuki and published by Shogakukan, which was collected in two tankōbon volumes with the first one on December 5, 2000, and the second one on April 5, 2001. Tekken Comic is a manga illustrated by Rui Takato and published by Ultra Egg Jump in 2009. Although the story leads up to the King of Iron Fist Tournament 6, it is non-canonical to the main video game series. In October 2016, Titan Comics announced a new Tekken comic book, a four-issue mini-series by Cavan Scott, illustrated by Andie Tong, and published in mid-2017. The series takes place between Tekken 6 and 7, and deals with Jin struggling against the Devil within him.
Characters and settings from the series also appear in the collectible card game Universal Fighting System by Fantasy Flight Games and in Epic Battles by Score Entertainment.
Reception
Critical reception to the games has been positive with, the series peaking in 1998 with the PlayStation version of Tekken 3 receiving an average of 96% at Metacritic and GameRankings, and to this day considered one of the greatest fighting games of all time.
In 1999, Next Generation listed the Tekken series as number 12 on their "Top 50 Games of All Time", commenting that, "In the transition from 16-bit to 32-bit, Tekken stole the crown from Street Fighter as the king of modern brawlers with addictive fighting in its rawest form."
Developers of non-Tekken games have commented on the series in various ways. Ed Boon, the co-creator of Mortal Kombat, revealed in one of his interviews with GamePro that his favorite fighting game out of his competitors is Tekken. Both Sega and Namco have shown interest in a possible crossover between Virtua Fighter and Tekken, which came in the form of Project X Zone and its sequel for the 3DS. The series has often been labelled as a "rival" to Virtua Fighter as the two became the most famous 3D fighting game series. On the other hand, Tomonobu Itagaki, designer of the Dead or Alive series, expressed dislike for the Tekken franchise to the point of placing it as one of his most hated games.
In 2004's Shaun of the Dead, characters Pete, Shaun, and Ed "stayed up all night, drinking apple schnapps and playing Tekken 2." Tekken 3 is considered one of the greatest games of all time.
In 2012, Complex ranked Tekken at number 11 on the list of the best video game franchises, commenting: "Just when we thought that the Street Fighter franchise was going to be the epitome of fighting games, Tekken came to make it share its portion of the knuckle-busting pie. Tekken has cult-like fans who live and breathe the moves and storylines."
Sales
As of November 2021, the Tekken franchise sold over 53.5 million units of games, with a large portion of sales achieved while being exclusive to the PlayStation series of consoles. Tekken 3, which is critically the most successful in the series, is also the most successful commercially as well, having sold 8.3 million copies to date, with 1.4 million in Japan. Tekken 3 is the third best-selling fighting game of all time, just behind Super Smash Bros. Brawl and Super Smash Bros. Ultimate.
Legacy
{{Quote box |quoted=true |bgcolor=#bbccff |salign=right |width=25%|align=left | quote =Yes, we have developed it [for] PlayStation 1, 2, and now 3, so it is true that we have really grown with the PlayStation brand - we have a lot of fond memories, and we worked very closely with Mr. Kutaragi as well, so we had a really good relationship. We love the platform. | source =– Katsuhiro Harada, addressing Tekken'''s multiplatform debut}}
Since the series has a long history of being exclusive to PlayStation along with the arcade cabinets running on PlayStation hardware, Tekken has been associated closely with the PlayStation brand. Katsuhiro Harada has stated that PlayStation remains the main platform of development for Tekken.
The first game in the series was the first PlayStation game to sell over a million units, which earned it a Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition award in 2008, among other awards including "First Fighting Game To Feature Simulated 3D", and a record for the entire series, "The Best Selling Fighting Series for PlayStation Consoles." Tekken Tag Tournament was one of the most popular launch titles for the PlayStation 2.
Another game developed by Namco, Soulcalibur II, included exclusive characters for different console versions and featured Heihachi Mishima, a character that has been in all Tekken games and the protagonist of Tekken 2, exclusive to the PlayStation 2 version. He was also playable in PlayStation All-Stars Battle Royale and is Harada's favorite character in the series.Tekken 7s PlayStation 4 announcement trailer featured a retrospective celebration of "20 Years of Tekken", and the PlayStation 4 version of the game features exclusive content from previous titles in the series, including character costumes and musical tracks. The PlayStation 4 version was the best selling version of the game, and provided a 6% boost in hardware sales in Japan. While PlayStation Classic was not well received by the public, Tekken 3 was included in the preloaded collection. Tekken 3 is also available in all regions.Astro's Playroom, a 2020 video game released as a launch title for PlayStation 5 included a homage to the Tekken series. The inclusion was supervised by Harada as well.
In May 2012, Namco Bandai opened Tekken Museum in Osaka, Japan. The museum showcases goods, action figures, artworks, life-size statues of Tekken'' characters, and various merchandise. The items on display are rotated regularly so that the museum is worth multiple visits.
References
External links
Bandai Namco Entertainment franchises
Fighting video games by series
Video games about demons
Video games about ninja
Urban fantasy video games
Fighting games
Video games adapted into comics
Video games adapted into films
Video game franchises
Video game franchises introduced in 1994
Works about dysfunctional families
Works about terrorism
Muay Thai video games | [
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224687 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gifford%20Pinchot | Gifford Pinchot | Gifford Pinchot (August 11, 1865October 4, 1946) was an American forester and politician. He served as the 4th Chief of the U.S. Division of Forestry, as the 1st head of the United States Forest Service, and as the 28th Governor of Pennsylvania. He was a member of the Republican Party for most of his life, though he joined the Progressive Party for a brief period.
Born into the wealthy Pinchot family, Gifford Pinchot embarked on a career in forestry after graduating from Yale University in 1889. President William McKinley appointed Pinchot as the head of the Division of Forestry in 1898, and Pinchot became the first chief of the U.S. Forest Service after it was established in 1905. Pinchot enjoyed a close relationship with President Theodore Roosevelt, who shared Pinchot's views regarding the importance of conservation. After William Howard Taft succeeded Roosevelt as president, Pinchot was at the center of the Pinchot–Ballinger controversy, a dispute with Secretary of the Interior Richard A. Ballinger that led to Pinchot's dismissal. The controversy contributed to the split of the Republican Party and the formation of the Progressive Party prior to the 1912 presidential election. Pinchot supported Roosevelt's Progressive candidacy, but Roosevelt was defeated by Democrat Woodrow Wilson.
Pinchot returned to public office in 1920, becoming the head of the Pennsylvania's forestry division under Governor William Cameron Sproul. He succeeded Sproul by winning the 1922 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election. He won a second term as governor through a victory in the 1930 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election, and supported many of the New Deal policies of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. After the repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment, Pinchot led the establishment of the Pennsylvania Liquor Control Board, calling it "the best liquor control system in America.” He retired from public life after his defeat in the 1938 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election, but remained active in the conservation movement until his death in 1946.
Early life and education, 1865 through 1890
Gifford Pinchot was born in Simsbury, Connecticut on August 11, 1865. He was named for Hudson River School artist Sanford Robinson Gifford. Pinchot was the oldest child of James W. Pinchot, a successful New York City interior furnishings merchant, and Mary Eno, daughter of one of New York City's wealthiest real estate developers, Amos Eno. James and Mary were both well-connected with prominent Republican Party leaders and former Union generals, including family friend William T. Sherman, and they would frequently aid Pinchot's later political career. Pinchot's paternal grandfather had migrated from France to the United States in 1816, becoming a merchant and major landowner based in Milford, Pennsylvania. His mother's maternal grandfather, Elisha Phelps, and her uncle, John S. Phelps, both served in Congress. Pinchot had one younger brother, Amos, and one younger sister, Antoinette, who later married British diplomat Alan Johnstone.
Pinchot was educated at home until 1881, when he enrolled in Phillips Exeter Academy. James made conservation a family affair and suggested that Gifford should become a forester, asking him just before he left for Yale in 1885, "How would you like to become a forester?" At Yale, Pinchot became a member of the Skull and Bones society, played on the football team under coach Walter Camp, and volunteered with the YMCA. With the encouragement of his parents Pinchot continued to pursue the nascent field of forestry after graduating from Yale in 1889. He traveled to Europe, where he met with leading European foresters such as Dietrich Brandis and Wilhelm Philipp Daniel Schlich, who suggested that Pinchot study the French forestry system. Brandis and Schlich had a strong influence on Pinchot, who would later rely heavily upon Brandis' advice in introducing professional forest management in the U.S. Pinchot studied at the French National School of Forestry in Nancy and returned to the United States in late 1890.
Early career, 1890–1910
Early roles
Pinchot landed his first professional forestry position in early 1892, when he became the manager of the forests at George Washington Vanderbilt II's Biltmore Estate in Asheville, North Carolina. The following year, Pinchot met John Muir, a naturalist who founded the Sierra Club and would become Pinchot's mentor and, later, his rival. Pinchot worked at Biltmore until 1895, when he opened a consulting office in New York City. In 1896, he embarked on a tour of the American West with the National Forest Commission. Pinchot disagreed with the commission's final report, which advocated preventing U.S. forest reserves from being used for any commercial purpose; Pinchot instead favored the development of a professional forestry service which would preside over limited commercial activities in forest reserves. In 1897, Pinchot became a special forest agent for the United States Department of the Interior.
Lead forester
Head of the Division of Forestry
In 1898, Pinchot became the head of the Division of Forestry, which was part of the United States Department of Agriculture. Pinchot is known for reforming the management and development of forests in the United States and for advocating the conservation of the nation's reserves by planned use and renewal. His approach set him apart from some other leading forestry experts, especially Bernhard E. Fernow and Carl A. Schenck. In contrast to Pinchot's national vision, Fernow advocated a regional approach, while Schenck favored private enterprise effort. Pinchot's main contribution was his leadership in promoting scientific forestry and emphasizing the controlled, profitable use of forests and other natural resources so they would be of maximum benefit to mankind. He coined the term conservation ethic as applied to natural resources. Under his leadership, the number of individuals employed by the Division of Forestry grew from 60 in 1898 to 500 in 1905; he also hired numerous part-time employees who worked only during the summer. The Division of Forestry did not have direct control over the national forest reserves, which were instead assigned to the U.S. Department of Interior, but Pinchot reached an arrangement with the Department of Interior and state agencies to work on reserves.
In 1900, Pinchot established the Society of American Foresters, an organization that helped bring credibility to the new profession of forestry, and was part of the broader professionalization movement underway in the United States at the turn of the twentieth century. Pursuant to the goal of professionalization, the Pinchot family endowed a 2-year graduate-level School of Forestry at Yale University, which is now known as the Forest School at the Yale School of the Environment. It became the third school in the U.S. that trained professional foresters, after the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell and the Biltmore Forest School. Central to his publicity work was his creation of news for magazines and newspapers.
Chief of the United States Forest Service
Pinchot's friend, Theodore Roosevelt, became president in 1901, and Pinchot became part of the latter's informal "Tennis Cabinet". Pinchot and Roosevelt shared the view that the federal government must act to regulate public lands and provide for the scientific management of public resources. In 1905, Roosevelt and Pinchot convinced Congress to establish the United States Forest Service, an agency charged with overseeing the country's forest reserves. As the first head of the Forest Service, Pinchot implemented a decentralized structure that empowered local civil servants to make decisions about conservation and forestry.
Pinchot's conservation philosophy was influenced by ethnologist William John McGee and utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham, as well as the ethos of the Progressive Era. Like many other Progressive Era reformers, Pinchot emphasized that his field was important primarily for its social utility and could be best understood through scientific methods. He was generally opposed to preservation for the sake of wilderness or scenery, a fact perhaps best illustrated by the important support he offered to the damming of Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite National Park. Pinchot used the rhetoric of the market economy to disarm critics of efforts to expand the role of government: scientific management of forests and natural resources was profitable. While most of his battles were with timber companies that he thought had too narrow a time horizon, he also battled the forest preservationists like John Muir, who were deeply opposed to commercializing nature. Pinchot's policies also aroused opposition from ranchers, who opposed regulation of livestock grazing in public lands.
The Roosevelt administration's efforts to regulate public land led to blowback in Congress, which moved to combat "Pinchotism" and reassert control over the Forest Service. In 1907, Congress passed an act prohibiting the president from creating more forest reserves. With Pinchot's help, President Roosevelt responded by creating 16 million acres (65,000 km²) of new National Forests (which became known as "midnight forests") just minutes before he lost the legal power to do so. Despite congressional opposition, Roosevelt, Pinchot, and Secretary of the Interior James R. Garfield continued to find ways to protect public land from private development during Roosevelt's last two years in office.
Pinchot–Ballinger controversy
Pinchot continued to lead the Forest Service after Republican William Howard Taft succeeded Roosevelt in 1909, but did not retain the level of influence he had held under Roosevelt. After taking office, Taft replaced Secretary of the Interior James Rudolph Garfield with Richard Ballinger. When Ballinger approved of long-disputed mining claims to coal deposits in Alaska in 1909, Land Office agent Louis Glavis broke governmental protocol by going outside the Interior Department to seek help from Pinchot. Concerned about the possibility of fraud in the claim, and skeptical of Ballinger's commitment to conservation, Pinchot intervened in the dispute on behalf of Glavis. In the midst of a budding controversy, Taft came down in favor of Ballinger, who was authorized to dismiss Glavis. Though Taft hoped to avoid further controversy, Pinchot became determined to dramatize the issue by forcing his own dismissal. After Pinchot publicly criticized Ballinger for several months, Taft dismissed Pinchot in January 1910. Pinchot maneuvered behind the scenes to ensure the appointment of his ally, Henry S. Graves, as the new head of the Forest Service.
Fire Storm of 1910 and the Descent of the Forest Service
Pinchot hand-picked William Greeley, the son of a Congregational minister, who finished at the top of that first Yale forestry graduating class of 1904, to be the Forest Service's Region 1 forester, with responsibility over 41 million acres (170,000 km2) in 22 National Forests in four western states (all of Montana, much of Idaho, Washington, and a corner of South Dakota).[3]
One year after the Great Fire of 1910, the religious Greeley succeeded in receiving a promotion to a high administration job in Washington. In 1920, he became Chief of the Forest Service. The fire of 1910 convinced him that Satan was at work, the fire converted him into a fire extinguishing partisan who elevated firefighting to the raison d'être — the overriding mission — of the Forest Service.[3] Under Greeley, the Service became the fire engine company, protecting trees so the timber industry could cut them down later at government expense. Pinchot was appalled. The timber industry successfully oriented the Forestry Service toward policies favorable to large-scale harvesting via regulatory capture, and metaphorically, the timber industry was now the fox in the chicken coop.[25] Pinchot and Roosevelt had envisioned, at the least, that public timber should be sold only to small, family-run logging outfits, not to big syndicates. Pinchot had always preached of a "working forest" for working people and small-scale logging at the edge, preservation at the core. In 1928 Bill Greeley left the Forest Service for a position in the timber industry, becoming an executive with the West Coast Lumberman's Association.[26]
When Pinchot traveled west in 1937, to view those forests with Henry S. Graves, what they saw "tore his heart out." Greeley's legacy, combining modern chain saws and government-built forest roads, had allowed industrial-scale clear-cuts to become the norm in the western national forests of Montana and Oregon. Entire mountainsides, mountain after mountain, were treeless. "So this is what saving the trees was all about." "Absolute devastation", Pinchot wrote in his diary. "The Forest Service should absolutely declare against clear- cutting in Washington and Oregon as a defensive measure", Pinchot wrote.[27]
Later career, 1910–1935
Progressive Party
At Roosevelt's request, Pinchot met Roosevelt in Europe in 1910, where they discussed Pinchot's dismissal by Taft. Roosevelt subsequently expressed disappointment with Taft's policies and began to publicly distance himself from Taft. Along with Amos Pinchot and several other individuals, Pinchot helped establish the Progressive Party, which nominated Roosevelt for president in the 1912 United States presidential election. The Pinchots represented the more ideologically left wing faction of the party, and they frequently feuded with financier George Walbridge Perkins. Though Pinchot campaigned extensively for Roosevelt, Roosevelt and Taft were both defeated by Democrat Woodrow Wilson.
Pinchot continued to affiliate with the Progressives after the 1912 election, working to build the party in Pennsylvania. He ran as the Progressive nominee in the 1914 U.S. Senate election, but was defeated by incumbent Republican Senator Boies Penrose. The Progressive Party collapsed after Roosevelt refused to run in the 1916 presidential election, and Pinchot subsequently re-joined the Republican Party. He supported Republican Warren G. Harding's successful campaign in the 1920 presidential election, but, despite some speculation that he would be appointed as Secretary of Agriculture, did not receive a position in Harding's administration.
Continued Conservation
After leaving office in 1910, Pinchot took up leadership of the National Conservation Association (NCA), a conservationist non-governmental organization that he had helped found the previous year. The organization, which ceased operations in 1923, never attracted as many members as Pinchot had initially hoped, but its efforts affected conservation-related legislation. Later in the 1920s, Pinchot worked with Senator George W. Norris to build a federal dam on the Tennessee River.
Pinchot had appointed William Greeley during his tenure at the Forest Service, and Greeley became Chief of the Forest Service in 1920. Under Greeley, the forest service became a figurative fire engine company, protecting trees so the timber industry could cut them down later at government expense. Pinchot had always preached of a "working forest" in which working people would engage in small-scale logging, while the forests would be preserved, and he was appalled by the large-scale logging undertaken by large syndicates. Pinchot had a more favorable view of Greeley's successor, Robert Y. Stuart, and his influence played a key role in blocking several plans to transfer of the Forest Service out of the Department of Agriculture.
First term as Governor of Pennsylvania
Governor William Cameron Sproul appointed Pinchot as chairman of the Pennsylvania Forest Commission in 1920. As chairman, Pinchot coaxed a major budget increase from the legislature, decentralized the commission's administration, and replaced numerous political appointees with professional foresters. He narrowly won the three-candidate Republican primary in Pennsylvania's 1922 gubernatorial election, and went on to defeat Democrat John A. McSparran in the general election. Pinchot's victory over his Republican opponents owed much to his reputation as a staunch teetotaler during the early period of Prohibition; he was also boosted by his popularity with farmers, laborers, and women. Pinchot focused on balancing the state budget; he inherited a $32 million deficit and left office with a $6.7 million surplus. Pinchot and engineer Morris Llewellyn Cooke pursued ambitious plans to regulate Pennsylvania's electric power industry, but their proposals were defeated in the state legislature.
Pinchot emerged as a potential contender for the Republican nomination in the 1924 presidential election following the death of President Harding, as many progressive Republicans hoped Pinchot could unseat Harding's successor, Calvin Coolidge. Pinchot's presidential chances were badly damaged by his role in settling the 1923 United Mine Workers coal strike, as he received the blame for a subsequent increase in coal prices, and Coolidge ultimately won the 1924 presidential election. Constitutionally barred from seeking a second term, Pinchot ran in the 1926 Senate election in Pennsylvania. Facing strong opposition from anti-Prohibition "wets" and the conservative wing of the Republican Party, Pinchot was defeated by Congressman William Scott Vare in the Republican primary. Vare went on to defeat former Labor Secretary William Wilson in the general election, but in his capacity as governor Pinchot refused to certify the results of the election, claiming that Vare had illegally bought votes. The Senate refused to seat Vare and the seat would not be filled until the appointment of Joseph R. Grundy in 1929.
Second term as governor of Pennsylvania
With the backing of Senator Grundy, Pinchot launched a bid for the Republican nomination in the 1930 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election. Relying once again on support from women and rural voters, Pinchot defeated Francis Shunk Brown, the candidate of Vare's Philadelphia machine, and Thomas Phillips, a former congressman who was enthusiastically supported by the state's wet forces. Despite some defections by some Republicans, Pinchot went on to narrowly defeat Democrat John Hemphill in the general election. Taking office in the midst of the Great Depression, Pinchot would face persistently high unemployment levels and sharply declining revenues during his second term.
Pinchot prioritized fiscal conservatism and avoided major budget increases, but he also sought ways to help the impoverished and unemployed. He presided over the passage of a bill to provide state money for indigent care and initiated various infrastructure projects. He cooperated with President Franklin Roosevelt, despite Roosevelt's being a Democrat and Prohibition opponent. Under Governor Pinchot's leadership, Pennsylvania welcomed the Civilian Conservation Corps, which established 113 camps to work on public lands in Pennsylvania (second only to California). Working with the Works Progress Administration and National Park Service, Pinchot helped expand Pennsylvania's state parks, and also helped Pennsylvania's struggling farmers and unemployed workers by paving rural roads, which became known as 'Pinchot Roads.'
When Prohibition was nationally repealed in 1933, and four days before the sale of alcohol became legal in Pennsylvania again, Pinchot called the Pennsylvania General Assembly into special session to debate regulations regarding the manufacture and sale of alcohol. This session led to the establishment of the Pennsylvania Liquor Control Board and its system of state-run liquor stores. Though Pinchot is often misquoted as having said his goal was to "discourage the purchase of alcoholic beverages by making it as inconvenient and expensive as possible," in reality he believed that the PLCB would put bootleggers out of business by offering lower prices. Pinchot also argued that under the new system of state controlled liquor stores "[w]hisky will be sold by civil service employees with exactly the same amount of salesmanship as is displayed by an automatic postage stamp vending machine."
Final years
Pinchot ran unsuccessfully for the Senate a third time in the 1934 Senate election in Pennsylvania, losing the Republican nomination to incumbent Senator David A. Reed. He later sought the Republican nomination in the 1938 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election, running on a platform that favored the New Deal and opposed the influence of Republican leaders Joseph R. Grundy and Joseph N. Pew Jr. He was defeated in the Republican primary by conservative former Lieutenant Governor Arthur James.
Out of public office, Pinchot continued his ultimately successful campaign to prevent the transfer of the Forest Service to the Department of the Interior, frequently sparring with Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes. He also published new editions of his manual on forestry and worked on his autobiography, Breaking New Ground, which was published shortly after his death. During and after World War II, Pinchot advocated for conservation to be a part of the mission of the United Nations, but the United Nations would not focus on the environment until the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment.
Death
Gifford Pinchot died on October 4, 1946, aged 81, from leukemia. He is interred at Milford Cemetery, Pike County, Pennsylvania.
Personal life
During the 1912 presidential campaign, Pinchot frequently worked with Cornelia Bryce, a women's suffrage activist who was a daughter of former Congressman Lloyd Bryce and a granddaughter of former New York City mayor Edward Cooper. They became engaged in early 1914 and were married in August 1914. Although Cornelia Pinchot waged several unsuccessful campaigns for the United States House of Representatives, she was successful with numerous other political and public service activities, and has been described by historians at the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission as “one of the most politically active first ladies in the history of Pennsylvania." She gave numerous speeches on behalf of women, organized labor, and other causes, and frequently served as a campaign surrogate for her husband. Pinchot and his family took a seven-month voyage of the Southern Pacific Ocean in 1929, which Pinchot chronicled in his 1930 work, To the South Seas.
Pinchot and his wife had one child, Gifford Bryce Pinchot, who was born in 1915. The younger Pinchot later helped found the Natural Resources Defense Council, an organization similar to his father's National Conservation Association. Proud of the first Gifford Pinchot's legacy, the family has continued to name their sons Gifford, down to Gifford Pinchot IV.
Legacy
Gifford Pinchot National Forest in Washington and Gifford Pinchot State Park in Lewisberry, Pennsylvania, are named in his honor, as is Pinchot Hall at Penn State University. A large Coast Redwood in Muir Woods, California, is also named in his honor, as are Mount Pinchot and Pinchot Pass on the John Muir Trail in the Kings Canyon National Park in California. The Pinchot Sycamore, the largest tree in his native state of Connecticut and second-largest sycamore on the Atlantic coast, still stands in Simsbury. The house where Pinchot was born belonged to his grandfather, Captain Elisha Phelps, and is also on the National Register of Historic Places. He is also commemorated in the scientific name of a species of Caribbean lizard, Anolis pinchoti. In 1963, President John F. Kennedy accepted the family's summer retreat house, Grey Towers National Historic Site, which the Pinchot family donated to the U.S. Forest Service. It remains the only National Historic Landmark operated by that federal agency.
Gifford Pinchot III, grandson of the first Gifford Pinchot, founded the Pinchot University, now merged with Presidio Graduate School. The Pinchot family also dedicated The Pinchot Institute for Conservation, which maintains offices both at Grey Towers and headquarters in Washington, D.C. The Institute continues Pinchot's legacy of conservation leadership and sustainable forestry.
See also
Mount Pinchot (Montana)
List of people on the cover of Time Magazine: 1920s (Nov 23, 1925)
Gifford Pinchot State Park a Pennsylvania state park in York County, Pennsylvania
Gifford Pinchot National Forest, a United States National Forest in Washington
National Irrigation Congress
Pinchot South Sea Expedition
Notes
References
Works cited
Bibliography
Primary sources
"Breaking New Ground" by Gifford Pinchot.. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1947. In print, 1998, by Island Press and in paperback..
Gifford Pinchot, The Conservation Diaries of Gifford Pinchot ed by Harold K. Steen (2001)
Gifford Pinchot, The Fight for Conservation. New York: Doubleday, Page & Company, 1910.
Secondary sources
Online sources
(1912: Competing Visions for America, Gifford Pinchot, Ohio State University)
Gifford Pinchot (1865–1948) Conservation Hall of Fame, National Wildlife Federation
Gifford Pinchot Brief Bio
External links
Gifford Pinchot at the Forest History Society
"American Experience: The Big Burn"
Grey Towers National Historical Site, Milford, Pennsylvania
Pinchot Institute for Conservation, Washington, D.C.
1865 births
1946 deaths
Pinchot family
People from Simsbury, Connecticut
American conservationists
American environmentalists
Governors of Pennsylvania
Deaths from leukemia
Pennsylvania Progressives (1912)
Phillips Exeter Academy alumni
United States Forest Service officials
History of forestry in the United States
History of forestry education
Pennsylvania Republicans
American foresters
Progressive Era in the United States
Alumni of the French National School of Forestry
Yale University alumni
Gifford Pinchot National Forest
Republican Party state governors of the United States
Writers from Connecticut
Writers from Pennsylvania
Recipients of the Sir William Schlich Memorial Award | [
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224690 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20C.%20Blum | Richard C. Blum | Richard Charles Blum (July 31, 1935 – February 27, 2022) was an American investor and the husband of United States Senator Dianne Feinstein. He was the chairman and president of Blum Capital, an equity investment management firm. Blum was on the boards of directors of several companies, including CB Richard Ellis, where until May 2009 he served as the chairman of that board. He was a regent of the University of California from 2002 until his death.
Early life and education
Blum was born in San Francisco, California, to a Jewish family. He was the son of Louise (Hirsch) and Herbert Blum, who sold robes and raincoats. He attended San Francisco public schools. He received his Bachelor of Science in business administration in 1958 and a Master of Business Administration in 1959 from the Haas School of Business of the University of California, Berkeley.
In the 1970s, Blum supported then Mayor of San Francisco George Moscone. After Moscone's assassination, Blum supported the new mayor Dianne Feinstein; they married in 1980. Blum had three daughters from his first marriage to Andrea Schwartz Blum.
Career
Blum founded Blum Capital in 1975. Blum previously served as chairman of the board of directors of CB Richard Ellis, as well as serving as director on the boards of directors of three other portfolio companies: Fairmont Raffles Holdings International Ltd., Current Media, L.L.C., and Myer Pty Ltd. in Australia. Blum co-founded Newbridge Capital in 1994.
Blum served on the boards of multiple companies, including Northwest Airlines Corporation, Glenborough Realty Trust, Inc., Korea First Bank, URS Corporation, and National Education Corporation. Blum was the founder and chairman of the American Himalayan Foundation and was Honorary Consul to Mongolia and Nepal. Blum was also a member of the advisory board of the Haas School of Business at the University of California at Berkeley.
Blum joined investment brokerage Sutro & Co. at the age of 23, becoming a partner before age 30. At Sutro, Blum led a partnership that acquired Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus for $8 million, selling it to Mattel four years later for $40 million. On the back of this deal Blum started in business for himself in 1975, founding what is now Blum Capital Partners; a stake in URS Corp. was one of its first investments.
On April 25, 2009, Blum was honored with the Berkeley Medal by UC Berkeley Chancellor Robert Birgenau in front of the 14th Dalai Lama. The talk was sponsored by his American Himalayan Foundation and the Blum Center for Developing Economies at UC Berkeley.
On March 12, 2002, Blum was appointed by California Governor Gray Davis to a 12-year term as one of the Regents of the University of California. He was also on the boards of the following companies:
CB Richard Ellis (Chairman)
Newbridge Capital (co-Chairman)
Blum Capital
Blum was also the primary owner of Career Education Corporation.
Controversy
Blum's wife, Senator Dianne Feinstein, received scrutiny due to her husband's government contracts and extensive business dealings with China and her past votes on trade issues with the country. Blum has denied any wrongdoing. URS Corp, which Blum had a substantial stake in, bought EG&G, a leading provider of technical services and management to the United States military, from The Carlyle Group in 2002; EG&G subsequently won a $600 million defense contract.
Blum and his wife received significant scrutiny and criticism due to his 75% stake in contractor Tutor Perini which received hundreds of millions to billions of dollars in military contracts in Iraq and Afghanistan during the US occupation of those countries. Critics have argued that business contracts with the US government awarded to a company controlled by Blum raise a potential conflict-of-interest issue with the voting and policy activities of his wife.
In 2009, Feinstein introduced legislation to provide $25 billion in taxpayer money to the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, a government agency that had recently awarded her husband's real estate firm, CB Richard Ellis, what The Washington Times called "a lucrative contract to sell foreclosed properties at compensation rates higher than the industry norms." The United States Postal Service has entered into an exclusive contract with CB Richard Ellis to sell buildings that currently house post offices.
In 2020, Blum was discovered to have written letters on behalf of unqualified applicants to various UC campus chancellors. The applicants were admitted through student athletics programs, even though, according to a state audit “they possessed little athletic talent.” The audit described Blum's actions as "particularly problematic" as University Regents should not be influencing admissions decisions.
Personal life
He had a strong interest in Tibet and Tibetan Buddhism, and in 1981 he attempted to climb Mount Everest from the Tibetan side with Sir Edmund Hillary. He was the chairman and founder of the apolitical American Himalayan Foundation (AHF), which has given millions of dollars to build hospitals and schools in Tibet and Nepal but has refrained from political involvement with the Chinese control of Tibet.
Blum had been a trustee of The Carter Center; former co-chairman of The World Conference of Religions for Peace; Member of Governing Council of The Wilderness Society; member of the board of trustees of the Brookings Institution; member of the board of trustees of the American Cancer Society Foundation; member of the board of directors of the National Democratic Institute; and was a member of the board of trustees of the Richard C. Blum Center for Developing Economies at the University of California, Berkeley, to which he provided $15 million for the center which was focused on finding solutions to address the crisis of extreme poverty and disease in the developing world.
He donated to the University of California at San Francisco (UCSF), Merced and Los Angeles (UCLA) and Sonoma State University, as well as Macalester College. He pledged $1.25 million to the University of San Francisco (USF) in 2007, and another $1.5 million to USF for "global education" in 2019. He was awarded the UCSF medal in 2012. He served on many other boards, including the Seva Foundation and as chairman of the Himalayan Foundation. In the arts and culture, he made grants to the Creative Visions Foundation, the Daniel Pearl Foundation, San Francisco's Asian Art Museum, the San Francisco Conservatory of Music, and the Geffen Playhouse in Los Angeles.
Blum was hospitalized in September 2021 for an undisclosed reason. He died from cancer at his home in San Francisco on February 27, 2022, at the age of 86.
Bibliography
References
External links
1935 births
2022 deaths
20th-century American Jews
20th-century American businesspeople
21st-century American Jews
21st-century American businesspeople
American chief executives of financial services companies
American investment bankers
Businesspeople from San Francisco
Career Education Corporation
Deaths from cancer in California
Deaths from lung cancer
First Ladies and Gentlemen of San Francisco
Haas School of Business alumni
Jewish American bankers
Private equity and venture capital investors
University of California regents | [
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224692 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukovina | Bukovina | Bukovina is a historical region, variously described as part of either Central or Eastern Europe (or both). The region is located on the northern slopes of the central Eastern Carpathians and the adjoining plains, today divided between Romania and Ukraine.
Settled initially and primarily by Moldavians (Romanians) and subsequently by Ruthenians (Ukrainians), it became part of the Kievan Rus' in the 10th century and then the Principality of Moldavia during the 14th century. The region has been sparsely populated since the Paleolithic, with several now extinct peoples inhabiting it. Eventually, the early Slavs emerged in Bukovina in the 4th century. During the 10th century, it became part of the Kievan Rus', and later the Principality of Halych.
Consequently, the culture of the Kievan Rus' spread in the region, with the Bukovinian Church administered from Kiev until 1302, when it passed to Halych metropoly. Then, in the 14th century, Bukovina passed to Hungary, and became part of Moldavia. King Louis I of Hungary appointed Dragoș, Voivode of Moldavia as his deputy, facilitated the migration of the Romanians from Maramureș and Transylvania to the territory. Bogdan of Cuhea came to power in 1359, and removed Moldova from Hungarian control. Thereafter, Ukrainians and Moldovans cohabited Bukovina, fighting together against invaders and oppressors.
The territory of what became known as Bukovina was, from 1774 to 1918, an administrative division of the Habsburg Monarchy, the Austrian Empire, and Austria-Hungary. Locals sought to annex the historically Ruthenian north to the Western Ukrainian National Republic in the early 20th century. However, the Kingdom of Romania seized the whole province in 1918, pursuing a policy of Romanization in the region.
In 1940, the northern half of Bukovina was annexed by the Soviet Union in violation of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, a non-aggression pact between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. Afterwards, the region was temporarily recovered by Romania as an ally of Nazi Germany after the latter invaded the Soviet Union which, however, retook the northern part in 1944. Bukovina's population was historically "almost solidly Ukrainian in the north and Romanian in the south, while in the towns there were also a number of Germans, Poles, and Jews." Today, Bukovina's northern half is part of Ukraine (represented by the Chernivtsi Oblast), while the southern one is part of Romania (represented by Suceava County). Furthermore, Bukovina had been sometimes labeled as 'Switzerland of the East', given its diverse ethnic mosaic and deep forested mountainous landscapes.
Name
The name first appears in a document issued by the Voivode of Moldavia Roman I Mușat, on March 30, 1392, by which he gives to Ionaș Viteazul three villages, located near the Siret river.
The name Bukovina came into official use in 1775 with the region's annexation from the Principality of Moldavia to the possessions of the Habsburg Monarchy, which became the Austrian Empire in 1804, and Austria-Hungary in 1867.
The official German name of the province under Austrian rule (1775–1918), , was derived from the Polish form , which in turn was derived from the common Slavic form of , meaning beech tree (compare Ukrainian ; German ; Hungarian ). Another German name for the region, , is mostly used in poetry, and means 'beech land', or 'the land of beech trees'. In Romanian, in literary or poetic contexts, the name ('the land of beech trees') is sometimes used. In English, an alternative form is The Bukovina, increasingly an archaism, which, however, is found in older literature.
In Ukraine, the name (Bukovyna) is unofficial, but is common when referring to the Chernivtsi Oblast, as over two thirds of the oblast is the northern part of Bukovina. In Romania, the term Northern Bukovina is sometimes synonymous with the entire Chernivtsi Oblast of Ukraine, while Southern Bukovina refers to the Suceava County of Romania (although 30% of the present-day Suceava County covers territory outside of the historical Bukovina).
History
The territory of Bukovina had been part of Kyevan Rus since the 10th century. It then became part of the Principality of Galicia, with the establishment of the Ukrainian Bukovinian church. Then, it became part of Moldavia in the 14th century, with the Ukrainian and Romanian locals repelling invading forces and fighting together to preserve autonomy.
It was first delineated as a separate district of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria in 1775, and was made a nominal duchy within the Austrian Empire in 1849.
Background
The region, which is made up of a portion of the northeastern Carpathian Mountains and the neighbouring plain, was settled by both Ruthenians (i.e. Ukrainians) and Romanians (i.e. Moldavians). The former constituted the largest ethnic group in the north, while the latter went on to become the largest ethnic group in the south. After being inhabited by ancient peoples and tribes (Trypillian, Scythians, Dacians, Getae) starting from the Paleolithic, Slav culture and language emerged in the region, as early as in the 4th century. Later, Ukrainian culture spread, and by the 10th century the region was part of Kievan Rus. After 1342, when Louis I defeated the Tatars, Romanians from Transylvania and the Maramureş started to settle in the region.
Early settlement
First traces of human occupation date back to the Paleolithic. The area was first settled by Trypillian culture tribes, in the Neolithic. It was then settled by now extinct tribes (Dacians/Getae, Thracian/Scythian tribes). Meanwhile, many nomads crossed the region (3rd to 9th century AD). By the 4th century, the Slavs appeared in the region. These Slavic people were part of the tribal alliance of the Antes. In the 9th century Tivertsians and White Croatians composed the local population.
Kievan Rus
Bukovina was part of Kievan Rus, from the 10th to the 11th century. United by Prince Oleg in the 870s, Kievan Rus' was a loose federation of speakers of East Slavic and Uralic languages from the late 9th to the mid-13th century, under the reign of the Rurik dynasty, founded by the Varangian prince Rurik. When Kievan Rus was partitioned at the end of the 11th century, Bukovina became part of the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia.
Principality of Galicia-Volhynia
After the fragmentation of Kievan Rus', Bukovina passed to the Principality of Galicia (Principality of Galicia-Volhynia). The Church in Bukovina was initially administered from Kiev. In 1302, it was passed to the Halych metropoly.
After the Golden Horde invaded Europe, with the region falling into the hands of the Tatars, ties between Galician-Volhynian and Bukovina weakened. As a result of the Tatar invasion, the Shypyntsi land, recognizing the suzerainty of the Mongols, arose in the region.
Eventually, this state collapsed, and Bukovina passed to Hungary. King Louis I appointed Dragoș, Voivode of Moldavia as his deputy, facilitating the migration of the Romanians from Maramureș and Transylvania.
The Moldavian state was formed by the mid-14th century, eventually expanding its territory all the way to the Black Sea. Upon its foundation, the Moldovan state recognized the supremacy of Poland, keeping on recognizing it from 1387 to 1497. Later (1514) it was vassalized by the Ottoman Empire. Bukovina and neighboring regions became the nucleus of the Moldavian Principality, with the city of Iași as its capital from 1564 (after Baia, Siret and Suceava). The name of Moldavia () is derived from a river (Moldova River) flowing in Bukovina.
Polish and Moldavian period
Petru II moved the seat of Moldova from Siret to Suceava in 1388. In the 15th century, Pokuttya, the region immediately to the north, became the subject of disputes between the Principality of Moldavia and the Polish Kingdom. Pokuttya was likewise inhabited by Ruthenians (the predecessors of modern Ukrainians together with the Rus', and of the Rusyns). Further there were the Hutsuls, who also resided in western Bukovina. In 1497 a battle took place at the Cosmin Forest (the hilly forests separating Chernivtsi and Siret valleys), at which Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great), managed to defeat the much-stronger but demoralized army of King John I Albert of Poland. The battle is known in Polish popular culture as "the battle when the Knights have perished". The region had been under Polish nominal dominion from its foundation (1387) to the time of this battle (1497). Shortly thereafter, it became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire (1514).
In this period, the patronage of Stephen the Great and his successors on the throne of Moldavia saw the construction of the famous painted monasteries of Moldoviţa, Suceviţa, Putna, Humor, Voroneţ, Dragomirna, Arbore and others. With their renowned exterior frescoes, these monasteries remain some of the greatest cultural treasures of Romania, created in a period when Ukrainians and Romanians cohabited in the region; some of them are World Heritage Sites, part of the painted churches of northern Moldavia. The most famous monasteries are in the area of Suceava, which today is part of Romania. Also part of Romania is the monastery of , an Orthodox saint and martyr dear to the Ukrainians (as well as the Romanians), who was killed by the Tatars in Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi. Ukrainian-Bukovinian writer Olha Kobylianska went on a pilgrimage to Suceava to worship the relics of the saint.
After becoming a vassal of the Ottoman Empire in 1514, it became Turkish province at the end of the 16th century. An active process of Rumanization of the locals began in this period. The process of Rumanization of Bukovina, where Ukrainians were prominent and the Ukrainian language was among the official languages, intensified in 1564, when the capital was moved from Suceava to Iași.
From 1490 to 1492, the Mukha rebellion, led by the Ukrainian hero Petro Mukha, took place in Galicia. This event pitted the Ukrainian Moldovians and Romanian Moldovians against the oppressive rule of the Polish magnates. A rebel army composed of Ukrainian and Moldavian peasants took the fortified towns of Sniatyn, Kolomyia, and Halych, killing many Polish noblemen and burghers, before being halted by the Polish Royal Army in alliance with a Galician levée en masse and Prussian mercenaries while marching to Lviv. Many rebels died in the Rohatyn Battle, with Mukha and the survivors fleeing back to Moldavia. Mukha returned to Galicia to re-ignite the rebellion, but was killed in 1492.
In May 1600 Mihai Viteazul (Michael the Brave), became the ruler the two Romanian principalities and Transylvania.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, Ukrainian warriors (Cossacks) were involved in many conflicts against the Turkish and Tatar invaders of the Moldovian territory. Notably, Ivan Pidkova, best known as the subject of Ukraine's bard Taras Shevchenko's Ivan Pidkova (1840), led military campaigns in the 1570s. Many Bukovinians joined the Cossacks during the Khmelnytsky Uprising. As part of the peasant armies, they formed their own regiment, which participated to the 1648 Siege of Lviv. Ukrainian Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky himself led a campaign in Moldavia, whose result was an alliance between Khmelnytsky and its hospodar Vasile Lupu. Other prominent Ukrainian leaders fighting against the Turks in Moldovia were Severyn Nalyvaiko and Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny.
For short periods of time (during wars), the Polish Kingdom (to which both Ruthenian Moldavians and Romanian Moldavians were hostile, see Mukha Rebellion) again occupied parts of northern Moldavia. However, the old border was re-established each time, as for example on 14 October 1703 the Polish delegate Martin Chometowski said, according to the Polish protocol, "Between us and Wallachia (i.e. the Moldavian region, vassal of the Turks) God himself set Dniester as the border" (Inter nos et Valachiam ipse Deus flumine Tyras dislimitavit). According to the Turkish protocol the sentence reads, "God (may He be exhalted) has separated the lands of Moldavia [Bukovina, vassal of the Turks] from our Polish lands by the river Dniester." Strikingly similar sentences were used in other sayings and folkloristic anecdotes, such as the phrase reportedly exclaimed by a member of the Aragonese Cortes in 1684.
Tymish Khmelnytsky, son of Bohdan, died in Suceava in 1653, while he was fighting a coalition of Poland, Transylvania, and Wallachia.
From the 16th to the 18th centuries, "Bukovina maintained cultural ties with other Ukrainian lands. Moldovian hospodars founded a number of churches in Ukraine, and many natives of Bukovyna studied in Kyiv and Lviv."
In the course of the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774, the Ottoman armies were defeated by the Russian Empire, which occupied the region from 15 December 1769 to September 1774, and previously during 14 September–October 1769. Bukovina was the reward the Habsburgs received for aiding the Russians in that war. Prince Grigore III Ghica of Moldavia protested and was prepared to take action to recover the territory, but was assassinated, and a Greek-Phanariot foreigner was put on the throne of Moldavia by the Ottomans.
By the end of the Moldovian period, "Bukovyna was sparsely populated and was economically and culturally backward."
Austrian Empire
The Austrian Empire occupied Bukovina in October 1774. Following the First Partition of Poland in 1772, the Austrians claimed that they needed it for a road between Galicia and Transylvania. Bukovina was formally annexed in January 1775. On 2 July 1776, at Palamutka, Austrians and Ottomans signed a border convention, Austria giving back 59 of the previously occupied villages, retaining 278 villages.
Bukovina was a closed military district (1775–1786), then the largest district, Bukovina District (first known as the Czernowitz District), of the Austrian constituent Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria (1787–1849). On 4 March 1849, Bukovina became a separate Austrian Kronland 'crown land' under a Landespräsident (not a Statthalter, as in other crown lands) and was declared the Herzogtum Bukowina (a nominal duchy, as part of the official full style of the Austrian Emperors). In 1860 it was again amalgamated with Galicia but reinstated as a separate province once again on 26 February 1861, a status that would last until 1918.
In 1849 Bukovina got a representative assembly, the Landtag (diet). The Moldavian nobility had traditionally formed the ruling class in that territory. In 1867, with the re-organization of the Austrian Empire as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, it became part of the Cisleithanian or Austrian territories of Austria-Hungary and remained so until 1918.
Late 19th to early 20th centuries
The region is quite important to the history of Ukraine. It was occupied early on by Ruthenians; was part of Kyevan Rus, and was the stage of important battles and events, as well as being tied to important historical figures (e.g. Petro Mukha, Tymofiy Khmelnytsky, Ivan Pidkova, Lukjan Kobylytsia, Antin Varivoda), the homeland of intellectuals and activists (e.g., , ), writers, such as Yuriy Fedkovych, Sydir Vorobkevych, and Olha Kobylianska. More recently, Bukovina produced such prominent figures as the legend of Ukrainian cinema Ivan Mykolaichuk, opera singer Dmytro Hnatyuk, as well as Ani Lorak, Mariya Yaremchuk, Volodymyr Melnykov, Volodymyr Ivasyuk, Nazariy Yaremchuk, Pavlo Dvorsky. Many Romanian Bukovinians are at least partly of Ukrainian descent, such as Zamfir Arbore, Emil Bodnăraș, Vasile Hutopilă, Miroslava Şandru and Eusebius Mandyczewski. Among Ukrainian Bukovinians of Moldovan descent there is notably Sofia Rotaru. Bukovina maintained Slavic-speaking presence since at least the 4th century, and remained culturally tied to other Ukrainian lands since the concept emerged in the Middle Ages. Bukovina's Ukrainians fought against Tatar rule and, later, against Polish oppression. The region kept its Ukrainian identity in spite of the introduction of Romanians in the 1340s and the policies of active Rumanization, started as early as in the 1560s. Ukrainian Cossacks fought frequently against the Turks, led, among others, by Ivan Pidkova. Starting from the 1840s, the Ukrainian national movement developed in the region, with Ukrainian nationalist sentiment re-igniting among locals.
The 1871 and 1904 jubilees held at Putna Monastery, near the tomb of Ştefan cel Mare, have constituted tremendous moments for Romanian national identity in Bukovina. Since gaining its independence, Romania envisioned to incorporate this province, that Romanians likewise considered historic, which, as a core of the Moldavian Principality, was of a great historic significance to its history and contained many prominent monuments of its art and architecture.
Despite the introduction of Romanian migrants in the 1840s and the active policies of forced Rumanization, the Ukrainians always managed to maintain their national identity in the north of the region, while in the south the Romanian nationality emerged to prevail. Indeed, the Romanians became the largest ethnic group in the south in the 19th century. In spite of the historic policies of Rumanization, the Austrians "managed to keep a balance between the various ethnic groups." In the 1880 census, there were 239,690 Ruthenians and Hutzuls, or roughly 41.5% of the population of the region, while Romanians were second with 190,005 people or 33%, a ratio that remained more or less the same until World War I. The percentage of Romanians fell from 85.3% in 1774 to 34.1% in 1910. Ruthenians is an archaic name for Ukrainians, while the Hutsuls are a regional Ukrainian subgroup.
Ukrainian national sentiment
Ukrainian national sentiment re-ignited in the 1840s. Officially started in 1848, the nationalist movement gained strength in 1869, when the Ruska Besida Society was founded in Chernivtsi. By the 1890s, Ukrainians were represented in the regional diet and Vienna parliament, being led by Stepan Smal-Stotsky. Beside Stotsky, other important Bukovinian leaders were Yerotei Pihuliak, Omelian Popovych, Mykola Vasylko, , , Sylvester Nikorovych, Ivan and Petro Hryhorovych, and Lubomyr Husar. The first periodical in the Ukrainian language, Bukovyna (published from 1885 until 1918) was published by the populists since the 1880s. The Ukrainian populists fought for their ethnocultural rights against the Austrians.
Peasant revolts broke out in Hutsul in the 1840s, with the peasants demanding more rights, socially and politically. Likewise, nationalist sentiment spread among the Romanians. As a result, more rights were given to Ukrainians and Romanians, with five Ukrainians (including notably Lukian Kobylytsia), two Romanians and one German elected to represent the region. The Ukrainians won representation at the provincial diet as late as 1890, and fought for equality with the Romanians also in the religious sphere. This was partly achieved only as late as on the eve of World War I. However, their achievements were accompanied by friction with Romanians. Overpopulation in the countryside caused migration (especially to North America), also leading to peasant strikes. However, by 1914 Bukovina managed to get "the best Ukrainian schools and cultural-educational institutions of all the regions of Ukraine." Beside Ukrainians, also Bukovina's Germans and Jews, as well as a number of Romanians and Hungarians, emigrated in 19th and 20th century.
Under Austrian rule, Bukovina remained ethnically mixed: Romanians were predominant in the south, Ukrainians (commonly referred to as Ruthenians in the Empire) in the north, with small numbers of Hungarian Székelys, Slovak, and Polish peasants, and Germans, Poles and Jews in the towns. The 1910 census counted 800,198 people, of which: Ruthenians 38.88%, Romanians 34.38%, Germans 21.24% (Jews 12.86% included), Polish people 4.55%, Hungarian people 1.31%, Slovaks 0.08%, Slovenes 0.02%, Italian people 0.02%, and a few Croats, Romani people, Serbs and Turkish people. While reading the statistics it should be mentioned that, in addition to the Rumanization of many local Ukrainian peasants, due to "adverse economic conditions", some 50,000 Ukrainians left the region (mostly emigrating to North America) between 1891 and 1910, in the aforementioned migrations. Nonetheless, the percentage of Ukrainians has significatly grown since the end of the XVIII century.
In 1783, by an Imperial Decree of Joseph II, local Eastern Orthodox Eparchy of Bukovina (with its seat in Czernowitz) was placed under spiritual jurisdiction of the Metropolitanate of Karlovci. Some friction appeared in time between the church hierarchy and the Romanians, complaining that Old Church Slavonic was favored to Romanian, and that family names were being slavicized. In spite of Romanian-Slavic speaking frictions over the influence in the local church hierarchy, there was no Romanian-Ukrainian inter-ethnic tension, and both cultures developed in educational and public life. After the rise of Ukrainian nationalism in 1848 and the following rise of Romanian nationalism, Habsburg authorities reportedly awarded additional rights to Ukrainians in an attempt to temper Romanian ambitions of independence. On the other hand, the Ukrainians had to struggle against the Austrians after centuries of Rumanization, with the Austrians rejecting both nationalist claims, favoring neither Romanians nor Ukrainians, while attempting to "keep a balance between the various ethnic groups." Indeed, a group of scholars surrounding the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand were planning on creating a Romanian state that would've included all of Bukovina, including Czernowitz. After they acquired Bukovina, the Austrians opened only one elementary school in Chernivsti, which taught exclusively in Romanian. They later did open German schools, but no Ukrainian ones. Ukrainian language would appear in Chernivsti's schools as late as 1851, but only as a subject, at the local university (in spite of this, the city attracted students from other parts of Bukovina and Galicia, who would study in the German language of instruction). Lukjan Kobylytsia, a
Ukrainian Bukovinian farmer and activist, died of torture-related causes after attempting to ask for more rights for the Bukovinian Ukrainians to the Austrians. He died of the consequence of torture in 1851 in Romania. At the end of the 19th century, the development of Ukrainian culture in Bukovina surpassed Galicia and the rest of Ukraine with a network of Ukrainian educational facilities, while Dalmatia formed an Archbishopric, later raised to the rank of Metropolitanate.
In 1873, the Eastern Orthodox Bishop of Czernowitz (who was since 1783 under the spiritual jurisdiction of the Metropolitan of Karlovci) was elevated to the rank of Archbishop, when a new Metropolitanate of Bukovinian and Dalmatia was created. The new Archbishop of Czernowitz gained supreme jurisdiction over Serbian eparchies of Dalmatia and Kotor, which were also (until then) under the spiritual jurisdiction of Karlovci.
In the early 20th century, a group of scholars surrounding the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand created a plan (that never came to pass) of United States of Greater Austria. The specific proposal was published in Aurel C. Popovici's book “Die Vereinigten Staaten von Groß-Österreich“ [The United States of Greater Austria], Leipzig, 1906. According to it, most of Bukovina (including Czernowitz) would form, with Transylvania, a Romanian state, while the north-western portion (Zastavna, Kozman, Waschkoutz, Wiznitz, Gura Putilei, and Seletin districts) would form with the bigger part of Galicia a Ukrainian state, both in a federation with 13 other states under the Austrian crown.
Kingdom of Romania
In World War I, several battles were fought in Bukovina between the Austro-Hungarian, German, and Russian armies, which resulted in the Russian army invading Chernivtsi for three times (30 August–21 October 1914, 26 November 1914–18 February 1915, 18 June 1916–2 August 1917). The regime that had occupied the city pursued a policy of persecution of "nationally conscious Ukrainians". The situation was not improved until the February Revolution of 1917. The Russian were driven out in 1917. Bukovina suffered great losses during the war.
With the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918, both the local Romanian National Council and the Ukrainian National Council based in Galicia claimed the region. In the beginning, Bukovina joined the fledging West Ukrainian National Republic (November 1918), but it was occupied by the Romanian army immediately thereafter.
A Constituent Assembly on 14/27 October 1918 formed an executive committee, to whom the Austrian governor of the province handed power. After an official request by Iancu Flondor, Romanian troops swiftly moved in to take over the territory, against Ukrainian protest. Although local Ukrainians attempted to incorporate parts of Northern Bukovina into the short-lived West Ukrainian People's Republic, this attempt was defeated by Polish and Romanian troops.
The Ukrainian Regional Committee, led by Omelian Popovych, organized a rally in Chernivtsi on November 3, 1918, demanding Bukovina's annexation to Ukraine. The committee took power in the Ukrainian part of Bukovina, including its biggest center Chernivtsi. The Romanian moderates, who were led by Aurel Onciul, accepted the division. However, the Romanian conservatives, led by Iancu Flondor, rejected the idea. In spite of Ukrainian resistance, the Romanian army occupied the northern Bukovina, including Chernivtsi, on November 11.
Under the protection of Romanian troops, the Romanian Council summoned a General Congress of Bukovina for 15/28 November 1918, where 74 Romanians, 13 Ruthenians, 7 Germans, and 6 Poles were represented (this is the linguistic composition, and Jews were not recorded as a separate group). According to Romanian historiography, popular enthusiasm swept the whole region, and a large number of people gathered in the city to wait for the resolution of the Congress. The council was quickly summoned by the Romanians upon their occupation of Bukovina.
The Congress elected the Romanian Bukovinian politician Iancu Flondor as chairman, and voted for the union with the Kingdom of Romania, with the support of the Romanian, German, and Polish representatives; the Ukrainians did not support this. The reasons stated were that, until its takeover by the Habsburg in 1775, Bukovina was the heart of the Principality of Moldavia, where the gropniţele domneşti (voivods' burial sites) are located, and dreptul de liberă hotărâre de sine (right of self-determination). Romanian control of the province was recognized internationally in the Treaty of St. Germain in 1919. Bukovina's autonomy was undone during Romanian occupation, the region being reduced to an ordinary Romanian province. It was subject to martial law from 1918 to 1928, and again from 1937 to 1940.
The Ukrainian language was suppressed, "educational and cultural institutions, newspapers and magazines were closed."
Romanian authorities oversaw a renewed programme of Romanianization aiming its assimilationist policies at the Ukrainian population of the region. In addition to the suppression of the Ukrainian people, their language and culture, Ukrainian surnames were Rumanized, and the Ukrainian Orthodox Church was persecuted. In the 1930s an underground nationalist movement, which was led by Orest Zybachynsky and Denys Kvitkovsky, emerged in the region. The Romanian government suppressed it by staging two political trials in 1937.
At the same time, Ukrainian enrollment at the Cernăuţi University fell from 239 out of 1671, in 1914, to 155 out of 3,247, in 1933, while simultaneously Romanian enrollment there increased several times to 2,117 out of 3,247. In part this was due to attempts to switch to Romanian as the primary language of university instruction, but chiefly to the fact that the university was one of only five in Romania, and was considered prestigious.
In the decade following 1928, as Romania tried to improve its relations with the Soviet Union, Ukrainian culture was given some limited means to redevelop, though these gains were sharply reversed in 1938.
According to the 1930 Romanian census, Romanians made up 44.5% of the total population of Bukovina, and Ukrainians (including Hutsuls) 29.1%. In the northern part of the region, however, Romanians made up only 32.6% of the population, with Ukrainians significantly outnumbering Romanians.
On August 14, 1938, Bukovina officially disappeared from the map, becoming a part of Ținutul Suceava, one of ten new administrative regions. At the same time, Cernăuți, the third most populous town in Romania (after Bucharest and Chișinău), which had been a mere county seat for the last 20 years, became again a (regional) capital. Also, Bukovinian regionalism continued under the new brand. During its first months of existence, Ținutul Suceava suffered far right (Iron Guard) uproars, to which the regional governor Gheorghe Alexianu (the future governor of the Transnistria Governorate) reacted with nationalist and anti-Semitic measures. Alexianu was replaced by Gheorghe Flondor on February 1, 1939.
Division of Bukovina
As a result of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, the USSR demanded not only Bessarabia but also the northern half of Bukovina and Hertsa regions from Romania on June 26, 1940 (Bukovina bordered Eastern Galicia, which the USSR had annexed during the Invasion of Poland). Initially, the USSR wanted the whole of Bukovina. Nazi Germany, which was surprised by the Soviet claim to Bukovina, invoked the German ethnics living in the region. As a result, the USSR only demanded the northern, overwhelmingly Ukrainian part, arguing that it was a "reparation for the great loss produced to the Soviet Union and Bassarabia's population by twenty-two years of Romanian domination of Bassarabia". Following the Soviet ultimatum, Romania ceded Northern Bukovina, which included Cernăuți, to the USSR on June 28, 1940. The withdrawal of the Romanian Army, authorities, and civilians was disastrous. Mobs attacked retreating soldiers and civilians, whereas a retreating unit massacred Jewish soldiers and civilians in the town of Dorohoi. The Red Army occupied Cernăuți and Storojineț counties, as well as parts of Rădăuți and Dorohoi counties (the latter belonged to Ținutul Suceava, but not to Bukovina). The new Soviet-Romanian border was traced less than north of Putna Monastery. Until September 22, 1940, when Ținutul Suceava was abolished, the spa town Vatra Dornei served as the capital of Ținutul Suceava.
Second World War
In 1940, Chernivtsi Oblast (⅔ of which is Northern Bukovina) had a population of circa 805,000, out of which 47.5% were Ukrainians and 28.3% were Romanians, with Germans, Jews, Poles, Hungarians, and Russians comprising the rest. The strong Ukrainian presence was the official motivation for the inclusion of the region into the Ukrainian SSR and not into the newly formed Moldavian SSR. Whether the region would have been included in the Moldavian SSR, if the commission presiding over the division had been led by someone other than the Ukrainian communist leader Nikita Khrushchev, remains a matter of debate among scholars. In fact, some territories with a mostly Romanian population (e.g., Hertsa region) were allotted to the Ukrainian SSR.
After the instauration of Soviet rule, under NKVD orders, thousands of local families were deported to Siberia during this period, with 12,191 people targeted for deportation in a document dated 2 August 1940 (from all formerly Romanian regions included in the Ukrainian SSR), while a December 1940 document listed 2,057 persons to be deported to Siberia. The largest action took place on 13 June 1941, when about 13,000 people were deported to Siberia and Kazakhstan. The majority of those targeted were ethnic native Romanians, but there were (to a lesser degree) representatives of other ethnicities, as well.
Until the repatriation convention of 15 April 1941, NKVD troops killed hundreds of Romanian peasants of Northern Bukovina as they tried to cross the border into Romania in order to escape from Soviet authorities. This culminated on 7 February 1941 with the Lunca massacre and on 1 April 1941 with the Fântâna Albă massacre.
During Soviet Communist rule in Bukovina, "private property was nationalized; farms were partly collectivized; and education was Ukrainianized. At the same time all Ukrainian organizations were disbanded, and many publicly active Ukrainians were either killed or exiled." A significant part of Ukrainian intelligentsia fled to Romania and Germany in the beginning of the occupation. When the conflict between the Soviets and Nazi Germany broke out, and the Soviet troops began moving out of Bukovina, the Ukrainian locals attempted to established their own government, but they were not able to stop the advancing Romanian army.
Almost the entire German population of Northern Bukovina was coerced to resettle in 1940–1941 to the parts of Poland then occupied by Nazi Germany, during 15 September 1940 – 15 November 1940, after this area was occupied by the Soviet Union. About 45,000 ethnic Germans had left Northern Bukovina by November 1940.
In the course of the 1941 attack on the Soviet Union by the Axis forces, the Romanian Third Army led by General Petre Dumitrescu (operating in the north), and the Fourth Romanian Army (operating in the south) regained Northern Bukovina, as well as Hertsa, and Bassarabia, during June–July 1941. It was organized as part of the Bukovina Governorate.
The Axis invasion of Northern Bukovina was catastrophic for its Jewish population, as conquering Romanian soldiers immediately began massacring its Jewish residents. Surviving Jews were forced into ghettoes to await deportation to work camps in Transnistria where 57,000 had arrived by 1941. One of the Romanian mayors of Cernăuți, Traian Popovici, managed to temporarily exempt from deporation 20,000 Jews living in the city between the fall of 1941 and the spring of 1942. Bukovina's remaining Jews were spared from certain death when it was retaken by Soviet forces in February 1944. In all, about half of Bukovina's entire Jewish population had perished. After the war and the return of the Soviets, most of the Jewish survivors from Northern Bukovina fled to Romania (and later settled in Israel).
After the war
In 1944 the Red Army drove the Axis forces out and re-established Soviet control over the territory. Romania was forced to formally cede the northern part of Bukovina to the USSR by the 1947 Paris peace treaty. The territory became part of the Ukrainian SSR as Chernivtsi Oblast (province). While during the war the Soviet government killed or forced in exile a considerable number of Ukrainians, after the war the same government deported or killed about 41,000 Romanians. As a result of killings and mass deportations, entire villages, mostly inhabited by Romanians, were abandoned (Albovat, Frunza, I.G.Duca, Buci—completely erased, Prisaca, Tanteni and Vicov—destroyed to a large extent). Men of military age (and sometimes above), both Ukrainians and Romanians, were conscripted into the Soviet Army. That did not protect them, however, from being arrested and deported for being "anti-Soviet elements".
As a reaction, partisan groups (composed of both Romanians and Ukrainians) began to operate against the Soviets in the woods around Chernivtsi, Crasna and Codrii Cosminului. In Crasna (in the former Storozhynets county) villagers attacked Soviet soldiers who were sent to "temporarily resettle" them, since they feared deportation. This resulted in dead and wounded among the villagers, who had no firearms.
Spring 1945 saw the formation of transports of Polish repatriates who (voluntarily or by coercion) had decided to leave. Between March 1945 and July 1946, 10,490 inhabitants left Northern Bukovina for Poland, including 8,140 Poles, 2,041 Jews and 309 of other nationalities.
Overall, between 1930 (last Romanian census) and 1959 (first Soviet census), the population of Northern Bukovina decreased by 31,521 people. According to official data from those two censuses, the Romanian population had decreased by 75,752 people, and the Jewish population by 46,632, while the Ukrainian and Russian populations increased by 135,161 and 4,322 people, respectively.
After 1944, the human and economic connections between the northern (Soviet) and southern (Romanian) parts of Bukovina were severed. Today, the historically Ukrainian northern part is the nucleus of the Ukrainian Chernivtsi Oblast, while the southern part is part of Romania, though there are minorities of Ukrainians and Romanians in Romanian Bukovina and Ukrainian Bukovina respectively. Ukrainians are still a recognized minority in Romania, and have one seat reserved in the Romanian Chamber of Deputies.
In Romania, 28 November is a holiday observed as the Bukovina Day.
Geography
Bukovina proper has an area of . The territory of Romanian (or Southern) Bukovina is located in northeastern Romania and it is part of the Suceava County (plus three localities in Botoșani County), whereas Ukrainian (or Northern) Bukovina is located in western Ukraine and it is part of the Chernivtsi Oblast.
Population
Historical population
The region was occupied by several now extinct peoples. The people that have longest inhabited the region, whose language has survived to this day, are the Ruthenian-speakers. The Early Slavs/Slavic-speakers emerged as early as in the 4th century in this area, with the Antes controlling a large area that included Bukovina by the 6th century. Later, the region was part of Kievan Rus', and later still of the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia. During this period it reinforced its ties to other Ukrainian lands, with many Bukovinian natives studying in Lviv and Kyiv, and the Orthodox Bukovinian Church flourishing in the region. After passing to Hungary in the 14th century, the Hungarian king appointed Dragoș as his deputy and facilitated the migration of Romanians from Maramureș and Transylvania into Bukovina. Then, a process of Rumanization was carried out in the area. In spite of this, the north of Bukovina managed to remain "solidly Ukrainian." While there exist different views on the ethnic composition of the south, it is accepted that the north of Bukovina remained largely, if not wholly, Ukrainian. The only data we have about the ethnic composition of Bukovina are the Austrian censuses starting from the 1770s. The Austrians hindered both Romanian and Ukrainian nationalisms. On the other hand, they favored the migration in Bukovina of Romanians from Transylvania and Maramureș, as well as Ukrainians from Galicia.
According to the 1775 Austrian census, the province had a total population of 86,000 (this included 56 villages which were returned to Moldavia one year later). The census only recorded social status and some ethno-religious groups (Jews, Armenians, Roma, and German colonists). In 1919, the historian Ion Nistor stated that the Romanians constituted an overwhelming majority in 1774, roughly 64,000 (85%) of the 75,000 total population. Meanwhile, always according to Nistor, about 8,000 (10%) were Ruthenians, and 3,000 (4%) other ethnic groups. On the other hand, just four years before the same Nistor estimated that the 1774 population consisted of 52,750 Romanians (also called Moldavians) (73.5%), 15,000 Ruthenians and Hutsuls (20.9%) (of whom 6,000 were Hutsuls, and 9,000 were Ruthenian immigrants from Galicia and Podolia settled in Moldavia around 1766), and 4,000 others who "use the Romanian language in conversation" (5.6%), consisting of Armenians, Jews and Roma. In 2011, an anthroponimical analysis of the Russian census of the population of Moldavia in 1774 asserted a population of 68,700 people in 1774, out of which 40,920 (59.6%) Romanians, 22,810 Ruthenians and Hutsuls (33.2%), and 7.2% Jews, Roma, and Armenians.
Based on the above anthroponimical estimate for 1774 as well as subsequent official censuses, the ethnic composition of Bukovina changed in the years after 1775 when the Austrian Empire occupied the region. The population of Bukovina increased steadily, primarily through immigration, which Austrian authorities encouraged in order to develop the economy. Indeed, the migrants entering the region came from Romanian Transylvania and Moldavia, as well as from Ukrainian Galicia. As reported by Nistor, in 1781 the Austrian authorities had reported that Bukovina's rural population was composed mostly of immigrants, with only about 6,000 of the 23,000 recorded families being "truly Moldavian". In Nistor's view, this referred only to the Moldavian population native to the region, while the total population included a significant number of Romanian immigrants from Moldavia and Transylvania. Another Austrian official report from 1783, referring to the villages between the Dniester and the Prut, indicated Ruthenian-speaking immigrants from Poland constituting a majority, with only a quarter of the population speaking Moldavian. The same report indicated that Moldavians constituted the majority in the area of Suceava. H.F. Müller gives the 1840 population used for purposes of military conscription as 339,669. According to Alecu Hurmuzaki, by 1848, 55% of the population was Romanian. At the same time, the Ukrainian population rose to 108,907 and the Jewish population surged from 526 in 1774, to 11,600 in 1848.
In 1843 the Ruthenian language was recognized, along with the Romanian language, as 'the language of the people and of the Church in Bukovina'.
During the 19th century , as mentioned, the Austrian Empire policies encouraged the influx of migrants coming from Transylvania, Moldavia, Galicia and the heartland of Austria and Germany, with Germans, Poles, Jews, Hungarians, Romanians, and Ukrainians settling in the region. Official censuses in the Austrian Empire (later Austria-Hungary) did not record ethnolinguistic data until 1850–1851. The 1857 and 1869 censuses omitted ethnic or language-related questions. 'Familiar language spoken' was not recorded again until 1880.
The Austrian census of 1850–1851, which for the first time recorded data regarding languages spoken, shows 48.50% Romanians and 38.07% Ukrainians. Subsequent Austrian censuses between 1880 and 1910 reveal a Romanian population stabilizing around 33% and a Ukrainian population around 40%. From 1774 to 1910, the percentage of Ukrainians increased, meanwhile the one of Romanians decreased.
According to the 1930 Romanian Census, Bukovina had a population of 853,009. Romanians made up 44.5% of the population, while 27.7% were Ukrainians/Ruthenians (plus 1.5% Hutsuls), 10.8% Jews, 8.9% Germans, 3.6% Poles, and 3.0% others or undeclared.
According to estimates and censuses data, the population of Bukovina was:
Note: e-estimate; c-census
Current population
The present demographic situation in Bukovina hardly resembles that of the Austrian Empire. The northern (Ukrainian) and southern (Romanian) parts became significantly dominated by their Ukrainian and Romanian majorities, respectively, with the representation of other ethnic groups being decreased significantly.
According to the data of the 2001 Ukrainian census, the Ukrainians represent about 75% (689,100) of the population of Chernivtsi Oblast, which is the closest, although not an exact, approximation of the territory of the historic Northern Bukovina. The census also identified a fall in the Romanian and Moldovan populations to 12.5% (114,600) and 7.3% (67,200), respectively. Russians are the next largest ethnic group with 4.1%, while Poles, Belarusians, and Jews comprise the rest 1.2%. The languages of the population closely reflect the ethnic composition, with over 90% within each of the major ethnic groups declaring their national language as the mother tongue (Ukrainian, Romanian, and Russian, respectively).
The fact that Romanians and Moldovans, a self-declared majority in some regions, were presented as separate categories in the census results, has been criticized in Romania, where there are complains that this artificial Soviet-era practice results in the Romanian population being undercounted, as being divided between Romanians and Moldovans. The Romanian minority of Ukraine also claims to represent a 500,000-strong community.
The Romanians mostly inhabit the southern part of the Chernivtsi region, having been the majority in former Hertsa Raion and forming a plurality together with Moldovans in former Hlyboka Raion. Self-declared Moldovans were the majority in Novoselytsia Raion. In the other eight districts and the city of Chernivtsi, Ukrainians were the majority. However, after the 2020 administrative reform in Ukraine, all these districts were abolished, and most of the areas merged into Chernivtsi Raion, where Romanians are not in majority anymore.
The southern, or Romanian Bukovina reportedly has a significant Romanian majority (94.8%) according to Romanian sources, the largest minority group being the Romani people (1.9%) according to Romanian sources and Ukrainians, who make up 0.9% of the population (2011 census). Other minor ethnic groups include Lipovans, Poles (in Cacica, Mănăstirea Humorului, Mușenița, Moara, and Păltinoasa), Zipser Germans (in Cârlibaba and Iacobeni) and Bukovina Germans in Suceava and Rădăuți, as well as Slovaks and Jews (almost exclusively in Suceava, Rădăuți and Siret).
Concerns have been raised about the way census are handled in Romania. For example, according to the 2011 Romanian census, Ukrainians of Romania number 51,703 people, making up 0.3% of the total population. However, Ukrainian nationalists of the 1990s claimed the region had 110,000 Ukrainians. The Ukrainian descendants of the Zaporozhian Cossacks who fled Russian rule in the 18th century, living in the Dobruja region of the Danube Delta, also complained similar practices. In 1992, their descendants numbered four thousand people according to official Romanian statistics. However, the local community claims to number 20,000, five times the number stated by Romanian authorities. Rumanization, with the closure of schools and suppression of the language, happened in all areas in present-day Romania where the Ukrainians live or lived. The very term "Ukrainians" was prohibited from the official usage and some Romanians of disputable Ukrainian ethnicity were rather called the "citizens of Romania who forgot their native language" and were forced to change their last names to Romanian-sounding ones. In Bukovina, the practice of Rumanization dates to much earlier than the 20th century. Since Louis of Hungary appointed Dragoș, Voivode of Moldavia as his deputy, there was an introduction of Romanians in Bukovina, and a process of Rumanization that intensified in the 1560s.
Places such as the etymologically Ukrainian Breaza and Moldovița (whose name in German is Russ Moldawitza, and used to be Ruska Moldavyda in Ukrainian), Șerbăuți and Siret used to have an overwhelming Ukrainian majority. In some places in southern Bukovina, such as Balkivtsi (Romanian: Bălcăuți), Izvoarele Sucevei, Ulma and Negostina, Ukrainian majority is still reported in Romanian census. On other hand in North Bukovina the Romanians used to be the biggest ethnic group in the city of Chernivtsi, as well as in the towns of Hlyboka and Storozhynets, and still are in Boiany and Krasnoilsk.
Cities and towns
Southern Bukovina
Northern Bukovina
Gallery
See also
Principality of Moldavia
Galicia, Central European historical region
Bukovina Germans
Székelys of Bukovina
Notes
References
Further reading
(original version, in German – use English and French versions with caution)
Dumitru Covălciuc. Românii nord-bucovineni în exilul totalitarismului sovietic
Victor Bârsan "Masacrul inocenţilor", Bucuresti, 1993, pp. 18–19
Ştefan Purici. Represiunile sovietice... pp. 255–258;
Vasile Ilica. Fântâna Albă: O mărturie de sânge (istorie, amintiri, mărturii). – Oradea: Editura Imprimeriei de Vest, 1999.
Marian Olaru. Consideraţii preliminare despre demografie si geopolitica pe teritoriul Bucovinei. Analele Bucovinei. Tomul VIII. Partea I. Bucuresti: Editura Academiei Române, 2001
Ţara fagilor: Almanah cultural-literar al românilor nord-bucovineni. Cernăuţi-Târgu-Mureş, 1994
Aniţa Nandris-Cudla. Amintiri din viaţă. 20 de ani în Siberia. Humanitas, Bucharest, 2006 (second edition), (in Romanian)
External links
Ukrainian Census results
City of Chernivtsy
The Metropolitanate of Moldavia and Bucovina (Romanian Orthodox Church)
http://jgaliciabukovina.net/
Things to do when visiting Bucovina
Historical regions in Romania
Historical regions in Ukraine
Historical regions
Moldavia
Divided regions
Rusyn communities | [
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224693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albertina%20Sisulu | Albertina Sisulu | Nontsikelelo Albertina Sisulu ( Thethiwe; 21 October 1918 – 2 June 2011) was a South African anti-apartheid activist, and the wife of fellow activist Walter Sisulu (1912–2003). She was affectionately known as Ma Sisulu throughout her lifetime by the South African public. In 2004 she was voted 57th in the SABC3's Great South Africans. She died on 2 June 2011 in her home in Linden, Johannesburg, South Africa, aged 92.
Early life
Born Nontsikelo Thethiwe in the Tsomo district of the Transkei on 21 October 1918, she was the second of five children of Bonilizwe and Monikazi Thethiwe. Sisulu's mother survived the Spanish Flu, but was constantly ill and very weak because of this. It fell upon Nontsikelelo/ Albertina, as the eldest girl, to take on a motherly role for her younger siblings. She had to stay out of school for long periods of time, which resulted in her being two years older than the rest of her class in her last year of primary school. She adopted the name Albertina when she started her schooling at a Presbyterian mission school in X name.
Her leadership qualities and maternal instincts underlined the respect she earned during the struggle when she was referred to as the 'Mother of the Nation'. Sisulu excelled at school in cultural and sporting activities and she showed leadership skills at an early age when she was chosen as head girl in standard five.
Her classmates did not seem a major inconvenience at the time she finished primary school, later when Sisulu entered a competition to win a four-year high school scholarship this counted against her as she was disqualified from the prize even though she had come in first place. Angered by the unfair treatment (the competition rules had set no age limit on the prize) Sisulu's teachers wrote to the local Xhosa language newspaper, Imvo Zabantsundu, making a strong case for Sisulu to be given the prize. The article caught the attention of the priests at the local Roman Catholic Mission who then communicated with Father Bernard Huss at Mariazell. Father Huss arranged for a four-year high school scholarship for Sisulu at Mariazell College. The Mnyila family was very happy and celebrated Sisulu's achievement with the entire village, Sisulu recalls that the celebration saying "you would have thought it was a wedding".
In 1936 Sisulu left for Mariazell College in Matatiele in the Eastern Cape and although very nervous she was excited to find that a local girl from Xolobe was a prefect at Mariazell. The school's routine was rigid and strict, pupils were woken up at 4am to bath and clean their dormitories, they would then proceed to the chapel for morning prayers. Although Sisulu's scholarship covered her board and lodging, she had to pay it back during the school holidays by ploughing the fields and working in the laundry room. Sisulu only went home during the December holidays but she found this a small price to pay for the opportunity to attend high school.
With high school ending in 1939 Sisulu had to decide what she would do after school. She decided that she would not marry but rather become a working professional so that she could support her family back in Xolobe. Whilst at Mariazell Sisulu had converted to Catholicism and, because she had resolved never to marry, she decided that she would become a nun, as she admired the dedication of the nuns who taught at the college. However, Father Huss advised Sisulu against this, as nuns did not earn a salary nor did they leave the mission post, so she would not have been able to support her family in the way she wanted to. Instead he advised her to consider nursing, as trainee nurses were paid to study. Attracted by the practical solution nursing offered Sisulu took his advice and applied to various nursing schools. She was accepted as a trainee nurse at a Johannesburg "Non-European" hospital called Johannesburg General. After spending Christmas with her family in Xolobe she left for Johannesburg in January 1940.
Education
After being orphaned as a teenager, she was obliged to help provide for her younger brothers and sisters. Abandoning her ambition to train as a teacher, she left the Transkei to train as a nurse at Johannesburg's Non-European Hospital in 1940, as nurses were paid during training. She graduated from Mariazell College in 1939, and chose a career in nursing. Sisulu started work in Johannesburg as a midwife in 1946, often walking to visit patients in townships.
"You know what it means to be a midwife? You have got to carry a big suitcase full of bottles and for your lotions that you are going to use, and bowls and receivers, and we used to carry those suitcases on our heads," she said.
Personal life
Sisulu first met Walter Sisulu in 1941 while working at Johannesburg General Hospital; at that time he was a young political activist. They married in 1944. The Sisulus – a lawyer and a nurse – married in 1944 at a ceremony in which Nelson Mandela was the best man. Also present were Anton Lembede and Evelyn Mase. The couple had five children, Max Vuyisile, Zwelakhe, Mlungisi, Lindiwe and Nonkululeko, and adopted four others including Samuel Sisulu a political activist. An adopted daughter, Beryl Rose Sisulu, served as ambassador from the Republic of South Africa to Norway.
They were married for 59 years, until he died in his wife's arms in May 2003 at the age of 90. Sisulu said of her marriage: "I was told that I was marrying a politician and there was no courtship or anything like that." Yet at his funeral their granddaughter read a tribute to him on her behalf:
"Walter, what do I do without you? It was for you who I woke up in the morning, it was for you who I lived ... You were taken away by the evils of the past the first time, but I knew you would come back to me. Now the cold hand of death has taken you and left a void in my heart."
Her husband, Walter Sisulu was found guilty of high treason and sabotage, but was spared the death sentence. He instead spent 25 years in custody on Robben Island alongside Nelson Mandela, whom he had brought into the ANC. While her husband was on Robben Island, Sisulu raised the couple's five children alone. She spent months in jail herself and had her movements restricted.
Sisulu scraped and saved for her children to attend good schools in Swaziland outside the inferior Bantu Education System. Several of the Sisulu children have themselves become leaders in the democratic South Africa. Max Sisulu is the speaker in the National Assembly; Mlungisi Sisulu is President of the Walter Sisulu Pediatric Cardiac Foundation and Chairman of Arup Africa. Adopted daughter Beryl Sisulu is South Africa's ambassador in Norway; Lindiwe was from 2009 to 2012 the minister of defence; Zwelakhe (who died on 4 October 2012), was a prominent businessman; and daughter-in-law Elinor Sisulu, married to Max, is a well-known author and human rights activist.
In 2000, the family publicly disclosed that their adopted son, Gerald Lockman, had died of HIV/Aids.
Her life is detailed in a biography by her daughter-in-law Elinor Sisulu, Walter and Albertina Sisulu: In our lifetime.
Political career
Sisulu did not display an interest in politics at first, only attending political meetings with Walter in a supporting capacity, but she eventually got involved in politics when she joined the African National Congress (ANC) Women's League in 1948, and took part in the launch of the Freedom Charter the same year. Sisulu was the only woman present at the birth of the ANC Youth League. Sisulu became a member of the executive of the Federation of South African Women in 1954. On 9 August 1956, Sisulu joined Helen Joseph and Sophia Williams-De Bruyn in a march of 20,000 women to the Union Buildings of Pretoria in protest against the apartheid government's requirement that women carry passbooks as part of the pass laws. "We said, 'nothing doing'. We are not going to carry passes and never will do so." The day is celebrated in South Africa as National Women's Day. She spent three weeks in jail before being acquitted on pass charges, with Nelson Mandela as her lawyer. Sisulu opposed Bantu education, running schools from home.
Sisulu was arrested after her husband skipped jail to go underground in 1963, becoming the first woman to be arrested under the General Laws Amendment Act of 1963 enacted in May. The act gave the police the power to hold suspects in detention for 90 days without charging them. Sisulu was placed in solitary confinement for almost two months until 6 August. She was subsequently in and out of jail for her political activities, but she continued to resist against apartheid, despite being banned for most of the 1960s. She was also a co-president of the United Democratic Front (UDF) in the 1980s.
From 1984 till his murder in 1989, Sisulu worked for prominent Soweto doctor, Abu Baker Asvat who allowed her to continue with her political activities while employed by him, and she was present when he was murdered. Sisulu regarded her relationship as being that of a "mother and a son", and the two never allowed the rivalry between the UDF, and Azapo, of which Asvat was the Health Secretary, and a founding member, to interfere with their friendship or working relationship.
In 1986 she received the honorary citizenship of Reggio nell′Emilia (Italy), the first world's town that assigned this important award to Sisulu.
In 1989 she managed to obtain a passport and led a UDF delegation overseas, meeting British prime minister Margaret Thatcher and United States president George HW Bush. In London, she addressed a major anti-apartheid rally to protest against the visit of National Party leader FW de Klerk. In 1994, she was elected to the first democratic Parliament, which she served until retiring four years later. At the first meeting of this parliament, she had the honour of nominating Nelson Mandela as President of the Republic of South Africa. That year she received an award from then-president Mandela.
Community work
For more than 50 years, Sisulu committed herself to The Albertina Sisulu Foundation, which works to improve the lives of small children and old people. She was honoured for her commitment to the anti-apartheid struggle and her social work when the World Peace Council, based in Basel, Switzerland, elected her president from 1993 to 1996. She recruited nurses to go to Tanzania, to replace British nurses who left after Tanzanian independence. The South African nurses had to be "smuggled" out of SA into Botswana and from there they flew to Tanzania.
The Albertina Sisulu Multipurpose Resource Centre/ASC, named after Albertina Sisulu, was also founded by Sisulu. It was founded under the auspices of the Albertina Sisulu Foundation, which is a non-profit organization that was established by the Sisulu Family. Weeks later, she and Mandela opened the Walter Sisulu Paediatric Cardiac Centre for Africa in Johannesburg, named for her late husband. She became a trustee for the centre and helped fundraise for it.
Sisulu and her family were residents of Orlando West, Soweto, South Africa, when it was established. Mrs. Sisulu has witnessed first-hand the development of the community where the Sisulu family lived, sorely lacking in social services and despite enormous obstacles, has committed herself to alleviating the hardships of the community. The Albertina Sisulu Multipurpose Resource Centre/ASC provides the following services:
A school for children with special needs –severe/moderate intellectual challenge – resource school
An Early Childhood Development Centre for learners from the age of three years
A section for the out of school youth with disabilities established with an intention to provide them with skills which would render them employable and active participants in the country's economy
A nutrition programme for the needy earners
A multi-purpose community hall
An outreach program
Controversy
In 1997, she was called before the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, established to help South Africans confront and forgive their brutal history. Sisulu testified before the commission about the Mandela United Football Club, a gang linked to Mandela's then-wife, Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, accused of terrorizing Soweto in the 1980s. She was accused of trying to protect Madikizela-Mandela during the hearings, but her testimony was stark. She said she believed the Mandela United Football Club burned down her house because she pulled some of her young relatives out of the gang. She also testified about hearing the shot that killed her colleague, a Soweto doctor whose murder has been linked to the group. Sisulu, a nurse at the doctor's clinic, said they had a "mother and son" relationship.
Quotation
Sisulu said the following in 1987, referring to Soweto, the urban area southwest of Johannesburg constructed for the settlement of black people.
"Women are the people who are going to relieve us from all this oppression and depression. The rent boycott that is happening in Soweto now is alive because of the women. It is the women who are on the street committees educating the people to stand up and protect each other."
Death
Sisulu died suddenly in her home in Linden, Johannesburg at age 92 on 2 June 2011 at around 20h00 in the evening while watching television with her grandchildren. According to news reports, she suddenly fell ill, coughing blood, and paramedics who rushed to the scene were unable to revive her. At the time of her death, Sisulu was survived by five children, Max, Mlungisi, Zwelakhe, Lindiwe and Nonkululeko, her adopted niece and nephew, Gerald and Beryl, and 26 grandchildren and three great-grandchildren. Her family expressed their sorrow at her death, but said that it comforted them to know that she and her beloved husband of 59 years were no doubt together again.
President Jacob Zuma paid tribute to Sisulu in the wake of her death saying "Mama Sisulu has, over the decades, been a pillar of strength not only for the Sisulu family but also the entire liberation movement, as she reared, counselled, nursed and educated most of the leaders and founders of the democratic SA", Zuma said. He also announced that Sisulu would receive a state funeral, and that national flags would be flown half-mast from 4 June until the day of her burial.
Positions held
She became national co-president of the liberal United Democratic Front at its inception in 1983. Later she joined the ANC Women's League and was elected deputy president, and in 1994 she became a member of Parliament before retiring in 1998.
Member – Federation of South African Women, South Africa
Sector: Community (1954–2011)
Treasurer – ANC Women's League, South Africa
Sector: Government & Public Administration (1959–1990)
Honours
Road Named After Her
In 2013, the section of the R24 Route in Gauteng, from OR Tambo International Airport in Ekurhuleni, through Johannesburg and Roodepoort, to Krugersdorp East (every street making up this section) was named after Albertina Sisulu. The freeway section of the R24 is named the Albertina Sisulu Freeway while the non-freeway section of the R24 is named Albertina Sisulu Road. The only exception is in the one-way-street sections of Johannesburg and Roodepoort, where only one street has been renamed Albertina Sisulu Road while the other street pointing the opposite direction hasn't had its name changed.
Also, the section of the R21 e-toll Highway in Gauteng from OR Tambo International Airport in Ekurhuleni to its interchange with the N1 Highway in Pretoria is commonly called the Albertina Sisulu Freeway (labelled on road signage), indicating that the R21 from Pretoria to the airport and the R24 from there to Bedfordview are together known as the Albertina Sisulu Freeway (The only alternative highway system between Pretoria and Johannesburg after the Ben Schoeman Highway). Even the R21 extension from OR Tambo International Airport southwards to the N12 Highway Interchange north of Boksburg may be counted as being part of the Albertina Sisulu Freeway.
While the section of the R24 which is not a freeway was named Albertina Sisulu Road in 2013, the freeway section of the R24, together with the R21 freeway to Pretoria, were already named the Albertina Sisulu Freeway by the time of the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
Pedestrian and cyclist bridge named after her
On 23 October 2014 the city council of the City of Ghent (East Flanders, Belgium) decided to name its new pedestrian and cyclist bridge over the river Scheldt as "Albertina Sisulubrug" (Albertina Sisulu Bridge), in honour of Albertina Sisulu. The bridge links the new city library, called the Krook ("Krook" being the old Dutch word for a bend in the river), at the Miriam Makebaplein (Miriam Makeba Square) to the Kuiperskaai.
References
External links
Liberation leaders honoured for their contributions to democracy (12 April 2007)
Albertina Sisulu history
1918 births
2011 deaths
People from Intsika Yethu Local Municipality
Xhosa people
Anti-apartheid activists
South African midwives
World Peace Council | [
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224694 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio%20network | Radio network | There are two types of radio network currently in use around the world: the one-to-many (simplex communication) broadcast network commonly used for public information and mass-media entertainment, and the two-way radio (duplex communication) type used more commonly for public safety and public services such as police, fire, taxicabs, and delivery services. Cell phones are able to send and receive simultaneously by using two different frequencies at the same time. Many of the same components and much of the same basic technology applies to all three.
The two-way type of radio network shares many of the same technologies and components as the broadcast-type radio network but is generally set up with fixed broadcast points (transmitters) with co-located receivers and mobile receivers/transmitters or transceivers. In this way both the fixed and mobile radio units can communicate with each other over broad geographic regions ranging in size from small single cities to entire states/provinces or countries. There are many ways in which multiple fixed transmit/receive sites can be interconnected to achieve the range of coverage required by the jurisdiction or authority implementing the system: conventional wireless links in numerous frequency bands, fibre-optic links, or microwave links. In all of these cases the signals are typically backhauled to a central switch of some type where the radio message is processed and resent (repeated) to all transmitter sites where it is required to be heard.
In contemporary two-way radio systems a concept called trunking is commonly used to achieve better efficiency of radio spectrum use and provide very wide-ranging coverage with no switching of channels required by the mobile radio user as it roams throughout the system coverage. Trunking of two-way radio is identical to the concept used for cellular phone systems where each fixed and mobile radio is specifically identified to the system controller and its operation is switched by the controller.
Broadcasting networks
The broadcast type of radio network is a network system which distributes programming to multiple stations simultaneously, or slightly delayed, for the purpose of extending total coverage beyond the limits of a single broadcast signal. The resulting expanded audience for radio programming or information essentially applies the benefits of mass-production to the broadcasting enterprise. A radio network has two sales departments, one to package and sell programs to radio stations, and one to sell the audience of those programs to advertisers.
Most radio networks also produce much of their programming. Originally, radio networks owned some or all of the stations that broadcast the network's radio format programming. Presently however, there are many networks that do not own any stations and only produce and/or distribute programming. Similarly station ownership does not always indicate network affiliation. A company might own stations in several different markets and purchase programming from a variety of networks.
Radio networks rose rapidly with the growth of regular broadcasting of radio to home listeners in the 1920s. This growth took various paths in different places. In Britain the BBC was developed with public funding, in the form of a broadcast receiver license, and a broadcasting monopoly in its early decades. In contrast, in the United States various competing commercial broadcasting networks arose funded by advertising revenue. In that instance, the same corporation that owned or operated the network often manufactured and marketed the listener's radio.
Major technical challenges to be overcome when distributing programs over long distances are maintaining signal quality and managing the number of switching/relay points in the signal chain. Early on, programs were sent to remote stations (either owned or affiliated) by various methods, including leased telephone lines, pre-recorded gramophone records and audio tape. The world's first all-radio, non-wireline network was claimed to be the Rural Radio Network, a group of six upstate New York FM stations that began operation in June 1948. Terrestrial microwave relay, a technology later introduced to link stations, has been largely supplanted by coaxial cable, fiber, and satellite, which usually offer superior cost-benefit ratios.
Many early radio networks evolved into Television networks.
List of radio networks
Australia
Australian Broadcasting Corporation
ABC Local Radio
ABC Radio National
ABC Classic
Triple J
ABC NewsRadio
Brazil
Brazil Communication Company
Rádio Nacional
Rádio MEC
Jovem Pan News
Jovem Pan FM
CBN
Radio Bandeirantes
BandNews FM
Mix FM
Massa FM
Band FM
Nativa FM
Canada
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
CBC Radio One
CBC Radio 2
CBC Radio 3
Première Chaîne
Espace musique
Bande à part
MBC Radio
Corus Radio Network
Énergie
Rouge FM
Rythme FM
Sportsnet Radio
TSN Radio
Defunct
CNR Radio Network (1923-1933)
Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission (1932-1936)
Broadcasting Corporation of Newfoundland (1939-1949)
Dominion Network (1944-1962)
Trans-Canada Network (1944-1962)
CKO (1977-1989)
Pelmorex Radio Network (1990-1999)
The Team (2001-2002)
Aboriginal Voices Radio Network (2002-2016)
China
China National Radio
China Radio International
Shanghai Media Group
India
BBC Hindi
All India Radio (AIR)
Vividh Bharati
Radio City (91.1)
Big FM (92.7)
Radio One (94.3)
Radio Mirchi (98.3)
Red FM (93.5)
Suryan FM (93.5)
Hello FM (106.4)
Indonesia
Radio Republik Indonesia (RRI)
Prambors
Delta FM
I-Radio
Trax FM
Gen FM
Elshinta Radio
MNC Trijaya
RDI
Global Radio
Oz Radio
Sonora FM
Hard Rock FM
Ireland
RTÉ Radio 1
RTÉ 2fm
RTÉ lyric fm
RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta
Today FM
Japan
NHK Radio 1
JRN
NRN
JFN
JFL
MegaNet
South Korea
Korean Broadcasting System
Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation
Seoul Broadcasting System
New Zealand
Almost all radio stations in New Zealand are part of a radio network, and most are network-owned.
Radio New Zealand (state-owned, non-commercial)
Radio New Zealand Concert
Radio New Zealand National
MediaWorks Radio (commercial network)
George FM
Mai FM
More FM (local programming in most markets between 6am and 1pm)
Radio Live
The Breeze (local in Wellington and Christchurch)
The Edge FM
The Rock
The Sound
Magic
New Zealand Media and Entertainment (formerly The Radio Network; commercial network)
Coast
Flava
Newstalk ZB
Radio Hauraki
Radio Sport
The Hits (local breakfast in some markets, local 9am3pm in other markets)
ZM
Rhema Group
Life FM
New Zealand's Rhema
Southern Star
Pakistan
Radio Pakistan
Hum FM
City FM 89
FM 98
FM 103
Philippines
ABS-CBN Corporation
Advanced Media Broadcasting System
Aliw Broadcasting Corporation
Associated Broadcasting Company
Audiovisual Communicators, Inc.
Blockbuster Broadcasting System
Bombo Radyo Philippines
Brainstone Broadcasting Inc.
Catholic Media Network
Christian Era Broadcasting Service
Delta Broadcasting System, Inc.
Eagle Broadcasting Corporation
Far East Broadcasting Company
FBS Radio Network
GMA Network
Intercontinental Broadcasting Corporation
Manila Broadcasting Company
Mareco Broadcasting Network
Nation Broadcasting Corporation
Palawan Broadcasting Corporation
Philippine Broadcasting Service
Progressive Broadcasting Corporation
Quest Broadcasting Inc.
Radio Mindanao Network
Radio Philippines Network
Rajah Broadcasting Network
Raven Broadcasting Corporation
Real Radio Network Inc.
Sonshine Media Network International
Southern Broadcasting Network
ZOE Broadcasting Network
Poland
Public:
Polskie Radio
Program 1 (Jedynka) - (news, current affairs, easy listening music, focused at listeners aged 40–64) - AM, FM, DAB+ and the internet
Program 2 (Dwójka) - (Classical music, drama, comedy, literature) - FM, DAB+ and the internet
Program 3 (Trójka) - (Rock, alternative, Middle of the Road, focused at listeners aged 25–49) - FM, DAB+ and the internet
Program 4 (Czwórka) - (Dance, R&B, Reggae, Rap, Soul, focused at listeners aged 15–29) - FM, DAB+ and the internet
Polskie Radio Dla Zagranicy - (external service in English, Ukrainian, Russian, Belarusian) - AM, FM, DAB+, satellite and the internet
Non-commercial:
Radio Maryja (catholic)
Commercial:
Bauer Media Group:
RMF FM - hot adult contemporary radio (Target Demographic 18-44) (nationwide)
Eurozet:
Radio Zet - hot adult contemporary radio (Target Demographic 21-49) (nationwide)
Antyradio - rock and metal music (3 local stations)
Time company:
Radio Eska - contemporary hit radio (Target Demographic 13-29) (40 local stations)
Eska Rock - mainly rock music (local station broadcasting in Warsaw)
VOX FM - mostly Disco Polo
Agora company:
TOK FM - rolling news, talk, current affairs
Rock Radio - rock music (Target Demographic 18-39) (7 local stations)
Other:
Radio Kolor - local station in Warsaw
Radio Alfa - local station in Kraków
and over 100 other local stations
Romania
Public:
Radio România Actualități
Radio România Muzical
Radio Antena Satelor
Radio România Cultural
Radio Romania International
United Kingdom
British Broadcasting Corporation
BBC Radio
BBC Radio 1
BBC Radio 1Xtra
BBC Radio 2
BBC Radio 3
BBC Radio 4
BBC Radio 4 Extra
BBC Radio 5 Live
BBC Radio 5 Live Sports Extra
BBC Radio 6 Music
BBC Asian Network
Bauer Radio
Capital FM Network
Heart Network
Smooth Radio Network
Greatest Hits Radio
United States
International
United Nations Radio
See also
Lists of radio stations
References | [
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224696 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxbury%2C%20Boston | Roxbury, Boston | Roxbury () is a neighborhood within the city of Boston, Massachusetts.
Roxbury is a dissolved municipality and one of 23 official neighborhoods of Boston used by the city for neighborhood services coordination. The city states that Roxbury serves as the "heart of Black culture in Boston." Roxbury was one of the first towns founded in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630, and became a city in 1846 before being annexed to Boston on January 5, 1868. The original boundaries of the Town of Roxbury can be found in Drake's History of Roxbury and its noted Personages. Those boundaries include the modern day Longwood, Mission Hill and Symphony neighborhoods, including the Christian Science Center, the Prudential Center (built on the old Roxbury Railroad Yards) and everything south and east of the Muddy River including Symphony Hall, Northeastern University, Boston Latin School, Madison Park Technical Vocational High School John D. O'Bryant School of Mathematics & Science, Roxbury Community College YMCA, Harvard Medical School and many hospitals and schools in the area. This side of the Muddy River is Roxbury, the other side is Brookline and Boston. Franklin Park, once entirely within Roxbury when Jamaica Plain, West Roxbury and Roslindale were villages within the town of Roxbury until 1854, has been divided with the line between Jamaica Plain and Roxbury located in the vicinity of Peter Parley Road on Walnut Avenue, through the park to Columbia Road. Here, Walnut Avenue changes its name to Sigourney Street, indicating the area is now Jamaica Plain. One side of Columbia Road is Roxbury, the other Dorchester. Melnea Cass Boulevard is located approximately over the Roxbury Canal that brought boats into Roxbury, bypassing the busy port of Boston in the 1830s.
The neighborhood has also formed community gardens and developed the first urban farm of the city in accordance to the adoption of article 89, Urban Agricultural Ordinance, which provides framework for creating community resources for fresh produce, to be sold at low cost, and also to be donated to programs who help feed those who are in shelters or other care facilities alike. There are also many emergency response facilities who help underprivileged people in the area, such as youth centers, and social service centers.
When it was a separate municipality, Roxbury was in Suffolk County until it was added to the newly created Norfolk County in 1793; when it was incorporated into Boston, it returned to Suffolk County.
Indigenous peoples
Prior to European colonization, the region around Roxbury was originally inhabited by the indigenous Massachusett. There were small Native communities throughout what became Roxbury, who likely moved between winter homes inland where hunting was plentiful and summer homes along the coast where fishing and shellfish beds were plentiful. An erroneous statement in Francis Drake's History of Roxbury, stated that no Native people ever resided in the area. However, colonial-era documentation and archeological evidence found in several places including the Arnold Arboretum and Jamaica Pond (formerly part of the town of Roxbury; today part of the Jamaica Plain neighborhood) refute that.
European settlement in the 17th century
The Massachusetts Bay Colony founded a group of six towns, including Boston, Cambridge, and Roxbury. For more than 200 years, Roxbury also encompassed West Roxbury and Jamaica Plain. Three miles south, the only land route to the capital led through Roxbury, which made the town important for both transportation and trade. Roxbury in the 1600s also held many of the resources that the Colonists prized: potentially arable land, timber, and a brook (source of water and water power), and stone for building. It is noted for its hilly geography and many large outcroppings of Roxbury Puddingstone, which was quarried for many years and used in the foundations of a large number of houses in the area. That particular stone exists only in the Boston basin; it is visible on stony outcroppings and used in buildings such as the Warren House, and it proved to be a valuable asset to the community that led to early prosperity. The village of Roxbury was originally called "Rocksberry" for the rocks in its soil that made early farming a challenge.
The settlers of Roxbury originally comprised the congregation of the First Church in Roxbury, established in 1632. During this time, the church served as a place of worship and as a meeting place for town government. The congregation had no time to raise a meeting house the first winter and so met with the neighboring congregation in Dorchester. One of the early leaders of this church was Amos Adams, and among the founders were Richard Dummer and his wife Mary. The first meeting house was built in 1632, and the building pictured here is the fifth meeting house, the oldest such wood-frame church in Boston. Problematically, the Roxbury settlers, most prominently among them was Reverend John Eliot, played a major role in Christianizing the Native people and forcing them into Indian Praying Towns. The Massachuset leader Cutshamekin first resisted John Eliot's initial efforts to convert his tribe, but eventually swore allegiance to King James I as a means of survival.
Boston was previously connected to mainland Massachusetts by a narrow isthmus called Boston Neck or Roxbury Neck, and this was home to a number of early leaders of the colony, including original Massachusetts Bay Colony treasurer William Pynchon. Pynchon left Roxbury in 1636 with nearly one third its men to found Springfield, Massachusetts on far less rocky and more arable soil. Within a few decades, Roxbury residents developed prized apple orchards, and this led to another unique claim to fame: the Roxbury Russet apple, particularly suited for cider.
Revolutionary War and following
The First Church of Roxbury was the starting point for William Dawes' "Midnight Ride" of April 18, 1775 (in a different direction from that of Paul Revere) to warn Lexington and Concord of the British raids at the opening of the American Revolutionary War. After the war, those able to afford it sought to live in free-standing, single-family houses away from their jobs in the city, and this led to Roxbury becoming one of the first American suburbs. Many homes were built in the Greek Revival style, symbolizing the republic of ancient Greece, a democracy that the young United States admired.
Trade was booming in the early 1800s in rum, salt, fish, and tobacco which brought in a horse-drawn carriage line across Boston Neck and down Washington Street, as well as the Boston to Providence, Rhode Island railroad in 1835. Many Irish immigrants flooded to Massachusetts to escape the Great Famine in the 1840s, and some families settled directly in Roxbury. St. Joseph's Catholic Church was the first Catholic Church with a predominantly Irish congregation, built in 1846. Some of the homes of these wealthy residents still stand today, such as the Edward Everett Hale House on Morley Street, the Alvah Kittredge Mansion on Linwood Street, the Spooner Lambert House on Dudley Street, Rockledge on Highland St., and Ionic Hall on Roxbury Street. Oakbend was the last mansion built in Roxbury in 1872; it now houses the National Center of Afro-American Artists. The neighborhood also contains an example of workers’ housing at Frederick Douglass Square Historic District (Greenwich, Warwick, and Sussex streets), brick houses built in the 1880s. As the need increased for more workers, old farms and the estates were subdivided, and single family homes, row houses, and multi-family homes sprang up to accommodate the growing population with the advent of trolley service in 1887. One of these was Hibernian Hall, built in 1913, which is now the Roxbury Center of the Arts.
20th century
Many German immigrants also immigrated to the US in the early 1900s, quite possibly to escape the effects of the first World War. German immigrants also settled in the Mission Hill area of Roxbury, and were instrumental in developing the many breweries that prospered along the Stony Brook until prohibition. In the early 20th century, a Jewish community was also established. Responding to the need for increased municipal services, the citizens of Roxbury voted to incorporate as a city in 1846, and later to become annexed to Boston in 1868. During the 1940s and 1950s, a major migration from the south to the northern cities led Roxbury towards becoming the center of the African-American community in Boston. They were joined by immigrants from the Caribbean, especially Jamaica and Barbados and after World War II by southern blacks migrating north. During this population boom, city planners set aside land for Franklin Park—with 527 acres it is the largest park Boston. Designed by landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, Franklin Park is the final jewel of the Emerald Necklace, the seven-mile stretch of public parkland that begins at Boston Common. Social issues and the resulting urban renewal activities of the 1960s and 1970s led to a decline in the neighborhood population (white flight).
In March 1965, an investigative study of property tax assessment practices published by the National Tax Association of 13,769 properties sold within the City of Boston under Mayor John F. Collins from January 1, 1960 to March 31, 1964 found that the assessed values in Roxbury in 1962 were at 68 percent of market values while the assessed values in West Roxbury were at 41 percent of market values, and the researchers could not find a nonracial explanation for the difference.
Lower Roxbury
Lower Roxbury was once the name of the thriving area from Dudley Street to Tremont Street with bustling businesses up and down Ruggles Street. Around 1965, one side of Ruggles Street was small shops and the other side was decorated with tenement style and single family housing. At the corner of Douglas Square and Tremont Street was one notable shop called People's Market; the first supermarket in Boston located in a black area. In 1986, the Greater Roxbury Incorporation Project sought to create a 12.5 square-mile city that included the entirety of Roxbury and Mattapan as well as portions of Dorchester, Jamaica Plain, Fenway, Columbia Point and the South End that was to be called "Mandela" after Nelson Mandela. In 1988, a referendum was defeated that would have examined the feasibility of reincorporation because the organizers of the movement believed that the area would flourish if they could create their own government that would not discriminate against minorities.
Industry
In the 1600s, most people were farming or living off the land. In the 1700s mills and tanneries made up the main industry of Roxbury, but by the 1800s breweries, piano makers, iron foundries and rubber makers provided employment for a growing Roxbury population. By the turn of the 20th century, the area was a bustling mix of department stores, hotels, silent movie theaters, banks—even a bowling alley—designed by prominent Boston architects in a rich mixture of revival styles. As the marshes were filled in, factories and warehouses took their place. Nowadays, most spaces are used for office or retail stores since the community holds an emphasis on keeping jobs within the neighborhood and promoting jobs for youth.
Urban policy
As Roxbury developed in the 19th century, the northern part became an industrial town with a large community of English, Irish, and German immigrants and their descendants, while the majority of the town remained agricultural and saw the development of some of the first streetcar suburbs in the United States. This led to the incorporation of the old Roxbury village as one of Massachusetts's first cities, and the rest of the town was established as the town of West Roxbury.
In the early 20th century, Roxbury became home to recent immigrants; a thriving Jewish community developed around Grove Hall, along Blue Hill Avenue, Seaver Street and into Dorchester along Columbia Road. A large Irish population also developed, with many activities centered around then-Dudley Square (now Nubian Square), which just before and following annexation into Boston, became a central location for Roxbury commerce. Following a massive migration from the South to northern cities in the 1940s and 1950s, Roxbury became the center of the African-American community in Boston. The center of African American residential and social activities in Boston had formerly been on the north slope of Beacon Hill and the South End. In particular, a riot in response to the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. resulted in stores on Blue Hill Avenue being looted and eventually burned down, leaving a desolate and abandoned landscape which discouraged commerce and business development. Rampant arson in the 1970s along the Dudley Street corridor also added to the neighborhood's decline, leaving a landscape of vacant, trash filled lots and burned out buildings. In early April 1987, the original Orange Line MBTA route along Washington Street was closed and relocated to the Southwest Corridor (where the Southwest Expressway was supposed to be built a couple decades before). More recently, grassroots efforts by residents have been the force behind revitalizing historic areas and creating Roxbury Heritage State Park.
A movement known as the Greater Roxbury Incorporation Project, led by Roxbury residents Andrew Jones and Curtis Davis, sought to form an independent municipality out of the Roxbury and the Mattapan area. The project was part of a larger goal to increase the number of services available to residents, but in 1986 Boston Mayor Raymond Flynn rejected the idea. The area was to be named "Mandela" (after South African activist Nelson Mandela).
The Boston Transportation Planning Review stimulated relocation of the Orange Line, and development of the Southwest Corridor Park spurred major investment, including Roxbury Community College at Roxbury Crossing and Ruggles Center at Columbus Avenue and Ruggles Street. Commercial development now promises reinvestment in the form of shopping and related consumer services. The Fort Hill section experienced significant gentrification when college students (many from Northeastern University and Wentworth Institute of Technology), artists, and young professionals moved into the area in the late 1990s and early 2000s. In the present day, there is much commercial and residential redevelopment. In 2014, a new tech-incubator called Smarter in the City launched its initiative to encourage growth in Roxbury by cultivating startups in then-Dudley Square.
Currently the Boston Redevelopment Authority (BRA) has cited twelve projects approved for construction in the neighborhood of Roxbury. The BRA project in Dudley Square (now Nubian Square) calls for the demolition of a ten unit building on Hampden St. and the rehabilitation of two buildings. The final project will have 42 units available for affordable housing, with units ranging from one to four bedrooms. This construction of Dudley will revamp the look of the community. To improve the communities energy efficiency E+ buildings are beginning to develop in the neighborhoods of Boston. In April 2014, on Highland street the construction of the first E+ building in Roxbury was awarded the LEED platinum award. The building is part of the "Boston E+ Green Building Program" In 2013, the city of Boston accepted the urban agriculture ordinance, which is stated in article 89. The neighborhood of Roxbury is grounds for the first urban farm and is larger than 12,000 ft. The farm opened in July 2014. The DSNI is composed of thirty five board of directors. The board of directors are made up of 16 residents which are African-American, Latino, Cape Verdean, and white, also there are 2 additional appointed residents, 4 youth representatives, 7 non-profit agencies, 2 churches, 2 businesses and 2 CDCs'. The DSNI has 225 housing units on their land trusts currently. The DSNI land trust allows for the sales of low income housing. The sale of the homes remain for those with low-income as a result of the DSNI land trust housing units. In the next decade the DSNI plans to build 250 new homes in what is known as the Dudley Triangle. Roxbury is subject to article 80, a checklist for projects large and small to comply with people with disabilities. The article also includes, "improvements for pedestrian and vehicular circulation. ... new buildings and public spaces to be designed to enhance and preserve Boston's system of parks, squares, walkways, and active shopping streets, ensure that person with disabilities have full access ... afford such persons the educational, employment, and recreational opportunities available to all citizens ... and preserve and increase the supply of living space accessible to person with disabilities."
Demographics
"Today Roxbury is home to a diverse community which includes African American, Hispanic, and Asian families, along with young professionals". The neighborhood has a total population of 59,626 people as of 2016. There are 21,116 males (46.1%) and 24,713 females (53.9%). Of the total population 33,182 (72.4%) are not Hispanic or Latino. White alone makes up 3,695 (8.1%) of the total population. There are 26,081 (56.9%) Black or African American people in the neighborhood of Roxbury. Asian alone is a total of 1,345 people (2.9%). Two or more races were reported by 1054 people (2.3%). Hispanic or Latino was reported by 12,647 people (27.6%). 6,523–14.2% reported being 60 years and older. Of the 45,829 surveyed 42,571 were over the age of five, the language spoken at home was recorded. Between the ages of 5–17 (8,898 – 20.9% of total population), 5,086 speak only English (57.2%), 2,508 (28.2%) speak Spanish. Between the ages of 18–64 (29,296 – 68.8% of total population) 17,040 (58.2%) speak only English. In this age group 7,440 (25.4%) speak Spanish, and 2,696 (9.2%) speak other European languages. Those surveyed who were 65 years and over (4,377 – 10.3% of total population) have 3,184 (72.7%) people that speak English at home, and 784 (17.9%) reported speaking Spanish at home. Only 74.9% of the population has made it past 8th grade. Educational attainment for the population 25 years and over was also surveyed. Of the 26,202, 5379 (20.5%) reported having earned a bachelor's degree or higher.
The population density is very high at 13,346 people per square mile, compared to Boston as a whole at 12,812 people per square mile. Roxbury is 4% more densely populated than Boston as a whole. The annual crime rate has gone down by 4% in 2016. The median household income is $34,616 and the unemployment rate is 8.9%. 1/4 of the Roxbury population was born in another country. 42% of the population is 25 years old or younger. Meanwhile, only 11% of the population are over the age of 65. 40% of the population drive to work, 36% take public transportation, 10% of the population walk to work, 10% bike to work, and 4% work from home. The average home in Roxbury is worth $380,000 .
Housing
There are many housing resources in Roxbury, including government housing, shelters, different organizations and Domestic Violence resources. Emergency Shelter Commission mission is to help prevent and end homelessness and hunger through proactive planning, policy analysis, program development and advocacy with our city, state, federal and community partner agencies. The Boston Fair housing helps Boston residents purchase, improve, and keep their homes. They offer training and financial help to first time buyers. There are different organizations such as MASS housing, Section 8 waiting list, Action For Boston Community Development and Mass Access. Mass Housing provides more than $16 billion for financing housing for home buyers and home owners. It will increase affordable housing for Massachusetts residents. Section 8 waiting list is a voucher program that opened in January 2003 in accordance with provisions contained in the United States Housing Act of 1937, as amended. Action for Boston Community Development provides basic services and programs to help individuals, families and communities of Boston to overcome poverty live with dignity and achieve to their full potential.
Project Bread, Food Project, and the Foodsource Hotline
Project Bread, located in East Boston, supports more than 400 community food programs in over 120 communities in Massachusetts. Funds raised throughout the year help support over 400 community food programs—soup kitchens, food pantries, food vouchers at health centers, subsidized CSA shares, community gardens, double-value farmers market coupons, etc.—in over 120 communities statewide in Massachusetts. This funding also targets the state's most vulnerable populations—children, working poor families, immigrants, and elders. They have much support from partners, donors, corporate sponsors, and individuals. The Food Project helps with growing produce to help serve the community in farmers markets as well as donations to hunger relief organizations. The Food Project program works with around 120 teenagers a year and also benefits from the help of volunteers. The BCYF (Boston Center for Youth and Families) The Foodsource Hotline is a toll-free hotline that responds to more than 46,000 calls a year from people across Massachusetts struggling to feed their families. FoodSource Hotline counselors refer callers to food resources in their community as well as provides them with information about school meals, summer meal sites for kids, elder meals programs, and the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), formerly known as food stamps. They will screen callers for eligibility for SNAP and help them with the application. Their goal is to help the caller find as many resources as possible to put good food on the table. When relevant, they also connect callers with utility, fuel assistance, and MassHealth. And all information is kept strictly confidential.
Other community resources
The Green house garden is a program that assists low income families in obtaining fresh produce. The garden is a Roxbury community initiative to battle obesity rates. The Program is powered by two hundred volunteers who assist in planting the produce as well as maintenance. The BCYF (Boston Center for Youth and Families) Shelburne Community Center serves the Roxbury community. This community resource provides basketball leagues, classes (computer, digital media, martial arts etc.), physical fitness, teen mentoring and more. BCYF is an integral component to the Youth Standing Strong Against Violence program in partnership with the Boston Police Department. The BCYF mission statement reads "The mission of Boston Centers for Youth & Families (BCYF) is to enhance the quality of life of Boston's residents by partnering with various organizations to offer a wide range of comprehensive programs and activities according to neighborhood needs and interests." The center is located at 2730 Washington Street, Roxbury Ma.The neighborhood of Roxbury opened a new area B-2 police station. The building is energy efficient and has state of the art technology to better equip the police in serving the Roxbury community. The new police station opened on August 1, 2011. The police department created a team for woman to play basketball, it is led by deputy of the police department and invites women to play basketball. The team played against AAU all girls team coached by one of the officer of the department. In their mission to create solid bonds in the community and show positive role models. The team plays at the Reggie Lewis Center at the Roxbury Community College. Project R.I.G.H.T is another community resource afforded to the Roxbury community. This organization is focused on connecting its community residents to matters of community stabilization and economic growth. Project R.I.G.H.T has teamed up with the Boston Public Health Commission, to "develop numerous programs that focus on substance abuse, eliminating health disparities, infectious disease control, neighborhood wellness and BPHC's Violence, Intervention and Prevention program." The ExtraHelp program is also based in Roxbury, where it conducts its live recording at the Roxbury Community College. This program is a weekly television show that helps the student residents with questions, homework, as well as help preparing for the MCAS tests. The student members of the community can call or email the teachers. Programs air on Tuesdays during the fall and winter. Adding to the focus on the youth Roxbury is also home to the Child Services of Roxbury. This program intends to assist troubled youth and also their families. This branch was created specifically to assist children that were living with substance abusing parents. The program has been efficient in decreasing risk factors for the youth by maintaining its family focused assistance. They provide early education services, behavioral health services, youth and family services, and housing services. The Youth Build Boston program has a branch located at 27 Centre St, it has been a resource for the community of Roxbury for 25 years, starting in 1995. This program teaches young people trades and allows them to take on projects. It serves underprivileged children in the community with classes and workshops. The programs focus on 16-year-olds up to 24-year-olds.
Environmental resources
The Environment, Energy and Open Space Cabinet oversees the Inspectional Services Department, the Environment Department, the Parks and Recreation Department, and oversees programs and policies on energy efficiency, green buildings, groundwater, park planning, recycling, renewable energy, and certain transportation issues. The City of Boston continues to pursue energy-saving initiatives to conserve energy in municipal buildings and also encourage residents and businesses to improve their energy use. They are dedicated to the development and construction of public and private renewable energy systems throughout our community. The Public Works Street Lighting Division is working to convert street lights from traditional lighting sources, such as mercury vapor and sodium, to LED.
Renew Boston Solar is increasing the solar energy system capacity in Boston. With the assistance of U.S. Department of Energy's SunShot Initiative, the City of Boston launched Renew Boston Solar to encourage the widespread adoption of solar energy in Boston. Through Renew Boston Solar, the City is encouraging the installation of solar technology throughout Boston, including easing permitting requirements, mapping feasible locations, and planning the citywide bulk purchase, financing, and installation of solar technology. The city is working with local organizations to maximize Boston 's participation in state incentive programs and innovative financing initiatives. Plus the city is tracking and mapping solar and other renewable energy systems in Boston. Solar Boston partners include the U.S. Department of Energy, the Massachusetts Clean Energy Center, local utilities and unions, an anonymous foundation, and a broad range of local, regional, and national clean energy stakeholders.
Recreational centers
The Roxbury YMCA was founded in 1851 in the Greater Boston which is a cause driven nonprofit organization committed to developing youth by informing them about healthy living and promoting social responsibility in the community. It is one of the largest urban YMCA's in the country and Boston s largest provider of social services for children and families. The Greater Boston YMCA offers programs in categories, including adult education, aquatics, child care, sports and health/wellness.
The John A. Shelburne community center is a non-profit recreational, educational, and cultural enrichment facility located in the heart of historic Roxbury. The Hattie B Copper Community center served Leadership development for women of color for over 89 years. The Center was named after John A. Shelburne, a Roxbury native.
In 1916, the Hattie B Cooper Center opened their doors to 69 children at the Fourth Methodist Church on Shawmut Avenue. They have served in the Roxbury community for nearly 100 years that provided programs facilitate growth and development, while creating opportunities for future successes. The women noticed a need in the community to educate the youth and keep them safe, the same issues that Cooper addresses today. They currently provide high quality care for early education and care to 125 students on the daily and children that are children that are in the infants and toddler program, Preschool, and After school program.
The Reggie Lewis Center was opened in 1995 which was built by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. This center serves as the home for the Roxbury Community College's powerful intercollegiate and intramural athletics. Known as the "Reggie" and one of the fastest tracks in the World. The "Reggie" hosts over ninety high schools, collegiate and national track meets annually and some have included meets such as the USA Track and Field Championships, Boston Indoor Games, Northeast 10 Championships, NCAA Division II Championships and the High School National Championships. This center is a place for children and adults can attend to different sports such as basketball, track and soccer. They have community outreach programs that helps students stay out of trouble. There are after school programs to tutor students with their homework, physical activities and Arts and Crafts.
Education
Primary and secondary schools
Students in Roxbury are served by Boston Public Schools (BPS). BPS assigns students based on preferences of the applicants and priorities of students in various zones. Roxbury contains Boston Latin Academy, Madison Park Technical Vocational High School and John D. O'Bryant School of Mathematics & Science, 7–12 secondary schools and two of the city's three exam schools. Roxbury Preparatory Charter School is a public charter school that serves Grades 6–8 in the Roxbury neighborhood of Mission Hill. Roxbury Charter High Public School is located elsewhere in the area.
Roxbury High School was once located on Greenville Avenue.
The Boston Public Schools' pilot schools have a great partnership that was launched in 1994 among Mayor Thomas M. Menino, the Boston School Committee, superintendent, and the Boston Teachers Union. The pilot schools were created to be models of educational innovation and to serve as research and development sites for effective urban public schools. Pilot schools are part of the school district but have over budget, staffing, governance, curriculum/assessment, and the school calendar to provide increased flexibility to organize schools and staffing to meet the needs of students and families. Roxbury has six Horace Mann Charter Schools, which is also called the district charter schools. Alternative school is when a student that just came to America, helps students has a strong start in the Boston Public schools. There are other programs that help students that are over-age or off-track, who need to go to school at night, has disabilities, and has disciplinary issues. Turnaround schools allows Boston Public Schools to come into the school to assist their lowest-performing schools by changing the staff, increasing class time, and adding new supports for students. With these flexibilities, the "Level 4" schools can access new tools to that can increase improvement in performance.
Colleges and universities
Roxbury is home to Roxbury Community College,"Roxbury Community College is a co-educational public institution of higher education offering Associate Degrees and certificate programs. RCC's primary objective is to provide residents of the Commonwealth, specifically those individuals living in the greater Boston area, optimum opportunity for access to a college education consistent with their interests and aptitudes and to reduce to a minimum economic, social, psychological and academic barriers to educational opportunity." Beginning in the Fall semester from academic school year 2011–2013 Roxbury Community College has had an average female enrollment of 1761, and an average male enrollment of 868 in credit courses. Through the years 2011–2013, the school has had an average of 1253 black students, 10 Native-American Indian students, 52 Asian American students, 426 Latino students, 167 White, 10 non-resident alien, and 710 students enrolled reported their ethnicity unknown. Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary's Center for Urban Ministerial Education (CUME)opened in 1976 at Twelfth Baptist Church. The campus has over 400 students. To accommodate the diversity of the school, "classes are taught in English, Spanish, French Creole and Portuguese, with occasional classes in American Sign Language". The Roxbury campus is represented by students of 21 different nationalities and 39 denominations. The college is located at 90 Warren St. in Roxbury, Ma. Emmanuel College's spiritual retreat center. This center offers spiritual education to all staff and students for no charge. The center is designed to promote a relationship with god and explore your own spirituality. Further, The Eastern Nazarene College offers Adult Studies/LEAD classes in Roxbury.
Public libraries
Boston Public Library operates the Dudley Branch Library in Roxbury. The branch, which opened in April 1978, replaced the Mount Pleasant Branch, a library branch, and the Fellowes Athenaeum, a privately endowed facility. Next to the Dudley Branch Library is the Dudley Literacy Center which assists patrons who are learning English as a second language. It is the largest public library literacy center in the Boston Public Library system. The Grove Hall Branch of the Boston Public Library, which was formerly located on Crawford Street since 1971, is now located at 41 Geneva Avenue in Dorchester/Roxbury. The Branch is in a new facility that opened in April 2009.
Other educational services
Boston Day and Evening Academy, located in Roxbury, re-engages off-track students in their education. It prepares them for high school graduation, post-secondary success and meaningful participation in their community. BDEA is open 10 hours a day in where it serves any Boston Public School student who is overage for high school, who has had trouble with attendance issues, has been held back in 8th grade, who feels they are not getting the attention in class that they need to succeed, or who has dropped out but is eager to come back to school to earn their diploma.
City on a Hill Charter Public School is a cluster of charter schools in Roxbury. It is a network of three college preparatory high schools in the cities of Boston and New Bedford. Each City on a Hill school is tuition-free and open to all students. CoaH schools do not have entrance exams; students are admitted by a random lottery with new students admitted in the ninth grade only. City on a Hill serves students who are traditionally underserved by the public school system. The majority of students arrive performing significantly below grade level. However, 100% of City on a Hill students pass the MCAS, and 91% of recent graduates have enrolled in college. While a fully-grown City on a Hill school operates almost entirely on state funds, they rely on private gifts to supplement the operating budget of growing schools, to provide capital support, and to fund special projects and educational initiatives. As another example, Roxbury Preparatory Charter School (Roxbury Prep) began on Mission Hill in 1999, serving 75 students. By 2019, they will serve 1,800 students at three middle school campuses and a high school. Roxbury Prep is a nonprofit organization that starts and manages outstanding urban charter public schools that prepare students to graduate from college. Charter schools are entitled to federal categorical funding for which their students are eligible, such as Title I and Special Education monies. Federal legislation provides grants to help charters to manage start-up costs.
Entertainment
Museums
Boston Children's Museum was founded in 1913 by the Science Teachers' Bureau, making it one of the largest children's museums in the world. The Boston Children's Museum was originally created to instill a sense of wonder about science and the arts in Boston's youth.
The Hamill Gallery of African Art is 16,000 square feet owned by Bobbi and Tim Hamill housed in a 19th-century wallpaper factory that Tim Hamill had purchased in the 1970s. With over 40,000 pieces from Ghana, Mali and Nigeria they hope to educate the public about tribalism and the importance of authentic art. Many of these objects preserve and convey beliefs and values about tribalism. The masks were typically used in costumes to dance for social structure, education, or entertainment as displayed through their 70 traveling exhibits.
Parks
Several parks, including the urban wilds that surround the William J. Devine Memorial Golf Course, offer residents substantial green space. Other parks including in the "urban wild" space are the Eliot Burying Grounds, the Puddingstone Garden and the Buena Vista Urban wilds. These parks recently received $450k in grants to restore and revitalize the areas in the community. Some other active parks are the Southwest Corridor Park, Highland Park, known as Fort Hill, along with the Elma Lewis Playhouse Park. The Emma Lewis Playhouse Park has annual concerts and other miscellaneous venues year round and the park is an active member of the Franklin Parks Coalition.
Miscellaneous entertainment in Roxbury
The Roxbury Center for the Arts, Culture, and Trade, which opened in 2005, celebrates community culture through visual and performance arts.
Roxbury International Film festival has been running since 1999 and was formerly known as the Dudley Film Festival, it was later changed to encompass all of Roxbury. The festival supports films with people of color or people of color who have created the films. For about four days, many different films are screened, to date more than 600 films have been screened at the festival.. The festival is New England's largest film festival that "showcases and honors the work of emerging and established filmmakers of color". Along with screening of new independent films, the film festival also provides workshops for artists to come together and share ideas as well as learn new methods.
In 2018, Roxbury native Toy Burton, started the Roxbury Unity Parde. The parade celebrates Roxbury's Black community and culture.
Roxbury has also held an Annual Mother's Day Walk for Peace since 2000.
Public sculptures and murals can also be see down Ruggles Street and Malcolm X Boulevard.
MainStage theater provided by the Roxbury Community College provides workshops for students and kids in the community. They also have public plays open to all. Also, public speakers visit the theater for open to the public speeches.
Historic buildings
Abbotsford – 300 Walnut Avenue
Abbotsford was built in 1872 for industrialist Aaron Davis Williams Jr. It was designed by architect Alden Frink. The structure, originally named Oak Bend, is an example of a Victorian Gothic-style villa in Boston and a reminder of the 19th century prosperity. The home was once part of an estate known for its apple orchards; it later served as a school for delinquent boys. It was purchased in 1976 by the National Center of Afro-American Artists and renovated for use as a museum dedicated to the collection and exhibition of the black visual arts heritage worldwide.
Blue Hill Avenue Synagogue – 397 Blue Hill Avenue
Designed and built by architect Frederick Norcross in 1905. Financed by the Adath Jeshurun congregation, it was erected at a center of Jewish activity in early 20th century Boston. In 1967, the temple was sold to Ecclesia Apostolic because the Jewish population was rapidly declining because of the white flight as the area became the heart of black culture in Boston. The First Haitian Baptist Church purchased the Late Romanesque Revival building in 1978 and restored it to its present state.
Cedar Street Marble Row Houses – 28–40 Cedar St.
This marble-clad block is an example of Second Empire style design, a French style popular at the time of Roxbury's annexation to Boston in 1868. Built by George D. Cox in 1871, the houses were an attempt to attract other developers by creating the base for a middle-class urban square.
Cox Building – John Eliot Square
Built in 1870 by developer G.D. Cox, this building typifies the post-Civil War reconstruction of Roxbury from an independent rural town to a suburban neighborhood. The Cox Building originally consisted of a central section containing street-level stores with hotel rooms on the upper floors, flanked by five attached one-family residences.
Edward Everett Hale House – 12 Morley St.
A Unitarian clergyman and well-known humanitarian reformer, lived in the Greek Revival residence for over forty years. He was also an author of many novels, including The Man Without a Country. The house was built on Highland Street in 1841 during the early period of suburban growth, and was moved to this location between 1899 and 1906.
Eliot Burying Ground – Eustis St.
This has been the oldest cemetery in Roxbury. It was established in 1630 and named after Reverend John Eliot. He is buried in the Parish Tomb, along with other early ministers of the First Parish of Roxbury.
First Church of Roxbury – John Eliot Square
The oldest wood frame church in Boston, this 1804 building is the fifth meetinghouse on this site since the first church was built in 1632. The architect, William Blaney, was a church member. The land around it is a fragment of the original town commons. Its most famous pastor was Reverend John Eliot, the missionary to the Algonquin Native American tribe. Due to Eliot's work, First Church in Roxbury was one of only three churches in the Puritan Massachusetts era to admit Native Americans as full-fledged members.
Freedom House – 14 Crawford St.
The Freedom House was established in 1949 by social workers Otto and Muriel Snowden. The Freedom House is an important social, educational and political organization and gathering place for the neighborhoods of Roxbury, Mattapan, Dorchester and Jamaica Plain. It has been at the center of key political movements in Boston, including urban renewal in the 1960s, the bus crisis of the 1970s, and education reform for the city's children beginning in the 1990s.
Hibernian Hall – Dudley Square
Hibernian Hall was one of the last of then-Dudley Square's lively Irish social clubs and dance halls during the first half of the twentieth century. It began in 1836 in New York City as a response to anti-Irish sentiment, and later shifted to charitable work and the promotion and preservation of Irish cultural heritage.
Landing Place – 500 Parker St.
This was one of two public boat landing sites that served the town in Colonial Times. In 1658, John Pierpont built a tidal mill here at the point where the Stony Brook emptied into the Tidal Basin. In 1821, the Mill Dam was built for power. The Sewall and Day Cordage Mill was built here in 1834, which became the largest manufacturer of rope used in maritime trades.
Malcolm X and Ella Little-Collins House – 72 Dale St
This was the home of Ella Little-Collins, an educator and sister of activist and Muslim leader Malcolm X, who lived here in the early 1940s and referenced his time here in The Autobiography of Malcolm X. Little-Collins acted as a parental figure to Malcolm, encouraging him to study theology and law during his incarceration. Malcolm returned to Boston in 1953 and founded Temple Number Eleven. After visiting the holy city of Mecca in 1964, Malcolm rejected black separatism and adopted the name El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz. He was later assassinated in 1965.
Mission Church - The Basilica of Our Lady of Perpetual Help – 1545 Tremont St.
The current church was designed by William Schickel and Isaac Ditmars of New York. The then German congregation broke ground in 1874. The Mission Church was constructed in Romanesque style, of Roxbury puddingstone, quarried from what is now Puddingstone Park, just down the block. An octagonal, cupola-topped lantern rises over a hundred feet above the crossing.
Palladio Hall – 60–62 Warren St.
Built in the late 1870s, Palladio Hall is a rare Boston example of an Italian Renaissance-style commercial block. It was designed and owned by Nathaniel J. Bradlee.
Shirley Eustis House – 33 Shirley St.
Construction for the Shirley Eustis House began in 1747, but was not completed until 1750 by the governor of the Massachusetts, William Shirley. This mansion is one of only four remaining colonial governors' mansions in the United States. The house served as a barracks during the Siege of Boston in 1775–1776, housing the Continental Army's Sixth Regiment of Foot. From 1823 to 1825 it was the home of Massachusetts governor William Eustis, the first Democrat to hold that post.
Spooner-Lambert House – 64 Bartlett St.
Built in 1782 for Major John Jones Spooner, first commander of the Roxbury Artillery. Boston merchant Captain William Lambert bought the house in 1788.
William Lloyd Garrison House – Highland Park St.
This Greek Revival residence was the home of William Lloyd Garrison, leader of the anti-slavery cause in Boston and editor of the abolition journal The Liberator. The house, called Rockledge, was built in the 1840s, during Roxbury's early period of suburban population growth. After emancipation was achieved, Garrison and his wife retired to his mansion in 1864.
City Infrastructure
Boston Police Department
The Boston Police Department is a government organization dedicated to working in partnership with the community to fight crime, reduce fear and improve the quality of life in our neighborhoods. Their Mission is Community Policing. The Boston Police Department established Safe Street Teams in 2007 to enhance community engagement. Safe Street Teams provide a reassuring presence in neighborhoods by walking the beat while cultivating local relationships, pursuing proactive crime prevention measures, enforcing public safety, and improving quality of life. Community policing builds trust and reduces crime in Boston's neighborhoods. The BPD Safe Street Teams create clean, safe and orderly environments, increase positive interaction with local youth, and listen to the concerns of residents while offering tangible solutions. In April 2011, the City of Boston presented its comprehensive plan at a Youth Violence Summit in Washington, D.C. The Obama Administration selected the City of Boston along with five others to participate in the National Forum on Youth Violence Prevention. Participants shared knowledge and experience, as well as develop comprehensive community-based plans to prevent youth and gang violence. Building upon a strong foundation of existing relationships and best practices, the City of Boston and its partners developed a multidisciplinary plan to reduce violence in our neighborhoods. The plan includes evidence-based crime prevention, intervention, enforcement, and reentry strategies; improves information sharing and coordination; and enhances civic engagement on multiple levels through a shared mission of youth violence prevention and reduction. The BPD also has other programs and partnerships including the street outreach team, constituent response team, crime stoppers text-A-Tip program, neighborhood advisory councils, etc.
Waste collection and disposal
The Code Enforcement Police's (CEP) primary function is to maintain and enhance the quality of life for Boston's residents by enforcing the State and City sanitary codes related to illegal dumping, improper storage of trash, illegal vending and posting, and unshoveled sidewalks. CEP maintains a strong presence in the City by patrolling the streets of Boston on foot, bike, or car. The Waste Reduction Division (formerly Recycling and Sanitation) is responsible for the collection and disposal of residential recyclables, trash, and leaf and yard waste. The Division also holds hazardous waste drop-off days up to four times per year, seasonal paint and motor oil drop-offs, and offers discounted backyard compost bins. Boston has single-stream recycling. You can mix all recyclable materials together and place them on the curb for pickup on your recycling day. In addition, they collect and composts residents' leaf and yard waste on designated recycling days from April to the first week of December. Boston residents can also safely dispose of hazardous waste and shred unwanted documents for free on specific dates and events.
Transportation
The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) provides subway and bus services to the Roxbury community. In Roxbury, the subway's Orange Line stops at Roxbury Crossing, arguably the only train station servicing the Roxbury neighborhood.
is located at 1400 Tremont Street in the Mission Hill neighborhood of Boston, on the location of a former commuter rail station of the same name. The current station opened in 1987 as part of the renovation and relocation of the southern Orange Line. Like all stations on the Orange Line, this station is wheelchair accessible. The Silver Line stops at , an above-ground bus hub. Roxbury is served by bus lines: 15, 19, 22, 23, 25, 28, 42, 44, 45, 66, 1, 8, 10, 14, 15, 19, 23, 28, 41, 42, 44, 45, 47, 66, 170, and 171.
Notable people
Jalen Adams (born 1995), basketball player for Hapoel Jerusalem in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Irving Ashby (1920–1987), jazz guitarist
Shauna Barbosa, poet who was born in Roxbury
Edith Barrett (1907–1977), actress
Ruth Batson (1921–2003), civil rights and education activist
Susan Batson, actress, daughter of Ruth Batson
Michael Beach (born 1963), actor
Ricky Bell (born 1967), singer
Michael Bivins, member of R&B group New Edition formed in Boston in 1978
Nathaniel Jeremiah Bradlee (1829–1888), architect
Edward Brooke (1919–2015), U.S. senator, first African American elected to Senate in the 20th century
Bobby Brown (born 1969), member of R&B group New Edition formed in Boston in 1978
Melnea Cass (1896–1978), civil rights and community activist known as "The First Lady of Roxbury"
Wilhelmina Crosson (1900–1991), educator
James Michael Curley (1874–1958), four-term mayor of Boston, congressman, and governor of Massachusetts
Alan Dawson (1929–1996), famous jazz drummer and percussion teacher, grew up in Roxbury
Henry Dearborn (1751–1829), physician, general, U.S. representative, U.S. Secretary of War
Henry Alexander Scammell Dearborn (1783–1851), U.S. representative, mayor of Roxbury, son of Henry Dearborn
Ronnie DeVoe, member of R&B group New Edition formed in Boston in 1978
Joseph Dudley (1647–1720), colonial governor of Massachusetts, son of Thomas Dudley
Thomas Dudley (1576–1653), colonial governor of Massachusetts
Ed O.G. (born 1970), hip hop artist, founder of Da Bulldogs, named an album after Roxbury
John Eliot (1604–1690), minister, Bible translator, founder of Roxbury Latin School
Gustavus Esselen (1888–1952), chemist, born in Roxbury
William Eustis (1753–1825), governor of Massachusetts, owner of Shirley-Eustis House in Roxbury
Louis Farrakhan (born 1933), Nation of Islam leader, activist, raised in Roxbury
Mark Frechette (1947–1975), film actor, Zabriskie Point
Margaret Foley (1875–1957), suffragist
The G-Clefs, soul group
William Lloyd Garrison (1805–1879), journalist, abolitionist, lived in Roxbury the last 15 years of his life
Charles Dana Gibson (1867–1944), illustrator
Ezekiel Goldthwait (1710-1782), colonial businessman, owner of a country estate in Roxbury
Samuel Griswold Goodrich (1793–1860), author, state legislator
Diane Guerrero (born 1986), actress
Guru (1966–2010), rapper, member/founder of Gang Starr
Edward Everett Hale (1822–1909), author, reformer, Unitarian clergyman
Roy Haynes (born 1925), jazz drummer and bandleader
Elma Lewis (1921–2004), arts educator, founder of the National Center of Afro-American Artists (NCAAA)
Mel Lyman (1938–1978), harmonica player, leader of The Lyman Family
James Magee (1750–1801), pioneer of the Maritime Fur Trade
Nelson Merced, state legislator, Latino activist
Wayne Millner (1913–1976), American football player
Liz Miranda, state legislator, first Cape Verdean woman elected to MA House of Representatives
Lucy Miller Mitchell (1899–2002), educator and activist
Shabazz Napier (born 1991), NBA player
Patrice O'Neal (1969–2011), comedian, actor
Oye Owolewa (born 1989), U.S. representative
Louis Prang (1824–1909), printer, lithographer and publisher
William Pynchon (1590–1662), founder of Roxbury and Springfield, Massachusetts
Sylvester H. Roper (1823–1896), inventor
Nathaniel Ruggles (1761–1819), U.S. representative
Byron Rushing (born 1942), state legislator, activist
Kenneth Kamal Scott (born 1940), singer, dancer, actor, nephew of Irving Ashby
Ebenezer Seaver (1763–1844), U.S. representative
Wayne Selden Jr. (born 1994), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
William Shirley (1694–1771), colonial governor of Massachusetts, built Shirley-Eustis House in Roxbury
Ebenezer Stevens (1751–1823), American Revolution activist, officer
Kemp Stillings (1888–1967), violinist, music teacher, composer
Sonny Stitt (1924–1982), jazz saxophonist
John L. Sullivan (1858–1918), boxing heavyweight champion, born in Roxbury
Donna Summer (1948–2012), R&B singer, "Queen of Disco"
Increase Sumner (1746–1799), governor of Massachusetts
Ralph Tresvant (born 1968), member of R&B group New Edition formed in Boston in 1978
Martha Tucker, great-grandmother of Laura Ingalls Wilder and the main character of the Little House:The Martha Years series of books
Darius Walker, CNN Vice President and New York bureau chief, lived in Roxbury as a youth
Jimmy Walker (1944–2007), professional basketball guard
Joseph Warren (1741–1775), physician, Revolutionary major general
Tony Williams (1945–1997), famous jazz drummer, grew up in Roxbury
Gladys Wood (1916–2017), Boston Public Schools' first Black principal
Malcolm X (1925–1965), Nation of Islam minister and activist, founder of the Organization of Afro-American Unity, spent formative years in Roxbury
Sites of interest
Franklin Park Zoo
Hibernian Hall
John D. O'Bryant School of Mathematics & Science
Madison Park Technical Vocational High School
Nubian Square
Roxbury Community College
Roxbury Historic Markers
Shirley-Eustis House
See also
Former Mayors of Roxbury
Roxbury Film Festival
Roxbury High Fort
St. Joseph's Church
References
Notes
Further reading
Roxbury Directory. Roxbury: John Backup. 1858; 1866.
The Town of Roxbury: Francis Samuel Drake. 1878; 1905.
"Historical Sketch of Boston Highlands" , Mercantile Publishing Company, Boston, 1888. There is much information on Roxbury.
City of Boston & Boston Redevelopment Authority, "Roxbury Strategic Master Plan", 2004
Sammarco, Anthony Mitchell; Rosenberg, Charlie, Roxbury, Arcadia Publishing, Then & Now series, 2007
Roxbury History—Boston Landmarks Commission (2007 archived version)
External links
Global Boston: Roxbury
Maps
1832 Map of the Town of Roxbury – Jamaica Plain Historical Society
1832 Map of Roxbury by John G. Hales at the BPL.
1849 Map of Roxbury by Charles Whitney at the BPL.
1868 Map of Roxbury and Boston by E.P.Dutton at the BPL.
1895 Outline and Ward Index Map of Boston and Roxbury by George and Walter Bromley.
1895 Map of Ward 17 Roxbury area of Hampton, Gerand, Allerton, and Mass. Ave showing New England Piano, Mechanics Foundry, and Boston Lead Works at DavidRumsey.com .
1895 Atlas of Boston and Roxbury links to the Roxbury Plates – 19, 20, 21, and 31–45.
Bailey Co. Map—1888 bird's-eye view map of Roxbury area
Info
Vital Records Of Roxbury 1765–1870 population
Roxbury Neighborhood – Boston Development Authority
Boston Pictorial Archive. Boston Public Library. Images of Roxbury
Northeastern University Archives
The La Alianza Hispana records, 1960–1999 (bulk 1975–1995) are located in the Northeastern University Libraries, Archives and Special Collections Department, Boston, MA.
The Lower Roxbury Community Corporation records, 1968–1978 are located in the Northeastern University Libraries, Archives and Special Collections Department, Boston, MA.
The Roxbury Multi-Service Center records, 1965–2002 are located in the Northeastern University Libraries, Archives and Special Collections Department, Boston, MA.
The Lower Roxbury Black History Project records, 2007–2009 are located in the Northeastern University Libraries, Archives and Special Collections Department, Boston, MA.
Tourism
Discover Roxbury—tours and information
Shirley-Eustis House—Massachusetts' Royal Governor's Mansion
Roxbury Crossing Historical Trust—historical society
Populated places established in 1630
Neighborhoods in Boston
Former cities in Massachusetts
Streetcar suburbs
Eastern Nazarene College locations
Former municipalities in Boston
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224698 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges%20Lema%C3%AEtre | Georges Lemaître | Georges Henri Joseph Édouard Lemaître ( ; ; 17 July 1894 – 20 June 1966) was a Belgian Catholic priest, theoretical physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and professor of physics at the Catholic University of Louvain. He was the first to theorize that the recession of nearby galaxies can be explained by an expanding universe, which was observationally confirmed soon afterwards by Edwin Hubble. He first derived "Hubble's law", now called the Hubble–Lemaître law by the IAU, and published the first estimation of the Hubble constant in 1927, two years before Hubble's article. Lemaître also proposed a version of the "Big Bang theory" of the origin of the universe, calling it the "hypothesis of the primeval atom", and later calling it "the beginning of the world".
Early life
After a classical education at a Jesuit secondary school, the Collège du Sacré-Coeur, in Charleroi, in Belgium, Lemaître began studying civil engineering at the Catholic University of Louvain at the age of 17. In 1914, he interrupted his studies to serve as an artillery officer in the Belgian army for the duration of World War I. At the end of hostilities, he received the Belgian War Cross with palms.
After the war, he studied physics and mathematics, and began to prepare for the diocesan priesthood, not for the Jesuits. He obtained his doctorate in 1920 with a thesis entitled l'Approximation des fonctions de plusieurs variables réelles (Approximation of functions of several real variables), written under the direction of Charles de la Vallée-Poussin. He was ordained a priest on 22 September 1923 by Cardinal Désiré-Joseph Mercier.
In 1923, he became a research associate in astronomy at the University of Cambridge, spending a year at St Edmund's House (now St Edmund's College, University of Cambridge). He worked with Arthur Eddington, who introduced him to modern cosmology, stellar astronomy, and numerical analysis. He spent the next year at Harvard College Observatory in Cambridge, Massachusetts, with Harlow Shapley, who had just gained renown for his work on nebulae, and at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he registered for the doctoral program in sciences.
Career
On his return to Belgium in 1925, he became a part-time lecturer at the Catholic University of Louvain and began the report that was published in 1927 in the Annales de la Société Scientifique de Bruxelles (Annals of the Scientific Society of Brussels) under the title "Un Univers homogène de masse constante et de rayon croissant rendant compte de la vitesse radiale des nébuleuses extragalactiques" ("A homogeneous Universe of constant mass and growing radius accounting for the radial velocity of extragalactic nebulae"), that was later to bring him international fame . In this report, he presented the new idea that the universe is expanding, which he derived from General Relativity. This later became known as Hubble's law, even though Lemaître was the first to provide an observational estimate of the Hubble constant. The initial state he proposed was taken to be Einstein's own model of a finitely sized static universe. The paper had little impact because the journal in which it was published was not widely read by astronomers outside Belgium. Arthur Eddington reportedly helped translate the article into English in 1931, but the part of it pertaining to the estimation of the "Hubble constant" was not included in the translation for reasons that remained unknown for a long time. This issue was clarified in 2011 by Mario Livio: Lemaître omitted those paragraphs himself when translating the paper for the Royal Astronomical Society, in favour of reports of newer work on the subject, since by that time Hubble's calculations had already improved on Lemaître's earlier ones.
At this time, Einstein, while not taking exception to the mathematics of Lemaître's theory, refused to accept that the universe was expanding; Lemaître recalled his commenting "" ("Your calculations are correct, but your physics is atrocious"). In the same year, Lemaître returned to MIT to present his doctoral thesis on The gravitational field in a fluid sphere of uniform invariant density according to the theory of relativity. Upon obtaining his PhD, he was named ordinary professor at the Catholic University of Louvain.
In 1931, Arthur Eddington published in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society a long commentary on Lemaître's 1927 article, which Eddington described as a "brilliant solution" to the outstanding problems of cosmology. The original paper was published in an abbreviated English translation later on in 1931, along with a sequel by Lemaître responding to Eddington's comments. Lemaître was then invited to London to participate in a meeting of the British Association on the relation between the physical universe and spirituality. There he proposed that the universe expanded from an initial point, which he called the "Primeval Atom". He developed this idea in a report published in Nature. Lemaître's theory appeared for the first time in an article for the general reader on science and technology subjects in the December 1932 issue of Popular Science. Lemaître's theory became better known as the "Big Bang theory," a picturesque term playfully coined during a 1949 BBC radio broadcast by the astronomer Fred Hoyle, who was a proponent of the steady state universe and remained so until his death in 2001.
Lemaître's proposal met with skepticism from his fellow scientists. Eddington found Lemaître's notion unpleasant. Einstein thought it unjustifiable from a physical point of view, although he encouraged Lemaître to look into the possibility of models of non-isotropic expansion, so it is clear he was not altogether dismissive of the concept. Einstein also appreciated Lemaître's argument that Einstein's model of a static universe could not be sustained into the infinite past.
With Manuel Sandoval Vallarta, Lemaître discovered that the intensity of cosmic rays varied with latitude because these charged particles are interacting with the Earth's magnetic field. In their calculations, Lemaître and Vallarta made use of MIT's differential analyzer computer developed by Vannevar Bush. They also worked on a theory of primary cosmic radiation and applied it to their investigations of the sun's magnetic field and the effects of the galaxy's rotation.
Lemaître and Einstein met on four occasions: in 1927 in Brussels, at the time of a Solvay Conference; in 1932 in Belgium, at the time of a cycle of conferences in Brussels; in California in January 1933; and in 1935 at Princeton. In 1933 at the California Institute of Technology, after Lemaître detailed his theory, Einstein stood up, applauded, and is supposed to have said, "This is the most beautiful and satisfactory explanation of creation to which I have ever listened." However, there is disagreement over the reporting of this quote in the newspapers of the time, and it may be that Einstein was not referring to the theory as a whole, but only to Lemaître's proposal that cosmic rays may be the leftover artifacts of the initial "explosion".
In 1933, when he resumed his theory of the expanding universe and published a more detailed version in the Annals of the Scientific Society of Brussels, Lemaître achieved his greatest public recognition. Newspapers around the world called him a famous Belgian scientist and described him as the leader of the new cosmological physics. Also in 1933, Lemaître served as a visiting professor at The Catholic University of America.
On July 27, 1935, he was named an honorary canon of the Malines cathedral by Cardinal Josef Van Roey.
He was elected a member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences in 1936, and took an active role there, serving as its president from March 1960 until his death.
In 1941, he was elected a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences and Arts of Belgium. In 1946, he published his book on L'Hypothèse de l'Atome Primitif (The Primeval Atom Hypothesis). It was translated into Spanish in the same year and into English in 1950.
In relation to Catholic teaching on the origin of the Universe, Lemaître viewed his theory as neutral with neither a connection or a contradiction of the Faith; as a devoted Catholic priest, Lemaître was opposed to mixing science with religion, although he held that the two fields were not in conflict.
During the 1950s, he gradually gave up part of his teaching workload, ending it completely when he took emeritus status in 1964. In 1962, strongly opposed to the expulsion of French speakers from the Catholic University of Louvain, he created the ACAPSUL movement together with Gérard Garitte to fight against the split.
During the Second Vatican Council of 1962–65 he was asked by Pope John XXIII to serve on the 4th session of the Pontifical Commission on Birth Control. However, since his health made it impossible for him to travel to Rome – he suffered a heart attack in December 1964 – Lemaître demurred, expressing surprise that he was chosen. He told a Dominican colleague, Père Henri de Riedmatten, that he thought it was dangerous for a mathematician to venture outside of his area of expertise. He was also named domestic prelate (Monsignor) in 1960 by Pope John XXIII.
At the end of his life, he was increasingly devoted to problems of numerical calculation. He was a remarkable algebraicist and arithmetical calculator. Since 1930, he had used the most powerful calculating machines of the time, the Mercedes-Euklid. In 1958, he was introduced to the University's Burroughs E 101, its first electronic computer. Lemaître maintained a strong interest in the development of computers and, even more, in the problems of language and computer programming.
He died on 20 June 1966, shortly after having learned of the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation, which provided further evidence for his proposal about the birth of the universe.
Work
Lemaître was a pioneer in applying Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity to cosmology. In a 1927 article, which preceded Edwin Hubble's landmark article by two years, Lemaître derived what became known as Hubble's law and proposed it as a generic phenomenon in relativistic cosmology. Lemaître was also the first to estimate the numerical value of the Hubble constant.
Einstein was skeptical of this paper. When Lemaître approached Einstein at the 1927 Solvay Conference, the latter pointed out that Alexander Friedmann had proposed a similar solution to Einstein's equations in 1922, implying that the radius of the universe increased over time. (Einstein had also criticized Friedmann's calculations, but withdrew his comments.) In 1931, his annus mirabilis, Lemaître published an article in Nature setting out his theory of the "primeval atom."
Friedmann was handicapped by living and working in the USSR, and died in 1925, soon after inventing the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric. Because Lemaître spent his entire career in Europe, his scientific work is not as well known in the United States as that of Hubble or Einstein, both well known in the U.S. by virtue of residing there. Nevertheless, Lemaître's theory changed the course of cosmology. This was because Lemaître:
Was well acquainted with the work of astronomers, and designed his theory to have testable implications and to be in accord with observations of the time, in particular to explain the observed redshift of galaxies and the linear relation between distances and velocities;
Proposed his theory at an opportune time, since Edwin Hubble would soon publish his velocity–distance relation that strongly supported an expanding universe and, consequently, Lemaître's Big Bang theory;
Had studied under Arthur Eddington, who made sure that Lemaître got a hearing in the scientific community.
Both Friedmann and Lemaître proposed relativistic cosmologies featuring an expanding universe. However, Lemaître was the first to propose that the expansion explains the redshift of galaxies. He further concluded that an initial "creation-like" event must have occurred. In the 1980s, Alan Guth and Andrei Linde modified this theory by adding to it a period of inflation.
Einstein at first dismissed Friedmann, and then (privately) Lemaître, out of hand, saying that not all mathematics lead to correct theories. After Hubble's discovery was published, Einstein quickly and publicly endorsed Lemaître's theory, helping both the theory and its proposer get fast recognition.
Lemaître was also an early adopter of computers for cosmological calculations. He introduced the first computer to his university (a Burroughs E 101) in 1958 and was one of the inventors of the Fast Fourier transform algorithm.
In 1931, Lemaître was the first scientist to propose the expansion of the universe was actually accelerating, which was confirmed observationally in the 1990s through observations of very distant Type IA supernova with the Hubble Space Telescope which led to the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics.
In 1933, Lemaître found an important inhomogeneous solution of Einstein's field equations describing a spherical dust cloud, the Lemaître–Tolman metric.
In 1948 Lemaître published a polished mathematical essay "Quaternions et espace elliptique" which clarified an obscure space. William Kingdon Clifford had cryptically described elliptic space in 1873 at a time when versors were too common to mention. Lemaître developed the theory of quaternions from first principles so that his essay can stand on its own, but he recalled the Erlangen program in geometry while developing the metric geometry of elliptic space.
Lemaître was the first theoretical cosmologist ever nominated in 1954 for the Nobel Prize in Physics for his prediction of the expanding universe. Remarkably, he was also nominated for the 1956 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his primeval atom theory.
Honours
On 17 March 1934, Lemaître received the Francqui Prize, the highest Belgian scientific distinction, from King Leopold III. His proposers were Albert Einstein, Charles de la Vallée-Poussin and Alexandre de Hemptinne. The members of the international jury were Eddington, Langevin, Théophile de Donder and Marcel Dehalu. The same year he received the Mendel Medal of the Villanova University.
In 1936, Lemaître received the Prix Jules Janssen, the highest award of the Société astronomique de France, the French astronomical society.
Another distinction that the Belgian government reserves for exceptional scientists was allotted to him in 1950: the decennial prize for applied sciences for the period 1933–1942.
In 1953, he was given the inaugural Eddington Medal awarded by the Royal Astronomical Society.
In 2005, Lemaître was voted to the 61st place of ("The Greatest Belgian"), a Flemish television program on the VRT. In the same year he was voted to the 78th place by the audience of the ("The Greatest Belgians"), a television show of the RTBF.
On 17 July 2018, Google Doodle celebrated Georges Lemaître's 124th birthday.
On 26 October 2018, an electronic vote among all members of the International Astronomical Union voted 78% to recommend changing the name of the Hubble law to the Hubble–Lemaître law.
In popular culture
In 2019, he was the subject of a survey question: "Should schools in America teach the creation theory of Catholic priest Georges Lemaitre as part of their science curriculum?" 53% of respondents said "No", presumably confusing his theory with Creationism.
Namesakes
The lunar crater Lemaître
Lemaître coordinates
Hubble–Lemaître law
Lemaître observers in the Schwarzschild vacuum frame fields in general relativity
Minor planet 1565 Lemaître
The fifth Automated Transfer Vehicle, Georges Lemaître ATV
Norwegian indie electronic band Lemaitre
The Maison Georges Lemaître is the main building of the University of Louvain's UCLouvain Charleroi campus, adjacent to Lemaître's birthplace
Bibliography
G. Lemaître, L'Hypothèse de l'atome primitif. Essai de cosmogonie, Neuchâtel (Switzerland), Editions du Griffon, and Brussels, Editions Hermès, 1946
G. Lemaître, The Primeval Atom – An Essay on Cosmogony, New York-London, D. Van Nostrand Co, 1950.
"The Primeval Atom," in Munitz, Milton K., ed., Theories of the Universe, The Free Press, 1957.
(Translated in: )
See also
Cold Big Bang
List of Roman Catholic cleric-scientists
List of Christians in science and technology
Michał Heller – Polish Catholic priest and physicist/astronomer.
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
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Further reading
Berger, A.L., editor, The Big Bang and Georges Lemaître: Proceedings of a Symposium in honour of G. Lemaître fifty years after his initiation of Big-Bang Cosmology, Louvain-Ia-Neuve, Belgium, 10–13 October 1983 (Springer, 2013).
Godart, Odon & Heller, Michal (1985) Cosmology of Lemaître, Pachart Publishing House.
Farrell, John, The Day Without Yesterday: Lemaître, Einstein and the Birth of Modern Cosmology (Basic Books, 2005), .
Turek, Jósef. Georges Lemaître and the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Specola Vaticana, 1989.
External links
'A Day Without Yesterday': Georges Lemaître & the Big Bang
Donald H. Menzel, "Blast of Giant Atom Created Our Universe", Modern Mechanics (December 1932)
1894 births
1966 deaths
20th-century Belgian Roman Catholic priests
Alumni of St Edmund's College, Cambridge
Catholic University of Leuven (1834–1968) faculty
20th-century Belgian astronomers
Belgian Army personnel of World War I
Big Bang
Catholic clergy scientists
Catholic University of Leuven (1834–1968) alumni
Cosmologists
Harvard College Observatory people
Harvard University staff
Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences
Scientists from Charleroi
Recipients of the Croix de guerre (Belgium)
Relativity theorists
Walloon movement activists | [
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224700 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audit | Audit | An audit is an "independent examination of financial information of any entity, whether profit oriented or not, irrespective of its size or legal form when such an examination is conducted with a view to express an opinion thereon.” Auditing also attempts to ensure that the books of accounts are properly maintained by the concern as required by law. Auditors consider the propositions before them, obtain evidence, and evaluate the propositions in their auditing report.
Audits provide third-party assurance to various stakeholders that the subject matter is free from material misstatement. The term is most frequently applied to audits of the financial information relating to a legal person. Other commonly audited areas include: secretarial and compliance, internal controls, quality management, project management, water management, and energy conservation. As a result of an audit, stakeholders may evaluate and improve the effectiveness of risk management, control, and governance over the subject matter.
Auditing has been a safeguard measure since ancient times, and has since expanded to encompass so many areas in the public and corporate sectors that academics have started identifying an "Audit Society".
Etymology
The word "audit" derives from the Latin word audire which means "to hear".
History
During medieval times, when manual bookkeeping was prevalent, auditors in Britain used to hear the accounts read out for them and checked that the organization's personnel were not negligent or fraudulent. In 1951, Moyer identified that the most important duty of the auditor was to detect fraud. Chatfield documented that early United States auditing was viewed mainly as verification of bookkeeping detail.
The Central Auditing Commission of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union () operated from 1921 to 1990.
Information technology audit
An information technology audit, or information systems audit, is an examination of the management controls within an Information technology (IT) infrastructure. The evaluation of obtained evidence determines if the information systems are safeguarding assets, maintaining data integrity, and operating effectively to achieve the organization's goals or objectives. These reviews may be performed in conjunction with a financial statement audit, internal audit, or other form of attestation engagement.
Accounting
Financial auditives (including taxation, misselling and other forms of fraud) to misstate financial information, auditing has become a legal requirement for many entities who have the power to exploit financial information for personal gain. Traditionally, audits were mainly associated with gaining information about financial systems and the financial records of a company or a business.
Financial audits are performed to ascertain the validity and reliability of information, as well as to provide an assessment of a system's internal control. As a result, a third party can express an opinion of the person / organization / system (etc.) in question. The opinion given on financial statements will depend on the audit evidence obtained.
A statutory audit is a legally required review of the accuracy of a company's or government's financial statements and records. The purpose of a statutory audit is to determine whether an organization provides a fair and accurate representation of its financial position by examining information such as bank balances, bookkeeping records, and financial transactions.
Due to constraints, an audit seeks to provide only reasonable assurance that the statements are free from material error. Hence, statistical sampling is often adopted in audits. In the case of financial audits, a set of financial statements are said to be true and fair when they are free of material misstatements – a concept influenced by both quantitative (numerical) and qualitative factors. But recently, the argument that auditing should go beyond just true and fair is gaining momentum. And the US Public Company Accounting Oversight Board has come out with a concept release on the same.
Cost accounting is a process for verifying the cost of manufacturing or producing of any article, on the basis of accounts measuring the use of material, labor or other items of cost. In simple words, the term, cost audit means a systematic and accurate verification of the cost accounts and records, and checking for adherence to the cost accounting objectives. According to the Institute of Cost and Management Accountants, cost audit is "an examination of cost accounting records and verification of facts to ascertain that the cost of the product has been arrived at, in accordance with principles of cost accounting."
In most nations, an audit must adhere to generally accepted standards established by governing bodies. These standards assure third parties or external users that they can rely upon the auditor's opinion on the fairness of financial statements or other subjects on which the auditor expresses an opinion. The audit must therefore be precise and accurate, containing no additional misstatements or errors.
Integrated audits
In the US, audits of publicly traded companies are governed by rules laid down by the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB), which was established by Section 404 of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002. Such an audit is called an integrated audit, where auditors, in addition to an opinion on the financial statements, must also express an opinion on the effectiveness of a company's internal control over financial reporting, in accordance with PCAOB Auditing Standard No. 5.
There are also new types of integrated auditing becoming available that use unified compliance material (see the unified compliance section in Regulatory compliance). Due to the increasing number of regulations and need for operational transparency, organizations are adopting risk-based audits that can cover multiple regulations and standards from a single audit event. This is a very new but necessary approach in some sectors to ensure that all the necessary governance requirements can be met without duplicating effort from both audit and audit hosting resources.
Assessments
The purpose of an assessment is to measure something or calculate a value for it. An auditor's objective is to determine whether financial statements are presented fairly, in all material respects, and are free of material misstatement. Although the process of producing an assessment may involve an audit by an independent professional, its purpose is to provide a measurement rather than to express an opinion about the fairness of statements or quality of performance.
Auditors
Auditors of financial statements & non-financial information (including compliance audit) can be classified into various categories:
External auditor/Statutory auditor is an independent firm engaged by the client subject to the audit to express an opinion on whether the company's financial statements are free of material misstatements, whether due to fraud or error. For publicly traded companies, external auditors may also be required to express an opinion on the effectiveness of internal controls over financial reporting. External auditors may also be engaged to perform other agreed-upon procedures, related or unrelated to financial statements. Most importantly, external auditors, though engaged and paid by the company being audited, should be regarded as independent and remain third party.
Cost auditor/Statutory cost auditor is an independent firm engaged by the client subject to the cost audit to express an opinion on whether the company's cost statements and cost sheet are free of material misstatements, whether due to fraud or error. For publicly traded companies, external auditors may also be required to express an opinion on the effectiveness of internal controls over cost reporting. These are Specialized Persons called Cost Accountants in India & CMA globally either Cost & Management Accountants or Certified Management Accountants.
Government Auditors review the finances and practices of federal agencies. These auditors report their finds to congress, which uses them to create and manage policies and budgets. Government auditors work for the U.S. Government Accountability Office, and most state governments have similar departments to audit state and municipal agencies.
Secretarial auditor/Statutory secretarial auditor is an independent firm engaged by the client subject to the audit of secretarial and applicable laws/compliances of other applicable laws to express an opinion on whether the company's secretarial records and compliance of applicable laws are free of material misstatements, whether due to fraud or error and inviting heavy fines or penalties. For bigger public companies, external secretarial auditors may also be required to express an opinion on the effectiveness of internal controls over compliances system management of the company. These are Specialized Persons called Company Secretaries in India who are the members of Institute of Company Secretaries of India and holding Certificate of Practice. (http://www.icsi.edu/)
Internal auditors are employed by the organizations they audit. They work for government agencies (federal, state and local); for publicly traded companies; and for non-profit companies across all industries. The internationally recognized standard setting body for the profession is the Institute of Internal Auditors - IIA (www.theiia.org). The IIA has defined internal auditing as follows: "Internal auditing is an independent, objective assurance and consulting activity designed to add value and improve an organization's operations. It helps an organization accomplish its objectives by bringing a systematic, disciplined approach to evaluate and improve the effectiveness of risk management, control, and governance processes". Thus professional internal auditors provide independent and objective audit and consulting services focused on evaluating whether the board of directors, shareholders, stakeholders, and corporate executives have reasonable assurance that the organization's governance, risk management, and control processes are designed adequately and function effectively. Internal audit professionals (Certified Internal Auditors - CIAs) are governed by the international professional standards and code of conduct of the Institute of Internal Auditors. While internal auditors are not independent of the companies that employ them, independence and objectivity are a cornerstone of the IIA professional standards; and are discussed at length in the standards and the supporting practice guides and practice advisories. Professional internal auditors are mandated by the IIA standards to be independent of the business activities they audit. This independence and objectivity are achieved through the organizational placement and reporting lines of the internal audit department. Internal auditors of publicly traded companies in the United States are required to report functionally to the board of directors directly, or a sub-committee of the board of directors (typically the audit committee), and not to management except for administrative purposes. As described often in the professional literature for the practice of internal auditing (such as Internal Auditor, the journal of the IIA) -, or other similar and generally recognized frameworks for management control when evaluating an entity's governance and control practices; and apply COSO's "Enterprise Risk Management-Integrated Framework" or other similar and generally recognized frameworks for entity-wide risk management when evaluating an organization's entity-wide risk management practices. Professional internal auditors also use control self-assessment (CSA) as an effective process for performing their work.
Consultant auditors are external personnel contracted by the firm to perform an audit following the firm's auditing standards. This differs from the external auditor, who follows their own auditing standards. The level of independence is therefore somewhere between the internal auditor and the external auditor. The consultant auditor may work independently, or as part of the audit team that includes internal auditors. Consultant auditors are used when the firm lacks sufficient expertise to audit certain areas, or simply for staff augmentation when staff are not available.
The most commonly used external audit standards are the US GAAS of the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants and the International Standards on Auditing (ISA) developed by the International Auditing and Assurance Standard.
Performance audits
Performance audit refers to an independent examination of a program, function, operation or the management systems and procedures of a governmental or non-profit entity to assess whether the entity is achieving economy, efficiency and effectiveness in the employment of available resources.
Safety, security, information systems performance, and environmental concerns are increasingly the subject of audits. There are now audit professionals who specialize in security audits and information systems audits. With nonprofit organizations and government agencies, there has been an increasing need for performance audits, examining their success in satisfying mission objectives.
Quality audits
Quality audits are performed to verify conformance to standards through review of objective evidence. A system of quality audits may verify the effectiveness of a quality management system. This is part of certifications such as ISO 9001. Quality audits are essential to verify the existence of objective evidence showing conformance to required processes, to assess how successfully processes have been implemented, and to judge the effectiveness of achieving any defined target levels. Quality audits are also necessary to provide evidence concerning reduction and elimination of problem areas, and they are a hands-on management tool for achieving continual improvement in an organization.
To benefit the organization, quality auditing should not only report non-conformance and corrective actions but also highlight areas of good practice and provide evidence of conformance. In this way, other departments may share information and amend their working practices as a result, also enhancing continual improvement.
Project audit
A project audit provides an opportunity to uncover issues, concerns and challenges encountered during the project lifecycle. Conducted midway through the project, an audit affords the project manager, project sponsor and project team an interim view of what has gone well, as well as what needs to be improved to successfully complete the project. If done at the close of a project, the audit can be used to develop success criteria for future projects by providing a forensic review. This review identifies which elements of the project were successfully managed and which ones presented challenges. As a result, the review will help the organization identify what it needs to do to avoid repeating the same mistakes on future projects
Projects can undergo 2 types of Project audits:
Regular Health Check Audits: The aim of a regular health check audit is to understand the current state of a project in order to increase project success.
Regulatory Audits: The aim of a regulatory audit is to verify that a project is compliant with regulations and standards. Best practices of NEMEA Compliance Centre describe that, the regulatory audit must be accurate, objective, and independent while providing oversight and assurance to the organization.
Other forms of Project audits:
Formal: Applies when the project is in trouble, sponsor agrees that the audit is needed, sensitivities are high, and need to be able prove conclusions via sustainable evidence.
Informal: Apply when a new project manager is provided, there is no indication the projects in trouble and there is a need to report whether the project is as opposed to where its supposed to Informal audits can apply the same criteria as formal audit but there is no need for such a in depth report or formal report.
Energy audits
An energy audit is an inspection, survey and analysis of energy flows for energy conservation in a building, process or system to reduce the amount of energy input into the system without negatively affecting the output(s).
Operations audit
An operations audit is an examination of the operations of the client's business. In this audit the auditor thoroughly examines the efficiency, effectiveness and economy of the operations with which the management of the entity (client) is achieving its objective. The operational audit goes beyond the internal controls issues since management does not achieve its objectives merely by compliance of satisfactory system of internal controls. Operational audits cover any matters which may be commercially unsound.
The objective of operational audit is to examine Three E's, namely:
Effectiveness – doing the right things with least wastage of resources.
Efficiency – performing work in least possible time.
Economy – balance between benefits and costs to run the operations
A control self-assessment is a commonly used tool for completing an operations audit.
Forensic audits
Also refer to forensic accountancy, forensic accountant or forensic accounting.
It refers to an investigative audit in which accountants with specialized on both accounting and investigation seek to uncover frauds, missing money and negligence.
See also
Academic audit
Accounting
Audit plan
Big Four accounting firms
Clinical audit
Comptroller, Comptroller General, and Comptroller General of the United States
Continuous auditing
Cost auditing
COSO framework, Risk management
EarthCheck
Financial audit, External auditor, Certified Public Accountant (CPA), and Audit risk
Information technology audit, History of information technology auditing, and Information security audit
Internal audit
International Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions (INTOSAI)
Lead auditor, under the Chief audit executive or Director of audit
Mainframe audit
Management auditing
Operational auditing
Peer review
Quality audit
Risk-based internal audit
Technical audit
SOFT audit
References
Further reading
Amat, O. (2008). Earnings management and audit adjustments: An empirical study of IBEX 35 constituents. Available at SSRN 1374232. | [
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224701 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldt%E2%80%93Toiyabe%20National%20Forest | Humboldt–Toiyabe National Forest | The Humboldt–Toiyabe National Forest (HTNF) is the principal U.S. National Forest in the U.S. state of Nevada, and has a smaller portion in Eastern California. With an area of , it is the largest U.S. National Forest outside of Alaska.
History
The lands now part of Humboldt-Toiyabe have been administratively reorganized many times, and include parts of several defunct national forests. The oldest of these is Ruby Mountains National Forest, established on May 3, 1906. In 1908, it was combined with Independence National Forest to form Humboldt National Forest. Toiyabe National Forest was established March 2, 1907. It ceased to exist in 1932, when it was absorbed by Nevada National Forest, but was reestablished in 1938 from parts of Humboldt and Nevada. The last major reorganization occurred on October 1, 1957, when Nevada National Forest was dissolved and its lands divided between Humboldt and Toiyabe.
Humboldt and Toiyabe National Forests were administratively joined in 1995. Though managed as a single entity, the two forests remain legally and geographically distinct.
Geography
HTNF is unlike most other national forests as it contains numerous non-contiguous sections scattered across most of the state of Nevada and a portion of eastern California. Seven ranger districts are located in the many mountain ranges in Nevada, from the Santa Rosa Range in the north to the Spring Mountains near Las Vegas in the south. About 11% of the forest is in eastern California, in the areas around Bridgeport and Markleeville, and other areas east of the Sierra Nevada.
The forest lies in 13 counties in Nevada and six in California. The counties with the largest amount of forest land are Nye, Elko, and White Pine in Nevada, and Mono County in California, but there are 15 other counties with land in this widely dispersed forest. Forest headquarters are located in Sparks, Nevada.
Humboldt National Forest section
The smaller and more northeasterly Humboldt National Forest is located in eastern and northern Nevada, in parts of Elko, White Pine, Humboldt, Nye, and Lincoln counties. The section is named after Alexander von Humboldt, a nineteenth-century Prussian scientist, and contains about 43.5% of the total area. Local ranger district offices are located in Ely, Elko, Wells, and Winnemucca.
Toiyabe National Forest section
The larger and more southwesterly Toiyabe National Forest is located in central, western, and southern Nevada and eastern California, in parts of Nye, Lander, Mineral, Lyon, Eureka, Washoe, Douglas, and Clark counties, and Carson City in Nevada, as well as Mono, Alpine, Sierra, Nevada, Lassen, and El Dorado counties in California. The section contains about 56.5% of the total area. Local ranger district offices are located in Austin, Bridgeport, Carson City, Las Vegas, and Tonopah. Bridgeport is the only station that is in California.
Ranger Districts
Austin Ranger District – around Austin, including Shoshone Mountains
Bridgeport Ranger District – around Bridgeport
Carson Ranger District – near Carson City
Ely Ranger District – around Ely, Nevada
Jarbidge Ranger District – near Jarbidge
Mountain City Ranger District – near Mountain City
Ruby Mountains Ranger District – Ruby Mountains and East Humboldt Range
(formerly Ruby Mountains National Forest)
Spring Mountains National Recreation Area – Spring Mountains
Santa Rosa Ranger District – Santa Rosa Range
Tonopah Ranger District – near Tonopah, Nevada, including Toiyabe Range, Toquima Range, Monitor Range, and Hot Creek Range
Wilderness areas
Wovoka Wilderness
Humboldt National Forest
Toiyabe National Forest
Counties
In descending order of forest land area within the counties:
Nevada counties
Nye, Elko, White Pine, Lander, Humboldt, Mineral, Lyon, Eureka, Washoe, Douglas, Clark, Lincoln, Carson City
California counties
Mono County, Alpine, Sierra, Nevada, Lassen, El Dorado
References
External links
National Atlas: Map of Humboldt–Toiyabe National Forest
National Forests of California
National Forests of Nevada
Protected areas of Alpine County, California
Protected areas of Carson City, Nevada
Protected areas of Clark County, Nevada
Protected areas of Douglas County, Nevada
Protected areas of El Dorado County, California
Protected areas of Elko County, Nevada
Protected areas of Eureka County, Nevada
Protected areas of Humboldt County, Nevada
Protected areas of Lander County, Nevada
Protected areas of Lassen County, California
Protected areas of Lincoln County, Nevada
Protected areas of Lyon County, Nevada
Protected areas of Mineral County, Nevada
Protected areas of Mono County, California
Protected areas of Nevada County, California
Protected areas of Nye County, Nevada
Protected areas of Sierra County, California
Protected areas of Washoe County, Nevada
Protected areas of White Pine County, Nevada
Toiyabe, Humboldt
Humboldt, Toiyabe
Toiyabe, Humboldt
Toiyabe, Humboldt
Humboldt, Toiyabe | [
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224702 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial%20audit | Financial audit | A 'financial audit' is conducted to provide an opinion whether "financial statements" (the information is verified to the extent of reasonable assurance granted) are stated in accordance with specified criteria. Normally, the criteria are international accounting standards, although auditors may conduct audits of financial statements prepared using the cash basis or some other basis of accounting appropriate for the organisation. In providing an opinion whether financial statements are fairly stated in accordance with accounting standards, the auditor gathers evidence to determine whether the statements contain material errors or other misstatements.
Overview
The audit opinion is intended to provide reasonable assurance, but not absolute assurance, that the financial statements are presented fairly, in all material respects, and/or give a true and fair view in accordance with the financial reporting framework. The purpose of an audit is to provide an objective independent examination of the financial statements, which increases the value and credibility of the financial statements produced by management, thus increase user confidence in the financial statement, reduce investor risk and consequently reduce the cost of capital of the preparer of the financial statements.
In accordance with the US GAAP, auditors must release an opinion of the overall financial statements in the auditor's report. Auditors can release three types of statements other than an unqualified/unmodified opinion. The unqualified auditor's opinion is the opinion that the financial statements are presented fairly. A qualified opinion is that the financial statements are presented fairly in all material respects in accordance with US GAAP, except for a material misstatement that does not however pervasively affect the user's ability to rely on the financial statements. A qualified opinion can also be issued for a scope limitation that is of limited significance. Further the auditor can instead issue a disclaimer, because there is insufficient and appropriate evidence to form an opinion or because of lack of independence. In a disclaimer the auditor explains the reasons for withholding an opinion and explicitly indicates that no opinion is expressed. Finally, an adverse audit opinion is issued when the financial statements do not present fairly due to departure from US GAAP and the departure materially affects the financial statements overall. In an adverse auditor's report the auditor must explain the nature and size of the misstatement and must state the opinion that the financial statements do not present fairly in accordance with US GAAP.
Financial audits are typically performed by firms of practicing accountants who are experts in financial reporting. The financial audit is one of many assurance functions provided by accounting firms. Many organizations separately employ or hire internal auditors, who do not attest to financial reports but focus mainly on the internal controls of the organization. External auditors may choose to place limited reliance on the work of internal auditors. Auditing promotes transparency and accuracy in the financial disclosures made by an organization, therefore would likely reduce such corporations concealmeant of unscrupulous dealings.
Internationally, the International Standards on Auditing (ISA) issued by the International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board (IAASB) is considered as the benchmark for audit process. Almost all jurisdictions require auditors to follow the ISA or a local variation of the ISA.
Financial audits exist to add credibility to the implied assertion by an organisation's management that its financial statements fairly represent the organisation's position and performance to the firm's stakeholders. The principal stakeholders of a company are typically its shareholders, but other parties such as tax authorities, banks, regulators, suppliers, customers and employees may also have an interest in knowing that the financial statements are presented fairly, in all material aspects. An audit is not designed to provide absolute assurance, being based on sampling and not the testing of all transactions and balances; rather it is designed to reduce the risk of a material financial statement misstatement whether caused by fraud or error. A misstatement is defined in ISA 450 as an error, omitted disclosure or inappropriate accounting policy. "Material" is an error or omission that would affect the users decision. Audits exist because they add value through easing the cost of information asymmetry and reducing information risk, not because they are required by law (note: audits are obligatory in many EU-member states and in many jurisdictions are obligatory for companies listed on public stock exchanges).
For collection and accumulation of audit evidence, certain methods and means generally adopted by auditors are:
Posting checking
Testing the existence and effectiveness of management controls that prevent financial statement misstatement
Casting checking
Physical examination and count
Confirmation
Inquiry
Observation
inspection
Year-end scrutiny
Re-computation
Tracing in subsequent period
Bank reconciliation
Vouching
Verification of existence, ownership, title and value of assets and determination of the extent and nature of liabilities
Financial audit is a profession known for its male dominance. According to the latest survey, it found that 70%-80% of the financial auditors are male, with 2% being female and the rest being a mixture of both (Bader, 2018).
The Big Four
Greenwood et al. (1990) defined the audit firm as, "a professional partnership that has a decentralized organization relationship between the national head office and local offices". Local offices can make most of the managerial decisions except for the drawing up of professional standards and maintaining them.
The Big Four are the four largest international professional services networks, offering audit, assurance, tax, consulting, advisory, actuarial, corporate finance, and legal services. They handle the vast majority of audits for publicly traded companies as well as many private companies, creating an oligopoly in auditing large companies. It is reported that the Big Four audit 99% of the companies in the FTSE 100, and 96% of the companies in the FTSE 250 Index, an index of the leading mid-cap listing companies. The Big Four firms are shown below, with their latest publicly available data. None of the Big Four firms is a single firm; rather, they are professional services networks. Each is a network of firms, owned and managed independently, which have entered into agreements with other member firms in the network to share a common name, brand and quality standards. Each network has established an entity to co-ordinate the activities of the network. In one case (KPMG), the co-ordinating entity is Swiss, and in three cases (Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu, PricewaterhouseCoopers and Ernst & Young) the co-ordinating entity is a UK limited company. Those entities do not themselves perform external professional services, and do not own or control the member firms. They are similar to law firm networks found in the legal profession. In many cases each member firm practises in a single country, and is structured to comply with the regulatory environment in that country. In 2007 KPMG announced a merger of four member firms (in the United Kingdom, Germany, Switzerland and Liechtenstein) to form a single firm. Ernst & Young also includes separate legal entities which manage three of its four areas: Americas, EMEIA (Europe, The Middle East, India and Africa), and Asia-Pacific. (Note: the Japan area does not have a separate area management entity). These firms coordinate services performed by local firms within their respective areas but do not perform services or hold ownership in the local entities. This group was once known as the "Big Eight", and was reduced to the "Big Six" and then "Big Five" by a series of mergers. The Big Five became the Big Four after the demise of Arthur Andersen in 2002, following its involvement in the Enron scandal.
Costs
Costs of audit services can vary greatly dependent upon the nature of the entity, its transactions, industry, the condition of the financial records and financial statements, and the fee rates of the CPA firm. A commercial decision such as the setting of audit fees is handled by companies and their auditors. Directors are responsible for setting the overall fee as well as the audit committee. The fees are set at a level that could not lead to audit quality being compromised. The scarcity of staffs and the lower audit fee lead to very low billing realization rates. As a result, accounting firms, such as KPMG, PricewaterhouseCoopers and Deloitte who used to have very low technical inefficiency, have started to use AI tools.
Research has found that annual reports that convey optimistic tone are associated with lower audit fees, suggesting that annual report tone reflects factors that auditors consider in assessing audit risk.
History
Audit of government expenditure
The earliest surviving mention of a public official charged with auditing government expenditure is a reference to the Auditor of the Exchequer in England in 1314. The Auditors of the Imprest were established under Queen Elizabeth I in 1559 with formal responsibility for auditing Exchequer payments. This system gradually lapsed and in 1780, Commissioners for Auditing the Public Accounts were appointed by statute. From 1834, the Commissioners worked in tandem with the Comptroller of the Exchequer, who was charged with controlling the issuance of funds to the government.
As Chancellor of the Exchequer, William Ewart Gladstone initiated major reforms of public finance and Parliamentary accountability. His 1866 Exchequer and Audit Departments Act required all departments, for the first time, to produce annual accounts, known as appropriation accounts. The Act also established the position of Comptroller and Auditor General (C&AG) and an Exchequer and Audit Department (E&AD) to provide supporting staff from within the civil service. The C&AG was given two main functions – to authorise the issue of public money to government from the Bank of England, having satisfied himself that this was within the limits Parliament had voted – and to audit the accounts of all Government departments and report to Parliament accordingly.
Auditing of UK government expenditure is now carried out by the National Audit Office. The Australian National Audit Office conducts all financial statement audits for entities controlled by the Australian Government.
Governance and oversight
In the United States, the SEC has generally deferred to the accounting industry (acting through various organisations throughout the years) as to the accounting standards for financial reporting, and the U.S. Congress has deferred to the SEC.
This is also typically the case in other developed economies. In the UK, auditing guidelines are set by the institutes (including ACCA, ICAEW, ICAS and ICAI) of which auditing firms and individual auditors are members. While in Australia, the rules and professional code of ethics are set by The Institute of Chartered Accountants Australia (ICAA), CPA Australia (CPA) and The National Institute of Accountants (NIA).
Accordingly, financial auditing standards and methods have tended to change significantly only after auditing failures. The most recent and familiar case is that of Enron. The company succeeded in hiding some important facts, such as off-book liabilities, from banks and shareholders. Eventually, Enron filed for bankruptcy, and () is in the process of being dissolved. One result of this scandal was that Arthur Andersen, then one of the five largest accountancy firms worldwide, lost their ability to audit public companies, essentially killing off the firm.
A recent trend in audits (spurred on by such accounting scandals as Enron and Worldcom) has been an increased focus on internal control procedures, which aim to ensure the completeness, accuracy and validity of items in the accounts, and restricted access to financial systems. This emphasis on the internal control environment is now a mandatory part of the audit of SEC-listed companies, under the auditing standards of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) set up by the Sarbanes-Oxley Act.
Many countries have government sponsored or mandated organizations who develop and maintain auditing standards, commonly referred to generally accepted auditing standards or GAAS. These standards prescribe different aspects of auditing such as the opinion, stages of an audit, and controls over work product (i.e., working papers).
Some oversight organisations require auditors and audit firms to undergo a third-party quality review periodically to ensure the applicable GAAS is followed.
Stages of an audit
The following are the stages of a typical audit:
Phase I: planning of audit and design an audit approach
Accept Client and Perform Initial Planning.
Understand the Client's Business and Industry.
What should auditors understand?
The relevant industry, regulatory, and other external factors including the applicable financial reporting framework
The nature of the entity
The entity's selection and application of accounting policies
The entity's objectives and strategies, and the related business risks that may result in material misstatement of the financial statements
The measurement and review of the entity's financial performance
Internal control relevant to the audit
Assess Client's Business Risk
Set Materiality and Assess Accepted Audit Risk (AAR) and Inherent Risk (IR).
Understand Internal Control and Assess Control Risk (CR).
Develop Overall Audit Plan and Audit Program
Phase II: perform test of controls and substantive test of transactions
Test of Control: if the auditor plans to reduce the determined control risk, then the auditor should perform the test of control, to assess the operating effectiveness of internal controls (e.g. authorisation of transactions, account reconciliations, segregation of duties) including IT General Controls. If internal controls are assessed as effective, this will reduce (but not entirely eliminate) the amount of 'substantive' work the auditor needs to do (see below).
Substantive test of transactions: evaluate the client's recording of transactions by verifying the monetary amounts of transactions, a process called substantive tests of transactions. For example, the auditor might use computer software to compare the unit selling price on duplicate sales invoices with an electronic file of approved prices as a test of the accuracy objective for sales transactions. Like the test of control in the preceding paragraph, this test satisfies the accuracy transaction-related audit objective for sales. For the sake of efficiency, auditors often perform tests of controls and substantive tests of transactions at the same time.
Assess Likelihood of Misstatement in Financial Statement.
Notes:
At this stage, if the auditor accept the CR that has been set at the phase I and does not want to reduce the controls risk, then the auditor may not perform test of control. If so, then the auditor perform substantive test of transactions.
This test determines the amount of work to be performed i.e. substantive testing or test of details.
Phase III: perform analytical procedures and tests of details of balances
where internal controls are strong, auditors typically rely more on Substantive Analytical Procedures (the comparison of sets of financial information, and financial with non-financial information, to see if the numbers 'make sense' and that unexpected movements can be explained)
where internal controls are weak, auditors typically rely more on Substantive Tests of Detail of Balance (selecting a sample of items from the major account balances, and finding hard evidence (e.g. invoices, bank statements) for those items)
Notes:
Some audits involve a 'hard close' or 'fast close' whereby certain substantive procedures can be performed before year-end. For example, if the year-end is 31 December, the hard close may provide the auditors with figures as at 30 November. The auditors would audit income/expense movements between 1 January and 30 November, so that after year end, it is only necessary for them to audit the December income/expense movements and 31 December balance sheet. In some countries and accountancy firms these are known as 'rollforward' procedures.
Phase IV: complete the audit and issue an audit report
After the auditor has completed all procedures for each audit objective and for each financial statement account and related disclosures, it is necessary to combine the information obtained to reach an overall conclusion as to whether the financial statements are fairly presented. This highly subjective process relies heavily on the auditor's professional judgment. When the audit is completed, the CPA must issue an audit report to accompany the client's published financial statements.
Responsibilities of an auditor
Corporations Act 2001 requires the auditor to:
Give a true and fair view about whether the financial report complies with the accounting standards
Conduct their audit in accordance with auditing standards
Give the directors and auditor's independence declaration and meet independence requirements
Report certain suspected contraventions to ASIC
Commercial relationships versus objectivity
One of the major issues faced by private auditing firms is the need to provide independent auditing services while maintaining a business relationship with the audited company.
The auditing firm's responsibility to check and confirm the reliability of financial statements may be limited by pressure from the audited company, who pays the auditing firm for the service. The auditing firm's need to maintain a viable business through auditing revenue may be weighed against its duty to examine and verify the accuracy, relevancy, and completeness of the company's financial statements. This is done by auditor.
Numerous proposals are made to revise the current system to provide better economic incentives to auditors to perform the auditing function without having their commercial interests compromised by client relationships. Examples are more direct incentive compensation awards and financial statement insurance approaches. See, respectively, Incentive Systems to Promote Capital Market Gatekeeper Effectiveness and Financial Statement Insurance.
Related qualifications
There are several related professional qualifications in the field of financial audit including Certified Internal Auditor, Certified General Accountant, Chartered Certified Accountant, Chartered Accountant and Certified Public Accountant.
Auditors and technology
Currently, many entities being audited are using information systems, which generate information electronically. For the audit evidences, auditors get dynamic information generated from the information systems in real time. There are less paper documents and pre-numbered audit evidences available, which leads a revolution to audit mythology.
See also
Auditor's report
Center for Audit Quality (CAQ)
Comfort letter
Comparison of accounting software
Computer Assisted Audit Tools
Forensic Accounting
International Standards on Auditing (ISA)
List of accounting topics
References
Auditing
Financial accounting
Accounting terminology
Types of auditing | [
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224716 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdaron | Aberdaron | Aberdaron is a community, electoral ward and former fishing village at the western tip of the Llŷn Peninsula in the Welsh county of Gwynedd. It lies west of Pwllheli and south west of Caernarfon, and has a population of 965. The community includes Bardsey Island (), the coastal area around Porthor, and the villages of Anelog, Llanfaelrhys, Penycaerau, Rhoshirwaun, Rhydlios, Uwchmynydd and Y Rhiw. It covers an area of just under 50 square kilometres.
Y Rhiw and Llanfaelrhys have long been linked by sharing rectors and by their close proximity, but were originally ecclesiastical parishes in themselves. The parish of Bodferin/Bodverin was assimilated in the 19th century. The village was the last rest stop for pilgrims heading to Bardsey Island (Ynys Enlli), the legendary "island of 20,000 saints". In the 18th and 19th centuries it developed as a shipbuilding centre and port. The mining and quarrying industries became major employers, and limestone, lead, jasper and manganese ("Mango") were exported. There are the ruins of an old pier running out to sea at Porth Simdde, which is the local name for the west end of Aberdaron Beach. After the Second World War the mining industry collapsed, and Aberdaron gradually developed into a holiday resort. The beach was awarded a Seaside Award in 2008.
The coastal waters are part of Pen Llŷn a'r Sarnau Special Area of Conservation (), one of the largest marine designated sites in the United Kingdom. The coast itself forms part of the Aberdaron Coast and Bardsey Island Special Protection Area (), and was designated a Heritage Coast in 1974. In 1956 the area was included in Llŷn Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (). Conservation Areas have been created in Aberdaron, Bardsey Island and Y Rhiw; and the area has been designated a Landscape of Historic Interest.
Etymology
Aberdaron means "Mouth of the Daron river", a reference to the river () which flows into the sea at Aberdaron Bay ().
The river itself is named for Daron, an ancient Celtic goddess of oak trees, with Dâr being an archaic Welsh word for oak. As such, the name shares an etymology with Aberdare and the Dare river ().
Prehistory
The area around Aberdaron has been inhabited by people for millennia. Evidence from the Iron Age hillfort at Castell Odo, on Mynydd Ystum, shows that some phases of its construction began unusually early, in the late Bronze Age, between 2850 and 2650 years before present (BP). The construction was wholly defensive, but in later phases defence appears to have been less important, and in the last phase the fort's ramparts were deliberately flattened, suggesting there was no longer a need for defence. The Bronze and Iron Age double-ringed fortification at Meillionnydd was intensively occupied from at least the 8/7th to the 3rd/2nd century BCE, and was also deliberately flattened. It appears that Aberdaron became a undefended farming community. Ptolemy calls the Llŷn Peninsula "Ganganorum Promontorium" (); the Gangani were a tribe of Celts also found in Ireland, and it is thought there may have been strong ties with Leinster.
History
The church at Aberdaron had the ancient privilege of sanctuary. In 1094 Gruffudd ap Cynan, the exiled King of Gwynedd, sought refuge in the church while attempting to recapture his throne; he escaped in the monastic community's boat to Ireland. He regained his territories in 1101, and in 1115 Gruffydd ap Rhys, the exiled prince of Deheubarth, took refuge at Aberdaron to escape capture by Gwynedd's ruler. Henry I of England had invaded Gwynedd the previous year, and faced by an overwhelming force, Gruffudd ap Cynan had been forced to pay homage and a substantial fine to Henry. The King of Gwynedd, seeking to give up the exiled prince to Henry, ordered that the fugitive prince be dragged from the church by force, but his soldiers were beaten back by the local clergy; Gruffydd ap Rhys escaped under cover of night and fled south to join up with his supporters in Ystrad Tywi.
Following the conquest of Gwynedd, in 1284, Edward I set about touring his new territories. He visited the castles at Conwy and Caernarfon. Court was held at Nefyn, at which his new subjects were expected to demonstrate their loyalty; and he visited Aberdaron on his way to Bardsey Abbey.
The medieval townships of Aberdaron were Isseley (Bugelis, Rhedynfra, Dwyros, Anhegraig, Cyllyfelin, Gwthrian, Deuglawdd and Bodernabdwy), Uwchseley (Anelog, Pwlldefaid, Llanllawen, Ystohelig, Bodermid, Trecornen), Ultradaron (Penrhyn, Cadlan, Ysgo, Llanllawen), and Bodrydd (Penycaerau, Bodrydd, Bodwyddog). These locatives predate the idea of the modern ecclesiastical parish. Some were or became hamlets in themselves, whereas others have subsequently been divided – for example the modern Bodrydd Farm is only a part of the medieval township.
After the English Civil War, when the Parliamentarians under Oliver Cromwell introduced a strongly Protestant regime, Catholicism remained the dominant religion in the area. Catholics, who had largely supported the Royalist side, were often considered to be traitors and efforts were made to eradicate the religion. The persecution even extended to Aberdaron, and in 1657, Gwen Griffiths of Y Rhiw was summoned to the Quarter Sessions as a "papist".
Agricultural improvement and the Industrial Revolution came to Aberdaron in the 19th century. The Inclosure (Consolidation) Act 1801 was intended to make it easier for landlords to enclose and improve common land, introduce increased efficiency, bring more land under the plough, and reduce the high prices of agricultural production. Rhoshirwaun Common, following strong opposition, was enclosed in 1814; while the process was not completed in Aberdaron, Llanfaelrhys and Y Rhiw until 1861. On the industrial front, mining developed as a major source of employment, especially at Y Rhiw, where manganese was discovered in 1827.
During the Second World War, Y Rhiw played a vital role in preparations for the Normandy landings. A team of electronic engineers set up an experimental ultra high frequency radio station, from where they were able to make a direct link to stations in Fishguard and Llandudno. The system employed a frequency that the German forces were unable to either monitor or jam, and was used in the 1944 landings.
Governance
Aberdaron, Bardsey Island, Bodferin, Llanfaelrhys and Y Rhiw were civil parishes in the commote of Cymydmaen within Cantref Llŷn, in Caernarfonshire. Following the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834, parishes were grouped into "unions": Pwllheli Poor Law Union was created in 1837. Under the Public Health Act 1848 the area of the poor law union became Pwllheli Rural Sanitary District, which from 1889 formed a second tier of local government under Caernarfonshire County Council. Y Rhiw was absorbed into the smaller Llanfaelrhys in 1886; and under the Local Government Act 1894 the four remaining parishes became part of Llŷn Rural District (). Bodferin, Llanfaelrhys, and parts of Bryncroes and Llangwnnadl, were amalgamated into Aberdaron in 1934. Llŷn Rural District was abolished in 1974, and Bardsey Island was absorbed into Aberdaron to form a community within Dwyfor District in the new county of Gwynedd; Dwyfor was abolished as a local authority area when Gwynedd became a unitary authority in 1996.
The community now forms an electoral division of Gwynedd Council, electing one councillor; William Gareth Roberts of Plaid Cymru was re-elected in 2008. Aberdaron Community Council has 12 elected members, who represent three wards: Aberdaron De (), Aberdaron Dwyrain () and Aberdaron Gogledd (). Ten Independent councillors and one from Plaid Cymru were elected unopposed in the 2008 election.
From 1950, Aberdaron was part of Caernarfon parliamentary constituency. In 2010, the community was transferred to Dwyfor Meirionnydd constituency. In the Senedd it has, since 2007, formed part of the Dwyfor Meirionnydd constituency, represented by Dafydd Elis-Thomas of Plaid Cymru, who until 2011 was the Presiding Officer of the assembly. The constituency forms part of the electoral region of Mid and West Wales.
Geography
Aberdaron stands on the shore of Bae Aberdaron () in a small valley at the confluence of the Afon Daron and Afon Cyll-y-Felin, between the headlands of Uwchmynydd to the west, and Trwyn y Penrhyn to the east. At the mouth of the bay stand two islands, Ynys Gwylan-Fawr and Ynys Gwylan-Fach, which together are known as Ynysoedd Gwylanod (). Gwylan-Fawr reaches 108 feet (33 metres) in height. The Llŷn Peninsula is a marine eroded platform, an extension of the Snowdonia massif, with a complex geology including Precambrian rocks. The coastline is rocky, with crags, screes and low cliffs; heather-covered hills are separated by valleys occupied by pastures.
To the east, Mynydd Rhiw, Mynydd y Graig and Mynydd Penarfynydd form a long series of hog-back ridges of igneous rock that reaches the sea at Trwyn Talfarach. Above the ridges are topped by hard gabbro. At its northern end Mynydd Rhiw rises to and is a Marilyn. The outcrop of Clip y Gylfinhir () looming above the village of Y Rhiw. Mynydd Penarfynydd is one of the best exposures of intrusive, layered, igneous rock in the British Isles.
East of Y Rhiw is an extensive low-lying plateau between and above sea level. The coastal rock is softer here, and the sea has been free to erode the rock and boulder clay to form sand, resulting in the spacious beach of Porth Neigwl (or Hell's Mouth).
West of Aberdaron, four peaks rise above the rocky shoreline at Uwchmynydd. Mynydd Anelog stands high, and another Marilyn, Mynydd Mawr at , Mynydd y Gwyddel rises to and Mynydd Bychestyn is above sea level.
Bardsey Island lies off Pen y Cil, where there is another Marilyn; Mynydd Enlli. The island is wide and long. The north east rises steeply from the sea to a height of . The western plain, in contrast, comprises low, and relatively flat, cultivated farmland; in the south the island narrows to an isthmus, connecting to a peninsula.
The coast around Aberdaron has been the scene of many shipwrecks. In 1822, the Bardsey Island lighthouse tender was wrecked, with the loss of six lives; and in 1752, the schooner John the Baptist, carrying a cargo of oats from Wexford to Liverpool, was wrecked on the beach at Aberdaron. The sailing ship Newry, with 400 passengers bound from Warrenpoint to Québec, was wrecked at Porth Orion in 1880. The crew abandoned the passengers, leaving just the captain, ship's mate and one sailor, assisted by three local men, to lead 375 men, women and children to safety. A great storm swept the country on 26 October 1859 and many ships were lost: nine were wrecked at Porthor, seven of them with complete loss of life. On the south coast, vessels were often driven ashore at Porth Neigwl by a combination of south westerly gales and treacherous offshore currents. The Transit was lost in 1839, the Arfestone the following year, and the Henry Catherine in 1866. The bay earned its English title, "Hell's Mouth", from its reputation for wrecks during the days of the sailing ship.
Aberdaron is noted for low levels of air pollution. The Gwynedd State of the Environment Report in 2004 found levels of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide very low, and particulates to be low. It is one of the few sites in the United Kingdom for golden hair lichen, a striking bright orange lichen that is very sensitive to air pollution. The climate is relatively mild and, because of the Gulf Stream, frosts are rare in winter.
Climate
Being situated at the west coast of the UK, Aberdaron has a distinct maritime climate, with mild winters and cool summers. That is not to say that extremes cannot occur. In fact, some extraordinary temperature extremes have been recorded:
On 2 August 1995, Aberdaron equaled the highest ever August minimum temperature in Wales, at 22 °C, after recording the record high temperature for the village of 29.2 °C on the same day
On 20 December 1998, the maximum temperature at Aberdaron was below average at 5 °C. The very next day, the highest January temperature ever observed in the UK was recorded there, at 20.1 °C. Yet the average temperature for that day was just 6.4 °C
On 9 July 2009, Aberdaron equaled the lowest ever temperature for the UK for July, at -2.5 °C
All of the record lows except for November and December were recorded in 2009, and they were all below freezing.
Despite the fact that Aberdaron can have quite extreme weather, the number of frosts per year is very low, at around 7.2 days per year. This is comparable with coastal areas of Devon and Cornwall. The region, England NW and Wales N, averages 52.3 days, with December alone exceeding the average yearly amount of frost for Aberdaron. The village is generally quite windy throughout the year, particularly in Autumn and Winter. Sunshine amounts are lower than the UK average. Rainfall is well below the Wales average.
Economy
Sheep have been raised in the Llŷn Peninsula for over a thousand years, and Aberdaron has produced and exported wool for many years. The main product locally was felt, produced by soaking the cloth in water and beating it with large wooden paddles until the wool formed a thick mat which could be flattened, dried and cut into lengths. There were two fulling mills on the Afon Daron, in addition to three corn mills, and lichen was gathered around Y Rhiw, from which a grey dye was extracted. Arable crops consisted mainly of wheat, barley, oats and potatoes. The field boundaries date back several centuries and are marked by walls, cloddiau and hedgerows: important habitats for a variety of wildlife.
Wrecking and smuggling supplemented local incomes. In 1743 John Roberts and Huw Bedward from Y Rhiw were found guilty of the murder of two shipwrecked sailors on the beach at Porth Neigwl on 6 January 1742, and hanged; Jonathan Morgan had been killed by a knife thrust into the nape of his neck, and Edward Halesham, described as a boy, had been choked to death. A ship claimed to be from France unloaded illicit tea and brandy at Aberdaron in 1767, and attempted to sell its cargo to the locals; a Revenue cutter discovered salt being smuggled at Porth Cadlan in 1809; and a schooner en route from Guernsey to Scotland was reported to have offloaded lace, tea, brandy and gin at Y Rhiw in 1824.
During the 19th century good-quality limestone and a small amount of lead ore were quarried in the village. Jasper was mined at Carreg; granite was quarried at Porth y Pistyll; and there was a brickworks at Porth Neigwl. The main source of income, however, was herring fishing. A regular shipping service was operated to Liverpool, exporting pigs, poultry and eggs; the vessels returned laden with coal for the neighbourhood. Limestone was also imported and offloaded into the water at high tide, then collected from the beach when the tide went out. Lime was needed to reduce the acidity of the local soil, and lime kilns were built on the beaches at Porthor, Porth Orion, Porth Meudwy, Aberdaron and Y Rhiw to convert the limestone to quicklime. There was shipbuilding at Porth Neigwl, where the last ship, a sloop named the Ebenezer, was built in 1841; and at Porthor, which came to an end with the building of a schooner, the Sarah, in 1842. Aberdaron's last ship, the sloop Victory, had been built in 1792, and the last ship to come out of Porth Ysgo had been another sloop, the Grace, in 1778.
The outbreak of the First World War resulted in a great demand for manganese as a strengthening agent for steel. Ore had been discovered at Y Rhiw in 1827, and the industry became a substantial employer in the village; over of ore were extracted between 1840 and 1945, and in 1906 the industry employed 200 people.
Tourism began to develop after 1918. The first tourist guide to the village was published in 1910 and extolled the virtues of "the salubrious sea and mountain breezes"; in addition to the two hotels in the village, local farmhouses took in visitors, which provided an extra source of income.
At the 2001 census, 59.4 per cent of the population were in employment, and 23.5 per cent were self-employed; the unemployment rate was 2.3 per cent; and 16.0 per cent were retired. Of those employed, 17.7 per cent worked in agriculture; 15.8 per cent in the wholesale and retail trades; 10.7 per cent in construction; and 10.5 per cent in education. Those working from home amounted to 32.3 per cent; 15.2 per cent travelled less than to their place of work; and 23.6 per cent travelled more than . The community is included in Pwllheli and Llŷn Regeneration Area and was identified in the Welsh Index of Multiple Deprivation 2005 as the electoral division in Gwynedd with least access to services; and was ranked 13th in Wales. An agricultural census in 2000 recorded 33,562 sheep, 4,380 calves, 881 beef cattle, 607 dairy cattle, and 18 pigs; there were of growing crops.
Demography
Aberdaron had a population of 1,019 in 2001, of which 20.6 per cent were below the age of 16, and 18.7 per cent were over 64 years of age.<ref>[http://www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadTableView.do?a=3&b=801508&c=aberdaron&d=16&e=15&g=413213&i=1001x1003x1004&m=0&r=1&s=1248690472327&enc=1&dsFamilyId=781 "Census 2001: Parish Profile: People: Aberdaron Community"] . Office for National Statistics. 18 November 2004. Retrieved 16 August 2009</ref> Owner occupiers inhabited 53.7 per cent of the dwellings; and 21.7 per cent were rented; 19.6 per cent were holiday homes. Central heating was installed in 62.8 per cent of dwellings; but 2.4 per cent were without sole use of a bath, shower or toilet. The proportion of households without use of a vehicle was 14.3 per cent; but 40.9 per cent had two or more. The population was predominantly white British; 97.8 per cent identified themselves as such; 71.9 per cent were born in Wales; and 26.9 per cent in England.
The 2011 census revealed that 73.5% of residents identify themselves as Welsh speakers.
Landmarks
It is sometimes referred to as the "Land's End of North Wales", or in Welsh Pendraw'r Byd (roughly "far end of the world").
Aberdaron
Two stone bridges, Pont Fawr () and Pont Fach (), built in 1823, cross the Afon Daron and Afon Cyll y Felin in the centre of Aberdaron. Beyond the bridges the road opens up to create a small market square. The Old Post Office was designed by Portmerion architect Clough Williams-Ellis.
Y Gegin Fawr () was built in the 13th century as a communal kitchen where pilgrims could claim a meal on their way to Bardsey Island. Aberdaron was the last place on the route for rest and refreshment and pilgrims often had to wait weeks in the village for a chance to cross the treacherous waters of Bardsey Sound ().
1 mile up the road towards Porth Meudwy, you will find Cae y Grogbren (), near which is a large red rock. In the Middle Ages, the abbot from the monastery on Bardsey Island visited the rock to dispense justice to local criminals; if they were found guilty, the wrongdoer would be hanged and thrown into Pwll Ddiwaelod (). The pool is a kettle lake, formed at the end of the Ice Age, when blocks of ice were trapped underground and melted to form round, deep pools.
Above the village, on the Afon Daron, stands Bodwrdda, an early 16th-century stone-built house, which had a fulling mill adjacent; two large brick-built wings were added later, giving an imposing three-storey facade containing 17th-century windows. To the south, Penrhyn Mawr is a substantial late-18th-century gable-fronted farmhouse.
Bardsey Island
Bardsey Island, off the mainland, was inhabited in Neolithic times, and traces of hut circles remain. During the 5th century the island became a refuge for persecuted Christians, and a small Celtic monastery existed. Saint Cadfan arrived from Brittany in 516 and, under his guidance, St Mary's Abbey was built. For centuries the island was important as "the holy place of burial for all the bravest and best in the land". Bards called it "the land of indulgences, absolution and pardon, the road to Heaven, and the gate to Paradise"' and in medieval times three pilgrimages to Bardsey Island were considered to be of equivalent benefit to the soul as one to Rome. In 1188 the abbey was still a Celtic institution, but by 1212 it belonged to the Augustinians. Many people still walk to Aberdaron and Uwchmynydd each year in the footsteps of the saints, although today only ruins of the old abbey's 13th-century bell tower remain. A Celtic cross amidst the ruins commemorates the 20,000 saints reputed to be buried on the island.
The island was declared a national nature reserve in 1986, and is part of Aberdaron Coast and Bardsey Island Special Protection Area. It is now a favourite bird-watching location, on the migration routes of thousands of birds. Bardsey Bird and Field Observatory (), founded in 1953, nets and rings 8,000 birds each year to understand their migration patterns.
Bardsey Island Trust bought the island in 1979, after an appeal supported by the Church in Wales and many Welsh academics and public figures. The trust is financed through membership subscriptions, grants and donations, and is dedicated to protecting the wildlife, buildings and archaeological sites of the island; promoting its artistic and cultural life; and encouraging people to visit as a place of natural beauty and pilgrimage. When, in 2000, the trust advertised for a tenant for the sheep farm on the island, they had 1,100 applications. The tenancy is now held by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds; and the land is managed to maintain the natural habitat. Oats, turnips and swedes are grown; goats, ducks, geese and chickens kept; and there is a mixed flock of sheep and Welsh Black cattle.
The Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society has been working on cetaceans in the region. Several species, most notably bottlenose dolphins, can be observed from the shores.
Llanfaelrhys
Porth Ysgo, owned by the National Trust, is reached by a steep slope from Llanfaelrhys, east of Aberdaron, past a disused manganese mine in Nant y Gadwen. The mine employed 200 people in 1906; the ore was used as a strengthening agent for steel. The mine closed in 1927, and produced in its lifetime. Where the path from Ysgo reaches the beach, a waterfall, Pistyll y Gaseg, tumbles over the cliff. At the eastern end of the bay is Porth Alwm, where the stream from Nant y Gadwen flows into the sea. The south-facing beach is composed of fine, firm sand.
To the west, King Arthur's last battle against his arch enemy, Mordred, was supposedly fought in the fields around Porth Cadlan. Offshore lies a rock, Maen Gwenonwy, named after Arthur's sister.
Lladron Maelrhys are two large stones on the border between Llanfaelrhys and Y Rhiw. It is claimed that, years ago, thieves broke into St Maelrhys Church, intent on stealing money. Caught in the act, they fled for their lives but were caught as they approached Y Rhiw, and killed on the spot; the stones mark their burial place. Another version claims that as they crossed the parish boundary they were turned to stone for their sacrilege.
Porthor
Porthor () is a cove north of Aberdaron that has smooth white sand; when dry, the sand whistles, or squeaks, underfoot. The crescent-shaped beach is backed by steep cliffs of relatively hard rock, from which the cove has been sculpted by the rough seas. The bay is the centre of a National Trust estate comprising of shoreline, headland and farmland, and including Mynydd Carreg and Mynydd Anelog.
On the hill summits that dot the headlands are heather and gorse, shaped by the prevailing wind; thrift and wild thyme thrive on the acidic soil. The cliffs are a stronghold of the chough, and a nesting place for razorbills and guillemots. On the lower rocks, in reach of the waves, are plentiful lichens, seaweeds, sponges, limpets and barnacles.
To the south are Dinas Bach and Dinas Mawr, twin peninsulas formed from weathered pillow lavas 600 million years old, thought to have been early fortified sites from the Iron Age. Kittiwakes, cormorants and shags can be seen on the cliffs, while farm birds such as the yellowhammer frequent the gorse. On Mynydd Anelog, experimental plots have been marked out to monitor different methods of managing heather to discover the best way the habitat can be conserved for the future.
North of Porthor is Porth Iago, a south-facing narrow inlet and rocky cove, which has a small beach and steep cliffs.
Rhoshirwaun
Rhoshirwaun lies to the north east of Aberdaron, and was formerly a marshy area. It provided fuel from peat cuttings, pasture for animals and accommodated squatters, mainly fishermen, who had encroached on the common with the tacit acceptance of the community. An inclosure act was drawn up in 1802, designed to remove all squatters who had been there less than 20 years. Resistance to the evictions was fierce and was only suppressed by a contingent of dragoons. The act was finally applied in 1814; new roads were built across the moor; boundaries were established; allotments allocated; and wetland reclaimed.
Castell Odo, on Mynydd Ystum, is one of Europe's earliest Iron Age Settlements, standing above sea level. The hillfort, in diameter, has visible traces of eight circular huts; pottery found on the site dates from 425 BC. Legend has it that a giant, Odo Gawr, is buried under a cairn of stones on the summit; nearby is a huge rock known as Carreg Samson, supposedly thrown from Uwchmynydd by Samson. The holes in the rock are said to be the imprint of his fingers; a pot of gold reputedly lies underneath.
To the east of the village, Felin Uchaf is an educational centre exploring ways of living and working in partnership with the environment. Developed on a redundant farm, it provides residential courses in rural skills and sustainable agriculture. A traditional Iron Age roundhouse has been built on the site.
Uwchmynydd
Uwchmynydd, to the south west of Aberdaron, has a long history of human settlement. Mesolithic flints have been found in the area, and a Neolithic stone axe was discovered on Mynydd Mawr. Hut circles are visible on the summits, and part of a Roman anchor was recovered off Trwyn Bychestyn.
At Mynydd Mawr the picnic site has views which, on a fine day, take in Cardigan Bay, Bardsey Island and the Wicklow Mountains; at night, South Stack Lighthouse is visible in the distance. A road to the summit, owned by the National Trust, was built during the Second World War to provide access to the heights, where men were posted to give early warning to Liverpool of Luftwaffe air raids. The former Coastguard lookout point, manned for almost 80 years before becoming redundant in 1990, provides views over Bardsey Sound to the island. The hut contains an exhibition to the natural history of the area, and a mural created by local children.
The headland at Braich y Pwll is the only known location on the British mainland of the spotted rock rose, which produces bright yellow petals that last only one day. The coast here has open grass heath land and mountain, giving way to rugged sea cliffs and coves. There is a profusion of wildlife, and it is an ideal vantage point to watch the spring and autumn bird migrations. Choughs, peregrine falcons, kestrels, puffins, stonechats, guillemots and Manx shearwaters can be seen, and dolphins, porpoises and seals can be spotted in the water.
Above the sea cliffs are the remains of Capel Mair (), where it was customary for pilgrims to invoke the protection of the Virgin Mary before making the dangerous crossing to Bardsey Island. At the foot of Mynydd Mawr is Ffynnon Fair (), the last stop for pilgrims crossing to the island; the well is a freshwater spring which is covered twice daily by the sea, emerging from the ebbing tide with crystal clear water.
Cwrt (), now a large farm, was the administrative centre of Bardsey Abbey's mainland estates, and was known as the "Court of Bardsey". The steepest cliffs in the Llŷn Peninsula are at Y Parwyd, the scene of a local ghost story. In 1794 a newly married couple moved into a cottage nearby. Within a few years they were disturbed by a phantom, but when they read a verse from the Bible, the phantom would retreat towards Y Parwyd and hover over the cliff edge before disappearing; the couple finally moved to Bodferin. In 1801 a ship pilot was put ashore on the rocks below the cliffs. Although very drunk, he managed to climb the cliff face and, reaching the top, fell asleep in a sheep pen. In the early morning, he awoke and, still drunk, headed for home; he walked in the wrong direction, however, and disappeared over the cliff edge into the sea.
The traditional embarkation point for pilgrims crossing to Bardsey Island was at Porth Meudwy (), now a lobster fishing cove. Further south is Porth y Pistyll, which has good views of Ynysoedd Gwylanod, home to puffin and guillemot colonies; and Pen y Cil, where the Precambrian pillow lavas are exposed, revealing how they have been contorted over time.
Y Rhiw
The mountain-top hamlet of Y Rhiw is to the east. There are fine views of Llŷn towards Snowdonia. On the slopes of Mynydd Rhiw is a late Stone Age burial chamber, and Neolithic quarries. Nearby on Mynydd y Graig are three hillforts, several hut circles and terraced fields that are thought to date from the late Iron Age; in 1955 a Bronze Age cinerary urn was uncovered in the village.
Plas yn Rhiw, owned by the National Trust, is an early 17th-century house that was restored by the Keating sisters in 1939, with advice from Clough Williams-Ellis. It is believed that the house is on or near the site of an earlier defended house, built by Meirion Goch in the 10th century to prevent incursions by Vikings into Porth Neigwl.
Bwlch y Garreg Wen at Y Rhiw, built in 1731, is a croglofft cottage, a type of agricultural worker's house found in Llŷn.
Transport
Aberdaron lies at the western end of the B4413 road. The road runs east to Llanbedrog, where it connects with the A499 Pwllheli to Abersoch road.
Bardsey Boat Trips operates passenger ferries between Porth Meudwy and Bardsey Island. These are supplemented by Enlli Charters, who sail between Pwllheli and the island. At low tide, the ferry boat has to be hauled up to the boathouse by tractor before passengers can disembark.
Buses are provided by two companies. Service 17 is operated by Nefyn Coaches, with six Monday to Saturday return journeys on the Pwllheli–Llanbedrog–Mynytho–Nanhoron–Botwnnog–Sarn Meyllteyrn–Penygroeslon–Rhoshirwaun–Aberdaron route. Two of the Aberdaron bound journeys divert through Bryn-croes. Arriva Buses Wales provide a late-night return journey on Saturdays. Service 17 is supplemented by Nefyn Coaches service 17b, running return journeys twice a day, Monday to Saturday, largely over the same route, but with diversions to serve Penllech and Llangwnnad towards Aberdaron, or Penycaerau and Y Rhiw heading back to Pwllheli.
There is a Nefyn Coaches service, 8b running routes only on Wednesdays, between Nefyn, Rhydlios, Rhiw and Uwchmynydd.
On weekdays other than Wednesdays, Nefyn Coaches service 334 runs a morning route between Rhydlios and Nefyn. A second journey at midday operates from Uwchmynydd over the same route to Nefyn, and on to Pwllheli. Each weekday, an early-evening bus runs the Penygroeslon to Uwchmynydd route, while on Wednesdays during school holidays an afternoon Rhydlios to Pwllheli bus runs.
The nearest railway station is at Pwllheli, about 15 miles (24 km) to the east, on the Cambrian Coast Line to Machynlleth. Services are provided by Transport for Wales, with some trains continuing to Shrewsbury and Birmingham.
Public services
Water and sanitation are provided by Dŵr Cymru (), owned by Glas Cymru, a company limited by guarantee. The electricity distribution company is Scottish Power, a subsidiary of the Basque utility Iberdrola.
Welsh Ambulance Services provide ambulance and paramedic services; and North West Wales NHS Trust is responsible for hospital services. The nearest community hospital is Ysbyty Bryn Beryl at Pwllheli; for 24-hour accident and emergency services the nearest provision is at Ysbyty Gwynedd in Bangor. The general provision of health services is the responsibility of Gwynedd Local Health Board.
Law enforcement is the responsibility of North Wales Police, formed in 1967 as Gwynedd Constabulary. North Wales Fire and Rescue Service was created in 1996 by the merger of the Gwynedd and Clwyd fire brigades; it provides public protection services, operating out of the fire station at Abersoch.
Education
In the early 19th century there was a school for poor children, which moved in a four-year cycle between Aberdaron, Llanfaelrhys, Bryncroes and Y Rhiw. The Elementary Education Act 1870 provided for local school boards, but was opposed by the established church. The process of establishing boards was lengthy, and the government had to enforce the regulations in Aberdaron, Llanfaelrhys and Y Rhiw; the national school opened at Y Rhiw in 1877 and had 74 pupils on its register; it closed in 1965.
Primary education is now provided by Ysgol Crud y Werin in Aberdaron, which has 54 pupils, and by Ysgol Llidiardau in Rhoshirwaun, established in 1880, which has 21 pupils. At the last inspection of Ysgol Crud y Werin, by Estyn in 2008, there were no pupils entitled to free school meals, and 84 per cent came from homes where Welsh was the main spoken language; Welsh is the main medium of teaching. Ysgol Llidiardau was last inspected in 2009; 18 per cent of pupils were entitled to free school meals and 36 per cent came from homes where Welsh was the predominant language. Secondary school pupils mainly attend Ysgol Botwnnog.
Culture
Aberdaron is a predominantly Welsh-speaking community; 75.2 per cent of the population speak the language. A mobile library visits a number of sites in the community each week; and Llanw Llŷn, a papur bro published in Abersoch, serves the area; the local English newspapers are the Caernarfon and Denbigh Herald, published in Caernarfon; and the Cambrian News, published in Aberystwyth. Summer harp recitals and concerts are held in St Hywyn's Church; Gŵyl Pen Draw'r Byd () is a yearly event which includes beach side concerts and competitions on the shore, with an evening concert at Morfa Mawr Farm; Gŵyl Pentre Coll (), a festival of contemporary acoustic music, has been held since 2008 at Felin Uchaf in Rhoshirwaun; and a local eisteddfod, Eisteddfod Flynyddol Uwchmynydd, is held at Ysgol Crud y Werin."Eisteddfod Flynyddol Uwchmynydd Aberdaron". Liverpool Daily Post. 13 April 2007. Retrieved 16 August 2009
The poet R. S. Thomas was vicar of St Hywyn's Church from 1967 to 1978; when he retired he lived for some years in Y Rhiw. An ardent Welsh nationalist who learnt to speak Welsh, his poetry was based on his religious faith. In 1995 he was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature, and he was widely regarded as the best religious poet of his time. The subject of one of Thomas's poems, Richard Robert Jones, better known as "Dic Aberdaron", was born in the village in 1780. Despite very little formal education, he is said to have been fluent in 14 languages, and spent years travelling the country accompanied by his books and his cat.
William Rowlands won a prize at the National Eisteddfod in 1922, for an adventure story written for boys. The book, Y Llong Lo (), was published in 1924, and told the story of two boys who stow away on one of the ships that brought coal to Porth Neigwl.
During the early 1920s, South African poet Roy Campbell and his aristocratic English wife Mary Garman lived in a "croglofft cottage" above Porth Ysgo. According to his biographer Joseph Pearce, Roy and Mary Campbell shocked the local population with their flashy, colorful clothing,unkempt appearances, and lack of bashfulness about nudity and sex. Furthermore, the Campbell's first child, their daughter Teresa, was born, with assistance of a local midwife, inside the cottage during the stormy night of 26 November 1922. Campbell's first widely successful and popular poem, The Flaming Terrapin, was completed in the cottage and mailed to its publisher from Aberdaron, after which Campbell was widely praised and long afterward considered to be one of the best poets of the Interwar period.
Considered one of the most significant Welsh poets of the 15th century, Dafydd Nanmor, in Gwallt Llio, compared the striking yellow colour of the rocks at Uwchmynydd, covered by golden hair lichen, to the colour of his loved one's hair. Lewys Daron, a 16th-century poet best known for his elegy to friend and fellow poet Tudur Aled, is thought to have been born in Aberdaron.
Yorkshire-born poet Christine Evans lives half the year on Bardsey Island and spends the winters at Uwchmynydd. She moved to Pwllheli as a teacher and married into a Bardsey Island farming family. On maternity leave in 1976, she started writing poems; her first book was published seven years later. Cometary Phrases was Welsh Book of the Year 1989 and she was the winner of the inaugural Roland Mathias Prize in 2005.
Edgar Ewart Pritchard, an amateur film-maker from Brownhills, produced The Island in the Current, a colour film of life on Bardsey Island, in 1953; a copy of the film is held by the National Screen and Sound Archive of Wales. A candle lantern, discovered in 1946 in a cowshed at Y Rhiw, is now displayed in St Fagans National History Museum; and Iron Age pottery found at Castell Odo is on display at Gwynedd Museum and Art Gallery in Bangor.
Dilys Cadwaladr, the former school teacher on Bardsey Island, in 1953 became the first woman to win the Crown at the National Eisteddfod for her long poem Y Llen; and artist Brenda Chamberlain twice won the gold medal for Art at the Eisteddfod; some of the murals she painted can still be seen on the walls of Carreg, her island home from 1947 to 1962. Wildlife artist Kim Atkinson, whose work has been widely exhibited in Wales and England, spent her childhood on the island and returned to live there in the 1980s.
Since 1999, Bardsey Island Trust has appointed an Artist in Residence to spend several weeks on the island producing work which is later exhibited on the mainland. A Welsh literary residence was created in 2002; singer-songwriter Fflur Dafydd spent six weeks working on a collection of poetry and prose. Her play Hugo was inspired by her stay, and she has produced two novels, Atyniad (), which won the prose medal at the 2006 Eisteddfod; and Twenty Thousand Saints, winner of the Oxfam Hay Prize, which tells how the women of the island, starved of men, turn to each other.
It was tradition for Bardsey Island to elect the "King of Bardsey" (), and from 1820 onwards he would be crowned by Baron Newborough or his representative; the crown is now kept at Merseyside Maritime Museum in Liverpool, although calls have been made for it to return to Gwynedd. At the outbreak of the First World War, the last king, Love Pritchard, offered himself and the men of the island for military service, but he was refused as he was considered too old at the age of 71; Pritchard took umbrage, and declared the island to be a neutral power. In 1925 Pritchard left the island for the mainland, to seek a less laborious way of life, but died the following year.
In the 18th century Anne Griffith was a local healer who was an early advocate of the use of fox-glove for heart conditions. She lived all her adult life at Bryn Canaid in Uwchmynydd where she would collect plants, cheese and apple mold and local manganese to make remedies. She died in 1821 but details are known or her work due to a local historian.
Owen Griffith, a qualified pharmacist from Penycaerau, who was known as the "Doctor of the Wild Wart", used a traditional herbalist remedy to cure basal cell carcinoma, also known as rodent ulcer; the remedy had supposedly been passed on to the family 300 years earlier by an Irish tinker. In 1932 a woman died while receiving treatment and, even though the inquest into her death found that no blame was apportioned to the treatment, the Chief Medical Officer for Caernarfonshire vociferously condemned the treatment in the press. Former patients came out in support of the pharmacist, and petitions were sent to the Department of Health demanding that a medical licence be granted to Griffith and his cousin.
There are several folk tales of the Tylwyth Teg, the fairy people who inhabited the area and an invisible land in Cardigan Bay. One tells of a farmer from Aberdaron who was in the habit of stepping outside his house before retiring to bed. One night he was spoken to by a stranger, who asked why the farmer was annoyed by him. The farmer, confused, asked what the stranger meant and was told to stand with one foot on the stranger's. This he did, and could see another house, just below his own, and that all the farm's slops went down the chimney of the invisible house. The stranger asked if the farmer would move his door to the other side of the house, which the farmer subsequently did, walling up the original door; from that day, the farmer's livestock flourished, and he became one of the most prosperous men in the area.
Religion
A church was founded in Aberdaron in the 6th century by Saint Hywyn, a follower of Saint Cadfan; it was a significant institution, a monastery and centre of religious learning, rather than simply a place of worship for the locals. The present double-naved Church of St Hywyn (), built in 1137 and known as the "Cathedral of Llŷn", stands above the shore and was on the pilgrim route to Bardsey Island. It contains a 12th-century Romanesque arched door, and a square bell turret. The church was extended in 1417 and abandoned in 1841, when the locals decided to build a new church, Eglwys Newydd, in the village; the new building, however, proved unpopular and the congregation returned in 1906. Inside is a display about the life and works of the poet R. S. Thomas; and in the churchyard stand Y Meini Feracius a Senagus (), the tombstones of two 5th-century Christian priests, found in the 18th century on farmland near Mynydd Anelog.
In 2008 the church became the centre of controversy when the new vicar Jim Cotter, himself gay, blessed a gay civil partnership. The vicar was reprimanded by Barry Morgan, the Archbishop of Wales. Referring to the archbishop's protests, the vicar stated "There was a bit of a to-do about it".
The church at Llanfaelrhys is the only one in the United Kingdom dedicated to Saint Maelrhys, the cousin of both Saint Cadfan and Saint Hywyn, who accompanied them to Wales from Brittany. Legend attributes the building of the church to a trader who landed a cargo of flour near Aberdaron during a famine; he used the profit from his sale to construct a small church for the locals. Much of the building is medieval; the font dates back to the 15th century; and there are plain hard wooden benches on the north side; on the south side are 19th-century wooden box pews. The graveyard contains the graves of the three Keating sisters, who restored Plas yn Rhiw.
St Aelrhiw's Church at Y Rhiw was built in 1860 on the footings of an earlier church. It consists of a small nave and short chancel; aisles to the north and south; and has boulder-built walls and a slate roof. The churchyard contains the graves of some of the bodies that were washed up at Porth Neigwl during the First World War. Above Porth Iago is the site of the ancient St Medin's Church; now just a mound in the middle of a field; it was the parish church of Bodferin.
One of the first Non-conformists in the area was Morgan Griffith of Y Rhiw. In 1745 he was brought before the court in Pwllheli, where he was jailed for failing to renounce his beliefs. After his release he returned to Y Rhiw and began to preach again. Re-arrested, he was returned to a prison ship in England, where he subsequently died. Two of the earliest non-conformist chapels in the Llŷn Peninsula were established at Penycaerau, in 1768, and Uwchmynydd, in 1770; the Congregationalists opened Cephas Independent Chapel in 1829; and Capel Nebo was built at Y Rhiw in 1813; the Wesleyan Methodists followed in 1832 at Capel Pisgah. By 1850 there were eight non-conformist chapels in Aberdaron, five in Y Rhiw and one on Bardsey Island; but more were to be built. The Calvinistic Methodists opened Capel Tan y Foel; and Capel Bethesda, the Baptist chapel at Rhoshirwaun, was built in 1904. Aberdaron is also home to a Seventh-day Adventist youth camp named Glan-yr-afon, located from the village centre.
At the 2001 census 73.9 per cent of the population claimed to be Christian and 15.0 per cent stated that they had no religion.
Sport
Aberdaron hosts numerous sailing regattas featuring clinker-built boats unique to the area; there is a popular regatta every August where the races are open to everyone. Sea angling trips are operated from Porth Meudwy, fishing for pollock, coley and mackerel; wrasse, bass, mullet and gurnard are also possible. Bass and coley can be caught from the rocks at Porth Iago; and wrasse, pollock and mackerel are plentiful. Access is difficult at Uwchmynydd, but pollock, mackerel, wrasse and conger are caught; huss are plentiful; and ling are found occasionally.
The village is a popular walking centre and lies on the Llŷn Coastal Path, which runs from Caernarfon to Porthmadog as part of the Wales Coast Path. Kayaking is possible from both Aberdaron and Porth Neigwl, and the south-facing "sunshine coast" is a major attraction; there are camping facilities for canoeists on the shores of Porth Neigwl. Tidal streams are generally weak, although landing conditions are tricky when there is wind or swell from the south.
The area has excellent diving. Underwater visibility at Bardsey Island extends to and there is a rich variety of sea life; it is considered some of the best diving in Gwynedd. The Ynysoedd Gwylanod are particularly popular, and the wreck of the Glenocum'', in Bae Aberdaron, is excellent for novices, having a maximum depth of ; an extremely large conger eel lives in the lower section of the boiler openings. There is spectacular diving at Pen y Cil, where there is a slate wreck and an unusual cave dive; nearby Carreg Ddu is an isolated rocky island in Bardsey Sound, although care must be taken as there are strong currents.
Bathing is popular along the coast. Aberdaron Beach, facing south west, is sandy, gently shelving and safe; it received a Seaside Award in 2008. Porthor also attracts bathers, and has sands which squeak when walked on; the beach at Porth Neigwl was awarded a Green Coast Award in 2009.
Aberdaron Beach is a surfing and bodyboarding location for surfers of all levels, although it can be dangerous at high tide when the waves break directly onto boulders underneath the cliff. The better surfers head for the northern end.
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
A Vision of Britain Through Time
British History Online
British Listed Buildings
Geograph
Historical Directories
Office for National Statistics
Y Rhiw
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224719 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%20in%20sports | 2000 in sports | 2000 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Alpine skiing
Alpine Skiing World Cup
Men's overall season champion: Hermann Maier, Austria
Women's overall season champion: Renate Götschl, Austria
American football
Super Bowl XXXIV – the St. Louis Rams (NFC) won 23–16 over the Tennessee Titans (AFC)
Location: Georgia Dome
Attendance: 72,625
MVP: Kurt Warner, QB (St. Louis)
Marshall Faulk wins the regular-season MVP award.
Sugar Bowl (1999 season):
The Florida State Seminoles won 49-29 over the Virginia Tech Hokies to win the college football national championship
Association football
Euro 2000 – France won 2-1 in extra time over Italy, with a golden goal by Trézéguet. This was France's second European Championship title.
Champions' League – Real Madrid won 3-0 in the final against Valencia. This was Real Madrid's 8th European Cup title.
UEFA Cup – Galatasaray won 4-1 on penalties, in the final against Arsenal, after a 0-0 draw at the end of the match. This was the first European title won by a Turkish team.
European Super Cup – Galatasaray beat Real Madrid 2-1 after extra time, with a golden goal by Jardel.
Intercontinental Cup – Boca Juniors beat Real Madrid 2-1, winning the cup for the second time.
FIFA Club World Cup – Sport Club Corinthians Paulista won 4-3 on penalties, in the final against Clube de Regatas Vasco da Gama after a 0-0 draw at the end of the match. This was the inaugural FIFA Club World Cup.
Athletics
September – Athletics at the 2000 Summer Olympics held at Sydney, Australia
Australian rules football
Australian Football League
March 9 – Docklands Stadium opens with Essendon 24.12 (156) beating Port Adelaide 8.14 (62)
July 15 – Essendon becomes the first club to win its first nineteen games when it beats Hawthorn 25.15 (165) to 13.4 (82). This beats Collingwood's perfect home-and-away season of eighteen games from 1929.
August 5 – Essendon become the first AFL team to win 21 of 22 games in a VFL/AFL home-and-away season, losing only to the Western Bulldogs in its second last game
Essendon wins the 104th AFL premiership defeating Melbourne 19.21 (135) to 11.9 (75).
Brownlow Medal awarded to Shane Woewodin (Melbourne)
Baseball
Major League Baseball dissolves the National and American Leagues as separate legal entities, although retaining them as competitive entities. From this point forward, the leagues’ functions are consolidated in the office of the Commissioner of Baseball.
World Series – New York Yankees win 4 games to 1 over the New York Mets. The Series MVP is Derek Jeter of the Yankees
Japan Series – The Yomiuri Giants defeat the Fukuoka Daiei Hawks 4 games to 2. The Giants' Hideki Matsui is named Series MVP.
Basketball
NBA Finals –
Los Angeles Lakers win their first NBA title in twelve years, defeating the Indiana Pacers 4 games to 2.
NCAA Men's Basketball Championship –
Michigan State wins 89–76 over Florida
WNBA Finals –
Houston Comets win 2 games to 0 over the New York Liberty to complete their four–peat.\
Euroleague Final:
Panathinaikos defeats Maccabi Tel Aviv 73–67 for the title.
National Basketball League (Australia) Finals:
Perth Wildcats defeated the Victoria Titans 2–0 in the best–of–three final series.
European basketball enters a new era with the creation of the Euroleague Basketball (company). This leads to a rift with FIBA Europe and the creation of two separate continent-wide competitions for the 2000–01 season—the SuproLeague, operated by FIBA Europe, and Euroleague Basketball's Euroleague.
Boxing
May 13 to May 21 – 2000 European Amateur Boxing Championships held in Tampere, Finland
July 29 – Kostya Tszyu defeats Julio César Chávez by a knockout in six to retain the WBC's world Jr. Welterweight title.
August 12 – Evander Holyfield defeats John Ruiz by decision in 12 rounds to regain the WBA's world Heavyweight title, becoming the first boxer to win the world Heavyweight title four times.
The Ring named Félix Trinidad the "Fighter of the Year 2000". Eric Morales won a 12-round points victory over Marco Antonio Barrera, for the unified WBC and WBO 122 Pound Titles, in The Ring's "Fight of The Year 2000".
Canadian football
Grey Cup – B.C. Lions win 28–26 over the Montreal Alouettes
Vanier Cup – Ottawa Gee-Gees win 42–39 over the Regina Rams
Cricket
June 26 – Bangladesh becomes the tenth Test cricket playing nation.
Cycle racing
Road bicycle racing
Giro d'Italia – Stefano Garzelli
Tour de France – Lance Armstrong (Rescinded)
World Road Cycling Championship – Romans Vainšteins
Cyclo-cross
2000 UCI Cyclo-cross World Championships
Men's Competition won by Richard Groenendaal
Women's Competition won by Hanka Kupfernagel
Dogsled racing
Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion
Doug Swingley wins with lead dogs: Stormy & Cola
Field hockey
Olympic Games Men's Competition: Netherlands
Olympic Games Men's Competition: Australia
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Alexei Yagudin, Russia
Ladies' champion: Michelle Kwan, United States
Pairs' champions: Maria Petrova and Alexei Tikhonov, Russia
Ice dance champions: Marina Anissina and Gwendal Peizerat, France
First World Synchronized Skating Championships held in Minneapolis
Gaelic Athletic Association
Camogie
All–Ireland Camogie Champion: Tipperary
National Camogie League: Cork
Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Kerry 0–17 beats Galway 1–10
National Football League – Derry 1–8 beats Meath 0–9
Sligo Senior Football Championship – Bunninadden were crowned County Champions by defeating Coolera/Strandhill
Dublin Senior Football Championship – Na Fianna were crowned County Champions by defeating Kilmacud Crokes
Ladies' Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Champion: Mayo
National Football League: Mayo
Hurling
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Kilkenny 5–15 died Offaly 1–14
National Hurling League –
Golf
Men's professional
Masters Tournament – Vijay Singh
U.S. Open – Tiger Woods wins by 15 shots, a record for all majors, with a U.S. Open to–par record score of –12.
British Open – Tiger Woods becomes the fifth golfer in history to achieve the modern "career grand slam", and sets the to–par record for all majors (–19).
PGA Championship – Tiger Woods becomes the first golfer since Ben Hogan in 1953 to win three majors in a calendar year. He ties the to–par record for the PGA (–18) with Bob May, and wins in a playoff.
PGA Tour money leader – Tiger Woods – $9,188,321
PGA Tour Player of the Year – Tiger Woods
PGA Tour Rookie of the Year – Michael Clark II
Tiger Woods set or tied a total of 27 PGA Tour records during the year
Senior PGA Tour money leader – Larry Nelson – $2,708,005
Men's amateur
British Amateur – Mikko Ilonen
U.S. Amateur – Jeff Quinney
European Amateur – Carl Pettersson
Women's professional
Nabisco Championship – Karrie Webb
LPGA Championship – Juli Inkster
U.S. Women's Open – Karrie Webb
Classique du Maurier – Meg Mallon
LPGA Tour money leader – Karrie Webb – $1,876,853
The European team defeated the United States team 14 ½ – 11 ½ to regain the Solheim Cup.
Handball
Men's European Championship: Sweden
Women's European Championship: Hungary
Harness racing
March 18 – John Campbell became the first driver in harness racing history to reach $100 million in earnings at one track on at the Meadowlands Racetrack.
North America Cup – Gallo Blue Chip
United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
Cane Pace – Powerful Toy
Little Brown Jug – Astreos
Messenger Stakes – Ain't No Stopn Him
United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
Hambletonian – Yankee Paco
Yonkers Trot – Goalfish
Kentucky Futurity – Credit Winner
Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
Pacers: Shakamaker
Trotters: Lyell Creek
Horse racing
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – Looks Like Trouble
Grand National – Papillon
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Brew
Canada – Queen's Plate won by Scatter the Gold
Dubai – Dubai World Cup won by Dubai Millennium
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Sinndar
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Sinndar
Japan – Japan Cup won by T M Opera O
English Triple Crown Races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – King's Best
The Derby – Sinndar
St. Leger Stakes – Millenary
United States Triple Crown Races:
Kentucky Derby – Fusaichi Pegasus
Preakness Stakes – Red Bullet
Belmont Stakes – Commendable
Breeders' Cup World Thoroughbred Championships:
Breeders' Cup Classic – Tiznow
Breeders' Cup Distaff – Spain
Breeders' Cup Filly & Mare Turf – Perfect Sting
Breeders' Cup Juvenile – Macho Uno
Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies – Caressing
Breeders' Cup Mile – War Chant
Breeders' Cup Sprint – Kona Gold
Breeders' Cup Turf – Kalanisi
Ice hockey
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Jaromir Jagr, Pittsburgh Penguins
Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player:
Chris Pronger, St. Louis Blues
Stanley Cup –New Jersey Devils win 4 games to 2 over the Dallas Stars
World Hockey Championship
Men's champion: Czech Republic defeated Slovakia
Junior Men's champion: Czech Republic defeated Russia
Women's champion: Canada defeated the United States
Lacrosse
Toronto Rock defeats Rochester Knighthawks 14-13 to win the National Lacrosse League championship
Mixed martial arts
The following is a list of major noteworthy MMA events during 2000 in chronological order.
|-
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Date
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Event
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Alternate Name/s
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Location
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Attendance
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|PPV Buyrate
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Notes
|-align=center
|January 30
|Pride Grand Prix 2000 Opening Round
|
| Tokyo, Japan
|48,316
|
|
|-align=center
|March 10
|UFC 24: First Defense
|
| Lake Charles, Louisiana, United States
|
|
|
|-align=center
|April 14
|UFC 25: Ultimate Japan 3
|
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|
|
|-align=center
|May 1
|Pride Grand Prix 2000 Finals
|
| Tokyo, Japan
|38,429
|
|
|-align=center
|June 4
|Pride 9: New Blood
|
| Nagoya, Japan
|
|
|
|-align=center
|June 9
|UFC 26: Ultimate Field Of Dreams
|
| Cedar Rapids, Iowa, United States
|
|
|
|-align=center
|August 27
|Pride 10 – Return of the Warriors
|
| Tokorozawa, Saitama, Japan
|35,000
|
|
|-align=center
|September 22
|UFC 27: Ultimate Bad Boyz
|
| New Orleans, United States
|
|
|
|-align=center
|October 31
|Pride 11 – Battle of the Rising Sun
|
| Osaka, Japan
|13,500
|
|
|-align=center
|November 17
|UFC 28: High Stakes
|
| Atlantic City, New Jersey, United States
|
|
|
|-align=center
|December 9
|Pride 12 – Cold Fury
|
| Saitama, Japan
|26,882
|
|
|-align=center
|December 16
|UFC 29: Defense of the Belts
|
| Tokyo, Japan
|1,414
|
|
|-align=center
Motorsport
Radiosport
The third World Radiosport Team Championship held in Ljubljana, Slovenia. Gold medals won by Jeff Steinman N5TJ and Dan Street K1TO of the United States.
Tenth Amateur Radio Direction Finding World Championships are held in Nanjing, China, the first time ever to be hosted at a location outside Europe.
Rugby league
January 22, Wigan, England – 2000 World Club Challenge is won by the Melbourne Storm who defeat St. Helens 44 – 6 at JJB Stadium before 13,394.
April 21, Sydney, Australia – 2000 ANZAC test match is won by Australia 52–0 against New Zealand at Stadium Australia before 26,023.
April 29, Murrayfield Stadium – 2000 Challenge Cup tournament culminates in the Bradford Bulls' 24 – 18 win in the final against the Leeds Rhinos.
June 5, Suncorp Stadium – 2000 State of Origin series is wrapped up by New South Wales in game two of the series against Queensland.
August 27, Stadium Australia – 2000 NRL season culminates in the Brisbane Broncos' 14-6 win in the grand final against the Sydney Roosters.
October 14, Old Trafford – Super League V culminates in St. Helens' 29-16 win in the grand final against Wigan Warriors.
November 20, Crown Flatt – 2000 Emerging Nations Tournament is won by the British Amateur Rugby League Association who defeated Italy 20-14 in the final.
November 25, Old Trafford – 2000 World Cup tournament culminates in Australia's 40-12 win in the final against New Zealand.
Rugby union
Italy is admitted to the former Five Nations Championship which now establishes its current Six Nations format
106th Six Nations Championship series is won by England
Tri Nations – Australia
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – Mark Williams beats Matthew Stevens 18–16
World rankings – Mark Williams becomes world number one for 2000/01
Swimming
Fifth World Short Course Championships, held in Athens, Greece (March 16 – March 19)
United States wins the most medals (25), and the most gold medals (9)
25th European LC Championships, held in Helsinki, Finland (July 3 – August 9)
Romania wins the most medals (14), Sweden and Russia the most gold medals (6)
XXVII Olympic Games, held in Sydney, Australia (September 16 – September 23)
Fourth European SC Championships, held in Valencia, Spain (December 14 – December 17)
Great Britain wins the most medals (19), Sweden the most gold medals (10)
January 18 – Australia's Susie O'Neill breaks her own world record in the 200 m butterfly (short course) again, this time at a meet in Sydney, Australia, clocking 2:04.16.
February 12 – In Paris, France, US–swimmer Jenny Thompson betters her own world record in the women's 100 m butterfly (short course), from 56:90 to 56:80.
March 18 – Jenny Thompson again betters her own world record in the women's 100 m butterfly (short course), this time in Athens, Greece, from 56:80 to 56:56.
March 23 – Anthony Ervin breaks the world record in the men's 50 m freestyle (short course) at a swimming meet in Minneapolis, clocking 21.21.
June 16 – At the Russian National Swimming Championships in Moscow, Alexander Popov betters the ten-year-old world record (21.81) in the 50m freestyle (long course), swam by USA's Tom Jager in 1990 – 21.64.
Tennis
Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
Australian Open – Andre Agassi
French Open – Gustavo Kuerten
Wimbledon championships – Pete Sampras
US Open – Marat Safin
Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
Australian Open – Lindsay Davenport
French Open – Mary Pierce
Wimbledon championships – Venus Williams
US Open – Venus Williams
2000 Summer Olympics
Men's Singles Competition – Yevgeny Kafelnikov
Women's Singles Competition – Venus Williams
Men's Doubles Competition – Sébastien Lareau & Daniel Nestor
Women's Doubles Competition – Venus Williams & Serena Williams
Davis Cup
Spain wins 3–1 over Australia in world tennis
Volleyball
Men's World League: Italy
Women's World Grand Prix: Cuba
Olympic Games Men's Competition – Yugoslavia
Olympic Games Women's Competition – Cuba
Water polo
Olympic Games men's competition: Hungary
Olympic Games women's competition: Australia
Yacht racing
New Zealand retains the America's Cup as Team New Zealand defeats Italian challenger, Luna Rossa, 5 races to 0
Multi-sport events
2000 Summer Olympics held at Sydney
United States wins the most medals (97) and the most gold medals (40).
Winter Goodwill Games held at Lake Placid, New York
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Tiger Woods, PGA Tour golfer
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Marion Jones, Track and Field
ABC's Wide World of Sports Athlete of the Year: Tiger Woods, PGA Tour golfer. Note that the Wide World award was discontinued in 2001.
References
Sports by year | [
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224720 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobias%20Smollett | Tobias Smollett | Tobias George Smollett (baptised 19 March 1721 – 17 September 1771) was a Scottish poet and author. He was best known for picaresque novels such as The Adventures of Roderick Random (1748), The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle (1751) and The Expedition of Humphry Clinker (1771), which influenced later novelists, including Charles Dickens. His novels were liberally altered by contemporary printers; an authoritative edition of each was edited by Dr O. M. Brack Jr and others.
Early life and family
Smollett was born at Dalquhurn, now part of Renton in present-day West Dunbartonshire, Scotland, and baptised on 19 March 1721 (his birth date is estimated as 3 days previously). He was the fourth son of Archibald Smollett of Bonhill, a judge and landowner, laird of Bonhill, living at Dalquhurn on the River Leven, who died about 1726, when Smollett was just five years old. His mother Barbara Smollett née Cunningham brought the family up there, until she died about 1766. He had a brother, Captain James Smollett, and a sister, Jean Smollett, who married Alexander Telfair of Symington, Ayrshire. Jean succeeded to Bonhill after the death of her cousin-german, Mr Commissary Smollett, and resumed her maiden name of Smollett in 1780. They lived in St John Street off Canongate, Edinburgh, and had a son who was in the military.
Education and career
Smollett attended Dumbarton Grammar School then was educated at the University of Glasgow, where he studied medicine and eventually qualified as a surgeon. Some biographers assert that he then proceeded to the University of Edinburgh, but left without earning a degree. Others state that his career in medicine came second to his literary ambitions at the age of 18, and it was not until 1750, that Smollett was granted his MD degree at the University of Aberdeen.
In 1739 he went to London having written a play The Regicide, about the murder of King James I of Scotland. Unsuccessful at getting this on stage, he obtained a commission as a naval surgeon on and travelled to Jamaica, where he settled down for several years. In 1742 he served as a surgeon during the disastrous campaign to capture Cartagena. These experiences was later included in the narrative of his novels.
He married a wealthy Jamaican heiress, Anne "Nancy" Lascelles (1721–1791). She was a daughter of William Lascelles, but was unable to access her inheritance as it was invested in land and slaves. On their return to Britain, at the end of his Navy commission, Smollett established a practice in Downing Street but his wife did not join him until 1747; they had a daughter Elizabeth, who died aged 15 years about 1762. His two native languages were English and Scots. He translated famous works of the Enlightenment from other European languages.
Written works
Smollett's first published work in 1746, was a poem about the Battle of Culloden entitled "The Tears of Scotland", but it was The Adventures of Roderick Random, a semi-autobiogaphical story of a' north Britain on the make' which made his name. His poetry was described as "delicate, sweet and murmurs as a stream." The Adventures of Roderick Random was modelled on Le Sage's Gil Blas and despite its scandalous content covering 'snobbery, prostitution, debt and hinting at homosexuality', it was published in 1748. After that, Smollett finally had his tragedy The Regicide published, although it was never performed.
In 1750, he travelled to France, where he obtained material for his second novel, The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle, another success. Having lived for a brief time in Bath, he returned to London and published The Adventures of Ferdinand Count Fathom in 1753, but this did not sell well and he went into debt. His novels were published by the well-known London bookseller Andrew Millar. Smollett became considered as a 'man of letters' and associated with such figures as David Garrick, Laurence Sterne, Oliver Goldsmith, and Samuel Johnson, whom he famously nicknamed "that Great Cham of literature".
In 1755 he published an English translation of Miguel de Cervantes' novel Don Quixote, which he revised in 1761. In 1756, he became briefly editor of the 58-volume Universal History, and editor of The Critical Review, from which later he had a successful libel case brought against him by Admiral Sir Charles Knowles, and a three month prison sentence, and fine of £100.
Smollett then began what he regarded as his major work, A Complete History of England (1757–1765) which helped recoup his finances, along with profits from his only performed play, a farce, The Reprisal of the Tars of Old England. After his imprisonment, he used the experience in producing another novel, The Life and Adventures of Sir Launcelot Greaves (1760).
In 1763, Smollett was ill, perhaps with tuberculosis, and suffered the loss of his only child at the age of 15. He gave up his editorships and with his wife Nancy went to Europe, which led to the publication of Travels Through France and Italy (1766). He also published The History and Adventures of an Atom (1769), which gave his opinion of British politics during the Seven Years' War in the guise of a tale from ancient Japan. In 1768, the year he moved to Italy, Smollett entrusted Robert Cunninghame Graham of Gartmore with selling off the slaves he still owned in Jamaica.
A further visit to Scotland helped to inspire his last novel, The Expedition of Humphry Clinker (1771), published in the year of his death. He had for some time been suffering from an intestinal disorder. Having sought a cure at Bath, he retired to Italy, where he died in September 1771 and was buried in the Old English Cemetery, Livorno.
Monuments
There is a monument to his memory beside Renton Primary School, Dunbartonshire, Scotland, on which there is a Latin inscription. The area around the monument was improved in 2002, with an explanatory plaque. After his death in Italy in 1771, his cousin Jane Smollett had the Renton monument built in 1774. It comprises a tall Tuscan column topped by an urn. On the plinth is a Latin inscription written by Professor George Stuart of Edinburgh, John Ramsay of Ochtertyre and Dr Samuel Johnson. It is a category A listed building.
There is also a plaque at his temporary residence in Edinburgh, just off the Royal Mile at the head of St John's Street, where his wife lived after his death until at least 1785. This states that he resided there in the house of his sister, Mrs. Telfer, for the summer of 1766. A second plaque (dating the building at 1758, making it relatively new at that time) states that he "stayed here occasionally," implying more than one visit.
Smollett is one of the 16 Scottish writers and poets depicted on the lower section of the Scott Monument in Princes Street, Edinburgh. He appears on the far left side of the east face. There are streets named after him in Nice, France and in Livorno, Italy, where he is buried.
References in literature
Laurence Sterne, in his A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy, refers to Smollett under the nickname of Smelfungus, due to the snarling abuse Smollett heaped on the institutions and customs of the countries he visited and described in his Travels Through France and Italy.
Mr Brooke in George Eliot's Middlemarch says to Mr Casaubon: "Or get Dorothea to read you light things, Smollett – Roderick Random, Humphry Clinker. They are a little broad, but she may read anything now she's married, you know. I remember they made me laugh uncommonly – there's a droll bit about a postillion's breeches."
In W. M. Thackeray's novel Vanity Fair, Rebecca Sharp and Miss Rose Crawley read Humphry Clinker: "Once, when Mr. Crawley asked what the young people were reading, the governess replied 'Smollett'. 'Oh, Smollett,' said Mr. Crawley, quite satisfied. 'His history is more dull, but by no means so dangerous as that of Mr. Hume. It is history you are reading?' 'Yes,' said Miss Rose; without, however, adding that it was the history of Mr. Humphry Clinker."
Charles Dickens's David Copperfield mentions that his young protagonist counted Smollett's works among his favourites as a child.
John Bellairs referenced Smollett's works in his Johnny Dixon series, where Professor Roderick Random Childermass reveals that his late father Marcus, an English professor, had named all his sons after characters in Smollett's works: Roderick Random, Peregrine Pickle, Humphry Clinker, and even "Ferdinand Count Fathom", who usually signed his name F. C. F. Childermass.
George Orwell praised him as "Scotland's best novelist".
In Hugh Walpole's fifth novel Fortitude, the protagonist Peter refers to Peregrine Pickle as a text that inspired him to document his own memoirs.
Bibliography
Poetry
1746: Advice
1747: Reproof: A satire, a sequel to Advice
Minor Poems
"The Tears of Scotland"
"The Verses on a young lady playing on a harpsichord and singing"
"Love Elegy"
Odes
"Burlesque"
"Mirth"
"Sleep"
"Leven Water"
"Blue-Eyed Ann"
"Independence"
Translations
1748: The Adventures of Gil Blas of Santillane, published anonymously (dated, incorrectly, "1749"), translated from the original L'Histoire de Gil Blas de Santillane by Alain-René Le Sage
1755: The History and Adventures of the Renowned Don Quixote, translated from the original Spanish of Miguel de Cervantes. Vol. 1:. Vol. 2:.
1761–1765: The Works of Voltaire, English translation of Voltaire in 35 volumes, which Smollett edited with Thomas Francklin
Novels
1748: The Adventures of Roderick Random, published anonymously
1751: The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle, published anonymously
1753: The Adventures of Ferdinand Count Fathom
1762: The Life and Adventures of Sir Launcelot Greaves, first book edition, originally serialised in The British Magazine, January 1760 – December 1761 (see below)
1769: The History and Adventures of an Atom
1771: The Expedition of Humphry Clinker
Plays
1749: The Regicide; or, James the First, of Scotland: A tragedy (play)
1757: The Reprisal; or, The Tars of Old England: A comedy, anonymously published; a play performed on 22 January
Non-fiction
1756: A Compendium of Authentic and Entertaining Voyages, published anonymously
1757–1758: A Complete History of England by David Hume, in four volumes, with Smollett adding his own Continuation of the History of England from the Reign of William and Mary to the Death of George II, published 1760–65, as an additional volume
1766: Travels through France and Italy
1768–1769: The Present State of all Nations, in eight volumes
The Narrative of the Base and Inhuman Arts that were Lately Practised upon the Brain of Habbakkuk Hilding
The Expedition against Carthagena
The Dying Prediction
Commentary on a Philosophical Dictionary, (10 volumes)
Periodicals
1756: Editor and co-writer, The Critical Review; or, Annals of Literature, a periodical published semi-annually until 1790
Date unknown: Editor, Universal History
1760: The British Magazine, a periodical published in eight volumes; Volumes 1 and 2 include the first publication of Launcelot Greaves (see below)
Radio
The Expedition of Humphry Clinker was adapted for radio in three one-hour episodes in August 2008. It was dramatised by Yvonne Antrobus and starred Stuart McLoughlin as Clinker and Nigel Anthony as Matthew Bramble.
See also
Physician writer
Old English Cemetery, Livorno
References
Lewis, Jeremy (Cape, 2003) Tobias Smollett
George Rousseau (1982). Tobias Smollett: Essays of Two Decades (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark)
George Rousseau (2004). Nervous Acts: Essays on Literature, Culture and Sensibility. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. (Paperback) (Hardcover)
External links
Tobias Smollett at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)
Online editions of his works
Smollett Monument, including translation of the inscription
1721 births
1771 deaths
18th-century deaths from tuberculosis
People from West Dunbartonshire
Tuberculosis deaths in Italy
Spanish–English translators
Maritime writers
18th-century Scottish writers
18th-century Scottish novelists
Scottish translators
18th-century British poets
Scottish poets
18th-century Scottish medical doctors
Scottish surgeons
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
British expatriates in Jamaica
British medical writers
Scottish historians
Historians of England
Scottish travel writers
Scottish political writers
People of the Scottish Enlightenment
Royal Navy Medical Service officers
Infectious disease deaths in Tuscany
18th-century British translators | [
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224722 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazos%20River | Brazos River | The Brazos River ( , ), called the Río de los Brazos de Dios (translated as "The River of the Arms of God") by early Spanish explorers, is the 11th-longest river in the United States at from its headwater source at the head of Blackwater Draw, Roosevelt County, New Mexico to its mouth at the Gulf of Mexico with a drainage basin. Being one of Texas' largest rivers, it is sometimes used to mark the boundary between East Texas and West Texas.
The river is closely associated with Texas history, particularly the Austin settlement and Texas Revolution eras. Today major Texas institutions such as Texas Tech University, Baylor University, and Texas A&M University are located close to the river's basin, as are parts of metropolitan Houston.
Geography
The Brazos proper begins at the confluence of the Salt Fork and Double Mountain Fork, two tributaries of the Upper Brazos that rise on the high plains of the Llano Estacado, flowing southeast through the center of Texas. Another major tributary of the Upper Brazos is the Clear Fork Brazos River, which passes by Abilene and joins the main river near Graham. Important tributaries of the Lower Brazos include the Paluxy River, the Bosque River, the Little River, Yegua Creek, the Nolan River, the Leon River, the San Gabriel River, the Lampasas River, and the Navasota River.
Initially running east towards Dallas-Fort Worth, the Brazos turns south, passing through Waco and the Baylor University campus, further south to near Calvert, Texas, then past Bryan and College Station, then through Richmond, Texas, in Fort Bend County, and empties into the Gulf of Mexico in the marshes just south of Freeport.
The main stem of the Brazos is dammed in three places, all north of Waco, forming Possum Kingdom Lake, Lake Granbury, and Lake Whitney. Of these three, Granbury was the last to be completed, in 1969. When its construction was proposed in the mid-1950s, John Graves wrote the book Goodbye to a River. The Whitney Dam, located on the upper Brazos, provides hydroelectric power, flood control, and irrigation to enable efficient cotton growth in the river valley. A small municipal dam (Lake Brazos Dam) is near the downstream city limit of Waco at the end of the Baylor campus; it raises the level of the river through the city to form a town lake. This impoundment of the Brazos through Waco is locally called Lake Brazos. Nineteen major reservoirs are located along the Brazos.
History
In 1822, the lower river valley of the Brazos River became one of the major Anglo-American settlement sites in Texas. This was one of the first English-speaking colonies along the Brazos and was founded by Stephen F. Austin at San Felipe de Austin. In 1836, Texas declared independence from Mexico at Washington-on-the-Brazos, a settlement in now Washington County that is known as "the birthplace of Texas". Brazos River was also the scene of a battle between the Texas Navy and Mexican Navy during the Texas Revolution. Texas Navy ship Independence was defeated by one Mexican vessel.
When it was first named by European explorers is unclear, since it was often confused with the Colorado River not far to the south, but it was certainly seen by René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle. Later Spanish accounts call it Los Brazos de Dios (the arms of God), for which name several different explanations were given, all involving it being the first water to be found by desperately thirsty parties. In 1842, Indian commissioner of Texas, Ethan Stroud established a trading post on this river.
The river was important for navigation before and after the American Civil War, and steamboats sailed as far up the river as Washington-on-the-Brazos. While attempts to improve commercial navigation on the river continued, railroads proved more reliable. The Brazos River also flooded, often seriously, on a regular basis before a piecemeal levee system was replaced, notably in 1913 when a massive flood affected the course of the river. The river is primarily important today as a source of water for power, irrigation, and recreation. The water is administered by the Brazos River Authority.
The 2000 book, Sandbars and Sternwheelers: Steam Navigation on the Brazos by Pamela A. Puryear and Nath Winfield, Jr., with introduction by J. Milton Nance, examines the early vessels that attempted to navigate the Brazos.
On June 2, 2016, the rising of the river required evacuations for portions of Brazoria County.
Brazos watershed
The Brazos River watershed covers a total area of . Within the watershed lie 42 lakes and rivers, which have a combined storage capacity of 2.5 million acre-feet. The Brazos watershed also has an estimated groundwater availability of 119,275 acre-feet per year. Around 31% of the land use within the watershed is cropland, and roughly 61% is grassland (30%), shrubland (19.8%), and forest (11%), while urban use only makes up 4.6%. The population density within the watershed is 4.9 people/sq mi (19.5/km2).
Water quality concerns
The main water-quality issues within the Brazos watershed are high nutrient loads, high bacterial and salinity levels, and low dissolved oxygen. These issues can be attributed to livestock waste, fertilizer, and chemical run offs. Sources of run off are croplands, pastures, and industrial sites, among others. The watershed receiving the most toxic pollution is the lower Brazos river, which received 33.4 million pounds of toxic waste in 2012.
Recreation
Canoeing is a very popular recreational activity on the Brazos River, with many locations favorable for launching and recovery. The best paddling can be found immediately below Possum Kingdom Lake and Lake Granbury.
Sandbar camping is also permitted, since the entire streambed of the river is considered to be state-owned public property. Fishing, camping, and picnicking are legal here, including on the sandbars.
Several scout camps are located along the Brazos River, and they support a wide range of water and shoreline activities for scouts, youth groups, and family groups.
The Brazos River Authority maintains several public campsites along the river and at the lakes. Hunting is also permitted at select locations along the river. Fishing is permitted on all of the river, subject to regulations. Outdoor enthusiasts have the opportunity to view the area's scenery and the wildlife on the river. Fly fishing and river fishing for largemouth bass are common.
Cultural references
The Lyle Lovett covers of Steve Fromholz' songs "Texas Trilogy: Bosque County Romance" and "Texas River Song" both mention the Brazos.
The Alan Le May novel The Searchers mentions the Salt Fork of the Brazos River several times as a likely place for the protagonists to find Chief Scar, who is holding the captive child Debbie. In the 1956 film based on the novel, Mose Harper identifies the location of Chief Scar's camp as Seven Fingers, which a group of Texas Rangers identify as Seven Fingers of the Brazos.
John Graves' travel narrative Goodbye to a River takes place on the Brazos River.
The Brazos is the setting of the American folk song "Ain't No More Cane".
"Broke Down on the Brazos" is the first track on Gov’t Mule’s 2009 album By A Thread.
The Robert Earl Keen's "The Front Porch Song" contains the lyrics "the Brazos still runs muddy like she's run all along".
The Old Crow Medicine Show song "Take 'em Away" contains the lyrics "Land that I know is where two rivers collide / The Brazos, the Navasota, and the big blue sky".
The chorus to the Amanda Shires song "Mineral Wells" contains the lyrics "At night I dream I'm in the Brazos River / Pines and cypress of the West Cross Timbers".
The James Reasoner Civil War Series references the Brazos River many times as it is the goal of one of the main characters to move there after the war is over.
"Cross the Brazos at Waco" song by Billy Walker.
The Brazos is mentioned throughout "The Rivers of Texas" performed by Mason Williams.
The Uncle Lucius song "Keep the Wolves Away" mentions the Brazos and Galveston Bay.
"Brazos River" song by Lomelda.
The Brazos is featured prominently as one of the first major hurdles for the wagon train of pioneers in the television drama 1883.
An account of Texas residents crossing the Brazos during the Runaway Scrape of the Texas Revolution is featured in “True Women: A Novel of Texas” by Janice Woods Windle (1993).
See also
Battle of the Brazos
Blanco Canyon
Brazoria, Texas
Brazos Belle
Brazosport Independent School District
Canyon Valley, Texas
Double Mountain (Texas)
Double Mountain Fork Brazos River
List of Texas rivers
List of longest rivers of the United States (by main stem)
Mount Blanco
North Fork Double Mountain Fork Brazos River
USS Brazos (AO-4), a fleet oiler built in 1919
White River (Texas)
Yellow House Canyon
Port Freeport
Footnotes
Further reading
Archer, Kenna Lang, “A Defiant River, A Technocratic Ideal: Big Dams and Even Bigger Hopes along the Brazos River, 1929–1958,” East Texas Historical Journal, 53 (Fall 2015), 67–87.
Archer, Kenna Lang. Unruly Waters: A Social and Environmental History of the Brazos River. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 2015.
Hendrickson, Jr., Kenneth E. The Waters of the Brazos: A History of the Brazos River Authority 1929-1979. Waco, TX: The Texian Press, 1981.
Kimmel, Jim. 2011. Exploring the Brazos River: from beginning to end. Texas A&M Press. College Station, TX.
External links
Brazos River Authority
Public domain photos of the Upper Brazos
Historic photos of Army Corps of Engineers lock and dam projects on the Brazos River, 1910-20s, from the Portal to Texas History
1858 map titled {{URL|https://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth2473|Preliminary chart of entrance to Brazos River, Texas}} from a trigonometrical survey under the direction of A. Bache ; triangulation by J.S. Williams ; topography by J.M. Wampler ; hydrography by the parties under the command of E.J. De Haven & J.K. Duer., hosted by the Portal to Texas History.
Rivers of Texas
Drainage basins of the Gulf of Mexico
Rivers of Brazoria County, Texas
Rivers of Fort Bend County, Texas
Rivers of Hood County, Texas
Rivers of McLennan County, Texas
Rivers of Stonewall County, Texas
Rivers of Palo Pinto County, Texas
Rivers of Waller County, Texas | [
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224723 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999%20in%20sports | 1999 in sports | 1999 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Alpine skiing
Alpine Skiing World Cup
Men's overall season champion: Lasse Kjus, Norway
Women's overall season champion: Alexandra Meissnitzer, Austria
American football
Super Bowl XXXIII – the Denver Broncos (AFC) won 34–19 over the Atlanta Falcons (NFC)
Location: Pro Player Stadium
Attendance: 74,803
MVP: John Elway, QB (Denver)
April 17 – Quarterback Tim Couch is selected by the Cleveland Browns with the first overall pick in the 1999 NFL Draft.
St. Louis Rams Quarterback Kurt Warner named NFL MVP
St. Louis Rams Head coach Dick Vermeil named NFL Coach of the Year
Indianapolis Colts running back Edgerrin James named NFL Rookie of the Year
Fiesta Bowl (1998 season):
The Tennessee Volunteers claim the first ever BCS National Championship 23–16 over the Florida State Seminoles
November 1 – death of Walter Payton (45), Chicago Bears running back
Artistic gymnastics
1999 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships - held in Tianjin, China
Women's team champions: Romania
Women's all-around champion: Maria Olaru, Romania
Women's vault champion: Elena Zamolodchikova, Russian Federation
Women's floor exercise champion: Andreea Raducan, Romania
Women's uneven bars champion: Svetlana Khorkina, Russian Federation
Women's balance beam champion: Ling Jie, China
Men's team champions: China
Men's all-around champion: Nikolai Kryukov, Russian Federation
Men's horizontal bar champion: Jesús Carballo, Spain
Men's parallel bars champion: Lee Jo Hyung, North Korea
Men's pommel horse champion: Alexei Nemov, Russian Federation
Men's floor exercise champion: Alexei Nemov, Russian Federation
Men's still rings champion: Dong Zhen, China
Men's vault champion: Li Xiaopeng, China
Association football
Champions League – Manchester United F.C. beat FC Bayern Munich 2 – 1 to win the treble having already won the English premiership and FA Cup.
UEFA Cup – Parma F.C. beat Olympique Marseille 3–0
Copa Libertadores – Palmeiras beat Deportivo Cali 4–3 after penalties
Asian Club Championship - Júbilo Iwata beat Esteghlal 2-1
CAF Champions League - Raja Casablanca beat Espérance 4-3 after penalties
FIFA Women's World Cup - USA beat China 5-4 after penalties.
Athletics
August – 1999 World Championships in Athletics held at Seville
Hicham El Guerrouj sets a new world record for the mile. He recorded a time of 3:43.13, barely edging out Noah Ngeny who recorded 3:43.40.
Michael Johnson sets a new world record in the 400 metres in 43.18.
Baseball
May 10 – The Boston Red Sox beat the Seattle Mariners, 12–4, as shortstop Nomar Garciaparra hits three home runs, including two grand slams; one in the first inning, and one in the eighth. Nomar is the 9th in MLB history (the first since Robin Ventura in 1995) to hit two grand slams in the same game, and the first Red Sox player to accomplish the feat since Jim Tabor in 1939.
July 18 – David Cone pitches a perfect game, the 16th in history, as the Yankees defeat the Montreal Expos, 6–0, to celebrate Yogi Berra Day.
Texas Rangers Catcher Iván Rodríguez named AL MVP
Atlanta Braves 3B Chipper Jones named NL MVP
Kansas City Royals OF Carlos Beltrán named AL Rookie of the Year
Cincinnati Reds Pitcher Scott Williamson named NL Rookie of the Year
World Series – New York Yankees won 4 games to 0 over the Atlanta Braves. The series MVP: Mariano Rivera, New York
Miami Hurricanes defeat Florida State Seminoles in the College World Series
Basketball
1999 NBA Finals – the San Antonio Spurs defeat the New York Knicks, 4 games to 1, to win the franchise's first championship. The Spurs also became the first former ABA team to win an NBA title, while the Knicks were the first number eight seed in NBA history to make it to the NBA Finals. This season also marked the beginning of both the Spurs dynasty and the Tim Duncan era, whom would win 4 more championships in the next 15 years.
Utah Jazz forward Karl Malone named NBA MVP for the second time in his career
Toronto Raptors Guard/Forward Vince Carter named NBA Rookie of the Year
NCAA Men's Basketball Championship –
Connecticut wins 77–74 over Duke
Duke Blue Devils forward Elton Brand named Naismith College Player of the Year & John R. Wooden Award
WNBA Finals – – The Houston Comets defeat the New York Liberty, 2 games to 1, to win their third title in a row.
National Basketball League (Australia) Finals:
Adelaide 36ers defeated the Victoria Titans 2–1 in the best–of–three final series.
Boxing
July 31 to August 8 – Pan American Games held at Winnipeg
August 20 to August 27 – 1999 World Amateur Boxing Championships held at Houston
September 18 – The Fight of the Millennium:
Félix Trinidad defeats Oscar De La Hoya by split 12-round decision to unify the IBF and WBC's world Welterweight championships.
Canadian football
Grey Cup – Hamilton Tiger-Cats win 32–21 over the Calgary Stampeders
Vanier Cup – Laval Rouge et Or win 14–10 over the Saint Mary's Huskies
Cricket
Cricket World Cup Final: Australia beat Pakistan by eight wickets
Playing for Himachal Pradesh against Jammu and Kashmir in the Ranji Trophy, Rajiv Nayyar becomes the first and only player in first-class cricket history to bat for over 1,000 minutes in an innings, scoring 271 in 1,015 minutes.
Curling
World Curling Championships –
Men: Scotland won 6–5 over Canada
Women: Sweden won 8–5 over USA
Cycling
Giro d'Italia won by Ivan Gotti of Italy
Tour de France – Lance Armstrong of the United States
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Óscar Freire of Spain
Dogsled racing
Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion –
Doug Swingley with lead dogs: Stormy, Cola & Elmer
Field hockey
Men's Champions Trophy: Australia
Women's Champions Trophy: Australia
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Alexei Yagudin, Russia
Ladies' champion: Maria Butyrskaya, Russia
Pairs' champions: Yelena Berezhnaya & Anton Sikharulidze, Russia
Ice dancing champions: Anjelika Krylova & Oleg Ovsyannikov, Russia
European Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Alexei Yagudin, Russia
Ladies' champion: Maria Butyrskaya, Russia
Pairs' champions: Maria Petrova & Alexei Tikhonov, Russia
Ice dancing champions: Anjelika Krylova & Oleg Ovsyannikov, Russia
Gaelic Athletic Association
Camogie
All–Ireland Camogie Champion: Tipperary
National Camogie League: Cork
Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Meath 1–11 beat Cork 1–8
National Football League – Cork 0–12 beat Dublin 1–7
Ladies' Gaelic football
All–Ireland Senior Football Champion: Mayo
National Football League: Monaghan
Hurling
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Cork 0–13 beat Kilkenny 0–12
National Hurling League – Tipperary 1-14 beat Galway 1-10
Golf
October 25 – death of Payne Stewart (42) in an air accident
Men's professional
Masters Tournament – José María Olazábal
U.S. Open – Payne Stewart
British Open – Paul Lawrie This Open is also remembered for the epic collapse of French golfer Jean van de Velde, who threw away a three–shot lead on the final hole, finding himself in a playoff which Lawrie won.
PGA Championship – Tiger Woods
PGA Tour money leader – Tiger Woods – $6,616,585
PGA Tour Player of the Year – Tiger Woods
PGA Tour Rookie of the Year – Carlos Franco
Senior PGA Tour money leader – Bruce Fleisher – $2,515,705
Ryder Cup – United States won 14½ to 13½ over Europe in team golf.
Amateur – Graeme Storm
U.S. Amateur – David Gossett
European Amateur – Grégory Havret
Women's professional
Nabisco Dinah Shore – Dottie Pepper
LPGA Championship – Juli Inkster
U.S. Women's Open – Juli Inkster
Classique du Maurier – Karrie Webb
LPGA Tour money leader – Karrie Webb – $1,591,959
Handball
1999 World Men's Handball Championship - won by Sweden
1999 World Women's Handball Championship - won by Norway
Harness racing
North America Cup – The Panderosa
United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
Cane Pace – Blissful Hall
Little Brown Jug – Blissful Hall
Messenger Stakes – Blissful Hall
United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
Hambletonian – Self Possessed
Yonkers Trot – CR Renegade
Kentucky Futurity – Self Possessed
Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
Pacers: Sir Vancelot
Trotters: Special Force
Horse racing
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – See More Business
Grand National – Bobbyjo
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Rogan Josh
Canada – Queen's Plate won by Woodcarver
Dubai – Dubai World Cup won by Almutawakel
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Montjeu
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Montjeu
Japan – Japan Cup won by Special Week
English Triple Crown races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Island Sands
The Derby – Oath
St. Leger Stakes – Mutafaweq
United States Triple Crown races:
Kentucky Derby – Charismatic
Preakness Stakes – Charismatic
Belmont Stakes – Lemon Drop Kid
Breeders' Cup World Thoroughbred Championships:
Breeders' Cup Classic – Cat Thief
Breeders' Cup Distaff – Beautiful Pleasure
Breeders' Cup Filly & Mare Turf – Soaring Softly (inaugural running of this race)
Breeders' Cup Juvenile – Anees
Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies – Cash Run
Breeders' Cup Mile – Silic
Breeders' Cup Sprint – Artax
Breeders' Cup Turf – Daylami
Ice hockey
February 13: Last Ice Hockey game played at the historic Maple Leaf Gardens in Toronto, the game was a 6–2 loss for the Toronto Maple Leafs to Chicago Blackhawks.
Wayne Gretzky played his last NHL game on April 18, 1999 at Madison Square Gardens where the New York Rangers lost 2-1 in overtime to the Pittsburgh Penguins
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Jaromir Jagr, Pittsburgh Penguins
Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player:
Jaromir Jagr – Pittsburgh Penguins
Stanley Cup – Dallas Stars defeat the Buffalo Sabres 4 games to 2, Conn Smythe Trophy – Joe Nieuwendyk. The Stars became the first team from the Southern United States to win the Cup.
World Hockey Championship
Men's champion:Czech Republic defeated Finland
Junior Men's champion: Russia defeated Canada
Women's champion: Canada defeated the United States
NCAA Men's Ice Hockey Championship – University of Maine Black Bears defeat University of New Hampshire Wildcats 3–2 in overtime
Lacrosse
Major League Lacrosse (MLL) is founded by Jake Steinfeld, Dave Morrow and Tim Robertson.
The Toronto Rock beat the Rochester Knighthawks 13–10 to win the National Lacrosse League Championship.
The Victoria Shamrocks win the Mann Cup.
The Edmonton Miners win the Founders Cup.
The Whitby Warriors win the Minto Cup.
Mixed martial arts
The following is a list of major noteworthy MMA events during 1999 in chronological order.
|-
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Date
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Event
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Alternate Name/s
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Location
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Attendance
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|PPV Buyrate
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Notes
|-align=center
|January 8
|UFC 18: The Road to the Heavyweight Title
|
| New Orleans, Louisiana, US
|
|
|
|-align=center
|March 5
|UFC 19: Ultimate Young Guns
|
| Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, US
|
|
|
|-align=center
|April 29
|Pride 5
|
| Nagoya, Japan
|
|
|
|-align=center
|May 7
|UFC 20: Battle for the Gold
|
| Birmingham, Alabama, US
|
|
|
|-align=center
|July 4
|Pride 6
|
| Yokohama, Japan
|
|
|
|-align=center
|July 16
|UFC 21: Return of the Champions
|
| Cedar Rapids, Iowa, US
|
|
|
|-align=center
|September 12
|Pride 7
|
| Yokohama, Japan
|10,031
|
|
|-align=center
|September 24
|UFC 22: Only One Can be Champion
|
| Lake Charles, Louisiana, US
|
|
|
|-align=center
|November 19
|UFC 23: Ultimate Japan 2
|
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|
|
|-align=center
|November 21
|Pride 8
|
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|
|
|-align=center
Motorsport
Radiosport
First IARU Region II Amateur Radio Direction Finding Championships held in Portland, Oregon, US This is the first IARU sanctioned international ARDF competition in the Americas.
Third High Speed Telegraphy World Championship held in Pordenone, Italy.
Rugby league
April 23 at Sydney, Australia – 1999 ANZAC test match is won by Australia 20–14 against New Zealand at Stadium Australia before 30,245.
June 23 at Brisbane, Australia – 1999 State of Origin is retained by Queensland as the third and deciding match of the series is drawn 10 – 10 with New South Wales.
September 19 in Australia – last game of the 1999 Telstra Premiership is played, including the final NRL matches as stand alone entities for the Balmain Tigers and Western Suburbs Magpies who would later merge to form the Wests Tigers.
September 26 at Sydney, Australia – 1999 NRL season culminates in the Melbourne Storm's 20 – 18 win against the St George Illawarra Dragons in the grand final
October 9 at Manchester, England – Super League IV culminates in St. Helens' 8 – 6 win against the Bradford Bulls in the grand final.
November 1 at Auckland, New Zealand – 1999 Tri–Nations culminates in Australia's 22 – 20 win against New Zealand in the final.
Rugby union
105th Five Nations Championship series, the last under the Five Nations format, is won by Scotland. The modern Six Nations format would be established the following year with the addition of Italy.
Bledisloe Cup – Australia retains the cup after drawing the two-match series with New Zealand.
Rugby World Cup: Australia defeat France 35–12 in the final, becoming the first nation to win the Webb Ellis Cup twice.
Tri Nations – New Zealand
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – Stephen Hendry beats Mark Williams 18–11
World rankings – John Higgins remains world number one for 1999/2000
Swimming
Fourth World Short Course Championships, held in Hong Kong, China (April 1 – 4)
Australia wins the most medals (27), and the most gold medals (9)
24th European LC Championships, held in Istanbul, Turkey (July 26 – August 1)
Germany wins the most medals (23), and the most gold medals (11)
XIII Pan American Games, held in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada (August 2 – 7)
Eighth Pan Pacific Championships, held in Sydney, Australia (August 22 – 29)
Third European SC Championships, held in Lisboa, Portugal (December 9 – 12)
Germany wins the most medals (26), Sweden the most gold medals (9)
February 17 – Australia's Susie O'Neill snapped the oldest world record in the books, clocking 2:05.37 in the women's 200m butterfly (short course) at a World Cup meet in Malmö, Sweden. The old mark, set by Mary T. Meagher on January 2, 1981, stood at 2:05.65.
September 2 – Susie O'Neill breaks her own world record in the women's 200m butterfly (short course) at a meet in Canberra, Australia, clocking 2:04.43
Taekwondo
World Championships held in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Tennis
Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
Australian Open – Yevgeny Kafelnikov
French Open – Andre Agassi
Wimbledon championships – Pete Sampras
US Open – Andre Agassi
Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
Australian Open – Martina Hingis
French Open – Steffi Graf
Wimbledon championships – Lindsay Davenport
US Open – Serena Williams
Davis Cup – Australia won 3–2 over France in world tennis.
Kim Clijsters makes her WTA Tour debut.
Volleyball
Men's World League: Italy
Women's World Grand Prix: Russia
Men's European Championship: Italy
Women's European Championship: Russia
Water polo
Men's European Championship: Hungary
Men's World Cup: Hungary
Women's European Championship: Italy
Women's World Cup: Netherlands
Multi-sport events
13th Pan American Games held in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
Seventh All–Africa Games held in Johannesburg, South Africa
Winter Asian Games held in Gangwon, South Korea
Ninth Pan Arab Games held in Amman, Jordan
20th Southeast Asian Games held in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam
20th Summer Universiade held on Palma de Mallorca, Spain
19th Winter Universiade held in Poprad, Slovakia
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Tiger Woods, PGA golf
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – United States women's national soccer team, soccer
References
Sports by year | [
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224724 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998%20in%20sports | 1998 in sports | 1998 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Alpine skiing
Alpine Skiing World Cup
Men's overall season champion: Hermann Maier, Austria
Women's overall season champion: Katja Seizinger, Germany
American football
Super Bowl XXXII – the Denver Broncos (AFC) won 31–24 over the Green Bay Packers (NFC)
Location: San Diego Stadium
Attendance: 68,912
MVP: Terrell Davis, RB (Denver)
Rose Bowl (1997 season):
The Michigan Wolverines won 21–16 over the Washington State Cougars to win the AP Poll national championship
The Orange Bowl was the original venue for the championship game, but the Big Ten Conference was not a part of the Bowl Alliance, so the game instead featured the #2 Nebraska Cornhuskers and the #3 Tennessee Volunteers
January 13 – ABC and ESPN negotiate a $1.15 billion per season contract to keep Monday Night Football.
December 13 – The Baltimore Ravens and Minnesota Vikings return an NFL record 3 kickoff returns for touchdowns.
Artistic gymnastics
1998 Summer Goodwill Games - held in New York City, United States
Mixed pairs champions: China (Ling Jie, Huang Xu)
Women's all-around champion: Dominique Moceanu, United States
Women's vault champion: Vanessa Atler, United States
Women's uneven bars champion: Svetlana Khorkina, Russian Federation
Women's balance beam champion: Kristen Maloney, United States
Women's floor exercise champion: Vanessa Atler, United States
Men's all-around champion: Ivan Ivankov, Belarus
Men's vault champion: Sergei Fedorchenko, Kazakhstan
Men's floor exercise champion: Alexei Nemov, Russian Federation
Men's parallel bars champion: Huang Xu, China
Men's pommel horse champion: Nikolai Kryukov, Russian Federation
Men's still rings champion: Chris Lamorte, United States
Men's horizontal bar champion: Ivan Ivankov, Belarus
1998 European Gymnastics Championships - held in Saint Petersburg, Russia
Women's team champions: Romania
Women's all-around champion: Svetlana Khorkina, Russian Federation
Women's vault champion: Adrienn Varga, Hungary
Women's uneven bars champion:Svetlana Khorkina, Russian Federation
Women's balance beam champion: Evgenia Kuznetsova, Russian Federation
Women's floor exercise champion: (tied) Corina Ungureanu, Romania / Svetlana Khorkina, Russian Federation
Men's team champions: France
Men's all-around champion: Alexei Bondarenko, Russian Federation
Men's vault champion: Ioannis Melissanidis, Greece
Men's floor exercise champion: Alexei Nemov, Russian Federation
Men's still rings champion: Szilveszter Csollány, Hungary
Men's parallel bars champion: Alexei Bondarenko, Russian Federation
Men's horizontal bar champion: Jesús Carballo, Spain
Men's pommel horse champion: Éric Poujade, France
Association football
FIFA World Cup - France beat Brazil 3–0
Champions League – Real Madrid C.F. beat Juventus F.C. 1–0
UEFA Cup – F.C. Internazionale Milano beat S.S. Lazio 3–0
Copa Libertadores – CR Vasco da Gama beat Barcelona Sporting Club 4–1 (Agg.)
Ecuador - Ecuadorian Serie A Champions: Liga Deportiva Universitaria de Quito
Athletics
August – 1998 European Championships in Athletics held at Budapest
September – 1998 Commonwealth Games held at Kuala Lumpur
December – 1998 Asian Games held at Bangkok
Australian rules football
Australian Football League
The Adelaide Crows win the 102nd AFL premiership and second premiership in a row by 35 points (Adelaide Crows 15.15 (105) d North Melbourne 8.22 (70))
Brownlow Medal awarded to Robert Harvey (St Kilda)
Baseball
The National League expands adding the Arizona Diamondbacks, and the American League expands adding the Tampa Bay Devil Rays.
The Milwaukee Brewers move from the American League to the National League.
Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa each chase the home run record set previously by Roger Maris in 1961. Both men end up breaking the record; McGwire with 70 and Sosa with 66.
Rookie 20-year-old Kerry Wood strikes out 20 Houston Astros to tie the major league single game strikeout record
Cal Ripken Jr. ends his consecutive game streak at 2,632 in Baltimore against the New York Yankees. It was the first time he wasn't in the lineup since 1982.
World Series – New York Yankees win 4 games to 0 over the San Diego Padres. The Series MVP is Scott Brosius, New York
Basketball
July 1 – The NBA locked out its players and the season was put on hold for the next 6½ months and the season began under a 50–game schedule.
NCAA Men's Basketball Championship –
Kentucky wins 78–69 over Utah
NBA Finals –
Chicago Bulls win 4 games to 2 over the Utah Jazz, to complete their second three–peat of the decade.
WNBA Finals –
Houston Comets win two games to one over the Phoenix Mercury to repeat as champions.
FIBA World Championship
Yugoslavia World Champion
National Basketball League (Australia) Finals:
Adelaide 36ers defeated the South East Melbourne Magic 2–0 in the best–of–three final series.
Boxing
May 17 to May 24 – 32nd European Amateur Boxing Championships held at Minsk, Belarus
June 27 – Shane Mosley stopped Wilfrido Ruiz in the 5th round to retain the IBF Lightweight Championship
Canadian football
Grey Cup – Calgary Stampeders win 26–24 over the Hamilton Tiger-Cats
Vanier Cup – Saskatchewan Huskies win 24–17 over the Concordia Stingers
Curling
Curling makes its Winter Olympics debut:
Men's Gold: Switzerland wins 9–3 over Canada
Women's Gold: Canada wins 7–5 over Denmark
Cycling
Giro d'Italia won by Marco Pantani of Italy
Tour de France – Marco Pantani of Italy
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Oskar Camenzind of Switzerland
Dogsled racing
Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion
Jeff King wins with lead dogs: Red & Rocket
Field hockey
Men's World Cup: Netherlands
Men's Commonwealth Games: Australia
Men's Champions Trophy: Netherlands
Women's World Cup: Australia
Women's Commonwealth Games: Australia
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Alexei Yagudin, Russia
Ladies' champion: Michelle Kwan, United States
Pairs' champions: Elena Bereschnaya / Anton Sicharulidze, Russia
Ice dancing champions: Anjelika Krylova / Oleg Ovsyannikov, Russia
Gaelic Athletic Association
Camogie
All–Ireland Camogie Champion: Cork
National Camogie League: Cork
Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Galway 1–14 died Kiladre 1–10
National Football League – Offaly 0–9 died Derry 0–7
Ladies' Gaelic football
All–Ireland Senior Football Champion: Waterford
National Football League: Waterford
Hurling
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Offaly 2–16 died Kilkenny 1–13
National Hurling League –
Golf
Men's professional
Masters Tournament – Mark O'Meara
U.S. Open – Lee Janzen
British Open – Mark O'Meara
PGA Championship – Vijay Singh
PGA Tour money leader – David Duval – $2,591,031
PGA Tour Player of the Year – Mark O'Meara
PGA Tour Rookie of the Year – Steve Flesch
Senior PGA Tour money leader – Hale Irwin – $2,861,945
Men's amateur
British Amateur – Sergio García
U.S. Amateur – Hank Kuehne
European Amateur – Paddy Gribben
Women's professional
Nabisco Dinah Shore – Pat Hurst
LPGA Championship – Se Ri Pak
U.S. Women's Open – Se Ri Pak
Classique du Maurier – Brandie Burton
LPGA Tour money leader – Annika Sörenstam – $1,092,748
The Solheim Cup is retained by the United States team who beat the European team 16 to 12.
Handball
Men's European Championship: Sweden
Women's European Championship: Norway
Harness racing
North America Cup – Straight Path
United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
Cane Pace – Shady Character
Little Brown Jug – Shady Character
Messenger Stakes – Fit For Life
United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
Hambletonian – Muscles Yankee
Yonkers Trot – Muscles Yankee
Kentucky Futurity – Trade Balance
Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
Pacers: Our Sir Vancelot
Trotters: Buster Hanover
Horse racing
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – Cool Dawn
Grand National – Earth Summit
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup – Jezabeel
Canada – Queen's Plate – Archers Bay
Dubai – Dubai World Cup won by Silver Charm
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe – Sagamix
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes – Dream Well
Japan – Japan Cup won by El Condor Pasa
English Triple Crown races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – King of Kings
The Derby – High-Rise
St. Leger Stakes – Nedawi
United States Triple Crown races:
Kentucky Derby – Real Quiet
Preakness Stakes – Real Quiet
Belmont Stakes – Victory Gallop
Breeders' Cup World Thoroughbred Championships:
Breeders' Cup Classic – Awesome Again
Breeders' Cup Distaff – Escena
Breeders' Cup Juvenile – Answer Lively
Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies – Silverbulletday
Breeders' Cup Mile – Da Hoss
Breeders' Cup Sprint – Reraise
Breeders' Cup Turf – Buck's Boy
Ice hockey
For the first time, professional players from the National Hockey League participate in the Winter Olympics. And also for the first time in Olympic history, women took part in ice hockey.
Women's Gold – United States won 3–1 over Canada
Men's Gold – Czech Republic won 1–0 over Russia
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Jaromír Jágr, Pittsburgh Penguins
Hart Memorial Trophy – for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Dominik Hašek – Buffalo Sabres
Stanley Cup – Detroit Red Wings defeated the Washington Capitals 4 games to 0.
World Hockey Championship
Men's champion: Sweden defeated Finland
Junior Men's champion: Russia defeated Canada
Lacrosse
The 8th World Lacrosse Championship is held in Baltimore, Maryland. The United States win, and Canada is the runner–up.
The Philadelphia Wings sweep the Baltimore Thunder in the best of three series held to determine the winner of the Champion's Cup.
The Brampton Excelsiors win the Mann Cup.
The Clarington Green Gaels win the Founders Cup.
The Burnaby Lakers win the Minto Cup.
Mixed martial arts
The following is a list of major noteworthy MMA events during 1998 in chronological order.
|-
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Date
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Event
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Alternate Name/s
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Location
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Attendance
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|PPV Buyrate
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Notes
|-align=center
|March 13
|UFC 16: Battle in the Bayou
|
| New Orleans, Louisiana, US
|4,600
|
|
|-align=center
|March 15
|Pride 2
|
| Yokohama, Japan
|
|
|
|-align=center
|May 15
|UFC 17: Redemption
|
| Mobile, Alabama, US
|
|
|
|-align=center
|June 24
|Pride 3
|
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|
|
|-align=center
|October 11
|Pride 4
|
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|
|
|-align=center
|October 16
|UFC Brazil: Ultimate Brazil
|UFC 17.5
| São Paulo, Brazil
|
|
|
|-align=center
Motorsport
Rugby league
1998 NRL season
1998 NRL grand final
Super League III
1998 Super League Grand Final
1998 State of Origin series
1998 New Zealand season
1998 New Zealand tour of Great Britain
1997–98 French Championship season
1998–99 French Championship season
Rugby union
104th Five Nations Championship series is won by France who complete the Grand Slam
Tri Nations series is won by South Africa for the first time, with a clean sweep of victories. South Africa goes on to equal New Zealand's all-time record of 17 consecutive test victories.
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – John Higgins beats Ken Doherty 18–12
World rankings – John Higgins becomes world number one for 1998/99
Swimming
Eighth FINA World Championships, held in Perth, Australia (January 8 – 17)
Second European SC Championships, held in Sheffield, United Kingdom (December 11 – December 13)
December 1 – American swimmer Jenny Thompson breaks her own world record in the women's 100m butterfly (short course): 56:90
December 13 – Mark Foster twice breaks the world record in the men's 50m freestyle (short course) during the European SC Championships in Sheffield, clocking 21.31 eventually.
Tennis
Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
Australian Open – Petr Korda
French Open – Carlos Moyá
Wimbledon championships – Pete Sampras
US Open – Patrick Rafter
Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
Australian Open – Martina Hingis
French Open – Arantxa Sánchez Vicario
Wimbledon championships – Jana Novotná
US Open – Lindsay Davenport
Davis Cup – Sweden wins 4–1 over Italy in world tennis.
Volleyball
Men's World Championship: Italy
Women's World Championship: Cuba
Water polo
Men's World Championship: Spain
Women's World Championship: Italy
Weightlifting
The 1998 World Weightlifting Championships were held in Lahti, Finland from November 7 to November 15.
Multi-sport events
1998 Winter Olympics held in Nagano, Japan
Germany wins the most medals (29), and the most gold medals (12)
Asian Games held in Bangkok, Thailand
1998 Commonwealth Games held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Central American and Caribbean Games held in Maracaibo, Venezuela
Summer Goodwill Games held in New York City, United States
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Mark McGwire, Major League Baseball
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Se Ri Pak, LPGA golf
References
Sports by year | [
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224725 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997%20in%20sports | 1997 in sports | 1997 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Alpine skiing
Alpine Skiing World Cup
Men's overall season champion: Luc Alphand, France
Women's overall season champion: Pernilla Wiberg, Sweden
American football
Super Bowl XXXI – the Green Bay Packers (NFC) won 35–21 over the New England Patriots (AFC)
Location: Superdome
Attendance: 72,301
MVP: Desmond Howard, KR (Green Bay)
Sugar Bowl (1996 season):
The Florida Gators won 52–20 over the Florida State Seminoles to win the national championship
October 18 – Liz Heaston becomes the first woman to both play and score in a college football game
Artistic gymnastics
World Artistic Gymnastics Championships –
Women's all–around champion: Svetlana Khorkina, Russian
Women's team competition champion: Romania
Women's vault champion: Simona Amânar, Romania
Women's uneven bars champion: Svetlana Khorkina, Russian
Women's balance beam champion: Gina Gogean, Romania
Women's floor exercise champion: Gina Gogean, Romania
Men's all-around champion: Ivan Ivankov, Belarus
Men's team competition champion: China
Men's vault champion: Sergei Fedorchenko, Kazakhstan
Men's still rings champion: Yuri Chechi, Italy
Men's floor exercise champion: Alexei Nemov, Russian
Men's parallel bars champion: Zhang Jinjing, China
Men's pommel horse champion: Valery Belenky, Germany
Men's horizontal bar champion: Jani Tanskanen, Finland
Association football
Champions League – Borussia Dortmund beat Juventus F.C. 3–1
UEFA Cup – FC Schalke 04 beat F.C. Internazionale Milano
Copa Libertadores – Cruzeiro Esporte Clube beat Sporting Cristal
Athletics
August – 1997 World Championships in Athletics held at the Olympic Stadium, Athens, Greece.
Australian football
Australian Football League
Port Adelaide join the league
Adelaide Crows win Grand Final for the first time – downing St. Kilda on the last day in September
Baseball
June 12 – Interleague play begins in baseball, ending a 126-year tradition of separating the major leagues until the World Series.
World Series – Florida Marlins won 4 games to 3 over the Cleveland Indians. The Series MVP was Liván Hernández, Florida
Basketball
NCAA Men's Basketball Championship –
Arizona Wildcats win 84–79 in overtime over the Kentucky Wildcats. This is Arizona's first NCAA title in men's basketball.
NBA Finals –
Chicago Bulls earn their second repeat of the decade as they beat the Utah Jazz 4 games to 2 (see Steve Kerr).
WNBA Finals (inaugural WNBA season):
Houston Comets defeat the New York Liberty in one game playoff series.
National Basketball League (Australia) Finals:
Melbourne Tigers defeated the South East Melbourne Magic 2–1 in the best–of–three final series.
Boxing
January 18 – Oscar De La Hoya maintained his World Boxing Council super lightweight title in with a 12–round unanimous decision over Miguel Ángel González in Las Vegas, Nevada.
May 13 – death of Eduard Zakharov (22), Russian boxer
June 28 – Mike Tyson bites off a piece of the ear of Evander Holyfield in the third round of their WBA Heavyweight title fight, getting disqualified by referee Mills Lane.
July 9 – Mike Tyson's boxing license is suspended for at least a year and he is fined $3 million for biting Evander Holyfield's ear in a televised match.
October 18 to October 26 – World Amateur Boxing Championships held in Budapest, Hungary
Canadian football
Grey Cup – Toronto Argonauts won 47–23 over the Saskatchewan Roughriders
Vanier Cup – UBC Thunderbirds win 39–23 over the Ottawa Gee-Gees
Cricket
The Ashes – Australia win the six test series 3–2
ICC Trophy – Bangladesh
Women's Cricket World Cup – Australia beat New Zealand by five wickets
County Championship (England and Wales) won by Glamorgan
Cycling
Giro d'Italia won by Ivan Gotti of Italy
Tour de France – Jan Ullrich of Germany
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Laurent Brochard of France
Dogsled racing
Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion
Martin Buser won with lead dogs: Blondie & Fearless
Field hockey
Men's Champions Trophy: Germany
Women's Champions Trophy: Australia
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Elvis Stojko, Canada
Ladies' champion: Tara Lipinski, United States
Pairs' champions: Mandy Wötzel & Ingo Steuer, Germany
Ice dancing champions: Oksana Grishuk / Evgeny Platov, Russia
Gaelic Athletic Association
Camogie
All-Ireland Camogie Champion: Cork
National Camogie League: Cork
Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Kerry 0–13 died Mayo 1–7
National Football League – Kerry 3–7 died Cork 1–8
Ladies' Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Champion: Monaghan
National Football League: Waterford
Hurling
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Clare 0–20 died Tipperary 2–13
National Hurling League –
Golf
Men's professional
Masters Tournament – Tiger Woods
U.S. Open – Ernie Els
British Open – Justin Leonard
PGA Championship – Davis Love III
PGA Tour money leader – Tiger Woods – $2,066,833
PGA Tour Player of the Year – Tiger Woods
PGA Tour Rookie of the Year – Stewart Cink
Senior PGA Tour money leader – Hale Irwin – $2,343,364
Ryder Cup – Europe won 14½–13½ over the United States in team golf.
Tiger Woods creates an uproar with his record 12-shot victory at the Masters, and becomes the first Masters winner of African-American descent. He set the record for the lowest to-par score of −18, and the lowest 72-hole score of 272. He also rises to the No. 1 ranking on June 15, in only his 42nd week as a professional – the fastest ascent to the No. 1 ranking.
Men's amateur
British Amateur – Craig Watson
U.S. Amateur – Matt Kuchar
European Amateur – Didier de Voogt
Women's professional
Nabisco Dinah Shore – Betsy King
LPGA Championship – Christa Johnson
U.S. Women's Open – Alison Nicholas
Classique du Maurier – Colleen Walker
LPGA Tour money leader – Annika Sörenstam – $1,236,789
Handball
World Men's Handball Championship – won by Russia
World Women's Handball Championship – won by Denmark
Harness racing
North America Cup – Gothic Dream
Western Dreamer won the United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
Cane Pace – Western Dreamer
Little Brown Jug – Western Dreamer
Messenger Stakes – Western Dreamer
United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
Hambletonian – Malabar Man
Yonkers Trot – Lord Stormont
Kentucky Futurity – Take Chances
Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
Pacers: Our Sir Vancelot
Trotters: Pride Of Petite
Horse racing
The Grand National Saturday meeting was abandoned after two coded bomb threats were received, causing evacuation of the course. The race was eventually run on the following Monday.
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – Mr Mulligan
Grand National – Lord Gyllene
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Might And Power
Canada – Queen's Plate won by Awesome Again
Dubai – Dubai World Cup won by Singspiel
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Peintre Célèbre
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Desert King
Japan – Japan Cup won by Pilsudski
English Triple Crown races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Entrepreneur
The Derby – Benny the Dip
St. Leger Stakes – Silver Patriarch
United States Triple Crown races:
Kentucky Derby – Silver Charm
Preakness Stakes – Silver Charm
Belmont Stakes – Touch Gold
Breeders' Cup World Thoroughbred Championships:
Breeders' Cup Classic – Skip Away
Breeders' Cup Distaff – Ajina
Breeders' Cup Juvenile – Favorite Trick
Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies – Countess Diana
Breeders' Cup Mile – Spinning World
Breeders' Cup Sprint – Elmhurst
Breeders' Cup Turf – Chief Bearhart
Ice hockey
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Mario Lemieux, Pittsburgh Penguins
Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Dominik Hašek of the Buffalo Sabres
Stanley Cup – Detroit Red Wings win 4 games to 0 over the Philadelphia Flyers
World Hockey Championship
Men's champion: Canada defeated Sweden
Junior Men's champion: Finland defeated Russia
Women's champion: Canada defeated the United States
Lacrosse
The Rochester Knighthawks defeat the Buffalo Bandits 15–12 to win the Major Indoor Lacrosse League championship
The National Lacrosse League (NLL) is formed from the Major Indoor Lacrosse League (MILL), with the decision to move from league ownership of all teams to individual team ownership.
Mann Cup for the Canadian box lacrosse championship: Victoria Shamrocks of the Western Lacrosse Association
European Lacrosse Championships –
Men's champion: England defeats the Czech Republic
Women's champion: England defeats Wales
Mixed martial arts
The following is a list of major noteworthy MMA events during 1997 in chronological order.
|-
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Date
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Event
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Alternate Name/s
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Location
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Attendance
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|PPV Buyrate
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Notes
|-align=center
|February 7
|UFC 12: Judgement Day
|
| Dothan, Alabama, United States
|3,100
|
|
|-align=center
|May 30
|UFC 13: Ultimate Force
|
| Augusta, Georgia, United States
|5,100
|
|
|-align=center
|July 27
|UFC 14: Showdown
|
| Birmingham, Alabama, United States
|5,000
|
|
|-align=center
|October 11
|Pride 1
|
| Tokyo, Japan
|47,860
|
|
|-align=center
|October 17
|UFC 15: Collision Course
|
| Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, United States
|
|
|
|-align=center
|December 21
|UFC Japan: Ultimate Japan
|UFC 15.5
| Yokohama, Japan
|5,000
|
|
|-align=center
Motorsport
Radiosport
Eighth Amateur Radio Direction Finding World Championship held in Sankt Englmar, Germany.
Second High Speed Telegraphy World Championship held in Sofia, Bulgaria.
Rowing
McGill University Rowing Club wins the inaugural McGill-Queen's Challenge Boat Race.
Rugby league
1 March – Townsville, Australia: The Adelaide Rams play their inaugural game, a loss to the North Queensland Cowboys 24–16 at Dairy Farmers Stadium before a crowd of 17,738.
2 March – Newcastle, Australia: The Hunter Mariners club plays its inaugural game, a 20–16 loss to the Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs at Topper Stadium before a crowd of 6,579.
18 May – Auckland, New Zealand: In the 1997 Oceania Cup's final New Zealand XIII defeat New Zealand Māori 20 – 15 at Carlaw Park.
19 May – Brisbane, Australia: In the final of the only Super League Tri-series to be played, New South Wales defeat Queensland 23–22 at ANZ Stadium before a crowd of 35,570. It sets a new record as the longest game of rugby league ever played before being decided by a field goal during extra time.
11 June – Melbourne, Australia: The 1997 State of Origin series is wrapped up in Game II by New South Wales who defeat Queensland 15–14 at the Melbourne Cricket Ground before a crowd of 25,105.
The 1997–98 French Championship season finishes with the Villeneuve Leopards on top of the league table.
20 September – Brisbane, Australia: The 1997 Super League (Australia) season's Grand Final is won by the Brisbane Broncos who defeated the Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks 26–8 at ANZ Stadium before a crowd of 58,912.
28 September – Sydney, Australia: The 1997 ARL season's grand final is won by the Newcastle Knights who defeated the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles 22–16 at the Sydney Football Stadium before a crowd of 42,482.
12 October – Christchurch, New Zealand: The 1997 New Zealand season culminates in the Waikato Cougars 34–18 victory over the Canterbury Reds at Rugby League Park, Waikato defeated Canterbury 34–18 to win both the Challenge Cup and the Rugby League Cup.
18 October – Auckland, New Zealand: In the 1997 World Club Championship's final, the Brisbane Broncos defeat the Hunter Mariners 36–12 at Ericsson Stadium before a crowd of 12,000.
In the Super League II, on Sunday 28 September, with the final of the Premiership was won by Wigan Warriors who defeated St. Helens 33–20. At the end of the season Bradford Bulls were crowned League champions by virtue of finishing the season at the top of the table.
16 November – Leeds, England: In the third and deciding test match of the Super League Test series, Australia defeat Great Britain 37–20 at Elland Road before a crowd of 39,337.
Rugby union
103rd Five Nations Championship series is won by France who complete the Grand Slam
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – Ken Doherty beats Stephen Hendry 18–12
World rankings – Stephen Hendry remains world number one for 1997/98
Swimming
March 28 – Japan's Ayari Aoyama breaks Misty Hyman's world record in the Women's 100m Butterfly (short course): 58:24
Third World Short Course Championships, held in Gothenburg, Sweden (April 17 – 20)
April 19 – U.S.–swimmer Jenny Thompson breaks Ayari Aoyama's world record in the Women's 100m Butterfly (short course): 57:79
April 20 – Australia wins the most medals (17), and the most gold medals (9)
23rd European LC Championships, held in Seville, Spain (August 19 – 24)
Germany wins the most medals (19), and the most gold medals (8)
XIX Summer Universiade, held on Sicily, Italy (August 24 – 30)
Taekwondo
World Championships held in Hong Kong
Tennis
Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
Australian Open – Pete Sampras
French Open – Gustavo Kuerten
Wimbledon championships – Pete Sampras
US Open – Patrick Rafter
Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
Australian Open – Martina Hingis
French Open – Iva Majoli
Wimbledon championships – Martina Hingis
US Open – Martina Hingis
Davis Cup – Sweden won 5–0 over the United States in world tennis.
Volleyball
Men's World League: Italy
Women's World Grand Prix: Russia
Men's European Championship: Netherlands
Women's European Championship: Russia
Water polo
Men's World Cup: USA
Men's European Championship: Hungary
Women's European Championship: Italy
Multi-sport events
Second East Asian Games held in Busan, South Korea
8th Pan Arab Games held in Beirut, Lebanon
Fifth World Games held in Lahti, Finland
13th Mediterranean Games held in Bari, Italy
19th Summer Universiade held on Sicily, Italy
19th SEA Games held on Jakarta, Indonesia
18th Winter Universiade held in Muju County, South Korea
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Tiger Woods, PGA golf
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Martina Hingis, Tennis
References
Sports by year | [
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224726 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1996%20in%20sports | 1996 in sports | 1996 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Alpine skiing
Alpine Skiing World Cup
Men's overall season champion: Lasse Kjus, Norway
Women's overall season champion: Katja Seizinger, Germany
American football
Super Bowl XXX – the Dallas Cowboys (NFC) won 27–17 over the Pittsburgh Steelers (AFC)
Location: Sun Devil Stadium
Attendance: 76,347
MVP: Larry Brown, CB (Dallas)
World Bowl 96 – The Scottish Claymores won 32–27 over the Frankfurt Galaxy.
Fiesta Bowl (1995 season):
The Nebraska Cornhuskers won 62–24 over the Florida Gators to win the national championship
Cleveland Browns deactivate and move to Baltimore where they become the Baltimore Ravens The Browns are later reactivated in Cleveland in 1999.
The Big 12 Conference begins with its first college football game between Texas Tech and Kansas State. Kansas State won 21–14.
Association football
Athletics
July–August – Athletics at the 1996 Summer Olympics held at Atlanta, United States
Australian rules football
Australian Football League
North Melbourne wins the 100th AFL premiership (North Melbourne 19.17 (131) d Sydney Swans 13.10 (88))
Brownlow Medal awarded to James Hird (Essendon) and Michael Voss (Brisbane Bears)
At the end of the season Fitzroy and the Brisbane Bears merge, forming the Brisbane Lions.
Baseball
January 8; For the first time in 25 years, no one garners 75 percent of the votes needed to be elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame. Phil Niekro comes closest with 68 percent.
The New York Yankees won 1996 World Series defeating the Atlanta Braves.
Basketball
April 1 – NCAA Men's Basketball Championship –
Kentucky wins 76–67 over Syracuse
NBA Finals –
Chicago Bulls win 4 games to 2 over the Seattle SuperSonics, after a record-breaking 72-10 regular season.
The 1996 NBA Draft takes place at the Continental Airlines Arena in East Rutherford, New Jersey. Tied with the 1984 and 2003 drafts, this draft is considered one of the greatest in NBA history, as it included a class of several Hall of Famers such as Kobe Bryant, Ray Allen, Allen Iverson, and Steve Nash.
National Basketball League (Australia) Finals:
South East Melbourne Magic defeated the Melbourne Tigers 2–1 in the best-of-three final series.
Boxing
March 16 – Christy Martin loses to Deirdre Gogarty by a decision in six rounds to retain her Women's boxing world title in front of a national TV audience. This fight is credited with making the general public aware of women's boxing.
March 30 to April 7 – 31st European Amateur Boxing Championships held in Vejle, Denmark
June 7 - Oscar De La Hoya defeats Julio César Chávez by 8th round to win the WBC's world Junior Welterweight championship.
Canadian football
Grey Cup – Toronto Argonauts win 43–37 over the Edmonton Eskimos
Vanier Cup – Saskatchewan Huskies win 31–12 over the St. Francis Xavier X-Men
Ottawa Rough Riders fold
Cricket
Cricket World Cup – Final: Sri Lanka beat Australia by 7 wickets
Cycling
Giro d'Italia won by Pavel Tonkov of Russia
Tour de France – Bjarne Riis of Denmark
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Johan Museeuw of Belgium
Dogsled racing
Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion –
Jeff King wins with lead dogs: Jake & Booster
Field hockey
Olympic Games Men's Competition: Netherlands
Olympic Games Women's Competition: Australia
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Todd Eldredge, United States
Ladies' champion: Michelle Kwan, United States
Pairs' champions: Marina Eltsova / Andrei Bushkov, Russia
Ice dancing champions: Oksana Grishuk / Evgeny Platov, Russia
Gaelic Athletic Association
Camogie
All-Ireland Camogie Champion: Galway
National Camogie League: Cork
Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Kerry 2-9 died Mayo 1-11
National Football League – Derry 1-16 died Donegal 1-9
Ladies' Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Champion: Monaghan
National Football League: Monaghan
Hurling
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Wexford 1-13 died Limerick 0-14
National Hurling League –
Golf
Men's professional
Masters Tournament - Nick Faldo
U.S. Open - Steve Jones
British Open - Tom Lehman
PGA Championship - Mark Brooks
PGA Tour money leader - Tom Lehman - $1,780,159
Senior PGA Tour money leader - Jim Colbert - $1,627,890
Tiger Woods turns professional in September. In the last five regular tournaments of the year on the PGA Tour, his finishes were T5-T3-1-3-1, placing him among the tour's top 30 money-winners for the year and thereby qualifying him for the season-ending The Tour Championship. Woods named the PGA Tour Rookie of the Year.
Men's amateur
British Amateur - Warren Bladon
U.S. Amateur - Tiger Woods becomes the first golfer to win three consecutive U.S. Amateur titles. This was the sixth consecutive year in which he won a USGA championship, one short of Bobby Jones' record of seven.
European Amateur - Daniel Olsson
Women's professional
Nabisco Dinah Shore - Patty Sheehan
LPGA Championship - Laura Davies
U.S. Women's Open - Annika Sörenstam
Classique du Maurier - Laura Davies
LPGA Tour money leader - Karrie Webb - $1,002,000 - becomes the first ever woman to earn more than a million dollars in one golf season.
The United States team retained the Solheim Cup beating the European team 17 to 11.
Handball
Men's European Championship: Russia
Women's European Championship: Denmark
Harness racing
June 22 - the fastest race mile in harness racing history was set by Jenna's Beach Boy (1:47.3) at Meadowlands Racetrack
North America Cup - Arizona Jack
United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
Cane Pace - Scoot To Power
Little Brown Jug - Armbro Operative
Messenger Stakes - Go For Grins
United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
Hambletonian - Continentalvictory
Yonkers Trot - Continentalvictory
Kentucky Futurity - Running Sea
Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
Pacers: Young Mister Charles
Trotters: Pride Of Petite
Horse racing
Inaugural running of the Dubai World Cup, promoted as the "world's richest horse race", at the Nad Al Sheba Racecourse in Dubai.
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – Imperial Call
Grand National – Rough Quest
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Saintly
Canada – Queen's Plate won by Victor Cooley
Dubai – Dubai World Cup won by Cigar
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Helissio
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Zagreb
Japan – Japan Cup won by Singspiel
English Triple Crown races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Mark of Esteem
The Derby – Shaamit
St. Leger Stakes – Shantou
United States Triple Crown races:
Kentucky Derby – Grindstone
Preakness Stakes – Louis Quatorze
Belmont Stakes – Editor's Note
Breeders' Cup World Thoroughbred Championships:
Breeders' Cup Classic – Alphabet Soup
Breeders' Cup Distaff – Jewel Princess
Breeders' Cup Juvenile – Boston Harbor
Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies – Storm Song
Breeders' Cup Mile – Da Hoss
Breeders' Cup Sprint – Lit de Justice
Breeders' Cup Turf – Pilsudski
Ice hockey
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Mario Lemieux, Pittsburgh Penguins
Hart Memorial Trophy – for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Mario Lemieux, Pittsburgh Penguins
Stanley Cup - the Colorado Avalanche defeat the Florida Panthers 4 games to 0 for their first-ever Stanley Cup title. It was also the franchise's first season since relocating from Quebec City, where they were known as the Nordiques.
World Cup of Hockey
Champion: United States defeated Canada
World Hockey Championship
Men's champion: Czech Republic defeated Canada
Junior Men's champion: Canada defeated Sweden
Phoenix Coyotes (now Arizona Coyotes) play inaugural season.
Lacrosse
The Buffalo Bandits defeat the Philadelphia Wings 13–12 to win the Major Indoor Lacrosse League championship
Mixed martial arts
The following is a list of major noteworthy MMA events during 1996 in chronological order.
Before 1997, the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) was considered the only major MMA organization in the world and featured much fewer rules then are used in modern MMA.
Motorsport
Professional Wrestling
July 7: Hulk Hogan becomes a villain and forms the New World Order.
Radiosport
The second World Radiosport Team Championship held in San Francisco, California, US Gold medals go to Jeff Steinman KRØY and Dan Street K1TO of the United States.
Rugby league
January: England - The 1995–96 Rugby Football League season ends with Wigan declared champions.
March 29: Paris – the new Super League competition, the first ever season of professional rugby to be played in summer, begins with new team Paris Saint-Germain's first match: a 30–24 win over Sheffield Eagles at Charlety Stadium before 17,873.
April 27: London, England - The 1996 Challenge Cup tournament culminates in St. Helens' 40–32 victory over Bradford Bulls in the final at Wembley Stadium before a crowd of 75,994.
August 31: Salford, England - The 1996 Student Rugby League World Cup culminates in Australia's 28 - 16 defeat of Samoa
September 29: Sydney, Australia - The 1996 ARL season culminates the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles' 20–8 grand final victory over the St. George Dragons at the Sydney Football Stadium before a crowd of 40,985
June 26: Cardiff, Wales - The 1996 European Rugby League Championship is won by England who defeated Wales 26–12 at Cardiff Arms Park before a crowd of 5,245
The 1996 Queensland Cup Season is won by the Toowoomba Clydesdales
June 3: Sydney, Australia - The 1996 State of Origin series is wrapped up as New South Wales defeat Queensland 18–6 in Game II at the Sydney Football Stadium before a crowd of 41,955.
Super League I ends with St. Helens being crowned champions for finishing on top of the League
The Great Britain national team go on a their tour of the Papua New Guinea, Fiji and New Zealand.
Rugby union
102nd Five Nations Championship series is won by England
SANZAR's new leagues the Super 12 (now Super 14) and the Tri Nations Series begin. The Super 12 is won by the Auckland Blues and the Tri Nations is won by the New Zealand All Blacks
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – Stephen Hendry beats Peter Ebdon 18-12
World rankings – Stephen Hendry remains world number one for 1996-97
Swimming
XXVI Olympic Games, held in Atlanta United States (July 20 – July 26)
First European SC Championships, held in Riesa, Germany (December 13 – 15)
Germany wins the most medals (39) and the most gold medals (14)
December 1 – American swimmer Misty Hyman clocks 58:29 to break the world record in the women's 100m butterfly (short course)
Tennis
Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
Australian Open - Boris Becker
French Open - Yevgeny Kafelnikov
Wimbledon championships - Richard Krajicek
US Open - Pete Sampras
Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
Australian Open - Monica Seles
French Open - Steffi Graf
Wimbledon championships - Steffi Graf
US Open - Steffi Graf
1996 Summer Olympics
Men's Singles Competition – Andre Agassi
Women's Singles Competition – Lindsay Davenport
Men's Doubles Competition – Todd Woodbridge & Mark Woodforde
Women's Doubles Competition – Gigi Fernández & Mary Joe Fernández
Davis Cup final:
France wins 3–2 over Sweden
Fed Cup final:
USA wins 5–0 over Spain
Volleyball
Men's World League: Netherlands
Women's World Grand Prix: Brazil
Olympic Games Men's Competition: Netherlands
Olympic Games Women's Competition: Cuba
Water polo
Olympic Games Men's Competition: Spain
Olympic Games Women's Competition: Netherlands
Multi-sport events
1996 Summer Olympics takes place in Atlanta, United States
United States wins the most medals (101), and the most gold medals (44).
Winter Asian Games held in Harbin, China
Athletic competition in the Big 12 Conference is inaugurated with a football game between Kansas State University and Texas Tech University, in Manhattan, Kansas on August 31.
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Michael Johnson, Track and field
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Amy Van Dyken, Swimming
References
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224727 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1995%20in%20sports | 1995 in sports | 1995 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Alpine skiing
Alpine Skiing World Cup
Men's overall season champion: Alberto Tomba, Italy
Women's overall season champion: Vreni Schneider, Switzerland
American football
Super Bowl XXIX – the San Francisco 49ers (NFC) won 49–26 over the San Diego Chargers (AFC)
Location: Joe Robbie Stadium
Attendance: 74,107
MVP: Steve Young, QB (San Francisco)
The World League of American Football is resumed after 2 years without play. Frankfurt Galaxy win the World Bowl 26–22 over the Amsterdam Admirals.
Orange Bowl (1994 season):
The Nebraska Cornhuskers won 24–17 over the Miami Hurricanes to win the national championship
Association football
FIFA Women's World Cup – Norway won 2–0 over Germany
World Club Championship – AFC Ajax defeat Grêmio 0-0 (4-3 in penalty shootout)
Copa América - Uruguay defeats Brazil after a 1–1 draw (5-3 in penalty shoot).
UEFA Champions League – AFC Ajax defeat A.C. Milan 1-0
Campeonato Brasileiro Série A – Botafogo FR defeat Santos FC 3-2 (aggregate score)
Copa Libertadores da América – Grêmio defeat Atlético Nacional 4-2 (aggregate score)
Blackburn Rovers won the Premier League, denying Manchester United a hat-trick of titles
December 15 – European football is shaken to its foundations when the European Court of Justice rules that:
Clubs in the European Union cannot be restricted from signing foreign players who are nationals of EU member states
Players under contract to clubs in the EU are entitled to a free transfer at the end of their contracts
Australian rules football
Australian Football League
The Fremantle Dockers join the league
Carlton wins the 99th AFL premiership beating Geelong 21.15 (141) to 11.14 (80)
The Blues become the first team to win 23 games in an AFL season or twenty in a home-and-away season
Brownlow Medal awarded to Paul Kelly (Sydney Swans)
South Australian National Football League
Sturt suffer the ignominy of going winless for a full 22-match season, the only occurrence thereof in a major Australian Rules league.
Baseball
World Series – Atlanta Braves won 4 games to 2 over the Cleveland Indians. The Series MVP was Tom Glavine, Atlanta
September 6 - Cal Ripken Jr. breaks Lou Gehrig's record of playing 2130 consecutive games.
California Angels lose a 13-game lead over the Seattle Mariners, and lose the division title in a one-game playoff.
Basketball
NCAA Men's Basketball Championship –
UCLA wins 89–78 over Arkansas, giving the Bruins their first National College Basketball Championship in 20 years, and 11th overall.
NBA Finals
Houston Rockets win 4 games to 0 over the Orlando Magic
National Basketball League (Australia) Finals:
Perth Wildcats defeated the North Melbourne Giants 2–1 in the best-of-three final series.
A first season of China Professional Basketball Men's League game held on December 10.
Boxing
March 11 to March 27 – Pan American Games held in Mar del Plata, Argentina.* May 6 – Oscar De La Hoya scored a second-round TKO in Las Vegas over Rafael Ruelas to retain his World Lightweight Championship.
Canadian football
For the first time in history, the Grey Cup went to an American-based team.
Grey Cup – Baltimore Stallions win 37–20 over the Calgary Stampeders
Vanier Cup – Calgary Dinos win 54–24 over the Western Ontario Mustangs
Cricket
December 26 in Melbourne – umpire Darrell Hair no balls Sri Lankan spinner Muttiah Muralitharan seven times for throwing in the second Test against Australia.
Cycling
Giro d'Italia won by Tony Rominger of Switzerland
Tour de France - Miguel Indurain of Spain
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Abraham Olano of Spain
Dogsled racing
Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion –
Doug Swingley won with lead dogs: Vic & Elmer
Field hockey
Men's Champions Trophy: Germany
Women's Champions Trophy: Australia
Men's European Nations Cup: Germany
Women's European Nations Cup: Netherlands
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Elvis Stojko, Canada
Ladies' champion: Chen Lu, China
Pairs' champions: Radka Kovariková / René Novotný, Czech Republic
Ice dancing champions: Oksana Grishuk / Evgeny Platov, Russia
Gaelic Athletic Association
Camogie
All-Ireland Camogie Champion: Cork
National Camogie League: Cork
Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Dublin 1-10 died Tyrone 0-12
National Football League – Derry 0-12 died Donegal 0-8
Ladies' Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Champion: Waterford
National Football League: Waterford
Hurling
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Clare 1-13 died Offaly 2-8
National Hurling League –
Golf
Men's professional
Masters Tournament - Ben Crenshaw
U.S. Open - Corey Pavin
British Open - John Daly
PGA Championship - Steve Elkington
PGA Tour money leader - Greg Norman - $1,654,959
Senior PGA Tour money leader - Jim Colbert - $1,444,386
Ryder Cup - Europe won 14½ to 13½ over the United States in team golf.
Men's amateur
British Amateur - Gordon Sherry
U.S. Amateur - Tiger Woods
European Amateur - Sergio García
Women's professional
Nabisco Dinah Shore - Nanci Bowen
LPGA Championship - Kelly Robbins
U.S. Women's Open - Annika Sörenstam
Classique du Maurier - Jenny Lidback
LPGA Tour money leader - Annika Sörenstam - $666,533
Harness racing
North America Cup - David's Pass
United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
Cane Pace - Mattgrilla Gorilla
Little Brown Jug - Nick's Fantasy
Messenger Stakes - David's Pass
United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
Hambletonian - Tagliabue
Yonkers Trot -
Kentucky Futurity - CR Trackmaster
Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
Pacers: Golden Reign
Trotters: Call Me Now
Horse racing
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – Master Oats
Grand National – Royal Athlete
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Doriemus
Canada – Queen's Plate won by Regal Discovery
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Lammtarra
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Winged Love
Japan – Japan Cup won by Lando
English Triple Crown races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Pennekamp
The Derby – Lammtarra
St. Leger Stakes – Classic Cliche
United States Triple Crown races:
Kentucky Derby – Thunder Gulch
Preakness Stakes – Timber Country
Belmont Stakes – Thunder Gulch
Breeders' Cup World Thoroughbred Championships:
Breeders' Cup Classic – Cigar
Breeders' Cup Distaff – Inside Information
Breeders' Cup Juvenile – Unbridled's Song
Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies – My Flag
Breeders' Cup Mile – Ridgewood Pearl
Breeders' Cup Sprint – Desert Stormer
Breeders' Cup Turf – Northern Spur
Ice hockey
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Jaromir Jagr, Pittsburgh Penguins
Hart Memorial Trophy – for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Eric Lindros, Philadelphia Flyers
Stanley Cup – New Jersey Devils win 4 games to 0 over the Detroit Red Wings
World Hockey Championship
Men's champion: Finland defeated Sweden
Junior Men's champion: Canada defeated Russia
Lacrosse
Major Indoor Lacrosse League Championship: The Philadelphia Wings win 15–14 over the Rochester Knighthawks after overtime.
Mann Cup for the Canadian box lacrosse championship: Six Nations Chiefs of Major Series Lacrosse
Inaugural European Lacrosse Championships – England defeats Czech Republic
Mixed martial arts
The following is a list of major noteworthy MMA events during 1995 in chronological order.
Before 1997, the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) was considered the only major MMA organization in the world and featured much fewer rules then are used in modern MMA.
|-
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Date
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Event
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Alternate Name/s
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Location
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Attendance
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|PPV Buyrate
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Notes
|-align=center
|April 7
|UFC 5: The Return of the Beast
|
| Charlotte, North Carolina, US
|6,000
|260,000
|
|-align=center
|July 14
|UFC 6: Clash of the Titans
|
| Casper, Wyoming, US
|2,700
|240,000
|
|-align=center
|September 8
|UFC 7: The Brawl in Buffalo
|
| Buffalo, New York, US
|9,000
|190,000
|
|-align=center
|December 16
|The Ultimate Ultimate
|Ultimate Ultimate 1995 UFC 7.5
| Denver, Colorado, US
|2,800
|
|
|-align=center
Motorsport
Radiosport
First IARU Region III Amateur Radio Direction Finding Championships held in Japan.
First High Speed Telegraphy World Championship held in Siófok, Hungary.
Rugby league
Australian international representative forward Ian Roberts became the first high-profile Australian sports person and first rugby footballer in the world to come out to the public as gay.
March 5 – Carcassonne, France: last match of the 1995 European Championship is played with Wales finishing on top of the table.
March 10 – Auckland, New Zealand: newly formed Auckland Warriors club play their first match: a 25–22 loss to the Brisbane Broncos at Ericsson Stadium before 29,220.
April 29 – London, England: 1994-95 Challenge Cup tournament culminates in Wigan's 30–10 win over Leeds in the final at Wembley Stadium before 78,550.
May 31 – Melbourne, Australia: 1995 State of Origin is wrapped up by Queensland in game two of the three-match series against New South Wales at the Melbourne Cricket Ground before 52,994.
September 24 – Sydney, Australia: 1995 ARL season culminates in the Sydney Bulldogs' 17–4 win over the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles in the grand final at the Sydney Football Stadium before 41,127.
October 24 – Bury, England: 1995 Emerging Nations Tournament culminates in the Cook Islands' 22–6 win over Ireland in the final at Gigg Lane before 4,147.
October 28 – London, England: 1995 World Cup culminates in Australia's 16–8 win over England in the final at Wembley Stadium before 66,540.
Rugby union
101st Five Nations Championship series is won by England who complete the Grand Slam
Rugby World Cup is won by hosts South Africa 15–12 over New Zealand in the final with an extra-time drop goal by Joel Stransky
26 August – International Rugby Football Board lifts the century-old ban on professionalism
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – Stephen Hendry beats Nigel Bond 18-9
World rankings – Stephen Hendry remains world number one for 1995/96
Swimming
February 11 – Danyon Loader swims world record in the Men's 400m Freestyle, while Mark Foster betters the world record in the Men's 50m Butterfly and Sandra Völker swims a European record in the Women's 50m Backstroke.
February 18 – Australia's Angela Kennedy breaks the world record in the Women's 100m Butterfly (short court): 58.77
February 18 – Germany's Mark Warnecke breaks the world record in the Men's 50m free style at the 2005 World Aquatics Championships
XII Pan American Games, held in Mar del Plata, Argentina (March 12 – 18)
22nd European LC Championships, held in Vienna, Austria (August 22 – 27)
Germany wins the most medals (28), Russia the most gold medals (14)
II. World Short Course Championships, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (November 30 – December 3)
December 2 – China's Liu Limin breaks the world record in the Women's 100m Butterfly (short course): 58:68
December 3 – Australia wins the most medals (26), and the most gold medals (12)
Taekwondo
World Championships held in Manila, Philippines
Tennis
Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
Australian Open – Andre Agassi
French Open – Thomas Muster
Wimbledon championships – Pete Sampras
US Open – Pete Sampras
Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
Australian Open – Mary Pierce
French Open – Steffi Graf
Wimbledon championships – Steffi Graf
US Open – Steffi Graf
Davis Cup – The USA wins 3–2 over Russia.
Fed Cup – Spain wins 3–2 over the USA in the first Fed Cup to bear that name, and the first to employ a Davis Cup-style format.
Volleyball
Men's World Cup: Italy
Men's European Championship: Italy
Women's World Cup: Cuba
Women's European Championship: Netherlands
Water polo
Men's World Cup: Hungary
Men's European Championship]: Italy
Women's European Championship: Italy
Yacht racing
New Zealand wins its first America's Cup as Black Magic, of the Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron, beats defender Young America, from the San Diego Yacht Club, 5 races to 0
Multi-sport events
Twelfth Pan American Games held in Mar del Plata, Argentina
Sixth All-Africa Games held in Harare, Zimbabwe
18th Summer Universiade held in Fukuoka, Japan
17th Winter Universiade held in Jaca, Spain
18th SEA Games held in Chiang Mai, Thailand
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Cal Ripken Jr., Major League Baseball
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Rebecca Lobo, College basketball
References
Sports by year | [
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224728 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994%20in%20sports | 1994 in sports | 1994 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Alpine skiing
January 29 – death of Ulrike Maier (26), Austrian skier, who broke her neck when she crashed during a World Cup downhill race at Garmisch-Partenkirchen
Alpine Skiing World Cup
Men's overall season champion: Kjetil André Aamodt, Norway
Women's overall season champion: Vreni Schneider, Switzerland
American football
Super Bowl XXVIII – the Dallas Cowboys (NFC) won 30–13 over the Buffalo Bills (AFC)
Location: Georgia Dome
Attendance: 72,817
MVP: Emmitt Smith, RB (Dallas)
Note: It is the fourth consecutive Super Bowl appearance by the Bills as well as their fourth consecutive loss. This is also the first (and thus far only) time that the same two teams have met in consecutive Super Bowls.
Orange Bowl (1993 season):
The Florida State Seminoles won 18–16 over the Nebraska Cornhuskers to win the national championship.
October 23 – in a game where the New Orleans Saints beat the Los Angeles Rams 37–34 Robert Bailey of the Rams sets the NFL record for longest punt return (103 yards) and Tyrone Hughes of the Saints sets the NFL single game record for kickoff return yards (304) and most return yards (347) and ties the single game record for kickoff returns returned for touchdown (2).
November 13 – Drew Bledsoe sets NFL single game records for pass attempts (70) and pass completions (45) helping New England Patriots beat Minnesota Vikings 26–20.
October 31, 1994, In a rainy and windy game at Soldier Field on Monday Night Football, Dick Buktus' and Gale Sayers' Jerseys were retired at Halftime, but the Bears were blown away by Brett Favre and the Packers, 6–33.
Association football
Brazil won the 1994 FIFA World Cup, hosted in the USA
July 2 – death of Andrés Escobar, Colombian player, who was shot dead apparently because of an own goal he had scored in a World Cup match
Athletics
February 20 – in Boston, Massachusetts, Ireland's 41-year-old Eamonn Coghlan becomes the first man over the age of forty to run a sub-four minute mile when he clocks 3min.58.15sec.
August – 1994 European Championships in Athletics held at Helsinki
August – 1994 Commonwealth Games held at Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
Australian rules football
Australian Football League
The West Coast Eagles win the 98th AFL premiership (West Coast Eagles 20.23 (143) d Geelong 8.15 (63))
Brownlow Medal awarded to Greg Williams (Carlton)in 1994
Baseball
January 12 – Steve Carlton, winner of 329 games and four Cy Young Awards, is elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame.
June 22 – OF Ken Griffey, Jr. leads the Mariners to a 12–3 win over the Angels by stroking his 31st home run of the season. In doing so, Griffey Jr. breaks Babe Ruth's record for most home runs before the end of June.
September 14 – A labor strike by Major League Baseball players results in the premature termination of the season, and the cancellation of the World Series for the first time since 1904. The Montreal Expos were the league-leading team up to the strike, with a 74–40 record.
Mets pitcher John Franco breaks Dave Righetti's major league record for left-handers of 252 career saves.
The Richmond Braves win the International League championship.
The Albuquerque Dukes win the Pacific Coast League championship.
The Indianapolis Indians win the American Association championship.
The Winnipeg Goldeyes win the Northern League championship.
The Yomiuri Giants win the Japan Series, and in the view of the baseball media, are World Champions.
Basketball
NBA Finals - Houston Rockets win four games to three over the New York Knicks
NCAA Men's Basketball Tournament was won by the University of Arkansas defeating Duke University, 76-72
NCAA Women's Basketball Tournament was won by the University of North Carolina defeating Louisiana Tech University, 60-59
Boxing
January 29 – Frankie Randall causes Julio César Chávez his first defeat in 91 professional bouts, winning the WBC world Jr. Welterweight title in the process, by a split decision in 12 rounds.
November 5 – forty-five-year-old George Foreman becomes boxing's oldest heavyweight champion when he knocked out Michael Moorer in the 10th round of a Las Vegas fight.
Canadian football
Grey Cup – B.C. Lions win 26–23 over the Baltimore Stallions
Vanier Cup – Western Ontario Mustangs win 50–40 over the Saskatchewan Huskies
Cycling
Giro d'Italia won by Eugeni Berzin of Russia
Tour de France – Miguel Indurain of Spain
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Luc Leblanc of France
Djamolidine Abdoujaparov becomes the first cyclist (and only as of 2007) to win the points classification at the Tour de France and Giro d'Italia in the same year.
Dogsled racing
Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion –
Martin Buser wins with lead dogs: D2 & Dave
Field hockey
Men's Champions Trophy: Pakistan
Men's World Cup: Pakistan
Women's World Cup: Australia
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Elvis Stojko, Canada
Ladies' champion: Yuka Sato, Japan
Pairs' champions: Evgenia Shishkova and Vadim Naumov, Russia
Ice dancing champions: Oksana Grishuk and Evgeny Platov, Russia
Gaelic Athletic Association
Camogie
All-Ireland Camogie Champion: Kilkenny
National Camogie League:
Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Down 1–12 v Dublin 0–13
National Football League – Meath 2–11 v Armagh 0–8
Ladies' Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Champion: Waterford
National Football League: Monaghan
Hurling
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Offaly 3–16 v Limerick 2–13
National Hurling League –
Golf
Men's professional
Masters Tournament – José María Olazábal
U.S. Open – Ernie Els
British Open – Nick Price
PGA Championship – Nick Price
PGA Tour money leader – Nick Price – $1,499,927
Senior PGA Tour money leader – Dave Stockton – $1,402,519
Men's amateur
British Amateur – Lee James
U.S. Amateur – Tiger Woods becomes the youngest man ever to win the U.S. Amateur, at age 18.
European Amateur – Stephen Gallacher
Women's professional
Nabisco Dinah Shore – Donna Andrews
LPGA Championship – Laura Davies
U.S. Women's Open – Patty Sheehan
Classique du Maurier – Martha Nause
LPGA Tour money leader – Laura Davies – $687,201
Solheim Cup won by the United States team who beat the European team 13 to 7.
Handball
Men's European Championship: Sweden
Women's European Championship: Denmark
Harness racing
North America Cup – Cam's Card Shark
United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
Cane Pace – Falcons Future
Little Brown Jug – Magical Mike
Messenger Stakes – Cam's Card Shark
United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
Hambletonian – Victory Dream
Yonkers Trot –
Kentucky Futurity – Bullville Victory
Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
Pacers: Weona Warrior
Trotters: Diamond Field
Horse racing
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – The Fellow
Grand National – Miinnehoma
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Jeune
Canada – Queen's Plate won by Basqueian
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Carnegie
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Balanchine
Japan
Narita Brian won the Satsuki Sho (Japanese 2,000 Guineas), Tokyo Yushun (Japanese Derby), and Kikuka Sho (Japanese St. Leger) to become the first horse since 1984 to win the Japanese Triple Crown.
Japan Cup won by Marvelous Crown
English Triple Crown Races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Mister Baileys
The Derby – Erhaab
St. Leger Stakes – Moonax
United States Triple Crown Races:
Kentucky Derby – Go for Gin
Preakness Stakes – Tabasco Cat
Belmont Stakes – Tabasco Cat
Breeders' Cup World Thoroughbred Championships:
Breeders' Cup Classic – Concern
Breeders' Cup Distaff – One Dreamer
Breeders' Cup Juvenile – Timber Country
Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies – Flanders
Breeders' Cup Mile – Barathea
Breeders' Cup Sprint – Cherokee Run
Breeders' Cup Turf – Tikkanen
Ice hockey
January 4 - Canada won gold in the World Junior. Sweden was silver and Russia was bronze.
February 27 - Sweden won gold medal in the Winter Olympics. Canada won silver and Finland, bronze.
May 8 - Canada won gold at the World Championship. Finland was silver and Sweden, bronze.
June 14 – The New York Rangers won the Stanley Cup for the 1993–1994 season 4 games to 3 over the Vancouver Canucks, ending a 54-year drought.
October 1 – The NHL locked out its players and the regular season was put on hold for the next 3½ months and the season began under a 48-game schedule through 1995.
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Wayne Gretzky, Los Angeles Kings
Hart Memorial Trophy – for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Sergei Fedorov – Detroit Red Wings
World Hockey Championship
Men's champion: Canada defeated Finland
Junior Men's champion: Canada defeated Sweden
Women's champion: Canada defeated the United States
Kickboxing
The following is a list of major noteworthy kickboxing events during 1994 in chronological order.
Before 2000, K-1 was considered the only major kickboxing promotion in the world.
|-
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Date
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Event
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Location
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Attendance
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Notes
|-align=center
|March 4
|K-1 Challenge
| Tokyo, Japan
|15,000
|
|-align=center
|April 30
|K-1 Grand Prix '94
| Tokyo, Japan
|11,000
|
|-align=center
|May 8
|K-2 Plus Tournament 1994
| Amsterdam, Netherlands
|
|
|-align=center
|September 18
|K-1 Revenge
| Tokyo, Japan
|14,000
|
|-align=center
|December 10
|K-1 Legend
| Nagoya, Japan
|9,550
|
|-align=center
Lacrosse
The 7th World Lacrosse Championship is held in Manchester, England. The United States win and Australia is the runner-up.
The Philadelphia Wings beat the Buffalo Bandits 26–15 in the Major Indoor Lacrosse League Championship.
The Six Nations Chiefs win the Mann Cup.
The Orillia Rogers Kings win the Founders Cup.
The New Westminster Salmonbellies win the Minto Cup.
Mixed martial arts
The following is a list of major noteworthy MMA events during 1994 in chronological order.
Before 1997, the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) was considered the only major MMA organization in the world and featured many fewer rules than are used in modern MMA.
|-
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Date
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Event
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Alternate Name/s
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Location
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Attendance
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|PPV Buyrate
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Notes
|-align=center
|March 11
|UFC 2: No Way Out
|UFC 2 The Ultimate Fighting Championship 2
| Denver, Colorado, US
|2,000
|300,000
|
|-align=center
|September 9
|UFC 3: The American Dream
|
| Charlotte, North Carolina, US
|
|
|
|-align=center
|December 16
|UFC 4: Revenge of the Warriors
|
| Tulsa, Oklahoma, US
|5,857
|
|
|-align=center
Motorsport
Multi-sport event
1994 Commonwealth Games held in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
Professional Wrestling
June 11 Hulk Hogan signs with World Championship Wrestling.
Radiosport
Seventh Amateur Radio Direction Finding World Championship held in Södertälje, Sweden.
Rugby league
30 April – 1993-94 Challenge Cup final is won by Wigan 26–16 over Leeds at Wembley Stadium before 78,348
1 June – 1994 World Club Challenge match is won by Wigan 20–14 over Brisbane Broncos at ANZ Stadium before 54,220
20 June – 1994 State of Origin is won by New South Wales in the third and deciding game of the three-match series against Queensland at Lang Park before 40,665
25 September – 1994 NSWRL season Grand Final is won by Canberra Raiders 36–12 over Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs at Sydney Football Stadium before 42,234
15 November – 1994 Ashes are retained by Australia in the third and deciding game of the three–match series against Great Britain at Elland Road before 39,468
4 December – Béziers, France: Australian captain Mal Meninga plays the last game of his illustrious career, leading Australia to a 74–0 victory over France and scoring the final try of the game
Rugby union
100th Five Nations Championship series is won by Wales
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – Stephen Hendry beats Jimmy White 18–17
World rankings – Stephen Hendry remains world number one for 1994/95
Speed skating
February 18 - Dan Jansen skates world record 1000 meter (1:12.43) in Hamar
Swimming
Seventh FINA World Championships, held in Rome, Italy (September 1 – 11)
Fourth European Sprint Championships, held in Stavanger, Norway (December 3 – 4)
Germany wins the most medals (13), and the most gold medals (7)
March 13 – Alexander Popov clocks 21.50 to break the world record in the men's 50m freestyle (short course) in Desenzano del Garda, Italy
Tennis
Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
Australian Open – Pete Sampras
French Open – Sergi Bruguera
Wimbledon championships – Pete Sampras
US Open – Andre Agassi
Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
Australian Open – Steffi Graf
French Open – Arantxa Sánchez Vicario
Wimbledon championships – Conchita Martínez
US Open – Arantxa Sánchez Vicario
Davis Cup – Sweden wins 4–1 over Russia.
Federation Cup – In the last event to be called the "Federation Cup", Spain wins 3–0 over the USA. The following year would see the event renamed the Fed Cup.
Triathlon
ITU World Championships held in Wellington, New Zealand
ITU World Cup (ten races) started in Japan and ended in Mexico
ETU European Championships held in Eichstätt, Germany
Volleyball
Men's World League: Italy
Men's World Championship: Italy
Men's European Beach Volleyball Championships: Jan Kvalheim and Bjørn Maaseide (Norway)
Women's World Grand Prix: Brazil
Women's World Championship: Cuba
Women's European Beach Volleyball Championships: Beate Bühler and Danja Müsch (Germany)
Water polo
Men's World Championship: Italy
Women's World Championship: Hungary
Wrestling
World Wrestling Championships
Men's Freestyle Team: Turkey
Men's Greco-Roman Team: Russia
Women's Team: Japan
NCAA Wrestling team championship won by Oklahoma State University
(see links, above, for individual medals)
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – George Foreman, Boxing
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Bonnie Blair, Speed skating
References
Sports by year | [
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224729 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium%20oxide | Potassium oxide | Potassium oxide (KO) is an ionic compound of potassium and oxygen. It is a base. This pale yellow solid is the simplest oxide of potassium. It is a highly reactive compound that is rarely encountered. Some industrial materials, such as fertilizers and cements, are assayed assuming the percent composition that would be equivalent to K2O.
Production
Potassium oxide is produced from the reaction of oxygen and potassium; this reaction affords potassium peroxide, K2O2. Treatment of the peroxide with potassium produces the oxide:
K2O2 + 2 K -> 2 K2O
Alternatively and more conveniently, K2O is synthesized by heating potassium nitrate with metallic potassium:
2KNO3 + 10K -> 6K2O + N2 (^)
Other possibility is to heat potassium peroxide at 500 °C which decomposes at that temperature giving pure potassium oxide and oxygen.
2K2O2 -> 2K2O + O2 (^)
Potassium hydroxide cannot be further dehydrated to the oxide but it can react with molten potassium to produce it, releasing hydrogen as a byproduct.
2KOH + 2K <=> 2K2O + H2 (^)
Properties and reactions
K2O crystallises in the antifluorite structure. In this motif the positions of the anions and cations are reversed relative to their positions in CaF2, with potassium ions coordinated to 4 oxide ions and oxide ions coordinated to 8 potassium. K2O is a basic oxide and reacts with water violently to produce the caustic potassium hydroxide. It is deliquescent and will absorb water from the atmosphere, initiating this vigorous reaction.
Term use in industry
The chemical formula K2O (or simply 'K') is used in several industrial contexts: the N-P-K numbers for fertilizers, in cement formulas, and in glassmaking formulas. Potassium oxide is often not used directly in these products, but the amount of potassium is reported in terms of the K2O equivalent for whatever type of potash was used, such as potassium carbonate. For example, potassium oxide is about 83% potassium by weight, while potassium chloride is only 52%. Potassium chloride provides less potassium than an equal amount of potassium oxide. Thus, if a fertilizer is 30% potassium chloride by weight, its standard potassium rating, based on potassium oxide, would be only 18.8%.
References
External links
Oxides
Potassium compounds
Deliquescent substances
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224731 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20Orthodox%20Church | Greek Orthodox Church | The Greek Orthodox Church (Greek: Ἑλληνορθόδοξη Ἐκκλησία, Ellinorthódoxi Ekklisía, ) is the body of several churches within the larger communion of Eastern Orthodox Christianity.
Etymology
Historically, the term "Greek Orthodox" has been used to describe all Eastern Orthodox churches in general, since the term "Greek" can refer to the heritage of the Byzantine Empire. During the first eight centuries of Christian history, most major intellectual, cultural, and social developments in the Christian Church took place in the Byzantine Empire or its sphere of influence, where the Greek language was widely spoken and used for most theological writings. The empire's capital, Constantinople, was an early important center of Christianity, and its liturgical practices, traditions, and doctrines were gradually adopted throughout Eastern Orthodoxy, still providing the basic patterns of contemporary Orthodoxy. Thus, Eastern Orthodox came to be called "Greek" Orthodox in the same way that the Western Christians came to be called "Roman" Catholic. However, the appellation "Greek" was abandoned by the Slavic and other Eastern Orthodox churches as part of their peoples' national awakenings, beginning as early as the 10th century A.D. Thus, by the early 21st century, generally only those churches most closely tied to Greek or Byzantine culture were called "Greek Orthodox" in common parlance.
History
The Greek Orthodox churches are descended from churches which the Apostles founded in the Balkans and the Middle East during the first century A.D., as well as maintenance of many ancient church traditions.
Churches
The churches where the Greek Orthodox term is applicable are:
The four ancient Patriarchates:
The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, headed by the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, who is also the "first among equals" of the Eastern Orthodox Communion
The semi-autonomous Archdiocese of Crete
The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Thyateira and Great Britain
The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Italy and Malta
The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America
The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia
The Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria
The Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch
The Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem
The autonomous Church of Mount Sinai
Three autocephalous churches:
The Church of Greece
The Church of Cyprus
The Albanian Orthodox Church also known as "Greek Orthodox Church of Albania" or "Church of Albania"
See also
East–West Schism
Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople
Eastern Orthodox Church
History of the Eastern Orthodox Church
Russian Orthodoxy
Armenian Apostolic Church
Name days in Greece
Pentarchy
Ecumenism
Greeks
References
Further reading
Aderny, Walter F. The Greek and Eastern Churches (1908) online
Constantelos, Demetrios J. Understanding the Greek Orthodox church: its faith, history, and practice (Seabury Press, 19820
Fortesque, Adrian. The Orthodox Eastern Church (1929)
Hussey, Joan Mervyn. The orthodox church in the Byzantine empire (Oxford University Press, 2010) online
Kephala, Euphrosyne. The Church of the Greek People Past and Present (1930)
Latourette, Kenneth Scott. Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, II: The Nineteenth Century in Europe: The Protestant and Eastern Churches. (1959) 2: 479-484; Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, IV: The Twentieth Century in Europe: The Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Eastern Churches (1958)
External links
Eastern Orthodoxy in Europe
Christian terminology
Orthodoxy Church
Christian groups in the Middle East | [
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224732 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993%20in%20sports | 1993 in sports | 1993 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Alpine skiing
Alpine Skiing World Cup
Women's overall season champion: Anita Wachter, Austria
American football
Super Bowl XXVII – the Dallas Cowboys (NFC) won 52–17 over the Buffalo Bills (AFC)
Location: Rose Bowl
Attendance: 98,374
MVP: Troy Aikman, QB (Dallas)
Sugar Bowl (1992 season):
The Alabama Crimson Tide won 34-13 over the Miami Hurricanes to win the national championship
Bobby Dodd was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame
Association football
February 24 – death of Bobby Moore, former England captain, from cancer
May – Manchester United win the inaugural English Premier League title, their first league title in 26 years.
UEFA Champions League – Olympique de Marseille defeats A.C. Milan 1–0. Marseille is later banned from defending their title the next year due to a corruption scandal.
The Zambian national team are all killed in an air crash near Libreville, Gabon. The team was travelling to Senegal to play a qualifying match for the 1994 FIFA World Cup.
Athletics
February 11 – Irina Privalova sets a new women's 60m indoors world record
August – 1993 World Championships in Athletics held in Stuttgart
September – Qu Yunxia sets a World Record of 3:50.46 in the women's 1500 m
September – Wang Junxia sets new world records of 29:31.78 in the women's 10,000 m and 8:06.11 in the women's 3000m
Baseball
The Colorado Rockies and Florida Marlins (now Miami Marlins) play their inaugural seasons (both are National League teams) as MLB expands for the first time in 16 seasons.
Randy Myers saves 53 games for the Chicago Cubs, breaking Dave Righetti's record for left-handers.
Lee Smith breaks the all-time save mark by recording his 358th save in a 9–7 win against the Los Angeles Dodgers on April 13
World Series – The Toronto Blue Jays win 4 games to 2 over the Philadelphia Phillies. The Series MVP is Paul Molitor, Toronto. Joe Carter hit the second ever walk-off home run to end the 1993 World Series, the first by an American League player.
Basketball
NCAA Men's Basketball Championship –
North Carolina wins 77–71 over Michigan
NBA Finals –
Chicago Bulls win 4 games to 2 over the Phoenix Suns to complete their first three-peat of the decade (see John Paxson). Michael Jordan announced his retirement on October 6, only to return seventeen months later.
National Basketball League (Australia) Finals:
Melbourne Tigers defeated the Perth Wildcats 2–1 in the best-of-three final series.
Eurobasket 1993 won by Germany
Boxing
March 13 – Michael Carbajal comes off the floor twice to knock out Humberto González in seven rounds and unify the world's Jr. Flyweight title in the fight of the year
May 7 to 16 – World Amateur Boxing Championships held in Tampere, Finland
September 6 to 12 – 30th European Amateur Boxing Championships held in Bursa, Turkey.
November 12 – Evander Holyfield beats Riddick Bowe by decision in twelve rounds to regain the world's unified Heavyweight title. It is the fan man fight.
Canadian football
Grey Cup – Edmonton Eskimos win 33–23 over the Winnipeg Blue Bombers
Vanier Cup – Toronto Varsity Blues won 37–34 over Calgary Dinos
Cricket
June 4 – Shane Warne bowls the so-called "Ball of the Century" to Mike Gatting in the first Test at Old Trafford
The Ashes – Australia defeated England 4–0 in England
Cycling
Giro d'Italia won by Miguel Indurain of Spain
Tour de France – Miguel Indurain of Spain
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Lance Armstrong of United States
Hour record – Graeme Obree of Great Britain
Hour record – Chris Boardman of Great Britain
Dogsled racing
Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion –
Jeff King won with lead dogs: Herbie & Kitty
Field hockey
Men's Champions Trophy: Australia
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Kurt Browning, Canada
Ladies' champion: Oksana Baiul, Ukraine
Pairs' champions: Isabelle Brasseur & Lloyd Eisler, Canada
Ice dancing champions: Maya Usova & Alexander Zhulin, Russia
Gaelic Athletic Association
Camogie
All-Ireland Camogie Champion: Cork
National Camogie League: Kilkenny
Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Derry 1–14 died Cork 2–8
National Football League – Dublin 0–10 died Donegal 0–6 (replay)
Ladies' Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Champion: Kerry
National Football League: Laois
Hurling
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Kilkenny 2–17 died Galway 1–15
Golf
Men's professional
Masters Tournament – Bernhard Langer
U.S. Open – Lee Janzen
British Open – Greg Norman
PGA Championship – Paul Azinger
PGA Tour money leader – Nick Price – $1,478,557
Senior PGA Tour money leader – Dave Stockton – $1,175,944
Ryder Cup – United States won 15–13 over Europe in team golf.
Men's amateur
British Amateur – Iain Pyman
U.S. Amateur – John Harris
European Amateur – Morten Backhausen
Women's professional
Nabisco Dinah Shore – Helen Alfredsson
LPGA Championship – Patty Sheehan
U.S. Women's Open – Lauri Merten
Classique du Maurier – Brandie Burton
LPGA Tour money leader – Betsy King – $595,992
Harness racing
North America Cup – Presidential Ball
United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
Cane Pace – Riyadh
Little Brown Jug – Life Sign
Messenger Stakes – Riyadh
United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
Hambletonian – American Winner
Yonkers Trot – American Winner
Kentucky Futurity – Pine Chip
Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
Pacers: Jack Morris
Trotters: Night Allowance
Horse racing
Julie Krone, the all-time leading female jockey, became the first woman ever to win a Triple Crown race when she rode Colonial Affair to victory in the Belmont Stakes.
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – Jodami
Grand National – race void
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Vintage Crop
Canadian Triple Crown Races:
Queen's Plate won by Peteski
Prince of Wales Stakes won by Peteski
Breeders' Stakes won by Peteski
Peteski becomes the fourth horse in five years to sweep the series.
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Urban Sea
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by; Commander in Chief
Japan – Japan Cup won by Legacy World
English Triple Crown Races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Zafonic
The Derby – Commander in Chief
St. Leger Stakes – Bob's Return
United States Triple Crown Races:
Kentucky Derby – Sea Hero
Preakness Stakes – Prairie Bayou
Belmont Stakes – Colonial Affair
Breeders' Cup World Thoroughbred Championships:
Breeders' Cup Classic – Arcangues
Breeders' Cup Distaff – Hollywood Wildcat
Breeders' Cup Juvenile – Brocco
Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies – Phone Chatter
Breeders' Cup Mile – Lure
Breeders' Cup Sprint – Cardmania
Breeders' Cup Turf – Kotashaan
Ice hockey
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Mario Lemieux, Pittsburgh Penguins
Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Mario Lemieux, Pittsburgh Penguins
Stanley Cup – Montreal Canadiens win 4 games to 1 over the Los Angeles Kings
World Hockey Championship
Men's champion: Russia defeated Sweden
Junior Men's champion: Canada won over Sweden
Mighty Ducks of Anaheim (now Anaheim Ducks) play inaugural season.
Florida Panthers play inaugural season.
Kickboxing
The following is a list of major noteworthy kickboxing events during 1993 in chronological order.
Before 2000, K-1 was considered the only major kickboxing promotion in the world.
|-
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Date
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Event
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Location
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Attendance
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Notes
|-align=center
|March 30
|K-1 Sanctuary I
| Tokyo, Japan
|2,100
|
|-align=center
|April 30
|K-1 Grand Prix '93
| Tokyo, Japan
|12,000
|
|-align=center
|June 25
|K-1 Sanctuary III
| Osaka, Japan
|6,000
|
|-align=center
|September 4
|K-1 Illusion
| Tokyo, Japan
|13,500
|
|-align=center
|October 2, 3
|K-1 Illusion 1993 Karate World Cup
| Osaka, Japan
|
|
|-align=center
|November 15
|K-1 Andy's Glove
| Osaka, Japan
|2,100
|
|-align=center
|December 29
|K-2 Grand Prix '93
| Tokyo, Japan
|11,000
|
|-align=center
Lacrosse
The Buffalo Bandits defeat the Philadelphia Wings to win the Major Indoor Lacrosse League championship
Mixed martial arts
The following is a list of major noteworthy MMA events during 1993 in chronological order.
Before 1997, the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) was considered the only major MMA organization in the world and featured much fewer rules then are used in modern MMA.
|-
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Date
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Event
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Alternate Name/s
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Location
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Attendance
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|PPV Buyrate
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Notes
|-align=center
|November 12
|The Ultimate Fighting Championship
|UFC 1: The Beginning
| Denver, Colorado, United States
|2,800
|86,000
|
|-align=center
Motorsport
Radiosport
The Friendship Radiosport Games held in Victoria, British Columbia are the first international Amateur Radio Direction Finding competition ever held in Canada.
Rugby league
1992-93 RFL Championship won by Wigan
RL Challenge Cup tournament culminates in Wigan's 20–14 win over Widnes in the final at Wembley Stadium before 77,684
1993 State of Origin won by New South Wales in game two of the three-match series against Queensland at the Sydney Football Stadium before 41,895.
1993 NSWRL season culminates in a repeat of the previous year's grand final with the Brisbane Broncos again defeating the St George Dragons, this time 14–6 at the Sydney Football Stadium before 42,329.
Rugby union
99th Five Nations Championship series is won by France
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – Stephen Hendry beats Jimmy White 18–5
World rankings – Stephen Hendry remains world number one for 1993/94
Swimming
21st European LC Championships, held in Sheffield, United Kingdom (August 3 – 8)
Germany wins the most medals (21), and the most gold medals (11)
Third European Sprint Championships, held in Gateshead, United Kingdom (November 11 – 13)
Germany wins the most medals (17), Sweden the most gold medals (6)
First World Short Course Championships, held in Palma de Mallorca, Spain (December 2 – 5)
United States and Australia win the most medals (21), China the most gold medals (10)
February 17 – Mark Foster breaks the world record in the men's 50m freestyle (short course) at a swimming meet in Sheffield, United Kingdom, clocking 21.60.
Taekwondo
World Championships held in New York City, United States
Tennis
April 30 – during a changeover at a tournament in Hamburg, Germany, Monica Seles is stabbed in the back by a deranged fan of rival Steffi Graf. Seles would not play competitively for more than two years after the incident.
Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
Australian Open – Jim Courier
French Open – Sergi Bruguera
Wimbledon championships – Pete Sampras
US Open – Pete Sampras
Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
Australian Open – Monica Seles
French Open – Steffi Graf
Wimbledon championships – Steffi Graf
US Open – Steffi Graf
Davis Cup of world tennis won by Germany 4–1 over Australia
Triathlon
ITU World Championships held in Manchester, United Kingdom
ITU World Cup (nine races) started in Japan and ended in the United States Virgin Islands
ETU European Championships held in Echternach, Luxembourg
Volleyball
Men's World League: Brazil
Women's World Grand Prix: Cuba
Women's European Championship: Russia
Water polo
Men's World Cup: Italy
Men's European Championship: Italy
Women's European Championship: Netherlands
Multi-sport events
First East Asian Games held in Shanghai, China
Fourth World Games held in The Hague, Netherlands
Central American and Caribbean Games held in Ponce, Puerto Rico
Twelfth Mediterranean Games held in Languedoc-Roussillon, France
Seventeenth Summer Universiade held in Buffalo, New York, United States
Sixteenth Winter Universiade held in Zakopane, Poland
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Michael Jordan, NBA basketball
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Sheryl Swoopes, College basketball
ABC's Wide World of Sports Athlete of the Year: Evander Holyfield, American boxer
References
Sports by year | [
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224733 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992%20in%20sports | 1992 in sports | 1992 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Alpine skiing
Alpine Skiing World Cup
Men's overall season champion: Paul Accola, Switzerland
Women's overall season champion: Petra Kronberger, Austria
American football
Super Bowl XXVI – the Washington Redskins (NFC) won 37–24 over the Buffalo Bills (AFC)
Location: Metrodome
Attendance: 63,130
MVP: Mark Rypien, QB (Washington)
Orange Bowl (1991 season):
The Miami Hurricanes won 22-0 over the Nebraska Cornhuskers to win the AP Poll national championship
Steve Emtman is the No. 1 pick in the 1992 NFL Draft by the Indianapolis Colts
June 25 – death of Jerome Brown (27), Philadelphia Eagles player, in a car crash
Steve Young (American football), quarterback of the San Francisco 49ers, wins the 1992 NFL MVP
November 29 – Dennis Byrd of the New York Jets is paralyzed from a neck injury during a game against the Kansas City Chiefs. He made a recovery that bordered on the miraculous; although he would never play again, he would walk unassisted several months later.
Gino Torretta of the Miami Hurricanes wins the Heisman Trophy, Davey O'Brien Award and Walter Camp Award
Association football
June 26 – In Euro 1992, Denmark surprisingly won 2–0 over Germany at Nya Ullevi, Gothenburg, Sweden.
November 25 - UEFA Champions League debuts with four opening day matches.
Athletics
1992 Summer Olympics held in Barcelona, Spain July 25 – August 9.
1992 Winter Olympics held in Albertville, France February 8 – February 23
March 1 – Madina Biktagirova set a course record at the Los Angeles Marathon in a time of 2:26:23.
Australian rules football
Australian Football League
May 3 – Geelong beat Fitzroy's 1979 record score when they kick 37.17 (239) to Brisbane's 11.9 (75)
August 23 – West Coast kick only 0.2 (2) to three-quarter time against on a waterlogged Western Oval for the lowest three-quarter-time score since 1953.
September 26 – West Coast win the 96th AFL premiership, beating Geelong 16.17 (113) to 12.13 (85)
Geelong kick a record total of 3,558 points during the season, beating their own record from 1989.
Brownlow Medal awarded to Scott Wynd (Footscray)
Baseball
World Series – Toronto Blue Jays won 4 games to 2 over the Atlanta Braves. The Series MVP is Pat Borders, Toronto.
The Toronto Blue Jays became the first Canadian team to play in a World Series and the first non-American team to win the World Series.
AWARDS and HONORS
Most Valuable Player
Dennis Eckersley, Oakland Athletics (AL)
Barry Bonds, Pittsburgh Pirates (NL)
Cy Young Award
Dennis Eckersley, Oakland Athletics (AL)
Greg Maddux, Chicago Cubs (NL)
Rookie of the Year
Pat Listach, Milwaukee Brewers (AL)
Eric Karros, Los Angeles Dodgers (NL)
Rolaids Relief Man of the Year Award
Dennis Eckersley, Oakland Athletics (AL)
Lee Smith, St. Louis Cardinals (NL)
Manager of the Year
Tony La Russa, Oakland Athletics (AL)
Jim Leyland, Pittsburgh Pirates (NL)
*College World Series Pepperdine Waves defeat Cal State Fullerton Titans 3–2
Phil Nevin of Cal State Fullerton Titans is named the tournaments Most Outstanding Player and awarded the Golden Spikes Award for college player of the year
Basketball
European Cup – Partizan beats Joventut 71:70
NCAA Men's Basketball Championship – Duke Blue Devils wins 71–51 over Michigan Wolverines
Christian Laettner is named Naismith College Player of the Year
NBA Finals – Chicago Bulls win 4 games to 2 over the Portland Trail Blazers
Most Valuable Player: Michael Jordan, Chicago Bulls
Rookie of the Year: Larry Johnson, Charlotte Hornets
Defensive Player of the Year: David Robinson, San Antonio Spurs
Sixth Man of the Year: Detlef Schrempf, Indiana Pacers
Most Improved Player: Pervis Ellison, Washington Bullets
Coach of the Year: Don Nelson, Golden State Warriors
All-NBA First Team:
F – Karl Malone, Utah Jazz
F – Chris Mullin, Golden State Warriors
C – David Robinson, San Antonio Spurs
G – Michael Jordan, Chicago Bulls
G – Clyde Drexler, Portland Trail Blazers
All-NBA Second Team:
F – Scottie Pippen, Chicago Bulls
F – Charles Barkley, Philadelphia 76ers
C – Patrick Ewing, New York Knicks
G – Tim Hardaway, Golden State Warriors
G – John Stockton, Utah Jazz
All-NBA Third Team:
F – Dennis Rodman, Detroit Pistons
F – Kevin Willis, Atlanta Hawks
C – Brad Daugherty, Cleveland Cavaliers
G – Mark Price, Cleveland Cavaliers
G – Kevin Johnson, Phoenix Suns
All-NBA Rookie Team:
Steve Smith, Miami Heat
Larry Johnson, Charlotte Hornets
Billy Owens, Golden State Warriors
Stacey Augmon, Atlanta Hawks
Dikembe Mutombo, Denver Nuggets
NBA All-Defensive First Team:
Dennis Rodman, Detroit Pistons
Scottie Pippen, Chicago Bulls
David Robinson, San Antonio Spurs
Michael Jordan, Chicago Bulls
Joe Dumars, Detroit Pistons
NBA All-Defensive Second Team:
Larry Nance, Cleveland Cavaliers
Buck Williams, Portland Trail Blazers
Patrick Ewing, New York Knicks
John Stockton, Utah Jazz
Micheal Williams, Indiana Pacers
National Basketball League (Australia) Finals: South East Melbourne Magic defeated the Melbourne Tigers 2–1 in the best-of-three final series.
Boxing
November 13 – Riddick Bowe won a 12 round decision over Evander Holyfield to win the undisputed heavyweight championship.
Oscar De La Hoya won the only Gold Medal in the Barcelona Olympic Games for the United States. He turned pro shortly after.
Canadian football
Grey Cup – Calgary Stampeders won 24–10 over the Winnipeg Blue Bombers
Vanier Cup – Queen's Golden Gaels win 31–0 over the St. Mary's Huskies
Cricket
Cricket World Cup – Pakistan beat England by 22 runs
Cycling
Giro d'Italia won by Miguel Indurain of Spain
Tour de France – Miguel Indurain of Spain
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Gianni Bugno of Italy
Dogsled racing
Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion –
Martin Buser wins with lead dogs: Tyrone & D2
Darts
Phil Taylor (darts player) won his second world title
The Professional Darts Corporation was formed but did not have its first world championship until 1993
Field hockey
Men's Champions Trophy: Germany
Olympic Games men's competition: Germany
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Viktor Petrenko, Ukraine
Ladies' champion: Kristi Yamaguchi, United States
Pair skating champions: Natalia Mishkutenok & Artur Dmitriev
Ice dancing champions: Marina Klimova & Sergei Ponomarenko
Gaelic Athletic Association
Camogie
All-Ireland Camogie Champion: Cork
National Camogie League: Cork
Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Donegal 0–18 died Dublin 0–14
National Football League – Derry 1–10 died Tyrone 1–8
Ladies' Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Champion: Waterford
National Football League: Waterford
Hurling
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Kilkenny 3–10 died Cork 1–12
National Hurling League –
Golf
Men's professional
Masters Tournament – Fred Couples
U.S. Open – Tom Kite
British Open – Nick Faldo
PGA Championship – Nick Price
PGA Tour money leader – Fred Couples – $1,344,188
Senior PGA Tour money leader – Lee Trevino – $1,027,002
Men's amateur
British Amateur – Stephen Dundas
U.S. Amateur – Justin Leonard
European Amateur – Massimo Scarpa
Women's professional
Nabisco Dinah Shore – Dottie Mochrie
LPGA Championship – Betsy King
U.S. Women's Open – Patty Sheehan
Classique du Maurier – Sherri Steinhauer
LPGA Tour money leader – Dottie Mochrie – $693,335
The European team beat the United States team 11 points to 6 , to win the Solheim Cup for the first time.
Harness racing
Pacer Artsplace voted "Harness Horse of the Year"
North America Cup – Safely Kept
United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
Cane Pace – Western Hanover
Little Brown Jug – Fake Left
Messenger Stakes – Western Hanover
United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
Hambletonian – Alf Palema
Yonkers Trot –
Kentucky Futurity – Armbro Keepsake
Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
Pacers: Westburn Grant
Trotters: William Dee
Horse racing
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – Cool Ground
Grand National – Party Politics
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by
Canada – Queen's Plate won by
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Subotica
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by St Jovite
Japan – Japan Cup won by Tokai Teio
English Triple Crown Races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Rodrigo de Triano
The Derby – Dr Devious
St. Leger Stakes – User Friendly
United States Triple Crown Races:
Kentucky Derby – Lil E. Tee
Preakness Stakes – Pine Bluff
Belmont Stakes – A.P. Indy
Breeders' Cup World Thoroughbred Championships:
Breeders' Cup Classic –
Breeders' Cup Ladies' Classic –
Breeders' Cup Filly & Mare Turf –
Breeders' Cup Juvenile –
Breeders' Cup Mile –
Breeders' Cup Sprint –
Breeders' Cup Turf –
Ice hockey
April 1 – The NHL had their first work stoppage as NHL players went on strike. The strike lasted only 10 days and the rest of the regular season games were played.
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Mario Lemieux, Pittsburgh Penguins
Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Mark Messier, New York Rangers
Stanley Cup – Pittsburgh Penguins won 4 games to 0 over the Chicago Blackhawks
Conn Smythe Trophy – Mario Lemieux, Pittsburgh Penguins
World Hockey Championship
Men's champion: Sweden defeated Finland
Junior Men's champion: Unified former USSR defeated Sweden
Women's champion: Canada defeated the United States
September 23 – Manon Rhéaume became the first woman to play in the National Hockey League during a pre-season game, and also the first woman ever to play in one of the Big Four Pro Sports.
Lacrosse
The Buffalo Bandits defeat the Philadelphia Wings 11–10 in overtime to win the Major Indoor Lacrosse League championship
Motorsport
Radiosport
Sixth Amateur Radio Direction Finding World Championship held in Siófok, Hungary.
Rugby league
Challenge Cup tournament culminates in Wigan's 28–12 win over Castleford in the final at Wembley Stadium before 77,286
Rugby Football League Championship is won by Wigan
3 June – Sydney, Australia: 1992 State of Origin is won by New South Wales in the third and deciding match of the series against Queensland at the Sydney Football Stadium before 41,878
June/July – The 1992 Great Britain Lions tour of Australia and New Zealand takes place
27 September – Sydney, Australia: 1992 NSWRL season Grand Final is won 28–8 by Brisbane Broncos against St George Dragons at Sydney Football Stadium before 41,560
24 October – London, England: 1989–92 World Cup tournament culminates in Australia's 10–6 win over Great Britain in the final at Wembley Stadium before 73,631
30 October – Wigan, England: 1992 World Club Challenge match is won by the Brisbane Broncos who defeat Wigan 22–8 at Central Park before 17,764
Rugby union
98th Five Nations Championship series is won by England who complete the Grand Slam
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – Stephen Hendry beats Jimmy White 18–14
World rankings – Stephen Hendry remains world number one for 1992/93
Swimming
XXV Olympic Games, held in Barcelona, Spain (July 26 – July 31)
Second European Sprint Championships, held in Espoo, Finland (December 21 – 22)
Germany wins the most medals (14), Germany and Sweden the most gold medals (4)
Tennis
Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
Australian Open – Jim Courier
French Open – Jim Courier
Wimbledon – Andre Agassi
US Open – Stefan Edberg
Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
Australian Open – Monica Seles
French Open – Monica Seles
Wimbledon – Steffi Graf
US Open – Monica Seles
1992 Summer Olympics
Men's Singles Competition: Marc Rosset
Women's Singles Competition: Jennifer Capriati
Men's Doubles Competition: Boris Becker & Michael Stich
Women's Doubles Competition: Gigi Fernández & Mary Joe Fernández
Davis Cup
United States won 3–1 over Switzerland in world tennis.
Triathlon
ITU World Championships held in Huntsville, Canada
ITU World Cup (ten races) started in Colombia and ended in Mexico
ETU European Championships held in Lommel, Belgium
Volleyball
Men's World League: Italy
Olympic Games men's competition: Brazil
Olympic Games women's competition: Cuba
Yacht racing
The San Diego Yacht Club retains the America's Cup as America³ defeats Italian challenger Il Moro de Venezia, from the Compagnia della Vella yacht club, 4 races to 1
Water polo
Olympic Games men's competition: Italy
Multi-sport events
1992 Summer Olympics takes place in Barcelona, Spain
The Unified Team (formerly Soviet Union) wins the most medals (112) and the most gold medals (45).
1992 Winter Olympics takes place in Albertville, France
Germany wins the most medals (27) and the most gold medals (10).
Seventh Pan Arab Games held in Damascus, Syria
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Michael Jordan, NBA basketball
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Monica Seles, Tennis
Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year – Arthur Ashe
Sporting News Sportsman of the Year – Mike Krzyzewski Duke Blue Devils head coach
James E. Sullivan Award Bonnie Blair, speed skating
References
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224735 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991%20in%20sports | 1991 in sports | 1991 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Alpine skiing
Alpine Skiing World Cup
Men's overall season champion: Marc Girardelli, Luxembourg
Women's overall season champion: Petra Kronberger, Austria
American football
Super Bowl XXV – the New York Giants (NFC) won 20–19 over the Buffalo Bills (AFC)
Location: Tampa Stadium
Attendance: 73,813
MVP: Ottis Anderson, RB (New York)
Thurman Thomas of the Buffalo Bills is named the NFL MVP
Orange Bowl (1990 season):
The Colorado Buffaloes won 10–9 over the Notre Dame Fighting Irish to win the AP Poll national championship
Desmond Howard, University of Michigan wide receiver seals the Heisman Trophy with a 93-yard punt return in Michigan's 31–3 hammering of Ohio State.
World Bowl '91: London Monarchs won 21–0 over the Barcelona Dragons in the inaugural World Bowl.
Quarterback Stan Gelbaugh of the London Monarchs is named the World League of American Football's inaugural seasons Most Valuable Player
Artistic gymnastics
World Artistic Gymnastics Championships –
Men's all-around champion: Grigory Misutin, USSR
Women's all-around champion: Kim Zmeskal, United States
Men's team competition champion: USSR
Women's team competition champion: USSR
Association football
European Cup – FK Red Star beat Olympique de Marseille 5–3 on penalties (0–0 aet)
FIFA Women's World Cup – United States won 2–1 over Norway
Athletics
1991 World Championships in Athletics held in Tokyo
30 August – Track & Field World Championship Mike Powell breaking Bob Beamon's 23-year-old Long Jump world record with a mark of 29' 4 1/2"
Australian rules football
Australian Football League
The Adelaide Crows join the league
25 April – and kick between them 32.18 (210) in the first half. It is the record aggregate score for a half of VFL/AFL football.
2 June – kick their first goal with 33 second to go against , the closest a team has come to finishing goalless since kicked 0.8 (8) in 1961 against St. Kilda.
8 September – Hawthorn beat West Coast 18.16 (124) to 15.11 (101) in the first final outside Melbourne.
1991 AFL Grand Final (28 September) – Hawthorn wins the 95th AFL premiership beating West Coast 20.19 (139) to 13.8 (86) in the only Grand Final at VFL Park.
Brownlow Medal awarded to Jim Stynes (Melbourne)
7 October – death of Darren Millane, who played for between 1984 and 1991, from a car crash in Prahran.
Baseball
Dave Righetti breaks Sparky Lyle's major league record for left-handers of 238 career saves.
1 May – Nolan Ryan pitchers his seventh career no hitter with a 3–0 victory over the Toronto Blue Jays
28 July – Dennis Martínez of the Montreal Expos pitches the 13th perfect game in major league history, beating the Los Angeles Dodgers 2–0.
World Series – The Minnesota Twins win 4 games to 3 over the Atlanta Braves. The series MVP is Jack Morris of Minnesota.
Cal Ripken, Jr. of the Baltimore Orioles is named AL MVP
Terry Pendleton of the Atlanta Braves is named NL MVP
Roger Clemens of the Boston Red Sox is named AL Cy Young award winner. It is his third of six in his career
Tom Glavine of the Atlanta Braves is named NL Cy Young award winner
Chuck Knoblauch of the Minnesota Twins is named AL Rookie of the Year
Jeff Bagwell of the Houston Astros is named NL Rookie of the Year
Basketball
NCAA Men's Basketball Championship – Duke wins 72–65 over Kansas
Larry Johnson of UNLV is named Naismith College Player of the Year
9 February – Dee Brown win the Gatorade Slam Dunk Contest
10 February – NBA All-Star Game is held in Charlotte, North Carolina
12 June – NBA Finals: Chicago Bulls win 4 games to 1 over the Los Angeles Lakers to earn the franchise's first championship, starting a run of six titles in eight seasons.
Michael Jordan is named the NBA MVP, his second of 5 awards.
7 November – Lakers' superstar Magic Johnson announces he tested positive for the virus that causes AIDS, thus ending his career in the NBA.
National Basketball League (Australia) Finals: Perth Wildcats defeated the Eastside Melbourne Spectres 2–1 in the best-of-three final series.
17 December – The Cleveland Cavaliers beat the Miami Heat 148 to 80, the largest margin of victory in any NBA game.
Boxing
3 March – Mike Tyson defeats Donovan Ruddock in a seventh-round TKO
19 April – Evander Holyfield defeats George Foreman to retain WBC, WBA & IBF Heavyweight titles
7 to 12 May – 29th European Amateur Boxing Championships held in Gothenburg, Sweden
3 June – Thomas Hearns defeats Virgil Hill with a unanimous decision to win WBA Light Heavyweight title
1 June at Palm Springs, California – Terry Norris knocked out Donald Curry in the 8th Round to win the WBC Super Welterweight Championship.
28 June Mike Tyson defeats Donovan Ruddock in a rematch with a 12-round unanimous decision
2 to 18 August – Pan American Games held in Havana, Cuba.
5 October – James Toney defeats Michael Nunn with a TKO to win IBF Middleweight title
James Toney is named Ring Magazine fighter of the year
Canadian football
Grey Cup – Toronto Argonauts win 36–21 over the Calgary Stampeders
B.C. Lions Quarterback Doug Flutie is named CFL Most Outstanding Player
Vanier Cup – Wilfrid Laurier Golden Hawks win 25–18 over the Mount Allison Mounties
Cricket
South Africa readmitted to the International Cricket Council following the abolition of apartheid, and play their first international game since 1970.
Cycling
Giro d'Italia won by Franco Chiocciolo of Italy
Tour de France – Miguel Indurain of Spain
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Gianni Bugno of Italy
Dogsled racing
Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion –
Rick Swenson won with lead dog: Goose
Field hockey
Men's Champions Trophy: Germany
Women's Champions Trophy: Australia
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Kurt Browning, Canada
Ladies' champion: Kristi Yamaguchi, United States
Pair skating champions: Natalia Mishkutenok & Artur Dmitriev, Soviet Union
Ice dancing champions: Isabelle Duchesnay & Paul Duchesnay, France
Golf
Men's professional
Masters Tournament – Ian Woosnam
U.S. Open – Payne Stewart
British Open – Ian Baker-Finch
PGA Championship – John Daly
PGA Tour money leader – Corey Pavin – $979,430
Senior PGA Tour money leader – Mike Hill – $1,065,657
Ryder Cup – United States team won 14½ – 13½ over the Europe in team golf.
Men's amateur
British Amateur – Gary Wolstenholme
U.S. Amateur – Mitch Voges
European Amateur – Jim Payne
Tiger Woods, at age 15, won his first USGA title, the U.S. Junior Amateur.
Women's professional
Nabisco Dinah Shore – Amy Alcott
LPGA Championship – Meg Mallon
U.S. Women's Open – Meg Mallon
Classique du Maurier – Nancy Scranton
LPGA Tour money leader – Pat Bradley – $763,118
Harness racing
North America Cup – Precious Bunny
United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
Cane Pace – Silky Stallone
Little Brown Jug – Precious Bunny
Messenger Stakes – Die Laughing
United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
Hambletonian – Giant Victory
Yonkers Trot –
Kentucky Futurity – Whiteland Janice
Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
Pacers: Mark Ranover
Trotters: Fraggle Rock
Horse racing
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – Garrison Savannah
Grand National – Seagram
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Let's Elope
Canadian Triple Crown Races:
Queen's Plate – Dance Smartly
Prince of Wales Stakes – Dance Smartly
Breeders' Stakes – Dance Smartly
Dance Smartly becomes the country's third consecutive Triple Crown winner.
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Suave Dancer
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Generous
Japan – Japan Cup won by Golden Pheasant
English Triple Crown Races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Mystiko
The Derby – Generous
St. Leger Stakes – Toulon
United States Triple Crown Races:
Kentucky Derby – Strike the Gold
Preakness Stakes – Hansel
Belmont Stakes – Hansel
Breeders' Cup World Thoroughbred Championships:
Breeders' Cup Classic – Black Tie Affair
Breeders' Cup Distaff – Dance Smartly
Breeders' Cup Juvenile – Arazi
Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies – Pleasant Stage
Breeders' Cup Mile – Opening Verse
Breeders' Cup Sprint – Sheikh Albadou
Breeders' Cup Turf – Miss Alleged
Ice hockey
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Wayne Gretzky, Los Angeles Kings
Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Brett Hull, St. Louis Blues
Stanley Cup
Pittsburgh Penguins win 4 games to 2 over the Minnesota North Stars
Conn Smythe Trophy – Mario Lemieux, Pittsburgh Penguins
World Hockey Championship
Men's champion: Sweden defeated Canada
Junior Men's champion: Canada defeated the USSR
Sheffield Steelers formed
San Jose Sharks formed
Northern Michigan University wins the NCAA Division I title in hockey, 8–7 in the third overtime against Boston University.
Lacrosse
The Detroit Turbos defeat the Baltimore Thunder to win the Major Indoor Lacrosse League championship
Motorsport
Radiosport
The Friendship Radiosport Games held in Portland, Oregon, United States was the first international Amateur Radio Direction Finding competition held in the Americas.
Third European High Speed Telegraphy Championship held in Neerpelt, Belgium.
Rugby League
Penrith Panthers defeat two-time defending premiers Canberra Raiders in the NSWRL Grand Final at the Sydney Football Stadium. It is Penrith's first premiership since their admission in 1967.
Wigan retained their title in the English Rugby League competition, with Oldham, Sheffield Eagles and Rochdale Hornets being relegated. To date this is Rochdale's last appearance in the top flight.
Rugby Union
97th Five Nations Championship series is won by England who complete the Grand Slam
Australia wins the 1991 Rugby World Cup
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – John Parrott beats Jimmy White 18–11
World rankings – Stephen Hendry remains world number one for 1991/92
Swimming
The sixth FINA World Championships, held in Perth, Australia (3 January – 13)
Eleventh Pan American Games held in Havana, Cuba (12–18 August)
20th European LC Championships, held in Athens, Greece (18–25 August)
Fourth Pan Pacific Championships, held in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada (22–25 August)
First European Sprint Championships, held in Gelsenkirchen, Germany (6–8 December)
13 December – Steve Crocker sets the first official world record in the men's 50m freestyle (short course) in Sheffield, United Kingdom, clocking 25.64.
Taekwondo
World Championships held in Athens, Greece
Tennis
20 June – death of Michael Westphal (26), German player
Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
Australian Open – Boris Becker
French Open – Jim Courier
Wimbledon championships – Michael Stich
US Open – Stefan Edberg
Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
Australian Open – Monica Seles
French Open – Monica Seles
Wimbledon championships – Steffi Graf
US Open – Monica Seles
Davis Cup – France won 3–1 over the United States in world tennis.
Triathlon
ITU World Championships held in Gold Coast, Queensland
ITU World Cup (eleven races) started in the United States Virgin Islands and ended in Mexico
ETU European Championships held in Geneva, Switzerland
Volleyball
Men's competition
FIVB World League: Italy
Asia Volleyball Championship: Japan
Men's European Volleyball Championship: USSR
Pan American Games: Cuba
Women's competition
Asia Volleyball Championship: China
Women's European Volleyball Championship: USSR
Pan American Games: Cuba
Water polo
FINA Men's World Water Polo Championship: Yugoslavia
FINA Women's World Water Polo Championship: Netherlands
Multi-sport events
Eleventh Pan American Games held in Havana, Cuba
Fifth All-Africa Games held in Cairo, Egypt
Eleventh Mediterranean Games held in Athens, Greece
Sixteenth Summer Universiade held in Sheffield, United Kingdom
Fifteenth Winter Universiade held in Sapporo, Japan
Sixteenth Southeast Asian Games held in Manila, Philippines
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Michael Jordan, NBA basketball
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Monica Seles, Tennis
Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year – Michael Jordan
James E. Sullivan Award – Olympic Long Jumper Mike Powell
References
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224736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990%20in%20sports | 1990 in sports | 1990 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Alpine skiing
Alpine Skiing World Cup
Men's overall season champion: Pirmin Zurbriggen, Switzerland
American football
Super Bowl XXIV – the San Francisco 49ers (NFC) won 55–10 over the Denver Broncos (AFC)
Location: Superdome
Attendance: 72,919
MVP: Joe Montana, QB (San Francisco)
Sugar Bowl (1989 season):
The Miami Hurricanes won 33–25 over the Alabama Crimson Tide to win the national championship
November 11 – Derrick Thomas has 7 sacks for Kansas City Chiefs against Seattle Seahawks.
Association football
West Germany won the Football World Cup in Rome, Italy, defeating defending champion Argentina 1–0 in the final.
Ecuador – Ecuadorian Serie A Champions: Liga Deportiva Universitaria de Quito
Athletics
1990 Commonwealth Games held in Auckland, New Zealand
1990 European Athletics Championships held in Split, SR Croatia, Yugoslavia
Australian rules football
Australian Football League
The Victorian Football League is renamed the Australian Football League
Collingwood wins the 94th AFL premiership (Collingwood 13.11 (89) to Essendon 5.11 (41))
Brownlow Medal awarded to Tony Liberatore (Footscray)
Baseball
March 17 – Taiwan Professional Baseball League, a first official game held.
June 11 – Nolan Ryan of the Texas Rangers pitched a no-hitter against the Oakland Athletics.
The Cincinnati Reds sweep the Oakland A's in the World Series.
Ira Smith becomes the first player in NCAA history to win consecutive batting titles after hitting .519 with the Maryland Eastern Shore Hawks.
Basketball
NBA Finals
Detroit Pistons win four games to one over the Portland Trail Blazers
National Basketball League (Australia) Finals
Perth Wildcats defeated the Brisbane Bullets 2–1 in the best-of-three final series.
Events
UNLV wins the NCAA Division I Men's championship
Yugoslavia wins the FIBA World Championship.
March 4 – American player Hank Gathers died after collapsing during the semifinals of a West Coast Conference Tournament game.
Boxing
February 11 – Buster Douglas defeated Mike Tyson by a knockout in round 10 to win the world's unified Heavyweight title, in what many consider boxing's biggest upset ever.
March 31 – Thunder Meets Lightning: Julio César Chávez defeated Meldrick Taylor to unify boxing's world junior welterweight title
September 22 to October 7 – Asian Games held in Beijing, China
November 24 to December 3 – Central American and Caribbean Games held in Mexico City
Canadian football
Grey Cup – Winnipeg Blue Bombers 50–11 over the Edmonton Eskimos
Vanier Cup – Saskatchewan Huskies win 24–21 over the St. Mary's Huskies
Cycling
Giro d'Italia won by Gianni Bugno of Italy
Tour de France – Greg LeMond of the United States
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Rudy Dhaenens of Belgium
Dogsled racing
Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion –
Susan Butcher won with lead dogs: Sluggo & Lightning
Darts
Phil Taylor (darts player) wins his first world title
Field hockey
Men's World Cup held in Lahore won by the Netherlands
Men's Champions Trophy held in Melbourne won by Australia
Women's World Cup held in Sydney won by the Netherlands
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Kurt Browning, Canada
Ladies' champion: Jill Trenary, United States
Pair skating champions: Ekaterina Gordeeva & Sergei Grinkov, Soviet Union
Ice dancing champions: Marina Klimova / Sergei Ponomarenko, Soviet Union
Gaelic Athletic Association
Camogie
All-Ireland Camogie Champion: Kilkenny
National Camogie League: Kilkenny
Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Cork 0-11 died Meath 0-9
National Football League – Meath 2-7 died Down 0-11
Ladies' Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Champion: Kerry
National Football League: Kerry
Hurling
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Cork 5-15 died Galway 2-21
National Hurling League –
Golf
Men's professional
Masters Tournament – Nick Faldo
U.S. Open – Hale Irwin
British Open – Nick Faldo
PGA Championship – Wayne Grady
PGA Tour money leader – Greg Norman – $1,165,477
Senior PGA Tour money leader – Lee Trevino – $1,190,518
Men's amateur
British Amateur – Rolf Muntz
U.S. Amateur – Phil Mickelson
European Amateur – Klas Erikson
Women's professional
Nabisco Dinah Shore – Betsy King
U.S. Women's Open – Betsy King
LPGA Championship – Beth Daniel
Classique du Maurier – Cathy Johnston-Forbes
LPGA Tour money leader – Beth Daniel – $863,578
The inaugural Solheim Cup match was won by the United States who beat Europe 11½ – 4½
Harness racing
North America Cup – Apaches Fame
United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
Cane Pace – Jake And Elwood
Little Brown Jug – Beach Towel
Messenger Stakes – Jake And Elwood
United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
Hambletonian – Harmonious
Yonkers Trot -
Kentucky Futurity – Star Mystic
Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
Pacers: Thorate
Trotters: Real Force
Horse racing
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – Norton's Coin
Grand National – Mr Frisk
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Kingston Rule
Canadian Triple Crown Races:
Queen's Plate – Izvestia
Prince of Wales Stakes – Izvestia
Breeders' Stakes – Izvestia
For the second straight year, a horse sweeps the series.
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Saumarez
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Salsabil
Japan – Japan Cup won by Better Loosen Up
English Triple Crown Races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Tirol
The Derby – Quest for Fame
St. Leger Stakes – Snurge
United States Triple Crown Races:
Kentucky Derby – Unbridled
Preakness Stakes – Summer Squall
Belmont Stakes – Go and Go
Breeders' Cup World Thoroughbred Championships:
Breeders' Cup Classic – Unbridled
Breeders' Cup Distaff – Bayakoa
Breeders' Cup Juvenile – Fly So Free
Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies – Meadow Star
Breeders' Cup Mile – Royal Academy
Breeders' Cup Sprint – Safely Kept
Breeders' Cup Turf – In the Wings
Ice hockey
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Wayne Gretzky, Los Angeles Kings
Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Mark Messier, Edmonton Oilers
Stanley Cup – Edmonton Oilers won 4 games to 1 over the Boston Bruins
World Hockey Championship
Men's champion: Soviet Union defeated Sweden
Junior Men's champion: Canada defeated Soviet Union
Women's champion: in the inaugural event, Canada defeated United States
Lacrosse
The 6th World Lacrosse Championship is held in Perth, Australia. The United States win, and Canada is the runner-up.
The Philadelphia Wings beat the New England Blazers 17–7 in the Major Indoor Lacrosse League Championship.
The Brooklin Redmen win the Mann Cup.
Orangeville wins the Founders Cup.
The St. Catharines Athletics win the Minto Cup.
Motorsport
Radiosport
The first World Radiosport Team Championship held in Seattle, United States Gold medals won by John Dorr K1AR and Doug Grant K1DG of the United States.
Fifth Amateur Radio Direction Finding World Championship held in Štrbské Pleso, Czechoslovakia (now Slovakia).
Rugby league
1990–91 French Championship season
1990 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain and France
1990 New Zealand rugby league season
1990 NSWRL season
1990 Pacific Cup
1989–90 Rugby Football League season / 1990–91 Rugby Football League season
1990 State of Origin series
1989–1992 Rugby League World Cup
Rugby union
96th Five Nations Championship series is won by Scotland who complete the Grand Slam
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – Stephen Hendry beats Jimmy White 18-12
World rankings – Stephen Hendry becomes world number one for 1990/91
Swimming
March 24 – Tom Jager betters his own world record (22.12) in the 50m freestyle (long course) twice at a swimming meet in Nashville, Tennessee, swimming 21.98 in the heats and 21.81 in the final.
Tennis
Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
Australian Open – Ivan Lendl
French Open – Andrés Gómez
Wimbledon championships – Stefan Edberg
US Open – Pete Sampras
Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
Australian Open – Steffi Graf
French Open – Monica Seles
Wimbledon championships – Martina Navratilova
US Open – Gabriela Sabatini
Davis Cup – United States won 3–2 over Australia in world tennis.
Triathlon
ITU World Championships held in Orlando, United States
ETU European Championships held in Linz, Austria
Volleyball
FIVB World League 1990 held in Osaka, Japan won by Italy
1990 FIVB Men's World Championship held in Rio de Janeiro won by Italy
1990 FIVB Women's World Championship held in Beijing won by USSR
Multi-sport events
Asian Games held in Beijing, China
Winter Asian Games held in Sapporo, Japan
Central American and Caribbean Games held in Mexico City, Mexico
1990 Commonwealth Games held in Auckland, New Zealand
Summer Goodwill Games held in Seattle, United States
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Joe Montana, National Football League
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Beth Daniel, LPGA golf
BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year – Mal Meninga, Australian rugby league footballer
References
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224737 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherpa%20people | Sherpa people | The Sherpa are one of the Tibetan ethnic groups native to the most mountainous regions of Nepal, Tingri County in the Tibet Autonomous Region and the Himalayas. The term sherpa or sherwa derives from the Sherpa language words ("east") and ("people"), which refer to their geographical origin of eastern Tibet.
Most Sherpa people live in the eastern regions of Nepal and Tingri County however, some live farther west in the Rolwaling Valley , Bigu and in the Helambu region north of Kathmandu, Nepal. Sherpas establish gompas where they practice their religious traditions. Tengboche was the first celibate monastery in Solu-Khumbu. Sherpa people also live in Tingri County, Bhutan, and the Indian states of Sikkim and the northern portion of West Bengal, specifically the district of Darjeeling. The Sherpa language belongs to the south branch of the Tibeto-Burman languages, mixed with Eastern Tibet (Khamba) and central Tibetan dialects. However, this language is separate from Lhasa Tibetan and unintelligible to Lhasa speakers.
The number of Sherpas migrating to Western countries has significantly increased in recent years, especially to the United States. New York City has the largest Sherpa community in the United States, with a population of approximately 16,000. The 2011 Nepal census recorded 112,946 Sherpas within its borders. Members of the Sherpa population are known for their skills in mountaineering as a livelihood.
History
The Sherpa were nomadic people who first settled in the Solukhumbu District (Khumbu), Nepal. According to Sherpa oral history, four groups migrated from Kham in Tibet to Solukhumbu at different times, giving rise to the four fundamental Sherpa clans: Minyagpa, Thimmi, Sertawa and Chawa. These four groups gradually split into the more than 20 different clans that exist today. Mahayana Buddhism religious conflict may have contributed to the migration out of Tibet in the 13th and 14th centuries and arrived in Khumbu regions of Nepal. Sherpa migrants travelled through Ü and Tsang, before crossing the Himalaya.
By the 1400s, Khumbu Sherpa people attained autonomy within the newly formed Nepali state. In the 1960s, as tension with China increased, the Nepali government influence on the Sherpa people grew. In 1976, Khumbu became a national park, and tourism became a major economic force.
Gautam (1994) concluded that the Sherpa migrated from Tibet to Nepal approximately 600 years ago, initially through Rongshar to the west and then later through the Nangpa La pass. It is presumed that the group of people from the Kham region, east of Tibet, was called "Shyar Khamba" (People who came from eastern Kham), and the place where they settled was called "Shyar Khumbu". As time passed, the "Shyar Khamba", inhabitants of Shyar Khumbu, were called Sherpa. A recent Nepal Ethnographic Museum (2001) study postulated that present-day Nepal became an integral part of the kingdom of Nepal. Since ancient times, Sherpas, like other Kirat Nepalese tribes, would move from one place to another place within the Himalayan region surviving as Alpine pastoralists and traders.
Genetics
Genetic studies shows that much of the Sherpa population has allele frequencies which are often found in other Tibeto-Burman regions, in tested genes, the strongest affinity was for Tibetan population sample studies done in Xizang Tibetan Autonomous Region. Genetically, the Sherpa cluster closest with the sample Tibetan and Han populations.
Additionally, the Sherpa had exhibited an affinity for several Nepalese populations, with the strongest for the Rai people, followed by the Magars and the Tamang.
A 2010 study identified more than 30 genetic factors that make Tibetans' bodies well-suited for high altitudes, including EPAS1, referred to as the "super-athlete gene" that regulates the body's production of hemoglobin, allowing for greater efficiency in the use of oxygen.
A 2016 study of Sherpas in Tibet suggested that a small portion of Sherpas' and Tibetans' allele frequencies originated from separate ancient populations, which were estimated to have remained somewhat distributed for 11,000 to 7,000 years.
Haplogroup distribution
A 2014 study observed that considerable genetic components from the Indian Subcontinent were found in Sherpa people living in Tibet. The western Y chromosomal haplogroups R1a1a-M17, J-M304, and F*-M89 comprise almost 17% of the paternal gene pool in tested individuals. In the maternal side, M5c2, M21d, and U from the west also count up to 8% of people in given Sherpa populations. However, a later study from 2015 did not support the results from the 2014 study; the 2015 study concluded that genetic sharing from the Indian subcontinent was highly limited; a 2017 study found the same.
In a 2015 study of 582 Sherpa individuals (277 males) from China and Nepal, haplogroup D-M174 was found most frequently, followed by Haplogroup O-M175, Haplogroup F-M89 and Haplogroup K-M9. The Y-chromosome haplogroup distribution for Sherpas follow a pattern similar to that for Tibetans.
Sherpa mtDNA distribution shows greater diversity, as Haplogroup A was found most frequently, followed by Haplogroup M9a, Haplogroup C4a, Haplogroup M70, and Haplogroup D. These haplogroups are also found in some Tibetan populations. However, two common mtDNA sub-haplogroups unique to Sherpas populations were identified: Haplogroup A15c1 and Haplogroup C4a3b1.
Mountaineering
Many Sherpas are highly regarded as elite mountaineers and experts in their local area. They were valuable to early explorers of the Himalayan region, serving as guides at the extreme altitudes of the peaks and passes in the region, particularly for expeditions to climb Mount Everest. Today, the term is often used by foreigners to refer to almost any guide or climbing supporter hired for mountaineering expeditions in the Himalayas, regardless of their ethnicity. Because of this usage, the term has become a slang byword for a guide or mentor in other situations. Sherpas are renowned in the international climbing and mountaineering community for their hardiness, expertise, and experience at very high altitudes. It has been speculated that part of the Sherpas' climbing ability is the result of a genetic adaptation to living in high altitudes. Some of these adaptations include unique hemoglobin-binding capacity and doubled nitric oxide production.
Deaths in 2014 Everest avalanche
On 18 April 2014, a serac collapsed above the Khumbu Icefall on Mount Everest, causing an avalanche of massive chunks of ice and snow which killed 16 Nepalese guides, mostly Sherpas. The 2014 avalanche is the second-deadliest disaster in Everest's history, only exceeded by avalanches in the Khumbu Icefall area a year later, on 25 April 2015, caused by a magnitude 7.8 earthquake in Nepal. In response to that tragedy and others involving deaths and injuries sustained by Sherpas hired by climbers, and the lack of government support for Sherpas injured or killed while providing their services, some Sherpa climbing guides walked off the job, and some climbing companies are no longer providing guides and porters for Everest expeditions.
The 2014 event killed 16 Sherpas
and, in 2015, 10 Sherpas died at the Everest Base Camp after the earthquake. In total, 118 Sherpas have died on this mountain between 1921 and 2018. An April 2018 report by NPR stated that Sherpas account for one-third of Everest deaths.
Religion
According to oral Buddhist traditions, the initial Tibetan migration was a search for a beyul (Buddhist pure-lands). Sherpa practise the Nyingmapa, the "Ancient" school of Buddhism. Allegedly the oldest Buddhist sect in Tibet, founded by Padmasambhava (commonly known as Guru Rinpoche) during the 8th century, it emphasizes mysticism and the incorporation of local deities shared by the pre-Buddhist Bön religion, which has shamanic elements. Sherpa particularly believe in hidden treasures and valleys. Traditionally, Nyingmapa practice was passed down orally through a loose network of lay practitioners. Monasteries with celibate monks and nuns, along with the belief in reincarnated spiritual leaders, are later adaptations.
In addition to Buddha and the great Buddhist divinities, the Sherpa also believe in numerous deities and demons who inhabit every mountain, cave, and forest. These have to be respected or appeased through ancient practices woven into the fabric of Buddhist ritual life. Many of the great Himalayan mountains are considered sacred. The Sherpa call Mount Everest Chomolungma and respect it as the "Mother of the World." Mount Makalu is respected as the deity Shankar (Shiva). Each clan reveres certain mountain peaks and their protective deities.
Today, the day-to-day Sherpa religious affairs are presided over by lamas (Buddhist spiritual leaders) and other religious practitioners living in the villages. The village lama who presides over ceremonies and rituals can be a celibate monk or a married householder. In addition, shamans (lhawa) and soothsayers (mindung) deal with the supernatural and the spirit world. Lamas identify witches (pem), act as the mouthpiece of deities and spirits, and diagnose spiritual illnesses.
An important aspect of Sherpa religion is the temple or gompa. A gompa is the prayer hall for either villages or monasteries. There are numerous gompas and about two dozen monasteries scattered throughout the Solukhumbu region. The monasteries are communities of lamas or monks (sometimes of nuns) who take a vow of celibacy and lead a life of isolation searching for truth and religious enlightenment. They are respected by and supported by the community at large. Their contact with the outside world is focused on monastery practices and annual festivals to which the public is invited, as well as the reading of sacred texts at funerals.
Traditional clothing
Men wear long-sleeved robes called kitycow, which fall to slightly below the knee. Chhuba is tied at the waist with a cloth sash called kara, creating a pouch-like space called tolung which can be used for storing and carrying small items. Traditionally, chhuba were made from thick home-spun wool, or a variant called lokpa made from sheepskin. Chhuba are worn over raatuk, a blouse (traditionally made out of bure, white raw silk), trousers called kanam, and an outer jacket called tetung.
Women traditionally wear long-sleeved floor-length dresses of thick wool called tongkok. A sleeveless variation called angi is worn over a raatuk (blouse) in warmer weather. These are worn with colourful striped aprons; metil aprons are worn in front, and gewe in back, and are held together by an embossed silver buckle called kyetig.
Sherpa clothing resembles Tibetan clothing. Increasingly, home-spun wool and silk is being replaced by factory-made material. Many Sherpa people also now wear ready-made western clothing.
Traditional housing
When a son marries and has children, the community may help to construct a new house, as the extended family becomes too large for a single home. The neighbours often contribute food, drinks and labour to help the family. Houses are typically spaced to allow fields in between. A spiritual ceremony may be conducted at every building stage as the house must have space for deities, humans and animals. Once constructed, the house is often handed down within a family and not sold. The house style depends on the lay of the land: old river terraces, former lake beds or mountain slopes. There are stone single-story, -story (on a slope), and the two-story houses, with ample room for animals. Many well-to-do families will have an annex shrine room for sacred statues, scriptures and ritual objects. The roof is sloping and is made from local natural materials, or imported metal. There's space in the roof to allow for fire smoke to escape. There may be an internal or external outhouse for making compost.
Social gatherings
"A Sherpa community will most commonly get together for a party, which is held by the host with the purpose of gaining favour with the community and neighbours". Guests are invited hours before the party will start by the host's children to reduce the chance of rejection. The men are seated by order of status, with those of lesser status sitting closer to the door and men of higher status sitting by the fireplace, while the women sit in the center with no ordering. It is polite to sit in a space lower than one's proper place so one may be invited by the host to their proper place. The first several hours of the party will have only beer served, followed by the serving of food, and then several more hours of singing and dancing before people start to drift out. The act of manipulating one's neighbours into cooperation by hosting a party is known as Yangdzi, and works by expecting the hospitality done by the host with the serving of food and alcohol to be repaid.
Notable people
One of the best-known Sherpas is Tenzing Norgay. In 1953, he and Edmund Hillary became the first people known to have reached the summit of Mount Everest. Norgay's son Jamling Tenzing Norgay also climbed Everest in honor of his father with the mountaineers Ed Viesturs and Araceli Segarra during the disastrous year of 1996.
In 2001, Temba Tsheri became the youngest Everest climber in the world (holder of the Guinness World Record), then aged 16.
In 2003, Sherpas Pemba Dorje and Lhakpa Golu competed to see who could climb Everest from base camp the fastest. On 23 May 2003, Dorje reached the summit in 12 hours and 46 minutes. Three days later, Golu beat his record by two hours, reaching the summit in 10 hours 46 minutes. On 21 May 2004, Dorje again improved the time by more than two hours with a total time of 8 hours and 10 minutes.
On 11 May 2011, Apa Sherpa successfully reached the summit of Everest for the twenty-first time, breaking his own record for the most successful ascents. He first climbed Mount Everest in 1989 at the age of 29.
One of the most famous Nepalese female mountaineers was Pasang Lhamu Sherpa, the first Nepali female climber to reach the summit of Everest, but who died during the descent. Her namesake, Pasang Lamu Sherpa Akita, has also climbed Everest, and was one of three Nepali women who were the first to reach the summit of K2. Another well-known female Sherpa was the two-time Everest summiter Pemba Doma Sherpa, who died after falling from Lhotse on 22 May 2007.
On 20 May 2011, Mingma Sherpa became the first Nepali and the first South Asian to scale all 14 of the world's highest mountains. In the process, Mingma set new world record – he became the first mountaineer to climb all 14 peaks on first attempt.
Lakpa Tsheri Sherpa is one half of a Nepali duo that was voted "People's Choice Adventurers of the Year 2012". In April 2011, Lakpa Tsheri and Sano Babu Sunuwar made the 'Ultimate Descent': a three-month journey in which they climbed Everest, then paraglided down the mountain and proceeded to kayak through Nepal and India until they reached the Indian Ocean.
On 19 May 2012, 16-year-old Nima Chhamzi Sherpa became the youngest woman to climb Everest; the previous record holder was Nimdoma Sherpa, who summited in 2008, also at 16 years old.
Chhurim Sherpa (Nepal) summitted Everest twice in May 2012: 12 May and 19 May. Guinness World Records recognized her for being the first female Sherpa to summit Everest twice in one climbing season.
In 2013, 30-year-old Chhang Dawa Sherpa became the youngest mountaineer to summit the 14 highest peaks, the 8000'ers.
Pratima Sherpa is the top-ranked amateur female golfer in Nepal. She was raised in a maintenance shed behind the third hole of the Royal Nepal Golf Club in Kathmandu, where her parents still live. In 2020, Forbes Magazine included her in '30 under 30' list of Asian personalities in entertainment and sports.
On 26 July 2014, Pasang Lamu Sherpa Akita, Dawa Yangzum Sherpa, and Maya Sherpa crested the 8,611-metre (28,251 ft) summit of K2, the second highest mountain in the world. In doing so, the three Nepali women became the first all-female team to climb what many mountaineers consider a much tougher challenge than Everest. The feat was announced in climbing circles as a breakthrough achievement for women in high-altitude mountaineering. Only 18 of the 376 people who have summited K2 have been women.
Another notable Sherpa is cross-country skier and ultramarathoner Dachhiri Sherpa, who represented Nepal at the 2006, 2010, and 2014 Winter Olympics.
Similarly Cultural and tourism Minister of Nepal Kripasur Sherpa, major of British Gurkha Army Prem Dorji Sherpa, ambassador of Australia Lucky Sherpa are notable personnel from Sherpa communities.
Mountain guide Kami Rita Sherpa holds the world record for the number of successful climbs to the summit of Mount Everest, 23 as of 15 May 2019. Two others, Apa Sherpa and Phurba Tashi Sherpa, have successfully summited on 21 occasions.
Mountaineer PK Sherpa and his 14-year-old-son Sonam Sherpa will lead the "First Father and Son Mountaineers" for a global awareness campaign about climate change and global warming. Both father and son will jointly climb all the seven highest summits of seven continents from March 2019 to May 2020.
See also
Demographics of Nepal
Sardar
Tengboche
Sherpa (emissary)
References
External links
Everything about himali Sherpa Culture
Tapting Sherpa Kyidug – a Sherpa community group in Kathmandu
Sherpa in Nepal: History, Culture, Religion, Language
Sherpa dictionary
Gaiety of Spirit: The Sherpas of Khumbu
Beyul Khumbu: The Sherpa and Sagarmatha (Mount Everest National Park and Buffer Zone, Nepal
Sino-Tibetan-speaking people
Mountaineering
Nyingma
Gurkhas
Buddhist communities of China
Buddhist communities of Nepal
Buddhist communities of Bhutan
Buddhist communities of India
Mountaineering in Nepal | [
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224738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989%20in%20sports | 1989 in sports | 1989 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Alpine skiing
Alpine Skiing World Cup
Men's overall season champion: Marc Girardelli, Luxembourg
Women's overall season champion: Vreni Schneider, Switzerland
American football
Super Bowl XXIII – the San Francisco 49ers (NFC) won 20–16 over the Cincinnati Bengals (AFC)
Location: Joe Robbie Stadium
Attendance: 75,129
MVP: Jerry Rice, WR (San Francisco)
January 2 - Fiesta Bowl (1988 season):
The Notre Dame fighting irish won 34-21 over the West Virginia Mountaineers to win the national championship
Artistic gymnastics
World Artistic Gymnastics Championships –
Men's all-around champion: Igor Korobchinsky, USSR
Women's all-around champion: Svetlana Boginskaya, USSR
Men's team competition champion: USSR
Women's team competition champion: USSR
Association football
Australian rules football
Victorian Football League
May 6 – Geelong kicks the highest losing score in VFL/AFL history, kicking 25.13 (163) to Hawthorn’s 26.15 (171)
June 24 – Essendon kicks the lowest winning score since the 1927 Grand Final, beating Footscray 3.10 (28) to 3.5 (23).
Hawthorn wins the 93rd VFL Premiership beating Geelong 21.18 (144) d 21.12 (138)
Brownlow Medal awarded to Paul Couch (Geelong)
Baseball
April 8 – One-handed pitcher Jim Abbott makes his major-league debut with the California Angels, without spending a single day in the minor leagues. He went on to a 12–12 record for the season.
August 10 – Ten months after undergoing surgery for cancer in his pitching arm, San Francisco Giants pitcher Dave Dravecky returns to the major leagues, winning his comeback 4–3.
August 15 – Dave Dravecky's comeback bid ends when his pitching arm breaks in the sixth inning of his second start. Two years later, the cancer-stricken arm would be amputated.
August 24 – Following an investigation that he gambled on baseball, superstar player Pete Rose is banned from baseball for life.
World Series – Oakland Athletics won 4 games to 0 over the San Francisco Giants in a series that was delayed because of the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. The Series MVP was Dave Stewart, Oakland.
Taiwan Professional Baseball League, officially founded on October 23.
Basketball
NCAA Men's Basketball Championship –
Michigan wins 80–79 over Seton Hall in overtime
NBA Finals –
The Detroit Pistons win 4 games to 0 over the Los Angeles Lakers to win the franchise's first championship.
National Basketball League (Australia) Finals:
North Melbourne Giants defeated the Canberra Cannons 2–1 in the best-of-three final series.
Boxing
February 11 – In Grenoble, France, Rene Jacquot won a 12-round decision over Donald Curry to win the World Welterweight Championship
May 29 to June 3 – 28th European Amateur Boxing Championships held in Athens, Greece
Canadian football
Grey Cup – Saskatchewan Roughriders won 43–40 over the Hamilton Tiger-Cats
Vanier Cup – Western Ontario Mustangs won 35–10 over the Saskatchewan Huskies
Cycling
Giro d'Italia won by Laurent Fignon of France
Tour de France – Greg LeMond of the United States
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Greg LeMond of the United States
Dogsled racing
Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion –
Joe Runyan won with lead dogs: Rambo & Ferlin the Husky
Field hockey
Men's Champions Trophy: Australia
Women's Champions Trophy: South Korea
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Kurt Browning, Canada
Ladies’ champion: Midori Ito, Japan
Pair skating champions: Ekaterina Gordeeva & Sergei Grinkov, Soviet Union
Ice dancing champions: Marina Klimova / Sergei Ponomarenko, Soviet Union
Gaelic Athletic Association
Camogie
All-Ireland Camogie Champion: Kilkenny
National Camogie League: Kilkenny
Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Cork 0–17 died Mayo 1–11
National Football League – Cork 0–15 died Dublin 0–12
Ladies' Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Champion: Kerry
National Football League: Kerry
Hurling
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Tipperary 4–24 died Antrim 3–9
National Hurling League –
Golf
Men's professional
Masters Tournament – Nick Faldo
U.S. Open – Curtis Strange
British Open – Mark Calcavecchia
PGA Championship – Payne Stewart
PGA Tour money leader – Tom Kite – $1,395,278
Senior PGA Tour money leader – Bob Charles – $725,887
Ryder Cup – Europe and the United States teams tied 14–14 in team golf.
Men's amateur
British Amateur – Stephen Dodd
U.S. Amateur – Chris Patton
European Amateur – David Ecob
Women's professional
Nabisco Dinah Shore – Juli Inkster
LPGA Championship – Nancy Lopez
U.S. Women's Open – Betsy King
Classique du Maurier – Tammie Green
LPGA Tour money leader – Betsy King – $654,132
Harness racing
North America Cup – Goalie Jeff
United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
Cane Pace – Dancing Master
Little Brown Jug – Goalie Jeff
Messenger Stakes – Sandman Hanover
United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
Hambletonian – Park Ave Joe & Probe (dead heat)
Yonkers Trot – Valley Victory
Kentucky Futurity – Peace Corps
Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
Pacers: Jodie's Babe
Trotters: Yankee Loch
Horse racing
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – Desert Orchid
Grand National – Little Polveir
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Tawrrific
Canadian Triple Crown Races:
Queen's Plate – With Approval
Prince of Wales Stakes – With Approval
Breeders' Stakes – With Approval
With Approval becomes the first horse to win the Canadian Triple Crown since 1963.
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Carroll House
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Old Vic
Japan – Japan Cup won by Horlicks
English Triple Crown Races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Nashwan
The Derby – Nashwan
St. Leger Stakes – Michelozzo
United States Triple Crown Races:
May 6 – Kentucky Derby – Sunday Silence
Preakness Stakes – Sunday Silence
Belmont Stakes – Easy Goer
Breeders' Cup World Thoroughbred Championships:
Breeders' Cup Classic – Sunday Silence
Breeders' Cup Distaff – Bayakoa
Breeders' Cup Juvenile – Rhythm
Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies – Go for Wand
Breeders' Cup Mile – Steinlen
Breeders' Cup Sprint – Dancing Spree
Breeders' Cup Turf – Prized
Ice hockey
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Mario Lemieux, Pittsburgh Penguins
March 22 – St. Louis Blues’ Steve Tuttle slits the jugular vein of Buffalo Sabres’ goaltender Clint Malarchuk, with a total of 300 stitches needed to close the wound thanks to trainer Jim Pizzutelli.
Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL’s Most Valuable Player: Wayne Gretzky, Los Angeles Kings
Stanley Cup – The Calgary Flames won 4 games to 2 over the Montreal Canadiens. This constitutes the only time that the visiting team won the cup at the Montreal Forum against the Canadiens.
World Hockey Championship
Men's champion: Soviet Union defeated Canada
Junior Men's champion: Soviet Union defeated Sweden
Lacrosse
The Philadelphia Wings defeat the New York Saints to win the Major Indoor Lacrosse League championship
Motorsport
Radiosport
Second European High Speed Telegraphy Championship held in Hanover, Germany.
Rugby league
June 7 – 1989 Panasonic Cup tournament final: Brisbane Broncos 22–20 Illawarra Steelers at Parramatta Stadium
June 14 – 1989 State of Origin title is wrapped up by Queensland in Game Two of the three-match series against New South Wales at the Sydney Football Stadium before 40,000.
July 23 – first of the 1989–1992 World Cup's twenty tournament matches is won by Australia 22–14 over New Zealand at Mount Smart Stadium before 15,000
September 24 – 1989 NSWRL season Grand Final: Canberra Raiders 19–14 Balmain Tigers at Sydney Football Stadium before 40,500.
October 4 – 1989 World Club Challenge match is won by Widnes who defeats Canberra Raiders 30–18 at Old Trafford before 30,768
Rugby union
95th Five Nations Championship series is won by France
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – Steve Davis beats John Parrott 18–3
World rankings – Steve Davis remains world number one for 1989/90
Swimming
Third Pan Pacific Championships, held in Tokyo, Japan (August 17 – 20)
August 20 – Tom Jager once again regains the world record (22.14) in the 50m freestyle (long course) during 1989 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships, with a time of 22.12.
Taekwondo
World Championships held in Seoul, South Korea
Tennis
Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
Australian Open – Ivan Lendl
French Open – Michael Chang
Wimbledon championships – Boris Becker
US Open – Boris Becker
Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
Australian Open – Steffi Graf
French Open – Arantxa Sánchez Vicario
Wimbledon championships – Steffi Graf
US Open – Steffi Graf
Davis Cup – Germany F.R. won 3–2 over Sweden in world tennis.
Triathlon
1989 ITU Triathlon World Championships held in Avignon, France
ETU European Championships held in Cascais, Portugal
Volleyball
1989 FIVB Men's World Cup won by Cuba
1989 FIVB Women's World Cup won by Cuba
1989 Men's European Volleyball Championship won by Italy
1989 Women's European Volleyball Championship won by USSR
Water polo
Men's Water Polo World Cup won by Yugoslavia
Men's European Water Polo Championship won by West Germany
Women's European Water Polo Championship won by the Netherlands
Multi-sport events
Third World Games held in Karlsruhe, West Germany
15th Summer Universiade held in Duisburg, West Germany
Fourteenth Winter Universiade held in Sofia, Bulgaria
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Joe Montana, National Football League
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Steffi Graf, Tennis
References
Sports by year | [
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224739 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1988%20in%20sports | 1988 in sports | 1988 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Alpine skiing
Alpine Skiing World Cup
Men's overall season champion: Pirmin Zurbriggen, Switzerland
Women's overall season champion: Michela Figini, Switzerland
American football
Super Bowl XXII – the Washington Redskins (NFC) won 42–10 over the Denver Broncos (AFC)
Location: Jack Murphy Stadium
Attendance: 73,302
MVP: Doug Williams, QB (Washington)
Williams becomes the first black quarterback to play in a Super Bowl.
December 17 – Jamie Morris of Washington Redskins sets NFL single game record for rushing attempts (45) in 20–17 loss to Cincinnati Bengals.
January 1 – Orange Bowl (1987 season):
The Miami Hurricanes won 20-14 over the Oklahoma Sooners to win the national championship
Association football
Athletics
September – Athletics at the 1988 Summer Olympics held in Seoul, South Korea
Australian rules football
Victorian Football League
Hawthorn wins the 92nd VFL Premiership (Hawthorn 22.20 (152) d Melbourne 6.20 (56))
Brownlow Medal awarded to Gerard Healy (Sydney Swans)
Baseball
January 12 – Former Pirates slugger Willie Stargell is the only player elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame. Stargell, leader of two world champions in Pittsburgh and NL co-MVP in 1979 at age 39, becomes the 17th player to be elected in his first year of eligibility. Jim Bunning falls four votes shy of the 321 needed for election in his 13th year on the ballot.
August 8 – The first night game ever at Wrigley Field is played. After an attempt the previous night was rained out, the Cubs defeat the New York Mets 6–4.
World Series – Los Angeles Dodgers won 4 games to 1 over the Oakland Athletics. The Series MVP was Orel Hershiser, Los Angeles
Basketball
NCAA Men's Basketball Championship –
Kansas wins 83–79 over Oklahoma
NBA Finals –
Los Angeles Lakers won 4 games to 3 over the Detroit Pistons
National Basketball League (Australia) Finals:
Canberra Cannons defeated the North Melbourne Giants 2–1 in the best-of-three final series.
Boxing
June 6 – in Las Vegas, Iran Barkley knocked out Thomas Hearns in the 3rd round to win the WBC Middleweight Title.
June 27 – in what was dubbed Superfight '88 Mike Tyson knocks out Michael Spinks in Atlantic City, New Jersey and defends the Undisputed Heavyweight Championship of the World.
November 7 – in Las Vegas, boxer Sugar Ray Leonard knocks out Donnie LaLonde.
Canadian football
Grey Cup – Winnipeg Blue Bombers won 22–21 over the B.C. Lions
Vanier Cup – Calgary Dinos won 52–23 over the St. Mary's Huskies
Cycling
Giro d'Italia won by Andrew Hampsten of the United States
Tour de France – Pedro Delgado of Spain
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Maurizio Fondriest of Italy
Darts
Embassy World Professional Darts Championships won by Bob Anderson of England
Dog sledding
Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion –
Susan Butcher wins with lead dogs: Granite & Tolstoi
Field hockey
Men's Champions Trophy held in Lahore won by West Germany
Olympic Games (Men's Competition) won by Great Britain
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Brian Boitano, United States
Ladies' champion: Katarina Witt, East Germany
Pair skating champions: Elena Valova / Oleg Vasiliev, Soviet Union
Ice dancing champions: Natalia Bestemianova / Andrei Bukin, Soviet Union
Gaelic Athletic Association
Camogie
All-Ireland Camogie Champion: Kilkenny
National Camogie League: Kilkenny
Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Meath 0–13 died Cork 0–9
National Football League – Meath 2–13 died Dublin 0–11
Ladies' Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Champion: Kerry
National Football League: Kerry
Hurling
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Galway 1–15 died Tipperary 0–14
National Hurling League –
Golf
Men's professional
Masters Tournament – Sandy Lyle
U.S. Open – Curtis Strange
British Open – Seve Ballesteros
PGA Championship – Jeff Sluman
PGA Tour money leader – Curtis Strange – $1,147,644
Senior PGA Tour money leader – Bob Charles – $533,929
Men's amateur
British Amateur – Christian Hardin
U.S. Amateur – Eric Meeks
European Amateur – not played
Women's professional
Nabisco Dinah Shore – Amy Alcott
LPGA Championship – Sherri Turner
U.S. Women's Open – Liselotte Neumann
Classique du Maurier – Sally Little
LPGA Tour money leader – Sherri Turner – $350,851
Harness racing
North America Cup – Jate Lobell
United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
Cane Pace – Runnymede Lobell
Little Brown Jug – B.J. Scoot
Messenger Stakes – Matt's Scooter
United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
Hambletonian – Armbro Goal
Yonkers Trot – Southern Newton
Kentucky Futurity – Huggie Hanover
Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
Pacers: Our Maestro
Trotters: True Roman
Horse racing
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – Charter Party
Grand National – Rhyme 'n' Reason
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Empire Rose
Canada – Queen's Plate won by Regal Intention
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Tony Bin
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Kahyasi
Japan – Japan Cup won by Pay the Butler
English Triple Crown Races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Doyoun
The Derby – Kahyasi
St. Leger Stakes – Minster Son
United States Triple Crown Races:
Kentucky Derby – Winning Colors
Preakness Stakes – Risen Star
Belmont Stakes – Risen Star
Breeders' Cup World Thoroughbred Championships:
Breeders' Cup Classic – Alysheba
Breeders' Cup Distaff – Personal Ensign
Breeders' Cup Juvenile – Is It True
Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies – Open Mind
Breeders' Cup Mile – Miesque
Breeders' Cup Sprint – Gulch
Breeders' Cup Turf – Great Communicator
Ice hockey
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Mario Lemieux, Pittsburgh Penguins
Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Mario Lemieux, Pittsburgh Penguins
Stanley Cup – Edmonton Oilers won 4 games to 0 over the Boston Bruins
August 9 – Hockey's Wayne Gretzky traded to the Los Angeles Kings
World Hockey Championship –
Men's champion: Soviet Union won the Olympic gold medal
Junior Men's champion: Canada defeated the USSR
December 31 – in a game between the Pittsburgh Penguins and New Jersey Devils, Mario Lemieux scores five goals and becomes the only player in NHL history to score a goal in all five possible game situations in the same game: even-strength, power play, shorthanded, penalty shot, and empty net.
Lacrosse
The New Jersey Saints beat the Washington Wave 17–16 to win the Eagle Pro Box Lacrosse League Championship.
Following the season, the Eagle Pro Box Lacrosse League changes its name to the Major Indoor Lacrosse League (MILL).
The Brooklin Redmen win the Mann Cup.
The Kitchener-Waterloo win the Founders Cup.
The Esquimalt Legion win the Minto Cup.
Motorsport
Olympic Games
1988 Summer Olympics takes place in Seoul, South Korea
USSR wins the most medals (132) and the most gold medals (55).
September 24 – Canada's Ben Johnson wins Olympic gold in 100 metres. Two days later, he is stripped of the medal after testing positive for a banned substance.
1988 Winter Olympics takes place in Calgary, Canada
USSR wins the most medals (29) and the most gold medals (11).
Racewalk
February 19 - Helga Arendt, Silke-Beate Knoll, Mechthild Kluth, Gisela Kinzel walk indoor female world record 4x200 meter (1:32.55)
Radiosport
Fourth Amateur Radio Direction Finding World Championship held in Beatenberg, Switzerland.
Rugby league
1988 Great Britain Lions tour
1988 New Zealand rugby league season
The 1988 NSWRL season sees the debuts of three new franchises: Brisbane Broncos, Gold Coast Chargers and Newcastle Knights. The Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs win their sixth title, defeating Balmain Tigers 24–12 in the Grand Final
1988 Pacific Cup
1988 Panasonic Cup
1987–88 Rugby Football League season / 1988–89 Rugby Football League season
1988 State of Origin series
1985–1988 Rugby League World Cup
Rugby union
94th Five Nations Championship series is shared by France and Wales
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – Steve Davis beats Terry Griffiths 18–11
World rankings – Steve Davis remains world number one for 1988/89
Swimming
Olympic Games held in Seoul, South Korea (September 18 – September 25)
March 25 – USA's Tom Jager betters his own world record (22.32) in the 50m freestyle (long course) at a swimming meet in Orlando, Florida, clocking 22.23.
September 24 – Matt Biondi breaks Tom Jager's world record (22.23) in the 50m freestyle (long course) in the final of the event at the Seoul Olympic Games, clocking 22.14.
Tennis
Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
Australian Open – Mats Wilander
French Open – Mats Wilander
Wimbledon – Stefan Edberg
US Open – Mats Wilander
Steffi Graf becomes only the third woman in history to win the Grand Slam in tennis and the golden slam –
Australian Open – Steffi Graf
French Open – Steffi Graf
Wimbledon – Steffi Graf
US Open – Steffi Graf
1988 Summer Olympics
Men's Singles Competition – Miloslav Mečíř
Women's Singles Competition – Steffi Graf
Men's Doubles Competition – Ken Flach & Robert Seguso
Women's Doubles Competition – Pam Shriver & Zina Garrison
Davis Cup
Germany won 4–1 over Sweden in world team tennis
Yacht racing
The San Diego Yacht Club retains the America's Cup as Stars & Stripes '88 defeats New Zealand challenger KZ1, from the Mercury Bay Boating Club, 2 races to 0
Volleyball
1988 Summer Olympics (men) won by United States of America
1988 Summer Olympics (women) won by USSR
Water polo
1988 Summer Olympics (men) won by Yugoslavia
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Orel Hershiser, Major League Baseball
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Florence Griffith Joyner, Track and field
References
Sports by year | [
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224740 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987%20in%20sports | 1987 in sports | 1987 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Alpine skiing
Alpine Skiing World Cup
Men's overall season champion: Pirmin Zurbriggen, Switzerland
Women's overall season champion: Maria Walliser, Switzerland
American football
Super Bowl XXI – the New York Giants (NFC) won 39–20 over the Denver Broncos (AFC)
Location: Rose Bowl
Attendance: 101,063
MVP: Phil Simms, QB (New York)
January 2 – Fiesta Bowl (1986 season):
The Penn State Nittany Lions won 14-10 over the Miami Hurricanes to win the national championship
Arena football has its demonstration season—its first season— played with four teams.
February 25 – The Southern Methodist University Mustangs football team becomes the first college football program to be given the death penalty by the NCAA Committee on Rules Infractions
Artistic gymnastics
World Artistic Gymnastics Championships –
Men's all-around champion: Dmitry Bilozerchev, USSR
Women's all-around champion: Aurelia Dobre, Romania
Men's team competition champion: USSR
Women's team competition champion: Romania
Association football
FA Cup final – Coventry City defeated Tottenham Hotspur 3-2
Automatic relegation is introduced from the Football League, with Lincoln City F.C. relegated
Australian rules football
Victorian Football League
The West Coast Eagles and the Brisbane Bears join the league.
Carlton wins the 91st VFL Premiership (Carlton 15.14 (104) d Hawthorn 9.17 (71))
Brownlow Medal awarded to Tony Lockett (St Kilda) and John Platten (Hawthorn)
Athletics
August–September – 1987 World Championships in Athletics held in Rome
Baseball
January 14 – Catfish Hunter and Billy Williams are elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame. Hunter made his name as the ace of the Oakland A's staff in their championship years and made his fortune as one of the first free agents. Williams set a National League record by playing in 1,117 consecutive games and accumulating 426 home runs and a batting title.
August 3 – Minnesota Twins pitcher Joe Niekro is suspended for 10 days for possessing a nail file on the pitcher's mound. Niekro claimed he had been filing his nails in the dugout and put the file in his back pocket when the inning started.
World Series – Minnesota Twins won 4 games to 3 over the St. Louis Cardinals. The Series MVP was Frank Viola, Minnesota
Lowest regular-season record of any World Series champion (85-77, .525) until 2006 (Cardinals 83-78, .516)
First World Series game played indoors (Game 1 at the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome)
First World Series where the home team won every game
Basketball
NCAA Men's Basketball Championship –
Indiana won 74-73 over Syracuse
NBA Finals –
Los Angeles Lakers won 4 games to 2 over the Boston Celtics
National Basketball League (Australia) Finals:
Brisbane Bullets defeated the Perth Wildcats 2-0 in the best-of-three final series.
Boxing
March 7 in Las Vegas, Nevada, Mike Tyson adds the WBA heavyweight title to his WBC belt when he beats James Smith in a 12-round decision.
April 6 – Sugar Ray Leonard beats Marvin Hagler for boxing's world Middleweight championship.
Canadian football
Grey Cup – Edmonton Eskimos won 38–36 over the Toronto Argonauts
Vanier Cup – McGill Redmen won 47–11 over the UBC Thunderbirds
Cricket
1987 Cricket World Cup – Final: Australia beat England by 7 runs
Cycling
Giro d'Italia won by Stephen Roche of Ireland
Tour de France – Stephen Roche of Ireland
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Stephen Roche of Ireland
Dogsled racing
Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion –
Susan Butcher won with lead dogs: Granite & Mattie
Field hockey
Men's Champions Trophy won by West Germany
Women's Champions Trophy won by the Netherlands
Men's European Nations Cup won by the Netherlands
Women's European Nations Cup won by the Netherlands
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Brian Orser, Canada
Ladies' champion: Katarina Witt, Germany
Pair skating champions: Ekaterina Gordeeva / Sergei Grinkov, Soviet Union
Ice dancing champions: Natalia Bestemianova / Andrei Bukin, Soviet Union
Gaelic Athletic Association
Camogie
All-Ireland Camogie Champion: Kilkenny
National Camogie League: Kilkenny
Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Meath 1-14 died Cork 0-11
National Football League – Dublin 1-11 died Kerry 0-11
Ladies' Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Champion: Kerry
National Football League: Kerry
Hurling
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Galway 1-12 died Kilkenny 0-9
National Hurling League –
Golf
Men's professional
Masters Tournament – Larry Mize
U.S. Open – Scott Simpson
British Open – Nick Faldo
PGA Championship – Larry Nelson
PGA Tour money leader – Curtis Strange – $925,941
Senior PGA Tour money leader – Chi Chi Rodriguez – $509,145
Ryder Cup – Europe won 15-13 over the United States in team golf.
Men's amateur
British Amateur – Paul Mayo
U.S. Amateur – Billy Mayfair
Women's professional
Nabisco Dinah Shore – Betsy King
LPGA Championship – Jane Geddes
U.S. Women's Open – Laura Davies
Classique du Maurier Classic – Jody Rosenthal
LPGA Tour money leader – Ayako Okamoto – $466,034
Harness racing
The North America Cup – Runnymede Lobell
United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
– Cane Pace – Righteous Bucks
– Little Brown Jug – Jaguar Spur
– Messenger Stakes – Redskin
United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
– Hambletonian – Mack Lobell
– Yonkers Trot – Mack Lobell
– Kentucky Futurity – Napoletano
Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
Pacers: Lightning Blue
Trotters: Tussle
Horse racing
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – The Thinker
Grand National – Maori Venture
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Kensei
Canada – Queen's Plate won by Market Control
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Trempolino
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Sir Harry Lewis
Japan – Japan Cup won by Le Glorieux
English Triple Crown Races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Don't Forget Me
The Derby – Reference Point
St. Leger Stakes – Reference Point
United States Triple Crown Races:
Kentucky Derby – Alysheba
Preakness Stakes – Alysheba
Belmont Stakes – Bet Twice
Breeders' Cup World Thoroughbred Championships:
Breeders' Cup Classic – Ferdinand
Breeders' Cup Distaff – Sacahuista
Breeders' Cup Juvenile – Success Express
Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies – Epitome
Breeders' Cup Mile – Miesque
Breeders' Cup Sprint – Very Subtle
Breeders' Cup Turf – Theatrical
Ice hockey
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Wayne Gretzky, Edmonton Oilers
Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Wayne Gretzky, Edmonton Oilers
Stanley Cup – Edmonton Oilers won 4 games to 3 over the Philadelphia Flyers
World Hockey Championship –
Men's champion: Sweden defeated the Soviet Union
Junior Men's champion: Finland defeated Czechoslovakia after a bench clearing brawl occurred between Canada and the Soviet Union
Lacrosse
Inaugural season of the Eagle Pro Box Lacrosse League (later the National Lacrosse League)
Championship won by the Baltimore Thunder
Motorsport
Rugby league
1987 National Panasonic Cup
1987 NSWRL season
1987 New Zealand rugby league season
1986–87 Rugby Football League season / 1987–88 Rugby Football League season
1987 State of Origin series
1987 World Club Challenge
1985–1988 Rugby League World Cup
Rugby union
93rd Five Nations Championship series is won by France who complete the Grand Slam
Inaugural Rugby Union World Cup is held in Australia and New Zealand. The winners are New Zealand.
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – Steve Davis beats Joe Johnson 18-14
World rankings – Steve Davis remains world number one for 1987/88
Swimming
Tenth Pan American Games held in Indianapolis, United States (August 9 – August 15)
Second Pan Pacific Championships held in Brisbane, Australia (August 13 – August 16)
August 13 – Tom Jager regains the world record from fellow American Matt Biondi (22.33) in the 50m freestyle (long course) at the 1987 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships in Brisbane, Australia, clocking 22.32.
Taekwondo
World Championships held in Barcelona, Spain
Tennis
Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
– Australian Open – Stefan Edberg
– French Open – Ivan Lendl
– Wimbledon championships – Pat Cash
– US Open – Ivan Lendl
Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
– Australian Open – Hana Mandlíková
– French Open – Steffi Graf
– Wimbledon championships – Martina Navratilova
– US Open – Martina Navratilova
Davis Cup
Sweden defeats India (5-0) in the final
Volleyball
Asia Volleyball Championships won by Japan (men) and China (women)
European Volleyball Championships in Ghent, Belgium won by USSR (men) and DDR (women)
Pan American Games Volleyball in Indianapolis won by USA (men) and Cuba (women)
Water polo
Men's World Cup held in Thessaloniki won by Yugoslavia
Men's event at Pan American Games held in Indianapolis won by USA
Men's European European Championship held in Strasbourg won by USSR
Women's European Championship held in Strasbourg won by the Netherlands
Yacht racing
The America's Cup returns to the United States as challenger Stars & Stripes 87, of the San Diego Yacht Club, beats Australian defender Kookaburra III, from the Royal Perth Yacht Club, 4 races to 0.
Multi-sport events
Tenth Pan American Games held in Indianapolis, United States
Fourth All-Africa Games held in Nairobi, Kenya
Tenth Mediterranean Games held in Latakia, Syria
Fourteenth Summer Universiade held in Zagreb, Yugoslavia
Thirteenth Winter Universiade held in Štrbské Pleso, Czechoslovakia
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Ben Johnson, Track and field
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Jackie Joyner-Kersee, Track and field
References
Sports by year | [
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224741 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1986%20in%20sports | 1986 in sports | 1986 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Alpine skiing
Alpine Skiing World Cup –
Men's overall season champion: Marc Girardelli, Luxembourg
Women's overall season champion: Maria Walliser, Switzerland
American football
Super Bowl XX – the Chicago Bears (NFC) won 46–10 over the New England Patriots (AFC)
Location: Superdome
Attendance: 73,818
MVP: Richard Dent, DE (Chicago)
Linebacker Lawrence Taylor of the New York Giants is named NFL Most Valuable Player Award
January 1 – Orange Bowl (1985 season):
The Oklahoma Sooners won 25-10 over the Penn State Nittany Lions to win the national championship
Quarterback Vinny Testaverde of the Miami Hurricanes is awarded the Heisman Trophy
Association football
1986 FIFA World Cup – In the final, Argentina defeated West Germany 3–2 and won their second World Cup title. It was played for the second time in Mexico City, Azteca Stadium.
UEFA Champions League – Steaua București 0-0 F.C. Barcelona; Steaua București won 2-0 on penalties
UEFA Cup –Two legs; 1st leg Real Madrid C.F. 5-1 1. FC Köln; 2nd leg 1.FC Köln 2-0 Real Madrid CF. Real Madrid CF won 5-3 on aggregate
Cup Winners' Cup – Dinamo Kiev 3-0 Atlético Madrid
Super Cup – Steaua București 1-0 Dinamo Kiev
Copa Libertadores de América – Two legs; 1st leg América de Cali 1-2 River Plate; 2nd leg River Plate 1-0 América. River Plate won 3-1 on aggregate
November 6 – Alex Ferguson is appointed manager of Manchester United F.C.
Milk Cup Final held at Wembley Stadium – Oxford United 3-0 QPR
Intercontinental Cup – River Plate 1-0 Steaua București
Australian rules football
Victorian Football League
Hawthorn wins the 90th VFL Premiership (Hawthorn 16.14 (110) d Carlton 9.14 (68))
Brownlow Medal awarded to Greg Williams (Sydney Swans) and Robert DiPierdomenico (Hawthorn)
The national draft is held for the first time.
Baseball
Major League Baseball
American League defeats the National League 3-2 in the 1986 Major League Baseball All-Star Game played in Houston, Texas. Roger Clemens of the Boston Red Sox is named the game's Most Valuable Player.
All-Star Game: American League Manager Dick Howser is diagnosed with brain cancer after mixing up signals during the game.
Dave Righetti saves 46 games for the New York Yankees, breaking a record shared by Dan Quisenberry and Bruce Sutter.
October 27 – World Series – The New York Mets win 4 games to 3 over the Boston Red Sox. The series is best remembered for Game 6, when the Red Sox were one out away from the Series victory but blew a 2-run lead with the bases empty and 2 outs in the bottom of the 10th inning; the game's final play was a groundball that rolled through the legs of first baseman Bill Buckner.
Jeff King of the University of Arkansas is the #1 overall pick in the 1986 MLB draft selected by the Pittsburgh Pirates
Arizona Wildcats defeat Florida State Seminoles 10-2 in College World Series
Basketball
NCAA Men's Basketball Championship –
Louisville Cardinals wins 72-69 over Duke Blue Devils
Duke Blue Devils Guard Johnny Dawkins is named Naismith College Player of the Year
NBA Finals
June – Boston Celtics win 4 games to 2 over the Houston Rockets
Boston Celtics Forward Larry Bird is awarded NBA Most Valuable Player Award
National Basketball League (Australia) Finals:
Adelaide 36ers defeated the Brisbane Bullets 2-1 in the best-of-three final series.
FIBA World Championship
United States World Champion
Boxing
March 10 in Las Vegas, Nevada – Marvin Hagler retains the World Middleweight Championship with an 11th-round knockout of John Mugabi.
May 8 to 18 – Fourth World Amateur Boxing Championships are held in Reno, United States
November 22 – Mike Tyson knocks out Trevor Berbick in round 2 to become the youngest world heavyweight-boxing champion at 20 years and 4 months old
Canadian football
Grey Cup – Hamilton Tiger-Cats won 39–15 over the Edmonton Eskimos
Vanier Cup – UBC Thunderbirds won 25–23 over the Western Ontario Mustangs
Cycling
Giro d'Italia won by Roberto Visentini of Italy
Tour de France – Greg LeMond is the first winner from the United States
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Moreno Argentin of Italy
Dogsled racing
Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion –
Susan Butcher won with lead dogs: Granite & Mattie
Field hockey
Men's World Cup held in London won by Australia
Women's World Cup held in Amstelveen won by the Netherlands
Men's Champions Trophy held in Karachi won by West Germany
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Brian Boitano, United States
Ladies' champion: Debi Thomas, United States
Pair skating champions: Ekaterina Gordeeva / Sergei Grinkov, Soviet Union
Ice dancing champions: Natalia Bestemianova / Andrei Bukin, Soviet Union
Gaelic Athletic Association
Camogie
All-Ireland Camogie Champion: Kilkenny
National Camogie League: Cork
Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Kerry 2-15 died Tyrone 1-10
National Football League – Laois 2-6 died Monaghan 2-5
Ladies' Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Champion: Kerry
National Football League: Wexford
Hurling
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Cork 4-13 died Galway 2-15
National Hurling League –
General
17 October – The IOC votes that the 1992 Olympic Summer Games will be held in Barcelona, Spain.
Golf
Men's professional
Masters Tournament – Jack Nicklaus becomes the oldest Masters winner (age 46), and wins his last major golf championship (excluding the Senior PGA Tour).
U.S. Open – Raymond Floyd
British Open – Greg Norman
PGA Championship – Bob Tway
PGA Tour money leader – Greg Norman – $653,296
Senior PGA Tour money leader – Bruce Crampton – $454,299
Men's amateur
British Amateur – David Curry
U.S. Amateur – Buddy Alexander
European Amateur – Anders Haglund
Women's professional
Nabisco Dinah Shore – Pat Bradley
LPGA Championship – Pat Bradley
U.S. Women's Open – Jane Geddes
Classique du Maurier Classic – Pat Bradley
LPGA Tour money leader – Pat Bradley – $492,021
Harness racing
North America Cup – Quite A Sensation
United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
Cane Pace – Barberry Spur
Little Brown Jug – Barberry Spur
Messenger Stakes – Amity Chef
United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
Hambletonian – Nuclear Kosmos
Yonkers Trot – Gunslinger Spur
Kentucky Futurity – Sugarcane Hanover
Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
Pacers: Village Kid
Horse racing
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – Dawn Run
Grand National – West Tip
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by At Talaq
Canada – Queen's Plate won by Golden Choice
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Dancing Brave
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Shahrastani
Japan – Japan Cup won by Jupiter Island
English Triple Crown Races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Dancing Brave
The Derby – Shahrastani
St. Leger Stakes – Moon Madness
United States Triple Crown Races:
Kentucky Derby – Ferdinand
Preakness Stakes – Snow Chief
Belmont Stakes – Danzig Connection
Breeders' Cup World Thoroughbred Championships:
Breeders' Cup Classic – Skywalker
Breeders' Cup Distaff – Lady's Secret
Breeders' Cup Juvenile – Capote
Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies – Brave Raj
Breeders' Cup Mile – Last Tycoon
Breeders' Cup Sprint – Smile
Breeders' Cup Turf – Manila
Ice hockey
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Wayne Gretzky, Edmonton Oilers
Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Wayne Gretzky, Edmonton Oilers
Stanley Cup – Montreal Canadiens won 4 games to 1 over the Calgary Flames
World Hockey Championship –
Men's champion: Soviet Union defeated Sweden
Junior Men's champion: Soviet Union defeated Canada
Lacrosse
The 5th World Lacrosse Championship is held in Toronto. The United States win, and Canada is the runner-up.
The first Japanese lacrosse team is formed at Keio University.
The Major Indoor Lacrosse League (MILL) is formed as the Eagle Pro Box Lacrosse League.
The New Westminster Salmonbellies win the Mann Cup.
Mississauga wins the Founders Cup.
The Peterborough Maulers win the Minto Cup.
Motorsport
Radiosport
Third Amateur Radio Direction Finding World Championship held in Sarajevo, Yugoslavia.
Rugby league
1986 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain and France
1986 National Panasonic Cup
1986 New Zealand rugby league season
1986 NSWRL season
1986 Pacific Cup
1986–87 Rugby Football League season / 1985–86 Rugby Football League season
1986 State of Origin series
1985–1988 Rugby League World Cup
Rugby union
92nd Five Nations Championship series is shared by France and Scotland
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – Joe Johnson beats Steve Davis 18-12
World rankings – Steve Davis remains world number one for 1986/87
Swimming
The fifth FINA World Championships held in Madrid, Spain
June 26 – Matt Biondi clocks 22.33 to take the world record from fellow American Tom Jager (22.40) in the 50m freestyle (long course)
Tennis
Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
Australian Open – no tournament held
French Open – Ivan Lendl
Wimbledon championships – Boris Becker
US Open – Ivan Lendl
Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
Australian Open – no tournament held
French Open – Chris Evert
Wimbledon championships – Martina Navratilova
US Open – Martina Navratilova
Davis Cup – Australia won 3-2 over Sweden in world tennis.
Volleyball
Men's World Championship held in Paris won by USA
Women's World Championship held in Prague won by China
Water polo
Men's World Championship held in Madrid won by Yugoslavia
Women's World Championship held in won by Australia
Multi-sport events
Asian Games held in Seoul, South Korea
Winter Asian Games held in Sapporo, Japan
Central American and Caribbean Games held in Santiago de los Caballeros, Dominican Republic
Commonwealth Games held in Edinburgh, Scotland
Summer Goodwill Games held in Moscow, Soviet Union
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Larry Bird, NBA Finals NBA basketball
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Martina Navratilova, Tennis
Joe Paterno is named Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year
References
Sports by year | [
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224742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985%20in%20sports | 1985 in sports | 1985 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Alpine skiing
Alpine Skiing World Cup:
Men's overall season champion: Marc Girardelli, Luxembourg
Women's overall season champion: Michela Figini, Switzerland
American football
Super Bowl XIX – the San Francisco 49ers (NFC) won 38–16 over the Miami Dolphins (AFC)
Location: Stanford Stadium
Attendance: 84,059
MVP: Joe Montana, QB (San Francisco)
Baltimore Stars win USFL Championship 28-24 over Oakland Invaders
Artistic gymnastics
World Artistic Gymnastics Championships –
Men's all-around champion: Yuri Korolev, USSR
Women's all-around champions: Oksana Omelianchik, USSR, Yelena Shushunova, USSR
Men's team competition champion: USSR
Women's team competition champion: USSR
Association football
NASL announces suspension of operations and hopes to return in 1986. It never did.
England – FA Cup – Manchester United won 1-0 (aet) over Everton. Kevin Moran of MU receives first-ever red card in an FA Cup final.
Everton are crowned English champions for the eighth time, setting a then record points total for a 42-game programme under three points for a win.
Australian rules football
Victorian Football League
Essendon wins the 89th VFL Premiership (Essendon 26.14 (170) d Hawthorn 14.8 (92))
Brownlow Medal awarded to Brad Hardie (Footscray)
Baseball
Cincinnati Reds' player/manager Pete Rose breaks Ty Cobb's All-Time Hit Record of 4,191 hits. Rose's record-breaking single was off of San Diego Padres pitcher Eric Show (September 11)
Tom Seaver of the Chicago White Sox and Phil Niekro of the New York Yankees become the 17th and 18th pitchers to join the 300 win club on August 4 and October 6 respectively.
Rollie Fingers breaks Sparky Lyle's American League career record of 232 saves.
World Series – The Kansas City Royals defeat the St. Louis Cardinals 4 games to 3, becoming the first team to win the World Series after losing the first two games at home.
Books published:
Bill James, The Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract: A seminal volume of baseball history by the leading sabermetrician of the day. He revised the book into a new edition in 2001.
Basketball
April 1NCAA Men's Basketball Championship –
Villanova wins 66-64 over Georgetown
NCAA Division I Women's Basketball Championship
Old Dominion wins 70–65 over Georgia
National Basketball Association
1985 NBA draft
NBA Finals
Los Angeles Lakers win 4 games to 2 over the Boston Celtics
Team moves
Kansas City Kings franchise moves, 1985–86 NBA season first Sacramento Kings season.
National Basketball League (Australia) Finals:
Brisbane Bullets defeated the Adelaide 36ers 121-95 in the final.
United States Basketball League ( USBL ) was founded
Michael Jordan competes in his first dunk contest, wearing the first edition of his now famous line of "Air" Jordan basketball shoes.
A first game of Liga Nacional de Basket, a professional basketball league of Argentina on April 26.
Boxing
April 15 – The War: Marvin Hagler knocks out Thomas Hearns in three rounds to retain the world's Middleweight title.
August 10 – Héctor Camacho defeats José Luis Ramírez to lift the WBC's world Lightweight title.
September 21 – Michael Spinks beats Larry Holmes by a decision in 15 rounds to become the first world Light Heavyweight champion to win a world Heavyweight title.
Canadian football
Grey Cup – B.C. Lions win 37–24 over the Hamilton Tiger-Cats
Vanier Cup – Calgary Dinos win 25–6 over the Western Ontario Mustangs
Cricket
Kim Hughes leads a "rebel" team of players on tour of South Africa, banned from official cricket since 1970 because of apartheid
Cycling
Giro d'Italia won by Bernard Hinault of France
Tour de France – Bernard Hinault of France
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Joop Zoetemelk of the Netherlands
'In 1983 India won the world cup
Dogsled racing
Libby Riddles with her lead dogs, Axle & Dugan, becomes the first woman to ever win the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race
Field hockey
Men's Champions Trophy held in Perth, Western Australia, won by Australia
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Alexander Fadeev, Soviet Union
Ladies' champion: Katarina Witt, East Germany
Pair skating champions: Elena Valova / Oleg Vasiliev, Soviet Union
Ice dancing champions: Natalia Bestemianova / Andrei Bukin, Soviet Union
Gaelic Athletic Association
Camogie
All-Ireland Camogie Champion: Kilkenny
National Camogie League: Kilkenny
Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Kerry 2-12 died Dublin 2-8
National Football League – Monaghan 1-11 died Armagh 0-9
Ladies' Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Champion: Kerry
National Football League: Kerry
Hurling
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Offaly 2-11 died Galway 1-12
National Hurling League –
Golf
Men's professional
Masters Tournament – Bernhard Langer
U.S. Open – Andy North
British Open – Sandy Lyle
PGA Championship – Hubert Green
PGA Tour money leader – Curtis Strange – $542,321
Senior PGA Tour money leader – Peter Thomson – $386,724
Ryder Cup – Europe won 16½ to 11½ over the United States in team golf.
Men's amateur
British Amateur – Garth McGimpsey
U.S. Amateur – Sam Randolph
Women's professional
Nabisco Dinah Shore – Alice Miller
LPGA Championship – Nancy Lopez
U.S. Women's Open – Kathy Baker
Classique du Maurier Classic – Pat Bradley
LPGA Tour money leader – Nancy Lopez – $416,472
Harness racing
North America Cup – Staff Director
United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
Cane Pace – Chairmanoftheboard
Little Brown Jug – Nihilator
Messenger Stakes – Pershing Square
United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
Hambletonian – Prakas
Yonkers Trot -
Kentucky Futurity – Flak Bait
Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
Pacers: Preux Chevalier
Trotters: Scotch Notch
Horse racing
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – Forgive 'n Forget
Grand National – Last Suspect
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by What A Nuisance
Canada – Queen's Plate won by La Lorgnette
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Rainbow Quest
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Law Society
Japan – Japan Cup won by Symboli Rudolf
English Triple Crown Races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Shadeed
The Derby – Slip Anchor
St. Leger Stakes – Oh So Sharp
United States Triple Crown Races:
Kentucky Derby – Spend a Buck
Preakness Stakes – Tank's Prospect
Belmont Stakes – Creme Fraiche
Breeders' Cup World Thoroughbred Championships:
Breeders' Cup Classic – Proud Truth
Breeders' Cup Distaff – Life's Magic
Breeders' Cup Juvenile – Tasso
Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies – Twilight Ridge
Breeders' Cup Mile – Cozzene
Breeders' Cup Sprint – Precisionist
Breeders' Cup Turf – Pebbles
Ice hockey
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Wayne Gretzky, Edmonton Oilers
Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Wayne Gretzky, Edmonton Oilers
Stanley Cup – Edmonton Oilers win 4 games to 1 over the Philadelphia Flyers
World Hockey Championship –
Men's champion: Czechoslovakia defeated Canada
Junior Men's champion: Canada defeated Czechoslovakia
Motorsport
Rugby league
1985 National Panasonic Cup
1985 New Zealand rugby league season
1985 NSWRL season
1984–85 Rugby Football League season / 1985–86 Rugby Football League season
1985 State of Origin series
1985–1988 Rugby League World Cup
Rugby union
91st Five Nations Championship series is won by Ireland
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – Dennis Taylor beats Steve Davis 18-17 in one of the greatest snooker matches of all time
World rankings – Steve Davis remains world number one for 1985/86
Swimming
First Pan Pacific Championships held in Tokyo (August 15 – August 18)
July 21 – Switzerland's Dano Halsall swims a world record in the 50m freestyle (long course) at a swimming meet in Bellinzona, shaving off 0.02 of the previous record (22.54) set by USA's Robin Leamy four years ago: 22.52.
December 6 – USA's Tom Jager takes the world record from Dano Halsall (22.52) in the 50m freestyle (long course) at a swimming meet in Austin, Texas, clocking 22.40.
Tennis
Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
Australian Open – Stefan Edberg
French Open – Mats Wilander
Wimbledon championships – Boris Becker
US Open – Ivan Lendl
Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
Australian Open – Martina Navratilova
French Open – Chris Evert
Wimbledon championships – Martina Navratilova
US Open – Hana Mandlíková
Davis Cup – Sweden wins 3-2 over Germany F.R. in world team tennis.
Volleyball
Men and Women's European Volleyball Championships held in the Netherlands: both men's and women's tournaments won by USSR
Water polo
1985 FINA Men's Water Polo World Cup held in Duisburg won by West Germany
1985 Men's European Water Polo Championship held in Sofia, Bulgaria won by USSR
1985 Women's European Water Polo Championship held in Oslo, Norway won by the Netherlands
Multi-sport events
Sixth Pan Arab Games held in Rabat, Morocco
Second World Games held in London, United Kingdom
Thirteenth Summer Universiade held in Kobe, Japan
Twelfth Winter Universiade held in Belluno, Italy
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Dwight Gooden, Major League Baseball
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Nancy Lopez, LPGA golf
ABC's Wide World of Sports Athlete of the year: Pete Rose Major League Baseball
References
Sports by year | [
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224743 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984%20in%20sports | 1984 in sports | 1984 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Alpine Skiing
Alpine Skiing World Cup:
Men's overall season champion: Pirmin Zurbriggen, Switzerland
Women's overall season champion: Erika Hess, Switzerland
At the Winter Olympics, Bill Johnson becomes the first American to win the gold medal in downhill skiing.
American football
Super Bowl XVIII – the Los Angeles Raiders (AFC) won 38–9 over the Washington Redskins (NFC)
Location: Tampa Stadium
Attendance: 72,920
MVP: Marcus Allen, RB (Los Angeles)
Walter Payton breaks Jim Brown's rushing record on October 7.
Philadelphia Stars win United States Football League Championship, 23-3 over Arizona Wranglers
Orange Bowl (1983 season):
The Miami Hurricanes won 31-30 over the Nebraska Cornhuskers to win the national championship
Doug Flutie wins the Heisman Trophy
November 23 – The Hail Flutie Game
1984 college football season:
The Brigham Young Cougars win the national championship following their victory in the Holiday Bowl on December 21
Association football
European Championship – Final: France 2-0 Spain; Hosts: France
Asian Cup – Final: Saudi Arabia 2 – 0 P.R. China; Hosts: Singapore
Champions' Cup – – May 30 – Liverpool 1-1 A.S. Roma; Liverpool won 4-2 on penalties after extra time.
UEFA Cup – Two legs; 1st leg Anderlecht 1-1 Tottenham Hotspur; 2nd leg Tottenham Hotspur 1-1 Anderlecht; 2-2 on aggregate, Spurs won 4-2 on penalties
Cup Winners' Cup – Juventus 2-1 Porto
Super Cup – Juventus 2-0 Liverpool
Copa Libertadores de América – Two legs; 1st leg Grêmio 0-1 Independiente; 2nd leg Independiente 0-0 Grêmio; Independiente won 1-0 on aggregate
England – FA Cup – – May 12 – Everton win 2-0 against Watford
FIFA gives the right to host the 1990 FIFA World Cup to Italy
The North American Soccer League folds due to financial problems
Australian rules football
Victorian Football League
March 31: Carlton 31.13 (199) beat North Melbourne 9.8 (62) at VFL Park. This remains the largest opening round win in League history.
July 28: On a waterlogged Western Oval, Footscray and Essendon play a goalless first half. It is the first time this has occurred since 1968 and only the second since 1899.
Essendon wins the 88th VFL Premiership, defeating Hawthorn 14.21 (105) to 12.9 (81) in the Grand Final
Brownlow Medal awarded to Peter Moore (Melbourne)
West Australian Football League
May 5: West Perth 15.15 (105) draw with South Fremantle 16.9 (105) at Leederville Oval for the first senior WAFL draw in 888 matches since East Fremantle and Swan Districts each scored 11.14 (80) at East Fremantle Oval on April 21 of 1974. This constitutes the second-longest non-occurrence of draws in a major Australian Rules competition; ironically the only longer one ended with a draw between the same two clubs at the same ground.
Baseball
January 10 – Luis Aparicio, Harmon Killebrew, and Don Drysdale are elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame
World Series – Detroit Tigers win 4 games to 1 over the San Diego Padres
Basketball
Donald Sterling relocates the San Diego Clippers to Los Angeles.
NCAA Men's Basketball Championship –
Georgetown wins 84-75 over Houston
NCAA Division I Women's Basketball Championship
University of Southern California(USC) wins 72–61 over Tennessee
NBA Finals –
Boston Celtics won 4 games to 3 over the Los Angeles Lakers
National Basketball League (Australia) Finals:
Canberra Cannons defeated the Brisbane Bullets 84-82 in the final.
Central Missouri State University won the NCAA Division II men's and women's basketball titles, becoming the first school ever in any division to accomplish the feat. The University of Connecticut would do the same in Division I in 2004.
NBA Draft –
A new era in the NBA is born on June 23 with the drafting of Houston's Hakeem Olajuwon, North Carolina's Michael Jordan, Auburn's Charles Barkley and Gonzaga's John Stockton.
Boxing
March 31 – Wilfredo Gómez defeats Juan Laporte by a decision in 12 rounds to conquer the WBC's world Featherweight crown.
June 15 – in the most anticipated bout of the year, Thomas Hearns, WBC world Jr. Middleweight champion, knocks out WBA world champion Roberto Durán in two rounds. The WBA elects not to sanction the bout, declaring their version of the title vacant instead.
Canadian football
Grey Cup – Winnipeg Blue Bombers won 47–17 over the Hamilton Tiger-Cats
Vanier Cup – Guelph Gryphons won 22–13 over the Mount Allison Mounties
Cricket
Inaugural edition of the Asia Cup is held in Sharjah, UAE: India defeats Pakistan in the final.
Cycling
Giro d'Italia won by Francesco Moser of Italy
Tour de France – Laurent Fignon of France
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Claude Criquielion of Belgium
Dog sledding
Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion –
Dean Osmar wins with lead dogs: Red & Bullet
Field hockey
Olympic Games (Men's Competition) won by Pakistan
Olympic Games (Women's Competition) won by the Netherlands
Men's Champions Trophy held in Karachi won by Australia
Women's European Nations Cup held in Lille won by the Netherlands
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Scott Hamilton, United States
Ladies' champion: Katarina Witt, East Germany
Pair skating champions: Barbara Underhill & Paul Martini, Canada
Ice dancing champions: Jayne Torvill & Christopher Dean, Great Britain
Gaelic Athletic Association
Camogie
All-Ireland Camogie Champion: Dublin
National Camogie League: Cork
Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Kerry 1-11 defeated Dublin 1-6
National Football League – Kerry 1-11 defeated Galway 0-11
Ladies' Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Champion: Kerry
National Football League: Kerry
Hurling
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Cork 3-16 defeated Offaly 1-12
National Hurling League –
Golf
Men's professional
Masters Tournament – Ben Crenshaw
U.S. Open – Fuzzy Zoeller
British Open – Seve Ballesteros
PGA Championship – Lee Trevino
PGA Tour money leader – Tom Watson – $476,260
Senior PGA Tour money leader – Don January – $328,597
Men's amateur
British Amateur – José María Olazábal
U.S. Amateur – Scott Verplank
Women's professional
Nabisco Dinah Shore – Juli Inkster
LPGA Championship – Patty Sheehan
U.S. Women's Open – Hollis Stacy
Classique du Maurier Classic – Juli Inkster
LPGA Tour money leader – Betsy King – $266,771
Harness racing
North America Cup – the inaugural event won by Legal Notice
United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
Cane Pace – On the Road Again
Little Brown Jug – Colt Fortysix
Messenger Stakes – Troublemaker
United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
Hambletonian – Historic Freight
Yonkers Trot
Kentucky Futurity – Fancy Crown
Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
Pacers: Gammalite
Trotters: Sir Castleton
Horse racing
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – Burrough Hill Lad
Grand National – Hallo Dandy
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Black Knight
Canada – Queen's Plate won by Key to the Moon
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Sagace
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by El Gran Senor
Japan – Japan Cup won by Katsuragi Ace
English Triple Crown Races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – El Gran Senor
The Derby – Secreto
St. Leger Stakes – Commanche Run
United States Triple Crown Races:
Kentucky Derby – Swale
Preakness Stakes – Gate Dancer
Belmont Stakes – Swale
Breeders' Cup World Thoroughbred Championships:
Breeders' Cup Classic – Wild Again
Breeders' Cup Distaff – Princess Rooney
Breeders' Cup Juvenile – Chief's Crown
Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies – Outstandingly
Breeders' Cup Mile – Royal Heroine
Breeders' Cup Sprint – Eillo
Breeders' Cup Turf – Lashkari
Ice hockey
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Wayne Gretzky, Edmonton Oilers
Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Wayne Gretzky, Edmonton Oilers
Stanley Cup – Edmonton Oilers won 4 games to 1 over the New York Islanders
World Hockey Championship –
Men's champion: (vacant) – the USSR won the Olympic Gold Medal
Junior Men's champion: USSR defeated Finland
Motorsport
Olympic Games
1984 Summer Olympics takes place at Los Angeles (July 27 - August 8)
USA wins the most medals (174) and the most gold medals (83)
1984 Winter Olympics takes place at Sarajevo (Febtuary 2 - February 19)
USSR wins the most medals (25) and the GDR wins the most gold medals (9)
Radiosport
Second Amateur Radio Direction Finding World Championship held in Oslo, Norway.
Rugby league
1984 National Panasonic Cup
1984 New Zealand rugby league season
1984 NSWRL season
1983–84 Rugby Football League season / 1984–85 Rugby Football League season
1984 State of Origin series
Rugby union
90th Five Nations Championship series is won by Scotland who complete the Grand Slam
Shooting Sports
The National Rifle Association takes control of the Bianchi Cup and designates it the National Action Pistol Championship
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – Steve Davis beats Jimmy White 18-16
World rankings – Steve Davis remains world number one for 1984/85
Swimming
XXIII Olympic Games, held in Los Angeles (July 29 – August 4)
Tennis
Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
Australian Open – Mats Wilander
French Open – Ivan Lendl
Wimbledon – John McEnroe
US Open – John McEnroe
Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
Australian Open – Chris Evert
French Open – Martina Navratilova
Wimbledon – Martina Navratilova
US Open – Martina Navratilova
1984 Summer Olympics
Men's Singles competition
Gold – Stefan Edberg
Silver – Francisco Maciel
Bronze – Jimmy Arias and Paolo Canè
Women's Singles competition
Gold – Steffi Graf
Silver – Sabrina Goleš
Bronze – Raffaella Reggi and Catherine Tanvier
1984 Davis Cup
Sweden wins 4-1 over the United States in Men's world tennis.
1984 Federation Cup
Czechoslovakia wins over Australia in Women's world tennis.
Water polo
Olympic Games (Men's Competition) won by Yugoslavia
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Carl Lewis, Track and field
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Mary Lou Retton, Gymnastics
References
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224744 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983%20in%20sports | 1983 in sports | 1983 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Alpine skiing
Alpine Skiing World Cup:
Men's overall season champion: Phil Mahre, United States
Women's overall season champion: Tamara McKinney, United States
American football
Super Bowl XVII – the Washington Redskins (NFC) won 27–17 over the Miami Dolphins (AFC)
Location: Rose Bowl
Attendance: 103,667
MVP: John Riggins, RB (Washington)
January 3 – Tony Dorsett sets NFL record for longest run from scrimmage by rushing for 99 yard touchdown.
January 26 – death of Paul "Bear" Bryant, noted college football coach
Sugar Bowl (1982 season):
The Penn State Nittany Lions won 27-23 over the Georgia Bulldogs to win the college football national championship
Michigan Panthers win United States Football League Championship, 24-22 over Philadelphia Stars
October 31 – death of George Halas, Chicago Bears founder and coach
Artistic gymnastics
World Artistic Gymnastics Championships –
Men's all-around champion: Dmitry Bilozerchev, USSR
Women's all-around champion: Natalia Yurchenko, USSR
Men's team competition champion: China
Women's team competition champion: USSR
Association football
World Club Championship – Grêmio (Brazil) 2-1 Hamburger SV (Germany)
UEFA Champions League – Hamburg 1-0 Juventus
Copa Libertadores de América – Two legs; 1st leg Peñarol 1-1 Grêmio; 2nd leg Grêmio 2-1 Peñarol; Grêmio won 3-2 on aggregate
UEFA Cup – Two legs; 1st leg Anderlecht 1-0 Benfica; 2nd leg Benfica 1-1 Anderlecht; Anderlecht won 2-1 on aggregate
Cup Winners' Cup – Aberdeen 2-1 Real Madrid (AET)
Super Cup – Two legs; 1st leg Hamburg 0-0 Aberdeen; 2nd leg Aberdeen 2-0 Hamburg; Aberdeen won 2-0 on aggregate
England - FA Cup – Manchester United won 2 - 2 (aet); 4 - 0 (replay) over Brighton & Hove Albion
FIFA decided to give to Mexico the right to host the Football World Cup 1986 after Colombia announced the reject to celebrate the event.
Scotland – Dundee United won the First Division for the first time in their history. They won the league at their rivals home ground Dens Park of Dundee.
Athletics
January 18 – International Olympic Committee (IOC) restores medals to the family of Jim Thorpe
February 27 – Ireland's Eamonn Coghlan sets a new World Indoor Record for the mile, clocking 3:49.78 at East Rutherford in New Jersey
August 7 – 14 – The inaugural World Championships in Athletics are held in Helsinki, Finland
Australian rules football
Victorian Football League
June 18 – achieve an amazing win in a top-of-the-ladder clash with , winning 34.16 (220) to 10.10 (70) and more than doubling the previous biggest loss by an eventual minor premier of 69 points.
July 23 – Fitzroy with 12.6 (78) and St. Kilda with 7.1 (43) kick a record quarter aggregate of 19.7 (121) during the second quarter.
August 5 – ’s Kevin Bartlett became the first player to play 400 VFL games against . Only Michael Tuck, Brent Harvey and Dustin Fletcher have since equalled his achievement.
Hawthorn wins the 87th VFL Premiership, beating Essendon 20.20 (140) to 8.9 (57)
Brownlow Medal awarded to Ross Glendinning (North Melbourne)
Baseball
January 12 – Brooks Robinson and Juan Marichal are elected to the Hall of Fame. Robinson, winner of 16 straight Gold Glove Awards and hero of the 1970 World Series, becomes the 14th player elected in his first year of eligibility. Marichal, the winningest Latin American pitcher in major league history, won 20 or more games six times and had an ERA of 2.50 or less six times.
World Series – Baltimore Orioles win their most recent World Series 4 games to 1 over the Philadelphia Phillies
Basketball
NCAA Men's Basketball Championship –
North Carolina State wins 54-52 over Houston
NCAA Women's Division I Basketball Championship
University of Southern California(USC) wins 69–67 over Louisiana Tech
NBA Finals – Philadelphia 76ers won 4 games to 0 over the Los Angeles Lakers
National Basketball League (Australia) Finals:
Canberra Cannons defeated the West Adelaide Bearcats 75–73 in the final.
Philippine Basketball League, as predecessor for PBA Developmental League, first officially game held on May 6.
Boxing
May 31 – death of Jack Dempsey, former world heavyweight champion
May 20 – for the first time ever, two world Heavyweight champions defend their titles the same night, at the same place: Larry Holmes retains the WBC title defeating future two time world champion Tim Witherspoon, and Michael Dokes retains his WBA title with a 15-round draw (tie) against former world champion Mike Weaver.
June 16 – Roberto Durán wins his third world title, knocking out WBA world Jr. Middleweight champion Davey Moore in eight rounds.
November 10 – Marvin Hagler retains his unified world Middleweight title with a 15-round unanimous decision over Roberto Durán. It was 1983's most anticipated bout.
Canadian football
Grey Cup – Toronto Argonauts won 18–17 over the B.C. Lions
Vanier Cup – Calgary Dinos won 31–21 over the Queen's Golden Gaels
Cricket
Cricket World Cup – India beat West Indies by 43 runs.
Asian Cricket Council formed.
Cycling
Giro d'Italia won by Giuseppe Saronni of Italy
Tour de France – Laurent Fignon of France
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Greg LeMond of the United States
Dogsled racing
Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion –
Rick Mackey won with lead dogs: Preacher & Jody
Field hockey
Men's European Nations Cup held at Amstelveen won by the Netherlands
Men's Champions Trophy held at Karachi won by Australia
Pan American Games (Men's Competition) held in Caracas won by Canada
Women's World Cup held in Kuala Lumpur won by the Netherlands
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Scott Hamilton, United States
Ladies’ champion: Rosalynn Sumners, United States
Pair skating champions: Elena Valova & Oleg Vasiliev, Soviet Union
Ice dancing champions: Jayne Torvill & Christopher Dean, Great Britain
Gaelic Athletic Association
Camogie
All-Ireland Camogie Champion: Cork
National Camogie League: Dublin
Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Dublin 1-10 died Galway 1-8
National Football League – Down 1-8 died Armagh 0-8
Ladies' Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Champion: Kerry
National Football League: Kerry
Hurling
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Kilkenny 3-18 died Cork 1-13
National Hurling League –
Golf
Men's professional
Masters Tournament – Seve Ballesteros
U.S. Open – Larry Nelson
British Open – Tom Watson
PGA Championship – Hal Sutton
PGA Tour money leader – Hal Sutton ($426,668)
Senior PGA Tour money leader – Don January ($237,571)
Ryder Cup – United States won 14½ - 13½ over Europe in team golf.
Men's amateur
British Amateur – Philip Parkin
U.S. Amateur – Jay Sigel
Women's professional
Nabisco Dinah Shore – Amy Alcott
LPGA Championship – Patty Sheehan
U.S. Women's Open – Jan Stephenson
Classique Peter Jackson Classic – Hollis Stacy
LPGA Tour money leader – JoAnne Carner ($291,404)
Harness racing
Ralph Hanover wins the United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
# Cane Pace – Ralph Hanover
# Little Brown Jug – Ralph Hanover
# Messenger Stakes – Ralph Hanover
United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
# Hambletonian – Duenna
# Yonkers Trot – Joie De Vie
# Kentucky Futurity – Power Seat
Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
Pacers: Gammalite
Trotters: Scotch Notch
Horse racing
February 8 – champion racehorse Shergar is kidnapped from Ballymany Stud, near the Curragh in County Kildare, Ireland. No trace of the horse has ever been found.
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – Bregawn
Grand National – Corbiere
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Kiwi
Canada – Queen's Plate won by Bompago
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by All Along
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Shareef Dancer
Japan – Japan Cup won by Stanerra
English Triple Crown Races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Lomond
The Derby – Teenoso
St. Leger Stakes – Sun Princess
United States Triple Crown Races:
Kentucky Derby – Sunny's Halo
Preakness Stakes – Deputed Testimony
Belmont Stakes – Caveat
Ice hockey
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL’s leading scorer during the regular season: Wayne Gretzky, Edmonton Oilers
Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL’s Most Valuable Player: Wayne Gretzky, Edmonton Oilers
Stanley Cup – New York Islanders win 4-0 over the Edmonton Oilers
World Hockey Championship –
Men's champion: Soviet Union defeated Czechoslovakia
Junior Men's champion: USSR defeated Czechoslovakia
Motorsport
Radiosport
First European High Speed Telegraphy Championships held in Moscow, Russia.
Rugby league
1983 KB Cup
1983 New Zealand rugby league season
1983 NSWRFL season
1982–83 Rugby Football League season / 1983–84 Rugby Football League season
1983 State of Origin series
Rugby union
89th Five Nations Championship series is shared by France and Ireland
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – Steve Davis beats Cliff Thorburn 18-6
World rankings – Steve Davis becomes world number one for 1983/84
Swimming
Pan American Games in Caracas, Venezuela
Tennis
Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
# Australian Open – Mats Wilander
# French Open – Yannick Noah
# Wimbledon championships – John McEnroe
# US Open – Jimmy Connors
Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
# Australian Open – Martina Navratilova
# French Open – Chris Evert
# Wimbledon championships – Martina Navratilova
# US Open – Martina Navratilova
Davis Cup – Australia won 3-2 over Sweden.
Volleyball
Asian Volleyball Championships held in Japan: both men's and women's tournaments won by Japan
European Volleyball Championships held in East Germany won by USSR (men) and DDR (women)
Volleyball at the 1983 Pan American Games held in Caracas won by Brazil (men) and Cuba (women)
Water polo
1983 FINA Men's Water Polo World Cup held in Malibu, California won by USSR
Men's competition at Pan American Games in Caracas won by USA
1983 FINA Women's Water Polo World Cup held in Sainte-Foy, Quebec City, Canada, won by the Netherlands
Yacht racing
Australia II, of the Royal Perth Yacht Club, wins the America's Cup over Liberty, from the New York Yacht Club, 4 races to 3; the victory breaks a 132-year winning streak by the NYYC through 25 Cup challenges, the longest-running unbeaten streak in all of sports
Multi-sport events
Ninth Pan American Games held in Caracas, Venezuela
Ninth Mediterranean Games held in Casablanca, Morocco
Twelfth Summer Universiade held in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Eleventh Winter Universiade held in Sofia, Bulgaria
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Carl Lewis, Track and field
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Martina Navratilova, Tennis
References
Sports by year | [
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224746 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982%20in%20sports | 1982 in sports | 1982 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Alpine skiing
Alpine Skiing World Cup:
Men's overall season champion: Phil Mahre, United States
Women's overall season champion: Erika Hess, Switzerland
American football
Super Bowl XVI – the San Francisco 49ers (NFC) won 26–21 over the Cincinnati Bengals (AFC)
Location: Pontiac Silverdome
Attendance: 81,270
MVP: Joe Montana, QB (San Francisco)
Orange Bowl (1981 season):
The Clemson Tigers won 22-15 over the Nebraska Cornhuskers to win the college football national championship
Strike – First regular season strike by NFL players ends on November 16 after 57 days.
Association football
World Cup in Spain – Italy beats West Germany 3-1 for their third title.
Champions' Cup – Aston Villa 1-0 Bayern München
UEFA Cup – Two legs; 1st leg IFK Göteborg 1-0 Hamburger SV; 2nd leg Hamburger SV 0-3 IFK Göteborg. IFK Göteborg won 4-0 on aggregate. 66 fans died in the Luzhniki disaster during the UEFA Cup second round match between FC Spartak Moscow and HFC Haarlem in Moscow on 20 October.
Cup Winners' Cup – Barcelona 2-1 Standard Liège
Super Cup – Two legs; 1st leg Barcelona 1-0 Aston Villa; 2nd leg Aston Villa 3-0 Barcelona. Aston Villa won 3-1 on aggregate
Copa Libertadores de América – Two legs; 1st leg Peñarol 0-0 Cobreloa; 2nd leg Cobreloa 0-1 Peñarol. Peñarol win 1-0 on aggregate
England – FA Cup – Tottenham Hotspur won 1-0 over Queens Park Rangers
Athletics
September – 1982 European Athletics Championships held in Athens
October – 1982 Commonwealth Games held in Brisbane, Australia
December – 1982 Asian Games held in New Delhi, India
Australian rules football
Victorian Football League
Carlton wins the 86th VFL Premiership (Carlton 14.19 (103) d Richmond 12.13 (83))
Brownlow Medal awarded to Brian Wilson (Melbourne)
The inaugural VFL Players Association Most Valuable Player Award goes to Leigh Matthews (Hawthorn). The award would be renamed the Leigh Matthews Trophy in his honour in 2002.
Baseball
March 27 – KBO League, a professional baseball league in South Korea, a first officially game held.
May 30 – Cal Ripken Jr. of the Baltimore Orioles plays the first of what will become a record-breaking 2,632 consecutive games
July 13 – Montreal hosts the first MLB All-Star Game outside the United States. Reds SS Dave Concepción hits a 2-run home run in the 2nd inning to spark the National League to its 11th consecutive win over the American League 4-1. The NL has now won 19 of the last 20 contests. Concepción was named the MVP.
August 18 – Pete Rose sets record with his 13,941st plate appearance.
World Series – St. Louis Cardinals won 4 games to 3 over the Milwaukee Brewers to claim their first World Championship since 1967. The Series MVP was Cardinals catcher Darrell Porter.
The Salem Angels won the Northwest League championship.
Basketball
NCAA Men's Basketball Championship –
North Carolina wins 63-62 over Georgetown
NCAA Division I Women's Basketball Championship
Louisiana Tech wins 76–62 over Cheyney State
NBA Finals –
Los Angeles Lakers won 4 games to 2 over the Philadelphia 76ers
National Basketball League (Australia) Finals:
West Adelaide Bearcats defeated the Geelong Cats 80-74 in the final.
FIBA World Championship
USSR World Champion
Boxing
May 4 to May 15 – 1982 World Amateur Boxing Championships held in Munich
June 11 – Larry Holmes defeats Gerry Cooney for the WBC Heavyweight title. Cooney, a white challenger, was dubbed "The White Hope" in what built up to be a very racially toned fight: see Larry Holmes vs. Gerry Cooney.
November 12 – Aaron Pryor defeats Alexis Argüello in what would later be called the fight of the decade. Pryor retained the WBA's world Jr. Welterweight title with a 14th round knockout
November 13 – Ray Mancini defeats Duk Koo Kim by knockout in 14 rounds in a tragic fight. Kim died five days later and the fight's outcome brought many new resolutions to boxing.
December 3 – The Carnival of Champions
Canadian football
Grey Cup – Edmonton Eskimos won 32–16 over the Toronto Argonauts, the Eskimos' record fifth consecutive Grey Cup victory.
Vanier Cup – UBC Thunderbirds won 39–14 over the Western Ontario Mustangs
Cricket
Graham Gooch leads a "rebel" team of players on tour of South Africa, banned from official cricket since 1970 because of apartheid.
Cycling
Giro d'Italia won by Bernard Hinault of France
Tour de France – Bernard Hinault of France
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Giuseppe Saronni of Italy
Dogsled racing
Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion –
Rick Swenson won with lead sled dog – Andy
Field hockey
Men's World Cup held in Bombay won by Pakistan
Men's Champions Trophy held at Amstelveen in the Netherlands and won by the host nation
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Scott Hamilton, United States
Ladies' champion: Elaine Zayak, United States
Pair skating champions: Sabine Baeß & Tassilo Thierbach, Germany
Ice dancing champions: Jayne Torvill & Christopher Dean, Great Britain
Gaelic Athletic Association
Camogie
All-Ireland Camogie Champion: Cork
National Camogie League: Kilkenny
Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Offaly 1-15 died Kerry 0-17
National Football League – Kerry 1-9 died Cork 0-5 (replay)
Ladies' Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Champion: Kerry
National Football League: Kerry
Hurling
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Kilkenny 3-18 died Cork 1-13
National Hurling League –
Golf
Men's professional
Masters Tournament – Craig Stadler
U.S. Open – Tom Watson
British Open – Tom Watson
PGA Championship – Raymond Floyd
PGA Tour money leader – Craig Stadler – $446,462
Senior PGA Tour money leader – Miller Barber – $106,890
Men's amateur
British Amateur – Martin Thompson
U.S. Amateur – Jay Sigel
Women's professional
LPGA Championship – Jan Stephenson
U.S. Women's Open – Janet Anderson
Classique Peter Jackson Classic – Sandra Haynie
LPGA Tour money leader – JoAnne Carner – $310,400
Harness racing
United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
Cane Pace – Cam Fella
Little Brown Jug – Merger
Messenger Stakes – Cam Fella
United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
Hambletonian – Speed Bowl
Yonkers Trot – Mystic Park
Kentucky Futurity – Jazz Cosmos
Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
Pacers: Rhett's Law
Horse racing
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – Silver Buck
Grand National – Grittar
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Gurner's Lane
Canada – Queen's Plate won by Son of Briartic
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Akiyda
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Assert
Japan – Japan Cup won by Half Iced
English Triple Crown Races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Zino
The Derby – Golden Fleece
St. Leger Stakes – Touching Wood
United States Triple Crown Races:
Kentucky Derby – Gato Del Sol
Preakness Stakes – Aloma's Ruler
Belmont Stakes – Conquistador Cielo
Ice hockey
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Wayne Gretzky, Edmonton Oilers
Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Wayne Gretzky, Edmonton Oilers
Stanley Cup – New York Islanders win 4-0 over the Vancouver Canucks
World Hockey Championship –
Men's champion: Soviet Union defeated Czechoslovakia
Junior Men's champion: Canada defeated Czechoslovakia
Motorsport
Rugby league
1982 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain and France
1982 KB Cup
1982 New Zealand rugby league season
1982 NSWRFL season – Parramatta Eels win their second title, defeating Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles 21-8 in the final.
1981–82 Rugby Football League season / 1982–83 Rugby Football League season
1982 State of Origin series
Rugby union
88th Five Nations Championship series is won by Ireland
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – Alex Higgins beats Ray Reardon 18-15
World rankings – Ray Reardon becomes world number one for 1982/83
Swimming
The fourth FINA World Championships held in Guayaquil, Ecuador
Tennis
Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
Australian Open – Johan Kriek
French Open – Mats Wilander
Wimbledon championships – Jimmy Connors
US Open – Jimmy Connors
Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
Australian Open – Chris Evert
French Open – Martina Navratilova
Wimbledon championships – Martina Navratilova
US Open – Chris Evert
Davis Cup – United States won 4-1 over France in world tennis.
Billie Jean King makes her final singles appearance at the US Open, losing in the first round.
Total prize money at US Open exceeds 1 million US dollars.
Volleyball
1982 FIVB Men's World Championship held in Buenos Aires, Argentina won by USSR
1982 FIVB Women's World Championship held in Lima, Peru won by China
Water polo
Men's World Championship held in Guayaquil, Ecuador, won by USSR
Multi-sport events
Asian Games held in New Delhi, India
Central American and Caribbean Games held in Havana, Cuba
Commonwealth Games held in Brisbane, Australia
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Wayne Gretzky, NHL ice hockey
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Mary Decker, Track and field
ABC's Wide World of Sports Athlete of the Year: Wayne Gretzky
References
Sports by year | [
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224747 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghouls%20%27n%20Ghosts | Ghouls 'n Ghosts | Ghouls 'n Ghosts, known as in Japan, is a side-scrolling platform game developed by Capcom, released as an arcade game in 1988 and subsequently ported to a number of home platforms. It is the sequel to Ghosts 'n Goblins and the second game in the Ghosts 'n Goblins series.
It was a commercial success, becoming the eighth highest-grossing arcade game of 1989 in Japan. It was also critically acclaimed, with the Sega Genesis version winning four awards from Electronic Gaming Monthly in 1989, including Best Game of the Year.
Plot
Makaimura
One storm-filled evening, Knight Arthur and his love, Princess Prin Prin, were enjoying a quiet night in the cemetery together, when they were beset upon by a winged Satan. The Satan dove and captured the princess, and disappeared with her before Arthur's eyes. Without a moment's hesitation, Arthur donned his knight armor and picked up his lance, and set forth to Astaroth's castle where he knew he would find his abducted love.
Dai Makaimura
Three years after those events, the Ghosts have returned with Ghouls for revenge, initiating a mortal holocaust on the Princess' kingdom as beams of light struck through countless villagers, when Sir Arthur returns to the village, his rescue attempt was too soon as his beloved Princess Prin-Prin also has her soul taken away from her body in front of his very eyes. Now it's up to the heroic knight once again to slay his way to the hellish castle to defeat the evil Lucifer and his legion of demons and restore the souls of Prin-Prin and every mortal.
Gameplay
The gameplay for Ghouls 'n Ghosts is similar to that of Ghosts 'n Goblins. The player controls the knight Arthur, who must advance through a series of eerie levels and defeat a number of undead and demonic creatures in his quest to restore all the people killed by Lucifer (Loki in the English-language Sega Genesis and Master System versions), including his beloved Princess Prin-Prin, back to life. Along the way, Arthur can pick up a variety of weapons and armor to help him in his quest. While the core gameplay remains the same as its predecessor, the game now allows Arthur to fire directly upward and directly downward while in mid air.
By jumping in certain spots, players can cause a treasure chest to erupt from the ground. By firing his weapon at the chest, players may uncover new weapons, gold armor or an evil magician that changes Arthur into an elderly man or a helpless duck. The gold armor allows players to charge up the weapon to release a powerful magical attack. Each weapon has its own special attack, with the exception of the special weapon (see below).
There are six levels. To defeat the game, Arthur must complete levels 1 through 5 twice. Upon completing them the first time, Arthur is taken back to level 1, but this time a special weapon appears during the game. To enter Lucifer's chamber the player must have this special weapon equipped, and must have defeated the final Fly boss from level 5. After entering the final large door, the player goes directly to Lucifer's chamber.
Music
The original soundtrack for the arcade version was composed by Tamayo Kawamoto. Many computer ports of the game include the soundtrack by Tim Follin which consists of arrangements and some new songs. Follin's soundtrack – especially Commodore 64, Atari ST (which both implement each machines' 'chiptune' synthesizers, although the selection of pieces and some scoring differs slightly between computers) and Amiga versions (of which the playlist is again slightly different) – is respected among computer game music listeners and also gained appreciation from reviewers when the game was published.
Ports
Ports of Ghouls 'n Ghosts were released in Europe in 1989 for the Amstrad CPC, Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, and ZX Spectrum. These ports were all handled by Software Creations and all omit a great deal of detail from the arcade version.
A Sega Genesis port of Ghouls 'n Ghosts (programmed by Yuji Naka) was released by Sega in 1989 in Japan and North America, and in 1990 in Europe. This version was re-released as a handheld TV game with Street Fighter II: Special Champion Edition in 2005 and as a downloadable Virtual Console game for the Wii in 2007. This version was also included on the Sega Genesis Mini in 2019. Sega also released a Master System port in 1990. This version introduced a power-up system that allows the player to enter secret shops and upgrade parts of their armor. This includes helmets, which give the player access to new weapons and magic spells; chest armor, which allows the player to sustain more damage; and boots, which increase the player's speed.
A SuperGrafx port of Dai Makaimura was released by NEC Avenue in 1990. This version was included on the TurboGrafx-16 Mini in 2020. A version of Dai Makaimura was released by Capcom in 1994 for the Sharp X68000.
A version for the Capcom Power System Changer was planned and previewed but never released.
In 1998, Capcom released Capcom Generation 2 for the PlayStation and Saturn in Japan, a compilation which included Ghouls 'n Ghosts along with Ghosts 'n Goblins and Super Ghouls 'n Ghosts. The PlayStation version of this compilation was released as a bundle in Europe with three other volumes titled Capcom Generations (in plural) under the title of Capcom Generations: Chronicles of Arthur. Capcom later released in North America Capcom Classics Collection Vol. 1 for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox in 2005 and Capcom Classics Collection: Reloaded for the PlayStation Portable in 2006, which includes all the Capcom Generations titles. The arcade version of Ghouls 'n Ghosts was re-released as one of the included games on the Capcom Home Arcade console in 2019.
Reception
Commercial performance
In Japan, Game Machine listed Ghouls 'n Ghosts on their January 15, 1989 issue as being the second most-successful table arcade unit of the month, outperforming titles like Image Fight and Truxton. It went on to become the eighth highest-grossing arcade game of 1989 in Japan.
Contemporary reviews
MegaTech magazine reviewed the Sega Mega Drive version, calling it "a truly superb game" and "a stunning conversion" of the "classic coin-op, combining stunning graphics and sound with very challenging gameplay."
Accolades
The Sega Genesis version received the 1989 Electronic Gaming Monthly awards for Best Game of the Year, Best Graphics, Best Sequel and Coolest Boss. The Computer Entertainer Awards selected it as the Genesis Game of the Year. VideoGames & Computer Entertainment gave it the award for the best coin-op conversion on consoles. The Computer Entertainer Awards selected it as the Genesis Game of the Year.
ACE magazine listed it as one of the top four best games available for the Mega Drive in 1989. It received a Hyper Game award from MegaTech, as well as a Gold Medal from Zzap!64, Crash Smash award from Crash, and C+VG Hit award from Computer and Video Games.
In 1992, Mega magazine ranked it as the 23rd best game of all time. In 1997, Electronic Gaming Monthly ranked the Genesis version as the 48th best console video game of all time, citing its close recreation of the arcade version. In 2017, Gamesradar listed the game 44th on its "Best Sega Genesis/Mega Drive games of all time."
Retrospective
Retrospectively, Game Rankings gave the Sega Genesis version an aggregate rating of 80% based on four reviews published online in the 2000s, including three reviews for the Wii Virtual Console release.
The Virtual Console release (ported from the Sega Genesis) was rated 6.5 out of 10 by GameSpot, 7.5 out of 10 by IGN, and 9 out of 10 stars by Nintendo Life.
References
External links
Ghouls 'n Ghosts at MobyGames
1988 video games
Amiga games
Amstrad CPC games
Arcade video games
Atari ST games
Cancelled Capcom Power System Changer games
Commodore 64 games
CP System games
Dark fantasy video games
Video games about ghosts
Ghosts 'n Goblins
Master System games
Mobile games
Platform games
PlayStation Network games
Sega Genesis games
Sharp X68000 games
SuperGrafx games
U.S. Gold games
Video game sequels
Video games developed in Japan
Video games scored by Tamayo Kawamoto
Video games scored by Tim Follin
Virtual Console games
Video games about zombies
Run and gun games
Works set in castles
ZX Spectrum games | [
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224748 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JOVIAL | JOVIAL | JOVIAL is a high-level programming language based on ALGOL 58, specialized for developing embedded systems (specialized computer systems designed to perform one or a few dedicated functions, usually embedded as part of a larger, more complete device, including mechanical parts). It was a major system programming language through the 1960s and 70s.
History
JOVIAL was developed as a new "high-order" programming language starting in 1959 by a team at System Development Corporation (SDC) headed by Jules Schwartz to compose software for the electronics of military aircraft.
The name JOVIAL is an acronym for Jules' Own Version of the International Algebraic Language; International Algorithmic Language (IAL) was a name proposed originally for ALGOL 58. According to Schwartz, the language was originally called OVIAL, but this was opposed for various reasons. JOVIAL was then suggested, with no meaning attached to the J. Somewhat jokingly it was suggested that the language be named after Schwartz, since he was the meeting chairperson, and this unofficial name stuck.
During the 1960s, JOVIAL was a part of the US Military L-project series, particularly the ITT 465L Strategic Air Command Control System (the Strategic Automated Command and Control System (SACCS) project), due to a lack of real-time computing programming languages available. Some 95 percent of the SACCS project, managed by International Telephone & Telegraph (ITT) with software mainly written by SDC, was written in JOVIAL. The software project took two years and fewer than 1,400 programmer years, less than half of the equivalent time in the SAGE L-project.
During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the United States Air Force adopted a standardized central processing unit (CPU), the MIL-STD-1750A, and subsequent JOVIAL programs were built for that processor. Several commercial vendors provided compilers and related programming tools to build JOVIAL for processors such as the MIL-STD-1750A, including Advanced Computer Techniques (ACT), TLD Systems, Proprietary Software Systems (PSS), and others.
JOVIAL was standardized during 1973 with MIL-STD-1589 and was revised during 1984 with MIL-STD-1589C. It is still used to update and maintain software on older military vehicles and aircraft. There are three dialects in common use: J3, J3B-2, and J73.
, JOVIAL is no longer maintained and distributed by the USAF JOVIAL Program Office (JPO). Software formerly distributed by the JPO is still available through commercial resources at Software Engineering Associates, Inc., (SEA) as are other combinations of host/target processors including Windows, Linux, Mac OS X on PowerPC, SPARC, VAX, 1750A, PowerPC, TI-9989, Zilog Z800x, Motorola 680x0, and IBM System 360, System 370, and System z. Further, DDC-I, which acquired parts of Advanced Computer Techniques, also lists JOVIAL compilers and related tools .
Most software implemented in JOVIAL is mission critical, and maintenance is growing more difficult. In December 2014, it was reported that software derived from JOVIAL code produced in the 1960s was involved in a major failure of the United Kingdom's air traffic control infrastructure, and that the agency that uses it, NATS Holdings, was having to train its IT staff in JOVIAL so they could maintain this software, which was not scheduled for replacement until 2016.
Influence
Languages influenced by JOVIAL include CORAL, SYMPL, Space Programming Language (SPL), and to some extent CMS-2. An interactive subset of JOVIAL called TINT, similar to JOSS was developed in the 1960s.
Features
JOVIAL includes features not found in standard ALGOL, such as items (now called structures), arrays of items, status variables (now called enumerations) and inline assembly language.
It also included provisions for "packed" data within tables. Table packing refers to the allocation of items within an entry to words of storage (bits in a unit of data). This was important with respect to the limited memory and storage of the computing systems of the JOVIAL era.
The Communication Pool (COMPOOL) in Jovial is similar to libraries of header files for languages such as PL/I and C.
Applications
Notable systems using embedded JOVIAL software include:
Milstar communications satellite
Advanced Cruise Missile
B-52, B-1B, B-2 bombers
C-130, C-141, C-17 transport aircraft
F-111, F-15, F-16 (prior to Block 50), F-117 fighter aircraft
LANTIRN
U-2 aircraft
Boeing E-3 Sentry AWACS aircraft (Prior to Block 40/45)
Navy Aegis cruisers
Army Multiple Launch Rocket System (MLRS)
Army Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters
F100, F117, F119 jet engines
NORAD air defense & control system (Hughes HME-5118ME system)
NATO Air Defence Ground Environment (NADGE) system
RL10 rocket engines
Civil NAS (National Airspace System) Air Traffic Control
APG-70, APG-71, and APG-73 airborne radar systems
Example
The following example is taken from ''Computer Programming Manual for the JOVIAL (J73) Language.
PROC RETRIEVE(CODE:VALUE);
BEGIN
ITEM CODE U;
ITEM VALUE F;
VALUE = -99999.;
FOR I:0 BY 1 WHILE I<1000;
IF CODE = TABCODE(I);
BEGIN
VALUE = TABVALUE(I);
EXIT;
END
END
This example defines a procedure named RETRIEVE which takes an unsigned integer input argument CODE and a floating-point output argument VALUE. It searches the 1000-element array TABCODE for an entry that matches CODE, and then sets the floating-point variable VALUE to the element of array TABVALUE having the same matching array index. If no matching element is found, VALUE is set to −99999.0.
References
External links
The Development of Jovial
April 2006 archive of the JOVIAL Program Office
Page on Jules Schwartz, including film of a humorous talk on the development of JOVIAL
DODSSP U.S. Department of Defense Single Stock Point for Military Specifications, Standards and Related Publications
Software Engineering Associates
DDC-I, Inc.: DDC-I JOVIAL Compiler System (DJCS)
Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine:
Procedural programming languages
Avionics programming languages
Systems programming languages
High Integrity Programming Language
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224753 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/13th%20century%20in%20literature | 13th century in literature | This article contains information about the literary events and publications of the 13th century.
Events
1204 – The Imperial Library of Constantinople is destroyed by Christian knights of the Fourth Crusade and its contents burned or sold.
1211 – Hélinand of Froidmont begins compiling his Chronicon.
1220 – A nw shrine built at Canterbury Cathedral in England to house the remains of St Thomas Becket quickly becomes one of Europe's major places of pilgrimage, and the destination of the fictional pilgrims in Geoffrey Chaucer's set of narrative poems The Canterbury Tales, written about 170 years later.
1226: By August – The biographical poem L'histoire de Guillaume le Maréchal, commissioned to commemorate William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke (died 1219), a rare example at this time of a life of a lay person, is completed, probably by a Tourangeau layman called John in the southern Welsh Marches.
1240 – Albert of Stade joins the Franciscan order and begins his chronicle.
1249: September 27 – Chronicler Guillaume de Puylaurens is present at the death of Raymond VII of Toulouse.
1251 – The carving is completed of the Tripitaka Koreana, a collection of Buddhist scriptures recorded on some 81,000 wooden blocks, thought to have been started in 1236.
1258: February 13 – The House of Wisdom in Baghdad is destroyed by forces of the Mongol Empire after the Siege of Baghdad. The waters of the Tigris are said to have run black with ink from the huge quantities of books flung into it, and red from the blood of the philosophers and scientists killed.
1274: May 1 – In Florence, the nine-year-old Dante Alighieri first sees the eight-year-old Beatrice, his lifelong muse.
1276 – Merton College, Oxford, is first recorded as having a collection of books, making its Library the world's oldest in continuous daily use. During the first century of its existence the books are probably kept in a chest.
1283 – Ram Khamhaeng, ruler of the Sukhothai Kingdom, creates the Thai alphabet (อักษรไทย), according to tradition.
1289 – Library of the Collège de Sorbonne, earliest predecessor of the Bibliothèque de la Sorbonne, is founded in Paris.
1298–1299 – Marco Polo dictates his Travels to Rustichello da Pisa while in prison in Genoa, according to tradition.
1300, Easter – The events of Dante's Divine Comedy take place.
New works
13th century
Huon of Bordeaux
Sagas of Icelanders (Íslendingasögur)
Beatrice of Nazareth – Seven Ways of Holy Love, the earliest prose work in Dutch
Conrad of Saxony – Speculum Beatæ Mariæ Virginis
Śivadāsa – "The five and twenty tales of the genie" (version of the Baital Pachisi)
Zhou Mi – Miscellaneous observations from the year of Guixin (癸辛雜識)
c. 1200
Layamon – Brut
Nibelungenlied
Early 13th century
Ancrene Wisse
Færeyinga saga
Farid al-Din Attar – Mantiqu 't-Tayr (The Conference of the Birds)
Codex Gigas
Le Conte de Poitiers
Gautier de Coincy – Les miracles de Nostre-Dame
Anonymus (notary of Béla III) – Gesta Hungarorum
Guido delle Colonne – Historia destructionis Troiae
Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks (The Saga of Hervar and Heidrek)
Gerbert de Montreuil – Le Roman de la Violette
Raghavanka – Harishchandra Kavya
Jean Renart – Guillaume de Dole
Roi Flore et la belle Jeanne
Wolfram von Eschenbach – Parzival
c. 1203 – Hartmann von Aue – Iwein
1205 – Lancelot-Grail
1205–1234 – Estoire d'Eracles (Old French translation of William of Tyre's Historia)
c. 1208 – Saxo Grammaticus – Gesta Danorum
c. 1210
Herbers – Li romans de Dolopathos (translation of Seven Wise Masters)
Raimon Vidal de Bezaudun – Razós de trobar
Gottfried von Strassburg – Tristan
1210–1225 – Sa'ad al-Din Varavini – Marzban-nama (مرزباننامه)
1212 – Kamo no Chōmei (鴨 長明) – Hōjōki (方丈記, Account of a Ten-Foot-Square Hut)
1214 – Gervase of Tilbury – Otia Imperialia
c. 1215
Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube – Girard de Vienne
Rumi – Diwan-e Shams-e Tabrizi (masnavi in Persian)
c. 1217–1235 – Andayya – Kabbigara Kava (Poets' Defender)
c. 1217–1263 – Strengleikar, Old Norse translation of the Lais of Marie de France, perhaps (partly) by Brother Robert
1220 – Ibn Hammad – Akhbar muluk bani Ubayd
c. 1220s – Snorri Sturlusson – Prose Edda
c. 1225
Francis of Assisi – Laudes creaturarum or Cantico delle creature (Praise of God's creation), the oldest known Italian poetry
King Horn, the oldest known English verse romance
1225 or 1226 – L'Histoire de Guillaume le Marechal (early example of a political biography, in Norman French)
1227 – Brother Robert – Tristrams saga ok Ísöndar, an Old Norse translation of the Tristan and Iseult legend
c. 1227 – Henry of Latvia – Livonian Chronicle of Henry
c. 1230
La Mort le roi Artu, French prose romance
Guillaume de Lorris – First section of Romance of the Rose
Johannes de Sacrobosco – De sphaera mundi
Snorri Sturlusson – Heimskringla
c. 1230s – Post-Vulgate Cycle
Mainly before 1235 – Henry de Bracton – De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae (The Laws and Customs of England)
c. 1240
Bartholomeus Anglicus – De proprietatibus rerumEgil's SagaJohannes de Garlandia – De Mensurabili MusicaRudolf von Ems – Alexanderromanc. 1240–1250 – Roger Bacon – Summa Grammaticamid-13th century
Black Book of Carmarthen completedDoön de MayenceFranco of Cologne – Ars cantus mensurabilisJean de Mailly – Chronica universalis MettensisOld incidents in the Xuanhe period of the great Song Dynasty (大宋宣和遺事)
c. 1250 – Willem die Madoc maecte – Van den vos Reynaerde1250s – Stephen of Bourbon – De septem donis Spiritus Sanctic. 1250–1266 – Poema de Fernán Gonzálezc. 1250–1282 – Mechthild of Magdeburg – Das fließende Licht der Gottheit (The Flowing Light of Divinity; originally composed in Middle Low German)
1252Calyla e Dymna, translation of the Panchatantra into CastilianJikkunshōAfter 1255 – Epic of Sundiata, in Mandinka oral tradition
1258–1273 – Rumi – Masnavi1259 – Bonaventure – Itinerarium Mentis ad Deum (Journey of the Mind to God)
c. 1259–1265 – Thomas Aquinas – Summa contra Gentilesc. 1259–1266 – Jacobus de Varagine – Golden Legend (Legenda sanctorum)completed 1260 – Minhaj-i-Siraj – Tabaqat-i Nasiric. 1260Le Récit d'un ménestrel de ReimsSa'di – Gulistan, Bustan poets and texts in Persian
1263 – Bonaventure – Life of St. Francis of Assisic. 1263 – Jacob van Maerlant – Der Naturen Bloemec. 1264 – Jacob van Maerlant – De Spieghel Historiael1265Book of Aneirin (written or copied at about this date)Shokukokin Wakashū (続古今和歌集, Collection of Ancient and Modern Times Continued, completed)
c. 1270
Ibn al-Nafis – Theologus AutodidactusJohn of Capua – Directorium Vitae Humanae, translation of the PanchatantraPoetic Edda written in Codex Regius, including Hávamál and Völwpác. 1270–1278 – Witelo – Perspectiva1274
Joseph ben Abraham Gikatilla – Ginnat Egoz (Garden of Nuts)
Bonvesin da la Riva – Libro de le tre scritture (Negra, Rubra, Aurea; Western Lombard)
c. 1275 – Jean de Meun – Second section of Romance of the Roselate 13th century
Amir Khusrow – The Tale of the Four Dervishes (, Ghesseh-ye Chahār Darvīsh)Njáls sagac. 1280
Bernard of Besse – Liber de Laudibus Beati FrancisciHeinrich der Vogler – Dietrichs Fluchtc. 1280sHavelok the DaneThe Owl and the Nightingale'Anonymous IV' – Concerning the Measurement of Polyphonic Song
1283
Ramon Llull – BlanquernaMujū – Shasekishū1288 – Bonvesin da la Riva – De magnalibus urbis Mediolani (On the Marvels of Milan)
1288–1289 – Amir Khusrow – Qiran-us-Sa’dain (Meeting of the Two Auspicious Stars – masnavi)
c. 1290s – "Sir Patrick Spens" (Scottish ballad)
1290–1291
Dnyaneshwar – DnyaneshwariAmir Khusrow – Miftah-ul-Futooh (Key to the Victories – masnavi)
1293 – Dante Alighieri – La Vita Nuova1294 – Amir Khusrow – Ghurratul-Kamal (diwan)
c. 1295 – Mathieu of Boulogne – Liber lamentationum Matheoluli (Book of the Lamentations of Matheolus)
1298
Amir Khusrow – Khamsa-e-NizamiGertrude the Great (begins) – Legatus Memorialis Abundantiae Divinae Pietatis (The Herald of Divine Love)
1299 – Rustichello da Pisa – The Travels of Marco Poloc. 1300Cursor MundiGesta RomanorumThe Interlude of the Student and the Girl (Interludium de clerico et puella)New dramaThe Orphan of Zhao (趙氏孤兒 Zhaoshi guer)
Births
c. 1200 – Matthew Paris, English chronicler and monk (died 1259)
1205 – Tikkana, Telugu poet (died 1288)
1207: September 9 – Rumi, Persian poet (died 1273)
c. 1210 – Henry de Bracton, English cleric and jurist (died c. 1268)
c. 1212 – Ibn Sahl of Seville, poet (died 1251)
1214 – Sturla Þórðarson, Icelandic writer of sagas and politician (died 1284)
1225: January 28 – Thomas Aquinas, Italian philosopher and theologian (died 1274)
c. 1230–1240 – Jacob van Maerlant, Flemish poet and writer in Middle Dutch (died c. 1288–1300)
1240 or 1241 – Mechtilde, German religious writer and saint (died 1298)
1248 – Angela of Foligno Italian mystic and saint (died 1309)
1265 – Dante Alighieri, Italian poet (died 1321)
1266 (probable) – Duns Scotus, Scottish philosopher and theologian (died 1308)
1275 – Dnyaneshwar, Maharashtrian sant and writer (died 1296)
1279 – Muktabai, Maharashtrian sant and Abhang poet (died 1297)
c. 1280 – Ranulf Higden, English chronicler and Benedictine monk (died 1364)
1283 (approximate)
Juan Ruiz, Archpriest of Hita, Castilian poet (died c. 1350)
Yoshida Kenkō (吉田 兼好), Japanese author and Buddhist monk (died c. 1350)
1287: January 24 – Richard de Bury, English bishop and bibliophile (died 1345)
1293 or 1294 – John of Ruysbroeck (Jan van Ruysbroeck), Flemish mystic (died 1381)Unknown year – Thomas the Rhymer, Scottish laird and prophet
Deaths
Unknown – Palkuriki Somanatha, Telugu, Kannada and Sanskrit poet
1209
Nizami Ganjavi, Seljuk Empire Persian romantic epic poet (born c. 1141)
December 29 – Lu You, Chinese poet (born 1125)
c. 1210 – Gottfried von Strassburg, German writer
1212 – Adam of Dryburgh, Anglo-Scots theologian (born c. 1140)
1223 – Gerald of Wales, Cambro-Norman churchman and topographer (born c. 1146)
1228 (probable) – Gervase of Tilbury, English lawyer, statesman and writer (born c. 1150)
1241: September 23 – Snorri Sturluson, Icelandic historian, poet, and politician (born 1179)
1241: September 26 – Fujiwara no Teika (藤原定家), Japanese waka poet, calligrapher, novelist, and scholar (born 1162)
1251
Ibn Sahl of Seville, poet (born c. 1212)
(probable) – Albertanus of Brescia, Latin prose writer (born c. 1195)
1252 (probable) – Alberic of Trois-Fontaines, Cistercian chronicler
1253: October 9 – Robert Grosseteste, English churchman and scholar (born c. 1175)
1259: June – Matthew Paris, English chronicler and monk (born c. 1200)
1268 – Henry de Bracton, English writer and jurist (born c. 1210)
1273: December 17 – Rumi, Persian poet (born 1207)
1274
March 7 – Thomas Aquinas, Italian philosopher and theologian (born 1225)
July 12 – Bonaventure, philosopher and theologian
1285 – Rutebeuf, French trouvère'' (probable; born c. 1245)
1287: August 31 – Konrad von Würzburg, German poet
1294
Roger Bacon, English scholar (born c. 1214)
Guittone d'Arezzo, Tuscan poet (born c. 1235)
1298: July 13 or 16: Jacobus de Varagine, archbishop of Genoa and chronicler (born c. 1230)
See also
13th century in poetry
12th century in literature
14th century in literature
List of years in literature
References
Medieval literature
History of literature | [
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224755 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivonia%20Trial | Rivonia Trial | The Rivonia Trial took place in South Africa between 9 October 1963 and 12 June 1964. The Rivonia Trial led to the imprisonment of Nelson Mandela and the others among the accused who were convicted of sabotage and sentenced to life at the Palace of Justice, Pretoria.
Origins
The Rivonia Trial took its name from Rivonia, the suburb of Johannesburg where leaders had been arrested (and documents discovered) at Liliesleaf Farm, privately owned by Arthur Goldreich, on 11 July 1963. Various people and groups, including the African National Congress, had been using the farm as a hideout. Among others, Nelson Mandela had moved onto the farm in October 1961 and evaded security police while masquerading as a gardener and cook called David Motsamayi (meaning "David the walker").
"The Rivonia raid was a stunning and welcome development for most white South Africans—a major breakthrough in the nation's fight against terrorism."
Men such as Walter Sisulu, Govan Mbeki and other high commanders of uMkhonto we Sizwe (MK) said on their previous meeting that on the 11th of July they will be holding their last meeting in the farm, the agenda would be Mayibuye and the new place for their next meetings.
Nelson Mandela was already imprisoned on 5 August 1962; on 11 July at their last meeting at 3:00 pm Lionel Bernstein, Denis Goldberg, Arthur Goldreich, Bob Hepple, Abdulhay Jassat, Ahmed Kathrada, Govan Mbeki, Raymond Mhlaba, Andrew Mlangeni, Moosa Moolla, Elias Motsoaledi, Walter Sisulu and Harold Wolpe were all arrested by South African Police. Other key leaders such as Oliver Tambo, Moses Kotane, Joe Slovo, Moses Mabhida, Stephen Dlamini, Joe Modise, Alfred Nzo, Wilton Mkwayi and others were not at the farm at the time of the arrests. They were detained under the General Law Amendment Act No 37 of 1963, which allowed for detention of up to ninety days.
The arrest of the MK high command members resulted in them being sentenced to life imprisonment, to others being arrested and to others going into exile.
Defendants
Arrested were:
Lionel Bernstein, architect and member of the South African Communist Party (SACP)
Denis Goldberg, a Cape Town engineer and leader of the Congress of Democrats
Arthur Goldreich
Bob Hepple
Abdulhay Jassat
James Kantor, brother-in-law of Harold Wolpe
Ahmed Kathrada
Nelson Mandela
Govan Mbeki
Raymond Mhlaba
Andrew Mlangeni
Moosa Moolla
Elias Motsoaledi, trade union and ANC member
Walter Sisulu
Harold Wolpe, prominent attorney and activist
Goldberg, Bernstein, Wolpe, Kantor, and Goldreich were Jewish South Africans; Hepple was of English descent on his father's side and Dutch and Jewish on his mother's; Jassat, Kathrada, Moolla were Indian Muslims; Mandela, Mbeki and Mhlaba were Xhosa people; Motsoaledi and Mlangeni were Sothos and Sisulu was Xhosa (he had an English father and a Xhosa mother).
The leaders who were prosecuted in the Rivonia Trial also included Mandela, who was already in Johannesburg's Fort prison serving a five-year sentence for inciting workers to strike and leaving the country illegally. Most of the Rivonia defendants were to be convicted, and in turn sentenced to life imprisonment.
The government took advantage of legal provisions allowing for accused persons to be held for 90 days without trial, and the defendants were held incommunicado. Withstanding beatings and torture, Goldreich, Jassat, Moolla and Wolpe escaped from jail on 11 August. Their escape infuriated the prosecutors and police, who considered Goldreich to be "the arch-conspirator".
The chief prosecutor was Dr. Percy Yutar, deputy attorney-general of the Transvaal.
The presiding judge was Dr. Quartus de Wet, judge-president of the Transvaal.
The first trial indictment document listed 11 names as the accused. The trial began in October 1963. Counsel for the accused successfully challenged the legal sufficiency of the document, with the result that Justice de Wet quashed it. Prior to dismissal of the first indictment, the state withdrew all charges against Bob Hepple, Hepple subsequently fled the country, without testifying, and stated "that he never had any intention of testifying". The second indictment thus only listed 10 out of the original 11 names, referring to them as Accused 1 through 10:
Nelson Mandela (Accused No. 1)
Walter Sisulu (Accused No. 2)
Denis Goldberg (Accused No. 3)
Govan Mbeki (Accused No. 4)
Ahmed Kathrada (Accused No. 5)
Lionel Bernstein (Accused No. 6)
Raymond Mhlaba (Accused No. 7)
James Kantor (Accused No. 8)
Elias Motsoaledi (Accused No. 9)
Andrew Mlangeni (Accused No. 10); he was the last to testify on trial
Bob Hepple (Accused No. 11); he never testified.
Mlangeni, who died on 21 July 2020, was the last surviving Rivonia defendant following the death of Goldberg on 29 April same year.
Defence lawyers
Nat Levy was attorney of record in Pretoria for Mandela and the other accused, with the exception of Kantor. The defence team comprised Joel Joffe, who was the instructing attorney, Bram Fischer, Vernon Berrangé, Arthur Chaskalson and George Bizos. Hilda Bernstein (wife of Rusty Bernstein) approached Joffe after being rebuffed by other lawyers who claimed to be too busy or afraid to act for her husband. Joffe was subsequently also approached by Albertina Sisulu (wife of Walter Sisulu), Annie Goldberg (mother of Dennis Goldberg) and Winnie Mandela (wife of Nelson Mandela). Joffe agreed to act as attorney for all of the accused except Kantor, who would require separate counsel, and Bob Hepple.
Joffe initially secured the services of advocates Arthur Chaskalson and George Bizos, then persuaded Bram Fischer to act as lead counsel. Vernon Berrangé was also later recruited to join the team of advocates. The defence line-up for the majority of the accused was:
Joel Joffe (instructing attorney)
Bram Fischer (advocate, lead counsel)
Vernon Berrangé (advocate)
George Bizos (advocate)
Arthur Chaskalson (advocate)
Harold Hanson (advocate)
The accused all agreed that Kantor's defence could share nothing in common with the rest of the accused. He thus arranged a separate defence team. Denis Kuny (later counsel in the Bram Fischer trial), was involved at the beginning of the trial defending Kantor. After State Prosecutor Yutar accused him of having been on the mailing list of the Communist Party, Kuny was debriefed and forced to withdraw. While Harold Hanson primarily represented Kantor, he was also invited to deliver the plea for mitigation for the other 9 accused. The defence line-up for Kantor was:
John Coaker (advocate)
Harold Hanson (advocate)
George Lowen (advocate)
H. C. Nicholas (advocate)
Harry Schwarz (advocate)
Charges
Charges were:
recruiting persons for training in the preparation and use of explosives and in guerrilla warfare for the purpose of violent revolution and committing acts of sabotage
conspiring to commit the aforementioned acts and to aid foreign military units when they invaded the Republic
acting in these ways to further the objectives of communism
soliciting and receiving money for these purposes from sympathizers in Uganda, Algeria, Ethiopia, Liberia, Nigeria, Tunisia, and elsewhere.
"Production requirements" for munitions for a six-month period were sufficient, the prosecutor Percy Yutar said in his opening address, to blow up a city the size of Johannesburg.
Kantor was discharged at the end of the prosecution's case.
The trial was condemned by the United Nations Security Council and nations around the world, leading to international sanctions against the South African government in some cases.
Escapes
Arthur Goldreich, Abdulhay Jassat, Moosa Moolla, and Harold Wolpe escaped from The Fort prison in Johannesburg while on remand after bribing a prison guard. After hiding in various safe houses for two months Goldreich and Wolpe escaped to Swaziland dressed as priests with the aid of Mannie Brown, who later helped to set up tour operator Africa Hinterland as a cover to deliver weapons to the ANC. From Swaziland, Vernon Berrangé was to charter a plane to take them on to Lobatse, a small town in south-eastern Botswana. Jassat and Moolla escaped into exile in India.
Wolpe's escape saw his brother-in-law James Kantor, who had been serving as a member of the defence team, arrested and charged with the same crimes as Mandela and his co-accused. Harry Schwarz, a close friend and a well-known politician, acted as his defence. After being dealt with aggressively by the prosecutor Percy Yutar, who sought to portray him as a vital cog of MK, Kantor was discharged by Judge Quartus de Wet, who ruled that he had no case to answer. Following his release, Kantor fled the country. He was to die of a massive heart attack in 1974.
Mandela's speech
At the beginning of the defence's proceedings, Nelson Mandela gave a three-hour speech from the defendant's dock, in which he explained and defended the ANC's key political positions. He justified the movement's decision, in view of the increasing restrictions on permitted political activity on the part of non-White Africans, to go beyond its earlier use of constitutional methods and Gandhian non-violent opposition to the state, embracing a campaign of sabotage against property (designed to minimize risks of injury and death), while also starting to train a military wing for possible future use. He also discussed in some detail the relationship between the ANC and the SACP, explaining that, while the two shared a commitment to action against the apartheid system, he was wedded to a model of constitutional democracy for South Africa (he singled out the British political model for particular praise), and also supported a market economy rather than a communist economic model. The speech is considered one of the founding moments of South African democracy.
Mandela's closing words have been much-quoted. They were reportedly spoken looking the judge full in the eyes. His statement that he was prepared to die for the cause was strongly resisted by his lawyers, who feared it might itself provoke a death sentence. In a concession to their concerns, Mandela inserted the words "if it needs be". Nelson Mandela, speaking in the dock of the court on 20 April 1964, said:
Results
Although the prosecution did not formally request the death penalty, close observers of the trial considered such a sentence to be implicit in the prosecutor's presentation of his case. Opposition to the death penalty included both public campaigns internationally, the United Nations, and the defence's arguments within the courtroom. Harold Hanson was called upon to argue in mitigation. He compared the African struggle for rights to the earlier Afrikaaner's struggle, citing precedents for temperate sentencing, even in cases of treason. On 12 June 1964, eight defendants were sentenced to life imprisonment; Lionel Bernstein was acquitted. Unsubstantiated evidence suggests that Hanson, in a private hearing with de Wet, persuaded him to commute the death sentence for high treason to life imprisonment.
There was no surprise in the fact that Mandela, Sisulu, Mbeki, Motsoaledi, Mlangeni, and Goldberg were found guilty on all four counts. The defence had hoped that Mhlaba, Kathrada, and Bernstein might escape conviction because of the skimpiness of evidence that they were parties to the conspiracy, although undoubtedly they could be prosecuted on other charges. But Mhlaba too was found guilty on all counts, and Kathrada, on one charge of conspiracy. Bernstein, however, was found not guilty. He was rearrested, released on bail, and placed under house arrest. Later he fled the country.
Denis Goldberg went to Pretoria Central Prison instead of Robben Island (at that time the only security wing for white political prisoners in South Africa), where he served 22 years.
The releases
In 1985, 28 February; Denis Goldberg was released from the custody of the National Party government after spending 22 years in Pretoria Central Prison white prison. He was released by order of President P. W. Botha.
In 1987, 5 November; Govan Mbeki was released from the custody of the National Party government after serving 24 years in the Robben Island prison. He was released by order of President P. W. Botha.
In 1989, 15 October; Ahmed Kathrada, Raymond Mhlaba, Andrew Mlangeni, Elias Motsoaledi and Walter Sisulu were released from the custody of the National Party government after spending 26 years each in Robben Island and Pollsmoor Prison; and their release which also included Wilton Mkwayi after spending 25 years for Little Rivonia Trial, Oscar Mpetha after spending more than 6 years, and the co-founder and former leader of the Pan Africanist Congress Jafta Masemola after he also spent 27 years in prison. They were released by order of President F. W. de Klerk.
In 1990, 11 February; Nelson Mandela was released after spending 27 years and eight months in prison as a result of the Rivonia trial (18 years of which were spent on Robben Island). He was released by order of President F. W. de Klerk.
Restoration of the Rivonia Trial sound archive
The Rivonia Trial was recorded on Dictabelts, a now obsolete audio recording format. Nearly 250 hours of the trial proceedings were recorded on 591 Dictabelts, kept by the National Archives and Records Service of South Africa (NARSSA). In 2001 seven of the Dictabelts were digitised by the British Library. This included 'I am prepared to die' Nelson Mandela's statement from the dock. In 2007 documents relating to the Criminal Court Case No. 253/1963 (State Versus N Mandela and Others) were recommended for inclusion in the Memory of the World Register in 2007. In 2012 NARSSA approached the French Institute of South Africa (IFAS) and the French National Audiovisual Institute (INA) to start a process of digitisation and restoration of the rest of the Rivonia Trial sound archive. French engineer, historian and inventor, Henri Chamoux, took a little over 15 months to edit and digitize 230 hours of recording using his own invention the Archeophone.
The digitised recordings were officially returned to South Africa, in 2018, as part of Nelson Mandela's Centenary, a one-day international colloquium "Listening to the Rivonia Trial : Courts, Archives and Liberation Movements" was organised to commemorate, discussing issues relating to the act of collecting, mapping, digitising and restoring archives and raising ethical questions that, in turn, become historical questions.
In film
The 1966 film entitled Der Rivonia-Prozess directed by Jürgen Goslar with Simon Sabela as Nelson Mandela.
The 2017 film entitled Bram Fischer (aka An Act of Defiance), directed by Jean van de Velde, covers the story of the trial, focusing on the involvement of the lead counsel for the defence, Bram Fischer.
In 2017 the two remaining survivors of the Rivonia trial – Denis Goldberg and Andrew Mlangeni – appeared in a documentary film entitled Life is Wonderful, directed by Sir Nicholas Stadlen, which tells the story of the trial. (The title reflects Goldberg's words to his mother at the end of the trial on hearing that he and his comrades had been spared the death sentence).
A 2018 French documentary entitled The State Against Mandela And The Others (written by journalist Nicolas Champeaux and directed by Gilles Porte), covers the story using actual audio recordings of the trial along with charcoal-style animation. It includes excerpts of interviews with some of the accused and others involved directly or indirectly in the trial.
See also
List of massacres in South Africa
Little Rivonia Trial
The World That Was Ours
1956 Treason Trial
1963 in South Africa
1964 in South Africa
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Rivonia Trial 1963-1964 (SA History Online)
Rescuing the Rivonia Trial recordings, including extracts from the original Dictabelt recordings made in court, and restored to audible condition with technical assistance from the British Library
"The Rivonia Trial" - article by Sunder Katwala from The Observer, dated Sunday, 11 February 2001
ANC history
On the trail of Mandela's handgun.
Rivonia Unmasked The prosecutor's account of the Rivonia Trial.
Historical Papers of the Rivonia Trial, Digital Collection at the University of the Witwatersrand.
Rivonia Trial Images
Baileys African History Archive – Rivonia Trial
I am prepared to die speech - Mandela
Trials in South Africa
Opposition to apartheid in South Africa
Events associated with apartheid
1963 in South African law
1964 in South African law
Trial, Rivonia, 1963-1964
History of Pretoria | [
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224756 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Jones%20%28runner%29 | Steve Jones (runner) | Stephen Henry Jones MBE (born 4 August 1955) is a Welsh athlete and set the former world record in the marathon, in his first completed race at that distance at the Chicago Marathon in 1984 with 2:08:05.
Biography
Jones grew up in Ebbw Vale, Wales and ran his first race at the age of 15 as a member of the Air Training Corps. Dissatisfied with working in a factory as a sewing-machine mechanic, he became an aircraft technician for the Royal Air Force (RAF) in 1974, and joined the RAF's running team in 1976. After receiving an invitation to the 1983 Chicago Marathon Jones began training for that distance; he previously had specialized in the 5,000 and 10,000 m, and on 6 Aug 1984, he ran the 1984 Olympic 10,000 m event. He finished 8th with a time of 28:28.08.
On 21 Oct 1984, a year after he had dropped out of the Chicago Marathon because of injury, Jones won the event—his first completed marathon—with a time of 2:08:05, breaking the world record of Australian Robert de Castella by 13 seconds. Jones was unaware of the record and, since he never wore a watch, did not know that he might break it until two miles before the finish. He won the 1985 London Marathon in 2:08:16 despite stopping to go to the toilet during the event; Jones later said, "I didn't even train for [the race]", instead continuing to coach himself. Aware that he was "one hamstring tear away from oblivion", Jones remained with the RAF despite earning large sums per race. In August 1985, he broke the world record for the half marathon, running 61:14 in Birmingham. On 20 October of that year he achieved his personal best marathon time of 2:07:13 in winning the Chicago Marathon, only one second slower than the world record run by Carlos Lopes at the Rotterdam Marathon earlier that same year. This time was the fastest of any British runner for 33 years until Mo Farah beat it in 2018.
In 1986, he won a bronze medal in the 10,000 m at the Commonwealth Games. In the European Championships shortly after, he once again competed in the marathon. Leading from the start and breaking away from the pack, Jones ran a brilliant race up to the 20-mile mark. At that point he was leading by over two minutes and on schedule for another world record. However, he then "hit the wall" and suffered terribly in the final six miles. He slowed to a virtual shuffle, but refused to quit as he watched other competitors catch and pass him. Two years later, in the 1988 New York City Marathon, Jones won by over three minutes with a time of 2:08:20.
He was the first Welsh athlete to appear on the cover of the prestigious running magazine Running Times.
He received an MBE on 8 June 2019.
Jones lives in Boulder, Colorado.
Achievements
Popular culture
In 2010, a video went viral featuring the Welshman's dramatic, tenacious finish to outrun the Tanzanian runner Gidamis Shahanga in the closing 80 metres of a 10000 metres race after being got caught with 110 metres remaining. Due to the vivid commentary the video is often featured in videos of "inspirational sports moments" or "remarkable comebacks".
In the race, Jones was leading from the start with 30 metres margins up until the last 400 metres, at which point the commentary noted "But they are closing. And of course he (Jones) got very little finishing speed". Then Shahanga closed in rapidly. With 200 metres remaining, Jones glimpsed back and saw Shahanga, with the commentary famously noted, "Jones' looking for trouble and the trouble is there". Shahanga caught Jones with 110 metres remaining, when commentary noted "the African is going to steal the race in the last 80 metres", yet as soon the comment is made, Jones managed to comeback, accelerate and win the race with the time 27:55.2s. This 10000-meter run was an invitational race held in Memorial Van Damme Stadium, Brussels, 1983, hence not recognised in official competitive records.
References
Runners World
The Independent Bio
1955 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Ebbw Vale
Sportspeople from Boulder, Colorado
Welsh male long-distance runners
Welsh male marathon runners
Welsh male cross country runners
Olympic athletes of Great Britain
Athletes (track and field) at the 1984 Summer Olympics
Commonwealth Games bronze medallists for Wales
Commonwealth Games medallists in athletics
Athletes (track and field) at the 1978 Commonwealth Games
Athletes (track and field) at the 1982 Commonwealth Games
Athletes (track and field) at the 1986 Commonwealth Games
Athletes (track and field) at the 1990 Commonwealth Games
World Athletics Championships athletes for Great Britain
Chicago Marathon male winners
London Marathon male winners
New York City Marathon male winners
World record setters in athletics (track and field) | [
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224764 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penny%20Rimbaud | Penny Rimbaud | Penny Lapsang Rimbaud (born Jeremy John Ratter, 8 June 1943), is a writer, poet, philosopher, painter, musician and activist. He was a member of the performance art groups EXIT and Ceres Confusion, and in 1972 was co-founder of the Stonehenge Free Festival, together with Phil Russell aka Wally Hope. In 1977 with Steve Ignorant, he co-founded the seminal anarchist punk band Crass and served as its drummer. Crass disbanded in 1984. Until 2000 Rimbaud devoted himself almost entirely to writing, returning to the public platform in 2001 as a performance poet working with Australian saxophonist Louise Elliott and a wide variety of jazz musicians under the umbrella of Last Amendment.
Name
Ratter changed his name by deed poll in 1977, as, in his own words, he "wanted to be his own child." His surname was taken from that of the French symbolist poet Arthur Rimbaud, and his forename of Penny was chosen because Rimbaud's brother Anthony would often call him "a toilet-seat philosopher" (a penny being the price to enter public toilets). The middle name Lapsang was added at the last moment to add "a touch of the exotic".
Early life
Rimbaud was expelled from two public schools: Brentwood School in South East England and Lindisfarne College in North Wales. In early interviews, he claimed to have studied philosophy at Magdalen College, Oxford, but later claimed that this story had been fabricated "so that they couldn’t disclaim my role as an intellectual."
Artistic life
Rimbaud enrolled at the South East Essex Technical College and School of Art in the early 1960s, where he met his lifelong creative partner Gee Vaucher. Whilst there, he realised the potential within the then fledgling pop art movement, scoring considerable success as an innovator. His works were included in the Northern Young Contemporaries, which offered him the chance to work at Andy Warhol's Factory studio. He refused the opportunity because he "had better things to do," a decision that he claims to never have regretted.
In 1964, Rimbaud appeared on ITV Granada's Ready Steady Go! to receive a prize from John Lennon after having won a competition to produce artwork depicting the Beatles' song "I Want to Hold Your Hand." Rimbaud worked briefly as an art teacher before becoming disillusioned with education, and then spent some time working as a coalman.
In 1967, inspired by the film Inn of the Sixth Happiness, Rimbaud and Vaucher, both vegetarians, set up the anarchist/pacifist open house Dial House in the Epping Forest of southwest Essex, which has now become firmly established as a "centre for radical creativity."
Wally Hope's death and Crass
At Dial House in the early 1970s, Rimbaud co-founded the Stonehenge Festival along with Phil Russell, better known as Wally Hope, as documented in Rimbaud's 1998 autobiography Shibboleth: My Revolting Life. Following his incarceration in a mental institution for possession of LSD, Russell appeared to have been seriously mentally damaged, especially by the side effects of prescription drugs that he had been administered, and subsequently died. Though the official verdict declared Russell's death a suicide, Rimbaud claims that he has uncovered strong evidence that Russell was murdered and that his anger over unanswered questions about the death inspired him to form the anarchist punk band Crass in 1977.
When Crass disbanded in 1984, Rimbaud adopted a hermit-like existence, writing and publishing poetry, philosophy, essays, novels and plays. In 2001, he returned to the public platform as a performance poet, first working with saxophonist Ed Jones and then with Louise Elliott, who has become his full-time accompanist. With Crass vocalist Eve Libertine, in 2003 he founded the Crass Collective, later known as the Crass Agenda and finally the Last Amendment, a loose collective of jazz musicians, artists and filmmakers who share Rimbaud's interest in progressive, improvisational art.
Written works
Rimbaud's written works include the originally self-published Reality Asylum, a vitriolic attack on Christianity that appeared in heavily revised form on Crass' 1978 debut album The Feeding of the 5000, as a longer single and as a 45-minute spoken-word monologue. Other writings include: Rocky Eyed, an extended poem attacking prime minister Margaret Thatcher and her government following the 1982 Falklands War, which was recorded as the Crass album Yes Sir, I Will; The Death of Imagination (a "musical drama in 4 parts"); and The Diamond Signature (published by AK Press). Oh America is a response to the September 11, 2001 attacks and the United States' subsequent war on terror. It includes the line, "Give us justice which is not the searing spite of revenge, peace which is not the product of war nor dependent upon it."
Current work
Since 2003, Rimbaud has worked as part of Last Amendment on live performances and CD releases. Titles include Savage Utopia, a collaboration with Coldcut's Matt Black and other jazz musicians, and How?, a reworking of Allen Ginsberg's beat poem Howl, which was recorded live at the Vortex Jazz Club. In 2007, Rimbaud worked on a "Jazz Requiem" with saxophonist Ed Jones.
In 2005, Rimbaud completed his philosophical work This Crippled Flesh and appeared in Dominic Thackray's short film Girlfriend in a Kimono.
Rimbaud contributed several spoken-word tracks to the 2008 Japanther album Tut Tut Now Shake Ya Butt and spoken-word vocals for the Charlatans track "I Sing the Body Eclectic" on the album Who We Touch. He was also featured in the song "The Furious" on the Bloody Beetroots' 2013 album Hide.
Rimbaud has written introductions to books, including for the controversial The Evil Empire: 101 Ways That England Ruined the World. He is also a regular columnist for the Stoke Newington-based magazine N16.
In 2010, Rimbaud studied with University of New Haven physics professor Matthew W. Griffiths, with whom he collaborated on a book called Tricking the Impossible: An Investigation into Modern Alchemic Thought.
In March 2013, Rimbaud played the part of the wizard Yan Overton in the trailer for the novel The Laila Mythology; the part had been written for him in the book.
In 2014, Rimbaud presented an event at a cultural festival at De Montfort University in Leicester.
Bibliography
A Series of Shock Slogans and Mindless Token Tantrums (Exitstencil Press, 1982) (originally issued as a pamphlet with the LP Christ - The Album)
Shibboleth: My Revolting Life (Penny Rimbaud, 1999, AK Press)
The Diamond Signature (Penny Rimbaud, 1999, AK Press)
An extensive interview with Rimbaud appears in issue 29 of The Idler magazine
In The Beginning…Was the Word (Penny Rimbaud, 2005, Bracketpress)
Freedom Is Such a Big Word (Penny Rimbaud, 2006, Bracketpress)
Methinks (Penny Rimbaud, 2006, Bracketpress)
How? (Penny Rimbaud, 2006, Bracketpress)
The Conveniences of Philosophy (Penny Rimbaud, 2007, Bracketpress)
Smile or Smirk? (Penny Rimbaud, 2007, Bracketpress)
And Now It Rains (Penny Rimbaud, 2007, Bracketpress)
I the Indigene & Africa Seems So Far Away (Penny Rimbaud, 2007, Bracketpress)
Turn On, Tune In, Cop Out (Penny Rimbaud, 2008, Bracketpress)
Nobody's Child (Penny Rimbaud, 2008, Bracketpress)
The Last of the Hippies (Penny Rimbaud, 2008, Active Distribution)
This Crippled Flesh – A Book of Philosophy and Filth (Penny Rimbaud, 2010, Bracketpress/Exitstencil Press)
Particular Nonsense (essay) The Idler, No.43 'Back to the Land' May 2010
Discography
See also Crass discography. Rimbaud plays on all Crass albums and singles.
Christ's Reality Asylum (Crass Records, 1992)
The Death of Imagination – Musical drama (Red Herring Records, 1995, featuring Eve Libertine, with vocals by anti-humanist artist A-Soma and music by A-Soma and Sarah Barton.)
Savage Utopia (Babel Label, 2004, performed by Crass Agenda)
How? (Babel Label, 2004 – Rimbaud's interpretation of Ginsberg's Howl)
In the Beginning Was the WORD – Live DVD recorded in 2004 at the Progress Bar in London, performed by Crass Agenda
Tut,Tut, Now Shake Ya Butt with Brooklyn-based duo Japanther (Truth Cult, 2007)
Acts of Love – fifty poems set to music, featuring Eve Libertine, recorded 1984 (Existstencilism, 2012)
Filmography
For These Who Die As Cattle – A recital of Wilfred Owen's War Poetry, with jazz cellist Kate Short, and pianist, Liam Noble, filmed at King’s College Chapel 2016.
How – A reinterpretation of Allen Ginsberg’s classic 1954 poem ‘Howl’ with cellist Kate Short - filmed at London’s Abney Park Chapel in Summer 2017.
Time and Place – A lockdown movie originally shown Rebellion 2020 Online Festival. Final cut to be released in 2021, filmed by Skype.
References
External links
Rimbaud's website
Interview with Penny Rimbaud
Extract from Fierce dancing by C.J.Stone, Rimbaud talking about Wally Hope
PUNKCAST#1065 Video of Rimbaud/Elliott – Last Amendment – at Gavin Brown Passerby NYC on 8 November 2006.
1943 births
Living people
People from Northwood, London
Anarcho-punk musicians
English anarchists
Crass members
English punk rock drummers
English male poets
People educated at Brentwood School, Essex
People educated at Lindisfarne College | [
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] |
224765 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain%20%28algebraic%20topology%29 | Chain (algebraic topology) | In algebraic topology, a -chain
is a formal linear combination of the -cells in a cell complex. In simplicial complexes (respectively, cubical complexes), -chains are combinations of -simplices (respectively, -cubes), but not necessarily connected. Chains are used in homology; the elements of a homology group are equivalence classes of chains.
Definition
For a simplicial complex , the group of -chains of is given by:
where are -simplexes of . Note that any element in not necessary to be a connected simplicial complex.
Integration on chains
Integration is defined on chains by taking the linear combination of integrals over the simplices in the chain with coefficients (which are typically integers).
The set of all k-chains forms a group and the sequence of these groups is called a chain complex.
Boundary operator on chains
The boundary of a chain is the linear combination of boundaries of the simplices in the chain. The boundary of a k-chain is a (k−1)-chain. Note that the boundary of a simplex is not a simplex, but a chain with coefficients 1 or −1 – thus chains are the closure of simplices under the boundary operator.
Example 1: The boundary of a path is the formal difference of its endpoints: it is a telescoping sum. To illustrate, if the 1-chain is a path from point to point , where
,
and
are its constituent 1-simplices, then
Example 2: The boundary of the triangle is a formal sum of its edges with signs arranged to make the traversal of the boundary counterclockwise.
A chain is called a cycle when its boundary is zero. A chain that is the boundary of another chain is called a boundary. Boundaries are cycles,
so chains form a chain complex, whose homology groups (cycles modulo boundaries) are called simplicial homology groups.
Example 3: The plane punctured at the origin has nontrivial 1-homology group since the unit circle is a cycle, but not a boundary.
In differential geometry, the duality between the boundary operator on chains and the exterior derivative is expressed by the general Stokes' theorem.
References
Algebraic topology
Integration on manifolds | [
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224768 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Govan%20Mbeki | Govan Mbeki | Govan Archibald Mvuyelwa Mbeki (9 July 1910 – 30 August 2001) was a South African politician, military commander, Communist leader who served as the Secretary of Umkhonto we Sizwe, at its inception in 1961. He was also the son of Chief Sikelewu Mbeki and Johanna Mahala and also the father of the former South African president Thabo Mbeki and political economist Moeletsi Mbeki. He was a leader of the South African Communist Party and the African National Congress. After the Rivonia Trial, he was imprisoned (1963–1987) on charges of terrorism and treason, together with Nelson Mandela, Walter Sisulu, Raymond Mhlaba, Ahmed Kathrada and other eminent ANC leaders, for their role in the ANC's armed wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK). He was sometimes mentioned by his nickname "Oom Gov".
Early years
Govan Mbeki was born in the Nqamakwe district of the Transkei region and was a part of the Xhosa ethnic group. As a teenager, Mbeki worked as a newsboy and messenger in the cities, and because of this, he saw the poverty urban black Africans lived in, and the constant police raids they endured. He attended Fort Hare University, completing in 1936 a Bachelor of Arts degree in politics and psychology and a teaching diploma. Mbeki met other African struggle leaders while attending the university.
Teacher, trader and communist
For a time Mbeki worked as a teacher, but lost his job because of his political activities. He was a member of the South African Communist Party (SACP, then the Communist Party of South Africa, or CPSA) from the late 1930s, and joined the African National Congress in 1935. He then set up a co-operative store in Idutywa and began a writing career. From 1938 to 1944 he was the editor of Territorial Magazine / Inkundla Ya Bantu.
Mbeki left journalism in 1944 and became a government-nominated member of the Transkei Territorial Authorities General Council until 1950. His role in the CPSA/ SACP was clandestine at the time, which helps explain why he received the nomination. Mbeki disparagingly referred to the council as a 'toy telephone': "You can say what you like, but your words have no effect because the wires are not connected to an exchange". In 1948 Mbeki stood as a candidate for the Natives Representative Council but lost the election.
When the CPSA/ SACP was banned in 1950 by the apartheid government, Mbeki remained in the African National Congress (ANC). In 1952 Mbeki was imprisoned together with Raymond Mhlaba and Vuyisile Mini for three months in Rooi Hel ('Red Hell' or North End Prison, Port Elizabeth) for disobeying apartheid laws by participating in the 'Campaign of Defiance against Injustice Laws' (Defiance Campaign). In 1954, a tornado destroyed his store, and Mbeki was dismissed from teaching again (he would lose his job three times, and be blacklisted from others, from the 1930s onwards). Mbeki moved to Port Elizabeth and joined the editorial board of New Age, a prominent leftist newspaper linked to underground CPSA/ SACP networks. Mbeki played a crucial role in ensuring that the pages and columns reflected the conditions, demands, and aspirations of black working-class people, particularly in the countryside.
He also worked on the Guardian, New Age, Fighting Talk and Liberation, and worked with 'Jock' Harold Strachan in the Port Elizabeth area, and helped him produce the newsletter Izwe Lomzi ("Voice of the People"). Mbeki was meanwhile actively involved in the major campaigns of the day, including the revival of the African National Congress in the 1940s, the Defiance Campaign and the Congress of the People.
Armed struggle and Robben Island
In 1960, the ANC was banned, and along with the underground SACP, formed Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), which became ANC's armed wing. Mbeki was involved, and, at his urging, Strachan assisted MK by turning his hand to improvised explosive devices based on substances like potassium permanganate, magnesium, glycerol and icing sugar.
Meanwhile, in November 1962, the then-Minister of Justice, John Vorster, banned New Age. When the editorial board came out with its successor publication Spark, Vorster went one step further by banning not the newspaper but its editors and writers. This effectively ended Mbeki's role as editor and journalist in the country. On 11 July 1963, he was arrested with other MK high commanders. In 1964, he was an accused in the Rivonia Trial and sentenced to Robben Island.
Books
In 1939, Mbeki published his first book, Transkei in the Making. A supporter of the 1950-1961 Pondoland peasant revolt, he wrote the pioneering study of the movement, South Africa: The Peasants' Revolt from 1958, which was published in 1964.<ref>Govan Mbeki, 1964, South Africa: The Peasants' Revolt, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books).</ref> Much of the book is an analysis of the political economy of the Transkei, rather than the revolt itself.
Following the Rivonia Trial, Mbeki served a long-term on Robben Island, during which he managed to run education classes with prisoners, many on Marxist theory, and wrote a number of significant analyses jail, which were kept on the island and used for discussions. The surviving copies have since been published.
In 1992, he published The Struggle For Liberation in South Africa: A Short History and in 1996, Sunset at Midday: Latshonilangemini!''
Release and post-apartheid role
Mbeki was released from custody after serving 24 years in the Robben Island prison on 5 November 1987. He served in South Africa's post-apartheid Senate from 1994 to 1997 as Deputy President of the Senate, and then the Senate's successor, the National Council of Provinces, from 1997 to 1999.
Mbeki died in Port Elizabeth on 30 August 2001. He was given state funeral during his son's presidency (Thabo) on 8 September 2001. His remains were the subject of controversy in 2006 when plans were made to exhume them, and place them in a museum. These plans were called off after Mbeki's family refused the request.
Awards and honours
Mbeki received an honorary doctorate in the Social Sciences from the University of Amsterdam in 1978. His son Moeletsi attended the ceremony, as Mbeki was imprisoned at Robben Island.
On 26 June 1980, the Secretary General of the then-illegal African National Congress, Alfred Nzo, announced the conferring of the Isitwalandwe Medal, the ANC's highest honour, on Mbeki. Mbeki was, however, not present to receive the award, because he was serving a life imprisonment sentence on Robben Island.
Mbeki received international recognition for his political achievements including the renaming (at Mandela's suggestion) of the recently opened health building at Glasgow Caledonian University. The Govan Mbeki Health Building was inaugurated in 2001 at a ceremony featuring his son Thabo.
The Govan Mbeki Local Municipality in Mpumulanga is named in his honour.
In 2004 he was voted 97th in the SABC 3's Great South Africans.
In 2013 a large section of road between Swartklip and Baden Powell Road, running between the neighborhoods of Browns Farm, Gugulethu, Nyanga and Crossroads in Cape Town was renamed Govan Mbeki Road.
See also
Prisons in South Africa
Maximum Security Prison, Robben Island
References
Notes
Citations
External links
Govan Mbeki Archive at marxists.org
1910 births
2001 deaths
People from Mnquma Local Municipality
Xhosa people
Members of the South African Communist Party
Members of the African National Congress
Anti-apartheid activists
University of Fort Hare alumni
South African prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by South Africa
Inmates of Robben Island
African National Congress politicians
Members of the Senate of South Africa
Members of the National Council of Provinces
UMkhonto we Sizwe personnel | [
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224779 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia%20Ward%20Howe | Julia Ward Howe | Julia Ward Howe (; May 27, 1819 – October 17, 1910) was an American poet and author, known for writing "The Battle Hymn of the Republic" and the original 1870 pacifist Mother's Day Proclamation. She was also an advocate for abolitionism and a social activist, particularly for women's suffrage.
Early life and education
Howe was born in New York City. She was the fourth of seven children. Her father Samuel Ward III was a Wall Street stockbroker, banker, and strict Calvinist. Her mother was the poet Julia Rush Cutler Ward, related to Francis Marion, the "Swamp Fox" of the American Revolution. She died during childbirth when Howe was five.
Howe was educated by private tutors and schools for young ladies until she was sixteen. Her eldest brother, Samuel Cutler Ward, traveled in Europe and brought home a private library. She had access to these books, many contradicting the Calvinistic view. She became well-read, though social as well as scholarly. She met, because of her father's status as a successful banker, Charles Dickens, Charles Sumner, and Margaret Fuller.
Her brother, Sam, married into the Astor family, allowing him great social freedom that he shared with his sister. The siblings were cast into mourning with the death of their father in 1839, the death of their brother, Henry, and the deaths of Samuel's wife, Emily, and their newborn child.
Personal life
Though raised an Episcopalian, Julia became a Unitarian by 1841. In Boston, Ward met Samuel Gridley Howe, a physician and reformer who had founded the Perkins School for the Blind. Howe had courted her, but he had shown an interest in her sister Louisa. In 1843, they married despite their eighteen-year age difference. She gave birth to their first child while honeymooning in Europe. She bore their last child in December 1859 at the age of forty. They had six children: Julia Romana Howe (1844–1886), Florence Marion Howe (1845–1922), Henry Marion Howe (1848–1922), Laura Elizabeth Howe (1850–1943), Maud Howe (1855–1948), and Samuel Gridley Howe, Jr. (1859–1863). Howe was an aunt of novelist Francis Marion Crawford. Ward’s marriage to Howe was troublesome for her. He did not approve of her writing and did everything he could to disrupt her creative efforts.
Howe raised her children in South Boston, while her husband pursued his advocacy work. She hid her unhappiness with their marriage, earning the nickname "the family champagne" from her children. She made frequent visits to Gardiner, Maine, where she stayed at "The Yellow House," a home built originally in 1814 and later home to her daughter Laura.
In 1852, the Howes bought a "country home" with 4.7 acres of land in Portsmouth, Rhode Island, which they called "Oak Glen." They continued to maintain homes in Boston and Newport, but spent several months each year at Oak Glen.
Career
Writing
She attended lectures, studied foreign languages, and wrote plays and dramas. Howe had published essays on Goethe, Schiller and Lamartine before her marriage in the New York Review and Theological Review. Her first volume of poetry, Passion-Flowers was published anonymously in 1853. The book collected personal poems and was written without the knowledge of her husband, who was then editing the Free Soil newspaper The Commonwealth. Her second anonymous collection, Words for the Hour, appeared in 1857. She went on to write plays such as Leonora, The World's Own, and Hippolytus. These works all contained allusions to her stultifying marriage.
She went on trips including several for missions. In 1860, she published A Trip to Cuba, which told of her 1859 trip. It had generated outrage from William Lloyd Garrison, an abolitionist, for its derogatory view of Blacks. Howe believed it was right to free the slaves but did not believe in racial equality. Several letters on High Newport society were published in the New York Tribune in 1860, as well.
Howe's being a published author troubled her husband greatly, especially due to the fact that her poems many times had to do with critiques of women's roles as wives, her own marriage, and women's place in society. Their marriage problems escalated to the point where they separated in 1852. Samuel, when he became her husband, had also taken complete control of her estate income. Upon her husband's death in 1876, she had found that through a series of bad investments, most of her money had been lost.
Howe's writing and social activism were greatly shaped by her upbringing and married life. Much study has gone into her difficult marriage and how it influenced her work, both written and active.
Politics
In the early 1870s, Howe was nominated by William Claflin the governor of Massachusetts as justice of the peace. However, there were uncertainties surrounding her appointment, as many believed women were not fit to hold office. In 1871, the Massachusetts supreme court made the decision that women could not hold any judicial offices without explicit authorization from the legislature, thereby nullifying Howe's appointment to justice of the peace. This led to activists petitioning for legislation allowing women to hold office, separate from legislating women's suffrage. Women's supporters believed that petitioning for officeholding before petitioning for a women's suffrage amendment would expedite women's involvement in politics.
Social activism
She was inspired to write "The Battle Hymn of the Republic" after she and her husband visited Washington, D.C., and met Abraham Lincoln at the White House in . During the trip, her friend James Freeman Clarke suggested she write new words to the song "John Brown's Body", which she did on November 19. The song was set to William Steffe's already existing music and Howe's version was first published in the Atlantic Monthly in . It quickly became one of the most popular songs of the Union during the American Civil War.
Howe produced eleven issues of the literary magazine, Northern Lights, in 1867. That same year she wrote about her travels to Europe in From the Oak to the Olive. After the war, she focused her activities on the causes of pacifism and women's suffrage. By 1868, Julia's husband no longer opposed her involvement in public life, so Julia decided to become active in reform. She helped found the New England Women's Club and the New England Woman Suffrage Association. She served as president for nine years beginning in 1868. In 1869, she became co-leader with Lucy Stone of the American Woman Suffrage Association. Then, in 1870, she became president of the New England Women's Club. After her husband's death in 1876, she focused more on her interests in reform. In 1877 Howe was one of the founders of the Women's Educational and Industrial Union in Boston. She was the founder and from 1876 to 1897 president of the Association of American Women, which advocated for women's education. Unlike other suffragists at the time, Howe supported the final version of the Fifteenth Amendment, which had omitted the inclusion of language originally barring discrimination against women as well as people of color. Her reason for supporting this version of the Fifteenth Amendment was that "she viewed black men's suffrage as the priority."
In 1872, she became the editor of Woman's Journal, a widely-read suffragist magazine founded in 1870 by Lucy Stone and Henry B. Blackwell. She contributed to it for twenty years. That same year, she wrote her "Appeal to womanhood throughout the world", later known as the Mother's Day Proclamation, which asked women around the world to join for world peace. (See :Category:Pacifist feminism.) She authored it soon after she evolved into a pacifist and an anti-war activist. In 1872, she asked that "Mother's Day" be celebrated on the 2nd of June. Her efforts were not successful, and by 1893 she was wondering if the 4th of July could be remade into "Mother's Day". In 1874, she edited a coeducational defense titled Sex and Education. She wrote a collection about the places she lived in 1880 called Modern Society. In 1883, Howe published a biography of Margaret Fuller. Then, in 1885 she published another collection of lectures called Is Polite Society Polite? ("Polite society" is a euphemism for the upper class.) In 1899 she published her popular memoirs, Reminiscences. She continued to write until her death.
In 1881, Howe was elected president of the Association for the Advancement of Women. Around the same time, Howe went on a speaking tour of the Pacific coast and founded the Century Club of San Francisco. In 1890, she helped found the General Federation of Women's Clubs, to reaffirm the Christian values of frugality and moderation. From 1891 to 1893, she served as president for the second time of the Massachusetts Woman Suffrage Association. Until her death, she was president of the New England Woman Suffrage Association. From 1893 to 1898 she directed the General Federation of Women's Clubs, and headed the Massachusetts Federation of Women's Clubs. Howe spoke at the 1893 World's Parliament of Religions in Chicago reflecting on the question, What is Religion?. In 1908 Julia was the first woman to be elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters, a society; its goal is to "foster, assist, and sustain excellence" in American literature, music, and art.
Death and legacy
Howe died of pneumonia October 17, 1910, at her Portsmouth home, Oak Glen at the age of 91. She is buried in the Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts. At her memorial service approximately 4,000 people sang "Battle Hymn of the Republic" as a sign of respect as it was the custom to sing that song at each of Julia's speaking engagements.
After her death, her children collaborated on a biography, published in 1916. It won the Pulitzer Prize for Biography.
In 1987, she was honored by the U.S. Postal Service with a 14¢ Great Americans series postage stamp.
Several buildings are associated with her name:
The Julia Ward Howe School of Excellence in Chicago's Austin community is named in her honor.
The Howe neighborhood in Minneapolis, MN was named for her.
The Julia Ward Howe Academics Plus Elementary School in Philadelphia was named in her honor in 1913.
Her Rhode Island home, Oak Glen, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1978.
Her Boston home is a stop on the Boston Women's Heritage Trail.
Awards and honors
January 28, 1908, at age 88, Howe became the first woman elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters.
1970, inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame.
In 1998, inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.
Selected works
Poetry
Passion-Flowers (1854)
Words for the Hour (1857)
From Sunset Ridge: Poems Old and New (1898)
Later Lyrics (1866)
At Sunset (published posthumously, 1910)
Other works
The Hermaphrodite. Incomplete, but probably composed between 1846 and 1847. Published by University of Nebraska Press, 2004
From the Oak to the Olive (travel writing, 1868)
Modern Society (essays, 1881)
Margaret Fuller (Marchesa Ossoli) (biography, 1883)
Woman's work in America (1891)
Is Polite Society Polite? (essays, 1895)
Reminiscences: 1819–1899 (autobiography, 1899)
See also
List of peace activists
List of suffragists and suffragettes
List of women's rights activists
Timeline of women's suffrage
Ann Jarvis
Gardiner, Maine, Howe's home for many years
Samuel Gridley and Julia Ward Howe House
References
Further reading
Clifford, Deborah Pickman. Mine Eyes Have Seen the Glory: A Biography of Julia Ward Howe. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1978. .
Sketches of Representative Women of New England. Boston: New England Historical Pub. Co., 1904. .
Richards, Laura Elizabeth. Julia Ward Howe, 1819–1910. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1916. Two vol. .
Showalter, Elaine. The Civil Wars of Julia Ward Howe. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2017. .
External links
Works and papers
Howe Papers at Harvard University
Articles by Howe Archive at "Making of America" project, Cornell University Library
Poetry at Representative Poetry Online (University of Toronto)
Mother's Day Proclamation (1870)
Julia Ward Howe.org Electronic archive of Howe's life and works
Finding Aid for the Julia Ward Howe Papers at The University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Papers,1857–1961. Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.
Papers of the Julia Ward Howe family, 1787–1984. Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.
Biographies
Julia Ward Howe, biography by Laura E. Richards, online at the University of Pennsylvania
Michals, Debra. "Julia Ward Howe". National Women's History Museum." 2015.
Biography Dictionary of Unitarian & Universalist Biography
Julia Ward Howe at Answers.com
Schowalter, Elaine. "The Civil Wars of Julia Ward Howe" New York: Simon & Schuster, 2017
Plaque on the Willard Hotel in Washington, D.C. marking where Howe wrote the Hymn
Other
1819 births
1910 deaths
19th-century American poets
19th-century American women writers
19th-century Unitarians
20th-century American poets
20th-century American women writers
20th-century Unitarians
Activists from New York City
American abolitionists
American anti-war activists
American feminists
American pacifists
American suffragists
American Unitarians
American people of English descent
American women hymnwriters
American women poets
American women's rights activists
Burials at Mount Auburn Cemetery
Converts to Unitarianism
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
People from Gardiner, Maine
People from Portsmouth, Rhode Island
Women in the American Civil War
Writers from New York City
Women civil rights activists
19th-century American women musicians | [
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224782 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labile%20verb | Labile verb | In general linguistics, a labile verb (or ergative verb) is one that can be used both transitively and intransitively, with the requirement that the direct object of its transitive use corresponds to the subject of its intransitive use, as in "I ring the bell" and "The bell rings." Labile verbs are a prominent feature of English, but they also occur in many other languages.
Terminology
The terminology in general linguistics is not stable yet. Labile verbs can also be called "S=O-ambitransitive" (following R.M.W. Dixon's usage), or "ergative", following Lyons's influential textbook from 1968. However, the term "ergative verb" has also been used for unaccusative verbs, and in most other contexts, it is used for ergative constructions.
Labile verbs in English
In English, most verbs can be used intransitively, but ordinarily this does not change the role of the subject; consider, for example, "He ate the soup" (transitive) and "He ate" (intransitive), where the only difference is that the latter does not specify what was eaten. By contrast, with a labile verb the role of the subject changes; consider "it broke the window" (transitive) and "the window broke" (intransitive).
Labile verbs can be divided into several categories:
Verbs suggesting a change of state — break, burst, form, heal, melt, tear, transform
Verbs of cooking — bake, boil, cook, fry
Verbs of movement — move, shake, sweep, turn, walk
Verbs involving vehicles — drive, fly, reverse, run, sail
Some of these can be used intransitively in either sense: "I'm cooking the pasta" is similar to both "The pasta is cooking" (as an ergative verb) and "I'm cooking", although it is clearly more informative than either.
Unlike a passive verb, a nominalization, an infinitive, or a gerund, which allow the agent to be either excluded or included, the intransitive form of a labile verb normally requires the agent to be excluded:
"The window was broken" or "The window was broken by the burglar."
"[…] to break the window […]" or "[…] for the burglar to break the window […]"
"[…] the breaking of the window […]" or "[…] the burglar's breaking of the window […]"
"The window broke" but not "The window broke by the burglar."
The intransitive form of a labile verb can suggest that there is no agent. With some non-labile verbs, this can be achieved using the reflexive voice: He solved the problem becomes The problem was solved or The problem solved itself.
The first use of the reflexive voice can indicate the lack of an agent, but it can also be used when a specific agent is unknown. For example, the phrases "John broke the window, or maybe Jack did — at any rate, the window broke" and "John solved the problem, or maybe Jack did — at any rate, the problem was solved" both have quite naturally understandable meanings, though they are slightly idiomatic.
The second use of the reflexive voice indicates that the subject of the sentence is the causative agent; the phrase "John solved the problem, or maybe Jack did — at any rate, the problem solved itself" is literally self-contradictory, though idiomatic usage does not always follow this prescription. Accordingly, some grammarians would consider both "The window broke" and "The problem solved itself" to be examples of a distinct voice, the middle voice.
The labile verb enables not only the omission of the outside agent, but also the implication that the affected party is somehow causing the action. This can be done neutrally when the affected party can be considered an institution or corporate entity and the individual member responsible for the action is unimportant, for example "the shop closed for the day". It can also avoid assigning blame when journalists are sympathetic to a particular causative agent, as in "Eight factories have closed this year."
In Norwegian
The labile verbs in Norwegian have one conjugation pattern for the transitive form and another for the intransitive form:
«Nøtta knakk» (The nut cracked)
«Jeg knekte nøtta» (I cracked the nut)
In French
French is another language that has them, developed from lack of distinguished sense in Gallo-Roman Vulgar Latin:
"Il tourne la tête." ("He turns his head.")
"Sa tête tourne." ("His head turns.")
However, note that the use of the reflexive form of the verb to express the anticausative meaning is more common.
"J'ouvre la porte." ("I open the door.")
"La porte s'ouvre." ("The door opens itself", i.e. "The door opens.")
Further, verbs analogous to English cook have even more possibilities, even allowing a causative construction to substitute for the transitive form of the verb:
"Je cuis les pâtes." ("I cook the pasta.")
"Je cuis." ("I cook", i.e. either "I cook [something]" or e.g. "It's so hot in here, I'm practically roasting.")
"Je fais cuire les pâtes." (lit., "I make cook the pasta", i.e. "I make the pasta cook", i.e. "I cook the pasta.")
"Les pâtes cuisent." ("The pasta cooks.")
In Dutch
In Dutch, labile verbs are used in a way similar to English, but they stand out as more distinct particularly in the perfect tenses.
In the present, the usage in both languages is similar, for example:
"Jan breekt zijn glas." ("John breaks his glass.")
"Het glas breekt." ("The glass breaks.")
However, there are cases where the two languages deviate. For example, the verb zinken (to sink) cannot be used transitively, nor the verb openen (to open) intransitively:
"Het schip zonk." ("The ship sank.")
Not *"De marine zonk het schip." (Unlike "The navy sank the ship.")
and
"Jan opent de deur." ("John opens the door.")
Not *"De deur opent." (Unlike "The door opens.")
In this last case, one could say: "De deur gaat open." (lit. "The door goes open"), while the former would be stated as "De marine liet het schip zinken." (lit. "The navy let the ship sink").
A difference between Dutch and English is that typically the perfect tenses of intransitives take zijn (to be) as their auxiliary rather than hebben (to have), and this extends to these verbs as well.
present:
"Hij breekt het glas." ("He breaks the glass")
"Het glas breekt." ("The glass breaks.")
perfect:
"Hij heeft het glas gebroken" ("He has broken the glass.")
"Het glas is gebroken." ("The glass has broken." or "The glass is broken.")
Perfect labile innocence
Labiles are verbs of innocence, because they imply the absence of an actor who could possibly be blamed. This association is quite strong in Dutch and speakers tend to treat verbs such as forgetting and losing as ergatives in the perfect tenses even though they typically have a direct object and are really transitive verbs. It is not unusual to hear sentences such as:
Ik ben mijn boek vergeten. - I forgot my book (and it just 'happened' to me: there is no actor).
Ik ben mijn geld verloren. - I lost my money (poor me).
Something similar happens with compound verbs such as gewaarworden ('become aware (of something)'). It is a separable compound of worden ('become'), which is a typical 'process'-verb. It is usually considered a copula, rather than an ergative, but these two group of verbs are related. For example, copulas usually take to be in the perfect as well. A verb such as blijven ('stay') is used both as a copula and as an ergative and all its compounds (nablijven ('stay behind'), bijblijven ('keep up'), aanblijven ('stay on') etc.) are ergatives.
Gewaarworden can take two objects, a reflexive indirect one and one that could be called a causative object. In many languages the causative object would take a case such as the genitive, but in Dutch this is no longer the case:
Ik werd me dat gewaar - I became aware of that.
The perfect usually takes to be regardless of the objects:
Ik ben me dat niet gewaargeworden. - (roughly) I did not catch on to that.
In Hebrew
Hebrew does have a few labile verbs, due in part to calques from other languages; nonetheless, it has fewer labile verbs than English, in part because it has a fairly productive causative construction and partly distinct mediopassive constructions. For example, the verbs (active) and (its mediopassive counterpart) both mean to break, but the former is transitive (as in "He broke the window") and the latter is intransitive (as in "The window broke"). Similarly, the verbs (active) and (its causative counterpart) both mean to pass, but the former is intransitive (as in "He passed by Susan") and the latter is transitive (as in "He passed the salt to Susan").
See also
Ambitransitive verb
Unaccusative verb
Unergative verb
References
External links
Ideas for Teaching Ergative Verbs to ESL Students
Wiktionary's "English ergative verbs" category
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224784 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Gridley%20Howe | Samuel Gridley Howe | Samuel Gridley Howe (November 10, 1801 – January 9, 1876) was an American physician, abolitionist, and an advocate of education for the blind. He organized and was the first director of the Perkins Institution. In 1824 he had gone to Greece to serve in the revolution as a surgeon; he also commanded troops. He arranged for support for refugees and brought many Greek children back to Boston with him for their education.
An abolitionist, in 1863 Howe was one of three men appointed by the Secretary of War to the American Freedmen's Inquiry Commission, to investigate conditions of freedmen in the South since the Emancipation Proclamation and recommend how they could be aided in their transition to freedom. In addition to traveling to the South, Howe traveled to Canada West (now Ontario, Canada), where thousands of former slaves had escaped to freedom and established new lives. He interviewed freedmen as well as government officials in Canada.
Early life and education
Howe was born on Pearl Street in Boston, Massachusetts on November 10, 1801. His father Joseph Neals Howe was a ship-owner and rope manufacturer in Boston. The business was prosperous until he supplied the U.S. Government with ropes during the war of 1812 and was never paid. His mother Patty (Gridley) Howe was considered to be one of the most beautiful women of her day. Samuel Gridley Howe's grandfather Edward Compton Howe was one of the Indians at the Boston Tea Party.
Howe was educated at Boston Latin School, where he was cruelly treated, and even beaten, according to his daughter. Laura (Howe) Richards later wrote: "So far as I can remember, my father had no pleasant memories of his school days."
Boston in the early nineteenth century was a hotbed of political foment. Howe's father was a Democrat who considered Harvard University a den of Federalists, and refused to allow his sons to enter the university. Accordingly, in 1818, Howe's father had him enrolled at Brown University. He engaged in many practical jokes and other high jinks and, years later, Howe told his children that he regretted that he hadn't more seriously applied himself to his studies. One of his classmates, Alexis Caswell, became a doctor and future president of Brown University; he described Howe by the following: "He showed mental capabilities which would naturally fit him for fine scholarship. His mind was quick, versatile, and inventive. I do not think he was deficient in logical power, but the severer studies did not seem to be congenial to him." After graduating from Brown in 1821, Howe attended Harvard Medical School, taking his degree in 1824.
Greek Revolution
Howe did not remain in Massachusetts for long after graduating. In 1824, shortly after Howe was certified to practice medicine, he became fired by enthusiasm for the Greek Revolution and the example of his idol Lord Byron. Howe fled the memory of an unhappy love affair and sailed for Greece, where he joined the Greek army as a surgeon.
In Greece, his services were not confined to the duties of a surgeon but were of a more military nature. Howe's bravery, enthusiasm, and ability as a commander, as well as his humanity, won him the title "the Lafayette of the Greek Revolution." Howe returned to the United States in 1827, to raise funds and supplies to help alleviate the famine and suffering in Greece. Howe's fervid appeals enabled him to collect about $60,000, which he spent on provisions, clothing, and the establishment of a relief depot for refugees near Aegina. He later formed another colony for exiles on the Isthmus of Corinth. Afterward, Howe wrote an account of the revolt, Historical Sketch of the Greek Revolution, which was published in 1828.
Samuel Gridley Howe brought many Greek refugee children back with him to the United States to educate them. Two who later gained prominence were John Celivergos Zachos, who became an abolitionist and activist for women's rights, and Christophorus P. Castanis. Castanis survived the Chios massacre. He later wrote a memoir about these events, The Greek Exile, Or, a Narrative of the Captivity and Escape of Christophorus Plato Castanis (1851). He mentioned both Dr. Howe and John Celivergos Zachos in this book.
Howe continued his medical studies in Paris. His enthusiasm for a republican form of government led him to take part in the July Revolution.
Work for the blind
In 1831 he returned to the United States. Through his friend Dr. John Dix Fisher, a Boston physician who had started a movement there as early as 1826 to establish a school for the blind, he had learned of a similar school founded in Paris by Valentin Haüy. A committee organized by Fisher proposed to Howe that he direct establishing a New England Asylum for the Blind at Boston. He took up the project with characteristic ardor, and set out at once for Europe to investigate the problem.
In America, he met with supporters of the Polish Revolution and was chosen to take money to revolutionaries in Europe. Thus he had two missions, to learn about schools for the blind and, as chairman of the American-Polish Committee at Paris, to support the Polish revolutionaries. The Paris committee had been organized by J. Fenimore Cooper, S. F. B. Morse, and several other Americans living in the city. By that time, the Poles had been defeated by the Russians and Howe was to give money to the many, particularly officers, who did not want to return home. They were harassed by some people of neighboring countries, but were given political refuge and crossed over the Prussian border into Prussia. Howe undertook to distribute the supplies and funds personally. While in Berlin, he was arrested and imprisoned, but managed to destroy or hide the incriminating letters to Polish officers. After five weeks, he was released due to the intervention of the United States Minister at Paris.
Returning to Boston in July 1832, Howe began receiving a few blind children at his father's house in Pleasant Street. He gradually developed what became the noted Perkins Institution. In January 1833 the initial funds were spent, but so much progress had been shown that the legislature approved funding, later increased to $30,000 a year, to the institution. This was conditioned on its giving free education to twenty poor blind students from the state. Funds were also donated from supporters in Salem and Boston. Colonel Thomas Handasyd Perkins, a prominent Boston trader in slaves, furs, and opium, donated his mansion and grounds in Pearl Street as a location for the school in perpetuity. This building was later found unsuitable, and Colonel Perkins agreed to its sale. In 1839 the institution was moved to the former Mount Washington House Hotel in South Boston. It was known as the Perkins Institution and Massachusetts Asylum (since 1877, School for the Blind).
Howe was director, and the life and soul of the school; he opened a printing-office and organized a fund for printing for the blind — the first done in the United States. He was a ceaseless promoter of their work. Through him, the Institution became one of the intellectual centers of American philanthropy, and by degrees obtained more and more financial support. In 1837, Howe admitted Laura Bridgman, a young deaf-blind girl who later became a teacher at the school. She became famous as the first known deaf-blind person to be successfully educated in the United States. Howe taught Bridgman himself. Within a few years of attendance at Perkins Institution, she learned the manual alphabet and how to write.
Howe originated many improvements in teaching methods, as well as in the process of printing books in Braille. Besides acting as superintendent of the Perkins Institution to the end of his life, he was instrumental in establishing numerous institutions of a similar character throughout the country.
Marriage and family
On April 23, 1843, at the age of 41, he married the younger Julia Ward, the daughter of wealthy New York banker Samuel Ward and Julia Rush (Cutler) Ward. Julia was an ardent supporter of abolitionism and was later active in the cause of Woman's Suffrage. She composed the "Battle Hymn of the Republic" during the American Civil War.
They had a passionate and stormy marriage. Julia wrote in her diary of Howe (whom she referred to as "Chev"):
Chev is one of the characters based upon opposition. While I always seem to work for an unseen friend, he always sees an armed adversary and nerves himself accordingly. So all our lives turn on what I may call moral or personal fiction ...
At one point Samuel requested a legal separation, but Julia refused. Many of their arguments centered on Julia's desire to have a career apart from motherhood. While Howe was in many ways progressive by the standards of the day, he did not support the idea of married women having any work other than that of wife and mother. He believed that Julia's proper place was in the home.
The couple had six children: Julia Romana Howe (1844–1886), who married Michael Anagnos, a Greek scholar who succeeded Howe as director of the Perkins Institute; Florence Marion Howe (1845–1922), a Pulitzer prize-winning author, who wrote a well-known treatise on manners and married David Prescott Hall, a lawyer; Henry Marion Howe (1848–1922), a metallurgist who lived in New York; Laura Elizabeth Howe (1850–1943), also a Pulitzer prize-winning author, who married Henry Richards and lived in Maine; Maud Howe (1854–1948), a Pulitzer prize-winning author, who married John Elliott, an English muralist and illustrator; and Samuel Gridley Howe, Jr. (1858–1863), who died at age five.
Laura and Florence were closest to their father and defended his opposition to Julia's activities outside the home. Florence later took up her mother's mantle as a committed suffragette, making public speeches on the subject and writing the book, Julia Ward Howe and the Woman Suffrage Movement (1913).
Antislavery activities
Howe entered publicly into the antislavery struggle for the first time in 1846 when, as a "Conscience Whig", he was an unsuccessful candidate for Congress against Robert C. Winthrop. Howe was one of the founders of an antislavery newspaper, the Boston Daily Commonwealth, which he edited (1851–1853) with the assistance of his wife Julia Ward Howe. He was a prominent member of the Kansas Committee in Massachusetts.
With Franklin Benjamin Sanborn, George Luther Stearns, Theodore Parker, and Gerrit Smith, he was interested in the plans of abolitionist John Brown. Although he disapproved of the attack upon Harpers Ferry, Howe had funded John Brown's work as a member of the Secret Six. After Brown's arrest, Howe temporarily fled to Canada to escape prosecution.
According to later accounts by Howe's daughter, Florence Hall, the Howes' South Boston home was a stop on the Underground Railroad. This is uncertain, but it is known that Howe vehemently opposed the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, which required law enforcement even in free states to support efforts to catch fugitive slaves. Two incidents clearly demonstrate this. In May 1854, Howe along with Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Theodore Parker and other abolitionists stormed Faneuil Hall in order to try to free a captured refugee slave, Anthony Burns. Burns was going to be shipped back to his slave owner in Virginia in accordance with the Fugitive Slave Law. The abolitionists hoped to rescue Burns from that fate. Howe declared outside the hall that "No man's freedom is safe until all men are free." Shortly afterward the abolitionists stormed the hall, breaking through the door with a battering ram. A deputy officer was accidentally shot in the ensuing fracas. Federal troops suppressed the attempted takeover, and Burns was returned to Virginia. The men did not abandon Burns, however. Within a year of his capture, they had raised enough money to purchase Burns's freedom from his slave owner.
In October 1854, with the help of Capt. Austin Bearse and his brother, Howe rescued an escaped slave who had entered Boston Harbor from Jacksonville, Florida as a stowaway aboard the brig Cameo. Violating the Fugitive Slave Act, the Boston Vigilance Committee helped the man evade slave-catchers and reach freedom.
In 1863 during the American Civil War, Howe was appointed to the American Freedmen's Inquiry Commission, and traveled both to the Deep South and to Canada to investigate the condition of emancipated slaves. Freedmen in Canada had often reached it via the Underground Railroad. Life in Canada wasn't free from the bigotry that Freedmen and women suffered in the northern states as well as the South, but Howe found that their lives as free people were much improved. He noted that they were enfranchised and their rights protected by the government. They could earn a living, marry, and attend school and church out of reach of slave-catchers. He published an account of his interviews and experiences, The Refugees from Slavery in Canada West (1864). He submitted his report to the Secretary of War, and it became part of the Commission's material for Congress. It contributed to passage of the law establishing the Freedmen's Bureau, considered needed to aid the southern freedmen in transition.
Civil War and Reconstruction
During the Civil War, Howe was one of the directors of the Sanitary Commission. Its goal was to raise funds to improve hygiene standards and prevent outbreaks of disease at Union camps. Because of the lack of sanitation, they were breeding grounds for such illnesses as dysentery, typhoid and malaria. In addition, the Commission provided supplies and medical services to troops.
At the close of the Civil War, Howe began to work with the Freedmen's Bureau. This extended his work as an abolitionist. The Freedmen's Bureau was to help house, feed, clothe, educate and provide medical care to newly freed slaves in the South after the Civil War. In some instances, Bureau staff would also try to aid freedmen to locate and reunite with relatives who had either fled north or who had been sold away during slavery.
Philanthropic activities
Working with Dorothea Dix, Howe also helped establish the Massachusetts School for Idiot and Feeble-Minded Youth, the Western Hemisphere's oldest publicly funded institution serving the mentally disabled. He founded the school in 1848 with a $2,500 appropriation from the Massachusetts Legislature. "Idiot" was at that time considered a polite term for individuals with mental and intellectual disabilities. Howe was successful in his attempt to educate the mentally disabled, but this led to other problems. Some commentators argued that the disabled did so well in schools such as Howe's that they should permanently reside there. Howe was opposed to this, arguing that the mentally disabled had rights and that segregating them from the rest of society would be detrimental.
In 1866, Howe gave the keynote address at the opening of the New York State Institution for the Blind at Batavia, New York. He shocked the audience by warning about the dangers of segregation based on disability:
We should be cautious about establishing such artificial communities ... for any children and youth; but more especially should we avoid them for those who have natural infirmity ... Such persons spring up sporadically in the community, and they should be kept diffused among sound and normal persons ... Surround insane and excitable persons with sane people and ordinary influences; vicious children with virtuous people and virtuous influences; blind children with those who see; mute children with those who speak; and the like ...
Howe founded the State Board of Charities of Massachusetts in 1863, the first board of the sort in the United States. He served as its chairman from that time until 1874.
Howe made a last trip to Greece in 1866, to carry relief to Cretan refugees during the Cretan Revolution.
Final years and death
Samuel Howe remained active and politically involved until the end of his life. In 1865, Howe openly advocated a progressive tax system, which he referred to as a "sliding scale of taxation proportionate to income." He said that the wealthy would resist this, but explained that the United States could not become a truly just society while the gap between rich and poor remained so cavernous. Emancipating the slaves and charity work alone were not enough, he insisted, to bridge the inequities,
so long as the labors and drudgery of the world is thrown actively upon one class, while another class is entirely exempt from it. There is a radical injustice in it. And injustice in society is like a rotten timber in the foundation of a house.
In 1870 he was a member of the commission sent by President Grant to inquire into the practicability of the annexation of Santo Domingo. President Grant wished to annex the island. He was opposed in this effort by Sen. Charles Sumner, a longtime friend and ally of Howe's. In the end, the committee sided with Sumner in opposition to the proposed annexation. Grant was so enraged at having his plans thwarted that he arranged to have Sumner removed from his chairmanship as head of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee.
Samuel Gridley Howe died on January 9, 1876. His remains are buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Legacy and honors
The World War II Liberty Ship was named in his honor.
See Also
Jonathan Miller
John Dennison Russ
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Harold Schwartz, Samuel Gridley Howe, Social Reformer, 1801-1876 (Harvard Univ. Press, 1956)
Milton Meltzer, A Light in the Dark: The Life of Samuel Gridley Howe (Crowell, 1964)
External links
Howe Biography on "Leaders & Legends of the Blindness Field Hall of Fame"
Brown Alumni Magazine, Fall 05: "The man who would change everything"
Samuel Gridley Howe
Samuel Gridley Howe Collection at Perkins School for the Blind
Trent's biography of Howe
History of the Order of AHEPA Pages 29 - 31
Harvard Medical School alumni
American non-fiction writers
American surgeons
American philanthropists
1801 births
1876 deaths
American abolitionists
American Unitarians
Abolitionists from Boston
Brown University alumni
United States Sanitary Commission people
Writers from Boston
19th-century American people
19th century in Boston
Burials at Mount Auburn Cemetery
Massachusetts Whigs
19th-century American politicians
American educational theorists
Blind academics
Secret Six
American philhellenes in the Greek War of Independence | [
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224785 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strelitzia | Strelitzia | Strelitzia is a genus of five species of perennial plants, native to South Africa. It belongs to the plant family Strelitziaceae. The genus is named after Queen Charlotte of the United Kingdom. A common name of the genus is bird of paradise flower/plant, because of a resemblance of its flowers to birds-of-paradise. In South Africa, it is commonly known as a crane flower and is featured on the reverse of the 50-cent coin. It is the floral emblem of the City of Los Angeles; two of the species, S. nicolai and S. reginae, are frequently grown as houseplants.
Description
The species S. nicolai is the largest in the genus, reaching 10 m (33 ft) tall, with stately white and blue flowers; the other species typically reach 2.0 to 3.5 m tall, except S. caudata, which is a tree of a typically smaller size than S. nicolai. The leaves are large, 30–200 cm long and 10–80 cm broad, similar to a banana leaf in appearance, but with a longer petiole, and arranged strictly in two ranks to form a fan-like crown of evergreen foliage. The flowers are produced in a horizontal inflorescence emerging from a stout spathe.
Biology and propagation
They are pollinated by sunbirds, which use the spathe as a perch when visiting the flowers. The weight of the bird when standing on the spathe opens it to release the pollen onto the bird's feet, which is then deposited on the next flower it visits. Strelitzia species lack natural insect pollinators; in areas without sunbirds, plants in this genus generally need hand pollination to successfully set seed.
Species and hybrids
Five species are recognised, although one—S. juncea—has been shown to be genetically nested within another, S. reginae. It is possibly a mutation that is in the process of speciating.
Strelitzia × kewensis (hybrid between S. reginae and S. augusta)
Allergenicityl
Plants in the genus Strelitzia produce no windborne pollen, and have an OPALS allergy scale rating of 1 (considered "allergy-fighting").
Etymology
The genus was named by Joseph Banks in honour of Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, queen consort of George III.
Journal
Strelitzia is also the name of the botanic journal of the Pretoria-based National Botanical Institute, which has since been converted into the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI). The Strelitzia journal replaced Memoirs of the Botanical Survey of South Africa and 'Annals of the Kirstenbosch Botanic Gardens.
References
External links
Strelitziaceae
Zingiberales genera | [
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224786 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIL-STD-1750A | MIL-STD-1750A | MIL-STD-1750A or 1750A is the formal definition of a 16-bit computer instruction set architecture (ISA), including both required and optional components, as described by the military standard document MIL-STD-1750A (1980). Since August 1996, it has been inactive for new designs.
In addition to the core ISA, the definition defines optional instructions, such as a FPU and MMU. Importantly, the standard does not define the implementation details of a 1750A processor.
Internals
The 1750A supports 216 16-bit words of memory for the core standard. The standard defines an optional memory management unit that allows 220 16-bit words of memory using 512 page mapping registers (in the I/O space), defining separate instruction and data spaces, and keyed memory access control.
Most instructions are 16 bits, although some have a 16-bit extension. The standard computer has 16 general purpose 16-bit registers (0 through 15). Registers 1 through 15 can be used as index registers. Registers 12 through 15 can be used as base registers.
Any of the 16 registers can be used as a stack pointer for the SJS and URS instructions (stack jump subroutine and unstack return subroutine), but only register 15 is used as the stack pointer for the PSHM and POPM instructions (push multiple and pop multiple).
The computer has instructions for 16, and 32-bit binary arithmetic, as well as 32 and 48 bit floating point. I/O is generally via the I/O instructions (XIO and VIO), which have a separate 216 16-bit word address space and may have a specialized bus.
Implementations
Because MIL-STD-1750A does not define implementation details, 1750A products are available from a wide variety of companies in the form of component, board, and system-level offerings implemented in myriad technologies, often the most advanced and exotic of their respective periods (e.g. GaAs, ECL, SoS).
1750A systems often offer high levels of protection from radiation and other hazardous environments, making them particularly suited for military, aviation and space applications.
Examples of MIL-STD-1750A implementations include:
CPU Technology, Inc. CPU1750A-FB, a high performance 1750A SOC designed to give existing applications a late life performance boost.
Delco Electronics Magic V 1750 Processor
Dynex Semiconductor MAS281. A radiation hardened SOC implementation on a 64-pin multichip module with an optional MMU.
GEC-Plessey RH1750, a radiation-hardened version for aerospace and space flight applications. GEC-Plessey, under its previous iteration as Marconi Electronic Devices, also initially developed the MAS281 and MA31750A series of processors, later made available through Dynex Semiconductor
Honeywell HX1750, fabricated on Honeywell's Silicon on Insulator CMOS (SOI-IV) process giving radiation hardness. The HX1750 includes an FPU and peripherals on chip.
Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (JHU/APL) MIL-STD-1750AAV space flight qualified processor. A multi-board silicon on sapphire implementation specifically designed for space flight.
Marconi Electronic Devices MIL-STD-1750A.
McDonnell-Douglas MD-281. A radiation hardened SoS three-die implementation on a 64-pin multichip module.
Fairchild Semiconductor F9450 series.
National Semiconductor PACE P1750A. The PACE normally runs a version of the Data General Nova instruction set, but was adapated to run MIL-STD-1750A using new microcode. The family includes the P1750A CPU, the P1750AE Enhanced CPU, the P1753 Memory Management Unit (MMU), the P1754 Processor Interface Chip (PIC) and the P1757ME Multi-Chip Module. This line was passed to Performance Semiconductor and then Pyramid Semiconductor in 2003.
Royal Aircraft Establishment Farnborough MIL-STD-1750A implementation in AMD 2901 bit-slice technology.
Programming
Processors based on MIL-STD-1750A are usually programmed in JOVIAL, a high-level programming language defined by the United States Department of Defense which is derived from ALGOL 58. To a lesser extent, Ada is used.
There are also C compilers, for example Cleanscape XTC-1750A. Older versions of GNU GCC contain support for MIL-STD-1750A; it was declared obsolete in version 3.1, and removed in subsequent versions.
In addition, DDC-I provides its SCORE Integrated Development Environment (IDE) with both Ada95 and C compilers, and TADS (Tartan Ada Development System) Ada83 development environment, both targeting processors based on MIL-STD-1750A.
Deployments
The U.S. Air Force defined the standard in order to have a common computing architecture and thereby reduce the costs of software and computer systems for all military computing needs. This includes embedded tasks such as aircraft and missile control systems as well as more mundane general military computing needs.
The advantages of this concept are recognized outside of the USAF, and the 1750A has been adopted by other organizations such as the European Space Agency, NASA, Israeli Aircraft Industries, and many projects in academia.
Examples of military aircraft using the 1750A include:
IAI Lavi fighter
IBM Federal Systems AP-102 Avionics Computer (used in various roles including the USAF F-111 avionics upgrade)
US Army AH-64D Apache Longbow Helicopter
USAF F-16 Digital Flight Control System and Fire Control Computer
USN F-18 RFCS Flight Control Computer
Use in space
Fully space-rated implementations make the 1750A one of the few types of computers that are applicable for use in deep space applications. Example spacecraft that use the 1750A are:
EOS Aqua, Aura and Terra
ESA Cluster
ESA Envisat - Envisat's ASAR instrument, built by Matra Marconi Space and comprising the Central Electronics Sub-Assembly and Antenna Sub-Assembly used a total of 42 GEC-Plessey MA31750A processors in a dual-redundant configuration
ESA Rosetta
ISRO GSAT/INSAT/IRS series of spacecraft
ISRO Mars Orbiter Mission
ISRO Space Recovery Experiment-1 Guidance and Navigation Computer
Midcourse Space Experiment (MSX) spacecraft developed at JHU/APL
MSTI-1, 2 and 3
NASA Cassini
NASA Landsat 7
NASA Mars Global Surveyor
Naval Research Laboratory Clementine Lunar Orbiter
NOAA GOES-13, GOES-O and GOES-P
Orbital Sciences Corporation commercial communication satellite platforms
USAF Titan-4 Guidance Computer
References
External links
DOD MIL-STD-1750 standard
DOD MIL-STD-1750 standard(PDF), with updated Notice 1, 21 May 1982
DOD MIL-STD-1750 standard(HTML), with updated Notice 1, 21 May 1982
Software Vendor Information
Specification and vendor information
Ada83 compiler for the 1750A processor
IDE, Ada95, EC++ and ANSI C compilers for the 1750A processor
Ada and ANSI C compilers
FlightLinux Project Target Architecture Technical Report References to use in spacecraft
Dynex Semiconductor MA31750 Processor
Pyramid Semiconductor P1750A-SOS Processor
Instruction processing
Military computers
Avionics computers
Military of the United States standards
Radiation-hardened microprocessors
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224794 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/82nd%20United%20States%20Congress | 82nd United States Congress | The 82nd United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, composed of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from January 3, 1951, to January 3, 1953, during the last two years of the second administration of U.S. President Harry S. Truman.
The apportionment of seats in this House of Representatives was based on the Sixteenth Census of the United States in 1940.
Both chambers had a Democratic majority (albeit reduced from the 81st Congress), and with President Truman, maintained an overall federal government trifecta.
Major events
March 29, 1951: Ethel and Julius Rosenberg were convicted of conspiracy to commit espionage. On April 5 they were sentenced to receive the death penalty.
April 11, 1951: U.S. President Harry S Truman relieved General Douglas MacArthur of his Far Eastern commands.
April 13, 1951: Congress passed a large defense budget 372 votes for the budget and 44 votes against the budget. The budget was intended to help the United States combat communism.
August 31, 1951: The United States Senate passes the Mutual Security Act by a vote of 61 votes in favor and 5 votes against. The act provided $7.5 billion for foreign military assistance and food aid to America's allies, primarily the United Kingdom. The vote was condemned by the government of the Soviet Union and praised by the government of the United Kingdom.
September 5, 1951: Treaty of San Francisco: In San Francisco, California, 48 nations signed a peace treaty with Japan to formally end the Pacific War.
October 24, 1951: U.S. President Harry Truman declared an official end to war with Germany.
November 10, 1951: Direct dial coast-to-coast telephone service began in the United States.
December 31, 1951: The Marshall Plan expired after distributing more than $13.3 billion USD in foreign aid to rebuild Europe.
March 29, 1952: U.S. President Harry S. Truman announced that he will not seek reelection.
June 19, 1952: The Special Forces created.
July 25, 1952: Puerto Rico became a Commonwealth of the United States, an unincorporated organized territory, with the ratification of its constitution.
November 4, 1952: 1952 United States presidential election: Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower defeated Democrat Adlai Stevenson
November 4, 1952: National Security Agency founded.
Major legislation
October 10, 1951: Mutual Security Act, ch. 479,
June 27, 1952: Immigration and Nationality Act (McCarran-Walter Act),
July 14, 1952: McGuire Act, ,
July 16, 1952: Veterans' Readjustment Assistance Act,
July 16, 1952: Federal Coal Mine Safety Act of 1952,
July 16, 1952: Wire Fraud Act of 1952,
Constitutional amendments
February 27, 1951: Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution, setting a term limit for election and overall time of service to the office of President of the United States, was ratified by the requisite number of states (then 36) to become part of the Constitution
Treaties
March 20, 1952: Treaty of San Francisco ratified
Party summary
Senate
House of Representatives
Leadership
Senate
President: Alben W. Barkley (D)
President pro tempore: Kenneth McKellar (D)
Majority (Democratic) party
Majority leader: Ernest McFarland
Majority whip: Lyndon B. Johnson
Democratic Caucus Secretary: Brien McMahon
Policy Committee Chairman: Ernest McFarland
Minority (Republican) party
Minority leader: Kenneth S. Wherry, until January 8, 1952
Styles Bridges, from January 8, 1952
Minority whip: Leverett Saltonstall
Republican Conference Chairman: Eugene Millikin
Republican Conference Secretary: Milton Young
National Senatorial Committee Chair: Owen Brewster
Policy Committee Chairman: Robert A. Taft
House of Representatives
Speaker: Sam Rayburn (D)
Majority (Democratic) party
Majority leader: John W. McCormack
Majority whip: J. Percy Priest
Democratic Caucus Chairman: Jere Cooper
Democratic Campaign Committee Chairman: Michael J. Kirwan
Minority (Republican) party
Minority leader: Joseph W. Martin Jr.
Minority whip: Leslie C. Arends
Republican Conference Chairman: Clifford R. Hope
Policy Committee Chairman: Joseph W. Martin Jr.
Republican Campaign Committee Chairman: Leonard W. Hall
Caucuses
House Democratic Caucus
Senate Democratic Caucus
Members
Senate
Senators are popularly elected statewide every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election, In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term ended with this Congress, facing re-election in 1952; Class 2 meant their term began in the last Congress, facing re-election in 1954; and Class 3 meant their term began in this Congress, facing re-election in 1956.
Alabama
2. John Sparkman (D)
3. J. Lister Hill (D)
Arizona
1. Ernest McFarland (D)
3. Carl Hayden (D)
Arkansas
2. John L. McClellan (D)
3. J. William Fulbright (D)
California
1. William Knowland (R)
3. Richard Nixon (R), until January 1, 1953
Thomas Kuchel (R), from January 2, 1953
Colorado
2. Edwin C. Johnson (D)
3. Eugene Millikin (R)
Connecticut
1. William Benton (D)
3. Brien McMahon (D), until July 28, 1952
William A. Purtell (R), August 29, 1952 – November 4, 1952
Prescott Bush (R), from November 5, 1952
Delaware
1. John J. Williams (R)
2. J. Allen Frear Jr. (D)
Florida
1. Spessard Holland (D)
3. George Smathers (D)
Georgia
3. Walter F. George (D)
2. Richard Russell Jr. (D)
Idaho
2. Henry Dworshak (R)
3. Herman Welker (R)
Illinois
2. Paul Douglas (D)
3. Everett Dirksen (R)
Indiana
1. William E. Jenner (R)
3. Homer E. Capehart (R)
Iowa
2. Guy Gillette (D)
3. Bourke B. Hickenlooper (R)
Kansas
2. Andrew Frank Schoeppel (R)
3. Frank Carlson (R)
Kentucky
2. Virgil Chapman (D), until March 8, 1951
Thomas R. Underwood (D), March 19, 1951 – November 4, 1952
John Sherman Cooper (R), from November 5, 1952
3. Earle Clements (D)
Louisiana
2. Allen J. Ellender (D)
3. Russell B. Long (D)
Maine
1. Owen Brewster (R), until December 31, 1952
2. Margaret Chase Smith (R)
Maryland
1. Herbert O'Conor (D)
3. John Marshall Butler (R)
Massachusetts
1. Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. (R)
2. Leverett Saltonstall (R)
Michigan
1. Arthur Vandenberg (R), until April 18, 1951
Blair Moody (D), April 23, 1951 – November 4, 1952
Charles E. Potter (R), from November 5, 1952
2. Homer S. Ferguson (R)
Minnesota
1. Edward John Thye (R)
2. Hubert Humphrey (DFL)
Mississippi
1. John C. Stennis (D)
2. James Eastland (D)
Missouri
1. James P. Kem (R)
3. Thomas C. Hennings Jr. (D)
Montana
1. Zales Ecton (R)
2. James E. Murray (D)
Nebraska
1. Hugh A. Butler (R)
2. Kenneth S. Wherry (R), until November 29, 1951
Fred A. Seaton (R), December 10, 1951 – November 4, 1952
Dwight Griswold (R), from November 5, 1952
Nevada
1. George W. Malone (R)
3. Pat McCarran (D)
New Hampshire
2. Styles Bridges (R)
3. Charles W. Tobey (R)
New Jersey
1. Howard Alexander Smith (R)
2. Robert C. Hendrickson (R)
New Mexico
1. Dennis Chávez (D)
2. Clinton Anderson (D)
New York
1. Irving Ives (R)
3. Herbert H. Lehman (D)
North Carolina
2. Willis Smith (D)
3. Clyde R. Hoey (D)
North Dakota
1. William Langer (R-NPL)
3. Milton Young (R)
Ohio
1. John W. Bricker (R)
3. Robert A. Taft (R)
Oklahoma
2. Robert S. Kerr (D)
3. Mike Monroney (D)
Oregon
2. Guy Cordon (R)
3. Wayne Morse (R)
Pennsylvania
1. Edward Martin (R)
3. James H. Duff (R)
Rhode Island
1. John Pastore (D)
2. Theodore F. Green (D)
South Carolina
2. Burnet R. Maybank (D)
3. Olin D. Johnston (D)
South Dakota
2. Karl E. Mundt (R)
3. Francis H. Case (R)
Tennessee
1. Kenneth McKellar (D)
2. Estes Kefauver (D)
Texas
1. Tom Connally (D)
2. Lyndon B. Johnson (D)
Utah
1. Arthur Vivian Watkins (R)
3. Wallace F. Bennett (R)
Vermont
1. Ralph Flanders (R)
3. George Aiken (R)
Virginia
1. Harry F. Byrd (D)
2. Absalom Willis Robertson (D)
Washington
1. Harry P. Cain (R)
3. Warren Magnuson (D)
West Virginia
1. Harley M. Kilgore (D)
2. Matthew M. Neely (D)
Wisconsin
1. Joseph McCarthy (R)
3. Alexander Wiley (R)
Wyoming
1. Joseph C. O'Mahoney (D)
2. Lester C. Hunt (D)
House of Representatives
The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their district numbers.
Alabama
. Frank W. Boykin (D)
. George M. Grant (D)
. George W. Andrews (D)
. Kenneth A. Roberts (D)
. Albert Rains (D)
. Edward deGraffenried (D)
. Carl Elliott (D)
. Robert E. Jones Jr. (D)
. Laurie C. Battle (D)
Arizona
. John R. Murdock (D)
. Harold A. Patten (D)
Arkansas
. Ezekiel C. Gathings (D)
. Wilbur Mills (D)
. James William Trimble (D)
. Boyd Tackett (D)
. Brooks Hays (D)
. William F. Norrell (D)
. Oren Harris (D)
California
. Hubert B. Scudder (R)
. Clair Engle (D)
. J. Leroy Johnson (R)
. Franck R. Havenner (D)
. John F. Shelley (D)
. George P. Miller (D)
. John J. Allen Jr. (R)
. Jack Z. Anderson (R)
. Allan O. Hunter (R)
. Thomas H. Werdel (R)
. Ernest K. Bramblett (R)
. Patrick J. Hillings (R)
. Norris Poulson (R)
. Sam Yorty (D)
. Gordon L. McDonough (R)
. Donald L. Jackson (R)
. Cecil R. King (D)
. Clyde Doyle (D)
. Chester E. Holifield (D)
. John Carl Hinshaw (R)
. Harry R. Sheppard (D)
. John R. Phillips (R)
. Clinton D. McKinnon (D)
Colorado
. Byron G. Rogers (D)
. William S. Hill (R)
. John Chenoweth (R)
. Wayne N. Aspinall (D)
Connecticut
. Antoni Sadlak (R)
. Abraham Ribicoff (D)
. Horace Seely-Brown Jr. (R)
. John A. McGuire (D)
. Albert P. Morano (R)
. James T. Patterson (R)
Delaware
. J. Caleb Boggs (R)
Florida
. Chester B. McMullen (D)
. Charles E. Bennett (D)
. Bob Sikes (D)
. Bill Lantaff (D)
. Syd Herlong (D)
. Dwight L. Rogers (D)
Georgia
. Prince Hulon Preston Jr. (D)
. Edward E. Cox (D), until December 24, 1952
. Tic Forrester (D)
. Albert Sidney Camp (D)
. James C. Davis (D)
. Carl Vinson (D)
. Henderson Lovelace Lanham (D)
. William McDonald Wheeler (D)
. John Stephens Wood (D)
. Paul Brown (D)
Idaho
. John Travers Wood (R)
. Hamer H. Budge (R)
Illinois
. William L. Dawson (D)
. Richard B. Vail (R)
. Fred E. Busbey (R)
. William E. McVey (R)
. John C. Kluczynski (D)
. Thomas J. O'Brien (D)
. Adolph J. Sabath (D), until November 6, 1952
. Thomas S. Gordon (D)
. Sidney R. Yates (D)
. Richard W. Hoffman (R)
. Timothy P. Sheehan (R)
. Edgar A. Jonas (R)
. Marguerite S. Church (R)
. Chauncey W. Reed (R)
. Noah M. Mason (R)
. Leo E. Allen (R)
. Leslie C. Arends (R)
. Harold H. Velde (R)
. Robert B. Chiperfield (R)
. Sid Simpson (R)
. Peter F. Mack Jr. (D)
. William L. Springer (R)
. Edward H. Jenison (R)
. Charles W. Vursell (R)
. Melvin Price (D)
. C. W. Bishop (R)
Indiana
. Ray Madden (D)
. Charles A. Halleck (R)
. Shepard J. Crumpacker Jr. (R)
. E. Ross Adair (R)
. John V. Beamer (R)
. Cecil M. Harden (R)
. William G. Bray (R)
. Winfield K. Denton (D)
. Earl Wilson (R)
. Ralph Harvey (R)
. Charles B. Brownson (R)
Iowa
. Thomas E. Martin (R)
. Henry O. Talle (R)
. H. R. Gross (R)
. Karl M. LeCompte (R)
. Paul Cunningham (R)
. James I. Dolliver (R)
. Ben F. Jensen (R)
. Charles B. Hoeven (R)
Kansas
. Albert M. Cole (R)
. Errett P. Scrivner (R)
. Myron V. George (R)
. Edward Herbert Rees (R)
. Clifford R. Hope (R)
. Wint Smith (R)
Kentucky
. Noble J. Gregory (D)
. John A. Whitaker (D), until December 15, 1951
Garrett Withers (D), from August 2, 1952
. Thruston Ballard Morton (R)
. Frank Chelf (D)
. Brent Spence (D)
. Thomas R. Underwood (D), until March 17, 1951
John C. Watts (D), from April 14, 1951
. Carl D. Perkins (D)
. Joe B. Bates (D)
. James S. Golden (R)
Louisiana
. F. Edward Hébert (D)
. Hale Boggs (D)
. Edwin E. Willis (D)
. Overton Brooks (D)
. Otto Passman (D)
. James H. Morrison (D)
. Henry D. Larcade Jr. (D)
. A. Leonard Allen (D)
Maine
. Robert Hale (R)
. Charles P. Nelson (R)
. Frank Fellows (R), until August 27, 1951
Clifford McIntire (R), from October 22, 1951
Maryland
. Edward Tylor Miller (R)
. James Devereux (R)
. Edward Garmatz (D)
. George Hyde Fallon (D)
. Lansdale G. Sasscer (D)
. James Glenn Beall (R)
Massachusetts
. John W. Heselton (R)
. Foster Furcolo (D), until September 30, 1952
. Philip J. Philbin (D)
. Harold Donohue (D)
. Edith Nourse Rogers (R)
. William H. Bates (R)
. Thomas J. Lane (D)
. Angier Goodwin (R)
. Donald W. Nicholson (R)
. Christian Herter (R)
. John F. Kennedy (D)
. John W. McCormack (D)
. Richard B. Wigglesworth (R)
. Joseph W. Martin Jr. (R)
Michigan
. Thaddeus M. Machrowicz (D)
. George Meader (R)
. Paul W. Shafer (R)
. Clare Hoffman (R)
. Gerald Ford (R)
. William W. Blackney (R)
. Jesse P. Wolcott (R)
. Fred L. Crawford (R)
. Ruth Thompson (R)
. Roy O. Woodruff (R)
. Charles E. Potter (R), until November 4, 1952
. John B. Bennett (R)
. George D. O'Brien (D)
. Louis C. Rabaut (D)
. John Dingell Sr. (D)
. John Lesinski Jr. (D)
. George Anthony Dondero (R)
Minnesota
. August H. Andresen (R)
. Joseph P. O'Hara (R)
. Roy Wier (DFL)
. Eugene McCarthy (DFL)
. Walter Judd (R)
. Fred Marshall (DFL)
.Herman Carl Andersen (R)
. John Blatnik (DFL)
. Harold Hagen (R)
Mississippi
. John E. Rankin (D)
. Jamie Whitten (D)
. Frank Ellis Smith (D)
. Thomas Abernethy (D)
. W. Arthur Winstead (D)
. William M. Colmer (D)
. John Bell Williams (D)
Missouri
. Clare Magee (D)
. Morgan M. Moulder (D)
. Phil J. Welch (D)
. Leonard Irving (D)
. Richard Walker Bolling (D)
. Orland K. Armstrong (R)
. Dewey Jackson Short (R)
. A. S. J. Carnahan (D)
. Clarence Cannon (D)
. Paul C. Jones (D)
. John B. Sullivan (D), until January 29, 1951
Claude I. Bakewell (R), from March 9, 1951
. Thomas B. Curtis (R)
. Frank M. Karsten (D)
Montana
. Mike Mansfield (D)
. Wesley A. D'Ewart (R)
Nebraska
. Carl Curtis (R)
. Howard H. Buffett (R)
. Karl Stefan (R), until October 2, 1951
Robert Dinsmore Harrison (R), from December 4, 1951
. Arthur L. Miller (R)
Nevada
. Walter S. Baring Jr. (D)
New Hampshire
. Chester Earl Merrow (R)
. Norris Cotton (R)
New Jersey
. Charles A. Wolverton (R)
. T. Millet Hand (R)
. James C. Auchincloss (R)
. Charles R. Howell (D)
. Charles A. Eaton (R)
. Clifford P. Case (R)
. William B. Widnall (R)
. Gordon Canfield (R)
. Harry L. Towe (R), until September 7, 1951
Frank C. Osmers Jr. (R), from November 6, 1951
. Peter W. Rodino (D)
. Hugh Joseph Addonizio (D)
. Robert Kean (R)
. Alfred Dennis Sieminski (D)
. Edward J. Hart (D)
New Mexico
. John J. Dempsey (D)
. Antonio M. Fernández (D)
New York
. Ernest Greenwood (D)
. Leonard W. Hall (R), until December 31, 1952
. Henry J. Latham (R)
. L. Gary Clemente (D)
. T. Vincent Quinn (D), until December 30, 1951
Robert Tripp Ross (R), from February 19, 1952
. James J. Delaney (D)
. Louis B. Heller (D)
. Victor Anfuso (D)
. Eugene J. Keogh (D)
. Edna F. Kelly (D)
. James J. Heffernan (D)
. John J. Rooney (D)
. Donald Lawrence O'Toole (D)
. Abraham J. Multer (D)
. Emanuel Celler (D)
. James J. Murphy (D)
. Frederic René Coudert Jr. (R)
. James G. Donovan (D)
. Arthur George Klein (D)
. Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr. (D)
. Jacob Javits (R)
. Adam Clayton Powell Jr. (D)
. Sidney A. Fine (D)
. Isidore Dollinger (D)
. Charles A. Buckley (D)
. Christopher C. McGrath (D)
. Ralph W. Gwinn (R)
. Ralph A. Gamble (R)
. Katharine St. George (R)
. J. Ernest Wharton (R)
. Bernard W. Kearney (R)
. William T. Byrne (D), until January 27, 1952
Leo W. O'Brien (D), from April 1, 1952
. Dean P. Taylor (R)
. Clarence E. Kilburn (R)
. William R. Williams (R)
. R. Walter Riehlman (R)
. Edwin Arthur Hall (R)
. John Taber (R)
. W. Sterling Cole (R)
. Kenneth Keating (R)
. Harold C. Ostertag (R)
. William E. Miller (R)
. Edmund P. Radwan (R)
. John Cornelius Butler (R)
. Daniel A. Reed (R)
North Carolina
. Herbert Covington Bonner (D)
. John H. Kerr (D)
. Graham A. Barden (D)
. Harold D. Cooley (D)
. Richard Thurmond Chatham (D)
. Carl T. Durham (D)
. Frank Ertel Carlyle (D)
. Charles B. Deane (D)
. Robert L. Doughton (D)
. Hamilton C. Jones (D)
. Woodrow W. Jones (D)
. Monroe M. Redden (D)
North Dakota
. Fred G. Aandahl (R)
. Usher L. Burdick (R-NPL)
Ohio
. George H. Bender (R)
. Charles H. Elston (R)
. William E. Hess (R)
. Edward G. Breen (D), until October 1, 1951
Paul F. Schenck (R), from November 6, 1951
. William Moore McCulloch (R)
. Cliff Clevenger (R)
. James G. Polk (D)
. Clarence J. Brown (R)
. Jackson Edward Betts (R)
. Frazier Reams (I)
. Thomas A. Jenkins (R)
. Walter E. Brehm (R)
. John Martin Vorys (R)
. Alvin F. Weichel (R)
. William Hanes Ayres (R)
. Robert T. Secrest (D)
. Frank T. Bow (R)
. J. Harry McGregor (R)
. Wayne Hays (D)
. Michael J. Kirwan (D)
. Michael A. Feighan (D)
. Robert Crosser (D)
. Frances P. Bolton (R)
Oklahoma
. George B. Schwabe (R), until April 2, 1952
. William G. Stigler (D), until August 21, 1952
. Carl Albert (D)
. Tom Steed (D)
. John Jarman (D)
. Toby Morris (D)
. Victor Wickersham (D)
. Page Belcher (R)
Oregon
. A. Walter Norblad (R)
. Lowell Stockman (R)
. Homer D. Angell (R)
. Harris Ellsworth (R)
Pennsylvania
. William A. Barrett (D)
. William T. Granahan (D)
. Hardie Scott (R)
. Earl Chudoff (D)
. William J. Green Jr. (D)
. Hugh Scott (R)
. Benjamin F. James (R)
. Albert C. Vaughn (R), until September 1, 1951
Karl C. King (R), from November 6, 1951
. Paul B. Dague (R)
. Harry P. O'Neill (D)
. Dan Flood (D)
. Ivor D. Fenton (R)
. George M. Rhodes (D)
. Wilson D. Gillette (R), until August 7, 1951
Joseph L. Carrigg (R), from November 6, 1951
. Alvin Bush (R)
. Samuel K. McConnell Jr. (R)
. Richard M. Simpson (R)
. Walter M. Mumma (R)
. Leon H. Gavin (R)
. Francis E. Walter (D)
. James F. Lind (D)
. James E. Van Zandt (R)
. Edward L. Sittler Jr. (R)
. Thomas E. Morgan (D)
. Louis E. Graham (R)
. John P. Saylor (R)
. Augustine B. Kelley (D)
. Carroll D. Kearns (R)
. Harmar D. Denny Jr. (R)
. Robert J. Corbett (R)
. James G. Fulton (R)
. Herman P. Eberharter (D)
. Frank Buchanan (D), until April 27, 1951
Vera Buchanan (D), from July 24, 1951
Rhode Island
. Aime Forand (D)
. John E. Fogarty (D)
South Carolina
. L. Mendel Rivers (D)
. John J. Riley (D)
. William Jennings Bryan Dorn (D)
. Joseph R. Bryson (D)
. James P. Richards (D)
. John L. McMillan (D)
South Dakota
. Harold Lovre (R)
. Ellis Yarnal Berry (R)
Tennessee
. B. Carroll Reece (R)
. Howard Baker Sr. (R)
. James B. Frazier Jr. (D)
. Albert Gore Sr. (D)
. Joe L. Evins (D)
. Percy Priest (D)
. James P. Sutton (D)
. Tom J. Murray (D)
. Jere Cooper (D)
. Clifford Davis (D)
Texas
. Wright Patman (D)
. Jesse M. Combs (D)
. Lindley Beckworth (D)
. Sam Rayburn (D)
. Joseph Franklin Wilson (D)
. Olin E. Teague (D)
. Tom Pickett (D), until June 30, 1952
John Dowdy (D), from September 23, 1952
. Albert Thomas (D)
. Clark W. Thompson (D)
. Homer Thornberry (D)
. William R. Poage (D)
. Wingate H. Lucas (D)
. Ed Gossett (D), until July 31, 1951
Frank N. Ikard (D), from September 8, 1951
. John E. Lyle Jr. (D)
. Lloyd Bentsen (D)
. Kenneth M. Regan (D)
. Omar Burleson (D)
. Walter E. Rogers (D)
. George H. Mahon (D)
. Paul J. Kilday (D)
. O. C. Fisher (D)
Utah
. Walter K. Granger (D)
. Reva Beck Bosone (D)
Vermont
. Winston L. Prouty (R)
Virginia
. Edward J. Robeson Jr. (D)
. Porter Hardy Jr. (D)
. J. Vaughan Gary (D)
. Watkins Moorman Abbitt (D)
. Thomas B. Stanley (D)
. Clarence G. Burton (D)
. Burr Harrison (D)
. Howard W. Smith (D)
. Thomas B. Fugate (D)
Washington
. Hugh Mitchell (D)
. Henry M. Jackson (D)
. Russell V. Mack (R)
. Hal Holmes (R)
. Walt Horan (R)
. Thor C. Tollefson (R)
West Virginia
. Robert L. Ramsay (D)
. Harley Orrin Staggers (D)
. Cleveland M. Bailey (D)
. Maurice G. Burnside (D)
. John Kee (D), until May 8, 1951
Elizabeth Kee (D), from July 17, 1951
. E. H. Hedrick (D)
Wisconsin
. Lawrence H. Smith (R)
. Glenn Robert Davis (R)
. Gardner R. Withrow (R)
. Clement J. Zablocki (D)
. Charles J. Kersten (R)
. William Van Pelt (R)
. Reid F. Murray (R), until April 29, 1952
. John W. Byrnes (R)
. Merlin Hull (R)
. Alvin O'Konski (R)
Wyoming
. William Henry Harrison III (R)
Non-voting members
. Bob Bartlett (D)
. Joseph Rider Farrington (R)
. Antonio Fernós-Isern (PPD)
Changes in membership
The count below reflects changes from the beginning of this Congress.
Senate
|-
| Kentucky(2)
| nowrap | Virgil Chapman (D)
| Died March 8, 1951.Successor appointed March 19, 1951 to continue the term.
| nowrap | Thomas R. Underwood (D)
| March 19, 1951
|-
| Michigan(1)
| nowrap | Arthur Vandenberg (R)
| Died April 18, 1951.Successor appointed April 23, 1951 to continue the term.
| nowrap | Blair Moody (D)
| April 23, 1951
|-
| Nebraska(2)
| nowrap | Kenneth S. Wherry (R)
| Died November 29, 1951.Successor appointed December 10, 1951 to continue the term.
| nowrap | Fred A. Seaton (R)
| December 10, 1951
|-
| Connecticut(3)
| nowrap | Brien McMahon (D)
| Died July 28, 1952.Successor appointed August 29, 1952 to continue the term.
| nowrap | William A. Purtell (R)
| August 29, 1952
|-
| Connecticut(3)
| nowrap | William A. Purtell (R)
| Retired upon special election.Successor elected November 4, 1952.
| nowrap | Prescott Bush (R)
| November 5, 1952
|-
| Kentucky(2)
| nowrap | Thomas R. Underwood (D)
| Lost election to finish the term.Successor elected November 4, 1952.
| nowrap | John Sherman Cooper (R)
| November 5, 1952
|-
| Michigan(1)
| nowrap | Blair Moody (D)
| Lost election to finish the term.Successor elected November 4, 1952.
| nowrap | Charles E. Potter (R)
| November 5, 1952
|-
| Nebraska(2)
| nowrap | Fred A. Seaton (R)
| Lost election to finish the term.Successor elected November 4, 1952.
| nowrap | Dwight Griswold (R)
| November 5, 1952
|-
| Maine(1)
| nowrap | Owen Brewster (R)
| Resigned December 31, 1952.Seat was not filled during this Congress.
| colspan=2 | Vacant
|-
| California(3)
| nowrap | Richard Nixon (R)
| Resigned January 1, 1953, after being elected U.S. Vice President.Successor appointed to continue the term.
| nowrap | Thomas Kuchel (R)
| January 2, 1953
|}
House of Representatives
|-
|
| nowrap| John B. Sullivan (D)
| Died January 29, 1951. Successor elected March 9, 1951.
| nowrap | Claude I. Bakewell (R)
| March 9, 1951
|-
|
| nowrap| Thomas R. Underwood (D)
| Resigned March 17, 1951, after being appointed U.S. Senator.Successor elected April 4, 1951.
| nowrap | John C. Watts (D)
| April 4, 1951
|-
|
| nowrap| Frank Buchanan (D)
| Died April 27, 1951. Successor elected July 24, 1951.
| nowrap | Vera Buchanan (D)
| July 24, 1951
|-
|
| nowrap| John Kee (D)
| Died May 8, 1951. Successor elected July 17, 1951.
| nowrap | Elizabeth Kee (D)
| July 17, 1951
|-
|
| nowrap| Ed Gossett (D)
| Resigned July 31, 1951. Successor elected September 8, 1951.
| nowrap | Frank N. Ikard (D)
| September 8, 1951
|-
|
| nowrap| Wilson D. Gillette (R)
| Died August 7, 1951. Successor elected November 6, 1951.
| nowrap | Joseph L. Carrigg (R)
| November 6, 1951
|-
|
| nowrap| Frank Fellows (R)
| Died August 27, 1951. Successor elected October 22, 1951.
| nowrap | Clifford McIntire (R)
| October 22, 1951
|-
|
| nowrap| Albert C. Vaughn (R)
| Died September 1, 1951. Successor elected November 6, 1951.
| nowrap | Karl C. King (R)
| November 6, 1951
|-
|
| nowrap| Harry L. Towe (R)
| Resigned September 7, 1951 to become Assistant Attorney General of New Jersey.Successor elected November 6, 1951.
| nowrap | Frank C. Osmers Jr. (R)
| November 6, 1951
|-
|
| nowrap| Edward G. Breen (D)
| Resigned October 1, 1951, due to ill health.Successor elected November 6, 1951.
| nowrap | Paul F. Schenck (R)
| November 6, 1951
|-
|
| nowrap| Karl Stefan (R)
| Died October 2, 1951. Successor elected December 4, 1951.
| nowrap | Robert D. Harrison (R)
| December 4, 1951
|-
|
| nowrap| John A. Whitaker (D)
| Died December 15, 1951. Successor elected August 2, 1952.
| nowrap | Garrett Withers (D)
| August 2, 1952
|-
|
| nowrap| T. Vincent Quinn (D)
| Resigned December 30, 1951 to become District Attorney of Queens County, New York.Successor elected February 19, 1952.
| nowrap | Robert T. Ross (R)
| February 19, 1952
|-
|
| nowrap| William T. Byrne (D)
| Died January 27, 1952. Successor elected April 1, 1952.
| nowrap | Leo W. O'Brien (D)
| April 1, 1952
|-
|
| nowrap| George B. Schwabe (R)
| Died April 2, 1952. Seat not filled during this Congress.
| colspan=2 rowspan=2| Vacant
|-
|
| nowrap| Reid F. Murray (R)
| Died April 29, 1952. Seat not filled during this Congress.
|-
|
| nowrap| Tom Pickett (D)
| Resigned June 30, 1952 to become Vice-President of the National Coal Association.Successor elected September 23, 1952.
| nowrap | John Dowdy (D)
| September 23, 1952
|-
|
| nowrap| William G. Stigler (D)
| Died August 21, 1952. Seat not filled during this Congress.
| colspan=2 rowspan=6| Vacant
|-
|
| nowrap| Foster Furcolo (D)
| Resigned September 30, 1952 to become Treasurer and Receiver-General of Massachusetts.Seat not filled during this Congress.
|-
|
| nowrap| Charles E. Potter (R)
| Resigned November 4, 1952, after being elected U.S. Senator.Seat not filled during this Congress.
|-
|
| nowrap| Adolph J. Sabath (D)
| Died November 6, 1952. Seat not filled during this Congress.
|-
|
| nowrap| Edward E. Cox (D)
| Died December 24, 1952. Seat not filled during this Congress.
|-
|
| nowrap| Leonard W. Hall (R)
| Resigned December 31, 1952. Seat not filled during this Congress.
|}
Committees
Lists of committees and their party leaders, for members (House and Senate) of the committees and their assignments, go into the Official Congressional Directory at the bottom of the article and click on the link (2 links), in the directory after the pages of terms of service, you will see the committees of the Senate, House (Standing with Subcommittees, Select and Special) and Joint and after the committee pages, you will see the House/Senate committee assignments in the directory, on the committees section of the House and Senate in the Official Congressional Directory, the committee's members on the first row on the left side shows the chairman of the committee and on the right side shows the ranking member of the committee.
Senate
Agriculture and Forestry (Chairman: Allen J. Ellender; Ranking Member: George D. Aiken)
Appropriations (Chairman: Kenneth McKellar; Ranking Member: Styles Bridges)
Armed Services (Chairman: Richard B. Russell; Ranking Member: Styles Bridges)
Banking and Currency (Chairman: Burnet R. Maybank; Ranking Member: Homer Capehart)
District of Columbia (Chairman: Matthew M. Neely; Ranking Member: Francis Case)
Expenditures in Executive Departments (Chairman: John L. McClellan; Ranking Member: Joseph McCarthy)
Finance (Chairman: Walter F. George; Ranking Member: Eugene D. Millikin)
Foreign Relations (Chairman: Tom Connally; Ranking Member: Arthur H. Vandenberg)
Interior and Insular Affairs (Chairman: Joseph C. O'Mahoney; Ranking Member: Hugh Butler)
Interstate and Foreign Commerce (Chairman: Edwin C. Johnson; Ranking Member: Charles W. Tobey)
Judiciary (Chairman: Pat McCarran; Ranking Member: Alexander Wiley)
Labor and Public Welfare (Chairman: James E. Murray; Ranking Member: Robert A. Taft)
Organized Crime in Interstate Commerce (Select) (Chairman: ; Ranking Member: )
Post Office and Civil Service (Chairman: Olin D. Johnston; Ranking Member: William Langer)
Public Works (Chairman: Dennis Chavez; Ranking Member: Harry P. Cain)
Remodeling the Senate Chamber (Special) (Chairman: ; Ranking Member: )
Rules and Administration (Chairman: Carl Hayden; Ranking Member: Kenneth S. Wherry)
Small Business (Select) (Chairman: John J. Sparkman)
Subcommittee on Internal Security
Whole
House of Representatives
Agriculture (Chairman: Harold D. Cooley; Ranking Member: Clifford R. Hope)
Appropriations (Chairman: Clarence Cannon; Ranking Member: John Taber)
Armed Services (Chairman: Carl Vinson; Ranking Member: Dewey J. Short)
Banking and Currency (Chairman: Brent Spence; Ranking Member: Jesse P. Wolcott)
District of Columbia (Chairman: John L. McMillan; Ranking Member: Sid Simpson)
Education and Labor (Chairman: Graham A. Barden; Ranking Member: Samuel K. McConnell Jr.)
Expenditures in the Executive Departments (Chairman: William L. Dawson; Ranking Member: Clare E. Hoffman)
Foreign Affairs (Chairman: John Kee; Ranking Member: Charles Aubrey Eaton)
House Administration (Chairman: Thomas B. Stanley; Ranking Member: Karl M. LeCompte)
Interior and Insular Affairs (Chairman: John R. Murdock; Ranking Member: Fred L. Crawford)
Interstate and Foreign Commerce (Chairman: Robert Crosser; Ranking Member: Charles A. Wolverton)
Investigate Campaign Expenditures (Select) (Chairman: N/A; Ranking Member: N/A)
Investigate Foundations and Other Organizations (Select) (Chairman: N/A; Ranking Member: N/A)
Investigate Educational, Training, and Loan Guaranty Programs under the G.I. Bill (Select) (Chairman: Olin E. Teague)
Investigate the Use of Chemicals in Food and Cosmetics (Select) (Chairman: N/A)
Katyn Forest Massacre Investigation (Select) (Chairman: Ray J. Madden)
Judiciary (Chairman: Emanuel Celler; Ranking Member: Chauncey W. Reed)
Merchant Marine and Fisheries (Chairman: Edward J. Hart; Ranking Member: Alvin F. Weichel)
Post Office and Civil Service (Chairman: Tom J. Murray; Ranking Member: Edward H. Rees)
Public Works (Chairman: Charles A. Buckley; Ranking Member: George A. Dondero)
Rules (Chairman: Adolph J. Sabath; Ranking Member: Leo E. Allen)
Small Business (Select) (Chairman: Wright Patman)
Standards of Official Conduct
Un-American Activities (Chairman: John S. Wood; Ranking Member: Harold H. Velde)
Veterans' Affairs (Chairman: John E. Rankin; Ranking Member: Edith Nourse Rogers)
Ways and Means (Chairman: Robert L. Doughton; Ranking Member: Daniel A. Reed)
Whole
Joint committees
Atomic Energy (Chairman: Sen. Brien McMahon; Vice Chairman: Rep. Carl T. Durham)
Conditions of Indian Tribes (Special)
Defense Production (Chairman: Sen. Burnet R. Maybank; Vice Chairman: Rep. Paul Brown)
Disposition of Executive Papers
Economic (Chairman: Rep. Joseph C. O'Mahoney)
Immigration and Nationality Policy
Legislative Budget
The Library (Chairman: Sen. Theodore F. Green)
Navajo-Hopi Indian Administration
Printing (Chairman: Sen. Carl Hayden; Vice Chairman: Rep. Thomas B. Stanley)
Railroad Retirement Legislation
Reduction of Nonessential Federal Expenditures (Chairman: Sen. Harry F. Byrd; Vice Chairman: Rep. Robert L. Doughton)
Taxation (Chairman: Rep. Robert L. Doughton; Vice Chairman: Sen. Walter F. George)
Employees
Legislative branch agency directors
Architect of the Capitol: David Lynn
Attending Physician of the United States Congress: George Calver
Comptroller General of the United States: Lindsay C. Warren
Librarian of Congress: Luther H. Evans
Public Printer of the United States: John J. Deviny
Senate
Chaplain: Frederick Brown Harris (Methodist)
Parliamentarian: Charles Watkins
Secretary: Leslie Biffle
Librarian: Richard D. Hupman
Secretary for the Majority: Felton McLellan Johnston
Secretary for the Minority: J. Mark Trice
Sergeant at Arms: Joseph C. Duke
House of Representatives
Chaplain: Bernard Braskamp (Presbyterian)
Clerk: Ralph R. Roberts
Doorkeeper: William Mosley "Fishbait" Miller
Parliamentarian: Lewis Deschler
Postmaster: Finis E. Scott
Reading Clerks: George J. Maurer (D) and Alney E. Chaffee (R)
Sergeant at Arms: Joseph H. Callahan
See also
United States elections, 1950 (elections leading to this Congress)
United States Senate elections, 1950
United States House of Representatives elections, 1950
United States elections, 1952 (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
1952 United States presidential election
United States Senate elections, 1952
United States House of Representatives elections, 1952
Notes
References
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224795 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred%20G.%20Aandahl | Fred G. Aandahl | Fred George Aandahl (April 9, 1897 – April 7, 1966) was an American Republican politician from North Dakota. He served as the 23rd Governor of North Dakota from 1945 to 1951 and as a U.S. Representative from 1951 to 1953.
Biography
Aandahl was born in Svea Township, North Dakota, the son of Norwegian emigrant Soren "Sam" J. Aandahl and his American-born wife, Mamie C. (Lawry) Aandahl. He graduated from Litchville High School, and then from the University of North Dakota in 1921 and became a farmer. He was a schoolteacher, a principal, and then superintendent of Litchville's schools from 1922 to 1927. On June 28, 1926 he married Luella Brekke, and they had three daughters.
Career
In 1931, 1939 and 1941 Aandahl was member of the North Dakota State Senate. From 1945 to 1951 he was governor of the state, and during his tenure, natural resources were protected and conservation programs were promoted. He was elected as a Republican to the Eighty-second United States Congress (January 3, 1951 – January 3, 1953). He was not a candidate for the Eighty-third Congress in 1952, but was an unsuccessful candidate for the United States Senate, losing 58%-42% to incumbent William Langer in the Republican Primary. Aandahl then ran in the General Election against Langer and Democrat Harold A. Morrison and finished in third place and 10% of the vote. From 1953 to 1961 he was appointed Assistant Secretary of the Interior during both of President Dwight D. Eisenhower's administrations.
Death
Aandahl died in Fargo, North Dakota and was interred in Hillside Cemetery, Valley City.
See also
North Dakota United States Senate election, 1952
References
External links
Fred G. Aandahl Papers at The University of North Dakota
State Historical Society of North Dakota
Governors of North Dakota
Members of the United States House of Representatives from North Dakota
North Dakota state senators
North Dakota Republicans
Farmers from North Dakota
University of North Dakota alumni
American Lutherans
American people of Norwegian descent
1897 births
1966 deaths
People from Barnes County, North Dakota
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Republican Party state governors of the United States
20th-century American politicians
20th-century Lutherans | [
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224800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1951%20in%20sports | 1951 in sports | 1951 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
American football
NFL Championship: the Los Angeles Rams won 24–17 over the Cleveland Browns at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum
January 14 – The National Football League has its first Pro Bowl Game (Los Angeles).
September 28 – Norm Van Brocklin sets NFL single game record for most passing yards (554) helping Los Angeles Rams beat New York Yanks 48–21.
Sugar Bowl (1950 season):
The Oklahoma Sooners lose 13–7 to the Kentucky Wildcats; still awarded the college football national championship by AP and Coaches Poll
Association football
England
First Division – Tottenham Hotspur win the 1950–51 title.
FA Cup – Newcastle United beat Blackpool 2–0.
Spain
La Liga won by Atlético Madrid
Italy
Serie A won by Milan.
Germany
German football championship won by 1. FC Kaiserslautern.
Portugal
Primeira Liga won by Sporting C.P.
France
French Division 1 won by Nice.
Athletics
The athletics competition at the 1951 Pan American Games is held in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Mal Whitfield of the USA wins gold medals in three events: 400 m, 800 m and 4 × 400 m relay.
Australian rules football
Victorian Football League
29 September − Geelong wins the 55th VFL Premiership defeating Essendon 11.15 (81) to 10.10 (70) in the 1951 VFL Grand Final.
Brownlow Medal is awarded to Bernie Smith (Geelong)
South Australian National Football League
29 September − Port Adelaide wins its fourteenth SANFL premiership, defeating North Adelaide 10.12 (72) to 9.7 (61) after the Magpies lost only one game for the season.
Magarey Medal awarded to John Marriott (Norwood)
Western Australian National Football League
October 13 – West Perth wins its eleventh WANFL premiership, beating South Fremantle 13.10 (88) to 12.13 (85)
Sandover Medal awarded to Fred Buttsworth (West Perth)
Baseball
January 29 – baseball signs a six-year All-Star game deal for TV and radio rights for $6 million
September 30 – Joe DiMaggio plays in his final career regular season game.
October 3 – In one of the most famous finishes in baseball history, Bobby Thomson of the New York Giants hits a three-run walk-off home run, immortalized as the Shot Heard 'Round the World, to give the Giants a 5–4 win over the Brooklyn Dodgers for the National League title.
World Series – The New York Yankees win 4 games to 2 over the New York Giants.
Japan Series – The Yomiuri Giants win 4 games to 2 over the Nankai Hawks.
Basketball
NCAA Men's Basketball Championship –
Kentucky wins 68–58 over Kansas State University.
NBA Finals –
Rochester Royals win 4 games to 3 over the New York Knicks
The seventh European basketball championship, Eurobasket 1951, is won by the Soviet Union.
Boxing
July 10 – Randy Turpin becomes the middleweight boxing champion by defeating Sugar Ray Robinson.
July 18 – Jersey Joe Walcott knocks out Ezzard Charles in round 7 during their bout in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Canadian football
Grey Cup – Ottawa Rough Riders wins 21–14 over the Saskatchewan Roughriders
Cycling
Giro d'Italia is won by Fiorenzo Magni of Italy
Tour de France – Hugo Koblet of Switzerland
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Dick Button, United States
Ladies' champion: Jeannette Altwegg, Great Britain
Pair skating champions: Ria Baran & Paul Falk, Germany
Golf
Men's professional
Masters Tournament – Ben Hogan
U.S. Open – Ben Hogan
PGA Championship – Sam Snead
British Open – Max Faulkner
PGA Tour money leader – Lloyd Mangrum – $26,089
Ryder Cup – United States team wins 9½ to 2½ over the British team.
Men's amateur
British Amateur – Dick Chapman
U.S. Amateur – Billy Maxwell
Women's professional
Women's Western Open – Patty Berg
U.S. Women's Open – Betsy Rawls
Titleholders Championship – Pat O'Sullivan
LPGA Tour money leader – Babe Zaharias – $15,087
Harness racing
Tar Heel, a standardbred horse driven by Del Cameron, runs the first two–minute mile in harness racing history.
Little Brown Jug for pacers is won by Tar Heel
Hambletonian for trotters is won by Mainliner
Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
Pacers: Vedette
Trotters: Gay Belwin
Horse racing
July 14 – Citation winds his 32nd race, the Hollywood Gold Cup, becoming the first equine millionaire.
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – Silver Fame
Grand National – Nickel Coin
Hurdle races
Champion Hurdle – Hatton's Grace for the third successive year
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup is won by Delat
Canada – Queen's Plate is won by Major Factor
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe is won by Tantieme
Ireland – Irish Derby is won by Fraise du Bois II
English Triple Crown Races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Ki Ming
The Derby – Arctic Prince
St. Leger Stakes – Talma
United States Triple Crown Races:
Kentucky Derby – Count Turf
Preakness Stakes – Bold
Belmont Stakes – Counterpoint
Ice hockey
August 26 – Bill Barilko, Toronto Maple Leafs dies in an air crash
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Gordie Howe, Detroit Red Wings
Hart Memorial Trophy – for the NHL's Most Valuable Player: Milt Schmidt, Boston Bruins
Stanley Cup – Toronto Maple Leafs win 4 games to 1 over the Montreal Canadiens
World Hockey Championship
Men's champion: Canada's Lethbridge Maple Leafs
NCAA Men's Ice Hockey Championship – University of Michigan Wolverines defeat Brown University Bruins 7–1 in Colorado Springs, Colorado
Lacrosse
The 50th anniversaries of the donations of both the Mann Cup and the Minto Cup.
The Peterborough Timbermen win the 50th Mann Cup.
The Mimico Mountaineers win the 50th Minto Cup.
Motorsport
Rugby league
1950–51 European Rugby League Championship / 1951–52 European Rugby League Championship
1951 French rugby league tour of Australia and New Zealand
1951 New Zealand rugby league season
1951 NSWRFL season
1950–51 Northern Rugby Football League season / 1951–52 Northern Rugby Football League season
Rugby union
57th Five Nations Championship series is won by Ireland
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – Fred Davis beats Walter Donaldson 58–39.
Speed skating
Speed Skating World Championships
Men's All-round Champion – Hjalmar Andersen (Norway)
Tennis
Australia
Australian Men's Singles Championship – Dick Savitt (USA) defeats Ken McGregor (Australia) 6–3, 2–6, 6–3, 6–1
Australian Women's Singles Championship – Nancye Wynne Bolton (Australia) defeats Thelma Coyne Long (Australia) 6–1, 7–5
England
Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Dick Savitt (USA) defeats Ken McGregor (Australia) 6–4, 6–4, 6–4
Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Doris Hart (USA) defeats Shirley Fry Irvin (USA) 6–1, 6–0
France
French Men's Singles Championship –
French Women's Singles Championship –
USA
American Men's Singles Championship –
American Women's Singles Championship –
Davis Cup
1951 Davis Cup – 3–2 at White City Stadium (grass) Sydney, Australia
Multi-sport events
First Pan American Games are held in Buenos Aires, Argentina
Asian Games are held in New Delhi, India
First Mediterranean Games are held in Alexandria, Egypt
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Dick Kazmaier, College football
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Maureen Connolly, Tennis
References
Sports by year | [
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224804 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail%20transport%20in%20Spain | Rail transport in Spain | Rail transport in Spain operates on four rail gauges and services are operated by a variety of private and public operators. The total route length in 2012 was 16,026 km (10,182 km electrified).
Most railways are operated by Renfe Operadora; metre and narrow-gauge lines are operated by FEVE and other carriers in individual autonomous communities. It is proposed and planned to build or convert more lines to standard gauge, including some dual gauging of broad-gauge lines, especially where these lines link to France, including platforms to be heightened.
Spain is a member of the International Union of Railways (UIC). The UIC Country Code for Spain is 71.
History
The first railway line in the Iberian Peninsula was built in 1848 between Barcelona and Mataró. In 1851 the Madrid-Aranjuez line was opened. In 1852 the first narrow gauge line was built; in 1863 a line reached the Portuguese border. By 1864 the Madrid-Irun line had been opened, and the French border reached.
In 1900 the first line to be electrified was La Poveda-Madrid.
In 1941 RENFE was created.
The last steam locomotive was withdrawn in 1975, in 1986 the maximum speed on the railways was raised to 160 km/h, and in 1992 the Madrid-Seville high-speed line opened, beginning the process of building a nationwide high-speed network known as AVE (Alta Velocidad España).
The current plans of the Spanish government are to finish the standard-gauge high-speed network by building new sections of track and upgrading and converting to standard gauge the existing line along the Mediterranean coast connecting the ports of Barcelona, Tarragona, Valencia, Cartagena and Almería, and to link Madrid with Vigo, Santiago and A Coruña in Galicia, and to extend the Madrid-Valladolid line to Burgos and the Basque cities of Bilbao and San Sebastian and Hendaye on the French border, as well as to link Madrid with Lisbon and the port of Sines through Badajoz. Former plans by the Popular Party government under PM Aznar to link all provincial capitals with high-speed rail have been shelved as unrealistic, unaffordable, and contrary to all economic logic as no European funding would be made available for such projects.
Following the opening of the AVE network, the classic Iberian gauge railways have lost importance in inter-city travel, for example, the Madrid–Barcelona railway takes over nine hours to travel between the two cities stopping at every station. With the Madrid–Barcelona high-speed rail line, the longest possible journey is just three hours. This has allowed the conventional lines to increase focus on regional and commuter traffic, along with freight. Some lines, including the Córdoba-Bobadilla section of the classic Córdoba–Málaga railway, have lost passenger traffic completely due to the opening of AVE serving the same destinations.
Many important mainland Spanish towns remain disconnected to the rail network, the largest being Marbella with a population of over 140,000, along with Roquetas de Mar (pop. 96,800), El Ejido (pop. 84,000), Chiclana de la Frontera (pop. 83,000) and Torrevieja (pop. 82,000). Other towns and municipalities are not on the national rail network but linked to light rail or metro systems, such as Santa Coloma de Gramanet, Barcelona (pop. 118,000); Getxo, Biscay (pop. 80,000); Torrent, Valencia (pop. 79,000); and Benidorm, Alicante (pop. 69,000).
Starting in Franco's regime and continuing into the 1980s, multiple lines of the Spanish rail network were closed. Campaigns for reopening former lines exist, including a reopening the branch to the aforementioned Torrevieja from the Alicante–Murcia main line; the former line from Guadix to Lorca via Baza (which would provide a direct rail link from Murcia to Granada); Plasencia to Salamanca and Gandía to Dénia.
Operators
Renfe Operadora is a state-owned company which operates freight and passenger trains on the "Iberian gauge", standard gauge and rail networks of the Spanish nationalized infrastructure company ADIF (). Both were formed from the break-up of the former national carrier RENFE (Spanish: Red Nacional de los Ferrocarriles Españoles, "Spanish National Railway Network") and subsequently of FEVE (, "Narrow-Gauge Spanish Railways").
EuskoTren (, Spanish: Ferrocarriles Vascos, "Basque Railways") operates trains on part of the narrow gauge railway network in the Basque Country.
FGC (, "Catalan Government Railways") operates several unconnected lines in Catalonia. It operates of narrow gauge, of standard gauge, and of Iberian gauge routes, two metre gauge rack railways and four funicular railways.
FGV (, "Valencian Government Railways") operates several metre gauge lines in the Valencian Community.
FS (Catalan: Ferrocarril de Sóller, "Sóller Railways") operates an electrified narrow gauge railway on the Spanish island of Majorca between the towns of Palma and Sóller.
SFM (Catalan: Serveis Ferroviaris de Mallorca, "Majorcan Railway Servicies") operates the metre gauge railway network on the Spanish island of Majorca.
Acciona Rail Services, a subsidiary of Acciona, operates a coal cargo line between Asturias and the province of León.
COMSA Rail Transport, a subsidiary of COMSA, operates a cargo line from the Port of Gijón to Valladolid.
Continental Rail is dedicated to bringing materials into the gorges of the high-speed lines in progress.
Lines
Conventional Iberian gauge lines
Alcázar de San Juan–Cádiz railway
Algeciras-Bobadilla railway
Barcelona–Cerbère railway
Casetas–Bilbao railway
Chinchilla–Cartagena railway
Córdoba–Málaga railway
León–A Coruña railway
Linares Baeza–Almería railway
Madrid–Barcelona railway
Madrid–Hendaye railway
Madrid–Valencia railway
Valencia−Sant Vicenç de Calders railway
Venta de Baños–Gijón railway
Huelva–Seville railway
High-speed standard gauge lines
Operational
Antequera–Granada high-speed rail line
Atlantic Axis high-speed rail line
Madrid–Barcelona high-speed rail line
Perpignan–Barcelona high-speed rail line (Figueres-Barcelona section)
Madrid–León high-speed rail line
Madrid–Levante high-speed rail line (Madrid–Valencia, Madrid–Alicante)
Madrid–Málaga high-speed rail line
Madrid–Seville high-speed rail line
Madrid–Galicia high-speed rail line
Under construction
Basque Y
Murcia–Almería high-speed rail line
Narrow gauge lines
In Spain there is an extensive 1,250 km (780 mi) system of metre gauge railways.
Metro/light rail systems
Alicante (Alicante Tram)
Barcelona (Barcelona Metro/Tram)
Bilbao (Bilbao Metro/Tram)
Cádiz (Cádiz Bay tram-train) under construction
Granada (Granada Metro).
Jaén (Jaén Tram) built in 2011 but without service for political reasons.
Madrid (Madrid Metro)
Málaga (Málaga Metro)
Murcia (Murcia tram)
Palma (Palma Metro)
Parla (Parla Tram)
Santa Cruz de Tenerife (Tenerife Tram)
San Sebastian (San Sebastián Metro)
Seville (Seville Metro/Tram)
Valencia (Metrovalencia)
Vélez-Málaga (Vélez-Málaga Tram) opened in 2006, closed 2012
Vitoria-Gasteiz (Vitoria-Gasteiz tram)
Zaragoza (Zaragoza Tram)
Rail links with adjacent countries
France – break-of-gauge / (new high-speed line links without any break-of-gauge)
Portugal – same gauge
Gibraltar (UK) – no current rail system in Gibraltar, although accessible via buses from La Línea to San Roque station.
Morocco – no access to mainland (proposed undersea tunnel)
Closest station to Melilla - Beni Ansar
Closest station to Ceuta - Tangier-Med station
Andorra has no rail system
Closest station to Andorra Andorre-L'Hospitalet station
Subsidies
In 2004, the Spanish government adopted a new strategic plan for transportation through 2020 called the PEIT (Strategic Plan for Infrastructures and Transport). This detailed rail subsidies of around €9.3 billion annually on average from 2005-2020. In 2010, it rolled out a two-year plan to invest an extra €11 billion each year for two years, as a part of a financial stimulus in response to the global downturn. In 2015, the federal budget for the railways was €5.1 billion.
See also
Transport in Spain
Rail transport in Europe
References
http://www.gosanangelo.com/news/2012/feb/03/thomas-sowell-getting-nowhere-but-very-fast-in/?preventMobileRedirect=1
http://jewishworldreview.com/cols/sowell013112.php3 | [
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224807 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st%20United%20States%20Congress | 1st United States Congress | The 1st United States Congress, comprising the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives, met from March 4, 1789, to March 4, 1791, during the first two years of George Washington's presidency, first at Federal Hall in New York City and later at Congress Hall in Philadelphia. With the initial meeting of the First Congress, the United States federal government officially began operations under the new (and current) frame of government established by the 1787 Constitution. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the provisions of Article I, Section 2, Clause 3 of the Constitution. Both chambers had a Pro-Administration majority. Twelve articles of amendment to the Constitution were passed by this Congress and sent to the states for ratification; the ten ratified as additions to the Constitution on December 15, 1791, are collectively known as the Bill of Rights, with an additional amendment ratified more than two centuries later to become the Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution.
Major events
April 1, 1789: House of Representatives first achieved a quorum and elected its officers.
April 6, 1789: Senate first achieved a quorum and elected its officers.
April 6, 1789: The House and Senate, meeting in joint session, counted the Electoral College ballots, then certified that George Washington was unanimously elected President of the United States and John Adams (having received 34 of 69 votes) was elected as Vice President.
April 21, 1789: John Adams was inaugurated as the nation's first vice president.
April 30, 1789: George Washington was inaugurated as the nation's first president at Federal Hall in New York City.
January 8, 1790: President Washington gave the first State of the Union Address
June 20, 1790: Compromise of 1790: James Madison agreed to not be "strenuous" in opposition to the assumption of state debts by the federal government; Alexander Hamilton agreed to support a national capital site in the South.
Major legislation
Session 1
Held March 4, 1789, through September 29, 1789, at Federal Hall in New York City
June 1, 1789: An act to regulate the time and manner of administering certain oaths, ch. 1,
July 4, 1789: Tariff of 1789, ch. 2,
July 27, 1789: United States Department of State was established, originally named the Department of Foreign Affairs, ch. 4, .
July 31, 1789: Regulation of the Collection of Duties on Tonnage and Merchandise, ch.5, , which established the United States Customs Service and its ports of entry.
August 7, 1789: Department of War was established, ch. 7, .
September 2, 1789: United States Department of the Treasury was established, ch. 12,
September 24, 1789: Judiciary Act of 1789, ch. 20, , which established the federal judiciary and the office of Attorney General
Session 2
Held January 4, 1790, through August 12, 1790, at Federal Hall in New York City
March 1, 1790: Made provisions for the first Census, ch. 2,
March 26, 1790: Naturalization Act of 1790, ch. 3,
April 10, 1790: Patent Act of 1790, ch. 7,
April 30, 1790: Crimes Act of 1790, ch. 9,
May 31, 1790: Copyright Act of 1790, ch. 15,
July 16, 1790: Residence Act, ch. 28, , established Washington, D.C. as the seat of government of the United States.
July 22, 1790: Indian Intercourse Act of 1790, ch. 33, , regulated commerce with the Indian tribes.
August 4, 1790: Funding Act of 1790, ch. 34, , authorized the "full assumption" of state debts by the federal government.
August 4, 1790: Collection of Duties Act, ch.35, , among its provisions is Sec. 62, , authorizing establishment of the Revenue-Marine, since 1915 the United States Coast Guard.
August 10, 1790: Tariff of 1790, ch. 39,
Session 3
Held December 6, 1790, through March 3, 1791, at Congress Hall in Philadelphia
February 18, 1791: Admission of Vermont postdated to March 4, ch. 10,
February 25, 1791: First Bank of the United States, ch. 10,
March 3, 1791: Tariff of 1791, ch. 15, , which triggered the Whiskey Rebellion
Constitutional amendments
September 25, 1789: Approved 12 amendments to the United States Constitution establishing specific guarantees of personal freedoms and rights, clear limitations on government power, and submitted them to the state legislatures for ratification. :
Article one has not been ratified and is still pending before the states.
Article two was much later ratified on May 7, 1992, as the Twenty-seventh Amendment.
Articles three through twelve, known as the "Bill of Rights," were later ratified on December 15, 1791.
States ratifying Constitution
November 21, 1789: North Carolina became the 12th state to ratify the U.S. Constitution and thereby joined the Union.
May 29, 1790: Rhode Island became the 13th state to ratify the U.S. Constitution and thereby joined the Union.
Territories organized
May 26, 1790: Territory South of the River Ohio organized from land ceded by North Carolina.
Party summary
There were no political parties in this Congress. Members are informally grouped into factions of similar interest, based on an analysis of their voting record.
Details on changes are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section.
Senate
During this congress, two Senate seats were added for North Carolina and Rhode Island when each ratified the Constitution.
House of Representatives
During this congress, five House seats were added for North Carolina and one House seat was added for Rhode Island when they ratified the Constitution.
Leadership
Senate
President: John Adams (P)
President pro tempore: John Langdon (P)
House of Representatives
Speaker: Frederick Muhlenberg (P)
Members
This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class, and representatives are listed by district.
Skip to House of Representatives, below
Senate
Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, all Senators were newly elected, and Class 1 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring re-election in 1790; Class 2 meant their term ended with the next Congress, requiring re-election in 1792; and Class 3 meant their term lasted through the next two Congresses, requiring re-election in 1794.
Connecticut
1. Oliver Ellsworth (P)
3. William S. Johnson (P)
Delaware
1. George Read (P)
2. Richard Bassett (A)
Georgia
2. William Few (A)
3. James Gunn (A)
Maryland
1. Charles Carroll (P)
3. John Henry (P)
Massachusetts
1. Tristram Dalton (P)
2. Caleb Strong (P)
New Hampshire
2. Paine Wingate (A)
3. John Langdon (P)
New Jersey
1. Jonathan Elmer (P)
2. William Paterson (P), until November 13, 1790
Philemon Dickinson (P), from December 6, 1790
New York
1. Philip Schuyler (P), from July 27, 1789
3. Rufus King (P), from July 25, 1789
North Carolina
2. Samuel Johnston (P), from November 27, 1789
3. Benjamin Hawkins (P), from November 27, 1789
Pennsylvania
1. William Maclay (A)
3. Robert Morris (P)
Rhode Island
1. Theodore Foster (P), from June 25, 1790
2. Joseph Stanton Jr. (A), from June 25, 1790
South Carolina
2. Pierce Butler (P)
3. Ralph Izard (P)
Virginia
1. William Grayson (A), until March 12, 1790
John Walker (P), April 26, 1790 – December 6, 1790
James Monroe (A), from December 6, 1790
2. Richard Henry Lee (A)
House of Representatives
The names of members of the House of Representatives are listed by their districts.
Connecticut
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Benjamin Huntington (P)
. Roger Sherman (P)
. Jonathan Sturges (P)
. Jonathan Trumbull Jr. (P)
. Jeremiah Wadsworth (P)
Delaware
. John Vining (P)
Georgia
. James Jackson (A)
. Abraham Baldwin (A)
. George Mathews (A)
Maryland
. Michael J. Stone (A)
. Joshua Seney (A)
. Benjamin Contee (A)
. William Smith (A)
. George Gale (P)
. Daniel Carroll (P)
Massachusetts
. Fisher Ames (P)
. Benjamin Goodhue (P)
. Elbridge Gerry (A)
. Theodore Sedgwick (P)
. George Partridge (P), until August 14, 1790, vacant thereafter
. George Thatcher (P)
. George Leonard (P)
. Jonathan Grout (A)
New Hampshire
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Abiel Foster (P), from June 23, 1789
. Nicholas Gilman (P)
. Samuel Livermore (A)
New Jersey
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Elias Boudinot (P)
. Lambert Cadwalader (P)
. James Schureman (P)
. Thomas Sinnickson (P)
New York
. William Floyd (A)
. John Laurance (P)
. Egbert Benson (P)
. John Hathorn (A), from April 23, 1789
. Peter Silvester (P), from April 22, 1789
. Jeremiah Van Rensselaer (A), from May 9, 1789
North Carolina
. John Baptista Ashe (A), from March 24, 1790
. Hugh Williamson (A), from March 19, 1790
. Timothy Bloodworth (A), from April 6, 1790
. John Steele (P), from April 19, 1790
. John Sevier (P), from June 16, 1790
Pennsylvania
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. George Clymer (P)
. Thomas Fitzsimons (P)
. Thomas Hartley (P)
. Daniel Hiester (A)
. Frederick Muhlenberg (P)
. Peter Muhlenberg (A)
. Thomas Scott (P)
. Henry Wynkoop (P)
Rhode Island
. Benjamin Bourne (P), from December 17, 1790
South Carolina
. William L. Smith (P), from April 13, 1789
. Aedanus Burke (A)
. Daniel Huger (P)
. Thomas Sumter (A)
. Thomas Tudor Tucker (A)
Virginia
. Alexander White (P)
. John Brown (A)
. Andrew Moore (A)
. Richard Bland Lee (P)
. James Madison (A)
. Isaac Coles (A)
. John Page (A)
. Josiah Parker (A)
. Theodorick Bland (A), until June 1, 1790
William B. Giles (A), from December 7, 1790
. Samuel Griffin (P)
Changes in membership
There were no political parties in this Congress. Members are informally grouped into factions of similar interest, based on an analysis of their voting record.
New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island, were the last states to ratify the U.S. Constitution, and because of their late ratification, were unable to send full representation at the beginning of this Congress. Six Senators and nine Representatives were subsequently seated from these states during the sessions as noted.
Senate
There was 1 resignation, 1 death, 1 replacement of a temporary appointee, and 6 new seats. The Anti-Administration Senators picked up 1 new seat and the Pro-Administration Senators picked up 5 new seats.
|-
| New York (3)
| rowspan=4 | New seats
| rowspan=2 style="font-size:80%" | State legislature failed to choose Senator until after Congress began.
| | Rufus King (P)
| July 25, 1789
|-
| New York (1)
| | Philip John Schuyler (P)
| July 27, 1789
|-
| North Carolina (3)
| rowspan=2 style="font-size:80%" | North Carolina ratified the constitution on November 21, 1789.
| | Benjamin Hawkins (P)
| rowspan=2 | Elected November 27, 1789
|-
| North Carolina (2)
| | Samuel Johnston (P)
|-
| Virginia(1)
| | William Grayson (A)
| style="font-size:80%" | Died March 12, 1790.
| | John Walker (P)
| Appointed March 31, 1790
|-
| Rhode Island (1)
| rowspan=2 | New seats
| rowspan=2 style="font-size:80%" | Rhode Island ratified the constitution on May 29, 1790.
| | Theodore Foster (P)
| rowspan=2 | Elected June 7, 1790
|-
| Rhode Island (2)
| | Joseph Stanton Jr. (A)
|-
| Virginia(1)
| | John Walker (P)
| style="font-size:80%" | James Monroe was elected to the seat of Senator William Grayson.
| | James Monroe (A)
| Elected November 9, 1790
|-
| New Jersey (2)
| | William Paterson (P)
| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned November 13, 1790,having been elected Governor of New Jersey.
| | Philemon Dickinson (P)
| Elected November 23, 1790
|}
House of Representatives
There was 2 resignations, 1 death, and 6 new seats. Anti-Administration members picked up 3 seats and Pro-Administration members picked up 2 seats.
|-
|
| | Benjamin West (P)
| Member-elect declined to serve and a new member was elected in the first congressional special election.
| | Abiel Foster (P)
| June 23, 1789
|-
|
| rowspan=5 | New seats
| rowspan=5 | North Carolina ratified the constitution November 21, 1789.
| | John Baptista Ashe (A)
| March 24, 1790
|-
|
| | Hugh Williamson (A)
| March 19, 1790
|-
|
| | Timothy Bloodworth (A)
| April 6, 1790
|-
|
| | John Steele (P)
| April 19, 1790
|-
|
| | John Sevier (P)
| June 16, 1790
|-
|
| New seat
| Rhode Island ratified the constitution May 29, 1790.
| | Benjamin Bourne (P)
| December 17, 1790
|-
|
| | Theodorick Bland (A)
| Died June 1, 1790.
| | William B. Giles (A)
| December 7, 1790
|-
|
| | George Partridge (P)
| Resigned August 14, 1790.
| colspan=2 | Remained vacant until next Congress
|}
Committees
Lists of committees and their party leaders.
Senate
Whole
House of Representatives
Elections (Chairman: N/A)
Rules (Select)
Ways and Means (Chairman: Thomas Fitzsimons)
Whole
Joint committees
Enrolled Bills (Chairman: Paine Wingate)
Employees
Senate
Secretary: Samuel A. Otis, elected April 8, 1789
Doorkeeper: James Mathers, elected April 7, 1789
Chaplain:
Samuel Provoost (Episcopalian), elected April 25, 1789
William White (Episcopalian), elected December 9, 1790
House of Representatives
Clerk: John J. Beckley
Sergeant at Arms: Joseph Wheaton, elected May 12, 1789
Doorkeeper: Gifford Dalley
Chaplain:
William Linn (Presbyterian), elected May 1, 1789
Samuel Blair (Presbyterian), elected December 10, 1790
Reading Clerks: John Beckley.
See also
1788–89 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
1788–89 United States presidential election
1788 and 1789 United States Senate elections
United States House of Representatives elections, 1788 and 1789
1790 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
1790 and 1791 United States Senate elections
1790 and 1791 United States House of Representatives elections
Notes
References
Further reading
Bickford, Charlene Bangs, and Kenneth R. Bowling. Birth of the nation: the First Federal Congress, 1789–1791 (Rowman & Littlefield, 1989)
Bordewich, Fergus M. The First Congress: How James Madison, George Washington, and a Group of Extraordinary Men Invented the Government (2016)
Bowling, Kenneth R. Politics in the first Congress, 1789–1791 (Taylor & Francis, 1990)
Christman, Margaret C.S. The first federal congress, 1789–1791 (Smithsonian Inst Pr, 1989.)
Currie, David P. "The Constitution in Congress: Substantive Issues in the First Congress, 1789–1791." The University of Chicago Law Review 61 (1994): 775–865. online
Jillson, Calvin C., and Rick K. Wilson. Congressional Dynamics: Structure, Coordination, and Choice in the First American Congress, 1774–1789 (Stanford University Press, 1994)
External links
1st Federal Congress Project
Statutes at Large, 1789–1875
Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
House History from the U.S. House of Representatives
Statistics & Lists from the U.S. Senate | [
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224815 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara%20Buczek | Barbara Buczek | Barbara Buczek (9 January 1940 – 17 January 1993) was a Polish composer. She was born in Kraków, Poland.
Partial list of works
Mikrosonata for violin solo (1968)
Blaeserquintett (1969)
Anekumena – Concerto for 89 instruments (1974)
Eidos III for bassoon solo (1979)
String Quartet No. 2 Transgressio (1985)
Study No. 1 for flute solo (1990)
External links
Biography, photo and list of works (in Polish)
1940 births
1993 deaths
Polish composers
20th-century composers
Polish women composers | [
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224819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret%20Beckett | Margaret Beckett | Dame Margaret Mary Beckett ( Jackson; born 15 January 1943) is a British politician who has served as Member of Parliament (MP) for Derby South since 1983. A member of the Labour Party, she became Britain's first female Foreign Secretary in 2006 and served in the Cabinet of Prime Minister Tony Blair throughout his tenure. Deputy Leader of the Opposition and Deputy Leader of the Labour Party from 1992 to 1994, she briefly served as Leader of the Opposition and acting Leader of the Labour Party following John Smith's death.
Beckett was first elected to Parliament in October 1974 for Lincoln and held junior positions in the governments of Harold Wilson and James Callaghan. She lost her seat in 1979, but returned to the House of Commons in 1983, this time representing Derby South. She was appointed to Neil Kinnock's Shadow Cabinet shortly afterward; she was elected Deputy Leader of the Labour Party in 1992, becoming the first woman to hold that role. When John Smith died in 1994, Beckett became the first woman to lead the Labour Party, although Tony Blair won the election to replace Smith shortly afterwards and assumed the substantive leadership.
After Labour returned to power in 1997, Beckett became a member of Tony Blair's Cabinet initially as President of the Board of Trade. She later served as Leader of the House of Commons and Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, before becoming Foreign Secretary in 2006, the first woman to hold that position, and—after Margaret Thatcher—the second woman to hold one of the Great Offices of State. Following Blair's resignation as Prime Minister in 2007, Beckett was not initially given a position by new Prime Minister Gordon Brown; after she had spent a period on the backbenches, Brown appointed her to his cabinet as Minister of State for Housing and Planning in 2008, before she left the government for the last time in 2009.
Beckett holds the record for the female MP with the longest service overall (Harriet Harman has longer continuous service) and is the only sitting MP who served in the Labour governments of the 1970s. She was appointed a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 2013 New Year Honours for public and political service.
Early life
Margaret Beckett was born Margaret Mary Jackson in 1943, in Ashton-under-Lyne, Lancashire, into the family of an invalid Congregationalist carpenter father and an Irish Catholic teacher mother. Her father died early, precipitating family poverty. She had two sisters, one later a nun, the other later a doctor and mother of three. She was educated at the Notre Dame High School for Girls in Norwich, then at University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, where she took a degree in metallurgy. She was an active member of the Students' Union and served on its council.
In 1961, Beckett joined Associated Electrical Industries as a student apprentice in metallurgy. She joined the Transport and General Workers Union in 1964. She joined the University of Manchester in 1966 as an experiment officer in its metallurgy department, and in 1970 went to work for the Labour Party as a researcher in industrial policy.
Member of Parliament
In 1973, Beckett was selected as Labour candidate for Lincoln, which the party wanted to win back from ex-Labour MP Dick Taverne, who had won the Lincoln by-election in March 1973 standing as the Democratic Labour candidate. At the February 1974 general election, Beckett lost to Taverne by 1,297 votes. Following the election, she worked as a researcher for Judith Hart, the Minister for Overseas Development at the Foreign Office. Harold Wilson called another general election in October 1974, and Beckett again stood against Taverne in Lincoln. This time Beckett became the MP, with a majority of 984 votes.
Almost immediately after her election she was appointed as Judith Hart's Parliamentary Private Secretary. Harold Wilson made her a Whip in 1975, and in 1976 promoted her to Parliamentary Under Secretary of State at the Department of Education and Science, replacing Joan Lestor, who had resigned in protest over spending cuts. She remained in that position until she lost her seat at the 1979 general election. The Conservative candidate Kenneth Carlisle narrowly won the seat with a 602-vote majority, the first time the Conservatives had won at Lincoln since 1935.
She joined Granada Television as a researcher in 1979. Out of Parliament, and now known as Margaret Beckett after her marriage, she was elected to Labour's National Executive Committee in 1980, and supported left-winger Tony Benn in the 1981 Labour deputy leadership election narrowly won by Denis Healey. She was the subject of a vociferous attack from Joan Lestor at the conference.
Beckett was selected to stand at the 1983 general election as the Labour candidate in the parliamentary constituency of Derby South following the retirement of the sitting MP, Walter Johnson. At the election she retained the seat with a small majority of 421 votes.
Shadow Cabinet and Deputy Leader, 1984–94
Upon returning to the House of Commons, Beckett gradually moved away from the left, supporting incumbent leader Neil Kinnock against Benn in 1988. By this time she was a front bencher, as a spokeswoman on Social Security since 1984, becoming a member of the Shadow Cabinet in 1989 as Shadow Chief Secretary to the Treasury. Following the 1992 general election she was elected Deputy Leader of the Labour Party and served under John Smith as Shadow Leader of the House of Commons. She became a Member of the Privy Council in 1993. She was the first woman to serve as deputy leader of the Labour Party.
Following the sudden death of John Smith from a heart attack on 12 May 1994, Beckett became the acting Labour leader, the Party's constitution providing for the automatic succession of the deputy leader for the remainder of the leadership term, upon the death or resignation of an incumbent leader in opposition. In times when the party is in opposition, Labour leaders are subject to annual re-election at the time of the annual party conference; accordingly, Beckett was constitutionally entitled to remain in office as acting leader until the 1994 Conference. However, the party's National Executive Committee (NEC) rapidly decided to bring forward the election for Leader and Deputy Leader to July 1994.
Beckett decided to run for the position of Leader, but came last in the subsequent leadership election, behind Tony Blair and John Prescott. The Deputy Leadership was contested at the same time; Beckett was also defeated in this contest, coming second behind Prescott. Though she failed in both contests, she was retained in the shadow cabinet by Blair as Shadow Health Secretary.
A footnote to her ten-week tenure as caretaker leader of the Labour Party is that she was the leader at the time of that year's 1994 European parliament elections, which were held four weeks after she assumed the position. Labour's election campaign had been long in the planning under Smith, whose sudden death led to a "sympathy rise" in opinion polls for Labour, compounding what had already been a strong lead over the Conservatives. Consequently, Labour had a commanding victory in what was its best result in any of the eight European elections held since 1979. The two Labour leadership elections followed six weeks later on 21 July 1994 and the Labour electorate did not appear to attribute any credit for the successful European election result to Beckett's chance-ordained position as acting leader in the four weeks immediately prior to the election.
Under Blair's leadership, Beckett was the Shadow Secretary of State for Health, and then from 1995 the President of the Board of Trade. She was one of the leading critics of the government when the Scott Report published its findings into the Arms-to-Iraq scandal in 1996.
In government, 1997–2001
The Labour Party was elected to government in a landslide in the 1997 general election and Beckett held a number of senior positions in the Blair government. Following the election she was appointed President of the Board of Trade (a position whose title later reverted to Secretary of State for Trade and Industry); the first woman to have held the post. She was succeeded by Peter Mandelson in July 1998.
Beckett was then Leader of the House of Commons from 1998 until her replacement by Robin Cook in June 2001. Her tenure saw the introduction of Westminster Hall debates, which are debates held in a small chamber near Westminster Hall on topics of interest to individual MPs, committee reports, and other matters that would not ordinarily be debated in the Commons chamber. Debates that take place in Westminster Hall are often more consensual and informal, and can address the concerns of backbenchers. She received admiration for her work as Leader of the House, working on this and a number of other elements of the Labour government's modernisation agenda for Parliament. In 2000, she expressed republican sympathies.
Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2001–06
Following the 2001 general election, Beckett became Secretary of State at the new Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), created after the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) was abolished in the wake of perceived mismanagement of the foot and mouth disease epidemic in 2001. The new department also incorporated some of the functions of the former Department for the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR).
For legal reasons, Beckett was also appointed formally as the Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, which appointment she held until MAFF was finally dissolved on 27 March 2002 and the remaining functions of that were transferred to the Secretary of State at large.
Beckett rejected demands for an expansion of nuclear power from a lobby including energy minister Brian Wilson and Downing Street staff. She argued there was no need for new nuclear for at least 15 years given current energy prices and generation capacity. The 2003 energy white paper stated "the current economics of nuclear power make it unattractive" and there were no proposals for new nuclear power stations.
Beckett held the position of Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs until May 2006, when she was succeeded by David Miliband. Beckett was on the front line of the government's efforts to tackle climate change, and attended international conferences on the matter.
In a report published on 29 March 2007 by the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Select Committee, she was criticised for her role in the failures of the Rural Payments Agency when she had been Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs.
Foreign Secretary: 2006–2007
Following the 2006 local elections, Blair demoted Foreign Secretary Jack Straw, and appointed Beckett as Straw's successor. She was the first woman to hold the post, and only the second woman (after Margaret Thatcher) to hold one of the Great Offices of State. The appointment came as something of a surprise, for the media and for Beckett herself; she admitted reacting to the news by saying the F-word.
Some commentators claim that Beckett was promoted to Foreign Secretary because she was considered to be a 'safe pair of hands' and a loyal member of the Cabinet. Her experience at DEFRA in dealing with international climate change issues has also been cited as a factor in the move.
Beckett had to adapt quickly to her diplomatic role; within a few hours of her appointment as Foreign Secretary, she flew to the United Nations in New York City for an urgent meeting of foreign ministers to discuss the Iran nuclear weapons crisis. About a month later, she came under fire for not responding quickly enough to the 2006 Lebanon War which saw Israel invade that country, although some reports suggested that the delay was caused by Cabinet division rather than Beckett's reluctance to make a public statement on the matter.
Beckett is understood to have delegated European issues to the Foreign Office minister responsible for Europe, Geoff Hoon, who, following his demotion as Defence Secretary, continued to attend Cabinet meetings. Hoon and Beckett were said to have a difficult ministerial relationship.
As Foreign Secretary, Beckett came in for some trenchant criticism. According to The Times, she did not stand up well in comparison with the previous Foreign Secretary, Jack Straw. The Spectator described her as "at heart, an old, isolationist, pacifist Leftist" and called on her to resign, and the New Statesman accused her of allowing the Foreign Office to become subservient to 10 Downing Street after the tenures of Straw and Robin Cook.
In August 2006, 37 Labour Party members in her Derby South constituency left the party and joined the Liberal Democrats, criticising her approach to the Israeli invasion of Lebanon. Two weeks earlier, Beckett's successor, David Miliband, raised concerns during a cabinet meeting about the failure of Blair and Beckett to call for an immediate ceasefire. Straw and Hilary Benn, then International Development Secretary, also raised concerns. Former minister Michael Meacher said there was "despair, anger and bewilderment" in the Labour Party at the UK's failure to call for an immediate ceasefire.
Post-Blair years
Upon taking office as Prime Minister, Gordon Brown made it known that Beckett would not continue as Foreign Secretary. On 28 June 2007, Brown selected David Miliband as her replacement and Beckett returned to the back benches.
It was announced on 29 January 2008 that Beckett would become the new head of the Prime Minister's Intelligence and Security Committee, replacing Paul Murphy, who became the Secretary of State for Wales.
Having been tipped for a possible return to the front bench in July 2008, due to her reputation as a solid media performer, Beckett returned to government in the reshuffle on 3 October 2008 as the Minister of State for Housing in the Department for Communities and Local Government. She attended Cabinet meetings, but was not a full member and was not to be entitled to vote on collective decisions. She ultimately was allowed to return due to her cabinet experience and her economic management in the past.
Beckett is currently a member of the Top Level Group of UK Parliamentarians for Multilateral Nuclear Disarmament and Non-proliferation, established in October 2009. She has served as a member of the Henry Jackson Society Advisory Council.
Expenses
Beckett was found to have claimed £600 for hanging baskets and pot plants by The Daily Telegraph in the 2009 expenses scandal. As she had no mortgage or rent outstanding it was queried how she managed to claim £72,537 between 2004 and 2008 on a house in her constituency when she was renting out her London flat and living in a grace and favour flat.
Bid to become Speaker
On 10 June 2009, Beckett announced that she wished to replace Michael Martin as Speaker of the House of Commons. She said: "I think at the moment we have got very considerable problems in Parliament. We have got to make changes.... After the next election, if we have a more finely balanced chamber than we have had in the recent past, it will be a very different ball game.... I hope I can help us deal with that." Beckett received 74 votes in the first round and 70 votes in the second round of the 2009 Speaker election, reaching the third place as the strongest Labour candidate both times but considerably trailing the two Conservative frontrunners John Bercow and George Young. She withdrew following the second round of voting.
In August 2009, Beckett wrote to Sir Christopher Kelly, Chairman of the Committee on Standards in Public Life which was investigating MPs' expenses. In the letter, she says the allowances do not adequately cover MPs' costs, which include political campaigns. The Telegraph criticised the "self-pitying" letter, saying it will fuel "concern that some MPs are not genuinely committed to reform".
Alternative Vote referendum
On 26 November 2010, Beckett was announced as the President of the NOtoAV campaign, which campaigned to retain the First Past the Post (FPTP) electoral system at the 2011 United Kingdom Alternative Vote referendum. She led the campaign to success, and FPTP remains the system used in UK parliamentary elections.
2015 Labour leadership election
Beckett was one of 36 Labour MPs to nominate Jeremy Corbyn as a candidate in the Labour leadership election of 2015. Later, during an interview with BBC Radio 4's World at One, after it became known he was in the lead among the candidates, Beckett was asked if she was "a moron" for nominating Corbyn. She replied: "I am one of them". Furthermore, in January 2016, Beckett claimed that Labour would need an "unexpected political miracle" if it were to win under his leadership, and criticised Corbyn for failing to win back the trust of the electorate on welfare reform and mass immigration, saying: "I think we had the right policies towards immigration, but the simple thuggishness of the kind of Ukip and Conservative approach is easier to understand and we didn't overcome those communication difficulties ... We have to try and work on ways to overcome that – I'm not suggesting we've done it yet". She later supported Owen Smith in the failed attempt to replace Corbyn in the 2016 Labour leadership election.
In February 2019, however, she acknowledged during an interview with Sophy Ridge on Sky News that she was "surprised" about how Corbyn had "grown into the job" after taking on the leadership. She further claimed that veteran Conservative MP Kenneth Clarke called Corbyn a "perfectly competent" opposition leader.
Beckett report
On 16 January 2016, Beckett released "Learning the Lessons from Defeat Taskforce Report", a 35-page report into why the Labour Party lost the general election of 2015 after the then deputy leader Harriet Harman requested Beckett investigate the reasons for Labour's failure. Labour's defeat came as a shock to pollsters, whose polls had suggested that the result would be much closer than it eventually was. Ultimately, the Conservatives won a narrow majority.
The report said that explanations including Labour being "anti-business" or "anti-aspiration" were not "significant" factors, saying that "reasons for defeat should be treated with caution and require deeper analysis". Allegations that the party was overly left-wing were also allegedly unfounded as according to the report: "Many of our most 'left wing' policies were the most popular. Polls showed a wish, from voters, for us to be tougher on big business, and policies that were unpopular with many senior business people, such as the energy price freeze and the Mansion Tax, were popular with voters".
The main reasons given for Labour's losses were the perceived weakness of Ed Miliband as party leader, fear of Labour's relationship with the Scottish National Party (SNP) among English voters, a perceived association with the financial crisis under the Brown ministry and "issues of connection" with voters. Labour was also said to have failed to convince voters of its welfare and immigration policies. Beckett claims: "A series of vicious and cynical attacks were mounted on some of the most vulnerable in society, in the expectation that the Labour party would do its utmost to defend them, and could be painted as the party of welfare".
The report also said that it would be difficult for Labour to win next time because of changes to constituency boundaries (due in 2018), voter registration changes and restrictions on trade union funding of parties. Beckett said the party should campaign in ordinary language, focus its policy on the condition of Britain in 2020, unite for the EU referendum and draw up a five-year media strategy.
The Beckett report was criticised by some on the left-wing of British politics as "show[ing] that many Labour politicians still don't really understand why they lost" and blaming factors such as the rise of the SNP on Labour's losses, rather than campaigning against austerity. Others criticised the report for being too broad and too vague in its conclusions. Stephen Bush wrote in the New Statesman that "every bit of the Labour party will have something it can cling to" in the report: He continued:
Owen Jones, a columnist for The Guardian, said that the left should not fear the Beckett report, saying: "Let's have a full inquest, not in the interests of navel-gazing, but in the interests of winning". Many centrist and more right-wing Labour politicians have also welcomed the report.
In Parliament, she is Chair of the National Security Strategy (Joint Committee), and is a former member of the Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament and Modernisation of the House of Commons Committee.
National Executive Committee Chairmanship
On 24 November 2020, Beckett was elected to succeed the Transport Salaried Staffs' Association's Andi Fox as the Chair of the Labour Party's National Executive Committee. She was elected unopposed after NEC members from the left of the party staged a virtual walkout, protesting her election over then vice-chair Ian Murray from the Fire Brigades Union.
Beckett was criticised after being overheard insulting a fellow NEC member during a Zoom call on 11 March 2021. Beckett thought her microphone was turned off when calling Laura Pidcock a "silly cow", after which Pidcock left the meeting. Beckett apologised immediately and told the BBC the following day: "I deeply regret the remark, which was unjustifiable." Fellow NEC members called on her to resign, while Labour's general secretary David Evans said that complaints against Beckett would be investigated.
Honours
Margaret Beckett was appointed to the Privy Council of the United Kingdom in 1993, giving her the honorific title "The Right Honourable" for life
She was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the Civil Division in the 2013 New Year Honours, giving her the honorific title Dame and the post-nominal letters "DBE" for life
In November 2017 she was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of the University (D.Univ) from the University of Derby
Personal life
She married the chairman of her local Constituency Labour Party, Lionel Beckett, in August 1979. Beckett employed her husband as her office manager, on a salary up to £30,000. The practice of MPs employing family members has been criticised by some sections of the media on the lines that it promotes nepotism. Although MPs who were first elected in 2017 have been banned from employing family members, the restriction is not retroactive.
Leo Beckett has two sons from a previous marriage, and three grandchildren. Beckett and her husband enjoyed caravan holidays, throughout her political career. Leo Beckett died in 2021.
References
Further reading
External links
1943 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology
Female members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies
Leaders of the Opposition (United Kingdom)
British Secretaries of State
British Secretaries of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs
Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Female foreign ministers
Female members of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Leaders of the Labour Party (UK)
Lord Presidents of the Council
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
People from Ashton-under-Lyne
Transport and General Workers' Union-sponsored MPs
UK MPs 1974–1979
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
UK MPs 2010–2015
UK MPs 2015–2017
UK MPs 2017–2019
UK MPs 2019–present
Leaders of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for constituencies in Derbyshire
Politics of Lincoln, England
Politics of Derby
Ministers of State for Housing (UK)
Agriculture ministers of the United Kingdom
20th-century British women politicians
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Presidents of the Board of Trade
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Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Lincoln
English people of Irish descent
20th-century English women
20th-century English people
21st-century English women
21st-century English people
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224835 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd%20United%20States%20Congress | 2nd United States Congress | The 2nd United States Congress, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives, met at Congress Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from March 4, 1791, to March 4, 1793, during the third and fourth years of George Washington's presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the provisions of Article I, Section 2, Clause 3 of the United States Constitution. Additional House seats were assigned to the two new states of Vermont and Kentucky. Both chambers had a Pro-Administration majority.
Major events
April 5, 1792: President Washington used the veto for the first time, vetoing a bill designed to apportion representatives among U.S. states.
April–May, 1792: the House conducted the government's first investigative hearings, examining Gen. Arthur St. Clair's Defeat in the Battle of the Wabash.
October 13, 1792: Foundation of Washington, D.C.: The cornerstone of the United States Executive Mansion, now known as the White House, was laid.
Major legislation
February 20, 1792: Postal Service Act, Sess. 1, ch. 7, , established the U.S. Post Office
March 1, 1792: Act relative to the Election of a President and Vice President of the United States, and to Presidential Succession, Sess. 1, ch. 8, , stated the process for electors and Congress to follow when electing a president and vice president, and established which federal officer would act as president if both the offices of president and vice president became vacant.
April 2, 1792: Coinage Act of 1792, Sess. 1, ch. 16, , established the United States Mint and regulated coinage
April 14, 1792: Apportionment Act of 1792, Sess. 1, ch. 23 , increased the size of the House of Representatives from 69 seats in the 2nd Congress to 105 in the 3rd and apportioned those seats among the several states according to the 1790 Census
May 2, 1792: First Militia Act of 1792, Sess. 1, ch. 28, , empowered the president to call out the militias of the various states in the event of an invasion or rebellion.
May 5, 1792: Debtors' Prison Relief Act of 1792, Sess. 1, ch. 29, , established penal regulations and restrictions for persons' gaoled for property debt, tax evasion, and tax resistance.
May 8, 1792: Second Militia Act of 1792, Sess. 1, ch. 33, , required that every free able-bodied white male citizen of the various states, between the ages of 18 and 45, enroll in the militia of the state in which they reside.
February 12, 1793: Fugitive Slave Act of 1793, Sess. 2, ch. 7,
March 2, 1793: Judiciary Act of 1793 (including Anti-Injunction Act), Sess. 2, ch. 22,
States admitted
March 4, 1791: Vermont was admitted as the 14th state,
June 1, 1792: Kentucky was admitted as the 15th state,
Constitutional amendments
December 15, 1791: The first 10 amendments to the United States Constitution, collectively known as the Bill of Rights, were ratified by the requisite number of states (then 11) to become part of the Constitution.
Party summary
There were no political parties in this Congress. Members are informally grouped into factions of similar interest, based on an analysis of their voting record.
Details on changes are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section.
Senate
During this congress, two new Senate seats were added for each of the new states of Vermont and Kentucky.
House of Representatives
During this congress, two new House seats were added for each of the new states of Vermont and Kentucky. (Sess. 3, ch. 9, )
Leadership
Senate
President: John Adams (P)
President pro tempore:
Richard Henry Lee (P)
John Langdon (P), elected November 5, 1792
House of Representatives
Speaker: Jonathan Trumbull Jr. (P)
Members
This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class, and representatives are listed by district.
Senate
Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began in this Congress, facing re-election in 1796; Class 2 meant their term ended with this Congress, facing re-election in 1792; and Class 3 meant their term began in the last Congress, facing re-election in 1794.
Connecticut
1. Oliver Ellsworth (P)
3. William S. Johnson (P), until March 4, 1791
Roger Sherman (P), from June 13, 1791
Delaware
1. George Read (P)
2. Richard Bassett (P)
Georgia
2. William Few (A)
3. James Gunn (A)
Kentucky
2. John Brown (A), from June 18, 1792
3. John Edwards (A), from June 18, 1792
Maryland
1. Charles Carroll (P), until November 30, 1792
Richard Potts (P), from February 4, 1793
3. John Henry (P)
Massachusetts
1. George Cabot (P)
2. Caleb Strong (P)
New Hampshire
2. Paine Wingate (A)
3. John Langdon (P)
New Jersey
1. John Rutherfurd (P)
2. Philemon Dickinson (P)
New York
1. Aaron Burr (A)
3. Rufus King (P)
North Carolina
2. Samuel Johnston (P)
3. Benjamin Hawkins (P)
Pennsylvania
1. Albert Gallatin (A), from February 28, 1793 (not formally installed until next Congress)
3. Robert Morris (P)
Rhode Island
1. Theodore Foster (P)
2. Joseph Stanton Jr. (A)
South Carolina
2. Pierce Butler (A)
3. Ralph Izard (P)
Vermont
1. Moses Robinson (A), from October 17, 1791
3. Stephen R. Bradley (A), from October 17, 1791
Virginia
2. Richard Henry Lee (A), until October 8, 1792
John Taylor (A), from December 12, 1792
1. James Monroe (A)
House of Representatives
The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their districts.
Connecticut
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. James Hillhouse (P)
. Amasa Learned (P)
. Jonathan Sturges (P)
. Jonathan Trumbull Jr. (P)
. Jeremiah Wadsworth (P)
Delaware
. John Vining (P)
Georgia
All representatives were elected statewide from individual districts.
. Anthony Wayne (A), until March 21, 1792 (seat declared vacant)
John Milledge (A), from November 22, 1792
. Abraham Baldwin (A)
. Francis Willis (A)
Kentucky
. Christopher Greenup (A), from November 9, 1792
. Alexander D. Orr (A), from November 8, 1792
Maryland
All representatives were elected statewide from individual districts.
. Philip Key (P)
. Joshua Seney (A), until December 6, 1792
William Hindman (P), from January 30, 1793
. William Pinkney (P), until November 9, 1791
John F. Mercer (A), from February 6, 1792
. Samuel Sterett (A)
. William Vans Murray (P)
. Upton Sheredine (A)
Massachusetts
. Fisher Ames (P)
. Benjamin Goodhue (P)
. Elbridge Gerry (A)
. Theodore Sedgwick (P)
. Shearjashub Bourne (P)
. George Leonard (P), from April 2, 1792 (late election)
. Artemas Ward (P)
. George Thatcher (P), from April 4, 1791 (late election)
New Hampshire
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Nicholas Gilman (P)
. Samuel Livermore (P)
. Jeremiah Smith (P)
New Jersey
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Elias Boudinot (P)
. Abraham Clark (P)
. Jonathan Dayton (P)
. Aaron Kitchell (A)
New York
. Thomas Tredwell (A), from October 24, 1791
. John Laurance (P)
. Egbert Benson (P)
. Cornelius C. Schoonmaker (A)
. Peter Silvester (P)
. James Gordon (P)
North Carolina
There was a special redistricting for this Congress.
. John Steele (P)
. Nathaniel Macon (A)
. John Baptista Ashe (A)
. Hugh Williamson (A)
. William Barry Grove (P)
Pennsylvania
. Thomas Fitzsimons (P)
. Frederick Muhlenberg (A)
. Israel Jacobs (P)
. Daniel Hiester (A)
. John W. Kittera (P)
. Andrew Gregg (A)
. Thomas Hartley (P)
. William Findley (A)
Rhode Island
. Benjamin Bourne (P)
South Carolina
. William L. Smith (P)
. Robert Barnwell (P)
. Daniel Huger (P)
. Thomas Sumter (A)
. Thomas Tudor Tucker (A)
Vermont
. Israel Smith (A), from October 31, 1791
. Nathaniel Niles (A), from October 31, 1791
Virginia
. Alexander White (P)
. John Brown (A), until June 1, 1792 (when his district became Kentucky)
Vacant thereafter
. Andrew Moore (A)
. Richard Bland Lee (P)
. James Madison (A)
. Abraham B. Venable (A)
. John Page (A)
. Josiah Parker (A)
. William B. Giles (A)
. Samuel Griffin (A)
Membership changes
There were no political parties in this Congress. Members are informally grouped into factions of similar interest, based on an analysis of their voting record.
Vermont and Kentucky were newly admitted as states and are first represented in this Congress.
Senate
There were three resignations, one contested election, and four new seats of admitted states, resulting in a four-seat net gain of the Anti-Administration Senators.
|-
| Pennsylvania(1)
| Vacant
| Legislature failed to elect Senator.Successor elected February 28, 1793.
| | Albert Gallatin (A)
| December 2, 1793
|-
| Connecticut(3)
| | William S. Johnson (P)
| Resigned March 4, 1791.Successor elected June 13, 1791.
| | Roger Sherman (P)
| June 13, 1791
|-
| Vermont(3)
| rowspan=2 | New seat
| rowspan=2 | Vermont was admitted to the Union March 4, 1791.Winners elected October 17, 1791.
| | Stephen R. Bradley (A)
| November 4, 1791
|-
| Vermont(1)
| | Moses Robinson (A)
| November 4, 1791
|-
| Kentucky(3)
| rowspan=2 | New seat
| rowspan=2 | Kentucky was admitted to the Union June 1, 1792.Winners elected June 18, 1792.
| | John Edwards (A)
| June 18, 1792
|-
| Kentucky(2)
| | John Brown (A)
| June 18, 1792
|-
| Virginia(2)
| | Richard Henry Lee (A)
| Resigned October 8, 1792.Successor elected October 18, 1792.
| | John Taylor (A)
| October 18, 1792
|-
| Maryland(1)
| | Charles Carroll (P)
| Resigned November 30, 1792.Successor elected January 10, 1793.
| | Richard Potts (P)
| January 10, 1793
|}
House of Representatives
There were 3 resignations, 1 vacancy of a member-elect, 1 contested election, 2 late elections, and 4 new seats of admitted states, resulting in a 3-seat net gain of the Anti-Administration members and a 1-seat net gain of the Pro-Administration members.
|-
| nowrap |
| Vacant
| Due to failure to reach a majority, four ballots were needed to elect. Incumbent was elected late April 4, 1791.
| | George Thatcher (P)
| April 4, 1791
|-
| nowrap |
| Vacant
| Representative-elect James Townsend died on May 24, 1790, before Congress assembled.
| | Thomas Tredwell (A)
| October 24, 1791
|-
| nowrap |
| rowspan=2 | New seat
| rowspan=2 | Vermont was admitted to the Union on March 4, 1791.
| | Israel Smith (A)
| October 24, 1791
|-
| nowrap |
| | Nathaniel Niles (A)
| October 24, 1791
|-
| nowrap |
| | William Pinkney (P)
| Resigned November 1791
| | John Francis Mercer (A)
| February 6, 1792
|-
| nowrap |
| Vacant
| Due to failure to reach a majority, eight ballots were needed to elect. Incumbent was elected late April 2, 1792.
| | George Leonard (P)
| April 2, 1792
|-
| nowrap |
| | John Brown (A)
| Resigned June 1, 1792, to become U.S. Senator from Kentucky.
| Vacant
| Seat went with Kentucky
|-
| nowrap |
| rowspan=2 | New seat
| rowspan=2 | Kentucky was admitted to the Union on June 1, 1792.
| | Alexander D. Orr (A)
| November 8, 1792
|-
| nowrap |
| | Christopher Greenup (A)
| November 9, 1792
|-
| nowrap |
| | Anthony Wayne (A)
| Anthony Wayne served until March 21, 1792, when seat declared vacant because the election was contested
| | John Milledge (A)
| November 22, 1792
|-
| nowrap |
| | Joshua Seney (A)
| Resigned December 6, 1792.
| | William Hindman (P)
| January 30, 1793
|}
Committees
Lists of committees and their party leaders.
Senate
Whole
House of Representatives
Elections (Chairman: Samuel Livermore)
Rules (Select)
Whole
Joint committees
Enrolled Bills (Chairman: John Rutherfurd)
Employees
Senate
Secretary: Samuel A. Otis
Doorkeeper: James Mathers
Chaplain: William White (Episcopalian)
House of Representatives
Clerk: John Beckley
Sergeant at Arms: Joseph Wheaton
Doorkeeper: Gifford Dalley
Chaplain:
Samuel Blair Presbyterian
Ashbel Green, Presbyterian, elected November 5, 1792
Reading Clerks:
See also
1790 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
1790 and 1791 United States Senate elections
1790 United States House of Representatives elections
1792 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
1792 United States presidential election
1792 and 1793 United States Senate elections
1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections
Notes
References
External links
Statutes at Large, 1789–1875
Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress
U.S. House of Representatives: House History
U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists | [
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] |
224837 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd%20United%20States%20Congress | 3rd United States Congress | The 3rd United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met at Congress Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania from March 4, 1793, to March 4, 1795, during the fifth and sixth years of George Washington's presidency.
The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was governed by the Apportionment Act of 1792 and based on the 1790 Census. The Senate had a Pro-Administration majority, and the House had an Anti-Administration majority.
Major events
March 4, 1793: President George Washington begins his second term.
April 22, 1793: George Washington signed the Neutrality Proclamation
February 11, 1794: Wishing to avoid charges of being a Star Chamber, the Senate holds its first public session, resolving "That the Senate doors be opened".
March 14, 1794: Eli Whitney was granted a patent for the cotton gin
March 27, 1794: The federal government authorized the construction of the original six frigates of the United States Navy
August 7, 1794: Whiskey Rebellion began: Farmers in the Monongahela Valley of Pennsylvania rebelled against the federal tax on liquor and distilled drinks.
August 20, 1794: Battle of Fallen Timbers — American troops under General Anthony Wayne forced a confederacy of Shawnee, Mingo, Delaware, Wyandot, Miami, Ottawa, Chippewa and Pottawatomie warriors into a disorganized retreat.
Major legislation
January 13, 1794: Flag Act of 1794, Sess. 1, ch. 1,
March 22, 1794: Slave Trade Act of 1794, Sess. 1, ch. 11,
March 27, 1794: Naval Act of 1794, Sess. 1, ch. 12,
January 29, 1795: Naturalization Act of 1795, Sess. 2, ch. 20,
Constitutional amendments
March 4, 1794: Approved an amendment to the United States Constitution clarifying judicial power over foreign nationals, and limiting the ability of citizens to sue states in federal courts and under federal law, and submitted it to the state legislatures for ratification .
February 7, 1795: The 11th Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states (then 12) to become part of the Constitution.
Treaties
November 19, 1794: The United States and the Kingdom of Great Britain signed the Jay Treaty, which attempted to clear up some of the lingering problems left over from the American Revolutionary War
Faction summary
There were no political parties in this Congress. Members are informally grouped into factions of similar interest, based on an analysis of their voting record.
Details on changes are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section.
Senate
House of Representatives
Leadership
Senate
President: John Adams (P)
President pro tempore: John Langdon (P), until December 2, 1793
Ralph Izard (P), May 31, 1794 – November 9, 1794
Henry Tazewell (P), from February 20, 1795
House of Representatives
Speaker: Frederick Muhlenberg (A)
Members
This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class, and representatives are listed by district.
Skip to House of Representatives, below
Senate
Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election.
Connecticut
1. Oliver Ellsworth (P)
3. Roger Sherman (P), until July 23, 1793
Stephen Mitchell (P), from December 2, 1793
Delaware
1. George Read (P), until September 18, 1793
Henry Latimer (P), from February 7, 1795
2. John Vining (P)
Georgia
2. James Jackson (A)
3. James Gunn (A)
Kentucky
2. John Brown (A)
3. John Edwards (A)
Maryland
1. Richard Potts (P)
3. John Henry (P)
Massachusetts
1. George Cabot (P)
2. Caleb Strong (P)
New Hampshire
2. Samuel Livermore (P)
3. John Langdon (A)
New Jersey
1. John Rutherfurd (P)
2. Frederick Frelinghuysen (P)
New York
1. Aaron Burr (A)
3. Rufus King (P)
North Carolina
2. Alexander Martin (A)
3. Benjamin Hawkins (A)
Pennsylvania
1. Albert Gallatin (A), until February 28, 1794
James Ross (P), from April 24, 1794
3. Robert Morris (P)
Rhode Island
1. Theodore Foster (P)
2. William Bradford (P)
South Carolina
2. Pierce Butler (A)
3. Ralph Izard (P)
Vermont
1. Moses Robinson (A)
3. Stephen R. Bradley (A)
Virginia
1. James Monroe (A), until May 27, 1794
Stevens Mason (A), from November 18, 1794
2. John Taylor (A), until May 11, 1794
Henry Tazewell (A), from December 29, 1794
House of Representatives
The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their district numbers.
Connecticut
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Joshua Coit (P)
. James Hillhouse (P)
. Amasa Learned (P)
. Zephaniah Swift (P)
. Uriah Tracy (P)
. Jonathan Trumbull Jr. (P)
. Jeremiah Wadsworth (P)
Delaware
. John Patten (A), until February 14, 1794
Henry Latimer (P), February 14, 1794 – February 7, 1795
Vacant thereafter
Georgia
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Abraham Baldwin (A)
. Thomas P. Carnes (A)
Kentucky
. Christopher Greenup (A)
. Alexander D. Orr (A)
Maryland
. George Dent (P)
. John Mercer (A), until April 13, 1794
Gabriel Duvall (A), from November 11, 1794
. Uriah Forrest (P), until November 8, 1794
Benjamin Edwards (P), from January 2, 1795
. Thomas Sprigg (A)
. Samuel Smith (A)
. Gabriel Christie (A)
. William Hindman (P)
. William Vans Murray (P)
Massachusetts
There was a single at-large seat along with four plural districts, each of which had multiple representatives elected at-large on a general ticket.
. Fisher Ames (P)
. Samuel Dexter (P)
. Benjamin Goodhue (P)
. Samuel Holten (A)
. Dwight Foster (P)
. William Lyman (A)
. Theodore Sedgwick (P)
. Artemas Ward (P)
. Shearjashub Bourne (P)
. Peleg Coffin Jr. (P)
. Henry Dearborn (A)
. George Thatcher (P)
. Peleg Wadsworth (P)
. David Cobb (P)
New Hampshire
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Nicholas Gilman (P)
. John Sherburne (A)
. Jeremiah Smith (P)
. Paine Wingate (P)
New Jersey
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. John Beatty (P)
. Elias Boudinot (P)
. Lambert Cadwalader (P)
. Abraham Clark (P), until September 15, 1794
Aaron Kitchell (A), from January 29, 1795
. Jonathan Dayton (P)
New York
. Thomas Tredwell (A)
. John Watts (P)
. Philip Van Cortlandt (A)
. Peter Van Gaasbeck (P)
. Theodorus Bailey (A)
. Ezekiel Gilbert (P)
. John E. Van Alen (P)
. Henry Glen (P)
. James Gordon (P)
. Silas Talbot (P), until June 5, 1794
Vacant thereafter
North Carolina
. Joseph McDowell (A)
. Matthew Locke (A)
. Joseph Winston (A)
. Alexander Mebane (A)
. Nathaniel Macon (A)
. James Gillespie (A)
. William Barry Grove (P)
. William Johnston Dawson (A)
. Thomas Blount (A)
. Benjamin Williams (A)
Pennsylvania
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. James Armstrong (P)
. William Findley (A)
. Thomas Fitzsimons (P)
. Andrew Gregg (A)
. Thomas Hartley (P)
. Daniel Hiester (A)
. William Irvine (A)
. John Wilkes Kittera (P)
. William Montgomery (A)
. Frederick A. C. Muhlenberg (A)
. John Peter G. Muhlenberg (A)
. Thomas Scott (P)
. John Smilie (A)
Rhode Island
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Benjamin Bourne (P)
. Francis Malbone (P)
South Carolina
. William L. Smith (P)
. John Hunter (A)
. Lemuel Benton (A)
. Richard Winn (A)
. Alexander Gillon (A), until October 6, 1794
Robert Goodloe Harper (P), from February 9, 1795
. Andrew Pickens (A)
Vermont
. Israel Smith (A)
. Nathaniel Niles (A)
Virginia
. Robert Rutherford (A)
. Andrew Moore (A)
. Joseph Neville (A)
. Francis Preston (A)
. George Hancock (P)
. Isaac Coles (A)
. Abraham B. Venable (A)
. Thomas Claiborne (A)
. William B. Giles (A)
. Carter B. Harrison (A)
. Josiah Parker (P)
. John Page (A)
. Samuel Griffin (P)
. Francis Walker (A)
. James Madison (A)
. Anthony New (A)
. Richard Bland Lee (P)
. John Nicholas (A)
. John Heath (A)
Non-voting members
("Southwest Territory," later "Tennessee"). James White, seated September 3, 1794
Changes in membership
The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress
United States Senate
There were 1 death, 3 resigns, 1 late election, and 1 contested election.
|-
| Connecticut(3)
| | Roger Sherman (P)
| Died July 23, 1793.
| | Stephen M. Mitchell (P)
| Elected December 2, 1793
|-
| Delaware(1)
| | George Read (P)
| Resigned on September 18, 1793. Kensey Johns was appointed on March 19, 1794, but not permitted to qualify.
| | Henry Latimer (P)
| Appointed February 7, 1795
|-
| Pennsylvania(1)
| | Albert Gallatin (A)
| Credentials were contested and the seat was declared vacant February 28, 1794.
| | James Ross (P)
| Elected April 24, 1794
|-
| Virginia(1)
| | James Monroe (A)
| Resigned May 11, 1794, to become United States Minister to France.
| | Stevens T. Mason (A)
| Elected November 18, 1794
|-
| Virginia(2)
| | John Taylor (A)
| Resigned May 11, 1794.
| | Henry Tazewell (A)
| Elected November 18, 1794
|}
House of Representatives
There were 2 deaths, 3 resignations, and 1 contested election.
|-
| nowrap |
| | John Patten (A)
| Contested election; served until February 14, 1794.
| | Henry Latimer (P)
| Seated February 14, 1794
|-
| nowrap |
| Vacant
| Delegate seat established.
| James White Non-voting delegate
| Elected September 3, 1794
|-
| nowrap |
| | John Francis Mercer (A)
| Resigned April 13, 1794.
| | Gabriel Duvall (A)
| Seated November 11, 1794
|-
| nowrap |
| | Silas Talbot (P)
| Accepted appointment to the U.S. Navy June 5, 1794.
| Vacant
| Not filled in this Congress
|-
| nowrap |
| | Abraham Clark (P)
| Died September 15, 1794.
| | Aaron Kitchell (P)
| Seated January 29, 1795
|-
| nowrap |
| | Alexander Gillon (A)
| Died October 6, 1794.
| | Robert Goodloe Harper (P)
| Seated February 9, 1795
|-
| nowrap |
| | Uriah Forrest (P)
| Resigned November 8, 1794.
| | Benjamin Edwards (P)
| Seated January 2, 1795
|-
| nowrap |
| | Henry Latimer (P)
| Resigned February 7, 1795, having been elected U.S. Senator.
| Vacant
| Not filled in this Congress
|}
Committees
Lists of committees and their party leaders.
Senate
Whole
House of Representatives
Claims (Chairman: Uriah Tracy)
Elections (Chairman: William Loughton Smith then Jonathan Dayton)
Rules (Select)
Ways and Means (Chairman: William Loughton Smith)
Whole
Joint committees
Enrolled Bills (Chairman: John Rutherfurd)
Employees
Architect of the Capitol: William Thornton
Senate
Chaplain: William White (Episcopalian)
Doorkeeper: James Mathers
Secretary: Samuel Allyne Otis
House of Representatives
Chaplain: Ashbel Green (Presbyterian)
Clerk: John J. Beckley
Doorkeeper: Gifford Dalley
Reading Clerks:
Sergeant at Arms: Joseph Wheaton
See also
1792 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
1792 United States presidential election
1792 and 1793 United States Senate elections
1792 and 1793 United States House of Representatives elections
1794 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
1794 and 1795 United States Senate elections
1794 and 1795 United States House of Representatives elections
Notes
References
External links
Statutes at Large, 1789-1875
Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress
U.S. House of Representatives: House History
U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists | [
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] |
224839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5th%20United%20States%20Congress | 5th United States Congress | The 5th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met at Congress Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from March 4, 1797, to March 4, 1799, during the first two years of John Adams' presidency. In the context of the Quasi-War with France, the Alien and Sedition Acts were passed by congress. The Acts were overwhelmingly supported by the Federalists and mostly opposed by the Democratic-Republicans. Some Democratic-Republicans, such as Timothy Bloodworth, said they would support formally going to war against France but they opposed the Alien and Sedition Acts which Bloodworth and others believed were unconstitutional.
The apportionment of seats in this House of Representatives was based on the First Census of the United States in 1790. Both chambers had a Federalist majority.
Major events
March 4, 1797 – John Adams became President of the United States
July 8, 1797 – The Senate expelled Tennessee Senator William Blount for conspiring with the British
July 11, 1798 – The United States Marine Corps was established
XYZ Affair in the U.S., followed by naval skirmishes but no war is declared. The XYZ affair led to several Democratic-Republicans breaking ranks with Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson took pains to avoid blaming France for the incident, as a result John Hunter, Josiah Tattnall, Timothy Bloodworth, Alexander Martin, Lemuel Benton, Thomas Sumter, William Smith, John Milledge, Abraham Baldwin, Joseph McDowell, Matthew Locke, Robert Williams, Richard Stanford, Nathaniel Macon, James Gillespie, Dempsey Burges, Thomas Blount, Nathan Bryan, John Brown, Thomas T. Davis, John Fowler and Joseph Anderson all publicly broke ranks with Jefferson, despite the fact he was the de-facto leader of their party, and sided with Alexander Hamilton. The aforementioned congressmen and senators were referred to by Jefferson as a "reign of witches" and were described as the "Pro-British republicans" (as opposed to the "pro-French republicans" led by Jefferson.)
Major legislation
April 30, 1798: The U.S. Department of the Navy was established, Sess. 2, ch. 35,
June 18, 1798: Alien and Sedition Acts: ("An Act to establish a uniform rule of naturalization") (Naturalization Act of 1798), Sess. 2, ch. 54,
June 25, 1798: Alien and Sedition Acts: ("An Act concerning Aliens"), Sess. 2, ch. 58,
July 6, 1798: Alien and Sedition Acts: ("An Act respecting Alien Enemies"), Sess. 2, ch. 66,
July 9, 1798: Act Further to Protect the Commerce of the United States, Sess. 2, ch. 68,
July 11, 1798: The United States Marine Corps was established, Sess. 2, ch. 72,
July 14, 1798: Alien and Sedition Acts: ("An Act for the punishment of certain crimes against the United States") (Sedition Act), Sess. 2, ch. 74,
July 16, 1798: Marine Hospital Service Act ("An Act for the relief of sick and disabled Seamen"), Sess. 2, ch. 77,
Territories organized
April 7, 1798 - Mississippi Territory was organized, Sess. 2, ch. 28, . It was formerly a portion of Georgia and South Carolina
Treaties ratified
June 7, 1797: Treaty of Tripoli between the United States and Tripoli.
July 7, 1797: Existing treaties with France were rescinded, Sess. 2, ch. 67,
Party summary
Details on changes are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section.
Senate
House of Representatives
Leadership
Senate
President: Thomas Jefferson (DR)
President pro tempore: William Bradford (F), elected July 6, 1797
Jacob Read (F), elected November 22, 1797
Theodore Sedgwick (F), elected June 27, 1798
John Laurance (F), elected December 6, 1798
James Ross (F), elected March 1, 1799
House of Representatives
Speaker: Jonathan Dayton (F)
Members
This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed in order of seniority, and representatives are listed by district.
Senate
Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began in this Congress, requiring reelection in 1802; Class 2 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring reelection in 1798; and Class 3 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring reelection in 1800.
Skip to House of Representatives, below
Connecticut
1. James Hillhouse (F)
3. Uriah Tracy (F)
Delaware
1. Henry Latimer (F)
2. John Vining (F), until January 19, 1798
Joshua Clayton (F), from January 19, 1798, until August 11, 1798
William H. Wells (F), from January 17, 1799
Georgia
2. Josiah Tattnall (DR)
3. James Gunn (F)
Kentucky
2. John Brown (DR)
3. Humphrey Marshall (F)
Maryland
1. John Eager Howard (F)
3. John Henry (F), until December 10, 1797
James Lloyd (F), from December 11, 1797
Massachusetts
1. Benjamin Goodhue (F)
2. Theodore Sedgwick (F)
New Hampshire
2. Samuel Livermore (F)
3. John Langdon (DR)
New Jersey
1. John Rutherfurd (F), until November 26, 1798
Franklin Davenport (F), from December 5, 1798
2. Richard Stockton (F)
New York
1. Philip Schuyler (F), until January 3, 1798
John Sloss Hobart (F), from January 11, 1798, until April 16, 1798
William North (F), from May 5, 1798, until August 17, 1798
James Watson (F), from August 17, 1798
3. John Laurance (F)
North Carolina
2. Alexander Martin (DR)
3. Timothy Bloodworth (DR)
Pennsylvania
1. James Ross (F)
3. William Bingham (F)
Rhode Island
1. Theodore Foster (F)
2. William Bradford (F), until October ????, 1797
Ray Greene (F), from November 13, 1797
South Carolina
2. John Hunter (DR) until November 26, 1798
Charles Pinckney (DR), from December 6, 1798
3. Jacob Read (F)
Tennessee
1. William Cocke (DR), May 15, 1797 - September 26, 1797
Andrew Jackson (DR), September 26, 1797 - April ????, 1798
Daniel Smith (DR), from October 6, 1798
2. William Blount (DR), until July 8, 1797
Joseph Anderson (DR), from September 26, 1797
Vermont
1. Isaac Tichenor (F), until October 17, 1797
Nathaniel Chipman (F), from October 17, 1797
3. Elijah Paine (F)
Virginia
1. Stevens T. Mason (DR)
2. Henry Tazewell (DR), until January 24, 1799
House of Representatives
Connecticut
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. John Allen (F)
. Joshua Coit (F), until September 5, 1798
Jonathan Brace (F), from December 3, 1798
. Samuel W. Dana (F)
. James Davenport (F), until August 3, 1797
William Edmond (F), from November 13, 1797
. Chauncey Goodrich (F)
. Roger Griswold (F)
. Nathaniel Smith (F)
Delaware
. James A. Bayard (F)
Georgia
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Abraham Baldwin (DR)
. John Milledge (DR)
Kentucky
. Thomas T. Davis (DR)
. John Fowler (DR)
Maryland
. George Dent (F)
. Richard Sprigg Jr. (DR)
. William Craik (F)
. George Baer Jr. (F)
. Samuel Smith (DR)
. William Matthews (F)
. William Hindman (F)
. John Dennis (F)
Massachusetts
. Thomson J. Skinner (DR)
. William Shepard (F)
. Samuel Lyman (F)
. Dwight Foster (F)
. Nathaniel Freeman Jr. (DR)
. John Reed Sr. (F)
. Stephen Bullock (F)
. Harrison Gray Otis (F)
. Joseph Bradley Varnum (DR)
. Samuel Sewall (F)
. Theophilus Bradbury (F), until July 24, 1797
Bailey Bartlett (F), from November 27, 1797
. Isaac Parker (F)
. Peleg Wadsworth (F)
. George Thatcher (F)
New Hampshire
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Abiel Foster (F)
. Jonathan Freeman (F)
. William Gordon (F)
. Jeremiah Smith (F), until July 26, 1797
Peleg Sprague (F), from December 15, 1797
New Jersey
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Jonathan Dayton (F)
. James H. Imlay (F)
. James Schureman (F)
. Thomas Sinnickson (F)
. Mark Thomson (F)
New York
. Jonathan N. Havens (DR)
. Edward Livingston (DR)
. Philip Van Cortlandt (DR)
. Lucas C. Elmendorf (DR)
. David Brooks (F)
. Hezekiah L. Hosmer (F)
. John E. Van Alen (F)
. Henry Glen (F)
. John Williams (F)
. James Cochran (F)
North Carolina
. Joseph McDowell (DR)
. Matthew Locke (DR)
. Robert Williams (DR)
. Richard Stanford (DR)
. Nathaniel Macon (DR)
. James Gillespie (DR)
. William Barry Grove (F)
. Dempsey Burges (DR)
. Thomas Blount (DR)
. Nathan Bryan (DR), until June 4, 1798
Richard Dobbs Spaight (DR), from December 10, 1798
Pennsylvania
The 4th district was a plural district with two representatives.
. John Swanwick (DR), until July 31, 1798
Robert Waln (F), from December 3, 1798
. Blair McClenachan (DR)
. Richard Thomas (F)
. John Chapman (F)
. Samuel Sitgreaves (F), until 1798
Robert Brown (DR), from December 4, 1798
. George Ege (F), until October 1797
Joseph Hiester (DR), from December 1, 1797
. John A. Hanna (DR)
. John Wilkes Kittera (F)
. Thomas Hartley (F)
. Andrew Gregg (DR)
. David Bard (DR)
. William Findley (DR)
. Albert Gallatin (DR)
Rhode Island
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Christopher G. Champlin (F)
. Elisha R. Potter (F), until 1797
Thomas Tillinghast (F), from November 13, 1797
South Carolina
. William L. Smith (F), until July 10, 1797
Thomas Pinckney (F), from November 23, 1797
. John Rutledge Jr. (F)
. Lemuel Benton (DR)
. Thomas Sumter (DR)
. Robert Goodloe Harper (F)
. William Smith (DR)
Tennessee
. Andrew Jackson (DR), until September, 1797
William C. C. Claiborne (DR), from November 23, 1797
Vermont
. Matthew Lyon (DR)
. Lewis R. Morris (F), from May 24, 1797
Virginia
. Daniel Morgan (F)
. David Holmes (DR)
. James Machir (F)
. Abram Trigg (DR)
. John J. Trigg (DR)
. Matthew Clay (DR)
. Abraham B. Venable (DR)
. Thomas Claiborne (DR)
. William B. Giles (DR), until October 2, 1798
Joseph Eggleston (DR), from December 3, 1798
. Carter B. Harrison (DR)
. Josiah Parker (F)
. Thomas Evans (F)
. John Clopton (DR)
. Samuel J. Cabell (DR)
. John Dawson (DR)
. Anthony New (DR)
. Richard Brent (DR)
. John Nicholas (DR)
. Walter Jones (DR)
Changes in membership
The count below reflects changes from the beginning of this Congress
Senate
There were 9 resignations, 2 deaths, 1 expulsion, 1 late selection, and 2 elections to replace appointees. Neither party had a net gain of seats.
|-
| Tennessee(1)
| Vacant
| Tennessee failed to elect a Senator on time
| | William Cocke (DR)
| Appointed May 15, 1797
|-
| Tennessee(2)
| | William Blount (DR)
| Expelled July 8, 1797
| | Joseph Anderson (DR)
| Elected September 26, 1797
|-
| Tennessee(1)
| | William Cocke (DR)
| Interim appointment until September 26, 1797
| | Andrew Jackson (DR)
| Elected September 26, 1797
|-
| Rhode Island(2)
| | William Bradford (F)
| Resigned sometime in October, 1797
| | Ray Greene (F)
| Elected November 13, 1797
|-
| Vermont(1)
| | Isaac Tichenor (F)
| Resigned October 17, 1797
| | Nathaniel Chipman (F)
| Elected October 17, 1797
|-
| Maryland(3)
| | John Henry (F)
| Resigned December 10, 1797
| | James Lloyd (F)
| Elected December 11, 1797
|-
| New York(1)
| | Philip John Schuyler (F)
| Resigned January 3, 1798
| | John Sloss Hobart (F)
| Elected January 11, 1798
|-
| Delaware(2)
| | John Vining (F)
| Resigned January 19, 1798
| | Joshua Clayton (F)
| Elected January 19, 1798
|-
| Tennessee(1)
| | Andrew Jackson (DR)
| Resigned sometime in April, 1798
| | Daniel Smith (DR)
| Appointed October 6, 1798
|-
| New York(1)
| | John Sloss Hobart (F)
| Resigned April 16, 1798
| | William North (F)
| Appointed May 5, 1798
|-
| Delaware(2)
| | Joshua Clayton (F)
| Died August 11, 1798
| | William H. Wells (F)
| Elected January 17, 1799
|-
| New York(1)
| | William North (F)
| Interim appointment until August 17, 1798
| | James Watson (F)
| Elected August 17, 1798
|-
| New Jersey(1)
| | John Rutherfurd (F)
| Resigned November 26, 1798
| | Franklin Davenport (F)
| Appointed December 5, 1798
|-
| South Carolina(2)
| | John Hunter (DR)
| Resigned November 26, 1798
| | Charles Pinckney (DR)
| Elected December 6, 1798
|-
| Virginia(2)
| | Henry Tazewell (DR)
| Died January 24, 1799
| Vacant
| Not filled in this Congress
|}
House of Representatives
There were 9 resignations and 3 deaths. The Federalists had a 1-seat net loss and the Democratic-Republicans had a 1-seat net gain.
|-
|
| | Vacant
| Daniel Buck (F) had been re-elected, but declined to serve.Successor elected May 23, 1797.
| | Lewis R. Morris (F)
| May 24, 1797
|-
|
| | Elisha Potter (F)
| Resigned sometime in 1797.Successor elected August 29, 1797.
| | Thomas Tillinghast (F)
| Seated November 13, 1797
|-
|
| | William L. Smith (F)
| Resigned July 10, 1797.Successor elected September 4–5, 1797.
| | Thomas Pinckney (F)
| Seated November 23, 1797
|-
|
| | Theophilus Bradbury (F)
| Resigned July 24, 1797.Successor elected August 4, 1797.
| | Bailey Bartlett (F)
| Seated November 27, 1797
|-
|
| | Jeremiah Smith (F)
| Resigned July 26, 1797.Successor elected August 28, 1797.
| | Peleg Sprague (F)
| Seated December 15, 1797
|-
|
| | James Davenport (F)
| Died August 3, 1797.Successor elected September 18, 1797.
| | William Edmond (F)
| Seated November 13, 1797
|-
|
| | Andrew Jackson (DR)
| Resigned sometime in September 1797 to become U.S. Senator.Successor elected September 26, 1797.
| | William C.C. Claiborne (DR)
| Seated November 23, 1797
|-
|
| | George Ege (F)
| Resigned sometime in October 1797.Successor elected October 10, 1797.
| | Joseph Hiester (DR)
| Seated December 1, 1797
|-
|
| | Samuel Sitgreaves (F)
| Resigned sometime in 1798.Successor elected October 9, 1798.
| | Robert Brown (DR)
| Seated December 4, 1798
|-
|
| | Nathan Bryan (DR)
| Died June 4, 1798.Successor elected August 2, 1798.
| | Richard Dobbs Spaight (DR)
| Seated December 10, 1798
|-
|
| | John Swanwick (DR)
| Died July 31, 1798.Successor elected October 9, 1798.
| | Robert Waln (F)
| Seated December 3, 1798
|-
|
| | Joshua Coit (F)
| Died September 5, 1798.Successor elected October 22, 1798.
| | Jonathan Brace (F)
| Seated December 3, 1798
|-
|
| | William Giles (DR)
| Resigned October 2, 1798.Successor elected November 1, 1798.
| | Joseph Eggleston (DR)
| Seated December 3, 1798
|}
Committees
Lists of committees and their party leaders.
Senate
Whole
House of Representatives
Claims (Chairman: Dwight Foster)
Commerce and Manufactures (Chairman: Edward Livingston then Samuel Smith)
Elections (Chairman: Joshua Coit then Joseph B. Varnum)
Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: Jeremiah Smith then Nathaniel Macon then George Thatcher)
Rules (Select)
Standards of Official Conduct
Ways and Means (Chairman: William L. Smith then Robert Goodloe Harper)
Whole
Joint committees
Enrolled Bills (Chairman: Isaac Tichenor)
Employees
Architect of the Capitol: William Thornton
Senate
Secretary: Samuel A. Otis
Doorkeeper: James Mathers
Chaplain: William White, Episcopalian
House of Representatives
Clerk: John J. Beckley, until May 15, 1797
Jonathan W. Condy, elected May 15, 1797
Sergeant at Arms: Joseph Wheaton
Doorkeeper: Thomas Claxton
Reading Clerks:
Chaplain: Ashbel Green, Presbyterian
See also
1796 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
1796 United States presidential election
1796 and 1797 United States Senate elections
1796 and 1797 United States House of Representatives elections
1798 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
1798 and 1799 United States Senate elections
1798 and 1799 United States House of Representatives elections
Notes
References
External links
Statutes at Large, 1789-1875
Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress
U.S. House of Representatives: House History
U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists | [
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224840 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th%20United%20States%20Congress | 6th United States Congress | The 6th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. It met at Congress Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1799, to March 4, 1801, during the last two years of John Adams's presidency. It was the last Congress of the 18th century and the first to convene in the 19th. The apportionment of seats in House of Representatives was based on the First Census of the United States in 1790. Both chambers had a Federalist majority. This was the last Congress in which the Federalist Party controlled the presidency or either chamber of Congress.
Major events
December 14, 1799: Former President George Washington died
February 24, 1800: Library of Congress founded
November 17, 1800: Congress held its first session in Washington, D.C.
January 20, 1801: John Marshall was appointed Chief Justice of the United States
February 17, 1801: 1800 United States presidential election: Thomas Jefferson became the first President of the United States elected by the House of Representatives as no candidate received a majority of the electoral votes cast in the 1800 presidential election. The House was required to choose between Jefferson and Aaron Burr, with each of the 16 states having a single vote. Jefferson was elected on the 36th ballot by 10 to 4 (with 2 abstentions).
{| class="wikitable"
! | States for Jefferson
! | States for Burr
!
|-style="vertical-align:top;"
|
Georgia
Kentucky
Maryland
New Jersey
New York
North Carolina
Pennsylvania
Tennessee
Vermont
Virginia
|
Connecticut
Massachusetts
New Hampshire
Rhode Island
|
Delaware
South Carolina
|-
| |Total: 10 (63%)
| |Total: 4 (25%)
|bgcolor="#DFDFFF" | Total: 2 (12%)
|}
Major legislation
February 13, 1801: Judiciary Act of 1801, Sess. 2, ch. 4,
February 27, 1801: District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801, Sess.2, ch. 15,
Territories organized
July 4, 1800: Indiana Territory created from a portion of the Northwest Territory.
Party summary
The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this Congress, and includes members from vacancies and newly admitted states, when they were first seated. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section.
Senate
House of Representatives
Leadership
Senate
President: Thomas Jefferson (DR)
President pro tempore: Samuel Livermore (F), elected December 2, 1799
Uriah Tracy (F), elected May 14, 1800
John E. Howard, (F), elected November 21, 1800
James Hillhouse, (F), elected February 28, 1801
House of Representatives
Speaker: Theodore Sedgwick (F)
Members
This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class, and representatives are listed by district.
Skip to House of Representatives, below
Senate
Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring re-election in 1802; Class 2 meant their term began in this Congress, requiring re-election in 1804; and Class 3 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring re-election in 1800.
Connecticut
1. James Hillhouse (F)
3. Uriah Tracy (F)
Delaware
1. Henry Latimer (F), until February 28, 1801
Samuel White (F), from February 28, 1801
2. William H. Wells (F)
Georgia
2. Abraham Baldwin (DR)
3. James Gunn (F)
Kentucky
2. John Brown (DR)
3. Humphrey Marshall (F)
Maryland
1. John Eager Howard (F)
3. James Lloyd (F), until December 1, 1800
William Hindman (F), from December 12, 1800
Massachusetts
1. Benjamin Goodhue (F), until November 8, 1800
Jonathan Mason (F), from November 14, 1800
2. Samuel Dexter (F), until May 30, 1800
Dwight Foster (F), from June 6, 1800
New Hampshire
2. Samuel Livermore (F)
3. John Langdon (DR)
New Jersey
1. James Schureman (F), until February 16, 1801
Aaron Ogden (F), from February 28, 1801
2. Jonathan Dayton (F)
New York
1. James Watson (F), until March 19, 1800
Gouverneur Morris (F), from April 3, 1800
3. John Laurance (F), until August 1800
John Armstrong (DR), from November 6, 1800
North Carolina
2. Jesse Franklin (DR)
3. Timothy Bloodworth (DR)
Pennsylvania
1. James Ross (F)
3. William Bingham (F)
Rhode Island
1. Theodore Foster (F)
2. Ray Greene (F)
South Carolina
2. Charles Pinckney (DR)
3. Jacob Read (F)
Tennessee
1. Joseph Anderson (DR)
2. William Cocke (DR)
Vermont
1. Nathaniel Chipman (F)
3. Elijah Paine (F)
Virginia
1. Stevens Mason (DR)
2. Wilson Nicholas (DR), from December 5, 1799
House of Representatives
The names of members of the House of Representatives elected statewide on the general ticket or otherwise at-large, are preceded by an "At-large," and the names of those elected from districts, whether plural or single member, are preceded by their district numbers.
Connecticut
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Jonathan Brace (F), until May 1800
John Cotton Smith (F), from November 17, 1800
. Samuel W. Dana (F)
. John Davenport (F)
. William Edmond (F)
. Chauncey Goodrich (F)
. Elizur Goodrich (F)
. Roger Griswold (F)
Delaware
. James A. Bayard (F)
Georgia
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. James Jones (F), until January 11, 1801, vacant thereafter
. Benjamin Taliaferro (F)
Kentucky
. Thomas T. Davis (DR)
. John Fowler (DR)
Maryland
. George Dent (F)
. John C. Thomas (F)
. William Craik (F)
. George Baer Jr. (F)
. Samuel Smith (DR)
. Gabriel Christie (DR)
. Joseph H. Nicholson (DR)
. John Dennis (F)
Massachusetts
. Theodore Sedgwick (F)
. William Shepard (F)
. Samuel Lyman (F), until November 6, 1800
Ebenezer Mattoon (F), from February 2, 1801
. Dwight Foster (F), until June 6, 1800
Levi Lincoln Sr. (DR), from December 15, 1800
. Lemuel Williams (F)
. John Reed Sr. (F)
. Phanuel Bishop (DR)
. Harrison Gray Otis (F)
. Joseph Bradley Varnum (DR)
. Samuel Sewall (F), until January 10, 1800
Nathan Read (F), from November 25, 1800
. Bailey Bartlett (F)
. Silas Lee (F)
. Peleg Wadsworth (F)
. George Thatcher (F)
New Hampshire
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Abiel Foster (F)
. Jonathan Freeman (F)
. William Gordon (F), until June 12, 1800
Samuel Tenney (F), from December 8, 1800
. James Sheafe (F)
New Jersey
. John Condit (DR)
. Aaron Kitchell (DR)
. James Linn (DR)
. James H. Imlay (F)
. Franklin Davenport (F)
New York
. Jonathan N. Havens (DR), until October 25, 1799
John Smith (DR), from February 27, 1800
. Edward Livingston (DR)
. Philip Van Cortlandt (DR)
. Lucas C. Elmendorf (DR)
. Theodorus Bailey (DR)
. John Bird (F)
. John Thompson (DR)
. Henry Glen (F)
. Jonas Platt (F)
. William Cooper (F)
North Carolina
. Joseph Dickson (F)
. Archibald Henderson (F)
. Robert Williams (DR)
. Richard Stanford (DR)
. Nathaniel Macon (DR)
. William H. Hill (F)
. William Barry Grove (F)
. David Stone (DR)
. Willis Alston (F)
. Richard Dobbs Spaight (DR)
Pennsylvania
The 4th district was a plural district with two representatives.
. Robert Waln (F)
. Michael Leib (DR)
. Richard Thomas (F)
. Robert Brown (DR)
. John Peter G. Muhlenberg (DR)
. Joseph Hiester (DR)
. John A. Hanna (DR)
. John Wilkes Kittera (F)
. Thomas Hartley (F), until December 21, 1800
John Stewart (DR), from January 15, 1801
. Andrew Gregg (DR)
. Henry Woods (F)
. John Smilie (DR)
. Albert Gallatin (DR)
Rhode Island
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. John Brown (F)
. Christopher G. Champlin (F)
South Carolina
. Thomas Pinckney (F)
. John Rutledge Jr. (F)
. Benjamin Huger (F)
. Thomas Sumter (DR)
. Robert Goodloe Harper (F)
. Abraham Nott (F)
Tennessee
. William C. C. Claiborne (DR)
Vermont
. Matthew Lyon (DR)
. Lewis R. Morris (F)
Virginia
. Robert Page (F)
. David Holmes (DR)
. George Jackson (DR)
. Abram Trigg (DR)
. John J. Trigg (DR)
. Matthew Clay (DR)
. John Randolph (DR)
. Samuel Goode (DR)
. Joseph Eggleston (DR)
. Edwin Gray (DR)
. Josiah Parker (F)
. Thomas Evans (F)
. John Marshall (F), until June 7, 1800
Littleton W. Tazewell (DR), from November 26, 1800
. Samuel J. Cabell (DR)
. John Dawson (DR)
. Anthony New (DR)
. Levin Powell (F)
. John Nicholas (DR)
. Henry Lee (F)
Non-voting members
. William Henry Harrison, until May 14, 1800
William McMillan, from November 24, 1800
Changes in membership
The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress
Senate
There were 7 resignations and 1 vacancy at the beginning of Congress. The Federalists had a 1-seat net loss and the Democratic-Republicans had a 2-seat net gain.
|-
| Virginia(2)
| Vacant
| Henry Tazewell (DR) died before the beginning of this Congress
| | Wilson C. Nicholas (DR)
| Elected December 5, 1799
|-
| New York(1)
| | James Watson (F)
| Resigned March 19, 1800
| | Gouverneur Morris (F)
| Elected April 3, 1800
|-
| Massachusetts(2)
| | Samuel Dexter (F)
| Resigned May 30, 1800
| | Dwight Foster (F)
| Elected June 6, 1800
|-
| New York(3)
| | John Laurance (F)
| Resigned sometime in August, 1800
| | John Armstrong (DR)
| Elected November 6, 1800
|-
| Massachusetts(1)
| | Benjamin Goodhue (F)
| Resigned November 8, 1800
| | Jonathan Mason (F)
| Elected November 14, 1800
|-
| Maryland(3)
| | James Lloyd (F)
| Resigned December 1, 1800
| | William Hindman (F)
| Elected December 12, 1800
|-
| New Jersey(1)
| | James Schureman (F)
| Resigned February 16, 1801
| | Aaron Ogden (F)
| Elected February 28, 1801
|-
| Delaware(1)
| | Henry Latimer (F)
| Resigned February 28, 1801
| | Samuel White (F)
| Appointed February 28, 1801
|}
House of Representatives
There were 6 resignations and 3 deaths. The Federalists had a 4-seat net loss and the Democratic-Republicans had a 3-seat net gain.
|-
|
| | Jonathan Havens (DR)
| Died October 25, 1799
| | John Smith (DR)
| February 27, 1800
|-
|
| William Henry Harrison
| Resigned May 14, 1800, to become Territorial Governor of Indiana
| William McMillan
| November 24, 1800
|-
|
| | Jonathan Brace (F)
| Resigned sometime in 1800
| | John Cotton Smith (F)
| November 17, 1800
|-
|
| | Samuel Sewall (F)
| Resigned January 10, 1800, to become a justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court
| | Nathan Read (F)
| November 25, 1800
|-
|
| | Dwight Foster (F)
| Resigned June 6, 1800, having been elected U.S. Senator
| | Levi Lincoln (DR)
| December 15, 1800
|-
|
| | John Marshall (F)
| Resigned June 7, 1800, to become Secretary of State
| | Littleton W. Tazewell (DR)
| November 26, 1800
|-
|
| | William Gordon (F)
| Resigned June 12, 1800, to become New Hampshire Attorney General
| | Samuel Tenney (F)
| December 8, 1800
|-
|
| | Samuel Lyman (F)
| Resigned November 6, 1800
| | Ebenezer Mattoon (F)
| February 2, 1801
|-
|
| | Thomas Hartley (F)
| Died December 21, 1800
| | John Stewart (DR)
| February 3, 1801
|-
|
| | James Jones (F)
| Died January 11, 1801
| colspan=2 | Vacant until next Congress
|}
Committees
Lists of committees and their party leaders.
Senate
Whole
House of Representatives
Claims (Chairman: Dwight Foster then Nathaniel Macon)
Commerce and Manufactures (Chairman: Samuel Smith)
Elections (Chairman: Samuel W. Dana then George Dent)
Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: Roger Griswold then Jonas Platt)
Rules (Select)
Standards of Official Conduct
Ways and Means (Chairman: Robert Goodloe Harper then Roger Griswold)
Whole
Joint committees
Enrolled Bills (Chairman: Dwight Foster)
Administrative officers
Architect of the Capitol: William Thornton
Senate
Chaplain: William White, Episcopalian, until November 27, 1800
Thomas J. Claggett, Episcopalian, elected November 27, 1800
Doorkeeper: James Mathers
Secretary: Samuel Otis
House of Representatives
Chaplain: Ashbel Green, Presbyterian, until November 27, 1800
Thomas Lyell, Methodist, elected November 27, 1800
Clerk: Jonathan W. Condy, resigned December 4, 1800
John H. Oswald, elected December 9, 1800
Doorkeeper: Thomas Claxton
Reading Clerks:
Sergeant at Arms: Joseph Wheaton
See also
1798 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
1798 and 1799 United States Senate elections
1798 and 1799 United States House of Representatives elections
1800 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
1800 United States presidential election
1800 and 1801 United States Senate elections
1800 and 1801 United States House of Representatives elections
References
Notes
External links
Statutes at Large, 1789-1875
Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress
U.S. House of Representatives: House History
U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists | [
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224841 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7th%20United%20States%20Congress | 7th United States Congress | The 7th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1801, to March 4, 1803, during the first two years of Thomas Jefferson's presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the First Census of the United States in 1790. Both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority, except during the Special session of the Senate, when there was a Federalist majority in the Senate.
Major events
March 4, 1801: Thomas Jefferson became President of the United States.
May 10, 1801: The pascha of Tripoli declared war on United States by having the flagpole on the consulate chopped down
March 16, 1802: West Point established
February 24, 1803: First time an Act of Congress was declared unconstitutional: U.S. Supreme Court case, Marbury v. Madison
Major legislation
April 29, 1802: Judiciary Act of 1802, ch. 31,
April 30, 1802: Enabling Act of 1802, ch. 40,
States admitted
Ohio was admitted as a state, having previously been a portion of the Northwest Territory. The exact date is unclear and in dispute, but it is undisputed that it was during this Congress. The official date when Ohio became a state was not set until 1953, when the 83rd U.S. Congress passed legislation retrospectively designating the date of the first meeting of the Ohio state legislature, March 1, 1803, as that date. However, on April 30, 1802, the 7th U.S. Congress had passed an act "authorizing the inhabitants of Ohio to form a Constitution and state government, and admission of Ohio into the Union." (Sess. 1, ch. 40, ) On February 19, 1803, the same Congress passed an act "providing for the execution of the laws of the United States in the State of Ohio." (Sess. 2, ch. 7, ) The Biographical Directory of the United States Congress states that Ohio was admitted to the Union on November 29, 1802, and counts its seats as vacant from that date.
Party summary
The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this Congress, and includes members from vacancies and newly admitted states, when they were first seated. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section.
Senate
Although the Federalists had more senators during the very brief March 1801 special session, by the time the first regular session met in December 1801, the Democratic-Republicans had gained majority control.
House of Representatives
Leadership
Senate
President: Aaron Burr (DR)
President pro tempore: Abraham Baldwin (DR), first elected December 7, 1801
Stephen R. Bradley (DR), first elected December 14, 1802
House of Representatives
Speaker: Nathaniel Macon, (DR), elected December 7, 1801
Members
This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class, and representatives are listed by district.
Senate
Skip to House of Representatives, below
Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term ended with this Congress, facing re-election in 1802; Class 2 meant their term began in the last Congress, facing re-election in 1804; and Class 3 meant their term began in this Congress, facing re-election in 1806.
Connecticut
1. James Hillhouse (F)
3. Uriah Tracy (F)
Delaware
1. Samuel White (F)
2. William H. Wells (F)
Georgia
2. Abraham Baldwin (DR)
3. James Jackson (DR)
Kentucky
2. John Brown (DR)
3. John Breckinridge (DR)
Maryland
1. John Eager Howard (F)
3. William Hindman (F), until November 19, 1801
Robert Wright (DR), from November 19, 1801
Massachusetts
1. Jonathan Mason (F)
2. Dwight Foster (F), until March 2, 1803
New Hampshire
2. Samuel Livermore (F), until June 12, 1801
Simeon Olcott (F), from June 17, 1801
3. James Sheafe (F), until June 14, 1802
William Plumer (F), from June 17, 1802
New Jersey
1. Aaron Ogden (F)
2. Jonathan Dayton (F)
New York
1. Gouverneur Morris (F)
3. John Armstrong Jr. (DR), until February 5, 1802
DeWitt Clinton (DR), from February 9, 1802
North Carolina
2. Jesse Franklin (DR)
3. David Stone (DR)
Ohio
Due to uncertainty over Ohio's exact admittance date (see "States admitted, above") its two senators were not elected until the next Congress.
1: Vacant (newly admitted state)
3: Vacant (newly admitted state)
Pennsylvania
1. James Ross (F)
3. Peter Muhlenberg (DR), until June 30, 1801
George Logan (DR), from July 13, 1801
Rhode Island
1. Theodore Foster (F)
2. Ray Greene (F), until March 5, 1801
Christopher Ellery (DR), from May 6, 1801
South Carolina
2. Charles Pinckney (DR), until June 6, 1801
Thomas Sumter (DR), from December 15, 1801
3. John E. Colhoun (DR), until October 26, 1802
Pierce Butler (DR), from November 4, 1802
Tennessee
1. Joseph Anderson (DR)
2. William Cocke (DR)
Vermont
1. Nathaniel Chipman (F)
3. Elijah Paine (F), until September 1, 1801
Stephen R. Bradley (DR), from October 15, 1801
Virginia
1. Stevens T. Mason (DR)
2. Wilson C. Nicholas (DR)
House of Representatives
The names of members of the House of Representatives elected statewide on the general ticket or otherwise at-large, are preceded by an "At-large," and the names of those elected from districts, whether plural or single member, are preceded by their district numbers.
Connecticut
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Samuel W. Dana (F)
. John Davenport (F)
. Calvin Goddard (F), from May 14, 1801
. Roger Griswold (F)
. Elias Perkins (F)
. John Cotton Smith (F)
. Benjamin Tallmadge (F), from September 21, 1801
Delaware
. James A. Bayard (F)
Georgia
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. John Milledge (DR), until May 1802
Peter Early (DR), from January 10, 1803
. Benjamin Taliaferro (DR), until May 1802
David Meriwether (DR), from December 6, 1802
Kentucky
. Thomas T. Davis (DR)
. John Fowler (DR)
Maryland
. John Campbell (F)
. Richard Sprigg Jr. (DR), until February 11, 1802
Walter Bowie (DR), from March 24, 1802
. Thomas Plater (F)
. Daniel Hiester (DR)
. Samuel Smith (DR)
. John Archer (DR)
. Joseph H. Nicholson (DR)
. John Dennis (F)
Massachusetts
. John Bacon (DR)
. William Shepard (F)
. Ebenezer Mattoon (F)
. Levi Lincoln Sr. (DR), until March 5, 1801
Seth Hastings (F), from January 11, 1802
. Lemuel Williams (F)
. Josiah Smith (DR)
. Phanuel Bishop (DR)
. William Eustis (DR)
. Joseph Bradley Varnum (DR)
. Nathan Read (F)
. Manasseh Cutler (F)
. Silas Lee (F), until August 20, 1801
Samuel Thatcher (F), from December 6, 1802
. Peleg Wadsworth (F)
. Richard Cutts (DR), from December 7, 1801
New Hampshire
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Abiel Foster (F)
. Joseph Peirce (F), until June 1802
Samuel Hunt (F), from December 6, 1802
. Samuel Tenney (F)
. George B. Upham (F)
New Jersey
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. John Condit (DR)
. Ebenezer Elmer (DR)
. William Helms (DR)
. James Mott (DR)
. Henry Southard (DR)
New York
. John Smith (DR)
. Samuel L. Mitchill (DR)
. Philip Van Cortlandt (DR)
. Lucas C. Elmendorf (DR)
. Thomas Tillotson (DR), until August 10, 1801
Theodorus Bailey (DR), from December 7, 1801
. John Bird (F), until July 25, 1801
John P. Van Ness (DR), December 7, 1801 – January 17, 1803; vacant thereafter
. David Thomas (DR)
. Killian K. Van Rensselaer (F)
. Benjamin Walker (F)
. Thomas Morris (F)
North Carolina
. James Holland (DR)
. Archibald Henderson (F)
. Robert Williams (DR)
. Richard Stanford (DR)
. Nathaniel Macon (DR)
. William H. Hill (F)
. William Barry Grove (F)
. Charles Johnson (DR), until July 23, 1802
Thomas Wynns (DR), from December 7, 1802
. Willis Alston (F)
. John Stanly (F)
Ohio
. vacant (newly admitted state)
Pennsylvania
. William Jones (DR)
. Michael Leib (DR)
. Joseph Hemphill (F)
: Robert Brown (DR)
: Isaac Van Horne (DR)
. Joseph Hiester (DR)
. John A. Hanna (DR)
. Thomas Boude (F)
. John Stewart (DR)
. Andrew Gregg (DR)
. Henry Woods (F)
. John Smilie (DR)
. William Hoge (DR)
Rhode Island
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Joseph Stanton Jr. (DR)
. Thomas Tillinghast (DR)
South Carolina
. Thomas Lowndes (F)
. John Rutledge Jr. (F)
. Benjamin Huger (F)
. Thomas Sumter (DR), until December 15, 1801
Richard Winn (DR), from January 24, 1802
. William Butler Sr. (DR)
. Thomas Moore (DR)
Tennessee
. William Dickson (DR)
Vermont
. Israel Smith (DR)
. Lewis R. Morris (F)
Virginia
. John Smith (DR)
. David Holmes (DR)
. George Jackson (DR)
. Abram Trigg (DR)
. John J. Trigg (DR)
. Matthew Clay (DR)
. John Randolph (DR)
. Thomas Claiborne (DR)
. William B. Giles (DR)
. Edwin Gray (DR)
. Thomas Newton Jr. (DR)
. John Stratton (F)
. John Clopton (DR)
. Samuel J. Cabell (DR)
. John Dawson (DR)
. Anthony New (DR)
. Richard Brent (DR)
. Philip R. Thompson (DR)
. John Taliaferro (DR)
Non-voting members
. Narsworthy Hunter, until March 11, 1802
Thomas M. Green Jr. (DR), from December 6, 1802
. Paul Fearing (F)
Changes in membership
The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress.
Senate
There was 1 death, 8 resignations, and 2 seats added for a new state.
|-
| Rhode Island(2)
| | Ray Greene (F)
| Resigned March 5, 1801, after being nominated for a judicial position. His successor was elected.
| | Christopher Ellery (DR)
| Seated May 6, 1801
|-
| South Carolina(2)
| | Charles Pinckney (DR)
| Resigned June 6, 1801, after being appointed Minister to Spain. His successor was elected.
| | Thomas Sumter (DR)
| Seated December 15, 1801
|-
| New Hampshire(2)
| | Samuel Livermore (F)
| Resigned June 12, 1801. His successor was elected.
| | Simeon Olcott (F)
| Seated June 17, 1801
|-
| Pennsylvania(3)
| | Peter Muhlenberg (DR)
| Resigned June 30, 1801. His successor was appointed July 13, 1801, and then elected December 17, 1801.
| | George Logan (DR)
| Seated July 13, 1801
|-
| Vermont(3)
| | Elijah Paine (F)
| Resigned September 1, 1801. His successor was elected.
| | Stephen R. Bradley (DR)
| Seated October 15, 1801
|-
| Maryland(3)
| | William Hindman (F)
| Resigned November 19, 1801. His successor was elected.
| | Robert Wright (DR)
| Seated November 19, 1801
|-
| Massachusetts(3)
| | Dwight Foster (F)
| Resigned March 2, 1803. Not filled this Congress
| Vacant
|-
| New York(3)
| | John Armstrong Jr. (DR)
| Resigned February 5, 1802. His successor was elected.
| | DeWitt Clinton (DR)
| Seated February 9, 1802
|-
| New Hampshire(3)
| | James Sheafe (F)
| Resigned June 14, 1802. His successor was elected.
| | William Plumer (F)
| Seated June 17, 1802
|-
| South Carolina(3)
| | John E. Colhoun (DR)
| Died October 26, 1802. His successor was elected.
| | Pierce Butler (DR)
| Seated November 4, 1802
|-
| Ohio(1)
| rowspan=2 | New seats
| rowspan=2 style="font-size:80%" |Ohio was admitted to the Union on November 29, 1802.
| Vacant
| rowspan=2 | Not filled this Congress
|-
| Ohio(3)
| Vacant
|}
House of Representatives
Replacements: 8
Democratic-Republicans: no net change
Federalists: no net change
Deaths: 1
Resignations: 9
Forfeiture: 1
Vacancy: 1
Total seats with changes: 11
|-
|
| Vacant
| Elizur Goodrich (F) resigned before the beginning of this Congress.
| | Calvin Goddard (F)
| May 14, 1801
|-
|
| Vacant
| William Edmond (F) resigned before the beginning of this Congress.
| | Benjamin Tallmadge (F)
| September 21, 1801
|-
|
| Vacant
| Representative-elect George Thatcher declined to serve.Successor elected June 22, 1801.
| | Richard Cutts (DR)
| December 7, 1801
|-
|
| | Levi Lincoln (DR)
| Resigned March 5, 1801, after being appointed US attorney General.
| | Seth Hastings (F)
| January 11, 1802
|-
|
| | John Bird (F)
| Resigned July 25, 1801.
| | John Peter Van Ness (DR)
| December 7, 1801
|-
|
| | Thomas Tillotson (DR)
| Resigned August 10, 1801, upon appointment as NY Secretary of State.
| | Theodorus Bailey (DR)
| December 7, 1801
|-
|
| | Silas Lee (F)
| Resigned August 20, 1801.
| | Samuel Thatcher (F)
| December 6, 1802
|-
|
| | Thomas Sumter (DR)
| Resigned December 15, 1801, after being elected to the US Senate.
| | Richard Winn (DR)
| January 24, 1802
|-
|
| | Benjamin Taliaferro (DR)
| Resigned sometime in 1802.
| | David Meriwether (DR)
| December 6, 1802
|-
|
| | Joseph Peirce (F)
| Resigned sometime in 1802.
| | Samuel Hunt (F)
| December 6, 1802
|-
|
| | Richard Sprigg Jr. (DR)
| Resigned February 11, 1802.
| | Walter Bowie (DR)
| March 24, 1802
|-
|
| Narsworthy Hunter
| Died March 11, 1802.
| Thomas M. Green Jr.
| December 6, 1802
|-
|
| | John Milledge (DR)
| Resigned May 1802 after being elected Governor.
| | Peter Early (DR)
| January 10, 1803
|-
|
| | Charles Johnson (DR)
| Died July 23, 1802.
| | Thomas Wynns (DR)
| December 7, 1802
|-
|
| New seat
| Ohio was admitted to the Union on November 29, 1802.
| Vacant
| rowspan=2 | Not filled until next Congress
|-
|
| | John Peter Van Ness (DR)
| Seat declared forfeited January 17, 1803.
| Vacant
|}
Committees
Lists of committees and their party leaders.
Senate
Whole
House of Representatives
Claims (Chairman: N/A)
Commerce and Manufactures (Chairman: N/A)
Elections (Chairman: N/A)
Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: N/A)
Rules (Select)
Standards of Official Conduct (Chairman: N/A)
Ways and Means (Chairman: John Randolph)
Whole
Joint committees
Enrolled Bills (Chairman: Dwight Foster)
Officers
Legislative branch agency directors
Architect of the Capitol: William Thornton
Librarian of Congress: John J. Beckley, from 1802
Senate
Chaplain: Thomas J. Claggett (Episcopalian), until December 9, 1801
Edward Gantt (Episcopalian), elected December 9, 1801
Secretary: Samuel A. Otis
Doorkeeper: James Mathers
House of Representatives
Chaplain: Thomas Lyell (Methodist), until December 10, 1801
William Parkinson (Baptist), elected December 10, 1801
Clerk: John Holt Oswald, until December 7, 1801
John Beckley, elected December 7, 1801
Doorkeeper: Thomas Claxton
Reading Clerks:
Sergeant at Arms: Joseph Wheaton
See also
1800 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
1800 United States presidential election
1800 and 1801 United States Senate elections
1800 and 1801 United States House of Representatives elections
1802 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
1802 and 1803 United States Senate elections
1802 and 1803 United States House of Representatives elections
Notes
References
External links
Statutes at Large, 1789-1875
Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress
U.S. House of Representatives: House History
U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists | [
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224842 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law%20society | Law society | A law society is an association of lawyers with a regulatory role that includes the right to supervise the training, qualifications, and conduct of lawyers. Where there is a distinction between barristers and solicitors, solicitors are regulated by the law societies and barristers by a separate bar council.
History
Much has changed for law societies in recent years, with governments in Australia, New Zealand, England and Wales, and now Scotland (2010) creating government sponsored regulators for lawyers (both barristers and solicitors), leaving to law societies the role of advocacy on behalf of their members.
Canada
In Canada, each province and territory has a law society () with statutory responsibility for regulation of the legal profession in the public interest. These law societies are members of the Federation of Law Societies of Canada, which seeks to increase coordination between its members and encourage the standardization of members’ rules and procedures.
In Canada’s common law jurisdictions, lawyers are both barristers and solicitors. Consequently, there is one law society per province or territory to regulate and represent the interests of legal professionals.
In Quebec, Canada’s only civil law jurisdiction, the legal profession is split between legal advocates, governed by the Bar of Quebec, and civil law notaries, governed by the Chamber of Notaries of Quebec.
United Kingdom
The 1739/40 Society of Gentleman Practisers in the Courts of Law and Equity has been described as the first law society in the United Kingdom. However its relationship to the modern Law Society of England and Wales (founded 1825) is unclear.
United States
In the United States, unified bar associations are somewhat similar to law societies; however, there are differences between law societies and the general American phenomenon of bar associations. Usually a bar association is an association of lawyers; lawyers may or may not join as they wish. Regulation of American lawyers usually takes places through the courts, which decide who gets admitted as a lawyer, and also decide discipline cases. Law societies are often created by legislation and play (or played) significant direct roles in the training, licensing and disciplining of lawyers. The conflict or roles between being a regulator and a trade association is seen by many as giving rise to the recent move to government sponsored regulators.
Law societies also play a role as part of the justice system, and concern themselves with access to justice. As a result, they may offer paid and unpaid legal assistance to the public or specific target audiences, and have historically been involved in the development of legal aid plans.
List of law societies
Britain and Ireland
Law Society of England and Wales (c. 1825)
Law Society of Scotland (c. 1949)
Law Society of Ireland (c. 1852)
Law Society of Northern Ireland (c. 1922)
Isle of Man Law Society (c. 1859)
Ecclesiastical Law Society, Church of England (1987)
Society of Solicitor Advocates, Scotland (1994)
Cambridge University Law Society (c. 1901)
Australia
Law Societies in Australia represent the interests of solicitors and are organised in each State and mainland territory. Australia has a split profession, and barristers' interests are represented by separately-organised Bar Councils in each State and territory. The Law Council of Australia is a peak body representing the interests of all legal practitioners at federal level.
Law Society of New South Wales (informally 1842; formally 1884)
Law Society of Tasmania (informally 1845; formally 1888)
Law Institute of Victoria (1859)
Queensland Law Society (informally 1873; formally 1883)
Law Society of South Australia (1879)
Law Society of Western Australia (1927)
ACT Law Society (1933)
Law Council of Australia (1933)
Law Society of the Northern Territory (1968)
Canada
Each province and territory in Canada has a law society which governs the legal profession, with the exception of Quebec, which has two.
Law Society of Alberta (1907)
Law Society of British Columbia (1869)
Law Society of Manitoba (1907)
Law Society of Manitoba (1907)
Law Society of New Brunswick (1846)
Law Society of Newfoundland and Labrador (1834)
Law Society of the Northwest Territories (1978)
Nova Scotia Barristers' Society (1825)
Law Society of Nunavut (1999)
Law Society of Ontario (1797)
Law Society of Prince Edward Island (1876)
Bar of Quebec (1849)
Chamber of Notaries of Quebec (1870)
Law Society of Saskatchewan (1907)
Law Society of Yukon (1971)
India
The Law Society (Aligarh Muslim University) (1894)
Other countries
Fiji Law Society
Law Society of Hong Kong (c. 1907)
New Zealand Law Society (c. 1869)
Law Society of Singapore (c. 1967)
Law Society of Zimbabwe ( c. 1981)
See also
Bar association
Bar council
References
Legal organizations | [
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224843 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8th%20United%20States%20Congress | 8th United States Congress | The 8th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1803, to March 4, 1805, during the last two years of the first presidency of U.S. President Thomas Jefferson. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Second Census of the United States in 1800. Both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority.
Major events
April 30, 1803: Louisiana Purchase was made by the United States from France
February 16, 1804: In the First Barbary War, Stephen Decatur led a raid to burn the pirate-held frigate Philadelphia
May 14, 1804: Lewis and Clark Expedition departed from Camp Dubois to begin their historic journey by traveling up the Missouri River
July 11, 1804: Aaron Burr killed Alexander Hamilton
November 30, 1804: Impeachment trial of Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase
December 3, 1804: 1804 United States presidential election: Incumbent Thomas Jefferson (DR) beat challenger Charles Cotesworth Pinckney (F)
March 1, 1805: Samuel Chase acquitted of impeachment charges by the U.S. Senate
Major legislation
Constitutional amendments
December 9, 1803: Approved an amendment to the United States Constitution providing a new procedure for electing the President and Vice President, and submitted it to the state legislatures for ratification
June 15, 1804: Twelfth Amendment was ratified by the requisite number of states (then 13) to become part of the Constitution
Treaties
October 20, 1803: Senate ratified the Louisiana Purchase Treaty
Territories organized
March 26, 1804: Territory of Orleans was organized from the portion of the Louisiana Purchase south of the 33rd parallel; the portion north of the 33rd parallel was organized as the District of Louisiana.
January 11, 1805: Michigan Territory was organized.
March 3, 1805: Louisiana Territory was organized from the District of Louisiana.
Party summary
The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this Congress, and includes members from vacancies and newly admitted states, when they were first seated. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section.
Senate
House of Representatives
Following the 1800 census, the size of the House was increased to 142 seats from 108.
Leadership
Senate
President: Aaron Burr (DR)
President pro tempore: John Brown (DR), October 17, 1803 – February 26, 1804
Jesse Franklin (DR), March 10, 1804 – November 4, 1804
Joseph Anderson (DR), January 15, 1805 – December 1, 1805
House of Representatives
Speaker: Nathaniel Macon (DR)
Members
This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed in order of seniority, and representatives are listed by district.
Skip to House of Representatives, below
Senate
Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began with this Congress, requiring reelection in 1808; Class 2 meant their term ended in this Congress, requiring reelection in 1804; and Class 3 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring reelection in 1806.
Connecticut
1. James Hillhouse (F)
3. Uriah Tracy (F)
Delaware
1. Samuel White (F)
2. William H. Wells (F), until November 6, 1804
James A. Bayard (F), from November 13, 1804
Georgia
2. Abraham Baldwin (DR)
3. James Jackson (DR)
Kentucky
2. John Brown (DR)
3. John Breckinridge (DR)
Maryland
1. Samuel Smith (DR)
3. Robert Wright (DR)
Massachusetts
1. John Quincy Adams (F)
2. Timothy Pickering (F)
New Hampshire
2. Simeon Olcott (F)
3. William Plumer (F)
New Jersey
1. John Condit (DR), from September 1, 1803
2. Jonathan Dayton (F)
New York
1. Theodorus Bailey (DR), until January 16, 1804
John Armstrong Jr. (DR), February 25, 1804 – June 30, 1804
Samuel L. Mitchill (DR), from November 23, 1804
3. DeWitt Clinton (DR), until November 4, 1803
John Armstrong Jr. (DR), December 7, 1803 – February 23, 1804
John Smith (DR), from February 23, 1804
North Carolina
2. Jesse Franklin (DR)
3. David Stone (DR)
Ohio
1. John Smith (DR), from April 1, 1803
3. Thomas Worthington (DR), from April 1, 1803
Pennsylvania
1. Samuel Maclay (DR)
3. George Logan (DR)
Rhode Island
1. Samuel J. Potter (DR), until October 14, 1804
Benjamin Howland (DR), from October 29, 1804
2. Christopher Ellery (DR)
South Carolina
2. Thomas Sumter (DR)
3. Pierce Butler (DR), resigned November 21, 1804
John Gaillard (DR), from December 6, 1804
Tennessee
1. Joseph Anderson (DR), from September 22, 1803
2. William Cocke (DR)
Vermont
1. Israel Smith (DR)
3. Stephen R. Bradley (DR)
Virginia
1. Stevens T. Mason (DR), until May 10, 1803
John Taylor (DR), June 4, 1803 – December 7, 1803
Abraham B. Venable (DR), December 7, 1803 – June 7, 1804
William B. Giles (DR), August 11, 1804 - December 4, 1804
Andrew Moore (DR), from December 4, 1804
2. Wilson C. Nicholas (DR), until May 22, 1804
Andrew Moore (DR), August 11, 1804 – December 4, 1804
William B. Giles (DR), from December 4, 1804
House of Representatives
The names of members of the House of Representatives are preceded by their district numbers.
Connecticut
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Simeon Baldwin (F), from September 5, 1803
. Samuel W. Dana (F)
. John Davenport (F)
. Calvin Goddard (F)
. Roger Griswold (F)
. John Cotton Smith (F)
. Benjamin Tallmadge (F)
Delaware
. Caesar A. Rodney (DR)
Georgia
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Joseph Bryan (DR)
. Peter Early (DR)
. Samuel Hammond (DR), until February 2, 1805, Vacant thereafter
. David Meriwether (DR)
Kentucky
. Matthew Lyon (DR)
. John Boyle (DR)
. Matthew Walton (DR)
. Thomas Sandford (DR)
. John Fowler (DR)
. George M. Bedinger (DR)
Maryland
The 5th district was a plural district with two representatives.
. John Campbell (F)
. Walter Bowie (DR)
. Thomas Plater (F)
. Daniel Hiester (DR), until March 7, 1804
Roger Nelson (DR), from November 6, 1804
. William McCreery (DR)
. Nicholas R. Moore (DR)
. John Archer (DR)
. Joseph H. Nicholson (DR)
. John Dennis (F)
Massachusetts
. William Eustis (DR)
. Jacob Crowninshield (DR)
. Manasseh Cutler (F)
. Joseph Bradley Varnum (DR)
. Thomas Dwight (F)
. Samuel Taggart (F)
. Nahum Mitchell (F)
. Lemuel Williams (F)
. Phanuel Bishop (DR)
. Seth Hastings (F)
. William Stedman (F)
. Thomson J. Skinner (DR), until August 10, 1804
Simon Larned (DR), from November 5, 1804
. Ebenezer Seaver (DR)
. Richard Cutts (DR)
. Peleg Wadsworth (F)
. Samuel Thatcher (F)
. Phineas Bruce (F)
New Hampshire
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Silas Betton (F)
. Clifton Clagett (F)
. David Hough (F)
. Samuel Hunt (F)
. Samuel Tenney (F)
New Jersey
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Adam Boyd (DR)
. Ebenezer Elmer (DR)
. William Helms (DR)
. James Mott (DR)
. James Sloan (DR)
. Henry Southard (DR)
New York
. John Smith (DR), until February 23, 1804
Samuel Riker (DR), from November 5, 1804
. Joshua Sands (F)
. Samuel L. Mitchill (DR), until November 22, 1804
George Clinton Jr. (DR), from February 14, 1805
. Philip Van Cortlandt (DR)
. Andrew McCord (DR)
. Isaac Bloom (DR), until April 26, 1803
Daniel C. Verplanck (DR), from October 17, 1803
. Josiah Hasbrouck (DR), from October 17, 1803
. Henry W. Livingston (F)
. Killian K. Van Rensselaer (F)
. George Tibbits (F)
. Beriah Palmer (DR)
. David Thomas (DR)
. Thomas Sammons (DR)
. Erastus Root (DR)
. Gaylord Griswold (F)
. John Paterson (DR)
. Oliver Phelps (DR)
North Carolina
. Thomas Wynns (DR)
. Willis Alston (DR)
. William Kennedy (DR)
. William Blackledge (DR)
. James Gillespie (DR), until January 11, 1805; vacant thereafter
. Nathaniel Macon (DR)
. Samuel D. Purviance (F)
. Richard Stanford (DR)
. Marmaduke Williams (DR)
. Nathaniel Alexander (DR)
. James Holland (DR)
. Joseph Winston (DR)
Ohio
. Jeremiah Morrow (DR), from October 17, 1803
Pennsylvania
There were four plural districts, the 1st, 2nd, & 3rd had three representatives each, the 4th had two representatives.
. Joseph Clay (DR)
. Michael Leib (DR)
. Jacob Richards (DR)
. Robert Brown (DR)
. Frederick Conrad (DR)
. Isaac Van Horne (DR)
. Isaac Anderson (DR)
. Joseph Hiester (DR)
. John Whitehill (DR)
. David Bard (DR)
. John A. Hanna (DR)
. Andrew Gregg (DR)
. John Stewart (DR)
. John Rea (DR)
. William Findley (DR)
. John Smilie (DR)
. William Hoge (DR), until October 15, 1804
John Hoge (DR), from November 2, 1804
. John B. C. Lucas (DR)
Rhode Island
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Nehemiah Knight (DR)
. Joseph Stanton Jr. (DR)
South Carolina
. Thomas Lowndes (F)
. William Butler Sr. (DR)
. Benjamin Huger (F)
. Wade Hampton (DR)
. Richard Winn (DR)
. Levi Casey (DR)
. Thomas Moore (DR)
. John B. Earle (DR)
Tennessee
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. George W. Campbell (DR)
. William Dickson (DR)
. John Rhea (DR)
Vermont
. Gideon Olin (DR)
. James Elliott (F)
. William Chamberlain (F)
. Martin Chittenden (F)
Virginia
. John G. Jackson (DR)
. James Stephenson (F)
. John Smith (DR)
. David Holmes (DR)
. Thomas Lewis Jr. (F), until March 5, 1804
Andrew Moore (DR), March 5, 1804 – August 11, 1804
Alexander Wilson (DR), from December 4, 1804
. Abram Trigg (DR)
. Joseph Lewis Jr. (F)
. Walter Jones (DR)
. Philip R. Thompson (DR)
. John Dawson (DR)
. Anthony New (DR)
. Thomas Griffin (F)
. John J. Trigg (DR), until May 17, 1804
Christopher H. Clark (DR), from November 5, 1804
. Matthew Clay (DR)
. John Randolph (DR)
. John W. Eppes (DR)
. Thomas Claiborne (DR)
. Peterson Goodwyn (DR)
. Edwin Gray (DR)
. Thomas Newton Jr. (DR)
. Thomas M. Randolph (DR)
. John Clopton (DR)
Non-voting members
. William Lattimore
Changes in membership
The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress.
Senate
|-
| Ohio(1)
| Vacant
| Failure to elect
| | John Smith (DR)
| Seated April 1, 1803
|-
| Ohio(3)
| Vacant
| Failure to elect
| | Thomas Worthington (DR)
| Seated April 1, 1803
|-
| New Jersey(1)
| Vacant
| Failure to elect
| | John Condit (DR)
| Seated September 1, 1803
|-
| Tennessee(1)
| Vacant
| Failure to elect
| | Joseph Anderson (DR)
| Elected September 22, 1803
|-
| Virginia(1)
| | Stevens T. Mason (DR)
| Died May 10, 1803
| | John Taylor (DR)
| Appointed June 4, 1803
|-
| New York(3)
| | DeWitt Clinton (DR)
| Resigned November 4, 1803, to become Mayor of New York City
| | John Armstrong Jr. (DR)
| Appointed December 7, 1803
|-
| Virginia(1)
| | John Taylor (DR)
| Successor elected December 7, 1803
| | Abraham B. Venable (DR)
| Elected December 7, 1803
|-
| New York(1)
| | Theodorus Bailey (DR)
| Resigned January 16, 1804, to become Postmaster of New York City
| | John Armstrong Jr. (DR)
| Seated February 25, 1804
|-
| New York(3)
| | John Armstrong Jr. (DR)
| Successor elected February 23, 1804
| | John Smith (DR)
| Elected February 23, 1804
|-
| Virginia(2)
| | Wilson C. Nicholas (DR)
| Resigned May 22, 1804, to become Collector of Port of Norfolk
| | Andrew Moore (DR)
| Appointed August 11, 1804
|-
| Virginia(1)
| | Abraham B. Venable (DR)
| Resigned June 7, 1804
| | William B. Giles (DR)
| Appointed August 11, 1804
|-
| New York(1)
| | John Armstrong Jr. (DR)
| Resigned June 30, 1804, after being appointed Minister to France
| | Samuel Latham Mitchill (DR)
| Seated November 23, 1804
|-
| Rhode Island(1)
| | Samuel J. Potter (DR)
| Died October 14, 1804
| | Benjamin Howland (DR)
| Seated October 29, 1804
|-
| Delaware(2)
| | William H. Wells (F)
| Resigned November 6, 1804
| | James A. Bayard (F)
| Seated November 13, 1804
|-
| South Carolina(3)
| | Pierce Butler (DR)
| Resigned November 21, 1804
| | John Gaillard (DR)
| Seated December 6, 1804
|-
| Virginia(1)
| | William B. Giles (DR)
| Successor elected December 4, 1804
| | Andrew Moore (DR)
| Elected December 4, 1804
|-
| Virginia(2)
| | Andrew Moore (DR)
| Successor elected December 4, 1804
| | William B. Giles (DR)
| Elected December 4, 1804
|}
House of Representatives
|-
|
| Vacant
| John Cantine (DR) was elected, but resigned before the Congress began.
| | Josiah Hasbrouck (DR)
| October 17, 1803
|-
|
| Vacant
| nowrap | Incumbent Elias Perkins (F) elected but chose not to serve.Successor elected September 5, 1803.
| | Simeon Baldwin (F)
| October 17, 1803
|-
|
| Vacant
| Seat vacant following Ohio's admission to Union until special election held on June 21, 1803.
| | Jeremiah Morrow (DR)
| October 17, 1803
|-
|
| | Isaac Bloom (DR)
| Died April 26, 1803
| | Daniel C. Verplanck (DR)
| October 17, 1803
|-
|
| | John Smith (DR)
| Resigned February 23, 1804, after being elected to U.S. Senate
| | Samuel Riker (DR)
| November 5, 1804
|-
|
| | Thomas Lewis Jr. (F)
| Lost contested election March 5, 1804
| | Andrew Moore (DR)
| March 5, 1804
|-
|
| | Daniel Hiester (DR)
| Died March 7, 1804
| | Roger Nelson (DR)
| November 6, 1804
|-
|
| | John J. Trigg (DR)
| Died May 17, 1804
| | Christopher H. Clark (DR)
| November 5, 1804
|-
|
| | Thomson J. Skinner (DR)
| Resigned August 10, 1804
| | Simon Larned (DR)
| November 5, 1804
|-
|
| | Andrew Moore (DR)
| Resigned August 11, 1804, after being appointed to U.S. Senate
| | Alexander Wilson (DR)
| December 4, 1804
|-
|
| | William Hoge (DR)
| Resigned October 15, 1804
| | John Hoge (DR)
| November 2, 1804
|-
|
| | Samuel L. Mitchill (DR)
| Resigned November 22, 1804, after being elected to U.S. Senate
| | George Clinton Jr. (DR)
| February 14, 1805
|-
|
| | James Gillespie (DR)
| Died January 11, 1805
| Vacant
| Not filled for remainder of term
|-
|
| | Samuel Hammond (DR)
| Resigned February 2, 1805, after becoming Civil and Military Governor of the Upper Louisiana Territory
| Vacant
| Not filled for remainder of term
|}
Committees
Lists of committees and their party leaders.
Senate
Whole
House of Representatives
Claims (Chairman: John C. Smith)
Commerce and Manufactures (Chairman: Samuel Smith)
Elections (Chairman: John Milledge then John Bacon)
Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: John Davenport)
Rules (Select)
Standards of Official Conduct
Ways and Means (Chairman: John Randolph)
Whole
Joint committees
Enrolled Bills (Chairman: N/A)
Officers
Legislative branch agency directors
Architect of the Capitol: Benjamin H. Latrobe, appointed March 6, 1803
Librarian of Congress: John J. Beckley
Senate
Secretary: Samuel A. Otis
Sergeant at Arms: James Mathers
Chaplain: Edward Gantt, Episcopalian, until November 7, 1804
Alexander T. McCormick, Episcopalian, elected November 7, 1804
House of Representatives
Clerk: John Beckley
Sergeant at Arms: Joseph Wheaton
Doorkeeper: Thomas Claxton
Chaplain: William Parkinson, Baptist, until November 5, 1804
The Rev. James Laurie, Presbyterian, elected November 5, 1804
Reading Clerks:
See also
1802 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
1802 and 1803 United States Senate elections
1802 and 1803 United States House of Representatives elections
1804 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
1804 United States presidential election
1804 and 1805 United States Senate elections
1804 and 1805 United States House of Representatives elections
Notes
References
External links
Statutes at Large, 1789-1875
Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress
U.S. House of Representatives: House History
U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists | [
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50365059 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meluan%20%28state%20constituency%29 | Meluan (state constituency) | Meluan is a state constituency in Sarawak, Malaysia, that has been represented in the Sarawak State Legislative Assembly since 1969.
The state constituency was created in the 1968 redistribution and is mandated to return a single member to the Sarawak State Legislative Assembly under the first past the post voting system.
History
2006–2016: The constituency contains the polling districts of Balut, Julau, Rayah, Meluan, Engkamup, Entabai, Beketan.
2016–present: The constituency contains the polling districts of Balut, Julau, Rayah, Meluan, Engkamup, Entabai, Beketan.
Representation history
Election results
References
Sarawak state constituencies | [
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224844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9th%20United%20States%20Congress | 9th United States Congress | The 9th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1805, to March 4, 1807, during the fifth and sixth years of Thomas Jefferson's presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Second Census of the United States in 1800. Both chambers had a Democratic-Republican majority.
Major events
March 4, 1805: President Thomas Jefferson begins his second term.
June 1, 1805: First Barbary War ends.
November 7, 1805: Lewis and Clark Expedition arrived at the Pacific Ocean.
September 23, 1806: Lewis and Clark Expedition returned to St. Louis, Missouri, thereby ending the exploration of the Louisiana Territory and the Pacific Northwest.
February 19, 1807: Former Vice President Aaron Burr was tried for conspiracy and acquitted.
Major legislation
March 29, 1806 - Cumberland Road, ch. 19,
February 24, 1807 - Seventh Circuit Act of 1807, ch. 16, ()
March 2, 1807 - Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves, ch. 22,
March 3, 1807 - Insurrection Act, ch. 39,
Territories organized
June 30, 1805 Michigan Territory was formed from a portion of the Indiana Territory
Party summary
The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this Congress. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section.
Senate
House of Representatives
Leadership
Senate
President: George Clinton (DR)
President pro tempore: Samuel Smith (DR)
House of Representatives
Speaker: Nathaniel Macon (DR)
Members
This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class, and representatives are listed by district.
Skip to House of Representatives, below
Senate
Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election.
Connecticut
1. James Hillhouse (F)
3. Uriah Tracy (F)
Delaware
1. Samuel White (F)
2. James A. Bayard (F)
Georgia
2. Abraham Baldwin (DR)
3. James Jackson (DR), until March 19, 1806
John Milledge (DR), from June 19, 1806
Kentucky
2. Buckner Thruston (DR)
3. John Breckinridge (DR), until August 7, 1805
John Adair (DR), November 8, 1805 – November 18, 1806
Henry Clay (DR), from November 19, 1806
Maryland
1. Samuel Smith (DR)
3. Robert Wright (DR), until November 12, 1806
Philip Reed (DR), from November 25, 1806
Massachusetts
1. John Quincy Adams (F)
2. Timothy Pickering (F)
New Hampshire
2. Nicholas Gilman (DR)
3. William Plumer (F)
New Jersey
1. John Condit (DR)
2. Aaron Kitchell (DR)
New York
1. Samuel L. Mitchill (DR)
3. John Smith (DR)
North Carolina
2. James Turner (DR), from December 22, 1805
3. David Stone (DR), until February 17, 1807
Ohio
1. John Smith (DR)
3. Thomas Worthington (DR)
Pennsylvania
1. Samuel Maclay (DR)
3. George Logan (DR)
Rhode Island
1. Benjamin Howland (DR)
2. James Fenner (DR)
South Carolina
2. Thomas Sumter (DR)
3. John Gaillard (DR)
Tennessee
1. Joseph Anderson (DR)
2. Daniel Smith (DR)
Vermont
1. Israel Smith (DR)
3. Stephen R. Bradley (DR)
Virginia
1. Andrew Moore (DR)
2. William B. Giles (DR)
House of Representatives
The names of members of the House of Representatives are listed by their district numbers
Connecticut
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Samuel W. Dana (F)
. John Davenport (F)
. Jonathan O. Moseley (F)
. Timothy Pitkin (F), seated September 16, 1805
. John Cotton Smith (F), until August 1806
Theodore Dwight (F), seated December 1, 1806
. Lewis B. Sturges (F), seated September 16, 1805
. Benjamin Tallmadge (F)
Delaware
. James M. Broom (F)
Georgia
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Joseph Bryan (DR), until 1806
Dennis Smelt (DR), from September 1, 1806
. Peter Early (DR)
. David Meriwether (DR)
. Cowles Mead (DR), until December 24, 1805
Thomas Spalding (DR), December 24, 1805 – 1806
William W. Bibb (DR), from January 26, 1807
Kentucky
. Matthew Lyon (DR)
. John Boyle (DR)
. Matthew Walton (DR)
. Thomas Sandford (DR)
. John Fowler (DR)
. George M. Bedinger (DR)
Maryland
The 5th district was a plural district with two representatives.
. John Campbell (F)
. Leonard Covington (DR)
. Patrick Magruder (DR)
. Roger Nelson (DR)
. William McCreery (DR)
. Nicholas R. Moore (DR)
. John Archer (DR)
. Joseph H. Nicholson (DR), until March 1, 1806
Edward Lloyd (DR), from December 3, 1806
. Charles Goldsborough (F)
Massachusetts
. Josiah Quincy (F)
. Jacob Crowninshield (DR)
. Jeremiah Nelson (F)
. Joseph Bradley Varnum (DR)
. William Ely (F)
. Samuel Taggart (F)
. Joseph Barker (DR)
. Isaiah L. Green (DR)
. Phanuel Bishop (DR)
. Seth Hastings (F)
. William Stedman (F)
. Barnabas Bidwell (DR)
. Ebenezer Seaver (DR)
. Richard Cutts (DR)
. Peleg Wadsworth (F)
. Orchard Cook (DR)
. John Chandler (DR)
New Hampshire
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Silas Betton (F)
. Caleb Ellis (F)
. David Hough (F)
. Samuel Tenney (F)
. Thomas W. Thompson (F)
New Jersey
All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Ezra Darby (DR)
. Ebenezer Elmer (DR)
. William Helms (DR)
. John Lambert (DR)
. James Sloan (DR)
. Henry Southard (DR)
New York
. Eliphalet Wickes (DR)
. and . Joint district with two seats.
Gurdon S. Mumford (DR)
George Clinton Jr. (DR)
. Philip Van Cortlandt (DR)
. John Blake Jr. (DR)
. Daniel C. Verplanck (DR)
. Martin G. Schuneman (DR)
. Henry W. Livingston (F)
. Killian K. Van Rensselaer (F)
. Josiah Masters (DR)
. Peter Sailly (DR)
. David Thomas (DR)
. Thomas Sammons (DR)
. John Russell (DR)
. Nathan Williams (DR)
. Uri Tracy (DR)
. Silas Halsey (DR)
North Carolina
. Thomas Wynns (DR)
. Willis Alston (DR)
. Thomas Blount (DR)
. William Blackledge (DR)
. Thomas Kenan (DR)
. Nathaniel Macon (DR)
. Duncan McFarlan (DR)
. Richard Stanford (DR)
. Marmaduke Williams (DR)
. Nathaniel Alexander (DR), until November 1805
Evan S. Alexander (DR), from February 24, 1806
. James Holland (DR)
. Joseph Winston (DR)
Ohio
. Jeremiah Morrow (DR)
Pennsylvania
There were four plural districts, the 1st, 2nd, & 3rd had three representatives each, the 4th had two representatives.
. Joseph Clay (DR)
. Michael Leib (DR), until February 14, 1806
John Porter (DR), from December 8, 1806
. Jacob Richards (DR)
. Robert Brown (DR)
. Frederick Conrad (DR)
. John Pugh (DR)
. Isaac Anderson (DR)
. Christian Lower (DR), until December 19, 1806, vacant thereafter
. John Whitehill (DR)
. David Bard (DR)
. John A. Hanna (DR), until July 23, 1805
Robert Whitehill (DR), from November 7, 1805
. Andrew Gregg (DR)
. James Kelly (F)
. John Rea (DR)
. William Findley (DR)
. John Smilie (DR)
. John Hamilton (DR)
. Samuel Smith (DR), seated November 7, 1805
Rhode Island
Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.
. Nehemiah Knight (DR)
. Joseph Stanton Jr. (DR)
South Carolina
. Robert Marion (DR)
. William Butler Sr. (DR)
. David R. Williams (DR)
. O'Brien Smith (DR)
. Richard Winn (DR)
. Levi Casey (DR), until February 3, 1807, vacant thereafter
. Thomas Moore (DR)
. Elias Earle (DR)
Tennessee
. John Rhea (DR)
. George W. Campbell (DR)
. William Dickson (DR)
Vermont
. Gideon Olin (DR)
. James Elliott (F)
. James Fisk (DR)
. Martin Chittenden (F)
Virginia
. John G. Jackson (DR)
. John Morrow (DR)
. John Smith (DR)
. David Holmes (DR)
. Alexander Wilson (DR)
. Abram Trigg (DR)
. Joseph Lewis Jr. (F)
. Walter Jones (DR)
. Philip R. Thompson (DR)
. John Dawson (DR)
. James M. Garnett (DR)
. Burwell Bassett (DR)
. Christopher Clark (DR), until July 1, 1806
William A. Burwell (DR), from December 1, 1806
. Matthew Clay (DR)
. John Randolph (DR)
. John W. Eppes (DR)
. John Claiborne (DR)
. Peterson Goodwyn (DR)
. Edwin Gray (DR)
. Thomas Newton Jr. (DR)
. Thomas M. Randolph (DR)
. John Clopton (DR)
Non-voting members
. Benjamin Parke, seated December 12, 1805
. William Lattimore
. Daniel Clark, seated December 1, 1806
Changes in membership
The count below reflects changes from the beginning of this Congress.
Senate
|-
| North Carolina(2)
| Vacant
| Montfort Stokes (DR) was elected in 1804 but declined the position.Successor elected December 22, 1805.
| | James Turner (DR)
| Seated December 22, 1805
|-
| Kentucky(3)
| | John Breckinridge (DR)
| Resigned August 7, 1805, after being appointed United States Attorney General.Successor elected November 8, 1805, to finish the term ending March 4, 1807.
| | John Adair (DR)
| Seated November 8, 1805
|-
| Georgia(3)
| | James Jackson (DR)
| Died March 19, 1806.Winner elected June 19, 1806, to finish the term ending March 4, 1807.
| | John Milledge (DR)
| Seated June 19, 1806
|-
| Maryland(3)
| | Robert Wright (DR)
| Resigned November 12, 1806, after being elected Governor of Maryland.Successor elected November 25, 1806, to finish the term ending March 4, 1807 (as well as to the next term).
| | Philip Reed (DR)
| Seated November 25, 1806
|-
| Kentucky(3)
| | John Adair (DR)
| Resigned November 18, 1806, after losing the election to the next term.Successor elected November 19, 1806, despite being younger than the constitutional age minimum.
| | Henry Clay (DR)
| Seated November 19, 1806
|-
| North Carolina(3)
| | David Stone (DR)
| Resigned February 17, 1807.Vacant for remainder of Congress.
| Vacant
|}
House of Representatives
|-
|
| Vacant
| Calvin Goddard (F) resigned before the beginning of this Congress
| | Timothy Pitkin (F)
| Seated September 16, 1805
|-
|
| Vacant
| Roger Griswold (F) resigned before the beginning of this Congress
| | Lewis B. Sturges (F)
| Seated September 16, 1805
|-
|
| Vacant
| John B. C. Lucas (DR) resigned before the beginning of this Congress
| | Samuel Smith (DR)
| Seated November 7, 1805
|-
|
| | John A. Hanna (DR)
| Died July 23, 1805
| | Robert Whitehill (DR)
| Seated November 7, 1805
|-
|
| | Nathaniel Alexander (DR)
| Resigned November, 1805 after being elected Governor of North Carolina
| | Evan S. Alexander (DR)
| Seated February 24, 1806
|-
| nowrap |
| Vacant
| Territory elected delegate to Congress for first time
| Benjamin Parke
| Elected December 12, 1805
|-
|
| | Cowles Mead (DR)
| Lost contested election December 24, 1805
| | Thomas Spalding (DR)
| Seated December 24, 1805
|-
|
| | Joseph Bryan (DR)
| Resigned sometime in 1806
| | Dennis Smelt (DR)
| September 1, 1806
|-
|
| | Thomas Spalding (DR)
| Resigned sometime in 1806
| | William W. Bibb (DR)
| Seated January 26, 1807
|-
|
| | Michael Leib (DR)
| Resigned February 14, 1806
| | John Porter (DR)
| Seated December 8, 1806
|-
|
| | Joseph H. Nicholson (DR)
| Resigned March 1, 1806
| | Edward Lloyd (DR)
| Seated December 3, 1806
|-
|
| | Christopher H. Clark (DR)
| Resigned July 1, 1806
| | William A. Burwell (DR)
| December 1, 1806
|-
|
| | John Cotton Smith (F)
| Resigned sometime in August, 1806
| | Theodore Dwight (F)
| December 1, 1806
|-
| nowrap |
| Vacant
| Territory elected delegate to Congress for first time
| Daniel Clark
| Elected December 1, 1806
|-
|
| | Christian Lower (DR)
| Resigned December 19, 1806
| Vacant
| Not filled for remainder of term
|-
|
| | Levi Casey (DR)
| Died February 3, 1807
| Vacant
| Not filled for remainder of term
|}
Committees
Lists of committees and their party leaders.
Senate
Army Regulations (Select)
Whole
House of Representatives
Accounts (Chairman: Frederick Conrad)
Claims (Chairman: John C. Smith then David Holmes)
Commerce and Manufactures (Chairman: Jacob Crowninshield)
Elections (Chairman: William Findley)
Public Lands (Chairman: Andrew Gregg then John Boyle then Andrew Gregg)
Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: Samuel Tenney)
Rules (Select)
Standards of Official Conduct
Ways and Means (Chairman: John Randolph then Joseph Clay)
Whole
Joint committees
Enrolled Bills (Chairman: N/A then Sen. James Turner)
The Library (Chairman: N/A)
Employees
Legislative branch agency directors
Architect of the Capitol: Benjamin Latrobe
Librarian of Congress: John J. Beckley
Senate
Chaplain: Alexander T. McCormick, Episcopalian, elected November 7, 1804
Edward Gantt, Episcopalian, elected December 4, 1805
John J. Sayrs, Episcopalian, elected December 3, 1806
Secretary: Samuel A. Otis
Sergeant at Arms: James Mathers
House of Representatives
Chaplain: James Laurie, Presbyterian, elected December 2, 1805
Robert Elliot, Presbyterian, elected December 1, 1806
Clerk: John Beckley
Doorkeeper: Thomas Claxton
Reading Clerks:
Sergeant at Arms: Joseph Wheaton
See also
1804 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
1804 United States presidential election
1804 and 1805 United States Senate elections
1804 and 1805 United States House of Representatives elections
1806 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
1806 and 1807 United States Senate elections
1806 and 1807 United States House of Representatives elections
Notes
References
External links
Statutes at Large, 1789-1875
Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress
U.S. House of Representatives: House History
U.S. Senate: Statistics and Lists | [
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224845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cghene | Cghene | Cghene, or Oghene, is the supreme god of the Urhobo and Isoko people in southern Nigeria. He is believed to have created the world and all peoples. Oghene is beyond human comprehension and is only known by his actions. Because the god is so distant and unknown, he has no temples or priests and no prayers or sacrifices are offered directly to him.
Oghene has a courier named Oyise, who is referred to as uko Oghene or "messenger of Oghene". Through Oyise, Oghene can be invoked in case of calamity or need.
Creator gods
African gods | [
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224859 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor%20of%20England%2C%20Queen%20of%20Castile | Eleanor of England, Queen of Castile | Eleanor of England (; c. 1161 – 31 October 1214), was Queen of Castile and Toledo as wife of Alfonso VIII of Castile. She was the sixth child and second daughter of Henry II, King of England, and Eleanor of Aquitaine.
Early life and family
Eleanor was born in the castle at Domfront, Normandy c. 1161, as the second daughter of King Henry II of England and his wife Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine, and was baptised by Henry of Marcy. Her half-siblings were Countess Marie of Champagne and Countess Alix of Blois. Her full siblings were Henry the Young King, Duchess Matilda of Saxony, King Richard I, Duke Geoffrey II of Brittany, Queen Joan of Sicily and King John. Eleanor had an older brother, William (17 August 1153April 1156), the first son of Henry II, and Eleanor of Aquitaine, who died of a seizure at Wallingford Castle, and was buried in Reading Abbey at the feet of his great-grandfather Henry I.
Queenship
In 1170 Eleanor married King Alfonso VIII of Castile in Burgos at the age of 12. Her parents' purpose in arranging the marriage was to secure Aquitaine's Pyrenean border, while Alfonso sought an ally in his struggles with Sancho VI of Navarre. In 1177, this led to Henry overseeing arbitration of the border dispute.
Around 1200, Alfonso began to claim that the duchy of Gascony was part of Eleanor's dowry, but there is no documented foundation for that claim. It is highly unlikely that Henry II would have parted with so significant a portion of his domains. At most, Gascony may have been pledged as security for the full payment of his daughter's dowry. Her husband went so far on this claim as to invade Gascony in her name in 1205. In 1206, her brother John granted her safe passage to visit him, perhaps to try opening peace negotiations. In 1208, Alfonso yielded on the claim. Decades later, their great-grandson Alfonso X of Castile would claim the duchy on the grounds that her dowry had never been fully paid.
Of all Eleanor of Aquitaine's daughters, her namesake was the only one who was enabled, by political circumstances, to wield the kind of influence her mother had exercised. In her marriage treaty, and in the first marriage treaty for her daughter Berengaria, Eleanor was given direct control of many lands, towns, and castles throughout the kingdom. She was almost as powerful as Alfonso, who specified in his will in 1204 that she was to rule alongside their son in the event of his death, including taking responsibility for paying his debts and executing his will. It was she who persuaded him to marry their daughter Berengaria to Alfonso IX of León. Troubadours and sages were regularly present in Alfonso VIII's court due to Eleanor's patronage.
Eleanor took a particular interest in supporting religious institutions. In 1179, she took responsibility to support and maintain a shrine to St. Thomas Becket in the cathedral of Toledo. She also created and supported the Abbey of Santa María la Real de Las Huelgas, which served as a refuge and tomb for her family for generations, and its affiliated hospital.
When Alfonso died, Eleanor was reportedly so devastated with grief that she was unable to preside over the burial. Their eldest daughter Berengaria instead performed these honours. Eleanor later became sick and died only twenty-six days after her husband, and was buried at Abbey of Santa María la Real de Las Huelgas.
Children
Later depictions
Eleanor was praised for her beauty and regal nature by the poet Ramón Vidal de Besalú after her death. Her great-grandson Alfonso X referred to her as "noble and much loved".
Eleanor was played by Ida Norden in the silent film The Jewess of Toledo.
Notes
References
Sources
Bowie, Colette (2014), The Daughters of Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine (Brepols, )
Cerda, José Manuel (2011), La dot gasconne d'Aliénor d'Angleterre. Entre royaume de Castille, royaume de France et royaume d'Angleterre, Cahiers de civilisation médiévale, ISSN 0007-9731, Vol. 54, Nº 215, 2011.
Cerda, José Manuel (2016), "Matrimonio y patrimonio. La carta de arras de Leonor Plantagenet, reina consorte de Castilla", Anuario de Estudios Medievales, vol. 46.
Cerda, José Manuel (2016), Leonor Plantagenet and the cult of Thomas Becket in Castile, The cult of St Thomas Becket in the Plantagenet World, ed. P. Webster and M.P. Gelin, Boydell Press.
Cerda, José Manuel (2013), "The marriage of Alfonso VIII of Castile and Leonor Plantagenet : the first bond between Spain and England in the Middle Ages", Les stratégies matrimoniales dans l’aristocratie (xe-xiiie siècles), ed. Martin Aurell.
Cerda, José Manuel (2018), "Diplomacia, mecenazgo e identidad dinástica. La consorte Leonor y el influjo de la cultura Plantagenet en la Castilla de Alfonso VIII", Los modelos anglonormandos en la cultura letrada de Castilla, ed. Amaia Arizaleta y Francisco Bautista (Toulouse).
Cerda, José Manuel (2019), "Un documento inédito y desconocido de la cancillería de la reina Leonor Plantagenet", En la España Medieval, vol. 42.
Rada Jiménez, Rodrigo. Historia de los hechos de España.
External links
Adrian Fletcher’s Paradoxplace – Leonora’s Tomb in the Cistercian Nunnery of Santa Maria de Real Huelgas in Burgos, Spain
Eight hundredth anniversary of Alfonso and Leonor's deaths
1160s births
1214 deaths
12th-century English people
12th-century nobility from León and Castile
13th-century Castilians
Burials at the Abbey of Santa María la Real de Las Huelgas
Castilian queen consorts
English princesses
House of Plantagenet
People from Normandy
House of Anjou
12th-century English women
Children of Henry II of England
Anglo-Normans | [
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224866 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Young%20%28agriculturist%29 | Arthur Young (agriculturist) | Arthur Young (11 September 1741 – 12 April 1820) was an English agriculturist. Not himself successful as a farmer, he built on connections and activities as a publicist a substantial reputation as an expert on agricultural improvement. After the French Revolution of 1789, his views on its politics carried weight as an informed observer, and he became an important opponent of British reformers. Young is considered a major English writer on agriculture, although he is best known as a social and political observer. Also read widely were his Tour in Ireland (1780) and Travels in France (1792).
Early life
Young was born in 1741 at Whitehall, London, the second son of Anna Lucretia Coussmaker, and her husband Arthur Young, who was rector of Bradfield Combust in Suffolk and chaplain to Arthur Onslow. After attending school at Lavenham from 1748, he was in 1758 placed at Messrs Robertson, a mercantile house in King's Lynn. His sister Elizabeth Mary, who married John Thomlinson in 1758, died the next year, which disrupted the plan for Young to work at Messrs Thomlinson in London, under his sisters in-law.
Young's father also died in 1759. In 1761 Young went to London and the following year started a magazine entitled The Universal Museum. It ran to five numbers, edited by Young, who recruited William Kenrick, just out of King's Bench Prison. It was then sold to a consortium of booksellers, according to initial advice from Samuel Johnson, who wanted no part of it. Young suffered from lung disease from 1761 to 1763, and turned down the offer of a post as a cavalry officer from Sir Charles Howard. Young's mother then put him in charge of the family estate at Bradfield Hall, a small property encumbered with debt. Between 1763 and 1766 he concentrated on farming there.
In 1764–1765 Young met and became a friend of Walter Harte, who published his Essays on Husbandry in 1764. Harte advised him to give up writing for periodicals. He then collected works by Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau, Samuel Hartlib and Jethro Tull, as well as reading Harte. He was a contributor to the Museum Rusticum.
Farmer and writer
In 1767 Young took over a farm in Essex, at Sampford Hall, one reason being to move away from his mother, who was on bad terms with his wife. For financial reasons he had to move on in 1768 to Bradmore Farm, North Mymms, in Hertfordshire. There he engaged in experiments described in A Course of Experimental Agriculture (1770). Though these were generally unsuccessful, they gave him a working knowledge of agriculture. He acted as parliamentary reporter for the London Morning Post from 1773.
Young was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1774; but the Society refused a number of his papers on agricultural topics, which always had critics, such as James Anderson of Hermiston. In 1784 Young began the publication of the Annals of Agriculture, which ran for 45 volumes: contributors included King George III, writing under the pseudonym "Ralph Robinson", and Robert Andrews, whom Young took as a model farmer. Young's figures for the total area of England and Wales, and total cultivated area, were serious overestimates. In a work from 1799, during wartime and fiscal strain on the national budget, Henry Beeke gave more reliable figures, showing Young had erred.
Young was appointed secretary of the Board of Agriculture in 1793, just after it was formed under the presidency of Sir John Sinclair. In that capacity he worked on collecting and preparing the General View of Agriculture county surveys. The Annals of Agriculture began to wind down in 1803, when John Rackham of Bury St Edmunds, who printed it, found copy was lacking and pressed Young, who padded out the pages with old notes. Richard Phillips took it on for volume 41, and saw the publication out, the final volume 45 appearing in 1808.
Travel writer
Young began a series of journeys through England and Wales, which he described in books that appeared from 1768 to 1770: A Six Weeks' Tour through the Southern Counties of England and Wales, A Six Months' Tour through the North of England and the Farmer's Tour through the East of England. He claimed that these contained the only first-hand information on the rentals, produce and stock of England. They were favourably received and widely translated.
He toured the Kingdom of Ireland in 1776–1777, publishing his Tour in Ireland in 1780. The book was republished in 1897 and 1925, but with much of Young's social detail removed. The full text was republished in 1892 as "Arthur Young's Tour in Ireland (1776–1779)" by Arthur Hutton.
Young's first visit to France was in 1787. Travelling all over the country annually from 1787 to 1789 (around the start of the French Revolution) he described the condition of the people and the conduct of public affairs at a critical juncture. His Travels in France appeared in one large quarto volume in 1792, reprinted in two octavo volumes (Dublin, 1793) and in an enlarged second edition in two quarto volumes (London, 1794).
On the French Revolution
An eye-witness to the French Revolution as one who was welcomed into the company of the highest levels of the French nobility (including the King and Queen) at the time of the fall of the Bastille in 1789, Young by 1792 had become an opponent of its violence and modified his reforming views on English politics. Seeing the burned châteaux at Besançon, he was shocked by the provincial disorders, as he had been by the chaotic debates of the National Assembly (for which he recommended John Hatsell's book on procedure). He and William Windham aligned themselves with Edmund Burke's views expressed in Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), in Young's Plain and Earnest Address to Britons of November 1792. This was endorsed by the loyalist Association for Preserving Liberty and Property against Republicans and Levellers. In 1793 he opposed Charles Grey's reform motion in Parliament and wrote Example of France a Warning to Britain.
Still in 1793, Young played a role in recruiting the Suffolk Yeomanry, by pulling together local groups of cavalry volunteers. The formation actually took place in 1794, although a cap-badge date of 1793 was later adopted. He joined with the radical Capel Lofft of Troston Hall in a proposal for a Suffolk ship-of-war to be supported by subscription.
Young returned to the subject of reform in 1798 with An Enquiry into the State of Mind Amongst the Lowest Classes. He had attained a formidable position as commentator and used it to call attention to urban unrest and the influence of Tom Paine.
Associations
Young's closest friend was John Symonds, a Cambridge academic, who became involved in his writing as editor. Frederick Hervey, 4th Earl of Bristol in 1782 held weekly Thursday dinners at Ickworth for Symonds, Young and others.
In the late 1780s the export of wool became contentious, but Young combined forces with Sir Joseph Banks in opposing restrictions on this. James Oakes of Bury St Edmunds, a yarn dealer, was a friend of both Symonds and Young. In the wool controversy, Oakes was on the other side from Young, who argued that restricting the export of wool was against the interests of landowners, while Oakes wished to see the price of wool to spinners fall.
A tour by Young was typically preceded by newspaper publicity and consisted of social meetings with prominent farmers and agricultural improvers. One in south-west England in 1796 led to an acquaintance with Sir Francis Buller, 1st Baronet, a judge and improver at Princetown on Dartmoor. Buller corresponded with Young on agricultural matters. The relationship later became awkward, however, when Young's son, the Rev. Arthur Young, was suspected of jury tampering in the trial of Arthur O'Connor, on the basis of a letter to Gamaliel Lloyd of Bury St Edmunds, a radical. Buller and the attorney-general took a belligerent attitude to the allegations, when the letter was read out in court.
Final years
From 1801, Young followed the evangelical teaching of Thomas Scott at the London Lock Chapel, and was influenced by Charles Simeon. In 1809 he became a correspondent, living abroad, of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands. In 1811 he became firm friends with Marianne Francis (1790–1832) a niece of Frances Burney, who shared his commitment to evangelical Christianity. His sight, however, was failing, and in that year he had an operation for a cataract, which proved unsuccessful, leaving him blind.
Young continued to publish pamphlets. He died in Sackville Street, London on 12 April 1820, aged 78, after a painful illness caused by bladder calculus, and was buried at Bradfield Combust church, where his tomb, in sarcophagus form, is inscribed, "Let every real patriot shed a tear, For genius, talent, worth, lie buried here." The tomb is a designated Grade II listed structure. He left an autobiography in manuscript, which was edited (1898) by Matilda Betham-Edwards.
Legacy
Young influenced contemporary observers of economic and social life, such as Frederick Morton Eden and Sir John Sinclair. He was influential too on the American improver John Beale Bordley.
More recently Young has been studied for his methods of investigation. Richard Stone (1997) presents him as a pioneer national income statistician, continuing the work of Gregory King, who had lived a century before. Young produced three estimates of the national income of England: in his Tour through the North of England, Farmer's Tour through the East of England and Political Arithmetic. Brunt (2001) emphasises how Young collected his information, and presents him as a pioneer of sample surveys.
Works
Young built a reputation on the views he expressed as an agricultural improver, a political economist and a social observer. At the age of 17, he published a pamphlet On the War in North America. He also wrote four early novels, and Reflections on the Present State of Affairs at Home and Abroad in 1759. In 1768 he published the Farmer's Letters to the People of England, in 1771 the Farmer's Calendar, which went through many editions, and in 1774 his Political Arithmetic, which was widely translated.
Young produced around 25 books and pamphlets on agriculture and 15 books on political economy, as well as many articles. These include:
A Six Weeks Tour Through the Southern Counties of England and Wales
The Farmer’s Letters to the People of England, 1768.
The farmer's guide in hiring and stocking farms. London, 1770.
The Farmer’s Calendar, 1771; 1862 edition
The Farmer's Tour Through the East of England: Being the Register of a Journey Through Various ... 1771
Political Arithmetic: Containing Observations on the Present State of Great Britain and the Principles of Her Policy in the Encouragement of Agriculture, 1774.
A Tour in Ireland, 1780. Repr. Blackstaff Press, 1983.
Annals of Agriculture and other useful Arts. Vol 1 to 45, 1785-1809; Vol. 1, 1785; Vol. 8, 1787; Vol. 10, 1799; Vol. 17, 1792, Vol. 22, 1794; Vol. 32, 1799; Vol. 45, 1808;
Travels during the years 1787, 1788, & 1789 : undertaken more particularly with a view of ascertaining the cultivation, wealth, resources, and national prosperity of the Kingdom of France, 1792.
View of the agriculture of Oxfordshire. By the secretary of the Board of agriculture and ... 1809
The Autobiography of Arthur Young. London, 1898.
The Travels in France were translated into French in 1793–1794 by François Soules; a new version by Henri Lesage with an introduction by Léonce Guilhaud de Lavergne appeared in 1856. The Directory in 1801 ordered Young's writings to be translated in 20 volumes under the title Le Cultivateur anglais.
Family
In 1765 Young married Martha Allen (died 1815), sister-in-law of Charles Burney. Their acute marital strife and Young's devotion to his children were witnessed by Frances Burney and her half-sister Sarah during a visit in 1792. He grieved deeply when his daughter Martha Ann died of consumption on 14 July 1797 at the age of 14, and her loss is said to have turned his mind to religion.
References
Attribution:
Further reading
Colin Dyer. La France revisitée : sur les traces d'Arthur Young. Denoël, 1989.
John Gerow Gazley. The life of Arthur Young, 1741-1820. American Philosophical Society, 1973.
External links
Arthur Young, Tours in England and Wales, selected from the Annals of Agriculture at visionofbritain.org.uk
Search the collection: The National Portrait Gallery has five portraits of Young
1741 births
1820 deaths
English agronomists
English economists
English statisticians
Fellows of the Royal Society
Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
People from the Borough of St Edmundsbury
18th-century English people
19th-century English people
18th-century agronomists
19th-century agronomists | [
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224867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor | Eleanor | Eleanor () is a feminine given name, originally from an Old French adaptation of the Old Provençal name Aliénor. It is the name of a number of women of the high nobility in western Europe during the High Middle Ages.
The name was introduced to England by Eleanor of Aquitaine, who came to marry King Henry II. It was also borne by Eleanor of Provence, who became Queen consort of England as the wife of King Henry III, and Eleanor of Castile, wife of Edward I.
The name was popular in the United States in the 1910s and 1920s, peaking at rank 25 in 1920. It declined below 600 by the 1970s, again rose to rank 32 in the 2010s. Eleanor Roosevelt, the longest-serving first lady of the US was probably the most famous bearer of the name in contemporary history.
Common hypocorisms include Elle, Ella, Ellie, Elly, Leonor, Leonora, Leonore, Nella, Nellie, Nelly, and Nora.
Origin
The name derives from the Provençal name Aliénor, which became Eléonore in Langue d'oïl, i.e., French, and from there Eleanor in English.
The origin of the name is somewhat unclear; one of the earliest bearers appears to have been Eleanor of Aquitaine (1120s–1204). She was the daughter of Aénor de Châtellerault, and it has been suggested that having been baptized Aenor after her mother, she was called alia Aenor, i.e. "the other Aenor" or Aliénor in childhood and would have kept that name in adult life.
Some sources say that the name Aénor itself may be a Latinization of an unknown Germanic name.
Eleanor of Aquitaine, the most powerful woman in 12th century Europe, was certainly the reason for the name's later popularity. However, the name's origin with her, and the explanation of alia Aenor is uncertain; there are records of possible bearers of the name Alienor earlier in the 12th, or even in the 11th or 10th centuries,
but the records of these women post-date Eleanor of Aquitaine, at a time when Alienor had come to be seen as an equivalent variant of the name Aenor (so that presumably, these women during their own lifetime used the given name Aenor):
Alienor, wife (b. 899) (married 935) of Aimery II, Viscount of Thouars, and mother of Herbert I (born 960).
Aleanor de Thouars (1050-1088/93), grandmother of Aénor of Châtellerault, and thus Eleanor of Aquitaine's great-grandmother. Born c. 1060 as a daughter of Aimery IV of Thouars and Aurengarde de Mauleon. Her name is also cited in some documents as Adenor, Aenors and Aleanor/Alienor, and may have been corrupted to Alienor in genealogies only after the 12th century.
Eleanor of Normandy, aunt of William the Conqueror, was so named by the 17th-century genealogist Pierre de Guibours, but de Guibours' sources for this remain unknown.
Eleanor of Champagne (1102–1147), in 1125 became the first wife of Ralph I, Count of Vermandois, who was displaced by Eleanor of Aquitaine's sister Petronilla of Aquitaine, leading to war (1142–44) in Champagne.
Variants
Britanny: Azenor
English: Eleanor, Elinor
Estonian: Eleonoora, Ellinor
French: Eléonore, Léonore, Elléonore
German: Eleonore
Greek: Ελεονώρα
Hungarian, Slovakian: Eleonóra
Irish: Eileanóra
Italian, Dutch, Polish: Eleonora
Latvian: Eleonora
Occitan: Alienor, Alienòr
Portuguese: Leonora, Leonor
Provençal: Lenoa, Leno
Spanish: Leonor
Swedish: Eleanora, Ellinor, Elleonore
Notable people
Medieval
Eleanor of Normandy (b. 1011/1013, d. after 1071), daughter of Richard II of Normandy.
Eleanor of Aquitaine (ca. 1122–1204), wife of Louis VII of France and Henry II of England, mother of Richard I and King John
Eleanor of England, Queen of Castile (1161–1214), daughter of Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine; wife of Alfonso VIII of Castile
Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany (1184–1241), daughter of Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany
Eleanor of Castile (1202-1244) (1202–1244), wife of James I of Aragon
Eleanor of England, Countess of Leicester (1215–1275), daughter of King John of England, wife of Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester
Eleanor of Provence (1222–1291), wife of Henry III of England, mother of Edward I
Eleanor of Castile (1241–1290), wife of Edward I of England, mother of Edward II
Eleanor of England, Countess of Bar (1269–1298), daughter of Edward I, betrothed to Alfonso III of Aragon, and wife of Henry III of Bar
Eleanor of Anjou (1289-1341), daughter of Charles II of Naples and Mary of Hungary, and wife of Frederick III of Sicily
Eleanor de Clare (1292-1337), granddaughter of Edward I of England and wife of Hugh Despenser the Younger
Eleanor of Castile (1307-1359) (1307–1359), wife of Alfonso IV of Aragon
Eleanor of Woodstock (1318–1355), daughter of Edward II, wife of Reynold II, Count of Gelderland
Eleanor of Arborea (1347 – 1404), Sardinian judge
Eleanor of Sicily (1349-1375), wife of Peter IV of Aragon
Leonor Telles de Menezes (1350–1386), wife of Ferdinand I of Portugal
Eleanor of Castile (d. 1416) (136x–1416), wife of Charles III of Navarre
Eleanor of Aragon, Queen of Portugal (1402–1445) wife of Edward I of Portugal
John/Eleanor Rykener, a 14th-century (possibly transgender) prostitute
Modern
Eleanor of Viseu (1458–1525), wife of John II of Portugal
Eleanor of Austria (1498–1558), Queen consort of Portugal (1516–1521) and of France (1530–1547)
Eleanor of Toledo (1522–1562), Spanish noblewoman and Duchess and Regent of Florence (1539)
Eleonore Batthyány-Strattmann (1672–1741), Viennese court lady
Elleanor Eldridge (c.1784-c.1845), African American/Native American entrepreneur
Eleanor Anne Porden (1795–1825), English poet
Eleanor Macomber (1801–1840), missionary, teacher
Ellinor Aiki (1893–1969), Estonian painter
Eleanor Audley (1905–1991), American actress
Eleanor Boardman (1898–1991), American actress
Eleanor Kearny Carr (1840–1912), American political hostess
Eleonora Chiavarelli (1915–2010), wife of Aldo Moro
Elinor Glyn (1864–1943), British novelist
Eleanor Gwynn (known colloquially as "Nell") (1650-1687), Restoration actress and mistress of Charles II of England
Ulrika Eleonora of Sweden, its reigning queen 1719-1720
Eleonora, three 17th century Swedish queens consort
Countess Palatine Eleonora Catherine of Zweibrücken, Swedish princess
Eleanor Maria Easterbrook Ames (1831-1908), American writer, publisher
Eleanor Marx (1855–1898), British writer and daughter of Karl Marx
Eleanor Porter (1868–1920), American novelist
Eleanor Rathbone (1872–1946), British politician
Elenore Abbott (1875–1935), American painter and book illustrator
Elinore Pruitt Stewart (1876–1933), American homesteader in Wyoming and memoirist
Eleanour Sinclair Rohde (1881-1950), British garden designer
Eleanor Farjeon (1881–1965), British writer
Eleanor Roosevelt (1884–1962), First Lady of U.S., wife of President Franklin Roosevelt
Eleanor Soltau (1877–1962), English doctor
Elinor Wylie (1885–1928), American writer
Eleanor Butler Roosevelt (1888-1960), American philanthropist
Eleanor Wilson McAdoo (1889-1967), American author and the youngest daughter of President U.S. Woodrow Wilson
Eleanor Lansing Dulles (1895–1996), American economist and diplomat
Eleanor Agnes Lee (1841–1873), diarist, poet, and daughter of Robert E. Lee
Elinor Fair (1903–1957), American actress
Eleanor Campbell King (1906–1991), American modern dancer and choreographer
Eleanor Hibbert (1906–1993), British novelist
Elinor Smith (1911–2010), American aviator
Eleanor Powell (1912–1982), American tap dancer and actress
Eleanor Ruggles (1916-2008), American biographer
Eleanor Roosevelt II (1919–2013), niece of First Lady U.S. Eleanor Roosevelt
Eleanor Parker (1922-2013), American actress
Eleanor Roosevelt Seagraves (born 1927), American librarian, educator, historian, and editor
Eleanor Helin (1932–2009), American astronomer
Elinor Ostrom (1933–2012), American political scientist and Nobel prize winner
Elinor Donahue (born 1937), American actress
Eleanor Duckworth (born 1935), Canadian psychologist and educator
Eleanor Holmes Norton (born 1937), American politician
Eleanor Bron (born 1938), British actress and author
Eleanor Montgomery (1946–2013), American high jumper
Eleanor Bodel (born 1948), Swedish singer
Eleanor Warwick King (born 1957), British appellate court judge
Eleanor Smith (born 1957), British politician
Eleanor Laing (born 1958), British politician
Eleanor McEvoy (born 1967), Irish musician, singer/songwriter
Eleanor Mears (1917–1992), Scottish medical practitioner and campaigner
Elinor Middlemiss (born 1967), Scottish badminton player
Eleanor Friedberger (born 1976), American musician
Eleonora Dziekiewicz (born 1978), Polish volleyball player
Ellie Reeves (born 1980), British politician
Eleanor James (born 1986), English actress
Eleonora "Ellen" van Dijk (born 1987), Dutch road and track cyclist
Elinor Joseph (born 1991), Israeli soldier
Eleanor Tomlinson (born 1992), English actress
Eleonore von Habsburg (born 1994), Austrian model
Eleanor Lee (born 1999), Singaporean actress, singer and model
Eleanor Worthington Cox (born 2001), English actress
Fictional characters
Eleanora, principal woman's role in Strindberg's 1901 play Easter
Ellenore, guest player character portrayed by Marisha Ray in L.A. by Night
Eleanor, supporting character in the video game Rule of Rose
Eleanor, supporting character in the video game The Walking Dead: A New Frontier
Eleanor "Ellie" Arroway, in the 1985 novel Contact by Carl Sagan
Elenore Baker, supporting character in the anime Madlax
Ellie Bishop, in the television series NCIS
Eleanor Bonneville, a supporting character from the movie Jigsaw (2017 film)
Eleanor Butterbean, in the television series The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy
Elinor Dashwood, in the 1811 novel Sense and Sensibility by Jane Austen
Eleanor Douglas, in the 2013 young adult novel Eleanor & Park, written by Rainbow Rowell
Elanor Gardner, daughter of Samwise Gamgee in J.R.R Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings
Princess Eleanor Matilda Henstridge, in the television series The Royals
Eleanor Hume, a main character from the videogame Tales of Berseria
Eleanor Lamb, one of the main protagonists of BioShock 2 by Irrational Games
Eleanor Miller, one of the members of the female chipmunk music artist band The Chipettes
Ellie Nash, in Degrassi: The Next Generation
Eleanor Oliphant, protagonist of Eleanor Oliphant is Completely Fine
Elinor Rabbit, the titular protagonist who loves exploring in the animated PBS Kids sitcom Elinor Wonders Why
Eleanor Savage, love interest, therapeutic friend, and conversational other to protagonist Amory Blaine in F. Scott Fitzgerald's This Side of Paradise
Eleanor Shellstrop, the protagonist of American fantasy sitcom The Good Place
Queen Elenoir Siegwald, a character in the Filipino Webtoon series Mage & Demon Queen
Eleanor Tilney, in the 1803 novel Northanger Abbey by Jane Austen
Eleanor of Tristain, in the novels and anime The Familiar of Zero
Elinor Tyrell, handmaid to Margaery Tyrell in the A Song of Ice and Fire series
Eleanor “Nell” Vance, in The Haunting of Hill House
Eleanor Waldorf, mother of a protagonist, Blair Waldorf, in TV series Gossip Girl
Ellie Woodcomb, in the television series Chuck
Miss Ellie Ewing Eleanor Southworth Ewing Farlow, the matriarch of the Ewing family in the CBS drama series Dallas
Queen Elinor, in the Disney/Pixar movie Brave
Music
"Elenore," a 1968 song by The Turtles.
"Eleanor Rigby," a 1966 song by The Beatles.
"Lady Eleanor," a 1971 song by Lindisfarne.
"Eleanor Put Your Boots On", a 2006 song by Franz Ferdinand.
Animals
Eleonora cockatoo, a parrot.
Vehicles
Eleanor (automobile), the vehicle used in Gone in 60 Seconds (1974) as well as the 2000 remake.
See also
Notes
References
French feminine given names
English feminine given names | [
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224872 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String%20Quartet%20No.%201%20%28Bart%C3%B3k%29 | String Quartet No. 1 (Bartók) | The String Quartet No. 1 in A minor by Béla Bartók was completed in 1909. The score is dated January 27 of that year. It is one of six string quartets by Bartok.
The work is in three movements, played without breaks between each:
The work was at least in part inspired by Bartók's unrequited love for the violinist Stefi Geyer - in a letter to her, he called the first movement a "funeral dirge" and its opening notes trace a motif which first appeared in his Violin Concerto No. 1, a work dedicated to Geyer and suppressed by Bartók for many years. The intense contrapuntal writing of this movement is often compared to Ludwig van Beethoven's String Quartet No. 14, Op. 131, the opening movement of which is a slow fugue.
The following two movements are progressively faster, and the mood of the work lightens considerably, ending quite happily. The third movement is generally considered to be the most typical of Bartók's mature style, including early evidence of his interest in Hungarian folk music.
The piece was premiered on 19 March 1910 in Budapest by the Waldbauer-Kerpely Quartet, two days after Bartók played the piano with them in a concert dedicated to the music of Zoltán Kodály. It was first published in 1911 in Hungary.
Discography
References
External links
Performance by the Belcea Quartet from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in MP3 format
1
1909 compositions
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224876 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20on%20the%20postage%20stamps%20of%20the%20Cook%20Islands | List of people on the postage stamps of the Cook Islands | This is a list of people on stamps issued by the Cook Islands and its constituent islands of Aitutaki and Penrhyn Island.
Cook Islands
Queen Makea Takau (1893)
Capt. Cook (1920)
Rarotongan chief (1920)
Capt. Cook (1932)
King George V (1932)
King George VI (1938)
Capt. Cook (1949)
Rev. Jon Williams (1949)
Aitutaki
King Edward VII (1911)
King George V (1916)
James Cook (1920)
Te Po (1926)
Elizabeth II (1972)
The Duke of Edinburgh (1972)
Saint Veronica (1973)
The Princess Anne (1973)
Mark Phillips (1973)
William Bligh (1974)
Sir Winston Churchill (1974)
Francis of Assisi (1975)
Onuphrius (1975)
John the Baptist (1975)
Alexander Graham Bell (1977)
King George III (1977)
John Williams (missionary) (1977)
King George IV (1977)
Queen Victoria (1977)
Rowland Hill (1979)
Albert Einstein (1980)
The Prince of Wales (1981)
The Princess of Wales (1981)
Prince William (now Duke of Cambridge) (1984)
Prince Harry (1984)
Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother (1985)
King George VI (1985)
The Duke of York (1986)
The Duchess of York (1986)
Mary & baby Jesus (1986 & 1994)
Fletcher Christian (1989)
Michael Collins (astronaut) (1994)
Neil Armstrong (1994)
Buzz Aldrin (1994)
Pierre de Coubertin (1996)
Penrhyn
The first stamps issued by this tiny island in the Northern Cook Islands were stamps of New Zealand overprinted "Penrhyn Island" in 1902. It continued to use its own stamps until 1932. This first short list is from stamps in that early period.
James Cook (1920)
Edward VII (1914)
George V (1917)
Te Po (1927)
Between 1932 and 1973 Penrhyn used the stamps of the Cook Islands. It resumed the use of its own stamps in 1973, and continues to do so.
See also
Postage stamps and postal history of Aitutaki
References
Cook Islands
Communications in the Cook Islands
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224878 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elijah%20Craig | Elijah Craig | Elijah Craig (November 15, 1738 – May 18, 1808) was a Baptist preacher in Virginia, who became an educator and capitalist entrepreneur in the area of Virginia that later became the state of Kentucky. He has sometimes, although rather dubiously, been credited with the invention of bourbon whiskey.
Early life and education
Craig was born in Orange County, Virginia in 1738, the 5th child of Polly Hawkins and Taliaferro or Toliver Craig, Sr. Converted by Baptist David Thomas in 1764, Elijah Craig soon began holding meetings in his tobacco barn. In 1766, he convinced David Read to travel from North Carolina to baptize members of the new congregation, including himself. His older brother Lewis and younger brother Joseph Craig also became Baptist preachers. In 1768 Lewis was imprisoned with John Waller, James Childs, James Reed and William Marsh in the Fredericksburg jail for several weeks, for preaching without licenses from the established Anglican Church. In 1771 Elijah Craig was ordained and became the pastor of Blue Run church, halfway between Barboursville and Liberty Mills, Virginia. He was also jailed in Orange and Culpeper counties at least twice for preaching without the required Virginia license from the Anglican Church. Such preachers were considered a challenge to the entire social order of the colony, as the established state church received funding from the colony. In 1774, the convention of independent Baptists designated Elijah Craig and John Waller as apostles (missionaries) to evangelize north of the James River.
Although Virginia had adopted the principle of freedom of religion in its Declaration of Rights in 1776 and again in the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom in 1786, Baptists still faced persecution during the early statehood period, particularly when they preached to mixed congregations of freemen and slaves, white and black. In these years, Baptists encouraged planters to free their slaves; and numerous slaves were freed in the Upper South during the first two decades after the Revolution. Later, the Baptists reconciled with the slavery institution, encouraging planters to use Christian values to improve treatment of slaves.
Craig became politically active as the legislative liaison of the general convention and general association to Virginia's legislature as well as the ratification convention of 1788. As such, he worked with Patrick Henry and James Madison to protect religious freedom federally and in Virginia after the Revolutionary War. Ultimately, religious freedom became protected in Virginia by statute (and the Anglican Church was disestablished, i.e. lost government financial support), as well as in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. Baptist membership grew, particularly among common planters with smaller holdings of land and slaves.
Migration and settling in Kentucky area of Virginia
Seeking religious freedom and economic opportunity, in 1781 Elijah's brother Rev. Lewis Craig led an exodus of up to 600 people known as "The Travelling Church" (composed of his parents, younger siblings, and most of his congregation from Spotsylvania County) to the area of Virginia known as Kentucky County (they were the largest single group to so migrate). Elijah Craig did not go with this group but followed a few years later.
In 1782 (just after the Revolutionary War), Elijah Craig led the immigration of his congregation from Orange Co., VA, and purchased in what was then Fayette County of Virginia, where he planned and laid out a town originally called Lebanon, which was incorporated in 1784. (In 1790 the town was renamed Georgetown in honor of Gen. George Washington, first president of the United States.) Craig preached at several churches with John Waller.
In 1786 Craig became pastor of the Great Crossing Church, which they had founded the previous year. Joseph Redding succeeded Craig in 1793 after a controversy concerning some of Craig's economic activities, and the expulsion of Craig and his party. In 1795 Craig was among the 35 founding members of McConnell's Church, near McConnells Run (that later moved and became known as Stamping Ground Baptist Church). Both churches were part of the Elkhorn Association of Baptist churches.
Elijah Craig was active in education, establishing the first classical school in Kentucky in 1787. His advertisement in The Kentucky Gazette read:
Education. Notice is hereby given that on Monday, 28 January next, a school will be opened by Messrs. Jones and Worley, at the Royal Spring in Lebanon Town, Fayette County, where a commodious house, sufficient to contain fifty or sixty scholars, will be prepared. They will teach the Latin and Greek languages, together with such branches of the sciences as are usually taught in public seminaries, at twenty five shillings a quarter for each scholar. One half to be paid in cash, the other half in produce at cash prices. There will be a vacation of a month in the spring, and another in the fall, at the close of each of which it is expected that such payments as are due in cash will be made. For diet, washing and house room for a year, each scholar pays £3 in cash, or 500 weight of pork on entrance, and £3 cash on the beginning of the third quarter. It is desired that, as many as can, would furnish themselves with beds; such as cannot may be provided for here, to the number of eight or ten boys, at 35s a year for each bed. ELIJAH CRAIG. LEBANON, December 27, 1787.
The school was later linked to the Rittenhouse Academy, which Craig founded in 1798. Elijah Craig also donated land for Georgetown College, the first Baptist college founded west of the Allegheny Mountains. The college continues today.
Craig became a businessman and local magnate. He built Kentucky's first fulling mill (for cloth manufacturing), its first paper mill, its first ropewalk (for manufacturing rope from hemp), and the first lumber and gristmill at Georgetown. Craig played a major role in forming the Georgetown Fire Department and also served as Fire Chief.
Distillery
In approximately 1789, Craig founded a distillery. This last enterprise led to his subsequent dubious reputation as the inventor of bourbon whiskey. Craig has sometimes been claimed to have been the first to age the distillation in charred oak casks, "a process that gives the bourbon its brownish color and unique taste".
Craig built his distillery in what was then Fayette County. The location later became part of Woodford County in 1789, and then Scott County in 1792. It was never in Bourbon County, as some have claimed. As it happened, both Fayette County and Bourbon County were named in honor of the noted Revolutionary War Gen. Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, a French aristocrat of the royal House of Bourbon.
American whiskey authority Charles Kendrick Cowdery believes Craig was making exactly the same kind of whiskey as most of his contemporaries, and historian Henry Crowgey calls his reputed invention of bourbon simply a "charming legend". By 1785, when Bourbon County was formed, dozens (if not hundreds) of small farmer-distillers west of the Alleghenies made corn-based whiskies, which they called 'bourbon', to distinguish them from the rye-based whiskies commonly distilled in the East. No historical evidence indicates that Craig's whiskey was unique in its time, nor that he practiced charring of the aging barrels. The first known publication potentially alluding to Craig as bourbon's inventor was in 1874 (this includes a brief entry in a densely packed list without mentioning Craig himself or providing any documentation of the claim, and without any elaboration as to what distinguished the product as the first bourbon).
Death
Craig continued to prosper, eventually owning more than and enough slaves to cultivate it, and operating a retail store in Frankfort. He died in Georgetown in 1808. John Taylor wrote of him in A History of Ten Baptist Churches, "His preaching was of the most solemn style; his appearance as of a man who had just come from the dead; of a delicate habit, a thin visage, large eyes and mouth; the sweet melody of his voice, both in preaching and singing, bore all down before it."
The Kentucky Gazette eulogized Craig as follows, "He possessed a mind extremely active and, as his whole property was expended in attempts to carry his plans to execution, he consequently died poor. If virtue consists in being useful to our fellow citizens, perhaps there were few more virtuous men than Mr. Craig."
Legacy
Craig may be most widely known by the bourbon brand Elijah Craig produced by Heaven Hill Distilleries.
Elijah Craig bourbon whiskey is made in both 12-year-old "Small Batch" and 18-year-old "Single Barrel" bottlings. The 18-Year-Old Single Barrel Bourbon is touted by its producer as "The oldest Single Barrel Bourbon in the world at 18 years ..." made in oak barrels that are "hand selected by Parker and Craig Beam", losing nearly of the barrels' contents in Angel's share.
References
1738 births
1808 deaths
American people of Scottish descent
American religious leaders
American drink distillers
American slave owners
Papermakers
Bourbon whiskey
People from Orange County, Virginia
People from Frankfort, Kentucky
People from Georgetown, Kentucky
Virginia colonial people | [
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